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Cransactions 


THE    SOCIETY 


Biblical  Archaeology. 


VOL.   VIII. 


LONDON: 
PUBLISHED    AT    THE    OFFICE    OF    THE    SOCIETY, 

ii,  HART  STREET,  BLOOMSBURY,  W.C. 

1885. 


HARRISON    AND    SONS, 

PRINTERS    IN   ORDINARY   TO   HER    MAJESTY. 

ST.    MARTIN "S    LANE.    LONDON 


CONTENTS  OF  VOL.  VIII. 


PAGE 


Les  Anathernes  d'une  Mere    Payenne  contre    sou    Fils 

devenu  Chretien.     Par  M.  Eugene  Revillout i-  19 

Pieces  relatives  a  une  Mariage  du  temps  de  Darius.     Par 

Eugene  Revillout 20-29 

The  Poor  Laws  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews.    By  Dr.  Sigmund 

Lou*s   = . . .  a          30_4I 

The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.     By 

the  Rev.  William  Houghton,  M.A.,  F.L.S 42-142 

On  a  Tablet  in  the  British  Museum  relating  to  two  Archi- 
tects.    By  S.  Birch,  LL.D.,  D.C.L 143-163 

The  Antiquities  found  by  Mr.  H.  Rassam  at  Abu-Habbah 

(Sippara).     By  Theo.  G.  Pinches 164-1 7 1 

Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities.     By  H. 

Rassam    172-197 

Egyptian  Mythology,  particularly  with  reference  to  Mist 

and  Cloud.     By  P.  le  Page  Renouf 198-229 

Akkadian  Precepts  for  the  Conduct  of  Man  in  his  Private 

Life.     By  George  Berlin,  M.R.A.S 230-270 

Babylonian  Legal  Documents  referring  to  House  Property, 

and  the  Law  of  Inheritance.     By  Theo.  G.  Pinches     271-298 

Notes  on  Egyptian  Stelae,  principally  of  the  Eighteenth 

Dynasty      By  E.  A.  W.  Budge,   M.A 299-346 

Babylonian  Art,   illustrated  by  Mr.  H.  Rassam's  latest 

Discoveries.     By  Theo.  G.  Pinches   347-35  7 

Biblical  Nationalities  Past  and  Present,     By  H.  Rassam, 

F-R-G>S 358-385 


IV  CONTENTS. 

page 
On  the   Shade   or   Shadow   of  the   Dead.     By    Samuel 

Birch,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.S.A.,  &c.  {President) 386-397 

Handicrafts     and     Artizans    mentioned    in     Tahnudical 

Writings.    By  Dit.  S.  Louis 398-41 1 

L'inscription  de   la  Destruction    des    Hommes    dans   la 

Tombeau   de   Ramses   III.     Par   Edouard  Nayille     412-420 

The  Tablet  of  Amenhotep  in  the  British  Museum.      By 

S.  Birch,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  &c.  (President) 421 

Terra-Cotta  Seals.     By  W.  H.  Rylaxds,  F.S.A.  (Secretary)    422-424 

Index     425 

List  of  Members 437 


-<&&- 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FACE 


Demotic  Papyrus,  in  the  possession  of  A.  Dodgson,  Esq.   . .  9 

Demotic  Marriage  Contracts  in  the  reign  of  Darius  : — 

Anastasi  1054,  Endorsement 20 

Endorsement    20 

Texts 21 

Assyrian  Birds,  Plate         1   42 

Plate       II   46 

-Plate     III 52 

Plate     IV   60 

Plate       V    68 

Plate     VI  76 

Plate    VII   84 

Plate  VIII 92 

Plate      IX   100 

Plate      X    108 

Plate     XI. 116 

Plate    XII  124 

Plate  XIII,  from  Cylinders 130 

Tablet   of  Har  and  Suti,   Superintendents  of  Public  "Works 
in  Southern  Thebes,  XVIII  Dynasty.     From  Thebes.     In 

the  British  Museum,  No.  826 144 

Tablet  of  Grey  Schist,  discovered  by  Mr.  Rassam  at   Abu 

Habba,  1883 165 

Babylonian  Objects  from  Abu  Habba 1 74-182 

Bronze  from  Bins  Nimroud T88 


VI  LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Akkadian  Precepts,  Obverse  of  Tablet  in  the  British  Museum, 
K.  256.       Col.      I 


Col.  II 
Col.  Ill 
Col.  IV 


y 230-231 


Tablet  written  in  the  Babylonian  Character,  referring  to  the 
buying  of  some  property  in  Borsippa,  dated  in  the  second 
year  of  Nabonidus    273 

Loan  Tablet  in  the  year  of  Nabonidus    274 

Tablet  written  in  the  Babylonian  Character,  containing  a 
declaration  of  a  Babylonian  Woman  with  regard  to  her 
property,  dated  in  the  ninth  year  of  Nabonidus. 

Obverse 278 

Reverse 279 

/  The  Shade  or  Shadow  of  the  Dead  (Egyptian) : — Plate      I 

Plate    II 

Plate  III 

Plate  IV 


I Plate     V 


1 


Inscription  of  the  Destruction  of  Mankind  in  the  tomb  of 
Rameses  III.      Plate       I 

Plate     II 

Plate  III 


Sandstone  Tablet  of   Amenhotep  from  Thebes;   now  in  the 

British  Museum    421 

Clay  Seals,  in  the  possession  of  M.  Schlumbergcr 422 


TRANSACTIONS 


SOCIETY  of  BIBLICAL    ARCHEOLOGY. 


Vol.  VIII.  JANUARY,  1883.  Part  i. 

LES  ANATHEMES  D'UNE  MERE  PAYENNE  CONTRE 
SON  FILS  DEVENU  CHRETIEN. 

Par  M.  Eugene  Revillout. 

Read  7th  November,  1882. 

Mon  cher  maitre  et  ami,  Dr.  Birch,  m'a  communique  un 
papyrus  demotique  appartenaut  a  Mr.  Dodgson,  et,  sur 
sa  demande,  le  proprietaire  veut  bien  m'autoriser  a  en 
donner  la  notice  a  notre  societe.  Ce  papyrus  est  fort 
interessant.  II  contient  une  serie  de  maledictions  prononcees, 
devant  la  divinite,  contre  un  fils,  par  une  mere,  parlant 
aussi  au  nom  des  manes  de  son  mari.  II  peut  se  comparer 
sous  ce  rapport  au  papyrus  grec  publie  par  Petrettini  et  qui 
renferme  des  anathemes  du  meme  genre,  ayant  egalement  un 
caractere  religieux,  mais  qui  proviennent  d'une  fille  et  ont 
pour  objectif  son  pere,  dont  elle  avait  a  se  plaindre.  Ce  qui 
rend  le  papyrus  de  Mr.  Dodgson  beaucoup  plus  curieux  que  le 
papyrus  Petrettini,  c'est  le  motif  meme  des  maledictions.  II  ne 
s'agit  plus  ici  d'une  cause  toute  personnelle  de  mecontente- 
ment.  Non,  la  discussion  a  des  bases  plus  larges,  un  interet 
plus  eleve  et  veritablement  social.  II  ne  s'agit  de  rien  moins 
que  de  la  lutte  du  paganisme  egyptien  a  son  declin  contre  le 
Vol.  VIII.  1 


2  Ijes  Anathhnes  <¥uru  Men.  Payenne 

christianisme  a  son  aurore.  Xotre  papyrus  est.  a  ce  point  de 
vue,  unique  dans  son  genre,  et  merite  peut-etre  l'attention 
bienveillante  de  nos  savants  confr-'     9. 

II  s'agit  d'un  nomnie  Petuosor  (Petosor).  fils  de  Xespniete, 
fils  de  Petuariese,  fils  de  Psepanofre.  Ce  Petosor  s'etait  con- 
verti  au  christianisme.  et,  au  bapteme,  il  avait,  suivant  une 
coutume  assez  repandue,  change  son  noni  payen,  qui  signifie 
h  don  d'  Osiris,  contre  un  nom  chretien.  celui  de  Pierre,  Petros, 
qu'avait  porte  ]e  prince  des  apotres.  II  ne  s'etait  pas  borne  a 
abandonner  ainsi  la  vieille  religion  de  1'Egypte  j)our  embrasser 
la  nouvelle  doctrine  de  l'Evangile,  mais  il  parait  que  son  zele 
de  neophyte  l'avait  entraine  tres  loin  et  qu'il  avait  souvent 
profere  des  menaces  contre  le  paganisme  encore  dominant. 

Ceci  se  passait  sans  doute  dans  un  des  moments  de  paix 
relative  de  l'Egrise.  En  Egypte  le  christianisme  fut  moins 
persecute  qu'aillem-s  jusqu'a  la  persecution  finale  de  Diocletien, 
dont  les  martyrologes  coptes  nous  parlent  si  souvent.  La 
raison  en  est  bien  simple.  Les  Egvptiens,  depuis  la  conquete 
d'Auguste,  avaient  ete  relegues  au  dernier  plan  parmi  les 
uations  soumises :  non  seulement,  comme  tant  d'autres.  ils 
n" avaient  pas  la  cite  romaine,  mais  il  ne  leur  etait  meme 
pas  permis  de  Tobtenir  individuellement.  Xous  voyons  par 
les  lettres  de  Pline  et  de  Trajan,  que  Pempereur  ne  pouvait 
accorder  en  Egypte  le  droit  de  cite  romaine  qu'aux  Alexandrins 
seulement,  et  que,  pour  y  faire  parvenir  un  egyptien  de  race, 
il  fallait  d'abord  obtenir  pour  cet  egyptien  la  cite  alexandrine. 
II  serait  trop  long  d'enumerer  ici  les  mesures  rigoureuses  qui 
faisaient  deja  des  malheureux  habitants  de  la  vallee  du  Xil  de 
veritables  esclaves  de  la  glebe,  parques,  chacun  dans  son  nome, 
sans  droit  himutin,  pour  ainsi  dire,  des  betes  de  somme  des- 
tinees  a  produii*e  le  ble  dont  Rome  avait  besoin  et  hvrees  pour 
cela  au  pouvoir  despotique  de  l'Augustal,  sans  appel  possible 
a  l'Empereur.  II  importait  peu  alors  aux  maitres  du  monde 
de  savoir  ce  que  pensaient  ou  croyaient  les  pauvres  Egvptiens. 
La  munificence  imperiale  allait  jusqu'a  ordonner  quelques 
reparations  anx  vieux  temples,  a  payer  quelques  preti-es.  qui 
servaient  de  ciceroni  aux  nobles  etrangers  et  leur  disaient  la 
bonne  avanture — car  les  Egvptiens  etaient  les  gi'ands  sorciers 
de  l'epoque,  et  les  missionnaires  de  la  gnose  dans  l'enipire — et 


Coidre  so>i  Pils  deveuu  Chretien.  3 

puis  tout  etait  fini :  ou  s'inquietait  peu  des  doctrines  qui 
circulaient  dans  le  peuple  et  qui  s'etaient  repandues  avec  une 
etrange  rapidite,  a  cause  des  consolations  qu'elles  ofFraient  aux 
miserables  au  milieu  de  leur  abjection.  Aussi  les  persecutions 
contre  le  christianisme  en  Egypte  ne  debuterent-elles  serieuse- 
ment  qu'apres  le  moment  ou,  par  une  mesure  generale,  tous 
les  peuples  conquis  devinrent  romains,  et  ou,  par  consequent, 
les  Egyptiens  furent  quelque  chose. 

A  toute  chose  malheur  est  bon.  Les  chretiens  d'Egypte 
meprises,  et  par  cela  meme  cpargnes,  s'etaient  peu-a-peu 
fortifies.  Les  payens,  que  le  prophete  tribun  Senuti  devait 
plus  tard  poursuivre  partout,  le  glaive  et  la  torche  en  main, 
s'etaient  deja  vus,  a  l'epoque  que  nous  etudions,  en  butte,  aux 
attaques  emportees  de  leurs  compatriotes  chretiens,  et  ils  leur 
rendaient  haine  pour  haine.  Jamais  la  tolerance  n'a  ete  en 
faveur  dans  la  vallee  du  Nil.  Les  violents  s'y  font  toujours 
une  haute  situation  par  leur  violence  meme,  et  tel  est  le  role 
que  Petuosor,  ou  Pierre,  s'etait  donne.  Je  serais  tres  porte  a 
croire  que  notre  heros  occupait  une  place  importante  dans 
le  clerge.  Sa  mere  lui  reproche,  depuis  qu'il  s'est  fabrique  un 
dieu  qui  tue,  de  vivre  avec  d'autres  dans  l'abondance  et 
d'abandonner  sa  famille,  restee  payeime.  Elle  parle  de  ses 
constructions  et  des  menaces  proferees  alors  par  lui  contre  les 
temples,  ainsi  que  de  ses  parodies  sacrileges  des  rites  divins. 
Elle  le  represente  toujours  comme  une  sorte  de  chef  de  parti; 
et  c'est  meme  la  un  des  principaux  motifs  de  sa  colere.  Elle 
veut  par  ses  maledictions  venger  la  cause  des  dieux  outrages 
et  attaques  par  son  fils,  et  c'est  pour  cela  que,  tant  en  son 
propre  nom  qu'en  celui  de  son  defunt  mari,  elle  a  ecrit  la 
protestation  solennelle  dont  nous  allons  donner  lecture. 
Remarquons  seulement  pour  l'intelligence  de  ce  qui  suit  que 
la  pieiise  payenne  ne  veut  plus  conserver  a  Petosor  le  nom  sacre 
qu'elle  lui  avait  attribue  a  sa  naissance,  et  quelle  repugne 
egalement  a  accepter  le  nom  profane  pris  par  le  converti; 
de  son  ancien  nom  Petuosor,  "  le  don  d'Osiris,"  elle  supprime 
done  dans  fusage  ordinaire  l'element  mythologique,  Osor, 
'"Osiris,"  et  se  borne  a  l'appeler  Petu  ou  Tu,  "le  don,"  abbrevia- 
tion dont  nous  avons  deja  des  exemples  a  l'epoque  ptole- 
maique   et   qu'on    peut   comparer    au    nom    propre   hebreu 


4  Let  Anathemes  <Vune  Mere  Payenne 

Nathan,  abrege  de  Jonathan,  ou  Baalnathan,  "  donne  par 
Jehovah,*'  on  "  donne  par  Baal." 

Voici  maintenant,  de  notre  document,  line  version  bien 
rapidement  faite  et  pom*  laquelle  je  demanderai  par  conse- 
quent l'indulgeiice  de  mes  bienveillants  auditeurs;1  C'est 
Naichrat,  la  mere  de  Petosor,  qui  parle,  en  exposant  d'abord 
le  sujet  en  son  nom  personnel. 

"Choiak  21.  Naichrat,  qui  a  enfante  Tu,  fils  de  Xesmete. 
fils  de  Petuariese,  fils  de  Psepanofre,  dit : — "  Je  suis  a  la  porte- 
d'Osiris  et  d'Isis  Hathor.  Je  me  tiens  debout3  pres  de  celle 
qu'on  aime,4  pres  de  celui  qu'on  reconnait.5  Le  miserable  !6 
Us7  me  donneront  ceci  en  main  :  a  savoir  de  le  maudire"!8 

Ici  elle  s'arrete  et  fait  intervenir  d'abord  l'ombre9  veneree 
du  pere  de  famille  : — 

"  Mol  Osiris  Nespmete,  fils  d'Isis,  j'ai  dit  ceci :  Petros- 
Psepoer!10  Je  ne  t'appellerai  pas  de  ton  nom,11  du  nom  que 
t'a  donne  ta  mere  !12  On  appelle  (maintenant)  ton  nom  Petros 
(Pierre),  fils  de  Petariese,13  fils  de  Psepanofre  !  c'est  ton  nom ! 

I  Je  vais  dormer  les  renvois  permettant  a  tout  egyptologue  de  se  rendre  compte 
de  la  premriee  sommatiou.  Cela  suffira,  je  pense,  pour  le  moment.  Je  me 
propose  de  publier  plus  tard  le  mot-a-mot  philologique  complet  de  nos  text,  s 
si  importants  dans  la  Revue  Hgyptologique.  (Paris  :  Leroux,  editeur.)  En 
attendant,  on  trouvera,  jointe  a  cet  article,  la  photographie  du  papyrus. 

-  Brugsch,  Diet.,  S-42.  La  mere  se  represente  comme  pres  de  mourir  et  de 
-•omparaitre  devant  Osiris. 

3  Brugsch,  Diet.,  927. 

4  Isis  Hathor,  la  Tenus  egvptienne.     (Conf.  Brugsch,  Diet.,  38.) 

5  Osiris.     Pour  ce  mot  reconnaitre,  roir  Setna  contrats,  etc.,  etc. 

6  Cette  exclamation  s'apphque  a  Petosor.     C'est  le  mot  hierog.  ^-'  ^b^. 

7  Les  dieus  nommes  plus  haut. — Pour  les  mots,  "  donner  en  main,"  Toir 
Brugsch,  Diet.,  1609,  1612,  et  1664. 

8  C^^OT.      (Conf.  Brugsch,  Diet.,  1280.) 

9  C'est  ici,  comme  nous  l'avons  dit,  le  pere  rnort  de  Petosor  qui  est  cense  parler, 
e'est-a-dire  Xespmete,  qui  en  qualite  de  bienheureus  est  derenu  un  nouyel 
Osiris,  suivant  la  doctrine  egvptienne. 

10  Psepoer  est  sans  doute  un  siu-nom. 

II  C'est -a -dire  comme  nous  le  verrons  plus  loin,  "  Je  ne  le  nommerai  pas 
Petosor,''  car  e'etait  la  son  nom  primitif.     (Conf.  Brugsch.  Diet.,  219  et  860.) 

12  Conf.  Brugsch,  Diet.,  731. 

13  Petosor  etait,  comme  nous  l'avons  vu,  fils  de  Xespmete  et  petit-fils  seulement 
de  Petuariese  ;  mais  son  pe-re,  dans  son  horreur  du  sacrilege,  renonce  pour  ainsi 
dire  a  sa  paternite  et  saute  son  propre  nom  dans  la  filiation  du  reuegat.  C'est 
du  reste  ce  qu'il  dit  plus  loin,  •'  Je  ne  reconnais  pas  mon  oeuvre." 


( 'ontre  son  Fils  devenu  Chretien.  5 

"Fais  moi  connaitre1  ton  coeur!2  Je  t'ai  donne  du  pain,3 
et  tu  as  depouille4  ta  mere5  au  desespoir ! 6  Le  Dieu  que  tu  t'es 
fabrique  tue.7  Va  mourir  loin  de  ce  dromos  d'Isis;  car  je  ne 
reconnais  pas  mon  oeuvre  ! 8 

"  Tu  t'es  fait  connaitre  !9  tu  as  bu  le  vin  de  la  demeure  de 
la  necropole 10  dans  le  lieu11  ou  Ton  prie12  le  roi  Osiris  Ounnofre, 

1  Brugsch,  Diet.,  868. 

2  Voir  aussi  pour  cette  phrase  et  la  suivante  la  seeonde  sommation  {verso). 
Tour  le  mot  eceur,  eonf.  Brugsch,  Diet.,  p.  933. 

:t  Conf.  Brugsch,  Diet.,  p.  111. 

<  S.CUCU  depouiller  ;  comparer  la  seeonde  sommation. 

5  Le  mot  were  (mau-t  AJL&.&TG)  est  ici  ecrit  par  une  variante  assez  commune 
aux  basses  epoques  et  qui  le  confond  avec  la  racine  aina  et  niai  (voir  Poesies 
bilingues  de  Moschion  dans  la  Revue  egyptologique,  Vol.  II,  p.  275),  signifiant 
substance.  M.  Brugsch  avait  deja  signale  cette  confusion  dans  sa  Grammaire 
demotique,  p.  29,  et  il  expliquait  ainsi  le  deterniinatif  des  membres  qui  accompagne 
le  mot  substance  et  se  joint  a  la  racine,  aux  basses  epoques,  meme  quand  il  s'agit 
du  Dom  de  la  mere;  e'est  egalement  le  cas  ici.  Cette  variante  a  e"te  choisie  dans  ce 
passage  pour  rendre  les  reproches  plus  touchants  :  la  mere  est  bien  par  excellence 
la  substance  meme  du  fils. 


8  Confer.:    Q  J"3  £5  V\  ^^  Brugsch  Diet.,  1020,  sup.  880.     Ce  reproche 

de  duret§  et  d'ingratitude  est  souvent  repete.  Pour  tout  ce  paragraphe  il  faut 
comparer  notre  texte  a  celui  de  la  seeonde  sommation,  qui  est  plus  correct.  Ainsi 
l'affixe  personnel  de  tui,  "  j'ai  donne,"  est  surtout  visible  dans  la  seeonde,  etc. 

7  C1DQ^^^^J|^^    Brugsch,  Diet,,  411  et  665. 

C'est  du  dieu  des  chretiens  qu'il  s'agit. 

8  Je  ne  te  reconnais  plus  pour  mon  fils.  (Conf.  Brugsch,  Diet.,  730,  399, 
678,  1080,  868,  97.) 

9  Pour  un  impie,  uu  miserable.     (Brugsch,  868.) 

10  On  peut  voir  a  ce  sujet  le  curieux  reglement  des  choacTiytes  public  par  moi 
dans  mon  travail  intitule  Taricheutes  et  Choachi/tes  (Zeitschrift  de  M.  Lepsius, 
1880,  pp.  70,  103,  136).  Les  choachytes  charges  des  services  funebres  pour  les 
niorts  etaient  obliges,  lors  de  leurs  offices,  de  boire  certaines  quantites  de  vin 
dans  la  catacombe  meme.  C'etait  la  le  lieu  funebre  (3Ianun),  dont  parle  notre 
papyrus,  comme  les  documents  hieroglyphiques  signales  par  M.  Brugsch  dans 
son  dictionnaire  geographique  (pp.  260,  261).  Les  rites  funebres  qu'on  y 
accomplissait  etaient  en  l'honneur  d'Osiris  Ounnofre,  le  roi  et  le  dieu  des  morts. 
Ur  il  parait  que  Petosor  ou  Pierre  etait  alle,  peut-etre  avec  d'autres  chretiens, 
contrefaire  ces  rites  dans  la  catacombe,  d'une  fa9on  reputee  sacrilege,  et  boire  le 
vin  sacre  des  choachytes,  qu'il  leur  etait  interdit  de  transporter  en  leurs  maisons, 
mais  qu'ils  deraient  laisser  dans  le  lieu  funebre  ou  ils  accomphssaient  leurs 
liturgies  (voir  le  reglement  cite  plus  haut).     Conf.  Brugsch,  Diet..  1181,  102. 

11  O  I  ©  avec  le  determinatif  funebre  m  C~3  "\^^). 


6  Lett  Anathemes  d\rne  Mere  Payenne 

(et  la)  tu  as  fait  honte1  a  Isis !  tu  as  bu2  le  vin  des  periples 
sacres,  pendant  que  les  deesses — pour  sa  fin — appelent  ta 
femme.3 

"II  a  dit  (ce  Petosor) :  'Hathor  a  jinx  sa  domination  sur  lepays! 
Frappez  la  sur  le  ventre*  et  sur  les  mamelles  '  /  Tu  as  chante. 
— Les  hommes  chantent.5 — Tu  verras  : — ils  vont  passer.6 — 

www  n   v_i 

Tu  ressusciteras  (ou  tu  te  reveilleras  I  7!  -@^-    Ite&CI) 

avec  Osiris7  en  ame  lors  de  son  periple  celeste.8 


AJ'=^^^=  +  &to're' 


H    <^  /2-  0    <:=='  \    k  I    AA/WSA 

2  ['IglS^I   nD\  ^'i  ^KCaJ  HPT1-        g     ' 

Diet.,  1181,  102,  et  1104. 

3  Cette  fin  de  phrase  est  peu  claire.  Yeut-on  dire  que  pendant  que  Petosor 
faisait  bonibance  avec  les  chretiens,  sa  femme,  delaissee  par  lui,  se  mourait  dans 

(]  (J    ^ <>  KJ    \*s\     rj]  a  sic)-     C'est  possible  ;  car  dans  la  suite  nous  voyons 

un  reproche  analogiie.  II  y  est  dit  encore  (comme  plus  baut)  :  "  Je  t'ai  donne  du 
pain,  et  tu  as  depouille  ta  mere."  Puis  le  texte  ajoute  :  "  Euine  moi,  toi  qui  t'es 
bati  des  maisons  :  ils  ont  abondance  en  leurs  maisons  dans  lesquelles  tu  te  souilles 
— et  toi  tu  veux  demolir  les  fondations  des  temples,  renverser  les  statues  divines." 
Evidemment  on  reproche  au  converti  son  peu  d'affection  pour  ses  parents  payens 
et  l'abondance  dont  il  est  suppose  jouir  dans  les  nouveaux  edifices  sacres  des 
chretiens,  par  lesquels  il  veut  remplacer  les  temples  des  idoles.  C'est  dans  cette 
pensee  que  Petosor  se  serait  eerie  :  "  Hathor  a  fini  sa  domination  sur  le  pays ! 
Frappez  (cette  impudique)  sur  le  ventre  et  sur  les  mamelles,"  etc.,  etc.  Conf 
Brugscb,  Diet.,  661,  931,  1639. 

4  Ou  plus  exactement  encore  :  sur  les  parties  sexuelles,  \era  (voir  Brugsch, 
Diet.,  1124).     Pour  les  mamelles  le  mot  employe  est  mna  (ibid.,  p.  645). 

5  Les  hommes  (n  remit)  sont  au  pluriel,  et  le  verbe  au  singulier,  suivant  une 
regie  bien  connue  pour  les  collectifs.  Confer.  :  turba  ruit  ou  rmmt,  to.  £ooa  rpe^et, 
etc.  Les  bommes  qui  chantent  sont  les  amis  et  les  disciples  de  Petosor,  suivant 
en  tout  son  exemple. 

6  Et  alors  ce  sera  pour  etre  juge  par  lui.  (Pour  le  mot  bi,  ame,  conf.  Brugsch, 
Diet.,  370.) 

7  Ef  na  siiii.  (Conf.  Brugsch,  Diet.,  1240  ;  Gram.  D€m.,  143.)  La  3e  pers. 
sing,  est  employee  pour  la  3e  pers.  plur.,  parcequ'il  s'agit  d'un  collectif. 


causative  est 


H 


plus  haut  periples  est 


J\    (Brugscb,    Diet.,    1480)    dont   la   forme 
D        T  ID   q 

(Ibid.)      Le  mot  que   nous  avons  traduit 


Contre  xon  Fih  deveuu  Chretien.  7 

Apres  cette  objurgation  pathetique  et  vraiment  eloquente, 
la  mere  continue  d'une  fa9on  plus  douce  et  plus  attendrie  : — 

"  Tu  as  cbasse1  les  malheureux  pour  la  libation  du  com- 
mencement de  l'annee,2  et  toi  tu  as  bu3  avec  les  impies.4 

"  Maintenant  dis : — Le  soir5  (de  la  vie)  est  venu  pour  moi. 
Je  suis  oblige6  de  passer.7  Le  moment8  de  la  supplication9 
est  surmoi,  c'est-a-dire  la  mort.10  lis  vont  m'entrainer11  pres 
de  ma  mere. 

"  (Car)  il  est  pour  toi,  Osiris  !  Tu  passeras  a  l'instant  en 
ses  demeures  funebres,  en  la  main  des  chasseurs  d'ames !  tu 
es  ivre12  (mais  ils  le  reveilleront) 

"Ce  sont  leurs  agents13  qui  jettent14  l'homme  au  feu!15 

I  Brugsch,  Diet.,  940. 

•  Le  commencement  de  l'annee  sacree,  concordant  primitivement  avec  le 
lever  de  Sothis  et,  pensait  on,  avec  l'inondation  du  Nil  (voir  le  decret  de  Canope), 
etait  une  grande  fete  cliez  les  Egyptiens,  fete  que  nous  voyons  indiquee  dans  tous 
les  calendriers  hieroglyphiques.  II  parait  que  ce  jour  la  on  faisait  des  libations 
sacrees  auxquelles  tout  le  monde  prenait  part,  meme  les  pauvres.  Pour  les  mots 
hat-renpe,  commencement  de  l'annee,  voir  Brugsch,  Diet.,  931. 

3  Brugsch,  Diet.,  1181. 

4  Les  Egyptiens  avaient  des  lois  ceremonielles  sur  les  impuretes  legales  tres 
anahgues  a,  celles  des  Juifs.  J'ai  deja  signale  la  sequestration  des  femmes  dans 
une  chambre  speciale  a,  certaines  epoques.,  usage  que  les  contrats  demotiques 
nous  ont  appris  et  que  Ton  trouve  egalement  dans  le  levitique.  M.  Chabas,  notre 
bien  regrette  maitre,  a  signale  bien  d'autres  interdictions  curieuses  du  meme 
genre,  et  Mr.  Miller  est  en  train  de  publier  une  curieuse  inscription  grecque  de 
Ptolemais,  renl'ermaut  a  ce  sujet  des  textes  tres  positifs  et  tres  importants. 
Le  mot  que  nous  traduisons  "  impies,"  veut  litterallement  dire  "  ceil  de  mort." 
(Conf.  Brugsch,  Diet.,  405  et  676.)  En  thebahi  le  mot  £  i.X^JULOT 
s'employait  aussi  (comme  Il<?>.ArtGJULCUO"TI  en  memjmitique)  pour  designer 
les  Blemmt/es  qui  devasterent  l'Egypte  a,  l'epoque  romaine.  Voir  mon  Memoire 
sur  les  Blemmi/es  dans  tome  viii  (2e  partie,  lre  serie)  des  Meinoires  presentes, 
etc.,  a  l'Academie  des  Inscriptions,  etc. 

5  Brugsch,  Diet.,  868. 

6  £,p<*-    e&oX.      (Conf.  Brugsch,  Diet.,  982,  et  suiv.) 

'  Brugsch,  Diet.,  1210.  s  Brugsch,  Diet.,  777. 

9  Brugsch,  Diet.,  1632.  '"  Brugsch,  Diet.,  676. 

II  COOK,  trahere. 

12  Brugsch,  Diet,,  1565. 

13  Pour  ce  sens  de  ret  V\  voir  ma  "  Chrestomathie  demotique." 

14  Pour  ce  mot  voir  les  contrats  de  prets  de  ble. 


13  Variante  demotique  fr^quente  du  mot  |il,  copte  A.C1J  , 


8  J^es  Anathemes  (Time  Mhre  Payenne 

"  Je  penetre1  pres  d'eux  en  disant :  venez8  amener3  a 
purification  (COTCJ)  !  Ouvrez4  moila  porte5  pour  que  je  vous 
fasse  supplication.  Je  parle  sur  votre  tete  ! 6  Je  vous  supplie  ! 
....  —  Mais  toi,  tu  leur  as  ordonne7  de  ne  pas  le  faire  (par  tes 
crimes)."' 

Ici  les  lacunes  et  1'etat  de  deterioration  du  papyrus  ne  me 
permettent  plus  la  traduction  suivie;  tout  ce  que  je  puis  voir 
c'est  que  la  mere  continue  a  peindre  les  scenes  d'outre  tombe 
et  le  jugement  qui  attend  son  fils  pecheur.  II  ne  faut  pas 
oublier  en  effet  que  les  Egyptiens  croyaient  aussi  que  le  feu, 
apres  bien  d'autres  epreuves,  etait  destine  a  punir  definitive- 
ment  les  damnes  dans  l'autre  vie.  Notre  document  n'est 
pas  seul  a  nous  parler  des  tourments  de  l'enfer  egyptien  et 
du  feu  prepare  pour  les  peckeurs.  Les  peintures  et  inscrip- 
tions des  sarcopliages,  ainsi  que  le  livre  de  l'hemisphere 
inferieur.  etc.,  sont  pleins  de  traditions  du  meme  genre,  dont 
la  forme  meme  a  ete  conservee  d'une  fa9on  bien  remarquable 
par  les  Coptes  convertis.  On  peut  voir  ce  que  j'ai  dit  la 
dessus  dans  mes  articles  sur  les  Affres  de  lo  Mort  cliez  les 
Egyptiens,  publies  dans  la  Revue  egyptologique?  Aussi  Naichrat, 
cette  pauvi'e  mere,  ne  tarit-elle  point  sur  ce  sujet — ainsi 
qu  on  le  voit  encore  bien  dans  les  versets  tres  deteriores 
qui  suivent  et  oil  elle  peint  son  malheureux  fils  suppliant 
en  vain  le  roi  Osii'is  Ounnofre  et  les  monstres  mangeurs 
d'hommes  qui  sont  charges  de  tuer  les  mediants. 

C'est  sur  cette  question  que  se  t ermine  le  recto  du  papyrus. 
Le  commencement  du  verso  appartient  encore  a  la  meme  serie 
d'idees.  II  debute  par  la  plirase  finale  de  cette  premiere 
sommation    (ayant   trait  sans  doute   a  la  sentence  du  juge 

-  Brugsch,  Diet..  64;  copte  ^JULOT. 
*  Bnigsnh,  Diet.,  82. 

4  I  ^^^  J\   r^pond  au  mot  v.n,  eopte  OTCOrt.       (Conf.  Brugsch,  Diet.. 
1266.) 

5  Brugsch,  Diet.,  1182-1183. 

6  Brugsch,  Diet.,  1701. 

"  Conf.  Brugsch,  Diet.,  1568.      Ce  mot  signifia  toujours  ordonner  dans  les 
decrets  de  Rosette  et  de  Canope. 
s  Vol.  1,  p.  139:   II.  pp.  18,  64. 


1 


lrftf% 


-:-^-T  ** 


c 


Contre  son  Fils  devenu  Chretien.  i* 

supreme) :  "  II  l'a  chasse  dehors  du  pays  !  Faites  entendre 
ces  choses  "  ! 

Vient  ensuite,  apres  un  blanc,  line  seconde  somrnation 
ou  un  second  anatheme,  comme  on  voudra  l'appeler.  Cette 
seconde  somrnation  est  redigee  sur  le  merae  modele  que  la 
premiere  et  en  reproduit  les  principaux  articles,  mais  avec 
de  nouvelles  amplifications,  peut-etre  plus  eloquentes  encore. 

La  voici. 

"  J'ai  dit  ceci : — 

"  Ptu,  fils  de  Nespmete,  je  t'ai  enleve  le  nom  que  t'a  donne 
ta  mere.  Je  ne  t'appellerai  pas  de  ton  nom,  c'est-a-dire : 
Petosor,  fils  de  Nespmete. — Fais  moi  connaitre  ton  coeur  ; — 
je  t'ai  donne  du  pain,  et  tu  as  depouille  ta  mere. — Ruine  moi,1 
toi  qui  t'es  bati  tes  maisons.  lis  ont  abondance  en  leurs 
maisons,  dans  lesquelles  tu  te  sonilles.2  Tu  chantes  : — De'mo- 
Hssez  les!  Quon  enleve  le  temple  et  les  statues  divines!  Avant 
qu'ils  le  fassent,  je  ferai3  aller  vers  toi.  Je  viendrai  a  toi.  Je 
te  ferai  demolir  toi-meme.  Je  te  ferai  ouvrir  les  yeux  sur 
ces  choses.  Avant  qu'ils  le  fassent,  tu  mourras,  0  le  plus 
mauvais  des  pires ! 

"  J'ai  prie !  J'ai  parle !  Celui  la  (le  dieu)  m'a  fait 
t'immoler  a  lui  avant  qu'ils  le  fassent 

"  Voila  ce  que  j'ai  dit  a  Pamaut,  fils  d'Horsiesi,4  a  savoir : — 
Ecris  ces  requetes. — Qu'on  leur  donne  accomplissement ! 

"  Reconnais  toi,  malheureux ! 5  Si  tu  ne  lis  pas  ces  choses 
devant  eux  (devant  les  dieux),  eux  ils  te  feront  bien  recon- 
naitre  le  mal  (que  tu  as  commis)." 

A  cet  endroit  la  derniere  ligne  de  la  seconde  somrnation 
se  rencontre  avec  des  lignes  ecrites  en  sens  inverse,  c'est-a- 

1  Cette  insistence  siir  ce  chapitre  semble  proiiTer  que  Petosor  avait  fait  valoir 
contre  sa  mere  les  droits  qu'il  tenait  de  son  pere  et  l'avait  ainsi  depouillee, 
probablement  pour  subvenir  aux  ceurres  chretiennes  et  aux  constructions  qu'il 
avait  entreprises. 

^Z^5    (5     ^*- 

3  C'est  ici  un  dieu — sans  doute  Osiris  —qui  parle  par  la  bouche  de  Na'ichrat. 

4  II  est  tres  probable  que  le  scribe,  auquel  la  mere  s'Stait  adressee,  aura 
beaucoup  contribue  a,  la  redaction  de  ces  petites  compositions  litteraires. 

°  Na'ichrat  fait  encore  en  terminant  un  appel  a  son  fils  afin  de  l'amener  au 
repentir  ;   nous  verrons,  dans  la  troisieine  somrnation,  que  ses  efforts  furents  vains. 


10  A<  •-•  AnatJiemes  d'une  Mere  Payenne 

dire  en  debutant  par  le  bas  du  verso.  Cest  une  troisieme 
sommation  de  Na'ichrat,  mais  celle-ci  est  si  effacee  qu'on  ne 
peut  presque  rien  en  tirer;  on  remarquera  qu'elle  a  ete  ecrite 
plusieurs  mois  apres — elle  est  datee  du  mois  d'epiphi.  Apres 
la  date,  elle  debute  par  ces  mots : — 

"  A  dit  Naichrat,  qui  a  enfante  Tu,  fils  de  Nespmete,  fils  de 

Petuariese  : — Je  ne  puis  le  caclier  ( ).     Je  n'ai  pu 

ouvrir  ses  yeux.      II  n'a  pas quand  j'ai  parle,  quand 

j'ai  prie Petros  Psepoer,  je  ne  t'appellerai  pas  de  ton 

nom,  du  nom  que  t'a  donne  ta  mere " 

Je  ne  vois  plus  la  suite,  mais  il  me  semble  qu'en  voila 
assez  pour  reeonnaitre  le  caractere  tout  particulier  de  ce 
document.  Petosor  est  somme,  a  trois  reprises,  avec  de  longs 
intervalles,  de  revenir  au  bien,  c'est-a-dire  a  la  religion  de  ses 
peres,  faute  de  quoi  il  est  livre  aux  dieux  vengeurs.  Notre 
papyrus  nous  montre  done  a  quel  point  les  passions  religeuses 
etaient  alors  surexcitees  dans  la  vallee  du  Nil.  II  se  livrait  en 
effet  un  combat  bien  vif  entre  les  partisans  des  divers  cultes 
et  des  diverses  doctrines  philosopbiques.  Les  uns — comme 
notre  payenne  —  etaient  pieusement  attaches  a  la  vieille 
religion  de  leur  pays ;  les  autres  etaient  devenus  franche- 
ment  epicuriens  et  n'accomplissaient  plus  que  par  habitude 
les  rites  funebres,  sans  pour  cela  croire  a  la  vie  future — 
comme  nous  le  voyons  dans  l'en-tete  biograpliique  demotique 
du  papyrus  bilingue  Rhind,  que  MM.  Birch  et  Brugsch  out  les 
premiers  fait  connaitre.  D'autres  etaient  devenus  ardemment 
cln-etiens,  comme  sans  doute  notre  Petosor  et  ces  innombrables 
martyrs  qui  devaient  bientot  apres  Ulustrer  le  christianisme 
egyptien.  D'autres — comme  les  magiciens  des  papyrus  gnos- 
tiques  de  Leide,  Londres,  et  Paris — essay aient,  au  milieu 
des  pratiques  les  plus  immondes,  de  fusionner  ensemble  les 
diverses  doctrines,  et  particulierement  les  religions  egyptienne 
et  grecque  et  la  religion  juive.  Cest  de  ce  mouvement, 
epure  (par  suite  du  contact  et  du  nouveau  melange  des  idees 
chretiennes)  et  plus  savamment  systematise  suivant  l'enseigne- 
ment  de  l'ecole  saite,1  quest  sorti,  selon  la  remarque  formelle 
et   tres   exacte    de    Tertullien,  le   singulier  gnosticisme   de 

1  Je  reviendrai  sur  cette  hvanche  trfe.«  interessante  de  la  question. 


Contre  son  Fifo  devenu   Chretien.  1 1 

Valentin.1  Enfin,  il  ne  faut  pas  oublier  l'ecole  de  philosophes 
sceptiques  a  laqnelle  appartient  le  livre  des  entretiens  du  Chacal 
et  de  la  Chatte.  Ce  livrc  deniotique  est  egalement  des  plus 
interessants  a  consulter  pour  1'histoire  des  premiers  siecles 
du  christianisme,  auquel  il  fait  visiblement  allusion.  Je  ne 
puis  echapper  a  la  tentation  d'en  citer  ici  un  passage  curieux 
ou  il  est  question  de  la  doctrine  de  la  charite  chretienne  a 
l'egard  des  ennemis,  charite  que  parait,  du  reste,  avoir  peu 
pratiquee  notre  lieros  Petosor. 

Dans  la  partie  des  discussions2  de  la  chatte  et  du  chacal  a 
laquelle  je  fais  allusion  on  en  etait  venu  a  ces  grand es 
questions  tout-a-fait  vitales  pour  l'humanite,  qui  ont 
preoccupe  l'esprit  de  Job  et  qu'il  dramatise  dans  son 
admirable  poeme :  le  bien,  le  mal,  la  responsabilite  humaine. 
la  retribution  finale. 

Ici  le  cadre  de  la  dispute  s'est  encore  elargi. 

Job  et  ses  amis  croyaient  egalement  a  Dieu  et  a  la 
providence,  lis  discutaient  seulement  sur  la  maniere  dont 
s'exer^ait  cette  providence,  ainsi  que  la  juste  retribution  du 
bien  et  du  mal  qui  en  est  la  consequence  forcee,  soit  dans 
cette  vie,  soit  dans  l'autre.  C'etait,  sous  une  autre  forme, 
l'objet  des  preoccupations  de  Socrate  au  moment  de  sa  mort, 
preoccupations  se  rattachant  toujours,  comme  a  leur  racine, 
au  principe  d'une  divinite  paternelle,  presidant  aux  destinees 
du  monde. 

Dans  notre  livre  demotique,  c'est  ce  principe  nierne  qui 
est  attaque.  Pour  trouver  dans  Fhistoire  philosophique 
quelque  chose  de  vraiment  analogue  aux  theories  que  le 
chacal  Koufi  explique  a  la  chatte  ethiopienne,  il  faut  des- 
cendre  jusqu'a  notre  temps  et  consulter  les  livres  d'un  illustre 
savant  anglais,  Mr.  Darwin. 

Struggle  for  life. — Tel  parait  etre  la  devise  de  notre  chacal, 
et  c'est  cette  devise  qu'il  commente,  pour  ainsi  dire,  dans 

1  Voir  a  ce  sujet  notre  travail  intitule  "  Premiere  Etude  sur  le  Mouvement 
des  esprits  pendant  les  premiers  siecles  de  notre  ere.     Le  philosophe  Secundus." 

2  J'emprunte  ce  passage  des  entretiens  de  la  chatte  et  du  chacal  a  mon 
article  publie  dans  la  numero  de  la  Revue  egyptologique  qui  va  paraitre  (2''  annee, 
p.  84,  et  suiv.)  ;  mais  j'ai  revu  et  corrige  la  traduction  sur  beaucoup  de  points, 
d'apres  roes  mot-a-mot  posterieurs,  faits  pendant  mon  cours  de  demotique  au 
Louvre. 


\'2  Les  AnatJihnes  tTune  Mere  Payenne 

les  pages  qui  vont  suivre,  en  en  cbercbant  les  causes  et  en 
en  deduisant  les  consequences  avec  une  logique  impitoyable. 

Selon  ce  systeme,  il  n'y  a  ni  divinite  protectrice,  ni 
retribution  finale.  Le  mal,  les  violences  qui  se  passent  sur  la 
terre,  sont  voulus  par  la  divine  nature  ;  tous  les  vivants  sont 
faits  pour  s'entremanger.  Le  plus  fort  opprime  le  plus 
faible ;  c'est  la  loi  meme  de  son  etre.  II  faut  que  les  plus 
faibles  disparaissent  pour  entretenir  la  vie  des  autres.  Ventre 
aflame  na  pas  d'oreilles  et  c'est  bouder  contre  son  estomac 
que  d'avoir  des  idees  de  justice,  de  douceur,  d'bonnetete,  de 
retribution  divine.     Le  mal  est  le  souverain  bien. 

Notre  cbacal  est  un  erudit,  et,  d'ailleurs,  il  a  pour  lui  la 
grande  autorite  du  vautour — le  vautour,  symbole  de  Maut. 
mere  des  dieux !  II  raconte  a  ce  sujet  comment  Isis  fut  un 
jour  scandalisee  des  procedes  brutaux  de  cet  oiseau  divin. 
L'epouse  de  VEtre  bon  fit  des  reproches  au  vautour  sur  sa 
conduite.  Mais  le  vautour  lui  repondit  que,  lui  aussi,  il  avait 
eu  des  scrupules  sous  ce  rapport,  et  que,  degoute  des  exces 
dont  le  monde  etait  plein,  il  avait  alors  resolu  d'etudier  cette 
question,  et,  en  attendant  la  solution,  de  s'abstenir  de  tout 
massacre.  II  tint  parole  jusqu'au  soir.  Mais  le  soil-,  sa  gorge 
etait  dessechee  et,  dans  l'intervalle,  l'estomac  aidant,  il  avait 
reflecbi. 

Ce  fut  comme  une  vision :  une  revelation  divine  des 
secrets  de  Ra,  le  maitre  des  dieux ;  et  cette  revelation  etait 
celle  que  certains  esprits  devaient  cbercber  plus  tard  sous 
ces  mots  de  Darwin  :  la  lutte  pour  la  vie. 

On  verra  le  detail  des  preuves  dans  le  discours  de  notre 
cbacal.  auquel  nous  voulons  conserver  intacts  ses  droits 
d'auteur.  Qu'il  nous  suffise  de  dire  que  la  cbatte  etbio- 
pienne,  imbue  des  vieilles  traditions  religieuses.  ne  voulut 
pas  se  rendre  a  ses  arguments,  qu'il  etayait  ponrtant  de 
nombreuses  citations,  quelque  peu  transformees,  des  textes 
sacres  de  l'Egypte.  Elle  defendit  meme  avec  un  certain 
talent  des  idees  se  rapprocbant  beaucoup,  peut-etre  incon- 
sciemment,  des  doctrines  cbretiennes,  qui  tendaient  a  se 
repandre  partout  dans  la  vallee  du  Nil.  Le  cbacal  fut  done 
oblige  de  revenir  a  la  cbarge.  Cette  fois,  voulant  en  finir. 
il  fit  tete  et  s'attaqua   directement,  bien  qu'en  paraboles,  a 


Contre  son  Fils  devenu   Chretien.  13 

cet  axiome  chretien,  qu'on  chercherait  eu  vain  dans  la  morale 
egyptienne,  deja  si  pure  pourtant :  Fais  le  Mien  pour  le  mal,  ou, 
sous  la  forme  citee  par  lui :  on  complote  contre  toi — tu  arriveras, 
tu /eras  le  Men. 

L'apologue  qu'il  nous  raconte  a  pour  but  de  nous  montrer 
que  cette  maxime  n'est  qu'une  ruse  de  guerre  des  forts,  qui 
sont  habiles  et  qui  veulent  persuader  aux  faibles  de  se  laisser 
manger.  On  se  souvient  sans  doute  de  la  fable  du  lion 
malade  et  du  renard.  L'apologue  du  lion  et  des  chacals 
represente  la  merne  donnee. 

Nous  allons  maintenaut  en  arriver  a  notre  texte. 

C'est  le  chacal  Koufi  qui  parle : — 

"  Vois  l'oiseau  !  Ecoute  Foiseau  !  II  dit : — "  Ce  que  le 
voisin  me  fait,  cela  aussi  je  le  lui  fais." 

"  — Le  vautour  devorait  les  abu1  de  la  montagne.  Isis  vit 
cet  oiseau  qui  n'epargnait  nul  autre.  II  arriva  un  jour  qu'Isis 
lui  dit :  Voyons  !  oiseau  !  mon  oeil  est  choque  de  tes  actions  et 
ma  vue  de  tes  mefaits.  L'oiseau  dit :  II  en  est  ainsi  parcequ'il 
m'est  arrive  ce  qui  n'est  arrive  a  aucun  autre  oiseau  volant,  en 
dehors  de  moi.  Isis  lui  dit :  Oiseau,  qu'est  cela  ?  L'oiseau 
dit :  C'est  quand  j'ai  vu  jusqu'au  mauvais  principe  du  monde, 
et  quand  j'ai  connu  l'univers  jusqu'a  l'abyme.  Isis  lui  dit : 
Oiseau,  comment  cela  t'est  il  arrive  ?  L'oiseau  reprit :  Cela 
m'est  arrive  parceque  je  me  suis  attarde  a  la  maison,  et  que 
j'ai  laisse  mon  repas  en  disant :  Grande  est  la  vision  que  je 
ferai.  Je  mediterai  a  cela,  et  je  resterai  dans  ma  maison. 
En  consequence  je  n'ai  pas  mange  apres  cela,  parceque,  de 
meme  que  ton  ceil  etait  choque,  mon  ceil  aussi  etait  choque 
en  voyant  ces  choses.  Je  restai  done  encore.  Mais  ce  qui 
m'est  arrive  a  moi  n'est  arrive  a  aucun  autre  oiseau  volant,  en 
dehors  de  moi.  Cela  m'a  ete  donne  quand  j'ai  enchante 
le  ciel  pour  ecouter  ce  qui  s'y  passe,  quand  j'ai  entendu  ce 
que  Ra,  le  disque,  le  maitre  des  dieux,  a  etabli  poui-  le  monde, 
chaque  jour,  dans  la  nuit.  Isis  dit :  Voyons,  oiseau,  ce  qui 
t'est  arrive  et  pourquoi.  II  lui  dit :  Cela  m'est  arrive  parce- 
que je  n'ai  pas  porte  la  nourriture  a  ma  bouche  pendant  le 
jour,  et  que  je  n'ai  pas  mange  non  plus  apres  que  le  disque 

1  L'oiseau 0   \   A\J  ~2^=j  a^  es^  c^j^-  °ieri  comiu. 


14  Les  Anathemas  d'une  Mere  Payenne 

du  soleil  s'est  couche ;  car,  lorsque  je  tarde  ainsi  jusqu'au 
soir,  raa  gorge  est  dissechee. 

'•  Voila  qu'Isis  vit  l'oisean  et  les  choses  qui  etaient  dans 
son  cceivr.  II  passa  un  moment  a  rire.  L'oisean  comprit 
qu'Isis  avait  vu  pourquoi  il  riait.  L'oiseau  reprit  :  C'est  une 
parole  vraie  que  celle-ei.  C'est  une  audition  d'uu  oiseau  a 
Dieu  celle  qui  fut  a  moi,  une  audition  divine  Tenant  du  ciel 
sur  la  terre.  Le  reptile  meme  fait  annonce  de  cela  devant 
moi,  et  je  fais  semblablement  pour  lui.  reptile.  L'iusecte  wr 
(le  ciron),  qui  est  a  Farrier e  de  Dieu  par  sa  misere.  le  lezard 
le  mange.  Et  ce  qu'il  fait,  on  le  lui  fait.  La  chauve  souris 
mange  le  lezard.  Le  serpent  mange  la  chauve  souris.  Le 
faucon  mange  le  serpent  sur  la  mer ; — car  l'oiseau  entend  cela ! 

"  Isis  regarda  l'oiseau  pour  voir  si  cela  etait  vrai.  Isis  vit 
dans  la  mer.  Elle  vit  ce  qui  se  passe  dans  Feau  et  se  qui 
etait  arrive  au  serpent  et  au  faucon.  Isis  clit :  Yois  !  oiseau! 
C'est  verite  complete  que  toutes  les  paroles  que  tu  as  dites. 
Pendant  que  tu  parlais.  j'ai  fait  leur  prise  en  consideration. 
Elles  se  sont  toutes  trouvees  vraies  devant  moi. 

'•  L'oiseau  poursuivit : 

'•  On  a  fait  '  que  le  serpent  et  le  faucon  tombent  dans  la 

mer.      Mange  cela  le  poisson  at  (  ^V,)   clm  v  nabite. 

On  a  fait  que  le   gryphon  mange  le  poisson  at,  et  que  le 

poisson  at  devore  d'auti-es  poissons  nommes  nar  I a  X^  J. 

II  reste  dans  les  cavemes :  on  en  a  fait  un  lion  dans  la  mer. 
II  fait  proie  du  poisson  nar  dans  les  coins.  lis  ont  fait  cela 
(les  dieux).    Un  gerref  (oiseau  monstrueux,  le  roch  des  arabes. 

en  hieroglvphes     I         j  les  flaire.      II   les   saisit  dans   ses 

griffes  a  l'iustant.  II  les  emporte  par  la  rapine  dans  les 
terres  celestes.  lis  ont  fait  cela.  Voila  qu'il  les  depose. 
II  les  dechire  sur  la  montagne  devant  lui.  II  en  fait  sa 
nourriture.  Si  je  dis  une  parole  fausse.  viens  avec  moi  a  la 
montagne  superieure !  Je  te  les  ferai  voir.  O  Isis !  dechires 
et  palpitants  devant  lui  tandis  qu'il  en  fait  sa  nourriture. 
"  A  ces  mots  le  vantonr    ernporta  Isis  a  la  montagne : 

1   Tint  sef,  ils  ont  fait  cela.     Cette  expression,  qui  se  repete  sans  cesse  dans 
cette  partie  du  recit,  a  trait  a  la  fatalite. 


Contre  son  Fils  decenu   Chretien.  15 

toutes  les  paroles  qu'avait  dites  Maut  etaient  des  paroles 
vraies ;  Isis  vit,  et  entendit  l'oiseau,  crier : 

"  II  n'y  a  rien  sur  la  terre  que  ce  que  fait  le  dieu — la 
parole  qu'il  prononce  dans  la  nuit.  Celui  qui  fait  une  chose 
bonne  la  voit  se  retourner  pour  lui  en  chose  mauvaise.  Celle- 
la  apres  celle-ci. 

"  Ecoute  l'oiseau  !  Qu'en  est-il  du  meurtre? — Le  lion!  le 
serref  lui  fait  violence. — On  le  laisse  les  prier  (prier  les  dieux). 
Entends  l'oiseau  !     Vois  l'oiseau ! — C'est  la  verite  ! 

"  Est-ce  que  tu  ne  sais  pas  que  le  serref  est  le  plus  fort 
animal  du  monde  entier,  celui-la  !  le  roi  terrible  de  quiconque 
est  sur  la  terre,  celui-la  !  La  retribution  ! — II  n'y  pas  de  retri- 
buteur  pour  la  lui  retribuer! — Sonnez  est  celui  de  l'aigle,  son 
ceil  celui  de  l'honrme,  ses  fiancs  ceux  du  lion,  ses  oreilles  celles 
des  ....  ses  ecailles  celles  de  la  tortue  de  rner,  sa  queue  celle 
du  serpent. — Quel  souffle  (quel  etre  anime)  est  de  cette  sorte 
quand  il  frappe.     Qui  done  au  monde  est  semblable  ? 

"  La  mort  est  la  retribution  supreme — le  roi  terrible  de 
quiconque  est  encore  sur  le  monde. 

"  Tu  sais  cela — Celui  qui  tue,  est  ce  quon  le  tuera!  Celui 
qui  ordonne  de  tuer,  ne  le  tuera-t-on  pas  lui  meme1  comme 
retribution  ? 2 

"  II  faut3  que  je  te  dise  ces  paroles  pour  faire  entrer  ceci 
dans  ton  coeur:  qu'il  n'y  a  pas  moyen  d'ecarter4  le  dieu,  le 
soleil,  le  disque  sublime,  la  retribution  venant  de  Dieu. 

"  Les  dieux  prennent  soin  de  qui  done  sur  la  terre,  depuis 
finsecte  sir  (le  ciron)  qui  n'a  personne  plus  petit  que  lui,  et 

1  C'est  encore  une  citation  des  livres  saints  egyptiens,  detournee  de  son  sens 
veritable.  Le  chapitre  125  du  Rituel  contenant  le  decalogue  egyptien,  fait  dire 
au  def  unt  dans  sa  confession  negative  :  "  Je  n'ai  pas  tue,  je  n'ai  pas  fait  tuer,"  de 
meine  qu'il  lui  fait  dire  :  "  point  de  craintif  ni  d'indigent  par  nion  fait ;  je  n'ai 
pas  fait  ce  qui  est  l'abouiination  des  dieux  ;  je  n'ai  pas  fait  tort  au  serviteur 
devant  son  raaitre ;  je  n'ai  pas  fait  avoir  faim  ;  je  n'ai  pas  fait  avoir  soif ;  je  n'ai 
pas  fait  pleurer." — (Voir  mon  edition  du  Rituel  demotique  de  Pamonth.) 

"  Mot-a-mot  :  "  comme  prix."  C'est  le  mot  set,  copte  CUL3T-,  pretio  redimere. 
Confer.  Brugsch  Diet.,  p.  1335. 

3  Le  texte  a  la  forme  optative  COpIXCU ,  "  que  je  dise." 

4  Autre  expressions  des  livres  saints  egyptiens  (egalement  detournee  de  son 
sens  primitif)  ;  le  chapitre  125  du  Rituel  dgfend  d'arreter  tin  dieu  dans  sa 
manifestation.     (Voir  Rituel  de  Pamonth,  pp.  24-25.) 


lii  Lies  Anathema  d'une  Mere  Payenne 

qui  puisse  parveuir  a  son  ignoininie,  jusqu'au  serref,  qui  n'a 
personne  plus  grand  que  lui  ? 

"  Le  bien,  le  mal,  que  Ton  fait  sur  la  terre,  c"est  Ra  qui  le 
fait  recevoir  en  disant :  Que  cela  arrive  ! 

"On  dit :  Je  suis  petit  de  taille  devant  le  soleil  et  il  me 
voit.  De  mime  quest  sa  true,  de  meme  son  flair,  son  audition. 
Qui  done  sw  la  terre  lui  e'ehappe  encore  ?  II  voit  ce  qui  est 
dans  Voeuf} 

"  — II  en  est  ainsi — et  celui  qui  mange  un  oeuf  est  comnie 
celni  qui  tue.2 

•■  Leur  priere  (la  priere  des  rictimes  du  meurtre)  ne  restera 
pas  encore  apres  eux  et  pour  eux.  Si  je  me  transporte  dans 
la  bonne  demeure3  pour  les  y  voir,  la  priere  pour  leur  pro- 
tection— pour  le  sang  des  victimes  qu  on  a  tuees, — on  ne  la 
fait  pas  parveuir  devant  Ra. 

•'  On  dit :  lis  meurent,  mats  on  recherchera  leurs  os.  On 
les  eontentera  apres  leur  mort.  lis  prient  en  implurant  la  pro- 
tection des  dieux  et  des  homines  a  Toccasion  de  leur  sang.* 

'•' — (Test  pour  calmer  leur  cceur!  car  si  je  parle  de  la  retri- 
bution de  leur  vengeance.5 — de  cette  retribution  qui  accomplit 
ennn  leur  demande  de  protection  pour  leur  donner  paix — 
je  ne  dis  pas  la  verite ;  car  la  priere  ne  tue  pas  le  coupable^ — 
jamais ! — II  sera  apres — il  vivra — il  niourra.  II  n  ecartera  pas 
cela  aussi. 

u  Que  je  te  fasse  meme  savoir,  0  chatte.  que,  toi  meme,  tu 
n'es  pas  celle  que  la  retribution6  ne  frappera  point.  Je 
t'apprendrai  que  la  chatte  meurt — cette  autre  immortelle — 
toi,  0  chatte,  a  qui  on  donne  la  retribution  et  la  sentence  du 

1  Autre  citation  sacree  :  les  textes  religieux  disent  sans  cesse  que  Ka  a  connu 
ses  elus — et  particulierement  les  rois  qui  devaient  le  representer  sur  terre- — pendant 
qu'ils  etaient  dans  l'ceuf,  e'est-a-dire  des  leur  conception  et  bien  avant  leur 
naissance. 

-  II  detruit  de  meme  un  etre  vivant ;  et  cependant  on  ne  se  fait  pas  scrupule 
de  manger  un  oeuf. 

3  Nom  ordinaire  de  la  tombe  dans  les  textes  egrptiens,  et  particulierement  dans 
les  textes  demotiques. 

4  C'est  une  citation  curieuse  des  crovances  populaires  a  cette  epoque. 

5  C'est  le  mot  JULCIIICIJ ,  svnonvme  memphite  de  XIKS.i.  (Voir  "  le 
martvre  de  St.  Ignace,"  que  je  publie  en  ce  moment  daus  la  Eecue  egyptologique. 

6  La  mort. 


Contre  son  Fils  devenu  Chretien.  17 

salut,1  car  fille  du  soleil  on  appelle  la  chatte2 — On  bavarde 
de  cela  du  moins — et  celle  qui  bavarde  a  uos  oreilles  c'est — 
le  monde. 

"Elle  rit  alors,  la  chatte  ethiopienne.  Son  coeur  fat 
doux  pour  les  paroles  qu'avait  prononcees  le  petit  chacal 
Koufi.  Elle  fit  cette  maxime,  a  savoir :  Je  ne  te  tuerai  point. 
Je  ne  te  ferai  pas  titer.3  Ma  honte  rend  tenioignage  au  mal 
comme  aux  bons  coinrnandements  qui  font  ete  donnes.4  Com- 
ment ma  face  te  serait-elle  hostile  quand  tu  n'as  fait  aucun  mal 
apres  tons  ces  bons  commandements  ?  Tu  as  ecarte  de  mon 
coeur  la  flamme  de  la  colere,  et  tu  l'as  fait  revenir  a  la  joie. 

"  Elle  lui  dit  encore  : — Quand  le  faible  est  violente,  la  retri- 
bution approche.  Le  meurtrier  n'arrive  point  au  but ;  car 
l'homme  puissant  ne  chassera  pas  dieu  de  sa  maison. 

"  Elle  dit  encore :  II  ne  donne  pas  la  chair  en  nourriture 
a  la  bete  feroce ;  car  ce  n'est  pas  lui  qui  fait  faire  violence. 
Le  fort  qui  infLige  de  la  peine — est  plus  fort  que  lui  celui 
qui  la  supporte. 

"Le  ciel  porte  les  nuees  de  l'orage — la  tempete  enleve  la 
lumiere  un  instant.  Les  nuages  viennent  interposer  leur  ombre 
devant  l'apparition  du  soleil  le  matin.5     II  fera  resplendir  la 

lumiere  en  son  lieu,  avec  la  joie,  ses  rayons,  avec  la  vie  " ! 

******** 

Ici  les  mots  effaces,  et  les  lacunes  sont  tenement  nom- 
breuses  que  je  ne  puis  saisir  la  suite  du  texte  pendant  sept 


It 


□  J^VJ  (1(1      \     mai  net',  "le  :  qu'il  soit  sauve" 


•  Les  textes  sacres  egyptiens  appellent  ceil  du  soleil  et  fille  du  soleil  cbaeune 
des  deesses  a.  tete  de  chatte  ou  de  lionne,  comme  Tafnut,  Bast,  Sekhet,  etc. 
Voir  aussi  but  la  legende  de  la  fille  du  soled  le  decret  trilingue  de  Canope. 

3  La  chatte  fait  ici  allusion  aux  preceptes  du  chapitre  125  du  Eituel, 
veritable  decalogue  egyptien.  Les  mots  :  je  ne  te  tuerai  pas,  je  ne  te  ferai  pas 
tuer,  se  rapportent  a  l'un  de  ces  preceptes  deja,  cites  par  nous.  Le  chacal  venait 
de  parler  longtemps  du  meurtre.  La  chatte  prend  la  chose  en  plaisanterie  et  lui 
dit  qu'apres  tout  ces  theses  philosophiques  n'ont  pas  lieu  de  la  mettre  en  colere  ; 
car  tout  cela  n'est  que  theorique  et  pratiquement  le  chacal  n'a  fait  aucun  mal. 
Pourquoi  done  lui  montrer  un  visage  sombre  ?     II  vaut  mieux  en  revenir  a  la  joie. 

4  C'est  1'excellent  argument  tire  de  la  conscience  humaine. 

5  En  Egypte,  particulierement  au  Cairo  (Memphis),  dans  la  coeur  de  l'ete,  le 
ciel  est  toujours  couvert  le  matin  jusque  vers  huit  heures,  moment  ou  le  soleil, 
echauffant  l'atmosphere,  dissipe  les  nuees  produites  par  l'^vaporation  diurne  de 
I'eau  du  Nil. 

Vol.  YIII.  t 


18  Les  Anathcmes  dune  Mere  Payenne 

lignes.  Puis  c'est  de  nouveau  le  chacal  qui  prend  la  parole 
et  qui  dit : 

"  Vivat ! — ecoute  l'liistoire  qu'on  m'a  racontee. 

"  II  y  avait  des  chacals  sur  la  montague.  lis  disputerent 
but  la  verite  de  ce  qu'on  avait  dit:  On  complote  contre  toi — 
tu  arriveras :  tu  feras  le  bien.1  On  ne  fut  par  d'accord.  Chaque 
cliacal  parlait  avec  son  compagnon.  lis  buvaient.  mangeaient 
....  s'excitaient  de  coeur  dans  un  bois  de  la  montagne.  Us 
apercurent  un  lion  qui  souvent  les  avait  frappes — chassant 
et  se  dirigeant  vers  eux.  lis  s'arreterent.  lis  s'enfuirent. — 
Le  lion  fit  arreter  deux  chacals  et  leur  dit : — Est-ce  que  vous 
ne  me  voyez  pas  ?  Je  veux  aller  vers  vous.  Qu'est-ce  que 
la  fuite  devant  moi  que  vous  faites  ? — lis  dirent  cette  parole 
veridique  : — Xotre  seigneur !  nous  t'avons  vu  les  frapp er,  nous 
avons  fait  nos  reflexions :  a  savoir  que  nous  ne  fuirions  pas 
devant  toi  si  tu  nous  epargnais  et  ne  nous  niangeais  pas. 
X  tie  peau  est  sur  notre  dos,  nous  ne  voulons  pas  la  rendre, 
a  plus  faute  raison  que  tu  nous  manges.  Tu  peines  pour  faire 
proie.  C'est  la  ruort  mauvaise  qui  arrive.  Rugit  la  bete 
feroce  qui  me  prendra.  II  faut  que  je  fuie  loin  de  sa  bouche. 
— Le  lion  entendit  la  grande  voix,  la  voix  des  chacals.  Mais 
vraiment  c'est  comme  si  les  grands  ne  pouvaient  jamais 
rencontrer  la  verite.     H  s'en  alia. 

"  Et  voila  pourquoi  je  repousse  au  loin  cette  parole 
aujourd'bui :  '  Madame  :  On  complote  contre  toi — tu  arriveras  : 
tu  feras  le  Lien.'  " 

Evidemment  la  maxim e  combattue  ici  par  notre  chacal 
etait  toute  chretienne,  et  du  christianisme  le  plus  pur :  celui 
des  apotres  et  des  martyrs.  Quoi  qu'en  dise  notre  philosophe 
sceptique,  cette  doctrine  est  bien  preferable  a  celle  de  son  froid 
egoisme,  ainsi,  du  reste,  qu'aux  maledictions  entrecroisees  par 
Petosor  et  sa  mere.  C'est  la  charite  qui  a  fait  la  societe 
chretienne  et  par  elle  la  civilisation  moderne  dans  ce  qu'elle 
a  de  meilleur.  Plus  on  s'en  eloigne,  plus  on  se  rapproche  de  la 
vraie  barbarie.  Rien  de  plus  interessaut  que  d'apercevoir  ainsi 
les  debuts  du  nouveau  monde  dans  les  ecrits  et  sous  les  carac- 
trres  multiples  du  vieux  monde  6gyptien,  deja  si  loin  de  nous. 

1  Mot-i-mot  :  tu  feras  un  bienfait  grand  et  bon  iwww  -O-  ^^^^  I  • 


Contre  son  Fils  devenu  Chretien.  19 

Mais  vous  allez  sans  doute  me  demauder  la  date  exacte 
de  nos  deux  documents.     Je  ne  suis  point  en  etat  de  vous 
reponclre  d'une  facon  precise.      La  paleographie  demotique 
seule  (d'ailleurs  bien  cliangeante  selon  les  scribes)  doit  nous 
servrr  de  guide,  et  elle  est  loin  d'avoir  livre  tous  ses  secrets. 
Ce  qui  est  certain,  d'apres  leurs  caracteres  paleographiques, 
c'est    que    ces   deux    papyrus  appartiennent    egalement   a 
l'epoque  romaine.     Mais  c'est  justement  une  de  ces  epoques 
ou  l'ecriture  demotique  est  le  plus  diversement  transformee 
L'anatheme  prononce  contre  Petosor  se  rapproche  beaucoup 
de  certains  recus  demotiques  du  second  siecle.     II  est  certaine- 
ment  posterieur  au  papyrus  bilingue  Rhind  (siecle  d'Auguste), 
et  parait   assez   probablement    anterieur   au   chacal   Koufi. 
Celui-ci  a  son  tour  est  anterieur  aux  ecrits  gnostiques  de 
Leide,   Londres,    et   Paris,   puisque   le   scribe   meme    (assez 
recent)  qui  a  ecrit  ces  livres  gnostiques,  a  trace  apres  coup 
une  page  de  ses  elucubrations  sur  notre  document  philoso- 
pliique.     Mais  pour  eclaircir  toutes  ces  questions,  il  faudrait 
obtenir   un  peu  partout  la   publication   des  divers  papyrus 
demotiques   par   les   procedes    de   pliotographie   reportee   a 
l'encre  d'imprimerie   qui  seront  employees  pour  la  planche 
annexee  a  cet  article.    On  pourrait  alors  comparer  les  diverses 
ecritures,  les  diverses  epoques,  etc.,  et  avoir  enfin  des  repro- 
ductions veritablement  scientifiques.      Notre  clier  Maitre  et 
President   Dr.   Birch   a   deja   publie   ainsi  par  facsimile  les 
papyrus  hieratiques  du  British  Museum,  et  je  sais  par  lui 
meme  qu'il  vouclrait  bien  en  faire  autant  pour  les  papyrus 
demotiques.      Mais  les  fonds  manquent.      Laissez-moi  done, 
pour  finir,  vous  recommander  cette  ceuvre,  Messieurs  et  chers 
collegues.     Obtenez  des  fonds.     Faites  faire  cette  publication 
phototypique,  que  j'accompagnerai  bien   volontiers  des  tra- 
ductions;   car  les  papyrus  demotiques  du  British  Museum, 
deja  taut  de  fois  Studies  par  moi,  renferment,  je  puis  vous 
l'assurer,  de  veritables  tresors.     Nous  aurons  ainsi  les  uns  et 
les  autres  rendu  a  la  science  les  services  qui  lui  sont  dus. 


20 


PIECES   RELATIVES  A  UN   MARIAGE   DU   TEMPS 
DE  DARIUS. 

Par  E.  Revillout,  &c.,  &c,  &c. 

Read  7th  November,  1882. 

Les  contrats  de  mariage  ont  frequents  dans  les  papyrus 
demotiques  d'epoque  ptolema'ique ;  ils  sont  beaucoup  plus 
rares  dans  les  documents  d'epoque  anterieure.  Le  plus 
ancien1  est  un  acte  demotique  du  temps  de  Psammetique,  que 
j'ai  deja  publie.  II  s'agit  d'une  femme  libre  se  faisant  volon- 
tairement  esclave,  moyennant  une  somme,  peut-etre  Active, 
afin  de  deveniv  la  concubine  de  son  nouveau  maitre.  Voici 
cet  acte  curieux  dont  je  viens  de  re  voir  la  traduction  avec 
soin  en  le  comparant  a  de  nouveaux  textes  analogues.2 

"  An  4,  Mesore,  27  du  roi  Psammetique. 

"La  femme  Tenesi,  fille  d'Anachamen,  dit  a  Amon,  fils 
de  Puta : — 

"  Tu  m'as  donne — et  mon  coeur  en  est  satisfait — mon 
argent  pour  etre  a  toi  servante.  Je  suis  ta  servante.  Per- 
sonne  au  monde  ne  pent  m'ecarter  de  ton  service.  Je  ne  puis 
m'opposer 3  (a,  cet  asservissement).   Je  te  donne  encore 4  jusqu'a 

1  Les  deux  steles  hieroglyphiques  que  M.  Maspero  norame  des  contrats  de 
mariage  lie  sont,  a  proprement  purler,  que  des  dec-rets  rendus  au  nom  de  la 
divinite  et  attribuant  a  la  posterite  de  deux  princesses  les  biens  qui  leur  appar- 
tenaient.  Ces  decrets  supposent  un  mariage  au  moins  possible.  Mais  ils  ne  le 
specifient  pas  et  n'indiquent  pas  meme  le  conjoint.  Eestent  done  seidement  les 
deux  mentions  fugitives  de  mariage  hotep  deja,  signalees  par  notre  cher  maitre 
Dr.  Bircb. 

2  Le  texte  (dont  l'original  est  au  Louvre,  et  que  je  donne  aux  planches)  est 
un  peu  efface  en  certains  points.  Je  viens  de  le  collationner  scrupuleusement. 
Plusieui's  mots  (qui  se  trouvent  dans  les  ventes  d'esclaves  analogues)  ont  ete 
retablis.  Parmi  ces  mots  se  trouve  le  nouveau  syllabique  bok,  que  les  ventes 
susdites  et  les  preuves  positives  fournies  par  les  bilingues  greco-demotiques  et 
hieroglyphico-demotiques,  etc.,  etc.,  m'ont  permis  de  preciser. 

3  Pour  le  mot  qui  se  lit  nemm,  coinparez  la  vente  d'esclave  publiee  par 
Caillaud,  pi.  xxvi.     (L'original  en  est  k  la  Pibl.  Xat.) 

4  Le  mot  demotique  an,  encore  (avec  le  determinatif  des  jambes),  qui  se  rejiete 
plusieurs  fois  dans  notre  acte,  vient  d'etre  precise  par  un  contrat  du  temps 
d-'Arfcaxerces, 


Trans.  Soc.  Bibl.  Arch.,  Vol.  VIII. 


■ 


DEMOTIC    MARRIAGE    CONTRACTS, 

Aii.i-"  ■  -i    -x    ■  -  ■   !- 


■HPH 


Endobsement. 
Naurs  o]  Witnesses 


Trans.  Soc.  Bibl.  Arch., Vol.  VIII 


DEMOTIC   ilAKUIAGE   CONTRACTS, 
Anastasi,  No.  1054. 


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Pieces  relatives  a  un  Manage  du  temps  de  Darius.         21 

la  totalite  de  mes  biens  de  dame  de  rnaison,  a  la  totalite  de 
mes  biens  au  monde,  a  nies  enfants  que  j'enfanterai,  a  tout  ce 
que  je  possede  et  possederai,  meme  les  vetements  qui  sont 
sur  moil  dos,  depuis  l'an  4,  Mesore,  ci-dessus,  en  annee  quel- 
conque,  jusqu'a  jamais  et  toujours  ! 

"  Celui  qui  viendra  a  toi  pour  t'inquieter  a  cause  de  moi 
au  nom  de  parole  quelconque  au  monde,  en  disant : — ce  n'est 
pas  ta  servante  celle-la,— te  donnera  les  biens  quelconques  de 
dame  de  maison  qui  seront  a  nous  chez  toi.  Ta  servante  sera 
ta  servante  encore,  et  mes  biens  tu  les  auras  en  tout  lieu  ou 
tu  les  trouveras. 

"  Serment  a  Anion  !  Serment  au  roi !  Point  a  te  servir1 
au  dehors  par  esclave  encore.  Point  a  dire  nous  avons 
fait  l'acte  marital2  en  toute  similitude  que  ci-dessus.  II  n'y 
a  point  a  faire  de  similitude  de  ces  choses.  Point  a  dire  que 
tu  peux  m'ecarter3  du  service  de  la  cliambre  dans  laquelle 
tu  es." 

Evidemment  il  ne  s'agit  la  que  d'un  mariage  servile 
analogue  a  celui  qu'ont  connu  les  juifs,  et  dont  la  minute,  par 
toutes  ses  formules,  rentre  plutot  encore  dans  le  titre  legal 
de  l'esclavage  que  dans  celui  du  mariage. 

Tout  autre  est  le  caractere  de  deux  actes  du  temps  de 
Darius.  L'egalite  j  etait  parfaite  entre  Fhomme  et  la  femme. 
Voici  Tun  : — 4 

"  An  9,  Epiphi,  du  roi  Darius. 

"Le  choachyte  de  la  necropole  Petnofrehotep,  fils  de 
Neshor  .  .  .  dont  la  mere  est  Set-nek-ban,  dit  a  la  femme  Tahei, 
fille  de dont  la  mere  est  Tahonesi : — 

"  Je   t'ai   etablie   pour  femme.      T'appartiennent   toutes 

1  La  meme  prescription  se  retrouve  pour  l'esclave  concubine  dans  l'Exode  xxi, 
versets  7  et  suivants;  tout  ce  passage  de  la  loi  juive  est  vraiment  d'urie  analogie 
bien  frappante  avec  notre  acte. 

2  Ka    )JL.      Conf.  Brugsch,  Diet.,  1435. 

3  Cette  partie  du  texte  avait  ete  mal  lue  et  mal  reproduite  dans  la  Revue. 

4  Ce  contrat  a  ete  reproduit  en  facsimile  dans  les  Denkmaler  de  Lepsius, 
Abth.  VI,  Bl.  125, 1.  L'aimable  conservateur  du  Musee  de  Berlin,  Mr.  Stern, 
a  bien  voulu  m'en  envoyer  une  photograpbie  qui  m'a  permis  dc  rectifier  plusieurs 
points. 


22         Pieces  relatives  a  un  Manage  du  temps  de  Darius. 

choses  du  monde  dependant  du  /aire  a  toi  mari}  Je  te  les 
abandonne  depuis  le  jour  ci-dessus  a  jamais." 

L'autre  est  fort  analogue  : — 2 

"  An  3,  Payni,  du  roi  Darius  : — 

"  Le  choachyte  de  la  necropole  Ptu,  fils  de  Nesmin,  dit  a 
la  femme  Sebast  (?),  fille  de  Nesmin  : — 

"  Je  t'ai  etablie  pour  femme.  Je  t'abandonne  lefaire  a  toi 
mari  depuis  le  jour  ci-dessus.  Je  ne  puis  y  echapper3  en  tout 
lieu  ou  j'irai  depuis  le  jour  ci-dessus  a  jamais." 

Dans  ces  contra ts  rien  d'autre  que  le  mariage  lui-meme 
n'est  stipule ;  on  ne  voit  intervenir  aucune  des  clauses  et 
charges  pecuniares  si  lourdes  que  la  femme  imposait  au  mari 
dans  les  contrats  de  mariage  d'epoque  ptolema'ique.  Un 
troisieme  document,  de  l'an  30  du  roi  Darius,4  que  j'ai  publie 
dans  la  Revue  Sgyptologique  va  meme  encore  plus  loin. 

Ce  n'est  pas  le  mari  qui  dit  a  sa  femme,  comme  dans  les 
contrats  ptolema'iques  Thebains  :   '•  Je  t'ai  prise  pour  femme  ; 

Je  t'ai  donne  tant  d'argenteus5  pom'  ton  don  nuptial Si 

je  te  meprise,  si  je  prends  une  autre  femme  que  toi,  je  te 
donnerai  tant  d'argenteus,  en  dehors  de  ceux  que  tu  as  recus 

pour  ton  don  nuptial La  totalite  de  mes  biens  presents 

et  a  venir  est  en  garantie  des  paroles  ci-dessus."  C'est  au 
contraire,  la  femme  qui  s'adresse  au  mari,  et  lui  dit :  "  Tu  m'as 

1  Je  traduis  mot-a-mot. 

2  Voir  Denknuiler,  Abth.  VI,  Bl.  125,  111.  Pour  eet  acte  encore  Mr.  Stern 
m'a  enroye  une  photographic  fort  utile. 

3  An-ei-rex  ha  ehol-het-f.     "  Je  ne  puis  me  tenir  debout  en  dehors  de  lui." 

4  Cet  acte  est  publie  dans  les  Denkmaler,  Abth.  VI,  Bl.  115, 11,  mais  j'cn  ai,  de 
plus,  pris  une  copie  tres  attentive  lors  de  mon  dernier  voyage  de  Berlin. 

5  Pour  la  question  des  monnaies  egyptiennes  mentionnees  dans  les  contrats 
demotiqucs,  et  particuHerement  la  valeur  de  l'argenteus  equiralant  a  5  sekels  = 
tefcradrachmea  ptolema'iques,  ou  a  20  drachmes,  voir  Mevue  egyptologique,  Paris, 
Lcroux,  editeur,  2e  annec,  No.  11,  ct  3e  annee,  No.  11.  Nos  conclusinns 
viennent  du  rcste  d'etre  confirmees  d'une  facon  bien  remarquable  par  un 
bilingue  du  British  Museum,  la  planchette  5849,  portant  dans  le  grec  70 
drachmes  (h  e/3Soju?; vovra) ,  et  dans  le  demotique,  "  trois  argcnteus  et  -j^."     Le 

dixicme  d'argenteus  rtait  un  didrachme,  et  primitirement  un  Kati  (  M  fTTTTTl 

confer:  KIT6  =  didracha),  puisquc  l'argenteus — outen  (ou  outen  d' argent), 
posant  90  grammes,  a  etc  d'abord  as-iinile  a  20  drachmes  attiques,  pesant  s? 
grammes  cm  iron,  puis  a  20  drachmes  ptolema'iques  pesant  beaucoup  moins. 


Pieces  relatives  a  un  Mariage  du  temps  de  Darius.  23 

prise  pour  femme  aujourd'hui.  Tu  m'as  donne  -^  d'argenteus ' 
fondu  du  temple  de  Ptah  pour  ma  dot  quand  tu  t'es  etabli 
a  moi  comme  mari.  Que  je  te  meprise,  que  j'aime  un  autre 
homme  en  dehors  de  toi,  c'est  moi  qui  te  donnerai  T%  d'argenteus 
fondus  du  temple  de  Ptah,  en  dehors  du  dixieme  d'argenteus 
fondu  du  temple  de  Ptah  ci-dessus  que  tu  m'as  donne  pour 
mon  don  nuptial.  Je  te  cederai  le  tiers  de  totalite  des  biens 
qui  sont  a  moi  ou  que  j'acquerrai,  sans  alleguer  aucun  acte, 
aucune  parole  au  monde." 2 

Cette  fois  je  viens  de  retrouver  au  British  Museum,  sous 
le  No.  1054  Anastasi,  un  papyrus,  du  meme  regne,  qui  se 
rapporte  a  un  tout  autre  genre  de  conventions  matri- 
moniales.  A  l'epoque  ptolemaique, — en  dehors  des  contrats 
Thebains  auxquels  nous  faisions  allusion  tout  a  l'heure  et 
qui  assuraient  a  la  femme :  1°  un  don  nuptial,  2°  une  pension 
alimentaire,  en  partie  en  argent  et  en  partie  en  nature  (ble  et 
hnile,  pension  qui  parfois  etait  remplacee  par  la  communaute 
du  tiers  dans  les  biens  du  mari),  3°  une  promesse  d'etablisse- 
ment  comme  femme,  4°  une  indemnite  pour  le  cas  ou  le  mari 
mepriserait  sa  femme  et  en  prendrait  une  autre,  5°  la  recon- 
naissance explicite  du  fils  aine  qui  devait  naitre  de  ce  mariage, 
comme  maitre  de  tous  les  biens  presents  et  a  venir  du  mari,3 
6°  l'hypotheque  legale  donnee  comme  garantie  a  l'epouse 
sur  les  biens  de  son  epoux, — en  dehors,  dis-je,  de  ces  actes 
Thebains  auxquels  Herodote  et  Diodore  out  fait  allusion,  nous 
trouvons  aussi  a  la  meme  periode,  et  surtout  a  Memphis,  des 
contrats  bases  sur  un  principe  tout  different  et  dont  j'ai  deja 
parte  dans  mon  article  intitule  un  quasi  manage,  paru  dans  le 
dernier  numero  de  la  Revue  egyptologique.  Am  si  que  je  le  disais 
alors,  aucun  contrat  de  mariage  proprement  dit  n'intervient 

1  Ce  contrat,  dout  le  texte  se  trouve  clans  les  Denkm.,  Abth.  VI,  Bl.  125, 
No.  11,  debute  par  ces  mots  :  "  An  30,  Thot,  du  roi  Darius.  La  femme  Isis,  fille 
du  choachyte  de  la  necropole  Anachamen,  mere  Tbahor,  dit  au  cboacliyte  de  la 
necropole  Haeroou,  fils  de  P6chytes,  dont  la  mere  est  Niftesop :  tu  m'as  prise 
pour  femme,  etc." 

2  Voir  Revue  egyptologique  (Paris,  Leroux,  rue  Bonaparte  28) ,  2e  annee,  p.  270. 

3  "  Mon  fils  aine,  ton  fils  aine,  sera  le  maitre  de  tous  mes  biens  presents  et  a 
venir."  Ainsi  que  nous  l'avons  deja  remarque,  le  fils  aine  etabli  ainsi  comme 
\vpios,  avait  ensuite  a  partager  avec  ses  freres  plus  jeunes  les  biens  venant  du 
pere  et  de  la  mere.  Voir  les  etudes  panics  dans  la  Revue  egyptologique,  et  mon 
cours  de  droit  egyptien.     (Leroux,  edileur.) 


24  J'    tes  relatives   ■  m  Mortage  da  temps       D    ius. 

dans         _  ore  d'unions;  nous  en  avons  la  preuve  positive: 

car  ces  sorfcee  atrats  sent  toujours  cites  dans  les  regle- 

raents  qui  en  sont  la  consequence.      Au  contraire.  dans  tous 
les  faits  connus  de  ce  genre,  il  n'y  eut  pas  (FScrit  de  i 
pour  femme;    il  n'y  eut  pas  d'dtablissement  comme  femme;   et 

ndant  la  feinine  nonirne  mart  son  conjoint ;  elle  ne  fait 
aucun  acte  sans  son  consentement.  a  partir  du  7rpoarayfia  de 
Philopator  sui'  l'autorite  inaritale.  irpoarwyfia  si  contraire  aux 
anciennes  traditions :  bref tout  se  passe  comme  dans  un  menage 
regulier :  et  si  nous  voulons  voir  l'origine  et  la  preuve  de  ce 
nouvel  etat  civil,  nous  ne  trouvons  qu'un  contrat  de  pret. 

II  est  vrai  que  ce  contrat  de  pret  nous  donne  tous  les 
elements  pecuniaires  qu'on  rencontre  d' ordinaire  dans  les 
contrats  de  manage ;  on  y  rencontre  a  la  fois  la  somme  qui 
represente  le  don  nuptial,  la  pension  alinientaire  qui  doit  etre 
soldee  chaque  annee  par  le  mari  a  la  femme.  l'hypotheque 
legale  grevant  le  mari.  enfin  la  transmission  hereditaire  des 
biens  aux  enfants. 

Mais  ici  nos  contrats  s'ecartent  conipleterneut  des  forks  de 
prise  pour  femme.  Les  enfants  ne  sont  pas  seulement  nien- 
tionnes  en  prevision  de  Tavernr,  ils  existent  deja.  et  e'est  ce 
qui  nous  explique  tout  le  mystere. 

Si  le  mari  ne  promet  pas  de  prendi-e  sa  fiancee  pom-  epouse 
et  de  FStabtir  comme  femme,  e'est  que  l'union  etait  deja  com- 
mencee  avant  le  contrat.  e'est  que  les  enfants  deja  nes  en 
faisaient  le  lien  le  plus  solide,  e'est  qu*en  un  mot  il  s'agissait 
de  legitimer  une  situation  anorruale. 

De  la  la  formule  qui  transforme  l'obligation  future  en  une 
dette  deja  contractte  et  une  dette,  au  sens  propre  du  mot,  que 
Ton  fait  reposer  sur  de  l'argent : — 1 

"Tu  m'as  donne.  et  mon  coeur  en  est  satisfait.  21  ar- 
genteus  fondus  du  temple  de  Ptali.  ou  20  argenteus 
plus  ^  to  to  -sir  ttV  —  -1  argent eus  fondus  du  temple  de  Ptah 
en  tout  pom-  ton  saneh  (ta  creance). 

•■  L'archentaphiaste  Petese.  fils  d'Hercius.  mon  fils  aine, 
■    d  fils  aine.  et  l'liomme  du  meme  rang  Petese  (le  jeune),  fils 

1  Voir  dans  le  Xo.  ii-iii  de  la  2C  annee  de  la  Serue  egypiologique.  1' article 
intitule  ''Un  quasi  manage,"  et  surtout  les  leeons  que  j'ai  c-onsacrees  a  l'etude 
du  manage   Ian?  inu.i  conn  .  pi  ■         (Leroux.  eili: 


Pieces  relatives  a  an  Manage  da  temps  tie  Darius.  25 

d'Hereius,  mon  fils,  ton  fils,  les  deux,  mes  enfants,  tes  enfants, 
que  tu  m'as  engendres,  et  les  eufauts  uouveaux  que  tu 
m'engendreras,  seront  les  maitres  de  tous  mes  biens  presents 
et  a  venir. 

"  Que  je  te  donne  36  mesures  d'olyre,  dont  les  deux  tiers 
font  24,  36  mesures  d'olyre  en  tout,  plus  2  argenteus  fondus 

et  4  dixiemes  du  temple  de  Ptali pour  ta 

pension  alimentaire,  au  lieu  que  tu  voudras.  C'est  a.  toi  qu'il 
appartient  d'exiger  le  paiement  de  ta  pension  qui  sera  a  ma 
charge.     Que  je  te  donne  cela! 

"  La  totalite  de  mes  biens  presents  et  a  venir  est  en 
garantie  de  ton  sanch  ci-dessus.  Je  ne  puis  te  dire  :  recois 
ton  sanch  ci-dessus  (et  va-t-en).  Au  temps  ou  tu  le  voudras 
je  te  le  donnerai.  Je  ne  puis  faire  de  serment  a  rencontre 
de  toi  en  dehors  du  lieu  ou  Ton  en  juge." 

Nous  avons  aussi  montre  que  ce  genre  de  contrats  mem- 
phites,  qui  n'est  pas  rare  en  demotique,  etait  aussi  la  cause  du 
proces  juge  dans  le  papyrus  grec  XIII  de  Turin1  (de  meine  que 
la  requete  grecque  d'Amadocus  reposait  sur  un  contrat  de 
mariage  thebain).  Or  voici  que  justement  le  papyrus  Anastasi 
1057  nous  fait  voir  le  lneme  genre  de  transactions  en  l'an  5  du 
roi  Darius. 

La  aussi  le  contrat  de  mariage  est  remplace  par  un  contrat 
de  pret,  et  les  conventions  proprement  matrimoniales  viennent 
se  greffer  sur  cette  creance.  La,  aussi  l'enfant  existe  deja,  et 
c'est  lui  qu'on  a  surtout  en  vue  de  legitimer.  Seulement,  au 
lieu  de  reunir  en  un  seul  acte  la  reconnaissance  de  sa  femme 
et  la  legitimation  de  son  enfant,  notre  egyptien  contemporain 
de  Darius  a  prefere  faire  a  la  meme  date  deux  actes  differents 
sur  une  seule  feuille  de  papyrus. 

Dans  le  ler  de  ces  actes  Ton  lit :  "  L'an  5,  Athyr,  du  roi 
Darius.  Le  choachyte  Psenese,  fils  de  Herir,  dont  la  mere  est 
Bast  .  .  .  .  dit  a  la  femme  Tsenhor,  fille  de  Nesmin,  dont  la 
mere  est  Reru :  "Tu  m'as  donne  trois  argenteus  fondus  du 
temple  du  Ptah,  quand  je  t'ai  etablie  comme  femme.  Que  je 
te  meprise  je  te  donnerai  ....  en  dehors  des  trois  argenteus 
fondus  du  temple  de  Ptah  que  tu  m'as  donnes  ci-dessus.     Le 

!  Voir  dans  le  N°  deja  cite  de  la  Re  cue  egyptolugique,  nies  etudes  sur  un  quasi 
mariage  et  sur  le  papyrus  grec  X1I1  de  Turin. 


•26         Pieces  relatives  a  un  Manage  du  temps  de  Darius. 

tiers  de  tons  mes  biens  presents  et  a  venir  que  je  te  le  donne." 
Le  second  acte  est  ainsi  con9U :  "  L'an  5,  Athyr,  du  roi  Darius. 
Le  choachyte  Petese,  fils  de  Herir,  dont  la  mere  est  Bast  .... 
dit  a  la  femme  Rem,  fille  du  clioachyte  Petese,  fils  de  Herir, 
laquelle  a  pour  mere  Tsenhor,  sa  fille  "  (a  lui  Petese) :  "  Tu 
viendras  en  partage  avec  mes  enfants  que  j'ai  engendres  ou 
que  j'engendrerai  pour  tous  mes  biens  presents  et  a  veuir : 
maisons,  terrains,  esclaves,  argent,  airain,  etofFes,  bceufs,  anes, 
bestiaux,  contrats  quelconques,  totalite  de  biens  au  monde. 
A  toi  part  d'eux  (de  ces  biens),  comme  a  mes  enfants  qui  seront 
a  jamais,  ainsi  que  de  mes  catacombes  de  choachyte  dans  la 
necropole  et  dans  le  nome.     A  toi  aussi  part  d'elles."1 

Ces  deux  instruments  out  ete  bien  et  dument  rediges  par 
le  pretre  de  Mont  neb  uas,  qui  tenait  l'etude  de  Thebes2  a  cette 
epoque,  et  certifies  au  revere  par  8  temoins,  dont  les  noms, 
pom-  correspondre  a  ces  instruments,  se  trouvaient  deux  fois 
sur  les  deux  cotes  du  verso  de  notre  papyrus. 

En  meme  temps  que  ces  deux  actes  etaient  consentis  par 
Psenese,  sa  nouvelle  epouse,  Tsenhor,  en  faisait  ecrire  deux 
autres,  que  Caillaud  a  publies  dans  ses  planches  xxvii  et  xxviii, 
et  dont  les  originaux  sont  maintenant  a  la  Bibliotheque 
Nationale.  Ces  deux  contrats  constituaient  un  partage 
d'heredite  entre  les  deux  enfants  que  Tsenhor  avait  actuelle- 
ment.  L'un  de  ces  enfants  etait  la  fille  que  Psenese  venait  de 
reconnaitre,  l'autre  etait  un  fils  ne  d'une  precedente  union. 
L'expedition  adressee  au  fils  portait : — 

"  L'an  5,  Athyr,  du  roi  Darius. 

"  La  clioachyte  femme  Tsenhor,  fille  de  choachyte  de  la 
necropole  Nesmin,  dont  la  mere  est  Reru,  dit  au  choachyte  de 
la  necropole  Petamenhotep,  fils  de  Hahoreroou,  dont  la  mere 
est  Tsenhor :  mon  fils  aine,  a  toi  la  moitie  de  latotalite  des 
biens  qui  a  moi  dans  la  campagne,  dans  le  sanctuaire,  et  dans 
la  ville,  maisons,  champs,  esclaves,  argent,  airain,  etoffes, 
boeufs,  anes,  tombes  de  la  necropole,  totalite  de  biens  au 
monde.     A  toi  la  moitie  de  la  totalite  de   biens  au  monde 

1  Voir  aux  planches  les  photographies  de  ces  deux  contrats  du  British 
Museum. 

2  Voir  sur  les  notaires  de  Thebes,  mon  article  intitule  V authentic'tte  des  actes 
dans  la  Efi-ue  egyplologique,  2C  annee,  p.  103  et  suiv. 


Pieces  relatives  a  un  Mariage  du  temps  de  Darius.         27 

appartenant  an  choachyte  de  la  necropole  Nesmin,  fils 
d'Atef-en-Osor,  mon  pere,  et  de  la  totalite  de  Mens  au  monde 
appartenant  a  la  femme  Rem,  fille  du  choachyte  de  la  necro- 
pole Petemin,  dont  la  mere  est  Resi  (?)  ma  mere.  A  toi  la 
moitie  de  la  part  qui  me  revient  en  leur  nom.  A  toi  ce  dont  je 
justifierai  en  mon  nom,  au  nom  de  mes  pere  et  mere.  La  femme 
Reru,  fille  du  clioacliyte  de  la  necropole  PseneseV,  dont  la 
mere  est  Tsenlior,  ta  soeur  caclette,  a  l'autre  moitie  de  ma  part 
qui  me  revient.  soit  en  mon  nom,  soit  au  nom  de  mes  pere  et 
mere  ci-dessus  encore.  Le  fils  que  j'engendrerai  depuis  ce 
jour  qu'il  recoive  sa  part  sans  prendre  sur  la  part  des  deux." 

Le  contrat  destine  a  la  fille  etait  tout-a-fait  parallele.  II 
est  ainsi  concu : — 

"  L'an  5,  Athyr,  du  roi  Darius.  La  clioacliyte  femme  Tsen- 
lior, fille  du  choachyte  de  la  necropole  Nesmin,  dont  la  mere 
est  Reru,  dit  a  la  femme  clioacliyte  Reru,  fille  du  clioacliyte  de 
la  necropole  Psenese,  dont  la  mere  est  Tsenlior,  sa  fille  : — A  toi 
la  moitie  de  la  totalite  des  biens  qui  sont  a,  moi  dans  la  cam- 
pagne,  dans  le  sanctuaire,  et  dans  la  ville :  maisons,  champs, 
esclaves,  argent,  airain,  boeufs,  anes,  bestiaux,  catacombes  de 
la  necropole,  totalite  de  biens  au  monde,  et  la  moitie  de  ma 
part  qui  me  revient  au  nom  du  clioacliyte  de  la  necropole 
Nesmin,  fils  d'Atef-en-Osor,  mon  pere,  et  de  la  part  de  Reru, 
fille  du  clioacliyte  de  la  necropole  Petemin,  dont  la  mere  est 
Resi  (?),  ma  mere.  A  toi  la  moitie  de  ma  part  qui  me  revient 
au  nom  de  mes  pere  et  mere  ci-dessus,  et  au  nom  de  leurs 
pere  et  mere  encore,  part  dont  le  clioacliyte  de  la  necropole 
Petamenliotep,  fils  de  Hahoeroou,  dont  la  mere  est  Tsenhor, 
ton  frere  aine,  a  l'autre  moitie.  Le  fils  que  j'engendrerai  qu'il 
recoive  sa  part  sans  prendre  sur  la  part  des  deux." 

L'enfant  dont  Tsenlior  prevoyait  la  naissance  et  qu'elle 
sentait  peut-etre  deja  sans  son  sein  naquit  en  effet ;  car  il  en 
est  question  dans  le  partage  que  Psenese  fit  plus  tard  de  ses 
biens  en  mariant  sa  fille.  Qu'on  nous  permette  de  traduire 
ici  cet  acte,  qui  porte  le  No.  2  parmi  les  papyrus  demotiques 
de  Turin : — 

"  L'an  24,  Pliarmouthi,  du  roi  Darius. 

"  Le  clioacliyte  de  la  necropole  Psenese,  fils  de  Herir,  dont 
la  mere  est  Bast  ....  dit  a  la  femme  Reru,  fille  du  choachyte 


28         Pieces  relatives  a  un  Manage  du  temps  de  Darius. 

de  la  necropole,  Psenese.  fils  de  Herir,  mere  Tsenhor,  sa  fille  : 
A  toi  la  moitie  de  tous  biens  que  je  possede  et  que  j'acquerrai 
dans  la  carnpague,  le  sauctuaire  et  la  ville:  maisons,  champs, 
esclaves,  argent,  airain,  boeufs,  anes,  bestiaux,  catacombes  de 
la  necropole,  totalite  de  biens  au  monde,  biens  dont  le  clioa- 
chyte  de  la  necropole  Ha,  fils  de  Psenese,  fils  de  Herir,  mere 
Tsenbor,  mon  fils,  ton  frere.  a  l'autre  moitie.  Celui  qm  viendra 
a  toi  en  mon  nom,  au  nom  de  quiconque  au  monde,  je  le  ferai 
s'eloigner  de  toi.  A  toi  les  actes  (concernant  ces  heritage)  en 
tout  lieu  ou  ils  sont.     A  toi  ce  dont  je  justifierai  en  leur  nom."1 

Ainsi,  si  Psenese  avait  eu  d'autres  enfants  que  ceux  qu'il 
avait  engendres  avec  Tsenhor  (comme  l'un  des  actes  cites 
plus  haut  semble  l'indiquer),  ces  enfants  n'existaient  plus  et 
il  ne  restait  en  presence  que  sa  fille  nee  avant  le  contrat  et 
le  fils  qui  s'appretait  a  venir  au  moment  meme  de  ce  contrat. 

En  somme,  le  mariage  a  l'essai  ou  plutot  apres  essai  con- 
tracte  par  Psenese  reussit  assez  bien ;  car,  nous  l'avons  dit,  les 
enfants  en  formaient  le  lien  principal.  Hen  d'autant  plus  serieux 
qu'en  Egypte,  selon  Diodore,  il  n'existait  pas  de  batards,  que 
toute  preuve  authentique  etablissant  la  filiation  suffisait,  que 
sans  doute  la  recherche  de  la  paternite  etait  permise,  et  que 
de  plus  les  enfants  avaient  droit  reel  sur  la  succession  de  leurs 
pere  et  mere. 

II  est  a  noter  que  nos  documents  sont  thebains,  et  que  par 
consequent  le  genre  de  transactions  dont  nous  venons  de 
parler  n'est  pas  exclusivement  memphitique.  II  y  avait  tout 
lieu  de  le  supposer  puisqu'il  ne  s'agissait  pas  d'une  coutume 

1  Psenese  avait,  a  cette  epoque,  aggrave  deja  les  clauses  faites  en  fareur  de  sa 
fernme  dans  son  contrat  de  mariage.  Cinq  ans  apres  celui-ci,  en  l'an  10  de  Darius, 
Psenese  donnait  a  Tsenhor  la  moitie  d'une  maison  sise  a  Thebes.  Toir  l'ancien 
Xo.  5,  ou  le  Xo.  231  actuel  de  Turin.)  Cette  maison  etait  voisine  d'une  autre 
maison  achetee  par  Psenese  en  l'an  12,  suivant  les  indications  contenues  dans  un 
autre  contrat  que  j'ai  recemment  acquis  pour  le  Louvre.  D'une  autre  part, 
Tsenhor  faisait,  en  son  propre  nom,  et  sans  autorisation  d'aucune  sorte 
diverses  acquisitions  parmi  lesquelles  je  signalerai  celle  d'un  jeune  esclave. 
Cet  esclave  lui  fut  vendu  en  l'an  6  du  roi  Darius,  par  un  certain  Hor,  fils  de 
Nesmin,  qui  l'avait  achete  lui-meme  en  l'an  5,  d'un  nomme  Ahmes.  (Voir, 
Caillaud,  pi.  xxvi,  et  un  contrat  de  Turin  que  je  publierai  bientut.)  Je  n'en 
aurais  jamais  fini  si  je  voulais  donner  ici  toutes  les  pieces  relatives  a  ce  menage  et  a 
cette  fatnille.  Ce  sera  le  sujet  d'une  serie  d'articles  daus  la  Revue  igyptologi<iv.e. 
Disons  seuleinent  qvu-  plusieura  contrata  do  cette  serie  sont  des  plus  infe'ressants 


Pieces  relatives  a  un  Mariage  du  temps  de  Darius.         29 

locale  pour  tous  les  manages,  mais  d'un  mariage  celebre  clans 
eertaines  conditions  speciales — plus  frequentes,  il  est  vrai,  a 
Memphis  qu'a  Thebes.  D'une  autre  part,  ainsi  que  nous  en 
avons  deja  fait  la  remarque,  on  trouve  aussi  a  Memphis  des 
contrats  de  mariage  du  genre  thcbain.  J'en  ai  deja  public 
un  d'apres  un  papyrus  de  Leide.  J'en  viens  de  trouver  un 
second  dans  un  papyrus  du  British  Museum  (Anastasi  41), 
malheureusement  en  tres  mauvais  etat.  Mais  on  y  remarque 
les  memes  modifications  au  contrat  thebain  que  dans  le 
papyrus  de  Leide,  c'est-a-dire :  1°  le  changement  du  don 
nuptial  sep  fait  par  le  mari  a  la  femme  en  apport  fictif  fait 
par  la  femme  au  mari ;  2°  La  licence  expresse  accordee  a  la 
femme  de  s'en  aller  d' 'elle-meme  quand  elle  voudrait  en  repren- 
ant  sa  dot.  II  y  a  d'ailleurs  certaines  modifications  impor- 
tantes  particulieres  a  ce  contrat.  Ainsi  la  pension  alimentaire 
annuelle  parait  seulement-conditionnelle.  La  preoccupation 
des  enfants  qui  ne  sont  pas  encore  nes  est  aussi  moins  grande 
que  dans  les  contrats  thebains  de  bonne  epoque.  On  ne  trouve 
pas  la  clause:  mon  fils  aine,  ton  fils  aine,  est  le  maitre  de  tous 
mes  biens  presents  et  a  venir.  Si  la  femme  peut  s'en  aller  quand 
elle  voudra,  tf  elle-meme,  en  revanche,  elle  ne  peut  pas  exiger 
d'amende  dans  le  cas  ou  son  mari  la  mepriserait.  On  specifie 
encore  pour  1'avenir  V etablissement  solennel  comme  femme. 
Mais  c'est  tout.  Nous  avons  bien  affaire  a  un  systeme  mixte 
entre  le  vrai  mariage  et  le  mariage  a  base  pecuniaire  de 
seconde  categorie  dont  nous  parlions  tout-a-1'heure,  avec  cette 
difference  pourtant  qu'il  n'y  avait  pas  de  situation  pre- 
existante  a  regulariser.  II  faut  remarquer  aussi  que  ce  contrat 
est  seulement  du  regne  d'Aulete,  et  qu'a  cette  epoque,  comme 
nous  l'avons  dit  ailleurs,  les  liens  matrimoniaux  tendaient  a  se 
relacher.  A  Thebes  meme,  a  l'epoque  recente,  les  contrats  de 
mariage  subissent  de  profondes  modifications.  C'etait,  du 
reste,  en  Egypte,  la  volonte  de  parties  qui  fixait,  comme 
elle  l'entendait,  les  regimes  matrimoniaux. 


30 


THE  POOR  LAWS  OF  THE  ANCIENT  HEBREWS. 
By  Dr.  Sigmcxd  Louis. 

Read  3rd  April,  1883. 

AMONG  the  many  and  varied  laws  handed  down  to  us  in 
the  Mosaic  legislation,  the  laws  relating  to  the  poor  exhibit 
some  very  distinctive  features,  when  compared  with  the 
scanty  provisions  for  the  same  class  found  among  other 
nations  of  antiquity.  We  may  confidently  assert  that  these 
Mosaic  enactments  form  the  basis  from  which  has  sprung  the 
gigantic  structure  of  charity  organization  which  adorns  our 
own  age. 

According  to  the  Midrash,1  the  Scripture  idiom  contains 
eight  words  conveying  the  idea  of  poverty ;  these  are,  alpha- 
betically arranged : — 

ttn  ^  pun  y2  mbn  -p  bn  ;vn« 

As  is  always  the  case  with  synonyms,  all  these  words  differ 
in  shades  of  meaning,  but  I  will  not  enter  into  a  philological 
discussion  of  their  respective  significations;  indeed,  the  only 
two  words  which  concern  our  subject  are  ]V2N  and  "^,  as 
they  alone  are  employed  in  the  scriptural  passages  containing 
the  poor  laws.  Etymologically,  ]V2N?  derived  from  PQN 
(Latin  avere),  "  to  desire,"  means  desirous  or  needy,  whilst  vyp, 
from  TMy,  "  to  oppress,"  means  the  oppressed,  the  lowly,  the 
poor.  It  would  be  difficult  to  mark  a  distinction  between  the 
two  expressions  in  the  several  passages  in  which  they  occur, 
but  so  much  may  be  said,  that  'IVIlN  designates  a  lower 
grade  of  poverty  than  ^2? ;  the  p^lN  is  necessarily  ^22,  but 
the  *W  need  not  always  be  ]"T2N  • 

In  Rabbinical  writings,  the  poor,  as  a  class,  are  always 
called  D^S? ;    it  is  possible  that  these  writers  avoided  the 
term  D*WDM»  as  it  might  have  been  misconstrued  to  allude 
1  Vayikra  Rabba,  34. 


The  Poor  Laws  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews.  31 

to  the  Ebionites,  a  religious  sect  which  existed  in  the  early 
ages  of  the  Christian  era,  and  whose  tenets  were  a  sort  of 
compromise  between  Christianity  and  Judaism. 

It  has  been  asserted  that  in  Biblical  times  there  were  no 
beggars  properly  so  called.  This  assertion  is  based  on  the 
circumstance  that  the  Hebrew  idiom  has  no  special  word  for 
beggar  or  mendicant.  I  think  the  argument  weak  ;  I  do  not 
believe  that  the  absence  of  the  word  beggar  from  the  Old 
Testament  offers  any  guarantee  that  beggars  did  not  exist  in 
those  times ;  at  all  events,  in  the  time  of  Christ  we  read  of  a 
man  sitting  at  the  gate  of  the  temple,  "  asking  alms  of  them 
that  entered;"1  the  Talmud  speaks  of  beggars  going  from 
door  to  door  ;2  and  the  Mishna  mentions  even  itinerant 
beggars,  who  tramp  from  town  to  town,3  so  that  beggary 
must  have  been  known  in  the  first  centuries  of  the  current 
era. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  consideration  of  the  laws  them- 
selves, it  will  be  as  well  to  make  clear  what  was  understood 
by  the  term  "  poor  "  from  a  legal  point  of  view,  that  is  to  say, 
to  what  state  of  poverty  must  a  man  have  fallen  to  be  entitled 
to  participate  in  the  provisions  made  for  paupers.  The  Mishna. 
supplies  a  very  precise  definition  of  the  term ;  it  says  :4  "  He 
who  possesses  200  TIT  (equal  to  a  little  over  £6  of  English 
money),  must  not  share  in  the  gleanings  and  other  portions 
set  aside  for  the  poor,"  the  amount  of  200  TIT  being  held 
sufficient  for  one  year's  maintenance  and  clothing. 

Incidentally  this  passage  throws  some  light  upon  the 
state  of  trade  in  those  times ;  it  goes  on  to  say  :5  "  He  who 
possesses  50  TIT  (a  little  over  30s.),  which  he  uses  for  trading 
purposes,  must  not  participate  in  these  grants  to  the  poor." 
It  follows  that  50  TIT  employed  as  a  trading  capital  was  con- 
sidered equal  to  an  annual  income  of  200  TIT. 

The  trade  here  referred  to  was  probably  the  retail  trade 
in  provisions,  such  as  cereals,  fruit,  oil,  wine,  &c.     Now  the 

1  Acts  iii,  2. 

-  n^nncri  hy  *"PTrro>  Baba  bathra,  9«. 
3  EPpcb  Dipoo  "aiyn  W  Peah'  Tiii> 7- 

4  Peah,  viii,  8.  a  Peah,  viii,  9. 


32  The  Poor  Laws  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews. 

extreme  limit  of  profit  legally  permitted  in  this  trade,  accord- 
ing to  the  Talmud,1  was  20  per  cent.,  so  that  a  man,  in  order 
to  gain  four  times  the  amount  of  his  capital  in  a  twelvemonth, 
must  be  supposed  to  turn  it  over  twenty  times  in  the  year,  or 
very  nearly  once  in  a  fortnight ;  this  gives  the  idea  of  a  fairly 
active  state  of  trade,  though  by  no  means  unreasonably  so 
in  the  particular  branch  to  which  it  refers. 

I  ought  to  explain  that  the  Talmudical  phrase  is  :  "  the 
profit  must  not  exceed  the  sixth  part,"  but  this  is  understood 
to  mean  the  sixth  part  of  the  selling  price,2  that  is,  1  in  5  of 
the  cost  price,  or  20  per  cent. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  mention  that  among  the  articles 
exempted  from  this  rule  of  restricted  profits  were  eggs  ;3  the 
reasons  assigned  for  this  exemption  are,  first,  because  eggs 
are  not  strictly  necessaries  of  life,  and  then  because  the  seller 
has  the  trouble  of  going  about  from  place  to  place  to  collect 
them  ;  probably  the  perishable  nature  of  the  article  was  like- 
wise taken  into  consideration. 

After  these  preliminary  observations,  I  will  turn  to  the 
poor  laws  referring  to  the  produce  of  the  land.  According 
to  Leviticus  xix,  9  and  10,  not  a  field  was  to  be  harvested, 
nor  the  fruit  of  a  tree  to  be  gathered,  without  leaving  a 
portion  of  it  for  the  poor ;  these  portions  were  called  mND , 
"  corners."  The  Mosaic  text  does  not  fix  the  quantity  to  be 
left,  but  the  Mishna 4  gives  the  minimum  at  the  sixtieth  part. 
This  law  applied  to  all  kinds  of  cereals  and  of  pulse,  to  the 
produce  of  the  vineyard,  the  olive  plantation,  and  nearly  all 
other  fruit  trees  ;  some  of  the  latter  were,  however,  exempted  ; 
such,  for  instance,  was  the  fig  tree,  because  the  fruit  of  the 
same  tree  does  not  arrive  at  maturity  all  at  the  same  time,  so 
that  it  would  have  been  difficult  to  determine  at  what  season 
of  the  year  a  portion  was  to  be  left.  The  poor  were  not 
allowed  to  take  these  portions  until  the  owner  of  the  field  or 
the  tree  had  declared  that  he  had  set  them  aside  for  them ; 

1  Baba  bathra,  90*.  nUTOft  "l]TP  *OJW  ^N  ^^7271- 

2  Menacbotb,  77a,  -Q™ift  t"$rVir\1£7- 

3  Baba  bat  bra,  91//. 

4  Peah,  i.  2. 


The  Poor  Laics  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews.  33 

but  the  law  prescribed1  that  the  proprietor  should  make  his 
appearance  in  his  field  three  times  each  day — in  the  morning, 
at  midday,  and  in  the  afternoon,  so  as  to  give  the  poor  oppor- 
tunities of  hearing  his  declaration. 

Besides  these  so-called  "corners,"  there  were  the  gleanings. 
Single  ears  dropping  from  the  hands  of  the  reapers,  small 
bunches  of  grapes,  olives,  almonds,  dates,  &c,  accidentally 
falling  to  the  ground  during  the  gathering,  were  not  to  be 
picked  up,  but  were  to  be  left  for  the  poor  to  take  away. 
Even  if  a  whole  sheaf  had  been  forgotten  in  the  field,  or  some 
of  the  fruit  had  been  left  on  the  tree,  the  owner  was  not  to 
return  for  them,2  but  had  to  leave  them  for  the  benefit  of  the 
poor. 

With  reference  to  the  distribution  of  these  yearly  harvest 
perquisites  (if  we  may  so  call  them),  the  proprietor  was  not 
permitted  to  favour  one  poor  person  more  than  another,  and 
non-Israelites  were  admitted  to  participation  equally  with  the 
poor  Israelites."3 

A  more  important  provision  for  the  poor,  at  least  quantita- 
tively more  important,  was  the  tithe  for  the  poor  ("^  ItZ^ft). 
This  was  levied  every  third  year  in  the  following  manner : — 
After  the  produce  of  the  land  had  been  housed,  2  parts  in 
each  100  were  set  aside  for  the  priest,  then  10  of  each  100, 
that  is  the  tithe,  had  to  be  given  to  the  Levites  ;  the  tenth 
part  of  what  remained,  that  is,  nearly  9  per  cent  of  the 
original  quantity,  was  then  set  aside.  In  the  first  and  second, 
as  well  as  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  year  in  each  cycle  of  seven 
years,  this  second  tithe  was  not  given  away,  but  it  had  to  be 
consumed  by  the  owners  within  the  gates  of  Jerusalem.  In 
the  third  and  sixth  year,  however,  the  second  tithe  was  dis- 
tributed among  the  needy,  and  was  called  the  tithe  for  the 
poor.  In  the  distribution  of  this  tithe,  some  liberty  of  action 
was  conceded  to  the  owner ;  he  was  allowed  to  favour  a  poor 
relative  or  a  poor  acquaintance,  at  least  as  far  as  half  the 
quantity  was  concerned  which  he  had  to  distribute. 

Thus,  the  corners,  &c.  amounting  to  about  2  per  cent,  and 
the  second  tithe,  to  about  9  per  cent  every  three  years,  or  an 

1  Peah,  iv,  5.  -  Deuter.  xxiv,  ]9. 

3  Maimon.,  "  Gifts  for  the  Poor,"  i.  9. 

Vol.  VIII.  3 


34  The  Pooi'  Laics  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews. 

average  of  3  per  cent  in  each  year,  we  find  that  5  per  cent 
of  the  produce  of  the  field  and  the  tree  was  devoted  to  the 
relief  of  the  poor.  We  may  ask  ourselves  how  far  these 
arrangements  were  effectual  in  supporting  the  poor.  In  the 
absence  of  statistics  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  form  an  accu- 
rate opinion  :  but  we  may  arrive  at  some  estimate  by  referring 
to  an  instance  of  modern  statistics.  Taking  into  account 
that  Palestine  was  an  essentially  agricultural  country.  I  think 
we  shall  not  overstate  the  case  in  basing  our  calculations  on 
the  statistics  of  such  a  county  as  Buckinghamshire.  In  that 
county  the  proportion  of  paupers  to  the  population  in  1882 
was  about  3f  per  cent.  Assuming  that  the  proportion  in 
Palestine  was  somewhat  similar — which  I  think  is  a  high 
estimate — we  may  conclude  that  if  5  per  cent  of  the  whole 
produce  was  distributed  among  3|  per  cent  of  the  popula- 
tion, the  poor  were  by  these  arrangements  alone  safeguarded 
against  starvation. 

These  measures  provided  for  six  years  out  of  every  cycle 
of  seven ;  the  seventh,  being  the  year  of  release,  or  the 
Sabbatical  year,  was  subject  to  different  arrangements. 
According  to  Exodus  xxiii.  10  and  11,  there  was  to  be  no 
sowing  nor  reaping  in  the  7th  year,  and  the  spontaneous  pro- 
duce of  the  soil  during  that  year  was  free  to  every  one,  rich 
and  poor  alike.  The  Rabbins  endeavoured  to  carry  out  the 
spirit  rather  than  the  letter  of  the  Mosaic  text  ;  and  as  it  is 
evident  that  if  field-labour  had  been  continued  to  the  very 
end  of  the  sixth  year,  the  growth  of  the  seventh  year  would 
not  have  been  quite  spontaneous,  they  fixed  the  time  when 
certain  agricultural  operations  had  to  cease  in  the  sixth  year, 
and  also  when  they  might  be  resumed  in  the  seventh,  without 
influencing  that  year's  produce.  Nearly  a  Avhole  treatise  of 
the  Mishna  is  taken  up  with  the  discussion  of  these  regula- 
tions. It  is  impossible  to  estimate  how  the  poor  fared  during 
the  Sabbatical  year,  as  the  spontaneous  produce  of  the  earth 
must  be  subject  to  many  accidental  circumstances  ;  but  if  we 
take  into  consideration  that  the  rich  not  only  refrained  from 
gathering  any  of  the  fruits  of  the  field  so  long  as  they  could 
draw  sustenance  from  their  own  stores,  but  were  also  obliged 
to  distribute   some  of  their   reserve  provisions   among  the 


The  Poor  Lrncs  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews.  35 

poor  when  nothing  more  could  be  found  in  the  fields,  we  may 
infer  that  the  pauper  classes  were  not  in  danger  of  being  left 
without  food. 

Another  boon  conferred  upon  the  poor  by  the  advent  of 
the  Sabbatical  year  was  the  cancelling  of  debts.  A  careful 
perusal  of  the  Mosaic  ordinances  concerning  loans  unques- 
tionably leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Lawgiver  intended 
entirely  to  discountenance  debts.  The  prohibition  to  take 
interest  for  loans,  the  restrictions  which  were  put  upon  the 
mode  of  talcing  pledges  as  security,  and  the  circumstance  of 
all  debts  being  cancelled  in  the  Sabbatical  year,  rendered  it 
impossible  to  make  money-lending  a  profitable  business.  In 
fact,  to  lend  money  to  those  who  were  in  need  was  enjoined 
as  an  act  of  benevolence.  In  this  sense,  the  Psalmist  says, 
"  A  good  man  shows  favour  and  lendeth"  ;*  and  the  Rabbins 
declare,  "  Greater  is  he  who  lends  than  he  who  gives  alms.-"- 
The  following  rule  is  laid  down  with  respect  to  granting 
loans  : — "  Give  the  preference  to  Israelites  over  non-Israelites, 
to  a  poor  man  over  a  rich  man,  to  thy  own  relations  over 
other  townsmen,  and  to  townsmen  over  strangers."3 

The  law  of  cancelling  debts  in  the  seventh  year  was 
intended  to  protect  the  poor  from  sinking  into  debt;  another 
ordinance  of  the  same  tendency  is  contained  in  Deuter.  xxiv,  25, 
where  it  is  enjoined  to  pay  the  day  labourer  his  hire  each  day, 
no  doubt  to  enable  him  to  obtain  the  necessaries  of  life  for 
ready  money.  On  the  other  hand,  in  order  that  credit  might 
not  be  refused  for  these  necessaries  when  required,  the  law 
exempted  debts  contracted  with  the  petty  traders  from  the 
effects  of  the  Sabbatical  year;  the  Mishna  declares  that  shop 
debts  are  not  to  be  cancelled  by  the  advent  of  the  year  -of 
release.4 

It  was,  however,  found  in  the  process  of  time  that  this 
law  of  cancelling  debts  paralysed  commercial  transactions, 
as  persons  hesitated  to  grant  loans  near  the  year  of  release; 
Hillel  therefore  introduced  a  remedy,  which  consisted  in  the 
creditor  executing  a  document  called  TQWlQ5  (a  word  of 

1  Ps.  cxii,  5.  2  Sabbath,  63a.  3  Baba  metzia,  71a. 

4  shebiith,  x,  i,  nwxpti  n^N  m:nn  nspn- 

5  Grittin,  36a-. 


36  The  Poor  Laics  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews. 

Greek  derivation,  meaning  "  a  provision  ").  By  this  document 
the  creditor  transferred  his  claim  to  a  tribunal,  so  that  by  a 
legal  fiction  the  court  was  technically  considered  the  creditor, 
and  consequently  the  debt  was  not  liable  to  be  cancelled. 
Though  debts  were  cancelled  in  the  Sabbatical  year,  it  was 
considered  honourable  for  a  debtor  to  pay  his  debt  even  after 
the  Sabbatical  year  had  passed ;  in  that  case,  the  creditor 
had  to  remind  him  that  the  debt  was  cancelled ;  but  if  the 
debtor  insisted,  he  was  to  accept  payment.1 

Besides  cancelling  debts,  the  Sabbatical  year  had  also  the 
effect  of  rendering  their  liberty  to  those  who  had  sold  them- 
selves, or  had  been  sold,  into  slavery  from  poverty. 

The  law  of  the  Jubilee,  though  in  restoring  the  land  to 
the  previous  owners  it  affected  the  poor  beneficially,  cannot 
properly  be  regarded  as  a  provision  enacted  for  the  advantage 
of  the  poor;  its  real  object  was  to  prevent  the  accumulation 
of  landed  property  in  the  same  hands ;  whilst  the  period  of 
fifty  years  intervening  between  one  Jubilee  and  another  was 
too  long  for  the  poor  to  derive  any  substantial  benefit  from 
this  institution. 

If  we  compare  these  legal  measures  with  the  enactments 
in  favour  of  the  poor  passed  among  the  Romans  and  Greeks, 
notably  with  the  Licinian  rogations,  which  we  may  consider 
as  the  prototype  of  all  subsequent  agrarian  laws,  and  with  the 
law  of  Solon,  known  by  the  name  of  aeiaaxOeca2  (literally, 
the  shaking  off  of  a  burden),  which  was  properly  a  financial 
measure  reducing  the  standard  of  the  coinage,  and  thus 
relieving  poor  debtors  of  a  portion  of  their  liabilities,  we 
shall  find  that  these  laws  of  the  Romans  and  Greeks  were 
purely  remedial,  whilst  the  Mosaic  laws  were  radically  pre- 
ventive. The  Romans  and  Greeks  passed  those  laws  under 
pressure,  when  the  condition  of  the  poor  threatened  to 
become  a  danger  to  the  State ;  but  there  never  was  any 
such  pressure  among  the  Hebrews.  The  incident  recorded 
in  the  fifth  chapter  of  Xehemiah,  when  the  people  complained 
that  their  lands,  their  vineyards,  and  their  houses  were 
mortgaged,  and  their  sons  and  daughters  sold  into  bondage, 
did  not  amount  to    a  rising  of  the   poor,  and  the  abuses 

1  Shebiith,  x,  8.  2  Plutarcb's  "  Life  of  Solon." 


The  Poor  Laws  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews.  37 

complained  of  were  rectified  by  the  people  themselves 
voluntarily  making  restitution  when  the  case  had  been 
emphatically  placed  before  them  by  Nehemiah. 

As  a  general  rule,  remedial  measures  are  more  effective, 
but  their  effect  is  only  temporary,  and  they  are  apt  to  relieve 
one  class  at  the  expense  of  another.  Preventive  measures 
have  this  defect,  that  they  do  not  always  adapt  themselves 
to  the  changes  which  take  place  in  the  social  conditions  of 
nations.  With  reference  to  these  laws  for  the  poor,  we  are 
bound  to  confess  that  they  did  not  effect  the  purpose  for 
which  they  were  designed,  they  did  not  altogether  prevent 
pauperism.  Indeed,  it  was  anticipated  that  these  provisions 
would  not  entirely  extinguish  poverty,  for  it  is  declared : 
"  The  poor  will  never  cease  out  of  the  land."1  How  difficult 
it  is  for  a  man  who  has  once  fallen  into  poverty,  to  raise 
himself  from  his  lowly  position,  is  pithily  expressed  by  the 
Rabbins  in  the  proverbial  saying:  " Poverty  stalketh  behind 
the  poor";B  meaning,  that  wherever  the  poor  man  wends  his 
steps,  poverty  is  sure  to  follow  him. 

The  truth  once  acknowledged,  that  there  always  would 
be  needy  persons,  there  was  then  a  field  open  for  charity 
properly  so  called,  or  almsgiving. 

The  word  which  has  obtained  currency  among  the  Jews 
for  "charity,"  or  rather  "alms,"  is  the  Hebrew  word  Hpl^. 
Throughout  the  Old  Testament  this  word  signifies  "justice  " 
or  "  righteousness,"  its  Greek  equivalent  being  ScKatocrvyr} ; 
but  in  several  instances — eight  in  all — -the  version  of  the 
Septuagint  has  rendered  the  word  by  eXevfioavvn,  "mercy" 
or  "benevolence,"  thus  showing  that  among  the  Hellenistic 
or  Alexandrian  Jews  the  popular  acceptation  of  npTJ  had 
already  gained  ground. 

In  Rabbinical  writings  the  term  np"T!£  is  only  used  in  the 
signification  of  "  benevolence  "  or  "  charitable  gifts."  The 
transition  from  the  meaning  of  "  righteousness "  to  that  of 
"  benevolence,"  and  from  the  abstract  noun  to  the  concrete 
signification  of  "alms/'  is  curious,  and  it  deserves  to  be  noted 
that  our  own  word  "  alms "  is  a  descendant  of  eXev/xoavv?], 

1  Deuter.,  xv,  11. 

2  Baba  Kamma,  92«,  N.TVP2}f  NTW  N"OJ^  "1]~Q- 


38  The  Poor  Laws  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews. 

the  first  signification  of  which  is  the  abstract  idea  of  "'pity  " 
or  "  mercy." 

In  the  Mosaic  law  almsgiving  "was  not  left  to  the  spon- 
taneous promptings  of  the  individual,  but  was  enjoined  as  a 
religious  duty ;  and  in  very  early  times  regular  organisations 
existed  for  the  relief  of  the  poor.  In  every  Jewish  community 
unpaid  officers  were  appointed  called  n~12  "lN23  (collectors 
of  charity),  who  were  charged  with  the  collection  and  dis- 
tribution of  charitable  gifts.  The  communities  were  very 
scrupulous  in  selecting  well-known  and  trusty  men  for  this 
office,  and  those  who  had  been  elected  were  held  in  great 
esteem  by  their  fellow  citizens.  The  following  practice  may 
show  in  what  light  their  position  was  regarded.  It  was 
always  considered  of  the  highest  importance  that  the  priestly 
tribe  should  be  preserved  in  its  purity.  When  a  priest 
wished  to  intermarry  with  a  family  of  another  tribe,  it  was 
necessary  to  institute  inquiries  into  the  pedigree  of  the  family 
for  four  generations,  to  make  sure  that  no  blemish  attached 
to  anyone  conuected  with  it ;  but  when  the  chosen  bride 
was  the  daughter  of  one  of  these  "  collectors  of  charity,"  no 
such  inquiry  was  necessary;  the  fact  of  the  father  having 
held  that  office  was  regarded  as  sufficient  guarantee  that  the 
reputation  of  the  family  was  unimpeachable.1 

The  collectors  of  charity  went  round  every  day  to  collect 
all  kinds  of  eatables  from  those  who  were  willing  to  con- 
tribute;  this  collection  was  called  *inon»s  a  word  signifying 
a  ••  dish  " — a  vessel  to  contain  food :  it  was  distributed  every 
evening  to  all  comers,  and  the  overseers  mostly  endeavoured 
to  provide  each  recipient  with  food  sufficient  for  two  meals. 
From  this  source  relief  was  given  to  the  most  destitute ; 
"  a  man  who  receives  his  maintenance  from  the  public  dish," 
is  a  phrase  often  used  iu  Talmudical  parlance  to  indicate  the 
lowest  grade  of  pauperism. 

In  addition,  the  collectors  went  every  Friday  to  collect 
contributions  in  money;  this  was  called  nCV  (literally  a 
"box").  The  distribution  was  made  once  a  week,  and  it 
was  chiefly  intended  for  the  poor  of  the  town  in  which 
the  funds  had  been  collected ;  it  was,  however,  left  to  the 

1  KiJJushin,  76a.  -  Baba  batkra,  8b. 


The  Pooi"  Laics  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews.  39 

discretion  of  the  community  to  modify  these  arrangements. 
It  was  laid  down  as  a  rule  that  non-Israelites  were  to  be 
relieved  as  well  as  Israelites.1 

These  money  contributions  were  not  altogether  voluntary; 
in  many  communities  the  householders  were  assessed  accord- 
ing to  their  means — it  was,  in  fact,  an  actual  poor  rate ;  and 
where  this  had  been  done  the  authorities  had  power  to 
enforce  payment,  and  in  case  of  refusal  even  to  distrain  on 
the  chattels  of  the  defaulter.2 

These  contributions  represented  what  we  may  call  public 
charity;  besides  these  there  was  naturally  a  large  amount 
of  private  almsgiving ;  even  the  poor  man  was  expected  to 
give  something,  however  small  his  gift  might  be.  With 
reference  to  the  amount  which  a  person  should  devote  to 
charitable  purposes,  no  precise  limit  was  fixed,  but  the  tenth 
part  of  a  man's  income  was  considered  a  proper  proportion. 
The  Rabbins  ordain  that  a  man  should  not  expend  more  than 
the  fifth  part  of  his  income  in  charitable  donations.3  The 
New  Testament  goes  beyond  this  limitation,  for  it  is  stated  : 
"the  half  of  my  goods  I  give  unto  the  poor;"4  and  again: 
"  if  thou  wilt  be  perfect,  go  and  sell  that  thou  hast,  and  give 
to  the  poor."5 

One  of  the  most  essential  conditions  of  almsgiving  was, 
that  it  should  not  be  done  in  public.  The  same  principle 
is  most  emphatically  expressed  in  the  beginning  of  the 
sixth  chapter  of  Matthew,  in  the  passage  commencing: 
"  Take  heed  that  ye  do  not  your  alms  before  men,"  &c. ; 
but  the  leading  ideas  seem  to  be  somewhat  different.  The 
passage  just  quoted  appears  to  be  directed  chiefly  against 
ostentation,  denouncing  the  conduct  of  those  whose  object 
in  doing  good  "  is  the  praise  and  glory  coming  from  man," 
and  insisting  upon  the  purity  of  motives.  In  the  Rabbinical 
precept,  the  leading  idea  is  a  tender  regard  for  the  feelings 
of  the  recipient ;  this  is  often  expressed  in  very  emphatic 
language.  When  R.  Janai  saw  a  man  giving  alms  to  a  poor 
person  in  public,  he  said  to  him:  "You  would  do  better  not 

1  Gittin,  61a.  2  Baba  batbra,  8b. 

3  Ketubotb,  50a,  t^ftE  W  tin"'  *?N  tltlD!!. 
4  Luke  xix,  8.  s  Mattbew  xix,  21. 


40  The  Poor   Laws  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews. 

to  give  at  all,  than  to  give  and  put  the  man  to  shame.'"  In 
the  Ethics  it  is  stated :  "  He  who  calls  forth  a  blush  on  the 
face  of  his  fellow-man.  in  the  presence  of  others,  forfeits  his 
claim  to  beatitude.'12  Another  passage  in  the  Talmud  says : 
"  It  were  better  for  a  man  to  throw  himself  into  a  blazing 
furnace  than  to  put  his  neighbour  to  shame  in  public."3 

It  deserves  to  be  mentioned  that  the  expression  invariably 
used  in  Rabbinical  writings  for  putting  a  person  to  shame 
is  "  to  cause  the  face  to  turn  white."  The  word  most  fre- 
quently used  is  V'TTO,  "to  cause  to  become  white";  but  we 
also  find  in  the  same  sense  ^P5,  derived  from  F|D3«  "silver," 
and  meaning,  "to  grow  pale  as  silver";  another  word  used 
in  the  same  signification  is  TH)!.  "  IO  be  white."  The  pecu- 
liarity of  this  expression  is  explained  by  a  celebrated  com- 
mentator of  the  fifteenth  century,  Obadja  di  Bertinoro,  who 
states  that  when  a  man  feels  ashamed,  his  face  first  becomes 
red,  but  afterwards  turns  white.  I  do  not  know  that  this 
mediaeval  commentator  had  any  psychological  grounds  for 
his  assertion  ;  but  it  is  interesting  to  find  his  opinion  confirmed 
by  Darwin,  who  in  his  work  "  On  the  Expression  of  Emotions," 
says:  "According  to  Dr.  Burgess,  the  reddening  of  the  skin 

is  generally  succeeded  by  a  slight  pallor In  some  rare 

cases,  paleness  instead  of  redness  is  caused  under  conditions 
which  would  naturally  cause  a  blush." 

The  most  delicate  consideration  was  exhibited  in  the  case 
of  those  who  had  once  been  in  affluent  circumstances,  but  had 
become  reduced.  In  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  there  was  a 
room  set  apart  called  Q^NIITI  FOlis?*  "the  chamber  of  the 
silent,"  where  pious  persons  deposited  money  for  charitable 
purposes  in  secrecy,  and  where  persons  of  good  families 
who  had  become  reduced  in  circumstances  secretly  received 
support.  Every  kind  of  pretext  was  resorted  to  with  the 
object  of  inducing  such  persons  to  accept  the  proffered  gift. 
It  is  related  that  R.  Jochanan,  meeting  a  man  who  was 
descended  from  a  wealthy  family,  and  had  lost  his  property. 
went  up  to  him  and  said:  "I  have  heard  that  a  legacy  has 

1   Chagigah,  5a.  -'  III,   11. 

:f  Berachotb,  43i.  «  Sliekalim.  v,  6. 


The  Poor  Laws  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews.  41 

been  bequeathed  to  you  in  some  distant  town,  take  this  sum, 
and  repay  me  when  you  ean."  When  the  man  had  accepted 
the  money,  R.  Jochanan  told  him  that  he  had  intended  it  as 
a  gift.1 

Such  is  a  brief  outline  of  the  benevolent  laws  and  usages 
which  regulated  the  treatment  of  the  poor  among  the 
ancient  Hebrews.  It  would  be  difficult  to  prove  that  these 
institutions  were  simultaneously  in  force  at  any  one  period. 
But  we  may  safely  assume  that  the  laws  relating  to  agri- 
cultural produce  were  observed  while  the  Jews  inhabited 
Palestine,  and  the  cancelling  of  debts  must  have  been 
practised  in  the  time  of  Hillel,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  the 
Emperor  Augustus.  The  other  usages  to  which  I  have 
referred  are  found  in  the  Tulmud,  in  passages  acknowledged 
to  date  from  the  second  century  of  the  current  era ;  we  are 
therefore  fully  justified  in  concluding  that  the  latest  of  these 
charitable  practices  were  introduced  not  later  than  the 
second  century  of  the  Christian  era,  while  many  of  them 
undoubtedly  belong  to  a  period  of  much  greater  antiquity. 

1  Shekalim,  v,  15. 


42 


THE  BIRDS  OF  THE  ASSYRIAN  MONUMENTS 

AND  RECORDS. 

By  the  Rev.  William  Houghton,  M.A.,  F.L.S. 

Mead  ~th  February,  1882. 

Before  I  introduce  some  of  the  various  names  of  birds 
mentioned  in  the  records,  or  the  actual  figures  represented 
on  the  monuments,  to  your  notice  this  evening,  it  will  be 
desirable  to  make  a  few  remarks  on  the  subject  generally. 
And  first  I  wish  to  say  a  few  words  on  the  nature  and  value 
of  the  evidence  afforded.  We  have  to  depend  on  the  infor- 
mation supplied  by  actual  figures  on  the  monuments,  such  as 
on  the  slabs,  cylinders,  bronze  dishes  or  other  objects,  and  by 
the  description  of  the  birds  given  in  the  records.  Unfor- 
tunately, the  figures  occur  very  sparingly,  and  when  they  do 
occur  they  are  almost  always  very  rudely  drawn.  The 
Assyrians  either  were  not  able  or  did  not  care  to  attempt  any- 
thing like  artistic  effect,  or  even  rude  accuracy,  in  their  deli- 
neations of  bird-life ;  these  stand  out  in  striking  contrast  to 
then  often  successful  efforts  to  pourtray  the  forms  of  horses, 
cattle,  sheep,  goats,  lions,  dogs,  hares,  and  other  mammalia 
to  which  1  have  referred  in  my  former  paper  on  this  subject. 
In  the  case  of  such  birds  as  present  at  a  glance  some  striking 
characteristic  in  real  life,  the  absence  of  any  correct  pictorial 
form  is,  so  far  as  relates  to  identification,  of  slight  conse- 
quence. The  figures,  for  instance,  of  the  ostrich,  ludicrous 
and  grotesque  as  they  are,  at  once  speak  for  themselves. 
The  ostrich  is  a  peculiar  looking  bird,  and  therefore  the 
drawings  cannot  be  mistaken  for  anything  else.  The  figures 
of  the  head  and  neck  of  the  swan  clearly  point  to  that  bird 
and  to  no  other;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  where  there  is 
nothing  strikingly  peculiar  in  the  form  of  a  bird,  it  is  often 
impossible  to  say  to  what  species,  or  even  to  what  family,  the 
representation  refers.  The  figures  of  the  large  rapacious  birds 
which  occur  as  accompaniments  of  a  battle-field  scene,  do 
not  clearly  tell  us  whether  they  are  meant  for  eagles  or  for 


ns.  %c£ibl.Ar6)v.  VoLP/JE. 


:  frtmv  Jfonyiuyik   Layardi  II  ph  .40 

ASSYRIAN     BIRDS.   .Plate  i 


- 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.       43 

vultures,  though  they  bear  a  more  general  resemblance  to 
the  former.  The  representations  of  certain  smaller  kinds  of 
birds  are  still  more  puzzliug ;  and  were  it  not  for  slight  clues 
afforded  by  other  evidence,  such  as  the  presence  of  trees,  or 
of  nests  and  young  birds  on  the  trees,  together  with  the 
parent-forms,  or  to  that  of  fortresses  or  other  buildings  in 
close  proximity  to  the  birds,  all  attempts  at  identification 
would  be  absolutely  fruitless.  I  may  mention  especially  the 
figures  of  certain  birds  represented  as  being  shot  by  bow 
and  arrow,  and  carried  in  the  hand,  as  climbing  trees,  after 
the  fashion  of  woodpeckers  and  tree-creepers,  and  in  other 
attitudes.  At  one  time  I  thought  that  some  of  these  birds 
were  meant  for  some  of  the  Perdicido?,  or  partridge  family, 
such  as  the  francolins,  now  common  in  Turkey  and  the 
adjacent  lands,  and  doubtless  well  known  to  the  ancient 
Assyrians  ;  but  the  presence  of  these  birds  with  their  nests 
and  young  ones  in  the  nests  on  trees,  at  once  excluded 
francolins,  which  always  build  on  the  ground.  Then  I  thought 
of  pigeons,  but  the  deep  nest  at  once  put  a  stop  to  that  idea, 
for  all  the  Columhidw,  I  believe,  make  shallow  nests  ;  and  then 
L  thought  of  rooks,  and  as  the  figures  of  the  birds  in  question 
may  possibly  be  meant  for  rooks,  and  as  the  surroundings, 
such  as  congregating  and  building  deepish  nests  on  trees  near 
inhabited  places,  are  on  the  whole  more  or  less  satisfactory,  I 
think  that  the  evidence  is  more  in  favour  of  the  rook  than 
of  any  other  bird ;  but  still  the  figures  may  be  intended  for 
some  bird  quite  different.  The  specimen  shown  as  climbing 
a  tree  may  well  denote  a  woodpecker,  the  habits  of  which 
bird  having  been  much  noticed  by  the  Assyrians.  Pigeons  are 
evidently  here  and  there  intended ;  the  raven  appears,  and 
I  think  francolins  are  also  intended  to  be  represented. 

As  to  the  nature  and  value  of  the  evidence  afforded  by 
the  names  of  birds  occurring  in  the  records,  we  have  to 
depend  almost  entirely  (1)  on  the  cursory  notices  of  the 
feathered  tribe  in  the  Historical  Inscriptions,  or  (2)  to  their 
simple  names  as  they  are  given  on  the  Bilingual  and  Tri- 
lingual Tablets.  Now  the  value  of  the  evidence  afforded 
by  the  Historical  Records  is  very  small  indeed  if  taken  by 
itself;    the    notices    are   too    general   and   vague,    and  the 


44        The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

information  very  .scanty.  "  Like  a  bird  he  fled,"  a  phrase 
of  frequent  occurrence,  can  convey  no  definite  meaning 
beyond  that  of  swiftness;  ''like  a  cu-mu  or  tns-mu  bird  he 
placed  the  ensigns  of  his  royalty";  "like  a  Su-din-nu  bird  he 
fled,"  "like  to  Su-su-di  birds  their  hearts  were  terrified" — all 
these  are  sentences  which  leave  us  almost  in  the  dark  as  to 
what  kind  of  birds  these  names  respectively  denote  :  all  that 
the  two  last  instances  convey  to  us  is  that  some  timid  species 
is  intended ;  but  in  connection  with  other  evidence  such  as  that 
supplied  by  the  Bilingual  Lists,  these  and  similar  phrases 
may  afford  some  information,  more  or  less  important,  as  to 
the  bird  intended. 

The  nature  of  the  evidence  afforded  by  the  Bilingual  and 
Trilingual  Lists  is  chiefly,  if  not  solely,  philological  ;  in  the 
former  we  meet  with  columns  of  bird-names  given  sometimes 
in  two  of  Assyrian,  or  in  one  of  Assyrian  and  one  of  Accadian 
columns;  in  the  Trilingual  we  meet  with  two  Assyrian 
columns  and  their  equivalents  in  one  Accadian.  The  value 
of  this  kind  of  philological  evidence  is  variable ;  we  have  to 
depend  on  the  derivation  of  the  name,  and  to  compare  that 
name  with  names  occurring  in  the  cognate  languages  in  the 
case  of  Assyrian ;  in  Accadian  we  have  to  ascertain  the 
meaning  or  probable  meaning  of  the  syllabic  parts  which 
compose  the  whole  bird-name.  Where  the  similarity  between 
an  unknown  Assyrian  word  and  an  ascertained  Hebrew  or 
Arabic  name  exists,  there  is,  of  course,  very  often  strong- 
evidence  to  believe  that  the  bird  itself  is  the  same,  other 
points,  if  such  there  be,  being  equal.  But  we  must  see, 
before  we  identify  any  bird-name  with  some  particular 
species,  that  the  philological  evidence  is  in  accordance  with 
the  general  zoological  facts,  whether  as  regards  the  habits, 
form,  or  geographical  locality  of  a  species  or  family :  or,  the 
philological  evidence,  if  it  lacks  actual  zoological  corrobora- 
tion, should,  at  least,  incorporate  with  it  some  notion  or 
other,  even  if  erroneous,  prevalent  at  any  time  among  the 
people  who  make  use  of  the  name.  Fanciful  and  erroneous 
notions  on  natural  history  subjects,  so  common  formerly, 
and  still  existing  amongst  uneducated  persons  in  our  own 
country,  would  naturally  now  and  then  find  expression  in  a 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.       Ah 

name.  This  has  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  Bnt  still, 
as  a  rule,  we  must  take  care  that  the  philological  information 
conveyed  by  a  name  should  be  not  contradictory  to  zoo- 
logical fact.  If,  for  instance,  the  meaning  of  a  name  points 
to  a  long-legged  creature,  and  we  identify  that  creature 
with  a  short-legged  one,  the  evidence  supplied  by  philology 
and  natural  history  facts  is  contradictory  and  our  identifica- 
tion false.  This  is  an  extreme  illustration  of  what  I  mean ; 
but  caution  is  necessaiy  in  all  our  attempts  to  discover  the 
meaning  of  the  various  names  which  in  ancient  times, 
whether  in  Asiatic  records  or  in  the  works  of  the  classical 
writers  of  Greece  and  Rome,  were  used  for  some  mammal, 
bird,  reptile,  fish,  insect,  or  other  creature.  If  we  identify 
any  bird  or  other  animal-name  with  some  species  which  is 
known  never  to  have  existed — I  speak,  of  course,  within 
historical  or  at  least  post-pa  lasontological  times — in  the 
districts  indicated,  or  which  it  is  extremely  improbable  ever 
could  have  there  existed,  such  identification  must  be 
erroneous.  If  evidence  afforded  historically  by  description, 
or  philologically  by  the  simple  meaning  of  a  name,  point  to 
some  strong  and  fierce  creature,  and  we  refer  the  name  to 
some  animal  which  is  almost  harmless,  our  conclusion  is 
wrong.  But  philological  evidence,  when  taken  by  itself,  may 
be  misleading,  and  identity  of  sound  between  names  in 
allied  languages  be  no  proof  of  the  identity  of  the  animal. 
It  is  also  very  important  to  bear  in  mind  such  a  thing  as  the 
geographical  distribution  of  animals  in  our  attempts  at 
identification  as  I  mentioned  just  now*  Again,  birds  or  other 
animals  may  have  existed  within,  comparatively  speaking, 
recent  historical  times,  in  certain  localities,  and  be  no  longer 
found  there  now;  the  absence  of  a  certain  creature  in  a 
particular  area  does  not  of  necessity  forbid  the  possibility  of 
its  existence  there  in  early  days  ;  still  there  must  be  more  or 
less  probability  of  such  an  occurrence,  a  probability  based  on 
what  we  know  of  the  actual  conditions  necessary  for  the 
maintenance  and  well-being  of  the  life  of  such  and  such  an 
animal.  We  must  have  regard  to  what  knowledge  we  possess 
of  the  geographical  distribution  of  animals,  and  thus  compare 
the  k?iown  present  with  the  probable  past. 


46        The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Record*. 

In  the  writings  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  authors  we 
meet  with  descriptions  of  animals,  more  or  less  full  ot 
information,  sometimes  very  erroneous,  sometimes  very 
correct ;  now  vague  and  uncertain,  now  vivid  and  exact. 
But  in  the  Assyrian  Records  we  meet  with  scarcely  anv  help 
of  this  kind;  descriptive  accounts  fail  us  almost  entirely, 
the  references  to  birds  are  scant  in  number  and  poor  in 
information,  and  consequently  we  are  driven  to  depend  almost 
entirely  on  such  philological  evidence  as  is  conveyed  by  the 
meaning  of  the  names  on  the  Bilingual  or  Trilingual  Tablets, 
on  the  derivation  and  meaning  of  the  Assyrian  names  and 
their  Accadian  equivalents. 

These  Accadian  names  often  supply  important  materials 
for   consideration.     The  frequent  use  of  the    determinative 
prefixes  or  suffixes  is  almost  always  of  some  definite  value. 
In  the  case  of  the  birds  whose  names   occur  in  the  lists  the 
presence  of  the  suffix  j-|<|  (Jehu)  informs  us  that  the  name  is 
that  of  some  bird.     Here  we  start :  we  know  that  we   have 
to  do  with  the  class  ares,  and  no   other.      Then  as  to  the 
probable  bird  denoted   by   the   name.     Although   much  at 
present  remains  obscure,  most  interesting  and  valuable  help 
sometimes  meets  us  on  the   analysis  of  the  Accadian  name. 
W  hen  the  meaning  or  meanings  of  the  syllabic  parts  which 
constitute   the  whole  Accadian  compound  name  are  reallv 
known,  then  often  the  whole  is  known,   and  one  peculiarity 
in  the  form  or  habits  of  a  certain  bird  is  admirably  pourtrayed 
in  one  well  expressed  and  well  selected  compound  Accadian 
name ;    and   when    the   information   thus    conveyed  by  the 
graphic   single-word  description  accords  with   the   form    or 
habits  of  the  bird  supposed  to  be  indicated,  and  when  its 
equivalent  Assyrian  name  answers  to  that  of  some  ascertained 
species  in  the  kindred  languages,   our  evidence  is  perfectly 
satisfactory.      Sometimes    the    Accadian    bird-name    clearlv 
reveals  itself,   even   without  Assyrian    help.     I   think   that, 
for  instance,  the    Accadian    names    of    the    swallow,  which 
combined  give  the  meaning  of  '•  the  insect-bird  which  builds 
its    nest   or  makes   its    seat    on   beams   or   wood-work,  and 
which  (in  flight)  closes  its  tail,"  are   sufficiently  indicative  of 
that    bird.     Unfortunately,    the   part    of  the    tablets    which 


Trca  '    I 

• 


Battle  a  eerie. 
Layard>I.pL6t 


L  aywrdb  I  pb.  22  Battle  Scene- . 


.ZayaroO  I.ph.  26J3altle'  Scene*. 


iyoj  -dlj  I.ph.  H.  Battle,  Scene . 


Yiljjsr' Brooks  I>ay.*3onXllh 


Jjayard/ 1. pl18.Mattt&  .Scene. 
ASSYRIAN     BIRDS      Plate  II. 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.       41 

once  contained  these  Accadian  bird  -  names  are  often 
mutilated — sometimes  absolutely  nothing,  sometimes  next  to 
nothing,  is  left.  The  Assyrian  names  of  course  we  must 
compare  with  Hebrew  or  Arabic,  and.  see  whether  similar 
words  occur  in  these  or  other  cognate  Semitic  languages, 
and  discover  what  is  their  ascertained  or  probable  significa- 
tion. But  unfortunately  we  are  sometimes  in  the  dark  as  to 
the  birds  which  the  names  here  represent,  and  we  may  in 
the  interpretation  of  some  Assyrian  name  be  merely  com- 
paring one  unknown  quantity  with  another,  or  sometimes 
explaining  in  fact  ignotum  per  ignotius.  Modern  Arabic 
(vernacular)  names  sometimes  afford  a  clue  to  identification, 
but  they  are  used  often  in  a  vague  and  general  sense,  and 
seldom  bring  important  aid.  Again,  the  Accadian  and 
Assyrian  characters  of  the  syllabary  are  frequently  poly- 
phones  :  they  have  more  phonetic  values  than  one  attached 
to  them ;  so  we  do  not  always  know  for  certain  the  real 
sound  of  a  name,  and  how  it  was  pronounced,  so  that  the 
uncertainty  of  reading  is  added  to  that  of  identification. 
Sometimes,  though  rarely,  we  can  obtain  a  clue  by  referring 
back  to  the  earliest  forms  of  the  characters  through  their 
archaic  types,  as  pictorially  represented.  When  we  consider 
therefore  that  the  almost  entire  materials  for  help  in  attempts 
at  identification  stand  on  a  philological  basis,  we  must  pro- 
ceed with  caution.  Philology  is  in  our  case  a  very  important 
factor  in  the  solution  of  the  ornithological  equation,  but  as 
I  said  before  questions  relating  to  zoology  of  necessity 
present  zoological  claims. 

It  is  from  want  of  this  recognition  that  some  writers  on 
this  class  of  subjects  and  commentators  have  been  led  into 
very  great  mistakes,  and  given  very  unlikely  or  altogether 
impossible  explanations  of  certain  bird  or  other  animal 
names  under  their  consideration  :  thus  we  have  the  Hebrew 
Rem,  an  animal  described  as  being  of  great  size,  powerful, 
and  fierce,  identified  with  the  oryx  (0.  leucoryx),  one  of  the 
most  harmless  of  antelopes,  simply  because  the  Hebrew 
name  is  in  sound  at  least  similar  to  the  Arabic  word  for 
that  animal.  The  narwhal  (Monodon  monoceros),  that  curious 
marine   cetacean  with  its   one    developed  tooth,  a  creature 


48        The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  North  Sea,  has  been 
suggested  as  the  nakhiru  of  the  Assyrians  obtained  from  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  Parrots  have  been  unhesitatingly  placed 
as  native  birds  in  Palestine  and  the  neighbouring  countries, 
in  utter  disregard  of  the  extreme  improbability  of  their 
occurrence  there,  seeing  that  they  belong  pre-eminently  to  a 
tropical    or   sub-tropical   group   of  birds.     The  frigate  bird 

(Fregetta)  has  been  suggested  as  the  SJidldc   (   =|VU/j    of  the 

Hebrew  Bible,  a  bird  which  in  the  case  of  both  species  of  this 
genus  is  exclusively  confined  to  tropical  or  sub-tropical  parts. 
I  hope  that  We  have  at  last  seen  the  end  of  the  claims  of 
the  Oryx  leucoryx  to  represent  the  r'&m  of  the  Hebrew  Bible, 
and  the  remu  or  am  of  the  Assyrians  and  Accadians.  At 
length,  amongst  our  German  friends  the  rSmu  is  understood 
to  denote  a  ••wild-bull."  Haupt.  Lotz.  Hommel,  and  quite 
recently  Delitzseh,  have  decided  in  its  favour.  It  seems 
surprising,  when  we  consider  the  abundant  evidence  in 
favour  of  some  large  species  of  wild-ox.  that  its  claims  have 
not  been  universally  accepted  as  being  the  rem  of  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures.1  I  believe  that  Bochart,  the  learned 
author  of  the  Hierozoicon,  who  died  in  16(31,  was  the  first — 
at  any  rate,  the  first  author  of  note — who  contended  that 
the  Hebrew  r'tm  (D^^H  «CfcO  pD'H)  was  identical  with  the 
Arabic  *j  ,.  the  white  antelope  of  North  Africa  and  lands 
adjacent  to  Palestine.  Bochart  was  followed  by  Rosenmiiller, 
Winer,  and  most  modern  German  commentators,  as  Ewald, 
Franz  Delitzseh,  Kalisch.  etc.  But  did  not  Arnold  Boot, 
in  his  Animadtersiones  Sctcrce,  as  far  back  as  1644,  show 
that  the  rim  was  probably  some  species  of  Urus,  or  wild 
ox  ?  Did  not  the  learned  Schultens  in  his  Comment,  in 
Jobam  xxxix.  translate  the  Hebrew  word  by  Bos  sylvestri- •■  / 
Did  not  Gesenius  {Thes^  p.  1249)  show  very  forcibly  that  some 
Bos  ferns  or  bnlaliis  was  to  be  preferred  to  the  dorca  alba 
of  Arabian  writers  ?      Parkhurst.  Manrer,   Carey,   Robinson, 

1  So  long  ago  as  1862  I  showed  the  probable  identity  of  the  Bos  primigenius 
with  the  Scriptural  R' em  (An.  and  Mag.  Xat.  Hist.,  November,  1862).  Tristram 
confirmed  this  opinion  in  his  "  Land  of  Israel,"  and  the  Assyrian  records  and 
figures  also  bear  clear  testimony. 


The  Will*  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Reeords.       4H 

Tristram,  and  lately  Mr.  Cheyne,  in  his  valuable  work  on  the 
Prophecies  of  [saiah,  have  decided  against  the  white  antelope; 
;md  though  some  of  these  writers  are  wrong  in  referring  the 
r'em  to  the  buffalo,  which  found  its  way  westerly  from  [ndia  only 
in,  comparatively  speaking,  recent  times,  yet  such  an  animal 
would  answer  better  to  the  fierce  creature  spoken  of  in  the 
Book  of  Job,  than  "the  white  doe  of  Golius."  The  identity 
of  the  rem  or  rthnu  with  the  Bos  primigenius  is,  I  maintain, 
fully  established  by  the  most  convincing  evidence,  as  I  have 
shown  in  a  former  paper  in  the  Society's  "Transactions/' 
evidence  which  stands  on  bases  zoological,  palaeontological, 
and  historical,  as  shown  by  the  figures  of  the  wild  cattle  on 
the  Assyrian  monuments  compared  with  the  form  and  size  of 
the  horn-cores  and  skulls  preserved  in  our  museums,  as  well 
as  by  the  interesting  fact  that  remains  of  this  bos  have  been 
found  in  the  very  localities  where  an  Assyrian  monarch 
states  he  killed  these  animals.  I  should  state  that  recently 
Dr.  W.  Lotz,  in  his  valuable  work,  "Die  Inschriften  Tiglath 
Pileser's  1,"  has  written  to  show  that  the  am  and  the  "m-si 
of  the  Accadian  records  are  two  distinct  animals,  the  former 
being  the  rimu,  or  "wild  bull,"  the  latter  the  "elephant,"' 
names  which,  with  other  writers,  1  had  considered  as 
synonymous,  the  latter  term  being  merely  the  fuller  form 
of  the  other.  There  are  a  few  difficulties  which  at  present 
strike  me  as  attending  Dr.  Lotz's  explanation;  but  these  will 
probably  vanish  after  a  thorough  investigation  of  the  whole 
argument,  and  Dr.  Lotz  will  be  found  to  be  right. 

You  will  observe,  in  the  course  of  this  paper,  that  the 
names  of  several  birds  are  onomato-poetic,  mere  human 
attempts  to  give  an  idea  of  the  sounds  emitted  by  various 
birds  by  incorporating  that  idea  in  the  word  thus  imitatively 
formed.  This  is  to  be  expected.  Without  saying  a  word  on 
the  question  of  the  possibility  of  any  language  having  been 
formed  on  the  principle  of  imitation,  or  seeming  in  any  way 

to  be  a   disciple  of  what    has   been    called  the   Bbw-WOW  school 

of  philologists,  it  is  quite  certain  that,  the  Bow-wow  theory  is 
to  a  considerable  extent  true  in  the  formation  of  bird  and 
other  animal  names.  The  old  Accadians  and  Assyrians  had 
their  ku-cus  and  their  dic-dic-4  birds  just  as  we  have,  and  they 
Vol.  Vlir.  l 


."><>        The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

made  use  of  such  imitative  words  to  a  considerable  extent  to 
express  different  kinds  of  birds  in  their  ornithological  voca- 
bulary. In  some  eases  the  resemblance  of  the  name  thus 
formed  to  the  actual  voice  of  the  bird  is  self-evident,  as  for 
instance  in  the  simple  and  easily  simulated  note  of  the 
cuckoo,  the  name  of  the  bird  almost  everywhere  wherever  it 
is  known.  Similarly  our  peewit,  or  the  Arabic  tadirit.  or  the 
French  diay-huit,  discloses  at  once  the  bird  intended  by  the 
name.  But  though  it  is.  perhaps,  generally  the  case  that  we 
may  be  able  to  say  whether  such  or  such  a  name,  be  it  Acca- 
dian  or  Assyrian,  Greek  or  Latin,  or  in  other  languages,  is 
or  is  not  meant  to  be  imitative  of  a  bird's  voice,  it  is  not 
3y  to  say  what  bird  is  actually  denoted,  partly  because  many 
birds  of  different  kinds  utter  not  very  dissimilar  notes,  partly 
because  it  is  not  easy  for  the  unpractised  voice  to  utter 
ornithic  sounds  in  human  language,  and  partly,  also,  because 
the  same  notes  sound  differently  to  different  ears. 

Practised  persons  can  sometimes  most  successfully  imitate 
bird-voice,  and  counterfeit  their  call-notes  so  admirably  as  to 
deceive  the  birds  themselves  ;  but  even  such  persons  would 
find  it  a  difficult  matter  to  put  into  writing  such  a  well-chosen 
selection  of  syllables  as  to  express  in  any  natural  way  the 
sound  of  the  notes  they  had  themselves  learned  so  closely  to 
imitate.  The  toroto-tiiuv.  torolo-tinw,  popopoi-popopoi  of  the 
birds  of  Aristophanes,  can  but  give  a  very  faint  idea  of  the 
sounds  uttered  by  a  chorus  of  feathered  songsters.  Similarly. 
the  imitative  words  in  the  Assyrian  lists  can  but  give  us  a 
very  imperfect  notion  of  the  bird-voices  which  the  names 
thus  formed  are  intended  to  represent.  Sibilants,  speaking 
generally,  are  meant  to  express  the  chirping  or  warbling 
notes  of  the  song  birds,  while  gutturals  will  give  us  the  harsh 
notes  of  some  croaking  raven  or  crow. 

I  have  already  stated  that  the  references  to  birds  in  the 
records  are  few  in  number  and  almost  destitute  of  informa- 
tion, consequently  there  are  many  questions  relating  to  our 
subject  which  at  present  will  have  to  remain  either  wholly 
unanswered  or  only  partially  responded  to.  What  birds 
were  domesticated,  what  kinds  used  as  food,  what  methods 
did  they  employ  to  kill  or  take  captive  living  birds?     Did 


TIip  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.       51 

the  Assyrians  practise  falconry,  or  keep  song-birds  for  the 
sake  of  their  music?  What  particular  birds  were  held 
sacred  to  their  gods  ?  All  these  are  questions  which  can 
only  very  imperfectly  be  answered.  Certain  birds,  we  may 
be  sure,  were  used  for  food ;  and  the  lists  which  have 
the  determinative  prefix  (jrTyyj:')  of  food  enumerate  some 
birds  in  the  catalogue,  but  here  again  unfortunately  the 
tablets  are  sadly  broken,  and  the  useful  Accadian  is  often 
almost  entirely  lost.  Such  kinds  as  were  considered  to  be 
injurious  to  the  crops  are  mentioned  as  being  good  for  food. 
This  would  comprise  sparrows,  finches,  larks,  buntings,  and  a 
host  of  the  small  insessorial  birds.  We  may  also  be  quite  sure 
that  they  ate  pigeons,  wild-ducks,  partridges,  quails,  francolins, 
and  many  other  kinds  perhaps.  The  swan,  whose  head  and 
neck  are  drawn  on  the  monuments  as  a  figure-head  of  a  soldier's 
bow — fitly  there,  perhaps,  as  emblematic  of  strength — perhaps 
was  used  as  food.  Whether  any  of  the  rapacious  birds  of 
prey  were  ever  used  as  food,  I  know  not ;  but  we  may  be 
certain  that  the  Assyrians  made  use  of  birds'  eggs.  To 
what  extent,  if  to  any,  poultry-keeping,  or  the  rearing  of 
thoroughly  domesticated  fowls,  ducks,  and  geese,  as  we 
understand  the  term,  was  practised,  we  know  not.  There  is 
no  mention  of  domestic  fowls  in  the  Old  Testament  writings, 
though  we  know7  that  the  art  of  hatching  hens'  eggs  by 
artificial  incubation  was  largely  practised  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  The  tame  duck,  howrever,  as  we  understand  the 
term  by  the  familiar  waddling  bird  of  our  farmyards,  was  not 
domesticated  by  the  Egyptians,  I  believe,  and  even  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  kept  ducks  only  in  a  semi-domesticated 
state,  for  they  had  to  enclose  their  duck  preserves  (nesso- 
frophiva)  with  nets  to  prevent  the  birds  flying  out.  With 
regard  to  domestic  fowls,  when  we  remember  that  the  cock 
is  called  by  Aristophanes  the  Persian  bird,  and  that  the 
domestic  fowl  is  said  to  be  figured  on  a  Babylonian  cylinder 
of  the  sixth  or  seventh  century  before  Christ,  and  that  the 
cock  under  several  names  is  mentioned  in  the  food-lists, 
it  is  pretty  certain  that  the  Assyrians  kept  domestic  poultry. 
Natural  history  evidence  points  to  the  East,  as  to  India, 
lor  the   origin   of   our   domestic  bird,   with  all  its  immerous 


52        The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

varieties,  and  it  is  from  this  source  that  our  domestic  fowls 
came,  through  Persia,  to  Greece  and  Koine,  and  elsewhere 
westerly.  We  know  that  the  Assyrians  kept  different  kinds 
of  birds  in  confinement  in  what  we  may  call  aviaries,  and  that 
wild  water  fowls  formed  a  pleasing  feature  in  their  gardens, 
and  on  their  artificial  ponds  or  lakes.  From  this  source  they 
may  have  obtained  a  portion  of  their  egg's,  which  doubtless 
were  used  as  food.  Figures  of  ducks  in  a  recumbent  posture 
were  carved  out  of  marble  and  other  kinds  of  stone,  and  used 
as  weights.     Specimens  of  these  duck-weights  may  now  be 

i  in  the  British  Museum. 

A-  regards  the  question  whether  the  ancient  Assyrians 
kept  song-birds,  there  is  no  positive  informati<  >n.  Sennacherib 
tells  us  that  he  made  captive  Hezekiah.  King  of  Judah,  and 
kept  him  as  a  bird  in  a  cage  (ina  kuppi),  Le.,  in  some  confined 
place.  Mention  is  made  in  the  lists  of  a  bird  called  j>ir.<j><rsu 
and  its-tsur  rabi.  It  is  called  a  small  bird.  Pdspaiu  is,  I  think, 
imitative,  denoting  some  singing  bird.  The  words  its-tsur 
rabi  can  only  mean  bird  of  the  great.  These  birds  bred  in 
confinement,  for  the  young  of  these  birds  of  the  great  are 
mentioned.  Therefore  the  chirping  or  "  singing  bird  of  the 
great''  seems  to  allude  to  some  rare  and  perhaps  foreign  bird, 
which  kings  and  great  men  would  keep  in  their  houses,  or  in 
their  aviaries,  and  prize  for  its  singing  powers.  Could  they 
possibly  know  anything  of  parrots?  A  parrot-like  bird  is 
figured  on  the  monuments.  Parrots  were  known  to  the 
( rreeks  in  the  time  of  Aristotle,  and  there  are  several  notices 
of  these  birds  in  the  classical  Greek  and  Latin  authors,  to 
whom  they  were  first  made  known,  perhaps,  about  the  time 
of  Alexander's  Asiatic  campaigns.  The  green  Paloeornis 
torquatus1  is  the  species  with  which  they  were  familiar.  It  is 
quit'-  pr<  '1  'able,  therefore,  that  the  Assyrian  monarchs  obtained 
parrots  from  India,  and  possibly  some  kind  of  parrot  might 
1»'  meant  by  the  expression  "  small  piping  bird  of  the  great." 
As  to  the  methods  adopted  in  killing  winged-game,  the 
monuments  show  us  that  the  bow  and  arrow  were  effectively 
used.     The  larger  kind  were  sometimes  killed   with  clubs. 

1  P.  ton j  a  a  Ins,  t  he  rose-ringed  parakeet,  is  well-known  in  Nubia,  Ahv>sinia,  as 
well  as  in  India.     The  allied  species,  P.  Alexandri,  might  also  have  been  known. 


.-.     Soc.  Bibl.  Arch,.  Vol  ML. 


layaj-d,  T.  pi  20.  Battle.'  Scene. 


Laycwdj.i.fZ  78-  ButiZe  Scen& 


Layardb  I.  pi.  67 


Cylinder.  Bibl.  Ned/.  Pans. 
GcuteU&.Arch.  1880.  p.  254. 


■  '.-'///■///  from,  bronze,  vessel/ 
from  NvmrouAi.  LtVfardbJLpTj.  68. 


Bottaylpi     . 


ASSYRIAN      BIRDS.     PI  ffl 


The.  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.       53 

These,  I  suppose,  would  be  such  large  birds  of  prey  which, 
from  being  gorged  with  food,  were  unable  to  fly.  Gins,  nets, 
and  such  like  devices  were  doubtless  used  by  the  Assyrians, 
though  I  am  not  aware  of  any  definite  statement  to  that  effect. 

That  ideas  of  good  or  ill  fortune  prevailed  among  the 
Assyrians,  as  belonging  to  different  lands  of  birds,  appears 
nearly  certain,  for  the  character  (*~TI^)i  which  among 
others  is  that  of  "  destiny,"  is  also  used  to  denote  a 
"  swallow,"  the  bird  or  a  bird  of  destiny,  as  foretelling  or  pro- 
claiming (nidm)  by  its  periodic  returns  the  advent  of  spring, 
while  the  old  pictorial  form  of  the  character,  as  I  have  on  a 
previous  occasion  endeavoured  to  show,  represents  the 
figure  of  a  bird  in  flight  dropping  its  eggs,  together  with  an 
ideograph  which  may  be  interpreted  as  representing  "  going 
away  and  again  returning  in  the  vault  of  heaven."  The 
swallow  clearly  was,  as  among  ourselves,  so  with  the  ancient 
Accadians  and  Assyrians,  the  harbinger  of  spring,  and  of 
the  warm  returning  rains,  when  the  herbage  would  grow 
again,  and  good  fortune  and  prosperity  attend  mankind  ;  and 
in  connection  with  this  idea  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  one 
of  the  different  Assyrian  names  for  the  swallow  is  bu-li-M, 
i.e.,  "the  bird  of  beneficial  rain," — for  the  Arabic  word  to 
which  I  think  it  is  to  be  referred  denotes  both  '"rain  or 
moisture  "  and  "  prosperity  " — as  if  the  one  depended  on  the 
other,  which,  indeed,  is  neither  more  nor  less  than  absolute 
fact.  Similarly  the  cuckoo  was  favourably  regarded  as  a 
bringer  in  of  prosperity. 

The  common  Accadian  character  (*~T<T)  khu,  though, 
perhaps,  not  generally  pronounced,  representing  birds  as  a 
class,  is  the  ordinary  determinative  suffix  :  the  names  of 
"  eggs,"  "  nests,"  young  brood,  &c,  will  be  noticed  by- 
and-by.  In  Assyrian  the  general  name  of  a  bird  is  its-tsu-ru 
(-J  £.g=  *JJJ),  which  like  the  Hebrew  tsippor  ("nS?)  is 
an  imitative  word,  expressive  of  the  chirping  or  twitter- 
ing of  many  kinds  of  birds.  A  nest  was  called  kennu 
(11:11  £t-^rW  *ZL)  ^k-e  ^e  Hebrew  ken  (||?)  from  the  root  pf? 
or  I12p  "  to  form  or  build." 

t't 

The    ornithological    character    of    the    fauna    of   Assyria. 


.">  I        The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

Babylonia,  Syria,  and  Persia  is  varied.  The  different  species 
which  have  been  noticed  in  these  lands  will  be  found  in  Dr. 
Ainsworth's  appendix  in  CoL  Chesney's  "Expedition  for  the 
Survey  of  the  Rivera  Euphrates  and  Tig-rig  in  the  years 
1835  1837,"  and  published  in  the  first  volume  of  that  work  : 
an  interesting  account  also  of  many  of  the  birds  noticed  or 
known  to  exist  in  these  lands  will  be  found  in  the  same 
author's  artiele  on  "The  Natural  History  and  Resources  of 
Turkey,"  published  in  Colburn's  New  Monthly  Magazine, 
\  .  LIV.  June.  1876,  pp.  646—656.  I  beg  to  express  my 
best  thanks  to  Dr.  Ainsworth  for  numerous  letters  with 
which  he  has  favoured  me  on  certain  questions  on  which 
I  desired  information  ;  some  notice  of  the  buds  observed 
in  Assyria,  &c,  will  be  found  in  the  published  "  Travels''  of 
various  authors,  such  as  those  of  Loftus,  Rich,  Layard,  and 
others.  Much  interesting  matter  on  the  birds  of  Palestine 
will  lie  found  in  the  papers  by  Canon  Tristram,  published 
in  various  articles  in  the  '•  Proceedings  of  the  Zoological 
S  iety  of  London."  and  an  excellent  review  of  the  Natural 
History  of  Palestine  will  be  found  in  the  same  author's 
••  Natural  Hist'  >ry  of  the  Bible/'  published  by  the  "  Society  for 
Promoting  Christian  Knowledge."'  For  the  birds  of  Persia, 
Mr.  W.  T.  Blanford's  work.  "  Eastern  Persia.*'  vol.  ii,  Zoology 
and  Geology.  1876,  must  especially  be  consulted,  because  all 
the  animals  known  to  inhabit  Mesopotamia  are  included  in 
this  beautifully  illustrated  and  valuable  work.  The  territorial 
limits  of  the  region  to  which  Mr.  Blanford's  work  specially 
refers  are  those  of  the  present  kingdom  of  Persia,  but  the 
inhabitants  of  Mesopotamia  are  also  included,  ''because  it  is 
scarcely  possible  that  any  should  be  found  on  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates,  which  do  not  exist  in  the  Persian  portion  of  the 
plains  cast  of  these  rivers;  and  similarly  the  wading  and 
swimming  lards  of  the  Caspian  are  all  comprised  in  the  lists, 
because  all  of  them  are  believed  to  be  met  with  at  times  on 
tli'-  Persian  Coast."  (See  Introduction,  p.  3.)  From  this  it 
will  be  seen  that  in  Mr.  Blanford's  work  we  meet  with  a 
_  at  deal  of  information  which  closely  concerns  the  subject 
1  have  brought  before  you  this  evening. 

I   need  now  give   no  more  than  a  general  sketch  of  the 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.       55 

principal  groups  of  birds  which  occur  in  the  countries  with 
which  we  are  concerned.  The  number  of  species  of  birds 
known  to  inhabit  Persia  is  estimated  at  384,  but  further 
research  will  doubtless  add  to  the  catalogue.  Of  the  Vultu- 
ridce,  I  may  mention  the  griffon  {Gyps  /ulcus),  and  the 
Egyptian  species  (Neophron  percnopter  us).  The  large  Falconidce 
include  the  Lammergeier  (Gypaetus  barbatus),  the  imperial 
eagle  (Aquila  heliaca,  Sav.),  the  golden  eagle,  the  white-tailed 
sea  eagle  (Haliaetus  albicilla,  L.) ;  the  osprey  (Pandionido?) 
Pandion  haliaetus)  is  common  about  the  Caspian.  Besides 
the  large  kinds  of  diurnal  birds  of  prey  may  be  mentioned 
falcons  of  different  species,  as  the  peregrine,  now  employed 
by  Persian  falconers,  the  Babylonian  and  others,  and  kites 
(Milcus).  Of  the  smaller  hawks,  we  have  the  sparrow- 
hawk  and  the  kestrel ;  the  harriers,  both  hen  and  marsh, 
buzzards,  &c.  Of  the  Strigidce,  the  great  eagle  owl  (Bubo 
ascalaphus),  the  long  and  the  short-horned  owls,  the  little 
Scops,  and  the  Athene  glaux  may  be  noted. 

Of  the  order  Picarice  (fam.  Picidce),  several  kinds  of 
woodpeckers ;  among  cuckoos  there  is  the  common  bird 
and  the  great  spotted  species.  The  bee-eater,  hoopoe,  king- 
fishers of  different  kinds,  night-jars,  swifts,  are  more  or  less 
common.  Of  the  order  Passeres  I  may  mention  shrikes, 
thrushes,  nightingales,  blackbirds,  golden  orioles,  wagtails, 
finches,  various  kinds  of  sparrows,  besides  our  common 
domestic  species ;  these  smaller  incessorial  birds  were  doubt- 
less included  in  the  term  of  "  birds  destroyers  of  crops,"' 
abicta  ekili;  larks,  starlings,  called  little  shepherd-birds  by  the 
Accadians  and  Assyrians  as  being  so  often  found  with  cattle 
and  sheep,  and  the  locust  birds  (Pastor  roseus)  are  found  more 
or  less  common  in  many  parts.  Of  the  family  Corvidce  one 
meets  with  the  common  raven  (C.  corax),  and  the  smaller 
brown-necked  (Corvus  umbrinus)  of  more  gregarious  habits, 
and  crows,  chiefly  the  hooded  variety.  The  jackdaw  is 
common  in  the  highlands  of  Armenia,  but  rare,  if  it  occurs 
at  all,  in  Persia;  rooks  occur  in  Palestine,  but  not  in  Assyria, 
and  have  not  been  observed  in  Southern  Persia. 

The  order  Columbidce  is  well  represented,  both  in  species 
and  individuals ;  pigeons  are  common  everywhere,  and  tarne 


56        The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

varieties,  as  tumblers,  jacobins,  and  camera  are  known;  wood 
pigeons,  rock  pigeons,  and  turtle-doves.    Several  names  occur 

on  the  monuments  which  appear  to  designate  different  kinds 
of  doves.  Of  the  order  Gallince,  sand-grouse  (Pterocles  aren- 
arius)  abound  in  the  large  semi-desert  plains,  cultivated  only 
where  water  is  available  for  irrigation,  in  south  Persia:  this 
is  the  most  abundant  game  bird,  Dr.  Ainsworth  tells  us,  of 
Arabia,  Syria,  and  Mesopotamia.  The  birds  of  this  family 
{Pteroclida )  are  very  pour  and  insipid  food.  Pheasants 
abound  in  the  Caspian  forests,  but  not  in  Assyria:  rook 
partridges  and  francolins  are  more  or  less  common;  sand 
partridges  (Ammoperdia;)  are  scarce. 

Coots,  water-hens,  land-rails,  and  water-rails,  among  the 
Balliila',  occur;  and  that  beautifully  coloured  bird,  the 
Porphyria  veterum,  the  purple  gallinule.  conspicuous  with  its 
brilliant  blue  plumage,  and  red  legs  and  beak,  is  said  to  be 
abundantly  found  on  the  Caspian.  Of  the  Scolopacidm  mention 
must  be  made  of  woodcocks,  snipes,  sand-pipers,  stints. 
dunlins,  curlews,  stilt-plovers,  and  avoeets.  Among  the 
family  of  Cliaradriidce  lapwings  abound  in  the  plains  of  the 
Euphrates  valley,  and  are  common  everywhere.  The  golden 
plover  (stragglers),  the  spur-winged  Boplopterus  spinosus,  the 
collared  pratincole,  oyster-catcher  (very  common),  and  others 
of  the  family  have  also  been  recorded.  The  Otid<r,  three 
species  ;  Otis  tarda,  -the  great  bustard"';  0.  tetrax,  "the  little 
bustard";  and  the  0.  McQueenii  (Gray),  i.e..  the  Hobara,  or 
Hubri,  or  common  bustard  of  Persia.  The  Otis  tarda  is  said 
by  Ainsworth  to  be  generally  a  solitary  bird,  or  to  live  in 
pairs,  but  sometimes  it  is  found  in  flocks.  It  is  frequently 
met  with  in  the  stony  districts  of  Syria.  The  Gruidm  are 
represented  by  the  common  crane  [Grus  communis),  very 
plentiful  hi  South  Persia,  but  only  on  passage,  and  by  the 
Xumidian  species  {Anthropoides  virgo).  Of  the  Ciconida  the 
white  stork  (C.  alba)  is  especially  common,  and  the  C.  nigra 
also  occurs.  The  Ibis  surra,  the  saered  bird  of  the  Egyptians, 
is  not  found  hi  Mesopotamia,  nor  in  any  part  of  Asia  ;  but  its 
allied  relative  hi  general  form,  if  not  strictly  in  ornithological 
characters,  i.e..  the  Comatibis  comata.  Great  Bald  Ibis,  is  very 
common  in  some  parts  of  the  country. 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.        57 

Many  kinds  of  herons  (Ardeidce)  abound,  such  as  the 
buff-heron,  or  "  cow-bird"  (Ardea  russata),  so-called  from  its 
association  with  cattle  and  sheep,  like  oar  common  starling 
— a  habit  noticed  in  the  bird  lists.  The  common  heron 
(A.  cinerea),  white  heron  or  egret  (J.  alba),  the  little  egret 
(A.  garzetta),  bitterns  both  small  and  great  (Botaurus  stellaris 
and  B.  minutus),  have  been  noticed. 

Spoonbills  (Plataleidce)  are  found  on  the  shores  of  the 
Caspian.  The  order  Anseres  is  represented  by  numerous 
families,  and  the  species  often  occur  in  amazing  numbers 
on  migration.  Of  the  Phasnicopterce,  the  Flamingo  {P. 
antiquorum)  is  seen  in  marshy  places,  and  said  to  be  common 
on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian.  A  curious  story  of  this  bird 
has  been  recorded  which  I  will  notice  further  on.  Of  the 
Anatidce,  or  duck  family,  the  common  wild-duck,  teal,  pochard 
(several  species),  pintail,  golden-eye,  shell-drake,  ruddy  shell- 
drake  ;  wild-geese,  as  the  white-fronted,  bernicle,  and  red- 
breasted  species,  have  been  mentioned  as  occurring  in 
various  localities,  but  only  on  passage.  Dr.  Ainsworth  says 
that  ducks  and  geese  are  little  cared  for,  and  rarely  domesti- 
cated by  the  Mahometans. 

Swans  abound  on  the  Caspian  in  winter,  and,  in  some 
localities,  thousands  are  sometimes  to  be  seen,  represented  by 
the  two  species,  viz.,  Cygnus  ferus  and  perhaps  C.  olor.  The 
Assyrians  ornamented  the  ends  of  their  bows  with  the 
heads  of  swans,  as  represented  on  the  monuments.  Probably 
they  domesticated  these  birds,  and  ate  their  flesh  and  their 
eggs.  Of  the  Laridce  several  sea-gulls  are  found,  especially 
on  the  Caspian  and  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  commonest 
species  are  said  to  be  the  Larus  canus  and  the  Ij.  ridibundus. 
Some  kinds  are  quite  tame,  and  fearlessly  approach  the 
fishermen's  boats  on  the  shore,  or  even  enter  villages.  The 
large  black-headed  gull,  sometimes  called  the  Royal  Eagle- 
gull  (L.  ichthyaetus),  the  most  magnificent  of  the  Laridce,  is 
found  throughout  the  southern  coasts  of  Persia  in  winter, 
resorting  to  the  Caspian,  where  it  breeds,  in  the  summer. 
Dr.  Tristram  noticed  this  gull  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  where  he 
found  it  quite  tame  ;  whereas  Mr.  Blanford  speaks  of  it  in 
the  Caspian  as  being  difficult  of  approach.     Several  species 


58        The  Bird*  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

of  Terns  (Sterna)  are  recorded.  Among  the  ProceUariadce 
Mr.  Blanford  mentions  Puffinus  obscurus,  one  of  the  Shear- 
waters, as  occurring  on  the  Makran  coast,  and  as  being 
probably  common  in  the  Persian  Ghilf.  Birds  of  this  family 
are  remarkably  swift  on  the  wing — can  fly  to  windward  in 
the  stormiest  weather,  or  rest  on  the  water  with  the  greatest 
composure  in  the  most  tremendous  seas.  Some  of  them 
might  have  been  observed  by  the  Assyrians.  The  Peli- 
canidce  are  represented  by  the  well-known  species  Pelicanns 
o)  tor  rot  a  f  us,  common  on  the  Caspian,  and  by  the  P.  crispws, 
also  found  on  the  Caspian.  The  specific  name,  onocrotahi*, 
of  course  refers  to  the  ass-like  voice  of  this  bird;  and  it  is 
curious  to  find  that  this  idea  is  conveyed  by  one  of  the 
Assyrian  names  of  the  PelicaD,  namely,  the  "she-ass  of  the 
rivers"  or  waters.  Cormorants  abound  on  the  lakes  and 
rivers  of  Southern  Persia,  as  well  as  on  the  Caspian.  The 
species  are  the  Phalacrocora.v  carlo  (the  great  black  cor- 
morant), and  the  P.  pygmceus  (the  little  cormorant).  The 
StrvthionidcB  are  represented  by  the  ostrich  (Struthio  camelus), 
which  however  is  rarely  if  ever  seen  now  in  Mesopotamia.  It 
formerly  reached,  as  Canon  Tristram  tells  us,  as  far  as  the 
sandy  plains  of  Sindh,  in  Western  India,  but  is  now  extinct 
there.  It  was  evidently  knoAvn  to  the  ancient  inhabitants 
of  Assyria,  who  have  treated  us  to  very  grotesque  figures 
of  this  bird,  in  some  very  extraordinary  attitudes,  on  the 
monuments,  and  have  left  on  record  that  it  was  known  to 
them  as  the  "long-legged  beneficent  bird." 

After  this  imperfect  sketch  of  the  species  of  birds  now 
known  to  occur  in  the  lands  with  which  the  subject  is 
connected,  I  proceed  at  once  to  consider  the  various  names 
which  are  mentioned  in  the  Records. 

(1.)  The  Vulture  (  Vultur  gryphus)wa&  definitely  known  to 
the  Assyrians  by  the  names  of  no-os-m  and  'e-ru-u.  although 
these  words  are  also  used  more  generally  to  denote  any 
large  raptoral  bird,  either  of  the  family  of  VulturidcB  or 
Falconidai.  Na-as-ru  is  identical  with  the  Heb.  *^tt?w  (jiesher) 
Arabic  J^j  (nasr)  a  "vulture"  or  "eagle," from  a  root  meaning 
to  "  tear  in  pieces."  The  word  ' e-ru-u  is  to  be  referred  to  the 
( 'haldee"Vy  (ar)  gryphus,  a  "vulture":  with  which  maybe  com- 


77ie  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.        59 

pared  the  verb  H"^  "  to  be  naked,"  and  probably  alludes  to 
the  naked  neck  of  the  griffon  vulture.  The  Accadian  equiva- 
lent ID  KHU,  perhaps  pronounced  eru  (^*M  »~Y<Y),  signifies 
"  the  powerful  bird,"  and,  like  the  two  Assyrian  names,  is 
doubtless  generic.  References  to  these  powerful  birds  of  prey 
are  frequent  in  the  inscriptions,  as  "  the  birds  of  heaven,"  in 
allusion  to  their  lofty  soarings  in  the  air,  or  they  are  men- 
tioned as  building  their  nests  and  having  their  abodes  on 
rocky  and  inaccessible  mountains.  Figures  of  these  Raptores 
are  not  unfrequent  on  the  monuments.  They  occur  as 
accompaniments  in  battle  -  scenes,  feeding  on  the  dead 
bodies  of  the  slain,  tearing  out  their  entrails,  and  sometimes 
carrying  off  aloft  the  decapitated  head  of  some  unfortunate 
soldier.  The  figures  are  rudely  drawn,  and  more  closely 
resemble  eagles  than  vultures,  the  bare  neck  of  the  latter 
bird  being  not  often  definitely  represented.  The  figures  of 
Nisroch,  the  Eagle  Divinity,  certainly  have  the  long  powerful 
beak  of  the  griffon  vulture,  and,  I  think,  have  more  decided 
reference  to  that  bird  than  to  any  eagle.  To  the  Oriental 
mind  there  was  nothing  in  the  griffon  conveying  the  idea  of  a 
repulsive  bird — on  the  contrary,  it  was  a  type,  as  Tristram 
well  says,  of  the  lordly  and  the  noble.  Both  eagles  and 
vultures  are  carrion-feeders  as  a  rule,  and  prefer  food  already 
dead  rather  than  be  at  the  trouble  of  killing  it  themselves.  I 
have  already  mentioned  some  of  the  species  of  eagles  which 
occur  in  Assyria,  and  which  would  be  known  to  the  people, 
and  referred  to  in  a  general  way  in  their  writings. 

(2.)  The  za-ai-khu  and  la-kha-an-tuv  denote  some 
"  screaming  bird  of  prey,"  and  more  than  this  cannot  be  said. 
The  word  za-ai-khu  (XI  Y»  YJ  >~T<T)  connects  itself  with  the 
Hebrew  ITI^  (tsdvakh),  "to  cry  out,"  or  "to  scream"; 
la-kha-an-tuv  f>~£:Y  yt\  ^^f-  ^^ItO  *s  no^  ^ess  c^ear*  ^  is 
identical  with  the  Arabic  word  ^J  (lahim)  "  carnivorous," 
^sal  "  to  kill,"  with  which  the  modern  Arabic  name  lah/uun, 
"  a  butcher,"  may  be  compared.  Dr.  Delitzsch  suggests  its 
possible  identity  with  the  Arab.  ~^'  rakham  (Heb.  EDM 
"  to  be  affectionate,"  and  compares  it  with  the  Hebrew  name 


60        The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monument*  and  Records. 

for  the  Egyptian  vulture,  a  bird  supposed  to  be  excessively 
devoted  to  its  young  ones  ;  but  the  Accadian  equivalent  of 
GA  SU  CUD  da,  a  bird,  that  is.  which  "tears  with  beak  and 
talons,"  is  against  this  identification,  for  the  Egyptian  vulture 
has,  comparatively  speaking,  weak  claws  and  a  weak  hill,  not 
fitted  for  tearing*  its  prey  in  any  remarkable  degree.1  All  that 
can  be  said  of  these  names  is  that  the  bird  denoted  is  some 
rapacious  bird  which  tears  its  food  with  violence — in  fact, 
that  it  was  a  regular  "tooth  and  nail  bird" — more  cannot  be 
definitively  affirmed. 

(3.)  I  am  strongly  inclined  to  believe  that  the  Egyptian 
vulture  (Neopliron  peraioj't'ius).  that  very  common  scavenger 
of  the  East,  is  definitely  signified  by  the  names  ca-ti-ma-tuv 
C-CfcJ  ^|<  £|£«Ig)and  'e-ru-uMuv  (&]}  *J]]_  <^*  -£-). 
The  first  name  very  likely  points  to  the  verb  ca-ta-rnu,  "  to 
cover,"  of  very  common  occurrence  in  Assyrian.  The  second 
name  'erulluv  may  certainly  be  traced  to  the  Hebrew  root 

'")%  ('a  rel),  "  to  be  uncircumcised  ";  and  I  think  that  the 
idea  of  this  bird,  with  its  neck  covered  with  feathers — in  this 
respect  so  unlike  that  of  the  griffon  vulture,  whose  neck  is 
bare,  or  covered  only  with  down— and  feeding  on  carrion 
like  it.  staining  itself  with  the  clotted  gore  of  the  carcase  it 
was  feeding  on,  naturally  suggested  itself,  and  found  ex- 
pression in  the  name  of  the  uncircumcised  or  impure  bird. 

(4.)  The  tas-ba-luv,  or  ur-ba-luv,  klia-khar  ill  or  ca-ri-ib 
bar-kha-a-ti,  has  been  referred  by  Dr.  Delitzsch  with  much 
probability  to  the  bearded  vulture  or  lammergeier  {Gypaetus 
bardatus).  The  first  word  Dr.  Delitzsch  reads  ur-ba-luv, 
coinparing  it  with  the  Arabic    ^jS-    ghariba,    "to  be  black," 

the  Assyrian  word  being  a  quadriliteral,  but  the  lammergeier 
cannot  in  the  slightest  sense  be  said  to  be  black  in  its  adult 
or  mature  stage  of  growth.  The  young  ones  it  is  true  are 
blade  downy  creatures,  and  the  brown  hue  of  the  back  of 
immature  birds  is  very  dark ;  but  I  think  it  is  hardly  likely 
that  tin;  name  refers  to  this  stage  of  the  bird's  life.  The 
adult  bird  is  of  a   greyish-brown  colour,  dashed  with  white 

Moreover,  though  many  eagles  and  hawks  scream  when  tliey  tear  their 
food,  the  Egyptian  vulture  never  does  so. 


..     ,i   .-.    .  rh     ■    '•■"" 


Vwupxb  }\xunan  {icnwe. 


Botov.VolI.pb.74. 
ASSYR  i/i  M     B  i  R  D  c       PJ  3  !  e  TV 


: 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.       61 

on  the  upper  surface.  The  word  may  with  equal  probability 
be  read  as  taS-ba-luv,  and  be  referred  to  the  Hebrew  T^D 
iabal,  "to  bear  or  carry,"  in  allusion  to  this  bird's  habit  of 
carrying  some  of  its  food,  whether  in  the  shape  of  snakes, 
or  tortoises,  or  marrow  bones,  high  into  the  air,  and  the  n 
letting  it  fall,  so  as  to  break  it,  and  be  able  the  more  readily 
to  consume  it.  The  kha-khar-ili,  "raven  of  the  gods,"  may 
allude  to  the  lammergeier,  and  the  third  name  of  carib 
barkhdti,  "the  antelope  attacker,"  may  refer  to  another  habit 
of  this  bird  in  approaching  these  and  other  animals  with 
menacing  violence  and  actual  assault  in  knocking  them  down 
precipices.1  There  is,  however,  the  name  of  a  bird  men- 
tioned which  you  will  see  by-and-by,  where  the  urbaluv 
or  tasbaluv  again  occurs;  it  is  called  its-tsar  Sennit,  i.e.,  bird  of 
a  "  bluish  or  slaty-brown  colour  " ;  it  has  also  the  name  of 
kha-akh,  an  imitative  word  usually  expressive  of  the  Corvidce 
or  crow  family.  This  very  possibly  stands  for  the  same  bird, 
whatever  kind  be  denoted.  The  hha-hhar,  or  kha-akh,  is 
better  suited  to  some  of  the  Corvidm  than  to  the  lammergeier, 
and  the  expression  of  approaching  dead  antelopes  would 
quite  well  suit  the  raven,  as  would  also  the  notion  of  black- 
ness conveyed  by  the  name  of  urbaluv.  We  have,  it  is  true, 
another  name  of  the  raven,  viz.,  a-ri-bu,  but  as  there  are 
two  well-known  species  of  raven,  namely,  the  Comix  cora.r 
and  the  C.  umbrinus,  occurring  frequently  in  Assyria  and 
the  adjacent  lands,  it  is  not  at  all  improbable  that  the 
urbaluv  kha-khar-ili,  or  "  black  raven  of  the  gods,"  stands  for 
the  large  well-known  common  raven,  while  the  latter  bird, 
which  is  of  more  gregarious  habits,  and  will  explain  a  dis- 
puted passage  by-and-bye,  is  denoted  by  urbaluv  khdkli  sdmu, 
i.e..  "  the  black  cawing  bird  with  a  brownish  neck." 

(5.)  As  to  the  bird  denoted  by  the  saradu-sa  cipratu, 
"  terror  of  heaven  (regions),"  Sayce,  "  Syll.,"  428),  as 
meant    by    its    name    of   Sar-rad   cipri   or    lal-la    cip-par  (?) 

1  The  modern  Greeks  tell  curious  stories  of  the  ravenous  nature  of  the 
lammergeier.  Not  only  marrow  bones  -will  it  swallow,  hut'  a  small  ase's  head 
into  the  bargain.  "Whereupon  a  writer  in  the  "  Ibis"  humorously  remarks  that 
the  meeting-  of  the  marrow-bones  and  the  cleaver  in  such  a  situation  must  have 
been  most  affectins. 


The  Birds  or'  fh>  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

(tit!  -IT-  ~?  — YT<T'  r  ^Y  —J1  *T)«  mention  wil1 

be  mack-  b'y-and-by.2 

(6.)  The    zi-i-tm    MY^S  fc£  VH     mfl  ar-ru-hh*-ai 

{^^  -*fll  y{<  II fy)    is    certainly    the    "wolf  bird";   in 

Accadian  this  bird  is  called  nu-um-ma,  '"the  highlander  " 
(^-  J:^Y*  £|Y),  the  ordinary  name  of  the  carnivorous  niamnial 
in  that  language.  Zibu  is  the  Hebrew  —NT,  "a  wolf." 
Mur-ru-khdi  niavbe  the  Arabic  murrukh  ( 1  _* ),  with  the  same 
meaning;  but  I  think  we  should  read  kltar-ru-hhai  as  an 
onomatopoetic  word.  Nothing  more  definite  can  be  learnt 
than  that  these  two  names  denote  some  rapacious  bird, 
whether  vulture,  eagle,  hawk,  buzzard.  &c. 

1 7.  As  instances  of  the  names  of  owls  I  will  select 
three  ;  the  great  eagle  owl.  Bubo  maximus,  or  rather  B.  asca- 
laphtts,  which  in  Asia  appears  to  be  the  representative 
of  the  European  species,  is,  I  think,  denoted  by  the  words 
es-*e-bu  (<«  ^  ^S~)  and  hhu-si-i  (^|<y  *^[\  £fc).  Dr. 
Delitzsch  compares  es-se-pu  with  the  Heb.  F^ttJF  (yan&hupK), 
which  Rabbinical  writers  identify  with  the  kiphupha,  "the 
large  horned  owl."  I  am.  however,  rather  inclined  to  think 
that  both  the  names  of  essepu  and  Musi  are  borrowed  from 
the  Accadian.  The  first  word  denotes  a  "prince."  and 
the  latter  a  '"  pilot,"  or  •'  commander " :  u  the  prince 
of  buds "  would  be  a  very  appropriate  designation  for 
this  majestic  owl.3  The  only  bit  of  word  in  the  Accadian 
column  is  J^fwf;  but  the  full  form  occurs  in  AY.A.L, 
V.  21.  37,  where  it  is  explained  as  "the  bird  of  evil."     The 

1  This  character  is  perhaps  a  misapplied  t^:  (ar). 

-  In  W.A.I.  J  >-^Y  £^^=  ^IM  =  sirrad  cipri;  this  name  must  be  read 
lal-la-ar-tuc,  the  exact  equivalent  to  sar-rad  cipri,  ''  terror  of  regions,"  in 
WJLL,  II.  24,  55,  T^  {l<tl)=$i-ra-du  sa  UB.  "  terror  (T1D)  of  the  district." 
showing  that  here  we  have  to  deal  with  a  bird  of  prey.  The  Accadian  part  of 
this  name,  ^  £-  «i—  S"rT^  adim-ma  (W.A  I.,  Y,  29,  69.  71),  is  equated  with 
**r-  5^*-  £^T£  tar-bu,  growth,  "greatness,"  increase  (!"I2"I). 

3  Es-se-pu  =  sar,  "  king"' ;  see  W.A.I..  V.30,  1.  5.  obv.  KhuS'  =racipu,  "driver," 
"  pilot  'A'.A.I.,  IV.  32.  32  j   cf.  Del.  Tabl.,  Trans.  Bib.  Soc,  III.  p.  543; 

and  Khui  =  Khinnu,  '-rudder  of  ship,""  W.A.I.,  II.  62, 1.  52.  2,  obv. 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monument*  and  Records.       <>H 

eagle  owl,  from  its  large  size  and  fierce  look,  is  a  bird  which 
is  mentioned  in  some  of  the  incantations;  it  is  there  also 
called  itslsur  limutti,  or  "bird  of  evil"  (omen). 

The  essebu  is  mentioned  as  a  bird  of  evil  omen  in  a  tablet 
relating  to  evil  spirits,  W.A.T.,  IV,  pi.  1,  line  20,  21,  where 
the  full  Accadian  form  of  »>-Y  "jV^f  K<<T  K<(T  »~Y<T  occurs 
as  the  equivalent  of  (((  "^  ^»-  essebu.  This  evil  bird,  the 
Great  Eagle  Owl,  wanders  about  the  city  causing  disaster. 
Essebu  has  been  explained  as  meaning  "  a  prince,"  doubtless 
in  reference  to  the  size  and  majestic  appearance  of  this  bird. 
1  ne  reading  of  the  Accadian  name  is  unknown,  but  the 
meaning  is  obvious:  it  is  "the  bird  of  the  god  so  and  so''; 
K<<K<<Y  signifying  "  such  an  one,  I  do  not  care  to  mention 
him."     Compare  Smith's  Assurb.,  p.  2S7. 

m  <TTT   I   ^U  <  -ETI!  A~T  -  » 

Cu  -    um      D.P.      Ai    -u        ta  ah     ina-manamma 

instead     of  Yautah  or    so-and-so 

as-       cun  -su  ana       sar     -u-  ti 

I  appointed   him    to    the   kingdom. 

Perhaps  in  the  instance  of  the  bird,  the  idea  is  that  of  a 
god  or  demon  whose  name  is  too  evil  or  dreadful  to  mention. 
The  reluctance  to  express  an  object,  whether  too  sacred  or 
too  detested  for  pronunciation,  by  its  right  name,  is  well 
known  to  have  prevailed  amongst  the  Jews  ;  we  may,  for 
instance,  compare  with  the  case  of  the  bird-god  before  us, 
that  of  the  name  of  the  pig,  which  the  Jews  held  in  such 
detestation  that  sometimes  they  would  not  designate  the 
unclean  beast  by  its  Hebrew  name  of  khxxzir  O^tH),  but 
replaced  the  odious  word  by  the  euphemism  of  dabar  akhar 
(HJ1N  "fll),  i-e.,  "the  other  thing,"  "the  thing,"  as  being 
too  abominable  to  mention  by  name.  It  may  perhaps  seem 
strange  that  the  same  bird  should  be  regarded  in  the  two  very 
opposite  lights  of  being  both  "a  grand  prince"  and  "an  agent 
of  evil":  but  this  is  what  we  meet  with  in  the  natural  history 


64        77"   Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

lore  of  many  nations:  plain  facts  regarding  the  appearance 
or  habits  of  animals,  mixed  np  with  fanciful  and  superstitions 
notions  held  concerning  them.  "Zoological  Mythology"  is 
full  of  such  instances.  The  same  animal  is  at  one  time  a 
foreteller  of  prosperity,  at  another  of  evil,  according  to  the 
ideas  which  have  been  suggested  to  the  primitive  but 
imaginative  mind  of  man.  dependent  on  certain  phenomena 
which  occur  in  connection  with  the  animal,  either  in  respect 
of  its  peculiar  form  or  colour,  the  noise  emitted  by  it.  the  time 
of  its  emission,  be  it  at  early  dawn,  middle  day,  at  sun-set, 
or  at  midnight,  or  as  relates  to  its  periodic  appearance  or 
disappearance  at  certain  times  of  the  year ;  or,  in  the  case  of 
birds,  according  to  the  mode  of  flight,  whether  to  the  right 
hand  or  to  the  left  of  the  observer.  .V  few  instances  will  serve 
by  way  of  illustration.  The  swallow,  in  Aryan  mythology, 
as  the  joyful  herald  of  spring  and  fertility,  is  regarded  as  a 
propitious  bird :  towards  the  winter  season  it  is  of  sinister 
omen,  as  foretelling  the  approach  of  the  cold  and  inclement 
season.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  stork  and  the  cuckoo 
and  other  migratory  birds.  The  turtle  dove  as  emblematic 
of  spring  is  a  bird  of  good  omen;  as  being  of  a  sombre 
hue,  it  is  a  funereal  bird  in  the  Rigvedas,  the  grey  colour 
-  _  drying  the  nocturnal  or  wintry  darkness  :  see"  Zoological 
Mythology,"  by  Prof.  A.  de  Gubernatis  (II.  p.  226),  to  which 
work  the  reader  is  referred  for  numerous  illustrations  of 
the  same  ideas.  Now  with  respect  to  tins  double  aspect 
of  the  Great  Eagle  Owl.  the  essepu  and  its-tsur  li-m.vi.-ti  of 
the  Assyrian  records,  the  same  occurs  in  ancient  Aryan 
mythology,  and  the  idea  has  persisted,  and  still  exists,  in 
the  traditional  natural  history  lore  of  some  of  the  nations  of 
western  Europe.  The  owl.  from  its  Lootings  or  other  cries 
einitted  during  the  night,  is  still  in  Hungary  called  the  ''bird 
of  death";  in  the  Rigvedas  the  devotee  is  ordered  to  curse 
death  and  the  angel  of  death,  "to  conjure  them  away,"  when 
lie  hears  the  painful  cry  of  this  monster  that  wanders  in  the 
night ;  thus  reminding  us  of  the  passage  already  alluded  to 
in  the  tablet  concerning  evil  spirits,  where  the  e**rhu.  or 
"bird  of  the  god  so-and-so,"  figures  as  an  evil  incubus  on 
the  inhabitants  of  cities  or  villages,  as  well  as  to  the  con- 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.       Q5 

stantly  occurring  form  of  conjuration  or  anathema  in  the 
tablets  of  Exorcism,  "  may  the  spirit  of  heaven  conjure,  may 
the  spirit  of  earth  conjure"!  But  the  owl  as  a  night  wanderer 
symbolises  the  moon  in  Aryan  mythology,  and  thus  aids  to 
dispel  the  terrors  of  night  by  its  brightness ;  hence  it  is 
beneficient,  and  is  called  by  the  Sanskrit  name  of  kdkdris, 
i.e.,  "the  crow's  enemy":  this  latter  bird  from  its  colour 
representing  the  dark  night.  It  is  curious  to  note  that  the 
idea  conveyed  by  the  word  essebu,  "  prince,"  "  king,"  &c, 
still  exists  amongst  the  French  people  as  one  of  the  names 
of  the  Great  Eagle  Owl,  viz.,  Le  Grand  Due ;  while  the 
smaller  species,  the  long-horned  owl,  Otus  vulgaris,  rejoices  in 
the  name  of  Le  Moyen  Due;  and  the  beautiful  little  Scops 
Owl  (Scops  Aldrovandi)  is  called  Le  Petit  Due.  See  Littre's 
"Diet,  de  la  Lang.  Franc.,"  p.  1249,  and  the  "Portraits 
d'Oyseaux."  The  Italians  also  used  the  same  word  Duco  or 
Dugo  for  this  owl.1  The  same  ducal  eminence  appears  in  the 
pages  of  Aldrovandi  under  the  heading  "  De  Bitbone,"  where 
(lib.  VIII,  cap.  2)  in  the  middle  of  the  page  there  occurs  the 
word  DIGNITAS  in  grand  Roman  characters.  "  What  word,"  asks 
Broderip  ("Zool.  Res.;' p.  96),  "  can  be  more  appropriate? 
What  presence  among  the  feathered  bipeds  is  more  dignified 
than  that  of  the  Great  Horned  Owl,  Le  Grand  Due,  as  he  is 
most  appropriately  named  in  the  kingdom  of  Clovis  ?  Who 
can  look  at  his  feathered  highness,  as  he  sits  solemn  and 
sedate,  without  inquiring — 

"  What  doth  gravity  out  of  his  bed  at  midnight  "  ? 

1  We  have  evidence  to  show  that  this  ducal  title  attached  to  this  owl  as  early 
as  in  the  year  1300 ;  for  in  the  articles  against  Bernard  Saget,  recorded  by 
Du  Cange,  we  read  as  follows  :  "  Aves  elegerunt  Eegem  quemdam  vocatam  Due, 
et  est  avis  pulchrior  et  major  inter  onmes  aves,  et  accidit  semel  quod  Pica 
conquesta  f  uerat  de  Accipitre  dicto  Domino  Regi,  et  congregatis  avibus,  dictus 
Bex  nihil  dixit  nisi  quod  flavit  (flevit  ?).  Vel  (veluti)  idem  de  rege  nostro  dicebat 
ipse  Episcopus,  qui  ipse  est  pulchrior  homo  de  mundo,  et  tamen  nihil  scit  facere, 
nisi  respicere  homines."  I  quote  the  above  from  De  G-ubernatis,  II,  p.  245,  note. 
The  learned  writer  suggests,  instead  of  the  word  "  flavit  "  (flevit  ?).  I  suspect 
that  "  flavit"  is  the  correct  reading.  In  addition  to  the  ordinary  hollow  tone  of 
this  owl's  voice,  when  angry  it  bristles  its  feathers,  and  emits  a  peculiar  sound, 
difficult  to  describe,  but  which  partakes  of  the  characters  of  something  between 
hissing  and  blowing. 

A  modern  writer  thus  speaks  of  the  awe-inspiring  voice  of  the  "  Grand 
Duke,"  as  he  calls  this  bird :   "  By  the  last  fortnight  in  March  the  eagle  owls 

Vol.  VIII,  5 


66        The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Record*. 

i  8. )  The  mar-ra-tuv  (s^\-  £Z^\  >^HD  and  i^4tur  tu-ba-ci 
(jrY  /*~~*  >-^^T  ""^T  (]>z![)  *s  doubtless  another  species  of 
owl.  The  first  name  may  well  be  referred  to  the  Heb.  ""HE 
'•  to  be  bitter  or  sad,"  and  denote  a  species  of  owl  which  is 
peculiarly  characterised  by  its  mournful  wailings  ;  this  is  the 
little  owl  {Athene  glaux),  whose  low-wailing  note  Dr.  Tristram 
speaks  of  as  sine  to  be  heard  at  sunset,  while  the  little  comical 
fellow  himself  is  "  seen  bowing  and  keeping  time  to  his  own 
music  ";  but  the  common  Scops  owl  (S.  gin),  and  the  little  owl, 
possessed  of  horns,  which  the  other  has  not,  is,  I  think,  also 
included  in  the  Assyrian  names.  Though  these  little  owls 
are  not  often  met  with,  there  is  not  a  garden  of  any  size  in 
Persia  which  does  not  contain  a  couple,  at  least,  making  night 
"  hideous  with  their  melancholy  cry."  The  words  its-tsnr 
tu-ba-ci  I  interpret  as  the  "  bird  of  the  dust  or  ground,"  from 
the  Hebrew  word  p2Nt  "  dust."  Now  the  first-named  species 
of  owl,  the  little  Athene  glaux,  abounds  in  the  great  desert 
plains  of  the  Persian  highlands,  and  is  often  gregarious,  five 
or  six  being  often  seen  together ;  being  more  diurnal  in  cha- 
racter than  most  owls,  it  was  very  likely  to  have  often  been 
observed  by  the  Assyrians ;  moreover,  it  lives  in  holes  during 
the  day,  and  sometimes  breeds  in  holes  in  the  ground,  so  that 
the  owl  of  the  dust  is  literally  exact  as  a  description  of  this 
species.  I  may  also  mention  that  Buxtorf,  in  his  Lexicon, 
under  the  word  abah  (p^NtV  gives  the  word  abkuth  (/TlplN), 
which  is  explained  by  "  luctatio  in  pulvere  ";   so  that,  in  any 


commence  preparations  for  breeding.  At  this  season  may  be  heard  their  hollow, 
muffled  cry  of  '  Poohoo,  poohoo,'  which  is  distinguishable  at  a  great  distance 
through  the  woods:  and  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  that  the  timid  are  frightened  at 
it.  In  the  silent  dark  recesses  of  the  mountain  forest,  a  variety  of  noises,  well 
calculated  to  make  one's  flesh  creep,  fall  upon  the  ear :  the  shrill,  mocking 
laugh,  a  sound  as  of  snarling  hounds  ;  the  whoop  of  the  hunter,  the  snorting  of 
horses  :  these  are  all  calculated  to  impress  the  uneducated  and  superstitious  with 
the  truth  of  the  legend  of  the  wild  huntsman.  Even  to  the  ear  of  the  better 
informed  these  hideous  cries,  the  loud  screech  of  the  female,  or  the  '  poohoo ' 
of  the  male,  intermingled  with  the  snapping  of  the  beak  and  curious  wailings, 
sound  somewhat  weird  ;  and  the  boldest  of  mortals  can  scarcely  repress  a  cold 
shudder,  when  a  company  of  these  forest  spirits  favour  him  with  one  of  their 
demoniacal  nocturnal  concerts."     (Brehm's  "  Bird  Life,"  p.  567,  &c.) 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.       67 

case,  the  name  of  its-tsur  tu-ba-ci  is  admirably  suited  to  one 
or  other  or  both  of  these  two  small  owls. 

(9.)  The  screech  owl,  or  common  barn  owl  (Strix Jlammea), 
is  very  probably  represented  by  the  ka-du-u  (A-T  £^T  ^TTT*1) 
and  ac-cu-u  (*~+-]*~\  T^T  ^T|TsO  of  the  bilingual  lists.  The 
second  name  appears  to  be  imitative  of  the  bird's  hoot,  for 
though  the  screech  owl  does  not  usually  emit  the  long  mono- 
tonous hoot  of  the  tawny  oavI  (Syrnium  stridida),  yet  it  does 
occasionly  do  so.  The  Assyrian  kadu  is  identical  with  the 
kadyu  (NHp)  of  the  Targum,  winch  is  described  as  having 
its  eyes,  not  at  the  side  of  the  head  as  in  birds  generally,  but 
in  front  like  men,  and  as  having  a  face  like  that  of  the  cat. 
This  well-known  appearance  arises  from  the  arrangement  of 
the  feathers  in  front  of  the  head,  the  facial  disk  in  the  white 
or  screech  owl  being  very  large  and  complete.  It  resembles 
a  cat,  too,  in  respect  of  its  beautifully  soft  plumage ;  this 
character,  like  the  soft  scales  of  the  puss-moth,  giving  to  it 
the  name  of  the  "  feathered  cat,"  by  which  it  is  sometimes 
known.  This  species  is  not  known  to  occur  in  Persia,  but 
Tristram  says  it  is  very  common  in  Palestine ;  and  Ainsworth 
also  mentions  it  as  one  of  the  commonest  owls  of  Turkey. 

(10.)  There  are  apparently  three  or  four  names  which 
occur  in  the  list  as  those  of  woodpeckers.  Thus  we  have 
ci-K-luv  «Jg[  -£gjy  £+)  or  cu-U-li  Qgf  *fgfl  -^gfT)' 
represented  by  the  Accadian  GIS-khu  (izf  *^]<-]\  probably 
"  wood-bird,"  for  the  word  is  incomplete ;  the  Assyrian 
names  are  evidently  onomatopoetic,  expressive  of  the  wood- 
pecker's peculiar  note.  Another  name  in  Assyrian  is  an-pa-tuv 
(>->f~  jfc  J^T^),  evidently  allied  to  the  Hebrew  nuph 
( ?V0),  "  to  wave  up  and  down  "  (compare  nophet,  "  a  chopping 
down"),  an  admirable  description  of  the  peculiar  waving 
flight  of  many,  if  not  all,  of  these  birds.1  The  Accadian  name 
is   GIS-SIK  (izl  >~/^),    which  is,  literally,  "bright,"  and  is 

1  A  philologist  pure  and  simple  would  perhaps  identify  the  anpatur  with 
the  Heb.  HS3X  which  it  resembles  in  sound.  There  is  very  little  doubt  that  the 
andphah  is  the  "heron";  but  the  "bright  meteor  bird  of  the  wood"  of  th? 
Ari-u'lian  column  would  by  no  means  suit  the  heron. 


68        The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  cuid  Records. 

well  suited  to  either  the  green,  pied,  or  other  species  of 
bright-winged  Picidce. 

"We  are  told  (W.A.L,  V,  11,  37,  a.  b.  c,  and  elsewhere)  that 
the  character  fz)  *-^£^  is  to  be  read  hunt,  "brightness"; 
so  that  the  Accadian  Gls"  6lR  applied  to  a  bird  may  denote 
merely  its  "  bright "  colour.  "We  must  not,  however,  forget 
that  the  full  Accadian  word  is  clearly  a  combination  of  the  two 
characters  SiY  gii,  "wood,"  and  ^^^  fir,  "light,"  "meteor," 
&c,  so  that  the  idea  of  "  wood  "  originally  held  a  place,  most 
likely,  in  the  signification  of  this  composite  group ;  the 
character  J:Y  (^T<y)  for  the  cililuv,  Wr.A.L,  II,  37,  1.  11,  61, 
denotes  "  wood,"  and  suggests  "  woodpecker ";  so  that  the 
name  Gis  sir  KHU  may  originally  have  meant  the  "  wood 
bright "  bird. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  woodpecker  played  an  important 
part  in  ancient  mythology,  as  being  the  personification  of  fire 
and  lightning — sharing  with  other  birds  in  this  respect — as 
the  Vedic  fire-bhuranyus,  the  Hellenic  Phoi'oneus,  the  Latin 
P'tcus  Feronius,  "  the  Avis  incendiaria,  the  picus  that  carries 
thunder."  The  fire,  which  the  bird  was  supposed  to  bring 
from  heaven,  was  kindled  in  the  wood  by  the  boring  of  its 
beak  into  the  stem  or  branch  of  a  tree;  and  perhaps  the  bright 
red  top  of  the  male  woodpecker's  head  also  suggested  "fire" 
to  the  primitive  man.  It  is  not  a  very  great  stretch  of  the 
imagination  to  see  in  the  old  Babylonian  linear  form  of 
the   character  *~^£^  for  a  "  meteor,"  viz.,   \ /\ or 

^> \^> a  rude   representation  of   a   fiery  meteor,  so 

that  the  translation  of  this  Accadian  bird-name,  whether  we 
regard  it  as  the  bright  active  denizen  of  woody  glades,  or  as 
embodying  in  some  of  its  characteristics  the  mythological 
notion  of  the  fire-bringer,  may  not  inaptly  be  given  as  "  the 
meteor  bird "  of  the  woods.  It  is  true  that,  thanks  to  the 
genius  of  Kuhn,  Max  Miiller,  De  Gubernatis,  Steinthal, 
G.  Cox,  Kelly,  and  others,  we  know  of  these  mythological 
legends,  with  their  explanations,  chiefly  as  they  pertain  to 
the  great  Aryan  race,  but  when  we  consider  how,  in  all 
primitive  times,  the  mind  of  man  is  similarly  constituted,  and 


:> 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.       69 

likely  to  be  affected  by  similar  natural  phenomena,1  only 
presenting  modified  forms  of  the  same  ideas,  and  when 
we  reflect  how  eagerly,  patiently,  and  religiously  the  old 
star-gazing  people  of  Chaldea  studied  the  various  aspects 
of  the  heavens,  and  the  forms  of  various  animals,  we 
may  readily  imagine  that  they  too  had  their  mythological 
systems,  which  admit  of  an  explanation  similar  to  that  of 
Indo-European  legend;  indeed,  as  Mr.  Sayce  ("Chaldean 
Genesis,"  p.  123,  ed.  1880)  has  shown,  the  story  of  the  god 
Lugalturda,  who  was  transformed  into  a  Zu  bird,  or  "  divine 
storm-bird,"  for  stealing  the  destiny  tablets,  is  only  another 
edition  of  the  old  Hellenic  legend  of  Prometheus,  who  stole 
the  lightning  from  heaven.  The  historical  development  of 
mythology  among  the  Hebrews  has  been  treated  by  Dr.  Gold- 
zieher,  and  though  one  may  hesitate  to  adopt  some  of  his 
theories  and  explanations,  he  has  abundantly  shown  that  the 
Semitic  mind  was  able,  if  not  always  to  invent,  at  least  to 
appropriate  with  modifications  certain  pre-existing  ideas,  and 
that  Hebrew  myth  enters  deeply  into  many  of  their  stories. 
But  the  admission  of  the  mythical  element  in  any  account 
relating  to  birds  or  other  animals  by  no  means  implies  the 
necessary  elimination  of  all  natural  history  matter  of  fact,  or 
frustrates  the  attempt  to  identify  the  creature.  The  animal, 
from  some  peculiarity  in  habit,  colour,  form,  or  other  character, 
in  fact  created  the  myth  or  the  superstition  held  with  regard 
to  it.  The  large  size  and  fierce  aspect  of  the  great  owl,  for 
instance,  produced  in  the  Accadian  mind  the  idea  of  majesty; 
hence  it  was  called  "  the  prince."2  Its  melancholy  voice  and 
nocturnal  habits  suggested  the  idea  of  "  bird  of  evil,"  or 
"  bird  of  the  deity  so-and-so."  Owls  from  time  immemorial 
have  been  regarded  as  foreboders  of  death  and  disaster.  The 
expressions  of  Virgil,  "  ferali  carmine  Bubo,"  "  feralia  Bubo 

1  Goldzieher  (Introd.,  p.  xvi,  R.  Martineau's  Translation,  1877)  lias  well 
expressed  this  idea  in  the  following  words  :  "I  start  from  the  conviction  that 
the  Myth  is  something  universal,  that  the  faculty  of  forming  it  cannot  d  priori 
be  denied  to  any  race  as  such,  and  that  the  coincidence  of  mythical  ideas  and 
modes  of  expression  is  the  result  of  the  uniformity  of  the  psychological  process 
which  is  the  foundation  of  the  creation  of  myths  in  all  races." 

-  According  to  M.  Littre,  this  owl  received  its  names  of  Due  from  its  being 
thought  to  have  served  as  a  guide  to  other  birds.  We  have  already  seen  that  the 
Accadian  Jchuii  means  "  a  pilot,"  or  "  steerer." 


70        J'/ic  Birds  of  the  Asst  rian  Monuments  and  Records. 

damna  canens,"  come  at  once  to  the  menioiy.  The  veiy  fact 
of  the  occasional  appearance  of  this  funereal  bird — generally 
a  1<  rver  i  f  b<  -eluded  localities — in  the  neighbourhood  of  cities, 
increased  the  impending  calamity,  as  Pliny  say-.  "Noctis 
monstrum  nee  cantu  aliquo  vocalis.  sed  gemitu.  Itaque  in 
urbibus  ant  omnino  in  luce  visas,  diruui  ostentum  est."  {Nat. 
Hist,  x.  12.)  Similarly  Shakspeare  and  other  poets  allude  to 
the  owl  as  a  bird  of  evil : 

'•  Out  on  ye.  owls,  nothing-  but  songs  of  death." 

To  the  red  Indian  of  America  the  Virginian  horned  owl  is 
equally  a  source  of  superstitious  terror.  But  notwithstanding 
all  the  prevalent  superstition  concerning  owls,  these  birds 
had  then  bright  side,  as  we  have  seen,  and  one  small  species 
was  sacred  to  Athene,  the  goddess  of  wisdom,  and  its  night- 
flight  was  a  good  sign  to  the  Athenians  that  the  goddess  pro- 
tected their  city.  We  need  therefore  not  be  surprised  to  find  in 
the  Assyrian  records  the  same  bird  designated  as  "prince  " 
or  "pilot "  on  the  one  side,  and  "bird  of  evil"  on  the  other.1 
Another  name,  dulimmassat  (£j^T  ^T*-  >^-  V").  repre- 
sented by  the  Accadian  seb-tir-ra,"  the  jungle  shepherd-bird" 

(j!tYBTT  ^ttt?  ^TD'  is-  *  tllink'  meantfor  a  woodpecker. 

The  Accadian  name,  "  shepherd-bird  of  the  jungle,  or  planta- 
tion." may.  without  any  stretch  of  the  imagination,  allude  to 
woodpeckers,  which  the  shepherd,  hi  his  wanderings  among' 
the  jungles,  interspersed  with  beautiful  glades,  or  grassy  pas- 
turages, might  often  have  observed.  The  Pious  syriacus, 
which  is  the  Asiatic  representative  of  our  larger  pied  wood- 
pecker (P.  major),  wonld  well  suit  this  description,  though  of 
course  other  birds  of  this  genus  having  like  habits  would 
doubtless  be  included  in  the  names  given  above. 

1  I  have  purposely  dwelt  on  this  marked  recognition  in  zoological  mytho- 
logy of  a  two-fold  phase,  implying  opposite  characters  in  the  same  creature, 
because  in  the  discussion  that  followed  the  reading  of  my  paper,  it  was  thought 
by  some  of  the  Members  present  that  where  birds  or  other  animals  are  mentioned 
in  incantations  or  mythical  legends,  all  attempts  at  identification  are  futile  :  as 
if  all  natural  history,  in  the  popular  sense  of  the  term,  whether  among  the  ancients 
or  the  moderns,  was  not  mixed  up  with  fact  and  fiction !  The  presence  of 
legend  does  not  preclude  that  of  fact ;  indeed,  legend  would  often  not  exist 
without  fact.  The  natural  history  fact -characteristics  of  the  great  ow' 
instance,  have  created  the  superstitions  with  regard  to  the  ''direful  bird  of  the 
unmentionable  goddess,"  and  help  to  explain  them. 


The  Birch  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.        71 

(11.)  The  Cuckoo  (Cuculus  canorus)  was  known  to  the 
Assyrians  by  the  names  of  khu-u-ku  (»~T<T  ^TTT^"  >^>^)  an(^ 
kha-zu-u  (Jf^(  *~*~\Y  ^-flT*-)'  ^ne  nrs^  name  is  imitative  of 
the  well-known  note  of  the  bird ;  the  second  name  I  refer  to 
the  Hebrew  khozeh  (Htn),  a  "prophet,"  in  allusion  to  the 
periodic  returns  of  this  bird  to  the  countries  which  it  visits, 
as  being  the  foreteller  or  announcer  of  Spring  and  refreshing 
warm  showers,  as  I  have  already  mentioned ;  so  the  swallow 
or  swift  was  also  the  proclaimer  (nabu)  of  returning  warmth. 
The  Accadian  expression  su  lu  (  izf  *"»m)  "hand,"  and 
"man,"  refers  to  the  form,  more  or  less  prehensile,  of  the 
cuckoo's  foot.1  The  cuckoo  is  a  migratory  bird  in  Palestine, 
Syria,  and  Mesopotamia,  and  in  the  northern  parts  of  Persia, 
but  in  southern  Persia  it  is  probably  resident  during  the  winter 
mouths.  The  great  spotted  cuckoo  (Coccystes  glandarius) 
occurs  also,  sometimes  extremely  abundantly,  in  these 
countries. 

(12.)  The  nam-bu-ub-tuv  (-f^  "£*-  £^:  J^HQ  or 
a-dam-mu-mu  (|J  -jV^^Y  >^  »^)  is  referred  by  Dr.  Delitzsch 
to  the  lapwing  or  peewit  (Vanellus  cristatus).  The  former  is 
probably  an  imitative  word,  and  may  be  compared  with  the 
Arabic  ndbdha  (JJo),  "to  bark,"  a  root  which  has  given  use 
to  sounds  produced  by  various  animals,  as  the  lion,  dog,  and 
stag.  Certainly,  the  word  nambub  is  not  a  bad  imitation  of 
the  noise  produced  by  the  lapwing,  as  it  strikes  its  wings 
together  during  the  breeding  season  when  disturbed,  causing 
the  well-known  thud  or  dull  hollow  sound  which  every  one 
must  have  frequently  observed.  The  second  name  of 
a-dam-mu-mu  may  be  compared  with  the  Hebrew  feminine 
adjective  adummdh  (ilft'TN),  "ruddy,"  root  D"TN  "to  be  red"; 
compare  the  pdrdh,  adummdh,  "red  heifer"  of  Numb,  xix,  2,  or 
the  6u§  ddam,  "bay  horse"  of  Zech.  i,  8.  Although  the 
lapwing  cannot  be  called  a  red  bird,  the  Assyrian  word  may 

1  The  cuckoos  are  zygodactylous  birds,  with  broad  and  flat  toes,  which  are 
arranged  in  pairs,  two  before  and  two  behind,  formed  for  grasping  a  branch 
firmly,  though  not  like  the  woodpeckers,  adapted  for  climbing  ;  the  outer  toe  is 
reversible,  so  as  with  the  first  to  oppose  the  rest  in  grasping :  hence  from  the 
grasping  powers  the  foot  suggested  to  the  Accadians  "  The  Man's  Hand  Bird." 


72       The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

very  likely  refer  to  the  tail  covers  of  the  lapwing,  conspicuous 
by  their  rich  reddish-chestnut  colour,  and  thus  have  given 
name  to  the  bird.     Freytag  in  bis  Arabic  Lexicon,  however, 

gives    the    word    nobhah   v_IjOJ  as    upupa  gemebunda,    "the 

hoopoe,"  which  is  of  a  decided  red  or  buff  colour  in  ils  whole 
plumage,  and  thai  may  be  the  species  indicated.     As  to  the 

sounds  produced  by  different   birds,  it   must   lie   remembered 

thai  the  same  bird  often  produces  very  dissimilar  sounds; 
the  "houp,  houp"  of  the  hoopoe,  whence  its  name,  marked 
out  softly,  but  rapidly,  may  remind  one  of  the  note  of  the 
dove,  while  a  writer  in  Hie  "Ibis"  (vol.  iii,  p.  255)  describes 
its  note  as  a  kind  of  hissing  sound.  The  Accadian  part  of 
the  tablet  is  broken,  and  gives  us  no  help. 

(13.)  The  swallow,  and  perhaps  also  the  swift,  have  several 
names.  This  bird — I  think  the  swallow  ( /  /  i  m  ndo  urbica)  i&more 
especially  meant — was  called  by  the  Assyrians  the  as-ci-ci-tuv 
(^P  ^Ir-T  ^Ir^!  >-^I^)'  ^1C  es-ci-ni-ni-two  or  escilituv, 
borrowed  from  the  AccadiaE  (£^T  ^I^J  J5I  £ff^  ^1^)"'  ^ 
was  also  called  tsi-li-li-tuv  (^fl  *"t^JT  *"t^J|  >-^It)' 
the  kka-tsi-ba-ruv  (yy<  £.£]]  ^^f  >^)>  and  the  bu-M-li 
("^S-  >-^^|Y  ^^^yy).  Tsililituv  is  evidently  imitative 
of  the  swallow's  note,  and  is  to  be  referred  to  the 
Hebrew  772  "  to  tingle,"  and  tsMtsal  ^4?$),  "a  tinkling 
instrument,"  as  a  "cymbal."  The  same  may  be  said  of 
the    word    ascicituv,    with    which    the     Arabic    schacsh&ka 

(  jA:'i£> )  "  pipivit  passer,"  is  to  be  compared.  Escininituv 
is  obscure.  With  this  name  is  associated  another,  bu-li-li, 
with  which,  perhaps,  the  Arabic  balled  (  <5Ly  "moist  wind 
bringing  rain  and  fertility"  (Hebrew7  7^1  " rain "), may  be 
compared;  or  the  Assyrian  word  may  be  referred  to  the 
Hebrew  Tvl  bdlal  (with  which,  however,  the  above-named 
Arabic  word  is  connected)  "to  mix,"  to  "compose,"  hence 
"to  speak  confusedly,"  and  applied  to  a  bird,  "to 
chatter."  Gesenius  gives  conj.  II  of  the  Arabic  balbal, 
"balbutivit"    "'confuse    locutus    est    psittaci     instar,     "he 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.       73 

Bpoke  confusedly  like  a  parrot."  There  still  remain  other 
names  of  the  swallow:  there  is  the  sum-tsi-tsi  yum-u, 
"the  day  swallow,"  and  the  mat-ti-ib-nu  tsal-mu,  "the  night 
i How,''  which  latter  name  Dr.  Delitzsch  thinks  may 
refer  to  the  "goat  swallow"  or  "night-jar";  sum-tsi-tsi  is 
doubtless  the  Hebrew  ?.lii>mets  (Y^ttJj,  "  a  sharp  quick  sound," 
another  imitative  sound,  while  mat-ti-ib-nu  (\^  >~ <T<  T^J  *^-) 
may  well  be  compared  with  the  Arabic  ttihina  (^sj\,  "he  saw 
acutely,"  in  allusion  to  the  quick  sight  of  the  night-jar, 
which  can  see  to  catch  its  insed  food  quite  late  in  the 
summer  evenings.  The  swallow  was  also  called  tga-pirtuv. 
This  nam'-  occurs  both  in  the  Accadian  and  the  Assyrian 
columns.  I  fancy  that  it  is  also  imitative,  and  borrowed 
by  the  Accadians  from  the  Assyrians.  The  NAM  KHU 
(Vy<y^  ^y<|J  "destiny  bird,"  of  the  Chaldean  Deluge 
Tablet,  phonetically  *>^yy  * — ^TT* —  *^^  •>  ti-nun-tuv,  is  re- 
presented by  the  Rabbinical  word  s^muutha.  ('^$^^2?l2p,),  and 
also  denotes  a  "swallow."  The  name  kha-Ui-ba-ru  is 
definitely  explained  in  the  fifth  vol.  of  W.A.I..  PL  27, 
3  obverse,  line  39,  by  the  Accadian  khu  rub  ba  cu  GUSDB  ra 
(*-y<y  ^t"^"!  £eI  *Tt  ^^T^TT)^^^  is  "some  insectivorous 
bird,  which  makes  its  nest  on  beams."  Another  Accadian  name 
is  run  oil  (^y^^>yyy  £j),  "  the  tail-closer."  The  common 
swallow  (Hirundo  urbiea)  seems  to  be  prominently  intended 
by  the  above  words;  but  otln  r  -peoies,  as  house  martins,  sand 
martins.  &c.,  are  perhaps  also  included  in  the  name  nam  KHU, 
or  "  destiny  bird."  The  swift  also,  a  bird  in  general  outward 
form  resembling  a  swallow,  though  not  now  classed  even  in 
the  same  order,  probably  is  included.  In  Palestine  the  swift 
is  more  of  a  true  migrant  than  the  swallow,  but  in  Assyria 
both  species  are  only  local  summer  residents.  The  common 
swift  (Cypselus  apus)  breeds  in  certain  localities  in  Persia  in 
enormous  numbers.  From  the  middle  of  April  till  the  end  of 
October,  near  the  city  of  Shiraz,  the  air  every  fine  evening  is 
filled  with  swifts,  m-ossing  and  recrossing  in  every  direction, 
chasing  the  insects,  which,  towards  sunset,  rise  from  the  tanks 
of  water  which  occupy  the  middle  of  every  courtyard     "  No 


74        The  Bird*  of  the  Assyrian  Monument?  and  Records. 

where  else."  writes  Major  St.   John,  "have  I  seen  birds  in 
such  numbers." 

(14.)  The  bulbul,  or  Asiatic  nightingale,  so  celebrated  in 
Persian  story,  is  perhaps  denoted  by  the  Assyrian  name  of 
tsu-la-mu  (£-gE  -£]  ^)  Or  tsa-lam-du  (}}  <<*-]]  ^5|), 
and  by  that  of  "  the  bird  of  night"  {its-tsur  must).  The  first 
and  second   names   are   clearly  identical  with  the  Hebrew 

tsdlam,  Arabic zuhnat  (<£♦!]?)  k* shade,"  or  "darkness."  Musi  is 

the  Arabic  masd  f*H^)  "  evening."  The  bird  of  the  evening 
and  the  night  may,  of  course,  be  intended  to  denote  the 
nightingale,  and  I  should,  without  hesitation,  have  considered 
this  bird  to  be  the  its-tsur  must,  "bird  of  the  night,"  of 
the  trilingual  tablet,  if  it  was  supported  by  the  Accadian. 
The  Accadian  name  in  the  column  which  stood  as  the 
equivalent  of  tsalamu  and  tsalamdu  is  lost,  by  reason  of  the 
fracture  of  the  tablet :  but  in  the  next  line  the  its-tsur  musi 
is  represented  by  the  Accadian  word  A  (Ty)  "  water."  It 
is  evident,  though  there  is  a  fracture-gap  in  this  part  of  the 
trilingual  tablet,  that  the  whole  of  the  Accadian  name  of  this 
bird  remains  ;  and  we  read,  as  the  synonym  of  its-tsur  musi, 
the  name  of  A  KHU,  "  water-bud,'"  very  indefinite  indeed. 
Had  the  name  immediately  above  this  one  been  entire,  and 
able  to  give  us  the  Accadian  rendering  of  the  Assyrian 
tsalamu.  we  might  perhaps  have  had  some  certain  clue  to 
identification :  for  the  nightingale  can  hardly  be  sufficiently 
aquatic  in  its  habits  of  frequenting  trees  and  bushes  by  the 
river  or  pool,  to  merit  the  simple  name  of  "  water  bird," 
without  some  limitation.  Therefore,  the  claims  of  another 
night-singing  warbler  naturally  present  themselves  for  recog- 
nition here.  Such  a  bird,  which  will  completely  fulfil  all  the 
necessary  conditions  is  found  in  the  sedge-warbler.  The 
same  almost  may  be  said  of  the  reed-warbler,  but  I  have 
another  place  for  this  little  songster,  in  which  I  think  it  will 
rest  as  comfortably  as  if  it  were  in  its  own  beautiful  nest. 
The  sedge-warbler  (Salicaria  phragmitis)  is  always  found  near 
water.  It  sings  late  at  night,  and  early  in  the  morning  before 
it  is  light.  Its  notes,  though  somewhat  hurried  and  confused, 
arc  sweet  and  varied.      They  are  often  mistaken  by  persons, 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.       15 

not  familiar  with  the  notes  of  the  nightingale,  for  those  of  that 
bird ;  and  I  have  frequently  been  called  up  at  night  time  in 
summer  to  listen  to  the  song  of  the  sedge-warbler,  whose  notes 
have  been  thus  mistaken.  I  cannot  help  thinking,  therefore, 
that  the  claims  of  this  little  bird  to  represent  "  the  water 
songbird  of  the  night,"  are  certainly  equal  to,  if  not  better, 
than  those  of  the  nightingale;  if  the  sedge  -  warbler  is  a 
native  of  Mesopotamia. 

(15.)  The  oriole  or  golden  thrush  (Oriolus  galbula)  is 
very  probably  denoted  by  the  Assyrian  words  ma-ac-lat 
up -la  (£jY  >^T^  V"  J^t^  *~^f)  anc^  khu-ra-tsd-ni-tuv 
(>-Y<T  ^^T!  n  Vr  £ui  J^TB)  ;  mdclat  is  the  participle  of  a-ca-lu, 
"  to  eat  "  (Heb.  ^5^),  and  up-luis  a  "worm"  or  vermiform 
creature,  as  the  larva  of  an  insect :  it  is  to  be  referred  to  the 
Arabic  root  Jj  "  pediculos  venatus  fuit,"  hence  any  small 
worm-like  creatine  found  in  chinks  or  holes  („?  "  to 
cleave").  Mdclat  upla  then  signifies  "a  worm -eater." 
Khuratsanituv  is  from  the  Assyrian  word  khurats,  "gold" 
(Heb.  Y^H),  and  the  whole  name  would  be  "  the  golden 
coloured  worm-eater."  This  answers  to  the  golden  oriole, 
whose  food  consists  of  caterpillars,  worms,  and  insects,  as 
well  as  fruit,  of  which,  like  its  relative  the  thrush,  it  is  very 
fond.  The  Accadian  part  left  is  MU  UN  DU,  which  is  pro- 
bably "  a  worm." 

(16.)  "The  bird  of  the  papyrus,"  its-tsur  ci-i-Si1 
(t^  ^^  ^l^J  *-£  **~m)'  *s  evidently  a  singing  or  chirping 
bird ;  from  its  other  name,  tsi-tsil-du  (Ztz\]  * — TTTT* —  ^D' 
some  warbling  bird  of  the  reeds  is  denoted,  and  no  more 
suitable  one  can  be  found,  I  imagine,  than  the  reed  warbler 
(Salicaria  arundinaceti),  whose  singularly  constructed  nest, 
supported  by  four  or  five  stems  of  the  large  reed  (Arundo 
phragmitis),  or  on  those  of  the  papyrus,  must  have  been 
observed  by  the  Assyrians,  who  appear  to  have  taken  special 
notice  of  the  various  kinds  of  reeds  and  tall  grasses  common 
to  the  marshy  places  of  the  lowlands  of  Mesopotamia.2     The 

1  The  Accadian  is  gi-zi  {-^-^  HfT^)'  fr°m  which  ci&  is  borrowed.     In 
W.A.I.,  V,  32,  62,  cisu  is  explained  as  "  the  reed  of  Egypt,"  i.e.,  the  papyrus. 
-  See  the  long  lists  of  reeds  and  grasses  in  W.A.I. ,  V,  32  ;  II,  21. 


76        The  Bird*  of  t/o-  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

nest,  formed  of  the  seed-branches  of  the  reeds  and  long  grass, 
with  a  little  wool  and  hairs,  is  so  deep  that  the  eggs  do  not 
roll  out  when  the  reeds  are  shaken  by  the  wind.  The  Accadian 
word  is  KIP  SLT,  of  uncertain  meaning.  The  reed  warbler 
and  the  sedge  warbler  are  both  found  in  similar  situations, 
but  the  latter  bird  builds  its  nest  near  the  ground,  and  seldom 
makes  use  of  reeds  as  a  support ;  but  see  Appendix. 

(17.)  Various  kinds  of  insectorial  birds,  such  as  the  Frm- 
giUidce,  "finches,"  and  Emberi:ida>,  -'buntings  and  sparrows," 
are  included  under  the  head  of  ''buds  injurious  to  the 
crops,"  and  were  used  as  food,  as  I  have  already  mentioned. 
I  think,  however,  that  our  little  impudent  friend,  the  common 
sparrow,  is  definitely  spoken  of  under  the  name  of  di-ik-di-hu 

«y^  -y<y^  <y^z  jr^>  or  duc-duc-eu  jpfl*  t|f*  igf) 

and  its-tsur  ia-me-di;  the  first  two  names  are  evidently 
imitative  of  the  bird's  chirp,  while  the  last  may  be  rendered 
"bird  of  destruction,"  ia-me-di  being  referred  to  the  Hebrew 
root  shdmad  (T2&*),  "to  destroy"  or  "lay  waste,"  notwith- 
standing the  UJ  instead  of  the  D  ;  or  the  Assyrian  sa-<         ,. 

may  be  connected  with  the  Hebrew  TlD  sod,  "  an  assembly," 
in  allusion  to  the  congregatory  habits  of  sparrows.  The 
opinion  of  Dr.  Delitzsch,  however,  may  be  preferable  to  any 
of  these  conjectures;  he  compares  the  Arabic  savida  or  asvad, 
"to  be  black,"  and  as  in  Arabic  one  name  of  the  sparrow  is 
associated  with  its  colour,  its-tsit7*  savedi  of  the  list  may  be 
rendered  "bird  of  dark  colour,"  and  be  identified  with  the 
sparrow  on  that  account.  Still  the  idea  of  destruction  to  crops 
caused  by  its  devouring  properties  is  certainly  implied  in  the 
Accadian  ^Tyf,  the  representative  of  the  Assyrian  word. 

The  sparrow,  as  an  agricultural  pest  in  the  destruction 
which  it  causes  to  various  crops,  figures  conspicuously  on  the 
Egyptian  monuments.  The  little  bird,  which  stands  as  a 
determinative  of  "  evil"  in  the  hieroglyphic  system,  without 
doubt  denotes  a  sparrow,  as  Champollion  first  showed.  This 
has  been  called  in  question  by  Sir  G.  "Wilkinson  ("  Anc.  Egypt," 
V,  p.  213,  3rd  ed.),  who  believed  the  bird  to  be,  not  a  sparrow, 
but  a  water-wagtail  (MotacUla).  In  connection  with  the  fact 
of  this  hieroglyphic  bird  being  regarded  "  as  the  type  of  an 


Trans.Soc.Bill.Jlrdv.VoLW 


xtouw  i   pO.h'Z. 


from*  Konyuniuo.  Mil iMus. 
Place.  Vol  m.pl.57.  fig  Z. 


-cm  Zc»r.  injik.  in, British. Museum. 
Retain    trarrv  Svcrduuj. 
'    u>    ..'■  Ill  pi  ■ ' •   bu  .  fio  2. 


from,  Ktwrsabacb 

Hantuw  scene 

Place.  VolMpl  18.  fiq  '£■ 


ASSYRIAN     BIRDS      Plate  VI. 


'  ■■    -*  ■••-■*vl*^jtl,iit 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.       11 

impure  or  wicked  person,"  Wilkinson  states  that  the  wag-tail 
is  still  called  in  Egypt  aboo  fussdd,  "  the  father  of  corrup- 
tion," as  if  in  memorial  of  the  hieroglyphic  character  assigned 
to  it  by  the  ancient  Egyptians.  The  delineations  of  birds  and 
animals  generally  in  the  hieroglyphic  system  of  the  Egyptians 
are  often  excellent,  and  afford  pretty  safe  guides  to  identifica- 
tion, and  I  have  not  the  slightest  doubt  that  the  little  bud  in 
question  is  meant  for  the  sparrow,  and  not  a  water-wagtail. 
In  reply  to  some  questions  I  asked  Dr.  Birch,  always  ready,  out 
of  his  abundant  stores  of  deep  learning,  to  give  help — he  writes 
that  there  are  two  birds  very  like  in  form  but  different  in 
meaning  in  the  hieroglyphic  texts,  such  as  the  swallow  "^^ 
distinguished  by  its  forked  tail,  called  in  the  texts  mena,  and 
used  for  the  syllable  ur,  with  or  without  the  <=^>,  as  ^^  or 

"^*  •  The  other  bird  has  a  more  rounded  tail,  "^s,,  and  is 
called  by  Champollion  "  a  sparrow,"  the  name  of  which 
appears  in  the  hieratic  papyri  as  tu  hi,  a  kind  of  plague  or 
affliction  of  the  fields,  hence  used  for  "  evil  "  in  general  as  a 
determinative.  From  this  it  is  seen  that  the  Egyptians  and 
the  Assyrians  held  similar  views  as  to  the  destructive  nature 
of  sparrows. 

(18.)  The  common  starling  (Sturnus  vulgaris)  there  can,  I 
think,  be  no  doubt  is  denoted  by  the  Assyrian  name  of 
al-kd-luv  (g:^<y  |  t^^)'  wnicn  the  Accadian  SIB  TUR 
(S^I^If  *-^)  satisfactorily  explains.  A  l-lal-luv  is  imitative, 
and  must  be  compared  with  the  Hebrew  dial  T> 7SI  "  to  ciy 
out,"  a  term  which  may  imply  voices  of  grief  or  of  joy. 
Compare  for  this  latter  idea  Isaiah  lii,  5  (p^l),  and  the  Greek 
oXoXv&tv.  As  applied  to  the  starling,  the  voice  is  distinctly 
one  of  joy.  No  one  can  have  walked  along  roadsides  or  in 
the  fields  in  the  autumn  or  early  winter,  without  having 
witnessed  large  flocks  of  starlings  assembling  on  various 
trees,  and  immediately  setting  up  their  joyful  allalals  in  full 
chorus  of  exuberant  gladness.  The  Accadian  SIB  ttjr,  "little 
shepherd "  bird,  is  exactly  descriptive  of  the  starling,  so 
often  seen  in  meadow  lands  among  sheep  and  cattle,  search- 
ing for  food  on  the  ground,  or  frequently  perched  on  the 
back  of  some  cow  or  sheep,  helping  to  rid  it  of  unpleasant 


78        The  Bird*  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Record--. 

parasites.  As  meution  is  made  of  the  little  shepherd  bird,  so 
we  may  expect  that  a  greater  shepherd  bird  was  also  known 
to  the  Assyrians,  and  this  is  what  we  actually  do  find.  In 
the  same  tablet  we  meet  with  a  bird  which  in  Accadian  is 
designated  as  the  '"shepherd"  by  the  single  name  of  SIB, 
and  this  bird  is  recognized  in  its  pastoral  character  under  the 
name  of  rihu  (^|T<y  ^*->f-  ^Tlf^)  by  the  Assyrians,  rihu 
meaning  "a  shepherd,"  and  answering  exactly  to  the  Hebrew 
word  roeh  (n}HY  from  the  root  !"CH  "to  feed  a  flock."  What 
is  this  shepherd  bird  ?  If  I  am  right  in  the  identification  of 
the  little  shepherd  bird,  I  must  not  refer  this  one  to  the 
beautiful  rose-coloured  pastor  (Pastor  roseus),  because  I  want 
a  bird  larger,  more  or  less,  than  the  starling,  the  SIB  TUR,  or 
"little  shepherd,"  and  the  rose  pastor  and  the  starling  are 
about  the  same  size,  i.e.,  about  8^  inches  long.  What  kind 
of  wild  bird  in  England  do  Ave  consider  to  be  perhaps  the 
most  agricultural?  I  think  we  shall  say  the  rook  (Corvus 
frugilegus),  the  bird  of  pasture  and  arable  land  frequently 
associating  with  its  smaller  cousins  the  starlings  in  company 
with  sheep  and  cattle,  or  following  the  ploughman  for  the 
sake  of  the  worms  or  other  food  turned  up  by  his  labours. 
Ainsworth  mentions  rooks  as  occurring  commonly  in  Meso- 
potamia, though  they  do  not  seem  to  be  common  in  Persia, 
Mr.  Blandford  and  Major  St.  John  not  having  met  with  these 
birds  in  Southern  Persia.  Rooks  are  common  in  Palestine. 
and  were  probably  well  known  to  the  inhabitants  of  Syria, 
Armenia,  and  the  northern  parts  of  Mesopotamia.  I  think 
that  the  rook  is  the  bird  intended,  as  represented  on  the 
monuments  near  inhabited  buildings,  having  its  nest  and 
young  ones  on  trees,  as  I  have  already  suggested.  The 
Pastor  roseus,  or  "locust  bird,"  is  also  eminently  an  agricultural 
species,  being  frequently  seen  associating  like  the  common 
starling  with  cattle  and  sheep ;  hence  its  name  of  pastor, 
or  the  "  shepherd."  It  is  curious  to  think  that  the  generic 
name  of  Pastor,  first  proposed  by  the  French  naturalist 
M.  Temmiuk  for  certain  birds  which  exhibit  various  rela- 
tions to  starlings  and  crows,  for  the  reason  just  mentioned. 
should  have  been,  ages  long  ago.  anticipated  by  the  inha- 
bitants of  Chaldea  and  Assyria. 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.       79 

(19.)  This  shepherd  bird  (Pastor  roseus)  is  noted  also  as  a 
devourer  of  locusts;  hence,  its  name  of  "locust  bird,"  and 
it  is  in  this  character  that  its  name  occurs  in  the  Assyrian 
records.  In  Accadian  it  is  called  KHU  RUB,  i.e.,  "insect"  or 
"  locust  bird,"  and  its  Assyrian  equivalent  is  identical,  viz., 
'e-ri-bu  (iz\]  ^\<]  ^^),  "a  locust."  This  bird  was 
knoAvn  to  the  Arabs  by  the  name  of  smurmur,  and  is  said 
by  Russell,  in  his  "  Natural  History  of  Aleppo,"  to  be  held 
sacred  by  the  Turks  on  account  of  its  destruction  of  locusts. 
The  Pastor  roseus  "is  quite  a  feature"  in  Mesopotamia,  as 
Dr.  Ainsworth  writes  to  me.  It  occurs  in  Palestine,  Syria, 
Asia  Minor,  and  South  Eastern  Europe,  but  has  not  been 
observed  by  Major  St.  John  and  Mr.  Blandford  in  any  part 
of  Persia.  It  is,  however,  abundant  in  Armenia,  the  Cau- 
casus, and  Western  Persia,  and  has  occasionally  visited  this 
country.  Its  food,  besides  locusts  and  other  insects,  consists 
of  various  kinds  of  fruits.  In  Corfu  it  haunts  the  orchards 
early  in  the  month  of  June,  feeding  almost  entirely  on 
mulberries ;  hence  it  is  known  to  the  peasantry  of  that 
island  by  the  name  of  scanmophagns  (afcafAvocfrayos),  i.e., 
"  the  mulberry  eater."  The  identity  of  this  bird  with  the 
KHU  RUB  and  the  'e-ri-bu  of  the  Accadian  and  Assyrian  lists 
is  thus  settled  beyond  dispute. 

(20.)  Among  the  Corvidw,  or  crow  family,  several  kinds 
are  mentioned,  though  it  is  not  always  easy  to  speak  posi- 
tively as  to  the  names  of  the  species.  First  comes  the 
world- wide-known  bird,  the  raven  (Corvus  corax).  This  bird 
was  known  by  the  name  of  a-ri-bu  (V,  *~TT<T  ^»~)?  and 
kha-khar  (Jr1r(  -t^^E)  •  The  expression  of  "eye-picker," 
budhur  ini  (^>-  TTTEJ  TJ*~T  >^  £^yT),  is  found  in  the  list 
above  the  name  of  the  raven,  and  doubtless  refers  especially 
to  this  bird,  and  to  the  common  crow  as  well.  Khakhar  is 
clearly  imitative  of  the  "cawing"  family  ;  Aribu  is  the  Heb. 

oreb    (^*!^)    "a  raven,"  and  the   Arab,  ghoreb  L ,  ~)  ;    the 

name  is  generally  referred  to  a  Hebrew  root,  meaning  "  to  be 
black,"  which  is  quite  suitable  to  the  bird,  which  may  have 
thus  obtained  its  name  from  the  black  colour  of  its  plumage. 
I  rather  incline,  however,  to  the  opinion  that  the  word  is 


80        The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

originally  onomato-poetic.  and  expresses  the  hoarse  guttural 
cry  of  the  raven.  Like  our  word  crow,  so  common  in  various 
languages,  is  the  word  '"raven"  itself;  the  Latin  corvus, 
Sanskrit,  kdrava ;  German,  Babe,  pace  Max  M  tiller,  who 
instances  the  fact  of  the  Sanskrit  kru  or  ru  as  embracing 
many  cries,  from  the  harshest  to  the  softest,  all  of  which 
may  be  perfectly  true,  but  does  not  in  the  least  affect  the 
question  that  the  word  originally  designated  the  caw  of 
the  raven;  for  the  word  era  might  subsequently  have 
been  used  to  express  soft  sounds  as  well  as  harsh  ones.  The 
bird -name  aribu  must  be  distinguished  from  the  insect- 
name  'e-rir-bu  (^Tt  *"Tf<f  ^*~)  Jias^  mentioned  in  con- 
nection with  the  locust  bird.  'Eribu  is  to  be  referred  to  the 
Heb.  root  rdbdh  (^21),  "to  be  multitudinous,"  as  locusts  pre- 
eminently are ;  the  same  idea  of  multitudes  is  conveyed  by 
the  Accadian  word  BIR  ("^t)  "hosts,"  "swarms,"  &c.  Dis- 
tinction must  be  made  between  the  Assyrian  names  of  aribu 
a  "raven,"  and  'eribu  a  '"locust,"  and  Dr.  Delitzsch  has 
already  pointed  this  out  in  his  explanation  of  one  or  two 
passages  in  the  History  of  Sennacherib.  One  passage 
reads  thus:  "  like  an  invasion  of  many  aribi  on  the  face  of 
the  country  forcibly  they  came  to  make  battle."  Another 
passage  is  similar :  "  from  the  midst  of  the  ships  arabis  "  (an 
adverbial  form)  "  like  aribi  they  came."  Xow  the  word  aribi 
has  generally  been  rendered  by  "'locusts";  swarms  of  these 
devastating  insects  seemed  so  natural,  while  on  the  other 
hand,  "  swarms  of  many  ravens  "  seemed  to  convey,  at  a 
first  glance,  a  natural  history  error ;  ravens  being  almost 
always  more  or  less  solitary  in  their  habits,  seldom  asso- 
ciating in  numbers  more  than  two  together  all  the  year 
round.  It  is  true  that  the  common  raven  does  occasionally 
assemble,  but  not  generally  in  great  multitudes,  when  food 
in  the  shape  of  carrion  presents  itself;1  but  Dr.  Delitzsch  is 
correct,  both  philologically  and  zoologically  ;  for  in  these  pas- 

1  The  raven's  habit  of  congregating  occasionally  in  flocks  is,  perhaps,  more 
frequent  than  is  usually  supposed.  See  Seebohm's  '•'  History  of  British  Birds," 
(Pt.  ii,  p.  535),  now  in  course  of  publication.  ^Naturalists  will  hail  with  delight 
the  appearance  of  this  admirable  work,  which  breathes  freshly  of  field,  forest, 
hill,  moor,  lake,  river,  and  sea. 


The  /liit/s  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.       81 

sages  special  reference  is  probably  made  not  to  the  common 
raven  (Corvus  coraa),  but  to  another  species  of  raven,  namely, 
the  brown-necked  species,  the  Corvus  umbrinus;  and  this  bird  is 
like  the  rook,  to  a  very  considerable  extent  gregarious  in  its 
habits.  "  Of  all  the  birds  of  Jerusalem,"'  Canon  Tristram 
writes,  "  the  raven  tribe  are  the  most  characteristic  and  con- 
spicuous, though  the  larger  species  is  quite  outnumbered  by 
its  smaller  companion,  Core  us  umbrinus.  They  are  present 
everywhere  to  eye  and  ear,  and  the  odours  that  float  around 
remind  us  of  their  use.  The  discordant  jabber  of  their 
evening  sittings  round  the  temple  area  is  deafening.  The 
caw  of  the  rook  and  the  chatter  of  the  jackdaw  unite  in 
attempting  to  drown  the  hoarse  croak  of  the  raven ;  but 
clear  above  the  tumult  rings  out  the  more  musical  call-note  of 
hundreds  of  the  lesser  species.  We  used  to  watch  their  great 
colony,  as  every  morning  at  daybreak,  they  passed  in  long  lines 
over  our  tents  to  the  northward  ;  the  rooks  in  solid  phalanx 
leading  the  way,  and  the  ravens  in  solid  phalanx  bringing  up 
the  rear."— Nat.  Hist,  of  Bible,  p.  200-201.  Ed.  1867.  that 
this  is  the  species  more  decidedly  alluded  to  as  coming 
forcibly  in  multitudes  on  the  field  of  battle  there  can  be  no 
doubt ;  but  of  course  such  individuals  as  the  larger  species 
as  might  collect  together  with  them  would  be  also  included. 
That  ravens  are  meant,  and  not  locusts,  by  the  word  a-ri-bi, 
besides  the  reasons  I  have  already  given,  can  be  finally 
settled  by  a  passage  in  the  history  of  Assurbanipal,  where 
the  Elamites  overspreading  Accad  are  compared  to  an  invasion 
ofar&ri;  the  Cuneiform  has  the  reading  of  ^VyJ  >^<  "^S-  "^Y 
^y<y^  ^y  *-f<T»  c^ma  ti-bu-ut  XAM-BIR-KHU,  the  Accadian 
name  denoting  most  definitely  birds,  and  not  insects  ;  and 
this  Accadian  word  is  in  other  places  represented  by  the 
Assyrian  word  aribi,  that  is,  "ravens." 

(21.)  The  bird  "called  pa'hu  ( ȣ:  ^>f  -HI-)  and 
ka-ka-nu  (^-T  ^-T  ^-)  probably  denotes  the  "  crow." 
Pa-hu  is  the  Hebrew  peah  (H^Q)  "  to  cry  out,"  and  again 
is  an  imitative  word.  Kakanu  may  well  be  compared  with  the 
Arabic  kdh  ( -ili)  or  kik  (j^)  "a  crow."  The  species 
intended  is  the  hooded  crow,  sometimes  in  this  country  called 
Vol.  VIII.  6 


82        The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

the  Royston  crow  {Corvus  comix).  This  is  the  Asiatic  repre- 
sentative of  the  common  black  crow,  Corvus  corone,  popularly 
known  among  the  peasantry  of  this  country  as  the  "  carrion 
crow."  Though  formerly  specifically  considered  distinct, 
these  two  birds  evidently  belong  to  the  same  species.  They 
breed  freely  together  in  such  localities  where  the  two 
varieties  meet.  They  are  similar  hi  form  and  habits,  and 
differ  only  in  respect  of  colour.  The  black  variety  common 
in  various  parts  of  this  country  does  not  appear  to  occur  in 
Palestine  or  Mesopotamia,  where  it  is  replaced  by  the  hooded 
crow,  the  variety  not  so  generally  known  in  this  country  on 
account  of  its  local  habits.  This  is  the  common  crow 
of  Palestine.  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  Persia.  The  grey 
feathers  of  the  back  and  under  surface  of  the  body  of  the 
hooded  crow,  Major  St.  John  tells  us,  have  in  Persia  some- 
times quite  a  roseate  flush. 

(22.)  Of  the  ur-bal-luv  or  tas-bal-Iuv,  Jcha-akh,  or  its-tsur 
sdmu,  I  cannot  speak  at  all  definitely.  The  name  its-tsur 
§a-mi  points  apparently  to  some  bluish-brown  cawing  bird, 
and  this  is  all  that  can  be  said. 

(23.)  The  jackdaw  (Corvus  monedula)  is  supposed  by 
Dr.  Delitzsch  to  be  the  bud  spoken  of  in  the  Assyrian  lists  as 
the  -'occupier  of  graves"  or  ''graveyards."  It  is  called 
casid  cab-ruv  or  casid  ca-bar-ti  C*^  * — TTT  *~>  "^  *~^w_[  >T_  *~<T^)- 
A  somewhat  similar  name  of  a  bird  occurs  in  the  Talmud  as 
the  bath  eibrayya  (H^lllp  J"Q),  "  daughter  of  sepulchres," 
which  Buxtorf  (Lex.  p.  1963)  explains  as  "the  name  of  a 
bird,  said  to  adorn  itself  with  other  birds'  feathers,  like  the 
jackdaw"  (gracculus).  Lewysohn  (Zool.  des  Talmuds.  p.  175) 
quotes  a  writer  (Sachs)  who  identifies  a  bud  called  kibrin 
with  the  "  screech  owl "  as  a  "  grave  bird."  In  this  country 
the  jackdaw  is  often  seen  in  the  vicinity  of  churches  and 
churchyards,  building  its  nest  in  belfries  and  such  like  places. 
Ainsworth  says  that  there  is  a  small  owl,  "  a  dignified  little 
fellow,"  which  passes  the  day  on  the  top  of  a  tombstone  in 
cemeteries,  where  it  finds  plenty  of  food  at  night,  and,  being 
regarded  as  a  sacred  bird,  is  never  disturbed  in  its  serenity." 
It  is,  therefore,  quite  possible  that  this  little  owl,  and  not  the 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.       83 

jackdaw,  may  be  the  casid  cibarti  of  the  bilingual  list.  The 
Accadian  equivalent  is  in  this  tablet  entirely  lost,  with  the 
exception  of  about  four  characters,  mere  endings  of  names, 
and  as  no  other  Assyrian  word  occurs,  no  other  help  is 
afforded  us.  On  the  whole,  however,  I  think  that  the  jackdaw 
is  the  bird  which  Buxtorf  designates  as  the  "  daughter  of 
sepulchres,"  and  has  decidedly  the  best  claim. 

(24.)  There  is  good  reason  to  identify  the  bal-lu-tsi-tu 
(^KISJ^!H)  ov  tu-bal-la-ats  (-E£]^]*>£]ttt) 
with   the   Arabic    word    bilissi    (^-^t')?    which   is    said    to 

be  the  same  as  the  bird  called  sorad  (-O),  defined  by 
Freytag  to  be  "  a  black  and  white  bird,  larger  than  a 
sparrow,  with  a  thick  head,  which  pursues  sparrows."'  The 
second  word  is  identical  with  the  first,  having  merely  the 
noun  formative  prefix  of  t.  The  modern  Arabic  name  of  the 
magpie  is  \ik-ak;  the  "green  magpie'"'  is  shakrdk,  and  denotes 
the  Roller.  In  one  of  the  columns,  after  the  word  tuballats,  the 
words  ci-na-sa,  "its  nest,"  or  "its  slave,"  appear.1  Did  the 
large  conspicuous  nest  of  the  magpie  appear  worthy  of 
mention?  Perhaps  the  figures  on  the  monuments  of  some 
long-tailed  bird  are  meant  for  the  magpie  (Pica  caudata). 

('25.)  Some  kind  of  wild  pigeon,  probably  the  wood- 
pigeon"  (ColumLa  palumbus),2  is  designated  by  the  names  of 
ur-sa-mi  (TT^J  £fa  ^f~)  and  ta-am-si-lu  (j*^  ^^  ^T^  IHI)' 
the  first  name  is  by  Delitzsch  referred  to  the  Arabic  warashan 
(J,il£'t),  which  is  translated  Columba  sylvestris,  "  wild  dove." 
The  second  name  looks  like  the  Talmudic  tasil  or  tasilah 
(v^pri),  which  is  explained  as  "  the  young  of  pigeons  or 
doves,"  or  "  some  kind  of  dove."  Lewysohn  (Die  Zoologie 
des  Talmuds,  p.  205)  considers  that  tasil  denotes  some  full 
grown  small  dove,  and  suggests  the  rock-dove  (Columba 
lima)  as  the  species.  These  birds  are  called  beni  yonah 
("HIV  ^l),   ''sons  of  the  dove,"   and  Lewysohn  thinks   that 

1  The  pallutsitu  is  explained  by  tupallats  cinaga,  "the  twp allots  of  her  nest  " 
or  "  of  her  slave,"  but  the  explanation  is  by  no  means  easy. 

-  Pnlumbes  is  the  ordinary  Latin  name   of  a   "  dove,"   but   Columella   and 
Martial  use  the  form  palumlus. 


8-4        The  Birds  of  tin-  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

some  small  kind  of  dove,  distinct  from  the  turtle  dove,  is 
intended.  Both  the  rock-dove  and  the  wood-pigeon  are 
common  in  Mesopotamia,  and  perhaps  one  or  the  other  is 
intended  by  the  Assyrian  names. 

(26.)  Nothing  at  all  definite  can  be  said  of  the  species 
of  dove  mentioned  under  the  Assyrian  name  of  ir-ca-bu 
(  £jtt  *-Z-]*~~]  i£*~)  or  *ne  Babylonian  form,  ri-ga-bu 
f_YY<T  ^|TT^  V")-  Dr.  Delitzsch  compares  the  Ethiopic 
(C*M)  '.  regebe)  "a  dove."  which  he  thinks  is  so  called  from 
its  shyness,  comparing  the  name  "with  the  Arabic  verb  rajaba 
(^^~\  "to  be  timid."  Some  kind  of  dove  is  certainly 
therefore  meant. 

(27.)  Another  dove  is  denoted  by  the  word  su-um-mu 
(>-£lTi  j^YTY  *^\  which  occnrs  both  in  the  Accadian  and 
Assyrian  columns  ;  the  word  is  doubtless  of  Semitic  origin, 
and  borrowed  by  the  Accadians.  The  summatu  is  one  of  the 
birds  sent  out  from  the  ship  in  the  Chaldean  story  of  the 
Flood ;  the  swallow  and  the  raven,  it  will  be  remembered, 
being  the  other  two  birds.  Dr.  Delitzsch  compares  the 
Arabic  sdmmat  or  iammata,  "a  bird  like  a  swallow,"'  and 
translates  the  Assyrian  word  by  "  sand-martin."  But  when 
we  compare  this  part  of  the  Deluge  Tablet  with  the  account 
of  the  birds  sent  out  by  the  Biblical  Xoah,  and  remember 
the  position  which  the  dove  holds  there,  there  seems  more 
reason  to  suppose  that  the  §ummu  or  iummatu  is  a  form  of  the 

Arabic  hamdmat  (j^1,^^).  a  dove  or  pigeon — the  s  and  h 
being  here  interchanged — than  that  a  "sand-martin"  is 
meant.  In  modern  Arabic  hamdmat  and  zamamat  are  both 
names  of  the  u  pigeon."'  The  Accadian  name  in  the  Deluge 
Tablet  is  TU  khu  (^BEf  HMD'*  **  *s  not  certain  why  the 
name  of  the  "descending  bird"'  (for  TU=eribu,  "to  descend") 
should  be  given  to  a  pigeon  or  dove,  but  I  think  it  is  quite 
probable  that  the  idea  refers  to  the  habit  of  pigeons  gene- 
rally making  a  momentary  suspension  or  hovering  motion  a 

1   The  Sumerian  name  is    ^  I  *"p|    te-khu  (Haupt,  "Accad.   und   Sumer. 
Keikchr.,"  I,  p.  43,  1.  49). 


ft, 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.       85 

few  feet  iu  the  air — which  everybody  must  have  noticed — 
before  finally  alighting  on  the  ground.1 

(28.)  The  turtle  dove  is  clearly  pointed  out.  It  is  the 
tar-ru  (*>rr  ^JTT)  or  ca-ca-ba-a-nu  of  the  Assyrian  column; 
and  the  IGI  MUL  of  the  Accadian.  Tarru  is  clearly  the  Hebrew 
tur  (TlJn),  the  Latin  turtur,  and  our  English  turtle  dove. 
The  name  of  tur  is  also  evidently  imitative  of  the  soft  coo 
of  the  turtle  dove.  The  Accadian  name  of  "  eye-star " 
or  "  eye  bright "  is  expressive  of  the  bright,  soft  eyes 
of  this  lovely  little  dove ;  in  the  Canticles  the  eyes  of 
the  beloved,  it  will  be  remembered,  are  compared  with 
those  of  the  turtle  dove,  and  I  dare  say  that  Oriental  poetry 
is  full  of  such  expressions.     The  Assyrian  name    caccabdnu, 

"star-bird,"  cf.  23i!>  "a   star,"    Arab.    ^A   "a    star,"  "to 

twinkle  like  a  star,"  corresponds  with  the  Accadian.  The 
turtle  dove  {Turtur  auritus)  is  common  in  Mesopotamia,  Persia, 
and  Palestine,  and  the  T.  risorius,  another  species,  occurs 
in  some  of  these  countries. 

(29.)  Partridges  are  common  in  Mesopotamia  and  the 
neighbouring  countries.  The  commonest  species  in  Persia 
by  far  is  the  Caecabis  chukar.  It  is  a  red-legged  species, 
and  specifically  distinct  from  the  Caecabis  grceca  or  saxa- 
tilis ;  the  common  partridge,  Perdix  cinerea,  is  not  found 
iu  Mesopotamia.  In  Assyrian  the  partridge  is  called  the 
cu-hc-cu-cu,    the    cilippu,    and    the    hu-hi-ul-luv ;    this    latter 

name  is  probably  identical  with  the   Arabic   Jcaukal  (jj»j)' 

which  Freytag  explains  as  the  male  partridge,  and  also  the 
bird  called  hatha,  i.e.,  one  of  the  sand  grouse  (  Pterocles),  which 
occur  in  amazing  numbers  in  certain  localities.  Another  bird 
belonging  to  the  partridge  family,  the  Francolinus  vulgaris, 
or  common  francolin,  is  very  common  in  Mesopotamia  and 
Persia,  and  must  have  been  known  to  the  Assyrians.  It  is 
found  in  great  numbers  in  the  tamarisk  jungles  and  reed  beds 
of  Mesopotamia,  and  doubtless  would  be  included  among  the 

1  Prof.  Sayce  suggests  to  me  that  the  "  Tumbler"  pigeon  is  meant  by  the 
"descending"  bird;  considering  the  very  early  domestication  of  pigeons,  this 
seems  a  very  natural  and  probable  explanation. 


86        The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Record*. 

birds  mentioned  as  having  a  resting*  place  among  the  reeds 
(W.A.I.,  V,  pi.  32,  56,  &c.)  The  two  other  Assyrian  names 
for  the  partridge  are  probably  onomato-poetic,  and  if  pro- 
nounced rapidly  with  repetition  are  not  bad  imitations  of  the 
call  of  these  birds  during  the  pairing  season,  or  of  the  cry 
of  the  scared  birds  when  suddenly  disturbed. 

(30).  Mention  is  made  in  the  historical  inscriptions  of  some 
long-pouched  bird  under  the  names  of  gilgiddnu  and  iudinnu. 
Mcrodach  Baladan  "is  said  to  have  been  struck  with  fear, 
and  to  have  fled  from  Babylon  like  sudinni  birds." 

The  name  of  gi-il-gi-dd-nu  {^\\-^  £~£^TT  *•*"!! -^  **~T!  *^~) 
has  rather  an  Accadian  aspect,  and  if  so  was  used  by  the 
Assyrians  as  a  loan  word.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  the 
Accadian  words,  GIL  and  gid,  are  exhibited  in  the  name. 
Now,  gid  is  a  well-known  word,  and  denotes  "long," 
whether  applied  to  a  long-legged  bird,  or  a  long  kind  of 
ship  or  other  object.  It  occurs  in  the  Accadian  name  of  the 
ostrich,  as  we  shall  see  by-and-bye.  Gil,  whether  expressed 
by  the  ideograph  V^  or  J^y^^  has  various  meanings. 
It  means  an  enclosure  as  represented  by  the  character  !*^Y 
among  other  significations.  The  character  £yr^^  as 
occurring  in  Sennacherib's  will  (W.A.I.,  III,  16,  3),  can 
scarcely  mean  anything  else  than  a  "  cup "  or  "  goblet," 
as  Prof.  Sayce  has  already  translated  it,  This  Assyrian 
monarch  bequeathed  to  his  son  Esarhaddon  amongst 
other  valuables,  "'golden  bracelets,  heaps  of  ivory,  and  a 
golden  goblet  (Vyy^^)  gil  khuratsi."  It  is  true  that 
this  explanation  needs  absolute  confirmatory  proof,  and  I 
therefore  cannot  speak  positively.  The  idea  therefore 
involved  in  this  explanation  is  probably  that  of  a  bird  with 
a,  large  cup  or  pouch.  The  other  word  has  a  Semitic 
aspect:  iudinnu  (*-£-]]  <T<  *^~),  as  Delitzsch  has  pointed 
out.  bears  in  sound  at  least  a  resemblance  to  the  Arabic 
word  saddnat  Q-j-jj^J,  which  Freytag  renders  by  "columba 
vel  nomen  columbse  cujusdam,"  "a  dove  of  some  kind." 
I  think  that  the  word  sudinnu  may  be  referred  to  the  Arabic 

sadan  ((iA-)'  "  a  sail,"  or  sadul  Q  jH).      The  verb  stiddla 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.        87 
lias   with  other  meanings  that   of  "running   swiftly,"   and 

(S  '  O  s  «. 

mentioned  as  "nomen  avis  vorantis  napellum,"  "the  name  of 
a  bird  which  devours  the  herb  napellum,"  whatever  that 
may  be.  The  idea  gathered  from  the  whole  consideration 
of  the  two  words  seems  to  be  that  of  "  some  long-legged 
pouch  bird  which  runs  with  great  swiftness,"  and  I  am 
strongly  disposed  to  believe  that  the  great  bustard  (Otis 
tarda)  is  denoted.  This  bird  runs  with  great  swiftness, 
using  its  wings  sail-like,  after  the  manner  of  ostriches,  to 
accelerate  its  speed.  When  it  flies,  it  moves  its  wings  slowly 
like  a  heron,  the  flight  of  which  bird  we  often  speak  of  as 
"  sailing  "  in  the  air.  They  are  shy  and  timid  birds,  easily 
scared,  expressing  strong  marks  of  fear  on  the  appearance 
of  even  a  small  hawk  overhead.  The  male  bird  is  charac- 
terised by  a  peculiar  membranous  pouch  or  bag,  capable  of 
holding  seven  wine  pints  of  liquid  ;  the  entrance  into  it  is 
between  the  under  side  of  the  tongue  and  the  lower  mandible 
of  the  bill.  The  function  of  this  remarkable  anatomical 
peculiarity  is,  I  believe,  not  known;  female  birds  are 
destitute  of  it,  neither  is  it  present  in  all  the  males.  The 
great  bustard  is  mentioned  by  Ainsworth  as  occurring  in 
Mesopotamia ;  it  is  frequently  met  with  in  the  stony  dis- 
tricts of  Syria  ;  sometimes  as  a  solitary  bird  or  in  pairs, 
sometimes  in  large  flocks.  According  to  Blanford  and 
Major  St.  John,  the  great  bustard  is  found  in  the  Caspian 
Islands,  near  Astrabad,  in  Armenia,  and  is  believed  to  be  an 
occasional  visitant  to  many  parts  of  Northern  Persia.  In  the 
Transcaucasian  provinces  of  Russia  it  is  common.  Such  a 
bird  would  certainly  have  been  known  to  the  ancient 
Assyrians  and  Accadians.  As  an  article  of  food  the  flesh  of 
the  bustard  is  highly  esteemed  ;  and,  according  to  the  late 
ornithologist  Mr.  Gould,  this  bird  is  frequently  seen  on  the 
Continent  exposed  for  sale  in  the  markets.1  Doubtless  the 
ancient  dwellers  in  the  lands  where  the  great  bustard  was 
found  used  to  hunt  it,  and  eat  its  flesh.  So  remarkable  a 
structure  as  the  gular  pouch  possessed  by  the  male  bird,  is 
a  character  which  the  observant  Accadians   could  not  fail  to 

1   Xenophon  {Anab.,  I,  v,  4)  says  "  the  flesh  of  the  bustard  is  very  sweet." 


88        The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monument*  and  Records. 

have  noticed  on  occasions  of  its  being  prepared  for  cooking, 
and  I  think  that  the  presence  of  this  gular  bag  is  intimated 
by  the  Accadian  word  ail  the  first  component  part  of  the 
bird  name  gih-gid-anu,  which  stands  for  the  great  bustard. 
Other  species  of  bustards  are  found  in  the  lands  with  which 
we  are  concerned. 

(31.)  The  common  crane  (Gtus  einered)  is  mentioned  in 
the  bilingual  lists  as  the  ur-nir*gu  (™*~*  £n.  t^"*0  or  ur^a*r^u 
QH  Zfh  ^^)-  and  cn-U-u^^  ^gW  jrTYJjr).  The 
first  name  appears  to  be  identical  with  the  Arabic  ghir-nlk 
((J^JfZ  )•  "a  water  bird  with  a  long  neck,"  a  very  indefinite 
explanation,  it  is  true,  when  taken  by  itself;  but  it  is  certain 
that  the  crane  is  meant.  Under  the  name  of  Ghornai, 
Forskal  mentions  a  white  bird  which  feeds  on  gadfly  larvae 
found  on  the  backs  of  cattle,  "aestris  pascitur  in  tergo  bovum 
nidificantibus."  which,  as  we  shall  see  by-and-by,  is  the  buff- 
backed  heron.  As  a  warning  of  the  necessity  of  being 
acquainted  with  the  natural  history  of  the  bird,  or  any 
animal  under  consideration,  before  we  make  some  positive 
assertion,  a  matter  to  which  1  have  already  alluded.  I  will 
add  just  this  one  more.  Rosenmiiller,  the  great  German 
orientalist  and  commentator  on  the  Scriptures,  whose  name 
cannot  be  mentioned  without  feelings  of  the  greatest  admira- 
tion. Rosenmiiller.  in  his  very  valuable  notes  to  Bochart's 
'•Hierozoicon,*'  has  this  short  comment  on  Forskal's  Ghornak, 
"  Patet  banc  avem  non  esse  gruem,"  '-It  is  evident  that  this 
bird  is  not  a  crane."  True,  the  bird  is  not  a  crane,  but  a 
heron ;  but  the  improbability  of  a  heron  in  such  situations 
would  appear  as  great  as  that  of  a  true  crane.  Ghurnuk  and 
Hr-ki  are  modern  vernacular  for  the  crane  in  Arabic. 

The  word  ca-li-u  or  ca-lu-u  is  identical  with  the  Chaldaic 
(cela)  (^*7r)  "to  call  out,"  in  allusion  to  the  loud,  sonorous 
•s  of  these  birds,  which  they  utter  high  in  ah-  on  their 
periodic  migrations.  The  Gtus  cinerea  is  not  uncommon 
in  many  parts  of  Mesopotamia,  and  is  plentiful  in  South 
Persia. 

_.i   The    st<>rk   (Ciconia   alba)  is  a   common   feature  in 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.        89 

Turkey,  where  it  is  held  in  esteem  as  a  scavenger  and  a 
destroyer  of  snakes.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  lists  under  the 
name  of  rak-rakk-u  (t>-  T>-  ^I^^Z^)  or  la-ka-la-ka  (*-£:T  A-T 
>-^T  ^—  TY  which  is  evidently  identical  with  the  lak-lak 
(  dii] )  °f  the  Arabs,  at  present  used  in  Turkey  to  denote  this 
bird.  Although  the  white  stork  is  included  in  the  name  of 
lak-lak,  or  rak-kak,  originally  meant  in  Arabic  to  be  expressive 
of  the  sound  produced  by  the  bird,  it  would  appear  that  the 
black  stork  is  the  species  which  the  Accarlians  had  in  view 
when  they  named  the  stork.  By  them  it  was  called  the  Si-zi 
bird,  i.e.,  "  the  green  bird";  for  si-zi  (^Jf  ^TT^)'  or  ideo- 
graphically  ~=T  \  is  the  equivalent  of  the  Assyrian  arkn, 
"  green,"  and  the  khu-si-zi  bird  is,  in  one  of  the  bilingual 
lists  (W.A.I.,  II,  26,  56  1.),  identified  with  the  ra-ak-ra-ku 
(^yy  ^Q  £^yy  £^J)  "a  stork."  Now  there  is  not  a  bit 
of  green  colour  in  the  plumage  of  the  white  stork,  neither 
in  its  beak  nor  legs ;  but  in  the  black  stork  ( Ciconia 
nigra)  the  whole  of  the  dark  plumage  is  varied  with  purple 
and  copper-coloured  and  green  reflections,  so  as  fully  to 
justify  the  name  which  the  Accadians  gave  to  this  bird. 
The  colour  signified  by  the  6l-Zl  and  arak  is  either  "  green," 
like  grass,  hence  urciiu  "  verdure,"  or  yellowish-green,  or 
yellow,  or  golden-yellow,  or  any  colour  of  varied  green. 
The  Hebrew  word  yerakrak  (p^p")"?)  is  used  of  the  feathers 
of  a  dove  in  Ps.  lxi,  14  ;  and  the  golden  colour  refers  to  the 
beautiful  play  of  metallic  lustre  observed  in  the  neck  of 
several  wild  pigeons  ;  compare  Tennyson — 

"  In  the  Spring  a  livelier  iris  changes  on  the  burnished  dove." 

— ("  Locksley  Hall,"  1.  19.) 

'■The  common  stork  is  found  all  over  the  plateaux  of 
Persia,  building  its  nests  on  minarets,  and  oftener  on  the  low 
towers  which  flank  the  mud  walls  of  Persian  villages.  It  is 
uot  molested  by  Persians,  who  say  that  it  makes  a  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca  during  its  annual  winter  absence,  whence  its  name 

1  The  pronunciation  of  g^f     as    *>-\]  si  or  si(t)  isgiven  in  W.A.I.,Y,  27,1.  6  : 
*ll    Y  fcEl     *~||  *"PP*   =    "  some  green  insect." 


90       The  Buds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

of  HdjjL" — (Blanford,  ii.  297.)  It  is  common  also  in  Mesopo- 
tamia. Palestine,  and  other  countries.  The  black  stork  which 
is  a  more  shy  bird  than  the  former,  is  less  common. 

(33).  Some  kind  of  bird,  which  I  am  inclined  to  think 
denotes  the  black  ibis,  is  mentioned  under  the  names  of 
um-mt  mi i.  (>=^|TT  (^X-  ]}  f**"**")>  "mother  of  waters,"  and 
ar-bar-ya  Cfl  ^^T  ^^Tr)-  The  first  name,  so  far  as  its 
meaning  is  concerned,  is  clear,  but  it  is  not  so  with  the 
word  a-ba-ya.  Lenormant  gives  the  word  as  an  Accadian 
form,  but  without  suggesting  its  signification.  Perhaps 
it  is  onomatopoetic.  Delitzsch  compares  it  with  the 
Talmudic  ibbu,  which  is  supposed  to  represent  the  Biblical 
anaphah  (H^2S)  and  to  signify  "a  kite  "  (?)  and  he  suggests 
the  osprey  as  the  probable  meaning.  But  do  not  the  words 
"  mother  of  waters "  imply  some  more  decided  aquatic 
1  ard  than  the  osprey  ?  Some  water  -  presaging  bird  ap- 
pears to  be  intended:  perhaps  the  bald  ibis  (Comatibis 
comata),  a  bird  of  very  similar  habits  to  the  Egyptian 
ibis  (Ibis  religiosa),  which  was  held  sacred  by  that  ancient 
people.  This  latter  bird  always  appears  on  the  Nile  at  the 
times  of  its  periodic  rise,  just  as  the  waters  showed  signs  of 
overflow:  hence  the  bird  was  regarded  as  a  prescient 
creature,  foretelling  the  longed-for  inundation  and  the  con- 
sequent fertility  of  the  land.  Some  such  idea.  I  think,  is 
intended  by  the  expression  "  mother  of  waters,"  though 
both  the  Hebrews  and  the  Arabs  frequently  employed  the 
words  "  father "  or  "  mother "  to  many  kinds  of  animals 
as  being  "  possessors "  of  some  peculiarity,  whether  of 
habitat,  form,  or  periodic  appearance.  The  terms  abu 
hannes,  "father  of  John,"  and  abu  mengal,  '"father  of  the 
sickle."  are  both  names  of  the  Egyptian  ibis :  the  former 
referring  to  the  appearance  of  the  bud  about  St.  John's  day, 
the  latter  to  the  peculiar  shape  of  the  bud's  bill.  The 
glossy  ibis  is  found  in  large  numbers  on  the  Murdab,  near 
the  Caspian,  where  another  species,  the  Tantalus  ibis,  also 
occurs.  The  glossy  ibis  is  also  at  times  very  common  on 
the  Euphrates.  The  appearance  of  these  buds  happening 
about  the  same  time  as  the  welcome  rain,  caused  them. 
among  other  reasons,  to  be  looked  upon  with  more  or  !• -- 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.        \)\ 

of  reverence,  and  to  have  thus  earned  the  name  of  "  mothers 
of  waters." 

(34)  The  name  of  a  bird  called  A  GUS  O^T  Sf^f)'  "long 
horn,"  by  the  Accadians,  and  na-adh-ru  (*-"**"!  ^^T  "\JH) 
by  the  Assyrians,  occurs  in  the  fifth  volume  of  W.A.I.,  27, 
3,  ob.,  1.  46.  I  have  no  doubt  that  the  long-horned  or  long 
stiff-crested  heron  is  intended.  Nadharu  or  nddhru  is  the 
Heb.  ndtar  0^2,  Arab,  lij),  "  to  guard,"  "  keep  watch  "; 
these  attributes  both  suit  the  heron  (Ardea  cinerea),  with  its 
long,  slender,  occipital  feathers,  which  will  watch  patiently, 
standing  for  hours  together  motionless,  watching  for  any 
passing  fish,  mostly  with  its  feet  in  the  water,  remaining 
"  still  as  if  carved  out  of  wood." 

(35.)  The  buffed-back  heron  (Ardea  russata  or  Herodias 
bubulcus)  has  peculiar  habits,  which  were  very  likely  to  attract 
the  notice  of  the  observant  Accadians  and  find  expression  in 
a  name.  This  heron  is  known  as  the  "cow  bird"  in  countries 
where  it  is  found,  from  its  habit  of  associating  with  cows  and 
sheep.  It  is,  a  writer  in  the  "Ibis"  (III,  vol.  ii,  p.  245), 
speaking  of  this  heron,  writes,  "  always  seen  among  cattle.  I 
have  seen  a  buffalo  walking  along  with  three  or  four  of  these 
birds  or  (Herodias  intermedia)  sitting  on  its  back,  reminding  one 
of  an  itinerant  vendor  of  plaster-of-Paris  images."  The  buff- 
backed  heron  is  common  in  Mesopotamia,  as  are  also  some 
other  species.  The  Accadian  character  is  ]t||T^  Tr  (»~T<y) 
the  UA  or  cattle  bird.  The  Assyrian  equivalent  is  unhappily 
lost  by  fracture  of  the  tablet. 

(36.)  Some  magnificent  bird  is  evidently  denoted  by  the 
Accadian  word  dhar-lugal-luv,1  borrowed  by  the  Assyrians, 
and  represented  in  the  Accadian  column  by  dudurranu. 
The  Assyrian  name  means  literally  "  the  variegated  royal 
bird."  I  think  that  the  flamingo  is  here  intended.  The 
Phcenicopterus  antiquomm  is  a  magnificent  bird,  and  is  quite  a 
feature  in  certain  marshy  places  in  Mesopotamia.  A  wood- 
cut figure  of  this  bird  is  given  in  Colonel  Chesney's  work, 

1  Un-gal  (^jyy  £|*~)  to  be  read  lu-gal,  is  one  of  the  Accadian  names  for  a 
king.     (W.A.I.,  V,30, 1.  12.) 


92         The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

"  The  Expedition  for  the  Survey  of  the  Rivers  Euphrates  and 
Tigris,"  1850,  Vol.  II,  p.  -1-1.  where  it  is  called  the  Tair-el- 
Raouf,  ox  the  magnificent  bird  (Arabic  raft,  *_vj.).  ''noble," 
••  exalted."  '"These  extraordinary  birds,'*  it  is  said,  '"frequent 
the  livers  Sajur  and  Koweik."  Dr.  Heifer,  a  German 
naturalist  who  joined  the  expedition,  says  that  these  birds 
"  are  seen  in  large  flocks,  and  it  is  known  that  they  have  the 
surprising  habit  of  forming  a  kind  of  artificial  embankment 
across  the  rivers  Saggeoar  and  Kouweik.  Having  for  this 
purpose  chosen  the  shallowest  spot,  they  arrange  themselves 
side  by  side  in  several  close  ranks,  and  sit  down  with  their 
tails  to  the  current,  and  then-  feathers  spread  out.  By  this 
contrivance  they  in  some  degree  check  the  course  of  the 
water,  which  in  consequence  overflows  at  the  chosen  spot, 
and  one  of  the  flock,  previously  placed  as  a  sentinel  a  little 
distance  from  the  rest,  gives  as  a  signal  a  cry  not  unlike  that 
of  the  stork,  but  much  more  shrill;  upon  which  the  rest  of  the 
flock  dart  upon  the  fish,  frogs,  toads.  &c.,  which  are  then 
almost  without  water,  and  make  a  sumptuous  repast  of  all 
that  are  thus  caught."     (Appendix,  p.  722.) 

It  is  extremely  improbable  that  this  extraordinary  and 
cunning  proceeding  has  been  corroborated  by  other  evidence. 
(Jan  the  Accadian  name  of  this  "  royal  bird "  be  under- 
stood as  in  any  way  a  confirmation,  if  not  of  a  veritable 
fact,  yet  of  an  idea  that  at  all  events  is  at  present  held  by 
the  natives  of  these  districts? 

In  a  letter  which  Dr.  Ainsworth  has  kindly  favoured  me 
with,  in  answer  to  my  inquiries,  he  writes  :  "  I  never  heard  of 
anyone  corroborating  the  story  told  of  the  flamingo,  under 
the  name  of  Tdir-el-Raouf,  "  the  splendid  bird,"  by  Colonel 
(late  General)  Chesney ;  but  I  know  that  he  had  it  from  an 
old  resident  in  Aleppo  on  his  first  journey.  I  met  the  gentle- 
man,  whose  name  I  forget,  afterwards  at  Aleppo,  and  I  have 
every  reason  to  believe  that  he  was  a  conscientious  man, 
and  in  every  way  to  be  trusted,  although  the  story  has  an 
Oriental  savour  about  it."  Now  the  Accadian  name  answering 
to  the  dhar  lugalrluv  C^f^f  »^^ff*  a^E"-)'  ""tne  royal  bird" 
of  the  Assyrian  column,  is  complete.     It  is  wrongly  transcribed 


> 


The  Birds  of  the  .  I  ssyrian  Monuments  and  Records,        93 

in  W.A.I.,  II,  37,  1.  37 ;  but  Mr.  Pinches,  with  his  usual  good 
nature,  has  given  me  the  correct  reading  from  the  tablet  itself: 
the  name  of  this  bird  appears  as  T^J  T^J  £:£z|T  *^f~  *-{<}-> 
dudurranu  ;  now  we  find  the  word  TBT  T^T  ^T[\  given  (in 
W.A.I.,  II,  33,  1.  25)  as  the  equivalent  of  the  word 
£:£lTy  lr(  "J^-^Ej  ra-kha-tsu  sa  a-sa-bi,  an  "inundation"  or 
"flood  of  a  seat."1  The  ending  of  the  bird-name  in  the 
Accadian  column  looks  very  like  this  dudurru,  with  the  usual 
adjective  Semitic  ending  of  <lnu.  Is  it  not  therefore  possible, 
or  perhaps  probable,  that  the  "royal  variegated  bird"  is  also 
the  "  inundation  bird  "  ?  and  that  we  thus  have  a  corrobora- 
tion of  a  story,  which,  even  though  it  be  doubtless  destitute 
of  actual  fact,  is  evidently  current  to  this  day  among  the 
natives  of  North  Syria  ?  We  know  how  persistently  old 
beliefs  maintain  their  ground,  and  how  traditional  stories 
about  animals  are  handed  down  from  one  generation  to 
another;  so  that  this  story  about  the  flamingo  appears  to 
exist  in  its  old  Accadian  name  of  "  the  inundation  bird," 
while  the  old  Assyrian  name  of  "  the  royal  bird  "  appears 
with  the  very  similar  title  of  "  the  magnificent  bird "  in  the 
vernacular  Arabic  of  the  people  of  modern  Syria.2 

(37.)  We  are  indebted  to  Dr.  Delitzsch  for  the  very  satis- 
factory explanation  of  the  Assyrian  names  of  the  pelican.  It 
is  a  great  thing  to  get  hold  of  some  particular  feature  in  a 
bird's  form,  voice,  or  habits — something  which  at  once  arrests 
the  attention,  and  stamps  some  definite  idea  upon  the  mind 
of  the  observer — some  peculiarity  which  the  possessor  of  a 
certain  attribute  and  structural  formation  exhibits  different 
from  other  creatures  of  the  same  class.  It  is  natural  to 
suspect  that  what  strikes  us  now-a-days  as  remarkable,  also 

'  Cf.  also  W.A.I.,  II,  21,  1.  53  T^Y,  Jgf  *ffl  =  ■*£}  1HJ  <  V  h  (=ff 
calu-sa-me,  "damming  of  the  water"  ;  24, 1.  45  =  ra-kha-tsu  sa  a-sa-bi,  "inunda- 
tion of  the  seat." 

2  Another  explanation  of  this  bird-name  may,  however,  be  given  :  TBT  dor. 
=  marcaiu,  a  "  diadem,"  or  "girdle"  (W.A.I.,  11,31,  1.  10);  and  Y£Y  ^f^TT 
dur-makh  =  JL^AJ^I  £Y  *-T<|  d(h)ur  ma-khu  (1.  13),  so  that  the  whole  bird- 
name  would  read  as  the  "  royal-banded  bird,"  which  I  am  unable  to  identify. 


'.'4        Tic3  Birds  of  the  Ass  ri  ■>>.  Monuments  and  Records. 

appeared  remarkable  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  to  observers 
of  j    sf     ges.     Now  the  pelican  is  a  very  remarkable  bird. 

The  wonderful  pouch  of  its  lower  mandible  marks  it  at  oner  ; 
and  such  a  peculiarity  one  would  naturally  suppose  would 
mid  especial  mention  in  any  account,  whether  descriptive  or 
verbal,  that  we  may  meet  with.  Yet.  Strang-  to  say.  in  the 
3e  of  the  pelican,  its  very  name  is  a  misnomer.  Our 
English  word  is  from  the  Greek  TreXe/cdv  or  TreXe/civo?.  a  name 
manifestly  derived  from  ireXeKaco.  '"to  hew  with  an  axe."  The 
name  thus  derived  was  first  used  by  the  Greeks  to  denote 
i-  a  woodpecker."  It  was  the  woodpeckers.  ire\eicaves.  who 
acted  as  the  clever  carpenters  that  hewed  out  the  gates  of  the 
City  of  Cloud — Cuckoo-borough,  in  the  birds  of  Aristophanes, 
and  the  name  is  admirably  suited  to  the  woodpecker,  which 
be  <  its  bill  in  making  holes  in  trees.  Aristotle  uses  the  word 
77e\efcdv  for  the  large  web-footed  bird  of  that  name,  but 
nowhere  alludes  to  its  extraordinary  bill.  He  says  it  is 
migratory,  and  devours  shell-fish.  The  etymology  of  the 
Greek  word  would  show  that  the  name  was  originally  na  - 1 
for  the  woodpecker.  Subsequently,  it  would  appear,  the 
name  was  applied  to  denote  the  web-footed  bird,  probably  on 
account  of  its  large  bill.  ^Elian  also  mentions  this  bird  under 
the  name  of  pelican,  but  says  nothing  about  its  pouch.  The 
pelican,  under  the  name  onocrotalus.  is  well  described  by  Pliny, 
who  is  the  first  writer,  as  far  as  I  can  learn,  to  speak  of 
a  pouch  under  the  throat.  But  the  name  pelicanus  never 
found  its  way  into  classical  authors.  It  is  used  by  Jerome  in 
his  commentary  on  the  101st  Psalm.  The  story  about  the 
pelican  feeding  its  young  with  its  own  blood  was  originally 
told  of  the  vulture,  and  found  its  way  from  Egyptian  fable 
into  the  writings  of  Patristic  theologians.  In  the  devices  of 
a  bird  tearing  its  breast  and  feeding  its  little  ones  with  its 
own  blood,  so  frecpiently  Been  on  monuments,  and  in  old 
church  architecture,  you  will  always  find  that  the  bud  is  not 
a  pelican,  but  a  vulture,  or  an  eagle.  The  word  onocrotalus, 
-  1  by  Pliny,  and  evidently  borrowed  from  the  Greeks — but 
by  whom,  and  when,  and  where  used  by  that  people  I  know 
not — is  both  in  its  definition  and  in  the  account  which  Pliny 
gives.  admirably  suited  to  the  pelican,  and  to  no  other  bird. 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.        95 

The  name  takes  its  origin  from  the  pelican's  voice,  which  was 
supposed  to  resemble  the  cry  of  the  ass,  and  which,  indeed,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  it  does  resemble.  Wishing  for  information 
on  this  point,  I  wrote  to  Mr.  Bartlett,  the  well-known 
naturalist  of  the  Zoological  Gardens,  and  he  writes  to  me  as 
follows :  "  The  pelican  utters  a  loud  and  single  note,  after 
the  fashion  of  a  bray  or  blare,  and  this  is  not  unlike  the  voice 
of  an  ass."  Similarly  we  have  applied  the  term  "  Laughing 
Jackass "  to  the  great  kingfisher  (I)acilogigas)  of  Australia. 
We  now  come  to  the  Assyrian  and  Accadian  names  of  the 
pelican. 

This  bird  is  mentioned  by  several  names  in  the  lists,  and 
once  in  the  Historical  Inscriptions :  it  is  called  tus-mu-u 
(Tgf  ^  ^IffcO,  ah-bu-un-nu  (*£\  ^  ^\}}  ^-),  and 
a-ta-an  nahari  (H  ^TyT  *~*{~  Tf  T^f)  by  the  Assyrians. 
Tusmu  may,  of  course,  be  read  cu-mu,  but  in  that  form  the  word 
is  not  easy  of  explanation.  This  tusmu  is  mentioned  in  the 
Annals  of  Sargon  (Botta,  129),  who  relates  his  campaign  with 
Merodach  Baladan,  king  of  Babylon.  Being  hard  pressed, 
the  Babylonian  monarch  shut  himself  and  his  army  within 
the  city  of  Dur  Yakin,  which  had  been  surrounded  by  canals 
turned  off  from  the  Euphrates  during  the  overflow  of  its 
waters.  Of  his  position  here,  Sargon  writes,  "  He,  together 
with  his  auxiliaries  and  his  forces,  like  a  tusmu  bird,  amid  the 
canals  placed  the  ensigns  of  his  royalty."  The  spectacle  of 
an  army  placing  itself  within  the  water-protected  area  is 
compared  to  that  of  a  flock  of  pelicans ;  the  king  himself, 
with  his  royal  or  state  accoutrements,  being,  "perhaps,  sur- 
rounded by  his  forces,  on  the  look  out  for  any  meditated 
attack  from  the  enemy.  It  is  possible  that  reference  here 
may  be  made  to  a  peculiar  habit  of  the  pelicans,  recorded  by 
Dr.  Ainsworth,  in  arranging  themselves  so  as  to  provide 
against  the  attack  of  jackals,  or  other  carnivorous  enemies. 
"  These  birds  congregate  in  the  evening  and  have  a  grand 
soar  in  the  air;  after  which  they  alight  where  the  plain  is 
open,  and  the  vegetation  low  and  grassy  ;  disposing  them- 
selves carefully  in  circles,  with  their  heads  outwards,  so  that 
jackals,  or  other  enemies,  ever  hunting  in  the  evening  for 


96        The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

their  prey,  cannot  approach  them  unseen."  On  the  great 
rivers,  the  pelicans  more  wisely  select  islands  as  their  resting 
places.  The  position  therefore  of  the  king  of  Babylon, 
amid  water-surrounded  lands  for  safety,  may  not  unaptly 
be  compared  to  that  of  pelicans  when  threatened  by  their 
enemies. 

As  to  the  meaning  of  the  word  tus-mu,  it  may  be  com- 
pared with  the  Hebrew  ndsham  (Ott?2),  "to  blow  "  or  "puff 
out";  the  n  (2)  having  dropped  out  of  the  Assyrian  word, 
just  as  madata,  "tribute,"  has  come  from  mandatta,  from 
(]~TJ)  "to  give."  The  puffing -out  bird  being  of  course 
referable  to  its  swollen  pouch.  The  name  of  abbunnu  may 
with  equal  probability  be   compared  with  the  Arabic  verb 

habtn  (iS^)'  "Aqua  intercute  tumuit  "hrflavit"  tumidum 
reddidit,"  "  to  be  puffed  out  with  fluid,"  which  is  strikingly 
true  of  the  pouch  of  the  pelican's  bill,  which  is  capable  of 
enormous  expansion,  as  every  menagerie  showman  always 
takes  care  to  exhibit  to  the  visitors.  The  name  of  atdn  nahar% 
however,  gives  the  best  key  to  the  explanation  of  the  other 
words.  Atan  is  the  Hebrew  dton  (|in^)  a  "  she  ass,"  and 
nari  is  the  genitive  case  of  nam  " a  river."  The  she  ass  of 
the  waters,  with  its  swollen  mandibular  bag,  is  the  name 
of  the  Pelicanus  onocrotalus  as  represented  in  the  Assyrian 
names.  The  Accadian  names,  which  are  two  in  number,  are 
not  so  easily  explained.     They  are  (1)  NAM  BIR  MUKH  DIL  LUV 

HMf*  *y<^H  -  tfcs=)  and  (2) RAG  GU*  *A  (£■  5?!  Jm)- 

Rag  GUS  SA  may  mean  "  the  female  pelican  on  her  nest,"  or, 
more  definitely,  "  with  her  young  ones."  Rag  is  the  usual 
character  for  a  "  female  "  of  any  animal ;  GUSSA  is  compared 
with  tardin-nu,  "offspring."  (W.A.I.,  II,  29,  1.  64,  with  II,  HO, 
1.  46,  where  tir  dinnu  =  mar,  "  son,"  "  offspring.")  Pelicans 
like  many  other  buds  are  very  tame  when  they  have  nests  or 
young  ones,  and  would  thus  have  readily  presented  opportu- 
nities for  close  observation  under  such  circumstances.  They 
have  been  seen  in  large  quantities  on  the  Caspian,  on  the 
shallow  marshy  shores  of  which  they  breed.  The  ordinary 
species  which  is  common  on  the  Caspian  is  the  Pelicanus 
onocrotalus,  though  P.  crispus  also  occurs  there. 


The  Birds  of  ike  Assyrian  Monument*  and  Records.       97 

(38.)  I  have  already  alluded  to  the  question  whether  the 
Assyrians  kept  domesticated  poultry  :  I  think  there  is  suffi- 
cient evidence  to  show  that  the  answer  may  be  given  in  the 
affirmative.  There  are  several  names  of  one  and  the  same 
bird  mentioned  in  a  food  list  in  W.A.I.,  II,  42,  lines  67-70, 
the  most  common  being1  those  called  TBJ  >yy  ^*~  cw-ni-pu 
and  J:Yy  *~yT^  *~^"H  'e-zi-zu.  All  these  words  demand 
examination.  There  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  the 
domestic  cock  is  the  bird  denoted.  At  one  time  I  was 
inclined  to  think  that  the  swan  was  intended,  but  my  friend 
Mr.  Sayce  was  able  to  point  out  one  of  three  occurring 
names  which  served  as  a  key  to  the  problem.  The  cunipit 
and  'ezizu  denote  the  same  bird,  and  the  'ezizu  in  line   19  of 

the  same  plate  (42)  is  equated  with  >—  >~<  dil-bat  as  an  edible 

bird.  Fortunately  dilbat  is  well  known  :  it  is  "  the  announcer,' 
"the  proclaimer,"  or  "herald";  see  W.A.I.,  II,  7,  37-, 
where  dilbat  z=  nabu,  to  proclaim,  &c,  and  *->?-  >—  >-<  or 
£:£:][>- >^-  >—  >~<  is  the  planet  Venus  (Istar),  the  "  announcer" 
of  the  dawn  or  of  the  evening.  It  follows  therefore  that  all 
the  names  which  are  equated  with  'ezizu  must  also  be  equated 
with  dilbat.  The  cock  as  the  "  announcer  of  dawn,"  as  the 
"  trumpet  of  the  morn,"  is  proverbial  almost  everywhere.  As 
the  announcer  of  news  the  cock  was  sacred  to  Mercury, 
as  the  curer  of  diseases  to  iEsculapius,  as  a  warrior  to  Mars, 
Hercules,  &c.  Among  the  Persians  the  cock  not  only  awakened 
Aurora  and  aroused  men  from  sleep,  but  it  also  caused  the 
demons  of  night  to  depart.  In  the  Avesta  the  cock  is  called 
Parodars,  "  upon  whom  evil-speaking  men  impose  the  (nick) 
name  of  Kahrkatds ";  "  this  bird,"  it  is  added,  "  lifts  up  his 
voice  at  every  godly  morning  dawn,  (saying)  '  Stand  up, 
ye  men,  praise  the  best  purity,  destroy  the  Daeva.'  "  (See 
Vendidad,  xviii,  34-37  ;  Bleek's  translation,  p.  128.)  The 
demon  which  the  cock  puts  to  flight  is  the  Daeva Bushajangta, 
"  with  long  hands,"  i.e.,  the  demon  of  long  sleep.  In  extracts 
from  the  Avesta,  p.  197,  the  following  Jewish  prayer  is  given, 
"  Blessed  art  Thou,  0  Lord  our  God !  King  of  the  universe, 
who  grantest  to  the  cock  understanding  to  distinguish 
between  day  and  night,"  We  are  further  told  that  the 
Vol.  VIII.  7 


98        lite  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monument*  and  Record*. 

Parsees  do  not  eat  a  cock  after  it  has  begun  to  crow.  We 
know  that  the  ancient  Romans  took  augury  from  cocks  and 
y<  nmg  fowls :  so  we  may  expect  to  find  this  bird  figuring  in 
the  Assyrian  records.  I  do  not  know,  however,  of  any 
allusion  to  these  birds  as  birds  of  augury ;  but  that  they  did 
appear  in  early  times  on  sacrificial  occasions  is  certain,  from 
the  impression  of  the  conical  seal  obtained  by  Sir  A.  H. 
Layard  at  Babylon,  an  engraving  of  "which  may  be  seen  in 
Layard's  "Nin.  and  Babyl.,"  p.  538.  The  seal  is  "  an  agate 
cone,  upon  the  base  of  which  is  engraved  a  winged  priest  or 
deity,  standing  in  an  attitude  of  prayer  before  a  cock  on  an 
altar;  above  the  group  is  the  crescent  moon." 

There  is  a  cylinder  in  the  British  Museum  in  which  there 
is  a  subject  very  similar.  "A  priest,  wearing  the  sacri- 
ficial dn.ss,  stands  at  a  table  before  an  altar  bearing  a 
crescent,  and  a  smaller  altar,  on  which  stands  a  cock."  The 
Hebrew  commentators  thought  that  Xergal,  the  idol  of  the 
men  of  Cuth,  had  the  form  of  the  cock,  writes  Layard,  refer- 
ring to  Selden,  "  De  Dis  Syris,"  p.  251.  I  may  mention  that 
Montfaucon,  in  his  "Antiquities,"  gives  a  similar  sacrificial 
representation  in  the  plate  "  Duodecim  Anni  Menses,"  where 
Jaimarius  is  depicted  as  a  priest  burning  incense  on  one  altar, 
and  having  on  his  left  hand  another  conical  shaped  altar, a  cock 
standing  at  his  feet.  We  know  that  fowls  played  an  important 
part  as  birds  of  augury.  As  Pliny  ("  Xat.  Hist.,"  x,  21)  says, 
it  is  from  the  feeding  of  these  birds  that  the  omens  are 
derived,  "  tripudia  solistima  :  it  is  these  which  regulate  day 
by  day  the  movements  of  our  magistrates,  and  open  or  shut 
to  them  their  own  houses ;  it  is  these  that  command  battles 
or  forbid  them,  and  furnish  auspices  for  victories  to  be  gained 
in  every  part  of  the  world  ;  it  is  these  that  hold  supreme  rule 
over  those  who  are  themselves  the  rulers  of  the  earth,  and 
whose  entrails  and  fibres  are  as  pleasing  to  the  gods  as  the 
first  spoils  of  victory."  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  sacrificial 
rites  and  consultation  by  augury,  in  which  cocks  figured 
amongst  the  Romans,  came  originally  from  Babylonia,  and 
that  as  some  of  the  zodiacal  signs  had  their  earliest  origin  in 
Babylonia,  so  the  sacred  rites  connected  with  the  Roman 
months  had  some   of  them  a  similar  oriein.      I  think  that 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.        99 

the  figure  of  the  cock  perched  on  an  altar  before  a  priest 
making  his  offerings,  leads  us  to  conclude  that  this  bird  was 
to  some  extent  sacred,  and  that  one  of  the  numerous  names 
of  the  cock,  viz.,  fe-na-nu  £:Y*  *~~^]  *jf~  (P2?  "to  divine," 
"  augurans,"  "  observans  somnia "  (Vulgate),  represents  this 
bird  in  this  capacity  as  a  soothsayer.  The  following  names 
occur  as  denoting  the  cock ;  all  have  the  determinate  prefix 
of  ^yyy^,  "  food,"  before  them. 

(a.)  gj  S^I  "^S~,  cu-ni-pu,  or  JgJ  ^  fcjj  ^|<| 
cu-ni-ip  (khu).  The  derivation  of  this  word  is  uncertain  :  it 
may  be  connected  with  the  Hebrew  f]23,  "  a  wing,"  and 
allude  to  the  constant  clapping  of  its  wings  in  the  act  of 
crowing  (ef.  Pliny,  x.  21,  "ipsum  verum  cantum  plausu 
laterum"),  hence  called  the  "  wing-bird";  or  it  may  refer  to 
the  original  meaning  of  the  Hebrew  word  for  a  wing,  i.e.,  "to 
cover,"  "  to  hide,"  in  allusion  to  the  hen  bird  covering  and 
brooding  over  its  chickens.  As  some  other  names  of  the 
domestic  fowl  refer  to  the  bird's  voice,  it  is  not  improbable 
that  cunipu  may  more  definitely  denote  the  covering  or 
brooding  hen,  but  was  not  used  exclusively  in  that  sense.1 

(b.)  g=yj  J^l^  ^yy  '«-«,  "the  strong  bird,"  Heb.  (ft^). 
This  is  a  suitable  name  for  the  bold  pugnacious  cock,  the 
emblem  of  Mars,  able,  according  to  the  Latin  tradition,  to 
inspire  terror  even  in  the  lion.  With  the  Assyrian  name  we 
may  aptly  compare  the  Aramaic  word  153,  "  the  strong 
bird,"  occasionally  used  by  Talmudic  writers  as  one  of  the 
names  of  the  cock  :  see  Buxtorf,  "Lex.  dial.,"  pp.  384,  385. 
The  fem.,  H1"^  gabrith,  is  also  given  as  the  name  of  the  hen. 
(c.)  With  'e-zi-zu  is  also  associated  the  Accadian  name 
Y  \>^  -^E£  f -«-«-«-«  gar-mi-kharmes  (?),  a  word  which  awaits 
explanation. 

(d.)  Another  name  as  an  equivalent  of  'e-zi-zu  is 
ly  >^y  "^  a-gus-se ;  but  as  another  very  similar  word, 
H  *~^~  V"  a~vv-s<>i  als°  occurs  as  a  synonym,  the  two  may  be 

1  Our  English  word  "  cock"  is  borrowed  from  the  French  coc,  and  is  not  of 
Anglo-Saxon  origin.  The  old  word  for  a  cock  was  Hana,  a  masculine  word,  corre- 
sponding to  English  hen ;  cf.  German,  der  Halm  ;  and  see  Skeat,  "  Etym. 
]>iet,,"  p.  118. 


100       The  Bu\l<  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

connected,  and  read  as  avusse  and  a-vu-se  respectively.  This 
name  is  probably  to  be  referred  to  the  Aramaic  C^N  dovish, 
"  personare,w  perstrepere,  "sonum  edere,"  a  fit  name  for  the 
Doisy  crowing  rock.1     The  avuse  in  W.A.I.,  II.  pi.   42.  1.  18, 

comes  just  before  tin:*  'e-zi-zu,  and  like  it  is  called  the  dilbat 
(*—  >~<),  "the  announcer."'  The  name  may,  however,  be  of 
Accado-Sumerian  origin:  g  =  Sumerian  ni  or  p. 

(e.)  Another  name,  *pYT^b  ^^T  ^  sag-gus-u,  perhaps  has 
reference  to  the  cock's  comb  or  crest ;  *^^^z  J^f  is  "the  top 
of  the  head,"  and  /  is  given  as  having  as  one  of  its  significa- 
tions, a  "  peak":  the  idea  of  elevation  seems  to  be  implied  in 
the  form  of  the  character  when  turned  up.  ^V  :  s*^  or  ^  may 
be  explained  in  one  of  its  most  general  significations  as 
"lord."  The  bird's  name  would  read,  "  top  of  the  head."  or 
"  head"  +  "lord"  :  a  suitable  name  fur  the  proud  cock,  as  he 
struts  about  with  uplifted  head  — 

"  How  high  his  highness  holds  his  haughty  head  "  ! 

(  f. )  The  a-vu-se  has  also  as  an  equivalent  the  name 
j:^Y  >— «*~T  *j(-  'e-ncHvu,  to  which  reference  has  already  been 
made.  The  cock  is  the  "diviner"  or  "soothsayer"  (|^>  )  :  as 
presaging  coming  events  from  the  appearance  of  its  viscera,  or 
for  other  reasons.  All  these  names  occur  in  pi.  42,  Vol.  II,  of 
AV.A.L.andall  have  the  D.P.  of  "food"  (^ffj^)  before  them. 

(39.)  The  ostrich  is  one  of  the  few  birds  whose  figures 
occur  on  the  monuments  to  which  I  have  alluded.  It 
was    known    to    the    Assyrians    by  the    names  of   sa-ka-tuv 

Gs  >M  ^Ih)  *Hp  «-"*  t>  fcU  f?  z£Hl)  and^'»- 

gam-mu  (\  \  *~^  )'  tm^  hatter  name  being  borrowed  from 
the  Accadian  gam  gam  (^-<^Z£Es^  ^-<^ZSi)-    Another 

1  It  is  to  be  noted  that  we  hare,  at  present,  no  onomato-poetie  name  for  a 
"  cock,"  like  our  cock-a-doodle-doo,  of  which  "  cock  "  is  simply  an  abbreviation  ; 
<•/".  "Soph.  Fraj..''  900,  KoKKopoac  opvic,  6  aXficrpi'iij',  "the  cock,  the  bird  that 
cries  coc";  but  the  idea,  if  not  the  actual  voice,  of  the  bird,  is  manifest  in  the 
"word  a-vu-se,  just  as  the  old  English  word  Hana  (  =  "  Cock  '"),  is  to  be  compared 

with  the  Latin  canere,  the  Sanskrit   ?f\^U,  kvau,  "  to  sound."       The  Sanskrit 

Tkukkuta  (<f\  Sfi^),  "  a  cock,"  is  clearly  onomato-poetie. 


Troi  ■  "  ■      Ar<h.  Vol.WT. 


Bcttcu.LpL.IU6 


Bottoul.pl.m 


ASSYRIAN     BIRDS.     Plate  IX. 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.      101 

Accadian  name  is  GIR  gid  da  (^^  V*"  £!?TT)'  "^ie  ^onS~ 
legged  bird.  Sakatuv  may  be  compared  with  the  Arabic 
f-'ilp  (sakd)  "  abiit,  declivavit,  deflexit  a  via  recta,"  and  may 
allude  to  the  well-known  habit  of  these  birds  always 
running  in  circles  when  hunted.  Gam  gam  is  in  the  syllabaries 
(W.A.I.,  III,  pi.  70,  1.  48-49)  compared  with  <ji-mil-lu  (bt2^ 
"to  recompense,")  and  sikru,  "a  reward  (12 IT).  It  is  not  easy 
to  see  the  exact  meaning  of  this  expression  as  applied  to  the 
ostrich.  Delitzsch  thinks  it  to  be  synonymous  with  what  is 
said  of  the  stork  (ITppn)  "the  pious  bird."  The  Hebrews,  it 
is  known,  regarded  the  ostrich  as  a  cruel  bird  in  neglecting 
its  young,  as  they  supposed,  and  the  Arabs  considered  this 
bird  as  the  emblem  of  stupidity.     Still  the  Arabs  used   the 

word  nadm  (  ^[^  j  as  the  name  of  the  ostrich,  although  the 

verb  from  whence  the  name  is  derived  always  refers  to  what 
is  pleasant  and  good.  Whatever  reasons  there  may  be  for 
these  names,  implying  "benefit"  or  "good,  disposition," 
whether  the  benefit  refers  to  that  derived  from  man  by  the 
birds'  capture,  or  to  the  supposed  good  the  birds  showed  to 
each  other,  it  is  certain  that  they  are  names  by  which  the 
ostrich  was  known ;  and  with  this  knowledge  I  suppose  we 
must  be  content. 

(40.)  W.A.I.,  II,  pi.  37,  No.  1,  obv.,  1.  8,  <J-  >~^]] 
*-tz^ft  -jV^  si-li-in-gu,  ^>-  >— YY< Y  £^T  bu-ri-du,  compared 
with  hue  48,  No.  2,  obv.,  jrA^_  ^TpT  £^^  azrci-ku,  and 
(]*-  IfcJ  £^£^   si-likrku  =  Accad.    nam  bir  xam  khu. 

The  Accadian  name  clearly  points  to  some  bird  of  omen 
or  destiny,  and  the  silinqu  of  the  Assyrian  column  is,  I  think, 
also  to  be  referred  to  an  Accadian  origin,  viz.,  to  the  word 
silik,  "  propitious,"  beneficial.  The  name  of  bu-ri-du  is 
explained  in  the  Talmud  as  "  a  bird  of  a  speckled  colour," 
(NTQ  fNlN-Q  (N~TN  12),  "Vogel  von  gesprenkter  Farbe," 
Arab,  jj  (see  "Aruch  Completum,"  Dr.  Alex.  Kohut,  p.  172). 
Lewysohn  ("  Die  Zool.  des  Talm.,"  p.  187;  quotes  Landau,  who 
identifies  this  barda  with  the  "Snow  Finch."  The  word 
buridu  seems  to  point  to  some  bird  which  is  found  in  cold 


102      The  Bird*  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

snow-clad  districts;  cf.  Arab.  j'.>,  "firigidus  fait,*'  j..'«  "grando," 
••  hail";  or  the  name  mar  refer  to  the  hail-like  spots  such  as 
occur  on  the  plumage  of  the  nutcracker  {Niicifraga  cataractes), 
which  Lewysohn  suggests  as  being  perhaps  the  bird  denoted. 
The  Snow  Finch  {MontifringiUa  alpicola,  Pall.),  a  species 
closely  allied  to  M.  nivalis,  occurs  on  the  Caucasus,  and  is  a 
permanent  inhabitant  of  the  Elburz,  whence  Major  St.  John 
obtained  specimens  shot  in  the  snow  in  the  month  of  February. 
FL  icks  are  found  at  an  elevation  of  between  9,000  and  10,000 
feet  above  the  sea.  Like  the  M.  nivalis,  this  species  is  probably 
at  times  migratory,  and  would  thus  suit  the  requirement  of 
the  buridu,  being  '•  a  bird  of  destiny"  or  migration.1 

The  Accadian  equivalent  of  the  siliku  (silingu)  or  buridu  is 
IL  LUM  bi  khu.  a  word  which  it  is  difficult  to  explain.  The 
word  az-ci-ku  may  be  onomatopoetic.  Nothing  more  definite 
can  be  said  of  the  buridu  than  that  it  denotes  a  "speckled  or  pied 
bird  of  omen,"  which  the  Assyrian  and  Accadian  names  imply. 

(41.)    Obv.   No.  1,  1.   10,    g?Tf   tc]  £J  A^+  K 

dha-ab-bi-u,  or  >-Hfr-|  ^<<<  Tr  J^f  ea-cis  na'ari.  admits  of 
easy  identity.  The  former  name,  dkabbiu,  is  to  be  referred 
to  the  Hebrew  >212  dkdba',  "  to  sink."  "  dip,"  "  plunge,"  or 
"dive."'  With  the  latter  word  ca-cis  (na'ari),  "the  cacis  of 
the  river,"  Delitzsch  very  aptly  compares  the  Arabic   u^Jl.* 

mukavkis,  which  Freytag  ("Lex.  Arab.,"  s.v.  IV.  p.  198) 
explains  by  "  nomen  avis  collari  praeditse,  columba  similis, 
albae  cum  nigro  mixta?."  This  explanation,  together  with  the 
idea  of  diving  implied  by  the  other  name,  dhabbiu,  at  once 
suggests  the  little  Grebe  (Podiceps  minor)  as  the  bird  intended. 
This  grebe  is  included  in  the  list  given  by  Blanford  ("  Zool.  of 
Persia,"  p.  304)  of  the  family  of  Colymbidae,  as  occurring  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  Caspian  and  other  places.  The 
Podiceps  minor  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  Caspian,  and  also  the 

1  The  destruction  caused  by  hailstones  is  an  object  of  dread  in  many  countries. 
In  a  fragment  of  a  hymn  to  Marduk,  we  have  ina  pi  pvridica  mannu  iparassid. 
"  in  the  face  of  thy  hail  who  can  escape  "?  ("W.A.I.,  IV,  26,  45.)  The  snow- 
bunting,  as  inhabiting  hail-visited  districts,  would  thus  naturally  be  regarded  as 
a  bird  of  omen. 


The  Birth  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.      103 

Persian  highlands.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  turtle-dove,  and 
in  its  winter  plumage  the  adult  bird  has  a  patch  of  white  with 
ash-brown  markings  on  the  chin.  Other  grebes,  such  as  the 
crested  species,  P.  cristatus,  P.  nigricollis,  P.  auritus,  occur  on 
the  Caspian,  on  the  Baluchistan  coast,  and  on  the  Kazrun 
Lake,  and  the  smaller  species,  as  P.  auritus  and  P.  nigricollis, 
were  ji>robably  included  under  the  names  of  the  dhabiu  and 
cacis  naari,  i.e.,  "the  small  diving  bird  of  the  rivers  or  water." 
The  English  name  of  dabchick  or  didapper  =  dive  +  diver  or 
dapper,  i.e.,  "  the  double  diver  or  dipper,"  from  the  perpetual 
diving  habits  of  the  bird,  expresses  the  same  idea  as  the 
Assyrian  name  of  dhabbiu.  Dr.  Delitzsch  suggests  a  "  sea- 
gull "  (eine  Movenart)  ;  but  no  sea-gull  is  known  to  dive, 
whilst  the  little  grebe  or  dabchick  fulfils  all  the  require- 
ments. 

(42.)  obv.,  No.  i,  i.  is,  >^yy  jjy  ^<y  ^yyy^  m-ur-du-u, 

*-t-£~\  *^-yy  >i^|y  ca-su-su.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
these  two  bird-names  are  to  be  referred  to  that  of  the 
^^yy^z  £p  >~y<y  Sur-clu,  which  occurs  in  the  Accadian 
column  of  W.A.I.,  V,  pi.  27,  1.  48.  Unfortunately,  in  this 
tablet  the  whole  of  the  Assyrian  portion  is  broken,  and  not  a 
vestige  of  the  Assyrian  equivalents  remain,  whilst  in  the 
tablet  hi  which  the  two  Assyrian  names  of  iurdu  and  casusv, 
are  preserved,  only  a  fragment  of  the  corresponding  Accadian 
name  is  left.  This  remaining  bit  is  ^r  *-]<],  which  is 
evidently  the  remains   of  the   complete    Accadian  word   in 

vol.  v,  be.  dt.  The  ^yyrif=  sp  ^y<y,  >^yy  fly  ^y  ^yyy,,, 

and  ^J^J  '-^yy  ^^yy,  are  therefore  the  names  of  the 
same  bird.  The  Accadian  name  ^JlYYjftz  £r  >~1<1,  winch 
may  be  read  either  Sur-du,  "might-making,"  or  cuS-du,  "rest- 
making,"  has  been  inadvertently  read  by  the  late  Mr.  G.  Smith 
and  by  M.  Lenormant  as  ra-pa-kak  khu,  "  the  rapakak  bird," 
the  parts  of  the  name  having  been  wrongly  separated,  as 
Dr.  Delitzsch  ("Assyrische  Lesestucke,"  p.  31,171)  has  already 
pointed  out.  The  name  of  iurdu,  which  occurs  in  the  Assyrian 
column  in  pi.  37,  No.  1,  1.  15,  is  therefore  evidently  a  loan 
word,  and  borrowed  from  the  Accadian,  and  shows  us,  more- 


104      The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

over,  that  we  must  road  the  Aceadian  word  as  iurdu,  and  not 
as  cui-du.  Prof.  Delitzsch  thinks  that  the  Assyrian  name 
caiuiu  is  a  reduplicated  form  of  the  Hebrew  Di3  (cut),  which 
he  identifies  with  the  screech-owl,  the  Hebrew  name  being 
explained  in  the  Talmud  by  the  Aramaic  word  ^lj2,  which, 
as  we  have  seem  is  probably  that  species  of  owl.  Mr.  Pinches, 
to  whom  I  am  indebted  for  valuable  suggestions,  and  for 
copies  from  the  tablets  not  yet  published,  tells  me  that  he 
thinks  he  has  found  a  tablet  which  seems  to  show  that  the 
Assyrians  practised  falconry,  and  that  the  bird  used  for  that 
purpose  is  none  other  than  the  kirchi  in  question  ;  so  that  the 
idea  conveyed  by  the  name  of  the  bird,  "which  makes  might,"' 
is  very  fitting  for  some  of  the  larger  falcons,  which  the 
Assyrians  very  probably  employed  as  helping  agents  in  their 
capture  of  winged,  or  possibly  even  running,  game.  This  use 
of  the  Surdu  would,  of  course,  exclude  all  the  owls,  and  point 
to  some  falcon,  as,  perhaps,  the  Peregrine,  or  one  or  other  of 
allied  species  or  varieties.  The  Assyrian  caiuiu  may  be 
referred  to  the  Heb.  DD3  (allied  to  y2g),  "to  divide," 
"  distribute,"  or  the  Aramaic  DD3,  "  to  eat,"  "  masticate." 
From  the  idea  of  dividing  by  cutting  came  that  of  reckoning 
up  or  assigning  a  certain  portion,  hence  the  Aramaic  002, 
"  a  fixed  or  reckoned  portion,"  "  a  share."  The  ancient  art 
of  hawking  was  practised  for  the  sake  of  securing  the  prey, 
and  little  account  was  taken  of  the  sport  itself,  as  in  later 
times  of  the  noble  art  of  falconry.  It  was  the  custom  of 
ancient  people,  who  employed  kites  or  falcons  to  aid  them  in 
the  capture  of  their  game,  to  encourage  the  birds  by  always 
dividing  a  portion  of  the  prey  with  them.  In  India,  as  we 
learn  from  Ctesias,  foxes  and  hares  were  hunted  by  the  use 
of  birds  of  prey.  It  is  probable  that  the  Greeks  derived  from 
India  and  Thrace  their  first  information  concerning  falconry. 
Aristotle  expressly  mentions  certain  parts  of  Thrace  in  which 
the  people  made  use  of  rapacious  birds  in  their  fowling  expe- 
ditions, and  Aelian  ("Nat.  Hist.,"  ii,  42)  tells  us  that  when 
the  Thracians  catch  any  birds  "  they  divide  them  with  the 
hawks,  by  which  means  they  render  them  faithful  partners  in 
fowling;  if  they  did  not  give  them  a  share  of  the  booty  they 


Tlte  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.     105 

would  be  deprived  of  their  assistance.''  This  custom  of  giving 
the  falcon  a  portion  of  the  prey  killed  seems  to  have  been  in 
general  use,  and  the  falconers  of  more  modern  days  similarly 
used  to  share  their  booty  with  the  birds.  It  would  1  e 
hazardous,  in  the  absence  of  positive  proof,  to  assert  that  this 
custom  of  allowing  the  bird  to  share  is  implied  in  the  name 
of  caSastt ;  but  the  ancient  custom  seems  worthy  of  being 
mentioned.  I  think  that  some  falcon  is  designated  by  the 
names  which  have  passed  under  our  consideration,  and  that 
it  is  probable  that  it  was  employed  by  the  ancient  inhabitants 
of  Assyrian  lands  to  aid  them  in  the  capture  of  winged  or  other 
game.  In  col.  No.  2  the  name  of  "-*--yT  -<&£■£=  £^T 
iu-vur-du — another  Semitised  form  of  the  Accadian  word — 
occurs  as  the  equivalent  of  casusu. 

(43.)    PI.  37,  rev.,  1.  7,  ^^  ^]  A-|  «^,  khar-ba-ka-nu, 

or  a^^E  *~y<T  "^tj  Tt  >j(~i  khar-bac-ca-a-nu.  These  two 
forms  of  the  same  bird-name  should  be  compared  with  some 
names  which  occur  on  pi.  40,  4,  rev.,  11.  24-26,  where  we  meet 
with  fly  -^K  ISJ  tas-bal-luv,  or  §£*  ^^  -^  &-]  ^ 
khar-ba-ka-nu,  and  |t^  ^^TT  }}(  }y  "^  *jf~->  ta-kha-tsa-se-nu, 
all  of  which  seem  to  relate  to  the  same  bird,  or  to  birds  of 
prey  of  different  allied  species  or  similar  habits.  The  word 
tasballuv,  another  form  of  tasbaluv,  has  been  already  con- 
sidered. The  kharbacdnu,  or  the  full  form  hharbaccdnu,  has 
an  Accadian  origin,  and  appears  in  the  Assyrian  column  with 
the  usual  adjectival  Semitic  ending  of  dnu.  Etymologically, 
the  name  is  composed  of  ^^E  (khar)  "  entrails  "  +  >~T<T 
(jpak  or  bale),  "a  bird  in  flight,"  and  ^T^j  (cd),  "a  mouth," 
and.  I  suppose,  designates  some  eagle  or  other  rapacious  bird 
which  accompanies  battle-scenes,  and  feeds  on  the  carcases 
of  the  slain.  Figures  of  eagles  carrying  off  the  entrails  of 
the  dead  occur  on  the  monuments  (see  plate).  The 
takhatsasenu  designates  the  same  bird  of  "  the  battle  "  fields. 
The  names  in  the  Accadian  column  are,  unfortunately,  lost,  only 
fragments  remaining.  The  character  of  >— <  (*~T<T)  opposite 
kharbacdnu,  probably  denotes  "a  dead  body"  (pagru, Assyr., 
bat,  Accad.),  and  refers  to  the  habit  above  mentioned.  Oppo- 
site the  name  of  hliarbacch.u  in  pi,  40,  4,  rev.,  1.  25,  occur  the 


106      The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

characters  ^y  >-^Y  PmJ  (?)  sa-fo  [tu~]  "spoil,"  perhaps  referring 
to  the  same  habits  of  these  birds  of  prey.  "  Wheresoever  the 
carcase  is  there  will  the  eagles  be  gathered  together." 

(44.)  PL  37,  No.  1,  rev.,  1.  12,  }}  ^g=  *fe  *^- 
a-riir-su-nii ;  this  word  is  simply  repeated  hi  the  other  Assyrian 
column,  arid  only  a  fragment  (^TYjJfz)  is  left  in  the 
Arcadian.  I  think  it  must  be  referred  to  the  ur-sa-nu  or 
tdmsilu  already  considered,  "  some  kind  of  pigeon."  I  am 
inclined  to  think,  with  Norris  ("Assyr.  Diet.,"  p.  28),  that 
avurianu  is  an  Assyrian  form  of  an  Accadian  word,  and  that 
ursanu  is  to  be  similarly  explained;    that   a-vur-sa-nu  is  the 

parent  bird  (Y»  "father")  of  the  ursanu.  which  the  Assyrian 

.         L 
tdmsilu,  the    Tahnudic    wTp-V),  explains  as  "a  pigeon." 

(45.)  Of  the  Z^}  ><]<  t^\  fz]^fz  it-ti-du  or  ^}]]  ^<\< 
^5f  >^Y^  ta-ti-du-tur.  in  pi.  37,  Xo.  1,  rev.,  1.  16,  nothing 
at  all  certain  can  be  known,  and  the  question  of  identity  must 
remain  undecided. 

(i6.)  pi.  37,  i.  67,  Tgf  *m  <sn  M'  -*H  £  M 

and  ^J=Y  \Pjj  ^*~>  cu-ru-uc-eu,  ea-i-ac-cu,  and  cu-ru-bu.  The 
three  words  are,  perhaps,  all  onomato-poetic,  and  refer  to 
some  cawing  bird. 

(47.)  L.  19.  Of  the  X-]  ^^  &]]]*1  *a~h™>  a^d 
»->^  *^Y  ^11"^  I^yi  tar-ma-zi-lu,  I  have  nothing  to  say,  but 
that  the  former  word  is  imitative;  that  the  latter  appears  to 
be  of  Accadian  origin ;  and  that  some  "  cawing  bird "  is 
denoted. 

(48.)  In  pi.  37.  No.  2,  obv.,  we  have  a  bilingual  list  of 
birds'  names,  which  is  nearly  perfect,  a  great  many  of  the 
Accadian    names    being    preserved.       In    1.    28    we    have 

^  jryyyjr  -yy<y  ^yyy  ^-  and  ;g|>-  -yy^<  ^ ;  the  first 

character  in  the  first  name  should,  perhaps,  be  altered  to 
^j:»yy»,  and  the  name  read  as  tir-ri-ta-rur,  a  reduplicated 
form.  Tin-  second  word  is  incomplete:  perhaps  the  lost 
portion  Avas  J:Y  ^^  istsur,  and  the  whole  bird-name, 
itstsur  kJial-zi,  "bird  of  the  fortress.'  From  such  uncertain 
data  attempts  at  identification  must  be  mere  guess-work. 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.      107 

(49.)  In  line  32  occur  the  words  £^  ^J[[  ^t]]]  *] 
hur-ru-um-tav,  and  ^Y^T  dhar-rn,  on  the  Assyrian  columns, 

and  [^y<f]^  ^\  ^T^I  HM  [NAM]  BIR  DHAR  KHU  in  the 
Accadian.  These  words  admit  of  easy  explanation  ;  but  the 
result    is    too    indefinite    for  identification.     The    Assyrian 

bu-rum-tav  is  the  Hebrew  D*^,  Arab.        .  ,  "to  twist  two  or 

more  threads  together" ;   hence  EPft  mS  beromim,  Arab.      .   , 

fiji 

barim,  "  variegated  garments,"  as  composed  of  two  or  more 
coloured  threads.  The  Assyrian  dharru  is  from  the  Accadian 
dhar,  "  variegated."  We  see  therefore  that  some  "  bird  of 
varied  plumage,"  but  whether  of  two  or  more  colours,  or  of 
what  colours,  we  are  not  informed,  so  that  nothing  more 
definite  can  be  determined ;  but  as  we  have  the  Accadian  P. 
NAM  BIR,  denoting  "multitude,"  I  think  it  probable  that  the 
sand-grouse  (Pterocles)  is  meant. 

(50.)  In  line  33  we  next  meet  with  "^S-  "jVrf=  bu-tsu, 
and  ^y  ^*~~*  ^^f-  *~yy^  its-isur  khar-ri ;  the  latter  means 
"the  bird  of  the  ravine1'  ("Vlll,  "to  hollow  out").  lean 
give  no  explanation   of  butsu.      Delitzsch  compares  it  with 

the  Arabic     .t,   bdz,    "a    falcon."        The    Accadian    name 

J  • 
[^y<y]  -^S  -^  V"^y<y  ^y<y  NAM  bir  us  khu,  awaits  explana- 
tion, as  the  meaning  of  the  character  Us  is  unknown. 

(51.)  We  arrive  at  something  more  definite  and  interesting 
in  the  next  bird-name.  In  the  names  of  £~Sf  /  £i*y  du-dn 
and  T^H  ^^^|  £IM£:  ib-bil-tuv,  represented  by  tlio 
Accadian  *-y<y^  >~y<y  NAM  KHU,  "  destiny  bird,"  we  recog- 
nize the  love-bird,  or  dove  of  Istar,  the  Assyrian  Venus.  The 
Assyrian  dudu  is  the  Hebrew  TH  dod  or  TT\  dud,  "  love," 
"to  love,"  and  ibbil-tuv  is  clearly  the  cooing  or  "  mourning" 
bird,  from  ^5N  "  to  mourn,"  in  allusion  to  the  plaintive  yet 
soothing  notes  of  the  turtle-dove  and  others  of  the  same 
family  of  birds.  The  bud  of  destiny  alludes  probably  to  the 
migratory  habits  of  the  turtle-dove,  and  to  its  being  sacred 
to  Astarte.  Other  names  of  the  dove  which  occur  have  been 
already  considered. 


108      The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records'. 

(52.)  Line  38.  Immediately  after  the  royal  bird  of 
variegated  plumage  occurs  the  name  T^J  -^j*-  "^BT  cu~P^lh 
having  as  its  only  other  representative  the  Accadian 
>-w:yy  izV^  *i<  Yy  ^f-  ^|<y  su  ux  kur  sa  nu  khu.  The 
meaning  of  this  latter  word  is  unknown.  The  Assyrian  may 
possibly  mean  the  "  bending  "  bird,  from  HE2  "  to  bend  " 
or  "  bow  down.'"  This  may  be  another  name  f<  >r  the  flamingo, 
whose  curved  bill  is  such  that  the  bird  is  obliged  to  curve 
down  its  whole  neck  and  to  reverse  the  position  of  its  bill  in 
the  water,  in  order  to  be  able  to  feed;  but  this  is  mere  con- 
jecture, and  further  evidence  is  required  for  identification. 
The  bending — even  if  the  name  has  this  meaning — would 
also  suit  the  avocet  (Reeurvirostra),  the  curlew,  etc.1 

(53.)  In  line  41  we  meet  with  iz]  <^  |f  ^  >~]]^ 
its-tsur  a-sa-gi,  which  has  as  its  equivalent  the  name  already 
considered,  viz.,  the  ^|5^  H^f^  K]^1  H^f^  di-k-di-ic, 
which  two  Assyrian  names  are  equated  with  the  Accadian 

>-y<y^  ^}  ?=y  ^yyy^  ^^-yyy  *-y<y  nam  bir  °is  °  gir  kb^- 

The  dicdic,  as  we  have  seen,  is  "  the  sparrow  "  ;  its-tsur  asagi 
means  "the  bird  of  the  thorn-bush  ";  the  word  asagu,  I  think, 
must  be  referred  to  the  Amharic  ftfift  e-so-ke,  the  /Eth.  ^^1 
so-l-e,  "  spina  "  ;  v.  Ludolf,  "  Lex.  Amhar.,"  p.  58.  I  may  here 
mention  in  passing  that  the  Amharic  name  of  the  Hyrax 
Syriacus  (the  Shdphan  of  the  Heb.  Bible,  "Coney"  of  our 
A. V.),  is,  according  to  Bruce,  Ashkoko,  so  called  in  allusion 
"to  the  long  herinaeeous  hairs  which  like  small  thorns  grow 
upon  its  back."  The  Accadian  name  is  made  up  of  the 
following  elements:  GIS  =  -'wood.*'  £qY|>=  =  "food,  and 
GIR  =  ••thorn,"  the  whole  denoting  "a  thorny  tree  which 
affords  food."  The  bird,  therefore,  is  the  sparrow  (Passer 
salicarius),  which  is  known  to  frequent  in  large  flocks  haw- 
thorn bushes  and  other  berry-producing  trees,  and  breeds 
always  in    thorny  bushes.    In  W.A.L,   V,  18,   6,  the  dicdicku 

has  >-y<y  *~>4-<  *~^-yy  *-yyy^  ^y^y  ^»-^,_; "",,/'/  (-o  ^m  &s  ^ 

equivalent  in  the  Accadian  column.    I  can  give  no  explanation. 
(54.)  In  the  43rd   line    one  of  the  Assyrian  columns  is, 

1   Cf.  the  Sanskrit  krauncha,  "a  curiew,"  from  krunch,  "  to  curve." 


Tran 


Weight  Lay  curd  Jpl.95c 


h  nas  at"  Bows,  Bokta,  I  ph.  159. 


Ends  of  Bows 
BottaLvl  73 


Ends  of  Bows 
BoUa.Ipl.105. 


Paruer.  Botbou .    ph.  16Z   enlarged; 
from  PL.  28. 


' 


ASSYRIAN      BIRDS.     Plat-  A*. 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.     10'.* 

shaded,  and  the  reading  of  the  word  uncertain;  we  find  here 
£E=H  IHJ  i  da~lu-u  and  ^f*  IgU  Z^Wi  hal-la-du.  The 
Accadian  column  has  ^<^  *^]  »—  J^yf^  >— Y<Y^  KHU  &  RUM 
U  KHU.  The  word  dalu  means  "  long"  in  Assyrian,  and  is  to 
bo  compared  with  the  Hebrew  V  ^ P\  "  to  be  long,"  or  we  may 
read  dhalu,  and  refer  the  name  to  the  root  V^t2,  "to  be  spotted," 
or  "  variegated  with  black  and  white."  It  is  not  improbable 
that  the  full  word  in  the  shaded  column  was  bal-lu-tsi-tuv,  a 
inline  which,  as  has  been  already  shown,  perhaps  denotes 
"the  magpie."  The  idea  of  "the  long"  bird  would  have 
quite  well  suited  the  long-tailed  Pica  caudata,  while  the  other 
reading  is  equally  suitable.  Khu  si  in  the  Accadian  column 
has  been  shown  to  signify  "a  prince,"  "  governor,"  or  "pilot." 
I  know  not  the  meaning  of  the  remaining  part  of  the  word, 
but  I  think  that  a  magpie  is  the  long  bird  intended.1 

(55.)  As  to  the  })}}]}  >-]<]  za-ai-ht,  and  ]}  ^Jlff  ^S-£|§ 
a-ra-bu  [it]  of  the  44th  line,  represented  by  the  Accadian 
(£^  >-]]■&  t^£:  *~T<y  GIR  GI  lum  KHU'  nothing  more  can 
be  said  than  that  the  names  together  point  to  some  "  long- 
legged,  black,  screaming  bird,"  zaikhu  being  apparently 
onomato-poetic  ;  but  I  am  unable  to  identify  the  bud. 

(56.)  In  W.A.I.,  V,  27,  3,  obv.,  1.  36,  there  occurs  the  single 
Accadian  name  of  a  bird  called  lal-la-ri  (V~  *^\  * — TT'^T  *~pT)  ' 
the  tablet  is  fractured  at  this  part,  and  there  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  an  Assyrian  equivalent  expressed  in 
that  column.  In  W.A.I.,  II,  40,  34,  the  name  lal-la-ar-tuv 
(y*""  >-^y  V^:£l  JZ^T^:)  is  equated  with  4a?r-rad  'Mp-ri,  "terror 
of  the  regions"  ("Sen.,"  p.  20).  In  W.A.I.,  II,  25,  71, 
r  ^  *HI  lal-h-ru  is  identified  with  Jr£  ]gj  ]}  ^^gj| 
i-lu-a-li,  "  high  ;'  (?)  ;  similarly  in  .pi.  32,  1,  18.  In  II,  5,  29, 
the  same  Word,  la-la-ar-tuv  V~  *^\  ^T^yf^  >^I^»  occurs 
alone,  the  Accadian  .portion  being  broken,  as  the  name  of  an 
insect,  and  again  in  the  same  plate,  1.  16,  where  it  equals 

*~M  ^T  {H  H^    (khu   rub   kha    munu)>   *'-e->    "tne    bee." 

1  The  magpie,  as  it  flies  athwart  the  observer,  is  eminently  suggestive  of 
i'i  :  "  Such  a  length  of  tail  behind"! 


110      7  he  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

Again  in  V,  27,  1.  8,  where  it  is  written  T~  ^\  tzjp  J^^. , 
as  the  same  insect.  In  Dr.  Delitzsch's  very  valuable  work, 
"Wo  Lag  das  Paradies"?  p.  103,  one  of  the  peaks  of  Mount 
Amanus  is  mentioned  as  occurring  in  Salm.  ob..  31  (Layard's 
"  Inscriptions "),  as  Mount  Lal-la-ar,  which  the  Professor 
interprets  "  Honigberg  (?),"'  lallaru  being  synonymous  with 
par  nubtu,  "  Erzeugniss  der  Bieue"  =  Assyr.  di&pu  and  matku, 
"honey,*'  "sweet."  Thus  it  would  seem  that  we  have  to 
deal  with  honey  in  the  matter  of  the  Accadian  word  lallari, 
and  the  investigation  of  the  bird-name  would  lead  us  to  some 
honey-eating  or  honey-insect-eating  species.  But  what  is  our 
lallari  or  honey  bird?  Can  it  denote  the  bee-eater.  Merops 
apiaster,  which  Blanford  speaks  of  as  abounding  during  the 
summer  time  in  the  Persian  highlands,  and  which  Dr.  Ainsworth 
tells  me  is  quite  a  feature  in  Mesopotamia  ?  This  bird,  as  its 
name  imports,  feeds  on  bees  and  other  hymenopterous  insects. 
In  the  "Annals  and  Magazine  of  Natural  History,"'  1839,  a 
traveller  in  Asia  Minor,  speaking  of  the  habits  of  the  bee-eater. 
says  :  "  They  utter  a  rich,  warbling  chirp  when  on  the  wing; 
they  are  often  observed  among  the  turpentine  trees,  from  which 
bees  collect  much  honey  ;  and  are  sometimes  attracted  to  the 
valleys  by  the  numerous  aviaries  of  the  peasantry."'  At  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  according  to  Montague,  it  serves  as  a 
guide  to  the  Hottentots  by  directing  them  to  the  honey  which 
the  bees  store  in  the  clefts  of  the  rocks.'"  Like  some  other 
birds,  notably  the  Indicators  amongst  the  Cuculidiv,  the  bee- 
eaters  serve  as  guides  to  the  natural  honey  stores  in  the  rocks 
or  trees;  hence  it  would  well  merit  the  name  of  the  honey-bird, 
and  when  we  consider  how  precious  a  commodity  honey  was 
esteemed  before  the  introduction  of  sugar,  we  can  well  under- 
stand that  great  attention  would  be  given  to  those  agents 
which  served  as  a  guide  to  its  discovery.  But  this  bird 
will  not  fulfil  all  the  necessary  conditions,  because,  as 
was  seen  above,  the  lallari  is  also  called  "Terror"  of 
heaven,  which  probably  implies  some  bird  of  prey.  I  would 
therefore  suggest  the  honey  buzzard  (Pemis  apivorous),  one 
of  the  Buteonidce  represented  in  Mesopotamia  and  Elam.  This 
is  one  of  the  Raptores,  and,  like  the  rest  of  the  family,  is  far 
less  majestic  in  appearance  and  less  com-ageous  in  habits  than 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.     Ill 

most  of  the  Falconidae ;  but  it  might  merit  the  name  of  terror 
of  heaven,  perhaps,  because  it  feeds  on  the  combs  of  the  bee 
and  the  contained  larvae,  as  well  as  on  the  bees  and  other 
hymenopterous  insects. 

(57.)  Pea-fowl  were  probably  known  to  the  ancient 
Assyrians,  and  the  word  >=TTTt=  >^YY<Y  fcj^Si  *j/~  (expressed 
ideographically  by  £t£TJ7-£),  urinnu,  has  been  translated  a 
"  peacock,"  and  the  plural,  urinni,  "pea-fowl."  M.  Lenormant 
has  shown  that  urinnu  is  the  name  of  the  character  ^ » .", -£  ; 
but  that  some  living  creatures  are  also  intended  is  shown  by 
a  passage  in  the  inscription  of  Tiglath  Pileser,  W.A.I.,  I,  15, 
1.  57.  This  monarch  speaks  of  himself  as  the  descendant 
of  Adar-pal-esir  sa  nu-ba-hi-sa  ci-ma  u-ri-in-ni  eli  md-ti-su 
su-par-ru-ru,"  "who  destroyed  his  enemies  (?)  like  urinni  over 
the  country."  The  passage  is  a  difficult  one,  but  in  the 
absence  of  the  D.P.  or  D.S.  for  "birds,  it  is  not  certain  that 
any  kind  of  birds  are  meant.  Norris,  p.  297,  for  varini  or 
varinni,  translates  "Peacocks,"  and  compares  the  Heb.  D^IH, 
"  screaming  birds."  I  should  state  that  pea-fowl,  thougli 
they  may  have  been  known  to  the  Assyrians,  and  kept  in  their 
aviaries  or  ornamental  gardens,  are  very  unlikely  birds  to  occur 
in  a  wild  state — a  condition  required  by  the  Assyrian 
monarch's  words — in  any  part  of  the  countries  known  to 
them.  The  genus  Pavo  is  found  from  the  Himalayas  to 
Ceylon,  in  Siam,  south-west  China  and  Java,  but  not  so  far 
north  and  west  as  Mesopotamia  and  the  adjacent  countries. 

It  now  only  remains  for  me  to  notice  the  different  names 
of  birds'  nests,  eggs,  and  young,  which  we  find  in  the  texts 
or  records:  but  before  I  do  this  I  have  a  few  remarks  to  make 
on  the  determinative  prefixes  or  affixes  which  occur.  The 
character  *~Y<|,  which  has  the  phonetic  values  of  Mm  andpo^ 
— the  former  signifying  "bird"  in  a  general  sense,  the  latter 
referring  to  something  which  pertains  to  birds,  as  e.g.,  their 
flight,1 — is  in  the  Accadian  lists  of  birds  always  present  as  a 
determinative   affix ;  see   W.A.I.,    II,    27  ;    V,    27.      In   the 

1  See  W.A.I.,  V,  29,  63,  'e-ii-ru  sa  itstsur,  "  the  direct  flight  of  birds  "  ; 
Haupt,  "Accad.  and  Sumer.  Keilschrif.,"  IV,  p.  172. 


112      The  Birds  &f  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

Assyrian  lists  this  determinative  does  not  occur.  In  the 
Accadian  texts  the  determinative  khu  is  always  present.  In 
the  Assyrian  texts,  historical  or  other,  the  Accadian  mono- 
gram >-T<y  is  of  far  more  frequent  occurrence  than  the 
Assyrian  full  phonetic  form  of  £:|  ^*~*  "^TTT  :  Norris  says 
"one  in  a  thousand"  (AsSyr.  Diet.,  p.  370).  Where  an 
Accadian  bird-name  is  mentioned  in  the  Assyrian  annals  the 
determinative  monogram  of  »-Y<Y  is  generally  postfixed  ; 
occasionally  it  is  prefixed,  as  in  Botta,  III,  8  ;  W.A.I.,  III,  15, 
col.  i,  1.  15  ;  sometimes  it  is  omitted,  as  in  Taylor  Cylinder,  V, 
1.  43.  The  presence  of  this  determinative  is  sometimes  of 
great  use  in  aiding  us  to  determine  whether  birds  or  insects 
are  intended  by  a  name  ;  thus  the  word  for  locusts,  'eribi,  is 
very  like  that  for  ravens  (Corvus  umbrinus),  aribi.  In  Taylor 
Cylinder,  loc.  bit.  (Smith's  "Sennacherib,"  p.  119),  we  have  elm  a 
tibut  aribi,  "like  an  invasion  of  aribi."  Mr.  Smith  translates 
"locusts";  but  in  Assurbanipal  (Smith's  "History,"  p.  103)  the 
aribi  are  expressed  ideogrammatically,  >-Y<Y^  ^X  >~Y<Y  with 
the  determinative  affix,  which  even  by  itself  is  sufficient  to 
show  that  birds  and  not  insects  are  meant.1  The  ideogram- 
matic  character  just  mentioned  requires  a  short  notice. 

This  character  >-Y<y^  ^  nam  bir,  is  placed  as  a  deter- 
minative before  some  of  the  names  of  birds  in  the  Accadian 
lists,  but  by  no  means  before  all.  Sometimes  this  character 
is  used  in  the  Assyrian  records,  as  above,  for  some  definite 
well-known  birds,  as  ravens.  The  distinction  between  the 
above  D.P.  for  some  birds  and  that  used  to  denote  insects, 
viz.,  >~Y<Y^  ^l  khu  bir,2  is  always  maintained.3  There  are 
two  apparent  exceptions  to  tins  rule,   but  I  agree  with  Dr. 

1  It  lias  been  noticed  above  tbat  a-ri-lu  fy  >~|Y<|  ^  *"  denotes  ''a  raven"  ; 
'e-ri-bit  ZzIZ  *— TT<Y  j^>-  "a  locust";  and  this  distinction,  which  Dclitzsc-h  has 
pointed  out,  I  believe  holds  good  in  all  cases  where  the  scribe  has  not  made  a 
mistake. 

2  The  proper  phonetic  reading  of  this  character  appears  to  be  khu  etjb. 

3  This  character  sometimes  enters  into  the  composition  of  a  name,  as  in 
Khurub-ba-cu-yusurra  khu,  the  "insect  (eating)  bird,  which  settles  on  beams." 
In  this  country  the  spotted  fly  catcher,  from  its  often  building  on  the  wood  of 
out-buildings,  is  someti:n  's  provrncially  called  "The  Beam  bird." 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.     113 

Delitzsch  that  the  scribe  is  in  error.  These  exceptions  occur 
in  W.A.I. ,  II,  24, 14,  15,  in  a  list  which  contains  the  names  of 
dog,  deer,  serpents,  &c. ;  the  names  of  two  insects  are  given, 
one,  'e-ri-bu,  "  a  locust,"  the  other  "  zir-zir-bu,"  which  the 
Accadian  tells  us  is  a  ''very  little  insect,"  i.e.,  "the  ant," 
Instead  of  the  usual  D.P.,  ^|<y  ^J  khu  bir,  of  an  insect,  the 
scribe  has  written  *~y<JV  *}  NAM  BIR,  the  D.P.  of  a  bird. 
What  is  the  real  import  of  these  two  determinatives  ?  Before 
what  kinds  is  the  bird-D.P.  placed,  and  why  is  it  placed 
before  these  and  not  before  others  ?  Unfortunately,  in  two 
of  the  tablets  on  plate  37,  W.A.L,  Vol.  II.  the  Accadian  word 
is  in  every  single  instance  lost,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
fragments  of  character,  though  the  usual  bird  affix  ^y<T  is  in 
almost  every  instance  preserved.  In  the  larger  tablet,  No.  2 
(same  plate),  out  of  about  forty-five  words,  not  more  than 
twenty-two  are  complete.  In  W.A.L,  V,  27,  we  meet  with  nine- 
teen birds'  names  with  the  Accadian  preserved.  In  this  tablet 
the  D.P.  NAM  BIR  does  not  once  occur.  Of  the  twenty-two 
complete  Accadian  names  on  plate  37,  only  four  have  the  D.P. 
complete ;  these  are  the  itstsur  cisi,  "  bird  of  the  papyrus  "  ; 
itstsur  asagi  =  diddle,  the  buridu  or  silikku,  and  the  atdn  ndri  or 
abbunnu ;  but  from  remains  of  characters  in  two  other  places 
(lines  32.  33),  it  is  clear  that  both  the  burrumtu  or  dharru 
have,  and  the  but*u  or  itstsur  kharri  had,  this  prefix  NAM  BIR  in 
the  corresponding  Accadian  columns.  The  compound  ideo- 
graph »~y<Y-^  -^1  resolves  itself  into  the  two  elements  of 
>~y<y^  and  "^y ;  the  first  character  denotes  abstract  nouns  in 
Accadian,  as  well  as  ''destiny";  the  second  "hosts,"  ''multi- 
tudes," &c.  Sometimes  the  first  character  stands  alone  for 
some  bird,  as  for  the  swallow  (sinun  tuv)  in  the  Deluge  Tablet. 
It  is  clear  that  the  composite  character  is  not  synonymous 
with  its  first  element,  because  sometimes  the  full  com- 
pound character  occurs  with  its  latter  element  in  the  same 
bird-name.  Thus  we  have  NAM  BIR  NAM  KHU  (1.  48)  for  the 
silikku.  I  think  that  the  composite  prefix  denotes,  and 
originally  had  special,  if  not  exclusive,  reference  to,  birds 
which  associate,  either  habitually,  or  at  certain  times,  as  in 
their  migrations,  in  large  numbers,  though  this  distinction  is 
Vol.  Till.  8 


114      The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

by  no  means  always  observed.  We  have,  therefore,  the  idea 
of  abstraction  in  some  sense  and  degree  preserved  in  NAM  as 
a  "flock,"  bird-ship,  if  I  may  coin  a  word,  and  that  of  multi- 
tudes in  the  other  component  part,  viz.,  BIR.  If  we  apply 
this  test  to  the  instances  given  above,  we  find — supposing 
that  the  identifications  are  correct — that  the  idea  of  birds 
congregating  suits  those  kinds  which  those  names  seem  to 
point  out,  but  is  more  applicable  to  some  kinds  than  to  others. 
The  sparrow  is  a  familiar  instance  ;  the  pelicans  at  times 
associate  in  enormous  numbers,  covering  pieces  of  water 
nearly  a  mile  square ;  the  sand-grouse,  perhaps  denoted  by 
the  congregating  bird  of  chequered  plumage  (burrumtu)  are 
noted  for  their  numbers.  And  to  a  considerable  extent  this 
i<  true  of  the  mountain  finch  and  the  nut-cracker  (buridu),  and 
fairly  suits  the  habits  of  the  warbling  birds  of  the  reeds.  In 
Sennacherib  (Smith's  Tr.,  p.  119)  we  have  cima  tibut  a-ri-bi 
ma-ha-di,  "like  an  invasion  of  many  ravens";  the  name  'of 
the  bird  being  written  phonetically,  the  numbers  are  expressed 
1  >y  a  definite  adjective.  In  Assurbanipal  (Smith's  Tr.,  p.  103), 
Ave  have  cima  tibut  (nam  bir)  >~f<y^  ^y  *— Y<T'  "  n^e  an 
invasion  of  ravens";  but  the  idea  of  multitudes  is  here 
expressed  by  the  meaning  of  the  ideograph,  and  requires  not 
a  separate  expletive  adjective.  I  by  no  means  mean  to  assert 
that  this  is  an  invariable  rule  ;  but  I  think  that  where  there 
is  this  D.P.  attached  to  any  bird-name,  there  is  reasonable 
probability  that  the  identification  should  be  sought  in  some 
species  of  bird  of  congregating  habits.  It  is  true  that  in 
W.A.I.,  V,  27,  3  obv.,  this  D.P.  is  absent  in  two  instances 
where  we  should  have  expected  it  to  occur,  viz.,  in  the 
starling  ("  little  shepherd  bird '')  and  in  the  locust  bird  (KHU 
RUB  KHU).  which  sometimes  darkens  the  air  by  its  multitudes; 
but  the  absence  of  this  D.P.  in  certain  instances  does  not 
affect  the  general  rule.  Its  presence  may  denote  birds  that 
associate,  but  its  absence  from  a  bird-name  does  not  thereby 
of  necessity  imply  a  negative. 

The  character  >-|<Y*^  NAM,  which  sometimes,  irrespective 
of  the  D.P.  nam  BIR,  enters  into  the  composition  of  a  name, 
implies  the  idea  of  "  destiny,"  either  as  relates  to  the  destined 
periodical  returns  of  the  migratory  birds,  or  to   some  notion 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Record*.     115 

of  an  augural  or  sacred  nature  held  with  regard  to  certain 
kinds.  The  swallow  is  a  NAM  KHU,  "  destiny  bird,"  by  reason 
of  its  migrations;  the  turtle-dove  is  a  NAM  KHU,  as  being- 
sacred  to  Astarte.  But  this  idea  is  not  always  expressed,  for 
in  many  migratory  birds,  the  indicating  character  is  not 
expressed,  nor  should  its  absence  be  understood  of  necessity 
to  imply  a  negative.  I  may  mention  that  the  periodic  migra- 
tion of  birds  is  sometimes  referred  to  in  the  historical  records  : 
thus  Esarhaddon  (W.A.I.,  I,  46,  col.  v,  1.  8)  speaks  of  the  land 
of  Patusarra  as  a  district  whence  the  birds  >-Y<Y  Y*^*"  return, 
-  in  the  country  of  Media,  afar  off." 

To  what  extent,  in  what  manner,  and  on  what  occasion 
the  Assyrians  and  Accadians  practised  augury,  I  believe  we 
have  no  means  of  determining.  Notions  of  good  or  ill  luck 
seem  to  be  implied  in  some  of  the  cuneiform  characters,  thus 
>-Y<ySl  pacac,  Accad.  ;  sumelu,  Assyr. ;  "  the  left  hand," 
"  the  left,"  is  a  compound  of  "  bird  "  -f  "  making."  The 
character  >~|T  ^*~"*£Z4^  sa  =  nabu,  "to  proclaim,"  is  made 
up  of  "bird  "  -f-  "to  settle,"  > — TTT  gab  =  -sumelu,  "left  hand," 
seems  to  consist  of  "  bird  "  +  "  foot,"  or  "  bird  "  +  "  good 
fortune"  (T  =  ^Y  =  gimillu).  The  idea  of  augury  seems 
to  be  implied  in  the  flight  of  birds  to  the  left  hand,  or  other 
modes  of  "  settling  down,"  as  amongst  the  Romans.1 

The  name  of  a  bird's  nest  is  in  Assyrian  kinnu. 
frequent  in  the  inscriptions ;  in  Accadian  it  is  written 
u-ci-Si-ga  (jzYYYji  ^T^Y  ^jzl  f:|YY^\  an  instance  of  the  happy 
mode  of  writing  words  so  as  to  harmonise  with  their  mean- 
ing so  frequent  among  the  Accadians:  for  J^YY*^  =  "food," 
^TBJ  "  place,"  and  >_£:{  ^YYY^  =  "  &i^n&"  ^e->  "  the  place 
where  food  is  given."     Another  Accadian  word  for  a  "  nest," 

or  rather  a  "pigeon  hole,"  is  ££:Y  V~  ]   )  j  ?   with  which  the 

Assyrian  |y  J^z  >~£:£;Y  a-pa-tu  is  identical  ;  apatu  is  to  be 
referred   to   the  Heb.  HHS  or   PlilS,  "  to  open."      All  these 

1  Cf.  Cicero,  "  Div.,"  I,  30,  "  Quid  Augur,  cur  a  rtextra  corvus.  a  sinistra  comix 
Fa  i  it  ratum  "  ? 


llti     The  Bird*  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

four  names  for  "a  nest"  or  •■  a  pigeon  bole '"  may  be  seen 
together  in  W.A.I..  IV.  27,  1.  14-18.  Among  other  dreadful 
things  caused  by  evil  demons,  they  drove  pigeons  from  the 
dove-cot,  and  swallows  from  their  nests.     In  Accadian  — 

^T  ^Y<Y  .~J   p   ~  j£W    ^t  KJ|  «f  ^  ^  ~  £&& 

Tu  khu   ab-lal-bi-   ta       ba  -  da  -  an  -dib-dib-bi-   ne 
The  pigeon    from    within    its    hole    they    cause    to    - 

-T<T^        -r       ~V    -HTT*     ^    5^YTT    ^    ^   <^T  Z&I  Z3&I 

Xam-bir      id    -    pur     -  bi  -  ta       ba  -  ra  -dul-du-    ne 
The     bird     on      its     wings     they  cause  to  ascend. 

-T<T^    ^T    j-YYY^  <Y|Y  ^    j-YTy*    ^    ^YYY    -  -Y  ^YY  ^JL  ^YY<Y 

nam  -khu     u    -  ci  -  si  -    ga  -  bi  -  ta      ba  -  ra  -  an  -  ri  - 
The    swallow     from     its     nest     they    cause    to    mount 

ri   -  e  -    ne 

aloft. 

The  Assyrian  version  is  very  similar;  the  word  for  pigeon 
is  summatu,  and  from  the  mention  of  the  holes  of  the  dove-  t, 
it  is  evident  that  this  bird  was  early  domesticated  among  the 
Semites,  contrary  to  the  opinion  of  Victor  Heyn,  who  main- 
tain a  comparatively  recent  culture  (see  '•  Kulturpflanzen 
unci  Hausthiere,"  pp.  296,  297).  The  summatu.  or  tu  {Te 
Sumerian)  of  the  Deluge  Tablet,  is  evidently  the  same  bird, 
and  doubtless  a  domesticated  pigeon.      The  Accadian  name 

of  j     '  j  j,  "house"  +  "filling,"  is  ideographic-ally  expressed 

by  ^?  t~V.  winch  is  a  picture  of  the  young  (H  'a  =  son  +  T"" 
lal  =  -  to  fill ")  inside  the  enclosure  or  nest  M^  ;  but  as  the 
hole  of  the  dove-cote  is  the  nest  where  it  rears  its  young  as 
well  as  its  general  home,  the  same  word  and  the  same  mono- 
gram express  both ;  so  that  I  think  the  ucisiaa  is  the  general 
name  for  any  bird's  nest,  while  the  eslal  is  the  pigeon's  nest 
or  home.  A  difference  between  the  uciSiga  of  the  swallow 
and  the  es-lal  of  the  pigeon  is,  at  all   events,  maintained  in 


Tr,,r.:.  %C.  B-ihl.Ardv.Yob.Vm. 


from    orruvnuavU,  luyard/.I.pli.^-l. 


from.'    ninamaTjU,  Layarcb I.pl.  4.3. 


6/hnder.  Cabinet'  Royal    &e  la-  Has;& . 
Gcriette   Arch~>olcgiqii&   1880  p  250  ■ 


fyhnder,  Bvblioth.  Ned,.  Pans. 
Gazette  Arotv.  188C.  p.  255. 


ASSYR  I  An      Bl  «  D  S     I'lalP  XI 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.     117 

the  interlinear  Assyrian  version,  the  former  Accadian  word 
being  represented  by  kinnu,  and  the  latter  by  apatu,  "an 
opening." 

A  bird's  egg  is  bi-e-tsu  (^  J=yj  t^Efe)  m  Assyrian, 
with  winch  the  Heb.  n^55  Arab.  I^A),  is  to  be  compared  ;  it  is 
generally  referred  to  Heb.  y*Q,  Arab.  'j^,  "to  be  white."  The 
Assyrian  word  is  equated  with  the  Accadian  words  sag-gis-ra 
(^yy^b  J=y  ^y);  seeW.AJ.,  V,  18,  19;  and  with  another 
word,  tur  (^]])f{^]  =  tarbitsu,  "  rest  "  or  "  echpse  "), 
in  line  10.  But  the  true  Accadian  word  for  an  egg  is 
^y  >^-  J  £r^£iy  £Z<f£=  (SUKUR  SU  NE  TU?)  and  is  definitely 
defined  by  the  corresponding  Assyrian  fully  expressed,  as 
bitsu  sa  itstsuri,  "the  egg  of  a  bird"  (1.  11).  Perhaps  the 
Assyrian  word  ought  to  be  referred  to  the  Heb.  3^1,  "  to 
break "  (forth),  as  it  is  compared  to  an  Accadian  word 
denoting  "  an  eclipse."  I  can  throw  no  light  on  the  meaning 
of  the  long  Accadian  ideograph  for  an  egg.  SaggiSra  is 
equated  with  some  other  Assyrian  words,  and  its  meaning  is 
obscure. 

The  young  of  birds  are  mentioned  under  the  names  of 
na-akh-tu  (>^r]  ^*ftf  *T)'  n™P~Uu  (Ptf  fcTf  £"£&)> 
'abal  itstsuri  (j:g=  <^)  W.A.I.,  II,  37,  rev.  1.  11.  The  first 
word  is,  perhaps,  to  be  compared  with  the  Heb.  rnTTN  akhavah, 
"  brotherhood  "  or  a  "  brood  "  ;  niptsu  may  be  referred  to 
y$D,  "  to  break "  (forth)  ;  cf.  bitsu,  "  egg,,f  above  ;  'abal, 
expressed  by  the  Accadian  word  £jfc,  is  the  ordinary  Assyrian 
for  "a  son."  The  following  also  occur  as  the  names  of  young 
birds, viz.,  admu  (C^T  *^)>  and  liddnu  (*-^^jy  %E.]]  ]}  *?f~)- 
For  admu  compare  D"1N,  "a  man"  =  marn,  "young." 
The  Accadian  name  for  a  "brood  "  is  j-^XTi  T'^T  LU  GIL,  for 
which  i^  T*~y  ^>-  is-hhap-pu  is  the  equivalent  (II,  W.A.I.,  2, 
Syll.  329).  Iskhappu  is  aptly  compared  by  Delitzsch  with  the 
Arabic  ^j^^,  "small,"  "weak";c/.  also  ^j^^. ,  "  fissus," 
"ruptus  fuit  (uter)."     Esarhaddon  calls  Samas-ibni,  king  of 


118      The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

Bit-Pakkurri,  iikhappu  khabbilu  (W.A.I..  I.  45.  coL  2,  1.  45),  "a 

wicked  young  fool,1  who   did  not  reverence  the  memory  of 

the  gods."    He  seems  to  have  been  a  sort  of  lean  and  hungry 

Cassius  of  his  day. 

Of  the  following  names  of  birds  I  can  give  no  opinion  as 

t<  i  their  meaning : — 

.  .      .„.-.*«*.»**  ^*t    fa—  ^_  fWJLL,  III.  15, 
Klin  si-si-in-ni  (stsinnx)   ^|<T  Pf]  EJ|  ^>m  ^  j     cq1>  ^  j   65> 

ZAtt  sv«wi  (susudi)    Hf<y  «~n  >-^yy  <y»^     Sen.,    P.  126. 

its-tsu-ri  su-su-di  „  tf  £^{e  -Yy<y     „      „       Sen.,      p.  132. 

In  the  former  case  some  bold  rapacious  bird  is  denoted,  in 
the  latter  some  timid  kind. 

The  following  occur  in  W.A.I.,  V.  27  : — 
<V][£Ty  *ET  l&  ^T  h  >-T<T  Accadian  =  55^T »-«  Assyrian. 

^t^  ( -^^  ^n<T  JT^7  )  -Y<f  . .  [Tablet  broken.] 

You  see  how  much  of  nncertainty  attaches  to  the  real 
meaning  of  several  of  the  names  of  the  Assyrian  birds, 
whether  as  shown  on  the  monuments  or  as  they  occur  in 
the  records.  Possibly  further  materials  and  a  more  close 
study  may  result  in  more  satisfactory  results.  I  shall  be 
only  too  glad  for  any  suggestions  that  may  be  made  at  any 
time  that  may  tend  to  throw  more  light  on  a  confessedly 
difficult  subject.  In  these  and  kindred  studies,  one  only  desire 
should  animate  the  student,  and  that  is  to  get  at  the  truth, 
at  simple  facts,  if  possible  ;  and  every  step  made  in  this 
direction,  or  any  knowledge  acquired,  however  small,  is  of 
some  value  ;  and  the  step  made  is  one  in  the  right  direction. 
I  cannot  conclude  without  expressing  my  best  thanks  to  my 
friend  Mr.  Rylands,  to  whom  you,  as  well  as  myself,  are 
indebted  for  the  bird-life  diagrams  which  have  helped  me  to 

1  "  Weak  of  intellect  "  is  one  of  the  chief  meanings  of  the  Arabic  word  (see 
Freytag,  s.  v.). 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.     119 

illustrate  this  paper.  I  also  express  my  gratitude  to 
Mr.  Sayce,  who,  as  always,  has  helped  me  much,  and  to 
Mr.  Pinches.  We  wait  only  for  more,  and  more  variable 
material  from  Mesopotamia,  for  further  progress  in  Assyrian 
studies.  Thanks  to  the  genius  of  Sayce,  Pinches,  Lenormant, 
Schrader,  Delitzsch,  Haupt,  Lotz,  Hommel,  and  others,  whose 
critical  skill,  combined  with  the  most  praiseworthy  and 
cautious  system,  is  conspicuous,  real  lasting  difficulties  can 
hardly  be  expected  to  occur  which  their  efforts  will  not  be 
able  to  surmount.  May  ever-increasing  success  long  inspire 
future  researches  and  achieve  noble  results ! 


Additional  Remarks. 
Note  on  the  character  >~{^^,  o/nd  on  the  Bird  izf  >-^£^  *~TTT- 

Since  writing  on  the  bird  denoted  in  the  Accadian  Column 
by  the  sign  J:T  >^05,  I  have  discovered  that  Mr.  Boscawen 
("  Trans.  Soc.  Bib.  Arch.,"  Vol.  VI,  Part  1,  page  276)  insists 
strongly  on  the  original  meaning  of  the  character  >~(^^  as 
denoting  not  the  ordinary  solar  light,  but  the  lightning  or 
thunderbolt,  as  shown  by  the  hieroglyphic  picture  of  this  sign 
as  it  appears  in  Chaldean  signet-rings.  This  idea  of  fire 
being  produced  by  boring  into  wood,  is,  as  Mr.  Boscawen  has 
admirably  shown,  expressed  by  the  ideographs  of  this  element, 
iz]  >^-,  and  ^^^^y  ;  the  first  part  of  the  compound 
character  izi  >?-  intimates  that  "wood"  has  something  to  do 
with  the  fire,  the  second  sign  exhibits  pictorially  in  its  oldest 
form  the  actual  operation  of  the  fire-stick,  as  I  have  pointed  out 
in  a  previous  paper  ("Trans.  Soc.  Bib.  Arch.,"  Vol.  VI,  p.  46(5), 
and  also  intimates  the  same  idea  in  one  of  the  meanings  of  the 
sign  carara,  "to  revolve";  while  the  fifth  month  of  the  Accadian 
calendar,  ^^^^f  ^^^f  ^  nc-ne-gar,  "fire  makes  fire,"  was 
under  the  patronage  of  the  deity  Nin-gis-zi-da,  "  Lord  of  the 
wood  of  life."     The  woodpecker  by  boring  was  supposed  to 


120      The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

be  a  producer  of  fire.  The  birds  to  which  the  lightning-cloud 
is  compared  in  ancient  folk-lore  may  be  an  eagle  or  other 
rapacious  bird,  a  woodpecker  or  a  red-breast,  according  as 
some  peculiarity  in  the  bird's  habits,  form  or  colour,  suggested 
some  similarity  t<  i  the  lightning-cloud.  Thus  the  high-soaring 
and  .swift  rapacious  eagle  represents  the  terrific  and  destructive 
thunder-cloud,  the  boring  woodpecker  the  fire  which  the  cloud 
contains  and  which  it  was  supposed  to  create,  while  the  mere 
red  breast  of  the  harmless  robin  suggested  by  its  colour  the 
idea  of  fire.  In  the  historical  accounts  of  the  wars  of  the 
Assyrian  kings,  it  was  very  natural  and  in  accord  with  their 
martial  spirit,  for  them  to  relate  how  their  warriors  darted 
upon  the  enemy  "  like  a  divine  Zu  bird."  The  eagle  is  doubt- 
less the  Zu  bird  here;  but  I  do  not  think  that  the  Zu  bird  is 
to  be  restricted  to  the  eagle.  The  Zu-god.  of  the  Chaldean 
legend,  who  dwelt  in  the  lower  part  of  the  forest,  and  who  for 
stealing  the  tablets  of  destiny  was  changed  into  the  divine 
storm  bird,  may  perhaps  be  the  woodpecker,  the  antetype  of 
the  Hellenic  Phoroneus.  the  Latin  Picus  feronius.  Thus  we 
seem  to  have  the  main  features  of  the  Promethian  story  in 
the  Chaldean  legend.  So  far  as  the  Chaldean  and  Hellenic 
myth  run  parallel,  Lugalturda  ("powerful  king")  represents 
Prometheus,  the  destiny  tablets  are  the  fire  (divine  knowledge) 
from  heaven,  and  the  bird  into  which  the  fire-stealing  god  is 
changed  is  the  wood-boring,  fire-producing  woodpecker,  or  the 
Avis  incendaria,  to  which  the  lightning-cloud  is  compared. 

Note  ox  Augury  by  the  Assyrians. 

It  is  very  probable  that  the  early  inhabitants  of  Mesopo- 
tamia and  Elam  practised  augury  to  a  considerable  extent. 
In  W.A.I.,  III,  52,  there  is  a  catalogue  naming  various  subjects 
which  were  possessed  by  the  royal  libraries  of  Babylonia ; 
among  other  matters  there  is  mention  of  one  relating  to  omens 
to  be  derived  from  the  appearance,  flight,  and  cries  of  birds. 
The  passage  is  obscure.  On  my  referring  to  my  friend 
Mr.  Sayce,  he  gives  me  such  an  explanation  of  certain  words, 
as  to  induce  me  to  suggest  what  appears  to  me  to  be  near  the 
meaning,  and  what  may  prove  to  be  the  clue  to  the  more 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.      121 

complete  understanding  of  the  whole  passage,  which  runs  as 
follows : — 

W.A.I.  Ill,  Plate  52. 

28.  y  rw  hf-  *w  n  -w  m*  Hrr  <m  ^  -w 

itstsur     same       a  -  khu  -   u  sa         ci  -  i       simta 

D.P.    mu  -  lu        sapta       zak   -  na  -  at 

29.     *t£3   #-  tfflf  ^1  ^T      <^H      <£ElT    I      ^  *= 
ca  -  bu  -  un  -  na  -  at  eli  sepi  -  su      zak  -  ap 

izu  -  zu  ip  -  tu  -   u    -  va 

so.  &  ^i  ^n  <  ~ry  r-  ^  i   <i>-  ^  .*«  jr 

i  -  na        ali      u      na  -  me  -  e  -  su     innamar         pi  -  su 

^  £T    ^Idfl<<«  I     fffl  !Yr  ^ 

iptu  -  va  pani    -  su      a-tsa  -  a  -  ni 

31.  TH<    ©    TCHMf^   "ST    <IiI  ^    HMf    HF-*fi 

nun    tsutsi  a -khu-  u  sa       ci  -  i     itstsur    same 

IT      <£E!T   ,1!    ffif   -M  HF-   ^TTT  *T- 

ditto     sepi   -  su      lu      ka  -  an      dup  -  pi 

32.  ffif    -HI  *T-    _  Hf<T  _  £BE<     <    -Til      ft   s   fcff 

lu      cap  -  pi      itstsuri    imna      u     sumeli    za  -  bi  -  ib 
pi  -  su     ipta  -  va       lisan  -  su 

33.  -  ai  -^  un  ^n  w  v  ^ 

ina  .  .       mu  -  ru  -  da  -  a  sa  -  kal 

"  Bird  of  heaven  screaming,  which,  according  to  the 
destiny  of  man  in  lip  is  old,  the  cabunnat  (?)  over  its  feet,  the 
stake  (which)  one  has  fixed  it  has  opened;  and  in  the  city 
and  its  canals  is  seen,  its  mouth  it  has  opened,  and  its  face 
comes  forth  (is  an  omen). 


122      I  he  Birds  of  thf  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records, 

Fish  of  the  marsh  (frog)  crying,  which  like  "  bird  of  heaven 
screaming.  &c,  over  its  feet,"'  whether  on  his  reed  of  the  tablet 
(papyrus),  or  in  the  claw  of  the  bird  (it  be  seen) ;  whether 
on  the  right  hand  or  on  the  left  it  croak,  its  mouth  it  opens, 
and  its  tongue  in  a  balance  (?)  is  weighed"  (is  an  omen). 

•*  The  screaming  bird  of  heaven,  which,  according  to  the 
destiny  of  man,  in  its  beak  grows  old.'"  may  possibly  denote 
the  eagle  :  and  I  think  there  is  an  allusion  to  the  old  fable 
mentioned  by  Aristotle  ("Hist.  Anim.."'  IX.  22.  4).  that  when 
eagles  grow  old.  the  beaks  become  crooked,  so  that  they  die 
of  famine:  '"that  this  bird,  as  the  story  goes  (iiriXeyerai 
Bi  Ti?  Kal  fivdos),  was  once  a  man,  and  that  it  suffered  this 
calamity  from  its  inhospitality  to  a  guest."  One  or  other,  or 
both,  of  the  mandibles  of  some  birds  occasionally  grow  as  to 
cross  one  another,  and  render  them  unable  to  feed.  This 
is  also  alluded  to  by  Pliny  and  other  writers:  the  meta- 
morphosis of  men  into  eagles  was  a  current  myth.  The 
general  meaning  may  be  this :  if  an  old  eagle  with  its 
abnormally  twisted  beak  escape  from  its  perch,  or  from  its 
cage,  by  removing  one  of  the  stakes  where  it  was  confined, 
and  appear  in  the  city  and  its  canals,  uttering  shrieks :  this 
is  an  omen.  Or  the  passage  may  be  better  translated  thus: 
•'  Bird  of  heaven  which  like  mankind  has  a  beard  on  (its) 
chin,  (and)  is  bound  over  its  feet.  &c  "  ;  zakndt  and  cabunnat 
being  regarded  as  pennansive  forms  (pt  and  \22)-  Refer- 
ence is,  I  think,  made  to  the  "bearded  vulture1'  {Gypaetus 
barbatus),  conspicuous  for  its  black  beard  and  bright  red 
eyes,  whose  aspect  when  irritated,  said  to  be  '"perfectly 
diabolical,"  is  likely  to  have  made  it  a  bird  of  omen.  The 
expression,  '"bound  over  its  feet."  may  well  refer  to  the 
feathered  tarsi,  also  conspicuous  in  this  bird. 

If  a  frog,1  similarly  with  the  old  crooked-beaked  screaming 
eagle,  &c.,  were  heard  to  croak  among  the  papyrus  reeds,  or 
Been  in  the  claw  of  a  bird,  whether  it  croaked  on  the  right 
hand  or  the  left  of  the  observer:  this  is  also  an  omen. 

The  "crying"  (akhu)  (nnN)  of  the  frog  may  be  literally 
illustrated  by  a  remark  made  by  Pliny  (""  Nat.  Hist.,"  XI,  65), 

1  This  is  Mr.  Sajce'a  happy  interpretation  of  the  nun  tfutti,  "  fish  of  the 
marsh." 


Jlte  Birds  of  tlie  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.      123 

who  says  that  the  male  frogs,  at  the  season  when  they 
croaked,  were  called  ololygones.  (See  also  Aristot.,  "Hist. 
Anim.,"  IV,  9,  6,  rr}v  oXoXvyova  irotel.)  The  passage  about 
"  vibrating  its  tongue "  is  not  clear ;  but  it  may  refer  to  a 
belief  in  the  modus  operandi  in  croaking.  Pliny  says  that 
the  frog  sinks  the  lower  lip  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  takes 
a  small  quantity  into  the  mouth  ("  libramentum  modicse 
aquae"),  and  then  by  quavering  with  the  tongue  ("palpitante 
lingua"),  produces  the  croaking  sound. 

There  seems  to  be  much  similarity  in  these  two  passages 
between  the  Assyrian  tablets  and  some  Greek  and  Latin 
authors.  Now,  Pliny  specially  mentions  the  Magi  as  having 
discoursed  about  frogs  ("Nat.  Hist.,"  XXXII,  18),  and  we 
know  that  Pliny  borrowed  considerably  from  Democritus, 
who  himself  visited  Babylonia.  It  is  probable  that  a  good 
deal  of  the  popular  beliefs  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans  on 
matters  relating  to  animals  and  plants  or  other  subjects,  found 
its  way  to  Greece  and  Rome  from  this  source.  Democritus 
had  been  a  great  traveller,  and  occupied  himself  much  in 
natural  history  and  philosophical  speculations;  nay,  according 
to  Diogenes  Laertius,  he  had  been  a  pupil  of  some  of  the 
Magi  and  Chaldeans,  from  whom  he  learned  the  principles 
of  astronomy  and  theology.  It  is  a  great  pity  that  his  works 
have  not  been  preserved  to  us. 


Postscript. 


The  chief  difficulty  which  still  makes  me  hesitate  in 
not  accepting  the  explanation  so  well  advocated  by  Dr. 
Lotz  (Die  Insehriften  Tiglatlipilesers  7,  Leipsig,  1880),  that 
the  animal  denoted  by  the  Accadian  name  of  amsi  is 
none  other  than  the  elephant,  lies  in  the  fact  that  the 
shin*  (>-j^YY  su)  of  the  amsi  are  sometimes  mentioned, 
together  with  the  teeth,  as  articles  of  value,  even  as  tribute 
offerings  among  such  things  as  precious  stones,  gold,  silver. 
&c.  See  Senacherib,  Smith's  "  History,"  p.  64,  where  we  read 
of  "^m  (skins)  of  am$i,  ca  (teeth  or  horns)  of  am&i"  as  forming 


\2i      The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monument*  and  Record*. 

part  of  a  great  treasure ;  also  in  Esarhad don's  records 
(AY.A.L.  I.  pi.  4o.  1.  20),  where  the  skins  are  mentioned 
among-  the  treasures  of  the  palace  of  Abdimilcutti.  king  of 
Sidon.  The  skins  of  the  am&i  were  taken  home  from  his 
hunting  expeditions  by  Tiglathpileser  I,  and  appear  to  have 
held  a  high  place  in  the  estimation  of  the  Assyrian  monarchs. 
One  naturally  inquired  on  what  account  elephants'  hides 
•were  so  much  prized.  Again,  the  scribe  who,  in  his  records 
on  the  Broken  Obelisk  (W.A.I..  I.  pi.  28),  gives  an  account 
of  one  of  Tiglathpileser's  hunting  excursions,  states  that  the 
amsi  were  killed  by  the  king's  bow ;  no  mention  is  made  of 
any  other  destructive  weapon;  and  as  some  auxiliary  methods 
of  capture  must  have  been  employed  in  the  destruction  of  a 
thick-skinned  elephant,  one  naturally  looks  for  some  hint  of 
the  same  ;  still,  I  do  not  consider  that  this  point  contains 
any  real  difficulty,  because  some  auxiliary  weapon  might 
have  been  employed,  though  not  definitely  mentioned,  the 
king  or  the  scribe  caring  merely  to  record  the  destruction  of 
the  animals,  in  which  the  strong  bows  of  the  Assyrians  formed 
the  chief  implement.1 

1  Strabo  ("Geogr.,"  XIT,  4,  10),  Diodorus  (III,  cap.  27),  and  Pliny  («'  Nat. 
Hist.,"  Till,  8)  are  careful  to  mention  the  various  modes  of  capturing  wild 
elephants  as  practised  by  the  Elephantophagi  or  "elephant  eaters"  of  the  Arabian 
Gulf.  Stealthily  the  hunters  would  approach  the  animals,  and,  unperceived,  ham- 
string them  (vevpoKonoiKxi)  by  a  sharp  sword-stroke  ;  or  the  arrows  were  dipped 
in  the  poison  of  serpents.  According  to  Diodorus,  the  hunters  hide  near  a  tree, 
and  as  the  elephant  passes,  he  seizes  it  by  the  tail,  and  with  his  own  feet  he  clasps 
the  animal's  thighs  ;  then  with  a  small  sharp  axe.  which  is  fixed  on  his  shoidder, 
he  hacks  away  at  the  animal's  leg  with  wonderful  adroitness  and  activity.  The 
elephant  thus  wounded  either  falls  down  or  runs  away  as  fast  as  he  is  able,  the 
pursuer  following;  aud  still  hackins  away  at  the  poor  creature's  leg ;  at  length 
completely  disabled,  he  falls,  and  the  Ethiopian  hunters  run  in  crowds,  and 
horrible  to  narrate,  "  cutting  off  collops  of  the  flesh  while  the  animal  is  still 
alive  (kcii  £<dvtos<=ti  Ttpvovres  ras  aapicas  (ktwv  o-rrivBev  /zepajfy,  they  feast  mer- 
rilv."  (111,26;  ed.  Dindorf.)  The  bows,  according  to  Strabo  {loc.  cit.)  and  Pliny 
("  Nat.  Hist.,"  loc.  cit.),  the  elephant  hunters  used  were  of  enormous  strength  ; 
were  fixed  in  the  ground  at  intervals  in  places  frequented  by  the  animals ;  the 
bows  were  kept  steady  by  young  men  remarkable  for  their  strength  ;  while  others, 
exerting  themselves  to  the  utmost,  would  bend  them  and  shoot  and  wound  the 
elephants  as  they  passed.  In  the  battles  of  the  Romans  against  Pyrrhus,  it  was 
found  an  easy  thing  to  cut  off  the  trunks  of  the  elephants  with  a  sharp  sword,  and 
they  would  soon  bleed  to  death  (Pliny,  ''Nat.  Hist.,"  viii,  7).  It  is  interesting 
to  note  that  this  was  the  method  employed  in  time  of  the  Egyptian  king 
Men-kheper-ra,  or  Thothmes  III,  "  the  Alexander  the  Great  of  Egyptian  history." 


Trans.  Soc.  Bibb.  ArrJv.  Vol.  \TH. 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Record*.     12. > 

What  use  did  the  Assyrians  make  of  the  hides  of  the 
elephants  ?  Could  they  have  been  made  into  vessels  for 
holding  water,  or  for  the  covering  of  tents  or  houses?  The 
natives  of  South  Africa  to  this  day  use  the  inner  and  thin 
skin  of  the  elephant  for  holding  water.  Were  they  ever 
used  in  the  making  of  their  ships,  and  be  sometimes  the 
masaci  gabrie,  "the  hardened  skins"  (Hommel  conjectures 
t£QD,  "a  sheep"),  used  for  transport?  Were  they  made  into 
bucklers  as  Pliny  states  was  done  with  elephant  hides,  which 
were  valued  as  being  quite  impenetrable?  Hecateeus,  an 
early  distinguished  Greek  historian  (circa  B.C.  520),  says 
("  Hecatasi  Milesii  Fragmenta,"  ed.  Klausen,  p.  249)  that  the 
people  of  Cerne  (an  island  off  the  West  Coast  of  Africa,  and 
the  great  emporium  of  the  Carthaginian  trade  with  Western 
Africa)  trafficked  with  the  Ethiopians,  and  got  from  them  in 
exchange  for  their  commodities  "the  skins  of  stags,  lions  and 
leopards,   together  with  the   hides   and  tusks    of  elephants 

(ttu>Xov<tl  he irpos  Sep/xara  iXecpdvrcov  fxer  686urcov). 

Here  we  have  literally  in  juxtaposition  the  su  and  ca  audi 
of  the  Assyrian  records ;  the  hides  of  the  elephants  were 
probably  prized  by  the  Assyrians,  who  employed  them  for 
some  useful  purpose  or  other. 

Although  the  ca  amii  are  frequently  mentioned  in  the 
records  as  the  tusks  of  the  elephant,  either  as  ivory  obtained 
by  them  as  prize  booty  from  conquered  peoples,  or  (once)  as 
chase-spoil  in  Tiglathpileser  s  expedition  ;*  the  animals  them- 
selves are  rarely  alluded  to.  The  only  Assyrian  monarch 
who,  so  far  as  we  know,  has  left  it  on  record  that  he  hunted 
the  amii,  is  Tiglathpileser  I  (circa  B.C.  1120-1100).  He  states 
that  he  killed  ten  fine  amii  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Kharran 

The  account  is  given  by  the  captain  Araenemhib,  who  served  in  the  monarch's 
campaigns  ;  he  says  :  "  Again  [I  admired]  another  extraordinary  deed  which  the 
lord  of  the  country  performed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  .Ni.  He  hunted  one 
hundred  and  twenty  elephants  for  the  sake  of  their  tusks  on  [his  chariot  (?)]. 
I  encountered  the  greatest  among  them,  which  attacked  his  holiness.  I  cut 
through  his  trunk.  Being  still  alive  [he  pursued  me]  ;  then  I  went  into  the 
water  between  two  rocks."  (Brugsch's  "  Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs,"  I,  p.  306  ; 
Murray,  1881.)     The  word  rendered  "  trunk  "  is  in  the  original  tef,  "  a  hand." 

1  Dr.  Lotz  has  omitted  to  notice  this  fact.  He  says  that  the  ka  amii  are 
never  alluded  to  at  all  as  chase-boot3-  (pp.  160,  161). 


1  - G      The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monument*  and  Records. 

and  by  the  banks  of  the  Chabur,  i.e.,  somewhere  between 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  a  district  which  was  doubtless 
well  wooded  and  watered,  suitable  for  the  abode  of  elephants. 
Perhaps  Dr.  Lotz  is  correct  in  referring  both  ka  and 
ca  amSi  to  the  product  of  the  elephant,  and  ivory  is  intended, 
but  that  the  horns  of  the  rimit,  or  wild  bull,  were  also 
used  and  prized  by  the  Assyrians  can  admit  of  no  doubt. 
Horn  is  a  substance  which  is  now,  and  always  has  been, 
valued;  it  is  capable,  like  ivory,  of  being  wrought  into 
various  useful  articles,  such  as  drinking  cups,  trumpets,  lan- 
terns, &c,  or  for  inlaying  wood  and  other  materials.  Both 
the  skins  and  horns  of  the  am  or  rimu,  which  animals  the 
Assyrians  killed,  and  depicted  on  the  monuments,  are  fre- 
quently mentioned  as  being  of  sufficient  value  to  carry  home 
to  Nineveh.  Pliny  ("Nat.  Hist.,"  XVI,  43)  tells  us  in  his 
chapter  on  veneering  ("De  Lignis  Sectilibus  "),  that  the  horns 
of  animals  were  often  stained  with  various  colours,  and  cut  into 
sections  for  decorating  wood,  as  well  as  ivory,  and  that,  "  later 
mankind  sought  materials  from  the  sea,  and  tortoise-shell" 
(testudo)  "was  used."  Homer  ("Odys.,"  xix,  563)  speaks  of 
doors  (-n-vXat)  made  of  polished  horn  (gearcbv  fcepdwv),  through 
which  true  dreams  came,  while  the  dreams  which  came 
through  the  sawn  ivory  (Bia  7rpcarov  i\e<fiai>To<;)  proved 
false.  This  is  a  sufficient  reply  to  Dr.  Oppert  ("  Rec.  Past." 
p.  34,  note),  who  says  that  the  ha  audi  cannot  possibly  be 
bull's  horn,  because  such  a  material  "  could  never  occupy  a 
prominent  place  in  the  construction  of  palaces."  When  we 
read  of  "ivory  palaces,"  which  ancient  monarchs  erected, 
whether  in  Assyria  or  in  Judaea,  one  can  only  understand  by 
the  expression  that  ivory  was  extensively  used  for  decorating 
purposes.  Ivory,  being  a  hard  and  enduring  substance,  has 
survived  to  tell  the  story  of  its  value  in  the  articles  that  have 
been  brought  to  light  from  the  excavations  at  Koyunjik  ; 
horn,  whether  in  the  substance  of  bull's  horn,  tortoise-shell, 
•  •laws,  nails,  whalebone,  &c.,  having  a  composition  inter- 
mediate between  albumen  and  gelatine,  and  containing  very 
small  quantities  of  earthy  matter,  is  perishable,  and  cannot 
exist  as  a  long-buried  material  to  tell  the  story  of  its  uses, 
which,  as  I  have  said,  are  known  to  be  manifold  and  various. 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.      127 

The  Accadian  ideograph  ^J^J  |«<,  which,  as  we  have 
seen,  must  represent  the  "  teeth  "  or  "  tusks  "  of  the  elephant, 
denotes  the  "horns"  of  the  rhnu  or  wild  ox.  In  connection 
with  the  animal  called  nakhiru  which  Tiglathpileser  killed  in 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  the  ha  must  signify  "  teeth,"  probably 
those  of  a  grampus  or  other  cetacean.  It  was  a  question 
discussed  amongst  the  ancients  whether  it  was  correct  to  call 
the  tusks  of  the  elephant  by  the  name  of  horns  or  teeth. 
".Tuba,"  says  Pliny  (VIII,  8),  "called  them  horns,  but  by 
Herodotus,  a  much  older  writer,  as  well  as  more  appropriately. 
by  general  usage  they  were  called  teeth  ";  and  these  latter  he 
remarks  are  the  only  part  of  an  elephant  which  men  are  anxious 
to  procure.  See  on  the  question  whether  tusks  should  be 
called  horns  or  teeth,  ^Elian  ("  Nat.  Anim.,"  iv,  31  ;  Pausanias, 
v,  12;  Juba  ap.  Philostr.,  "Vit.  App.  ii,"  13,  p.  92;  Oppian, 
Cyneg.,  ii,  491,  and  a  much  later  writer,  Philes  of  Ephesus 
(A.D.  14th  century),  "  Carm.  Gr.,"  viii,  87  ;  Camus  "Notes  on 
Aristot.  Hist.  Anim.,"  p.  298,  note.  The  linear  Baby- 
lonian forms  of  the  Accadian  ideograph  *~CzT*"~ T  would 
seem  to  show  that  the  original  picture  was  "  a  mouth 
with  teeth,"  and  most  of  the  meanings  of  this  sign 
imply  a  reference  to  the  mouth.  The  character  *>=TY  (ii) 
appears  to  have  been  a  picture  of  the  "  horn  of  an  ox  ";  but 
in  time  this  picture  origin  was  lost,  and  ca  and  ii  were  used 
indiscriminately  for  horns  or  teeth  ;  the  former  sign  being 
employed  to  denote  almost  any  projecting  body,  like  the 
Greek  /cepas. 

With  respect  to  the  meaning  of  the  word  ^^-TT  ^fTT^"  ^^"TT 
su-u-su,  which  occurs  in  one  of  the  epigraphs  of  the  Black 
Obelisk  of  Shahnaneser,  I  desire  to  make  a  few  remarks. 
Dr.  Lotz  believes  that  this  word  is  the  name  of  the  elephant, 
being  the  Assyrian  representative  of  the  Accadian  amii.  I 
confess  I  fail  to  be  convinced  by  his  arguments.  It  is  a 
curious  fact  that  the  only  instance  of  occurrence  of  the 
word  iitSu  in  the  Assyrian  record  is  to  be  found  in  the 
epigraph  of  the  Black  Obelisk.  The  employment  of  this 
word  by  Assyriologists  to  represent  the  Accadian  ideograph 
(^J^E  V"  £*-TT)  f°r  k'a  noi'se"  is  purely  conventional,  and 


128      The  Bird*  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

there  is  not  the  slightest  authority  for  it  as  Delitzseb  and 
Bommel  have  remarked:  and  we  now  know  that  *isn 
was  the  ordinary  Assyrian  name  of  the  horse.  Dr.  Lotz 
thinks  that  the  Assyrians  called  the  elephant  by  the  name  of 
Susu,  and  that  the  Hebrews  iu  later  times  applied  the  same 
name  fas'  (DID'  to  the  horse  :  and  he  very  appositely  instances 
the  Gothic  albandus,  the  H.  G.  olbanta,  and  the  M.  G.  olbente, 
which  originally  applied  to  an  elephant,  afterwards  signified 
a  camel.  "Dwelling  in  a  land  which  produced  no  elephant, 
the  Canaanitish  people  forgot  the  appearance  of  the  beast 
which  their  forefathers  had  known  under  the  name  of  sus,  and 
when  they  employed  the  word  they  associated  it  merely  with 
some  indefinite  form,  perhaps  of  some  large  and  strong  beast, 
which  was  used  as  a  riding  animal  in  peace  or  war,  as  well  as 
for  draught  purposes."  This  is  quite  probable,  and  I  will 
further  illustrate  Dr.  Lotz's  instance  of  the  employment  of  the 
name  of  one  animal  to  designate  another,bxthe  old  Cornish  word 
caurmarch,  a  camel;  literally  =  •'  the  mighty  horse,"  from  caur, 
"  a  giant  "  and  march,  "a  horse."  The  camel  being  employed 
as  a  beast  of  burden  like  the  horse,  "  a  beast  without  equals  *" 
{Origo  Mundi,  124),  came  to  be  called  by  the  same  name. 

Does  the  word  susu  denote  the  elephant  ?  Some  of  the 
names  of  the  animals  on  the  Black  Obelisk  still  remain  to 
exercise  the  ingenuity  of  philological  interpreters.  I  admit 
with  Dr.  Lotz  that  the  names  of  the  figured  animals  follow 
the  order  of  the  animals  themselves  ;  but  I  entirely  fail  to  - 
*'  that  each  name  is  placed  directly  under  its  corresponding 
representative.-'  The  animals  occur  in  the  following  order 
on  the  obelisk: — (1)  two  Bactrian  camels;  (2)  a  horned 
bovine  animal;  (3)  a  rhinoceros ;  (4)  a  large  antelope  with 
lyrate  horns;  (5)  elephant  and  monkeys;  (6)  apes.  The 
names  occur  in  the  following  order: — (1)  4- Camels  of  which 
double  are  their  backs  ;  (2)  "  ox  of  1  he  River  Saceya ;  (3)  Susu  ; 
(4)  Pirati;  (5)  Bazidti;  (6)  UdumL  Hence  it  will  be  seen 
that  there  are  six  kinds  of  animals  figured,  and  six  names 
given-  The  problem  is  to  attach  these  names  severally  to 
their  individual  figured  representatives.  Now,  as  the  animal 
and  name  agree  for  the  camels,  and  occupy  the  first  place  in 
point  of  order,  of  which  there  is  no  doubt ;  and  as  the  name 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.      129 

and  figures  which  stand  for  the  monkeys  or  apes  occupy  the 
sixth  place,  it  is  probable,  though  not  positively  certain,  that 
the  four  intervening  names  also  correspond  in  point  of  order 
of  arrangement.  Consequently  we  have  the  name  of  "  ox  of 
the  River  Saceya  "  to  stand  for  the  bovine  animal,  (No.  2)  ; 
the  6u6u,  for  the  rhinoceros,  (No.  3)  ;  the  Pirdti,  for  the 
antelope,  (No.  4)  ;  and  the  Bazidti,  for  the  elephant,  (No.  5). 

It  is  true  that  the  word  ivhi  occurs  in  the  epigraph  nearly 
over  the  elephant;  but  that  this  position  of  animal  and  name 
is  not  in  its  proper  place  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  the 
whole  arrangement — so  far  as  relates  to  the  names  of  the 
epigraph  corresponding  with  the  space  occupied  by  the 
animals — has  been  thrown  out  of  such  order  and  corres- 
pondence at  the  very  beginning  by  the  words,  "Tribute  of 
the  land  of  Muzri "  being  placed  over  the  two  Bactrian 
camels.  Accordingly  we  have  the  words,  "whose  humps 
are  double,"  over  the  space  occupied  by  the  bovine  animal,  the 
rhinoceros  and  the  antelope.  This  want  of  correspondence 
between  the  animals  and  their  names,  locally  considered,  has 
been  already  pointed  out  by  Hommel.  But  in  order  to  make 
the  desired  arrangement  of  the  word  Sdsu  harmonise  with  the 
position  occupied  by  the  elephant,  Dr.  Lotz  is  obliged  to 
comprise  the  three  animals,  "  ox,  rhinoceros  and  antelope," 
under  one  general  name,  "  ox  of  the  River  Saceya."  Dr.  Lotz 
objects  to  a  plural  number  (Baziati)  representing  a  single 
figure  of  the  elephant ;  and  yet  he  considers  that  a  singular 
number  may  stand  for  three  animals  so  diverse  in  form  and 
character  as  an  ox,  a  rhinoceros,  and  an  antelope.  Of  course 
a  singular  noun  can  be  used  collectively  to  denote  many 
individuals  of  the  same  kind ;  but  I  cannot  suppose  that  the 
Assyrians  could  have  "  lumped  together "  three  such  dis- 
similar animals  as  the  above,  and  employed  a  collective 
noun  to  denote  them.  Such  a  designation  as  "  ox  of  the 
River  Saceya  "  standing  for  an  antelope,  which  is  an  animal 
of  the  deserts  or  plains,  is  most  inappropriate. 

With  respect  to  the  names  of  the  Black  Obelisk  animals, 
I  am  strongly  inclined  to  think  that  they  are  to  be  assigned 
to  the  respective  animals  as  follows  : — 

(1).  Camels  with  two  humps:  (2)  "ox  of  the  River 
Vol.  VIII.  9 


130      The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monument*  and  Records. 

Saceya  "  =  the  bovine  animal;  (3)  6ii6u  =  the  rhinoceros; 
(4)  Pirdti  =  the  lyrate-horned  antelope;  (5)  Baziati  = 
elephants;  (6)    Udumi  =  the  different  monkeys  or  apes.1 

(2).  As  to  the  ox  of  the  River  Saceya  "  ;  it  may  denote  the 
yak  (Bos  grunniens)  ;  but  I  rather  incline  to  the  opinion  that 
the  arnee  or  wild  buffalo  of  India  is  intended,  considering 
the  figure  of  the  head  which  shows  the  curved  horns  of  a 
Bubalus. 

(3).  I  regard  the  word  S0.su  asAccadian,  meaning  ''double 
skinned"  (*^|T).  a  very  suitable  name  for  the  Indian  rhino- 
ceros, the  double  folds  of  whose  hide  are  so  conspicuous  in 
this  great  pachyderm. 

(4).  Pirdti.  I  regard  this  word  as  being  connected  with 
the  root  N"13  or  «"nS,  "to  ran  swiftly,"'  nouns  from  which  root 
being  used  to  designate  several  active  animals,  as  "young 
bullocks,"  <;  wild  asses,"  and  i-  mules."  The  antelope  of  the 
obelisk  maybe  intended  for  the  Chikara  (Tragops  Bennetii). 
the  GOAT-axtelope  of  Europeans  in  the  Deccan.2 

(5).  Baziati.  Hommel  and  Lotz  say  that  this  word  is 
most  likely  an  adjective,  because  it  lacks  the  usual  plural 
sign  of  T<<«.  But  surely  the  omission  of  this  plural  sign  is 
not  at  all  unfrequent  in  Assyrian.     Have  we  not  the  forms 

T?  -IIT^  ^1=11  (**»-*).  *£  JU  ^(Wft  "calves" 
and  '■  oxen,"  (?)  occurring  with  no  definite  plural  signs  ?  The 
Assyrians  did  not  always  deem  it  necessary  to  emphasise 
a  plural  number  (in  the  case  of  a  word  already  grammatically 
in  the  plural)  by  the  additional  plural  sign  Y««.  There  is  no 
occasion  to  quote  instances  where  the  cases  are  so  numerous. 
Neither  do  I  see  the  slightest  objection  to  the  name  Baziati  in 
the  plural  being  taken  to  signify  elephants  because  only  one 
is  represented   on   the   monument  ;    two  or  more  of  these 

1  Since  I  have  come  to  this  conclusion,  I  have  found  that  I  have  been 
anticipated  by  Lenormant  ("  Trans.  Soc.  Bib.  Arch.,"  Vol.  VI,  Part  2,  page 
408),  who  has  given  the  same  names  to  the  same  animals.  I  can  congratu- 
late myself  on  having  thus  independently  arrived  at  the  same  conclusion  with  so 
excellent  an  authority.     Alas  !  that  we  have  to  lament  his  recent  death ! 

:  Cf.  Mr.  Pinches  on  the  "  Progress  of  Cuneiform  Research,"  Philol.  Soc-, 
11th  Report,  May,  1882  ;  and  sign-list  in  his  "Texts  in  the  Babylonian  Wedge- 
Writing,"  where  he  explains  the  word  pirati  by  elephants. — W.H.R. 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.     131 

animals  might  have  formed  part  of  the  tribute  of  the  Land 
of  Musri,  but  the  representation  of  one  only  was  sufficient 
for  the  purpose  of  illustration.  The  representation  on  the 
obelisk  of  either  one  or  more  animals  was  probably  optional 
on  the  part  of  the  sculptor,  and  would  depend  on  the  space 
available  for  portraiture  and  inscription. 

Some  scholars,  including  Lenormant,  refer  the  word 
Bazidti  to  an  Aryan  origin,  and  compare  it  with  the  Sanskrit 
rasita  (^rf%rT),  "a  female  elephant."     I  will  only   observe 

that  the  figure  of  this  proboscidean  on  the  obelisk  is  a  male, 
as  the  well-developed  tusk  clearly  shows.  The  Indian  female 
elephant  is  destitute  of  tusks  ;  the  African  species  has  them. 
I  still  am  inclined  to  adhere  to  my  suggestion  {Transactions,  V, 
p.  350)  that  the  Assyrian  bazidti  may  be  referred  to  the 
Hebrew  root  ft!l,  Arabic  %  "to  seize,"  "take  hold  of";  and 
with  this  idea  of  the  elephant  being  "  the  seizing  animal,"  I 
would  compare  the  Sanskrit  hastin  ("^f%*f),  "an   elephant," 

and  hasta  (%?$),   "the  hand,"   "an   elephant's  trunk,"   and 

again,  kara  (^f^),  "the  hand,"  "the  trunk  of  an  elephant," 
as  being  the  instrument  with  which  the  animal  "  does  "  any- 
thing ;  (ka?xi  =  h'i+  a).  One  of  the  names  of  the  male  elephant 

is  dantin  (^f%*Fj,  from  danta  (Latin  dens),  "  a  tooth";  as 
being  the  animal  with  tusks ;  this  may  illustrate  the  amii  of 
the  Accadians,  if  that  name  really  designates  the  elephant, 
and  be  not  a  fuller  form  of  the  am  merely.  The  tablet  to 
which  Delitzsch  {Assyrische  Lesestucke,  p.  29)  refers,  where 
the  amsi  kharran  is  explained  by  i-hi[lu'?~\,  5=^  ^  LI^M  •  J» 
whatever  ibilu  may  definitely  mean,  would  show  that  the 
animal  was  not  always  an  "  elephant ";  ibilu  seems  to  be  some 
strong  -  horned  ruminant — the  plural  form  ibili  occurs  with 
agali  iu  W.A.I.  I,  column  vi,  1.  55,  pi.  42,  and  it  seems  almost 
certain  that  the  ibi\_hi\,  which  represents  the  amii  kharran  of 
the  tablet,  must  represent  the  amsi  kharran  of  Tiglath  Pileser's 
hunting  expedition ;  so  that  I  consider  ka  when  used  alone 
to  signify  "  ivory,"  but  when  used  with  amisi  to  refer  to  the 
"  horns  "  of  the  aurochs. 


132     Tine  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 


ASSYRIAN  BIRDS. 

EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PLATES. 

Plate  I.  A  workman  felling  timber  in  a  mountainous  country.  Birds  with  two 
nests  and  four  young  ones  in  each,  in  a  fir  tree  ;  the  bird  standing  up 
between  the  two  nests  looks  like  a  pigeon,  but  the  depth  of  the  nests, 
and  the  number  of  the  young,  preclude  this  idea  ;  the  proximity  of 
buildings  would  seem  to  point  to  some  semi-domesticated  bird. 

Plate  II.  Figures  of  eagles  or  vultures  as  depicted  iu  battle-scenes ;  the  bird 
shown  in  the  top  drawing  represents  the  kharbaccanu,  " entrail-eating 
bird,"  and  the  takhatsasenu,  "  battle-bird  "  of  the  lists.    (See  p.  105.) 

Plate  III.  Fig.  1,  an  eagle ;  2.  Raven  feeding  on  the  dead  body  of  a  soldier  ; 
3.  Large  figure  of  an  eagle,  probably  carried  with  the  Assyrian  armies 
as  a  standard  ;  the  Persian  royal  standard  was  an  eagle  of  gold,  with 
spread-out  wings,  on  the  top  of  a  spear,  -i.  Man  slaying  eagles. 
5.  Vulture-headed  deity.  6.  Raven.  7.  Notwithstanding  the  parrot- 
like form  of  this  figure,  it  is  probably  meant  for  a  bird  of  prey  ;  it 
occurs  on  a  very  conventional  representation  of  a  lion  hunt. 

Plate  IV.  Winged  human  figures  with  heads  of  the  griffon-vulture. 

Plate  V.  The  upper  drawing  represents  a  battle-scene,  with  birds  of  prey 
feeding  on  the  slain  ;  the  bird  depicted  in  the  act  of  picking  out  a  man's 
eye  is  a  raven;  compare  the  expression,  budhur  in  I,  "eye-picker," 
p.  79.  The  figures  on  the  bronze  dish  are  those  of  two  bare-necked 
griffon-vultures  about  to  feast  on  the  dead  body  of  a  kid  or  fawn. 

Plate  VI.  Represents  various  birds  iu  the  act  of  flying,  descending  from  trees, 
or  falling  after  having  been  shot  with  bow  and  arrow.  The  long- 
tailed  bird  (top  centre)  is  probably  meant  for  a  magpie  ;  compare  the 
name  dahi,  "the  long  bird,"  of  the  lists  (p.  109).  The  men  with 
hare,  living  birds  in  the  hands,  and  birds'  nests  with  young  ones,  are 
returning  from  a  hunting  or  fowling  expedition ;  it  is  quite  impossible 
to  say  what  birds  are  intended. 

Plate  VII.  Return  from  hunting  with  hares  and  birds  ;  the  birds  in  the  men's 
hands  and  the  one  in  flight  are  probably  meant  for  partridges  or 
francolins  ;  the  bird  ascending  the  trunk  of  a  fir  tree  may  be  intended 
for  a  woodpecker,  or  other  seansorial  kind,  but  the  beak  is  too  much 
curved  for  a  woodpecker,  and  the  artist  has  not  represented  tbe 
downward  affixed  position  of  the  tail  to  the  tree,  as  generally  exhibited 
in  a  climbing  woodpecker. 

Plate  VIII.  Living  birds  in  flight,  about  to  perch,  or  captured  ;  francolins  seem 
to  be  intended. 


Trans.  Soc.  Bibl.  Arch.,  Vol.  VIII. 


:*» 


I    ',  >*-     ^ 


FROM    CYLINDERS    AND    CONES    IN    THE    BRITISH    MUSEUM. 

I. 


LI" 


FROM 

BABYLONIAN 

BOUNDARY 

STONES    IN    THE 

BRITISH    MUSEUM 


'9 


% 


w 


ASSYRIAN    AND    BABYLONIAN     BIRDS. 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.     133 

Plate  IX.  The  three  birds  on  the  ground  amongst  the  trees  are  evidently 
pigeons ;  the  artist  here  has  been  more  successful  than  usual  in  bird 
delineation  ;  the  attitudes  of  the  pigeons  are  well  expressed  and  true 
to  nature,  while  the  middle  figure  shows  the  characteristic  fleshy  skin 
of  the  upper  mandible.  The  building  is  probably  a  dove-house  ;  the 
drawing  may  be  compared  with  that  given  by  Professor  Rawlinson 
of  "pigeon  towers  near  Isfahan,"  in  his  Ancient  Monarchies,  II, 
p.  297.  The  long-tailed  birds  may  be  meant  for  magpies,  the  others 
for  francolins  which,  with  partridges,  are  readily  captured. 

Plate  X.  The  drawing  on  the  left  hand  represents  a  "  duck-weight "  formed 
of  greenstone  ;  the  bird  is  shown  with  its  head  bent  upon  its  back,  in 
its  attitude  of  sleeping  or  resting.  There  are  many  of  these  duck- 
weights  in  the  British  Museum,  varying  from  40  lbs.  to  about  a 
pennyweight,  and  made  of  agate,  marble,  baked  clay,  &c.  The  attitude 
of  the  duck  with  its  head  on  its  back  would  seem  to  indicate  that 
this  bird  in  a  domesticated  or  semi-domesticated  state  was  known  to 
the  Assyrians.  The  ends  of  bows  have  the  figure-head  of  a  swan  or 
duck.  The  bird -figures  on  the  panier  or  basket  frequently  represented 
on  the  Assyrian  sculptures,  appear  to  be  those  of  a  dove ;  but  they 
may  be  almost  anything  else  in  bird  form. 

Plate  XL  Figures  of  the  ostrich  from  ornaments  and  cylinders.  The  central 
drawings,  as  well  as  those  on  the  left,  at  the  bottom  of  the  plate 
exhibit  the  bisulcous  form  of  the  ostrich's  foot ;  this  would  show  that 
all  the  figures  are  intended  for  this  bird,  and  not  for  the  bustard, 
the  only  other  bird  of  somewhat  similar  form  with  which  the  Assyrians 
woidd  be  acquainted.  The  ostrich  is  occasionally  depicted  on  the 
monuments  with  outspread  wings  in  rapid  flight  on  foot,  which  may 
illustrate  the  remark  of  Xenophon  :  "  it  uses  its  feet  for  running  as 
well  as  its  wings,  which  it  raises  like  a  sail"  (wcnrep  tffrifp'  XP^H-^'])- 
Anab.,  I,  v,  3. 

Plate  XII.  A  very  conventional  drawing  of  some  bird  of  prey,  as  shown  by  the 
claws  ;  the  general  form  reminds  one  of  the  raven ;  but  considering 
the  character  of  the  claws,  possibly  the  Egyptian  vulture  may  be 
intended ;  but  the  whole  figure  is  ideal,  and  perhaps  therefore  not 
intended  for  any  special  bird. 


134     The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records, 


NAMES   OF   BIRDS    FROJ 


ASSYRIAN. 

Families. — Vulturidae,  Falconidae. 

1. 

*ff3M*fflfe 

'e-ru-u 

-nmgn 

na-as-ru 

2. 

^nu-H 

za-ai-klm 

^y  W  Hf  j^h 

la-kha-an-tuv 

3. 

-sHfH^T^H 

ca-ti-ma-tuv 

mb  an  <*=t*  ** 

'e-ru-ul-luv 

(IKf  ^T  *s 

tas-ba-luv 

*-T  HM  Id!  >f 

ka-ri-ib  bar- 

4. 

<                       OR 

kba-khar-ili 

w  n  ^t< 

kha-ti 

5. 

s&ukshm 

sar-rad  cip-ri 

r^i  e3*t 

lal-la  cip-par 

G. 

>-yy^  s£  **■ 

zi-i-bu 

Stri^ 

jidee. 

fkhar] 

s          /-ru-kha- 

(mur  j 

7. 

<«  ^  ^v 

es-se-bu 

-y<y  *fl  ^ 

khu-si-i 

8. 

^^yy^n 

mar-ra-tuv 

*ic:*m^<B 

its-tsur  tu-ba 

9. 

xy  ^y  8=^ 

ka-du-n 

-Bigf-irr- 

ac-cu-u 

Pic 

idae. 

10. 

<Igf-E^!T^ 

ci-li-luv 

Igf-^TT^^fT 

cu-li-li 

11. 

~f«*=egi 

an-pa-tuv 

12. 

Mf  <T-  +  * 

du-lim-mas-sat 

Cuci 

llidae. 

13. 

-f<^yy^ 

kha-zu-u 

-T<T  tTTTc  ^ 

khu-u-ku 

Upupidse. 
14.  »f4^^»-£££3i     uam-bu-ub-tuv  I   y^  ^^|  ^  ^ 


a-dam-mu-mi 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 


^E   LISTS   AND   MONUMENTS. 


135 


ACCADIAN. 


BIRDS  KNOWN,  OR  PROBABLY   INDICATED. 


Families.— Vulturidee,  Falconidae. 


IfcT  Hf<T  1D  KHU>  ERU  (?)   j     Griffon  Vulture  {Gyps  fidvus),  Eagles 

included. 

Some  Screaming  Bird  of  Prey. 
Egyptian  V.  {Neophron  percnopterus) . 


y  j=y  »v  ££yy  >-y<y  ca-su-cud-da 


NU-UM-MA 


iihtw<t      ..     . 

►^^  >-y<y  gis  sir 

£PQ[  ^Jflf  ^  SIB    TIR-RA 

SU    LU 


Liimmergeier  {Gypaetus  barbatus). 

Honey  Buzzard  {Pernis  apivorus)  (?). 
Some  Screaming  Bird  of  Prey. 

Strigidae. 

Eagle  Owl  {Bubo  ascalaphus). 

Scops  Owl  {Scops  giu)  or  Little  Owl 

{Athene  glaux). 
Screech  Owl  {Strix  flammea). 


Picidae. 


Great  Spotted  Woodpecker  {Picus 
S'yriacus),  or  Green  Woodpecker 
{P.  viridis). 

Picus  Syriacus. 


Cuculidae. 


£»m 


Common  Cuckoo  {Gucxdus  canorus)  ;  and 
Great  Spotted  {Oxylophus glandarius){\). 


Upupidae. 


Hoopoe  {Upupa  epops),  or  perhaps 
Peewit  (  Vanellus  cristatus). 


136 


The  Bird*  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Record*. 


NAMES  OF  BIRDS  FRCtt 


ASSYRIAN. 


15. 


Hirundinidae 
rg=  <^gf  <^gY  ^Y  or      as-ci-ci-tuv 
££Y  <YjjY  ^  £j£  £<r|    ab-ci-ni-ni-tuv 
tsa-pi-tav 


H*P-*1 


^^gtt^^Wggs  ui-li-li-tuv 


tt<  tgfl  ^T  VU.       kha-tsi-ba-ruv       ^  ^  -g^T         bu-li-li 


16 


ftM£  ~Y  ^ 


>^ 


Sylviadee 
tsu-la-mu 
£Y  <^  *^  KT"-          ite-tsni  mu-si 
MIT  kiP"^ 


17. 

£T  <^  <  rX  &  ^TT     it5"tsur  ki'i-'i 

18.   tT^O1^^-^     ma-ac-lat  ub-la 


$  <C_YY  £<Y  tsa-lam-<iu 

^YJ  ^YYYT  >^Y  tsi-Uil-du 


_Y<Y  £-"  ;;  -z  £<YJ;     khu-ra-tsM 


Fringillidae,  Emberizidae,  &c. 


19.  ^TYYjr  <V  <T-  V   iD.P.food)abicta 
r  ^Y^b  -T<T£  <Y*fc  £^    di-ik-di-ku 

"(tW*  tT|^  E|  <luC-dllC-CU 


t|  <^  >Sl  f»-  <7»fc     its-tsur  sa-m 


Sturnidae. 


21.  t=I<J  r  ^  al-lal-luv 

22.  -YY<Y  ^^Y  -YYY-        ri-hu 

23.  t«  -YY<Y  (^)  'e-ri-bu 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 


137 


IE  LISTS  AND  MONUMENTS. 


ACCADIAN. 


BIRDS  KNOWN,  OR  PROBABLY  INDICATED. 


Hirundinidae. 


Common  Swallow  (Hirwido  urbica). 


*T»-  -^1  TSA    PI    TAV 

^Y  ""^I  lil  >TT  >""T  t^ff    KHU  RUB  BA  cu  GUSUR  RA. 

^""TTT  O  GUN  gil  Swallow,  Martin,  Swift,  &c. 


Sylviadae. 


-y<y  a  khu 

KIP    SU 

y^  *x  >-yy-<4  HfT^  nam  bir  gi  zi 

J*   >^S    S^    J^f  GA    MD    UN    DU 


Nightingale  or  Bulbul(Z«scto?a  luscinia), 
or  Sedge-warbler  (Salicaria  phragmitis). 
fReed     Warbler     {Salicaria     arundina- 
\cea)  (?)  or  Acrocephalus  stentorius. 


Golden  Oriole  (Oriohis  galbula). 


BHWT' 


*fij 


SJ*£ 


H 


Fringillidae,  Emberizidse,  &c. 
khu  mes  Finches,   kc. 


cu 


Sparrow  (Passer  domesticm). 


Sturnidae. 
sib  tur  Starling  (Sturnvs  vulgaris). 

sib  Rook  (?). 

khu  rub  Locust  Bird  (Pastor  rosens) 


138 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 


NAMES  OF 

BIRDS  FRO* 

ASSYRIAN. 

Corvidae. 

25.  ^  ~~  tfflfe 

a-ri-bu  or 
klia-kbar 

W  -TT<T  tf- 

a-ri-bu 

.  ka-ku-u 

—  ^r  -it^  nn 

tar-ma-zi-lu 

26.  ^4H-m^ 

pa-hu 

aw* 

ka-ka-uu 

27.  ^  —Til  - 

casid  cab-ruv 

V  h£J  HF-  Hf< 

casid  ca-bar-ti 

28.} 

/  YY  /      A          YVV       » ,T 

tas-bal-luv  or 

VI...    nU   1-1... 

LH  V-J  >w  It  *^ 

its-tsur  sa-a-ni 

(yt<  -^HfTT  HMf  kba-akb-kbu 

29.  -H^IUJ^TT^H    bal-lu-tsi-tuv 


. -^y  ^^  ^  ^vTT    tu-bal-la-ats 
C       ^IeI  *"**"!  -^  ci-na-sa  'i 


HRFf 


-yr<y  tyyy*  ^s-        ri-ga-bu 


Columbidae 

30.  Yjy    >fc  ^  ur-sa-nu  >£yyy  J^   ^  J£YJ      ta-am-si-lu 

31.  h^-  *m  tar-ru 

32.  J^:  »-J^yf  ^*"  ir-ca-bu 

33.  ^5£ffl  Kf  *T?]     gu-um  (ma-tu?) 

Emberizidae. 

34.  <f-^fT^sF^  si-11-^11       I  ^-  -TI<T  ^!  bu-ri-du 

Perdicidae. 


35.  A-f  £^  <sf*  j£?=     ka-ku-ul-luv 


HJ  IHJ  IH  Igf  cu-lu-ku-ku 


Otididae. 
36.  >gfl  <T<  ^  sVdin-im  -^  ££fl  ^^  ^yy^  gi-il-gi-da-m 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Record*. 


139 


HE  LISTS  AND  MONUMENTS. 


ACCADIAN. 


BIRDS  KNOWN,  OR  PROBABLY  INDICATED. 


Corvidae. 


Raven  (Corvus  corax\  and  Brown-necked 
Raven  (C.  umbrinus). 

Some  Cawing  Bird. 

Hooded  Crow  (C  comix). 

Jackdaw  (C.  monedida). 

Some     bluish  -  brown     Cawing     Bird 
(Roller)  (?) 

Magpie  {Pica  caudata). 


i^TT^HMf        SAK 


>~>-v^ 


m<t 


yy  s^yyy  >^  »-y<y   su  um  mu 


Columbidae. 

Wood  Pigeon  (Columha  palinnbus). 
Turtle  Dove  (Turtiir  auritus). 
Rock  Pigeon  (C.  oeneas)  (?). 
Domestic  Pigeon. 


r±rr  tfe  ~  -r<y    il  ™ 


Emberizidae. 


Snow  Finch  (Montifrinr/dla  alpicola). 


Perdicidee. 


Persian  Red-legged  Partridge  (Caccabis 
chukar  var.),  and  Common  Partridge 
(Perdix  cinerea)  (?)  Francoline  (Fran- 
colinus  vulgaris)  (?). 


Otididae. 


Great      Bustard      (Otis      tarda,  and 
0.  McQueenii,  "Houbara"). 


140  The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 


NAMES   OF   BIRDS   FRO* 


ASSYRIAN. 


Gruidae. 
ur-ni-gu  *"v^Hf  ""E^TT  -IH-         ca-li-u 

Ciconidse. 
rak-rak-ku  |  ^f  Xf  ^gf  ^  la-ka-la-ka 

Tantalidae. 

39.  tcTTT  <--  It  !•*•-     um-mi  mn      I  Tf  ^T  ££It  a-ba-.va 

Ardeidae. 


37.  m  ^  & 

38.  £-  *■  ^ 


40.  4l*fflBHI  ••       • 

41.  >^f  tgf  *HI  na-a.lh-ru 


Phoenicopteree. 


42.  ^f-^y  fc^^w  t^        c^iar    lugal-luv 
(borrowed  from  Accadian) 


43. 


>^  m*     {J 


us 
cu-mu-u 


Pelicanidae. 

It  t^yyy  ^HF-  ly  )3  a-ta-an  nari 


:Hf  -^>-  jiyy*  >y-       ab-bu-un-nu 


Gallina^. 


44.< 


ir^f  *■ 


cu-m-pu 


(-It  HfT^  ^TT       'e-zi"zu 

(And  apparently  several  other  names.) 


Struthionida^. 


45. 


',^7  ^.y  ST<JE  sa-ka-tuv 


AA-* 


iram-<ram-mu 


dil-bat 


^  HI  It  ££3fT        *»*  a-ric 


The  Birds  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records.    141 
HE    LISTS   AND   MONUMENTS. 


ACCADIAN. 


BIRDS  KNOWN,   OR  PROBABLY  INDICATED. 


Gruidae. 

t^tj  E?fl  H^-T  kesda  Common  Crane  (Grus  communis). 

Ciconidse. 
White  Stork  {Ciconia  alba  and  C.  nigra). 

Tantalidae. 

y^J  yj[  >^y<y  ama-a  Ibis    {Tantalus    ibis)    (?)  ;     (Comatibis 

comata). 

Ardeidae. 

if-^  Ty  *"!*!  u"a  BufF-backed     Heron,     or     "  Cow-bird " 

{Ardea  russata). 
^y  J^y  >^y<y  a-gus  |     Heron  {Ardea  cinerea,  or  A.  alba). 

Phcenicopterae. 


y  jgy  £^yy  ^l  ^y<y     uu  dur  ra  nu 


Flamingo  {Phosnicopterus  antiquorum). 


Pelicanidae. 


<y^  *]  <^^Jdf  *"  t^£  NAM  BIR  MUKU 

DIL    BUY 

[  ^y  >^  -y<y      rag  gus  sa 


Pelican  {Pelicanus  onocrotalus). 


Gallinae. 


*ff\  ^  A  gus   se 

yy^  ^sy  <  sag  gus  u 


Domestic  Cock. 


Struthionidae. 

z  V^^  t^-11  ^y<y  <iibi-gid-da  I     Ostrich  {Struthio  camelus). 

<^^«V<^^^H  GAM  GAM  (KHTJ) 


142       The  Bird*  of  the  Assyrian  Monuments  and  Records. 

Dr.  Tristram*  has  kindly  read  over  the  proof  sheets  of  this  paper, 
and  has  favoured  me  with  a  few  remarks,  which  I  here  insert. 

Referring  to  domesticated  ducks  aud  geese  by  the  Assyrians 
(p.  51  .  he  -ays  :  "  Our  goose  could  hardly  be  domesticated  thus  ;  the 
Indian  goose  does  not  reach  ^<>  far  west.  Assyria  is  too  hot  for  the 
goose,  and  I  suspect  for  any  duck  either." 

On  page  .52  he  refers  to  the  very  interesting  and  wonderfully 
perfect  fresco-painting  of  ducks  and  geese  in  the  Boulac  Museum,  the 
oldest  painting  in  the  world. 

Page  .54.  Dr.  Tristram  confirms  Mr.  Blanford's  remark  on  the  birds 
of  Mesopotamia  by  his  own  observations  in  that  country  in  1881. 

Page  71.   "I  found  Hoplopterus  ■  ommon  in  Mesopotamia  ; 

it  breeds  where  the  lapwing  does  not.     The  text  would  equally  apply 
to  either  bird." 

Page  72.  '•  The  hoopoe  would  be  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  and 
striking  birds  to  the  Assyrians  ;  it  is  very  plentiful." 

Page  74.  Sedge  and  reed  warblers.  '•  I  do  not  agree  with  you  as 
to  the  species  of  warblers.  Those  you  mention  are  very  rare.  Cetti's 
warbler,  for  instance,  is  much  more  common." 

Page  7-5.   "  The  actual  papyrus  bird  is  Acrocephalus  stentorius,  a 
noisy  fellow  ;    it  builds   nests  like  those  of  the  reed  warbler."     This 
species  therefore  may  fairly  be  considered  to  be  the  bird  of  the  re- 
it  does  not  differ  much  in  structure  or  dimensions  from  the  European 
reed  warbler. 

Page  78.  As  to  rook-  in  Assyria,  Dr.  Tristram  says  that  Ainswortfa 
has  mistaken  his  birds  when  he  mentions  rook-  as  occurring  there. 
Dr.  Tristram  thinks  jackdaws  are  the  birds  meant,  as  represented  <>u 
the  monuments  with  their  nests  and  young  (see  p.  43).  u Jackdaws 
are  to  rook-  as  100  to  I." 

Paire  1"4.  "The  falcon  of  Mesopotamia  used  by  falconers  is  the 

Falco  sace>\  which  is  as  large  as  the  gyr  falcon." 

Page  110.  Dr.  Tristram  says  :  v-  You  ought  to  find  places  for  the 
bee  eater  and  the  roller ;  so  common,  beautiful,  and  striking  birds 
must  have  been  known  to  the  Assyrians."  If  we  read  sarrat  Z 
"•queen  of  the  regions,"  instead  of  s'arrad  kipri,  "terror  of  the 
regions,"  for  the  u  honey  bird,"  then  the  bee  eater  of  heavenlv  beauty 
may  be  the  laUari  of  the  Accadian  column. 

*  See  the  author's  interesting  "  Ornithological  Notes  of  a  Journey  through 
Sjria,  Mesopotamia,  and  Southern  Armenia  in  1881,'"  in  the  Ibis. 


TRANSACTIONS 


SOCIETY  of  BIBLICAL    ARCHEOLOGY. 


Vol.  VIII.  JULY,  1883.  Part  2. 

ON    A    TABLET    IN    THE    BRITISH    MUSEUM 
RELATING  TO  TWO  ARCHITECTS. 

By  S.  Birch,  LL.D.,  D.C.L. 

Read  1st  February,  1881. 

The  tablet  which  is  the  subject  of  the  present  paper 
is  in  the  shape  of  a  propylon  or  pylon,  with  the  cornice  of 
palm  leaves,  and  with  the  usual  hemi-cylindrical  moulding  at 
the  sides.  It  is  of  a  dark  grey  granite.  Tablets  of  this  material 
and  shape  are  unusual,  most  of  the  sepulchral  tablets  being 
of  calcareous  stone,  rounded  at  the  top,  and  rectangular  ones, 
ornamented  with  a  cornice,  being  the  exception.  It  is  of  the 
period  of  Amenophis  III,  of  the  X  VHIth  dynasty,  the  persons 
for  whom  it  was  constructed  having  worked  at  the  temple 
of  Amen  for  that  monarch,  and  probably  having  died  in  his 
reign  or  that  of  his  successor.  The  tablet  which  is  in  the 
British  Museum  was  bought  at  the  sale  of  S.  Anastasi,  at 
Paris,  in  1857,  and  was  No.  62  of  the  sale  catalogue. 

At  all  periods  sepulchral  tablets  or  tombstones  were  used 
by  the  ancient  Egyptians  ;  they  were  deposited  often  inside 
the  sepulchres,  but  on  certain  papyri  are  represented  outside 
the  doors  of  the  tombs,  and  often  accompanied  by  the  small 
obelisks  which  adorned  the  sepulchres. 

The  object  of  these  tablets  was  to  record  a  certain  prayer 
or  formula  for  the  dead,  which  their  inscriptions  occasionally 
Vol.    VIII.  10 


144  ( >n  a   Tablet  in  the  British  Museygfi 

invite  the  passer  by  to  recite  to  certain  deities,  generally  the 
sepulchral  or  chthonic  gods.  These  inscriptions  also  occasion- 
ally mention  the  virtues  and  labours  of  the  dead.  It  is  this 
part  of  the  tablets  winch  invests  them  with  a  certain  interest, 
for  although  they  are  by  no  means  biographies,  they  often 
give  a  slight  sketch  of  the  official  posts  successively  held  by 
the  deceased,  and  other  points  of  historical  or  political 
interest.  The  tablets  indeed  have  many  other  points  of 
interest,  and  vary  according  to  the  period  at  which  they  were 
made.  At  the  earliest  age  they  are  nearly  covered  with 
inscriptions,  and  the  figures  introduced  into  them  are  the  de- 
ceased alone,  or  the  deceased  together  with  relations  receiving 
adorations,  libations,  and  prayers  from  other  members  of  his 
family.  At  the  time  of  the  Xlth  and  Xllth  dynasties  the 
stele  or  tablets  are  not  only  covered  with  inscriptions,  but 
the  figures  of  the  deceased  introduced  as  pictures  or  orna- 
ments increase  in  number,  and  the  texts  become  more  copious 
in  then*  religious  formulas,  while  the  inscriptions  often  con- 
tain information  as  to  the  occupation,  merits,  and  duties  of 
the  deceased,  especially  if  an  officer  of  the  court.  The  lan- 
guage varies  also,  according  to  the  period,  that  of  the  first 
age  to  the  Vlth  dynasty  being  remarkably  concise,  resembling 
the  formula  of  the  tombs  in  the  absence  of  certain  parts  of 
the  formula,  especially  of  the  expression  relative  to  "  giving  " 
to  the  deities,  which  always  occurs  at  a  later  period,  and  is 
constant  at  the  XlltJi  dynasty.  The  tablets  of  the  XVIIIth 
dynasty  represent  the  deceased  in  adoration  to  sepulchral 
deities,  although  ancestral  worship  still  appears,  and  the 
figures  are  distinguished  by  the  appearance  of  the  cone  on  the 
head  of  the  persons  represented  in  the  sculptures  or  pictures, 
the  use  of  the  form  Jca  in  the  dedication,  and  the  absence  of 
the  expression  of  the  form  Osiris  or  Osirian  before  the  name 
of  the  deceased.  While,  also,  the  tablets  for  sepulchral  pur- 
poses prior  to  the  XVIIIth  dynasty  are  only  ornamented 
with  sculptures  representing  ancestral  worship,  at  this  later 
dynasty  the  adoration  of  deities  by  the  deceased  appeal's,  and 
continues  till  the  fall  of  Egypt.  It  may,  in  fact,  be  considered 
that  the  XVIIIth  dynasty  marks  an  important  epoch  in  the 
religious  development  of  the    country  and   the  rise  of  the 


Bibl  Arch   Vol  VIII 


m^rM^m^mm^cz^m, 


1 


^^Lf^MStl^M^^IS^llie^lklll 


^g^^^^^a^^^^^H 


AW 


fir 

.y 
3 


lT3 


^ 


ft 
m 


j^at£gthg^gaw4B^BMAL^:>g 


aitmzm$Ti^<T<m&*£L&'i£> 


MSmmHum 


tSEt£S&  praagiassro^itieft 


ia^^^gaBag^iapwMgigtf'ai' 


£^LT»l^f3Tias;a^:^ffr* 


K5*£l! 


ga&^  Y^gmij  ^i^e? 


mr^^f^ai^  irr  ~,^  ttrnrta 


sp~g£s*fcRitir&£g&¥~lK3 


•-f-cifgHggerwc^yfg^^^M 


>  >g^-r&s£.ft~  Slflllgf  ?  «ff  xmr 


fa 

i 


14 


i Si*  -NK 


¥iff ■ ft3Z;»  *1  r<f  i2T.5?WI  MM* 


TABLET    OF    HAR    AND    SUTI. 
Superintendents    of  ftlblw  Wblte  in  Smilli.-iiiTM.i- 

.Will  Dynasty  fr Phebea. 

luth.-  Brilisli  Museum  N"fl2G 


relating  to   Two  Architects.  145 

sepulchral  honours  rendered  to  the  chthonic  deities,  especially 
Osiris  and  the  solar  myths  of  the  Karneter,  or  hell,  in  the 
main  picture.  Of  course  great  difference  of  art  distinguishes 
the  tablets  of  the  X  Vlllth  from  those  of  the  XlXth  and  XXth 
dynasties,  but  the  same  general  principles  prevail.  Although 
the  use  of  tablets  continued  under  the  XXIst  and  subsequent 
dynasties  till  the  Roman  period,  sepulchural  tablets  are  much 
rarer  after  the  XXth.  At  the  Ptolemaic  period  the  tablets 
abound  in  personal  details — the  age  attained  by  the  dead, 
and  the  time  occupied  by  embalming — till,  under  the  Romans, 
in  addition  to  bas-reliefs  imitating  Greek  art,  and  the  sub- 
stitution of  demotic  for  hieroglyphs  under  the  Ptolemies,  the 
Greek  language  ultimately  replaced  the  Egyptian. 

The  present  tablet  is  for  two  architects,  or,  as  they  are 
called  in  the  inscriptions,  "superintendents  of  works,"  an  office 
held  frequently  by  persons  of  high  rank  in  the  hierarchy, 
They  were  twin  brothers,  born  of  course  on  the  same  day, 
and  were  attached  to  the  constructions  of  the  shrine  and 
temple  of  Amen  of  that  part  of  Thebes  called  Southern  Ap, 
supposed  to  be  Karnak,  one  having  charge  of  the  western  or 
right  hand  of  the  temple,  the  other  of  the  eastern  or  left  hand 
of  the  same  edifice.  Both  are  represented  in  the  tablet,  and 
one  survived  the  other,  apparently  Har,  who  seems  to  have 
died  at  an  old  age,  and  to  have  been  buried  at  Gournah. 

Many  names  of  architects  of  the  earlier  dynasties  have  been 
preserved,  and  nine  have  been  given  by  Brugsch  in  his  History 
as  anterior  to  the  Xllth  dynasty,  under  whom  several  other 
mer  kat  or  "  architects  "  have  been  published,  and  their  gene- 
alogies have  been  supposed  to  throw  light  upon  the  Egyptian 
chronology.  Other  persons  not  called  mer  hat1  also  appear  to 
have  exercised  architectural  functions,  and  Teta,  under  the 
IVth  dynasty,  appears  on  his  tomb  at  the  age  of  Khafra  or 
Chefren,  with  a  level  or  compasses  in  his  hand.  It  is  however 
difficult  to  trace  the  whole  history  of  Egyptian  architects  from 
the  monuments,  as  there  are  gaps  in  the  succession. 

This  tablet  is  a  contribution  to  the  history  of  the  X  VHIth 
dynasty,  as  the  two  architects  worked  for  Amenophis  III, 

1  The  lists  of  these  architects  have  heen  given  hy  LejJsius  and  Lieblein. 
vide  infra. 


14b  On  a   Tablet  in  the  British  Museum 

and  evidently  in  the  middle  of  the  reign;  and  it  is  remarkable 
to  find  the  queen  Nefert-ari,  who  is  better  known  as  Aahmes- 
Nefert-ari,  the  wife  of  Amasis  I,  and  mother  of  Amenophis  I, 
elevated  to  the  rank  of  the  gods,  and  able  to  confer  "the 
delicious  breath  of  the  North  wind"  and  "  water  and  wine  " 
to  the  deceased.  It  is  also  to  be  noticed  that  on  this  tablet 
the  parentage  of  the  twin  architects  is  not  mentioned.  As 
some  ambiguity  might  arise  about  Suti  and  Har  being  two 
personages,  that  is  dissipated  by  the  expression  in  the  19th 
line,  where  the  phrase  of  "  we  were  over  the  construction  of 
the  memorial  monuments  of  Thebes"  implies  that  the  two 
had  been  jointly  employed.  The  dedications  are  to  the  usual 
sepulchral  deities,  and  are  accompanied  by  a  long  and  rather 
obseiue  address  to  the  god  Amen,  difficult  in  many  portions 
to  understand,  but  showing  that  the  monuments  were  set  up 
before  the  rise  of  the  disk  heresy  at  Thebes,  or  the  close  of 
the  reign  of  Amenophis  III — at  all  events,  while  the  elevation 
to  Amen  Ra  secured  official  favour  at  the  Egyptian  Court. 

The  inscriptions  in  the  horizontal  lines  above  the  tablet  are 
as  follows :  "  Act  of  homage  to  Amen  Ra,  who  gives  sepul- 
chral meals  in  Southern  An  to  the  ha  (or  ghost)  of  the 
superintendent  of  works  of  Amen  hi  Apt  or  Karnak,  to  Suti 
justified."  "An  act  of  homage  to  Mut,  mistress  of  the  Heaven, 
who  gives  all  good  and  pure  things  to  the  ha  of  the  superin- 
tendent of  all  the  works  of  the  South,  Suti  justified";  and  a 
third  "  act  of  homage  to  Athor,  regent  of  the  Cemetery,  who 
gives  a  good  life  placed  on  earth  to  the  ha  of  the  superin- 
tendent of  Amen  in  Southern  Thebes,  Suti  justified."  On 
the  other  side  are  three  similar  dedications. 

"  An  act  of  homage  to  Athor,  resident  hi  Uas  or  Western 
Thebes,  who  gives  all  that  appears  in  presence  on  the  altars 
daily  to  the  ha  of  the  superintendent  of  works  of  Amen  in 
Thebes,  Har  justified." l  Then,  "An  act  of  homage  to  Khonsu, 
who  gives  all  sweet  and  delicious  things  to  the  ha  of  the 
superintendent  of  all  the  works  of  the  king  in  the  district 
of  the  South,  Har  justified."  Then  again,  another  "  Act  of 
homage  to  Athor,  resident  in  Uas  or  Western  Thebes,  who 
grants  to  receive  the  cakes  (sensen)  in  the  temple  to  the  ha  of 

1  Correctly  worded  maxru  in  some  instances,  mayru-ut  in  the  passive  form. 


relating  to   Two  Architects.  147 

the  superintendent  of  works  of  Amen  in  Southern  Apt,  or 
Karnak,  Har  justified." 

Similar  ideas  are  expressed  by  the  vertical  lines,  three  in 
number,  at  each  side.  Those  on  the  right  side  are  three  dedica- 
tions, the  first,  "An  act  of  homage  to  Haremakhu,  Horus  in 
the  Horizon,  or  Harmachis,  lord  of  the  Heaven,  who  grants  to 
see  the  solar  orb  and  behold  the  Moon,  as  when  on  earth,  to  the 
ka  of  the  superintendent  of  the  works  of  Amen  in  Southern 
Thebes,  Horus  justified,  like  the  Sun."  The  second  dedication 
is  "An  act  of  homage  to  Anupu,"  or  Anubis,  "who  gives  a 
good  funeral  after  old  age,  and  a  sepulture  in  the  West  of 
Western  Thebes,  to  the  ka  for  the  superintendent  of  all  the 
works  of  the  king  in  the  district  of  the  South,  Har  justified, 
like  Anupu."  The  third  act  of  homage  is  to  Nefert-ari,  or 
Ari-nefert,  "  the  queen  and  mother  of  Amenophis  I,"  of  the 
XVIIIth  dynasty,  "  who  gives  the  delicious  breath  of  the 
North  wind,  libations  of  pure  water  and  wine,  which  come 
before  to  the  ka  of  the  superintendent  of  works  of  Amen  in 
Southern  Ap,  or  Karnak,  Har  justified  to  the  divine  wife." 

Beneath  these  dedications  is  a  figure  of  Har,  draped  in 
the  usual  manner  and  wearing  the  cone1  on  his  head,  a  kind 
of  costume  which  marks  the  period,  seated  before  a  table  of 
offerings  facing  to  the  right.  The  cone  Was  not  always  worn 
in  sepulchral  scenes,  and  it  appears  in  civil  life  ;  although  not 
restricted,  it  often  appears  on  the  heads  of  females  when 
absent  from  those  of  men.  It  first  is  seen  at  the  time  of 
the  XVIIIth  dynasty,  worn  by  persons  adoring  the  deified 
Amenophis  I,2  and  then  as  a  simple  cone  C\ ,  red  or  yellow  at 
the  top  fl  p| ,  and  on  other  monuments  of  the  reign  of 
Amenophis  III,3  also  at  the  time  of  Khuenaten  H  .4  It  con- 
tinues through  the  XlXth  dynasty,5  and  the  XXth  of  the  age 
of  Rameses  III.6  The  form  ^  with  spikes  is  later,  as  ^"f)^> 
perhaps  of  the  XXIInd  and  XXIIIrd  dynasties,  and  appears 

1  By  aid  of  Mr.  Rylands  I  shall  be  enabled  hereafter  to  give  the  varieties  of 
cones  from  the  XVIIIth  dynasty  to  the  time  of  the  Romans.  They  were  probably 
a  mode  of  dressing  the  hair,  or  made  of  artificial  hair.      None  have  been  found. 

-  Sharpe,  Egyptian  Inscriptions,  PI.  V.  Coffin,  British  Museum,  No.  6662. 
Leemans,  Mon.  d.  Mus.  de  Leide,  PI.  22,  III  Ptie. 

8  Prisse,  Monuments,  PI.  39. 

4  Marietta,  Mon.  div.,  PI.  26.     Leemans,  III  Ptie.,  PI.  4. 

6  Leemans,  Mon.,  II  Ptie.,  PI.  9.  6  Sharpe,  I.e.,  II,  PI.  39. 


14>  On    i    Tal  '■*  in  the  British  Museum 

on  the  head  of  a  woman  named  Bakrans  (Bocchoris)  of  the 
XXVth  dynasty,  and  in  the  British  Museum  on  monuments 
of  the  XXVIth  dynasty.1 

To  the  left  are  three  similar  dedications,  also  in  three  ver- 
tical lines.     The  first  an  act  of  homage  to  Osiris "who 

gives  all  things  which  appear  upon  the  tables  before  the 
hand  of  Onnophris  to  the  ka  of  the  superintendent  of  public 
works  of  Amen  in  Southern  Ap  or  Karnak,  Sut  [erased] 
justified  like,"  or  "to  Osiris."  The  second  dedication  is  "An  act 
of  adoration  to  Socharis  Osiris,  lord  of  the  sepulchral  chest, 
who  grants  to  give  in  and  out  of  the  Karneter  or  Hades,  and 
the  soul  (ba)  not  to  be  hindered."  or  turned  back,  "from  what 
it  desires,  to  the  ka  of  the  superintendent  of  all  the  works  of  the 
king  in  Southern  An  or  Hermonthis,  Suti  [erased]  justified  to," 
or  '-like  Sekar."  The  thud  and  last  is  "An  act  of  homage  to 
I -is.  the  divine  mother,  who  grants  to  receive  the  passage2  at 
the  edge  of  the  gap  (peqau)  of  the  Horizon  by  the  order  of 
the  great  god,  to  the  ka  of  the  superintendent  of  the  works  of 
Amen  in  Southern  Ap,"  or  Kamak,  *'  Suti  justified  to  Isis." 

Underneath  the  deceased  whose  form  is  partly  erased,  is 
represented,  draped  as  Har,  seated  likewise  on  a  chair  and 
having  a  table  of  offerings  before  him,  with  a  similar  table, 
and  having  inscribed  in  the  area  above  his  head,  "  all  things 
which  appear  before." 

Before  proceeding  farther  with  this  part  of  the  tablet, 
attention  must  be  called  to  the  expression  \J  \  ka  or  qa.  which 
has  attracted  lately  so  much  the  attention  of  Egyptologists.3 
and  has  been  supposed  to  be  the  genius,  eidolon  or  manes,  of 
the  dead,  and  to  have  had  a  special  worship  with  a  priest 
attached  to  it.  Dr.  Hincks,  from  a  comparison  of  dated  and 
other  tablets,  was  the  first  to  point  out  that  the  ka  is  not 
mentioned  on  these  sepulchral  monuments  till  the  close  of  the 
Xllth  dynasty,  and  that  anterior  to  that  period  all  the  gifts 
of  the  gods  were  made  to  the  person  direct.  After  the 
Xllth  dynasty  the  ka  is  always  mentioned,  and  according  to 
the  recent  explanation  in  reference  to  future  conditions  of  the 

1  Mariette,  Mon.  divers.  PI.  47.  ;   Uah. 

3  See  M.  Le  Page  Renouf,  Trans.    Soc.    Bibl.  Arch..  Vol.  VI,  p.  494..  ic. 
ro.  lb.,  VII,  p.  6  ;  and  Revue  Scientifique,  March,  1879,  p.  816. 


relating  to   Two  Architects.  141* 

dead,  and  not  in  the  sense  of  "reception1  instead  of  person- 
ality "  :  the  phrase  having  been  translated  formerly  "  for  the 
reception  "  of  the  deceased,  or  for  him  to  receive. 

The  things  granted  by  the  gods  to  the  ka  are  chiefly 
such  as  appertain  to  the  living  mortal,  food  of  various  kinds, 
all  good  and  sweet  things,  and  the  usual  bill  of  fare  of  an 
Egyptian  repast;  and  also  to  behold  the  sun  and  moon;  and 
also,  what  is  remarkable,  a  long  life  while  on  earth  and  a 
funeral  after  a  good  old  age,  not  to  mention  that  the  soul 
should  not  be  deprived  of  what  it  desires :  ideas  scarcely 
applicable  to  another  kind  of  spiritual  existence  separated  from 
the  present,  such  as  the  ka  has  been  supposed  to  be,  although 
such  gifts  would  be  very  appropriate  to  the  human  being  con- 
sidered in  its  individuality  before  and  after  death,  but  scarcely 
applicable  to  the  more  etherial  silhouette  of  the  mortal. 

There  is  not,  however,  time  to  enter  upon  a  full  discussion 
of  the  ka  here,  although  it  is  evident  some  of  the  romantic 
notions  attributed  to  it  are  not  proved  by  the  texts.  The 
whole  of  the  psychological  question  of  the  ka  requires  an 
exhaustive  monumental  inquiry,  as  well  as  its  relation  to  the 
mortal;  for  while  it  is  evident  that  the  gods  could  have 
appropriately  given  old  age  and  burial  to  a  deceased  mortal, 
such  gifts  as  to  go  in  and  out  of  the  Hades  were  only  possible 
for  the  dead  and  to  the  deceased;  while  gifts  of  food  and 
drink,  sweet  air  of  the  North  wind,  and  other  material  benefits, 
were  more  available  for  the  deceased  in  a  state  of  resurrec- 
tion in  the  mortal  frame,  although  the  soul  participated  in 
the  same.  Is  the  sense  of  the  verb  "to  give"  in  these  texts 
past,  present,  or  future  ?  Probably  future.  As  this  tablet  is 
of  the  time  of  the  XVIIIth  dynasty,  it  is  necessary  to  remark 
that  the  term  Osiris  or  Osirian  is  not  prefixed  to  the  name  ot 
the  deceased ;  and  here  it  is  important  to  mark  that  as  the 
notice  of  the  ka  is  not  introduced  till  the  Xllth  dynasty,  that 
of  Osiris  as  applied  to  the  dead  does  not  appear  till  the  XIX th. 
It  would,  in  fact,  be  difficult  to  find  a  tablet  of  the  XVIIIth 
dynasty  in  which  the  form  Osirian  or  Osiris  is  applied  to  an 
individual,  other  than  a  monarch,  prior  to  the  XlXth  dynasty, 
although  monarchs  were  specially  honoured  with  the  appella- 

1  Brugscli,  Warterbuch,  Pfc.  V,  p.  47,  translates  ka  by  person. 


1"><  >  On  a    Tahlet  in  the  British  Museum 

tion  as  early  as  the  IVth,  supposing  the  wooden  coffin  found 
in  the  third  pyramid  to  belong  to  the  monarch  Mycerinus. 
The  diacritical  texts  of  tablets  of  the  XVIIIth  dynasty  are 
the  representations  of  deities  on  the  sepulchral  tablets. 

In  the  middle  of  the  tablet  is  the  representation  of  a 
tablet,  hutu,  having  outside,  in  the  square  depression,  the  two 
symbolic  eyes,  uta,  emblem  of  Horus ;  on  the  upper  part  of 
the  tablet  is  the  Hut,1  or  Good  Demon,  represented  as  a 
winged  disk  with  horns.2  The  scene  or  picture  is  divided 
into  two  compartments,  representing  adorations  to  the  gods 
Asar  or  Osiris,  and  Anupu  or  Anubis,  by  Har  or  Horus,  and 
Suti  or  Sethos.  At  the  top  and  left  side  of  the  tablet  stands 
Osiris,  wearing  the  crown,  atef,  mummied,  the  collar,  nskh, 
and  the  counterpoise  of  a  collar;  holding  by  both  hands,  which 
emerge  from  the  bandages,  the  sceptre,  nets.  The  figure  of 
Suti,  which  is  in  adoration,  is  entirely  chiselled  out,  and 
there  only  remains  his  name  and  titles,  or  rather  Teba  or  Baht, 
the  ^5  being  the  equivalent  of  teba,  or  tablet.  The 
inscriptions  in  this  portion  read :  "  Osiris,  the  great  god,  ruler 
eternal,"  and  "  the  making  of  adorations  to  Osiris  and  prostra- 
tions to  him  who  is  resident  in  the  west  by  the  superintendent 
of  the  works  of  Amen  Suti."  Suti  is  followed  by  the  figure 
of  a  female  wearing  a  cone  on  her  head,  draped,  and  lifting 
her  hands  in  adoration  to  Osiris.  Before  Osiris  is  the  usual 
altar  holding  the  water-vase,  with  cover  and  papyrus  flower ; 
on  the  other  side  is  the  god  Anupu,  or  Anubis,  jackal-headed, 
wearing  the  collar,  u&kh,  and  the  tunic,  shenti,  in  a  similar  atti- 
tude, holding  a  sceptre,  uas,  in  his  left  hand,  and  an  emblem 
of  life  in  his  right.  The  figure  of  Har,  who  stood  adoring 
him,  is  erased,  as  also  that  of  the  female  who  accompanies 
him  ;  the  scene  represents  the  same  subject  as  the  former. 

In  the  area  the  inscriptions  read:  "Anupu,  attached  to 
the  embalming  and  the  making  of  adorations  to  Anupu  or 
Anubis,  and  prostrations  to  him  who  is  attached  to  the 
embalming,  by  the  superintendent  of  the  public  works  of 
Amen,  Har."  Below  this  part  of  the  subject  are  twenty  lines 
of  hieroglyphs,  adorations  to  Amen  Ra. 

1  Brit.  Mus.  559.     See  Brugsch,  "Worth.,"  p.  873. 

2  For  the  mystical  meaning  of  this  see  Brugsch,  "  Diet.  Geog.,"  p.  539,  &c. 


relating  to  Two  Architect*.  151 

»**       1=      &     fcj»-  k 

tiau             amen           %eftt                  ub  f  m 

Adoration  [to~\  Amnion       ichen            he    shines  as 

M     /WWW  (_J  AA/WVA 

V                                                   III  I     AfVWVN 

Harem  ^uti           an               mer                qatu         en  Amen 

Harmachis        hy     the  superintendent  (of)  works    of  Ammon 


>WWVl 


Suti  mer  qatu  n         Amen        Har 

<Su^'  a?i<f  ^Ae  superintendent  of  u'07^ks    of    Ammon     Horns 

tet    sen         A-net  k     Ra  nefer     n      ra  neb       ubn 

say    they         Hail     thou  Sun  goodness1  of  every -day  shining  (in) 

tuau        nen     ar  f        abu        ^epera  urt         m 

the  Morn  not  is  made   cessation   happens      rest        by 

"Z    T   -  ^7   -  Tl\ 

qatu  satu  k        em  her     nen  re^ut  sam 

the   works     rays       thy  from  a  face     not        hnovm     the  gilding 

nen     su   ma         amuma  k  ptah  ut       neb       k 

not  is    it    like  beams  thy,  opened    formest  thou 

lm-  (MP    ^   M~\-  -  f  ™ 

ha        k         mess       nenti      mes-su       f  ua     her      f 

limbs      thy      shaped       not      born    is   he         alone  in  his  turns 

1  Splendour,  Pierret. 

-  Copper,  gold,  brass,  have  been  conjectured,  but  either  is  rery  improbable. 


ooo 


152  On  a   Tablet  in  the  British  Museum 

masi           heh             heri       m                 kar  sein        f 

passing      for  ages     the  path  in  millions       having  his    form 

§  ^    ttt     n  s. 


ma       am       k     ma      am      her-t    neferu        ami         k 
so  are     thy  rays     as    rays    above  more  beautiful  thy  colour 


r  anem  s  t'a         k  pe      her  neb   her 

than  its    shin        thou    traverseth    the    heaven   all  faces    in 

maa  k     s'em    k  amen  ut       m  her  sn       makut 

seeing  thee  thou  goest     hidden    from    face         their  given  thee 

^.o     S°     ^     (lJf3^-,      O 


tuaut         am-t        rut  sqat         k  kar     %ent    k 

the  morning  the  rays  strong  proceedest  thou  having  holiness  thine 


&»Y,  H*.  I 


3     O  r t.  z  I     


lira  ketu  h&pt      k       maten         atru  m 

(fay  £&£fe       f/iow    paddlest     the   road   of  atars    in 


(«)■  -V  ^  V  —  ° 


1 1 1 
ha  a  fennu  at  hru  k        kar       k 

millions    hundreds  of         moments       day        thine    having    thee 
thousands 


wwzst     s     hetp  k     sm         k  mum  karh        ma'-tet 

receiving  it  thy  peace  makest  thou  the  hours     the  night      also 
to  endure 


relating  to    Two  Architects.  153 

!z  'Z.  ^      !$■  -*-    J>    ?JA  <= 

masmas       nak  su  nen      kheper  ab  m 

thou  hast  accumulated      them  not    happened   departure  from 

U   °     ^*     ^~     ^7  (7).    "^4    =     0  £=  ^=^ 

III  Q       I  V      y  III  1 

qat        k         liar       neb  maa     sen         am        k 

ivorks     thine      eye      every  see     they  by      thee 


i«-p 


mi 


nen      sain  sen     xetf     hetp     ^en     k  snehap       k       r 

not    stay  they    when     rests  majesty    thine  brighter    thou  than 

uben  tiau            het't'    bu          k  ab     s     maa     s-ut 

the  rise    of  the  morning        lights        thy  passed  sight  lias  it 

(8,  ^  _  =  y^  ^  i 

hetep  k         m         manu         ^ar  qat           sen     ma 

restest  thou      in        ocean         then  sleep      they  like  the 


ftAAAAA 
I     I     I 


AAAAAA       /WWV\ 

iii  1    O  <r: 


Byar         mu                 a       net          k       atn       en  hru 

conditions    of  the  dead    oh     hail  thou     disk       of  the  day 
seemed 

I     (Ip-         ^pr-rr  J5s^  1     #           mi  ^z^5 

qam                  tern               ar  an^           sen  bak 

creator  of  created  things  giving  life          their  hawk 


S 


aa      sab        s'n        neb        %eprr  s#es           su      tisf 

great  diversified  plumes  all      scarab  elevating        himself 

^3*^.— -^    instead  of   v — s  ,  Pierret. 
I  i  I 


lo4  On  a   Tablet  in  the  British  Museum 


=t   ^   M-\ 


%eper       tisf        nenti  mestu  f         Har  senis 

forming      self        not  born       is    he      Horns        senior 


«     ^  ^  Z  C  <l0>14 

herat  nu  ar       naf  ahahai  n  saa 

in  the  heart  the  Ether  made  lias  he      rejoicings    from      rising 

"WVW  ,       ft      i  *<  — .  W  pfrpl  *t  0       **  — -  AAA/WV  ^        //      I 

n      liotep        f         matt  neb  f  n         qam 

to     settbig      his        also  modelling        of  the  production 

satu  ^num       Amen       ammt  ti  ta  ta 

of  the  soil      Chnum      hiding      his  rays         faker  the  countries 


<-— — >  AAAAAA 


m  aa  in*  nas  Mut  ^ut 

from       the      greatest    to    the    least  Mut  the   glory 

<»>•  >  S^l  t\  B?  -  Is  2 

netera  rut  abu  uah         aa         ur        rut 

(of )  gods   and  men      workman    devoted    great  very    strong 


m        an'     s         nen         tennu  men  lm  qani 

in    actions    her    not      numbered    the  cattle   driving  victorious 


I     I     I 


hu  heq  tu  f  ab  sen         ari 

driving  wild     animals     his  lairs        their      making 


relating  to   Two  Architects.  155 


/WWW 


1  III  A/WW\    Vi  H AN 

an^  sen        uni  mas       p'-bert      %epr         teni 

life  their  (lie)  is  going  presenting  running  Cheper  determining 


■\  -  Bl 


mestu  f  s#es         ab  f       m  ^a  n         Nu 

his    birth  elevating  heart  his   in      the  body  of  the  Ether 

t_       _  ft     q  -9^  ^O           — 

U(     c—  1     0  //MWO           = 

sbet        tata      m  atn  f             pati             tata          ar 

lighting  countries  ivith  disk  his    substance  two  countries  making 


i 

a 


su       t'sf  maat        f      neb    ua     anr   tut     tau 

him    self  seen  is  he  lord  sole  leading  in  hand  countries 


0    I     ^7   <=  ®.  <? 

/\  /WWV\    .Ji    J\ 


(0)  ^\  n    /WWV\ 

ra      neb     em        teqa  %en^         ber       ta  ubn 

day     every       beholding      the   march     upon     earth      shining 

=    -    gV      —  —     ^Vfn,     <= 

m        pe         ^eperu  ar        f  tariu      qat        m 

in      heaven  transformations        makes    he  years        as 


*      i  I  I         IT] 


IS-     (14>  ^lS 


abut  baba      mer      f  qab        mer       f 

months        heat      chooses     he  cooling    chooses    he 


J^t>  l77Mf>^ 


A Q 

ta  f          bats'               baa  anq               f         ta     neb      m 

he    gives     relaxing     limbs  clasps          he      land    every    in 

1  Pierret  reads 


156 


On  a  Tablet  in  the  British  Museum 


O 
i 
ra      neb 


* 


^\  n    /WWW 

hatt  n  ubn  f         ra      neb       r         tuau      f 

venerating    to  rising    his         day    every     to     adore     him 

^     Yr  \\;a    -\    V: 

mer  qat  Suti  mer  qat 

i/ig  superintendent   of  works        Suti     the  superintendent     works 


(15). 


a  <=> 


Har       t'et       f  nuk  %erp  m        apt 

liar       says    he  I   (was)  chief  in        cell 


"I 


I  I  I 


O 


k  mer  qat        m 

thy  superintendent  of  works      in 


k 


mati 


AA/WNA 


shrine         thy      appointed 

arnak  sa-k  neb    ta  ta         Ra  ma  neb  ta    anx 

made  to  thee   thy  son   lord   of  the         Nebmara         giving    life 
two  countries 

<=~>  ,wwva  ^—7   v^  ©  ra  ^"^ 

_.  $  ^     1       <=>       <=>JL  ODD  *=* 

ra  na         neb    a  r  %erP  men  k 

gave       to   me     lord  my         to       superintend    memorial    thine 


(16). 


i-a 


A/WWV 

re^        ra        tep   a         arna  %erP  qanqan 

/  watch     head  my  I  was  made  superintendent  prevailing 


ess 

m        men 


|  /WWW  ^ 

mat  n      ab       k         au        a 


1*tf 


k         ar 
of    monuments    thy   making     true       of    heart     thy       was      1 


1  Pierret,  p.  71  (Suti). 


3  Pierret. 


relating  to   Two  Architects.  157 


re^  ku  a  shept    k  her      maa     saa       k 

knowing  myself  making  to  rest  thee  though  ',  tths  magnifying  thee 


W         l 

ar         s  ta    ta       au  arnas      saa  ku 

doing     it  on    earth  was  it  made  I  myself  magnified 

A Q 


tak      hestua    tu  ta    m      Apti     au      a      m        sestut       k 
glcest  thou  my  favour  on  earth  in  Thebes  was  I  in  thy  following 


©  o      Q  0 


^eft     ^aa      k       uuk         ma  batu         f  asf 

wAen  in    thy  crowning         I     am  one  correct  he  who  hates  fault 


fl-8).  ra   VL 


I  I  I 


nen       kari     her    %art     neb      n       t'et  ams 

not    delighting    in     words     any     of      speech        false, 


DX   JT 


i 


D 


ra    w  w    # 


apu  -  her    sen  a  ma  qat     a  harri       a     her 

except      my  brother  like  me   I  worked  delighting     in 

~ZT"W  i  i '    ^^  .  R  AAAAftA  V4  ra  O 


s-^ern-f  per       m       ^at      hna       a       m        har      pen 

his  plans  coming  out  from  the  belly  with      me      on       day     that 

(10).      ^        ^  0=^*  Jiaw 

\  Ci        III  1     AAA/W\  £}  <=»  T  --Li.  JUJ 

mer  qat       n       Amen     m   Apt  rasu       suti 

superintendent  xoorks    of     Amon     in      Karnak        Suti 


158  On  a   Tablet  in  the  British  Museum 

Har  un-a       m  XerP         ner      sem        an       f 

Har  (says)   was  I      superintending  at    the  West    was     he 

i  T  J  ~_a  i  Jr     in    i      <=o>  odd       <^=> ! 

her       ab  au         u     hr  Xer9  men  ur 

at  the  East     were     we    in    superintending  the  monuments  great 

w-ka  ?  ^—  is  J3,  q~ 

m        apt     her    %ent       n  Uas  nu  Amen 

in      Thebes  in  the  midst  of  W.  Thebes  the  city  of  Amen 

(Xo-Amon) 

ta  k  ua  aaui  rn        no         k        ar        a 

gavest  thou  to  me      an    old   age        in       city      thy     made     me 

her    rieferu    k       samta    hr    ameiit     asbt     hetep  ab    sern- 
through  goodness  thy  a  funeral  in  West  a  place  of  content  United 

^•^k»"T  =  ^     ^     * 

a       m  hesiu         sem      m      hetep       ta  k        ua 

am  I  to    the  favoured     going    in    peace    thou  givest  to  me 


O  ^      i^h 


^V 


sesen  net'm    ^eft        men  t'ai  s's'eshtu 

breath    delicious    when     moved         having  the    crowning1 

hr  n  heb  uka 

the  day    of  the  festival  called  uka. 

1  See  Pierret,  "  Kecueil  de  Travaux  relatifs  a  l'arch€ologie  Egvptiennes  et 
A  —  vriennes."  Yol.  I,  p.  70.  4to.  Paris,  1S70,  who  hai  translated  and  published 
this  test. 


relating  to   Two  Architects.  159 

They  read — 

1.  Adoration  to  Amen-Ra  when  he  shines  as  Haremakhu  or 

Harmachis,  from  the  superintendent  of  the  works  of 
Amen-Ra  Suti,  and  the  superintendent  of  the  works  of 
Amen-Ra  Har,  who  say,  Hail  Ra  continuing  daily  shining 

2.  morning,  neither  making  delay  nor  making  cessation  in 

the  work  of  thy  beams  above,  nothing  is  known  like 
their  gilding  ;  there  is  not  anything  like  thy  rays  ; 
nothing  is  like  the  gilding  of  thy  rays 

3.  unfolded  is  thy  gleaming,  thou  thyself   producing  that 

which  was  not  produced,  alone  in  its  turn,  ever  passing, 
going  alone  for  millions,  who  has  its  passage 

4.  like  thy  beams,  like  the  rays  above,  more  beautiful  are 

thy  colours  than  the  skin,  thou  goest  above,  all  faces 
behold  thee,  thou  goest  hidden  from  them 

5.  the  morning  is  given  to  thee  daily  to  renew,  thou  goest 

along  making  thy  passage,  when  the  day  lessens  thou 
gainest  atars  billions  and  millions 
G.  in  the  daily  course  having  thee  in  its  passage,  making 
thee  at  rest,  thou  hast  stayed  the  hours  of  the  night  as 
if  thou  hadst  multiplied  them,  there  happened  not  any 
failure  in  the  work  thou  hast  done  all  eyes 

7.  they  behold  thee,  they  do  not  move  while  thy  majesty  is 

at  rest  at  thou  wakest  up  at  the  rise  of  the  morning 
thou  illuminest,  thy  beams  open  the  eyes ; 

8.  thou  art  at  rest  in  the  ocean,  when  they  sleep  as  it  were, 

hail  orb  of  day,  creator  of  mankind,  making  their  life 
the  great  the  dead; 

9.  having  all  plumes  varied,  making  himself  to  be  trans- 

ported above,  forming  himself  who  has  not  been  born, 
the  elder  Horus  dwelling  in  the  midst  of  the  Nu  or 
Ether,  who  has  given 

10.  joy  from  his  rising  to  his  setting,  as  it  were,  moulding 

the  creation  of  the  floors  the  Chnum  hiding  the  rays, 
taking  the  worlds  from  the  greatest  to  the  least,  the 
glorious  mother 

11.  of  the  gods  and  men  of  the  West  workman  very  greatly 

attached  to  her  innumerable  actions,  not  smitmg  its 

gazelles  in  their  lairs,  making 

Vol.  VIII.  11 


lriO  On  a    Tablet  in  the  British  ^^H■i?Hm 

12.  them  to  live.   Kheper  brings  each  that  has  been  born, 

elevating  his  beauty  from  the  bosom  of  the  Nu  or 
Ether,  illuminating  the  world  with  his  orb,  the  matter 
of  the  two  countries  making  himself; 

13.  he  is  seen  the  sole  lord  leading  forth  the  countries  daily, 

beholding  those  treading  on  earth,  making  the  heaven 
to  shine  by  his  forms,  making  times  and  months,  hot 
as  he  wishes ; 

14.  cold  as  he  wishes,  he  makes  the  limbs  weak,  he  clasps 

them.  Every  land  delights  at  his  rising  daily  in 
adoring  him.  The  superintendent  of  works  Suti,  the 
superintendent  of  works, 

15.  Har.      He  says,   I  was   the   chief  in  thy   chapels,   the 

superintendent  of  works  in  thy  chapel  regulating  what 
thy  beloved  Son  Xeb-ma-Ra.  Amenophis  III,  the  giver 
of  life,  did  for  thee.  Gave  me  my  lord  to  superintend 
thy  memorial  buildings. 

16.  I  watched  with  my  head  I  made  to  be  consecrated,  and 

worked  thy  monuments,  doing  what  was  true  to  thy 
heart.  I  knew  to  satisfy  thee  by  truth,  magnifying 
thee  on  earth. 

17.  I  did  it  magnifying  thee,  giving  thou  my  favour  on  earth 

in  Apti  or  Kamak.  I  was  in  thy  service  when  thou 
wast  crowned.  I  was  true,  hating  idleness, 

18.  not  content  through  all  the  words  of  the  feigned  speech, 

except  a  brother  likewise  I  acquiesced  in  his  plans  as 
he  came  forth  from  the  womb  with  me  on  that  day. 

19.  The  superintendent  of  the  works  of  Amen  in  Southern 

Thebes,  Suti  (said)  Har,  I  was  presiding  on  the  west 
(or  right  hand),  he  was  on  the  east  (or  left  hand).  We 
were  presiding  over  the  great  memorial  monuments 

20.  in  Apet  within  Uaser.   Western  Thebes,  the  Xo  Amen 

(or  city  of  Amen),  thou  gavest  me  an  old  age  in  thy 
city,  I  had  through  thy  favours  a  sepulture  to  the  west 
of  Apt  peacefully. 

21.  I  was  united  with  the  favoured,  departing  in  peace,  for 

thou  gave  me  delicious  ah  when  stopped,  bearing  the 
crown  the  dav  of  the  festival  called  uka. 


relating  to   Two  Architects. 


K)l 


It  will  be  seen  from  this  inscription  that  a  great  deal  of 
obscurity  prevails  in  the  text  itself  as  to  the  meaning  of  the 
religious  formula. 

A  point  of  interest  in  this  inscription  is  its  having  been 
set  up  for  two  architects,  or  as  they  are  called,  mer  kat,  super- 
intendents of  public  works,  who  appear  to  be  mentioned  as 
early  as  the  Illrcl  dynasty.  Lists  of  these  architects  have 
been  given  by  Lepsius,  Lieblein,  and  Brugsch,  and  have  been 
used  for  tests  for  the  length  of  the  chronological  epoch. 
Amongst  the  principal  and  most  celebrated  architects  are 
the  following : — 

1.  Heka,1  architect  of  Senefru,  king  of  the  Illrd  dynasty. 

2.  Ank-kha,2  architect  of  the  same  monarch. 

3.  Hanka,3   superintendent  of  the  Kha-mer  pyramid  of 

the  same  king. 

4.  Persen,4  married  to  a  princess  about  Illrd  dynasty. 

5.  Ankh-ars,5  architect  of  royal  works  about  IVth  dynasty. 

6.  Semnefer,6  married  to  a  princess,  same  period. 

7.  Khufu-hotep,  king's  son-in-law,  period   of  the   IVth 

dynasty. 

8.  Khufu  ankh,  about  the  same  period. 

9.  Merab,  about  the  IVth  dynasty. 7 

10.  Pehenuka 8  or  Ptahnuka,  architect  of  Userskaf,  king  of 

the  Vth  dynasty. 

11.  Tii,  married  to  Neferhotep.9 

12.  Raneka,10  officer  and  architect  of  Tatkara,  king  of  the 

Vth  dynasty. 

13.  Ptahuash,  officer   and   architect   of  the   IVth  or  Vth 

dynasty.11 


1  Brugsch,  History,  p.  48. 

2  Bergmami,  Samml.  aegypt.  Alterth. 

12mo.,  Wien,  p.  21. 

3  Lepsius,      Verzeichn.     d.     aegypt. 

Alterth.,  k.  M.,  Berlin,  1822,  p.  4. 

4  Brugsch,  p.  48. 

5  Mariette,  Mastahas,  p.  109. 
a  Brugsch,  p.  48. 


7  This    and     preceding,     Brugsch, 

Hist.,  p.  48. 

8  Lepsius,  loc.  cit.,  p.  62. 

9  Brugsch,  p.  48. 

10  De    Rouge,    Inscrip.  copiees    en 

Egypte,  p.  91. 

11  De  Rouge,  p.  96. 


102 


On  a   Tablet  in  the  British  Museum 


14.  Kua.  an  architect  about  that  period. 

15.  Meri-ra-ankh,  architect  of  the  Vlth  dynasty.1 

16.  Ahiuas,2  architect  of  the  same. 

17.  Ai.3  architect  of  the  same. 

18.  Har-khen,4  or  Khenar,  architect  about  Xllth  dynasty. 

19.  Kheperkara,5  at    the   time   of    the   Xllth  or   XHIth 

dynasty. 

20.  Tata,6  an  architect  about  XHIth  or  XlVth  dynasties. 

21.  Abaa,7  royal  architect. 

22.  Usra,8  architect  or  sculptor,  XVIIIth  dynasty. 

23.  Penaah,9  architect  of  Amenophis  I,  Thothmes  I  and  II. 

24.  Neferha,10  architect  of  Thothmes  III  at  Abydos. 

25.  Senmut.11  chief  architect  of  the  queen  Haseps  (Hatasu). 
2ii.  Mun,12  architect  of  Amenophis  IV  at  Tel-el-Amarna. 

27.  Amenhotep,13  architect  for  temples  of  Ptah  and  Khnum. 

28.  Paser  14  or  Paur,  architect  of  Rameses  II. 

29.  Raua,15  architect  of  temples  of  Amsi  (Khem)  in  Coptos. 

Besides  these  is  the  genealogical  list  of  architects  given 
by  Lepsius  and  Brugsch : — 

Ka-nefer.     Perhaps  of  the  Ilnd  dynasty. 

Imhotep,  of  the  Illrd  dynasty. 

Ra-hotep. 

Bak-en-khonsu. 

Uta-khonsu. 

Nefer-mennu. 

Mi.  Reign  of  Her-hor,  1100  B.C. 

Si-m-nenen-heb.  Reign  of  Piankhi,  106 G  B.C. 


1  Brugsch,  p.  48. 

•  Lieblein,  Diet.,  p.  9. 

3  Lieblein,  Diet.,  p.  15. 

4  Cf.   Tablets,    560-  584,   British 

Museum. 

6  Mariette,  Abydos,  p.  164. 

6  Brugsch,  loc.  eit. 

7  Mariette,  Abydos,  p.  310. 

8  Mariette,  Abydos,  p.  81. 


9  Communicated    by    Professor 

Eisenlohr. 

10  Lieblein,  p.  693. 

11  Sharpe,  Eg.  Ins.,  107. 

l-  Brugsch,  Worterbuck  (Supp.), 
p.  213. 

13  Leemans,  Mon.,  Ill,  pi.  1. 

14  Sharpe,  Eg.  Inscr.,  p.  2. 

15  De  Eouge,  p.  58. 


relating  to   Two  Architects. 


163 


Pepi. 

Amen-hir-pi-mcsha. 

Har-em-saf. 

Mermer. 

Har-em-saf. 

Ta-heb  (I). 

Nas-shunu  (I). 

Ta-heb  (II). 

Nas-shmm. 

Ta-heb. 

Nas-shunu  (II). 

Ta-heb  (III). 

Nas-shunu. 

Uah-ab-ra  Ran-ur. 

Ankh-Psametik. 

Aahmes-sa-Nit. 

Chnum-ab-ra. 


Reign  of  Pinotem  I,  1033  B.C. 
Menkhepera,  1000  B.C. 


Reign  of  Osorchon,  766  B.C. 
Shashanq,  733  B.C. 


27th-30th  Darius,  480  B.C. 


164 


THE  ANTIQUITIES  FOUND  BY  MR.  H.  RASSAM 
AT    ABU-HABBAH    (SIPPARA). 

Br    Theo.    G.    Pixches. 

Bead  7th  June,  1SS1. 

The  antiquities,  of  which,  the  following  is  a  description, 
come  from  a  site  lying,  according  to  Mr.  Rassam's  statement, 
about  16  miles  south-east  of  Baghdad.  This  site  consists  of 
two  mounds,  situated  rather  less  than  two  miles  apart,  bearing 
respectively  the  names  of  Abu-habbah  and  Dan.  The  most 
important  monuments  come  from  the  former,  and  consist  of  a 
stone  about  Hi  inches  high  by  7  inches  wide,  and  2  inches 
thick ;  an  inscribed  terra-cotta  box  or  coffer,  in  Avhich  it 
seems  to  have  been  kept,  terra-cotta  moulds  of  a  part  of  the 
stone,  and  two  cylinders  bearing  a  record  of  Xabonidus,  King 
of  Babylon. 

The  principal  monument,  which  is  the  stone  above- 
mentioned,  contains  at  the  top  of  the  obverse  a  representation 
■which  we  know,  from  the  short  inscriptions  accompanying  it, 
to  be  the  shrine  (agu)  of  the  Sungod.  This  is  a  covered 
place,  supported  by  pillars  not  unlike  the  Ionic  in  style, 
beneath  which  the  god  sits,  holding  in  one  hand  a  short  wand 
and  a  circle,  the  latter  emblematic,  perhaps,  of  his  supposed 
endless  journey  round  the  earth.  He  wears  the  horned  cap, 
denoting  godhood,  and  above  him  is  the  solar  disc  (his  own 
emblem),  together  with  the  emblems  of  the  Moongod  and 
Istar. 

At  the  forepart  of  the  top  of  the  shrine  are  to  be  seen 
two  small  figures,  holding  cords,  reaching  down  to  a  table 
beneath,  on  which  stands  the  sun's  disc,  represented,  in  the 
usual  way,  with  rays  coming  forth  from  the  midst.  The 
two  small  figures  are  evidently  the  attendants  of  the  Sungod, 
who  were  supposed  to  continually  guide  his  course.     On  the 


Mm-&zz^mfe^13w^(sft rat 

E^  -    -**'  ill  / . 


The  Antiquities  found  by  Mr.  II.  Rassam,  <§-c.         165 

left  hand  three  figures  are  shown  approaching,  the  first,  who 
wears  a  homed  cap,  leads  the  second  by  the  hand.  This 
represents,  most  likely,  the  leading  of  the  king,  who  caused 
the  stone  to  be  carved,  into  the  presence  of  the  Sungod,  the 
special  guardian  of  the  place. 

The  inscription,  which  covers  the  rest  of  the  obverse  and 
the  whole  of  the  reverse,  begins  with  an  invocation  to  the 
Sungod,  from  which  we  learn  that  Abu-habbah,  and  not 
Sefeirah,  was  the  Sippara  of  the  inscriptions.  The  inscrip- 
tion then  goes  on  to  say  that  the  Sutu,  "  a  wicked  enemy," 
who  seem  to  have  come  from  the  land  of  Akkad,  had,  in 
former  times,  desecrated  the  Temple,  called  E-bara,  and 
carried  away  its  properties.  Simmas-Sigu,  the  king,  asked 
that  they  might  be  returned  ;  but  this  was  refused,  and  being 
at  the  time  unable,  evidently,  to  take  them  by  force,  he  was 
obliged  to  do  his  best  to  restore  the  shrine  without  them. 
This  work  of  restoration  was  given  into  the  hands  of  a 
certain  Ekur-suma-ibassi,  the  Ebar1  of  Sippara,  who  bore  the 
title  £^  »■  (in  Akkadian  gassu).  This  man  carried  the 
work  on  after  the  death  of  Simmas-Sigu,  in  the  reigns  of  his 
successors,  Kassu-nadin-ahi  and  E-Ulbar-sakin-sumi.  A  long 
and  difficult  description  of  the  work  done  in  the  reign  of  the 
last-mentioned  king  now  follows,  in  which  Ave  are  told  that 
this  king  ordered  an  enclosure  (gine)  for  the  Sungod  to  be 
made,  and  that  it  was  placed  "  in  the  midst  of  the  enclosure 
of  Bel."  It  remained,  however,  for  Nabu-abla-iddina  (the 
king  who  had  the  stone  sculptured,  and  who  began  to  reign 
about  880  B.C.)  to  completely  restore  the  shrine.  This  king, 
in  the  inscription,  calls  himself  "  the  proclaimed  of  Marduk, 
the  beloved  of  Anu  and  Antum,2  the  gladdener  of  the  heart 
of  A-edina,  the  man,  the  warrior,  who  attained  to  the 
kingdom,  the  raiser  of  the  strong  bow "  to  punish  "  the 
wicked  enemy,  the  Sutu,  who  had  made  their  sin  great "  in 
disecrating  the  shrine  ;  the  king  who,  to  do  good  to  the  land 
of  Akkad,  restored  the  temples  and  shrines,  and  protected 
the  sanctuaries.      After  giving  a  long  list  of  his  own  virtues, 

1  Evidently  "  priest,"  the  word  Ebar  being  replaced,  in  the  16th  line  of 
Col.  II,   by  the  word  tlTI  sangu,  "priest." 

2  The  wife  of  Ann,  the  heaven  god,  here  expressed  by  the  characters  *->r-  55< 


166  The  Antiquities  found  by  Mr.  II.  Rassam 

NaM-abla-iddina  states  that  he  gave  the  care  of  the  shrine  of 
the  Sungod.  and  the  Bcnlptnring  of  this  stone,  'into  the  hands 
of  the  seed  of  Ekur-suma-ihassi.  The  shrine  was  adorned 
"with  the  image  of  the  god,  and  with  chased  gold  and  bright 
crystal,  and  the  king,  by  the  favour  of  Hea  and  Marduk, 
"cleansed  his  month"-  before  the  Sungod  in  Bit-Karzaghina, 
beside  the  Euphrates,  and  founded  there  a  seat  for  the  god, 
where  victims  were  offered,  and  gifts  of  honey  and  wine 
bestowed. 

The  inscription,  which  now  again  becomes  very  difficult, 
speaks  of  the  services  of  the  temple,  of  the  sacrifices  to  be 
made  therein,  and  of  certain  gifts  of  clothing  and  vestments 
given  by  the  king — for  the  7th  of  Xisan  the  vestment  of  glory 
for  the  10th  of  Iyyar  the  vestment  of  glory,  for  the  third  of 
Elul  the  vestment  of  the  service  of  the  house  (i.e..  temple), 
for  the  7th  of  Tisri  the  same,  for  the  loth  of  Marchiswan  the 
vestment  of  glory,  and  for  the  15th  of  Adar  the  vestment  of 
the  service  of  the  house — •'  altogether  6  bright  coloured 
vestments  of  kalmu,  the  gift  of  the  king." 

As  it  happened,  there  was  a  man  hi  Sippara,  who  bore 
the  title  of  gas.su.  of  the  same  name  as  the  king  himself.  T" 
liini.  therefore,  with  four  others,  the  care  of  the  stone  was 
entrusted,  on  the  20th  of  Xisan.  in  the  31st  year  of  Nabu-apla- 
iddina,  king  of  Babylon.  A  copy  also  was  to  be  made.  The 
inscription  ends  by  asking  that  whoever  after  this  king 
should  dwell  as  a  ruler  in  the  Palace,  and  should  take  this 
stone  and  give  it  to  another,  or  should  take  it  for  himself,  and 
destroy  the  stone  with  a  wicked  incantation  or  spell,  might 
be  destroyed,  both  name  and  seed,  by  the  word  of  Santas  and 
Aa  ( the  Sungod  and  the  Moongod),  "  the  lords  of  judgment, 
the  great  gods.*' 

Here  the  inscription  ends,  and  we  know  nothing  more 
of  the  history  of  the  temple  until  the  time  of  Nabopolassar, 
about  620  B.C.  This  king  had  a  terra-cotta  trough  or  box 
made  for  the  stone,  bearing  on  each  side  the  word's  "  the 
image  of  Samas,  the  great  lord,  dwelling  in  E-bara,"  and 
some  moulds,  evidently  to  preserve  the  representation  if  the 

1  Here  called  salmu,  "image,"  or  "representation." 

1  Pi-Su  mm!,  a  metaphorical  expression,  perhaps  for  "to  say  pious  things  of.' 


at  Abu-IIabbah  (Sippara). 


107 


original  should  be  destroyed,  were  made  of  the  upper  part 
of  the  obverse.  The  back  of  this  mould  contains  the  record 
of  the  restoration  by  Nabopolassar.  About  130  years  later, 
Nabonidus  also  restored  the  temple,  and  placed  in  its 
foundations  the  two  terra-cotta  cylinders  before-mentioned, 
recording  the  event. 

This  shrine  of  the  Sungod  at  Sippara  was  held  in  very 
great  estimation  by  the  Babylonians,  and  in  nearly  every 
inscription  the  god  is  called  "  Samas,  the  great  lord,  dwelling 
in  E-bara,  which  is  within  Sipar."  One  of  the  most  beautiful 
hymns  to  the  Sungod,  which  is  preserved  on  a  small  tablet 
from  Babylon,  speaks  of  him  under  the  distinctive  title  of 
"  Lord  of  E-bara."     The  whole  runs  as  follows : — 

Exglish  Version. 

"  0  Sungod  in  the  midst  of  heaven,  in  thy  setting  may  the 

bolts  of  the  high  heavens  speak  peace  to  thee, 
may  the  door  of  the  heavens  be  propitious  to  thee, 
may  Misaru  (the  director),  thy  beloved  attendant,  guide 

thee. 
At  E-bara,  the  seat  of  thy  lordship,  thy  supremacy  shines 

forth. 
May  Aa,  thy  beloved  wife,  gladly  come  to  meet  thee, 
May  thy  restgiving  heart  rest, 
May  the  glory  (?)  of  thy  godhood  dwell  with  thee. 
0  warrior,  hero,  Sungod,  may  they  glorify  thee. 
0  lord   of  E-bara,  may  he   (the  messenger)    direct  thy 

straight  path. 
O  Sungod,   make   thy  path   straight,  a  straight  road  for 

thy  beams  (?)  to  go. 
0  Sungod,  who  judgest  the  country,  of  her  decisions  the 

director  art  thou."  * 


1  Aekadian  Version. 

(An)  Babara,  ana  saga-su  tutuda-zu-ne 
(giS)  sigar  azaga  ana-kit  salima  gumu- 

rabbi 
giS-gal   ana-kit    mu-guniurabgin 
dingir  nig  sisa,  laga  kiaga-zu  si-guniu- 

rabsusae 


Assyrian  Version. 

Samas,  ana  kirib  same  ina  eribi-ka 
Sikar  same  ellutum  sulina  likbu-ku 

dalat  same  Kkruba-ku 
MiSarum,    sukkallum    naram-ka 
listesir-ku 


168 


The  Antiquities  found  by  Mv.  H.  Rassam 


The  Sungod,  the  Moongod,  and  the  Firegod  were  the 
three  "lords  of  justice,"  "deciders  of  decisions"  {pans 
purusse),  amongst  whom,  however,  the  Sungod  seems  to  have 
the  first  place.  The  consort  of  the  Sungod  was  >~>^-  |y  |y 
(Jhi)  Aa,  most  likely  a  name  of  the  moon  when  in  a  certain 
part  of  her  course.  The  messenger  or  director  mentioned  in 
the  above  text  is  most  likely  one  of  the  small  figures  at  the 
top  of  the  shrine  directing  the  course  of  the  sun. 

To  the  Sungod  were  given  all  the  most  poetical  expres- 
sions that  could  be  found.  He  it  was  who,  when  dawning  in 
the  foundation  of  heaven,  drew  the  bolts  of  the  high  heavens, 
and,  the  door  having  turned,  he  lifted  his  head  to  the  land, 
covering  heaven  and  earth  with  glory.1  He  was  the  god 
who  directed  constantly  in  heaven,  the  law  within  the  ears  of 


Akkadian  Version — continued. 

E-bara    ki-nain-lugala-zu-su    nani-ma- 

g'a-zu  sig-enib 
(dingir)    Ku-nir-da    nitalarn   kiaga-zu 

gulabi  gunundagigi 
saga-zu  asada  garuantuga 
kisig  nam-dingira-zu  guinurangaga 
ursag.  duna,  (dingir)  Babara  nielig  (?) 

gi-ii 
ama  Ebara  gina-giri-zu  si-giinsa 
(dingir)    Babara,    kaskala-zu    si-sab, 

g'arran  gina  kiuri-zu-su  duna 
(dingir)  Babara,  kalama-ka  dikud-ka 

asbar-bi  (si-sabi)  zaemen 


AssYBIAN  YjEKSIOX — continued. 

ana  E-bara  subat  beliiti-ka   sirut-ka 

supi 
(ilu)  Aa,  hirtuin   naramta-ka    hadis 

limaKbir-ka 
libba-ka  nehtuin  linih 
naptan  iluti-ka  -  lissakin-ku  3 
Karradu,    etluin,    (ilu)    Sanias 

litta'idu-ka  ! 
Bel  E-bara  alik  padan-ka  lisir  ! 
(Sanias),  harran-ka  susir,  urba  kmani 

ana  durussi-ka  alik  ! 
(Samas),  sa  mati  daan,  Sa  purusse  sa 

mustesir-sa  atta ! 


The  following  Colophon  is  added  to  one  of  the  copies : 

"  Xabubalatsuihbi  son  of  the  Usagi- 
lite  has  caused  Nabi'iepisdhi  son  of  the 
£sagi/ite  to  write  (this  tablet)  to  the 
god  Nebo  his  lord  for  the  saving  of  his 
life,  and  has  placed  (it)  in  E-zida." 


Ana  (ilu)  Nabi  beli-Su,  (ilu)  Nabu- 
balat-su-ikbi,  abil  £-sagilaa,  ana  balat 
napsati-su  (ilu)  Kabu-epis-ahi  abil 
E-sagilaa  usestir-ina  ina  E-zida  ukin. 


1  W.A.I.  IV.  20,  No.  2  :  1.  (ilu)  Sanias,  ina  isid  same  tappuliamma  ;  2.  sigar 
same  elluti  tapti ;  3.  dalat  same  taptil  ;  4.  (ilu)  Samas,  ana  mati  resi-ka  tassa  ; 
5.  (ilu)  Samas,  melamme  same  matate  taktum  : — "Sungod,  in  the  foundation 
of  heaven  thou  daivnest,  and  2.  the  bolts  of  the  high  heavens  thou  opened 
3.  the  door  of  heaven  turns;  4.  Sungod,  thou  raisest  thy  head  to  the  lauds, 
5  Sungod,  thou  coverest  heaven  and  earth  with  glory." 

-  Variant   tlut-ka.  •'  Variant  la. 


at  Abu-IIabbah  (Sippara).  169 

the  lands,  knowing  justice  and  evil.  He  was  the  supreme 
judge  of  heaven  and  earth,  the  helper  of  the  gods  Anu  and 
Bel. 

In  other  places  he  is  called  "  the  light  of  all  above  and 
all  below,"  "  the  light  of  the  great  gods."  Prayers  were 
addressed   to   him   for   guidance :     "  0  Sungod,    thou   also 

knowest  their  (the  land's)  bonds,  destroying  evil 

direct  what  comes  forth  from  my  mouth,  direct  also  my 
hands." 

The  month  Tisri  was  dedicated  to  the  Sungod.  The  23rd 
day  of  Elul  also  was  a  festival  to  Samas  and  Rammanu 
(perhaps  to  commemorate  their  standing  side  by  side  when 
the  seven  evil  spirits  tried  to  darken  the  moon).  This  was  a 
fortunate  day.  The  king  was  directed  to  devote  all  his  good 
things  to  Samas  and  Rimmon,  and  a  victim  was  to  be 
sacrificed. 

Our  new  inscription  is  of  great  value  for  Babylonian 
chronology,  in  that  it  names,  almost  in  one  sentence,  three 
kings,  namely  :  Simmas-Sigu,  Kassu-nadin-ahi,  and  E-Ulbar- 
sakin-sumi,  who,  we  know  from  the  list  published  by  Mr.  Smith, 
in  the  3rd  volume  of  the  "  Transactions,"  reigned  in  very 
close  succession. 

Now  there  is  in  the  British  Museum  a  stone  dated  in  the 
reign  of  the  first  of  these  three  kings  (Simmas-Sigu),  the 
style  of  the  writing  of  which  is  almost  the  same  as  that  of 
the  present  inscription.  As  Nabu-abla-iddin  reigned  about 
880  B.C.,  these  three  kings  could  scarcely  have  reigned  more 
than  a  hundred  years  earlier — that  is,  about  five  hundred 
years  later  than  was  originally  supposed.  The  chronology  of 
that  most  important  period  of  Babylonia's  history  will  be  fully 
considered,  however,  in  the  paper  upon  the  lists  of  Babylonian 
kings,  of  which  the  substance  has  already  been  given  in  the 
"  Proceedings." 


170 


The  Antiquities  found  by  Mr.  H.  JRassam 


The  words  used  in  part  of  the  inscription  referring  to 
the  gifts  of  vestments  by  the  king  being  most  interesting, 
it  would  be  well,  perhaps,  erroneous  renderings  of  these 
passages  having  been  published,  to  reproduce  here  the  whole 
passage.     It  is  as  follows  : — 

Coloes*  V.  (Reverse). 


39. 

40. 
41. 
42. 
43. 


<r^HF:8-5=A?lEAtf 
d  IET  8-  <*E  ~T 


44.  ^t  g  &i  4i~  m 


45. 
46. 

47. 


£s< 


<!T 


48.  KLS8fniB 

49.  ^T  SM  £iT  Eh 

50.  i  ^T  <>  ^Y  .ttt  K 


51. 

52. 
53. 
54. 

55. 


B   ES  *T   V    * 


m 


^  a  w  4-  is 


Column  VI. 


1.  ^ 


*  ^r 


0. 

6. 


••  All  the  bright-coloured  vestments  of  Samas.  Aa.  and 
Bunene  (for)  service  (and)  worship :  the  vestment  of  the 
service  of  the  house,  the  vestment  of  glory,  the  vestment  of 
joy,  the  curtain,  tularin,  cloth,  purple  cloth,  the  vestment 
of  the  service  of  the  palace  and  the  place  of  worship.  For 
the  7th  of  Xisan  the  vestment  of  glory,  for  the  10th  of  Iyyar 
the  vestment  of  glory,  for  the  3rd  of  Elul  the  vestment  of  the 
service  of  the  house,  for  the  7th  of  Tisri  the  vestment  of  the 
service  of  the  house,  for  the  loth  of  Marcheswan  the  vestment 
of  glory,  and  for  the  15th  of  Adar  the  vestment  of  the  service 
of  the  house — altogether  vi  bright-coloured  vestment- 
kalmu,  the  gift  of  the  king."  Many  of  the  most  difficult  words 
in  this  text  become  easy  on  referring  to  pi.  34  of  the  2nd 
Vol.  of   the  W.A.I,      ^z^  is  the  ordinary  ideograph  for  kemu, 


at  Abu-Habbah  (Sippara).  171 

"cloth,"  subatu,  "cloak,"  "vestment."  The  usual  meaning  of 
the  character  ^y^^y  is  damku,  "  lucky,"  "  fortunate,"  but, 
upon  the  above-named  page  we  find  (line  65)  the  characters 
/T>-  -^J  *~]£*J  It  (^°  ^e  Pronounce(i  kur  so)  explained  by  the 
Assyrian  nasraptum,  a  Niphal  form  from  the  Assyrian  root 
pardpu,  the  meaning  of  which  has  been  well  explained  by 
Dr.  Lotz  in  his  "  Inschriften  Tiglathpileser's  I,"  as  "  to  colour.' 
Nasraptu  means,  therefore,  "  of  a  bright  colour,"  and  the 
meaning  "  lucky "  of  the  Akkadian  sign  ^T^y  (in  Baby- 
lonian ^Y>^:y^  is  also  made  quite  clear.  The  original 
signification  of  the  character  was,  most  likely,  "bright- 
coloured,"  and  from  this  idea  of  a  bright,  pleasant  colour 
came  that  of  "happiness,"  "fortune,"  "luck."  gr  XI  ^ 
is  the  equivalent  of  the  Assyiian  word  kdlu,  "  all,"  with  the 
adverbial  ending  ^  =  Assyrian  kalis.  Zz\yz:1  is  the  usual 
ideograph  for  tukultu,  "service"  (also  kakku,  "weapon"). 
£r^I  is  also  a  character  meaning  "service,"  in  Ass.  dbutiu  = 

dbudtu,  from  the  root  "Qy.  ^  '"f^f  ^^  ^*^T  seritu 
seems  to  be  a  word  borrowed  from  the  Akkadian  sir  (a  value 
of  55>~ )  "  brightness,"  "  glory,"  which  will  be  found  on  the 
above-mentioned  plate  (1.  53),  explained  by  siriptum  sa  .  . . 
"  bright  colour  of  ....  "  Other  values  of  ^>~,  pronounced 
sir  or  sir,  are  kakasiga,  "  brightness,"  and  namdru,  "  to  be 
bright."  J^ff  "~^y  ^^  ffullatu,  "joy,"  is  a  Semiticised 
form  of  the  Akk.  gullet,  the  pure  Assyrian  word  being  hidutu. 
Nibihu  seems,  from  a  parallel  passage,  to  mean  something 
that  is  suspended — a  curtain  or  drapery.  The  next  two 
fines  are  too  difficult  to  explain.  "^M  /^>  telit,  is  the  const, 
case  of  teltn  (from  telii),  evidently  a  synonym  of  tuphu.  Both 
teltu  and  tupku  translate  the  Akkadian  £r"£^  ub,  Karibi,  from 
the  root  l*")p,  "to  approach,"  "worship,"  "be  gracious."  The 
meaning  of  the  word  kabnu  is  unknown. 

The  above  translation  is  given  with  some  reserve,  as  many 
of  the  words  are  most  unusual,  and  the  sense,  therefore,  not 
easy  to  determine. 


172 


RECENT    DISCOVERIES    OF    ANCIENT 
BABYLONIAN   CITIES. 

By  H.  Rassam. 

Bead  Qth  March,  1883. 

Since  I  had  the  honour  of  reading  a  paper  before  you, 
about  my  discoveries  in  Assyria  in  1854  and  in  1878,  I  have 
been  out  twice  to  Mesopotamia  on  behalf  of  the  Trustees  of 
the  British  Museum,  and  conducted  on  a  more  extensive 
scale  the  national  archaeological  researches  in  Assyria, 
Babylonia,  and  Armenia.  But  as  I  was  more  successful  in 
the  last  two  expeditions  to  Babylonia.  I  gave  more  attention 
to  our  works  in  the  last  named  tract  of  country  than  to  those 
in  other  localities. 

Doubtless  most  of  you  have  heard  of  my  fortunate 
discovery  of  the  city  of  Sippara,  which  is  identified  with  the 
Sepharvaim  of  the  Bible ;  but  as  some  of  you  may  not 
have  heard  it.  I  will  relate  it  as  a  curious  illustration  of  the 
way  ancient  cities  are  found.  "Whenever  I  proceed  on 
any  archaeological  mission,  my  first  endeavour  is  directed  to 
finding  new  unexplored  sites,  as  I  feel  that  our  old  haunts 
in  Assyria  and  Babylonia  are  quite  secure  under  competent 
overseers,  which  can  be  well  managed  under  my  supervision 
and  control  "when  I  am  away  from  the  place.  I  generally 
visit  the  different  explorations  at  varied  intervals,  to  see  that 
everything  is  going  on  properly,  and  when  the  excavations 
are  found  to  be  progressing  satisfactorily,  I  proceed  to  other 
localities  to  try  new  spots  which  indicate  an  ancient 
habitation. 

The  year  before  last,  while  on  my  way  to  Babylon  from 
Baghdad,  I  happened  to  be  spending  a  night  at  an  Arabs 


Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities.         173 

house  in  a  village  called  Mahmoodia,  about  fifteen  miles 
to  the  south-west  of  Baghdad,  where  I  generally  halted  on 
the  route  to  Babylon.  As  my  host  knew  what  I  was 
searching  for,  especially  as  I  had  a  number  of  workmen 
digging  in  the  mounds  in  the  vicinity,  and  he  had  seen  some 
objects  on  which  cuneiform  characters  were  inscribed,  he 
told  me  that  when  he  was  escorting  a  wedding  party  north- 
ward, he  had  picked  up  a  piece  of  an  inscribed  brick  at  a 
place  called  Dair,  which  he  brought  to  show  me.  I  saw  that 
the  writing  was  like  that  generally  found  in  Babylonia  on 
bricks  upon  which  the  name  of  Nebuchadnezzar  is  inscribed. 
I  lost  no  time  in  accompanying  him  to  the  spot  to  find  out 
if  there  were  sufficient  signs  of  an  old  city  to  warrant  an 
excavation  being  commenced.  The  place  was  not  more 
than  six  miles  from  the  village  of  Mahmoodia  ;  but  as  the 
Euphrates  had  at  that  time  inundated  all  the  fields  between 
it  and  Dair,  so  preventing  us  from  going  direct,  we  had  to 
go  a  roundabout  way — which  turned  out  very  fortunate, — 
for  when  we  arrived  within  four  miles  of  the  place,  we  passed 
an  extensive  mound  surrounded  with  a  high  earth  wall, 
indicating  an  old  Babylonian  city.  I  thought  at  first  that  this 
was  the  ruin  to  which  my  Arab  friend  was  leading  me,  but 
was  soon  undeceived  by  his  pointing  out  another  to  me, 
which  lay  to  the  east  of  us,  with  its  high  wall  looming  in 
the  distance.  The  place,  I  was  told,  was  called  Aboo-habba, 
which  means  either  the  father  of  a  promontory  or  of  a  kiss  ; 
and  as  I  could  see  ample  indications  of  an  old  Babylonian 
city,  I  dismounted,  made  a  good  examination  of  the  mound, 
and  found  to  my  great  delight  a  large  number  of  broken 
inscribed  bricks  scattered  all  over  the  place.  Had  there 
been  any  workmen  with  me,  I  should  have  placed,  then  and 
there,  three  or  four  gangs  in  the  different  parts  where  it 
seemed  likely  ancient  remains  would  be  found.  We  then 
went  on  to  Dair;  but  though  I  found  I  was  not  deceived 
by  my  guide,  yet  after  seeing  Aboo-habba,  this  ancient  ruin 
of  Dair  seemed  quite  unimportant  in  comparison,  as  the 
sequel  "will  show.  The  difficulty  was  the  finding  of  workmen 
in  the  neighbourhood,  as  the  Arabs  of  the  place  asked  more 
exorbitant  wages  than  I  could  possibly  allow — not  that  I 


174        Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities. 

could  not  afford  to  employ  a  few  workmen  on  a  high  scale 
of  pay,  but  was  obliged  to  keep  to  a  certain  standard  for 
fear  of  dissatisfaction  in  other  quarters.  When  such  diffi- 
culties arose,  I  generally  brought  the  required  number  of 
workmen  from  ether  diggings,  by  giving  them  an  extra 
allowance  for  what  was  called  "  special  service."  These 
men  did  not  only  work  for  the  time  being,  but  showed 
new  hands  how  the  work  was  to  be  carried  on.  In  most 
instances  the  old  hands  served  as  superior  workmen  or 
diggers,  receiving  according  to  rule  better  pay.  When- 
ever a  new  place  is  opened,  I  am  invariably  asked  more 
than  double  the  pay  that  I  am  able  or  willing  to  allow,  as 
the  Arabs  have  an  absurd  idea  that  the  English  are  made 
of  money,  and  have  the  art  of  turning  dust  into  gold ! 
In  this  instance  I  brought  two  gangs  of  workmen  from 
Babylon,  headed  by  an  Arab  overseer,  and  as  I  had  first  to 
try  two  mounds  situated  on  the  high  road  to  Karbela  (the 
sacred  place  of  the  Shea  Moslems),  and  within  half-a-mile  of 
the  village  of  Mahmoodia,  we  were  able  to  induce  some  of 
the  poor  wayfarers  to  accept  service  under  us.  The  bait  was 
tried  with  effect  in  the  following  manner.  Thousands  of 
Moslem  devotees,  especially  the  Shea  sect,  visit  the  shrine  of 
Hosain  at  Karbela  the  whole  year  round,  and  as  some  of  the 
pilgrims  are  very  poor,  large  numbers  of  them  subsist  by 
begging.  Some  of  these  visited  the  excavations  on  their 
way,  and  as  a  great  number  of  them  were  almost  starving. 
I  told  the  head  overseer,  who  was  a  Seyid,  or  descendant  of 
the  Prophet,  to  offer  them  food  and  money  on  condition  they 
assisted  in  the  digging.  Many  of  them  who  were  Kurds 
accepted  the  offer  with  thankfulness,  and  before  many  days 
were  over  I  had  a  good  number  in  my  employ.  No  sooner 
did  the  neighbouring  Arabs  see  that  I  was  able  easily  to 
obtain  the  workmen  required,  than  they  consented  to  work 
at  the  rate  I  first  offered  them,  and  soon  after  I  could 
employ  as  many  workmen  as  were  required  for  less  than  half 
the  amount  they  demanded  when  I  first  went  to  the  place. 

As  the  site  of  Aboo-habba  seemed  to  me  a  most  promising 
one  for  extensive  operations,  I  moved  my  head-quarters 
thither  to  superintend  the  works  in  person.     At  the  mound 


Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities.         175 

itself  there  were  no  Arabs  residing,  but  within  a  mile  of  the 
place  there  is  a  mausoleum  of  the  patron  saint  of  the  neigh- 
bourhood, called  Seyid  Abdallah,  and  near  which  the  guardian 
of  the  shrine  and  his  near  relations  dwelt.  I  had  my  camp 
pitched  near  his,  and  to  make  him  interested  in  our  work 
I  appointed  him  an  overseer,  and  offered  his  brothers  and 
connections  good  berths,  which  they  accepted  most  willingly. 

It  was  agreed  afterwards  that  I  should  build  rooms  at  the 
entrance  of  the  mosque  for  the  overseers  and  antiquities,  and 
I  was  even  allowed  to  occupy  a  room  adjoining  the  shrine 
for  storing  the  plant  of  the  diggings,  and  any  objects  which 
could  not  be  packed  up  at  once. 

No  sooner  was  this  done,  than  hundreds  of  the  neigh-, 
bouring  Arabs  began  to  apply  for  work,  and,  according  to 
my  usual  practice,  I  employed  some  from  each  tribe.  As 
Dair  was  also  far  away  from  an  inhabited  place,  I  had  to  send 
workmen  to  dig  there  from  Seyid  Abdallah,  but  had  soon 
to  give  that  up,  as  I  found  scarcely  any  good  sign  of  ancient 
remains  to  warrant  the  work  being  carried  on  in  that  locality. 
At  Aboo-habba,  however,  I  was  rewarded,  after  three  days' 
trial,  by  one  of  the  gangs  coming  upon  the  wall  of  a 
chamber,  on  examining  which  I  could  see  it  belonged  to  the 
old  Babylonian  style  of  building.  This  success  encouraged 
me  to  prosecute  the  research  with  uninterrupted  perseverance, 
and  before  many  days  were  over  we  came  upon  other  buildings 
in  different  parts  of  the  mound,  but  with  the  exception  of 
some  dilapidated  inscribed  unbaked  clay  tablets,  glass  bottles, 
and  other  small  objects,  nothing  was  found  of  any  historical 
value.  This  did  not  discourage  me,  but,  on  the  contrary,  it 
made  me  work  with  redoubled  energy,  and  very  soon  after- 
wards we  came  upon  a  chamber  paved  with  asphalt,  which 
proved  to  contain  the  history  of  the  new  city  I  had  discovered. 
Heretofore  all  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  structures  were  found 
to  be  paved  generally  either  with  stone  or  brick,  consequently 
this  novel  discovery  led  me  to  have  the  asphalt  broken  into 
and  examined.  On  doing  so  we  found,  buried  in  a  corner  of 
the  chamber,  about  three  feet  below  the  surface,  an  inscribed 
earthenware  coffer,  inside  which  was  deposited  a  stone 
tablet  covered  with  an  inscription,  on  the  top  of  which  was 
Vol.  VIII.  12 


176         Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities. 

represented  some  deity  which  has  since  been  identified  by 
Assyrian  scholars  with  the  sun-god ;  also  two  figures  above, 
holding  an  emblem  of  the  sun  before  him,  and  two  priests 
leading  a  youth,  evidently  a  prince,  to  present  to  him.  With 
this  tablet  I  found  two  perfect  terra-cotta  inscribed  cylinders, 
covered  minutely  with  an  inscription  :  but  as  Mr.  Pinches  has 
already  given  you  an  account  of  them,  and  as  I  cannot  boast 
of  knowing  anything  of  cuneiform  writing,  I  must  confine 
myself  to  an  account  of  my  several  discoveries.  In  the  same 
casket  was  found  two  burnt-clay  moulds  representing  the 
impress  of  the  aforementioned  bas-relief,  wbich  looked  as  if 
they  were  made  for  the  purpose  of  moulding  in  metal  a  number 
of  these  mystic  designs  for  either  breastplates  or  religious  use. 
I  have  been  puzzled  to  determine  why  these  relics  were 
buried  in  asphalt  pavement,  because,  if  those  who  hid  them 
there  wished  to  preserve  them  from  destruction  from  the 
enemy,  they  could  not  have  placed  them  in  a  more  conspicuous 
place ;  a  man  who  is  accustomed  to  the  mode  of  Assyrian 
paving  could  not  help  noticing  the  difference.  This  discovery 
at  the  outset  was  most  fortunate,  as  it  proved  to  us  the 
exact  site  of  the  temple  and  city  of  Sippara.  Different 
savants  and  historians  supposed  it  to  be  in  other  parts  of 
Babylonia,  immediately  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  but 
now  we  are  certain  of  the  exact  spot  being  on  the  great 
historical  canal  of  Babylonia,  called  Nahr-malka,  or  the  royal 
river,  about  six  miles  from  the  Euphrates,  but  its  source  about 
twenty  miles  westward.  This  canal  was  the  wonder  of  the 
age  when  the  Babylonian  kingdom  was  at  the  zenith  of  its 
power,  as  it  must  have  been  about  one  hundred  and  fifty 
miles  in  length,  and  bridged  over  in  many  places.  Xenophon 
tells  us  that  the  Greeks  had  to  cross  it  on  bridges  made  of 
palm-trees  when  they  were  retreating  northwards  after  the 
death  of  Cyrus.  It  ran  from  the  Euphrates  as  far  as  Aboo- 
habba,  when  it  divides ;  the  main  body  passes  Dair,  and  runs 
in  an  easterly  direction  as  far  as  Shat-el-hai,  passing  within  a 
few  miles  of  Seleucia  and  Ctesephon;  the  other  part  takes 
a  more  southerly  direction  nearer  the  Euphrates,  passing 
through  endless  cities,  one  of  which  is  supposed  to  be  Cuthah, 
known  by  the  Arabs  as  Tel-Ibraheem.     The  remains  of  the 


Trans.  Soo.  Bibl.  Arch.,  Vol.  VIII. 


BABYLONIAN  OBJECTS  FROM  ABOO-HARBA 


Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities.         177 

former  are  now  called  Yosephia,  and  the  latter  Habl-Ibraheem. 
Both  these  canals  are  crossed  by  wayfarers  who  travel  between 
Baghdad  and  Hillah,  in  the  vicinity  of  Babylon,  and  between 
the  former  place  and  Musayib,  on  the  way  to  Karbela. 

It  is  most  interesting  to  examine  this  canal  all  the  way 
between-  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  because  a  traveller 
cannot  help  being  struck  with  the  remains  of  its  former 
grandeur,  when  it  must  have  irrigated  hundreds  of  miles  of 
alluvial  soil. 

On  all  sides  are  found  remains  of  innumerable  small 
watercourses  which  were  fed  by  these  two  grand  canals ; 
and  at  different  intervals  remains  of  prodigious  basins  are 
seen,  in  which  a  surplus  supply  must  have  been  kept  for 
any  emergency,  when  the  water  in  the  Euphrates  falls  low, 
especially  in  summer.  It  is  said  that  there  were  two  Sipparas 
in  Babylonia,  the  one  which  I  discovered  was  for  the  worship 
of  the  sun,  and  the  other  for  the  worship  of  the  moon. 
They  were  represented  as  being  situated  on  either  side  of 
the  river  Euphrates,  and  as  my  Sippara  is  not  on  the  bank  of 
that  river,  and  there  is  no  sign  of  any  important  ruin  on  its 
western  side,  I  consider  that  Nahr-malka  was  meant  by  the 
word  "  Nahr,"  1  as  it  divides  Aboo-habba  from  Dan,  which  I 
believe  to  be  the  site  of  the  Sippara  of  the  moon-god. 

In  the  course  of  last  year  we  discovered  off  and  on, 
especially  in  one  room,  between  forty  and  fifty  thousand 
inscribed  clay  tablets ;  but  unfortunately  they  were  not 
baked,  as  they  generally  are  found  in  Assyria,  and  the  clay 
of  which  they  were  made  was  so  coarse  that  as  soon  as  they 
were  exposed  to  the  air  they  crumbled  to  pieces.  We  found 
that  the  only  way  to  preserve  them  was  to  have  them  baked, 
which  we  did  with  success.  Fortunately,  the  most  important 
documents  were  inscribed  on  terra-cotta  cylinders,  of  which 
were  found  a  great  number  of  different  sizes  and  shapes. 
Mr.  Pinches  has  already  given  an  account  of  one  of  them 
belonging  to  the  reign  of  Nabonidus ;  and  I  hope,  as  soon  as 
he  can  find  time,  he  will  give  us  the  benefit  of  his  studies. 

The  style  of  the  architecture  of  Aboo-habba  is  quite  dif- 
ferent from  that  found  in  Babylonia  or  Nineveh ;  and  from 

1  Nahr  means  in  Semitic  languages  both  river  and  canal. 


178         Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities. 

all  I  could  make  out,  it  seems  to  me  that  Sippara  of  the  sun- 
god  was  divided  into  two  distinct  buildings,  one  for  religious 
purposes,  and  the  other  as  a  place  of  habitation  for  priests  and 
royalty.  Each  block  of  building  was  surrounded  by  a  breast- 
work, faced  in  some  places  with  kiln-burnt  bricks  to  make 
the  building  more  secure.  Both  the  temple  and  its  environs 
must  have  been  inhabited  by  two  distinct  peoples,  because 
the  height  of  the  original  rooms  was  twenty-five  feet,  but  the 
later  occupants  of  the  place  seem  to  have  had  the  rooms 
filled  up  with  debris  as  far  as  the  middle,  and  then  had  them 
paved,  making  it  appear  as  if  the  latter  was  the  original 
height.  It  was  in  this  manner  that  I  found  the  room  in 
which  was  discovered  the  asphalt  pavement. 

In  the  room  next  to  that  in  which  were  found  the  records 
of  the  temple,  we  came  upon  a  solid  platform  built  most 
securely  of  kiln-burnt  bricks  and  bitumen.  It  was  twenty 
feet  square  by  twenty-five  feet  high,  facing  the  entrance  of 
the  room  which  was  asphalted.  I  had  the  platform  partially 
broken  into  and  examined,  in  the  hope  of  discovering  some 
ancient  record  buried  in  it,  but  there  was  no  sign  of  any 
object  of  interest  found.  It  was  so  difficult  to  break,  that 
the  different  workmen  had  to  take  the  task  by  turns,  and 
the  labour  was  so  great  that  we  were  not  able  to  make  a 
thorough  search.  I  still  think  that  if  that  huge  platform  or 
altar  were  thoroughly  examined,  there  would  be  found  in  it 
some  historical  record. 

The  mound  on  which  the  buildings  of  Aboo-habba  are 
erected  is  about  1,300  in  length  by  400  feet  in  width,  con- 
taining, according  to  my  reckoning,  at  least  300  chambers 
and  halls.  Of  these  I  have  only  been  able  to  excavate  about 
130,  as  our  explorations  have  been  put  a  stop  to  by  the 
Turkish  Government  refusing  to  grant  us  another  firman  for 
the  continuation  of  our  researches  in  Assyria' and  Babylonia. 

It  must  not  be  thought  that  the  excavations  were  carried 
on  at  Sippara  without  much  trouble  and  annoyance:  on  the  con- 
trary, I  was  threatened  on  three  different  occasions  by  the  part 
owners  of  the  mound  with  pains  and  penalties  if  I  did  not 
stop  the  work.  When  I  first  began,  I  was  very  nearly  stopped 
by  an  official  from  carrying  on   the  necessary  operations,  on 


Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities,         17!' 

the  plea  that  I  had  no  business  to  dig  in  a  place  which  belonged 
to  the  crown ;  and  when  the  finding  of  the  coffer  was 
reported  in  the  local  Arabic  paper  of  Baghdad,  where  it  was 
mentioned  that  I  had  unearthed  most  unique  antiquities, 
"  more  precious  than  gems,"  I  was  called  upon  by  a  Moslem 
family  at  Baghdad  to  restore  to  them  what  I  had  discovered 
in  their  land;  and  they  went  so  far  as  to  threaten  me  with 
an  action  if  I  did  not  satisfy  them.  I  learned  afterwards 
that  an  European  who  dealt  in  antiquities  at  Baghdad  had 
upbraided  them  for  their  stupidity  in  allowing  the  English 
to  carry  away  valuable  antiquities  from  their  domain,  and 
with  which  he  assured  them  they  could  enrich  them- 
selves for  ever.  This  family  had  done  good  service  to 
the  local  Baghdad  government  in  days  gone  by,  and  the 
Governor  General  at  that  time  had  presented  them  with  half 
the  produce  of  the  cultivation  of  the  Mahmoodia  district  in 
which  the  mound  of  Aboo-habba  was  situated.  It  was  a 
known  fact  that  though  this  favoured  family  had  been  holding 
half  of  the  land  in  fee-simple  for  the  last  seventy  or  eighty 
years,  they  had  not  been  able  to  cultivate  one-eighth  of 
it  on  account  of  the  expense  of  irrigation;  and  as  for  the 
mound  of  Aboo-habba,  it  was  literally  impossible  to  bring 
it  under  cultivation,  as  it  was  about  forty  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  Mahmoodia  canal.  However,  they  were  right 
in  saying  that  it  was  not  in  my  province  to  tell  them  what 
they  were  to  do  with  it,  because  if  they  chose  they  might 
build  a  village  on  it ;  and  on  this  account  I  had  to  come  to 
terms  with  them,  to  enable  me  to  go  on  with  the  researches 
without  the  unpleasantness  of  going  to  law,  as  I  knew 
that  the  authorities  would  back  them  up  for  the  purpose  of 
stopping  our  work  altogether.  Fortunately  they  were  very 
intimately  connected  with  some  of  my  Baghdad  friends,  who 
dissuaded  them  from  appealing  to  the  authorities, and  managed 
to  settle  the  matter  between  us  amicably.  Afterwards  I 
heard  that  the  present  Sultan  had  purchased  with  other 
waste  lands  in  Babylonia,  the  remaining  half-share  of  the 
Mahmoodia  crown  land;  the  consequence  was,  that  I  was 
soon  made  to  understand  that  my  firman  only  permitted  me 
to  excavate  in  lands  where  I  had  satisfied  the  proprietors ; 


180         Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities. 

and  on  this  ground  the  imperial  commissioners  began  to  inquire 
by  what  right  digging  was  carried  on  at  Aboo-habba  without 
their  special  permission,  and  they  consulted  how  they  might 
successfully  stop  the  work.  At  last  one  night  I  was  awoke, 
after  I  had  gone  to  bed,  by  the  arrival  of  a  large  number  of 
horsemen  in  our  camp,  headed  by  the  agent  of  the  Imperial 
land  property  of  Mahmoodia,  bringing  me  a  letter  to  read, 
which  he  had  received  from  the  Royal  Commissioners,  wherein 
it  was  asked  by  what  authority  I  was  digging  at  Aboo-habba, 
and  who  gave  me  that  authority.  He  was  at  the  same  time 
ordered  not  to  allow  any  one  to  dig  in  royal  lands  without  the 
special  sanction  of  the  Royal  Commissioners ;  but  fortunately 
there  was  no  mention  made  that  the  excavations  should  be 
stopped  altogether  at  Aboo-habba.  The  Imperial  agent, 
however,  begged  me  to  try  and  obtain  the  sanction  of  the 
Royal  Commissioners,  in  order  that  he  might  not  get  into 
trouble  himself.  On  this  account  I  had  to  write  to  the 
Governor  General  about  the  matter,  as  the  firman  was 
addressed  to  him ;  and  besides,  I  had  been  recommended  by 
the  Sublime  Porte  to  his  good  offices.  He  replied  that  he 
could  not  interfere  in  the  matter,  and  referred  me  to  the 
Royal  Commissioners  for  settlement,  which,  he  said,  could 
only  be  done  by  my  satisfying  them.  How  I  was  to  do  this 
was  the  difficulty,  because  satisfying  a  needy  landlord  with  a 
few  piastres  was  one  thing,  and  satisfying  a  royal  dignitary 
was  another ;  and  whether  it  was  fortunate  or  unfortunate,  I 
was  not  enlightened  on  the  subject,  and  went  on  digging 
for  nearly  two  months  afterwards,  until  our  explorations  in 
Assyria  and  Babylonia  came  to  a  stand-still  on  account  of  the 
term  of  the  last  firman  having  expired.  The  Commissioners 
could  not  meet  for  a  long  time  on  account  of  sickness 
amongst  their  members,  and  when  they  ultimately  did  so, 
they  found  it  was  no  use  re-opening  a  delicate  subject,  when 
they  were  certain  that  all  our  operations  would  die  a  natural 
death  by  the  expiration  of  the  permit ;  hence  I  was  left  in  peace, 
until  I  closed  our  different  operations  at  the  end  of  July  last. 
I  believe  when  Cyrus  the  younger  marched  through 
Mahmoodia  with  the  Grecian  auxiliaries,  about  four  hundred 
years  before  the  Christian  era,  to  combat  his  brother,  the  great 


Fr.  *-.-'* 


-J£-V 


* 


Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities.         181 

King  Artaxerxes,  Sippara  could  not  have  been  in  existence, 
because  Xenophon  does  not  make  any  mention  of  it  in  his 
Anabasis.  It  is  very  unlikely  that  such  an  important  city 
could  have  been  unnoticed,  especially  as  the  troops  must  have 
passed  through  it,  or  very  near  it,  both  before  and  after 
the  battle  of  Cunaxa.  Conflicting  opinions  are  given  by 
different  travellers  as  to  the  supposed  site  of  that  battle-field, 
where  the  ambitious  Cyrus,  the  son  of  Darius  II,  met  with 
his  death.  I  am  at  a  loss  to  understand  how  any  travellers 
visiting  the  part  of  Babylonia  that  lies  between  the  town  of 
Musayib  and  Aboo-habba,  could  ever  doubt  the  site  on  which 
that  memorable  engagement  took  place.  Xenophon  relates1 
that  "  when  the  Greeks  saw  their  enemies  close  at  hand,  and 
drawn  up  for  fight,  they  again  sang  the  paean,  and  advanced 
upon  them  with  much  greater  spirit  than  before.  The 
barbarians  [that  is  to  say  the  royalists],  on  the  other  hand, 
did  not  await  their  onset,  but  fled  sooner  than  at  first,  and 
the  Greeks  pursued  them  as  far  as  a  certain  village,  where 
they  halted;  for  above  the  village  was  a  hill,  upon  which 
the  king's  troops  had  checked  their  flight,  and  though  there 
were  no  longer  any  infantry  there,  the  height  was  filled  with 
cavalry,  so  that  the  Greeks  could  not  tell  what  was  doing. 
They  said  that  they  saw  the  royal  standard,  a  golden  eagle 
upon  a  spear,  with  expanded  wings." 

This  site  has  been  disputed,  because  "a  hill"  is  men- 
tioned in  it;  and  some  commentators  have  gone  so  far  as  to 
assert  that  because  there  are  no  natural  hills  in  the  plains 
of  Babylonia,  Xenophon  must  have  meant  one  of  those 
numerous  artificial  mounds  which  abound  in  Southern  Meso- 
potamia. I  am  still  more  surprised  at  finding  the  following 
opinion  given  by  the  well-known  geographer  Mr.  William  F. 
Ainsworth,  in  his  commentary  on  the  Anabasis  of  Xenophon 
on  this  part  of  Babylonia.2  He  says,  "  the  night  of  the 
battle,  the  Greeks  pursued  the  Persians  as  far  as  a  certain 
village,  where  they  halted ;  for  above  the  village  was  a  hill, 
upon  which  the  king's  troops  had  checked  their  flight. 
The  hill  here  alluded  to  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the 

1  Anabasis,  B.  I,  cb.  10  to  12 
*  Bonn's  edition,  p.  295. 


182         Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities. 

numerous  artificial  mounds,  topes  or  tells,  sometimes  sepul- 
chral, sometimes  heaps  of  ruin,  which  abound  on  the  plain 
of  Babylonia.  The  word  used  to  designate  the  hill  is 
sufficiently  descriptive,  7?}\o</>o?,  a  compound  of  777,  "  earth," 
and  Xocfaos,  "  hill,"  1  mound,  or  tumulus,  "  a  heap  of  earth." 
Then  Mr.  Ainsworth  goes  on  to  say,  "it  is  the  more  im- 
portant to  establish  this  fact,  as  there  are  no  natural  hills 
on  the  plains  of  Babylonia,  and  therefore  the  mention 
made  by  Xenophon  of  a  hill  at  this  place  has  led  the 
distinguished  traveller  Baillie  Fraser  to  consider  it  as 
furnishing  evidence  of  the  battle  having  been  fought  to 
the  north  of  the  Median  Wall."  This  is  certainly  an 
astounding  degenerate  view  taken  of  the  actual  battle- 
field, especially  after  following  Xenophon" s  account  of  the 
march  of  Cyrus's  army  after  having  passed  Charmande.  when 
they  had  to  cross  on  rafts  of  skin  to  an  opulent  city,  which 
must  have  been  not  far  from  Saglawia.  I  have  not  the 
least  doubt  that  the  hill  to  which  Xenophon  alluded  is  the 
one  on  which  stands  the  Khan  or  Caravanseri  called 
Iskanderia;  There  is  a  pebbly  ridge  here,  called  by  the 
Arabs  "  Haswa,"  which  means  pebbly  soil ;  it  is  about  sixty 
or  seventy  feet  high,  and  fifteen  miles  long,  beginning  about 
four  miles  to  the  W-.S.W.  of  Aboo-habba,  it  terminates  about 
eight  miles  to  the  north  of  Musayib :  so  the  village  of 
Cunaxa  must  have  been  just  below  where  the  Iskanderia 
Khan  is  now  situated.  When  I  happened  to  be  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Aboo-habba  in  the  spring,  the  Arabs  used 
to  bring  me  a  large  quantity  of  truffles  from  the  ridge,  as 
this  vegetable  is  only  found  in  pebbly  soil. 

While  the  excavations  were  being  carried  on  at  Aboo-habba, 
I  had  some  workmen  trying  the  mound  of  Tel-lbraheem,  or 
what  the  Arabs  commonly  call  Habl-Ibraheem,  which  means 
the  rope  of  Abraham,  from  the  shape  of  the  great  canal  which 
runs  to  it  from  Aboo-habba,  a  distance  of  about  thirty-five 
miles.  This  ruin  is  supposed  to  be  the  site  of  ancient  Cuthah  ; 
and  although  report  said  that  some  excavations  had  been 
carried  on  in  it  before  I  went  there,  I  could  find  no  traces 
whatever  of  such  explorations  anywhere.     I  had  been  trying 

1  Liddell,  in  bis  Lexicon,  explains  Aof  oj,  "  a  ridge  of  ground  or  a  rising  hill." 


Ttecent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities.         183 

for  two  years  to  go  and  examine  this  mound,  but  the 
difficulties  were  the  want  of  water  and  finding  workmen  to 
venture  so  far  away  from  any  inhabited  place.  I  at  last 
managed  to  induce  some  of  the  Babylonian  and  Birs  Nimroud 
workmen  to  accompany  me  thither  for  three  or  four  weeks ; 
and  most  fortunately  when  the  time  came  that  I  could  go 
there  to  superintend  the  work  in  person,  the  Tigris  rose 
unusually  high,  and  inundated  the  country  to  within  half-a- 
mile  of  the  mound,  which  enabled  us  to  have  a  regular 
supply  of  water  as  long  as  we  were  working  there.  I  of 
course  did  not  care  to  drink  that  water,  as  it  looked  any- 
thing but  tempting,  so  once  a  week  sent  and  got  some  water 
for  myself  from  the  Mahaweel-Euphrates  canal,  about  six 
miles  to  the  south-west.  I  found  an  old  well  there  which 
had  been  filled  up  with  sand,  and  as  its  water  might  possibly 
prove  of  use  in  case  I  wished  to  prolong  our  stay  there, 
I  had  it  cleared  out :  but  it  proved  to  be  somewhat 
brackish  ;  we  were,  however,  able  to  use  it  for  cooking  and 
washing  purposes.  I  managed  to  induce  some  of  my  work- 
men to  take  their  families  with  them ;  and  as  soon  as  we 
reached  Tel-Ibraheem,  I  had  the  tumbled-down  sanctum  of 
the  Father  of  the  Faithful  swept  out  and  repaired,  and  it 
afterwards  served  as  shelter  for  the  bachelor  workmen  on 
cold  nights.  We  were  very  much  tried  while  we  were  there 
by  the  constant  sand  storms  that  blew  in  the  day  time.  On 
several  occasions  the  dust  was  so  thick  that  I  could  not  see 
the  tents  of  my  followers,  nor  dared  to  go  out  of  my  tent ; 
and  once  the  atmosphere  was  so  thick  with  it  that  our  water- 
earners  lost  their  way,  and  could  not  find  the  mound  until 
the  storm  subsided.  I  had  for  hours  to  sit  still  with  my  eyes 
closed,  without  attempting  to  do  anything,  much  less  to  open 
my  mouth  for  the  purpose  of  eating  and  drinking,  as  I  should 
have  been  choked  with  sand.  In  the  several  excavations  I 
found  very  little  of  ancient  relics  to  warrant  me  to  remain 
longer  than  a  month,  during  which  time  we  discovered  a  few 
clay  tablets  inscribed  with  cuneiform  and  bowls  with  Hebrew 
and  Syro-Chaldean  characters.  In  one  part  of  the  mound, 
after  having  penetrated  about  twenty  feet  below  the  surface, 
we  came  upon  an  ancient  edifice,  the  walls  of  which  seemed 


184         Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities. 

as  if  they  had  been  built  a  short  time  ago.  As  we  had  to  dig 
in  some  places  about  thirty  feet  before  we  came  to  the  bottom 
of  the  chambers,  I  was  obliged,  for  the  .sake  of  saving  time 
and  expense,  to  work  by  tunnelling.  From  the  nature  of  the 
soil  found  in  these  chambers,  it  seemed  to  me  that  this 
structure  was  never  inhabited,  but  the  owner,  whoever  he 
may  have  been,  must  have  abandoned  it  before  it  was  roofed, 
and  ordered  it  to  be  filled  in  after  it  was  built.  This  mound  is 
about  two  miles  in  circumference,  and  about  sixty  feet  high; 
and  although  I  had  no  less  than  twenty  tunnels  and  trenches 
opened  in  it,  there  were  no  signs  discovered  in  it  to  show  me 
that  it  belonged  to  the  early  Babylonian  period.  It  is  true 
that  we  found  some  kiln-burnt  bricks  like  those  usually 
found  at  Babylonia  with  the  name  of  Nebuchadnezzar  on 
them,  yet  I  do  not  think  this  place  was  of  much  importance 
at  the  time  of  that  monarch.  I  have  no  doubt,  however,  that 
iu  later  days  it  must  have  been  a  very  flourishing  place, 
because  unmistakable  remains  extend  for  miles  around,  which 
indicate  that  the  city  and  its  surroundings  were  thickly  in- 
habited. Had  my  finnan  been  renewed,  and  if  I  could  have 
afforded  to  spend  a  hundred  pounds  upon  making  another 
trial  in  the  same  mound,  I  should  certainly  have  attempted 
another  expedition  to  it,  though  I  might  have  been  buried  in 
the  sand  again ! 

After  this  I  tried  other  mounds  between  Tel-Ibraheem  and 
Babylon,  but  without  any  success,  except  at  a  small  mound 
called  Elgarainee,  where  we  found  some  inscribed  clay  tablets. 
The  last  mentioned  mound,  which  is  about  five  miles  to  the 
X.X.W.  of  Babylon,  and  about  two  miles  to  the  S.E.  of  the 
Mahaweel  canal,  must  have  been  one  of  the  entrances  to  the 
outskirts  of  the  great  city.  In  that  part  of  Babylon  called 
Imjaileeba  we  have  always  been  finding  records  of  the  past; 
but  the  more  I  dig  there,  the  more  puzzled  I  am  what  to 
make  of  it.  With  the  exception  of  half  a  dozen  rooms  I 
discovered  on  the  borders  of  what  was  once  a  grand  palace 
of  the  kings  of  Babylon,  where  Belshazzar  was  supposed 
to  have  lost  his  life  when  the  capital  of  Chaldea  was 
captured  by  Cyrus,  I  could  find  no  regular  structure  to  enable 
me  to  identify  any  part  of  the  different  buildings  which  must 


Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities.         185 

have  existed  at  the  time.  The  whole  place  seemed  to  have  been 
upheaved  or  overthrown  by  an  earthquake  or  by  some  other 
supernatural  destruction.  In  some  places  objects  of  antiquity 
were  found  almost  within  a  foot  of  the  surface,  and  in  other 
parts,  not  more  than  a  few  yards  further,  we  come  upon 
Babylonian  relics  almost  as  deep  as  the  former  fomidation. 
At  one  time  I  thought  I  had  hit  upon  some  ancient  walls 
to  enable  me  to  penetrate  with  a  definite  aim  into  the 
interior  of  a  regular  building,  but  was  soon  doomed  to  be 
disappointed,  because  what  I  thought  at  first  sight  to  be 
a  regular  Babylonian  building,  was  found  afterwards  to  have 
belonged  to  a  ruder  period,  when  the  Parthians  occupied  the 
country.  The  ruins  in  that  part  of  Babylon  which  is  called 
Omran,  are  still  more  mysterious  to  me,  because  while  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  mound  contained  evident  signs 
of  Babylonian  remains,  the  northern  part  is  an  accumulation 
of  ashes,  bones,  and  other  rubbish,  and  there  was  not  a  sign 
in  it  to  give  me  reason  to  believe  that  it  contained  any  ruins 
of  the  great  city.  I  dug  in  some  places  more  than  forty  feet, 
as  far  as  the  water,  and  yet  not  a  single  object  of  antiquity 
was  found.  Every  time  I  returned  to  that  country  I  did  all 
in  my  power  to  trace  the  original  outskirts  of  the  city,  but 
the  more  I  tried  to  come  to  any  definite  result,  the  more  I 
was  confounded :  and  so  with  regard  to  the  discussion 
about  the  topography  of  Babylon  between  Mr.  Rich  and 
Major  Rennell,  which  increased  my  difficulty  not  a  little,  and 
whether  I  followed  the  theory  of  one  or  the  other,  I  felt  that 
I  was  driven  nowhere. 

The  only  positions  which  can  now  be  fixed  upon  with  any 
accuracy  are,  I  think,  the  palace  of  the  kings  of  Babylon, 
called  Kasr  or  Imjaileeba,  the  temple  of  Belus,  known  as  Birs 
Nimroud,  and  the  hanging  gardens,  which  the  Arabs  call 
Babel,  but  which  Rich  and  other  travellers  erroneously  styled 
"  Kasir."  In  the  latter  ruin,  which  is  the  next  highest  mound 
to  Birs  in  Babylon,  have  been  found  four  most  elegantly- 
built  wells  of  reddish  stone,  three  placed  parallel,  and  within 
a  few  feet  of  each  other,  in  the  northern  centre  of  the  mound, 
the  fourth  some  distance  away.  They  are  so  scientifically 
built  that  it  vexes  one  to  see  the  Arabs  breaking  them  for 


L86         Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  (ities. 

the  sake  of  making-  lime  of  the  stone,  which  has  been  brought 
from  a  great  distance.  Each  stone,  about  three  feet  in 
thickness,  had  been  bored,  and  made  to  fit  the  one  below  it 
so  exactly  that  one  would  imagine  that  the  whole  well  was 
hewn  out  of  one  solid  rock.  These  wells  are  connected  Math 
a  subterraneous  arched  vault  communicating  with  an  aque- 
duct supplied  with  water  from  the  Euphrates ;  and  when  I 
had  one  of  them  cleared  of  the  debris  down  to  the  bottom, 
we  came  to  water. 

What  I  wanted  to  be  convinced  of  more  than  anything 
else  was  the  exact  time  the  Euphrates  ran  through  the 
city,  as  Herodotus  makes  an  allusion  to  it  in  the  following 
words: — "Queen  Nitocris  enclosed  herself  therefore  with 
these  defences  by  digging,  and  immediately  afterwards  made 
the  following  addition.  As  the  city  consisted  of  two  divisions, 
which  were  separated  by  the  river,  during  the  reign  of  former 
kings,  when  any  one  had  occasion  to  cross  from  one  division 
to  the  other  he  was  obliged  to  cross  in  a  boat,  and  this,  in  my 
opinion,  was  very  troublesome;  she  therefore  provided  for 
this,  for  after  she  had  dug  the  reservoir  for  the  lake,  she  left 
this  other  monument  built  by  similar  toil :  she  had  large 
blocks  of  stone  cut,  and  when  they  were  ready,  and  the 
place  was  completely  dug  out,  she  turned  the  whole  stream 
of  the  river  into  the  place  she  had  dug.  While  tins  Was 
filled,  and  the  ancient  channel  had  become  dry,  in  the  first 
place  she  lined  with  burnt  bricks  the  banks  of  the  river 
throughout  the  city,  and  the  descents  that  lead  from  the 
gates  to  the  river,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  walls.  In  the 
next  place,  about  the  middle  of  the  city,  she  built  a  bridge 
with  the  stones  she  had  prepared,  and  bound  them  together 
with  plates  of  lead  and  iron.  Upon  these  stones  she  laid 
during  the  day  square  planks  of  timber,  on  which  the 
Babylonians  might  pass  over;  but  at  night  these  planks 
were  removed,  to  prevent  people  from  coming  by  night 
and  robbing  one  another.  When  the  hollow  that  was  dry 
had  become  a  lake  filled  by  the  river,  and  the  bridge 
was  finished,  she  brought  back  the  river  to  its  ancient 
channel  from  the  lake.  And  thus  the  excavations  having 
been  turned  into  a  marsh,  appeared  to  answer  the  purpose 


Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities.         187 

lor  which  it  was  made,  and  a  bridge  was  built  for  the  use 
of  the  inhabitants."  l 

In  another  place  Herodotus  mentions  that  Cyrus  "  having 
stationed  the  bulk  of  his  army  near  the  passage  of  the  river 
where  it  enters  Babylon,  and  again  having  stationed  another 
division  beyond  the  city  where  the  river  makes  its  exit,  lie 
gave  orders  to  his  forces  to  enter  the  city  as  soon  as  they 
should  see  the  stream  fordable.  Having  thus  stationed  his 
forces,  and  given  the  directions,  he  himself  marched  away 
with  the  ineffective  part  of  his  army  ;  and  having  come  to 
the  lake,  Cyrus  did  the  same  with  respect  to  the  river  and 
the  lake  as  the  queen  of  the  Babylonians  had  done.  For 
having  diverted  the  river  by  means  of  a  canal  into  the  lake, 
which  was  before  a  swamp,  he  made  the  ancient  channel 
fordable  by  the  sinking  of  the  liver.  When  this  took  place, 
the  Persians  who  were  appointed  to  that  purpose  close  to  the 
stream  of  the  river,  which  had  now  subsided  to  about  the 
middle  of  a  man's  thigh,  entered  Babylon  by  this  passage.'12 

In  our  explorations  in  Babylon  a  broken  cylinder  was  found 
which,  according  to  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson's  reading,  contains 
an  account  of  the  taking  of  Babylon  by  Cyrus  as  it  is  men- 
tioned by  Herodotus  and  in  Holy  Writ ;  but  unfortunately  a 
good  deal  of  it  is  missing,  which  fact  makes  the  cuneiform 
version  incomplete.  Just  before  our  excavations  came  to 
an  end,  it  was  reported  to  me  that  some  brick  masonry 
had  been  discovered  deep  below  the  ground  by  an  Arab 
near  the  entrance  of  the  village  of  Quairich,  and  not  far 
from  the  Kasr  or  the  old  palace  of  Nebuchadnezzar;  and 
I  therefore  went  at  once  to  examine  it.  It  was  a  solid 
platform,  built  with  kiln-burnt  bricks  cemented  with  bitumen, 
and  as  the  owner  was  willing  that  I  should  follow  it  for  some 
distance,  and  the  people  of  the  place  did  not  raise  any 
objection  about  our  throwing  the  debris  near  the  entrance  to 
their  village,  I  dug  there  about  a  fortnight,  and  only  stopped 
when  I  found  that  it  would  only  be  wasting  money,  which  I 
could  not  afford  for  such  a  purpose,  without  any  benefit  to  the 
British  Museum.  It  struck  me  at  first  sight  that  the  masonry 
might  have  belonged  to  the  skill  of  Nitocris,  as  being  that 
1  Cleo.,  I,  186.  2  L'leo.,  I,  J'Jl. 


1>S        Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Okies. 

part  of  the  river  whose  walls  she  lined  with  bricks;  but 
such  sites  cannot  be  proved  exactly  without  a  thorough 
investigation  of  the  different  localities  near  the  Euphrates. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  whenever  anyone  digs  near  the  river 
in  this  part  of  Babylon,  unmistakable  ancient  brick  structures 
are  discovered,  but  not  a  sign  is  visible  anywhere  of  the 
bridge  of  stones  which  that  queen  had  caused  to  be  built. 
According  to  Herodotus,  Babylon  must  have  included  Birs 
Nimroud,  because  he  says  that  the  river  divided  Babylon 
into  two  parts ;  in  one  the  royal  palace  was  situated,  and  in 
the  other  was  the  precinct  of  Jupiter  Belus ;  but  in  the 
present  day  no  ruin  is  visible  anywhere  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  river  until  Birs  Nimroud  is  approached.  This  fact  makes 
me  believe  that  all  the  present  ruins  which  are  found  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Euphrates  belonged  to  the  royal  household, 
and  that  the  habitations  of  the  people  on  both  sides  of  the 
river  consisted  merely  of  sun-dried  bricks,  which  crumbled  to 
nothing  after  the  last  and  final  destruction  of  the  place  by 
the  Parthian  invasion. 

At  Birs  Niraroud  I  was  fortunate  enough  to  discover  the 
palace  where  Nabonidus  was  supposed  to  have  been  residing 
when  Cyrus  captured  Babylon.  It  is  on  the  same  mound 
upon  which  the  supposed  Temple  of  Belus  is  built.  It 
contained  about  eighty  chambers  and  halls,  only  four  of 
which  produced  some  remains  of  Babylonian  antiquity, 
proving  that  the  building  was  erected  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 
In  the  first  hall  opened  were  found  broken  pillars,  capitals 
and  fragments  of  enamelled  bricks,  evidently  belonging  to 
the  embellishments  of  the  room,  with  cedar  wood,  which 
are  now  in  the  British  Museum.  The  finding  of  this  struc- 
ture was  very  curious,  and  shows  that  explorers  ought 
not  to  be  discouraged  when  they  fail  sometimes  in  their 
researches.  This  same  mound  was  tried  by  different  ex- 
plorers over  and  over  again  to  get  at  its  historical  records, 
but  without  any  beneficial  results.  When  I  went  to  examine 
it  three  years  ago,  I  felt  convinced  that  the  large  mound  or 
platform  below  the  tower  must  contain  either  a  building 
or  some  other  remains ;  so  I  placed  two  gangs  of  workmen 
to  try  the  most  likely  place  to  reward  me  for  the  labour. 


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Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities.         189 

The  overseer  whom  I  appointed  over  the  workmen  there 
had  been  in  the  habit  formerly  of  digging  at  the  adjoining 
mound  called  Ibraheem-el-Khaleel,  where  he  used  sometimes 
to  find  inscribed  clay  tablets,  and  had  tried  this  Birs  Nimroud 
mound,  but  could  find  nothing  in  it.  The  consequence  was, 
that  after  I  gave  him  the  necessary  directions  and  went  to 
see  after  the  other  explorations  in  Babylon,  he  abandoned  the 
new  place  in  which  I  ordered  him  to  dig,  and  went  back  to 
his  old  haunts.  When  I  came  back  and  found  what  he  had 
done,  I  ordered  him  to  return  at  once  to  the  spot  pointed  out 
to  him  before :  and,  to  his  surprise,  after  one  day's  digging 
there,  he  found  that  he  was  excavating  a  hall  which  proved 
afterwards  to  belong  to  a  large  palace. 

Soon  after  that  I  had  to  return  to  England,  and  left  the 
overseers  to  go  on  with  the  work,  but  on  going  back  there 
after  some  months,  I  found  that  they  had  nearly  finished 
excavating  the  whole  palace.  As  soon  as  I  set  my  foot  on 
the  mound,  a  workman  came  running  to  inform  me  that  they 
had  just  found  some  metal  object,  ornamented  on  the  top, 
at  the  entrance  of  one  of  the  rooms.  On  going  to  examine  it, 
I  found  it  placed  on  the  threshold  of  what  seemed  to  be  the 
grand  entrance  to  the  temple.  It  is  quite  certain  that  this 
object  had  not  been  made  originally  for  this  purpose,  and  it 
must  have  been  placed  here  in  after  time.  From  its  length 
and  shape  it  looked  as  if  it  had  been  originally  a  leaf  of  a 
bronze  gate,  like  those  mentioned  by  Herodotus.  It  must 
have  been  formerly  double  the  length  it  is  at  present; 
and  for  the  purpose  of  fitting  it  in  this  position,  or  for  the 
sake  of  the  value  of  the  metal,  those  who  placed  it  there  had 
it  cut  in  two,  and  disposed  of  the  other  half.  Some  gentlemen 
however,  think  that  it  was  originally  a  door-step,  and  the  cut 
at  the  end  served  as  a  socket,  while  others  think  it  might 
have  been  the  side  of  a  battering-ram.  Nevertheless,  I  still 
maintain  that  if  it  was  not  a  leaf  of  a  gate  it  could  have 
never  been  used  for  either  of  the  above  purposes.  The 
most  striking  fact  connected  with  it  is  the  inscription  on 
the  ledge,  which  Assyrian  scholars  read  as  a  dedication  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  to  his  god  for  his  restoration  to  health,  which 
shows  that  it  could  not  have  been  intended  to  be  walked  upon, 


190  Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities. 

as  it  was  dedicated  for  a  sacred  object.  Moreover,  when  I 
examined  it  before  it  was  removed,  I  found  that  it  was  not 
built  into  the  original  Babylonian  doorway,  but  must  have  been 
placed  there  by  less  civilized  occupiers  of  the  palace,  who  had 
the  passage  narrowed,  and  fitted  this  object  in  the  threshold 
between  the  stone  pavement  of  the  passage  and  the  steps 
leading  downwards  towards  the  tower  or  temple.  On  passing 
out  of  this  entrance  towards  the  tower  on  which  the  temple 
of  Belus  was  supposed  to  have  been  erected,  we  could  not 
see  an j  sign  of  building;  but  the  whole  mass  afterwards 
excavated  consisted  of  debris  belonging  to  an  ancient  structure, 
evidently  wilfully  destroyed  by  a  formidable  enemy.  To  make 
myself  sure.  I  had  a  large  ditch  excavated  between  the  palace 
and  the  tower,  so  as  to  be  certain  that  we  had  got  to  the 
end  of  the  building ;  and  as  I  could  not  afford  to  dig  the 
whole  remaining  space,  I  penetrated  as  far  as  the  foundation 
of  the  tower  by  means  of  tunnelling — a  distance  of  about 
eighty  feet.  I  desisted  from  going  any  further  from  fear 
of  accident,  because  the  nearer  we  approached  the  tower, 
the  more  it  became  dangerous  to  go  on  with  the  excava- 
tions, on  account  of  the  quantity  of  loose  broken  bricks  that 
were  mixed  up  with  the  earth.  After  the  copper  door-step 
was  removed  to  the  village,  where  I  resided  while  superin- 
tending the  work  there,  I  had  it  packed  in  a  wooden  case  to 
take  to  Baghdad  for  the  purpose  of  sending  it  to  this  country: 
but  finding  that  it  was  too  heavy  to  transport  on  the  back  of  a 
horse  or  camel,  on  going  to  Baghdad  I  engaged  a  muleteer 
to  fetch  it  on  a  litter  carried  by  four  mules.  I  had  then  to 
prepare  to  start  for  Mossul,  as  I  had  to  see  to  the  other 
explorations  there,  and  also  to  visit  Van.  the  capital  of 
Armenia,  where  we  also  had  some  excavations  carried  on 
under  the  temporary  direction  of  Captain  Clayton,  the  late 
British  Yice-Consul  there. 

"Whenever  I  leave  our  excavations  in  charge  of  native 
agents,  I  always  ask  the  good  offices  of  the  British  representa- 
tive to  wateli  the  works,  and  so  when  I  was  going  to  Mossul 
at  that  time,  Colonel  Miles,  the  then  British  Consul  General 
at  Baghdad,  was  kind  enough  to  undertake  the  official 
management  of  the  Babylonian  explorations.      But  just  as  I 


Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities.         191 

was  starting  for  Mossul,  I  received  a  telegram  from  my  head 
overseer  at  Babylon  to  inform  me  that  the  Turkish  authorities 
at  Hillah  had  seized  the  copper  door  and  refused  to  allow  it 
to  be  taken  to  Baghdad,  because  it  had  been  reported  that  it 
was  made  of  gold.  The  consequence  was  that  Colonel  Miles 
was  compelled  to  send  to  the  Baghdad  authorities  to  order 
it  to  be  taken  thither,  which  was  ultimately  done.  I  heard 
afterwards  that  when  this  peculiar  object  reached  Baghdad 
the  Governor  General  appointed  a  commission  to  examine  it 
to  see  whether  it  was  gold  or  not ;  and  when  they  were 
convinced  that  it  was  not  made  of  that  precious  metal,  it 
was  allowed  to  be  despatched  to  England.  Even  if  this 
Babylonian  monument  had  been  made  of  gold,  neither  the 
Hillah  nor  the  Baghdad  authorities  had  any  right  to  meddle 
with  it,  seeing  that  according  to  the  wording  of  the  firman 
we  were  allowed  to  appropriate  all  unique  objects  whether 
they  were  made  of  common  clay  or  any  precious  metal,  to  say 
nothing  about  the  absurdity  of  mistaking  copper  for  gold 
when  this  thing  was  thickly  covered  with  verdigris. 

The  vitrified  portion  of  the  tower  of  Belus  has  ever  been 
a  great  mystery  to  me,  and  although  I  have  been  trying  for 
the  last  three  years  to  find  out,  through  scientific  gentlemen 
in  this  country,  the  cause  of  the  vitrification,  I  have  as  yet 
found  no  one  who  could  explain  the  mystery  satisfactorily. 
Every  traveller  who  visited  the  place  could  not  help  noticing 
the  almost  supernatural  sight,  but  not  one  of  them  could 
come  to  any  tangible  conclusion  as  to  the  cause.  Benjamin, 
of  Tudela  goes  so  far  as  to  assert  that  the  "  heavenly  fire 
which  struck  the  tower  split  it  to  its  very  foundation,"  and 
my  late  friend,  Mr.  Loftus,  gives  the  opinion  of  a  "  talented 
companion,"  who  originated  the  idea  when  they  examined  the 
Birs  Nimroud  in  company,  that  in  order  to  render  their  edifices 
more  durable,  the  Babylonians  submitted  them,  when  erected, 
to  the  heat  of  a  furnace. 

The  former  authority  does  not  tell  us  whether  his  assertion 
was  based  upon  his  own  conjecture,  or  that  he  quoted  a 
tradition  which  existed  then  in  the  country  when  he  visited 
the  town  about  seven  hundred  years  ago.  As  for  the  opinion  of 
the  latter,  it  cannot  hold  water,  because  it  is  against  common 
Vol.  VIII.  13 


192         Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities. 

sense  that  a  huge  tower  like  that  of  Birs  Nimroud  could  be 
subjected  to  artificial  heat  after  it  was  built.  The  tower 
must  have  been  originally  at  least  200  feet  high,  and  to 
build  a  furnace  to  envelope  it,  would  be  just  like  trying 
to  cover  a  solid  mass  equal  in  size  to  the  whole  dome  of 
Saint  Paul's  Cathedral  with  one  huge  furnace  and  subjecting 
it  to  artificial  heat  for  the  purpose  of  vitrifying  it !  Indeed, 
there  is  no  visible  sign  of  vitrification  on  any  part  of  the 
remaining  edifice,  but  the  huge  boulders  which  are  vitrified 
are  scattered  about  the  tower,  and  look  as  if  they  do  not 
belong  to  the  place  at  all.  Some  of  these  must  be  between 
ten  and  fifteen  cubic  feet  square  :  and  the  vitrification  is 
so  complete  throughout,  that  when  I  tried  to  have  a  large 
piece  broken  to  bring  to  the  British  Museum,  I  failed  to  do  so 
until  I  obtained  the  services  of  a  competent  mason,  who 
managed  to  break  me  two  pieces,  after  having  blunted  half-a- 
dozen  of  his  iron  tools. 

About  five  hundred  yardsto  the  north-east  of  Birs  Nimroud, 
there  is  another  large  mound  called  Ibraheem-el-Klialeel. 
where  the  Arabs  of  that  country  believe  Nimrod  tried  to 
throw  Abraham  into  the  fiery  furnace.  There  I  also  earned 
on  extensive  explorations,  and  found  a  large  collection  of  in- 
scribed clay  tablets ;  but  these  were  found  in  the  outskirts 
of  the  mound,  and  not  in  the  building  I  discovered  in  it. 
This  made  me  think  that  the  debris  in  which  they  were 
found  was  thrown  from  an  old  building  which  had  been  in 
existence  before  the  new  structure  I  discovered  was  erected, 
because  I  found  on  the  western  side  of  the  mound,  below  the 
sanctum  of  Ibraheem-el-Khaleel,  quite  a  new  building,  which 
could  not  have  been  inhabited;  resembling  very  much  the 
building  I  discovered  in  Tel  Ibraheem,  or  the  supposed  site  of 
Cuthah.  It  might  have  been  erected  when  Alexander  the 
Great  was  trying  to  remove  the  rubbish  from  the  temple  of 
Belus,  and  it  was  abandoned  when  that  great  monarch  met 
with  his  death. 

While  I  was  busily  engaged  in  my  researches  in  Assyria, 
I  heard  that  a  large  idol  or  statue  had  been  discovered  in  a 
mound  on  Shat-el-Hai,  and  that  a  telegraph  employe,  a 
Frenchman,  had  broken  its  arms  and  sold  them  to  the  late 


Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities.         193 

Mr.  George  Smith,  which  I  found  afterwards  had  been 
purchased  by  the  British  Museum.  So  on  going  to  Baghdad, 
my  first  endeavour  was  to  find  out  where  that  mound  was 
situated,  because  Shat-el-Hai  is  about  one  hundred  and  forty 
miles  in  length,  and  I  was  anxious  to  find  out  in  what  part 
of  it  the  discovery  was  made,  in  order  that  I  might  know 
which  way  to  go  to  it.  After  a  good  deal  of  inquiry,  I  learnt 
its  exact  position  by  accident.  When  I  was  one  day  on  my 
way  to  Babylon,  I  was  accosted  on  the  road  by  a  respectable 
Arab,  who  asked  me  to  give  him  employment;  and  when 
I  asked  him  what  he  could  do,  he  said  he  would  go  about 
and  look  for  new  sites  for  me,  as  he  had  been  in  the  habit  of 
doing  for  others.  I  then  inquired  if  he  knew  of  any  place 
where  we  should  be  likely  to  find  antiquities,  and  he  replied 
that  there  was  a  mound  on  Shat-el-Hai,  called  "Tel-Loh," 
where  he  had  dug  on  searching  for  antiquities  for  a 
Frenchman  at  Baghdad ;  and  that  a  black  statue  had  been 
discovered  by  an  Arab,  who  •  broke  its  head,  and  carried 
it  away,  and  afterwards  it  was  dispossessed  of  its  arms 
by  a  French  telegraphist.  This  information  of  course  cor- 
roborated the  story  I  had  heard,  and  I  allowed  no  time  to  be 
lost  in  visiting  the  place  with  him  and  judging  for  myself 
whether  the  mound  was  worth  excavating  or  not.  To  my 
great  disappointment  I  found  on  arriving  there  that  the 
place  was  not  in  the  Pashalic  of  Baghdad,  but  in  that  of 
Busra ;  consequently  I  was  debarred  by  the  limit  of  my  firman 
from  carrying  on  the  necessary  explorations  there ;  and  so 
after  three  days'  trial  I  abandoned  it,  and  returned  to  Baghdad, 
thinking  that  on  a  future  occasion  I  should  be  able,  through 
Sir  Henry  Layard's  influence  at  Constantinople,  to  obtain 
permission  to  resume  work  there.  I  was,  however,  doomed 
to  be  disappointed,  because  in  the  meantime  M.  de  Sarzac, 
the  French  Vice-Consul  at  Busra,  who  had  also  tried  this 
mound  before,  was  endeavouring  through  his  embassy  at  the 
Turkish  capital  to  obtain  a  firman  to  excavate  on  his  own 
account  at  Tel-Loh,  and  before  I  could  communicate  with 
Sir  Henry  Layard  he  attained  his  desired  object.  I  did  not 
know  at  first  that  M.  de  Sarzac  was  trying  to  obtain  a  firman 
to  excavate  at  Tel-Loh  on  his  own  private  account,  but  had 


194        Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities. 

heard  that  he  had  asked  the  French  Government  to  give  him 
a  grant  for  his  intended  explorations,  which  they  had  refused 
to  do.  and  this  put  me  off  the  scent.  Though  my  other  duties 
took  me  from  the  place,  had  I  had  the  required  permission 
to  dig  there,  I  would  have  left  the  overseer  in  charge.  On 
such  expeditions  it  is  my  custom  to  take  with  me  a  trust- 
worthy overseer ;  and  should  the  mound  prove  likely  to  afford 
satisfactory  results  on  tentative  excavations  being  made,  I 
leave  him  there  to  look  after  the  work  during  my  absence. 

I  found  on  arriving  at  Tel-Loh  that  the  statue  I  had 
heard  of  was  partially  uncovered  by  the  Arabs,  and  so  I 
had  it  dug  out  and  made  some  squeezes  of  the  inscription, 
which  I  brought  to  the  British  Museum  on  my  return  home 
in  June,  1879.  While  I  was  there  I  tried  other  parts  of  the 
mound,  and  found  different  inscribed  objects,  which  I  brought 
home,  consisting  of  inscribed  clay  tablets,  weights,  sockets  of 
a  gate,  and  curious  inscribed  symbols  in  the  shape  of  a 
thick  nail.  Of  the  latter  the  whole  mound  was  covered 
with  fragments;  and  up  to  to-day  no  one,  as  far  as  I 
know,  has  accurately  explained  what  they  were  used  for. 
Assyrian  scholars  have  identified  this  ancient  seat  of  bygone 
Chaldean  civilization  as  being  "  iSirgulla,"  or  city  of  the 
great  light ;  that  is  to  say,  a  place  dedicated  to  fire  worship, 
and  that  the  greater  part  of  the  discovered  antiquities  bore 
the  name  of  "  Gudea,"  a  prince  who  held  the  rank  of  a 
viceroy  under  the  king  of  Ur. 

The  mound  of  Tel-Loh  is  very  curiously  shaped,  quite 
different  from  other  ancient  Babylonian  sites.  It  is  about  a 
mile  in  circumference,  and  consists  of  different  small  mounds, 
the  largest  of  which  is  the  one  in  which  the  statues  which 
are  now  at  the  Louvre  were  found.  In  that  same  mound  the 
sitting  figure  was  found ;  and  had  I  dug  there  another  clay, 
I  should  have  come  upon  the  others  which  M.  de  Sarzac 
removed.  In  some  parts  of  the  area  of  Tel-Loh  it  was  only 
necessary  to  dig  one  foot  in  order  to  come  upon  ancient 
remains;  and  the  largest  mound  cannot  be  more  than  thirty 
feet  high.  It  is  quite  certain  that  this  place  was  not  used 
as  a  residence  for  royalty,  but  as  a  mausoleum  or  kind  of 
cemetery  for  renowned  individuals.     In  one  mound,  where 


Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities,         195 

I  unearthed  the  inscribed  pebble  gate  socket,  which  is  now 
in  the  British  Museum,  there  was  only  one  chamber  brought  to 
light,  evidently  a  temple,  like  that  of  Balawat,  where  I  found 
Shalmaneser's  bronze  gates;  and  the  mound  in  which  M.  de 
Sarzac  discovered  the  statues  contained  about  half-a-dozen 
small  chambers.  The  remainder  of  the  open  space  must 
have  been  used  either  for  a  garden  or  for  interring  the 
remains  of  less  worthy  personages. 

For  the  last  two  years  our  explorations  in  Assyria  were 
carried  on  on  a  small  scale,  in  consequence  of  the  opposition 
which  the  Turkish  authorities  have  been  creating  against  my 
digging  in  that  part  of  Nineveh  called  Nebbi  Yunis,  or  the 
prophet  Jonah.  Formerly  we  were  debarred  from  digging 
at  that  place  by  the  prejudice  the  natives  of  the  village 
had  against  selling  us  any  house  to  excavate  in  ;  and  as  the 
whole  mound  was  covered  over  with  houses,  we  could  not 
manage  to  carry  on  our  researches  there  as  we  wished ;  but 
on  returning  to  Mossul  in  the  beginning  of  187  lJ,  some  of  the 
inhabitants  invited  me  to  go  and  dig  in  their  houses,  and 
others  actually  offered  to  sell  me  their  dwellings  for  the  same 
purpose.  I,  of  course,  accepted  the  last  offer,  and  purchased 
the  required  number  of  houses  in  order  to  make  some  tentative 
excavations  therein.  I  had  at  first  to  obtain  the  permission 
of  the  guardians  of  the  mosque  to  enable  me  to  purchase 
the  houses,  as  the  land  was  a  kind  of  copyhold  of  the  shrine 
of  the  prophet  Jonah.  Soon  after  operations  were  com- 
menced, however,  the  overseer  of  the  religious  endowment 
and  other  petty  Turkish  officials,  thinking  that  I  had  bribed 
the  guardians  of  the  mosque,  and  they  receiving  no  share 
in  the  transaction,  began  to  show  opposition  by  inducing 
some  natives  of  the  place  to  petition  the  local  authorities 
against  my  continuing  the  excavations  there,  on  the  plea  that 
by  my  doing  so  the  village  would  be  destroyed,  and  the 
public  revenue  injured.  At  that  time  the  Governor  General 
himself  went  to  the  village  of  Nebbi  Yunis  and  examined 
into  the  complaints,  and  he  could  not  but  give  his  verdict 
against  the  petitioners,  as  he  said  that  I  had  purchased  the 
houses  legally  and  with  the  entire  consent  of  their  owners, 
and  he  could  not,  therefore,  stop  the  work;  but  the  Mootsarif, 


19(i         Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities. 

or  Lieutenant  Governor  of  Mossul.  from  that  day  forward 
leagued  with  the  then  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  at  Con- 
stantinople to  thwart  us,  and  has  succeeded.  Both  of  these 
officials  were  known  to  be  unfavourably  disposed  towards 
British  interests.  Unfortunately  when  this  difficulty  arose 
Sir  Henry  Layard  had  left  the  Turkish  capital,  and  although 
I  applied  over  and  over  again  to  his  successors,  they  could  do 
nothing,  as  it  appears  that  the  attitude  the  British  Government 
assumed  in  the  matter  of  Dulcino  and  the  Egyptian  difficulty 
have  alienated  the  good  feeling  of  the  Porte  towards  England ; 
and  the  Sultan  not  caring  to  grant  us  any  favours,  everything 
has  gone  against  us.  All  the  pleas  they  brought  up  against  our 
digging  at  the  village  of  Nebbi  Yunis  were  childish ;  and 
although  they  alleged  that  I  had  acted  in  contravention  to 
the  conditions  of  the  firman,  they  failed  to  prove  their 
case,  as  I  have  always  been  most  cautious  in  carrying  out 
my  explorations  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the 
Imperial  license :  but  I  am  sorry  to  say  that  the  Ottoman 
Government  have  often  failed  to  adhere  to  the  strict  royal 
injunctions.  The  local  authorities  at  Mossul  had  no  more 
right  to  stop  us  from  digging  at  the  village  of  Nebbi  Yunis, 
especially  in  the  houses  I  had  purchased,  than  at  any  other 
spot,  though  they  said  that  the  place  in  which  I  wished 
to  dig  was  sacred.  The  Ottoman  authorities  themselves 
dug  there  when  I  was  excavating  at  Koyunjik,  adjoining 
Nebbi  Yunis,  in  1853 ;  and  besides,  I  never  intended  to 
excavate  near  the  Mausoleum  of  the  prophet  Jonah,  but 
took  care  to  keep  outside  the  Ottoman  excavations  which 
skirted  the  mosque.  Although  during  the  short  time  I 
excavated  at  the  village  of  Nebbi  Yunis  very  little  was 
found  to  reward  me  for  my  anxiety,  nevertheless  the 
tradition  which  is  attached  to  the  palace,  and  the  fact  of 
three  of  the  great  Assyrian  kings  having  resided  there, — 
namely,  Pul,  Sennacherib,  and  Esarhaddon,  make  me  long 
to  try  it  once  more.  I  feel  quite  sanguine  that  after  a  short 
labour  in  certain  parts  in  that  mound,  it  will  reveal  to  the 
world  important  discoveries,  as  this  site  must  have  been  in 
the  latter  days  of  Assyrian  magnificence  the  chief  seat  of 
royalty.     From  the  annals  of  Esarhaddon  we  learn  that  he 


Recent  Discoveries  of  Ancient  Babylonian  Cities.         197 

had  built  there  a  palace,  "  such  as  the  kings,  his  fathers, 
who  went  before  him,  had  never  made,"  and  which  he  called 
"  the  palace  of  the  pleasures  of  all  the  year." 

It  is  to  be  hoped  that  British  interest  will  yet  take  its 
former  status,  and  the  Porte  will  withdraw  all  opposition  to 
our  archaeological  researches,  especially  as  we  have  still  some 
work  to  be  done  in  the  palaces  and  temples  discovered.  It 
would  be  a  crying  shame  that  we  should  not  be  allowed  to 
excavate  the  remainder  of  the  palaces  we  have  discovered, 
and  allow  others  to  benefit  by  obtaining  the  remainder  of 
our  collection,  more  especially  in  the  palace  of  Sennacherib 
in  Nineveh,  which  Sir  Henry  Layard  discovered  in  1845,  where 
we  have  been  excavating  off  and  on  for  the  last  thirty-eight 
years,  during  the  reign  of  three  Sultans. 


198 


EGYPTIAN  MYTHOLOGY,  PARTICULARLY  WITH 
REFERENCE  TO  MIST  AND  CLOUD. 

By  P.  Le  Page  RenOuf. 

Bead  1th  March,  18S2. 

The  Greek  dissertation  upon  Isis  and  Osiris,  which  is  found 
among  the  works  of  Plutarch,  contains  the  striking  remark, 
that  the  Egyptian  legends  with  which  the  writer  is  concerned 
are  so  extremely  like  well  known  Hellenic  legends  that  the 
same  explanations  are  available  for  both.  This  is  undoubtedly 
true,  and  if  the  Greeks  had  really  been  able  to  explain  their 
( >wn  mythology,  it  would  not  have  been  difficult  for  them  to 
understand  Egyptian  mythology  when  derived  from  sources 
as  genuine  as  some  of  those  known  to  the  author  of  this 
Greek  work.1  Pmt  a  science  of  mythology  was  not  possible 
in  the  days  of  Plutarch  and  his  imitators.  It  has  only  become 
possible  since  the  study  of  the  oldest  Indian  literature  has 
shown  that  the  mythology  of  the  Vedas  bears  the  same  rela- 
tionship to  the  mythologies  of  the  Greek,  Italian,  Scandinavian, 
Teutonic,  and  Slav  races,  which  the  Sanskrit  language  bears 
to  the  different  Indo-European  languages.  Vedic  mythology 
is  not  the  parent  of  Greek  or  of  Roman  mythology,  any  more 
than  Sanskrit  is  the  parent  of  Greek  or  Lathi.  But  there  is 
clear  proof  that  all  the  races  of  Aryan  origin  had  a  common 

1  The  genuineness  of  some  of  these  sources  being  undisputed,  some  Egyptolo- 
gists have  jumped  to  the  extravagant  conclusion  that  Plutarch's  interpretation 
of  the  myths  must  be  correct.  In  the  days  of  Plutarch  even  the  Egyptian 
interpretations  of  myths  were  utterly  worthless. 

No  progress  is  possible  until  Egyptologists  entirely  repudiate  the  authority 
of  Plutarch,  Diodorus,  Horapollo,  and  Hermes  Trismegistus.  as  exponents  of 
Egyptian  ideas.  To  suppose,  like  M.  Deveria.  that  neo-Platonic  forgeries  of  the 
Christian  period  can  throw  any  light,  except  a  thoroughly  false  one,  upon 
mythological  writings  more  than  two  thousand  years  older,  is  to  misconceive  the 
nature  of  philosophy  as  well  as  that  of  mythology 


Egyptian  Mythology,  fyc.  199 

mythology  before  they  separated,  and  also  that  the  forms 
which  the  Vedie  myths  present  are  historically  far  more 
ancient,  and  at  the  same  time  more  transparent  and  intel- 
ligible, than  the  Greek  or  the  Roman  forms. 

Far  more  instructive  than  the  explanation  of  any  one 
myth  or  legend,  is  the  discovery  of  the  process  of  myth- 
formation,  and  consequently  of  the  true  method  of  interpre- 
tation ;  especially  when  it  is  found  that  the  same  kind  of 
process  has  been  going  on,  not  only  among  all  Indo-European 
races,  but,  as  nearly  as  can  be  ascertained,  all  over  the  world. 
One  and  the  same  natural  phenomenon  does  not  necessarily 
give  rise  to  the  same  myth  everywhere,  but  the  process  by 
which  myths  are  derived  from  it  is  everywhere  the  same. 

Every  national  mythology  has,  in  the  first  instance,  to  be 
investigated  according  to  the  facts  which  are  furnished  by  its 
own  language  and  literature ;  but  these  facts  derive  much 
light  from  the  analogy  of  corresponding  facts  in  other 
u^thologies.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  acknowledge  that 
reasoning  supposed  to  follow  analogy  is  often  most  fallacious; 
but  this  is  only  the  case  when  a  real  analogy  does  not  exist. 

Among  the  truths  which  a  study  of  comparative  mythology 
has  made  very  evident,  there  are  two  or  three  upon  which  I 
think  it  necessary  to  insist  most  strongly. 

It  is  an  entire  mistake  to  seek  in  myths  for  religious, 
metaphysical,  ethical,  or  political  ideas,  or  for  physical  theories. 
Myths  in  themselves  have  nothing  to  do  with  religion.  Re- 
ligion in  itself  has  nothing  to  do  with  mythology.  Religious 
feelings  have  indeed  very  often  centred  upon  the  gods  of 
mythology,  but  the  word  '  god'  does  not  in  itself  denote  any- 
thing of  a  religious  nature.1 

The  myths  have  reference  solely  to  physical  phenomena, 
and  as  each  physical  object  is  susceptible  of  many  names, 
and  of  being  considered   from   various  points  of  view,2  the 

1  See  an  excellent  article  of  Delbriick,  "Entstehung  des  Mythos  bei  den  Indo- 
germ.  Volker,  und  uber  das  Verhaltniss  zwischen  Religion  und  Myth,"  in  the 
Zeitschrljt  fiir  Yolkerpsychologie,  B.  III. 

2  "  Der  Name  eincs  Dinges  enthalt  nur  Sin  Merkmal  statt  des  ganzen 
Begriffs."  Pott,  "  uber  Mannigfaltigkeit  d.  sprachlichen  Ausdrucks,"  in  the 
Zeitschr.  fur  Volkerpsycholog ie,  B.  I,  p.  345. 


200  Egyptian  Mythology,  particularly 

most  different  and  the  most  contradictory  myths  may  be 
derived  from  it.  A  god  may  have  ever  so  many  different 
mothers,  be  born  in  ever  so  many  different  places,  and  end 
his  career  in  ever  so  many  different  ways.  All  attempts  to 
harmonise  these  stories,  or  to  select  one  in  preference  to 
the  others  are  simply  idle  ;  each  story  is  true  in  its  own  sense 
and  independent  of  every  other  story. 

Lastly,  every  genuine  myth  is  expressed  in  a  very  few 
words.1  Divine  dynasties,  theogonies  containing  many  gene- 
rations, long  consistent  and  consecutive  legendary  narratives 2 
are  not  genuine  mythology  any  more  than  they  are  genuine 
history.     They  are  literary  or  priestly  inventions. 

That  Egyptian  mythology,  like  the  Indo-European,  is 
derived  from  natural  phenomena,  and  that  its  principal  deities 
are  names  of  the  Sun,  has,  I  suppose,  never  been  doubted  by 
modern  scholars.  At  all  events,  no  one  having  any  decent 
pretension  to  understand  the  ancient  language  of  Egypt, 
whatever  his  mythological  theories  may  be,  will  hesitate  to 
admit  that  Seb  is  the  earth,  Nut  heaven,  and  Ra,  Tmu,  Horus, 
Mentu,  and  Chepera,  but  different  names  of  the  Sun.  But  it 
is  equally  certain  that  all  natural  phenomena  have  not  been 
personified,  and  that  all  the  personages  of  mythology  have 

not  the  rank  of  gods.      Apap,  or  rather  (1  (1  ^^  Apepi, 

the  adversary  of  Ra,  is  never  considered  as  a  god,  whilst  Set, 
the  adversary  of  Osiris  and  Horus,  was  called  a  'great  god 
and  lord  of  heaven'  in  the  most  flourishing  days  of  the  old 

1  Cf.  Max  Miiller's  remarks  on  Weleker's  method  of  dealing  with  Greek 
mythology :  Chips,  II,  pp.  150  and  151.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that,  for 
English  readers  at  least,  the  essay  on  Comparative  Mythology  at  the  beginning 
of  this  volume  is  the  best  introduction  to  the  study  of  the  subject. 

2  Such  as  the  "  Destruction  of  Men  "  in  the  tomb  of  Seti,  or  the  "  Triumphs 
of  Horus,"  at  Edfu,  or  the  "  Wanderings  of  Isis,"  on  the  Metternicli  Tablet. 
They  bear  the  same  kind  of  relation  to  true  mythology  that  a  tragedy  of 
Sophocles  or  Euripides  bears  to  Indo-European  mythology.  But  the  story  of 
Osiris,  as  told  by  Plutarch  or  Diodorus,  can  only  be  fitly  judged  by  comparing 
it  with  the  story  of  Cacus,  as  told  by  the  latter  writer,  and  then  reading 
the  various  transformations  which  the  true  myth  of  Cacus  has  suffered. 
See  Breal's  excellent  "  Hercule  et  Cacus,"  in  his  Melanges  de  Mythologie  et 
de  Linguistique. 


ivith  reference  to  Mist  and  Cloud.  201 


religion.      Akar,    v\  Jjl  who  is  associated  with  Set,2 

Apepi,  and  the  enemies  of  Ra,  is  also  a  god.  Wherein  lies 
the  difference  between  these  personages?  A  solution  of  this 
question  is  essential  to  the  right  understanding  of  the 
Egyptian  mythology. 

The  theology  of  ancient  Egypt,  from  the  earliest  periods 
known  to  us,  is  based  upon  the  conception  of  the  uniformity 
of  Nature;  as  governed  by  constant,  fixed,  and  unalterable 
law.  This  conception  was  derived  from  the  observation  of 
the  unvaried  succession  of  physical  phenomena,  in  the  motions 
of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  in  the  year  and  its  seasons,  day 
and  night,  light  and  darkness.     The  common  noun  used  to 

a  /www 

express  the  different  powers  is     |,  phonetically  written    °  , 

.  „    ..        P    /  f\  ^^^A/^A   !\  /wwva  . 

or  still  more  fully  Vsr=5[|<=>}  ,  (I  <=>,  ,  ,  nutar, 

but  already  in  the  eighteenth  dynasty  corrupted  in  popular 
pronunciation  to  ^^  (j  nutd,  from  which  the  Coptic  rtOT^f", 
signifying  God,  is  derived.  Nutar  is  etymologically  con- 
nected with    J  (I  \    nutra ;  a  word  which  has  erroneously 

been  translated  "renew."  In  hundreds  of  texts  where  it 
occurs  the  primary  sense  is  might,  strength,  jwwer.3  As  an 
adjective  it  signifies  strong,  mighty,  and  as  a  verb  strengthen, 
fortify,  protect.  And  this  is  the  reason  why,  in  the  later  texts, 
the  common   determinative  of  the  word  is  a  fortified  wall 


1  This  god  (aicoTalog)  represents  the  dusk  or  gloom  of  morn  or  evening,  Todt., 
108,  9  ;  111,  4  ;  149,  17.  See  also  39,  6  and  9.  The  deceased  says,  94,  2,  "  I  am 
provided  with  the  writings  of  Thoth,  which  ward  off  the  Akar  who  is  in  Sut, 

-  \-  \\  rJ\"  s'.e.,  "  the  eloom  of  night."     A  tablet  from 

J   Jj^  T  W  sil 

Abydos,  of  the  13th  or  14th  dynasty,  speaks  of  the  ithyphallic  god  Ames  as  the 
terrible  one  who  smites  Akar  and  deals  blows  against  the  enemies  of  the  sun, 


(Mariette,  Catalogue,  261). 

2  This  god's  name  should  probably  be  written  Sut,  as  in  the  preceding  note. 
The  form  1  <=»  which  is  found  in  Todt.,  96, 2,  is  evidently  a  mere  mistake  for 
I  mB  ,  as  it  will  be  found  written  in  the  Papyrus  of  Nebseni. 

3  See  Appendix. 


202  Egyptian  Mytliology,  particularly 


]l  or  11.  The  corresponding  word  in  Coptic  is  HOJULXe , 
ItOJUL"!",  which  in  the  Bible  represents  the  Greek  words  Suva/x/?. 
tV^u?,  icrxvpooo.  I  trace  the  Coptic  word  to  the  hieroglyphic 
forms  ^  ,    *™w  g >  [)  <z>  nuntar.  and  the  plural  forms 

■which  occur  among  the  many  variants  of  ^  in  the  so-called 
enigmatic  texts  at  Biban-el-Moluk.  As  nutar  has  become  nuti 
in  Coptic,  bo  has  nuntar  become  nomti.  And  nuntar  has  grown 
out  of  nutar  by  the  insertion  of  a  nasal  consonant  into  the 
first  syllable,  as  the  Coptic  forms  ^ertKI  and  ^GJULKG  have 

grown  out  of  X      O   heket  or  cyeJULcyi   out  of  n  H -A   Sese? 

The  notion  of  a  Kosmos,  or  what  moderns  call  the  Reign 
of  Law,  is  implied  in  the  Egyptian  S^o  Maat,  a  word 
which  I  think  it  is  a  serious  mistake  in  certain  contexts  to 
translate,  "truth."  Moat  is  Law.  in  the  sense  of  that  eternal 
and  unerring  order  through  which  this  universe  exists  :  and 
this  sense  of  the  word  is  not  an  extension  of  the  notion  of 

••truth.'"  but  is  as  directly  connected  with  the  notion  of  — ^  .A 
mad,  stretch  out,  hold  out  straight,  as  the  Latin  regere.  regula, 
rectus,  and  our  own  rule  and  right,  with  org,  the  Indo-European 
equivalent  of  -^  -A 


maa. 


One  of  the  most  essential  attributes  of  the  Egyptian  nutar 
is  that  he  should  be  ^zz?  *z^      neb  moat,  literally  lord  or  rm 

of  Laic.  The  meaning  of  this  expression  is  liable  to  be  mis- 
taken. It  does  not  signify  that  Law  is  at  the  lord's  will 
or  disposal,  but  that  it  is  his  distinguishing  attribute.     In 


L. 


— 


Egyptian  as  in  Hebrew,  a  hairy  man  is  lord  of  hair.  IB) 

1  The   value   sese  r-xr-i  0  fl    (Dent.,  II.  122 ;    III,    262:    &c)    for   fl  R  A 
is  indisputable. 

M.  Pierret  and  Dr.  Brugseh  hare  recently  appealed  in  favour  of  iemse  to  an 

ancient  monument  which  reads    n  ^\      I .      They  ought  to  have  noticed  that 

in  this  inscription  the  word  sienifying  service  should  grammatically  be  preceded 

The  scribe  has  simply  put  this  letter  in  the  wrong  place— an  extrenielv 


common  error. 


with  reference  to  Mist  and  Cloud.  203 

fringed  is  lord  of  -wings.  ^-^  \\>  wb  abu,  lord  of  horns,  is  the 
exact  equivalent  of  Q^"?|2  '  V^  ;  ^^  czzn  f**^  lord  of  blood, 
means  bloody ;  ^^7  \\\  lord  of  years,  means  aged,  annosus;  the 
faithful  dead  is  called  either  ^  p  dm%u,  or  o  neb  amyu. 

The  Sun-god  is  ^zz?  S^7^,  because  his  course  is  guided  by 
fixed  Law,  and  never  transgresses  it.  And  such  is  the  case 
with  all  other  personages  who  have  the  same  attribute  applied 
to  them.  And  incredibly  numerous  as  were  the  personages 
of  their  mythology,  the  Egyptians  seem  to  have  regarded 
none  as  gods  who  did  not  in  some  way,  like  the  days  of  the 
month  and  the  twenty-four  hours  of  the  day,  represent  a  fixed 
and  eternal  Law.  Night,  therefore,  in  the  person  of  Set,  is 
justly  esteemed  a  "great  god  and  lord  of  heaven";  but  Apepi 
clearly  represents  a  natural  phenomenon  of  so  irregular  an 
occurrence  as  not  to  fall  within  the  Egyptian  conception  cf 
Law. 

The  myths  of  Egypt,  like  those  of  all  other  nations,  arose 
(it  cannot  too  often  be  repeated)  from  the  spontaneous  and 
often  homely  utterances  of  men  in  presence  of  nature.  We 
have  a  vulgar  saying  when  the  sun  shines  through  the  rain, 
that  "the  Devil  is  beating  his  wife."  The  Sun  was  spoken  of 
by  the  Egyptians  as  the  "  Youth  in  Town,"  or  the  "  Lad  in 
the  Country,"  or  the*  "Bull  in  the  Fields."  He  is  the  "Husband 
of  his  own  Mother."  When  he  has  disappeared,  it  is  said  that 
he  has  lost  his  sight,  that  his  eyes  will  be  restored  to  him  at 
daybreak,  or  that  his  head  has  been  swallowed  by  his  enemy. 
The  etymologies  of  some  of  the  names  of  the  Sun  are  very 
evident.  He  is  Ptah  the  Opener,  Tmu  the  Closer,  Chnemu 
the  Builder.  But  some  of  the  most  important  names  of  gods 
are  as  yet  without  explanation.  I  endeavoured  in  my  Lectures 
on  the  Egyptian  religion  to  identify  the  principal  gods,  and 
since  the  delivery  of  those  lectures  I  have  seen  but  little 
reason  to  modify  any  of  the  results  upon  which  I  expressed 
myself  very  positively.  But  on  some  points  I  spoke  hesitat- 
ingly, for  instance,  as  to  the  gods  Shu  and  Tefnut ;  and  with 
reference  to  others  (Isis,  Nephthys,  and  Hath  or)  I  was  aware 
of  a  good  many  texts  which  might  be  quoted  in  apparent 
opposition   to  the  conclusions  I  had  adopted.      As  to  the 


204  Egyptian  Mythology,  particularly 

mythology  derived  from  phenomena  of  irregular  occurrence, 
I  said  but  little,  and  that  only  conjecturally.  On  all  these 
points  I  now  venture  to  lay  before  you  the  results  of  a  more 
mature  study  of  the  original  texts. 

I  do  not  think  I  was  wrong  in  identifying  Xephthys  with 
the  Sunset,  and  Isis,  Hathor,  Neith,  and  other  goddesses,  with 
the  Dawn.  But  M.  Xaville  was  also  right  in  his  conjecture 
that  Xephthys  might  represent  the  morning,  and  Isis  the 
evening,  twilight.  There  were,  in  fact,  according  to  Egyptian 
ideas,  two  Dawns,  and  a  word  which  means  Dawn  also  meanu 
Sunset.1  In  the  vignettes  of  the  17th  Chapter  of  the  Book  of 
the  Dead,  the  goddesses  Isis  and  Xephthys  twice  appear 
together,  once  on  the  Eastern  and  once  on  the  Western 
direction  of  the  bark  of  the  Sun-god.  Again,  Isis  is  said  to 
give  birth  to  the  Sun-god  Horus,  and  Xephthys  to  nurse  him. 
This  is,  of  course,  on  the  eastern  horizon.  Yet  both  Isis  and 
Xephthys  are  called  "  goddesses  of  the  West."  According  to 
one  of  the  glosses  of  the  17th  chapter,  Isis  and  Xephthys  are 
the  two  feathers  on  the  head  of  the  ithyphallic  god  ^p 
Ames,2  who  (we  are  told  in  the  same  place)  is  no  other  than 
Horus,  the  avenger  of  his  father.     In  the  more  recent  texts 


£f^  maSeru.  Observe  the  determinative  _25Xs,  which  is  Ten- 
important.  The  sun  sets  at  the  maSeru  (Todt.,  15,  2),  and  he  rises  at  it  (15, 16). 
The  Hebrew    ^y^ri    also  means  dawn  and  sunset. 

2  Commonly  but  erroneously  called  Khem.  The  variants  of  the  name  are 
Jl-  [1  \\  3  and  \\  Ah-  "  Jj\  (see  Zeitschr.,  1877,  p.  98),  as  found  in  a 
tomb  of  the  XYIIIth  dynasty  (Denkm.,  Ill,  3S),  in  the  papyrus  of  Xebseni,  in 
one  at  Boulaq  (No.  21),  and  in  that  of  Xet'emet,  belonging  to  the  Prince  of  Wales. 
Two  other  authorities  (the  Ritual  of  Mentuhotep  and  that  of  Keka,  both  at 
Berlin)  show  that  the  last  consonant  in  the  name  was      or  — h — ,  and  for  the  name 

itself    \7  in  the  papyrus  of  Keka  I  read    y      antes.     [Since  this  was  in  print, 

Si.  Maspero  (Zeitschr.,  1882,  p.  129)  has  quoted  two  identical  texts  ;  in  that  from 

the  pyramid  of   Teta  v\  J^K    corresponds  to  -=aoc=>  in  that  from  the 

/wwv\    77    w  "S  _  _ 

pyramid   of   Unas.       These   are    not    phonetic    variants    any  more    than    the 

[j    of  Teta  =  the  D\\    or  D  (1   of  Unas.     In  TempeUnschr.,  I,  32,  ^iFjl  in 

Ames  Men  (line  8),  is  distinguished  from  >    ^.  -  V^  Ames  Horus  (line  1)]. 


nth  reference  to  Mixt  and  Clotid.  205 


the  hieroglyphic  sign  lfX|{  representing  the  rising  sun 
between  Isis  and  Nephthys,  is  ideographic  of  the  word 
*  ks^  tuau,  morning,  whence  the  Coptic  TOTI.  When 
they  are  associated  in  this  way  it  is  right  to  speak  of  these 
goddesses  as  the  Two  Dawns.  When  they  appear  isolated, 
unless  there  is  a  special  reason  for  the  contrary,  Isis  remains 
the  Dawn,  as  in  the  myth  where  Horus  strikes  off  her  head, 
or  in  the  1 33rd  chapter,  which  begins  as  follows :  "  The  Sun- 
god  rises  from  his  horizon;  the  company  of  gods  is  with  him, 
as  the  god  comes  forth  who  is  in  the  secret  dwelling.  The 
mists  fall  away  from  the  eastern  horizon  of  heaven  at  the 
voice  of  Isis,  who  has  prepared  the  way  for  the  Sun-god." 
And,  on  the  other  hand,  Nephthys  considered  as  the  spouse 
of  Set,  the  destroyer  of  Osiris,  or  as  the  mother  of  Ann  bis, 
"  who  swallows  his  own  father,"  can  only  be  identified  with 
the  Sun-set. 

Hathor,  "the  dwelling  of  Horus,"  out  of  which  he  comes, 
and  into  which  he  returns,  stands  both  for  the  Dawn  and  the 
evening  twilight. 

I  thought  it  probable  that  Neith,  the  great  goddess  of 
Sais,  and  mother  of  the  Sun-god  Ra,  who  in  various  texts  is 
identified  with  Isis,  was  one  of  the  many  names  of  the  Dawn, 
not  of  Heaven,  as  has  generally  been  thought.  I  ought  to 
have  spoken  more  positively.  The  passage  I  referred  to  in 
the  Book  of  the  Dead  (114,  1,  2)  is  sufficient  to  support  a 
decided  assertion.    The  goddess  herself  says  on  the  sepulchral 

canopi,     I  *  v\  O  Jj    I ' 1  '=^=i  J]    setud  semdserd  ra  neb, 

"I  come  at  Dawn  and  at  Sunset  daily,"1  and  I  ought  to  have 
remembered  that  a  papyrus  of  the  Louvre  says  that  "the  Sun- 
god  Ra  rises  at  the  gates  of  the  horizon  at  the  prime  portals 
of  Neith."  Upon  which  M.  Maspero  says,  "  En  taut  que  deesse 
cosmique  [the  Egyptians  had  no  otliers]  Neith  representait  la 
matiere  inerte  et  tenebreuse  d'oii  le  soleil  sortait  chaque 
matin."  "  La  matiere  inerte  et  tenebreuse  "  is  an  unnecessary 
and  unauthorized  addition  to  the  Egyptian  conception.  But 
I  am  pleased  to  find  that  on  some  important  points  I  am  not 

1  Rouge,  Etude  sur  une  stele  er/i/ptienne,  p.  125. 


20fi  Egyptian  Mythology,  particularly 

so  tar  at  variance  with  other  Egyptian  scholars  as  I  thought 
when  I  delivered  my  lectures.  I  am  certainly  not  disposed  to 
admit  the  general  proposition,  that  the  Egyptian  goddesses 
represented  space.  But  M.  Pierret's  doctrine,  "  qu'elles  per- 
sonnifient  la  lumicre  du  soleil  ou  l'espace  dans  lequel  il  prend 
sa  naissance  et  dans  lequel  il  se  coucke"  is  very  nearly  my  own 
view.  I  fear  Egyptologists  will  soon  be  accused,  like  other 
persons,  of  seeing  the  Dawn  everywhere.  The  ancient 
Egyptians  at  least  saw  these  goddesses  where  we  see  them. 
"  Oh  Shu,  Amen  Ra,  Harmachis,  self-sprung,"  says  a  hymn, 
"  thy  sister  goddesses  stand  in  Buchat,  they  uplift  thee  into 
thy  bark."  Buchat,  as  Brugsch  proved  many  years  ago,  is  the 
place  on  the  horizon  where  the  sun  rises.1 

I  am,  I  confess,  compelled  to  see  the  Dawn,  or  rather  the 
Two  Dawns,  in  Shu  and  Tefnut,  the  two  children  of  the  Sun- 
god  Ra.2  It  may  be  quite  true  that  in  later  times  Shu  repre- 
sented Air,  but  this  is  only  because  the  Dawn  brings  fresh 
breezes3 — Oriens  afflavit  anhelis.4     But  in  all  the  early  texts 

1  Zeitschr.,  1864,  p.  74.     The  form  J  |g[  =  ilOT,P,I   palpelrce,  "the 
eyelids  "  of  the  Dawn.     On  the  "wings  of  the  Dawn,"  see  infra,  Note  4. 

2  As  Dr.  Birch  already  thought  when  he  translated  the  Book  of  the  Dead. 
See  Bunsen's  Egypt,  vol.  v,  p.  193. 

3  Compare  the   Hebrew    F|tt?3  flavit   (apparently  akin   to   DU?3    spiravit, 
TV2^^  halitus)  with   P]tl?3   crepusculum.    The  word  q  '    Jl,  '  ne$ep  (Diiinichen, 

Result  ate,  18,  3,  26,  10)  is  evidently  borrowed  by  the  Egyptians  of  the  recent 

inscriptions. 

4  This  agrees  with  several  texts  of  the  recent  period. 

^^Re1T(|o3*— -*~wvv-!™^? IT1^'  "The  god 

Shu  comes  to  thee  in  his  form  of  the  Dawn  to  give  thee  air"  (Rec,  I,  35,  from 
the   coffin   of   Hetra).      ^^^xl  Va~     Sau-Rru,  which   means  the   Dawn    (see 
Brugsch's  Lex.,  part  7,  p.  982),    is  an  evident  imitation  of  the  Semitic    mi* 
(j>   1  * —    Cp\    -.         .  .  ■)  y  *  ,  "  The  god  Shu  comes  to  thee  daily  at 

early  dawn  in  the  four  winds"  (Dendera,  ap.  Brugsch,  ibid.,  p.  687).  In  the 
article  of  Brugsch's  Lexicon  on  n=h  Va~  ,  these  two  texts  are  referred  to  among 
others  not  less  interesting.  One  of  these  speaks  of  the  Dawn  as  knowing  one's 
interior,  /^-  l7i  *T-T^.       (Cf.  the  name  of  the  door-keeper  of  the  Hall  of  Maiit, 


with  reference  to  Mist  and  Cloud.  207 

Shu  is  the  rising  Sun.  The  Harris  magical  papyrus  identifies 
Shu  with  "  the  Sun  travelling  upwards  at  the  prime  of  morn- 
ing, whilst  Tefnut,  seated  upon  his  head,  darts  her  flame 
against  his  adversaries."  The  myth,  according  to  which  Shu 
"  divided  heaven  from  earth,"  only  means  that  at  the  dawning 
of  the  day  heaven  and  earth,  which  were  previously  confused 
together  in  darkness,  are  clearly  seen  apart.  And  when  it  is 
added  that  "  he  raised  the  heaven  above  the  earth  for  millions 
of  years,"  what  happens  every  day  is,  according  to  the  well 
known  wont  of  myths,  related  as  having  occurred  once.    The 

expression   c        [)  \\  kotep  su,  implies  that  Shu  is  used  for 

the  Sunset  as  well  as  for  the  Dawn.  Shu  and  Tefnut  are 
called  the  Two  Lions,  but  they  are  also  represented  by  a 
single  Lion,  as  though  there  were  but  a  single  divinity.  In 
the  tomb  of  queen  Maat-ka-ra  the  two  Eyes  of  Horus  are  said 
to  be  Shu  and  Tefnut — one  being  in  the  morning  boat  and 
the  other  in  the  evening  boat  of  the  Sun. 

As  Tefhut  etymologically  seemed  to  represent  some  form 
of  moisture,  I  had  conjectured  that  this  was  Dew  rather  than 
Rain,  which  is  not  one  of  the  regularly  recurring  phenomena 
of  Egypt.  And  Brugsch  has  recently  come  to  a  similar  con- 
clusion.1 This  conjecture,  however,  scarcely  does  justice  to 
the  powers  of  Tefnut,  who  is  always  described  as  a  fiery  and 
even  blood-stained  divinity.  It  is  fire  that  she  spits  against 
the  adversaries.  "  I  am  Tefnut,"  she  says,  "thundering  against 
those  who  are  kept  on  the  earth,  who  are  annihilated  for  ever." 
She  surely  represents 

"  The  sanguine  sunrise,  with  his  meteor  eyes 
And  his  burning  plumes  outspread," 

or  the  "  crimson  pall  of.  eve." 

Todt.,  125,  61,  and  Max  Miiller,  Science  of  Language,  II,  p.  564,  7th  Ed.)    But 

the  most  important  ones  are  those  which  clearly  identify    wv   c=^5>    Horus  of 

Bahutet,  or  the  Winged  Solar  disk,  with  the  Dawn. 

I  cannot  admit  with  Brugsch  that  an  older  form  of  [ph  V\.      is  to  be  found 

in  the    *  j^  of  a  Xllth  dynasty  inscription.      The  latter  group  is  not  siu- 

Hor,  but  tua.  The  substitution  of  the  sign  VX  for  V\  is  easily  accounted  for; 
see  Denhm.,  Ill,  151  c. 

1  "  Die  Begen-oder  Thaugottiu  Tefnut."     Die  Neue  IFeliordnung,  p.  36. 

Vol.  VIII.  14 


208  ptian   Mythology,  particularly 

M.  Xaville  observes:1  "Si  l'etvmologie  du  noin  de  ^  ° 
nous  indique  plutot  quelqne  chose  d'humide,  on  ne  peut 
nier  que  les  representations  de  eette  deesse,  telle  quelle 
apparait   en   general  dans  les  temples  ne  soient   tout-a-fait 

semblables  a  celles  de  la  deesse  de  Memphis  ()     LL     appelee 

encore    JIe^  |  ,  ,  ,     et    dont    les    epithetes    sont     j}lj!|^|/ft 

/WWW     oj^  -~:  ^-v 

la  brulante,  ^=A  fL  la  jlamme,  ,=  s=>  n  j  n  qui  ltabite  la 
fourjiaise."2 

But  both  Isis  and  Xephthys  shoot  flames  against  the 
adversaries  of  Ra. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  the  two  Urasus  goddesses, 
Uat'it  and  Xechebet,  who  are  in  fact  but  one  goddess,  who 
is   herself  identified  with   Hathor    in  a  text  published  by 

M-Maspero:  ^  j^l  k^K^^X" 
which  adds  that  she  consumes  the  adversaries  with  her  flames. 
Sechet.  the  beloved  of  Ptah.  is  simply  the  fiery  Dawn. 
u  She  sendeth  flames  of  fire  in  the  face  of  the  foes  ;  whoever 
approaches  sinks  to  ruin,  she  sendeth  fire  to  burn  their  limbs." 
She  is  distinctlv  identified  with  Xeith  in  the  Ritual  (66,  9) : 

If  the  tale  of  the  destruction  of  men  by  Hathor  be  really 
founded  on  a  genuine  myth,  the  blood-stained  goddess  cer- 
tainly represents  one  of  those  sunsets  which  I  have  myself 
witnessed  in  Egypt,  when  "  the  whole  sky.  from  the  zenith 
to  the  horizon,  becomes  one  molten  mantling  sea  of  colour 
and  fire  ;  every  black  bar  turns  into  massy  gold,  every  ripple 
and  wave  into  unsullied,  shadowless  crimson  and  purple  and 

1  Litanie  du  Soleil,  p.  31. 

In  a  text  at  Philae  (as  ret,  I  think,  unpublished)  Tefmit  is  represented  as 
ing  protection  to  her  son  Osiris."     In  the  magical  papyrus  translated  by 
Dr.  Birch,  Osiris  is  the  son  of  Shu  and  Tefnut. 

':  This  last  expression,  of  which  the  curious  variant  1  i3  foym& 

in  Tempelinschr.,  I,  pi.  74,  should  rather  be  rendered  '  empyraeum.'  It  is  the 
abode  of  flame  whence  the  Sun-god  issues,  and  like  the  C3  ^^zt  E~-^  ^a^ 
representative  chapels  in  the  great  temples. 


with  reference  to  Mist  and  Cloud.  209 

scarlet,  and  colours  for  -which  there  are  no  words  in  language 
and  no  ideas  in  the  mind — things  which  can  only  be  conceived 
while  they  are  visible — the  intense  hollow  blue  of  the  upper 
sky  melting  through  it  all — showing  here  deep  and  pure  and 
lightless — there  modulating  the  filmy  formless  body  of  the 
transparent  vapour  till  it  is  lost  imperceptibly  in  its  crimson 
and  gold."1 

Phenomena  like  those  just  described  in  Mr.  Ruskin's 
eloquent  language  depend  upon  atmospheric  conditions  which 
vary  from  day  to  day.  They  gave  rise  in  Egypt,  as  in 
other  countries,  to  that  kind  of  myth  which  we  may  call 
the  meteorological,  as  distinct  from  the  myth  which  has 
reference  only  to  the  relations  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  When 
the  Sun-god  has  sunk  below  the  horizon,  Tmu  has  been 
received  into  his  mother's  arms,  or  Set  has  eaten  the  head  of 
Osiris,  or  Anubis  has  swallowed  his  own  father,  or  Horus 
is  sitting  alone  in  his  blindness.  The  crocodile  of  the 
West  devours  each  of  the  stars  which  set  (the  Achmiu  uretu).2 
Each  morn  Horus  overcomes  Set,  and  avenges  Osiris,  the 
sun  of  yesterday.  In  the  battle  between  night  and  day 
Tehuti  (the  moon)  at  fixed  intervals  appears  upon  the  scene 
as  mediator  or  arbitrator  between  the  contending  parties. 

1  Euskin,  "  Modem  Painters,"  I,  158. 

2  See  my  Hibbert  Lectures,  p.  181,  note. 

In  tbe  additions  (p.  136)  to  bis  Lexicon,  Brugscb  corrects  bis  former  opinion, 
and  quotes  texts  from  Dendera  wbicb  speak  of  tbe  Achmiu  uretu  as  belonging  to 
tbe  southern  sky  and  tbe  Achmiu  seku  to  tbe  northern  sky.  Tbis  is  of  course 
not  only  in  harmony  with  my  own  view,  but  a  necessary  consequence.  As  tbe 
old  ungramrnatical  error  of  considering  achmiu  as  a  mere  negative  is  not  yet 
exploded,  let  me  quote  tbe  forms  (I  #  v\  jr*  i  i  i  (^.elteste  Texie,  40,  line  11) 
and  (I  y*  sT*~X"  (-^y^en,  St.  k.  9),  wbicb  prove  that  the  word  is  a  noun,  and  tbe 
generic  name  of  certain  stars. 

Of  tbese  Achmiu  the  stars  of  tbe  Great  Bear  appear  to  me  to  bave  enjoyed 
several  mythical  names.  The  well-known  name,  Chepesh,  "  tbigb,"  is  suggested 
by  the  look  of  the  constellation,  and  is  probably  not  mythological.  But  if,  as  I 
think,  "  the  seven  Cows  and  their  Bull  "  (?  Arcturus)  mentioned  in  the  Book  of 
the  Dead  (ch.  148)  designate  this  constellation  (sepfem  triones),  there  is  even  less 
>n  for  doubting  that  the  stars  represented  the  "Seven  Spirits  who  follow 
their  Lord"  (Todt.,  17,  33).  From  early  times  traditions  differed  as  to  the 
names  of  these  spirits   {ib.,  hnes  38  and  39).     But   it  is  noteworthy  that   the 

name  of  the  fifth  spirit,   according  to  one   tradition,  is    i    \n    i  f^H\ 


210  Egyptian  Mythology,  'particularly 

In  all  such  instances  the  myth  is  founded  upon  facts  eternally 
recurring  in  unvarying  succession.  Such  is  not  the  case 
when  the  sun's  light  is  modified  by  mist,  cloud,  or  eclipse. 

The  exceptional  brightness  of  the  Egyptian  sky  is  gene- 
rally known.  It  is  not  so  well  understood  that,  particularly 
in  certain  months  of  the  year,  dense  fogs  and  cloudy  skies 
are  extremely  common,  and  that  even  in  the  latitude  of 
Thebes  violent  storms  of  thunder,  lightning,  and  rain  are  by 
no  means  unknown.  The  hieroglyphic  inscriptions  of  Edfu 
expressly  mention  the  obelisks  and  nagstaiFs  as  being  destined 
to  serve  a  purpose  similar  to  that  of  our  lightning  conductors. 
The  study  of  a  poet  true  to  nature,  like  Wordsworth  or 
Shelley,  or  of  an  artist  like  Turner,  is  a  more  instructive 
guide  to  the  interpretation  of  myths  than  the  most  profound 
speculations  of  philosophers  ancient  or  modern. 

"The  scarlet  of  the  clouds,"  says  Mr.  Ruskin,1  was  Turner's 
"symbol  of  destruction.  In  his  mind  it  was  the  symbol  of 
blood.  So  he  used  it  in  the  Fall  of  Carthage.  Note  his  own 
written  words — 

'  While  o'er  the  western  wave  the  ensanguined  sun 
In  gathering  huge  a  stormy  signal  spread, 
And  set  portentous.' 

"red-eyed,"  whilst  the  fifth  cow's  name   (Todt.,    148,  13)   is   connected  with 
f^HS     *       U^l    "  red-haired."      This  clearly  refers  to  a   coloured  and 


<^  ^>  AAAAAA     I     I     I 

therefore  double  star  in  the  constellation. 

There  are,  again,  the  seven     A    V\    (J    I  g*A  /TV  |    T'aasu,  who  assist  Thoth 
tag  -Te^  1  I    Sit  i_l   I  c  . — j  |     ' 

in  his  calculations  as  to  the  universe ;   one  of  them,  called    v — y  i         i  I 

the  "  Eed  one,"  is  third  or  fifth,  according  to  the  order  in  which  the  names  are 
read. 

It  is  highly  probable  that  the  Seven  Scorpions  who  accompanied  Isis,  accord- 
ing to  the  legend  of  the  Metternich  Tablet,  equally  represent  the  stars  of  the 
Great  Bear. 

1  Modem  Painters,  V,  p.  340,  note.  Turner,  Mr.  Ruskin  says  (ibid.,  p.  147), 
felt  the  great  Greek  traditions  more  than  he  knew  them;  "his  mind  being 
affected,  up  to  a  certain  point,  precisely  as  an  ancient  painter's  would  have  been, 
by  external  phenomena  of  nature.  To  him,  as  to  the  Greek,  the  storm  clouds 
seemed  messengers  of  fate.  He  feared  them,  while  he  reverenced."  The  passage 
from  the  impressions  of  nature  to  a  mythical  and  also  to  a  religious  view  of 
tbings,  is  here  strikingly  expressed. 


with  reference  to  Mist  and  Cloud.  211 

So  he  used  it  in  the  Slaver,  in  the  Ulysses,  in  the  Napoleon, 
in  the  Goldau ;  again  and  again  in  slighter  hints  and  momen- 
tary dreams,  of  which  one  of  the  saddest  and  most  tender  is 
a  little  sketch  of  Dawn,  made  in  his  last  years." 

Red  is  also  the  symbol  of  blood,  flame,  or  destruction,  in 
the  Egyptian  myths,  in  reference  to  the  colour  of  the  clouds. 
I  have  already  referred  to  the  tale  of  the  destruction  of  men 
by  Hathor.  But  the  Book  of  the  Dead  furnishes  earlier 
evidence.  The  crimson  of  a  sunset  takes  the  form  (in  the 
17th  chapter)  of  the  "  blood  which  flows  from  the  Sun-god 
Ra  as  he  hastens  to  his  suicide."    (Death  of  Herakles.) 

According  to  another  myth  (Todt.,  99,  22),  the  Sun-god 
"  cut  the  foot  of  Hathor,  in  stretching  a  hand  to  bring  her  to 
him  in  his  evening  boat." 

A  third  myth  (Todt.,  99,  17)  speaks  of  Isis  as  "  stanching 
the  blood  from  the  eye  of  Horus." 

The  "blood  of  Isis"  is  commemorated  (Todt.,  156, 1)  by  the 
red  talisman  called  the  II     k\  tet,  of  which  so  many  specimens 

are  found  in  our  museums.  The  blood  here  spoken  of  is  not 
improbably  that  which  flowed  when  Horus  smote  off  her  head. 
In  these  instances  the  crimson  tints  of  dawn  and  sunset  are 
ascribed  to  blood  proceeding  from  the  gods.  I  shall  shortly 
have  to  give  instances  in  which  the  blood  proceeds  from  the 
adversaries  of  the  gods. 

Modern  science  has  given  the  name  of  cirrus  to  one  of 
the  most  common  forms  of  cloud.  The  Latin  word  cirrus 
signifies  a  lock,  curl,  ringlet,  or  tuft  of  hair.  The  corres- 
ponding Egyptian  word  is  •«««  1  c-^^Vs,  ^  nehtu.  In  the 
Tale  of  the  Two  Brothers  the  faithless  wife  of  Anpu  was 
sitting  |      s-pl  I  o   her  nebtu-set,  "  curling  her  hair." 

The  resemblance  of  certain  clouds  to  locks  of  hair  did  not 
escape  the  notice  of  the  Egyptians.  The  131st  chapter  of  the 
Book  of  the  Dead  speaks  of  "  the  lock  which  is  in  the  way  of 

the  Sun,"  j  ^  D^  -^  ^?°_J  ■*»!«* 
dm  uat  Ra.  The  previous  chapter  (130,  24)  had  already 
spoken  of  "  repulsing  that  Lock  which  issues  out  of  the  flamo 


212  Egyptian  Mythology,  particularly 

against  the  bark  of  Rii.''  In  chapter  138,  4,  Horns,  the 
"sovereign  of  the  universe,"  is  invoked  under  the  special  title 

of  vv>  <=>  |  cr^a^  peh  er  nebtu,  "mighty"  or  "vic- 
torious against  the  Lock  of  hair";  a  ridiculous  piece  of  bathos, 
unless  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  Nebtu  is  here  the  name  of  a 
mythological  personage  sufficiently  important  to  encounter 

the  Sun-god  in  battle.   In  other  chapters      I)  <^=-s  ^=  Nebtu  is 

distinctly  spoken  of  as  a  demon.  In  3U,  12,  he  comes  to 
attack  "the  god  who  reposes  in  his  shrine,"  and  in  152,  1,  he 
is  given  up  by  Shu  to  the  Osiris.  In  other  chapters  (136,  10; 
144.  17)  it  is  promised  to  the  departed  that  Nebtu  shall  not 
reach  him. 

Already  at  the  beginning  of  the  XVIIIth  dynasty,  in 
the  tomb  of  queen  Maat-ka-ra,1  we  find  him  mentioned  as 

il     Yrv   <nI    *%>  Nebtu  se  Nut,  Xebtu,  son  of  Nut.    This 

is  a  parentage  not  recognized  in  the  Book  of  the  Dead.  It 
seems  to  imply  an  identification  with  Set,  and  a  misconception 
of  the  essential  difference  between  these  personages.  It  is  a 
first  unconscious  step  towards  the  expulsion  of  Set  from  the 
rank  of  the  gods. 

Another  Egyptian  word    I  ^^^   (of  which  the  forms 


^   semai  and       L  V\    ^\    ^   semam  are  also 

found)  signifies  "  han,"  as  in  chapter  154,  6,  where  it  is  said 
that  the  hair  of  the  departed  shall  not  be  soiled.      It  is 

probably  akin  to    I  1\    [  [1  !=^='   sami,  dark,  black,  darkness. 

There  is  also  the  word     I  [1  [££5   sam  (Brugsch,  Lex.,  1165), 

which  unquestionably  signifies  dark  cloud.  The  appearance 
of  dark,  black  locks  upon  the  sky  has  given  rise  to  the 
mythical  personages  of  the  Samiu  of  Set.  This  expression 
exactly  corresponds  to  the  irKoKa^ioi  i/caToy/cecfxiXa  Tv(f>co. 
the  Locks  of  the  hundred-headed  Typhon:  a  name,  as  we 
know  from   Aristophanes,   given   by  the   Greeks  to   certain 

1  In  this  queen's  time  (Dumichen,  Hist.  Inschr.,  II,  34)  Set  still  occupies  his 
ancient  rank  among  the  gods.  He  is  called  (No.  5)  "  the  great  and  living  god," 
and  (No.  10)  the  "  lord  of  heaven." 


with  reference  to  Mist  and  Clvu<l.  213 

clouds.  It  is  said  in  chapter  18,  line  22,  that  when  these 
Bamiu  of  Set  approached  Horus  they  transformed  into  goats 
or  other  quadrupeds,  and  were  slaughtered  before  the  chief 
gods,  "  while  the  blood  flowed  from  them." 

In  the  134th  chapter,  the  enemies  of  Osiris  also  appear  in 
the  form  of  birds,  beasts,  and  fishes,  and  the  Sun-god  "washes 
in  their  blood."    With  the  Samiu  I  am  most  strongly  inclined 

to  identify  the  Sehiu    I  J  (I  (I  ^^  i ,  other  Titanic  enemies  of 

the  Sun,  whose  function  and  fate  are  exactly  the  same.  Ety- 
mologicaUy  there  is  no  difficulty  in  the  identification,  for  the 
interchange  of  the  letters  b  and  m  is  recognized,  e.g.,  in  the 

well-known  cases  of  T  J  ah,  and  j  1\  dm,  Jp  Ml  "fc^ 
makes,  and  J  (1  8  I  ^^  bakes,  \  %i^Sl  w  bakasu, 
I  v\    makasu.      The  two   forms   samiu 


and   -J?   <S\  © 


and  sabiu  are  probably  owing  to  a  dialectic  variety  of  pro- 
nunciation; but  the  scribes  to  whom  we  owe  our  present 
copies  of  the  Ritual  were  not  aware  of  this,  or  they  would 
otherwise  sometimes  have  used  the  sign  ^  a  lock,  as 
determinative  of  Sehiu.  Their  slaughter  aud  the  effusion  of 
their  blood  is  recorded  in  the  Book  of  the  Dead.  These  myths 
represent  the  dissolution  of  the  dark  clouds  into  smaller  ones, 
assuming  fantastic  shapes,  and  coloured  by  the  Sun's  rays  in 
hues  of  crimson  or  scarlet. 

Hah  is  also  the  mythical  equivalent  of  cloud,1  when  the 
overcast  dawn  is  represented  by  Isis  covering  herself  by 
letting  her  hair  flow  over  her  (Todt.,  17)  ;  also  by  the  "  wig  of 


Hathor  "  ^"^  ~~*  C^     afH-lt  ent  Sathor  (Todt.,  35, 1), 


which  covers  the  rising  Sun- god  Shu,   and  the  cap    c<=>\  £) 
seset  (78,  25),  of  Horus.2 

1  The   primitive  meaning  of  |   V\     v\    r\J  TTTT    senemu,   storm 

cloud  or  storm,  is  simply  hair,  the  common  forms  being  ^s     TT\       or 


AAAA/V\         H 

Tne    ^k  fk    /^~V     nememes  of  the  Double  Lion  of  Dawn  is  referred  to 


later  on. 


214:  Egyptian  Mythology,  particularly 

The  hair  of  Osiris  is  said  (Todt.,  13,  2)  to  be  "  greatly 
agitated  ( ,  u  ,  ^  vesu  =  the  Greek  fypiaaeiv)  when  he  sees 
the  greyhounds  of  Horus."  Both  the  hair  of  Osiris  and  the 
greyhounds  of  Horus  represent  forms  of  cloud.  Those  who 
made  these  myths  saw  animal  forms  in  the  clouds,  not  only 
as  adversaries  of  the  Sun-god,  but  as  the  cattle  of  Horus : 
"Ins  oxen,  his  goats,  and  his  swine"  (ch.  112,  6).  But  the 
greyhound  evidently  represents  the  light  cloud  rapidly  skim- 
mhig  along  under  the  influence  of  a  steady  breeze. 

The  mythical  greyhounds  and  then  fleetness  are  also 
mentioned  in  a  very  ancient  and,  unfortunately,  very  uncer- 
tain text  (the  24th  chapter  of  the  Book  of  the  Dead)  in 
connection  with  the  god  Shu. 

Other  mythical  animal  forms  mentioned  in  the  Book  of  the 
Dead  as  antagonists  of  the  Sun,  are  serpents,  crocodiles,  and 
the  tortoise.  The  chapter  about  the  tortoise  unfortunately 
throws  no  light  at  all  upon  the  functions  of  this  animal.  All 
that  we  know  is  that  it  was  the  deadly  adversary  of  Ra. 
"Life  to  Ra,  Death  to  the  Tortoise,"  is  what,  in  the  Turin 
Ritual  (ch.  161),  is  written  on  each  of  the  four  gates  of 
heaven.  We  are  here  in  a  region  of  conjecture,  but  the 
hieroglyphic  sign  of  the  tortoise,  so  similar  hi  form  to  the 
scarabeeus  (the  recognized  symbol  of  the  Sun)  that  Mr.  Good- 
win was  positive  that  it  was  meant  for  a  beetle,  and  its  name 
seta,  or  setu,1  apparently  akin  to  the  word  seta,  to  cover,  lead 
me  to  identify  it  with  the  Eclipse.  It  certainly  represents  a 
small  and  rounded  form  which  occasionally  covers  the  sun. 
The  primitive  Egyptians  who  could  not  know  the  Law  which 
governs  the  Eclipse,  never  deified  the  tortoise,  considered  as 
the  adversary  of  the  Sun.  There  is.  however,  a  star  of  this 
name  among  the  Decans,  who  of  course  is  considered  as  a  god. 

In  the  later  days  of  the  mythology  all  the  phenomena 
interfering  with  the  Sun's  light  were  confounded  together, 
and  identified  with  one  another:  Set,  Akar.  Apepi,  the  Tor- 
toise, Tebha,  and  others.  But  texts  of  this  period  are  of  no 
authority  unless  they  are  confirmed  by  those  of  the  better 

1  The  name  dp  Set  is  founded  on  an  erroneous  division  of  words  in  the  title  of 
Todt.,  36,  re  en  %esef  &  Pe  Se^- 


with  reference  to  Mist  and  Cloud.  215 

periods.  When  Egyptologists  speak  of  something  Ti/phonic, 
they  can  only  do  so  with  accuracy  in  reference  to  the  later 
centuries  of  the  Egyptian  religion.  Tebha  is  not  genuine 
Egyptian ;  it  is  borrowed  from  the  Greek  Typhon  =  rvcfrXos.1 

The  Serpent  in  most  mythologies  is  the  representative  of 
cloud.  I  shall  here  only  speak  of  two  mythical  serpents : 
the  first  represents  a  morning  cloud.  Sebak,  one  of  the 
forms  of  the  Sun,  we  are  told  in  chapters  108  and  111,  is  the 
lord  of  the  mountain  of  Buchat  in  the  Eastern  sky,  and  he 
has  a  temple  of  crystal  there ;  and  on  the  brow  of  that 
mountain  there  is  a  serpent  of  300  cubits  in  length,  and 
10  cubits  in  breadth ;  three  cubits  in  front  of  him  are  of  flint, 
and  when  the  time  of  Ra  approaches,  he  turns  down  his  eyes 
towards  Ra.  There  is  perhaps  a  mythological  meaning  in 
the  word  ^^  ^^  tes,  flint,  for  flint  in  Egyptian,  as  in  Indo- 
European  mythology,  is  connected  with  the  thunderbolt. 
The  allusion  may  therefore  be  to  a  thunder  cloud. 

But  the  most  important  serpent  is  the  great  dragon  Apepi, 
He  has  been  confounded  with  a  so-called  giant  Apophis,  be- 
cause <l4>UJ<£>  signifies  giant  in  Coptic.  Genuine  Egyptian 
mythology  knows  nothing  of  such  a  giant.  The  etymology 
is  clear  enough.  Ap  signifies  ascend,  mount  up.  Apepi  is  that 
which  mounts  up.  It  is  the  mythical  name  of  Cloud  as  the 
enemy  of  the  Sun.  The  serpent  is  described  in  the  texts  at 
Biban-el-maluk,  as  "  having  no  eyes,1  nose,  or  ears,  but  roaring 
as  it  comes  along."  The  picture  represents  him  with  twelve 
heads  rising  through  his  back.  These  heads,  which  have  been 
swallowed  by  him,  are  made  to  come  forth  through  the  blows 
inflicted  upon  him  by  the  servants  of  Ra.  The  word  "  head  " 
may  perhaps  convey  a  double  meaning.  The  Egyptian  word 
hotep  ®,2  when  accompanied  by  the  determinative  \>,  and 

1  \J>  ^Jd^  fttftfl  uhar,  "  the  blind  one,"  is  a  name  of  Apepi  in  the  inscrip- 
tions of  the  base  period.     (Myth  of  Cacus,  or  Caeculus,  =  caecus.) 

2  @  \>  is  one  of  those  words  in  which  the  sign  Ql  has  the  value  hotep. 
This  is  certain,  from  the  variants  in  which  the  sign  V  appears.  Compare 
Brugsch,  Lexicon,  B.  7,  p.  1322,  with  an  article  of  Diimichen  in  Zeitschr.,  1873, 
p.  118.  It  is  wonderful  that  Brugsch  (who  has  certainly  read  this  article)  shuts 
his  eyes  to  such  direct  variants  as  V  n~^    =  x~~-    ?  not  to  mention  others. 

11  on 


216 


Egyptian  Mythology,  particularly 


even  without  it,  means  either  "headland,"  as  I  suggested 
some  time  ago,  or,  at  all  events,  some  other  kind  of  land. 
The  reappearance  of  headlands  or  other  scenery,  which  had 
been  concealed  by  fog  or  cloud,  may  be  alluded  to. 


ra^ra 


w 


ism.   "  the  Roarer,"'  is  one  of  the  names 


of  Apepi  in  the  Bremner  Papyrus,  and,  like  the  text  just 
referred  to,  points  to  the  thunder-cloud.  The  same  conclu- 
sion seems  to  be  derivable  from  the  39th  chapter  of  the  Book 
of  the  Dead ;  but  the  text  of  this  chapter  is  in  so  unsatisfac- 
tory a  condition  as  not  at  present  to  admit  of  accurate  trans- 
lation.    In  this  chapter  the    Sim-god,  in  his  conflict  with 

Apepi,  is  called       -Vr  11^  Ra  am  saufet,  "Ra  in  a  flutter." 

The  word  sautet  signifies  trembling,  quivering,  quaking, 
palpitating,  and  in  this  place  refers  to  the  appearance  of  the 
Sun  as  seen  through  a  cloud  passing  over  it.  This  state 
of  trepidation  is  not  confined  to  Ra.  "  Seb  standeth  still 
in  terror,  the  company  of  the  mighty  gods  is  in  a  quake." 


The  storm-cloud  is  clearlv  intended. 


D 


— (0—  © 


The  seventh  chapter  of  the  Book  of  the  Dead  speaks  of 
"  advancing  over  (or  passing  through)  the  high  ridges  (— •*—  ) 
of  Apepi,  which  are  void  £  '-^D  y>,"  and  the  99th  chapter 
of  guiding  a  boat  over  — *—  D  ^o  (I  (I  I 
ridge "  of  Apepi.  It  invokes  the 
curtains  "   and  the  ^z^7  (I  S  v\   D 


Q 


/WVWA 
/WWNA 


this  void 


"5  „,   "lord  of 

lord  of  the  cloud," 

that  is,  the  "  veiled "  or  "  clouded  "  one,  namely,  the  Sun- 
god.     The  ridges  which  have  to  be  passed  over  or  pierced 

are  ridges  of  cloud.     Apepi  is  said  to  be   £  ^^  kesen,  a 

word  which  was  long  since  shown  to  signify  void,  empty. 
The  inscription  of  the  Gold  Mines  says  that  the  road  was 
deficient  in  water,  uat  kesenta  her  mu.  There  is  no  reason 
whatever  for  impugning  this  signification.     The  tablet  of 


ivith  reference  to  Mist  and  Cloud.  217 

Canopus  has  hdti-sen  kesen  her  xePer>  "  their  hearts  failed  at 
the  occurrence."  This  is  perfectly  consistent  with  the  Greek 
version,  nravrcov  roiv  iv  rrj  %<wpa  KaTaireirXriy ^kvwv  eVt  t&> 
(TvixjBe^KOTi.  The  passages  of  the  Prisse  papyrus  in  which 
the  word  occurs  are  equally  consistent  with  the  old  inter- 
pretation of  the  word. 

Apepi  is  overcome  by  the  fire  and  flinty  sword  (  c 

\  — H —     D 

tes)  of  the  Sun-god,  and  is  forced  back  into  his  cavern 
\®  J  ^  Xe^t)i  and  over  him  (according  to  a  text  at  Dendera) 
is  placed  a  stone  "  of  forty  cubits,"  while  the  devouring 
flame  preys  upon  his  bones. 

The  tree  is  another  mythical  representation  of  cloud.  It 
never  appears  otherwise  than  as  a  joyful  or  beneficent  phe- 
nomenon. The  evergreen  sycamore,  which  is  the  most 
beautiful  tree  of  Egypt,  the  persea,  the  olive,  and  the  tama- 
risk are  the  principal  trees  of  the  mythology.  They  are 
suggestive  of  coolness  and  refreshment. 

"  I  know,"  says  the  Book  of  the  Dead  (chapters  109,  2 
and  149,  7),  "that  sycamore  of  Emerald,  through  the  midst 
of  which  the  Sun-god  Ra,  proceeds  as  he  advances  to  what 
Shu  has  raised  at  the  eastern  gate  of  heaven." x 

The  emerald  colour  (mqfka)  here  specially  characterising 
the  tree  has  reference  to  the  beautiful  green  tints  of  dawn  and 
sunset.  Dr.  Thompson,  in  his  "  Introduction  to  Meteorology  " 
(p.  76),  speaks  of  a  "  curious  phenomenon  which  rarely  occurs 
in  this  climate — the  existence  of  green  clouds.  This  happens 
in  the  mornings  and  evenings,  when  a  thin  cloud  is  illumi- 
nated at  once  by  the  yellow  rays  of  the  sun,  and  the  bright 
azure  of  the  upper  sky,  their  contrasted  colours  producing  a 
green  by  mixture."      But  even  in  this  climate  the  bright- 


1  At  a  later  time  we  read  (on  the  Metternich  Stele),  in  connection  with  the 
Dawn  (  r-j-i  ri  \t        -l),  of  the  "  Goose  Egg  which  comes  forth  from  the  Sycamore  " 


Tk    9,         jHM'ii,  fe^  /  M .      This  has  reference  to  the  Egg  of 

Seb  in  Todt.,  54,  and  other  chapters.     The  sun  is  here  considered  as  an  egg  laid 
by  that  great  cackling  goose,  the  earth. 


218  Egyptian  Mvtholooy,  particularly 

green  streaks  near  the  horizon  are,  at  certain  seasons,  of 
great  beauty.1 

The  sycamore  of  Hathor  is  mentioned  in  ch.  52  ;  the 
Osiris  eats  beneath  its  shade.  On  a  papyrus  at  Dublin  the 
Osiris  prays  that  he  may  be  under  the  sycamore  of  Hathor  at 
the  rising  of  Horus. 

The  sycamore  of  Nut  is  the  Rain-cloud.  The  water  of 
heaven  seems  to  have  been  considered  as  bringing  with  it 
refreshment  to  the  dead.  The  vignette  of  the  Ritual  is  well 
known  which  represents  a  tree  out  of  which  the  hand  of  the 
goddess  pours  out  water  to  the  deceased.  The  prayer  of  the 
59th  chapter  is  confined  to  these  words:  /' 0  Sycamore  of 
Nut,  give  me  the  water  which  is  in  thee  ";  but  a  vase  of  the 
Louvre  adds  the  reply  of  the  goddess :  "  Receive  the  libation 
from  my  two  hands.  I  am  thy  mother;  I  bring  thee  the 
vases  with  abundance  of  water  to  appease  thy  heart  with 
refreshment ;  breathe  thou  the  breezes  which  come  from  me, 
that  thy  flesh  may  live  thereby ;  for  it  is  I  who  give  water  to 
every  mummy,  who  give  breezes  to  those  who  are  breath]'  38, 
to  those  whose  bodies  are  hidden,  and  to  those  who  have  no 
tomb.  I  am  with  thee,  and  I  reunite  to  thee  thy  souL  so  that 
it  may  never  be  parted  from  thee.*' 

There  is  a  request  to  a  similar  effect  in  chapter  152,  in 
behalf  of  the  deceased:  "0  Sycamore  of  Nut,  u-Jw  refreshed 
those  who  are  in  Amenti,  let  thy  hands  be  laid  upon  his  limbs, 
protecting  him  from  the  heat,  and  refreshing  him  under  thy 

1  The  green  cap  or  mantle  (nememes  uaf)  of  the  Double  Lion  of  Dawn 
(Todt.,  78,  19)  has  the  same  meaning.  So  has  the  "  green  stone  "  at  the  neck  of 
Ra  (Todt.,  103,  3).  The  golden  Hawk  has  wings  of  green  (ch.  77)  as  he  comes 
forth.  In  later  times  Hathor  is  addressed  (Dumichen,  Resultate,  18,  1)  as 
"diademed  with  emerald  and  rested  with  green."  "Thy  countenance  is  tiuted 
with  the  emerald  colour,"  she  is  told  (Rec.  iv,  71  and  75),  "  of  fresh  emerald, 
thou  art  green  like  the  green-stone  of  Bucliat."  The  dawn-goddess,  Uat'it, 
whose  name  signifies  greenness,  or  the  green  one,  is  called,  like  Hathor, 
<~"^^     \    o    ys\     ^ o  i/.|  ,  -j  o  nelt  vest  el  mafka  tehen,  "mistress 

of  sapphire,  emerald,  and  saffron,  i.e.,  she  is  conspicuous  by  these  colours. 
Mafka  and  tehen,  "emerald  and  saffron"  (or  some  other  yellow  colour,  see 
Zeitschr.,  1867,  p.  66)  are  the  tints  of  the  Dawn,  Todt.,  80,  7.  The  Book  of  the 
Dead  (160,  2)  mentions  i*"^,  ^  |  neiem,  "  green  felspar,"  as  one  of  the 
names  of  the  Dawn-god,  Shu.  The  green  colour  of  the  frog  is  a  clue  to  the 
meaning  of  the  ancient  goddess    $  ^  _W2}   ^e1a^- 


with  reference  to  Mist  and  Cloud.  219 

boughs,  which  give  the  north-wind  to  the  Resting  Heart  in 
his  everlasting  home." 

The  best  commentary  on  this  tree  in  the  sky  which  yields 
both  water  and  wind  may  be  found  in  Mr.  Raskin's  words 
about  Rain-clouds  :  "  They  are  not  solid  bodies  borne  about 
by  the  wind,  but  they  carry  the  wind  with  them  and  cause  it. 
Every  one  knows  who  has  ever  been  out  in  a  storm  that  the 
time  when  it  rains  heaviest  is  precisely  the  time  when  he 
cannot  hold  up  his  umbrella,  that  the  wind  is  carried  with 
the  cloud  and  lulls  when  it  has  passed." 

The  sun  under  a  light  cloud  was  called  (ch.  42)   "the 

great  god  within  the  tamarisk,  asm"  The  olive-tree  J  a  Q 
beq,  represents  the  brightness  of  the  Dawn.  The  word  beq 
signifies  bright,  clear,  shining ;    beqa  or  beka  is  the  Dawn. 

The  god  called  ^  JM  0 atg*  Xer  beqa-f,  "  who  is  under  his 
olive,"  already  in  the  earliest  monuments,  was  supposed  by 
M.  de  Rouge  to  be  Osiris,  and  by  M.  Lefebure  to  be  Thoth. 
It  is  no  other  than  Ptah,  the  Opener.1 

Other  trees  represent  the  same  mystery.  The  great  Cat 
under  the  Persea  tree  is  explained  in  the  17th  chapter  as 
being  the  Sun-god  Ra  himself,  and  the  Persea  here  plays1  the 
same  part  as  the  Sycamore  of  Emerald.  Ra,  as  a  Cat,  is 
about  to  crush  the  head  of  the  Serpent. 

There  are  other  well-known  pictures  representing  the 
sarcophagus  of  Osiris  under  a  tree.  Two  are  given  by 
Wilkinson,  Ancient  Egyptians,  2nd  series,  III,  p.  349.2  In  the 
first  of  them,  taken  from  the  tomb  at  Hou,  the  bird  called 
bcnnu  is  seated  upon  the  branches  of  a  tamarisk,  and  by  him 

is  written  ^q,  \f    rj  S  >   "  the  soul  of  Osiris."     The  bird  and 

the  inscription  are  equally  significant.  The  Egyptian  texts, 
from  the  Book  of  the  Dead  down  to  the  latest  times,  assert 
that  "Ra  is  the  soul  of  Osiris."3     And  the  bennu  bird,  according 

to  the  same  authority,  represents  the  Dawn-god,   |  *  \sNT    .  Jn  > 

1  See  Burton,  Excerpta,  pi.  56,  or  Champollion,  Notices,  II,  p.  904,  and 
Denhm,  iv.,  22. 

2  Compare  Plutarch,  de  Isid.,  21. 

3  The  real  meaning  of  this  seems  to  be,  that  Osiris  is  dead,  but  rises  again  as 
Ra.     Osiris  is  yesterday's  sun,  Ra  that  of  to-day. 


220  Emij'fin),  Mythology,  particularly 

In  the  second  picture,  which  is  taken  from  the  temple  at 
Philae,  the  sun  is  represented  as  rising  from  the  foot  of  the 
tree.  Such  is  the  true  "  mystery  of  Osiris  at  Senmut  and  at 
Philae."  If  the  Egyptians  of  the  latest  periods  understood 
this  mystery  as  signifying  that  "water  is  the  origin  of  all 
things,"  this  merely  proves  what  in  the  nature  of  things  might 
have  been  expected — that  the  true  sense  of  then  mythology 
was  utterly  forgotten. 

There  are  pictures  also  at  Dendera1  in  which  the  sar- 
cophagus of  Osiris  is  overshadowed  by  a  tree. 

Horus  of  Bahutet,  that  is  the  Dawn-god,  is  likewise  to  be 
seen  at  Eclfu,  sitting  within  a  Persea  tree.2  An  inscription  in 
the  same  temple  mentions  another  tree,  the  ahu,  of  Horus.3 
The  Bulaq  papyrus  (Xo.  2)  gives  the  picture  of  a  bird  sitting 
in  front  of  a  Persea  tree. 

Another  text,  published  by  M.Pierret,4  speaks  of  the  Bennu, 

that  is  the  Dawn-gods,  who  are  \       ()  i  "  on  the  willows." 

In  all  these  and  similar  texts  the  tree5  is  the  light 
morning  cloud  or  transparent  mist  on  the  horizon. 

The  same  interpretation  must  be  given  to  the  myth  of 
Isis  suckling  the  infant  Horus  under  bushes  of  marsh  plants.6 
The  rainbow  is  of  course  a  comparatively  rare  phenomenon 
in  Egypt,  but  it  is  so  extremely  beautiful  and  striking  a  one, 
that  we  can  hardly  imagine  it  to  have  been  passed  over  in  a 
mythological  view  of  things.  It  holds  a  conspicuous  place 
in  mythologies  known  to  us.  It  is  Iris,  a  messenger  between 
heaven  and  earth;  it  is  the  bow  of  Indra ;  the  bridge  Bifrost 
of  the  Northmen ;  the  path  to  the  Brahmanic  Svarga ;  the 
ladder  by  which  Xew  Zealand  chieftains  climb  to  heaven. 
It  is  a  living  monster,  according  to  the  Karens  of  Burmah ; 

1  Marietta,  Denderah,  torn.  IV,  pi.  66.  -  Xaville,  My  the  d' Horus,  pi.  xx. 

3  J.  de  Rouge,  Inscriptions  a  Edfou,  pi.  87. 

4  Etudes  EyyptoIoyiqu.es,  p.  57.     Cf.  Sharpe,  E.I,  1,  117,  line  16. 

5  An  allusion  to  the  Tree  of  Life  has  not  unnaturally  been  seen  in  the  ne-wly 
discovered  texts  published  in  the  Zeitschrift,  1881,  Taf.  IV b,  line  18.  I  believe 
that  ^  |  aaaa/^  Q  ^  yet  en  dn\,  should  be  rendered  staff  of  life,  rather  than 
tree  of  life.  The  expression  is  found  in  Pap.  Leyden,  I,  3-47,  pi.  7,  and  Dtnkm., 
VI,  118. 

6  For  instructive  pictures,  see  Wilkinson,  III,  pi.  33  ;  Leemans,  Mon.,  I, 
pi.  XII,  1053,  and  XIII,  1056;  and  Golenischeff,  MettemicTtstele,  pi.  3,  XIV. 
and  6,  XXXVIII. 


with  reference  to  Mist  and  Cloud.  221 

in  Dahome  it  is  "  Danh  the  heavenly  Snake."  But  it  is  also 
the  necklace  of  Freyja,  the  girdle  of  our  Blessed  Lady  in 
Zante,  or  the  hem  of  the  Kamschadale  god's  raiment.1 

I  cannot  point  with  certainty  to  any  corresponding  myths 
in  Egyptian  literature.  A  bow  is  indeed  once  mentioned  in 
the  Book  of  the  Dead  (132,  1),  and  the  Lion-god  is  said  to 
issue  from  it.  There  may  also  possibly  be  a  reference  to  the 
rainbow  in  the  heavenly  fishes  Antu  and  Abtu  (Todt.,  15, 
24,  25).  But  I  am  most  strongly  inclined  to  identify  with 
the  rainbow  the  bright  girdle  ( d^a^X  t^p  sat  J  of  Ra,  which 

is  mentioned  in  Todt.,  110,  a,  line  4.  The  manuscripts  are 
unfortunately  not  agreed  as  to  the  text.  That  of  the  papyrus 
of  Sutimes  reads  as  follows  : — 


[i    I  I    tes-nd  sat  Ra  as  ya-pet. 


/WW\A      r     1  ^    I 

I  put  on  the  stole  of  Ra,  and  lo  the  rain-fall ! 

The  sense  of  this  is  perfectly  clear.  But  four  other  papyri, 
viz.,  Salt.  828,  that  of  Nebseni,  the  Leyden  hieratic  papyrus 
T.  16,  published  in  Leemans'  Monuments,  III,  pi.  24,  and 
the  Turin  papyrus  published  by  Lepsius,  agree  in  the  dura 

J&Z.      °   venuic  pet.  instead  of        \  va  pet.2  The  latter 


1  Most  of  these  inyths  are  referred  to  in  Mr.  Tylor's  Primitive  Culture  and 
Early  History  of  Mankind.  But  a  much  more  copious  list  will  be  found  in 
Pott's  "  Benenmmgen  des  Regenbogen"  in  the  Zeitschrift  fur  vergleichende 
Sprachforschung,  II,  414. 

2  The    first    part   of    this    compound    word    signifies  fall;    in    Egyptian 
t    fc^*^3^   tne   Coptic   representative   of    which   is    £JE,    £>€I,    cadere, 

decidere,  or,  as  a  noun,  casus,  lapsus,  plaga,  ruina.  [It  is  remarkable  that 
Zoega  (p.  412,  note)  explains  a  common  meaning  of  £,6  M.  <£)€  ....  by 
casus  inde  modus.'}  The  Egyptian  noun,  which  occurs  without  a  determinative 
T  (I  (I        on  the  Constantinopolitan  obelisk  of   Tbothmes  III,  has  for  deter- 

811  9^  ,"       ?Tk    A  A 

minative  a  fallen  man    I   .j^,.  Mariette,  Karnak,  pi.  22;     I    V\    (I  M  ti^o 

Benhn.,  Ill,  129  ;  and  Pianchi  Tablet,  line  28,  ^f  \\  f^  t£§>o  ,  Benkm., 
III,  130,  and  \s\  i^p3^  in  the  great  inscription  of  Meneptbah,  Mariette, 
Karnak,  pi.  55.  All  these  are  variants  of  one  and  the  same  word.  The 
transitive  fell,  felling,    is    found    under    the  form     I     \\    (1(1  '<55>^    x<m. 


222  Egyptian  Mythology,  particularly 

expression,  which  recurs  in  Todt.,  135,  1,  signifies  a  fall  of 

the  sky,  a  shower.     It  it  used  as  the  synonym  of  1yw*1  hetu, 

rain,  in  one  of  those  paraphrases  which  are  so  common  in  the 
temples  of  Edfu  and  Dendera.1  The  more  usual  reading  is, 
I  confess,  unintelligible  to  me.     Stormy  weather  might  be 

[Perhaps  the  word     1      v\  ^-^-     \u,  'felled   wood,'   may  be   derived  from 

this.]      The  very  common  word  );     yOv   ^,    x°t>  '  a  dead  body,    owes  its 

origin  to  the  same  notion  as  the  Greek  Trruifia  and  the  Latin  cadaver.  "E  caddi 
come  corpo  morto  cade."     The  same  notion  (as  in  our  '  pit-fall ')  gives  the  clue 

to  the  sense  of  several  ancient  Egyptian  words,  such  as  ]•    V\ 

xau,    'mines,'  Jl     ^C\       o      xa'set>    the  pit  in  which   the   mummy   was 


ied.  )i     \s\    ^_   I    Vso,  yatu  em  %aU   are  probablv  '  dejectiones 


buried. 

ab  alvo.'  The  senses  of  collapse  and  dissolution  are  not  less  evident  in  other 
words  of  kindred  origin. 

The  word  ["D  )iSk^  ^a>  which  sometimes  implies  falling,  might  seem 
to  claim  affinity  with  the  Coptic  £>.£.  But  it  has  no  affinity  with  \a>  an(i  it 
is  only  in  a  secondary  sense  that  it  signifies  falling.  The  Coptic  OP.  is  however 
found  =  the  Greek  uroix^i'-  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  as  frequently  happens 
in  the  history  of  language  (see  Max  Muller,  Science  of  Language,  II,  p.  318), 
two  different  Egyptian  words  have  assumed  the  same  form  in  Coptic. 

ij_j  ^  yv  pet  (Antiquiteg,  Vol.  Y,  pi.  48),  is  manifestly  another  form  of 
Xa  pet,  and  has  its  Coptic  representative  in  P^OTJULITG,  rain.  If  such  a 
form  as  xu  nu  (  i  )  Pe^  existed  as  early  as  the  time  of  Xebseni,  it  is  not 
impossible  that  it  may  have  given  rise  (through  dictation)  to  the  reading 
genmu  pet. 

[The  word  J     V\       cz       which  occurs  in  this  note,  is  read  xra'QJt  bv 

^    _£e&  \>    l  r     *  ^ 

Brugsch,  and  identified  with  the  Coptic    j^eAAOT,    which  he  translates 

Wady.  But  it  is  only  through  a  mistake  that  | — | — i  has  been  confounded 
with  another  hieroglyphic  sign  =  "« — *  (see  Zeitschrift,  1S67,  p.  41).  It  is 
certainly  polyphonous,  but  the  onlv  demonstrable  values  of  it  are  (1)  s,  as  in 

*-+-*  '  ~^~     ,  ■   ioi  *-*L-'    ,     ■  -pi 

<=*      =      "        and  in    A         (I  where  it  occurs  as  a  variant  ot    I     — H — 

or  [|;  and  (2)  sep,  as  the  equivalent  of  11111.  in  a  royal  name.  But  aat,  I 
repeat,  is  a  mistake  ;  or  at  all  events  the  proofs  hitherto  given  are  founded  on 
a  mistake.     Chaset,  also  written   ^j1,  j^\^.    q,  Champollion,  Xotices,  I,  774, 

also  775,  is  the  xesaut  of  the  Khind  Papyri,  the  Egyptian  Sheol.J 
1  Diimichen,  Tempelinschriften.  I,  30,  lines  1  and  6. 


with  reference  to  Mist  and  Cloud.  223 

represented  by    ^       ^  "pOj   yenennu,  but  there  is,  as  far  as 

I  can  see,  no  possibility  of  identifying  with  this  word  the  group 
which  occurs  in  the  four  manuscripts  I  have  mentioned. 

This  might  naturally  seem  to  be  the  place  to  speak  of 
the  myths  of  Fire.  But  the  subject  is  one  which  deserves  a 
dissertation  for  itself.  The  texts  having  reference  to  it  are 
exceedingly  numerous,  and  they  require  to  be  very  accurately 
sifted  and  interpreted.  The  results  of  the  investigation  when 
fully  completed  cannot  fail  to  be  eminently  interesting.1 

I  have  not  the  pretension  of  exhausting  even  that  portion 
of  the  subject  to  which  I  have  specially  desired  to  draw 
attention,  but  if  I  am  not  entirely  mistaken,  a  key  is  now  at 
our  service,  which  if  intelligently  used  will  gradually  open 
to  us  all,  or  at  least  most  of,  the  mysteries  of  the  Book  of 
the  Dead. 


1  Among  the  results  which  I  mentioned  at  the  time  this  paper  was  read,  is 
the  belief  entertained  by  the  Egyptians  that  fire  from  heaven,  proceeding  from 
the  sun,  is  disseminated  through  all  plants  and  living  things,  and  specially  in  the 
soul  of  man.  With  this  belief  is  probably  connected  the  ceremony  of  "  kindling 
the  light,"  set  teka,  in  memory  of  the  dead.  And  the  clause  in  the  Negative 
Confession,  "  I  have  not  extinguished  a  flame  at  its  birth,"  acquires  a  deeper 
meaning. 


Vol.  Till.  15 


224  Egyptian  Mythology)  particularly 


Appendix  ox  the  word     |<=>  nutrcu1 

The  Alexandrian  Greeks  invented  a  barbarous  word 
hvvafioco,  which  they  and  their  followers  used  exactly  as  the 
Egyptians  used  "^  <_f^>  j .  Dindorf  quotes  from  Panaretus 
(Chron.  T?'apez.)  iSuvd/xcoo-e  to  tcdo-rpov.  I  quote  the  following 
parallels  out  of  many  similar  texts  at  Dendera,  Edfu,  and 
Philae. 

K-=—  t\         <=>  "^^j  i      Mariette,    Denderah,    I, 

3__F    ©  a; _ur~*   j 

46,  6  ;  cf.  15,  17,  and  19. 

Ibid.,  II,  6,  3. 


?"l>£>.    I 


lip  ?  f     Pn    <~^>  I  6  ^^    Diimichen,  Tempelinschr.,  I,  78. 

7&d 


Some  passages  in  which  the  word  occurs  might  suggest 
that  purification  was  meant,  but  others  show  that  the  wider 
sense  of  fortifying  or  protection  against  harm  is  signified. 
Religious  purification  is  one  kind  of  protection.2     Hence  the 

deceased  says   (j  ^1    '"j  <=r>  ^3^  ^\  gf   Jj^  ^  J 


"*,°  -  nnn 
nnnn 


1  This  word  is  simply  written  H  in  royal  titles,  such  as  Q  |  \J}  U  \J>  ^ } 
where  it  does  not  signify  god  or  divine.  But  apart  from  such  titles,  it  is 
distinguished  from  the  word  signifying  god  by  its  phonetic  complements  or 

determinatives  ,        "rr*  f        <=> ,  -j  .      The  word  admits 

of  the    reduplication       |  *=>,      as    in    the    obelisk    of     queen    Hat-shepsu, 
and    of    the  intensive    form     [I     |     ...  .. 

-  From  this  point  of  view,  nutra  is  most  naturally  found  in  parallelism  with 

^-J^-3    —      AA/WW  /^*"? 

the  words    "^ssi  5.   *^aa    and    / 
^^-ii^   \    www  t 


AAAAAA 
AAAAAA 
AAAA/Y\  ' 


with  reference  to  Mist  and  Cloud.  225 

"  may  I  be  fortified  or  protected  by  seventy  purifications  " 
(Mariette,  Monuments  divers,  pi.  63  f),  just  as  Christians  at 
the  present  day  speak  of  being  "fortified  by  the  sacraments 
of  the  Church." 

But  the  notion  of  protection  is  itself  derived  from  that  of 

might.     Thus    ^  Q  |  i    is  a  frequent  expression  in  the  texts 

of  Dendera  and  Edfu,    ^nnin  i  ^\  I  T\\   "  splendid  and  mighty 

stones"    (Tempelinschr.,  I,  9)  ;     I  (j       / ^  °  f%  !    "adorned 

qfffff  ^  


Ptah  ?-^f^M|^^°g|°j^ie 


with  mighty  stones  "  (Bend.,  Ill,  20)  ;  ^pA  *"""  /vww         c 

^  nil    "  To  thee  the  Coptite  Nome  has  come  forth  with 
i  i  i   13  i 

its  mighty  stones  "  (Dend.,  IV,  75)  ;    "  He  is  like  the  son  of 

in  raising  up 
columns  from  the  mighty  stones  furnished  by  the  10th  nome 

<~===>    jfqt    I     O     |IM""|  f\-^1  AA  1 

of  the  South."    In  DemUrah,  I,  67,  <^  □  Hi  i       /wvaaa    i 

'  i  i  i    til  i  Q.  c   \\  i  i     I  — h— 

/ fitnx   etc.,  has  the  paraphrase   >=>  a  ^^  i    [    "Wc  ^=7 

The  sense  of  greatness  or  might,  which  is  so  evident  in  these 
texts,  will  be  found  to  explain  every  single  instance  in  which  the 
word  occurs  throughout  the  whole  course  of  the  language. 
Physical  might  is  the  primitive  meaning  of  the  word,  and 
other  meanings  are  only  derived  from  it. 

Dr.  Brugsch  in  his  Dictionary1  noticed  the  equivalence  or 

parallelism  of  \    and  yii,  protect,  in  Hieroglyphic 

and  Demotic  texts.     Several  other  words  are  equally  found 

in  parallelism  with  \,   and  this  parallelism  is  found 

not  only  in  the  course  of  one  and  the  same  text,  as,  e.g. : — 


_a 


o    I    _H£\>    i    w    j  a    I 


1  Page  825  :  "  Haufig  in  Parallelismus  mit  ^  n  xv>  daher  auch  die 
jeweilige  deruot.  Uebersetzung,  xMt'«"  But  I  think  \u  means  "exercise  pro- 
tection," and  that  this  is  the  meaning  of  such  expressions  as  "sacred  animals," 
"  sacred  plants,"  "  sacred  crown,"  etc.,  where  nutra  is  the  word  translated  sacred. 


226  Egyptian  Mythology,  particularly 

(Sharpe,  E.L,  II,  28),  "  great  (ur«)  is  the  Eye  of  Horns, 
mighty  (da)  the  Eye  of  Horus,  strong  (nutra)  the  Eye  of 
Horus,  the  giver  of  might  (senutrd)  is  the  Eye  of  Horus," 
but  running  through  names  and  titles  current  in  a  dynasty, 
like  in  the  pyramids,  called    ti^h  rrjr]  tA],       I    ^     r  rjj  A,, 

and  '  [  [  f|  jZa,  •  The  connection  of  these  names  is  as 
intentional    as    the    use    of  the    adjectives   in    the   phrase 

<=>  ' v  (J  , ,    nutra  men  ma  pet.  "strong  and  durable 

as  heaven"  (Maiiette,  Karnak,  plate  35). 


The  royal  name  Nutrd-karrd  0  U  J  which  is  No.  40 
on  the  Tablet  of  Abydos,  signifies  very  much  the  same 
as  No.  41  f  O  r^^  \J  J  Men-ka-rd.  Tat-ka-rd,  Se-dnj^-ka-rd, 
and  such  other  names  are  more  or  less  synonymous.  So 
again  the  royal  titles     ]  w  Y\)     1  f \  \^    of  Usertsen  III 

are  but  emphatic  expressions  of  l[  Q  v\  (Amenemhat  I) 
and  Hq^  (Usertsen  II).  And  Amenemhat  III,  the 
successor  of  Usertsen  III,  took  the  title  of  «-=»  (\^t>  da  baiu. 
If  we  pass  on  to  the  XVIIIth  dynasty  we  meet  the  same 
system  in  the  names  of  Sor-ka-rd,  Men-^eper-rd,  Aa-yeper-rd, 

etc.,  and  in  the  royal  titles  1  1  OO  'Y'  f§  ^>  of  Thothmes  II, 
\\\  Qfl  of  Thothmes  III,  §1(111  of  Thothmes  IV,  and 
1fe=?  1  ^[1(1  of  Chut-en-aten.  All  these  royal  titles  have  the 
same   grammatical    construction    as     [  v\  '  swift- 

handed.'  They  are  attributive  compounds  like  /za/cpo^et/), 
longimanus,  fxeyaXoTrov^;.  And  the  notion  which  is  common 
to  the  words    "?s^*    urd,      A    da,  men,  tat,    •¥■   dwfo 

<       ->  V  /WWW  L\  1 

£    uah,   (    nem,    and  nutra,    is    might,   strength,    vigour, 

magnify. 


with  reference  to  Mist  and   Cloud.  227 

I  have  iu  my  Hibbert  Lectures  quoted  passages  where 
it  is  said  of  the  king — 

I     V  \  *£ -  /wwv\  t.  n     <c^>     j:s>-     X^JN.  WWW        I 

S  Jl  IM     *-=—  -/J     ©  1    .www     I     T    I  I  I        I 

where  the  parallel  word  to      I  i     is    ^^ww  « strong, 

vigorous.' 

In  texts  of  the  latest  period  the  same  parallelism  is  found — 

0— £-      n     ^     ORYIII    ^^  c£=}  V  ?kY    '  " 
<^~   J)  ^wwx  (3  <^J  K^ a  r-^vn  V  <^N  *^~ 

where  the  word  corresponding  to  nutra  is  ^.  '  vigorous- 
handed.' 

In  texts  of  this  period,      ^  peh,  the  well  known  word 

signifying  'might,'  is  used  as  a  synonym  of  j.  See,  for 
instance,  Kalenderinschr.,  67,  3,  where  the  goddess  is  called 

_ X^  ^37 ,  and  a  passage  in  the  Tempelinschr.,  I,  which  is 

°        '"  •  v^    v^> 

repeated  three  times  (pi.  37,  38,  and  39)  with  —    (V\>  and 

three  times  (pi.  40,  41,  and  42)  with  the  more  familiar  *  . 

All  this  points  unmistakably  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
frequent  expression  \    nutdr  nutra,  is  not  the  mere 

tautology  "  godlike  god,"  "  deus  divinus,"  but  that,  like  the 
Hebrew  "HE?  7N ,  it  signifies  "  all-powerful  god." 

There  is  another  word  with  which     I    is  certainly  akin. 

This,   as    pointed   out    by   the    orthography    \J    B&     J^    is 

&    **—n  net'er,  which  again  has    3  ]E  as  a  variant.2    It  signi- 

1  British  Museum,  E.S.  375,  referred  to  iu  Dr.  Birch's  Dictionary. 

2  See  Brugsch's  Dictionary   (Supplement),  where  a  very  different  account  of 

the  word  is  given.  It  is  there  connected  with  the  Hebrew  7*122  susfulit,  and 
this  with  nt2_i  tciendit  !  Etymological  science  of  this  kind  is  extremely  easy, 
but  it  is  certainly  not  plausible.  Were  I  a  believer  in  the  relationship  between 
Egyptian  and  Semitic,  I  should  explain  He,     T\\        and    Hi  by  T^ 

and  the  kindred  ""££w,  U) ,  \^j  ,  and  ^j  .  In  these  Semitic  words,  as  in 
the  Latin  tueor,  we  have  the  double  notion  of  sight  and  protection,  guarding 
and  regarding. 


228  Egyptian  Mythology,  particularly 

fies   overpowering,    having   the   mastery,    dominari.      It    occurs 
very  frequently  in    the    "  Triumphs   of    Horus "   at   Edfu.1 

&  \\     ®  net'er   Hau  net'er,    "  overpowering  is 


<CZ>  ^       n  _i±>^  <d^>  ^       n     ^  /www      v^       fl  i        p 

Horus,  overpowering"!  is  often  repeated.      &  RfW"! 

s QQn  ^^^ — -Qooo  r    A 

x    net'er  %emt  nub  en  Ptahu,  "  overpowering  is  the  lance 

*/wwv  d  A  /www  ^  A       M    n  O  ^Vr>  ^ 

which  Ptah  hath  forged."    Bxp  q  "g-  1=2  |    u  — w  Cf  W 

"  overpowering  is  the  gust  of  wind  in  Chebiat."  The  same 
meaning  is  found  in  the  older  texts.    The  Litanies  of  Ra  pray 

fl  AAAAAA   <_— — ^  H <-V  ^ 

^  /www  |  ^    etc#5    « }et    them    not    overpower 

<VA/VVVV     £7T>     ^         fi    MIT  /www  fl       ^i  . h — 

king  N,"  adding  the  parallelism  v\  ^^  "  let  them 

/WWW        rTNS'  ^  fi      I     I     I 

not  obtain  the  mastery,"  etc.  It  occurs  in  the  Book  of  the 
Dead,  136,  10,  where  it  signifies  "having  the  mastery"  of 
one's  staff;  and  in  144,  10,  where  the  parallel  expression  user) 
is  ^Y__  "  resistless."      It  occurs  in  this  sense  throughout 

/WAA/W  |  . 

the  inscriptions  on  the  sarcophagus  of  Seti  I. 

M.  de  Rouge,  on  the  inscription  of  Aahmes,  explains  the 
name  j=)g  <c"^  net'ert,  of  the  hour  of  noon,  by  the  Coptic 
rtox ,  recumbere,  as  expressive  of  the  time  of  siesta.  It  means 
the  "  dominant,  overpowering  "  one.     Another  name  for  it  is 


_  Y  fl  (J  I]       (7/u7/£,  the  reverse  of  "  recumbent." 

The  only  reason  which  suggested  to  M.  E.  de  Rouge  the 
sense  of  "renew"  is  the  determinative  j>  which  so  frequently 
accompanies  the  word  nutrd  as  adjective  or  verb.  But  the 
sign  |  is  here  simply  a  determinative  of  the  sound  tra,  and  is 
found  attached  to  all  words  ending  in  this  syllable,2  what- 

1  See  Naville,  Mythe  d?  Horus,  I,  6,  9 ;  II,  1,  2,  3,  4  ;  III,  3,  4  ;  IV,  9,  10; 

V,  1,  etc.     From  the  physical  the  intellectual  sense  of  mastery  is  derived. 

2  The  form     |  <rz>  is  very  frequent,  but  is  not  to  be  read  nutri.     It  is,  I 

believe,  a  mistake  to  look  upon  \\  as  a  phonetic  character  =  i.     It  has  various 
uses,  and  among  others  it  represents  the  place  of  a  vowel,  whether  that  be  a,  i, 

or  u.      There  is  a  word  (J  (I  Qj\    Mariette,    A bydos  I,  plate  7,   the 

determinative     ^j)     of    which   points  to  some  such  meaning  as     *J  ItOJUL'J 
consolari.     This  is  perhaps  the  key  to  the  meaning  of  the  festival  for  the  dead 
called      |      ^      (1(1  <v£7    nutri. 


with  reference  to  Mist  and  Cloud.  229 

ever  be  their  meaning:  Q  [I  \  'season,'  °  J  3  f)  'a  willow 
tree,'    <===>  \\\     '  address,'    the    enclitic    particle       ^    (1  i 

'Praj' ^  q{-^  'behold,'  \^=>\  'join,'  |  ^  fl  { 
a  'horse,'  K^^IH  'tribute,'  | <^> { " ^^  5^)  'stables  of 
oxen'  (Denkm.,  Ill,  219,  e),  ]  V  <=>  (Wo  'incense,'  and 
others.     In  short,  what  word  ending  in  tra  is  without  i  ? 

The  proper  name  T\\  ^  Nutrit,  applied  to  Dendera,  has 
the  same  meaning  as  Samaria  (from  "^IT,  custodivit,  protexit), 
Ashdod  (from  TTti?,  validus  fuit),  Gaza  (vcdida,  immita), 
Valentia,  and  many  other  names  expressive  of  strength  and 
protection. 

The  noun    |  <=>  -cs>-  signifies  an  eyeball,  and  is  generally 

applied  to  those  of  the  Sun-god,  who     I     \\  ^^= ' 

<z=>  *ir-*    "enlightens  the  earth  with  Ins  two  eyeballs"; 

a  very  common  expression  in  the  later  texts.  The  notion 
implied  in  the  word  is  "  that  which  is  guarded,  protected" 
as  in  Custodi  me  ut  pupillam  ocidi.  At  Dendera  the  king- 
presents  the  goddess  Hathor  with  a  globe  representing  her 
eyeball,  and   she   replies   to   him  (Mariette,  III,  pi.  22,  c), 

n  cr\    3  Ip  -<2>-    <^z^s  1  |i       <=>   V  O      1  ffive  thee  thv  two 

u  U    ij  iii  iif  ci  ^ 

eyeballs  protected  (imtrd-ut)  against  harm." 


230 


AKKADIAN    PRECEPTS    FOR    THE    CONDUCT 
OF    MAN    IN    HIS    PRIVATE    LIFE. 

By  George  Bertix,   M.R.AJ3. 

Head  2nd  May,  1882. 

When  we  call  to  mind  the  early  attempts  of  Oriental 
scholars  in  deciphering  the  Cuneiform  inscriptions,  we  cannot 
but  admire  the  courage  and  boldness  of  those  who  opened 
the  field  for  us.  The  way  once  indicated,  they  advanced 
steadily ;  what  was  doubtful  at  first  was  either  confirmed  or 
rejected ;  little  by  little  the  ground  became  firmer.  Though 
it  is  always  with  respect  that  we  pronounce  the  names  of 
such  men  as  Hincks  and  Norris,  the  time  has  come  when  we 
are  able  to  revise,  correct  and  improve  the  first  translations, 
as  many  more  texts  are  at  our  disposal,  and  a  better  acquaint- 
ance with  them  enables  us  to  understand  the  real  value  of 
each  word. 

V  hen  the  inscriptions  were  read  for  the  first  time,  every- 
thing was  new,  the  decipherer  had  to  go  from  hypothesis  to 
hypothesis,  and  many  passages  and  expressions  remained 
enigmatic  to  him.  Many  of  these  enigmas  are  now  explained. 
For  instance,  the  long  contest  of  the  Akkadists  and  Sumerists 
has  been  solved  in  an  unexpected  manner.  The  bilingual 
texts  and  trilingual  lists  have  revealed  the  existence  of 
another  tongue  beside  the  Akkadian,  i.e.,  the  Sumerian, 
perhaps  the  popular  dialect  of  that  time.  A  fact  worthy  of 
note  is  that  many  of  the  Akkadian  ideograms  and  words 
have  been  adopted  by  the  Semites  with  their  Sumerian  value 
and  pronunciation.  However,  as  the  Sumerians  seem  to 
have  inhabited  the  southern,  and  the  Akkadians  the  northern 


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Akkadian  Precepts  for  the   Conduct  of  Man,  tyc.      231 

part  of  Babylonia,1  it  may  be  that  the  Sumerian  or  Akkadian 
words  were  introduced  into  the  Semitic  tongue2  when  the. 
reigning  power  was  in  the  south  or  the  north. 

It  is  not  necessary  at  this  time  to  treat  on  the  question 
whether  Akkadian  or  Sumerian  is  the  most  ancient  dialect, 
or  whether  they  were  contemporary  ;  but  the  study  of  the 
syllabaries  shows  us  that  what  we  call  Akkadian  was  con- 
sidered to  be  the  classic  tongue.  The  texts  of  each  dialect 
have  a  different  character;  in  Akkadian  we  have  historical 
records,  magical  incantations,  hymns,  &c;  the  Sumerian  texts 
consist  mostly  of  litanies,  and  none  are  historical.  We  may, 
however,  still  hope  to  find  Sumerian  historical  inscriptions,  as 
one  of  the  Babylonian  dynasties  was  Sumerian.3 

What  has  just  now  been  said  about  the  progress  of 
Assyriology  is  well  illustrated  by  the  study  of  the  syllabaries. 
At  first  they  were  thought  to  be  spelling  books  for  the  use 
of  the  Assyrians,  afterwards  Assyriologists,  saw  in  them  a 
kind  of  dictionary  and  grammatical  exercises  ;  but  now  we 
know  that  they  are  really  commentaries  on  some  standard 
works,  to  which  may  be  compared  the  commentaries  on 
Greek  and  Latin  authors  with  glossaries  and  lists  of  words 
and  sentences. 

These  commentaries,  or  so-called  syllabaries,  sometimes 
precede  the  texts  they  refer  to,  though  they  were  generally 
done  independently  without  giving  the  text  analysed.  They 
may  be  divided  into  two  classes :  the  syllabaries  proper 
giving  the  ideograms  with  their  pronunciation  and  their 
Assyrian  translation,  and  sometimes  the  technical  name  of 
the  group  ;  and  the  simple  lists  of  words  or  sentences 
more  or  less  connected. 

It  may  be  noticed  here  that  though  the  words  in  those 
lists  seem  to  have  been  classed  according  to  their  ideological 

1  The  town  of  Akkad  has  been  identified  as  being  in  the  north  of  Babylonia  ; 
no  town  of  the  name  of  Snmer  has  yet  been  found ;  but  the  name  under  the 
form  of  j*~>  (Shomer)  is  still  applied  in  our  own  time  to  the  north-west 
portion  of  Arabia,  bordering  on  what  was  Babylonia. 

2  Tbe  Akkadian  inscriptions  show  that  the  Semites  dwelt  at  the  earliest 
period  by  the  side  of  the  Akkadians. 

3  See  "Proceedings,  Society  of  Biblical  Archaeology,"  lit li  January,  1S81  : 
"  Notes  on  the  Lists  of  Kings,"  by  Theo.  Gr.  Pinches. 


232  Akkadian  Precepts  for  the  Conduct  of 

relations,  in  some  cases  the  scribe  appears  to  have  followed 
a  certain  philological  order;  but  this  question  has  not  yet 
been  studied  enough  to  ascertain  what  was  that  order,  and 
whether  it  was  always  the  same,  or  changed  with  the  scribe. 
This  is,  however,  a  point  which  deserves  the  attention  of  the 
philologist. 

The  study  of  Cuneiform  writing  has  till  now  been  almost 
exclusively  philological,  and  for  this  reason  many  points  have 
escaped  notice.  For  instance,  in  the  syllabaries  the  sign  ^\ 
often  takes  the  place  of  the  Assyrian  Avord  translating  the 
Akkadian  expression.  If  Assyriologists  had  only  thought 
that  this  sign  represented  the  "  hand,"  they  would  at  once 
have  guessed  that  it  was  a  similar  use  to  that  among  our- 
selves of  the  hand  as  pointer  ^&,  the  scribe  thus  expressed 
that  the  Assyrian  word  was  the  same  as  the  Akkadian,  just  as 
we  find  the  use  of  the  sign  «jfie  in  some  modern  dictionaries. 

I  am  convinced  that  Archeology  would  be  a  powerful 
help  to  the  Assyriologist,  and  that  is  why  in  my  paper  I  have 
tried  to  throw  light  on  Cuneiform  texts  by  comparing  the 
usages  of  other  nations  with  those  of  the  Akkadians  and 
Assyrians. 

Among  the  bilingual  tablets  (Akkadian  and  Assyrian)  now 
in  the  British  Museum,  there  are  several  belonging  to  the 
same  series,  written  as  is  usual  in  bilingual  lists,  in  two 
columns  divided  into  paragraphs.  They  were  at  first  thought 
to  be  philological  tablets  giving  grammatical  forms  and 
models  of  sentences ;  when,  however,  all  the  tablets  of  the 
series  are  taken  together  and  considered  as  forming  part  of 
the  same  work,  their  meaning  and  object  become  clear. 

These  texts  give  precepts  or  rules  for  the  conduct  of 
man  in  his  various  occupations.1 

An  important  tablet  (obverse  and  reverse)  gives  instruc- 
tions for  the  agriculturist,  when  and  how  he  is  to  prepare  and 
sow  his  fields,  build  his  house  and  barn,  what  are  his  relations 
towards  his  landlord  in  such  and  such  circumstances.2 

1  This  is  supported  by  the  very  name  of  the  series  of  tablets,  see  Notes,  p.  258. 
It  may  also  be  noticed  that  sentences  found  in  these  texts  appear  sometimes  in 
the  contracts  of  the  early  Babylonian  Empire. 

2  The  tablet  is  published  in  W.A.I.,  II,  pi.  14  and  15. 


Man  in  his  Private  Life.  233 

Another1  gives  instructions  for  trading  transactions. 

Another  gives  precepts  for  the  conduct  of  man  in  his 
private  life,  and  his  duties  towards  his  relatives. 

It  is  this  last  text  which  I  have  chosen  as  the  subject  for 
consideration,  because  it  has  been,  until  the  present  attempt, 
translated  from  incomplete  or  defective  copies,  and  for  these 
reasons  it  has  been  generally  misunderstood ;  and  I  think  I 
can  throw  light  on  many  customs  mentioned  therein. 

Mr.  Theo.  G.  Pinches  has  kindly  offered  to  give  me  a 
new  copy  of  the  text,  in  which,  by  comparing  various 
passages,  he  has  been  able  to  complete,  as  far  as  possible, 
the  broken  lines. 

The  commentary  which  covered,  no  doubt,  the  preceding 
tablet,  extends  till  line  39  of  the  obverse.  The  text,  which 
begins  line  40,  may  be  divided  roughly  into  two  parts :  the 
first,  extending  as  far  as  line  21,  column  3,  gives  precepts  for 
the  conduct  of  life ;  the  second  enumerates  the  legal  punish- 
ments for  certain  trespasses. 

The  crimes  mentioned  here  are  those  of  a  husband  against 
his  wife,  a  son  against  his  father  or  mother,  and  so  forth.  If 
this  tablet  was,  as  was  first  thought,  a  list  of  penal  laws, 
it  would  no  doubt  make  mention  of  thieving  and  killing. 
There  was,  however,  some  reason  for  calling  this  text  a 
treatise  on  family  laws :  but  the  first  part  contains  many 
paragraphs  which  have  nothing  to  do  with  family  laws,  and 
treat  only  of  marriage,  dowry,  &c. 

If  we  have  here  not  a  code  of  laws,  but  precepts  for  the 
conduct  of  man  in  his  private  relations  of  life,  it  ought  to 
commence,  not  with  his  childhood,  but  when  he  assumes  his 
rights  as  a  citizen. 

The  text  at  the  outset  states  that  at  a  certain  time  the 
child  is  declared  to  be  a  freeman,  that  is,  he  is  declared  to  be 
of  age.  This  age,  as  among  the  Jews,  was  no  doubt  twelve 
years ;  before  that  time  the  child  was  not  considered  to  be 
answerable  for  his  actions  ;  he  was  not  counted  in  a  meeting 
to  form  a  quorum ;  he  was,  in  fact,  "  an  infant "  in  the  eyes 
of  the  law.2 

1  W.A.T.,  II,  pi.  13. 

2  Talmud,  translation  of  Schwab,  Vol.  I,  p.  129,  &c. 


284  Akkadian  Precepts  for  the  Conduct  of 

The  second  paragraph  treatB  of  the  ceremony  which 
follows  the  declaration  that  he  was  of  age.  It  may  corres- 
pond with  the  presentation  in  the  Temple  among  the  Jew.>. 
which  took  place  at  the  age  of  twelve  years.  This  age  has 
also  been  retained  by  the  Roman  Catholics  for  the  first 
religious  ceremony  in  which  the  child,  in  his  proper  person,  is 
party  to.  i.e.,  the  first  communion. 

The  third  and  fourth  paragraphs  of  the  tablet  speak  of 
the  first  act  of  the  child  when  he  became  a  man.  that  is, 
paying  tribute.  The  amount  of  the  first  tribute  paid  by 
him  was  double  the  usual  sum,  which  recalls  to  miud  the 
Jewish  prescription  of  paying  a  double  tribute  every  three 
years. 

The  two  next  paragraphs  state  that  the  child  is  hence- 
forth answerable  for  his  actions,  and  will  bear  the  con- 
sequences of  his  sins.  It  is  the  same  idea  which  makes 
the  confession  obligatory  after  this  age  among  the  Roman 
Catholics. 

Though  practically  a  citizen  after  the  age  of  twelve 
years,  and  free  as  to  his  actions,  the  young  man  was  still 
under  the  control  of  his  father,  as  regards  an  important 
point,  that  of  marriage ;  this  seems  to  be  implied  by  the 
first  paragraph  on  the  second  column  of  the  tablet,  after  a 
break  of  nineteen  lines.1  The  same  was  certainly  the  custom 
among  the  Jews  :  for  example,  when  Samson  wished  to 
marry  Delilah,  he  begs  his  parents  to  ask  for  her  from  her 
parents.  So  Abraham,  wishing  to  see  his  son  married,  and 
not  being  able  to  travel  on  account  of  his  age,  sends  his 
servant  to  negotiate  the  marriage.  Even  the  Philistine  who 
had  taken  Dinah  by  force,  sent  his  father  to  ask  her  hand 
from  her  father  Jacob. 

There  were  among  the  Akkadians  several  sorts  of 
marriages,  but  only  one  was  sacred  :  the  young  man,  as  was 
the  custom  with  the  Jews,  was  to  marry  a  freeborn  maiden. 
It  is  likely  that  these  marriages  were  indissoluble,  as  may 
be  inferred  from  a  further  paragraph. 

1  It  will  be  seen  further  on  that  by  the  test  of  a  Babylonian  marriage 
contract  or  dowry  bill,  the  arrangements  were  made  by  the  parents  of  the  new 
couple. 


Man  in  his  Private  Life.  235 

Among  the  Jews  there  were  two  sorts  of  wives,  both 
legitimate,  the  ones  called  nashim,1  that  is,  the  chief  wives, 
the  ladies  of  the  houses.  A  man  could  not  have  more  than 
one  of  these.  The  chief  wife  had  always  power  over  the 
other  wives.  Those  called  pilligshim  (Q'1tL^7D)  or  half  wives, 
and  not  concubines,  in  our  modern  sense  of  the  word,  were 
really  servants,  or  hand-maids.  The  custom  and  the 
distinction  of  these  two  kinds  of  wives  has  been  retained 
to  our  days  in  the  East,  and  is  still  kept  up  with  a  slight 
modification  by  the  Mormons. 

The  Greeks  and  Romans  had  also  two  kinds  of  wives, 
but  the  inferiority  of  women  in  their  eyes  caused  them  to 
give  no  privilege  to  the  chief  wife,  who  could  be  divorced 
at  pleasure. 

As  already  mentioned,  the  chief  wife  was  to  be  a  free- 
born  maiden.  It  was  no  doubt  so  with  the  Jews,  as  the  laws 
of  Moses  stated  that  if  a  man  seduced  a  freeborn  maiden  who 
had  not  been  betrothed,  he  was  to  marry  her,  never  repudiate 
her,  and  to  pay  a  fine  of  forty  shekels  to  the  father.  If  a  Jew 
took  a  free  woman  as  a  captive  in  war,  he  could  not  marry  her 
at  once,  but  she  was  compelled  to  mourn  for  thirty  days  ;  and 
even  then,  if  he  did  not  take  her  as  his  chief  wife,  he  had  no 
power  to  retain  her  as  his  wife,  but  after  the  marriage  she 
could  if  she  wished  renounce  him,  and  take  her  place  in  the 
world  as  a  free  woman. 

There  was  a  great  difference  between  the  betrothal  of  a 
chief  wife  and  that  of  a  half  wife;  the  latter  was  "  bought  " 
from  her  father  for  a  sum  of  money;  the  chief  wife  on  the 
contrary  was  given  with  a  dowry. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  this  distinction  of  the  two 
kinds  of  marriage  was  kept  at  Rome.  In  the  patrician 
marriage  performed  before  the  Flamine  the  bride  was  given 
with  a  dowry,  generally  of  one  million  of  sesterces  besides  the 
trousseau  ;  in  the  plebeian  marriage,  on  the  contrary,  the  bride 
was  given  by  her  father  in  exchange  for  a  sum  of  money, 
and  she  accordingly  occupied  a  position  not  much  better  than 
that  of  a  slave. 

1  From  k$^3,  "  to  forget,"  because  the  wife  must  forget  her  own  family,  to 
adopt  that  of  her  husband. 


23(1  Akkadian  Precepts  for  the  Conduct  of 

The  paragraph  treating  of  marriages  and  betrothals  is 
unfortunately  much  broken,  but  enough  of  the  Akkadian 
words  remain  to  show  to  what  this  portion  of  the  tablet 
refers.  The  ceremony  of  betrothal  must,  however,  have 
existed  among  the  Akkadians,  as  the  word  betrothed  exists 
in  the  language.  One  of  the  misdeeds  of  the  evil  spirits 
when  let  loose  was  to  make  the  young  man  desert  his 
betrothed  bride. 

The  ceremony  of  marriage  was  among  the  Jews  performed 
ten  days  after  the  betrothal,  before  ten  witnesses  at  least : 
we  see  Samson  at  his  marriage  with  thirty  companions. 

The  next  paragraph  is  very  interesting,  as  it  treats  of 
the  gift  or  token  made  by  the  bridegroom.  This  gift  was 
a  drinking  vessel,  and  especially  a  wine  drinking  vessel, 
called  passaru  in  Assyrian,  a  word  no  doubt  borrowed  froni 
the  Akkadian  Bamur.  The  Jewish  marriage  ceremony  gives 
us  again  the  explanation  of  this  gift,  as  drinking  of  wine 
was  indispensable  to  the  ceremony. 

At  the  marriage  feast  the  chairman,  or  master  of  the 
banquet,  took  a  cup  of  wine,  and  after  blessing  it,  repeated 
a  formula,  "  Blessed  be  thou,"  &c,  and  drank  to  the  married 
couple. 

The  importance  of  the  wine  in  the  ceremony  was  such 
that,  according  to  some,  wine  was  specially  kept  to  be  used 
at  the  marriage  of  a  son.  We  know  the  surprise  of  the  chief 
of  the  feast  at  Cana  when  he  found  that  the  wine  changed 
by  Christ  was  better  than  the  one  kept  for  the  marriage. 

The  custom  of  breaking  a  vase  at  the  marriage  ceremony 
may  be  also  traced  back  to  this  drinking  of  wine.  The 
marriage  being  indissoluble,  the  breaking  of  the  drinking 
cup  might  mean  that  a  6econd  union  was  impossible.1  It 
must  be,  however,  a  secondary  development :  so  is  also  the 
strange  usage  attributed  by  some  to  the  gipsies,  and  alluded 
to  by  M.  Victor  Hugo  in  "  Notre  Dame  de  Paris,"  of  temporary 
marriages,  the  number  of  years  of  which  is  settled  by  the 
number  of  pieces  of  the  broken  vase. 

1  I  think  that  the  Kabbinical  explanation  of  the  ceremony  mentioned  by  the 
Eev.  A.  Lowy,  has  been  invented  afterwards  to  explain  a  custom,  the  origin  of 
■w  hich  had  been  forgotten. 


Man  in  his  Private  Life.  237 

The  last  paragraph  of  the  second  column  is  hardly 
intelligible,  but  it  seems  to  treat  of  purification,  perhaps 
previous  to  or  after  the  final  ceremony. 

The  first  paragraph  of  column  3  treats  of  the  dowry 
given  by  the  father  in  the  case  of  a  chief  wife. 

We  possess  only  one  tablet  speaking  of  the  dowry  given 
with  the  bride.1  It  dates  from  the  34th  year  of  Nebuchad- 
nessar,  and  in  it  Ziria  states  that  he  gives,  as  dowry  with 
his  daughter,  seven  mana  of  silver,  three  slaves  and  their 
children. 

The  "  dowry -bill "  was  written  and  given  to  the  husband 
after  the  marriage  ceremony,  no  doubt  to  express  that  the 
bride  was  taken  for  herself  and  not  for  her  dowry.  This  is 
implied  by  the  order  of  the  paragraphs,  and  the  same  custom 
was  observed  by  the  Jews  and  the  Romans. 

In  the  "  dowry-bill "  above  mentioned,  it  is  stated  that 
the  husband  settles  on  his  wife  the  same  amount  or  an 
equivalent  of  the  dowry;  this  also  was  the  custom  among 
the  Jews  and  the  Romans.  The  latter  wrote  these  contracts 
in  the  form  of  a  dialogue,  which  is  also  the  form  of  this 
Babylonian  marriage  contract. 

The  next  paragraph  is  worded  thus  :  "  Henceforth  the 
husband  cannot  renounce  her,  who  possesses  his  heart." 
This  rather  enigmatic  sentence  only  refers  to  the  chief  Avife, 
who  could  not  be  repudiated,  though  I  was  at  first  inclined 
to  think  it  meant  that  a  man  could  not  repudiate  a  wife  by 
whom  he  had  issue. 

The  first  duty  of  the  young  husband  was  to  build  up  an 

1  This  tablet  has  been  published  and  translated  by  M.  Pinches  in  his  paper, 
"  Terra-cotta  Tablets  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria,"  read  18th  February,  1880, 
in  the  Journal  of  the  British  Archaeological  Association,  Yol.  XXXV,  p.  398.  I 
think  it  will  be  as  well  to  give  here  the  translation  of  this  interesting  document  : — 

"Ziria,  son  of  Nabu-ibni,  child  of  Nabaca,  spoke  thus  to  Iddina-Marduk,  son 
of  Basa,  child  of  Nur-Sin  :  '  I  offer  with  my  daughter  Ina-e-sagili-ramat  as  a 
gift,  seven  mana  of  sdver,  three  slaves  and  children  of  Bit-elat,  (besides)  three 
mana  of  silver  according  to  promise.  The  trustees,  whom  I  had  proposed  (?)  to 
Basa,  have  willingly  approved  (?)  the  amount.'  Iddina-Marduk  spoke  thus  to 
Ziria :  '  Ir.stead  of  the  gift,  which  I  give  up,  I  settle  on  Ina-e-sagili-ramat,  my 
wife,  the  woman  Ubarta  and  her  three  children,  the  woman  Nada-kikarat  and 
her  two  children,  and  my  estate  in  the  city  of  Usir,  I  give  all  under  seal  instead 
of  the  seven  mana,  gift  of  Ina-e-sagili-ramat.' 

Follow  the  names  of  the  witnesses. 


2'.)S  Akkadian  Precepts  for  the  Conduct  of 

altar  or  shrine  in  the  court  of  his  house  :  the  married  couple 
could  then  enjoy  their  honeymoon  in  happiness  and  peace. 
Among  the  Jews  the  newly  married  man  was  dispensed,  for 
a  time,  of  his  civil  duties,  and  for  this  reason  marriage  was 
prohibited  during  time  of  war. 

It  is  here  the  place  to  speak  of  a  very  interesting  and 
important  tablet  communicated  to  me  by  Mr.  Pinches,  who 
has  kindly  copied  and  translated  it.  This  tablet,  which  was 
unknown  to  me  when  I  came  to  the  conclusions  brought 
forward  in  this  paper,  will  be  found  to  confirm  all  I  have 
said.  It  belongs  to  the  class  called  contract  tablets,  and 
contains  the  statement  of  a  woman  and  the  decision  of  the 
judge ;  the  witnesses  are  mostly  magistrates ;  but,  contrary 
to  usage,  no  seals  accompany  the  names.  The  tablet  seems 
to  be  a  copy  of  the  official  document  written  for  some  party 
concerned  in  the  matter,  as  are  most  of  the  contract  tablets 
brought  from  Babylonia  and  Nineveh. 

The  woman,  who  is  named  Bunanitum,  in  her  statement 
declares  that  she  was  married  to  Bin-Addu-natan,1  and 
brought  as  dowry  the  sum  of  three  mana  of  silver ;  after 
being  married,  her  husband,  in  order  to  be  able  to  buy  a  house, 
borrowed  a  sum  of  money.  A  daughter  was  born  to  them, 
but  no  male  issue,  and  they  therefore  adopted  a  son.  The 
wife,  being  left  a  widow,  now  claims  back  her  dowry :  hence 
this  statement.  The  magistrate  decided  that  the  house  and 
other  properties  should  be  sold  by  the  trustees,  and  that 
after  providing  for  the  child,  and  paying  back  the  loan  with 
the  interest  on  it,  the  widow  should  receive  her  dowry  back, 
or  a  proportion  of  it. 

This  document  proves  that  it  was  customary  for  young 
married  couples  to  get  a  house  of  their  own,  as  we  see  it 
stated  in  these  precepts.  And  further  that,  as  among  the 
Greeks,  Romans,  and  elsewhere,  it  was  a  rule,  in  default 
of  male  issue  in  the  direct  fine,  to  adopt  a  male  child  to 
perpetuate  the  name  of  the  family. 2 

1  Ben-hadad-nathan. 

2  From  other  texts  it  seems  clear  that  the  male  child  adopted  was  really  to 
become  son-in-law  by  his  marriage  with  the  only  daughter ;  so  was,  indeed,  the 
Greek  custom. 


Man  in  his  Private  Life.  239 

The  Jewish  law  required  that  the  first  child  should  be 
consecrated  to  God :  the  same  custom  may  have  been  in  use 
among  the  Akkadians,  as  implied  by  the  paragraph,  though 
still  obscure,  in  which  it  is  said  that  the  father  must  place 
"  the  son  of  his  court  in  his  shrine." 1 

These  two  words,  "  son  of  the  court,"  may  mean  the  eldest 
son.  In  ancient  times,  sons  were  called  the  pillars  of  the 
house.  The  word  zikaru,  "  man,';  has  been  derived  from  the 
Hebrew  zakar,  "  to  remember." 

The  next  paragraph  is  much  broken,  but  seems,  from  what 
still  remains,  to  treat  of  the  nursing  of  the  child. 

In  line  15,  forming  a  paragraph  by  itself,  the  verb  is  lost ; 
it  has  been,  however,  translated,  "he  (the  child)  must  not 
deny  his  father  and  his  mother." 

The  next  paragraph  states  that  he  must  not  follow  a 
strange  woman.2 

The  paragraph  contained  in  a  single  line  (29)  shows  how 
highly  estimated  was  learning  in  the  eyes  of  the  Akkadians : 
"  he  (the  father)  makes  him  (the  child)  learn  inscriptions." 

The  Akkadians,  and  after  them  their  pupils  the  Assyrians 
and  Babylonians,  had  a  real  veneration  for  all  written  docu- 
ments, and  especially  for  literary  productions.  The  first 
thought  of  the  Assyrian  conquerors  is  to  carry  away  the 
literary  treasures  of  the  Babylonian  cities,  in  order  to  enrich 
the  Ninevite  library.  The  Babylonian  tablets  were  not  only 
earned  off,  but  were  copied  and  transcribed,  as  the  Babylonian 
writingwas  sufficiently  unlike  that  of  the  Assyrians  to  renderits 
reading  difficult  without  a  special  training :  it  may  be  noticed 
that  some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  the  Babylonian  style  of 
writing  are  from  the  hands  of  Ninevite  scribes.  The  King 
Assurbanipal,  though  a  great  warrior,  always  took  a  lively 
interest  in  the  progress  of  the  royal  library,  and  reports 
were  made  to  him  from  time  to  time  of  the  progress  of 
copying  and  transcribing.  Seeing  the  great  interest  shown 
for  learning,  we  must  not  be  surprised  to  see  stated  in  these 
precepts  that  one  of  the  duties  of  the  father  is  to  have  his 

1  The  story  of  Micah  (Judges  xvii)  shows  that  customs  very  similar  to  those 
prevailed  iu  Palestine  at  the  times  of  the  Judges. 
■   Cf.  Prov.  vii. 

Vol.  VTII.  16 


240  Akkadian  Precepts  for  the  Conduct  of 

son  taught  how  to  read  and  write ;  the  Akkadians  and  the 
Assyrians  seem  to  have  had  for  writing'  the  same  veneration 
as  the  Chinese. 

The  Jews  may  have  brought  from  Babylon,  after  their 
captivity,  then  taste  for  learning.  After  the  time  of  Esdras 
all  the  children  were  sent  to  school,  and  it  was  customary 
for  a  traveller  coming  into  a  town  to  ask  of  the  children 
which  verse  of  the  sacred  books  they  had  for  their  lesson 
that  day,  and  to  take  it  as  an  omen  ;  the  same  custom  prevails 
among  the  Mahomedans,  among  whom  the  Koran  is  the  only 
book  standard  in  the  schools. 

The  paragraph  contained  in  lines  20-21  says,  "he  (the 
father)  makes  him  (the  son)  take  a  wife."'  As  we  have  seen, 
the  chief  wife  was  always  asked  for  by  the  parents  of  the 
young  man ;  this  was  the  last  act  of  authority  of  the  father. 
AYhen  was  this  act  performed?  We  cannot  say,  for  the 
Assyrian  line  of  the  inscription  is  broken,  and  the  Akkadian 
is  still  obscure.  The  Mosaic  law  says,  "  at  the  fit  time " ; 
the  Jews  generally  married  before  the  age  of  twenty,  after 
which  age  they  could  be  called  to  fight  at  any  moment ; 
the  "fit  time"  was  therefore  between  the  age  of  twelve 
and  twenty. 

After  this  last  act  of  paternal  authority  the  father  and 
son  came  alike  under  the  common  law ;  that  may  be  expressed 
by  line  22,  though  the  line  is  obscure,  and  its  real  meaning 
may  escape  me. 

Here  begins  the  second  part  of  the  text,  containing  a  fist 
of  penal  laws  :  but  before  going  through  them,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  examine  the  meaning  of  a  sentence  which  occurs 
in  every  paragraph  ;  it  runs  thus  : — 

"  Thou  art  not  my  father,  or  my  mother,  or  my  son,"  etc.. 
as  the  case  may  be.  It  has  been  translated  by  the  verb 
"  deny,"  which  will  do  very  well  if  taken  in  one  of  its 
meanings.  For  instance,  when  the  text  says  that  a  son  says 
to  his  mother,  "  thou  art  not  my  mother,"  it  is  a  poetical  way 
of  saying  that  he  refuses  to  perform  the  duties  of  a  son 
towards  her. 

In  my  translation  the  word  "  deny "  is  retained,  but  it 
must  be  understood  that  it  is  to  be  taken  in  this  sense. 


Man  in  his  Private  Life.  241 

The  first  paragraph  treats  of  the  duties  which  the  son 
owes  to  his  father,  though  he  is  no  more  under  his  power.  If 
a  son  "  denies  "  his  father,  the  latter  cuts  off  the  hah-  of  the 
son,  that  is,  treats  him  as  a  slave  and  sells  him  as  such.  The 
Akkadian  has  an  interesting  variant,  "  he  cuts  his  nails," 
says  the  text.  Long  nails  seem  therefore  to  have  been  the 
mark  of  freedom,  as  long  hair  and  beard  were  among  the 
Semites.  The  slaves  and  people  of  low  condition  are  always 
represented  on  the  bas-reliefs  as  being  shaved. 

The  Akkadian  law  was  severe  for  a  son  who  "denied" 
his  mother.  He  was  made  an  eunuch  and  slave,  put  to  the 
pillory  in  the  middle  of  the  town,  and  "  sent  away  from  the 
house,"  t.e., perhaps  out-lawed.  If  a  father  "denied"  his  son, 
he  was  simply  expelled  from  his  house.  The  same  penalty 
was  enforced  against  the  mother  who  denied  her  son.  There 
is,  however,  a  difference  between  the  punishment  of  the 
father  and  mother  which  escapes  us,  as  some  words  are  still 
obscure.1 

The  two  first  paragraphs  of  column  4  treat  of  the 
husband.  If  he  injures  his  wife  in  such  way  that  she  says 
"thou  art  not  my  husband,"  the  husband  is  thrown  into  the 
river.  We  have  here  no  doubt  a  trial  by  ordeal,2  similar  to 
the  one  ordered  in  the  Mosaic  law  to  test  the  jealous  suspicion 
of  a  husband. 

If  a  husband  denied  his  wife,  that  is  if  he  refused  her 
food  and  garments,  her  rights,  he  had  to  pay  half  a  mana  of 
silver.  This  paragraph  is  still  obscure,  as  to  obtain  the  above 
meaning  we  must  suppose  a  mistake  of  the  Assyrian  scribe  in 
his  translation. 

The  last  paragraph  is  very  interesting,  as  it  treats  of 
the  duties  of  a  master  towards  his  servants ;  having  hired 
a  servant,  if  he  kills  him  or  in  any  way  causes  his  death, 
or  by  his  bad  treatment  makes  him  rim  away,  or  over- 
works him  and  thus  causes  him  to  be  ill,  the  master  will 
have  to  pay  for  every  day  a  fine  of  half  a  measure  of  corn 
(as  compensation). 

1  See  note  p.  267*. 

2  It  may  be,  however,  that  Mr.  Rylands  may  be  right,  arid  that  we  have  here 
an  early  record  of  "  ducking."     See  note  268. 


242  - 1  kkadian  Precepts  for  the  Conduct  of 

In  order  to  understand  this  last  paragraph,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  among  the  Akkadians  and  Babylonians  the 
slaves  were  lent  out  on  hire  as  horses  are  with  ns.  In  this 
case  it  is  therefore  stated  that  a  man  who  causes  the  death 
or  escape  of  a  hired  slave  must  pay  a  compensation  to  the 
proprietor  of  the  slave. 

There  is  in  the  British  Museum  collection  an  interesting 
contract  tablet,1  telling  of  a  man  who  lent  his  slave  on  the 
condition  that  the  hirer  would  teach  him  a  trade.  This 
proves  that  there  were  to  be  found  among  the  Akkadians  and 
Babylonians  the  same  customs  as  existed  among  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  where  the  slave  dealers  had  their  slaves  taught 
some  accomplishment  or  trade  in  order  to  be  able  to  let  them 
out  on  hire. 

Another  tablet2  also  illustrates  this  law.  It  states  that 
Idihi-Hana  had  to  pay  one  mana  as  compensation  to  Sarru- 
kinu  for  the  death  of  his  slave. 

I  may  add  here  that  we  must  not  be  surprised  to  find  the 
Akkadian  customs  surviving  through  so  many  centuries ;  the 
Akkadians  being  the  civilisers  of  Mesopotamia,  their  customs 
must  have  been  adopted  largely  by  the  Babylonian  Semites, 
and  by  them  diffused  through  the  other  Semitic  lands.  The 
same  happened  in  the  case  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  customs, 
which  during  the  Roman  Empire  spread  into  all  Western  and 
South-Eastern  Europe,  and  in  the  Middle  Ages  through  the  rest 
of  Europe.  The  Roman  laws  have  been  in  the  present  century 
taken  as  the  basis  of  the  French  code,  and  are  still  studied  by 
students  for  the  Bar.  Many  passages  in  the  inscriptions  and 
contracts  show  that  the  Akkadian  manners  and  customs  have 
at  all  times  been  in  force  in  Babylonia  and  Assyria. 

I  have  now  given  a  sketch  of  the  customs  contained  in 
this  most  interesting  tablet,  and  have  endeavoured  to  explain 
them  by  those  of  other  countries.  Of  course  this  attempt 
might  have  been  much  extended,  and  I  cannot  help  thinking 
that  working  on  the  same  lines,  much  valuable  information 
might  be  gained  from  other  records. 

1  Unpublished. 

:  This  unpublished  tablet,  dated  40th  year  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  has  been 
translated  by  Mr.  Theo.  G.  Pinches  ("  Records  of  the  Past,"  Vol.  XT,  p.  92). 


Man  in  his  Private  Life.  243 

Before  giving  the  transliteration  and  close  translation,  it 
is  necessary  to  say  a  few  -words  on  the  method  followed  by 
scholars  in  translating  these  texts.  The  systems  may  be 
divided  into  several  schools  or  classes,  each  following  a 
different  method.  The  first  is  that  which  translates  Assyrian 
with  the  help  of  other  Semitic  languages :  though  sometimes 
misleading,  this  process  gave  at  first  very  good  results. 

The  German  school,  led  by  Professor  Delitzsch,  adopted 
a  new  method,  and  tried  to  find  the  real  meaning  of  the 
words  by  comparing  with  one  another  the  various  bilingual 
passages.1  Scientific  though  this  system  may  at  first  appear, 
it  has  many  defects,  for  it  is  as  if  we  were  to  try  the  difficult, 
not  to  say  impossible  task  (supposing  that  we  knew  English 
and  French  no  better  than  we  know  Assyrian  and  Akkadian), 
of  reconstructing  the  grammar  and  syntax,  and  fixing  the 
meaning  of  all  the  words  in  each  tongue,  with  no  other  help 
than  bilingual  texts.  The  danger  of  such  a  system  is  evident, 
when  we  remember  that  the  genius  of  the  two  tongues  being 
different,  the  syntax  of  each  often  requires  different,  and  even 
opposed,  moods  and  tenses;  and  it  would  be  next  to  impossible 
to  reconstuct  their  syntax  and  grammar  without  the  help  of 
cognate  languages.2  It  must  also  not  be  forgotten  that  the 
difficulty  is  still  greater  with  Akkadian  and  Assyrian,  as  these 
two  languages  do  not  appear  to  belong  to  the  same  family  of 
speech. 

Assyrian,  like  all  other  Semitic  tongues,  has  two  genders, 
Akkadian  has  none ;  in  Assyrian  the  past  and  present  is 
expressed  by  a  single  change  of  accent,  and  this  accent  is 
usually  expressed  by  doubling  the  following  consonant  (as 
isakkan  for  isakari) ;  in  Akkadian  the  present  is  expressed  by 

1  The  pupils  of  Professor  Delitzsch  seem  to  hare  a  great  admiration  for 
Akkadian,  and  an  equal  contempt  for  Assyrian;  they  even  suppose  that  the 
Babylonian  scribes  made  mistakes  in  their  translations,  forgetting  that  Akkadian 
is  known  to  us  only  through  Assyrian  translations ;  and  that  if  the  Assyrian 
scribes  were  as  ignorant  as  they  suppose  them  to  have  been,  we  shoidd  have  to 
give  up  all  hopes  of  ever  translating  Akkadian. 

2  It  is  only  by  comparison  with  Sanscrit,  Zend,  and  other  Aryan  tongues 
that  the  learned  scholar  Herr  F.  Spiegel  {Die  altpersischen  KeilinseAriften)  has 
been  able  to  classify  the  forms  and  reconstruct  the  grammar  and  syntax  of  the 
Persian  of  the  Achemede  Inscriptions. 


244  Akkadian  Precepts  for  the  Conduct  of 

a  longer,  and  the  past  by  a  shorter  form  of  the  same  root  (as 
in-ie,  "he  gave,"  and  in-Semu,  "he  gives  "),  but  the  Akkadian 
makes  besides  a  great  use  of  affixes  ;  and  we  find,  for 
instance,  in-,  an-,  annan-,  inib-,  ananda-,  min-,  minib-,  sirnin-,  etc., 
prefixed  (more  rarely  postfixed)  to  the  verb.1  No  forms 
parallel  to  these  existed  in  the  Assyrian  language,  so  that 
the  same  Akkadian  group  is  translated  in  various  ways.3 
The  Akkadian  seems  to  have  a  special  form  to  express  the 
future;3  but  in  Assyrian  the  context  alone  will  enable  us  to 
ascertain  the  tinie-r  elation  slrip,  as  that  language  has  no 
future  proper.4  Differences  similar  to  those  of  the  grammar 
and  syntax  must  exist  also  in  the  use  of  the  words,  whose 
meaning,  though  corresponding  in  one  case,  may  not  corres- 
pond in  another. 

These  few  remarks  will  suffice  to  explain  why.  in  my 
notes,  I  still  try  to  throw  light  on  the  meanings  of  Assyrian 
words  by  comparing  them  with  those  of  cognate  languages. 

I  do  not,  however,  underrate  the  danger  of  a  promiscuous 
and  reckless  comparison  of  words  of  all  Semitic  tongues  ;  and 
I  have  tried  always  to  take  into  account  the  phonetic  laws, 
and  so  much  more  so  because  the  danger  is  greater  still  with 
Assyrian  than  with  the  other  Semitic  dialects.  On  account  of 
its  phonology,  of  the  clearness  of  its  vowels  well  expressed, 

1  These  suffixes  "incorporated"  might  be  compared  to  the  French  and 
Italian  pronouns,  Je  te  le  dis,  te  lo  dico,  donnez-le-lui,  dateglielo,  etc. 

2  M.  Lenormant  has  failed  in  his  attempt  of  classifying  these  suffixes ;  his 
theories  are  not  supported  by  the  texts.  The  different  uses  of  prefixes  are  ofteu 
expressed  in  Assyrian  by  a  change  of  yoice ;  by  instance,  vre  find  :  ab-urra  = 
isakak  (W.A.I.,  II,  14,  column  1,  line  18)  or  isakkaJc  {ibid.,  line  36),  and 
bab-urra  —  usakkdk  (ibid.,  column  2,  line  11). 

3  The  prefix  mi  is  perhaps  deriyed  from  me,  "  to  be";  and  I  am  inclined  to 
see  in  the  fomis  -where  it  is  prefixed  a  future  form,  as  in  most  of  the  languages 
the  future  is  expressed  by  means  of  shortened  forms  of  the  verb  "to  be"  added 
to  the  yerbal  root ;  and  eyen  when  a  future  form  exists,  the  future  might  be  also 
expressed  with  the  yerb  "  to  be  "  used  independently  :  sono  da  fare  for  faro  in 
Italian.  In  English  eyen,  "  I  am  to  do,"  by  uneducated  people,  is  used  for 
"  I  shall  do."  Though  it  implies  also  the  auxiliary  "shall,"  it  had  primitiyely 
an  idea  of  obligation  rather  than  futurity. 

4  The  theoretical  future  of  Professor  Sayce,  formed  by  the  lengthening  yowel 
u  is  not  used  in  the  texts;  the  forms  as  iskamt,  when  used  for  the  third  person 
singular,  only  expresses  an  intensified  meaning. 


Man  in  his  Private  IAfe, 


245 


of  the  absence  or  scarcity  of  the  aspirates,  and  above  all, 
of  its  strong  tendency  to  assimilate  letters,  Assyrian  might 
be  termed  the  "  Italian  "  of  the  Semitic  tongues.  This  last 
peculiarity,  which  appears  in  a  small  degree  in  Hebrew,  is 
carried  in  Assyrian  to  such  an  extent  that  the  primitive 
radicals  are  in  some  cases  difficult  to  detect.  Assyrian  no 
doubt  owes  these  peculiarities  to  the  influence  of  Akkadian, 
a  language  with  which  it  eminently  harmonises. 

Where  the  text  is  complete,  I  have  in  all  doubtful  cases 
followed  the  Assyrian,  because  I  think  that  the  Babylonian 
scribes  who  translated  the  Akkadian  texts,  knew  that  ancient 
language  much  better  than  we  can  ever  hope  to  know  it. 

Before  concluding,  I  wish  to  express  my  thanks  to 
Mr.  Theo.  G.  Pinches,  to  whom  I  owe  all  I  know  of 
Akkadian,  though  at  the  same  time  1  should  not  like  to 
make  him  responsible  for  my  theories  or  my  mistakes. 

For  convenience  the  columns  have  been  printed  separately 
in  the  plates.  The  following  shows  their  proper  position  on 
the  original  tablet : — 


Obverse. 

i-J 

CV1 

r* 

o 

o 

O 

O 

Reverse. 

^* 

CO 

rt 

d 

9 

p 

s 

i-> 

o 

o 

o 

O 

246 


Akkadian  Precepts  for  (he   Conduct  of 


COLUMN     I. 


AKKADIAN. 

ASSYRIAN. 

1. 

a                            kus-sa 

manahtum 

2. 

a  kus-sa-ni 

manahta-su 

3. 

a-kus-sa-ni  ingar 

nianahta-su  iskun 

4. 

a-kus-sa-ni   in-garri 

manahta-su  isakkanu 

5. 

a-kus-sa-ni-su 

ana  manahti 

6. 

a-kus-sa-ni-su 

ana  manahti-su 

7. 

baran-t  ul  dune 

itelli 

8. 

a-du 

addii 

9. 

a-du    is-bar 

addu  isbarti 

10. 

a-du   e-a 

addu  biti 

11. 

a-du-bi 

addu-su 

12. 

a-du-bi   su-bab-tema 

addu-su  isakki 

13. 

a 

enitum 

14. 

a         pal-pal 

enitum 

15. 

al 

16. 

g|s 

al 

17. 

gis  al  su-bab-tema 

al  ilakki 

18. 

qi 

sipruni 

19. 

qi  .  .  .  .  . 

sipru  ipsu 

20. 

qi  tilla 

sipru  qatu 

21. 

qi  tilla 

sipru  gamru 

22. 

qi  nu  tilla 

sipru  la  gainru 

23. 

nam  *^\j^ 

.  .  .  ullulum 

24. 

nam  *~}^ 

a  .  .  .  lum 

25. 

nam  >-y^  nen-sa 

ikillum 

26. 

6a 

dinu 

27. 

6a  dibba 

28. 

6a  dibba 

29. 

6a  tilla 

dinu  gamru 

30. 

6a  nu  tilla 

dinu  la  gamru 

Man  in  his  Private  Life. 


247 


COLUMN     I. 


AKKADIAN. 


hand  resting 

his  hand  resting 

he  made  his  hand  resting 

lie  makes  his  hand  resting 

for  his  hand  resting 


6.  from  his  hand  resting 

7.  he  makes  him  go 


hand-fixing 

hand-fixing 

hand-fixing  (on)  the  house 

his  hand-filing 

he  takes  his  hand-fixing 


message  (order) 

he  had  a  message 

message  complete 

message  complete 

message  not  complete 

production 

production 

the  production  which  is  made 

judgment 

judgment  pronounced  (decision) 

judgment  pronounced 

judgment  completed, 

judgment  not  completed 


ASSYRIAN. 


rest  (cessation  of  work) 

his  rest  (his  dismissal) 

he  made  his  rest  (he  discharged  him) 

he  makes  his  rest 

for  his  rest 


from  his  work 
he  sends  away 


beginning  work  (setting  to  work) 

beginning  work 

beginning  working  the  house 
his  beginning  work 
he  take  (to)  the  work 
denial  (refusal) 
denial 


message 

he  had  a  message 

complete  message 

a  complete  message 

an  incomplete  message 

production 


the  product 
judgment 

judgment 

fixation  (or  delivery)  of  a  judgment 
complete  judgment 
incomplete  judgment 


248  Akkadian  Precepts  for  the   Conduct  of 

Column  I. —  Continued. 


AKKADIAN. 

ASSYEIAN. 

31.  ga-bi  altil 

32.  sa-bi  nu  al-til 

33.  sa-bi  kudda 

34.  sa-bi  nu  kudda 

35.  £a-bi  ba  dib 

36.  luna-me  egira-ni  nu  un-sar 

37.  lu-sak  egira-ni  nu  unkud 

38.  lu  name  gude(?)-ani  gis  nu 

un-du 

39.  sa  kud  sVni  nu  un-kud 

din-su  gamir 

din-en  la  gamir 

in  dinu 

iv  ul  dinu 

V  zullul 

mammam  arkat-su  ul  iprus 

kaptum  arkat-su  ul  iprus 

mamman  amassu  ul  ismi 

da'anu  din-su  ul  iddin 

41.     ka 

ina  asusti-su 

a  mat  pi-su  iddin 

42 

43 

hirram  imtahar 
hiiTam  immur-ma 

44 

kirra  amate-su  ismema 

45 

din-su  uzakki 

46 

ustesir-su 

47 

48 

Bilta-su  utir-su 
tabbuti 

49 

tabbuti  amatisu 

50 

illik 

52.     nam-tagga  innan-ga 

bel  amati-su 
anna  imidu 

53.  nam-tagga 

54.  nam-tagga-bi 

55.  nam-tagga-bi  bab-ili 

arnu 
ami-su 
ami  innasi 

Man  in  his  - 

Private  Life.                            240 

Column  I.- 

—  Continued. 

AKKADIAN. 

ASSYEIAN. 

31. 

his  judgment  (he)  complete 

his  judgment  completing 

32. 

his  judgment 

not  (he)  complete 

his  judgment  not  completing 

33. 

his  judgment 

delivering 

ditto  3rd  time  judging  (to  sentence) 

34. 

his  judgment 

not  delivering 

ditto  4:th  time  not  judging 

;;>. 

his  judgment 

he  delivered 

ditto  5th  time  to  attach 

36. 

One  against  him  not  decided 

some  one  against  him  not  decided 

37. 

the  chief  men  against  him  not 

the  chief  man  against  him  not  decided 

decided 

38. 

one  his  command  not  heard 

some  one  his  command  not  heard 

39. 

the   judge    his   judgment   not 

the  judge  his  judgment  not  gave 

delivered 

40. 

in  his  determination 

41. 

the  word  of  his  mouth  he  gave 

42. 

the  freeborn  child  he  received 

43. 

the  f reel) or n  child  he  sees  to 

44. 

the  freeborn   child   his  commands 
heard  also 

45. 

his  judgment  he  declares 

L6. 

he  makes  it  to  be  directed 

17. 

his  tribute  gives  it 

48. 

twice  (twofold) 

49. 

50. 

he  went 

51. 

lord  of  his  word 

->:>. 

sin  he  fix  it 

sin  he  fix 

53. 

the  sin 

the  sin 

54.  his  sin 

55.  his  sin  he  holds 


his  sin 

his  sin  he  raises 


250 


Akkadian  Precepts  for  the  Conduct  of 


COLUMN  II. 


AKKADIAN. 


ASSYKIAK 


18. 
19. 

20. 
21. 
22. 

24. 


[About  17  lines  missing. ,] 


nain-dam 
nam-dam-su 
namdain-su  in-dii 
nam-dam-su  ban-dii 
nam-dam-su  minindii 


nam-nu-mun-zu-a-ni 
minin-du 


25.  duma  su  ku  in  me  a  nabi  da  . 

26.  namkarkit  da  a  niananani    . 

27.  nam  kar  kit  da  a  ni  banin  dii 

28.  nam  kar  kit  da  a  ni  su  mib-gur 

29.  e-a-nas  minin-tu 

30.  .  .  gis   sar   da  a  ni  in  ... 

31.  sa  mus  £a  a  ni 

32.  barra-ta 

33.  ba 

34.  ea-na 

35.  nam  se 

36.  hu 

37 in  qat 

38 a  ....  in  dib 

39.  nig-sal-kit  nam-dam-su  bab-sa 

40.  us-ba-su  sa  bab-da 

41.  e-a-na-as  min-kar 

42.  e-ad-na-as  min-tu 

43.  ka  su  5^JJf  -ra-ni  nen-gar 

44.  nig  mus-sa-a-ni  in-ili 

45.  azag-dam  du 


assutu 
ana  assutu 
ana  n  irsu 
ana  n  irassi 
ana  n  irsusa 


irsusa 


ana  biti-su  irub 


ana 
ana 
ana 


ri-ik 

tirhas  (hi-bi) 
tirha  (hi-bi) 


46.  azag-dam-tuga-ni  bansur-ta 

47.  nen-gar 

48.  adda-na-as 

49.  innan-tu 


tirhassu 
passuri  iskun 
ana  abi-su 

usaribu-su 


Man  in  his  Private  Life. 


251 


COLUMN  II. 


AKKADIAN. 


ASSYKIAN. 


\_About  17  lines  missing.'] 


matrimony 

in  matrimony 

in  matrimony  he  took 

in  matrimony  he  took  her 

in  matrimony  he  will  take 


a  maiden 
he  will  take 


a  slave  in  marriage  he  takes 

in 

in  his  house  he  ivill 

to  the  house  of  her  father  he  icill  go 


his  bride  he  takes 
wedding  present 


his  wedding  present  as  bansur 

he  placed 

to  her  father 

he  takes  it  to  him 


matrimony 

in  matrimony 

in  matrimony  he  took 

in  matrimony  he  took  her 

in  matrimony  he  will  take 


to  his  house  he  descended 


his  wedding  present 
o/passuru  he  placed 
to  her  father 
he  sends  it 


252  Akkadian  Precepts  for  the  Conduct  of 

Column  II. — Continued. 


AKKADIAN. 

ASSYRIAN. 

50. 

51. 

52. 
53, 

a  nu  li  nen-gi 

ik 

Ill 

izirsi-ma 

54. 

uzubbu-su 

COLUMN  III. 


1. 

2. 
3. 

azag-taga-ni  innan-6e 
urra-na-nam  nen-gir 
e-ta  ibtan-e 

uzubu-su  ihit-ma 
ina  &uni-su  irkus 
ina  biti  usesi-su 

4. 

5. 
6. 

u-kur-su  dam  saga-ni 

hi-nib-diidu 

enim-ma  nu  munsin-gaga 

ana  naatina  mutu  libbi-su 

ihussi 

ul  iraggum-si 

7. 
8. 

egibirtam  nu-gig-am 
sila-ta  banda-ella 

arkanu  gadi^tuni 
ina  suqini  ittasi 

9. 

10. 

sa-ki  aga-ni-ta  nani-nu-gig-a-ni 
innen-dudu 

ina  ramesu 
gasdussu  ihu^u 

11. 
12. 

liu-gigga-bi  duma  sila-am 
minin-ri 

gadista-su  niaru 
sugi  iddu-su 

13 

14. 

15 

16. 
17. 

18. 

sal  minin-dugga 
te-bi  nu  ub-ra-'ah 
minin-dim 

_ 

19. 

nam-dub-sarra  nunib-zuzu 

21.     dam  innin-du 


assatum  usahis 


Man  in  his  Private  Life. 
Column  II. — Continued. 


253 


AKKADIAN". 


ASSYRIAN. 


).     water 

L 

I 

i 

t 


COLUMN  III. 


her  dowry  he  gave  him 
in  his  girdle  he  bound  it 
from  the  house  lie  send  him 


in  other  day  the  (who)  his  heart 
might  have  given  her 
renunciation  shall  not  make  to  her 


afterwards  a  holy  (place) 
in  the  yard  he  raises 


with  his  loving  heart  his  holiness 
he  possessed 


(in  ?)  his  holy  place  the  son  of 

the  yard 
he  shall  place 


breast  milk 


5.     his  father  and  his  mother  not 


her  dowry  he  gave  and 

in  his  girdle  he  bound 

from  the  house  he  make  him  go 


in  future  the  husband  whose  heart 

she  possesses 

he  does  not  renounce  her 


afterwards  a  sanctuary 
in  the  yard  he  raises 


in  his  love 

his  innocence  he  possesses  it 


the  sanctuary  the  son 
of  the  yard  he  places  him 


6.  (if)  a  woman  shall  speak  to  him 

7.  himself  to  her  going 
he  shall  withhold  himself 


inscriptions  he  shall  be  taught 

'-". 

1.     wife  he  give  him 


wife  he  makes  him  take 


254  Akkadian  Precepts  for  the  Conduct  of 

COLUMN  III. —  Continued. 


AKKADIAN. 

ASSYRIAN. 

22. 

u-kur-su  una  mi-su 

ana  matima  ana  arkat  umi 

23. 

tnkimdibi  duma  adda-ua-ra 

summa  mam  ana  abisu 

24. 

adda-mu  mi  mea 

ul  abi  atta 

25. 

bannan-gu 

iqtabi 

26. 

dubbin  mmim-sa 

ugallap-su 

27. 

garra-as  niinin-du-se 

abbuttu  isakkan-su 

28. 

sa  azagga-as  minin-se 

u              kaspi  inamdin-su 

29. 

tukundibi  duma  ama-na-ra 

summa  man  ana  ummi-su 

30. 

ama-mu  nu  me-en  bannan-gu 

ul  ummi  atti  iqtabi 

31. 

us-a-ni  dubbin  sa  nen-si-es 

muttassu  u-galbu-ma 

32. 

uru-ki-a  minib-nigin-ene 

alam  uzakkaru-su 

33. 

sa  e-ta  bara-tuldu-ne 

u  in  a  biti  usesu-su 

34. 

tukundibi 

summa 

35. 

adda  duma-na-ra 

abu  ana  mari-su 

36. 

duma-mu  nu  me-en 

ul  mari  atta 

37. 

bannan-gu 

iqtabi 

38. 

e-egar-ta 

ina  biti  u  igaru 

39. 

bara  -tuldu-ne 

itella 

4<». 

tukundibi 

sumiua 

41. 

ama  duma-na-ra 

ummu  ana  mari-su 

42. 

duma-mu  nu  me-en 

ul  mari  atta 

43. 

bannan-gu 

iqtabi 

44. 

e-gina-tar 

ina  biti  n  sumnati 

45. 

bara-tuldu-ne 

itel 

Man  in  his  Private  Life. 
COLUMN  III.— Continued. 


255 


AKKADIAN. 


in  other  day,  in  future  day 


when  a  son  to  his  father 

"  my  father  not  thou  art  " 

has  said  to  him 

the  nails  he  shall  cut  him 

in  servitude  he  shall  put  him 

and  for  money  he  shall  sell  him 


when  a  son  to  his  mother 

"  my  mother  not  thou  art "  has 
said  to  her 

his  phallus  and  nails  also  they 
shall  cut  him 

in  the  city  place  they  shall  sur- 
round him 


ASSYRIAN. 


in  future  in  after  day 


if  a  son  to  his  father 

"  not  my  father  thou  (ai't)" 

said 

he  shave  him 

servitude  he  makes  him 

and  for  money  he  gives  him 


if  a  son  to  his  mother 

"  not  my  mother  thou  (arty  said 

his  virility  they  cut  him 

in  the  city  they  exhibit(?)  him 


and  from  the  house  expel  him 

and  from  the  house  they  send  him 

away 

when 

if 

a  father  to  his  son 

a  father  to  his  son 

"  my  son  not  thou  art  " 

"  not  my  son  thou  (art)" 

has  said 

said 

.    from  the  house  and  building 

from  the  house  and  dwelling 

.     be  he  expelled. 

they  expel  (him) 

.     when 

if 

.     a  mother  to  her  son 

a  mother  to  his  (or  her)  son 

.     "  my  son  not  thou  art  " 

"  not  my  son  thou  (art)" 

.     has  said 

said 

.    from  the  house  and  establishment 

from  the  house  and  settlement 

.     be  she  expelled 

he  expel  (her) 

Vol.  VIII. 


17 


256 


Akkadian  Precepts  for  the   Conduct  of 
COLUMN   IV. 


AKKADIAN. 


ASSYRIA!?. 


1. 

tukundibi 

summa 

2. 

dania-e  dama-na 

apatu  mussu 

3. 

hul  bada-gig-a-ni 

izir-nia 

4. 

darna-rnu  mi  men 

ul  muti  atta 

5. 

bannan-gu 

iqtabi 

3. 

idda-su 

ana  naham 

7. 

ban-suinmu 

inaddu-su 

8. 

tukundibi 

summa 

9. 

dama-e  dama-na-ra 

mutu  ana  assati-su 

10. 

dama-mu  nu  men 

ul  assati  atta 

11. 

bannan-gu 

iqtabi 

12. 

bar  mana  azag-ta  ni-lal-e 

bar  mana  kaspi  isakkal 

13. 

tukundibi 

summa 

14. 

lu  sakga-e 

apilu 

15. 

lu-tugga-ene 

arda  igur-ma 

16. 

ba-bat  ban-ha 

imtut  ihtalik 

17. 

ugu-bi  an-de-e 

ittabata 

18. 

mala  ban-dak 

ittaparka 

19. 

sa  tura  bab-sa 

ii  imtarasu 

20. 

a-bi  u  I  (ge)  kam 

idi-su  sa  uma  kal 

21. 

bar  se  ta-an 

bar  ta-an  seam 

22. 

an-agga 

imandad 

sag-ba  =  mamitu 


satir-su  si  mala  mii 

duppi  VII.  kau  kikankalabisu  =  ana  itti  bh 

gabri  mat  Assm--ki  kima  labri-su  satii-mar  bare 

kisitti  Assurbanipal 

sar  kissati  ear  mat  Assur-ki 


Man  in  his  Private  Life. 
COLUMN   IV. 


257 


AKKADIAN. 


ASSYRIAN. 


when 

a  ivife,  her  husband 

wrong  to  her  having  done 

"my  husband  not  thou  art" 

has  said 

in  the  river 

they  place  him 


when 

a  husband  to  his  wife 

"  my  wife  not  thou  art " 

has  said 

half  a  maneh  of  silver  he  weighs 


when 

a  chief-man 

workmen 

\e  hilled,  he  injures 

his  flight  he  causes 

and  sick  he  makes  him 
his  hand  each  day 
half  corn  measure 
he  measures 


if 

the  wife  her  husband 

he  has  wrong  (her)  so  that 

"  not  my  husband  thou  (art)" 

she  said 

into  the  river 

they  place  him 


if 

a  husband  to  his  wife 

"  not  my  wife  thou  (art)" 

said 

a  half  mana  of  silver  he  pays 


if 

a  master 

the  slave  he  hired  (used  him)  so  that 

he  died,  he  xvas  injured 

he  run  away 

he  ivas  exhausted 

and  became  ill 

his  hand  for  every  day 

a  half  measure  of  com 

he  weighs 


blet  VII.     In  his  position  of  high  rank  =  in  his  station 
(plicate  tablet  of  Assyria,  like  its  old  one,  copied  and  explained 
iperty  of  Assurbanipal 
ig  of  midtitudes,  king  of  Assyria 


258  Akkadian  Precepts  for  the  Conduct  of 

NOTES. 

The  tablet  is,  as  we  learn  from  the  colophon,  the  seventh 
of  the  series,  kikankalabisu  =  ana  ittisu;  the  series  takes  its 
name  from  the  first  line  of  the  first  tablet :  the  greater  part 
of  which  is  in  the  British  Museum  collection,  and  is  published 
in  W.A.I.,  II,  pi.  11. 

The  title  of  the  series  ^|J  ^J  5=TTy  tZ  X^T  >  ki-kankala-bi-su,1 
has  remained  obscure,  and  the  Assyriologists  have  either 
given  a  translation  as  very  doubtful,  or  none  at  all.  By 
comparing  the  various  bilingual  passages,  the  meaning  can, 
however,  be  detected  with  something  like  certainty. 

In  the  first  tablet  of  the  series,  the  Assyrian  equivalent 
ana  ittisu  translates  also  ^TgJ  <V*|Ey]ryy  ^  JgJ,  ki-abra-bi-su ;  the 
first  element  ^Tgf  is  not  necessarily  indispensable,  as  we  find 
(YY.A.I.Tol.  IV,  pi.  29, 15)  <Hg(TTT£:  Igf,  abra-bi-su, translated 
by  the  same  Assyrian  expression  ana  ittisu.  In  the  next  Hue 
of  the  syllabary  we  have  <^J  £^  ^  ffi,  ki-mulu-bi-su.  and 
If,  "ditto,"  in  the  Assyrian  column.  The  last  Akkadian 
expression  is  clear :  "  in  his  condition  of  man,"  i.e.,  as  a  man. 
The  group  ^*g(  ^>-^yyyy  ^  TgJ,  ki-abra-bi-su,  is  composed  in 
the  same  way,  hi,  "  position  " ;  abra,  "  servitude  "  (found  in 
the  texts,  and  translated  by  tugultu,  "  servitude  ")  ;  bi,  "  his  " ; 
and  su,  -'in";  it  therefore  means  "in  his  condition  of  servi- 
tude," and  without  the  prefix  ki,  "in  his  servitude,"  which 
comes  to  about  the  same.  Treating  the  expression  in  question 
by  the  same  process,  we  have  hi,  "position,"  but  kankal  is 
obscure :  in  W.A.I.,  II,  52,  it  is  translated  by  nidutu  et  teriktu, 
besides  the  Assyrianized  word  carried  bodily  into  the  Assyrian 
column.  ^y~/«,  i.e.,  kankallu.  It  appears  to  me  that  we  have 
here  a  compound  from  ki  (full  form,  kitia),  "place,"  and  gal, 
"  great,"'  the  vowels  have  been  harmonized,  and  the  word 
treated  as  not  compound  to  mean  "  high  position"' ;  then 
ki-kankala-bi-su,  is  "in  his  position  of  high  rank."  The  meaning 
of  "what  is  high"  for  kankal  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  nidutu 
and  teriktu  translate  also  kizlah,  "  place  pure,"  ideographically, 
and  the  Assyrian  gives  also  for  this  Akkadian  word,  maskanu, 

1  The  reading  of  the  second  element  ^HJ  fc=YTy ,  Jcanlcal,  is  given  in  W.A.I. , 
Vol.  II,  pi.  52,  1.  72,  the  a  is  added  by  analogy  by  the  Assyriologists. 


Man  in  his  Private  Life.  259 

''abode,  dwelling,"  a  word  which  is  generally  employed  in 
the  contracts  to  mean  the  better  class  of  house  or  office 
where  the  contracts  are  drawn.  The  Assyrian  scribes  trans- 
late the  three  expressions  :  ki-kankala-bi-su,  "  in  his  position  of 
high  rank  ";  ki-abra-bi-su,  "  in  his  position  of  servitude  "  ;  and 
ki-iimlu-bi-su,  "in  his  position  of  man,"  by  the  same  ana-itti-su, 
because  ittu  means  "station"  or  "condition  of  life";  in  the 
texts  where  it  was  employed  the  specification  of  the  Akkadian 
was,  no  doubt,  needless.  Ittu  is  given  as  translation  to  the 
Akkadian  M,  <][gf  (W.A.I.,  Vol.  IV,  pi.  70,  1. 14),  side  by  side 
with  asabu,  "seat";  asm,  "place."  (Cf.  also  W.A.I.,  IV, 
16,  1;  IV,  14,  3.) 

It  is  quite  natural  that  the  Assyrian  scribe  gathering 
and  commenting  the  Akkadian  precepts  for  the  conduct  of 
man  in  his  various  occupations,  should  begin  by  the  word 
expressing  "  station  "  or  "  condition." 

The  copy  of  the  tablet  now  in  the  British  Museum  was 
written  by  the  order  of  Assurbanipal  for  the  Ninevite  library, 
from  a  much  older  Babylonian  copy  Avith  translation.  It 
appears  that  at  the  time  of  Assurbanipal  the  text  was  already 
partly  effaced,  as  in  the  Assyrian  column  the  translation  is 
sometimes  left  out,  and  the  word  ^  ^  hi-bi,  "  wanting," 
inserted.  The  Semitic  translation  of  the  Akkadian  given 
in  the  tablet  was  therefore  made  at  an  early  period  when 
Akkadian  was  not  yet  an  antiquated  tongue,  and  must  be 
our  safest  guide. 

The  text  has  been  published,  first  incompletely  (part  of  the 
reverse  only)  in  W.A.I.,  II,  pi.  10,  and  more  completely,  but 
very  incorrectly,  by  M.  Lenormant,  and  again  in  W.A.I.,  V, 
pi.  24  and  25. 

This  text  has  been  translated  by  most  of  the  Assyriologists : 
among  others  by  Professor  Sayce  ("  Records  of  the  Past," 
Vol.  Ill,  p.  21),  M.  Lenormant  ("  Etudes  Accadiennes "), 
and  Professor  Oppert.  This  last  scholar  has  given  several 
translations  rather  different  from  one  another:  the  last 
appeared  in  "Documents  Juridiques,"  1877. 

I  give  the  translation  of  the  commentary  for  the  sake  of 
completeness,  though  but  few  of  the  words  contained  therein 
are  not  found  in  this  tablet. 


260  Akkadian  Precepts  for  the  Conduct  of 

Column  I. 

Line  1.  The  Akkadian  word  is  composed  of  |3lT  d, 
"  hand,"'  and  f^ffj^  <H"f*f  km-ga,  "  resting,"  i.e.,  "  cessation 
of  work,'*  in  Assyrian  manaktu,  -rest.*"  Cf.  HTPpQ.  In  the 
texts  it  seems  to  mean  dismissal  of  a  workman.  We  have, 
AY. A. I..  II.  15,1.32-34:  lu-gal gi&hir-kti  lu-nu-aishir-ra  d-kussd- 
ni  lonnan-sumiivi;  Assyrian,  Belkiri  ana  lunugisharri  manahta-su 
iddin,  "  the  lord  of  the  plantation  gives  "  (in  Assyrian  gave) 
"  to  the  gardener  his  dismissal."  Another  passage  says  that 
the  master  paid  his  workman  ana  manahti-su,  "for  his  dis- 
missal." 

Lines  6  and  7.  "  He  sent  him  away  for  his  dismissal,"  i.e.. 
he  sent  him  away  for  good,  discharging  him. 

Line  4.  Isakkanu  is  not  a  plural:  the  prolongation  vowel 
only  strengthens  the  meaning. 

Line  8.  Parallel  formation  to  d-kussa  :  jS^T  d,  "hand," 
and  J^T  du.  "  fixing,"  i.e.,  "  setting  to  work  " ;  the  Assyrian 
word  £fT  t^  £YTT£  ad-clu  may  be  borrowed  from  the  Akkadian, 
though  it  may  be  connected  to  the  well  known  root  nadu. 
This  word  addu,  being  used  as  in  opposition  to  manahtu.  seems 
to  mean  "  engagement,"  and  1.  12,  parallel  to  1.  6  and  7,  gives, 
"  he  takes  his  setting  to  work,""  i.e.,  he  engages  him,  as  a 
workman,  to  work." 

Line  9.  Is-bar  has  been  borrowed  bodily,  isbarti;  it  proves 
that  £*f  is  not  here  a  determinative  prefix :  is-bar  (which  may 
be  read  is-mas)  is  therefore  "wood"  something;  one  of  the 
meanings  of  the  sign  >f-  is  "  to  cut  " :  the  word  may  have 
then  some  reference  to  the  cutting  of  wood  previous  to  build- 
ing the  house :  the  primitive  Akkadian  houses  or  huts  were 
built  entirely  with  wood. 

Lines  15-17.  "We  have  here  a  word  with  a  determinative 
prefix  t"f,  as  the  word  appears,  from  what  remains,  to  have 
been  borrowed  by  the  Assyrians ;  but  in  Akkadian  the  prefix 
was  no  doubt  not  pronounced,  as  the  Assyrians  rejected  it. 

Line  25.  Here  we  have  one  of  those  curious  Akkadian 
words  formed  with  a  verbal  form,  and  being  in  themselves, 
as  in  Basque,  a  complete  sentence:  *-f.^,  "product"  (the 
r<  a  cling  of  which  is  not  yet  known),  and  JT^^T  gj:^  >-]~*f  Ty> 


Man  in  his  Private  Life.  2()1 

ne-in-sa-a,  "  it  making-  it,"  with  the  prefix  »-f<|^  nam,  forma- 
tive of  abstracts;  it  is  synonymous  to  the  simple  abstract 
^y<y-^  >-]^,  the  Assyrian,  which  translates  both,  is  partly 
lost ;  ikillum  (line  23)  seems  to  be  another  form  of  the  same 
Avoid,  with  a  slight  difference  of  meaning;  we  see  in  the 
Assyrian  word  the  mimmation,  and  the  double  I  expresses 
the  long  preceding  vowel  (see  W.A.I.,  IV,  20, 1.  21  and  22,  and 

*/  ^:). 

Line  31.  We  have  here  an  example  of  the  so-called 
permansive,  which  is  more  properly  a  nomen  verbi. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  different  vocalisations :  dinu, 
"judgment";  dd'anu,  "a  judge." 

Line  37.  The  Akkadian,  literally,  "  man-chief,"  or  "  chief- 
man,"  is  clear ;  but  the  Assyrian  word,  > — TXI  >^Ib  kap-tum,  is 
obscure ;  it  might  be  connected,  perhaps,  with  the  Hebrew 
root  "D3  (Isa.  lxvi,  5). 

Lines  40-44.  Asusti,  gen.  of  asustu  (from  the  root  tTtlTN), 
"  abstract,"  "  what  is  fixed."  See  ^fl^  ^  H7^  ^W>  translated 
by  as-su-su,  W.A.I.,  IV,  1. 42  and  43 ;  also  the  Sumerian  equiva- 
lent ^ffy^  tjyy-^,  translated  by  a-su-us-tam.  W.A.I.,  IV,  10, 
56  and  57. 

This  paragraph  has  been  completely  restored,  without  any 
doubt,  by  Mr.  Theo.  G.  Pinches ;  and  though  it  is  still  difficult 
to  translate,  the  general  meaning  leaves  but  little  doubt : — 

lna  asusti-su,  "  in  his  determination,"  i.e.,  what  is  settled  or 
established  by  him,  amat  pisu  iddin,  "  he  "  (the  father  or  the 
judge)  "  gave  the  word  of  his  mouth,"  i.e.,  "  his  decision  "  or 
"  order." 

The  word  beginning  line  42  may  be  read  sar-ra-am, 
and  taken  as  the  accusative  of  sar-ru,  "king";  but  by 
so  doing  we  do  not  get  any  sense.  The  sign  tHT^f  has 
besides  the  value  sar  that  of  Mr;  we  would,  therefore, 
have  hirram,  a  word  akin  to  the  Arabic  -».,  "  to  be  free, 
freeborn,"  Hebrew  Q"Hh  or  D'H'in,  "nobles,  freeborn  children," 
Syriac  j£^,  "to  set  free,"  ]\\L,  "free,  freeborn"*  it  seems  here 
to  designate  the  freeborn  child  in  opposition  to  slaves.  We 
would   therefore   have   here    a    description    of   the   kind    of 


262  Akkadian  Precepts  for  the  Conduct  of 

ceremony  of  the  declaration  of  age  of  the  child.  '"According 
to  his  resolution,  the  father  gave  his  order,  he  receives  the 
child  which  is  brought  to  him,  he  sees  him.  i.e.,  he  acknow- 
ledges him,  and  consequently  the  child  hears  his  word." 
However,  a  bilingual  passage  only  could  confirm  or  upset 
this  reading  and  supposition. 

The  word  imtahar  is  the  3rd  person  of  the  voice  with 
inserted  t  of  maharu,  "to  receive";  3rd  person  imhur,  "he 
receives"  (Smith's  imhar,  "Sen.,"  p.  117).  The  inserted  t 
generally  gives  to  the  verb  a  causative  or  reflective  mean- 
ing ;  therefore  imtahur  is,  "  he  receives  for  himself,"  or  rather 
"  he  is  made  to  receive,"  or  "  he  has  brought  to  him."  A 
passage  of  a  bilingual  list  (of  the  same  series  of  tablets  as 
that  which  we  are  now  studying)  leaves  no  doubt  as  to  the 
meaning  of  the  root  maharu  (W.A.I.,  II,  pL  12.  1.  23-37), 
where  it  translates  the  same  Akkadian  words  as  the 
root  hku,  to  take  " ;  the  Akkadian  J^T  >-2<  or  JET  ^T  ^| 
meant  "receive"  or  "take,"  ^  "£^  >*-]  ^^  is  translated 
by  both  Z3^  "^T  <^f  Uttki,  -he  takes  for  himselfj"  and 
^£L  ++?(f\  -<4s=  imtahur,  "he  receives  for  himself." 

Immur-ma ;  immur  is  the  3rd  person  of  amaru,  "to  see"; 
ma,  as  will  be  seen  further  on  (page  268),  has  often  the 
meaniug  of  so  that. 

If  we  consider  amate-su  as  the  genitive  singular  governed 
by  sarra,  or  the  plural  governed  by  the  verb,  it  does  not 
affect  the  meaning.  In  the  first  case  it  would  be,  "  the  child 
of  his  command/'  and  in  the  second,  "the  child  hears  his 
commands";  this  last  is  perhaps  preferable. 

It  must  be  noticed  that  if  we  read  ^•^L  -<^z=.  imhur 
instead  of  immur,  it  does  not  alter  the  general  meaning ; 
with  the  first  of  these  two  readings  it  would  be,  (l  according 
to  his  resolution  the  father  gave  his  order,  he  had  the  child 
brought  to  him,  he  receives  the  child,  and  consequently."  etc. 

Line  45.  UzaJJd,  "he  declared"  (as  pure),  "he  delivered 
(judgment)."  In  a  gift  tablet  (K.  6)  in  the  British  Museum 
the  same  word  is  used  in  the  sense  of  "  given  up "  or 
"  delivered "  to  a  god,  i.e.,  "consecrated"  ("Records  of  the 
Past."  Vol.  XI.  p.  92).  See  also  Pinches'  "Babylonian 
Texts,"  pi.  4. 


Man  in  his  Private  Life.  263 

Line  48.  Tapputi  seems  to  be  a  borrowed  word  from 
Akkadian ;  in  this  tongue  ^z  tab  (the  Akkadian  b  become  p 
in  Assyrian)  means  "  double  " ;  here  tapputi  being  placed  after 
the  verb,  may  be  used  as  an  adverb ;  in  spite  of  this 
incertitute  the  general  sense  is  clear.1 

Line  49.  Here  the  sense  escapes  me  :  it  may  be  that  the 
child  being  declared  free  of  his  actions,  is  consequently  freed 
of  his  father's  authority,  and  tapputi  would  then  express  that 
he  assumes  "  doubly  "  the  responsibility  of  his  words. 

Lines  52-55.  The  Akkadian  ^f^  £»^  £]]]*  nam-tag-ga, 
"  sin,"  is  as  usual  translated  by  an-na;  the  older  form  without 
the  assimilation  appears  1.  53  and  54,  ar-nu.  The  assimilation 
of  the  r  before  n  was  usual  in  Assyrian  :  Ave  have  an-na-bu, 

"hare,"  in  Hebrew  rQ!n.N,  Arabic    ( j  \.     The  form  arnu 

is  very  likely  antiquated  and  more  poetical. 

In  this  paragraph,  6,  we  have  a  very  poetical  emphatic 
formula,  "he  holds"  (as  responsible)  "his  sin,  the  sin  which  is 
his  sin  "  ;  the  verb  is  partly  lost  in  Assyrian,  but,  the  meaning 
of  the  Akkadian  t?\]]&  TTT^f  il  or  Hi  being  certain  (W.A.I.,  II, 
26,  43,  IV,  26,  12),  it  may  be  restored  with  confidence. 

Column  II. 

The  Assyrian  is  mostly  lost,  and  has  in  some  places 
never  been  written,  being  already  effaced  when  the  text 
was  copied  by  the  Ninevite  scribes. 

Lines  18-22.  We  havehere  evidently  a  gradation  expressed 
by  the  prefixes  to  the  root  dfi  ^ :  in-du,  "  he  takes, "  ban-du 
and  nmiin-du. 

Line  23.  A  word  in  Akkadian  often  contains  a  small 
sentence  :  here  HMfj^  */-  >t^  tfyy  ^Tf  is  literally,  "  the  state 
of  one  who  has  not  known  any  one,"  and  with  the  possessive 
pronoun  J$  i^f  a-ni=  "her  maidenhood ";  it  is,  therefore,  he 
will  take  in  marriage  "  one  who  possesses  her  maidenhood," 
"  a  maiden." 

Line  48.  The  Akkadian  leaves  no  doubt  as  to  the  mean- 
ing of  the  Assyrian  word  tirhas&u,  "  his  wedding  present "  or 

1  Tapputi  (W.A.I.,  II,  14,  40,  42)  translates  the  Akkadian  nam-talla, 
"  double-ness  "  or  "  twofoldness." 


2(U  Akkadian   Precepts  for  the  Conduct  of 

"  gift,"  given  by  the  bridegroom  to  the  bride's  father.  The 
Akkadian  is  a  compound  of  {$  azag,  "money,"  -£^Ey  dam, 
"  wife  "  or  fi  husband,"  and  Y£;  tug,  "  gift  " ;  we  have  in  tliis 
word  a  remnant  of  the  time  when  all  kinds  of  wives  were 
bought  from  the  fathers.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the 
reading  of  the  group  <^  t^t^T  It  azag-dam-tug,  though  likely, 
is  not  certain,  as  we  have  no  gloss  proving  it,  and  it  may  be 
that  the  Akkadians  proposed  another  reading  for  the  word 
for  "  wedding-present,"  expressed  by  the  three  ideograms 
"  money,  wife  or  husband,  gift." 

Line  49.  Passaru  is  a  word  borrowed  from  the  Akkadian 
bansur,  a  kind  of  vessel  or  cup ;  it  appears  in  the  texts  as  a 
vessel  for  food  (W.A.I.,  IV,  57).  A  bilingual  list  of  words 
(W.A.I.,  II,  46,  1.  40  et  seq.)  gives  us  several  kinds  of  passaru, 
and  show  that  this  object,  primitively  in  wood,  was  first 
used  as  a  chinking  vessel,  and  especially  a  wine  drinking 
vessel ;  this  list  speaks  of  "passaru  of  the  god/'  "passaru  of 
the  king,"  etc. :  it  was  therefore  a  libation  cup,  and  from  the 
description  given  by  this  list  it  seems  to  be  the  cup  which 
often  the  Assyrian  kings  represented  on  the  bas-reliefs  are 
holding  in  then  hand. 

For  the  sign  for  ll  silver,"  ^f{,  I  follow  the  reading 
azag  generally  accepted.  However,  this  sign,  with  this 
reading,  means  "  bright,  shining,  pure,"  and  is  in  this  sense 
translated  by  ellu,  and  is  much  used,  as  an  adjective ;  the 
reading  is  given  in  the  syllabaries  (W.A.I.,  II,  1,  111),  and 
is  confirmed  by  the  texts,  where  the  sign  appears  with  the 
lengthening  vowel  <^  ^TTT^  azag-ga.  The  next  line  of  the 
same  syllabary  gives  the  reading  hi,  which  was  probably 
the  primitive  name  for  the  metal.  Silver  is  always  placed 
first  in  the  Akkadian  texts,  and  has  been  for  this  naturally 
supposed  to  be  the  first  precious  metal  known.  When  gold 
came  into  use,  the  silver  metal  was  determined  by  an  adjec- 
tive forming  the  group  <^  ^f,  read  lu  lah,  "metal  pure" 
(*]  =  lah,  W.A.I.,  II,  34,  13);  hi  azag,  "metal  shining,"  or 
';  pure,"  in  the  sense  of  "clear,"  as  water,  i.e.,  "  colourless " 
(W.A.I.,  II,  1,  112);  and  he  babbar,  "metal  shining,"  as  the 
sim;  the  second  expression  seems  to  have  alone  prevailed, 
the  name  for  "  metal "  bemg  even  omitted ;   azag  came  to 


Man  in  his  Private  Life.  2f>5 

mean  "silver,"  and  was  borrowed  by  the  Assyrians  under 
the  form  of  asaku  (unpublished  fragment  communicated  to 
me  by  Mr.  Pinches),  which  was  no  doubt  a  poetical  word,  as 
the  Hebrew  0^5 ,  "  gold,"  from  the  Egyptian  \  0°0  ketem 

(see  Pierret's  "Diet.,"  p.  635),  a  qualification  used  to  designate 
"  gold." 

As  said  above,  "gold  "was  in  Akkadian  written  ^yy  HfT^> 
read  gu-usqin  (W.A.I. ,  II,  1, 113) :  supposed,  with  great  proba- 
bility, by  M.  Lenormant  ("  Trans.  Soc.  Bib.  Arch.,"  Vol.  VI, 
p.  365),  to  be  weakened  from  ku-usqin ;  the  first  part  of  the 
word  being  "  metal,"  and  the  second  is  considered  by  the 
same  scholar  as  meaning  "true":  arriving  at  this  conclusion 
through  the  meaning  of  the  ideogram  *-]]-^  gi.  If  in  the 
group  {$  HfT-<4  the  second  part  of  it  was  gi,  a  shortened 
form  for  gina,  "to  establish,"  as  he  supposed,  the  reading 
would  not  be  gusqin;  it  is  preferable  to  consider  the  second 
character  as  an  ideogram;  it  has  as  such  generally  the  meaning 
of  "reed";  I  would  therefore  be  inclined  to  take  it  as  an 
adjective  (by  analogy  to  the  formation  of  the  word  for 
"silver"),  "reed-like/'  i.e.,  "  reed  colour,"  or  "yellow,"  as  we 
say  "  straw,"  for  "  straw  colour,"  or  "  yellow." 

It  is  important  to  notice  that  the  Assyrian  gives  the  first 
place  to  "  gold,"  harasu,  even  in  bilingual  texts  where  the 
Akkadian  gives  the  first  place  to  "  silver."  The  Semites 
seem  to  have  followed  in  that  the  notion  of  the  Egyptians, 
who  seem  to  have  primitively  given  the  first  place  to 
"gold,"  if  we  consider  the  words  C^\  nub,  "gold,"  from  the 

idea  of  brightness  of  flame,  and  r^n  nub  het,  literally,  "  gold 

white,"  i.e.,  "  silver." 

The  Assyrian  expresses  by  the  genitive  the  Akkadian 
postposition  -ta;  the  genitive  is  therefore  not  possessive, 
but  indicates  that  the  term  of  2)a^suru  came  to  mean  the 
special  present  of  the  bridegroom  :  "  he  places  the  present  as 
wedding  gift." 

Line  50.  Ahi-su,  for  abi-sa ;  as  we  shall  see,  the  masculine 
possessive  pronoun  su  is  often  used  for  the  feminine  (page  268). 


266  Akkadian   Precept*  for  the  Conduct  of 

Column  III. 

Line  1.  As  here  the  Akkadian  azaga-dam-taga  is  not  followed 
by  bansur,  it  is  translated  by  uzubu,  lt dowry,"  given  by  the 
bride's  father. 

Line  2.  Suni-su,  "  his  girdle  "  ;  kinu  meant  primitively  the 
lower  part  of  the  body,  but  in  time  came  to  mean  the  garment 
covering  it,  and  by  extension  a  girdle  tied  round  the  loins. 
In  the  East  it  was  customary  to  put  one's  money  or  purse  in 
one's  belt. 

Line  2.  ^J<y^  nam,  used  as  a  postposition  is  rare,  but 
occurs  sometimes;  here  the  Assyrian  leaves  no  doubt  as 
to  its  meaning. 

Line  5.  The  precative  prefix  i^  hi-  could  be  placed  before 
any  verbal  form,  and  in  this  case  seems  to  form  a  potential ; 
the  mood  could  not  be  expressed  in  Assyrian,  that  is  why  the 
Semitic  scribe  took  any  turn.  The  Akkadian  means  that  the 
young  man  has  his  choice  before  he  is  married,  and  may  give 
his  heart  to  any  one,  but  cannot  repudiate  the  one  he  has 
finally  chosen. 

Line  7.  Gadistum  cannot  be  of  the  same  root  as  gasduiSu, 
for  gasdut-su,  unless  we  suppose  a  transposition  of  ds  into  sd ; 
both,  however,  translate  Akkadian  words  from  the  same 
root :  nu  gig,  literally,  "  what  is  not  evil,"  is  well  known  to 
mean  gadistum, "  sanctuary,'"  from  the  root  &""!£,  tlHp,  £-*"!£ ,  etc.) ; 
the  weakened  form  in  Hebrew,  £"H,3,  came  to  mean  "a  heap," 
from  the  idea  of  "  high  place."  The  Akkadian  nam-nu-gig  is 
"  the  state  of  being  not  evil,"  that  is,  "innocence  ";  the  word 
gasdutu  might  be  compared  with  Etip,  Ps.  lx,  6,  and  12 tip, 
Prov.  xxii,  21,  translated  by  "  truth"  in  the  authorised  version. 

Line  8.  *->^-  slid  has  been  explained  by  the  crossing  of 
two  roads,  hence  "place,"  and  is  often  translated  by  the 
Assyrian  Sugu  (W.A.I.,  III,  70,  119;  4,  2,  16  and  23,  etc.), 
"  market "  or  "  place  "  ;  as  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  every 
one  had  his  sanctuary  built  in  the  public  place,  it  must  mean 
here  the  private  yard. 

Lme  10.     Gasdus's'u.     See  above. 

Lines  11  and  12.  This  paragraph  is  still  very  doubtful;  as 
maru,  "  son,"  is  in   the  nominative,  the  preposition  must  be 


Man  in  his  Private  TAfe.  2G7 

supplied.  It  may  mean  that  maru  is  the  subject  of  the  verb, 
and  gadista-su,  "  his  sanctuary,"  the  regimen. 

Line  13.  The  only  Akkadian  words  remaining  are  ubur, 
"  breast,"  and  ga,  "  milk." 

Line  17.  -^Hfflf  means  "to  go";  the  postposition 
incorporated  ra  gives  to  the  word  an  idea  of  direction.  (Cf. 
bara-tuldune  note  on  1.  45.) 

Line  19.  Nam-dub-sarra,  literally,  "that  which  is  the 
written  tablet." 

Line  20.  This  line  is  too  obscure  for  my  venturing  a 
translation. 

Line  32.  The  Assyrian  word  uzahharu-su  means  "they 
shut  or  enclose  him,"  but  with  alam,  "  town,"  in  the  accusative, 
it  gives  no  satisfactory  sense.  In  Akkadian  we  have  the 
verb  nigin,  "  to  enclose,  surround  "  ;  the  primitive  meaning  of 
the  ideogram  was  "  an  enclosure,"  which  the  primitive  form 
represented.  The  sign  of  "  town,"  ^ff,  is  followed  by  ki, 
^Jgf,  "place,"  with  the  postposition  a,  "in";  we  have  therefore, 
"  they  surround  him  in  the  town  place."  The  Assyrian  alam 
on  the  other  side  may  be  considered  as  an  accusative  taken 
as  an  adverb.  We  may  therefore  suppose  that  the  bad  son 
was  exhibited  in  the  middle  of  the  town  as  in  "the  pillory"; 
if  the  prison  was  meant,  we  should  expect  another  word  in 
Akkadian  as  well  as  in  Assyrian. 

Line  33.     See  further  on,  note  on  line  45. 

Line  39.     Itella,  may  be  a  dual. 

Line  41.  The  possessive  suffix  su  expresses  the  masculine 
mari-su,  "his  son,"  that  is,  the  son  of  her  husband,  and  it 
might  be  his  son  by  another  wife.  However,  we  must 
remember  that  the  suffix  su  was  often  used  for  the  feminine, 
and  it  might  be  also  "her  son."   (See  next  page,  note  on  line  2.) 

Line  44.  In  Akkadian  we  have  "  the  fixed  house  "  ;  the 
Assyrian  word  is  obscure.  The  Assyrian  if  read  Summati  may 
be  compared  to  the  root  ]72D,  and  means  "  what  has  been 
settled,"  the  estate  settled  on  the  wife  by  the  husband  by  the 
marriage  contract. 

Line  45.  The  Akkadian  bara-tuldune  is  here  translated  by 
a  singular ;  it  may  be  that  the  Assyrian  scribe  implied  that  it 
was  alone  the  husband  of  the   bad  mother  who   drove  her 


268  AkkoJlo.it  Precepts  for  ike  Conduct  of 

away.  Bara-tuklune  may  be  one  of  those  words  having  no 
special  form  for  the  plural;  but  it  does  sometimes  expt  as 
the  plural,  as  in  one  passage  ( W.A.I..  IV.  2.  7.  16),  where  it  is 
translated  by  usellu.  and  where  the  sense  besides  leaves  no 
doubt  as  to  the  number  intended. 

It  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  verbal  forms  with  incorporated 
ra  often  imply  an  idea  of  direction  or  of  futurity,  and  for 
this  reason  are  sometimes  translated  in  the  Assyrian  by  a 
precative  or  an  imperative;  it  is  a  kind  of  imperative  or 
injunction;  so  bara-tuldune  might  be  translated  by,  *'he  is  to 
be  expelled,'*  nu  ubra-ak  (line  17),  ''he  is  not  to  go,"  or  "he 
must  not  go." 

Column  IV. 

Line  2.  Jfussu,  from  rrnctu,  with  the  possessive  suffix  su, 
it  ought  to  be  regularly  mut-sa,  li  her  husband";  but  it 
may  be  that  this  expression  was  considered  as  forming 
one  word  after  the  assimilation  of  the  t,  and  took  the 
case  ending  of  the  nominative  u.  Besides,  the  masculine 
possessive  suffix  -su  is  often  used  for  the  feminine;  among 
many  examples  we  may  mention  the  marriage  contract  tablet, 
where  the  suffix  su  is  exclusively  used  for  both  genders. 

Line  3.  The  postfixed  copula  ma  is  often  used  with  the 
meaning  of  "  so  that,"  carrying  a  consequence,  as  is  also 
used  the  copula  "  and  "  in  English  :  u  I  went  and  saw  him." 

Line  7.  The  verb  here  does  not  express  any  violent 
action  :  inaddu  is  "  they  place,"  so  that  it  seems  to  support  the 
suggestion  of  Mr.  Rylands. 

Line  15.  The  Akkadian  plural  is  translated  by  a  singular 
in  Assyrian. 

Ma  seems  there  also  to  imply  a  consequence,  "if  a  master 
hired"  (i.e.,  employed)   "a  slave  in  such  way  that"  etc. 

It  may  be  noticed  that  in  this  last  paragraph  all  the  verbs 
have  in  the  Akkadian  the  same  subject,  sakgal,  "  master,''  and 
that  in  Assyrian,  after  the  conjunction  ma,  the  subject  changes, 
and  though  not  expressed,  the  word  servant  is  understood ; 
this  fact  explains  why  all  the  verbs  used  there  (lines  16  to  19) 
are  in  the  form  with  inserted  t. 

The  first  two  paragraphs  are  very  difficult,  on  account 


Man  in  his  Private  Life.  2l>(.* 

of  the  genders  not  being  expressed  in  Akkadian,  so  that 
if  we  had  not  the  Assyrian,  we  should  not  know  who  was 
meant,  the  husband  or  the  wife.  In  the  second  of  these 
paragraphs  we  have,  "thou"  (masc.)  "art  not  my  wife," 
which  would  imply  that  the  scribe  confused  the  genders;  one 
explanation  would,  however,  be  that  this  law  was  reciprocal, 
and  was  meant  against  both  a  bad  husband  or  a  bad  wife ; 
but  it  is  a  mere  supposition. 

Line  2.  In  Akkadian,  when  the  possessive  suffix  -ni  is 
•placed  after  a  small  incidental  sentence,  forming  so  a  long 
word,  it  seems  to  express  what  is  called  in  Latin  Grammar 
an  ablative  absolute,  or  what  is  expressed  in  English  by  a 
participle  present. 

Colophon. 
Line  1.  The  transcription  of  J  (J>-  is  doubtful.  Satir 
means  "  order,"  mala  urri,  "  every  day  '';  the  general  meaning 
may  be  that  these  precepts  are  instructions  for  every  day. 
Mamitu  is  generally  translated  by  "  incantation,"  but  it  really 
means  "  saying,"  and  may  be  translated  by  "  precept." 


Addenda. 

Page  232.  My  remarks  about  the  carelessness  of  Assyriolo- 
gists  is  well  illustrated  by  the  oversight  of  Professor  Delitzsch 
in  an  article  lately  published  in  the  Athenamm.  He  there 
states  that  he  has  discovered  the  Assyrian  form  of  the  Hebrew 
word  TlNttJ,  seol,  which  he  gives  as  sualn,  but  without  any 
reference.  This  word  does  not  exist  in  Assyrian,  but  I  have 
been  able  to  find  how  the  error  has  arisen. 

A  syllabary  (unpublished  fragment)  gives  a  list  of  words 
having  KBR  as  their  radicals,  and  the  last  line  but  one  is : — 

The  Akkadian  column  is  read  ga-ba-ra-ki,  that  is,  Gabara- 
town  ;  in  the  Assyrian  column  it  is :  J=y,  "  ditto,"  i.e.,  Gabara, 
-t]],  alu,  "  city,"  and  ^Jgf  determinative  suffix.  The  mistake 
has  arisen  from  the  use  of  ^f  as  a  pointer  4^5  in  this  case 
having  been  ignored.     That  in  this  case  ^f  is  not  to  be  read 


270       Akkadian  Precepts  for  the   Conduct  of  Man,   fyc. 

phonetically  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  in  another  syllabary 
(unpublished)  the  same  expression  is  given  in  the  Assyrian 
column  opposite  another  Akkadian  group  thus : — 

»=y  (*fl  <«)  <]g  |  g  ^TT  <^f 

The  Akkadian  is  to  be  read,  as  indicated  by  the  gloss,  Es-ki, 
that  is.  Es-town,  and  the  Assyrian  is  to  be  analysed  as  given 
in  the  previous  quotation.  Another  instance  of  the  same  use 
of  this  group  may  be  quoted  from  an  unpublished  syllabary 
in  the  British  Museum,  which  puts  my  explanation  beyond 
all  doubt.     It  runs  : — 

S!  ~t  -B  <m    I    B  ^TT  <M 

I  may  add  that  the  sign  ^^  ifl  very  seldom  used  as  a  phonetic 
element. 

Page  236.  Mr.  Theo.  G.  Pinches  has  called  my  attention 
to  an  unpublished  list  of  the  names  of  cups,  among  which  is 
that  of  the  Bansur,  the  Assyrian  passant.  The  ideograph  used 
suggests  the  idea  that  some  of  these  vessels  had  a  double 
lip  :  we  have  in  this,  therefore,  a  libation  cup  similar  to  that 
discovered  by  Dr.  Schliemann,  and  explained  by  him  as  being 
the  Greek  vessel  Se7ra?  a^LKvireWov  mentioned  by  Homer. 

Page  250.  A  small  piece  of  the  tablet  has  been  added  by 
Mr.  Theo.  G.  Pinches,  but  the  few  characters  readable  are  too 
unconnected  to  be  worth  transcribing.  A  few  Akkadian 
signs  are  legible,  and  these,  so  far  as  they  can  be  made  out, 
show  that  this  portion  of  the  tablet  treated  of  the  time 
at  which  women  reached  the  marriageable  age.  It  shows. 
however,  that  only  15  lines  were  missing,  so  that  my  hue 
No.  18  of  Col.  II  corresponds  to  line  16  of  the  plate,  19 
to  21,  &c. 

Page  261.  A  bilingual  fragment  lately  arrived  at  the 
British  Museum  seems  to  confirm  my  translation.  The  well- 
known  Akkadian  ideogram  s>jjE,  dumu,  "  child,"  is  translated 
by  ^idf  »TyY-  the  group  given  in  our  tablet,  and  which  I  have 
read  hirru,  "  freebom  child." 


■>1\ 


BABYLONIAN  LEGAL  DOCUMENTS 

REFERRING  TO  HOUSE  PROPERTY,  AND  THE 

LAW  OF  INHERITANCE. 

By   Theo.   G.   Pinches. 
Bead  6th  February,  1883. 

Among  the  many  documents  known  as  the  Egibi-tablets, 
which,  as  a  rule,  are  nothing  else  than  records  of  sales  of 
property,  slaves,  live-stock,  produce,  and  even  ships,  are 
some,  of  a  most  interesting  and  instructive  nature,  containing 
judicial  decisions.  Couched,  as  they  often  are,  in  difficult 
style  of  language,  they  nevertheless  give  most  interesting 
statements  as  to  the  laws  of  the  land,  and  their  manner  of 
administration  at  that  remote  period. 

The  series/  to  which  I  wish  to  call  attention  contains  four 
documents,  each  of  which,  though  found  at  Borsippa,  the 
site  of  the  Birs-Nimroud,  yet  came  to  the  British  Museum  at 
various  times  and  through  different  channels.  The  first  in 
chronological  order,  which  is  dated  in  the  second  year  of 
Nabonidus,  is  a  tablet  of  a  rather  uncommon  shape,  but  in  a 
most  excellent  state  of  preservation.  It  has  on  the  edge 
impressions  of  the  cylinder-seals  of  two  scribes,  who  are 
evidently  the  same  as  had  drawn  up  the  document.  The 
tablet  refers  to  the  buying  of  a  house  and  land  by  a  man, 
evidently  a  Syrian,  named  Bin-Addu-natanu,  and  his  wife 
Bunanitu,  a  Babylonian  lady,  by  the  hands  of  another  person, 
named  Iba.     The  text  of  the  transaction  is  as  follows : — 

"  7  canes,  5  cubits,  8  fingers,  a  house,  with  territory,  a 
plantation  which  is  within  Borsippa,  which  Dan-sum-iddhia, 
son  of  Ziria,  son  of  Banaa,  for  11^  maim  of  silver,  for  the 
Vol.  VIII.  18 


272  Babylonian  Legal  Documents  referring  to 

price  complete,  has  delivered  into  the  hands  of  Iba,  son  of 
Silla,  son  of  the  nagar,  by  the  authority  of  Bin-Addu-natanu, 
son  of  Addia,  and  Bunanitu  his  wife,  daughter  of  Hariza. 
He  has  taken  possession  of  that  house,  and  has  paid  the 
money  of  Bin-Addu-natanu  and  Bunanitu  as  the  price  of  the 
house.  The  contract  of  Dan-sum-iddina  for  the  house  and 
money  is  made ;  Dan-sum-iddini  has  sealed  the  tablet  with  his 
name.  He  has  given  it  to  Bin-Addu-natanu  and  Bunanitu. 
To-day  the  copy  of  the  seal  tablet  of  the  receiver  (whether 
there  be  any  contract  for  that  house  in  the  house  of  Danu- 
sum-iddin  or  in  any  other  place),  has  been  examined ;  of  Bin- 
Addu-natanu  and  Bunanitu  it  is. 

"  Witnesses : — 

"Iddina-Marduk,  son  of  Basa,  son  of  Nur-Sin. 

"  Munahhis-Marduk,  son  of  Itti-Marduk-balatu,  son  of 
Nabannaa. 

"  Nabu-nadin-ahi,  son  of  Bel-iddina,  son  of  Basia. 

"  Igidu-zir'-iddina,  son  of  Esiraa. 

"Kaptu-ilani-Marduk,  the  scribe  son  of  Suhaa. 

"  Nabu-zir-esir,  the  scribe  son  of  Nabunnaa. 

"Babylon,  Sebat  24th,  second  year  of  Nabonidus,  king 
of  Babylon." 

Here  follow,  bending  also  over  the  edge,  the  seals  of  the 
scribes,  Nabu-zir-esir  and  Kaptu-ilani-Marduk. 

The  transaction,  as  above  given,  is  quite  clear.  Bin- 
Addu-natanu  and  his  wife  Bunanitu  have  been  carrying  on 
negociations  with  a  certain  Daim-sum-iddin  about  a  house 
and  field  in  Borsippa,  and  they  give  Iba,  son  of  Silla, 
authority  to  buy  the  property  for  them.  This  he  does,  pay- 
ing 11^-  mana  of  silver,  and  the  house  and  field  is  declared 
to  be  the  property  of  Bin-Addu-natanu  and  Bunanitu,  what- 
ever may  have  been  agreed  before,  "  whether  in  the  house 
of  Danu-sum-iddin  or  elsewhere."  The  scribe  has  also  been 
careful  to  state  that  Iba.  contracted  for  the  property  "  by  the 
authority  of  Bin-Addu-natanu  and  Bunanitu  his  wife."  The 
reason  for  this  was,  that  if  he  could  not  have  shown  that  he 
had  received  such  authority  from  his  employer,  and  the  latter 
had  afterwards  refused  to  have  the  property,  he  would  have 


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k 


t      iA     O       r<»     co       C\      <5 


House  Property,  and  the  Law  of  Inheritance.  i7.°> 

been  obliged  to  keep  and  pay  for  it  himself,  in  accordance 
with  the  Babylonian  law : — 

"If  a  man  has  contracted  for  a  field  and  house  in  the 
name  of  another,  but  has  not  received  a  letter  of  authority 
concerning  it,  and  has  not  taken  a  duplicate  of  the  tablet 
(to  the  man  from  whom  he  received  the  authority) ;  the  man 
who  wrote  the  tablet  and  contract  in  his  name  shall  take 
that  house  and  field." 

This  law,  though  certainly  not  very  exactly  worded,  is 
nevertheless  clear  enough,  explained,  as  it  is,  by  the  contract 
of  which  the  text  is  above  given.  Its  inexactness  is  probably 
caused  by  the  fact  that  the  text  of  which  it  forms  part 
is  rather  a  list  of  precedents  than  a  code  of  laws,  as  the 
paragraph  is  really  given  in  a  narrative  form.1 

The  next  document  in  chronological  order  is  dated  in 
the  fifth  year  of  Nabonidus.  It  is  an  ordinary  loan-tablet, 
2£  inches  long  by  1^  inches  broad.     The  inscription  records 

Amelu  Sa  kaniku  sa  ekli 

A  man  who  a  contract  of  a  field 

u  biti  a-na  Su-me  sa-man-ma 
and  house  to  the  name  of  somebody 


w».       ,    > — v   w¥      vv*       *  »a    >^»»  ik-nu-ku-ma  ri-ik-su 

HW*  V-    &  ^T   HfR  HMf*    ^TT  sealed}  and  a  C0Htract 

y  ^y  5t  ^Y  ^£  ty  ^y  /*< M  5a   na-a§-Pir-tum  a"na   Mi 

▼  I   S—       '    *"" *—    1Y  I     \>  >    1  nf  autharitii   roncernina   (it 


of  authority  concerning  (it) 

la,     ir-ku-su 

did  not  draw  up, 


j       „ ,y  www  ,   »»         ^^ y      u     gab-ri     kaniki 

\       >W<        *~U\       ^TT        »-HFfT-T      and  a  copy  of  the  tablet 


yY  ~ry    ^y   <~   \  v  <i! 

¥w       y^-w      >^_w         w     ,^w     vr        *  .      eklu  lu  bitu  su-a-ti 

IT      ffl        m      ZWl      £!      1 Y     ^H      that  field  and  house 


la.     il-ku--u, 
did  not  take; 

amelu  sa  kaniki  u  D.P.  an-tim 
the  man  who  the  tablet  and  agree- 
[meut 
a-na  su-me-su  sat-ru 
to  his  name  has  written 


274  Babylonian   Leu,//  Documents  referring  to 

that  Iddina-Marduk,  who  appeared  as  a  witness  to  the  former 
transaction,  lends  a  sum  of  money  to  Bin-Addu-natanu  and 
Bunanitu.  The  text,  the  end  of  which  is  rather  mutilated, 
is  as  follows  : — 

"  1-L  mana  8£  shekels  of  silver  from  Iddina-Marduk,  son 
of  Basa,  son  of  Nur-Sin,  to  Bin-Addu-natanu,  son  of  Addia, 
and  Bunanitu  his  wife.  For  the  month  they  pay  interest  at 
the  rate  of  1  (weak)  mana  1  shekel  of  silver  (lit.  "at  the 
rate  of  lm.  Is.  it  increases  unto  them").  From  the  1st  of 
Sivan  of  the  5th  year  of  Nabonidus,  king  of  Babylon,  they 
pay  the  interest." 

Three  mutilated  lines  follow  this,  and  then  come  the 
names  of  three  witnesses,  the  last-named  being  the  scribe 
who  wrote  the  tablet.     The  date  is : — 

"Borsippa,  Iyyar  3rd,  5th  year  of  Nabonidus,  king  ot 
Babylon." 

The  bulk  of  the  Egibi-tablets  consists  of  transactions  of 
this  class.  They  are  neither  bankers'  drafts  nor  judicial 
decisions,  but  money-lenders'  agreements. 

The  third  tablet,  of  which  there  are  two  copies,  neither 
being  the  original,  is  dated  in  the  ninth  year  of  Nabonidus. 
In  this  document,  the  woman  Bunamtu,  whose  husband  is 
now  dead,  makes  a  declaration  before  the  judges,  claiming 
the  property  which  belonged  to  her  late  husband,  to  which 
she  considered  that  she  had  some  right,  as  she  had  been,  to 
a  great  extent,  instrumental  in  getting  it,  and  had  taken  part 
in  all  the  transactions  relating  thereto.  The  text  of  this 
document,  which  is  much  longer  than  the  two  already  given, 
is  as  follows  : — 

"Bunanitu,  daughter  of  IJariza,  said  thus  to  the  judges 
of  Nabonidus,  king  of  Babylon :  '  Bin-Addu-natan,  son  of 
Nikbata  V  had  me  to  wife,  taking  3  mana  of  silver  as  dowry, 
and  I  bore  to  him  one  daughter.  I  and  Bin-Addu-natan,  my 
husband,  traded  with  the  money  of  my  dowry,  and  we 
bought  for  9^  mana  of  silver,  with  2^  mana  of  silver  which 
(was  borrowed)  from  Iddin-Marduk,  son  of  Basa,  son  of  Nur- 
Sin,  (and  which)  we  added  to  the  former  sum,  8  canes  of  land, 

1  Variant,  Nikmadu'. 


LOAN-TABLET    DATED    IN    THE    5TH    YEAR 
OF    NABONIDUS. 


1 
2 

3 
4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
10 
1 1 


IN    THE    BRITISH    MUSEUM. 


No.  S.  +    233. 

r  4-  fe^y  *©  ^t  ^r  m  *■  ^  i 

V  «<?  -  dm  T  t!  ~Mf  T  M  S/T  <«— > 

V  -  <T-  ^  <~  ^T  V  ft  ^! 


REVERSE. 


^    ^  M  V-    I  ^T  fl-S  m  ^  J^ 

ff  I  V  T  ~m  ^  du  If  T  «Sf  TiT  #  &-  <n 

1  -twM  ^*  isl  ^r  0  n  t  hf-  1  ^  ju 
h  t  ^rr  ife  w  w .  <  "^~  an '  t  tj  n 

M   sfi    *T   TTT    ^   ^    Vty    % 


House  Property,  and  the  Law  of  Inheritance.         275 

and  a  ruined  house,  the  territory  of  a  large  property,  which 
is  within  Borsippa.  Together  we  made  this  transaction  in 
the  fourth  year  of  Nabonidus,  king  of  Babylon. 

'"Now  my  dowry  (was)  with  Bin-Addu-natan,  my  husband. 
I  asked  (for  it),  and  Bin-Addu-natan,  in  the  kindness  of  his 
heart,  sealed,  and  entrusted  it  to  me  for  future  days,  the  8  canes 
of  land,  and  that  house,  which  is  within  Borsippa,  and  made 
it  known  on  my  tablet  as  follows  :  '  2\  mana  of  silver,  which 
Bin-Addu-natan  and  Bunanit  have  taken  from  Iddin-Marduk, 
and  have  given  as  the  price  of  that  house.  Together  they 
have  made  the  agreement.'  He  sealed  this  tablet,  and  wrote 
upon  it  the  curse  of  the  great  gods. 

" '  In  the  fifth  year  of  Nabonidus,  king  of  Babylon,  I  and 
Bin-Addu-natan,  my  husband,  took  Bin-A  ddu-amara  to  son- 
ship,  and  wrote  a  tablet  of  his  sonship,  and  made  known  that 
the  dowry  of  my  daughter  Nubta  was  2  mana  10  shekels  of 
silver  and  the  furniture  of  a  house.  Fate  took  my  husband, 
and  on  account  of  this,  Akabi-ilu,  son  of  my  father-in-law, 
laid  claim  upon  the  house  and  everything  which  he  had 
sealed  and  entrusted  to  me,  and  upon  Nabii-nur-ilu,  whom  we 
had  bought,  by  the  hands  of  Nabu-ahi-iddin,  for  money.  I 
have  brought  it  before  you.     Make  a  decision.' 

"The  Judges  heard  their  words,  they  discussed  the 
tablets  and  documents  which  Bunanitu  had  brought  before 
them,  and  they  did  not  make  Akabi-ilu  to  have  power  over 
the  house  of  Borsippa,  which  had  been  entrusted  to  Bunanitu 
instead  of  her  dowry,  over  Nabu-nur-ili,  whom  she  and  her 
husband  had  bought  for  silver,  nor  over  anything  of  Bin- 
Addu-natan.  Bunanitu  and  Bin-Addu-amara,  by  their  tablets, 
possess  (them).  Iddin-Marduk  takes  the  2|  mana  of  silver 
which  had  been  given  as  the  price  of  that  house,  and  settles 
(the  affair).  Afterwards  Bunanitu  settles  the  3^  mana,  her 
dowry,  and  besides  her  property  she  settles  Nabu-nur-ili 
(upon)  Nubta,  according  to  the  agreement  of  her  father. 

"  By  the  decision  of  this  judgment.'' 

Here  follow  the  names  of  six  judges  and  two  scribes,  and 
then  the  date : — 

"Babylon,  26th  Elul,  ninth  year  of  Nabonidus.  king  of 
Babylon." 


276  Babylonian   Legal  Documents  referring  to 

It  will  easily  be  seen  that  the  above  document  is  an 
action  brought  by  the  woman  Bunanitu  to  recover  the 
property  which  she  and  her  husband  had  acquired,  but  to 
which  Akabi-ilu,  her  husband's  brother,  laid  claim.  Bin- 
Addu-natanj  however,  seems  to  have  taken  great  care  that 
his  wife's  name  should  be  associated  with  every  transaction, 
wishing  that  the  property  might  go  to  her,  in  case  of  his 
dying,  as  he  actually  did,  before  her.  The  association  of 
her  name  with  his,  however,  in  all  the  transactions  into 
which  they  entered,  would  probably  not  have  availed  in  any 
way,  but  for  the  fact  that  part  of  the  money  with  which 
they  traded  was  her  own;  for  it  was  enacted,  according  to 
Babylonian  law,  that  on  the  death  of  the  husband,  the  dowry 
of  the  wife  returned  to  her,  and  to  her  children ;  and  in  the 
case  where  both  husband  and  wife  died  without  any  issue, 
the  dowry  returned  to  the  parents  of  the  wife,  from  whom, 
in  fact,  it  originally  came.  On  this  point  the  law  was  clear, 
and  Akabi-ilu  seems  to  have  been  nonsuited.  At  the  time 
when  this  question  was  decided  before  the  judges,  Iddin- 
Marduk,  the  lender  of  the  money  which  made  up  the  price 
of  the  house  at  Borsippa,  was  repaid,  seemingly  by  order  of 
the  judges,  and  provision  was  made  for  the  dowry  of  Nubta, 
the  daughter  of  Bunanitu,  who  was  to  marry  the  man  Bin- 
Addu-amara,  who  had  been  "  taken  to  sonsliip." 

The  tablet  of  legal  precedents  gives  the  following  rules 
for  the  inheritance  of  the  dowiy  of  a  married  woman : — 

11  If  a  man  give  a  dowry  to  his  daughter,  and  she  has  no 
son  or  daughter,  her  dowry  returns  to  the  house  of  her 
father." 

A  marriage  contract,  partly  performed,  could  not  be 
annulled : — 

"If  a  man  promise  a  dowry  to  his  daughter,  and  then 
write  a  tablet  for  her,  and  afterwards  hand  over  to  her  a  third 
part,  as  he  gives  his  property,  which  was  a  part  of  her  dowry, 
to  his  daughter,  the  father-in-law  and  son-in-law  cannot  deny 
each  other." 

According  to  the  tablet  IS  4-  966,  which  is  a  marriage 
settlement,  the  bridegroom  might  ask  that  a  part  of  the 
promised  dowry  be  changed  for  something  else  of  value. 


House  Property,  and  the  Law  of  Inheritance.  211 

In  this  case,  Iddina-Marduk  asks  that  instead  of  the  sum  of 
seven  mana  of  silver,  part  of  dowry  which  Ziria  had  promised 
with  Ina-E-sagili-ramat,  his  daughter,  there  might  be  given 
the  slave  Urbartu  and  her  three  children,  Nana-kisirat  and 
her  two  children,  and  all  the  property  of  Ziria  both  in  town 
and  country.  The  proposition  seems  to  have  been  accepted 
by  the  father  of  Ina-E-sagili-ramat. 

From  another  clause  of  the  tablet  of  precedents,  which 
is,  unfortunately,  rather  mutilated,  it  seems  that  if  a  marriage 
contract  be  concluded,  and  the  dowry  of  the  wife  and  the 
property  of  the  husband,  given  by  his  father,  be  to  the 
satisfaction  of  all  parties  concerned,  the  children  take,  on 
the  death  of  their  parents,  a  third  of  the  property.  What 
becomes  of  the  rest,  however,  does  not  appear. 

Another  clause,  also  very  mutilated,  directs  that,  if  a 
woman,  on  the  death  of  her  husband,  "  set  her  face  to  go 
down  to  another  house,"  that  is,  if  she  marry  again,  she  may 
take  with  her  her  dowry  and  all  her  property  which  her  first 
husband  had  left  her.  All  that  was  left  of  her  dowry  after 
her  death,  was  to  be  divided  (so  it  seems)  between  the 
children  of  both  marriages.  What  was  to  become  of  the 
rest  does  not  appear,  as  the  tablet  is  broken ;  but  it  is  not 
unlikely  that  this  property  given  by  the  first  husband  was  to 
go  to  his  children  only. 

It  will  easily  be  seen  from  the  above  how  very  clear  and 
full  of  common  sense  the  laws  of  the  ancient  Babylonians 
were.  In  everything  they  show  themselves  to  have  been 
an  eminently  practical  people ;  lovers  of  peace,  and  ardent 
traders.  Whence  they  could  have  got  these  laws  is  difficult 
to  say.  It  is  not  unlikely,  however,  that  they  are  built  upon 
some  ancient  Akkadian  precepts,  the  originals  of  which  no 
longer  exist.  The  Akkadian  laws  treating  of  the  duties  of 
the  members  of  a  family  towards  each  other  have  already 
been  ably  discussed  by  Mr.  G.  Bertin,  and  it  is  not  by  any 
means  impossible  that  the  tablet,  of  which  I  have  above 
given  extracts,  is  a  translation  of  a  continuation  of  the  series. 
These  ancient  tablets,  which  were  of  the  series  beginning, 
in  Akkadian,  ki-kankaldbi-su,  were  probably,  at  first,  very 
in imerous,  but  only  a  few  of  the  tablets  have  come  down  to 


278  Babylonian  Legal  Documents  referring  to 

us.  They  were  used  as  text-books  by  the  students  of 
Babylon,  even  to  the  latest  times,  and  the  phrases  which 
they  contain,  used  as  models  by  the  scribes,  are  to  be  found 
reproduced  in  many  different  ways,  in  the  texts  of  the  so- 
called  Egibi-tablets.  It  is  therefore  clear  that  the  scribes. 
after  going  through,  and  learning  both  the  Babylonian 
phrases,  and  their  Akkadian  equivalents,  went  also  through 
the  code  of  laws  by  which  these  pattern-phrases  were  followed. 
Mr.  Horrnuzd  Rassam  has  obtained  from  the  Babylonian  ex- 
cavations many  fragments  of  tablets  containing  extracts  from 
these  texts  of  law-phrases,  each  section  having  been  written 
out  clearly  and  well  by  the  student  three  times,  in  order, 
evidently,  to  impress  these  things  the  more  clearly  upon  his 
memory.  Judging  from  what  we  have  already,  the  complete 
code  of  these  laws  must  have  been  extremely  interesting, 
and  embraced  a  wide  range. 

"W  e  have  heard  much  about  the  will  of  Sennacherib,  but 
this  is  only,  at  the  most,  a  deed  of  gift,  or  a  letter  stating  that 
the  king  had  given  his  son,  whose  name  he  changes  at  the 
same  time,  certain  articles  of  value,  but  the  so-called  Egibi- 
tablets  give  us  the  form  of  a  real  will,  fully  and  clearly  written, 
in  which  a  man  named  Tabnea  gives  certain  property  to  Iris 
wife,  to  be  held  in  trust  for  her  by  his  three  children,  to 
whom,  after  her  death,  the  property  was  to  go.  This  is  a 
real  model  of  a  will,  for  all  the  clauses  are  so  clearly  ex- 
pressed, without  any  repetitions,  that,  notwithstanding  our 
imperfect  knowledge  of  Assyrian,  every  phrase  can  be  clearly 
made  out. 

It  is  a  great  pity  that  Assyriologists  have  been,  especially 
in  England,  so  careless  as  to  their  translations.  The  chances 
are,  that  if  a  phrase  requires  a  great  deal  of  twisting  to  get 
it  to  make  sense,  the  translation  is  wrong.  Guessing,  also, 
is  a  most  dangerous  thing,  especially  when  unscientifically 
done.  A  most  interesting  tablet  of  the  class  we  have  been 
treating  of  is  one  called,  in  consequence  of  one  of  Mr.  Smith's 
ingenious  guesses,  "  The  dispute  between  the  two  brothers.-' 
The  text,  however,  is  nothing  of  the  kind.  It  is  a  deed  of 
partnership,  or,  rather,  brotherhood,  entered  into  by  two 
men.  named  Sini-Xana  and  Iribam-Sin.     The  declaration  of 


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rn 

] louse  Property,  and  the  Law  of  Inheritance.  279 

partnership  was  made  before  a  judge,  who  took  them  after- 
wards to  the  temple  of  the  Sun-god  at  Tel-sifr,  where  they 
made  gifts  or  sacrifices  to  the  Sun-god  and  the  Moon-god, 
and  afterwards  the  judge  gave  them  some  friendly  and 
wholesome  advice  as  to  their  duties  towards  each  other. 
This  document  is  dated  hi  the  reign  of  Gammurabi,  about 
2.100  B.C. 

The  First  Document.     77 — 10 — 2,  2. 
Obverse. 

1.  Sibit  kane,    kassu  ammati,  xvm    {ibanati,  bitu   e-ib-su 
Seven  canes,      five      cubits,       18       fingers,  a  mined  house, 

ersi-tim  kireti 

(and)  the  land  of  plantations 

2.  sa    ki-ir-ba       Bar-sip-ki,     sa     |  >~>f-  Daan-sum-iddi-na, 
which  (are)  within    Borsippa,    which  Daan  -  sum  -  iddina, 

mari-su  sa  ]  Ziria, 
son       of     Ziria, 

3.  mar  f  Na-ba-a-a,  a-na  estin  esrit  masu  ma-na   kaspi,    a-na 
son  of    Nabda,        for  eleven  and  a-half  mana  of  silver,  for 

kaspi  ga-mir-ti, 
the  complete  money, 

4.  i-na      kata         f  I-ba-a,    mari-su    sa    f  Sil-la-a,     mar 
(which)  by  the  hands  of      Ibd,  son    of  Silld,      son  of 

(ameli)     nagari      im-hu-ru 
the        nagar,  he  has  received 

5.  i-na    na-as-pir-ti    sa  |  >->f-  Bin-Addu-na-ta-nu,  mari-su   sa 
by  the    authority     of  Ben  -  Hadad  -  natan,        son       of 

f  Ad-di-ia 
Addia 

6.  u  £-  Bu-na-ni-ti    as-sa-ti-su,    marat-su    sa    f  Ha-ri-za-a-a 
and       Bunanitu,        his    wife,       daughter  of  Hamz&a 

7.  bitu    su-a-tim   im-ta-har,        kaspa      sa  \  >->f-  Bin-Ad-du- 
that      house  he  has  received,  the  money  of  Ben-Hadad- 

na-ta-nu 
natdn 


280  Babylonian  Legal  Documents  referring  to 

8.  u  ■£-  Bu-na-ni-ti      a-na      si-i-mi      biti      na-din       zi-it-ti 
and  Bunanitu  as  the  price  of  the  house  he  has  given ;  (the  property 

9.  sa  y  »->f-  Daan-sum-iddi-na    i-na   biti     u    kaspi   ya-a-iiu 
of       Daan-sum-iddina  in  the  house,  and  money  there  is  not). 

10.  Kaniku  sa  |  »->f-  Daan-sum-iddi-na  a-na  su-mi-su  ik-nu-ku 
The  tablet  which    Daan-sum-iddina  ivith  his  name  has  sealed 

11.  a-na  y  >->f- Bin- Ad-du-na-ta-nu  u  -^  Bu-na-ni-ti   id-din 

to  Ben  -  Hadad  -  natdn  and      Bunanitu  he  has  given. 

Reverse. 

1.  tT-mu     gab-ri       ku-nu-uk  ma-hi-ri  lu-u 
To-day    the  copy      of  the  seal   of  the  receiver  (whether  there  be 

mimma     ri-ik-su     sa    biti    su-a-tim 
any        contract    for       that    house 

2.  ina        biti         y  >~>f-  Daan-sum-iddina   lu-u     ina       a-sar 
in  the  house  of  Daan-sum-iddina       or   in   any   other 

sa-nam-ma      it-tan-ma-ru,        sa       y  »->f-    Bin-Ad-du- 
place)      has  been  examined,    of  Ben-Hadad- 

na-tan-nu   u   £-  Bu-na-ni-tum    su-u 
natdn     and  Bunanitu         it  is. 

3.  (Amelu)    Mu-kin-nu    y  Iddi-na-    >->f-  ]\larduk   mari-su    sa 

Witnesses :  Iddina-Marduk,  son        of 

y  Ba-sa-a   mar  y  Nu-nr-  >->f-  Sin 
Basd,    son  of        Nur-Sin; 

4.  y  Mu-na-ak-hi-is-     >->f-     Marduk       mari-su      sa       y  Itti- 

Munahhis-Marduk,  son  of  Itti- 

->f-  Marduk-balatu     mar    y  Na-bu-un-na-a-a 
Marduk-balatu,    son    of  Nabunnda 

5.  y  Nabu-na-din-aki,  mari-su  sa  y  Bel-iddi-na    mar  y  Ba-si-ia 

Nabu-nadin-dhi,       son      of     Bel-Iddina,     son  of    Basia 

6.  y  >->f-  Igi-du-zira-iddi-na         mari-su  sa  y  E-si-ra-a-a 

Tgidu-zira-iddina  son       of        Esirda 


Home  Property,  and  the  Laic  of  Inheritance.  281 

7.  y  Kapti-ilani-  >->f-  Marduk,  dup-sar  mari-su  sa  |  Su-lja-a-a 

Kapti-ildni-Marduk,     the  scribe,     son    of  Suhda 

8.  |  Nabu-zira-esir,    dup-sar,    mari-su    sa    y  Na-bu-un-na-a-a 

Nabu-zira-esir,   the  scribe,       son       of  Nabunnda. 

9.  Bab-ili  ki,    arhu    Sabatu,    limu    XXIV    KAM,    sattu    sanetu 

Babylon,     month     Sebat,      day        24^/j,  year     second, 

y  Nabu-na-'-id      sar     Tin-tir-ki 
Nabonidus       king  of  Babylon. 

The  Second  Document. — S.+  233. 

1.  Isten  masu     ma-na,     samna     masu     sikli     kaspi        sa 
One  and  a-half  mana,  eight  and  a-half  shekels  of  silver,  from 

y  Iddin-  «f  Marduk 
Iddin-Marduk 

2.  mari-su   sa    y  Ba-sa-a    mar  y  Nur  *->|-  Sin    ina    muk-ki 

son        of  Basd,   son  of         Nilr-Sin,  unto 

3.  y  >->f-  Bin-Ad-du-na-ta-nu,    mari-su 

Ben-Hadad-natdn,       son  of 

4.  sa  y  Ad-di-ia   u  ■£-  Bu-na-ni-tum    assati-su 

Addia,    and  Bunanitu,  his  icife 

5.  Sa    arki,       ina    muk-hi  isten  ma-na  isten  siklu      kaspi 
For  a  month,  at  the  rate  of    one     mana     one  shekel     of  silver 

().  ina    muk-ki-su-nu    i-rab-bi,       ultu    umi    isten 
unto    them         it  increases ;  from  the  first  day 

7.  sa  arki  Simani,  sattu  kamiltu  Nabu-na'id,   sar  BabiH  (E-ki) 

of    Sivan,   the  fifth  year  of  Nabonidus,  king  of  Babylon, 

8.  kubulla        i-nam-din-nu.         Kaspu,  ri-ik-tu        kaspi 
they  pay  the  debt.     The  money,  (and)  the  interest  of  the  money, 

9.  sa  (?)    ina      si-i-[mij         biti       sa  a-na 

which  is  for  the  price  of  a  house,  which  to 

10.  y  I-ba-[a]    iddi-nu,    arka-am 

Ibd  they  have  given,  monthly 

11.  kubulla     i-nam-din-nu 
the  pledge    they  shall  pay 


282  Babylonian  Legal  Documents  referring  to 

Keverse. 

1.  (Amelu)  Mu-kin-nu :  |  E-zi-da-surn-epus 

Witnesses :       S-zida-sum-Spus 

2.  mari-su    sa    ]  Nabu-sum-nasir     mar     |  La  (?)-ku-ub-bu-ru 

son         of      Nabi\-sum-nasir     son  of  La-kubburu; 

3.  f  Nabu-ahi-bul-lit    mar    \  >->f-  Marduk-sum-nasir 

Nabu-dhi-bullit     son  of  Marduk-sum-nasir 

4.  mar     ]  Su-ka-a-a     u    (amelu)  sangu,  |  Abla-a 
son  of         Suhda,       and  the  scribe,      Ablaa 

5.  mari-su  sa  f  Ukin-  »->f-  Marduk.     Bar-sip  ki, 

son    of  Ikln-Marduk.  Borsippa, 

6.  arhu    Aaru,  umu  salsa,  sattu  hamiltu 
month  Tyyar,  third    day,    year    fifth, 

Nabu-ua'id,      sar      Babili  (E-ki) 
Nabonidus,    king  of   Babylon. 

The  Third  Document. —  Sp.  48. 

1 .  ■£-  Bu-na-ni-tura  marat-su  sa  y  Ha-ri-za-a  a-na  (amelu)  daani 

Bunanitu,        daughter  of       Hariza    to    the       judges 

sa  Nabu-na'id 
of  Nabonidus 

2.  sar  Babili  tak-bi  urn-ma :    f  (ilu)  Bin-Ad-du-na-tan  abli-su 
king  of  Babylon    said    thus  :         Ben-IIadad-natan      son 

3.  sa    y  Ni-ik-ba-ta-'  x     a-ua    as-su-tu    ir-sa-an-ni-ma    salsu 

of        Nikbatah  to     wifehood    had    me    and      three 

ma-na     kaspi 
mana    of  silver 

4.  nu-dun-na-a    il-ki-e-ma  ed-it  martu    u-lid-su.      Ya-a-tu 
as  my  dowry    he  took  and    one  daughter  I  bore  him.         I 

1  Var. :  Ni-ik-ma-du-'. 


House  Property,  and  the  Laic  of  Inheritance.         283 

5.  u  |  (ilu)  Bin-Addu-na-tan,  mu-ti-ia,  na-da-nu  u  ma-ha-ri 
and  Ben-IIadad-natdn,    my  husband,  selling    and  buying 

6.  ina     eli   ka-sap    nu-dun-ni-e-a    ne-pu-us-ma   VIII    kane 
with    the   money     of  my   dowry      made,    and   eight    canes, 

betu     eb-su 
a  ruined  house 

7.  ersi-tim    a-hu-la-a    gal-la-a    ki-rib    Bar-sip-ki    a-na    tisit 
the  territory  of  a  large  property,  within  Borsippa,  for  nine  and 

sussanu     ma-na     kaspi      a-di 
two-thirds  of  a  mana  of  silver,  with 

8.  sane     masu     ma-na     kaspi       sa        ul-tu        f  Iddin-(iln) 
two  and  a-half  mana  of  silver  ivhich  was  from         Iddin- 

Marduk,  mari-su  sa  ]  Ba-sa-a,       mar        J  Nur-(ilu)Sin 
Marduk,      son      of       Basd,   descendent  of     Nur-Sin, 

9.  a-na         nis-hu1       nis-sa-am-ma    i-na  sim     bitu  su-a-tu 
(which)  to  the  former  ice  added  and  as  the  price  of   that   house 

ni-id-di-din-ma 
ice   gave   and 

10.  it-ti  a-ha-mes  nim-hnr  ina  satti  IV  (kam)  |  Nabu-na'id 
with  each  other  we  traded  in    the    4th  year  of  Nabonidus, 

sar      Babili. 
king  of  Babylon. 

11.  As-su  nu-dun-ni-e-a  it-ti  |  (ilu)  Bin-Addu-na-tan  mu-ti-ia 

Now  my  doivry  (was)  with  Ben-Hadad-natdn,  my  husband. 

12.  Ar-gum-ma  ]  (ilu)  Bin-Addu-na-tan  i-na  mi-gir  lib-bi-su 
/  asked  (for  it),  and  Ben-Hadad-natdn,  in  the  kindness  of  his 

\_heart, 

13.  vin  kane,  bita  su-a-ta,  sa  ki-rib  Bar-sip-ki  ik-nu-uk-ma 
the  8  canes,  that  house,  which  (is)  within  Borsippa,  sealed,  and 

1  Var.,  uis-ri. 


2S4  Babylonian  Legal  Documents  referring  to 

14.  a-na   u-mu   sa-a-tu   pa-ni-ia   u-sad-gil-ma    ina    kaniki-ia 
for  future    days     to   me   lie   intrusted   and   by   my    tablet 

u-se-di 
made  (it)  known 

15.  um-ma :     Sane    masu      ma  -  na    kaspi    sa    ]  (Ilu)  Bin  - 

thus :  "  Two  and  a-lialf  mana  of  silver  which  Ben  - 

Addu-na-tan    u  ■£-  Bu-na-ni-tum 
Hadad-natdn  and         Bunanitu 

16.  ul-tu  pa-ni   f  Iddin-  (ilu)  Mardut    is-su-nim-ma   ina   sim 

from  Iddin- Marduk      have   received  and   as    the 

bitu      su-a-tu 
price  of  that  house 

17.  id-di-nu,     it-ti      a-ha-mes     id-di-ru.      Kaniku     su-a-tim 
have  given,  togetlier  they  have  transacted  it."    That  contract 

18.  ik-nu-uk-ma      ir-rit     ilani     rabuti      ina      lib-bi     is-tnr 
lie  sealed  and  the  curse  of  the  great  gods  in  the  midst  he  wrote. 

19.  Ina  satti   V     kam     Nabu-na'id,    sar      Babili,  ya-a-tu   u 

In     the    5th  year  of  Nabonidus,  king  of  Babylon,    I    and 

f  (ilu)  Bin-Addu-na-tan 
Ben- Hadad-natdn 

20.  mu-ti-ia      )f  (ilu)    Bin-Addu-a-ma-ra       a-na       ma-ru-tu 
my    husband  Ben-IIadad-amara  to         sonship 

ni-il-ka-am-ma 
took      and 

21.  dup-pi  ma-ru-ti-su  nis-tur-ma  sane  mana  esrit.  sikli  kaspi 
the  tablet  of  his  sonship  we  wrote  and  2  mana  ten  shekels  of  silver 

22.  u   u-di-e      biti      nu-dun-na-a  sa   •£-  Nu-ub-ta-a  marti-ia 
and  the  furniture  of  a  house,  the  dowry  of  Nubtd,  my  daughter 

23.  nu-se-di.      Mu-ta-a     sim-tum     u-bil-ma        i-na-an-na 
we  made  known.     My  husband  fate    took,  and  therefore 

24.  y  A-ka-bi-ilu  mar  (amelu)  e-mi-ia  a-na  eli  biti  u  mim-ma 

Akabi-ilu,  son  of  my  brother-in-law,  upon  the  house  and  all 


House  Property,  and  the  Law  of  Inheritance.         285 

25.  sa       kan-gu-ma        pa-ni-ia        su-ud-gu-lu        u        e-li 
which  he  had  sealed  and  unto  me  had  intrusted,    and  upon 

y  Nabu-niir-ilani 
Nab  u-n  ur-i  lai  i  i 

26.  sa    ina      kata       |  Nabii-ahi-iddin  a-na  kaspi  ni-bu-ku 
to  horn  by  the  hands  of  Nabu-ahi-iddin  for  money  we  had  boiuj  lit, 

27.  pa-ka-ri      u-sab-si 

claim     he  made. 

Reverse. 

1.  A  -  na    mah-ri-ku-nu  ub-la-as,  purusse-su  suk-na 
To  your  presence  I  have  brought  it,   make   its  decision. 

2.  (Amelu)  Daani  dib-bi-su-nu  is-mii-n,  dup-pa-nu  li  rik-sa-a-tu 

The  judges   their   words   heard,    the  tablets    and   contracts 

3.  sa  ■£-  Bu-na-ni-tum    tu-ub-la    ma-har-su-nu   is-tas-su-ma 
which  Bunanitu  had  brought  before  them  they  discussed,  and 

4.  A-ka-bi-ilu  e-li  biti  sa  Bar-sip-ki,  sa  kn-um  nu-dun-ni-e-su 
Akabi-ilu  over  the  house  of  Borsippa,  which  instead  of  her  dowry 

5.  pa-ni  •£-  Bu-na-ni-tum    su-ud-gu-lu,     e-li    |  Nabu-niir-ili 

unto  Bunanitu      had  been  entrusted,   over    Nabu-nur-ili 

6.  sa  si-i   u   mu-ti-su    a-na   kas-pi  i-sa-mu,    u   e-li    minima 
whom  she  and  her  husband  for  silver  had  bought,  and  over  anything 

7.  sa       y    (ilu)       Bin-Addu-na-ta-nu        la       u-sar-su-u. 
of  Ben- Hadad-natdn     they   gave  not  power. 

■£-  Bun-na-ni-tum 
Bunanitu 

8.  u  y  (ilu)  Bin-Addu-a-ma-ri,   ina   kanike-su-nu   us-ziz-su. 
and  Ben-Hadad-amara,     by     their  tablets,  possess  them. 

y  Iddin-  (ilu)  Marduk 
Iddin-Marduk 

9.  sane    masu       ma-na     kaspi-su,       sa         i-na       sim 
his  tioo  and   a-half  mana    of  silver,    which    as  the  price   of 

bitu        su-a-tu     na-ad-nn, 
that  house  had    been    given, 


28 


Babylonian  Legal  Documents  referring  to 


10.  i-pi-eu-ni-ma    i-sal-lim.     Ar-ki  <£-  Bu-na-ni-tum 
agrees  to  and    receives.     Afterwards    Bunanitu 

11.  salsa    niasu    ma-na  kapsi.     nu-dun-na-su,  ta-sal-lim    u 
three  and  a-half  ?na7ia  of  silver,    her    dowry,     receives,    and 

a  -  hi      zitti  -  su 
besides  her  property 

12.  |  Nabu-nur-ili    £-  Nu-ub-ta-a,     ki-rua         rik-sa-a-tum 

Nabu-nur-ili,  Nubtd,        according  to  the  agreement* 

13.  abi-su    ta-sal-lim 

of  her  father,  receives. 

14.  I-na     purusse      di-i-ni      su-a-tim 
By  the  decision    of  this  judgment. 

15.  y  (ilu)  Xergal-ba-nu-mi,  (amelu)  danu,  mar  (amelu)  Kal-du 

Nergal-banunu,  judge,       the  son  of  the   Chaldean 

(amelu)  danu,      mar      y  E-gi-bi 
judge,         the  son  of   Egibi 


16.  y  Nabu-ahi-iddin, 

Nabii  -dhi-iddin, 


17.  y  Nabu-sum-ukin, 

Nabu-sum-ukin. 

18.  y  Bel-ahi-iddin, 

Bel-dhi-iddin, 

19.  y  Bel  -  ed  -  ir, 

Bel  -  edir, 


(amelu)  danu,      mar      y  Ir-a-ni 
judge,         the  son  of    Iran 

(amelu)  danu,      mar 
judge,        the  son  of 

(amelu)  danu,      mar 
judge,        the  son  of 


20.  y  Nabu-balat-su-ik-bi,  (amelu)  danu,      mar 

Nabu-balat-su-ikbi,  judge,         the  son  of 


21.  y  Na  -  di  -  no, 
Nadinu, 


(amelu)  dupsar,      mar 

scjnbe,        the  son  of 


22.  y  Xabii-sum-isk-un,  (amelu)  dup-sar,    mar     (amelu)  .  .  . 

Nabu- sum -ishun,  scribe,         the  son  of  the        .  .  . 

23.  Babili,      arah    Ululu,   umu    xxvi    kam,    sattu    ix    kam, 
Babylon,   month    Elul,       day  26th,  year    lJtJt. 

Xabu  -  [na'id     sar      Babili] 
Nabonidus,    king  of  Babylon. 


House  Property,  and  the  Imiv  of  Inheritance.  287 


Notes  upon  the  Words,  &c. 
No.  1. 

1.  Kana,    "a   cane"    (both   the    plant   and    the   measure), 

Heb.  i"T?£.     In  Babylonian  60  square  cubits. 

Ammat,  "a  cubit,"  Heb.  J172S!,  about  20  inches. 

A 

Ubandti,  plur.  of  ubdnu,  "  a  finger,"  "  point."  See  W.A.I. 
I,  18,  62,  jjf  ^  =  ilbanni,  and  W.A.I.  I,  20,  17,  where 
the  const,  plur.  ubandt  occurs. 

A 

Ebsu,  "  ruined."  See  the  note  to  line  6  of  the  obverse 
of  Sp.  41. 

Ef  HlPf  *Ts  Pmr-  of  kiru,  "a  plantation,"  explained  as  the 
meaning  of  tj  ^E]tJ,  W.A.I.  II,  15,  27  (ki-ri-i,  case  after 
a  preposition)  and  elsewhere.  The  plural  indicated 
here  is  kiretu,  not  hirdni. 

2.  Kirba,  "  within,"  more  usually  kirib. 

Ddan-sum-iddina,  "  the  Sun-god  made  a  name."    J^f  $\ . 
=  dda?iu,  "judge,"  one  of  the  titles  of  the  Sun-god. 

3.  >^-.     The  value  of  this  character,  when  the  meaning  of 

division  is  implied,  seems  to  be  mam.  Compare 
W.A.I.  Ill,  70,  175. 

4.  *£=  t^f<>  m  Assyrian  characters  ^^  •£-<.       The  value 

of  the  latter  characters  is,  in  Akkadian,  nagar.  (See 
Delitzch,  "  Lesestiicke,"  p.  40,  col.  iv,  1.  4.)  The 
Babylonian  value  is  probably  nagaru  or  nangaru,  the 
same  as  the  name  of  the  character.  The  meaning  is 
doubtful. 

5.  Naspirti,  "authority";  from  sapdru,  "to  send,"  probably 

connected  with  the  Heb.  "^3D,  "to  write."  For  naspyirtu, 
compare  p.  273,  and  Smith's  "  Assurbanipal,"  p.  209, 
line  72,    ina    naspirti    Assur,     "  by   the    authority    of 
Assur." 
Vol.  VIII.  19 


288  Babylonian  Legal  Documents  referring  to 

6.  Assati,  "wife";  compare  the  Heb.  H'CN. 

*^£p£-,  md rat,  const,  of  mdrtu,  "daughter,  the  fern,  form 
*^T,  maru,  "male  child,"  "  son."  Instead  of  mdrtu,  the 
form  mdstu  (W.A.I.  Y,  pt.  2)  is  also  found,  with  change 
of  r  into  s  before  the  dental. 

8.  Zittu  (pi.  zindti),  a  word  which  translates  the  Akkadian 
Vf<  >£T>  fab*  (see  W.A.I.  II,  pi.  39, 1.  48,  and  pi.  40, 1.  51). 
The  meaning  of  this  word  seems  to  be  "property." 
"  There  is  neither  property  nor  money  belonging  to 
Daan-surn-iddin  in  the  house."  See  also  p.  286,  whore 
the  property  of  Xubta,  daughter  of  Bunanitu.  is  spoken 
of.  The  word  gala  is  of  very  frequent  occurrence 
in  the  early  Babylonian  dated  tablets,  and  in  every 
case  the  meaning  "property"  seems  to  fit.  Zittu 
evidently  comes  from  the  root  zdnu  or  za"anu,  in  Puul 
(  =  Heb.  Piel),  "to  adorn";  the  ideas  ornament,  furniture. 
and  property,  being  derived  one  from  another.     Com- 

pare  the  Arabic    ,\-    "to  adorn,"    «sju ;    "ornament." 

?-  E^Ty  Ty  tS  y«WM>  evidently  "not  to  be,"  the  Heb.  p». 
Compare  my  "  Texts  in  the  Babylonian  Wedge-writing," 
pi.  9,  K.  831,  1.  13,  and  the  same  text,  pi.  8,  rev.  1.8: 
ana pani-su  Saprah,  sipirti  ina pani-su  ydnu,  "I  have  sent 
to  his  presence,  the  letter  in  his  presence  is  not";  M  illak, 
sipirti  lissa,  u  ydnu.  Id  Makku,  "  when  he  goes,  may  he 
take  the  letter — but  it  is  not  (so),  he  will  not  go"! 
Compare  also  the  dnu  of  the  Behistun  inscription,  1.  19. 

10.  ^»ff  ££^I>  a  compound  evidently  to  be  transcribed  by 
tlit-  Assyrian  ^Jff  ^ffi.1  The  probable  Semitic  Babylo- 
nian pronunciation  is  kanihi  (compare  W.A.I.  V,  pi.  32, 
1.  19,  with  Haupt,  "  Keilschrifttexte,"  p.  72,  1.  38,  and 
W.A.I.  II.  pi.  4.  1.  42,  etc.),  and  means  "a  contract- 
tablet."  Kunukku,  from  the  same  root,  means  a  stone 
seal,  probably  a  cylinder. 

Iknuku,  Aorist  Kal  of  kanalu,  "  to  seal."  (For  other  forms 
of  this  verb,  see  p.  293.) 

1  The  Babylonian  £J^|  stands  both  for  £JTT  and  tCfl!!  in  Assyrian. 


House  Property,  and  the  Law  of  Inheritance.         289 

Reverse. 

1.  ^f  *^,  umu,  "day,"  perhaps  here  used  with  the  significa- 

tion of  "  when." 

ZZ$$  >^|<y,  gabri,  "copy,"  a  "duplicate";  an  Akkadian  loan- 
word, translated  by  the  Assyrian  mihru  (W.A.I.  V,  pt.  2). 

Kunuk,  const,  of  kunukku,  "  a  seal."  (See  the  note  to 
line  10.) 

Mahiri,  gen.    of  mahiru,   participle   Kal  of  mahdru,    "  to 
receive." 

•£-  t^f,  mimma,  "anything,"  "everything."  The  pronun- 
ciation hitherto  given  to  this  character  is  nin,  which 
it  was  supposed  to  have  on  account  of  the  sign  y 
(Assyr.  ^) — which  has,  when  used  to  express  the  word 
"  anything,"  the  pronunciation  of  nig  in  Akkadian — 
and  on  account  of  the  Assyrian  £-£].  Besides  the 
fact,  however,  that  the  Babylonian  equivalent  of  -£^y 
is  -J^"^,  it  is  also  to  be  noted  that  a  variant  of  -J^Ey, 
namely,  -£-  >^,  occurs,  and  that  the  old  Babylonian 
form  of  •£-  *0  appears  as  £»=  *~£Jf.  The  whole  is  cleared 
up,  however,  by  a  variant  in  the  fourth  tablet  of  the 
Creation  series,  where  <£:£  ^Jff  I"'  mi-im-me,  occurs 
for  •£-  {££.  in  the  phrase  adi  Id  dsi  mimme-sa.  The 
word  is  therefore  declined  like  any  ordinary  noun  : 
Nom.  mimmu,  Gen.  minimi,  Ace.  mimma. 

Riksu  (pi.  riksdte),  a  bond  or  contract.  (See  p.  296.)  Root, 
rakdsu,  "to  bind." 

2.  Ittanmaru,  Aor.  Itanaphal  (tertiary  form  of  Kal)  of  namdru, 

"to  shine,"  infinitive  (not  yet  found)  itanmuru.  It 
is  not  unlikely  that  this  form  signifies  "  to  appear," 
in  which  case  it  "would  be  better,  perhaps,  to  translate 
the  phrase  with  which  the  reverse  begins  as  follows : 
"  When  the  copy,  with  the  seal  of  the  receiver 
(whether  there  be  any  contract  for  that  house  in  the 
house  of  Daan-sum-iddin,  or  elsewhere)  appears,  it 
(the  house)  is  (the  property)  of  Ben-Hadad-natan  and 
Bunanitu." 


290  Babylonian  Legal  Documents  referring  to 

3.  Tddina-Marduk,  '•  Merodach  gave."     Nur-Sin,  "  light  of  the 

Moon-god." 

4.  Munafyhis-Mardvk,  "  the  benefited  by  Merodach." 

Itti-Mdrduh-balatu,   "with   Merodach  is  life."      Nabunnda, 
"  the  Nabunnite." 

5.  Nabu-nadin-dhi,  "  Nebo  has  given  a  brother.''      BU-iddina 

"  Bel  gave." 

Basia. 

6.  Igidu-zird-iddina,    "Merodach    gave   seed."     Esirda,  "the 

Esirite." 

7.  Kapti-ilani-Marduh,  "  the  honoured  of  the  gods  is  Merodach." 

Suhda,  "  the  Suhite." 

8.  Nabu-zird-esir,  "  Nebo  directed  seed." 

No.  2.     S.  +  ,233. 
7.  |g[  ^^1  &AR-RA,  in  Babylonian,  huLidlu,  evidently  the 
Hebrew   /in,  "pledge,"  here,  that  which  one  pledges 
one's-self  to  pay,  a  debt.      (See  W.A.I.  II,  plate  12, 
line  35,  etc.) 

Inamdinnu,  or,  perhaps,  better,  inddinnu  or  inddinu,  pres. 
Kal  of  naddnu,  "  to  give." 

Bihtu,  "  interest."    A  rather  frequent  word.    The  meaning 
is  gathered  from  the  context. 

10.  «<^  y^  >->f-,  evidently  to  be  read  drham,  yj  «->f-  having  the 
value  of  am,  or  drha-ma,  -ma  being  the  translation  ot 
ft  Hf-  (see  W.A.I.  V,  pi.  22, 1.  30).  Whichever  way  the 
particle  be  read,  however,  the  meaning  and  derivation 
are  the  same. 

Reverse. 

1.  E-zida-sum-epus,  "  (the  temple)  E-zida  made  a  name." 

2.  Nabu-sum-nasir,  "Nebo  protected  the  name."   La-kubburu 

(the  first  character  doubtful,  but  very  probable). 

3.  Nabu-dhi-bullit,  "  Nebo,  give  life  to  my  brother"!    Marduk- 

Sum-nasir,  "Merodach  protected  the  name." 


House  Property,  and  the  Law  of  Inheritance.         291 

4.  Ablda,  "  my  son." 

5.  Ukin-Marduk,  "  Merodach  established." 

In  writing  the  name  Borsippa,  the  scribe  has  written  the 
first  part  correctly,  but  in  inscribing  the  character  sip, 
has  written  the  first  part  of  S^'j+y  (namely,  ^z),  and 
then  added  to  it  the  sign  y»-,  leaving  out  the  other  four 
wedges  which  would  have  completed  the  character. 
]-,  however,  has  also  the  value  of  sip,  hence,  probably, 
the  mistake. 

No.  3.    Obverse. 

1.  £^  ^f  y\,  SA-KUD,  the  ordinary  ideograph  for  ddanu,  "a 

judge."  In  Akk;,  lit.  "the  decider,"  from  $\,  kud,  'to 
cut." 

f  •"t^Ttf  4Mff  IK>  NABU-IM-TUG,  a  very  usual  way  ol 
writing  the  name  Nabonidus.  The  group,  as  here 
written,  is  composed  of  >->f-  *-]*%*■  (in  Assyrian  »->f-  »-J~y), 
a  common  ideogram  for  the  god  Nebo,  and  -<^Jff  J^K  > 
evidently  another  form  of  <^>ff  ^|  (im-te)  =  puluhtu, 
"fear,"  "reverence."  Other  ways  of  writing  the 
name  are  \  ^X^\x\  j£  (see  the  variant,  line  10)  and 
|  ^y^y  *-^y  -^^  ^T-^y,  Nabu-na-'-id.  The  meaning 
of  the  name  is,  "Nebo  is  glorious."  Compare,  for  naid, 
the  Arabic  v^  ,  the  primary  signfication  of  which  seems 
to  have  been  "to  be  great,  beautiful." 

2.  -^  $$£.]  Jpf,    Tin-tir,    a    very    common    ideograph    for 

Babylon.      The  literal   meaning  is   "Life-seat"    (tin, 
"  life,"  TTR  or  TUR,  "  to  sit ") ;  in  Assyrian  Subat  balati, 
"  seat  of  life." 
£J^  ^,  takbi,  3rd  pers.  sing.,  fern,  of  fcebu,  "to  speak." 

3.  The  variants  Nikbata'  and  Nikmadu'  probably  arise  from 

bad  writing  of  the  original,  which  is  lost.  It  is  often 
very  difficult  to  distinguish  the  difference  between 
^y,  ma,  and  ^f,  ba  in  the  Babylonian  texts.  S^y,  du, 
and  J^y,  ta,  are  also  liable  to  be  mistaken  for  each 
other,  when  badlv  written. 


2'J'2  (Ionian  Legal  Documents  referring 

4.  *j-  Jt^y  >~^t  T»  Tr.  udunndrOy  the  accusative,  with  pos- 
-  saive  pronoun,  first  pers.  sing.,  of  nudunnu,  a  word 
formed  (like  kunukhi,  "stone  seal."  and  purwsQ, 
■■decision")  from  naddnu,  "to  give."  Other  words  for 
a  marriage  gift  or  possession  are  tirh.atu,  u:ubu} 

^TT^Y.  a  character  formed  from  the  two  signs  Y  ^T^T. 
by  placing  the  Y  within  the  larger  character.  (Compare 
>^-JI  for  y  i~lX,  ist-en.)  The  most  likely  reading  of 
*^TT^T  is  that  adopted  in  the  transcription,  tdit,  from 
edu,  i;one."  The  second  character  of  the  group  is  the 
phonetic  complement. 

6.  £5Y  yi  Xs  -''--'  ' :1'*u  •'  a  rather  difficult  expression.      The 

tablet  first  translated  (77-10-2.  2)  gives,  in  the  first 
line.  £5*  5~y  J^J=  J=f3  Litu  e-db-su,  an  unusual  style  of  re- 
presenting a  word.  used,  perhaps,  to  indicate  that  §bsu 
was  not  to  be  read  as  if  from  epesu,  "  to  make."  The 
variant  gives  ]k  J,  SlG-su,  the  ideograph  sig,  '"tobeiceak" 
and  the  phonetic  complement  of  ebsu,  which  must,  there- 
fore, have  this  meaning.  Compare  the  Hebrew  BD3?, 
•'  to  waste  away,  decay,"  of  seeds  when  in  the  ground, 
Chaldee  B?Q3?,  "to  rot."  Dr.  Oppert's  translation  of  this 
word  ("Documents  Juri cliques,"  p.  177),  "unfinished."'  is 
not  improbable.2 

7.  TJ  >M  >^ET  Ty.  a-Ku-Ia-a;  a  doubtful  word,  evidently  meaning 

"property."     Perhaps  borrowed  from  the  Akkadian. 

*EV  ^y  ^y.  nail  J,  "great"  (from  Akkadian). 

1E|EJ  jfc^Y  ^Pfj  Bar-sij'iki) ;  the  most  usual  way  of  indi- 
cating the  city  Borsippa.  This  name  is  often  spelled 
J{-  T-  ^Pf,  Barsip(ki),  and  sometimes  ^S-  Jjy  Y>_  ^j 
or  ^V  T-  ^M?  Bur-sip(ki),  whence,  evidently,  the 
form  Borsippa.  The  Sumerian  form  of  the  name  ifi 
^p|  fcfl  Vr  ttJ  ^Y  <r|t>  L>r,>-si-a-ab-la(ki). 

1  The  words  for  a  gift  (of  tribute,  &c.)   are  5i7/a,  mandattu  (from  na<fann), 
and  i^i>u  (from  the  Akk.  Cp-  ^»tz  igi-sa). 

:  In  the  1st  line  of  the  tablet  S  -  420.  the  word  is  spelled  with  the  characters 

Sir  Ir^  ^T-  *■*** 


House  Property,  and  the  Law  of  Inheritance.         293 

The  variant  |J  here  gives,  seemingly,  the  more  correct 
form.  The  meaning  of  ^  is  doubtful,  but  it  probably 
signifies  "  one-sixth." 

The  use  of  the  character  ^  for  |J  in  ^  ^f,  a-di,  is  here 
noteworthy. 

9.  Nishu,  evidently  "  transaction."  The  correctness  of  the 
reading  nishu,  and  not  nisri,  is  implied  by  the  tablet 
76-10-16.  20 :  Nishutwn  („fr^  ^f  >^f  ;r<£)  fa  Iddin- 
Marduk  u  Nabu-uMn.  Sussanu  mana  kaspi  Iddin- 
Marduk  nishutum  ina  arah  Tebitu,  sattu  "^y  ^\  nashu 
(>~t~]  ££>=  H^T)'  Sussanu  mana  kaspi  Nabu-uMn  nishu 
(»YY^  *^f  >f<y)  ina  arah  Tebitu  sattu  ^\  ^  nashu.  "  The 
business  of  Iddin-Marduk  and  Nabu-ukin.  Iddin- 
Marduk  has  done  business  (to  the  extent  of)  §  mana  of 
silver,  in  the  month  Tebet,  41st  year.  Nabu-ukin  has 
made  a  transaction  (to  the  extent  of),  §  mana  of  silver, 
in  the  month  Tebet,  41st  year." 

Nissdmma,  1st  pers.  plur.  Aor.  Kal  of  nasu,  "to  raise," 
"bring,"  with  enclitic  conjunction  ma.  The  doubling 
of  the  m  shows  that  the  foregoing  vowel  is  long. 

»YY^-  ^y^l  ^[  -^  *£\,  niddidin-ma,  for  nittidin-ma,  and 
this  again  for  nittadin  (nintadiri)-ma.  1st  pers.  plur. 
Aor.  (I.  2)  of  naddnu,  "  to  give."  This  is  an  example 
of  backward  assimilation. 

12.  ^fJfy^^J:  *0,  argumma,  1st  pers.  sing.  Aor.  Kal  of  ragdmu, 
"to  ask,"  "demand,"  "litigate,"  "make  a  noise."  (See 
the  Proceedings,  Feb.  6th,  1883,  pp.  72-73.)  The  value 
of  gum  for  $££  (Ass.  ^iz)  is  proved  by  a  variant,  which 
gives  £*  Z^-Z],  gu-um,  for  ££  (W.A.I.  V,  pt.  2). 

13-  Ji!^ */-  j&zE  *£] »  iknuk-ma,  "he  sealed  and,"  Aor.  Kal  of 
hanahi,  a  root  evidently  of  Akkadian  origin.  Compare 
W.A.I.  IV,  16,  line  59.  The  third  pers.  Permansive 
occurs  in  line  25,  in  the  form  of  £»^  "£^>  hangu, 
where  g  is  written  for  h  after  n,  as  in  £z<yy  ^f-*^  £^, 
is-kun-ga,  for  iskun-ka,  "he  established  thee."  (See  also 
page  288.) 


'294:  Babylonian  Legal  Documents  referring  tv 

14.  Ana  umu  sdtam,  lit.:  "  for  a  day  of  the  future."  ^  ^  ^ 
cau  hardly  be  read  zdtam  (Heb.  rflf),  as  this  would  be 
a  feminine  plural  form,  and  the  form  of  that  pronoun 

which  is  found  with  umu  is  zutu  (yy  ^y  y>*.»-  ^yy  tyyyt  ^y 

sane  time  zutu,  "  those  two  days  ").  The  feminine  plural 
of  umu  (iimatu)  is  extremely  rare. 

6^:  V*  ^IT^  tf*  usadgil-ma,  3rd  pers*  sing.  masc.  Aor. 
Shaphel  of  dagdlu,  "  to  look." 

tjffi  ^  J^fj  m&?£?7,  "he  caused  to  know."     Aor.  Shaphel  of 
mM,  "  to  know." 

16.  Jr<yy  ^f  ^^=<y  ^1  issCinimma-,  "they  have  taken,"  Aor.  Kal 

of  nasu,  with  termination  -ni,  and  enclitic  conjunction 
-ma.     (See  the  note  to  line  9;) 

17.  ^T^T  ^f  ill'     ittifu,   a   very  frequent   word,  probably 

meaning  "they  performed  or  transacted*"  from  the 
verb  eteru.  The  forms  innittir  (Niph.),  etir  (Aor.  or 
Perm.  Kal)  also  occur.  Probable  original  meaning 
"to  add,"  then  ''to  encompass,"  "transact."  (Com- 
pare W.A.I.  IV,  69,  60.)  Evidently  the  same  as  the 
Hebrew  "W. 

~      T 

18.  ».^-^  t^ffyy,  ir-rit,  a  word  of  doubtful  meaning,  evidently 

connected  with  drratu,  "  curse." 

20.  Ana  mdridu  nilkdmma,  "we  took  to  sonship  and." 
Nilkdmma  is  1st  pers.  plur.  Aor.  Kal  of  leku,  "  to  take," 
Heb.  J~\py,  with  the  enclitic  conjunction  -ma.  (See 
note  to  line  9.) 

22.  tfBfe  ^f  %t$i  MS,  "furniture"  (the  meaning  is  implied 
by  the  context).  Evidently  the  plural  of  a  word 
udu,  perhaps  connected  with  the  Heb.  rfT.  Rather 
frequent. 


House  Property,  and  the  Law  of  Inheritance.  295 

22.  £-  *^-  fc=  £^f  |{,  Nubtd  or  Nubta-a,  evidently  for  Nubtla, 

"  my  bee,'*  the  name  of  the  daughter  of  Bunanitu. 
Compare  the  Heb.  Deborah  (HTH"!). 

23.  ^  ^  ^f,    nusedi,    "we  made  known"    (}TP).      (&e  the 

note  to  line  14.) 

►^  £^f  ]},  muta-a,  "my  husband";  accusative  of  mutu, 
with  possessive  pronoun  of  the  1st  pers.  sing.  Compare 
the  Heb.  D^tt  ,  "men,"  Ethiopic  ^  \,  *?Ntpritt  = 
Ass.  mutu-sa-ili,  "man  of  god."  This  form  of  the 
name,  with  sa,  "  of,"  following  the  nominative,  has  not 
been  found.  The  name,  as  it  appears  in  the  early 
Babylonian  case-tablets,  is  ]  >^-  *]  >->{-,  Mut-ili,  the 
construct  case  followed  by  the  genitive. 

Inanna,  "  therefore."  Compare,  for  this  word,  W.A.I.  II, 
pi.  25,  1.  18  ab.      Evidently  composed  of  ina  and  anna 

("by  this"). 

24.  |  y^  ^~y  ^  >->y-,  Akdbi-Ilu,  evidently  the  Aphel  of  a  verb 

kdbu  with  tin,  "god."  ("God  spoke"?)  Verbs  weak 
of  the  middle  radical  seem  to  be  the  only  ones 
having  the  Aphel  conjugation  (atdbu,  from  tabu,  "  to 
be  good,"  ardmu,  from  rdmu  "  to  love,"  andhu,  from 
ndhu,  "to  rest." 

£*>  ^l\  {tZ-  ^fy*  emia,  "my  brother-in-law,"  from  emu, 
a  relation  by  marriage. 

£^y,  mimma,  "  everything."     (See  p.  289.) 

25.  s:j^  "J*-^?  hangu.     (See  the  note  to  line  13.) 

%]  ^y  £-*•  ^y,  svdgulu,  "he  intrusted";  3rd  pers.  sing, 
masc.  Sliaphel  of  dagdlu,  "  to  look." 

y  ^y^y^y  **^  >->f-  -<«,  Nabu-nur-Sin,  evidently  a  mistake  for 
y  ^y^y^y  ^  »->f-,  Nabu-nur-ili,  "Nebo,  light  of  god." 
The  -<«,  however,  may  be  a  defectively  written  f-<«> 
in  which  case  we  must  read  Nabu-nur-ildni,  "Nebo, 
light  of  the  gods."     (See  Reverse,  line  5.) 


296  Babylonian  Legal  Documents  referring  to 

26.  »yy-^  \\>~  "rEf,    1st    pers.   plur.   Aor.   Kal   of    dbdku,   the 

meaning  of  which  seems  to  be  "  to  acquire."  Hence 
(ibkatu,  seemingly  "title-deed,"  in  the  tablet  of  legal 
precedents. 

27.  i3p  \]  ^fX.  Smi=  ^HH7  ^K   Palr(ri   usabsi  (with  ma  eft, 

»ia  muhhi,  or  ana  muhhi),  "  to  lodge  a  claim  (upon)." 
Compare  the  phrase,  "A  man  who  sold  slaves  for 
money,  and  pakaru  ina  muhhi  ibsu,  had  a  claim  upon 
(them) "  (tablet  of  legal  precedents),  and  ina  iXmu 
pahari  ana  muhhi  Xaitd-Bdbili-sininni,  dmat  mutim,  ittabsu. 
"when  a  claim  is  made  upon  Nana-Babili-sininni,  the 
servant  of  the  men."  ("  Proceedings,"  Vol.  V,  p.  304.) 
Usabsi  is  Permansive  Shaphel  of  basu,  "  to  be,"  also 
"  to  have." 


Reverse. 

1.  Ublas,  "I  have  brought  it,"  is  for  ubla-su.     Ubla,  Aor.  Kal 

from  abalu,  "  to  bring."     ( ~Q1  •) 

-«(  >f-,  es-bar,  for  «-  >^-,  as-bar,  an  Akkadian  word,  of 
which  the  Semitic  equivalent  is  purussu,  "  decision," 
from  pardsu.   (For  the  form,  compare  nudunnu, "dowry," 

kunukku,  "  seal,"  etc.) 

yj  >yy~--,  -ani,  vowel-lengthening  and  pronoun  of  the 
3rd  pers.  sing,  (in  Akkadian) ;  in  Babylonian  -su. 

^y  >-^~],  sukna,  imperative  plural  Kal  of  sakdnu,  "to 
make." 

2.  *J£f  ^  I  */-,  dibbi-sunu,  "  their  words."     Dibbu,  noun  from 

dabdbu,  "to  speak."     The  plural  pronoun  is  difficult  to 
understand. 
Riksdtu,  plural  of  riksu,  from  rakdsu,  "  to  bind." 

3.  Tubla,  3rd  pers.  fern.  Aor.  Kal  of  abdlu.     (See  line  1.) 


House  Property,  and  the  Law  of  Inheritance.  297 

Istassu-ma,  3rd  pers.  plur.  maso.  Aor.  Ipliteal  of  msu, 
"  to  speak."  It  is  from  the  Ipbtaal  (III,  2)  of  this  root, 
evidently,  that  the  word  sitassil,  "  consideration,"  in  the 
phrase  ana  tdmarti  sitassta,  "  for  my  seeing  and  con- 
sidering," comes.  Flemming,  in  his  dissertation  upon 
the  India  House  Inscription  of  Nebuchadnezzar  II, 
translates  it  by  "  reading." 

6.  Isdmu,  3rd  pers.  plur.  masc.  Aor.  Kal  of  sdmu,  "  to  give  a 

price,"  borrowed  from  the  Akkadian  sam,  "  price." 

7.  tjfj^  «^pf  ^y  sffif:,  usarsu  (with  eli),  "they  caused  to  have 

power  over,"  that  is,  "  gave  up  to,"  Aor.  Shaphel  of 
rasa,  "to  have."     (Compare  Chald.  NUT}.) 

8.  J^<y  >-<  ^yy,    uszissu,   probably   for    J^<y  >~<  ^yy,    uszizzu, 

Shaphel  of  zdzu  or  zdazu,  "to  hand  over,"  "distribute." 

10.  Ipenni,  a  difficult  word,  pres.  Kal  of  penu*  (root  H2D,  or, 

better  still,  2J2B)  evidently  to  look  upon  ivith  favour, 
a  meaning  to  which  that  of  the  Arabic  ^Jj  best 
agrees. 

Imllim,  3rd  pers.  sing.,  pres.  Kal  of  saldmu,  here,  evidently 
to  acknowledge  (the  receipt  of),  or,  simply  to  receive,  in 
which  case  the  words  manma  id  isall'ima  ina  muhhi 
[_Gumdtu  agasu  Magusu~\  (Behistun,  line  21)  might  be 
translated :  "  Nobody  received  anything  concerning 
this  Gomates  the  Magian "  (had  an  opinion  for  or 
against). 

11.  AM,  evidently  "besides,"  from  dhu,  "side." 

^<  >^y,  6A-LA,  an  Akkadian  word,  in  Assyrian,  zittu.  (See 
the  note  to  77-10-2.  2,  Obv.,  1.  8.) 

14.  •<«  Jp,  jmrussii,  "  decision."    (See  the  note  to  the  first  line 
of  the  Reverse.) 

Dini,  gen.  of  dinu,  "judgment,"  from  ddnu,  "to  judge." 


298  Babylonian  Legal  Documents,  fyc. 

15.  Nergal-banunu,  u  Nergal  our  begetter." 

^>  *^|>-  >y^>  (amclu),  kal-du,  the  Chaldean,  here  the 
name  rather  of  a  class  of  people  (astrologers)  than  of 
a  tribe  or  nationality.  Spelled  also  ^=  ^  t^f  Kal-du 
and  ^>  3^T^T  ^lij  ^!'  Ka-al-du. 

16-22.  The  meanings  of  the  other  names  of  judges  and  scribes 
are:  Nabii-aki-iddin,  "Nebo  has  given  brothers";  Nabw- 
sum-uMn,  "Nebo  has  established  a  name  " ;  Bel-ahi-iddin, 
"Bel  has  given  brothers;"  Bel-edir,  "Bel  protects"; 
Nabu-balat-su-ihbi,  "  Nebo  commanded  his  life  "  (com- 
manded that  he  should  live)  ;  Nadinu,  "  giving "  or 
"giver"  ;  Aabti-sum-iskun,  "Nebo  made  his  name." 


TRANSACTIONS 


iOCIETY  of  BIBLICAL    ARCHAEOLOGY. 


Vol.  VIII.  JANUARY,   1885.  Part  3. 

NOTES    ON    EGYPTIAN    STEL.E,    PRINCIPALLY    OF 
THE  EIGHTEENTH  DYNASTY. 

By  E.  A.  W.  Budge,  M.A. 

Read  4th  November,  1884. 

THE  custom  of  the  ancient  Egyptians  of  erecting  sepul- 
chral stelse  in  honour  of  their  deceased  kings,  nobles,  persons 
of  rank,  relatives,  and  friends,  has  proved  a  most  valuable 
aid  to  the  modern  student  of  the  Egyptian  language.  It  has 
enabled  him  to  learn  much  of  the  social  life  of  the  Egyptian 
which  would  otherwise  have  passed  away  in  oblivion  and 
forgetfulness.1  Though  perfectly  true  that  the  formulae  are 
much  the  same  in  many  of  their  monumental  tablets,  still 
it  is  equally  true  that  something  may  be  learned  from  each 
and  every  one,  either  about  the  religion,  or  life,  or  deeds  of 
the  ancient  Egyptians.  This  is  my  apology  for  the  few  notes 
which  I  have  put  together  in  this  paper  on  the  sepulchral 
tablets  of  Ne^t-Ames,  Thothmes,  Rema,  and  Ames-mes. 
Before  going  farther,  however,  I  am  bound  to  express  my 
gratitude  to  Dr.  Birch  and  Mr.  Le  Page  Renouf  for  their 
generous  assistance  so  freely  rendered  to  me  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  this  paper,  and  to  offer  them  my  sincerest  thanks. 

1  See  Dr.  Birch's  account  of  the  characteristics  of  the  tablets  in  various 
dynasties,  in  Trans.  Soc.  Bill.  Arch.,  Vol.  VIII,  pp.  144  and  145. 

Vol.  VIII.  20 


300  Notes  0)1  Egyptian   Stelce, 

The  first  three  stelae  belong  to  the  XVIIIth.  and  the  last 
to  the  XlXth  dynasty.  Of  Ne^t-Ames  we  have  two  stela? : 
one  is  preserved  at  Berlin,1  and  is  dated  in  the  fourth  year 
of  the  reign  of  Ai,  while  the  other  stands  in  the  Museum 
of  the  Louvre.2  The  date  of  this  latter  is  effaced.  Each 
of  the  tablets  of  Xe%t-Ames  is  rounded  at  the  top,  and 
two  pedestals  are  represented  on  each,  with  Anubis  upon 
them.  They  face  each  other,  and  over  each  is  an  ut'at; 
above  the  head  of  each  are  \Jf  ^^  5bg=£  ap  aat,  "  opener 
of  the  roads.""  At  the  back  of  Anubis,  on  the  right,  are 
j/^Z7?  ^ J|  ^^  "north,  lord  of  Abydos,"  and  the  signs 
for  "altar  of  incense."  The  same  signs  are  repeated  on  the 
left  side,  save  that  -=4-°   '•south/'  takes  the  place  of  w\     The 

stelae  of  Xe^t-Ames  were  made  in  the  reign  of  Ai,  towards 
the  close  of  the  XVIIIth  dynasty.  In  one  tablet  Ne^t-Amea 
says  that  he  was  the  "  superintendent  of  works  in  the  temple 
of  Ai,  prince  and  first  prophet  of  Ames  and  Isis."  In  the  other 
he  is  called  "  superintendent  of  the  double  storehouse  of  all 
the  gods  in  Takahti  and  the  god  Ames  in  Xenti " ;  also 
"  first  prophet  of  Ames  and  Isis  in  Apu "  (Panopolis).  It 
is  clear  that  he  was  a  man  of  the  highest  rank  under  king 
Ai,3  and  the  inscription  represents  him  as  holding  some  of  the 
highest  positions  in  the  land.  In  each  stele  the  prenomen 
and  name  of  the  king  have  been  erased.  According  to 
Brugsch,4  Ai  was  the  husband  of  Tii.  the  nurse  of  king 
^uenaten.  He  was  raised  from  dignity  to  dignity,  becoming 
"  master  of  the  horse,"  and  '•  royal  scribe."  He  was  a  follower 
of  the  cult  of  Amen,  and  appears  to  have  been  a  priest  in  the 
temple  of  this  god  before  he  was  raised  to  the  throne.5  He 
honoured  the  priests  of  the  god  in  a  distinguished  manner. 

1  For  the  text  see  Lepsius,  DenJcmdler,  iii,  111  i ,■  it  was  partly  translated  by 
Brugsch  in  the  "  Deutsche  Eevue,"  vii,  p.  73. 

-  For  the  text  compare  Prisse,  "  Monuments,"  pi.  17,  and  Sharpe,  "  Egyptian 
Inscriptions,"  pi.  106. 

3  Among  many  other  high  offices,  he  held  the  post  of  "fan-bearer  to  king  Ai." 
Birch,  "History  of  Egypt,"  p.  111. 

4  "  Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs/'  Vol.  I,  p.  461. 

:  Wiedemann,  "  Aegyptisehe  Geschichte,"  p.  104.  et  seq. 


principally  of  the   Eighteenth  Dynasty.  .">0l 

and  his  wars  north  and  south  must  have  added  many  sub- 
stantial victories  to  Egypt.  The  prince  of  Cush,  Pa-ur,  sent 
him  presents  as  a  mark  of  his  (Ai's)  supremacy,  and  he  is 
represented  on  the  walls  of  the  rock  grottoes  at  Shataui  with 
this  prince  at  his  side  praying  to  various  gods.1  The  "  godly 
father  "  Ai  prepared  for  himself  a  tomb  in  the  Biban-el-Moluk, 
to  the  west  of  Thebes,  in  the  mountains.  His  tomb,  and  the 
granite  sarcophagus  in  it,  have  been  preserved  to  this  day. 
The  following  are  rather  free  renderings  of  the  inscriptions 
of  Ne^t-Ames :  those  printed  under  the  text  are  more  literal : — 

No.  I. 
Prisse,  "Monuments  Egyptians,"  Plate  17. 

Translation. 

1.  Dated  the  1st  day  of  the month  of  the  spring  of 

the year  of  the  Majesty  of  Har  Ea,  the  powerful 

bull,  the  saffron  diademed,  the  lord  of  the  two  crowns, 
the  supremely  mighty,  the  destroyer  of  the  Asiatics, 
the  golden  hawk,  the  creator  of  the  two  earths; 

2.  king   of  the   north  and  south,   chief  of  the  nine  bows. 

Ra-^eperu-ari-mat,  son  of  the  Sun,  proceeding  from 
his  belly,  lord  of  diadems,  godly  father  Ai,  god,  ruler 
of  Uast,  Osiris,  lord  of  Abyclos  beloved,  giving  life. 

3.  May south  and  north,  and  Anubis  upon  his  hill 

grant  to  me  glory  in  heaven,  power  upon  earth,  and 
triumph  in  ^er-neter.  May  they  grant  that  I  go  in  and 
come  forth  from  my  tomb, 

4.  that  my  majesty  refresh  its    shade,  that  I  drink  water 

from  my  cistern  every  day,  that  all  my  limbs  be  solid, 
that  the  Nile 

5.  give  me  bread  and  flowers  of  every  kind  at  the  season, 

that  I  pass  over  the  length  of  my  land  every  day 
without  ceasing,  and  that  my  soul 

6.  may  light  upon  the  branches  of  the  trees  which  1  have 

planted.  May  I  refresh  my  face  beneath  my  sycamores, 
may  I  eat  bread  of  their  giving, 

1  Lepsius,  Denkmaler,  iii,  114  e-h. 


302  Note*  on  Egyptian   Stehe, 

7.  may  I  have  niy  mouth  wherewith  I  may  speak  like  the 
followers  of  Horus,  may  I  come  forth  to  heaven,  may 
I  descend  to  earth,  may  I  be  not  shut  out  upon 

v.  the  road,  may  there  not  be  done  to  me  what  my  ka 
execrates,  may  my  soul  never  be  captive,  may  I  be  in 
the  midst  of  the  obedient,  among  the  faithful. 

9.  May  I  plough  my  fields  in  Se^et-Aaru,  may  I  attain  the 
••  Field  of  Peace."  may  one  come  out  to  me  with  jugs 
of  beer  and  cakes, 

10.  the  cakes  of  the  lords  of  eternity,  may  I  receive  my 

slices  from  the  joint  upon  the  table  of  the  great  god ;  I 
the  ka  of  Xe^t-Ames,  first  prophet  of  the  god  Ames. 

11.  He  says  :    I  have  done  the  behests  of  men  and  the  will  of 

the  gods,  wherefore  I  have  given  bread  to  the  hungry, 
and  I  have  satisfied  the  indigent.     I  have  followed 

12.  the    god   in   his    temple,    my    mouth   hath    not    spoken 

insolently  against  my  superior  officers,  there  hath  been 
no  haughtiness  in  my  step,  but  I  have  walked 
measuredly1  (gradatim),  I  have  performed  the  law 
beloved  by  the  king. 

13.  I  miderstood  his  commands,  in  my  place  I  watched  to 

exalt  his  j  ^qs  [.  I  rose  up  for  his  worship  every  day, 
I  gave  my  mind  to  what 

14.  he  said  without  ever  hesitating  at  what  he   determined 

with  reference  to  me.  I  took  uprightness  and  fairness, 
I  understood  the  things  about  which  I  should  keep 
silence. 

15.  The  lord  my  king  refreshed  and  favoured  me  for  my  well 

doing,  he  saw  that  my  hands  were  vigorous  through 
my  heart,  he  advanced  my  seat  exceedingly,  he  placed 
me  in  the  council  chamber,  me, 

16.  the  ka  of  Xe^t-Ames.  triumphant,  the  superintendent  of 

the  prophets  of  the  lords  of  Apu.  Says  he  :  0  ye 
living  upon  earth,  living  for  eternity,  enduring  for  e\  er. 
ye  priests 

As  to  the  abhorrence  with  which  Orient;ils  looked  upon  a  haughty  walk,  see 
Isaiah  iii,  16    !  rOD3B?l  DiJ^nW  f^>B  T'^\  T"v '">'  r:z 


principally  of  the  Eighteenth   Dynasty.  303 

17.  and    ministrants  of  Osiris,  everyone  learned    in  divine 

traditions ;  when  ye  enter  ray  sepulehre  and  pass 
through  it,  do  ye  utter  your  prayers  by  my  tablet,  and 
do  ye  proclaim  my  name  without  cessation  in 

18.  the  presence  of  the  lords  of  law.     So  may  your  gods 

favour  you,  and  may  ye  transfer  your  dignities  to  your 
children  after  a  full  old  age,  provided  that  ye  say, 

19.  "  May  Osiris  grant  a  royal  oblation  to  Ne^t-Ames,  lord  of 

fidelity,  superintendent  of  works  in  the  temple  of  Ai» 
prince  and  first  prophet  of  Ames  and  Isis.  May  his 
memorial  abide  in  the  seat  of  eternity." 

No.  II. 
Lepsius,  "  Dexkmaler,"  Ab.  hi,  114  i. 

Translation. 

1 .  Dated  the  first  day  of  the  fourth  month  of  the  spring,  in 

the  fourth  year  of  the  Majesty  of  Har  Ra,  the  powerful 
bull,  the  saffron  diademed,  the  lord  of  the  two  crowns, 
the  supremely  mighty,  the  destroyer  of  the  Asiatics. 
the  golden  hawk,  the  just  ruler,  the  creator  of  the  two 
earths. 

2.  the  king  of  the  north  and  south,  the  chief  of  the   nine 

bows,  lord  of  the  two  earths,  Ra-^eperu-ari-mat,  son  of 
the  Sun,  proceeding  from  his  belly,  beloved  by  him ; 
lord  of  diadems,  the  godly  father  Ai,  god,  lord  of  Uast, 
Osiris  lord  of  Tasert,  beloved,  life  giving. 

3.  May  Amen  Ra,  lord  of  the  thrones  of  the  two  earths, 

Ptah  Socharis,  Osiris,  Un-nefer,  lord  of  Rustau,  grant  a 
royal  oblation.  May  they  grant  sepulchral  meals,  oxen, 
ducks,  and  linen  bandages,  thousands  of  all  good  and 
pure  things,  thousands  of  all  sweet 

4.  and  choice  things,  the  gifts  of  heaven,  and  the  products 

of  the  earth,  wrhich  Nile  brings  forth  from  his  caverns. 
May  they  grant  the  breathing  of  the  delightful  breezes 
of  the  north  wind, 

5.  the  eating  of  bread,  the   gathering   of  flowers,  and  the 

receiving  of  food  in  felicity  from  the  produce  of  the 
Se^et  Aaru.     May  I  walk 


304  Notes  on  Egyptian  Stelce, 

ft.  over  the  everlasting  road  of  the  genii,  the  spirits  and  the 
noble  ones,  making  whatsoever  transformations  I 
please  among  the  followers  of  Un-nefer  and  the  going 
in  and  coming  forth  from  ^ar-neter. 

7.  May  my  soul  he  not  turned  back  when  it  wishes  to  come 

forth,  may  it  come  forth  as  a  living  soul,  may  it  drink 
water  drawn  from  the  depths  of  the  river,  may  it 
receive 

8.  the  cakes  of  the  lord  of  eternity,  may  it  come  into  the 

presence  every  day,  on  the  festival  of  the  new  moon,  on 
the  festival  of  the  month,  on  the  festival  of  the  sixth 
day,  on  the  festival  of  the  half  month,  on  the  festival 
of  Uaka,  on  the  festival  of  Thoth, 

9.  on  the  festival  of  the  rising  of  Ames,  on  the  festival  of 

the  rising  of  Sothis,  on  the  festival  of  the  great  heat, 
on  the  festival  of  the  little  heat,  on  the  festival  of 
the  altar,  on  the  festival  of  the  receiving  of  Nile 
water,  and  all  festivals  of  Osiris  at  the  beginning  of 
the  seasons 

10.  of  the  lord  of  the  gods.     Adoration  to  Rii  when  he  shines, 

who  is  worshipped  when  he  sets  in  the  land  of  Life, 
breathing  the  air  coming  from  the  horizon;  the  full 
breeze  of  the  north  wind  coming 

11.  upon  both  sides  when  his  name  is  proclaimed.     Let  his 

two  hands  be  put  down  upon  oblations,  provisions,  and 
sepulchral  offerings  when  he  is  invoked,  may  water  be 
received  by  the  hands  of  the  ka  minister. 

12.  Let  him  have  possession  of  bread,  let  him  have  possession 

of  beer  upon  whichever  table  his  ka  pleases,  let  him  eat 
bread  upon  the  altar  of  Neb-er-t'ra,  and  upon  the  table 
of  the  lords  of  eternity. 

13.  May  pure   food   be   given   to    him   from   the   bread  of 

Un-nefer,  may  he  go  along  in  the  boat  of  ^ar-neter  to 
the  lands  of 

14.  the  Se^et  Aaru,  may  he  open  up  the  roads,  may  he  open 

up  the  ways,  may  he  follow  Socharis  in  Rustau  without 
being  turned  back 

15.  at  the  door  of  the  Tiiat,  ma}-  he  take  his  fill  of  wine  and 

milk  there,    may   he   receive  ointment,  unguent  and 


pi'incipally  of  the   Eighteenth   Dynasty.  305 

stibium  which  rejoice  the  heart,  may  he  receive 
clothing  and 

16.  linen  bandages,  he,  the  ha  of  Ne^t-Ames,  triumphant,  the 

superintendent  of  the  double  storehouse  of  all  the  gods 
in  Takahti  and  the  god  Ames  of  %enti,  and  first 
prophet  of  Ames  and  Isis  in  Apu,  who  gives 

17.  divine  oblations  to  the  gods,  and  sepulchral  meals  to  the 

spirits  in  the  presence  of  A.U.S.,1  king  of  the  north 
and  the  south,  Ra-Yeperu-ari-mat  A.U.S.,  may  he  be 
established  and  made  to  increase  like  the 

18.  heavens,  and  may  he  be  renewed  like  the  god  Ames,2  pray- 

ing all  the  gods  that  lie  the  actual  suten  re-%  Ne^t-Ames 
may  enjoy  health  for  millions  of  years.  He  says : 
0  ye  gods  who  are  in  heaven,  0  ye  gods  who  are  on 

19.  earth,  0  ye  gods  who  are  in  the  Tuat  carrying  along  Ra 

and  conveying  the  good  god  to  the  western  horizon  of 
heaven,  may  my  words  be  carried  to  you 

20.  as  the  prayers  of  a  servant  to  his  lord,  may  I  who  am 

agreeable  to  the  sovereign,  the  king  upon  earth,  be 
favoured.  May  Osiris  grant  that  I  may  rest  in  my 
eternal  seat,  and  that  I  may  join 


1  an\  ut'a  snab. 

3  The  god's  name  usually  written  ^rc—  is  here  spelt  out  phonetically. 


306 


Notes  on  Egyptian   Steles, 


Xo.  I. 
Prisse,  "Monuments  Egyptiexs,"  Plate  17. 

O 


Q 


WVWW 


k? 


r  en  pit 
year 


sat    hra  I      ^er      hen      en      Her  Ra 
day  one  of  the  majesty  of     Har    Ra 


^ 


U=/l 


Q 


1] 


ka  neXt         tehent  ^au       %erP  P^peh 

,    77                    ,  ,  ,.    t        (lord  of  two]     .supremely 

bull        powerful  of  saffron  diadems  I          •'          >         •  i* 

r         j        j      m  y      crowns     J        mighty 

<=>                               ^    ^  ^                               \   A                        \fi 

ter                       Sati  Her  nub                heq             mat 

destroyer    of  the  Asiatics  hawk  golden         ruler    of  justice 


*     * 


I  I  I 
i  i  i 
i  i  i 


s  -  %eper       taiu 


suten  net        heq      petet         ix 


creator  of  the  two  earths    f     km  a  of  the     )   7  .  .    .  7     7 

•'  <       jTl    Jj       ,7  rc/net  of  the  bows  nine 

{north  and  south)        J    J 


(• 


\'-  <2^ 


Q  MAAW 


Ra-^eperu-ari-mat.  se     Ra      en        ^at  -     ef         neb 

Rd-^/epe/u-ori-i/iilt,       son  of  the  Sun    of    belly    his     lord  of 


i  i  i 


Oil  a  MIT 


-fca. 


9  ^  n 


J 


%au        nutar  atf  Ai  nutar  hek  Uast  Asar      neb        Abtu 

diadems  divine  father  Ai  god  ruler  of  Uast   Osiris  lord  of  Abydo* 


111 


f  \T\W 


meri      ta  an^ 
beloved  giving  lift . 


resu   meht      Anpu 
south    north      Anubis 


Erased  on  the  tablet. 


a 


principally  of  the   Eighteenth   Dynasty. 


307 


0=3  a     n 

www  ^^E^  ©   ^1       '                                           I     / 

^=--           i  i  i  Jj        U            t=i     I  I              i 

htep          tu-f        tii-sen  ^u         em     pet      usr    em       ta 

upon  hill  his  may  give  they  glory        in  heaven  power  in  earth 


\k 


J\      zv^ 


\W^k  4 


1 1 

as  -  a  qeb 


ma^eru    em    ^er-neter  pert      ak         er 

triumph  in  %er-neter  going  in  coming  forth  to  tomb  my,  may  refresh 


ben  -  a  6uit  -  ef 

majesty    my    shade    its. 


c  O  i 


p^H 


AAAAAA 
AAAAAA 
AAAAAA 


AAAAAA 

MMW 
AAAAAA 


sura  -  a 


mau      em 


?na?/    drink    1      water     from 


A 0 


rut  at  -  a        neb 


ta-na 


6e  -  a      bru     neb 
tank-my   day  every,       may  he  solid  limbs  my      all,    may  give  me 

5.    <=>^>^=       ^flflo^      ,_, 


]  —  t: 

AAAAAA 

AAAAAA 
AAAAAA 


AAAAAA 

D 


n    i  ssss  r-^-.  1 1 1  qDq         u    n  in 

Hapi  ta     hotepet  renpit  neb 

iV«7g  bread  flowers  all 


0 


7^        i 


O 
I 


i       i       ^>     li 

tra  -  s  sunt  ber      ma     nu        ta  -  a      hru     neb 

at    season    its,    passing    over    length    of    land   my    day     every 


an       abu  %ern 


6.   $ 


(M, 


ba-a  her       apnu 

tvithout  ceasing,  that  may  alight  soul    my  upon  the  brandies 


P      MJ 


ffl 


0  d^i 

i  ODD 

nu         men         ar-na-es  seqebeb  -  a         hra  %eru 

of  the  trees  made  have  I  it       may   refresh  I  face  (my)   beneath 


1  Brugsch,  "fruit."    But  see 
of  Unas,  line  558. 

2  Prisse,  In  . 


P  ^  J  and   C3TD  (\\^  Pyramid 


308 


Notes  on   Egyptian   Stelce, 


AAA/WV 

ra 


0 


nehat -  a 
sycamores    my, 


f\     .C\  /WWV 


\ 


»yii  0           0  /WVW\ 

211  ill  A fl  I     ill 

am -a                  ta  en  tata-sen 

may  eat  I  bread  of  giving  their, 


au-na  re -a  t'etiu-a  am  -  f         ma 

let  there  be  to   me  mouth    my    that    may   speak    I   with    it    like 


i  i  i 

sesu 


D 


ra 


_M?  J\     211 

Her  per  -  a  er  pet  ha  -  a 

followers  of  Horns,  may  come  forth  I  to  heaven,  may  come  down  I 


AM/W\ 
*A/W\A  —       -  fl 


£  21         I 

er  ta         an  s'enatu-a       her 

fo    earth,    not    may    be    shut   out    T   upon 


8.    ^^     ju 

o    i 

uat       an 
the  road,  not  let 


<Os- 


h 


O      a      M     I  I         £—1  AA/NAAA       1     O.       (£ 

aru  sentet         ka  -  a       an  ^enatu  ba  -  a 

6#  rfone  u;/ia2  execrates  genius  my,   not  let  be  captive   soul  my% 


AA/VVNA 
AAAAAA 


*1T.  m 

qab  hesi 


& 


em  qaD  nesi         emma        am^iu 

let  be  me     in    the   midst   of  the   obedient    among   the  faithful, 


9.    (llJ"^ 
seka  -  a 


\>  i   211  ^"i  1  _ft£&  £  © 

ahet  -  a  em  Se^et  -  Aaru 

may  plough  I        fields        my  in  Seyet- Aaru, 


^r 


oDo 


\ 


m 


j\  ^ 


vnum^at  se^et  hotepet       pertu-na  %ev  tes 

may  attain  I  the  "  Field  of  Peace"  let  one  come  out  to  me  with  /";/• 


principally  of  the  Eighteenth   Dynasty,  309 

■ 1   iwww  gl  — m —   Q Q    r\     v >    o       o 

„       I  I  I  J5^    02     in       I       mi     A     A        D 

pasen  em        sennu     nil  nebu  heh        sesVp  -  ;'i 

and  cakes,  toitli  the  cakes  of  lords  of  eternity,  may  receive  I 


]J,?,f  <=  Ik -WW  T  ^T 


I    S    I 
X 

6ebu  -  a  em  ur       en  aufn         her       j^aut 

slices    my  from    the    joint  upon  the  tables 


A      ;  /WWV\         |_J         /WWW  U  \|  /WWW  \     ^ — ■ 

ent    nutar    aa       en    ka     en    nntar   hen   htep    en      Ames 
of  the  god  great,    to    the    ka    of   prophet   first    of    Ames, 

Ne^t-Ames  t'et-f  an        arna       hesest       ret 

Neyt-Ames.  Says  he :  done  have  I  behests  of  men  and 

^T  Ti  iP  ^W^1  T*  tt  —  IJL^* 

hereret  nntarn  heres    an       ta  -  na         ta       en  heqr 

the  will  of  the  gods  ;  ivherefore  given  have  I  bread  to  the  hungry, 


yy                        n          !\  -f\          ^  n        www  «j\                  l — i  i 

G&tf     ■*■   \\    \h  ,  12-^^=^ 

sesau  -  na          atet       an        ses  -  na  nntar  em   pa-f 

satiated  have  I  the  indigent,  followed  have  T  god  in  house  Ins 

9. 

an           aa             re  -  a            em  £enit                   an 
not  hath  magnified  mouth   nig  against  superior  officers,      not    is 


J\   ,e  -o      €> 


J\ 


pet      em      nemt-a  sem-a        her     sa  XeT)t 

there  stretch  in  stmde  my,       walk  I    according  to      measure. 


310  Notes  on   Egyptian   Steles, 


ft^/^AA 


\ 


In 
6. 


^AAAAA  O  [(51  Si 

ar-na         ern       mat        mer      en      suten  re^-kua 

done  have  I       law  beloved    by  the  kino,  knew    I 

entet         utu-nef  set  res-na        her     ast  -  a      er 

what      command*      he      it,  watched     I     at     seat    my    to 

seqa         baiu-f     tua-na      er      tua-f     hru    neb     er  ta-na 
exalt  souls  his,         rose  1  for  worship  his  day    every,    gave   J 

I   Si       'l'^  II  "    ^(  ^^"      ~A~      Q   II   £i  I 

ab-a       %enti  t'et-f  an  niahi  her 

/i^art    my    to    ?*•/<< //  says    he   without    hesitating    at    ivhat 


sa     -  nef  ^er  -  a        tet  -  na  metrit  (?)  hna 

determined  he\  •  >  took  I  uprightness  and 

l        to  me.       j  *     i 


(c==a 


metit       peh-na  enen       her    kar-a  qebeb 

fairness,     arrived  I  at    what    was  for  silence,  refreshingt 

x  n         -a.    n  ,5,£       ^       d^i  O  .2         -o>-  " — 

2 [i — ^ q    ^'fflf    ,    _,$    _>*_ 

hesna-ua  neb- a  her      men^-a         maa-nef 

favoured   me  lord  the  king  my,  for  beneficence  my,  saw  he  that 

*        ■=*       a —     ^$     n  rfTh     && 

<=±£=  I    \£  1  I    Si  I   a  III  ^  Si 

rut  aa  -  a  an  ab  -  a  se^enti        ast  -  a 

vigorous    were    hands  my  through  heart  mv,  advancing   seat  rwj 

1   Prisse   V y  :  Brugsch,  "  without  astonishment  " 


principally  of  the  Eighteenth   Dynasty. 


311 


U 


aker  [?J  ta-nef-ua        em        sahi  en     ka 

exceedingly,    i  waceej  r    ^  m#  in  council  chamber,  the  genius 


■WWVA  |  U       I  /www  M    Q      v\ 

en  mer  nutar       henu        en     nebu  Apu 

of  the  superintendent    of  the  prophets    of  the    lords    of  Apu 


u 


1  Jr ■  i     mi     i   \> 


Ne^t-Ames    ma^eru       t'et-f  a        an^iu    hotepiu    ta 

Neyt-Ames    triumphant.     Says  lie    0  ye  living  ones  upon  earth 


/wvw\ 
/www 


1     £L 

!    T 


unniu         an^      er        en        heh     hentra   t'et         abu 
ivho    are    living    for    eternity,   enduring  for  ever  priests  and 


17.      &     i 

^7    I 


0 


^er-hebu   nu     Asar       sesa     neb       em      nutaru      tettu 
rninistrants  of  Osiris,  learned  one  every   in  divine  traditions 


MO 


I    I    I 


A  J\       Ml 

aq  -  sen  er  asa  -  a  ua  -  sen  her  -  ef 

enter     they     into       sepulchre    my,       traverse   they    through  it, 


C*C->*^  /WWW 


(2 


I     I 


3^ 


/WW/W 

ren 


6et  -  sen         em      utlm  -  a  se^a  -  sen 

may  pronounce  they  by  tablet  my,   let  proclaim    them    name  my 


i  i  i 


/WWW 
I     I    I 


ben      art        abu  em  bah     nebu     mat    hes-ten 

wo<   being    cessation  in  presence  of  lords  of  law  favour  ye 


312  Notes  on   Egyptian  Steke, 


h    s= — *    n -tJL  g — *    ^ 

'  /WW>A  1    ^f^       AA/WV\ 

111         y  \  1 1 1 


AA/WVS  AAAA/>A  <T] ^>        JM    AAA/WV  v^T— ^*" 

I     I  I  I  cz^5>  Jill       ®  .A 


nntar  ten        suat' -  ten    aut  -  ten      en      ^rotu-ten  em^et 
god  your,  may  transfer  you  dignities  your  to  children  your  after 

a  uah    ma    t'et  -  ten  suten       ta  hotep  Asar 

a  full  old  age  provided  that  say  ye     Royal  give  oblation  Osiris 


1 


u 


mer  kat  em         ta  het     Ra-^eperu-ari-mat 

superintendent    of  works  in  the    temple  of  Bd-^eperu-dri-ntdt 

ra     =     c=     A    808     -®     1      I      f 

/www        000  11       a      a       a  I         A         B 

men      mennu      em       ast       heh  ha      nntar  hen  hetep 

»wt«/  afoWe  £/*£  memorial  in  the  seat  of  eternity,  the  prince,  prophet 

—    y    JJo   tutS  ^    1 

en         Ames        Ast         Ne^t- Antes  neb       ^n 

first  of  Ames  and  Isis       Neyt-Am.es,  lord   of  fidelity. 


No  2. 
Lepsius  Dexkmaler,  Ab.  ih\  114  i. 

I 


,■   I-     11     ^    I    0        °      0 

'       IO         II  Mil  ^  I  <=>       I 

renpit    IV   abot  iv    sat   hru  I     ^er        hen       Her     Ea 
Year  four,  month  |_\oiak]  day   one  of  the  ■majesty  of  liar  lid 

^   w.    *    ,e,    u    §    m 

ka  next         tehent         ^an        %el'P     Pehpel? 

,    „  e  7     j,      m         j.    ,        [lord  of  two}      supremely 

bull      powerful  of  saffron   diadems  \  J  >  1    .   ,     ' 

1         •'        J      d  \     crowns    )         mighty 


principally  of  the  Eighteenth   Dynasty.  313 


^  Ml  hi  m-  = 

ter  Sati      Hernub        heq  mat  s-^eper       taiu 

destroyer    of }  7      ,       , ,  ,        .,  . 

Asiatics       I  llawlc  (J°Men,  ruler  of  justice,  creator  of  tico  earths, 

cT^i                              <=±  in  '  ••• 

suten-net      heq        petet  IX  neb             taiu 

king  of  the  north  1     -,  ■  /.     *  7  .        7     7  ,.    7                    7 

and  south,      )  dmf  °f  loics  '""<"'  lord  °f  the  tw0  earths- 


33 


O  ^-[-J1  \ft    i   \j)  -<2>  ^gv^       O        /www        *"*"" ~"  K^_ 


Rii-^eperu-ari-mat  se     Ra       en      ^at  -  ef        mer  -  f 

Rd-xeperu-ari-widt  son  of  the  Sun  of  belly  his  loving  him, 


neb  ^au  nutar  atf  Ai  nutar  hek  Uast  Asar 

lord  of  diadems,     Divine  Father,  Ai,  god,  rider  of  Uast,  Osiris 

~E  HI  U   3-h  a  rs  e? 

neb    Tasert  mer  -  i      ta   an^;  suten    ta  hotep  Amen  Ra 

/orrf  o/  Tasert,  beloved,  giving  life.     Royal  give  oblation.    A  wen  Ra 

-    ana    s=     aJ~T     JS     =J| 

neb  nest        taiu        Ptah- Sekri  Asar      Un-nefer 

lord  of  thrones  of  the  two  earths  Ptah  Socharis   Osiris      Un-nefer 

\; — 7  ^-  a       n     www  ! —  \f  — i 


1       fcOd  I  in  =u=$o  I 

neb  Ru-stau  ta  -sen       per-^eru       ah         apt 

lord  of   Ru-stau  may  give   they   sepulchral  meals,    oxen,    ducks. 

men^         ^a        em     ^et    nebt    nefer-t      abt        ^a      em 

linen     )  ,7  7  ,.      7  .  „  7  7 

bandages)        sa  °-'     i/nn9s    a"    900(l  Vure*    thousands    of 

1  Tlie  name  and  pvenomen  are  erased  on  the  stele. 


j>14  Notes  on  Egyptian   Stelce, 

4.          q         fl           o     (SIC)       o  _£>      kt=a 

^et  nebt        net'emet     beneret         tata     pet  qamat 

things  all            sweet,      choice       gifts   of  heaven  products  of 


Iz:  {-^~e$  &  ;l 


n 

ta  anen  Hapi  em      tepht-ef      sesenet 

earth  \whicK\   brings      i\  He  from  caverns  his,  breathings 

0   i  i  i 


nefu  net'em  en        iueht  amt  ta       sam 

breezes  delightful  of  north  wind  of  the  eating  of  bread,  gathering 


D 


renpt  sesep         aatu.     em        bu       nefer     em 

/wots,      reception      oj     \i,.md)     <«     i/rffcifc       }     ."'""' 

hotepet       eiit        Se^et  Aaru  usten  -  a 

the  produce  of  Seyet  -  Aaru.  May    I    walk 

«■?  r*  H  k&  ,V,  V*l  ii 

her     uat        hell         emma         kau  ;^u  sepsu 

over  the  road  eternal  among  genii,  the  spirits,  the  noble  ones, 

"°>-      $  tK  i  Jl    , ^    "^  <=>    , a  n  j\ 

w     v\  i  3       <rz>  /  n    i  awm 

a        <r=>  JL    i    U  <n>  h^=^  1  I    ii  i 

art  j^eperu  er        mer  -  ref       em         sesu  en 

//taking  transformations    at     pleasure   among      the   servants    of 

I  n -nefer    aq    per-t       em    ^ar-neter  an  ^enra 

L  ii-nefer.  going  in  coming  out  from  yar-neter :  may  not  be  turned 

back 
1   Lepsius    5 . 


principally  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty.  315 


ba       em  mertuf  pert        em         ba         Txw^-\ 

soul  [my]  at    will    its    coming    forth     like   a    soul   alive, 


||  /WW\A  *  n       0 

/WWV\  1  1 

1  "^  I  JJ 


^  n     n  r\  /www 

AMAW  £^  «MMA 


AA/WV\ 


u 


sura         man     her  bebet  atru  sesep 

drinking    water    out    of   the    depth    of   the    stream,    receiving 

8.    ^^  ^    80§    |x    ra    ^T*   G 


sennu        en     neb       heh     em    pert      embah     hru    neb 
Me  ca&£s  of  the  lord  of  eternity,  coining  in  the  presence  dag  every, 


3^  •—n  ^£7  Ml 

O  C=^3  O  III 


em  pautna  heb  abot  heb         VI 

on  festival  of  the  new  moon,  festival  of  the  month,  j  ^^j^  j£  *** 


A/WWN 


ent     smat       ent  heb  Uaka  '       Tahutit 

of  half  month,    of        festival  of  Uaka.  Thoth, 

(sir) 


pert  {u^tl   Pert         Sopet  rekh  ur  rekh 

appearance  of  Ames,  rising  of  Sothis,      heat  great,      heat 

net'        ^et  %au  sesep         atru  nebn    nu    Asar 

small,  things  of  the  altars,  the  receiving  of  j  ,  JJJ^^  }  ^11  of   Osiris 

!       ^£,u  -?        -        111         *T1        I 

liotep         trau  nu       neb        mitaru      tuau       Ea 

at  beginning  of    l         ,  ^  ^  0y  fhe        ^      Adoration  [to]  Ed 
the  seasons         I  *  L    -1 

1  See  the  extract  from  the  stele  of  Next-Ames  in  the  Berlin  Museum.    Brugsch , 
Kalendarisehe  Inschriftea,  Abth.  II,  p.  238. 

Vol.  VIII.  21 


316  Notes  on  Egyptian   Steke, 

O 


\1J«~  MV-D1 


^   D 

^eft       uben    -  ef  suas  ef       hotep  -  ef        em 

when    shines    he,     worshipped   be   he    \_whe>i]      sets     he      in 

•V-  ^  (]  &    ~K*A    ^^  / —      _  *~^  ct\  O     ^-w 

1    O      Dl         T      Q7i  ^n  £       T 

an;£        tepa      nef     pert     em     ^ut      en      aau    nef       en 
life  breath  in  a  wind  coming  forth   from  horizon,  full  blast  of 

meht  it  her  an  temtu        renef 

north  wind  coming  on    both  hand*,    being  called    name  his, 


a  qahu  her     hotepet  t'fau  per  ^eru 

the  hand  stretched  out  upon  oblations  and  provisions  \      "m    ■ 

1  I   offerings 

^eft  nas  -  ef  sesep         man      her        aa       hen-ka 

when   invoiced  is  he,  receipt  of  water  upon  the  hands  of  the   ka 

minister 

l'2'  Tfc?    ~6     i  £zf   a^I   i    J  ^  S    i*^ 

se^em-ef  em-ta  se^em-ef  heqt    her      ab      merer   ka-f 
acquires  he  bread,  acquires  he  beer  o)i  the  table  pleases  ka  his. 


i 


IS)*—  Om     i     A  i   <^>&&    i 

am       -  f  ta        her     ^aut      Neb-er-t'ra     her    uthu 

eats     he     bread     upon     altar  of    Neb-er-t'ra,   upon    table 

en     nebu     heh  er-tatnf      ari        sabu  ab 

of  lords  of  eternity,         there  are  given   to  him  aliments  pure 

1  And  see  *~^*  iTrt\    aau  mu,  "inundation."     De  Rouge,  "Edfou,"25.  4. 


principally  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty.  317 

4*^  ""  ^TJ)   IV*"6  4*^ 

^  Jf        III  ^  ,WWW    0     IJ.  till       j^*V^_  J^AAAAAA, 


em  aatn  eut     Unnefer  t'a  -  f  nia^ent 

m         Z»'mr/        o/         Unnefer,      goes   along   he      the  boat 

ent   ^arneter    er         taiu    nu  Se^et  -  Aaru 

of    yarneter     to      lands      of  Seyet-Aaru, 

D     X  ^111  I     X  A  Q/WWVA   Jf     III  'I   I     h^— 

ap  -   f        uat  ssen  -   f  matennti  ses  -  f 

opens  up  he  the  roads,        opens     he    the    icays,  follows    he 

«=>     SU     _B^     -(o-  III  ,www      x      a  .A  I 

Sekari        em         Ru-stau  an  senatuf  her 

Socharis        in  Rustau  not  turned  bach  (is)  he  at 

sba  en      Tuat  bah  am  em         arp 

the  door     of  the      Tuat       taking    his  fill    there    of    xoine    and 

\T%  ^^  k-^tf  MKS  *&** 

artet  sesep  mat'et  urhu  stem 

milk,       receiving         ointment,  unguent,  stibium, 

I    ?  U\BT    16-M  —  v  — 

net'em     ab  hebs  raen^       en        ka       en 

rejoicing  heart,       clothing,  linen  bandages,  to  the  ka  of  the 


*— \  puUo  nn        »»™ 


q  ii  III        iii 

mer  nt'a  en  nutaru       nebu        em 

superintendent    of  double    store-house  of  the   gods   all  in 


318  Notes  on  Egyptian  Stela?, 

£3    \\ 


\|  ^AAAAA  \     vi\ 

Ta  -  kahti         Ames      %enti     nutar  hen   hetep    en    Ames 
Takahti  (and)  Ames  of  %enti    prophet  first   of   Ames     and 


i 


□  ^© 


Ast       era         Apu  ^e%t  -  Ames        ma^eru       tata 

Isis        in  Apu:  NeytrAmes     triumphant  (who)  gives 


17. 


1 


qDq 


V  II    1 


UT2 


nutar    hotepet      en    nutaru   per^eru    en  ^u 

divine  oblations     to    the  gods,  sepulchral  meals  to  the  spirits 


@ 


fiP        I 


her     hetep  Hu%  ut'a  snab      suten  net      Ra-^eperu-ari-mat 

in  the 
presence 


e      }       a    rr   c      [    king  of  the    }    ■&. 

j.  }     A.  L.  S.     <        ±1y     -'j        ±1>  Ra-yeperu-a 
oj  J  [north  and  south)  **  L 


ri-mdt 


t  i  P   S3-  PHI- 

an^  ut'a  snab    tattut-f         suah-f        ma     pet        renpe-f 
A.  U.  S.      establishes  he,  makes  increase  he  like  heaven,   renews  he 

I  V:  1=1  »  Ulif  P7^  - 


ma    entet        Ames 
like  Ames, 


neheh  snab  -    f       en 

praying  (for)  health   his      of 

CM  2  i=r 


II  i  i  i        T 

heh      em    renpit    en    nutaru   nebu    suten    re%     ma    mer-f 
millions  of  years  to  the  gods  all  suten-re%,  actual  beloved  by  him 


1  Inversions  of  this  kind  are  common.    See  Eenouf,  "  Zeitschrift,"  1877,  p.  101. 

2  Ein  wirklieher  Yerwandter.     (Brugseh,  Diet.,  p.  531.) 


principally  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty. 


n  i 


$ 


319 


I       D   <=> 


Ne^t  -  Ames  t'et  -  f  a       nutaru        amu         pet 

Next-Ames.         Says  he:     Hail    gods       who  are  in  heaven, 


4&    1i    t 


19. 


t)i  1i  if 


@  in 

a       nutaru      amu  ta  a         nutaru      amu 

77ai7    gods   who  are  on  earth,       Hail   gods    who  are  in 


* 


\ 

Tuat 


u 


PTMTI  II    I 


^enniu  Ra  staiu  nutar    nefer 

the    Tuat        transporting      Rd,  conveying  god      good 


er        ^ut      Anient    ent      pet  saru 

to    horizon     western    of    heaven,       bringing 


£2!  2r 

t'etu  a 

words  my 


AAAAAA 

r  ^  i 

L     |     1     1     J 

en 

ten 

to 

yOM 

AlAAAAA 

1 

20. 


em         spertu  en 

&£e        prayers  of 


baket 
servant 


m\  u  w  -m 


1 


en     neb-f      hesiu  -  a       nuk      hesi        en         ati       hetep 
to  lord  his,  favouring  me,  I  am  agreeable   to  the  sovereign  king 


A 0 


ta  ta  -  f         hotep  -  a        em        ast  -  a       ent       heh 

upon,  earth,  may  lie  grant  that  may  rest  I  in  seat  my  of  eternity, 

^nuni-a       

?nay  join  / 


320  Xotes  on  Egyptian    Stehr, 

II. 

Stele  of  Thothmes,  Preseoext  of  the  Gate-keepers 
l\  Memphis. 

The  sepulchral  tablet  from  which  the  following  text1  is 
taken  bears  the  number  155  in  the  British  Museum  collection. 
The  top  of  the  tablet  is  rounded ;  the  figures  are  coloured 
red,  the  background  of  the  stele  is  black,  and  the  hieroglyphs 
are  blue.  Dr.  Birch  considers  that  the  tablet  belongs  to  the 
XVIIIth  dynasty.  It  consists  of  a  rectangular  piece  of  soft 
calcareous  stone,  3  ft.  11|  in.  long,  2  ft.  3  in.  wide,  and  5f  in. 
thick ;  the  top  has  been  rounded  to  the  depth  of  one  inch,  and 
the  square  corners  behind  still  remain.  The  beginnings  and 
endings  of  a  few  of  the  lines  are  broken  away,  and  there 
are  a  few  abrasions  on  the  surface  of  the  tablet.  The  scene 
at  the  top  of  the  tablet  represents  adorations  to  Osiris,  who 
is  seated  on  a  throne  facing  to  the  right,  wearing  the  atf 
crown.  In  his  left  hand  he  holds  the  symbol  of  power  ? 
hek,  and  in  his  right  the  whip  jf\  ^u.  His  name  and  titles 
are  given  before  and  behind  him,  in  four  lines  of  hieroglyphics, 
which  read : — 


£^-aB 


ti  U  Si     *  -  \\ 


Asar         heq        t'et  neb  Aukart 

Osiris,     ruler  eternal,  lord   of  Aukart 


§        »  t  www  A      A  §    ^    |  I  I  Xil     ca     I 

^atu      em     suten    heh  neb       neX*       ^e(l       ^t 

diademed  as  king  of  eternity,  lord  of  might,  ruler  of 

mil  lions. 

Behind  Osiris  stands  his  sister  Isis  |  "^*  *t=^  jj  g  sent-f 
Ast,  raising  her  right  hand  to  the  shoulder,  while  her  left  is 
placed  by  the  arm  of  the  god.  She  wears  a  throne  upon  her 
head.     Before  the  gods  stands  a  table,  %au,  laden  with  oval 

1  A  copy  of  the  tablet  has  been  lithographed  by  Sharpe  in  his  "  Egyptian 
Inscriptions,"  Vol.  I,  pi,  105. 


'principally  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty.  321 

and  circular  cakes  of  bread,  a  bunch  of  lotus  flowers  and  buds, 
a  goose,  the  head  and  haunch  of  a  calf  or  ox,  and  some  fruit. 
Beneath  the  table  are  two  vessels,  each  entwined  with  a  lotus 
flower.  Above  the  table  are  seven  lines  of  hieroglyphics, 
which  read : — 

O.  fl||J/  AAAAAA  I  j  ().        Si.  ft     S  n  /WW\A  / 

lm  -<s>-  ill  1 1 1  i 

t'et        an       Asar      her  sauti  en     sba      em 

Said  by   Osiris  presiding  over  the  guardians    of  the  gate  in 


=t 


Men-Nefer  Tahuti-mes  mayeru       t'et  -  ef 

Memphis,  Thothmes,  triumphant.  Says  he 


AAAAAA 


°     Q     b    10,^.     .  u^n  a 


^ 


entek     Ra     %eper       t'es  -  f  ruua         -  f 

Tliou  art  Rd  creating  himself,  traverses    he 

11.    '^      ^=7 

ta        neb 
earth    all. 

Before  the  table  stands  Thothmes,  wearing  his  hair  plaited. 
Upon  his  head  is  a  cone,1  and  he  is  dressed  in  a  garment 
reaching  to  his  ankles.  Both  hands  are  raised  in  adoration 
to  Osiris.     Behind  him  stands  "his  sister,  lady  of  the  house 

n   /wwv\  v y  ZT3  *?  Mil 

of  the   altar.        12.    V  k^_  I  <=>  ^jr'  sent-f  nebt  pa 

'Xat.     Her  left  hand  is  raised,  and  she  wears  a  cone  upon  her 
head.   Behind  the  sister  stands  Ne^t  the  brother  of  Thothmes. 

n       n    aaaaaa  aaa/naa  g& 

1^-  &  *  —    ^=^-  s      "  sen-j  JSeyt.     Me  also  wears  a  cone  upon 
his  head,  and  a  tunic  round  his  body. 


1  See  Birch,  "Trans.  Soc.  Bibl.  Arch."  Vol.  VIII,  p.  147.  Mr.  Rylands  has  a 
collection  of  drawings  of  cones  from  the  monuments  of  all  periods  ;  it  is  much  to 
be  wished  that  he  would  publish  his  account  and  his  careful  drawings  of  this 
subject,  which  he  has  specially  studied. 


322  Notes  on  Egyptian  Stelce, 

To  the  left  of  the  tablet  at  the  bottom  is  a  small  square 
vignette,  in  which  is  portrayed  a  scene  of  family  worship. 

Seated  upon  a  chair  is  "^  Jfej  flfl  <c=aVj|  sab  *'*>  "  coun- 
cillor  T'i,"  wearing  a  cone,  and  holding  a  lotus  flower  in  his  left 
hand.  By  his  side  is  seated  |  "^*  Jc=~_  ^^  |  ^=  r^^  $} 
"  his  sister,  lady  of  the  house  of  Amen,"  also  wearing  a  cone. 
She  has  taken  hold  of  his  right  arm  with  her  right  hand.  In 
front  of  the  deceased  stands  ^t  ^=^  ^^~ ^/J  tfb  "his  son 
Ne^t,"  holding  and  offering  in  his  upraised  hands  a  cone. 

The  inscription  states  that  the  deceased  Thothmes  was 
"  president  of  the  guardians  of  the  gate  in  Memphis  " ;  and 
it  is  interesting  as  mentioning  the  names  of  three  of  the 
pylons  in  Abydos  :  Hapt-neb-es,  Aau-her-neb-es,  and 
Uben-Ra-maa-es.  The  Egyptians,  in  common  with  other 
nations,  gave  names  to  the  gates  and  doors  of  their  cities 
and  temples.  See  Mariette,  "Abydos,"  Vol.  1,  p.  13,  where 
the  names  of  the  doors  of  a  series  of  rooms  are  given. 

Translation. 

1.  May    Horus    of    the    double    horizon,    Un-Nefer    Ptah 

Socharis  Osiris  the  eternal  ruler,  give  a  royal  oblation ; 
may  they  give  glory,  power  and  good  name  as 
triumphant  to  the  ka  of 

2.  the  president  of  the  guardians  of  the  gate  in  Memphis. 

Grant  thou  that  I  may  sit  in  Heliopolis  joining  thy 
servants  the  priests  and  prophets.   May  white  bread  be 

3.  furnished  to  thee,  may  thy  pure  hands  be  in  the  hall  of 

gold,  placing  thyself  upon  thy  belly  before  the  lords 
of  eternity  Tmu  and  Sapu,  the  spirits  of  Heliopolis, 

4.  who  listen  during  thy  prayers ;  Jet  devotion  be  ordered 

for  thee,  may  the  Ammahet  open  its  gates  to  thee, 
may  the  doors  greet  thee, 

5.  may  thv   name   be   established   from   mouth   to   mouth 

among  all  the  gods,  may  they  proclaim  thy  glories 
before  Shu 


principally  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty.  323 

6.  in  the  horizon,  of  the  ka  of  Thothmes,  the  president  of 

the  guardians.  Mayest  thou  tread  in  the  hall  of  Nut, 
mayest  thou  traverse  the  hall  of  Seb, 

7.  mayest  thou  be   saluted  in  the   hall  of  Mat  by   things 

from  behind  thee,  may  there  be  said  to  thee  in  the 
jjresence  of  the  spirits  of  Heliopolis,  0  coming  in 
peace,  0  triumphant  one !  Thy  life  comes 

8.  to  thee  as  one  being  upon  earth  in  following  "  Ptah  of 

the  beautiful  face,"  thou  the  ka  of  Thothmes,  the 
president  of  the  guardians.  May  the  priests,  possessors 
of  persea  trees,  come  to  thee  at  the  staircase  with 

9.  garlands  in  the  first  month  of  summer,  at  the    end   of 

the  month  when  the  ut'at  is 

10.  full.      Thou  art  invoked  in  Heliopolis,  answer  thou   in 

Ru-stau  on  the  third  day  of  the  third  month  of  summer. 
Thou  sailest  thy  soul  [with  thee  to]  Abydos.  May  he 
have  a  broad  seat  in  the 

11.  bark,  may  he  follow  the  god  to  the  territory  of  Pekua  hi 

the  festival  of  Uaka  and  the  festival  of 

12.  Thoth.     Let  the  festival  of  Hekar  of  his  lord  be  made 

for  him  at  the  appearance  of 

13.  Ap-uat,  may  he  praise  Ra  when  he  rises  and  turns  his 

radiance  to  the  three  pylons  which  are  in 
14    Abydos :    Hapt-neb-es,1   Aau-her-neb-es,2   and  Uben-Ra- 
maa-es.3 

15.  Let  sacred  visits  be  made  to  thee  and  sacrificial  cakes 

daily.     He  is  invoked 

16.  at  the  altar  in  Aat-tes-tes  on  the  birthday  of  Isis,  and 

when  he  goes  there  on  the  holiday 

17.  of  iSoeharis,  the  day  of  placing  the  sacred  boat  upon  the 

stocks,4  he  the  ka  of  Thothmes  triumphant. 


1  "She  who  conceals  her  lord." 

•  "  She  whose  two  arms  are  towards  her  lord." 

3  The  sun-god  rises  to  see  her." 

4  See  Book  of  the  Dead,  ch.  i,  10  :  "I   am  the  high  priest  who  places  the 
boat  upon  the  stocks." 


324  Aotes  on  Egyptian  Stela, 

1*      4  IX         a,  D         &»•  ^  \\  ^^   6   SLl 

suten     ta       hotep       Her  ^iiti  Un-nefer 

Royal   give   oblation  Horns  of  double  horizon,    Un-nefer, 

r\ I,  ~ 

""*-■  ^^  I  ^  ■  n        JLAHAAA  T" ^ 


Ptah     Sekar         Asar      heq       t'et         ta  -  sen  %u 

Ptah     Socharis      Osiris,       ruler  eternal,   may  give  they  glory 


\        *> -*  AA/V^VS     <—l  \J 


hna  hot  ren-a        nefer        em       ma^eru        en 

and  power,  name  good         as      triumphant    to  the 

•i     V  c*  \\ 


I  Ci     Ml 

ka          en  her              sauti          en        sba  era 

genius  of  the  president  of  the  guardians  of  the  gate     in 

ztlL  &  P     IT-  ^  k 

Men-nefer  Tahuti-mes              ari  -   k         hems- a  em 

Memphis  Thothme*.         Do    thou    (that)    sit    I 

*  —  io     JL/kPlSs  Hi 

^en  -  a  Annu                  ^en ernes     -     nek  ab 

within  Heliopolis           associating  (?)  for  thee  priests, 

1         J   '  ^>m(^^^         3.    Q<=D  ?c=> 

I           A  111  Jf  vww.    —LI       c                             0    i  i  i  A 

nutar  -  hen  usentn       -      nek                         ta  hat' 

prophets,  let  there  be  furnished  to  thee             bread  white 


nip:  Ik^r1 


aa  -   k         ab       em     use^t    ent  smu  ta-k-tu 

hands  thy     pure    in   the   hall      of  gold  placed 


principally  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty.  325 


i 


h  ^ki  n—& 


«>-=»(?)  A      A      ^rn: 

her  %at-k  en       neb      heh  Tmu  Sapn 

?*/>on  6e%  <Ay  to  the  lord  of  eternity  Tmu  (and)      Sapu 


a a 

4. 


«^   i  '  ' 


baiu            Annn             ta  -  u        skera  em     speru-k    k 

the  spirits  of  Heliopolis    who  give  silence  during  prayers  thy , 

utu        nek         ama^u              nnna     -  nek          Ammahet 

be  ordered  for  thee  devotion,    may    open  to    thee    the    Ammahet 


sbau     -  s  u6etu        -     k  urit 

gates     its,  may  j  ""^   |  [^A^]  <Ae   doors,    may 


z^7  I 

e   ! 


W\\&  ^—  kT-T-  in 

tati  ren  -  k        em      re      en     re      en    nutaru    nebu 

be  established  name  thy    in  mouth    of  mouth     of       gods     all, 


n\^z  ms  k^  Mum 

se^a       -    sen      neferu  -  ek       em  -  bah         Shu     

may  proclaim   they    glories  thy  before  Shu      

a       gv  fO)  U  a  r   Q  « J 

Jy^    -a  n  i  m  w  i  m 

em       ^ut  en         ka         en  her  sauti 

in  the  horizon,  to  the  genius  of  the  president  of  the  guardians, 

Tahuti-mes       senem-k       use^t     en        Nut  t'ai  -  k 

Thothmes,    may  est  tread  thou  the  hall  of  Nvt.       may  traverse 

[thou 

1  The  tablet  is  broken  here,  but  these  appear  to  be  the  characters. 


326  Note*  on  Egyptian   Stelce. 

use^t         Seb,  usettu        -  k       em     use^t   mat 

Me  //a//  of  Seb,  may  be  saluted  thou  in   the  hall  of  Mat 

iv  ■•: ;  t  t:  sw  A*o  k 

an        ^et  ha    -   k  t'ettu-nt-k  i    -      ta        em 

by       things        behind  thee,  let  be  said  to  thee     "  coming       in 

o    D  ^    ^  <=>  3fe  .-CD  ^ 

hotep      ma^eru-k  ^er  baiu  Anmi  peh 

peace  triumphant  thou" <        •  V/  spirits  of  Heliopolis,  arrives 


8. 


^       ^       =      # 


h  SI 


Q  rr*\\>         /www  \> 

aha    -    k  em       un      htep      ta      her      ses        Ptah 

life     thy    as  one  being  upon    earth    in  following  of    "Ptah 

6  I  I  ills 0 

nefer         hra  en  ka  en  her  sauti 

of  the  beautiful]  ,,  *  .,.       -    .,  ,. 

•/         .      »  ^      wo    Me      <?a    of    president    of    the  guardians, 

Tahuti  -  mes      per     nek        ur  -  mau    her      ab       ^et     ^er 
Thothmes.     May  come  to  thee  the  p?%iests  at  the  staircase    with 


*   fTQ     m       feO 


^  o 

an^         nebu  ast  em         abot      I     pert 

/     7     I      °/  ^      )   ■    ,i  si  i  i  °f  swnmer 

aarlands,      lords  <        J  \  in  the  month  1  \    7 «  \ 

*  persea  tree  J  (    (XOOiil) 


^-117     S<    2     £lka* 

arki  hi'U  meh  nt'at 

at  the  end  of  the  month.      the  day   (ichen)  is  full  the  ut'at 


principally  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty.  327 

em      Annu         nasektu  nsebu       -       k       em 

in     Heliopolis,  invoked  art  thou  answer       thou,  in 


Ru-stau       em    abot  III       pert  hru  III         %entu   -    k 

I      of   ^iiiiuiipy*     1 
Bustau,      in  month  3</t  •        „-.  ^wfVfevl  three,  sailest  thou 

ba         Abtu  use%  -  nef  ast        em 

soul         Abydos,  may  be  broad  to  him  a  seat      in 


11. 


O^Z 


ne^emet  £esef      nutar     er         u  Pequa 

the   bark  follows  lie  the  god  to  the  territory  of  Pekua 


©J     o  (  .m    _g&      ©  ^^r^io 

em  heb  Uaka  heb  Tahutit 

in    the    festival  of  Uaka,  festival    of  Thoth, 


\\    H 


_  ^^  0  I 


au  ari  -  nef  hekar  en  neb  -  f 

let  there  be  made  to  him    festival  of  Hekar         of  lord  his, 


pert  Apuat     tua-nef  Ra     yeft       uben     -    f 

appearance  of  A puat,  praises  he  Ed     when        \slimes\lte, 


1  Brugscb,  Worterbuch,  I,  239. 


328  Notes  on  Egyptian  Stela, 

ta  -  nef       pest  -   f  er         ta       in       sebe^t         amu 

a/ res  /*£       back     his        to        the       three  pylons  which  are  m 

Abtu  hapt-neb-es  Aim     -  s-her-ueb-s 

.  1  bydos,  Hapt  -  Neb-es,  A  Cms  -her  -  nebs, 

f\         n  ww\a     <>  A  -<S>-  www  /www  1     \\     1  -fi  n 

^J  s  $^P     15-    \\^  S~?A    ^okt 

Uben  -Ramaa-8  ari-nek        ennu  sta 

Uben-Md-maa-s,  let  be  made  to  thee  sacred         visits 

®  ?  =^°  ^  k  =^= £ ^  -dpi  i6.  -\ 

hetep  hat'    hotepu  makart  rtas       -  tuf 

dat'/v      sacrificial         cakes     daily  invoked    is    he 


§  ^         a  r=r  ^ 


her        uthu        em     Aat-tes-tes     hru  mestu  Ast 

at  the  altar  in        Aat-tes-tes    day  of     birth     of  Isis, 

W  A  fk  ^^         i  - 


iu     -    f             am  en     heb  hru  sekar      hru    erta. 

goes    he        on     the  holiday      of  Sekar  day  of  placing 

hermit                    her  maf^  en         ka         en 

the         ship       upon  the      stocks  to      the       genius      of 


®&'M    HI 

Tahuti  -  rues       ma^eru 
Thothmes        triumphant 


1  It  is  doubtful  if  the  right  determinative  is  used  here.     One  would  expect 
'    ^   J  v  TT^3  "  radiance." 


principally  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty.  329 

III. 

Stele  of  Rema,  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty.1 

This  tablet  is  divided  into  three  parts.  In  the  first  is 
Osiris  -wearing  the  at/  crown,  and  seated  upon  a  stool.  He 
holds  in  his  hands  two  sceptres  and  a  whip.     Above  is  written 

lasting  ruler,  god  great,  lord  of  Tasert  in  front  of  the 
seat."  Behind  him  stands  Isis,  wearing  a  throne  upon  her 
head ;  she  has  her  right  hand  lifted,  and  holds  in  the  other 
the  symbol  of  life.      Above,  and  in  front  of  her,  is  written 

in^n  =T  I  hf  I T  7  " Isis' mother  clivine> 

avenging  her  brother,  lady  of  the  two  earths."  Behind 
her  stands  Nephthys,  wearing  a  house  upon  her  head ;  she  has 
her  right  hand  raised,  and  in  the  left  she  carries  the  symbol 

of  life.      By  her  side  is  written     "1  <=>  Th  fi  r^A  Q      ^ 

11  Nephthys,  empress  of  the  road  of  the  west."  Before  Osiris 
stands  a  table  laden  with  foods,  fruits,  and  flowers.  Above 
it    are    the    sisms    Q  ^^  V7    the  two  ut'ats,  and  a  iackal. 

At  the  table  stands  the  deceased  Rema,  with  both  hands 
raised,  in  one  of  which  he  holds  a  stand  filled  with  fruit 
and  cakes.  Around  Iris  neck  he  wears  a  collar ;  he  wears 
a  fluted  garment  tied  at  the  waist,  and  sandals  upon  his 
feet.     He  is  represented  without  hair.     Above  him  is  written 


[\        [\       ^  C3     <Q  TT 


A/WW\ 


[~& -S-  ^  ^  1  ^  ^  ^^   "  May  ^  8'ive  thee 

going  in  and  coming  out  from  yar  neter  at  the  burial 

to  the  hi  of  the  chief  of  the Rema  triumphant." 

Behind  Rema  stands    V  *^=»  II  ***■  cr^3 

"  his  sisters  beloved  by  him  of  the  seat  of  his  heart, 


\ 


1  A  facsimile  of  this  stele  is  given  by  Mariette  in  his  "  Abydos,"  Vol.  II, 
pi.  63,  and  a  printed  copy  of  the  text  in  his  "  Catalogue  Generale  des  Monu- 
ments d' Abydos,"  p.  413. 


330  N'otes  on   Egyptian  Stelce, 

lady  of  the  house,  Suten  %at"  She  wears  a  head-dress  of  plaited 
hair,  a  cone  and  collar,  and  she  has  both   hands  upraised. 

The  daughter  of  the  deceased,  Tapu  "^  ^^  A  D  ^  ^ 
is  represented  standing  holding  lotus  flowers  ;  and  behind 
her,  holding  a  lotus  flower  in  the  left  hand,  and  wearing  a 

cone  upon  her  head,  stands  ^^AAAAAA"^=5  ^^  (sic)  VI  SS  vl 
"  his  grand-daughter  Nahi."  In  the  second  part  of  the  tablet 
Rema  and  his  sister,  "  the  lady  of  the  house,  Suten  %«/,''  are 
represented  seated  on  chairs.  Rema  is  holding  a  lotus  flower 
in  his  left  hand,  and  his  sister  is  clasping  his  right  arm  with 
both  her  hands.  Before  them  stands  Rema's  son,  Apii  or 
Apepi,  offering  fire,  water,  and  the  usual  offerings.  He  wears 
a  panther's  skin.     By  his  side  are  three  lines  of  hieroglyphs, 

which  read    ^=  O  ^  lo/    Jo  "*"*         ^    Jj   f=^   Q 

aaa^a^  1 1  wui  1  i)  1      1    Q2y_  "i    1     jg*  / —  I  I  I 

^  U      ill)  §h  ''Oblation  of  all  good  and  pure  things  to  the 

£1  S  \\  Si  M  te  l  . 

ka  of  Rema,  the  chief  of  the  unguent  room,  by  his  son  Apii, 

or  Apepi,  the  chief  of  those  who  listen  to  complaints.*'     The 

remainder  of  the  scene  is  occupied  by — 

<r—>  f  n   .S     Rames  holding  a  branch 

1.  A   male    called    _*  ([|  1 1  ^       ^  leayes  andflower8. 

iK  <o  / e\     Mutemua,  holding  a  small 

2.  A   female    ..        _^   ^  ^       branch. 

3.  ..  ..        Q  ^b  \  \  J)   Aui,  holding  a  lotus  flower. 


n     □    6\    Her-ab-apu,     with     both 
4 ^H  hands  raised. 


5 J^IIaIPI    Neferfi-nutar  Su. 

6.  A  female  whose  name  is  omitted. 

7.  A  female  called  1    "    ^  J)     Suten-%a 

"his  son, 


„  rv  Aimix  a     f)  .a     "nia  son, 

8.    A  child    V  *—  D  ^  c=  \  l\  *£SS  !$\    Amen-Ua." 


principally  of  the   Eighteenth  Dynasty,  331 

The  two  mules,  Apepi  and  Rames,  wear  neither  hair  nor 
head-dress,  but  the  females  all  wear  head-dresses  and  cones. 

The  lower  part  of  the  tablet  is  filled  up  by  nineteen  lines 
of  hieroglyphs,  containing  an  invocation  to  Osiris.  In  the 
right  hand  corner  is  a  vignette  representing  Rema  kneeling 
in  adoration,  with  both  hands  upraised.  The  inscription  is 
really  a  hymn  to  Osiris,  and  all  we  gather  from  it  about  the 
deceased  personally  is,  that  he  was  "president  or  chief  of  the 
unguent  preparations  of  the  double  white  house  of  the  lord 
of  the  two  earths,"  and  "  chief  of  the  royal  wig  of  the  good 
god."  In  all  these  sepulchral  stelee  the  deceased  is  made  to 
pray  principally  for  things  material.  The  comforts  of  the 
body  in  the  nether  world  are  thought  much  of,  and  the  gods 
are  therefore  entreated  to  grant  them  to  the  ha  l  of  the 
deceased.  The  translation  of  the  stele  of  Rema  is  as 
follows : — 

1.  Adoration  of  Osiris.     Hail  to  thee  Osiris,  the  firstborn  of 

Seb,  the  eldest  god  of 

2.  five2  coming  forth  from  Nut,  the  senior,  the  eldest  son  of 

his  father  Ra,  the  father  of  fathers, 

3.  in  submission  to  him,  everlasting  ruler,  lord  of  eternity, 

one  throughout  his  changes,  the  prevailer  with  might 
coming  forth 

4.  from  the  womb.     He  unites  the  white  and  red  crown,  and 

joins   the  urasi   on   his   head,  he,  the  one  of  exalted 
attributes ; 

5.  his  name  is  unknown,  numerous  are  his  names  in  towns 

and  countries.     Ra  rises, 

6.  in  the  place  of  his  heart3  he  setteth,  and  one  seeth  his 

glories.     Hail  to  thee  0  magnified  and 

7.  extolled  in  thy  name  "  Great  of  Strength."      O  son,  0 

great  one  coming  out  of  his  cavern, 


1  See  Birch,  "  Trans.  Soc.  Bib.  Arch.,"  Vol.  VIII,  p.  149,  and  Renouf,  ibid., 
Vol.  VI,  p.  494  ;  Maspero,  ibid.,  Vol.  VII,  p.  C,  and  "  Revue  Scientifique,"  March, 
1879,  p.  816. 

2  The  five  gods  were  Horus,  Osiris,  Isis,  Nephfchys,  and  Sot. 

3  Lit.,  "  in  the  heaven  of  his  heart." 

Vol.  VIII.  22 


332  Xotes  o)/   Egyptian   Stelae, 

8.  there  is  not  a  god  who  has  done  what  he  has  done,  he, 

the  lord  of  life,  living  in   his  attributes.     Nothing  is 
made  living  without 

9.  him,  the  lord    of  life,    vigorous   in    revolving,    Osiris   in 

Abydos,  lord  of  Tattu,  ruler 

10.  of  Amenti,  the  lofty  plumed.     He  reaches  the  zenith,  the 

two  dawn  goddesses  who  are  before  him 

11.  and  the  venerable  souls  who  are  in  the  tuat  adore  this 

form  of  the  lords  of  Abydos.     Ra  hath  created 

12.  his  glories,  Shu  hath  put  his  terror  in  the  hearts  of  men, 

13.  gods,  the  departed,  and  the  damned.     Saith  the  chief  of 

the  sekanenu  of  the  double  white  house  of  the  lord  of 
the  two  earths,1  the  chief  of  the  royal  wig 

14.  of  the  good  god;  saith  Rema  triumphant,  I  have  come 

to  thee,  lord  of  Tasert  Osiris,  ruler  of  Abydos. 

15.  I  was  law  abiding  and  doing  right  when  upon  earth,  I 

was  free  from  faults.     Grant  thou  splendour 

16.  in  heaven  and  power  upon  earth.     May  I  triumph  like 

17.  the    lords    of  the    Tuat,    may    my    soul    come   forth    to 

direct  its  path, 

18.  in  the  place  of  its  desire.     May  I  be 

19.  like  the  gods  who  are  in  thy  train,  I  the  ha  of  Osiris.  Rema 

triumphant. 


L*j 

n  its 

¥ 

o\ 

tuau 

Asar         anet' 

her-k 

Asar 

se 

pu 

Adoration 

of  Osiris,       J Itiil 

to   thee 

Osiris 

son 

the 

w 

h-n  ig 

1 

■2. :: 

i 

-   i i 

*7? 

<= 

hetep      en 

seb             ur 

nutar 

V 

per 

em 

first        of 

Seb,         eldest 

god   of 

five 

coming 

from 

1  Vorsteher   der  Salbenbereitungen  des  weissen   Hauses   des   Landesherrn. 
Brugsch  Diet.,  p.  1144. 

2  The  plate  in  "Abydos,"  II,  63,  lias  III  III . 


principally  of  the   Eighteenth  Dynasty.  33i 


lr*   P^Pi  3  -  \C& 


0 
I 

Nut  semsu  aa         en  atf       -    f  lia, 

Nut,  eldest  senior      of         father     his  Rd 


atf  atfiu  ^er  ast      ab  -  f        heq  heh 

father  of  fathers,  under  the  place  of  face,  his  ruler  everlasting, 


^  ■         *  o 

n  |  °° 


fk«J 


neb  t'et  ua  her         sepu-f  secern 

ford  of  eternity,   one   throughout  changes  his,      prevailing  ivith 


L_U_J 


£efit  per  em      ^at    sam-nef  hat' 

might  coming  forth  from  the  womb.       Unites  he  the  white  crown 

temt        en  arat  em       hetep-f       ser       veperu 

joins  the    ura>i       on     head     his,    exalted   of    attributes. 


/WW\A 

5'     #1 

an 

re% 

Not 

known 

ren    -    f  ast  rennu 

name     his,       numerous      the     names 


\1T^  -1i 


©     I      (—4— I    ©        tbv    H  "X™     <=>       /.      ©  £|  D    o 


em       nut         setu  uben  Ra  em     pet 

in    toivns   and   countries:  rises  Rd  in    heaven 


-  LI  *«-  ^Mk-  III  ^Tl 

en     ab  -  f    hotep  -  f  maa        -    f      neferu         anet' 

of  heart  his,  settet/i    he  and       sees     one        glories.         Hail 


334  Notes  on  Egyptian  Stela*. 


v_^«>     <rr>  (J  i      a  u  U  l  aawa  £d 

her-k      urta  aaa    -  ta        em       ren      -    k        en 

to   the   magnified,  extolled  in  mane         thy 


M*  ¥  is  W  =  oi 


r^v~i 

DXn 

aaa  sefit  se         ur         per        em       tepht-    f 

(i great  of  strength''         son  great,  coming  out   from   cavern  his. 

_  r]      On  _^T3"^>-  aaaaaa  r\    AAftAAA  pv    /WWW     £^ 

8-   [-111     <=.    ^  w     -    fo      foi 

an  nutaru       ari         ar  -  nef       neb        an^  an^tu 

Not  a  god  has  done  [what)  he  has  done,   lord   of  life,    living 

em  aril    -  f       an       ari       anp£      em     %em  -        ef 

in  attributes  his,  nought  is  made   living  without     him, 


©  ,  ^i 


££ 


neb        aha  rut  rerit  Agar         ami         Abtu 

lord  of  life,     vigorous   in   revolving,    Osiris         in         Ahydos 


-  fit    M  10-f-   -II   P-M 

neb      Tattu  heq  Amenti  qa  suti 

lord  of    Tattu,      ruler  of        Amenti:       exalted     of    plumes: 

-SS>w.   <=>^   ~h    —    IS1   1101   C=     „    ,W 
peh-nef        hert  sens       en         uat'ti         em       hat-    f 

reaches  he  the  zenith,  adore  the  tivo  dawn  goddesses  before  him. 


V^WSA 


ba         6epsu         ami  tuat        sahu  pen       en 

fouZ.s     venerable      in      the      tuat       /bnw       tAta       "/ 


principally  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty.  335 

nebu      Abtu  qamam  en  Ra 

lords  of  Abydos,    (whom)  hath    created  Rd 


III  —    ^  —  $\i    & 


neferu-f          erta  en           Shu             sentu       -    f        em 

glories  his :     has  given        Shu          terror      his      in      the 

i  i3-m  ^ii  T^i  > 

ab             ret  nutaru         yp.              mitu                t'et 

heart     of    men,  gods,  the  departed  and  the  damned         Saith 


/wvw\ 


an  her  sekanenu  en         pa -hat'      neb 

the  chief  of  the      sekanenu  of  the  double  white  house  of  lord  of 

T*^.         "~*\         ^C  1  14.    *w*a 

~  i  i  aa^v/wv  I  n 

tain         mer      nammes      suten  en     nutar     nefer 

two  earths,  chief  of  the   wig    royal  of      god       good, 

Rema        ma^eru    t'et  -  f        i  -  na      en     ^er  -  ek       neb 
Remit  triumphant :     says    he   Come  have  I    to    the   lord  of 

Tasert      Asar      heq         Abtu  nuk  matu 

Tasert,    Osiris    rider  of  Abydos.  I  ivas    law    abiding 

\\     ?     "    -    s*=!    (^    -= 

ana       hetep      ta  ar  mat  su  em 

being       upon      earth,      doing        right,  free  from 


336  Notes  on  Egyptian   Steles, 

^    ^*|      16.  =    °  ° 


<=*     mi 


v> 


aseft  tak        Xn  em     Pet       user      em      ta 

faults,  grant  thou  splendour  in   heaven       power   on   earth. 

,.Q  n  Jjf2ll     §1  ill         CT3       .A     -2f  -/A    211        y 

raa^eru  -  a     ma  nebu    tuat       pern  ba  -  a      re>/ 

May  triumph  I  like        lords  of  Tuat,  may  come  forth    soul  my 


/WVAAA 
I  I I  (O  *<j— » /WWV\ 


er  nenini  era      ast        ent      ab  -  f        unna 

to  drive  [make  progress']  in  the  place   of  heart   its,    may  he  I 

n  ^  n       qqq  *ww\  n     ^—^    ^  n    J\ 

1Q  \J  l|  I db  [I         I  AAA/VW         ( (         AAAAAA 

lt-  £^U      III  ^  w  *    vs    H I  ^* 

matet     nutaru  enti    em       ami     sesu-k       en    ka    en 

KJfce    the    gods  icho    (are)     in    train    'thy,  to  the  genius  of 


Asar  Rema  n%em 

Osiris  Rema  triumphant. 


IV. 

Sepulchral  Stele  of  the  Royal  Scribe  Ames-mes, 
otherwise  called  kanre.1 

This  tablet  is  preserved  in  the  Museum  of  the  Louvre, 
and  belongs  to  the  reign  of  Rameses  II.  It  is  rounded  at  the 
top,  and  its  upper  part  is  occupied  by  two  scenes,  the  one 
representing  the  worship  of  Osiris,  and  the  other  that  of 
ancestors.      In   the    first    scene    at    the    top  are   the   signs 


1  A  copy  of  the  tablet  lias  been  lithographed  by  Sharpe  in  his  "  Egyptian 
Inscriptions,"  pi.  97;  and  a  better  copy,  with  a  translation,  by  Pierret  in  his 
"  Etudes  figyptologiques,"  8me  livraison,  p.  135. 


principally  of  the  Eighteenth   Dynasty. 


337 


'  ZZ£  and  ^>  representing  the  Buns  disk,  water,  and  vase 

respectively.  On  each  side  is  an  ut'at  ^^  as  well  as  a 
jackal.  Underneath  there  is  a  cartouche  containing  the 
prcnonien,  name,  and  titles  of  Rameses  II.     It  reads :— 


4      V 

suten      net 

King  of  the  north 

and  south, 


I     \> 


Q 


1 


/WWAA      Q 


neb       taiu      Ra-usr-mat-sotep  -  en -Ra 

lord  of  two  r>  -  -.   t   .  r>  - 

lands  Ra-usr-mat-sotep -en-  Ra 


se      Ra        neb      ^au      meri    mat    Ra-mes-su        Asar 
son  of  the  Sun         lord  of  crowns,      Rameses  loving  law,    Osiris 


<£? 


r^i 


^ent-Amenti      neb         Abtu         meri 
yent-Amenti      lord  of    Abydos    beloved  of. 

Below  this  Osiris,  holding  a  sceptre  in  the  right  hand  and 
a  whip  in  the  left,  is  seated  upon  a  stool.  Behind  him  stands 
"  Horus  the  son  of  Isis,"  wearing  the  double  crown.  His  right 
hand  is  raised,  and  in  his  left  he  carries  a  roll.  Behind  Horus 
stands  Isis,  "the  lady  of  heaven,"  wearing  a  throne  upon 
her  head,  and  Nephthys,  wearing  a  house.  On  a  slab 
behind  Nephthys  stands  "  Ptah  as  king  of  the  double  earth  " 
2l^=  \  a^a^~t  holding  in  his  two  hands  a  sceptre. 
Behind  Ptah  stands  "  Thoth,  lord  of  ^emennu  "  ^JJ^  ^i7  E  E  • 
In  front  of  Osiris  is  a  small  altar  and  a  lotus  flower. 
With  both  hands   raised  in  adoration  to  the  god,  stands 

Royal  scribe  Kanre  of  the  j  jj^6  j  of  law,  son  of  Kanreneraa 
triumphant.  In  the  second  scene  the  son  of  Kanre  (apparently 
called  Kanre  also)  is  represented,  standing  bare-headed  and 
bald,  wearing  a  tunic  tied  at  the  waist.      Both  hands  are 


338  Notes  on  Egyptian   Stela, 

extended,  and  he  offers  incense  and  water  to  the  d< 
Anies-roes,  who  is  seated  on  a  chair  holding  a  lotus  flower 
in  his  left  hand.     Before  him  is  a  slab  containing  sacrificial 
offerings. 

Behind  Arnes-mes  is  seated  his  mother  Anenit.  his  father. 
and  five  other  relatives,  all  seated  on  chairs,  holding  a  lotos 
flower  in  their  left  hands.1  The  deceased  Ames-mes  was  a 
royal  scribe,  and  member  of  the  privy  council  of  his  king. 
He  was  the  son  of  Anenit,  u  the  sistruui  bearer  of  Isis."  and 
he  takes  great  care  to  inform  us  that  he  was  an  actual  scribe, 
and  not  a  man  who  called  himself  one.  He  apparenty  had 
the  charge  of  the  accounts  of  the  chapels,  he  was  the 
reckoner  of  the  labours  performed  there,  and  also  the 
superintendent  of  the  work  wrought  by  the  priestesses  of 
Neith.     The  translation  of  the  tablet  is  as  follows  : — 

1.  Ames-mes.  triumphant,  sumarned  Kanre.  royal  scribe, 
president  of  the  mysteries  of  heaven  and  earth  and 
hell,  maker  of  all  divine  types,  actual  scribe  of  the 
seat  of  justice,  son  of  Anenit,  triumphant,  the  sistrum 
bearer  of  Isis. 

2 eternity  is  thy  brother  and  sister,    thy  uncle 

is  everlastingness:  they  furnish  winds  to  thy  nose, 
inspiring  thy  throat  with  life.  May  thy  hand  be 
fortunate  with  sacrifices  and  provisions  every  day 
without  ceasing. 

3.  0  Ames-mes,  triumphant,  surnamed  Kanre.  royal  scribe  in 

the  southern  and  northern  chapels,  computer  of  the 
labours,  superintendent  of  the  things  which  are  done 
in  the  two  chapels  under  the  direction  of  the  priest  8fi  a 
of  Neith.     0  my  lord. 

4.  traversing  eternity,  enduring  for  ever,  Osiris.  %ent-Amenti, 

Horus  triumphant,  lord  of  eternity,  everlasting  ruler, 
eldest  son  whom  Seh  hath  engendered,  first  born  of  the 
womb  of  Xut,  lord  of  Tattu.  ruler  of  Abvdos, 


1  I  am  indebted  to  the  amiable  courtesy  of  Monsieur  P.  Pierret  for  a  correct 
copy  of  certain  parts  of  the  inscription  contained  in  tlie  first  scene,  which  it  was 
impossible  to  make  out  from  that  given  by  Sharpe. 


principally  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty.  339 

5.  sovereign  lord,  supreme  chief  of  Akarti,  lord  of  diadems, 

great  of  terrors,  exalted  Ram  dwelling  in  Naret,  the  pow- 
erful king,  relying  upon  justice,  greater  than  his  father, 
more  powerful  than  his  mother,  the  lord  of  that  which 

6.  becometh  through  him,  greatest  of  the  great  above  his 

brethren,  son  of  the  white  crown,  born  of  the  red 
crown,  lord  of  lords,  king  of  kings,  chief  supreme,  god 
of  gods,  the  two  lands  have  been  given  to  thee  by  the 
hand  of  the  father  Tmu. 

7.  Thou  hast  law  established  before  thy  face,  let  me  rejoice 

in  the  law  and  its  glories.  It  is  Thoth  who  gives  it  to 
its  possessor,  he  proclaimed  it  by  the  proclamations  of 
his  mouth,  those  who  are 

8.  among  gods  and  men,  thou  makest  their  seat  in  ^ar-neter, 

those  who  come  towards  thee  arriving  at  the  landing- 
place  by  millions  of  millions  greet  thee,  those  who  are 
in  the  womb  are  upon  their  face  towards  thee. 

9.  Mayest  thou  have  no  stoppage  in  the  land  of  inundation, 

they  come  to  thee  altogether,  the  great  like  the  small 
come  to  thee  there,  the  living  ones  upon  earth  approach 
thee  altogether, 

10.  thou  art  their  lord,  there  is  none  other  whatever  besides 

thee  whom  they  can  enumerate.  With  reference  to  the 
going  up  or  the  coming  down  throughout  the  duration 
of  time,  thy  majesty,  like  Ra,  is  the  dawn  of  day. 

11.  Those  that  exist,  and  those  who  are  not  yet,  follow  thee, 

0  royal  scribe,  interpreter  of  the  lord  of  the  two 
earths,  president  of  the  secret  in  the  temple  of  Neith, 
made  of 

12.  flesh  {i.e.,  born)  of  Ta-an^1  at  Sais,  Ames-mes  triumphant, 

surnamed  Kanre,  son  of  Anenit  triumphant,  sistrum 
bearer  of  Isis.  May  Osiris  give  a  royal  oblation,  may 
he  give  pleasant  breezes  of  the  north  wind  to  the  ha  of 
the  royal  Ames-mes  triumphant,  president  of  the  secret 
in  the  seat  of  law. 


1  The  text  here  is  obscure ;  M.  Pierret  renders  it  by  "  fait  en  chair   (ne)   a 
Ta-anx,"  which  rendering  I  have  borrowed. 


(40  Notes  on  Egyptian   Steles, 


1.  ^ J  I       \\       1  A/^WV 


suten     an      her  ssta         en        pet         ta         tuat 

Royal  scribe,  president  of  the  mysteries  of  heaven,  earth  and  hell: 

IP^«ai   111   ^   »   ^'  -  J 

mes  semu         nutaru        nebu         an         ma  en      ast 

fabricating  types    divine  all,      scribe  actual  of    the  seat  of 


i    M    HI    ^\ 


Ml         | 

mat    Ames- mes    ma^eru       t'et-nef  Kanre 

justice,  Ames-mes  triumphant,     called  Kanre. 

ma^eru     mes      en  ahi  en       Ast  Anenit 

triumpliant,  born  of  the  sistrum  bearer  of  Isis,       Anenit 


pa  *-fr  ii-  m  nkPfi-' 

ma^em           ....      sensen-k         heh  ^enemes        -    k 

triumphant brother  and  sister  thy  (is)  eternity,  uncle  thy 


t  eta  hu  -  sen  nefu  er         fent  -  k  seserk 

{is)  everlastingness,  furnish  they  winds  to  nose  thy  inspiring  (with) 


1  Compare    the    German    "  wirklicli "    prefixed    to    titles    of    honour,   e.g. 
"  -\\  irkliche  Geheimrath." 

1  There  is  evidently  a  mistake  here. 


PS- 


Read 

If  |    d  *  is  a  noun  here,  a  verb  has  been  omitted  before  it. 


principally  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty.  3  1 1 


fT  mm-  i 


^ 


I  q  D  in  V    i  i  i 

iin^  hai       -  k     nefer      a  -  k  hotepu  t'efau 

life    throat  thy,  good  be  hand  thy  (with)  sacrifices  and  provisions 


T«fi    \ 


hru    neb       an  abn        suten      an  em       resenet 

day  every    without  ceasing,  royal  scribe         in  the  southern  and 


i  i  i 


D    q  i 
i  i  i  ^     I 


melienet        hesb  bekan  her       foet]       aritu      em 

Thlpdsl  Computer  of  the  hbours^u/^',^^t)which  are  made  in 


W-li   ^S   Till 


C3  0.       II      <=>       @         © 

pau      II      re  -  aan  ^entiii  Nit         Ames-mes 

rlmpels  two  under  direction  of  the  priestesses  of  Neith,  Ames-mes, 


n 


ma^eru   t'et  -  net" 
triumphant,  called 


in     i    liB     y\    4  f±u 

Kanre  ma^ern      a     neb      -  a 

Kanre,       triumphant.     0   lord       my 


JJ 


0  0 


mest         heh         untef       en      t'et      Asar    %ent  Amenti 
traversing    eternity       being      for     ever      Osiris    %ent- Amenti 


=  1J  &   III   -~M  P  3t  ? 

Un-nefer  Her    ma^eru     neb        heh      heq    t'eta        se 

Un-nefer,  Horns  triumphant,  lord  of  eternity,  ruler  everlasting,  son 


'  Lisez    ^.P  i    (things),  Pierret. 


342  Notes  on   Egyptian  Stein; 


AAAA/W 


VMM  -*"•  ^  %*JI 

semsu  utet  en         Seb  hetep    en      %at 

<>Z(fes£  engendered         by  Seb,     first  of  the  womb  of 

Nut     neb      Tattu        heq    Abtu  ati  her  hetep 

Nut,  lord  of  Tattu,  rider  of  Abydos,    sovereign  lord,  j    ^'jfi'J^f 

i<=>t^^i  e.    mi     i-^    <^=>  J^  i       ^™ 

Akarti        neb  fau  aaa  neru  ba 

Akarti,     lord     of    diadems,      great      of     terrors,  ram 


W 


^0®      \^      "j^      JIJ^ 


ser         %enti      Naret      suten  en         nutra         heri 

exalted,    dwelling   in  Naret,    king  powerful  relying 


her    mat      aaa         er         tf  -  f  usr        er         mut      -  f 

upon  justice,  greater  than  father  his,  more  powerful  than  mother  his, 


I  V 


6. 


neb  en  %ePer  am    "    f  m"  um 

lord  of  that  which  becometh  through  him,    great  of  the  great 

i~  rai-  ?  w-  in  ^v<- 

her  sennu     -    f         se        hat'     mes       tert 

above         brethren,  his  son  of  white  crown,  born  of  the  red  crown 

-a  -*i  vim  mm  %  %\ 

neb  nebu  heq      hequ         ati  nutar    nutaru 

lord    of    lords,       king    of  kings,   chief  supreme,    god  of  gods, 


->  AAAAAA  AAAAAA 

J3       a  £ 


principally  of  the  Eighteenth   Dynasty. 

o       o 


343 


i  w  > 


@ 


erta     entu      nek      taiu     em-bah       a  tf  -   k         Tmu 

have  been  given  to  thee  two  lands  by  the  hand  of  father  thy  Tmu, 


/WW\A  /V.^ 


i^h 


O 


au         nek  mat  men-ta  er        ^eft    her-k 

there  is  to  thee       law  established   before        face    thy, 


0.     I 


^ 


L'z  4:  $  tf 


ha  -  kua      em      mat      neferu-  s       Taliuti     pu    ta  -  f 

let  rejoice   me   in    laiv  (and)   glories  its,    Thoth  it  is  gives  he 


bu        en   neb-  s         s^utn   -    f         em  ^u  re-  f 

it      to  lord  its,  proclaimed  he  [it]  by  the  proclamations  of  mouth  his 


&B» 


I        £L 


J]    I  I  I        III 


^<?>  *k  W\  I 


Tinniii 
those  who  are 


em     nutaru  ret 
among  gods  and  men, 


"  JnP7.fl     \1     h  kWH 

ari  -  k      ast  -  sen     %ent  ^ar-neter     senamlm  -     sen 

makest  thou  seat    their  in  the  nether  ivorld,     greet  they 


1  This  refers  to  the  Ritual  addresses  made  to  the  dead,  and  which  were  all 
supposed  to  proceed  from  Thoth. 

2  This  passage  is  evidently  corrupt.     Pierret  reads  <-^=>  '    w  '  which  makes 
1  he  passage  no  easier. 


Eearl 


;     I 


o44  Notes  on  Egyptian   Stelce, 


aa/wv\  J\  fA  \&1    I  \bi   Q 


en       ka-  k        enti      iu        em        heh      en       heh        pehu 
genius  tin/,  these  tcho  come    by    millions   of    millions    arriving 


l— —             J  y  ViAAAA 

WVAA/\       I       I  ^ XO  £i       \\  I        I     I     I 


mena  rek  enti  em        ^;at      her -sen 

ie  I 
pic 


he  landing  J  ^  ^         ,  ;  j  in  da  Woj»6 1    ,         ; ^ 

/ace  (.       [  upon  J      J  ^ 


her-k  an  %eper  asq  em  ta 

toicards  thee,        not   let   there   be       stoppage     in    the    land   of 


<=>i<Lo    I  in    o  Jr  in  ^=^    ^ae^    <^>  i    4 1 

mera  set         maku      -      nek  tern  uru       ma 

inundation,     they    are    coming    to    thee    entirely         great       like 


\%»  m  » 


q   q    -        III       ^=^6       1  Jh^        1    I  I  I  l     \>         .A     I  I  I 

ketet    -    sen       nek        am         an%u      htep     ta       sper   sen 
young  their  to  thee  there,  living  ones  upon   earth,  approach  they 


j\  ^f  io.  ^  ^MZ 


AAAAAA 

-JL. 


nek        em         bu  na  entek         neb  -  sen         an 

to  thee      in       place        one.  thou   art        lord   their         not 


ki  ap-her-ek  enen  aautu-sen 


other  beside    thee  entirely,  enumerated        they 


1  See  also  Sharpe,  1, 1,  5  ;  T,  1.  7  ;  I,  10.  11. 


principally  of  the  Eighteenth   Dynasty.  345 


ITS  1 


U  I  <=>  <^ 


S3 


on 


ar  %et  ar  ^entet  em       ^ennu       kem 

the  going  up  and  the  coming  down     within  the  extent  of  the 


0 


w  y 


* 


©    © 
i     i 


aha  au      hen    -    k  tnan  hra     em       Ra 

duration  of  life  {thy).     Is  majesty  thy  the  dawn    of  day  like  Rd, 


^     \\     |    |    |  ^     \\    2^    ||  o^ 


I       ft      P 


3 


atiu         her     ^et-k     suten    an       shet' 


entin 
1S6(and)  ^  \  u^w  are  n0^  f°tt°iuing  thee  royal  scribe,  interpreter 


<^>  —  Ion      o  v\ 

en        neb      taiu  heri  se£ta      em        het  Nit 

of  the  lord  of  j  **..w  °  [  president  of  the  secret  in  the  temple  Keith 


ar         em 
made     of 


i  i  i 
hau 


^    To 

ta  any 


4TM 


ii 

ari 
limbs        of        land      of      life       which    are   in 


h. 


£© 


San 
Sais, 


prill 

Ames -roes 
Ames-mes, 


12.     ^ 


t/et-nef 
surnamed 


III      I 

Kanre 

Kan  re 


ill 


aaaw\        r  n  "-tr-a-"  n  [|  r^^^i 


,o  ^4M    PS 

mes      en  Ahi        en       Ast        Anenit  mayera 

born     of        sistnim   bearer  of   Tsis      Anenit  triumphant. 


346 


I    A 


Notes  on  Egimtian  Stelce^  etc. 


o  D         M         «—  II 

suten      til        hotep       Asar        ta  -  f         nefu        net'em    en 

Royal  give    oblation    Osiris,  may  give  he   winds  pleasant  of  the 


oo< 


u 

I 


suten       an        her        ssta 


meht  en       ka        en 

north  wind  to  the  genius  of  royal  scribe  president  of  the  mysteries 


em         ast       mat        Ames-mes  nia^eru 

in  the  seat  of  justice    Ames-mes       triumphant. 


347 


BABYLONIAN    ART,    ILLUSTRATED    BY    MR.    H. 
RASSAM'S  LATEST  DISCOVERIES. 

By  Theo.  G.   Pinches. 
Read  6th  November,  1883. 

Though  Babylonia  has  yielded  as  yet  but  very  few 
monuments  of  large  size,  such  as  have  been  found  in  the 
various  sites  of  Assyria,  yet  their  artistic  taste  and  knowledge 
has  been  fully  vindicated  by  the  discovery  of  small  objects  of 
great  artistic  merit.  The  question,  of  course,  would  naturally 
arise,  whether  the  objects  of  art  brought  from  Babylonia 
were  really,  in  all  cases,  of  Babylonian  workmanship  or  not. 

Of  course  there  have  been  found,  at  various  times,  objects 
of  art  in  Babylonia — cylinder-seals  and  cones,  fragments  of 
sculptured  images  and  small  bas-reliefs,  as  well  as  boundary- 
stones — sometimes  with  the  image  of  a  king,  sometimes  with 
those  well-known  figures  and  emblems  supposed  to  be  the 
originals  of  our  signs  of  the  zodiac.  Lately  also  have  come 
those  beautiful  sculptures  from  Tel-lo,  and  not  less  important 
things  have  been  found  by  Mr.  Rassam  at  Abu-habbah  or 
Sippara,  as  well  as  at  various  other  sites  in  that  most 
interesting  country. 

Before  proceeding  to  my  remarks  upon  the  art  of  the 
Babylonians,  its  origin,  its  growth,  and  how  it  was  influenced, 
I  will  here  give  a  short  description  of  the  most  interesting 
and  valuable  objects,  either  from  an  archaeological  or  an 
artistic  point  of  view,  which  Mr.  Rassam  has  obtained  from 
the  ruined  cities  of  that  great  empire. 

As  is  now  well  known,  the  highest  date  that  we  have  in 

Babylonian  history  is  that  of  the  reign  of  Sargon  of  Agade, 

which  is,  according  to  Nabonidus,   whose  account    of  that 

early  king  I  had  the  pleasure  of  bringing  to  your  notice   a 

Vol.  VIII.  23 


348 


Babylonian  Art.  illustrated  by 


year  ago,  three  thousand  two  hundred  years  before  his  time. 
Of  course  it  was  only  natural  to  suppose  that  the  cylinders  of 
Sargon,  having  been  found,  and  again  restored  to  their 
ancient  places  by  Xabonidus.  should  still  be  there.  These, 
however,  have  not  yet  been  found,  but  Mr.  Rassam  has  had 
the  good  fortune  to  light  upon  a  small  egg-shaped  object  of 
beautifullv-veined  pink  and  white  marble,  pierced  lengthwise 
with  a  rather  large  hole,  and  engraved,  also  lengthwise,  with 
a  Semitic  Babylonian  inscription  in  seven  lines,  two  of 
which  are  double,  as  follows : — 


Sar-ga-ni  Sargon 

lugal-la£  the  messenger- king, 

sar  king  of 

A-ga-de   (ki)  Agadd, 

a-na  to 

(ilu)  Samas  Samas, 

in    Sipar    (ki)  in  Sipjwra, 


m 

^ 

££^ 

TJ^ 

£^> 

i^r 

n 

J! 

HF- 

4 

i>* 

TC 

>^ 

<H 

a-mu-ru 


/  have  dedicated. 


"I,  Sargon  the  messenger-king,  king  of  Agade.  have 
dedicated  [this]  to  Samas  in  Sippara."  1 

Xow  who  is  this  "  Sargani  the  messenger-king,"  king  of 
Agade  ?  Surely  this  is  the  same  king  as  is  known  to  us  by  the 
later  inscriptions  under  the  name  of  Sargina  of  Agade,  the  very 
king  mentioned  by  Xabonidus,  who  reigned  as  far  back  as 
3800  B.C.  Sargon,  of  whom  it  is  told  that  his  mother  put 
him  in  a  little  ark  on  the  Euphrates,  and  that  he  was  found 
by  Akki  the  husbandman,  who  brought  him  up  as  his  own 
son,  and  that,  after  a  time,  he  succeeded  to  the  throne  of 
Babylonia.  He  who.  in  later  times  became,  alike  in  Assyria 
and  Babylonia,  a  national  hero,  whose  deeds  were  celebrated 
in  poetical  legend,  and  also,  most  likely,  in  song. 

1  For  the  representation  of  this  object,  see  plate  4  (facing  p.  1S2),  So.  1. 


Mr.  II.  Rassarns  latest  discoveries. 


349 


But  this  is  not  the  only  inscription  of  the  time  of  that 
early  king.  Known  to  the  world,  and  yet  unknown,  another 
exists.  In  the  year  1878  M.  Menant,  the  well-known  French 
Assyriologist,  described  a  cylinder  in  the  collection  of  M.  de 
Clercq  (who  is  owner,  by  the  way,  of  some  of  the  most 
valuable  and  interesting  monuments  known),  containing  the 
name  of  a  king  which  he  read  as  Se-ga-ni-sar-lug.  This 
important  monument  M.  Menant  has  again  published  this  year 
(1883),  reading  the  name  in  the  same  way.  A  single  glance, 
however,  was  enough  to  show  that  the  first  character  of  the 
name,  read  as  Se,  was  in  reality  &ar,  and  that  the  two  last 
characters  did  not  properly  belong  to  the  name.  The 
inscription,  which  is  in  six  lines,  two  of  which  are  double,  is  in 
Akkadian,  and  is  to  be  read  as  follows  : — 


■4-  tn  $&  ,j^ 


R  53  fcfctf  ^T 


HI 


J^ 


D.P.  Sar-ga-ni  Sargon 

lugal-lag  the  messenger-king ', 

lugal  king  of 

A-ga-de  (ki),  Agade, 

lb-  ni- 

sarru 

dup-sara  the 

ura-zu  thy  servant. 


Ibni-sarru 


The  lines  of  the  inscription  are  written  lengthwise,  in  one 
column,  near  the  upper  edge,  and  almost  resting  on  the 
hinder  parts  of  two  bulls,  who  stand,  as  it  were,  back  to  back. 
The  heads  of  the  bulls  are  raised  and  held  sidewise,  showing 
the  broad  span  of  the  wide-reaching  horns ;  and  they  drink 
from  the  twofold  stream  flowing  from  the  vase  which  the  hero 
Gistubar  (known  from  the  curling  locks  which  fall  to  his 
shoulders)  holds  out  to  them.  The  hero  is  represented  naked, 
kneeling  on  one  knee,  holding  the  vase  by  the  neck  with  one 
hand,  and  supporting  it  beneath  with  the  other.  Underneath 
is  a  wavy  border-ornament,  representing  either  the  sea  or  the 
sky. 


'650  Babylonian  Art,  illustrated  by 

This  cylinder  is  also  of  great  importance,  as  it  gives  us 
an  idea  of  the  style  and  nature  of  the  representation  on 
cylinder- seals  at  this  early  date,  and  enables  us  to  fix 
approximately  the  date  of  other  works  of  art  of  a  similar 
nature.  It  is  probable  that  several  of  the  cylinder-seals  in 
the  British  Museum,  bearing  designs  representing  Gistubar 
and  Ea-bani  overcoming  lions  and  bulls,  belong  to  the  same 
early  period,  as  they  show  great  similarity  of  both  design 
and  workmanship. 

Besides  the  interest  attached  to  these  as  the  very  earliest 
examples  of  Babylonian  art  known — examples  that  show  that 
even  at  that  early  period  very  considerable  advance  indeed 
had  already  been  made — there  is  also  a  philological  interest. 
The  egg-shaped  object  in  the  British  Museum  is,  be  it  noted, 
in  Semitic  Babylonian,  exhibiting,  in  the  few  words  used,  two 
interesting  peculiarities.  The  first  is  the  use  of  the  form  in 
instead  of  ina  for  the  preposition  "in,"  and  the  use  of  the 
root  dmaru,  the  Hebrew  "tt?N,  with  the  meaning  of  "  to  dedi- 
cate," instead  of  "  to  see," — the  signification  which  it  almost 
invariably  has  in  the  later  texts.  With  regard  to  the  form  of 
the  royal  name  (%)  ^HU  ©!>  O  Sargani,  found  in  both 
monuments,  it  is  easy  to  see  how  it  is  that  we  get  the  form 
]iinp  in  Hebrew,  rather  than  pHD,  as  would  be  expected 
from  the  later  form  of  the  name,  Sargina.  Gani,  the  latter 
part  of  the  name,  is  evidently  the  early  form  of  the  well- 
known  root  which  appears,  later  on,  as  gina,  meaning  "to 
fix."  l  The  Greek  form  'Ap/cedvos,  evidently  comes  from  the 
Assyrian  Sarru-ukin,2  and  has  lost,  like  the  more  corrupt 
Apva  of  the  Septuagint,  the  sibilant  with  which  both  the 
Akkadian  and  Assyrian  forms  begin,  replacing  them  by  the 
soft  breathing. 

It  has  been  contended  by  some  scholars  that  the  date  of 
Sargon  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  correct,  as  we  have  only 

1  Another  early  cylinder  in  the  Museum  at  New  York,  described  by  M.  J. 
Menant  in  the  Gazette  des  Beaux-Arts,  gives  us  the  similarly-formed  name  of 
"  Bin- gani,  the  king,  the  son  of  the  king," — perhaps  of  the  same  dynasty. 

2  To  be  read  thus,  according  to  the  tablets  ;  but  the  Greek  points  to  the  form 
Sarru-kenu,  "  the  faithful  king,"  which  was,  perhaps,  the  true  original  Semitic 
form. 


Mr.  II.  Rasscuiis  latent  discoveries.  351 

Nabonidus's  word  for  it,  and  the  text  of  the  cylinder  also  may 
be  corrupt.  For  my  part,  however,  I  think  that  Nabonidus 
had  good  grounds  for  giving  the  king  so  high  a  date,  for  the 
Babylonians  had  a  very  accurate  system  of  chronology.  As, 
also,  this  date  of  3800  years  is  found  on  more  cylinders  than 
one,  I  cannot  believe  that  the  scribe  has  made  a  mistake. 
Taking  into  consideration  the  slow  rate  at  which  the 
Assyrian  or  Semitic  Babylonian  language  changed,  both  in 
grammatical  forms,  and  the  meanings  of  the  words,  the  pecu- 
liarities Sargani  for  Sargina,  and  dmdru  in  the  sense  of  "  to 
dedicate,"  instead  of  "  to  see,"  all  point  to  a  very  ancient  date 
indeed. 

The  style  of  the  writing  also,  though  showing  clear 
wedges,  yet  approaches  nearer  the  line-shapes  than  almost 
any  other  inscription — even  those  of  Gudea.  An  inscription 
of  Naram-Sin,  son  of  the  above-named  Sargon,  found  by  M. 
T.  Fresnel  at  Babylon  (near  the  Nil  canal),  and  afterwards 
lost  in  the  Tigris,  seems,  judging  from  the  copy  published  in 
W.A.I.  I,  pi.  3,  No.  VII,  to  have  been  written  in  the  same 
style.  This  inscription,  which  is  in  Semitic  Babylonian,  is  as 
follows :  "  Naram-Sin,  king  of  the  four  regions,  ....  of 
.  .  .  rag  and  Makan."  (George  Smith  :  "  conqueror  of  Apirak 
and  Magan.") 

If  Babylonian  art  had  reached  such  a  state  of  perfection 
(as  shown  by  the  small  cylinder  I  have  just  described)  at  so 
early  a  date  as  3800  B.C.,  the  question  naturally  arises  how 
far  must  we  go  back  to  seek  the  beginnings  of  that  nation 
which  produced  it?1 

The  next  monument  worthy  of  notice,  brought  by  Mr. 
Rassam  from  Sippara,  is  an  oblong  instrument,  the  greater 
part  of  green  stone,  rather  flat,  rounded  off  at  the  broader 
end,  and  having  the  edges  also  bevelled  off.  It  tapers 
gradually  from  the  broader  end,  and  is  fixed  into  an  orna- 
mental bronze  socket,  cast  or  worked  into  the  form  of  a  ram's 
head,  the  eyes  of  which  are  inlaid  with  some  white  composi- 
tion, the  nose  terminating  in  a  small  ring,  from  which  some- 

1  Fox*  further  remarks  on  the  early  Sargons,  see  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Society  of  Biblical  Archmoloyy  for  Nov.  7,  1882,  pp.  8,  9,  and  12  j  and  Jan.  13, 
J885,  pp.  65-71. 


do! 


Babylonian  Art.  illustrated  l>j 


thing  formerly  hung.  At  the  end  to  -which  the  bronze  part 
is  fixed,  and  partly  covered  by  it,  is  engraved,  upon  one  of  the 
broader  surfaces,  six  lines  of  inscription,  in  two  columns,  as 
follows : — 


1. 


A-na 

To 


■>f 


COLUMX   I. 
«|  «        ~f 


< 


D.P.    Samas.     sar      same      u.     ersiti,     sani  -  su 
(Somas    king  of  heaven  and  earth,  [/lis]  king 


T     tT  <^  *K  r-  ^  «      V 

D.P.    Tukul-  ti  -Me-  ir  sar       mat 

Tukulti-Mer,  king  of 

ff      T     HF-  V  SI  «      V 

apil    D.P.    Ilu  -  sa  -  ba  sar       mat 

son  of               llu-saba  king  of 


Ha  -  na 
Hana, 

Ha  -  na 
II  ana 


COLOES"  II. 


a-na     -      ki 

for      [the       safety] 


■2-     < 
u 
and 


-o 

TT 

<V>II<T 

na 

sa 

ar 

Us 

(own) 

I 

niati  -  su 

of    his     land 

ti         -        su 
protection 


he 


ki 
has 


is 


given. 


'•  To  Samas.king  of  heaven  and  earth,  [his]  king.  Tukulti- 
Mer  king  of  Hana,  son  of  llu-saba.  for  the  [safety]  of  his  land, 
and  his  (own)  protection,  has  given  (this  instrument)."" 

This  monument  is  most  interesting,  as  it  shows  the 
renown  of  the  shrine  of  Samas  at  Sippara, — a  renown  so 
great  that  the  king  of  Hana,  near  Karkemish,  thought  it  of 

i  Or  "-^T^  I j  pale-iii,  "his  reign"  (nasar  pale-Su,  "the  protecting  of  his 
reign"). 

-   See  plate  4  (facing  p.  182),  No.  4. 


Mr.  II.  Rassams  latest  discoveries.  353 

some  use  to  make  a  present  to  the  temple  to  gain  the  favour 
of  the  god  there  enshrined. 

It  is  also  worthy  of  note,  that  the  names  Tukulti-Mer 
and  Ilu-saba,  are  not  only  distinctly  Semitic,  but  bear  also  a 
marked  Assyrian  or  Babylonian  stamp,  and  may  be  compared 
with  the  distinctly  Semitic  Ilu-bi'di,  or  Yau-bi'di,  king  of  a 
district  also  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Karkemish,  mentioned 
by  Sargon  of  Assyria.  These  facts  prove  either  that  the 
language  of  the  country  of  Hana  did  not  differ  greatly  from 
Semitic  Babylonian  or  Assyrian,  or  that  it  was  governed  by 
kings  of  Assyrian  or  Babylonian  race  (the  former  is  the 
preferable  supposition).  As  the  inscription  is  written  in  the 
Assyrian  style,  with  a  few  archaic  forms,  it  is  probable  that  it 
is  the  work  of  Assyrians,  and  not  of  Babylonians.  The 
monument  therefore  belongs,  most  likely,  to  the  time  of 
Shalmaneser  IE,  king  of  Assyria  about  859  B.C.  This  king, 
as  we  learn  from  the  inscriptions  on  the  Bronze  Gates  and 
from  the  above-mentioned  cylinder  of  Nabonidus,  visited 
Babylonia,  and  made  offerings  to  and  repaired  the  temples  in 
many  of  the  principal  cities,  and  it  is  very  likely  that  it  was 
during  the  Assyrian  occupation  that  this  object  was  presented 
to  the  shrine  of  Sippara,  and  the  inscription  carved.  It  is 
probably  one  of  those  staves  or  batons  which  the  Assyrian 
kings  are  sometimes  represented  holding,  as  it  shows  marks 
of  wear  evidently  caused  by  being  continually  grasped  in 
the  hand. 

Another  monument  of  Assyrian  artistic  skill  is  a  lion's 
head  carved  in  white  limestone,  originally  exceedingly  hard, 
but  now  changed  to  chalk  by  the  action  of  fire.  This  work 
of  art,  which  is  of  most  vigorous  execution,  was  probably 
originally  intended  for  an  ornament  for  a  chair  or  similar 
piece  of  furniture.  The  mouth,  which  is  open  threateningly, 
shows  the  well-formed  teeth.  Above  the  upper  lip  are,  on 
each  side,  five  curved  sunken  grooves,  which  were  formerly 
inlaid  with  some  material,  probably  to  enable  the  long 
feelers  or  whiskers  to  be  inserted.  Wavy  grooves  for  inlaying 
are  also  to  be  seen  above  the  nose.  The  eyes  were  inlaid,  and 
the  holes  for  the  insertion  of  the  long  hairs  forming  the  eye- 
brows still  remain.     In  the  middle  of  the  forehead  there  had 


354  Babylonian  Art,  illustrated  by 

originally  been  inserted  the  little  winged  figure  emblematic 
of  the  god  Assur,  now  lost.  Round  the  rim  of  the  neck  is 
the  following  inscription  in  Assyrian  characters  : — 

"  Sennacherib,  king  of  multitudes  ....  Esarhaddon  his 
son  .... 

The  date  of  this  fine  specimen  of  Assyrian  workmanship 
is  therefore  about  6So  B.C.,  and  is  a  memorial  of  the  conquest 
of  Babylonia  by  Sennacherib,  who  seems,  judging  from  the 
above  inscription,  to  have  set  his  son  Esarhaddon  on  the 
throne  of  Babylonia  in  Ins  own  lifetime. 

Another  work  of  art,  also,  most  likely,  of  Assyrian  work- 
manship, is  a  very  finely-carved  calf's  head  in  ivory.  The 
modelling  of  the  closed  mouth,  the  broad  nose,  the  full  eyes, 
and  the  budding  horns,  is,  in  its  way.  excellent.  The  back 
of  the  neck  and  the  front  of  the  forehead  is  represented 
covered  with  hah*  arranged  in  rows  of  small  curls,  just  like 
the  winged  bulls  from  Nimroud.  A  small  object,  not,  how- 
ever, in  a  very  good  state  of  preservation  (pi.  3\  Xo.  3),  also 
of  Assyrian  workmanship,  in  a  griffin's  head  of  burnt  lime- 
stone. This  creature  has  a  strange,  almost  comic,  appear- 
ance. It  is  represented  with  the  head  of  an  eagle,  a  small 
comb  like  a  cock,  and  the  eyes,  originally  inlaid,  seem  to  be 
inserted  into  a  continuation  of  the  ears.  The  neck  is 
ornamented  with  spiral  hues. 

From  this  same  interesting  site  also,  Mr.  Rassam  has 
brought  a  very  finely-carved  figure,  either  of  a  Babylonian 
queen  or  else  of  Istar  or  Venus,  who  is  represented  wearing 
a  wig  of  long  wavy  hair,  which  falls  below  the  shoulders, 
and  holding  in  each  hand,  against  her  breast,  a  lotus-flower. 
The  face  is  of  a  clearly  Semitic  type.  Whether  this  object 
is  of  Babylonian  or  Assyrian  workmanship  is  impossible 
to  say.  The  alabaster  of  which  this  figure  is  formed  is 
hollowed  out,  and  it  seems,  from  this  circumstance,  to  have 
been  part  of  some  piece  of  furniture,  and  formerly  supported 
something  on  the  head.  Fig.  1  on  pi.  31  gives  an  excellent 
idea  of  this  work  of  art. 

These  monuments,  though  few  in  number,  put  before  us 

1  Facing  page  174. 


Mr.  II.  Rassairts  latest  discoveries.  355 

several  very  interesting  facts  about  the  origin  and  nature  of 
Babylonian  art.  As  I  have  already  said,  the  little  egg-shaped 
object  of  Sargon  I,  confirming,  as  it  does,  the  reading  of  the 
inscription  on  the  cylinder-seal  belonging  to  M.  de  Clercq, 
presents  us  with  the  earliest  style  of  art.  Gistubar,  the 
warrior-hero,  is  there  shown  performing  one  of  those  feats 
which,  it  is  only  reasonable  to  suppose,  formed  the  subject  of 
one  of  the  twelve  tablets  which  were  devoted  to  his  history. 
This  representation,  and  others  like  to  it,  now  in  the  British 
Museum,  show  us  the  style  of  art  of  that  ancient  time,  from 
which,  as  it  seems  to  me,  more  is  to  be  got  than  the  mere 
comparison  of  forms  and  styles.  The  strongly-marked 
muscles  of  the  man,  his  large  head,  his  locks  falling  in  large 
curls  to  his  shoulders,  are  all  characteristic  of  a  Semitic  race 
— the  Assyrio-Babylonian  stem.  In  the  strongly-marked 
muscles  we  see  the  chief  characteristic  of  Assyrian  art,  as 
found  in  the  sculptures  of  the  various  Assyrian  kings,  and  in 
Gistubar's  long  ringlets  the  origin  of  the  elaborately-curled 
head-dresses  and  beards  of  the  Assyrians.  This  is  Semitic  art 
as  being  distinct  from  the  Akkadian. 

A  few  centuries  later,  and  we  have  a  style  quite  different. 
The  representations  also  are  of  a  different  kind.  No  longer 
do  we  see  the  exploits  of  Gistubar  and  his  satyr-like  friend 
Hea-bani,  but  representations  of  the  various  gods,  such  as 
Samas,  the  sun,  Aa,  the  moon-goddess  as  his  consort,  Nergal 
and  other  divinities  with  the  divine  attendants,  generally 
introducing  the  owner  of  the  cylinder  to  the  god — Iris  patron 
god.  The  figures  are  tall  and  slim,  but  exceedingly  well- 
proportioned,  and  often  very  beautifully  engraved. 

The  period  represented  by  this  style  of  art  extended  from 
about  2200  B.C.  to  about  1200  B.C,  and  probably  came  in  with 
the  dynasty  of  which  Hammurabi  or  Kimta-rapastum  was  the 
most  celebrated  ruler.  Many  works  of  art,  probably 
belonging  to  this  period,  are  now  in  the  British  Museum. 
They  represent,  for  the  greater  part,  either  the  Sun-god  or  his 
consort,  clothed  in  the  goatskin  robe  proper  to  their  divine 
origin.  Of  all  the  figures  from  Abu-habbah  or  Sippara,  only 
one  is  in  the  same  style  as  those  from  Tel-lo  or  Lagas,  and 
now  in  the  Louvre,  and  as  this  is  made  also  of  diorite,  it  is 


35t?  Babylonian  Art,  illustrated  by 

probable  that  it  is  not  of  native  Sipparite  workmanship. 
Xo.  2  on  plate  31  shows  a  small  figure  of  the  Sun-god  seated, 
clothed  in  a  goatskin  robe,  and  holding  in  his  right  hand  a 
cup.  The  autotype  does  not,  unfortunately,  show  this  very 
well.2 

In  the  next  period  Semitic  influence  again  makes  itself 
felt,  probably  on  account  of  the  Babylonian  artists  copying 
Assyrian  works  of  art,  with  which  they  were  brought  into 
contact  by  the  growing  importance  of  that  nation.  Assyria 
also  began  to  invade  Babylonia  successfully  with  her  armies, 
and  the  Assyrian  kings,  capturing  the  principal  cities,  made 
these  for  a  time  the  seat  of  their  court,  and  had  works  of  art 
executed  in  the  style  of  their  own  country,  thus  also  spreading 
its  influence.  This  happened  in  the  time  of  Shalmaneser,  of 
Sennacherib,  of  Assurbaniapli,  and  also,  most  likely,  of  many 
other  kings.  The  style  of  this  period  approaches  very  nearly 
that  of  the  Assyrians.  The  figures  are  thick  but  well  formed. 
The  muscles  show  prominently,  but  not  too  much.  The  hair 
and  beard  are  dressed  in  the  Assyrian  style. 

Later  still,  but  without  changing  its  Semitic  character, 
Babylonian  art,  perhaps  under  Persian  influence,  becomes 
plainer,  and  the  representations  on  the  cylinders  change. 
Instead  of  the  owner  of  the  cylinder  worshipping,  in  a 
respectful  attitude,  his  own  patron  god,  surrounded  by 
divine  attendants,  he  is  shown,  dressed  in  a  very  plain  style 
of  clothing,  worshipping  the  emblems  of  his  gods,  raised  up 
high  upon  a  kind  of  pedestal  upon  a  low  altar.  The  utmost 
simplicity  prevails,  but  the  workmanship  is,  perhaps,  quite 
as  good  as  that  of  the  best  early  period. 

This  is  the  last  stage  of  true  Babylonian  art,  for  the 
Persians  became  masters  of  the  land,  and  introduced  their 
style.     Many  cylinders  in  the  British    Museum    show    the 

1  Facing  page  174. 

2  One  interesting  fact,  which  has  not,  I  believe,  been  before  remarked,  may 
here  be  noted.  Many  of  the  Haematite  cylinders  of  this  period  seem  to  hare 
fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Cyprians,  who  took  them  with  them  to  Cyprus. 
These  cylinders  then  underwent  a  transformation.  All  the  unengraved  spaces 
were  filled  with  small  figures  in  the  Cyprian  style.  The  inscription  was  ground 
out,  and  the  space  left  utilized  in  the  same  way.  Two  or  three  cylinders  which 
have  been  thus  treated  are  in  the  British  Museum. 


Mr.  II.  Rassams  latest  discoveries.  357 

Persian  style  pure  and  simple.  The  figures  are  squarer  and 
more  thick-set  than  in  the  former  period,  the  head-dresses 
also  are  in  the  Persian  style.  In  the  mythological  represen- 
tations the  animal-forms  (as  is  also  the  case  at  Persepolis)  are 
better  executed  and,  even  when  roughly  done,  more  graceful. 
After  the  Persian  supremacy,  Babylonian  art  may  be  said  to 
have  completely  died  out,  and  the  designs  on  the  seals  show 
more  Greek  influence  than  anything  else. 

I  have  thus  tried  (though  imperfectly)  to  treat  very 
shortly  of  Babylonian  art  from  a  point  of  view  from  which 
it  has  not  yet  been  looked  at,  and  I  hope  that  the  study 
has  not  been  quite  without  its  advantages.  "  I  shall  con- 
sider that  my  labour  has  not  been  wholly  lost  if  I  have 
succeeded  in  showing  how  closely  the  history  of  art  in 
Babylonia  agrees  with  what  I  have  inferred  from  the  indirect 
indications  furnished  by  the  antiquities  recently  brought  from 
that  country.  First  the  Semitic  style,  then  the  Akkadian, 
disturbed  again  by  the  influence  of  Semitic  (Assyrian)  art 
from  without,  and  lastly  the  Persian,  itself  an  offspring  of  the 
earlier  Semitic  Assyrian  or  Babylonian  art. 


35S 


BIBLICAL  NATIONALITIES  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 
By  H.  Rassam. 

Read  4th  December,  1883. 

Ix  addressing  you  this  evening  upon  a  very"  intricate, 
but  at  the  same  time  a  most  interesting,  subject  relating  to 
ancient  Biblical  lands  and  their  inhabitants  as  they  existed 
in  olden  times,  and  do  exist  at  present,  I  do  not  intend 
to  enter  minutely  into  a  religious  or  scientific  dissertation. 
I  wish  merely  to  tiy  and  give  an  unprejudiced  account  of 
what  I  know  of  the  peoples  of  those  countries,  together 
with  some  information  I  have  gleaned  from  different  sources 
relating  to  them. 

Of  all  the  nationalities  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament, 
only  the  Persians  hold  their  own  now  both  in  dominion  and 
power,  the  remainder  having  been  brought  into  subjection 
under  one  sway,  that  of  the  Turk,  known  in  history  by  the 
name  of  Tartar  or  Scythian.  Of  all  the  tribal  and  national 
names  mentioned  in  Scripture  and  secular  history,  not  one 
has  retained  its  primitive  name,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Jew.  More  than  nine-tenths  of  the  population  of  Turkey 
and  Persia  are  followers  of  Mohammed,  and  the  remainder 
are  a  mixture  of  Christians,  Jews,  and  nondescript  sects,  as 
the  latter  do  not  exactly  know  themselves  what  they  believe 
in.  They  are  the  Guebres  or  ancient  Parsis,  Sabians,  who 
are  commonly  known  as  Christians  of  St.  John,  Ansarees, 
Druzes,  Yezidis,  or  devil  worshippers,  and  Shabbaks.  From 
the  constant  intercourse  and  intermixing  with  their  Christian 
and  Moslem  neighbours,  more  especially  from  being  perpetually 
assailed  and  persecuted  in  their  religious  rites,  the  latter  sects 
have  come  now  to  acknowledge  the  time  God  of  the  believers 
in  revealed  religion.  It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  though 
constant  mention  is  made  in  the  Bible  of  the  idolatry  of  the 
different  Gentile  nations,  there  is  now  no  such  thing  as  the 


Biblical  Nationalities  Post  and  Present.  859 

worship  in  high  places  of  idols  or  of  the  heavenly  hosts  in 
any  part  of  Turkey  or  Persia ;  nor  are  there  any  sacrifices 
performed  by  any  known  community. 

The  Christians  are  distinguished  by  the  names  of  their 
sects,  such  as  Armenians,  Greeks,  Chaldeans,  Syrians, 
Maronites,  and  Copts.  As  I  have  to  touch  again  upon  the 
variety  of  the  beliefs  existing  among  these  Christian  commu- 
nities, and  their  origin,  I  must  first  give  a  short  statement 
of  the  rise  and  progress  and  ultimate  fall  of  the  two  great 
ancient  kingdoms,  Assyria  and  Babylonia,  which  are  famous 
in  history  for  their  civilization  and  conquests. 

There  is  such  great  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  history 
and  duration  of  the  Chaldean,  Assyrian,  Median,  and  Medo- 
Persian  monarchies,  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  make  proper 
calculations  from  the  conflicting  opinions  that  present  them- 
selves. Though  some  critics  have  found  some  stumbling-block 
in  the  chronological  accounts  of  the  Hebrew  sacred  writings, 
they  cannot,  I  think,  place  more  faith  in  the  dates  given  by 
profane  historians.  It  has  not  been  quite  proved  even  now 
exactly  what  was  the  origin  of  the  Chaldean  monarchy,  and 
at  what  period  the  Assyrian  kingdom  came  into  existence. 
In  Genesis  (chapter  x,  verses  11  and  12)  it  is  recorded 
that  "out  of  that  land  went  forth  Asshur,  and  builded  Nineveh, 
and  the  city  Rehoboth,  and  Calah,  and  Resen  between 
Nineveh  and  Calah :  the  same  is  a  great  city."  But  in  the 
margin  the  going  forth  of  Asshur  is  rendered,  "  He  went  out 
into  Assyria " ;  that  is  to  say,  Nimrod  himself  went  thither 
and  built  Nineveh  and  the  other  great  ancient  cities.  A  good 
deal  of  discussion  has  taken  place  as  to  the  true  meaning 
of  the  word  Asshur,  inasmuch  as  the  Hebrew  "Wll^N  may 
be  translated  either  as  a  proper  name  or  a  country,  and  at 
present  some  believe  that  it  means  the  former,  and  others 
the  latter.  The  same  difficulty  seems  to  present  itself  in 
connection  with  the  mention  of  the  divine  punishment  to  the 
land  of  Assyria  alluded  to  by  the  prophet  Micah  (chapter  v,  6), 
where  it  is  said:  "  and  they  shall  waste  the  land  of  Assyria 
with  the  sword,  and  the  land  of  Nimrod  in  the  entrances 
thereof."  Some  scholars  are  of  opinion  that  "  the  land  of 
Nimrod"  was  here  meant  to  be  Babylonia  or  Chaldea,  but 


360  Biblical  Nationalities  Past  and  Present. 

others  take  it  to  be  Assyria ;  and  I  suppose  that  those  who 
differ  now  would  each  have  their  own  adherents  to  the  end  of 
the  chapter.  I  must  confess  I  am  of  the  latter  opinion ; 
because  in  the  whole  book  of  the  prophet  Micah  there  is  not 
the  least  allusion  made  to  Babylonia  or  Chaldea,  but  that,  as 
it  is  said  in  Psalm  lxxviii,  51,  that  "  God  smote  all  the  first- 
born in  Egypt ;  the  chief  of  their  strength  in  the  tabernacles 
of  Ham " ;  so  also  the  land  of  Assyria  and  of  Nimrod 
meant  the  same  country  in  Micah. 

In  quoting  the  dates  of  the  existence  of  the  different 
principal  nationalities,  I  do  not  intend  to  give  an  opinion 
upon  them,  but  shall  merely  confine  myself  to  what  certain 
writers,  more  able  than  myself  to  master  the  subject,  have 
Bet  forth,  and  leave  it  to  others  to  make  their  own  de- 
ductions. 

According  to  the  chronology  in  the  margins  of  the  Bible, 
Nineveh  or  the  oldest  Assyrian  empire  was  founded  about 
2230  B.C. ;  but  Diodorus  Siculus,  taking  his  information  from 
Ctesias,  says  that  it  was  founded  by  Xinus  2183  B.C., 
whereas  Africanus  is  said  to  have  fixed  the  foundation  of  the 
Assyrian  Monarchy,  on  the  authority  of  Syncellus,  about 
2284  B.C.  Eusebius,  the  historian,  places  it  about  2116,  and 
Aemilius  Sura  makes  it  39  years  later.  The  most  clear 
evidence  is  mentioned  by  Polyhistor,  found  in  the  Armenian 
Chronicle,  and  believed  to  be  an  extract  from  the  work  of 
Berosus,  the  Chaldean  historian,  and  priest  of  the  temple  of 
Belus  in  Babylon.  This  record  contains  a  table  from  the 
dynasties  of  the  old  Assyrian  Empire  assigning  the  date  to 
each,  and  the  addition  of  the  figures  give  the  epoch  2317 
B.C.  as  that  of  the  foundation  of  the  first  Assyrian  Monarchy. 
The  duration  of  the  first  Assyrian  Empire,  according  to  the 
account  given  by  Ctesias,  was  1.306  years,  but  both  Hero- 
dotus and  Berosus  make  it  only  about  526. 

The  later  Assyrian  Empire  commenced  with  Tiglath- 
Pileser  I  about  1110  B.C.,  and  lasted  only  470  years,  and  its 
importance  terminated  with  Assur-bani-pal  III,  called  by  the 
Greeks  Sardanapalus.  about  640  B.C.  This  monarch  became 
famous  from  his  warlike  exploits,  and  it  appears  that  in  his 
time  art  improved  greatly,  judging  from  the  sculptures  which 


Biblical  Nationalities  Past  and  Present.  361 

adorned  his  palace  in  Nineveh,  and  which  are  now  exhibited 
in  the  basement  room  at  the  British  Museum.  In  this  palace 
I  discovered  the  Deluge  and  Creation  tablets,  and  the  record 
of  his  twenty-four  years'  reign  and  conquests  inscribed  on  terra 
cotta  cylinders,  which  were  found  buried  in  the  walls. 
Sargon,  Sennacherib,  and  Esarhaddon,  the  father  of  Assur- 
bani-pal,  reigned  from  721  to  about  660  B.C.  These  four 
kings  seem  to  have  extended  their  conquests  far  and  wide, 
especially  in  Western  Asia,  between  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  Halays  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Caspian  and  the  Great 
Persian  Desert  on  the  other.  During  the  period  of  their 
reign  they  ruled  over  Susiana,  Chaldea,  Babylonia,  Media, 
Armenia,  Mesopotamia,  parts  of  Cappadocia  and  Cilicia,  Syria, 
Phoenicia,  Palestine,  Idumea,  and,  for  a  time,  Lower  Egypt. 
Cyprus  was  also  for  a  short  period  a  dependency  of  Assyria, 
and  the  prince  of  that  island  used  to  bring  the  yearly  tribute 
to  the  king  of  Assyria  at  Nahr-el-Kelb,  near  Beyrout.  With 
the  son  of  Sardanapalus,  who  was  supposed  to  be  Saracus, 
the  last  remnant  of  the  Assyrian  Monarchy  came  to  an  end 
through  the  invasion  of  his  country  by  the  Median  king 
Cyaxares,  who  was  in  alliance  with  the  Chaldeans  and 
Susianians.  He  had  made  Nabopolassar,  the  father  of 
Nebuchadnezzar  II,  his  general,  and  sent  him  to  Babylon  as 
his  deputy ;  but  on  arriving  there  he  revolted,  and  concluded 
a  treaty  with  Cyaxares,  after  which,  in  conjunction  with  the 
Medes,  he  besieged  Nineveh.  Saracus,  who  was  weak  and 
effiminate,  spent  his  best  time  in  debauchery,  and  neglected 
the  care  of  his  kingdom ;  so  when  the  Medo-Chaldean  army 
besieged  Nineveh  he,  finding  no  escape  from  disgrace  and 
ruin,  shut  himself  up  with  all  his  family  and  followers  in  his 
palace,  which  he  committed  to  the  flames,  and  perished  with 
it.  This  edifice,  where  Sennacherib  was  supposed  to  have 
been  murdered  by  two  of  his  sons,  was  discovered  by 
Mr.  Layard  in  1845.  It  was  found  to  be  utterly  destroyed 
by  fire,  but  nothing  of  any  intrinsic  value  was  seen  in  any 
of  the  rooms,  nor  was  there  any  sign  of  the  household 
utensils  or  furniture  in  any  part  of  the  building.  Everything 
the  last  Assyrian  king  possessed  must  have  been  either  made 
of  perishable  materials,  or  else,  before  the  palace  was  filled 


302  Biblical  Nationalities  I 'oat  and  Present. 

in  with  cUbris,  the  enemy  despoiled  it  of  all  its  valuables. 
History  informs  us  that  the  Tigris  rose  at  the  time  to  such 
an  extraordinary  height  (such  an  incident  not  having 
occurred  before  or  after  that  event),  that  it  destroyed  a  part 
of  the  wall  and  suburbs,  which  enabled  the  invading  force 
to  gain  admittance  into  the  city.  The  enemy  completed  its 
destruction  by  setting  the  whole  city  on  fire  and  demolishing 
its  strongholds.  All  the  Assyrian  palaces  and  temples  show 
unmistakable  signs  of  the  wilful  destruction  caused  by  the 
enemy. 

There  were  six  palaces  and  three  temples  discovered  in 
what  I  consider  to  have  been  the  radius  of  ancient  Nineveh, 
as  it  existed  in  the  time  of  the  Prophet  Jonah,  supposed  to 
have  been  in  the  time  of  Shalmaneser  II,  or  about  the  year 
860  B.C.  The  oldest  that  was  discovered  at  Nimroud  by 
Mr.  Layard,  and  called  by  him  the  north-west  palace,  was 
built,  according  to  the  inscription  found  on  the  sculptures,  by 
Assur-nazir-pal,  or,  as  others  call  him,  Asshur-dani-pal,  the 
father  of  Shalmaneser.  This  was  the  only  palace  in  Assyria 
which  was  found  in  a  tolerable  state  of  preservation,  and 
which  had  not  been  injured  by  fire. 

The  second  palace  was  that  of  Sargon,  at  Khorsabad, 
discovered  by  M.  Botta  in  1844,  when  he  was  acting  as 
French  Consul  at  Mossul.  The  sculptures  were  here  found 
in  a  dilapidated  condition,  but  some  of  the  huge  human- 
headed  bulls  and  gigantic  figures  were  in  a  wonderful  state 
of  preservation.  The  colossus  supposed  to  be  the  Assyrian 
Hercules  is  represented  carrying  a  lion  under  his  arm,  and 
holding  a  scourge  in  his  right  hand.  Both  at  the  Louvre 
and  the  British  Museum  there  are  fine  specimens  of  these 
monoliths.  At  Khorsabad,  as  well  as  at  Koyunjik,  the  great 
portals  forming  the  centre  of  the  facade  consisted  on  each 
side  of  three  colossal  bulls  with  human  heads  and  eagles' 
wings,  and  a  gigantic  figure  of  a  man  as  I  have  above 
described,  each  formed  of  a  single  block  of  alabaster.  All 
those  at  Koyunjik  were  in  a  dilapidated  state,  and  unfit  to 
be  removed.  The  north-west  palace  at  Nimroud  had  its  great 
portals  also  adorned  with  human-headed  bulls  and  lions,  of 
much    smaller   size    than    those   found    at    Khorsabad    and 


Biblical  Nationalities  Past  and  Present.  3G3 

Koyunjik ;  but  there  were  no  human  figures  between  them, 
and  the  lions  and  bulls  forming  the  entrances  were  placed 
singly  on  either  side. 

The  third  and  the  largest  of  all  the  royal  buildings,  was 
found  by  Mr.  Layard  at  Koyunjik,  or  that  part  of  Nineveh 
where  the  palaces  of  Sennacherib  and  Assur-bani-pal  were 
found  ;  but  the  sculptures  of  this  palace  were  so  much  burnt 
and  dilapidated  that  only  a  few  of  them  could  be  removed  to 
England.  On  one  of  the  bulls  of  this  structure  was  inscribed 
Sennacherib's  memorable  expedition  against  Lachish  and 
Jerusalem,  as  related  in  the  18th  chapter  of  the  second  book 
of  Kings,  and  36th  chapter  of  Isaiah. 

The  fourth  palace  was  found  at  the  mound  of  Nebbi- 
Yunis,  adjoining  Koyunjik,  which  was  began  by  Sennacherib, 
and  finished  by  his  son  and  successor,  Esarhaddon.  This 
was  partially  excavated  by  Hilmi  Pasha,  the  governor  ot 
Mossul,  in  1852,  for  the  Ottoman  Government.  From  the 
rude  and  unfinished  state  of  the  alabaster  slabs  found  there, 
it  seems  that  before  Sennacherib  had  time  to  adorn  its 
walls  with  sculptures  he  met  with  his  death,  at  the  hands  of 
his  sons  Adrammelech  and  Sharezer.  It  appears  that  the 
Assyrian  monarchs  were  in  the  habit  of  pannelling  the 
chambers  and  halls  of  their  palaces  with  plain  alabaster 
slabs ;  and  after  each  great  victory  or  conquest,  they 
engraved  a  separate  scene  or  subject  in  a  different  room  ;  so 
one  chamber  represented  a  battle  in  Babylon,  another  in 
Lachish,  another  in  Susa,  and  so  on. 

The  fifth  royal  residence  was  built  by  Esarhaddon  at 
Nimroud,  which  Mr.  Layard  calls  the  south-west  palace,  but 
in  comparison  to  the  other  Assyrian  buildings  it  is  scarcely 
worthy  of  so  grand  a  name.  All  the  slabs  of  this  edifice  seem 
to  have  been  used  formerly  by  some  other  king,  the  sculp- 
tured side  being  turned  to  the  wall,  generally  upside  down, 
and  new  designs  of  the  reigning  monarch  engraved  upon 
the  clear  side.  This  shabby  way  of  erecting  a  palace  by 
a  renowned  king  does  not  quite  coincide  with  what 
Esarhaddon  has  recorded  in  his  annals  regarding  the  mag- 
nificence of  the  royal  residences  and  temples  he  set  up 
in  Assyria.     In  one  inscription  he  states  that  he  built  no  less 

Vol.  VIII.  24 


364  Biblical  Nationalities  Past  and  Present. 

than  thirty  temples,  "shining  with  silver  and  gold,  as 
splendid  as  the  snn."  In  another  place  he  also  speaks  of  a 
palace  which  he  had  built  in  Nineveh,  on  the  mound  known 
now  by  the  name  of  Nebbi  Yunis,  which  he  calls  a  palace 
such  as  the  kings  his  fathers  who  went  before  him  had  never 
made.  He  gave  it  the  name  of  "  the  palace  of  the  pleasures 
of  all  the  year."  It  was  supported  on  wooden  columns,  and 
roofed  with  cedar  and  other  choice  woods. 

As  I  mentioned  before,  when  the  Ottoman  authorities 
excavated  in  this  mound  they  found  nothing  but  plain  slabs, 
and  unfinished  human-headed  bulls  and  gigantic  figures.  I 
made  some  tentative  excavations  there  three  years  ago,  but 
was  not  allowed  to  do  much  in  consequence  of  the  opposition 
of  the  Ottoman  authorities.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the 
British  Museum  will  yet  be  permitted  to  carry  on  the 
necessary  excavations  there,  as  I  feel  confident  that  some 
very  valuable  records  will  be  recovered. 

The  sixth  palace  was  discovered  by  me  at  Koyunjik  in  1854, 
and  belonged  to  Assur-bani-pal  III,  son  of  Esarhaddon,  com- 
monly known  by  the  name  of  Sardanapalus.  A  large  number 
of  the  bas-reliefs  were  in  a  good  state  of  preservation,  and 
those  which  represent  the  lion-hunt  show  a  great  advance 
in  art  in  comparison  to  other  Assyrian  stone-carving.  As 
I  have  already  given  you  in  a  former  paper  an  account  of 
the  fortunate  way  I  discovered  this  palace,  it  need  not 
now  be  repeated. 

There  is  another  notable  mound  in  Mesopotamia,  about 
sixty  miles  down  the  Tigris  from  Mossul,  called  Kalaa-Shirgat, 
which  must  have  been  a  very  important  city  in  the  time  of 
the  first  Assyrian  monarchy.  It  was  founded,  according  to 
the  theory  of  Assyrian  scholars,  by  Asshur,  where  the  seat  of 
government  was  first  established,  and  which  is  considered 
to  be  the  Resen  of  the  Bible  mentioned  in  the  tenth  chapter 
of  Genesis.  Both  Mr.  Layard  and  I  excavated  there,  but 
neither  found  any  trace  of  its  former  magnificence.  We  both 
discovered  a  few  ancient  fragments  and  some  inscriptions,  but 
there  was  no  sign  of  any  ancient  building.  In  a  small 
conical  mound  in  the  centre  of  the  main  one  we  found  three 
terra-cotta  cylinders,  almost  duplicates,  giving  the  history  of 


Biblical  Nationalities  Past  and  Present.  365 

Tiglath-Pileser  I,  about  1300  B.C.  These  cylinders  are 
supposed  to  be  the  oldest  records  discovered  iu  Assyria. 

The  first  temple  was  discovered  by  Mr.  Layard  in  1850, 
at  the  north-west  corner  of  the  mound  of  Nimrod,  near  the 
pyramid  built  by  Assur-nazir-pal,  the  remainder  of  which  I 
believe  I  discovered  in  1 87  6 ;  everything  in  it  was  in  utter  ruin. 

The  second  was  the  temple  of  Nebo,  which  I  discovered 
in  1854,  at  the  south-west  corner  of  the  mound  of  Nimrod. 
I  found  nothing  in  it  save  six  statues  of  Nebo,  dedicated  in 
honour  of  King  Rimmon  Nirari  I  and  his  queen  Semiramis. 
Two  of  these  statues  are  now  in  the  British  Museum. 

The  third  and  grandest  temple  I  discovered  in  1876  was 
in  a  separate  mound  called  Balawat,  about  15  miles  to  the 
east  of  Mossul,  where  I  obtained  for  the  British  Museum  the 
famous  bronze  gates  of  Shalmaneser.  As  I  have  already 
related  to  you  in  a  former  paper,  I  had  no  end  of  trouble  to 
secure  this  interesting  relic  for  the  national  collection,  because 
the  whole  mound  of  Balawat  is  covered  with  Moslem  tombs, 
and,  as  a  matter  of  course,  there  was  a  good  deal  of  oppo- 
sition against  my  digging  there  ;  but  happily,  by  patience  and 
perseverance,  I  managed  to  have  the  whole  removed  safely 
to  Mossul,  from  whence  I  conveyed  it  to  England. 

This  gate  was  put  up  by  Shalmaneser  II  (B.C.  860  to  825), 
most  probably  in  the  time  of  the  mission  of  the  prophet  Jonah 
to  Nineveh.  The  bulk  must  have  been  made  of  cedar  or 
other  wood.  Only  the  bronze  plates  have  been  preserved, 
which  are  fourteen  in  number,  each  measuring  about  eight  feet 
in  length  by  one  in  width.  Each  plate  is  divided  into  two 
panels,  ornamented  along  the  edges  with  rosettes,  between 
which  are  represented  battle-scenes,  triumphal  pageants,  and 
religious  performances  of  the  king. 

According  to  the  opinion  of  Assyrian  scholars,  the  mound 
of  Nimroud  was  Calah,  and  the  majority  of  travellers  place 
Eehoboth  on  the  right  side  of  the  Euphrates,  about  250  miles 
above  Babylon,  on  the  site  of  the  present  ruin  called 
"  Rahaba."     Kalah-Shigat  is  supposed  to  be  Asshur. 

Nimroud  may  or  may  not  be  Calah,  but  I  am  certainly 
in  utter  discord  with  the  theory  about  the  site  of  Reho- 
boik.      It   has   been  considered   by    different   travellers,    on 


306  Biblical  Nationalities  Past  and  Present. 

the  authority,  I  suppose,  of  the  Targums  of  Jonathan  and 
Jerusalem,  that  Kalah-Shirgat  is  the  site  of  Resen,  as  it  lias 
been  called  "  Tel-Assur,"  from  Asshur  the  primitive  name  of 
the  place  in  the  cuneiform  writing.  I  do  not  quite  agree 
with  this  theory,  because  if  we  take  the  account  of  Moses  even 
as  an  historical  fact,  we  cannot  but  regard  his  legend  to  be  a 
correct  one  from  his  other  geographical  notices.  We  are  told  in 
the  10th  chapter  of  Genesis,  that  Resen  was  "between  Nineveh 
andCalah:  the  same  is  a  great  city";  whereas  the  present 
Kalah-Shirgat  is  about  40  miles  to  the  south  of  Nimroud,  and 
the  latter  place  is  only  about  18  miles  to  the  south  of  Nineveh 
proper.  As  for  the  reasoning  that  the  present  ruins  of 
"  Rahaba,"  near  the  modern  town  of  Mayadeen,  are  the  site 
of  the  old  Rehoboth,  it  is  quite  untenable,  because  the  style  of 
the  architecture  of  Rahaba  belongs  to  that  of  the  Sassanian 
period,  or  the  time  of  the  last  Arab  conquest,  and  has  not  the 
least  resemblance  to  Assyrian  remains.  Moreover,  Rahaba  is 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Euphrates,  about  250  miles 
to  the  north-west  of  Babylon,  and  about  150  miles  to  the 
south-west  of  Nineveh,  and  whether  Nimrod  or  Asshur  was 
the  founder,  he  could  not  have  built  three  cities  within  the 
space  of  sixty  miles,  and  proceeded  to  the  Syrian  desert  to 
build  the  fourth !  My  idea  is,  that  the  Calah  of  Scripture  is 
Kalah-Shirgat,  Resen  is  Nimroud,  and  Rehoboth  is  a  site  which 
I  partially  excavated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tigris,  about 
40  miles  from  Nineveh,  and  20  miles  from  Kalah-Shirgat.  Or 
else  if  Nimroud  is  really  Calah,  as  Assyrian  scholars  assert, 
then  I  would  fix  the  site  of  Resen  at  Yarhnja,  about  three 
miles  to  the  south  of  Nineveh. 

I  believe  that  in  the  time  of  the  prophet  Jonah  what 
was  called  Nineveh  included  Nimroud  on  the  south,  and 
Khorsabad  on  the  north;  the  circumference  of  the  whole 
space  between  would  be  about  60  miles,  which  tallies  exactly 
with  the  account  of  Jonah,  that  "  Nineveh  was  an  exceeding 
great  city  of  three  days'  journey,"  reckoning  20  miles  a  day, 
according  to  the  way  a  pedestrian  travels  in  that  country. 

As  regards  Babylonian  history,  I  think  that  we  can  only 
rely  with  any  degree  of  certainty  on  the  sacred  record  for 
its  origin.     It  is  said  also  in  the  10th  chapter  of  Genesis  that 


Biblical  Nationalities  Past  and  Present.  367 

the  beginning  of  the  kingdom  of  Nimrod,  "  the  mighty 
hunter  before  the  Lord,"  was  "Babel,  Erech,  Accad,  and 
Calneh,  hi  the  land  of  Shinar."  Different  travellers  and 
others  have  puzzled  their  heads  from  time  to  time  in  tyring 
to  fix  different  spots  to  these  localities,  but  we  cannot  place 
any  reliance  in  their  hypotheses.  The  only  place  we  can 
safely  accept  as  authentic  is  Babylon,  because  all  historians 
alike,  together  with  tradition  from  time  immemorial,  pointed 
to  the  exact  locality.  Erech  might  have  been  situated  near 
Bagdad,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tigris,  where  there  are  a 
large  number  of  artificial  mounds,  because  even  now  the 
Bagdad  district  is  called  Erach  or  Erack. 

The  British  and  the  French  have  been  exploring  Babylon 
and  its  surroundings  from  time  to  time  for  the  last  fifty  years, 
and  I  myself  have  been  digging  there  with  success  ever 
since  the  beginning  of  1878.  I  discovered  one  palace  at 
Birs  Nimroud,  the  supposed  site  of  the  temple  of  Belus, 
which  was  built  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  was  occupied  by 
Nabonidus  the  usurper  when  Cyrus  took  Babylon. 

In  Babylon  itself  there  was  no  regular  structure  dis- 
covered, as  the  whole  place  was  so  thoroughly  destroyed  that 
if  it  was  not  from  all  we  read  of  it  in  the  Bible  and  ancient 
history,  no  one  would  credit  the  possibility  of  the  existence 
there  of  such  a  magnificent  city.  The  whole  place  seems  to 
have  been  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  or  some  other  super- 
natural event.  Nothing  can  now  be  seen  of  what  is  called 
in  the  Bible  "  the  glory  of  kingdoms,  the  beauty  of  the 
Chaldees  excellency,"  but  heaps  of  rubbish  intermixed  with 
broken  bricks,  pottery,  and  enamelled  tiles  of  different  colours. 
The  latter  are  supposed  to  have  embellished  the  famous 
palace  of  the  kings  of  Babylon. 

The  temple  which  Herodotus  mentions  must  have  been 
situated  at  Birs  Nimroud,  the  Borsippa  of  the  ancients,  and 
what  has  always  been  supposed  by  Jewish  and  Christian 
historians  to  be  the  site  of  the  Tower  of  Babel.  Formerly 
most  writers  upon  the  history  of  Babylon  placed  it  at  the 
mound  called  by  the  Arabs  "Babel,"  and  which  Mr.  Rich  and 
others  erroneously  styled  "  Imjaileeba " ;  but  since  my  dis- 
covery of  the  palace  in  which  Nabonidus  was  residing  at  the 


3fi8  Biblical  Nationalities  Past  and  Present. 

time  Babylon  was  captured,  and  the  finding  of  four  wells  at 
"  Babel,"  which  proved  it  to  be  the  site  of  the  hanging 
gardens,  it  is  concluded  that  the  famous  temple  was  situated 
at  Birs  Nimroud.  All  the  idols  of  the  Babylonians  have  been 
swept  off  the  face  of  the  earth,  and  not  a  vestige  of  them  is 
seen  anywhere:  I  mean  the  separate  stone  idols,  of  which 
there  must  have  been  a  large  number. 

As  for  Babylon  itself,  Herodotus  gives  the  following 
description  of  it :  "  The  city  stands  on  a  broad  plain,  aud  is 
an  exact  square,  120  furlongs  in  length  each  way,  so  that  the 
entire  circuit  is  480  furlongs.  While  such  is  its  size,  in 
magnificence  there  is  no  other  city  that  approaches  it.  It  is 
surrounded  in  the  first  place  by  a  broad  and  deep  moat  full 
of  water,  behind  which  rises  a  wall  50  cubits  in  width,  and 
200  cubits  in  height."  The  above  description  makes  the 
size  of  Babylon  in  the  time  of  Herodotus,  i.e.,  about  the  5th 
century  before  the  Christian  era,  60  miles  in  circumference, 
or  as  large  as  Nineveh  ;  but  the  difference  between  those 
two  great  cities  was  that  the  former  was  almost  square,  and 
situated  on  either  side  of  the  Euphrates,  while  the  latter  was 
oblong,  and  occupied  the  left  bank  of  the  Tigris.  But  the 
width  and  height  of  the  wall  that  surrounded  Babylon  was 
far  greater  in  dimension  than  that  of  Nineveh.  According 
to  the  account  given  by  different  historians,  the  height  of  the 
wall  of  the  former  city  was  about  350  feet,  and  90  feet  in 
width.  Diodorus  Siculus  informs  us  that  the  wall  of  Nineveh 
was  so  broad  that  three  chariots  might  be  driven  together 
upon  it  abreast,  and  that  of  Babylon  was  wide  enough  to 
allow  six  chariots  to  drive  on  it  side  by  side.  Whenever  I 
visit  the  ruins  of  Babylon,  I  always  wonder  whether  the 
grand  descriptions  given  to  us  by  ancient  historians  of  the 
size  and  magnificence  of  the  capital  of  Chaldea  was  not  for 
the  most  part  a  fabrication,  or.  at  all  events,  greatly 
exaggerated.  Much  time  has  been  spent  in  trying  to  trace 
the  exact  extent  of  the  city  or  its  walls,  but  no  tangible 
results  have  been  obtained.  Indeed,  I  myself  have  tried 
over  and  over  again  to  find  even  a  remnant  of  a  few  feet  of 
that  famous  wall,  and  could  not  see  any  sign  of  its  existence, 
as  its  destruction  was  quite  complete.     Herodotus  tells  us  in 


Biblical  Nationalities  Past  and  Present.  360 

Book  I,  chapter  179,  that  in  the  circuit  of  the  wall  were 
"  a  hundred  gates,  all  of  brass,  with  brazen  lintels  and  side 
posts " ;  and  in  another  place  (Book  III,  chapter  159)  he 
relates  that  Darius,  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the 
Babylonians  from  rebelling  again,  destroyed  the  wall  and 
tore  down  all  the  gates. 

I  must  now  touch  upon  the  religion  of  the  primitive 
Babylonians  and  Assyrians,  but  I  fear  that  to  argue  against 
the  eccentric  theories  of  writers,  and  try  to  convince  all  as 
to  the  real  belief  of  the  ancient  and  modern  Gentiles,  would 
only  increase  the  difficulty,  and  I  should  find,  after  no  end 
of  trouble,  that  I  had  only  wasted  time  and  paper  to  no 
purpose ;  so  I  shall  merely  quote  certain  writers  who  have 
made  the  subject  their  study,  and  leave  it  to  others  to  form 
their  own  conclusions. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  both  the  Assyrians  and  Babylon- 
ians, as  well  as  other  ancient  nations,  worshipped  or  adored 
the  elements  and  the  heavenly  hosts,  and  from  time  to  time 
deified  some  powerful  and  victorious  kings,  teachers  of 
morality,  and  those  who  led  pious  lives  ;  but  the  worship  of 
the  true  and  invisible  God  is  traceable  in  all  the  religions  of 
the  different  sects  in  the  universe. 

The  most  striking  representation  of  the  devotional  rites 
of  the  Assyrians  in  the  time  of  Shalmaneser  is  shown  on  the 
bronze  gates  of  Balawat,  which  I  have  already  alluded  to. 
The  king  (supposed  to  be  Shalmaneser  himself)  is  repre- 
sented acting  the  functions  of  the  priest,  and  in  the  place 
where  he  is  officiating  there  is  the  usual  tablet  of  stone 
representing  a  deified  king,  resembling  the  rock  tablets  of 
Bavian  and  Nahr-el-Kelb  near  Bey  rout.  The  king  seems  to  be 
assisted  by  a  priest  in  offering  incense  before  the  usual  Assyrian 
sacred  symbols,  and  two  attendants  are  throwing  the  legs 
of  a  sacrifice  of  either  a  ram  or  a  bullock  into  the  water,  as 
a  thank-offering  to  the  element,  either  sea  or  river.  In  other 
places  the  attendants  are  represented  bringing  kine  and 
sheep  for  sacrificial  objects  ;  but  the  whole  scene  is  so  wrapped 
in  mystery,  that  as  yet  we  can  only  glean  some  unsatisfac- 
tory explanation.  There  is  one  clear  fact,  however,  in 
connection   with   Assyrian  worship   as   represented  on   the 


370  Bihli'-'il  Nationalities  Past  and  Present. 

bas-reliefs,  that  no  heinous  or  revolting  ceremonies  are 
shown,  such  as  human  sacrifice  and  the  worship  of  Venus, 
known  to  the  Phoenicians  and  Assyrians  by  the  name  of 
Ashtaroth  and  Ishtar.  This  proves  that  the  Assyrians  did 
not  follow  the  abominable  practice  of  the  Babylonians, 
nor  that  of  the  Amorites,  in  sacrificing  their  children  to 
Adrammelech,  Anammelech,  and  Moloch,  but  merely  in- 
voked different  gods  to  whom  they  attributed  divine  powers. 

The  ancient  Medes  and  Persians  undoubtedly  worshipped 
the  elements,  especially  fire,  as  a  personification  of  the  sun, 
or  the  divine  bestower  of  light  on  the  universe;  but  their 
faith  centered  on  the  powers  of  Ormuzd,  the  giver  of  life,  or 
the  "  god  of  good,"  and  Ahriman,  the  destroyer,  or  "  god  of 
evil."  Zoroaster  manifested  himself  in  Persian  mythology  in 
the  time  of  Daniel,  but  others  place  his  date  about  700  years 
earlier. 

Having  touched  in  the  beginning  of  my  lecture  upon  the 
Christian  nationalities  existing  at  present  in  the  lands  of 
the  Bible,  I  must  make  a  few  observations  in  reference  to 
their  creeds,  and  the  nomenclature  by  which  they  are  dis- 
tinguished. 

With  the  exception  of  a  few  Armenian  families  at  Bagdad 
and  Diarbekir,  and  some  who  are  attached  to  the  Greek 
Church  at  the  former  place,  the  whole  of  the  Christian  com- 
munities now  inhabiting  the  country  above  alluded  to  are 
divided  into  four  different  sects,  having,  in  my  opinion,  the 
same  Chaldean  or  Assyrian  origin,  but  who  are  now  styled 
Chaldean  Xestorians,  Chaldean  Catholics,  Syrian  Jacobites, 
and  Syrian  Catholics.  The  Nestorian  community  occupy  the 
southern  part  of  Kurdistan,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Lake 
Vrmiah  in  North-Western  Persia.  The  Chaldean  Catholics 
reside  at  Mossul,  Bagdad,  Diarbekir,  Assyria,  Southern 
Kurdistan,  bordering  on  Assyria,  and  Northern  Persia.  The 
Syrian  Jacobites  and  Syrian  Catholics  are  almost  always  to 
be  found  together  at  Bagdad,  Mossul,  and  its  immediate 
vicinity,  at  Mardin,  Diarbekir,  and  the  Tur  Mountains  on 
the  extreme  south-western  limit  of  Kurdistan. 

The  Jacobites  belong  to  that  part  of  the  Christian  Church 
called  Monophysite ;  that  is  to  say,  those  that  followed  the 


Biblical  Nationalities  Past  and  Present.  371 

doctrine  of  Eutyches,  who  flourished  in  the  5th  century,  and 
taught  the  one  nature  of  Christ. 

The  Monophysites  are  divided  into  four  branches,  namely, 
the  Jacobites,  Armenians,  Copts,  and  Abyssinians.  But  as  it 
is  not  my  intention  to  touch  upon  the  constitution  of  the 
three  last  mentioned  sects,  I  will  only  remark  that  of  all 
the  Monophysite  sects  only  three  are  remaining  who  have 
retained  the  name  of  their  nationality,  and  these  are  the 
Armenians,  Copts,  and  Abyssinians;  whereas  the  Jacobites 
are  called  after  Jacob  Baradaeus,  the  zealous  defender 
of  their  faith  in  the  6th  century,  when  it  was  nearly 
extinct. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  so-called  Syrian  Jacobites  and 
Syrian  Catholics  are  not  natives  of  what  is  known  in  Europe 
as  Syria,  nor  are  there  many  families  of  their  sects  in  that 
country ;  whereas  the  majority  of  the  Christians  in  Syria  are 
called  Maronites,  Greeks,  and  Armenians!  The  word  Syria 
or  Syrianni,  as  it  is  applied  in  Arabic,  is  known  in  the  East 
simply  to  denote  a  religious  sect,  and  not  natives  of  any 
country  in  particular ;  for  although  some  modern  geographers 
have  tried  to  define  the  limits  of  Syria,  yet  it  is  a  known  fact 
that  neither  the  Hebrews  nor  the  Greeks  knew  exactly  what 
constituted  the  boundary  of  Syria,  or  what  is  really  meant 
by  the  Syrian  language.  In  the  English  Bible,  as  also  in  the 
Septuagint,  the  words  Aram  and  Aramaic  are  rendered  Syria 
and  Syriac — words  which  have  no  similarity  to  them  either 
in  sound  or  sense.  It  has  been  conjectured  by  a  number  of 
authors  that  the  word  Syria  is  a  corruption  of  Assyria,  as  it 
is  mentioned  by  Herodotus  that  "  the  Assyrians  were  called 
by  the  Greeks  Syrians."  As  the  Assyrians  always  spoke,  and 
still  speak,  the  Aramaic  language,  and  had  governed  the 
whole  country  between  the  Euphrates  and  the  Mediterranean, 
it  may  be  that  the  word  Assyria  (corrupted  by  the  Greeks 
into  Syria)  became  a  general  term  for  all  peoples  who  occu- 
pied the  present  Mesopotamia,  Chaldea,  Assyria,  the  so-called 
Syria,  and  the  Holy  Land;  the  same  as  the  word  Turkey  is 
now  applied  to  all  those  provinces,  though  the  inhabitants 
are  not  Turks.  The  dubious  rendering  of  the  word  Aram 
into  Syria  and  Syriac  in    he  English  Bible  is  a  misnomer, 


372  Biblical  Nationalities  Past  and  Present. 

because  Laban  and  Jacob  were  called  Syrians,  which  term 
cannot  possibly  apply  to  their  nationalities.1 

I  do  not  believe  that  there  has  been  in  modern  times 
greater  discussion  about  any  historical  question  equal  to  the 
present  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  nationality  of  Abraham. 
A  new  theory  has  lately  been  started  that  he  came  from 
Maggayir,  or  Mockayir.  about  180  miles  below  Babylon,  because 
forsooth  some  inscription  had  been  discovered  at  that  mound 
bearing  the  name  of  "  Ur,"  from  where  we  are  told  in  the  Bible 
he  came  forth !  If  we  were  to  accept  such  a  reason  there 
Avould  be  no  end  of  confusion,  as  there  are  now  existing  towns 
and  cities  bearing  the  same  name,  such  as  Richmond,  London 
Alexandria,  Windsor,  &c.  Following  the  same  line  of  argu 
ment,  we  shall  no  doubt  soon  be  told  that  Aden,  the  British 
Arabian  settlement  near  the  Red  Sea,  is  the  site  of  Paradise, 
because  the  word  "  Eden,"  mentioned  in  Genesis,  is  spelled  in 
Semitic  languages  with  the  same  three  letter,  "py."  More- 
over it  is  utterly  impossible  to  determine  that  the  "  ur  "  of  the 
inscription  of  Maggayir  is  spelt  and  pronounced  the  same  as 
in  Hebrew.  All  ancient  evidence  is  against  the  forced  sup- 
position that  Abraham's  native  place  was  on  the  right  side  of 
the  Euphrates  instead  of  Mesopotamia,  and  180  miles  below 
Babylon  instead  of  300  above  it.  We  only  know  of  Abraham 
from  the  Bible,  and  certainly  all  the  references  to  his  country 
show  that  he  came  from  Q'HrO  DIN,  "  Aram  Naharaim,"  or 
Northern  Mesopotamia.  When  Abraham  sent  his  servant, 
Eliezer  of  Damascus,  to  Mesopotamia,  to  bring  a  wife  for 
Isaac,  he  warned  him  not  to  take  unto  his  son  a  wife  from  the 
Canaanites,  but  to  go  to  his  country  and  to  his  kindred.2  It 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  when  Eliezer  was  sent  to  the  city 
of  Nahor,  Rebekah,  Abraham's  niece,  was  living  with  her 
brother  Laban,  across  the  river,  in  Northern  Mesopotamia, 
the  same  country  whence  Balaam,  the  son  of  Beor,  was  sent 
for  by  Balak,  the  king  of  Moab,  to  curse  Israel.  Then  in 
Saint  Stephen's  apology  before  the  High  Priest,  he  said  that 

1  Vide  Genesis  xxxi,  20  and  24  ;  also  Hosea  xii,  12.  Again  in  the  5th  verse 
of  the  20th  chapter  of  Deuteronomy,  Moses  charged  the  Israelites  to  say,  when 
they  went  to  the  House  of  the  Lord  to  offer  the  first  fruits  of  the  earth,  "  A 
Syrian  ready  to  perish  was  my  father." 

2  Genesis  xxiv,  4. 


Biblical  Nationalities  Past  and  Present.  373 

"  the  God  of  Glory  appeared  unto  our  father  Abraham,  when 
he  was  in  Mesopotamia,  before  he  dwelt  in  Charran,  and  said 
unto  him,  Get  thee  out  of  thy  country,  and  from  thy  kindred, 
and  come  into  the  land  which  I  shall  shew  thee.  Then  came 
he  out  of  the  land  of  the  Chaldeans,  and  dwelt  in  Charran."  1 
Moreover,  we  are  told  by  Nicholas  of  Damascus,  the  his- 
torian, as  quoted  by  Josephus,  that  Abraham  came  from  the 
land  of  the  Chaldeans  above  Babylon.2  Tradition  has  also 
pointed  from  time  immemorial  the  birth-place  of  Abraham  to 
Orfa  (Edessa),  or  in  its  neighbourhood ;  and  there  is  now  a 
district  between  Orfa  and  Birajik  which  is  called  "  Seruj," 
from  Serug,  the  great  grandfather  of  Abraham. 

The  word  Aranii  must  have  been  understood  then  as  the 
term  English  is  at  the  present  day.  The  Anglo-Saxon  race 
retains  its  English  language  wherever  its  descendants  settle, 
and  yet  the  inhabitants  of  those  countries  are  even  now 
distinguished  by  different  names.  If  we  can  imagine  after 
two  or  three  thousand  years,  when  no  chronological  records 
exist,  and  the  world  has  only  to  trust  to  the  vague  histories 
written  by  a  foreigner  mostly  from  hearsay,  I  do  not  think  it 
would  be  an  easy  matter  to  define  the  origin  of  the  Americans, 
Canadians,  and  Australians. 

The  Chaldean  community  considers  itself,  and  rightly 
so,  the  most  ancient  both  as  regards  its  nationality  and 
Christianity.  As  regards  its  origin,  it  is  asserted  that  they 
are  descendants  of  those  Chaldeans  or  Assyrians  mentioned  in 
Holy  Writ;  and  with  reference  to  religion,  the  list  of  the  names 
which  composed  the  heads  of  the  Church  shows  that  their 
forefathers  professed  Christianity  as  early  as  the  1st  century. 

I  need  scarcely  tell  you  that  the  origin  of  the  modern 
Chaldeans  is  disputed  by  those  who  profess  to  know  a  good 
deal  about  the  history  of  the  Old  World,  but  who  neverthe- 
less cannot  show  from  what  stock  they  really  came.  They 
allege  that  when  that  part  of  the  Nestorian  community 
embraced  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  about  200  years  ago, 
Innocent  XI,  the  Pope  of  that  time  (a.d.  1681),  bestowed 
upon  them  that  dignified  name.    They  cannot  help,  however, 

1  Acts  vii,  2-4. 

s  Josephus,  "  Antiquities  of  the  Jews,"  I,  7. 


374  Biblical  Nationalities  Past  and  Present. 

extending  to  them  the  ancient  name  of  "Assyrians"  because 
the  land  which  they  now  inhabit  is  classically  called  by  this 
name.  Yet  they  forget  that  at  one  time,  especially  at  the 
latter  end  of  the  Assyrian  monarchy,  the  names  Chaldean 
and  Assyrian  were  synonymous,  and  the  nation  was  some- 
times known  by  one  name  and  sometimes  by  the  other. 

To  show  how  fallacious  this  assertion  is,  I  will  quote 
what  Assemani,  a  Syrian  historian,  says  in  contradiction  of  it. 
He  remarks  firstly  [Vol.  IV,  page  75]  that  Paul  V,  the 
7th  Pope  before  Innocent  XI,  wrote  to  Elias,  Patriarch  of  the 
Chaldeans,  who  was  then  a  Nestorian,  thus  :  "  A  great  part  of 
the  East  was  infected  by  this  heresy  [Nestorius],  especially 
the  Chaldeans,  who  for  this  reason  have  been  called 
Nestorians."  Secondly,  in  the  same  volume  (page  1),  the 
same  author  notices  that  the  Chaldeans  or  Assyrians,  whom 
from  that  part  of  the  globe  which  they  inhabit  are  termed 
Orientals,  and  from  the  heresy  they  profess  Nestorians. 

The  followers  of  Nestorius  did,  and  very  often  do,  call 
themselves  Nestorians,  but  that  is  merely  for  the  sake  of 
distinguishing  themselves  from  the  other  sects,  just  as  much 
as  a  Wesleyan  or  a  Lutheran,  if  writing  upon  a  religious 
matter,  may  not  think  it  improper  to  say  we  Wesleyans 
or  we  Lutherans.  Surely  such  words  could  never  be 
misunderstood  to  mean  nationalities !  Moreover,  as  the 
Protestants  are  not  ashamed  of  the  name  which  was  given 
them,  neither  did  the  Nestorians,  I  presume,  object  to  the 
name  given  to  them  in  the  same  way  ;  but  why  this 
doctrinal  name  should  be  forced  upon  them  in  the  sense  of  a 
nationality,  when  they  are  not  connected  with  Nestorius 
either  in  his  nationality  or  patriarchate,  is  a  mystery. 

Bar  Hebrseus,  who  lived  in  the  13th  century,  in  writing 
about  the  Aramean  language  of  the  Chaldeans,  remarks : 
"  The  Orientals,  who  are  the  descendants  of  the  Chaldeans, 
are  a  wonderful  people;  in  their  tongue  there  is  no  difference 
between  the  pthaha  and  zkapa."  These  are  two  vowels 
employed  by  the  Chaldeans  in  their  writing,  and  which  the 
so-called  Syrians  appear  not  to  understand.  Who  can  these 
Oriental  Chaldeans  be  but  the  people  of  that  name,  who  are 
the  only  known  nation  who  have  these  two  vowels  in  their 
alphabet ! 


Biblical  Nationalities  Past  and  Present.  375 

In  another  place  the  same  author  remarks  with  regard  to 
the  Aramean  language,  under  the  head  of  the  first  Syriac 
letter  "  Alep,"  1  as  follows  :  "  There  are  three  dialects  of  the 
Syrian  tongue ;  1st.  The  Aramean  or  Syriac,  properly  so 
called,  which  is  the  most  elegant  of  all,  and  used  in  Mesopo- 
tamia, and  by  the  inhabitants  of  Roha,  or  Edessa,  of  Haran, 
and  the  outer  Syria.  2nd.  The  dialect  of  Palestine,  spoken 
by  the  inhabitants  of  Damascus,  Mount  Libanus,  and  the 
inner  Syria.  3rd.  The  Chaldee  or  Nabathean  dialect,  the 
most  unpolished  of  the  three,  current  in  the  mountainous 
parts  of  Assyria,  and  the  villages  of  Irak  and  Babylonia." 

Here  again,  no  less  than  500  years  ago,  a  Syrian  historian 
mentions  the  very  dialect  of  the  Aramean  language  which  is 
now  used  by  the  Chaldeans.  The  Chaldeans  do  not  agree, 
however,  with  the  Syrians  that  their  dialect  is  "  unpolished  "  ; 
but,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  considered  to  be  the  prettiest  of  all 
the  Aramean  dialects. 

Assemani,  the  historian  already  alluded  to,  makes  refer- 
ence about  the  Chaldean  Nestorians  as  follows  :  "  The 
Nestorians  are  not  called  by  this  name  in  the  East  (for  they 
regard  their  doctrines  as  Apostolic,  and  they  had  never  any 
connection  with  the  person  of  Nestorius),  but  are  generally 
called  Chaldaic  Christians  (because  their  principal  or  head 
church  is  in  the  ancient  Chaldea)."2 

It  may  not  be  uninteresting  to  quote  from  Xenophon, 
the  Greek  historian,  what  he  mentions  in  his  "  Anabasis  " 
of  the  nations  occupying  the  Assyrian  and  Armenian  moun- 
tains when  Cyrus,  the  founder  of  the  Persian  empire, 
passed  through  that  country  about  550  B.C.  The  Chaldeans, 
Armenians,  and  Kurds,  who  inhabited,  and  do  now  inhabit, 
those  mountains,  are  alluded  to  by  him  as  follows:3  "At 
daybreak,  however,  they  perceived  on  the  other  side  of 
the  river  a  body  of  cavalry  in  complete  armour,  ready 
to  prevent  them  from  crossing;  and  on  the  high  banks 
above  the  cavalry  another  of  foot,  prepared  to  hinder 
them  from  entering  Armenia.     These  were  Armenians,  Mar- 

1  Abulfaragius,  "  Hist.  Dynst.,"  page  11. 

2  "Assemani,"  Vol.  Ill,  page  177. 

3  Book  IV,  chapter  iii. 


37iJ  Biblical  Nationalities  Past  and  Present. 

dians.  and  Chaldeans,  mercenary  troops  of  Orontes  and 
Artuehas.  The  Chaldeans  were  said  to  be  a  free  people,  and 
warlike  ;  for  arms  they  had  long  shields  and  spears.  The 
high  banks  on  which  these  forces  were  drawn  up  were  300 
or  400  feet  from  the  river  ;  and  the  only  road  that  was  visible 
was  one  that  led  upward,  apparently  a  work  of  art.  Here 
the  Greeks  endeavoured  to  cross ;  but  as  on  making  a  trial 
the  water  rose  above  their  breasts,  and  the  bed  of  the  river 
was  rough  with  large  and  slippery  stones,  and  it  was  im- 
possible for  them  to  carry  their  arms  in  the  water,  or  if  they 
attempted  to  do  so  the  river  swept  them  away  (while  if  any 
of  them  took  their  arms  on  their  heads,  they  became  exposed 
to  the  arrows  and  other  missiles  of  the  enemy),  they  in  con- 
sequence retreated  and  encamped  at  the  side  of  the  river. 

"  They  now  perceived  the  Carduchi  assembled  in  great 
numbers  under  arms  on  the  spot  where  they  themselves  had 
been  on  the  previous  night.  Hence  great  despondency  was 
felt  by  the  Greeks,  as  they  knew  the  difficulty  of  passing  the 
river,  and  saw  the  Carduchi  ready  to  attack  them  if  they 
attempted  to  cross." 

In  the  Cyropasdia  [Book  III,  c.  ii]  Xenophon  gives  the 
following  account  of  the  Chaldeans  and  Armenians  :  "  The 
next  day  Cyrus,  taking  Tigranes  with  him,  and  the  best  of 
the  Median  horse,  together  with  as  many  of  his  own  friends 
as  he  thought  proper,  rode  roimd  and  surveyed  the  country, 
examining  where  he  should  build  a  fortress.  Going  up  to  a 
certain  eminence,  he  asked  Tigranes  what  sort  of  mountains 
they  were  from  which  the  Chaldeans  came  down  to  plunder 
the  country,  and  Tigranes  pointed  them  out  to  him.  He 
then  inquired  again  :  '  and  are  those  mountains  now  entirely 
deserted'?  'No,  indeed,'  said  he,  'but  there  are  always 
scouts  of  the  Chaldeans  there,  who  give  notice  to  the  rest  of 
whatever  they  observe.'  '  And  how  do  they  act,"  said  he, 
•  when  they  receive  this  notice'  ?  '  They  hasten  with  aid  to 
the  eminences,  just  as  each  can. '  Cyrus  gave  attention  to 
this  account ;  and  looking  round,  observed  a  great  part  of  the 
Armenian  territory  lying  desert  and  uncultivated  in  conse- 
quence of  the  war.  They  then  retired  to  the  camp,  and  after 
taking  supper,  went  to  rest." 


Biblical  Nationalities  Past  and  Present.  377 

Again,  he  relates :  "  The  Chaldeans  had  each  a  shield 
and  two  javelins ;  they  are  said  to  be  the  most  warlike  of  all 
people  in  that  part  of  the  world.  They  serve  as  mercenaries, 
if  any  one  requires  their  services,  being  a  warlike  people,  and 
poor ;  for  their  country  is  mountainous,  and  but  little  of  it 
yields  anything  profitable.  As  Cyrus's  men  approached  the 
heights,  Tigranes,  who  was  riding  on  with  Cyrus,  said, 
'  Cyrus,  are  you  aware  that  we  ourselves  must  very  soon 
come  to  action,  as  the  Armenians  will  not  stand  the  attack  of 
the  enemy"  ?  Cyrus  telling  him  that  he  knew  it,  immediately 
gave  orders  to  the  Persians  to  hold  themselves  in  readiness, 
as  they  would  have  immediately  to  press  forward  as  soon  as 
the  flying  Armenians  drew  the  enemy  down  so  as  to  be  near 
them.  The  Armenians  accordingly  led  on ;  and  such  of  the 
Chaldeans  as  were  on  the  spot  when  the  Armenians  ap- 
proached, raised  a  shout,  and,  according  to  their  custom, 
ran  upon  them ;  and  the  Armenians,  according  to  their 
custom,  did  not  stand  their  charge.  When  the  Chaldeans, 
pursuing,  saw  swordsmen  fronting  them,  and  pressing  up 
the  hill,  some  of  them,  coming  up  close  to  the  enemy,  were 
at  once  killed ;  some  fled,  and  some  were  taken ;  and  the 
heights  were  immediately  gained.  As  soon  as  Cyrus's  men 
were  in  occupation  of  the  summit,  they  looked  down  on  the 
habitations  of  the  Chaldeans,  and  perceived  them  fleeing  from 
the  nearest  houses." 

Both  the  Armenians  and  Kurds  inhabit  the  same  country 
now,  and  why  not  the  Chaldeans  ?  The  Armenians  speak 
Armenian,  the  Kurds  Median  or  corrupt  Persian,  and  the 
Chaldeans  Chaldean.  If  the  two  former  tribes  are  acknow- 
ledged, without  any  dispute,  to  be  the  descendants  of  the 
ancient  Armenians  and  Carduchians,  why  not  the  Chaldeans 
also  ?  Even  at  the  present  time  the  Nestorians  are  considered 
very  warlike  people,  and  the  Armenians  just  the  opposite,  as 
they  were  in  the  time  of  Xenophon.  Why  then  should  the 
Armenians  be  called  Armenians,  but  the  Chaldeans  merely 
Nestorians  ? 

Having  quoted  the  testimonies  of  different  historians 
about  certain  people  inhabiting  Assyria  and  the  mountainous 
region  above  it,  who  were  called  Chaldeans  and  Assyrians, 


378  Biblical  Nationalities  Past  and  Present. 

and  who  are  now  styled  Chaldeans,  I  will  say  a  few  words 
with  regard  to  certain  facts  which,  in  my  opinion,  are  con- 
vincing proof  that  the  present  Chaldeans  are  the  descendants 
of  the  ancient  people  of  that  name. 

Firstly,  the  Chaldeans  speak  the  very  same  language  as 
is  used  by  that  remarkable  tribe  of  Sabians,  or  Christians  of 
St.  John,  as  they  are  commonly  called,  who  live  near  what 
was  considered  to  be  ancient  Chaldea,  and  who  are  generally 
supposed  to  be  the  descendants  of  the  old  Babylonians  and 
Chaldeans. 

Secondly,  the  present  Chaldeans,  with  a  few  exceptions, 
speak  the  same  dialect  used  in  the  Targum,  and  in  some 
parts  of  Ezra  and  Daniel,  which  are  called  "  Chaldee."  How 
came  it  then,  that  the  "  Nestorians/'  having  no  other  language, 
should  speak  Chaldee  ?  They  must  have  inherited  it  from 
their  forefathers,  the  Chaldeans,  unless,  indeed,  fanciful 
critics  can  show  that  the  popes  of  Rome  made  the  converted 
Nestorians  adopt  the  Chaldee  when  they  bestowed  upon 
them  the  national  name  of  "  Chaldean  "  ! 

Thirdly,  when  Laban,  the  Aramean  or  Chaldean,  made  a 
league  with  Jacob,  he  called  the  heap  of  witness,  "  Jegar- 
sahadutha,"  which  means  a  heap  of  witness,1  and  the  great 
canal  which  Ammianus  mentions  as  having  existed  in 
Babylonia  in  the  time  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  was  called 
Nahr  Malka  (king's  river),  which  words  are  pure  Chaldean, 
and  have  the  same  meaning  with  the  so-called  Nestorians. 

What  greater  proof  can  there  be  of  the  origin  of  a  people 
than  their  language  ?  and  certainly  the  Chaldeans  are  as 
much  entitled  to  be  called  by  that  name  as  the  Jews,  Arme- 
nians, and  Arabs,  who  now  speak  the  languages  of  their 
forefathers.  As  the  Assyrian  or  Aramaic  became  the 
vernacular  dialect  of  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  and  the  Holy  Land, 
after  the  Assyrian  conquest,  so  also  when  the  Arabians  took 
possession  of  those  countries,  they  established  then  language, 
which  has  been  in  use  up  to  the  present  time. 

Though,  as  I  said  before,  Arabic  is  the  vernacular  language 
of  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  and  the  Holy  Land,  yet  each  ancient 
sect  uses  its  national  or  mother  tongue  in  its  rituals  and  other 

1  Genesis  xxxi,  47. 


Biblical  Nationalities  Past  and  Present.  379 

rites ;  but  the  Chaldeans  in  Upper  Assyria  and  Kurdistan, 
as  well  as  the  Kurds,  can  only  speak  their  own  tongue, 
Chaldean  or  Kurdish ;  whereas  the  official  deeds  all  over  the 
Ottoman  dominions  are  in  Turkish. 

The  language  which  is  used  by  the  Chaldeans  is  known 
in  Europe  by  the  name  of  Syriac,  but  the  people  call  it 
Chaldean.  The  word  Syriac  is  applied  by  them  to  the 
character  used  by  the  so-called  Syrians  or  Jacobites.  It  is 
true  there  is  very  little  difference  between  the  Chaldean  and 
Syriac,  but  there  is  some  difference  in  the  pronunciation  of 
certain  letters,  the  vowel  points,  and  in  the  formation  of  the 
letters — about  as  much  as  there  is  between  the  old  English 
and  the  Koman  characters. 

Formerly  all  the  so-called  Syrians  employed  the  same 
writing,  and  pronounced  every  word  the  same  as  the  Chal- 
deans do  now;  but  in  the  13th  century  Bar-Hebrgeus,  a 
promoter  of  the  Jacobites,  wishing  to  make  a  thorough  dis- 
tinction between  the  writing  of  the  Monophysites  and  that  of 
the  Nestorians,  changed  the  characters  and  the  vowel  points. 

The  Chaldean  p  and  a  are  changed  by  the  Syrians  into 
ph  and  o.  Eor  instance,  what  the  former  as  in  Scripture 
times  pronounce  Eppathaha,  the  latter  would  call  Ephoth<>h<>. 
Then  such  words  as  "Marantha"  (our  Lord's  coming),  "Abba" 
(father),  "Talitha"  (damsel),  "Maria"  (Lord),  "Allaha" 
(God),  the  Syrians  pronounce  Morontho,  Obbo,  Taletho, 
Morio,  and  Olloho. 

Though  the  writing  of  the  present  Syriac  was  invented 
in  the  13th  century,  English  students  confuse  all  the  different 
Aramean  writings  and  dialects  into  one  favourite  nomencla- 
ture called  "  Syriac."  Indeed,  some  scholars  have  now  gone 
so  far  as  to  give  to  the  old  Chaldean  character,  said  to  have 
existed  for  300  years  before  the  Christian  era,  the  extraordi- 
nary name  of  Syro-  Chaldaic,  which  is,  in  my  opinion,  a  far- 
fetched misnomer. 

The  remaining  Christians  of  Asiatic  Turkey  are  the  Greeks, 
both  orthodox  and  those  who  have  joined  themselves  to  the 
Church  of  Rome.  As  the  doctrine  of  both  is  so  well  known, 
I  need  say  little  about  them.  Scarcely  any  members  of 
either  are  found  anywhere  except  in  Asia  Minor,  and  very 
few  only  in  Syria  and  Palestine.  All  communities  seem  to 
fraternise  with  them,  as  their  mode  of  worship  pleases  all. 
Vol.  VIII.  25 


380  Biblical  Nationalities   Past  and  Present. 

The  Mohammedans  I  need  not  refer  to,  as  their  special 
belief  is  well  known. 

I  must  now  add  a  few  remarks  regarding  the  creeds  of 
the  semi- Gentile  nationalities  existing  in  different  parts  of 
Asiatic  Turkey  whom  I  casually  mentioned  in  the  commence- 
ment of  this  paper. 

"Whether  Druzes,  Ansaris,  Shabbaks,  Sabians,  Yezidis, 
or  Gabars,  they  one  and  all  confess  the  same  God  as  He 
Who  is  worshipped  by  all  believers ;  and  although  each  com- 
munity has  its  own  peculiar  rites  and  secret  dogmas  (known 
only  to  themselves),  nevertheless  most  of  them  practise  cer- 
tain ceremonies  belonging  to  the  Christians,  Mohammedans, 
and  Jews,  as  circumcision,  baptism,  and  everything  else 
which  they  consider  to  be  a  good  policy  to  adopt  to  enable 
them  to  live  in  peace  with  their  neighbours. 

The  Druzes  are  confined  to  Mount  Lebanon,  and  are  very 
seldom  seen  away  from  their  country.  Their  religion,  as  far 
as  it  can  be  made  out  by  strangers,  is  a  mixture  of  Judaism, 
Christianity,  and  Mohamrnedanisni.  They  practise  neither 
prayer  nor  fasting;  they  drink  wine  and  eat  swine's  flesh. 
If  they  are  asked  within  the  hearing  of  a  Moslem  what  they 
believe  in,  they  profess  to  be  followers  of  Mohammed.  It  is 
alleged  that  the  Druzes  are  descended  from  the  Carmathians 
fa  sect  of  heretical  Moslems  which  appeared  at  the  end  of 
the  9th  century),  but  strictly  speaking  they  are  the  followers 
of  the  fanatical  "  Caliph  el  Hakim,"  of  the  Fatimite  race,  who 
promulgated  his  own  doctrine  200  years  afterwards.  This 
El  Hakim  was  assisted  in  what  he  called  his  "  divine  mis- 
sion" by  Hamza  and  Edrizi,  and  it  is  supposed  that  the 
Druzes  derived  their  appellation  from  the  name  of  the  latter. 

The  Ansaris,  who  inhabit  the  range  of  mountains  north 
of  Lebanon,  between  Tripoli  and  Antioch,  seem  to  be  in 
every  respect  not  unlike  the  Druzes  in  their  belief.  They  are 
also  supposed  to  be  a  branch  of  the  ancient  Carmathians,  and 
hold  in  veneration  some  of  the  Moslem  saints,  such  as  Fatima, 
and  Hasan  and  Hosain,  and  attribute  to  the  father  of  the 
latter  two  brothers  divine  privileges.  They  profess  to  believe 
in  the  Messiahship  of  our  Lord,  but  not  in  His  Atonement. 
They  allege  that  God  has  been  incarnate  several  times — that 


Biblical  Nationalities  Past  and  Present.  381 

He  has  been  incarnate  not  only  in  Jesus  Christ,  but  also 
in  Abraham,  Moses,  and  other  persons  celebrated  in  the 
Old  Testament.  They  attribute  also  the  same  honour  to 
Mohammed.  They  have  borrowed  from  Christianity  the 
practice  of  observing  the  communion,  but  they  celebrate  it 
strangely  with  wine  and  a  morsel  of  meat.  They  are  also 
alleged  to  believe  in  the  transmigration  of  souls,  but  they 
hold  that  the  soul  of  a  devotee  belonging  to  their  own  sect 
can  enter  Paradise  after  having  passed  through  a  small 
number  of  bodies  ;  but  the  soul  of  any  other  person  is  obliged 
to  have  passed  through  eighty  ! 

The  Yezidis,  who  are  commonly  called  devil-worship- 
pers, are  found  in  Assyria,  and  on  the  frontier  of  Turkish 
Kurdistan,  in  Russia,  and  Persia.  Doubtless  these  people 
are  descended  from  the  ancient  Chaldeans  or  Assyrians,  and 
have  been  under  the  yoke  of  Islam  for  the  last  twelve  hun- 
dred years,  and  have  had  such  close  connection  with  both 
Mohammedans  and  Christians  that  they  have  adopted  some 
tenets  of  both  religions.  They  profess  to  believe  both  in 
Christ  and  Mohammed.  They  practise  baptism,  but  circum- 
cision is  optional  with  them.  Though  they  believe  and 
adore  God,  they  do  not  consider  that  Satan  will  be  ever- 
lastingly excluded  from  heavenly  bliss,  but  that  at  the  day  of 
judgment  God  will  restore  him  to  his  former  dignity  of  an 
archangel ;  on  this  account  they  hold  him  in  awe,  and  con- 
sider it  sinful  to  abuse  him,  for  fear  of  his  revenge  when  he 
regains  his  power.  They  are  very  particular  about  their 
food,  and  many  things  which  Christians  and  Moslems  eat  they 
will  not  touch.  They  have  a  rude  representation  of  a  pigeon 
made  of  brass,  which  they  call  "Malik  Tawus,"  or  "peacock," 
fixed  on  a  brass  stand,  which  they  venerate  very  much,  but 
they  deny  its  worship.  They  have  four  of  these  curious 
symbols  appointed  to  different  districts,  and  the  priests  take 
them  periodically  round  to  the  several  Yezidi  devotees,  in 
Turkey,  Persia,  and  Russia,  where  their  co-religionists  exist, 
for  the  purpose  of  collecting  money  through  their  adoration. 
The  Yezidis  are  most  clean  in  their  dress  and  habits,  and 
considered  very  industrious  and  brave,  and  are  most  hospitable 
to  strangers. 


382  Biblical  Nationalities  Past  and  Present. 

The  Shabbaks  are  found  in  Assyria  and  Mesopotamia,  and 
are  more  like  Moslems  than  any  other  semi-pagan  community ; 
indeed,  those  "who  have  not  mixed  "with  them  much  would 
never  think  that  they  are  not  Moharnrnedans.  They  also 
believe  in  Christ,  and  confess  Him  to  be  divine,  but  they  dare 
not  make  such  confession  before  a  Moslem.  They  venerate 
the  Virgin  Mary  almost  as  much  as  the  Roman  Catholics,  and 
call  her  the  "  mother  of  God." 

The  Sabians,  severally  styled  Christians  of  St.  John  and 
Mendeans,  from  Mendai  Djahi.  who  was.  as  it  is  alleged,  a 
disciple  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  are  found  in  Southern  Baby- 
lonia, and  are  no  doubt  descended  from  the  ancient 
Chaldeans.  They  have  like  ether  sects  borrowed  many  rites 
and  ceremonies  from  the  Christians  and  Moslems,  but  they 
are  supposed  to  worship  the  heavenly  hosts,  having  inherited 
this  faith  from  their  forefathers.  This  kind  of  idolatry  pre- 
vailed in  Chaldea.  from  whence  it  spread  all  over  the  West, 
and  found  its  way  to  Greece.  The  sun,  the  moon,  and  the 
stars  were  believed  to  possess  divine  intelligence,  and  exer- 
cised a  constant  influence  for  good  or  evil  upon  the  destinies 
of  man.  Even  now  the  power  of  the  moon  as  a  source  of 
bad  or  good  fortune  is  believed  in  all  over  the  world,  without 
distinction  of  race  or  religion,  by  those  who  are  more  or  less 
superstitious.  It  is  said  that  there  still  exists  in  Syria,  near 
Mount  Lebanon,  a  branch  of  this  sect,  who  call  themselves 
"  Galdeans,"  and  who,  like  their  brother  Sabians,  claim  St. 
John  the  Baptist  as  then  prophet  and  progenitor.  Their 
belief  is  a  middle  course  between  Judaism  and  Christianity, 
but  they  adhere  strictly  to  the  sacrament  of  baptism.  They 
also  take  honey  and  locusts  alternately  as  a  sacrament, 
which  are  distributed  as  consecrated  elements  to  the  worship- 
pers present,  and  are  sent  to  the  absent  equally  as  a  religious 
rite.  These  people  likewise  have  a  good  deal  of  Islamism 
mixed  up  with  then  worship,  like  all  other  semi-pagan 
nations. 

The  Gabars  are  descendants  of  the  ancient  Persians,  and 
retain  the  old  faith  of  fire-worship.  There  are  very  few  of 
them  now  in  Persia,  the  majority  having  emigrated  to  India, 
chiefly  to  the  Presidency  of  Bombay,  and  are  known  there  by 


Biblical  Nationalities  Past  and  Present.  383 

the  name  of  "  Parsis."  They  never  allow  the  sacred  fire  to 
be  extinguished,  nor  would  they  blow  out  a  candle  with  their 
breath,  but  extinguish  it  by  the  wave  of  the  hand ;  it  would 
be  considered  sacriligeous  to  spit  or  throw  any  unclean  object 
into  an  ordinary  fire.  The  Parsis  are  generally  considered  to 
be  polytheists,  worshipping  not  only  the  good  and  evil  deities 
under  the  name  of  "  Ormuzd"  and  "  Ahriman,"  but  the  sun,  fire, 
and  other  objects,  which  idea  they  borrowed  from  the  Hindus. 
Dr.  Wilson,  who  was  a  missionary  at  Bombay  for  many  years, 
says  of  the  Parsi,  "  He  at  one  moment  calls  upon  Ormuzd, 
at  the  next  upon  his  own  ghost ;  at  one  moment  on  an  arch- 
angel, at  the  next  upon  a  sturdy  bull ;  at  one  time  on  the 
brilliant  sun,  the  next  on  a  blazing  fire  ;  at  one  moment  on  a 
lofty  and  stupendous  mountaiD,  the  next  on  a  darksome  cave ; 
at  one  moment  on  the  ocean,  and  at  the  next  on  a  well  or 
spring."  Niebuhr  in  writing  about  the  Parsis,  says,  "  The 
Parsi  followers  of  Zoroaster  adore  one  God  only  eternal 
and  Almighty.  They  pay  however  a  certain  worship  to  the 
sun  and  moon,  the  stars,  and  to  fire,  as  visible  images  of  the 
invisible  Divinity."  A  learned  Parsi  of  the  name  of  Doza- 
bhoy  Framji,  in  answer  to  Dr.  Wilson's  charges  of  idolatry 
against  the  Parsis,  denies  the  existence  among  them  of  fire, 
sun,  water,  and  air  worship,  but  admits  that  according  to  the 
Parsi  faith,  "  God  is  the  emblem  of  glory,  refulgence,  and 
light,  and  in  this  view  a  Parsi  while  engaged  in  prayer  is 
directed  to  stand  before  the  fire,  or  to  direct  his  face  towards 
the  sun,  as  the  most  proper  symbols  of  the  Almighty."  So 
far  Mr.  Framji  corroborates  Dr.  Wilson's  assertion,  and  with 
regard  to  the  acknowledgment  of  God  by  the  Parsis,  it 
only  proves  that  they  have  come  to  a  true  belief  in  God  from 
their  constant  intercourse  for  hundreds  of  years  with  true 
believers  in  revealed  religion,  as  all  other  Gentiles  have  done 
from  time  immemorial.  Even  the  Hindus  are  beginning  to 
appreciate  the  belief  in  a  Supreme  Being,  Who  has  the  control 
of  everything  in  heaven  and  earth. 

There  still  remains  small  remnants  of  the  half-pagan 
ancient  Samaritans,  and  Assassins  or  Ishmaelites.  A  very  few 
families  of  the  former  still  remain  near  Shechem  in  Palestine. 
I  need  here  onlv  mention  them,  as  their  belief  is  well  known. 


384  Biblical  Nationalities  Past  and  Present. 

But  the  "  Assassins  "  or  "  Ishmaelites  "  are  a  heretical  sect  of 
Moslems,  who  forsook  some  parts  of  their  former  faith  and 
adopted  strange  formulas  winch  belong  neither  to  the  Christian 
nor  the  .Mohammedan  faiths.  Formerly  they  were  a  formid- 
able community,  and  the  terror  of  the  East ;  their  chief  seat 
was  in  Persia  and  Mount  Lebanon  ;  but  now  they  exist  only 
as  a  small  and  insignificant  sect  in  the  mountains  west  of 
Hama,  in  Syria.  Some  consider  that  then  name  is  derived 
from  "Hasanis,"  or  followers  of  Hasan,  son  of  Ali,  and 
grandson  of  Mohammed ;  and  as  they  were  notorious 
marauders,  the  Crusaders  turned  the  word  into  Assassins. 

All  the  ancient  Midianites,  Amalekites,  Edomites, 
Amorites,  Hagarenes,  Ishmaelites,  and  other  minor  tribes, 
who  inhabited  the  deserts  of  Sinai,  Arabia,  and  Syria,  have 
one  and  all  embraced  the  Moslem  faith,  and  are  now  called 
Arabs. 

There  is  one  thing  certain,  that,  without  any  exception, 
all  the  sects  and  nationalties  which  now  inhabit  the  lands  of 
the  Bible,  every  man,  woman,  and  child,  call  upon  the  Lord, 
the  God  of  the  Jews,  Christians,  and  Mohammedans,  in  the 
name  of  "  Allah." 

Before  I  conclude,  I  must  add  a  few  words  in  reference 
to  the  word  Allah,  which  has  been  misquoted  in  this  country 
as  if  it  meant  anything  else  than  the  God  who  is  acknow- 
ledged by  all  Christian  nationalities  all  over  the  world.  I 
can  well  understand  that  an  ignorant  man  travelling 
amongst  Indians,  and  hearing  the  Moslems  in  that  country 
using  the  word  Allah,  would  understand  it  as  one  of  the 
gentile  deities  like  Brahma,  Buadha,  Siva,  and  other  false 
gods.  But  I  marvel  when  I  see  professed  Arabic  scholars, 
and  those  who  have  travelled  for  a  long  time  amongst  the 
Arabs,  and  understand  their  tenets  of  faith,  introduce  the 
word  Allah  in  its  Arabic  paraphrase  when  they  write  an 
Arabic  story,  as  if  it  meant  differently  from  the  word  "  God  " 
in  English.  Suppose  I  were  to  translate  an  English  prayer  to 
an  Arab,  and  when  I  come  to  the  word  God,  I  name  it  in  its 
English  rendering,  what  would  he  think  of  its  import  ?  I 
feel  sure  that  he  would  conclude  from  my  not  translating  it 
into  Arabic  that  the  English  worshipped  a  different  God  from 


v.vd.m 


XXDyn. 


LOpJ 


Amen 

1  •  II.  S  cuhjtures 

AB.Mar-tiudel.1885 


s  HI  as  Sphinx  with  shade.Prissed'AvenrLeti 


•Ramesses  X. Thebes. iepsius 
Denkm,AirtKnLBL236. 

Vincent  Brooks  JJsy  i  Stn.  lath. 


Biblical  Nationalities  Past  and  Present. 


385 


theirs.  The  translators  of  the  authorised  version  of  the  Old 
Testament  might  have  just  as  well  adhered  to  the  Hebrew 
words  Elohim,  Adonai,  and  El,  and  not  translated  them  into 
the  English  words  God,  Lord,  and  Most  High  God. 


386 


ON   THE   SHADE  OR   SHADOW  OF   THE  DEAD. 

By  Samuel  Birch,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  F.S.A.,  &c.  (President). 
Read  2nd  December,  1884. 

By  the  expression  shade  or  shadow  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  shade  meant  the  actual  shade  or  shadow, 
for  the  gods  are  said  to  be    "refreshed   by  their   shadow," 

nn  ^\  T  hi  ;l  and  again  in  the  often  cited  passage  where 

the  gods  or  souls  are  described  as  reposing  under  the  shade 
of  the  branches  of  the  trees.  Again,  in  the  description  of 
the  examination  of  the  chamber  of  Abydos  for  the  body  of 
the  god  Osiris,  where  it  states  of  the  body — 

-  <*=—  ?:  °^  ^=^2 

nn  qamuts  j^aibti       pu  qamit 

not         was  it  found      a  shade   it  teas  found 

In  a  scene  too  of  the  lamentations  of  the  body  of  Osiris 
tall  curving  are  seen  over  three  figures  lamenting,  and 
the  legend  says  : — 

-"-     <=?<=>      O       -—      O   •%£?        -"-     §  -"- 

AAA/W\  /WWW  t"^<  A  /W/WW  - ^  /WWW 

/WWW        \A       J\  <-—-> 

III  I  I  <rr>  I     I     I  /WWW  (fP  Ml  I  Ml 

sn      %abit      ^r         su  ^nn  sn  hr  sn 

. .  their  shade    ivith    them  rest  they       upon     them.9 

In  all  these  passages  the  meaning  is  that  of  actual  shade 
or  shadow,  without  any  spiritual  allusion.  So  also  of  the 
serpent  who  is  said  to  be  devourer  of  shades,  and  the  demon 
Asessor,    who  is  called  eater  of  shade  coming  out  of  the 

1  "  Recueil,"  4,  66. 

2  Mariette,  "Abydos,"  i,  65,  cited  by  Brugach,  "  Worterb.,"  pp.  1029,  1044. 

3  Sarcophagus  of  Peparscp,  Sharpe,  "  Eg.  Inscr.,"  pi.  41. 


On  the  Shade  or  Shadow  of  the  Dead.  387 

Karti,  supposed  to  refer  to  the  tropical  well1  at  Syene.  But 
shade  or  shadows  were  attached  to  spiritual  existences  as 
gods,  spirits,  and  souls,  and  partook  of  the  nature  of  these 
existences.  They  appear,  however,  distinct  from  them,  and 
are  mentioned  separately  from  them.  Nor  can  I  find  that 
they  ate  the  food  off  the  tables  of  offerings  presented  to  the 
dead,  like  the  has,  or  ghosts,  although,  like  the  soul,  they  could 
drink  the  pure  water  offered  to  the  dead,  for  the  gods  gave — 


j^ZV 


per  ak  r  asi  kabh        n  ^aibt   f 

to  go  in  and  out  to  the  chamber  pure  water  to        his  shade. 

This  applies  to  their  connection  with  the  has,  ghosts,  or 
has,  souls,  but  the  god  also  had  shade — 

^-  |  |  /www  ^      I    a;^. 

-A  I  I 

sat  neter  ua        n  ^aibt    f 

conducting         a  god  to  shade  his.2 

This  is  said  of  the  goat-headed  representations  of  the 
god  Af  passing  through  one  of  the  hours  of  the  night. 

Attached  to  the  soul,  and  also  to  the  ka  or  '  Eidolon,'  was 
the  shade,  which  under  the  form  ^P,  ^P  ,  ^?  ^  of  a  shade  or 
parasol  appears  in  the  texts  placed  above  or  at  the  side 
of  representations  of  the   soul.      Phonetically  it  is  Avritten 

1JT I  jk10°T or  **~~J^T xab' xcdh1,  or  xaibit' 

and  is  the  Coptic  cTklB.1,  ^Hlfil,  with  a  meaning  similar  to 
that  of  atcta  or  umbra  of  the  Greek  or  Romans.  The  shade 
was  supposed  to  be  the  light  envelope  of  the  soul,  visible  but 
not  tangible,  and  is  often  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  ba 
or  '  soul,'3  as  : — 


1  De  Eougg,  "  Inscr.  Hier.,"  1877,  pi.  35. 

2  Bonoini,  Coffin  of  Oimenepthab,  pi.  13;    cf.  Champollion,  "Not.  Descr.," 
p.  521. 

3  Reinisck,  "  Denkrualer  in  Miramar,"  p.  70. 


388 


On  the  Shade  or  Shadow  of  the  Dead. 


nn 


O 


u 


detain 


I     I     I 

tn 


L»a     a 
my  soul 


u  n 


sbau 
shut  up 


Q. 


i  i  i 
tn 
ye 


^aibit  a  ull 

And  again — 

nn         taut         m 


maten 


n 
to 


ba  a 

my  soul 


p^aibit  a1 
//ij/  shade 


m^iii 


%u 


nn 


sXm 


ut     %aibt  a 


i* 


no£    £o£en     o/f'    *ptri£  my  not  prevailed  over  (is)  my  shade.3 


The  shade  was  supposed  to  wander  over  the  earth,  going 
to  the  tomb,  visiting  those  who  belonged  to  him,  enjoying 
the  offerings  of  his  relations,  and  then  disappearing  to  the 
body  in  the  grave.  In  the  hieroglyphic  texts,  however,  the 
shade  has  no  representation  beyond  the  head  or  mummied 
form,  nor  is  it  ever  represented  like  the  deceased;  so  that 
no  light  is  thrown  upon  the  hypothesis  of  its  representing  the 
form  of  the  deceased  from  the  monuments  themselves.  There 
also  appears  to  have  been  only  one  '  shade '  to  each  ghost  or 
soul,  while  of  the  sun  it  is  stated  that  he  had  seven  ba  and 
fourteen  ka,  eidola,  or  phantasms,  two  attached  to  each  soul ; 
the  ka,  indeed,  had  a  form,  as  appears  from  the  coffin  ot 
Amam,  which  states  of  the  deceased : — 


U 


1 


This  would  show  that  ka  was  the  shape  of  every  god. 
My  object,  however,  is  not  to  discuss  the  ka,  which  has  been 
already  amply  done  by  Mr.  Le  Page  Renouf  and  M.  Maspero, 


-$- 

it* 

1 

AWAM 

tut 

rf 

ka 

r 

the    shape 

to     h  im 

is     the 

eidolon 

1  "  Todt.,"  eh.  22,  4.       '  "  Todt.,"  c.  92 


lilitlah  Muat'UUl,  Kb.  6664- 


Trans  SooBMArch)  Vol  VR! 


Tour  Souls,  and  shades  inverted^m  basin,  held 
up  by  arms.Karnak.Champollion.  N.D.1I.  529. 


Hall: Goddesses  tearing  souls  and  shades  m "baskets; four  Lulls  mthe 
four,  regions  with  their  shades  in  front.  KaiTiak.ChampollionTT.D.lIp.  570 

A. B. Martin  del.  1885. 


Vuicoit  Brooks. Day  &  San.lHtK . 


On  the  Shade  or  Shadow  of  the  Dead.  389 

but  to  analyse  the  nature  of  the  yaibit  or  '  shade '  from  the 
monuments. 

The  shade  is  mentioned  with  the  soul  at  the  earliest 
period,  for  in  the  inscriptions  of  the  Pyramid  of  Unas,  of  the 
sixth  dynasty,  at  Sakkarak,  it  states  : — 

^    fc    [W   ^   fSI    TTT-* 

sek         bau  sn  ^r  ^aibitu 

subdued    souls       their      under  Unas  shades 

mtut  ar  sn 

in  the  hand       are        they 

'•Their  souls  are  under  Unas,  their  shades  are  united 
together,"  and  Unas  devours  the  spirits  in  a  burning  hell.1 

In  the  coffins  of  the  eleventh  dynasty,  published  by 
Lepsius,  the  shade  is  again  mentioned  as  in  the — 


7*&  JC  u 


mas         ^aibit  hna  ka      f 

bringing    the  shade        with         his  ghost 2 

where  it  is  connected  with  the  lea.  It  is  however  at  the  time 
of  the  eighteenth  to  the  twentieth  dynasty  that  the  shades 
play  the  most  prominent  part  in  the  inscriptions  of  the  Tiau 
or  under  world. 

In  the  Ritual  the  shades  also  appear : — 

ahani       -  a       hr  nut  ^aibit         ^u. 

icalk     I  in  leading        shades       spirits* 

Here  it  must  be  either  shades  of  the  dead,  or  souls  of 
spirits,  in  which  cases  the  shade  was  something  appended 

1  Maspero, "  Etec,"  iv,  62.  -  Lepsius,  "  Aelteste  Text,"  pi.  26,  8. 

*  "  Tout.,"  eh.  04,  lb. 


390  On   the  Shade  or  Shadow  of  the  Dead. 

to  the  spirit,  as  the  shade  was  apparently  also  to  the  soul,  as 
in  another  chapter  : — 


ka  arti      pert         ba         vaibit       am      a       ^pr 

would    making    way    my  soul  shade  where  I  am  prepared 

In  another  chapter,  entitled  the  chapter  of  opening  the 
chamber  of  the  soul  and  shade  coming  forth  daily  sure  of 
foot,1  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  shade  was  independent 
of  the  soul,  although  not  represented  in  the  vignette,  for 
besides  the  shade  of  the  gods,  of  spirits,  and  souls,  there 
was  also  the  shade  of  the  dead,  as  in  the  passage  of  the 
Ritual  where  it  says  :  "  Do  not  let  me  be  imprisoned  by  the 
detainers  of  the  limbs  of  Osiris,  the  detainers  of  soul,  the 

Ibv  r^  I  ^  °VC^  <^  Xtom  Xa^>  mM*»  *ne  lockers  up 
of  shades  of  the  reprobate  dead."2  Again,  "  Not  prevailing 
over  my  shade  (the  deceased  and  living  off)  the  shade  of 
the  dead."3  "Their  souls,"  says  another  passage,  "live  by 
words  accompanying  their  going  out." 

Some  shades  are  called  the  damned,  I J  1(10^  T... 
sebi  t,  in  the  Hades,4  while  of  others  it  is  stated — 


$ 


T 


O       A-  'I'  I  I    i  i  l       l  i l 

syn  sn         her      ^aibit      tn 

turn         back  they     on     shades  your 

that  "  they  turn  back  (or  rest)  on  your  shades."     Of  another 
of  the  gods  of  hell  it  is  said.  ,:  he  cuts  at  your  bodies  " — 

^Z^5    1   1   Jl  JA  /www    I  '  ^  A  -A  I    I     I  I  /www   I 

nk    itu  tau         tn  hbt  vaibt  tn 

defeating         souls       your       expelling         shades         your 


1  "  Todt.,"  c.  92,  title.       -  "  Todt,,"  c.  92,  7.       3  "  Todt.,"  1-49,  19,  38,  40. 
4  Champollion,  "  Not.  Descr.,"  787. 


Trans. Soc3M.Arth.Vol.  VIII 


AJAJA 

Shades  persoiulieii  on  heads  of  bodies  vrtth  flails.  Karaak.C3umpollionHD.n.p.584-6 


Three  Shades  k.  emblems  of  the  body  m  basin  supported, 
by 'the  God   Shu,froTaKarnak.Quanf)ollLOTi.  N.D.TL608. 


Goddesses  lamenting  under  the  shades. 
Sarcophagus  inBnt.Mus.SharpeTivscr. 
Ipl.  40.41. 


JMBBBBBMHR 


Soul  of  West, and  shade  Tablet  in. 
Biit.Mus.~N0  846  2. 


Soul  .with  shade,  Belmore 
Papyn,pl .  6 . 


— 

Vincent  Brooks  .Has  &  Scn,li* 
Soul   and  shade,  Tablet  in. the 
BritMus  N?  8463. 


On  the  Shade  or  Shadow  of  the  Demi. 


391 


And  in  the  passage 


n 


® 


AAA/WV 
/WWW 
/WW\A     \\ 


ab        spsnai 
purification  twice 


n 

to 


u 

-IT 
ka 

eidolon 


ek 
thine 


l) 
to 


ba 


k 
thine 


T 


in 


n 
to 


%aibt      k 
shades  thine 


n 

to 


saha 
mummy 


<=>  i 

tet 

body 


k 

thine 


k 
thine 


Here  the  elements  of  the  dead  are  the  ghost  #a,  the  soul 
/>a,  the  body  te£,  the  shade  xaibt,  and  the  mummy  sahu.  The 
same  is  given  from  the  unedited  chapter  of  the  Ritual  of 
Amenhotep  in  the  Louvre,  "  0  ye  dividers  of  souls,  0  all  ye 
gods,  who  are  lords  of  life,  bring  the  soul  of  the  Osiris 
Amenhotep  that  it  may  be  united  to  his  body,  that  his  body 
may  be  united  to  his  soul,  his  soul  being  separated  from  his 
body.  The  gods  in  Heliopolis  {hat  ben-ben)  bring  to  him  (his 
parts)  at  Heliopolis,  the  place  of  Shu,  the  son  of  Turn,  his 
heart,  ab,  is  to  him  as  that  of  Ra,  his  other  heart,  hati,  is  to  him 
as  that  of  Khepera.  Purification  to  thy  ka  (eidolon),  to  thy 
soul  ba,  to  thy  body  tet,  to  thy  shade  'xftibit." 

Here  it  will  be  observed  that  although  the  deceased  has 
only  one  ba,  ha,  and  sahu,  he  has  shades  in  the  plural,  as  if 
shades  were  attached  both  to  the  ka  and  ba,  for  they  are 
both  mentioned  before  the  sahu  or  body;  and  this  recalls  to 
mind  that  the  Sun  had  seven  souls,  but  fourteen  ka,  two 
eidola  or  genii2  to  each  soul,  and  here  I  would  apply  the  text 
"  0  leaders  of  souls,  directors  of  shades 


ap       k 
open  thou 


n 

to 


1° 

body 


k 

thy 


TTT 


n 

to 


%abit      n    sahu     k        as 
shades    of  mummy  thy  noble. 


1  Coffin  of  Teos,  in  the  Louvre:  Sharpe,  "Eg.  Inscr.,"  New  Series,  41  2 
cited  as  in  a  papyrus  also  by  Wiedemann,  "  Congr.  provin.  d.  Orient.  Francais  " 
1880,  p.  160. 

2  Diimichen,  "  Patuamenapt,"  p.  11.  Cf.  Brugsch,  "  Worterb.,"  1230;  he 
calls  the  ka  "  character."  Cf.  same  passage,  Dumichen,  "  Tempel  Inschrilt.  " 
pi.  25,  all  late  texts. 


392  On  the  Shade  or  Shadoic  of  the  Dead. 

I  will  now  turn  to  the  punishment  of  the  shade.  In  a  kind 
of  caldron,  also  in  the  tombs  of  the  kings,  are  seen  the  souls, 
bodies,  and  shades  of  the  wicked,  held  up  by  two  hands — 


; ^  m  -  f],  j     ^  V 

-3 

-je; 

snusit                        bau 

%Wat 

ha    t 

burnt     are               the     soids 

the     bodies 

and 

=rr<£  in    A****        ^>  in  ^ 

^aibtu          n                 ^ftu 

shades           of           the     accusers.2 

and  in  the  burning  pits  of  hell  they  are  seen  burning.  The 
explanatory  texts  say,  "that  the  shades  live,  they  have  raised 
their  powers  " : — 


Q  /WVW\ 


I  I        III  ^ J    Jl  w«m   I  r^-i  I  I  I 

an^;     ^aibtu  tut  sn  n^  sn 

Ktjfi    f/ig  shades     lift  their  hands    powerful  are  they. 

from  which  it  would  appear  that  they  survive  the  effect  of 
<W>  c=^a  the  hat  or  pit ;  from  a  papyrus  also  of  the  nineteenth 
or  twentieth  dynasty.  In  another  section  of  the  hell,  the 
gods  of  which  are  obscure,  there  are  also  other  passages,  as  : — 


II!     ill 


nn       per    m       %aibt     mut   sn 

not  come  forth     from    shades  of  their  dead 

In  the  paintings  of  the  burning  hell  in  the  tomb  of  the 
kings  of  the  nineteenth  dynasty,  showing  the  punishment 
of  the  future  state,  it  is  said  of  the  shades  : — 

rl      ^r'T    II  0-^>r<:         aaaaaa  ^         n     /www  i  (qTS 

n   ^-^^i^       M|      ^  m   — ,  (ll      1   Ml     -^jj    ^„, 

hastem  tn      mut       s'at         tn    ^aibtu       hastmi 

strangle  ye     the  dead     cut  ye  the  shades  of  the  strangled, 

1  CTiampollion,  "  Not.  Deser.,"  529. 

-  Lanzone.  "  Le  domicile  des  Esprits,"  pi.  iv. 

3  Champollion,  "  >~ot.  Descr.,"  p.  789. 


hA^W> 


Trams,  SccMbhArch:  Yd  YJU. 


nubis  on  Pylon,  or  Gateway  of  North  &.  South  with       Great  CackL^r  calledrnthe  Inscriptions 
hade,  Part  cf  Frieze  m  Tomb  at  Thebes  HV  Stuart  Amen  Ra  Tablet  Turin  Museum. 

"  E  &rpt  after  the  War."  L  anzone  Mit.  Egiz .  Tav  XXII 


EMMt  T3 


Burning  Pits  in  Hades, with  shades  Sc.lanzone  ,  le  domicile  des  Esprits  Tav.  IV. 


Three  shades  in  "burning  pit  in  Hades, 
Tomb  of  Menepthal  Champolhon. 
KB. I.  p. 789. 

lA3.Marb.Ti.  del,  1885. 


Soul  with  shade,  resting  on  the  Mommy  of  Osiris. 
DenonVoyten  Egypte  P1.137. 

VuiceTitBr&oks,Eay  kSon.htli 


On  the  Shade  or  Shadow  of  the  Dead. 


393 


That  is,  the  shades  were  cut  off  the  souls  of  the  dead,  aud 
so  separated  from  them.  Again,  in  another  scene,  it  says : 
"  Those  who  live  in  this  section  make  road.  That  great  god 
addresses  them,  they  rest.     They 


A 


/www 
I   I    I 


^aibtu 


I  <=>! 

serq  sn         m         ^aibtu       am        ru        nru 

breathe  they         as         shades    from  mouth  to  mouth.1 

other  descriptions  of  the  soul  are  also  given  on  the  sarco- 
phagus of  Teos,  as  : — 


_0 


AAAAAA 
I     I     I 

tn 

ije 


T 


^-. 


^aibtu        ban 
the  shades     souls 


n  nak 

to         the  defeat.2 


AAAAAA 
I     I      I 


A 


'?' 


mat 
give 

And  again  : — 

hsstm        n      bau         tn  asq  n      ^aibit       tn 

strangled  have  been  souls  your  delayed  have  been  shades  your 

In  another  section  of  the  hell,  the  description  is :  "  The 
gods  in  this  picture  adore  the  great  god,  because  he  is 
elevated  above  them,  they  receive  his  great  disk  and  shade.'"4 
In  the  representation  accompanying  this  scene,  the  shades  on 
the  heads  of  the  souls  are  coloured  blue.  In  another  scene, 
souls  are  seen  with  shades  over  their  heads.5 

Some  account  of  the  shades  occurs  also  on  the  sarcophagus 
of  Nekhtherhebi  in  the  British  Museum,  in  the  scenes  which 
refer  to  the  passage  of  the  sun  through  the  hours  of  the 
night,  where  it  states  :  "  Those  who  are  in  this  future  in  the 
flesh  of  their  own  bodies — 


Ji   i 


b' 


/wwv\ 

I  1 1 


A 


T 


/WWV\ 

II 


§ 


^;ru  ba       sn      hr       sn     hotep  ^aibit   sn       hr      sn 

the  words  {of)  souls  their  over  them  rest     shade  their    over  them 


1  Champollion,  "  Not.  Descr.,"  p.  788.     4  Champollion,  "  Not.  Descr.,"  p.  5S5. 
-  Sharpe, "  Eg.  Inscr.,"  new  series,  7,  fi.     5  "Not.  Descr.,"  p.  621. 
3  Ibid.,  pi.  15,  6. 


394  'hi  the  Shade  or  SJiadoic  of  the  Dead. 

their  souls  speak  over  them,  their  shades  rest  upon  them, 
■when  that  god  addresses  them  they  speak  to  him.  they  glorify 
him  when  he  rises  up.  The  Osirian  king  he  glorifies  that  great 
god  when  he  rises  (dp)  over  the  souls  and  shades  what  they 
do  is  in  the  West,"1 

In  another  passage   of  the   same   coffin   the  expression 

%na  vadnt  nn.  "  cutting  the  condemned  souls  detaining  the 
•wretched  shades.  What  they  do  is  in  the  Amenti  or  W7est." 
Other  things  are  also  done  by  shades,  for  in  another  section 
of  the  same  sarcophagus  the  passage  of  the  sun  is  again 
explained.  "  That  god  goes  along  over  them  in  peace,  they 
have  heard  all  the  -words,  they  imbibe  his  "words.  What  they 
do  is  in  the  lower  heaven,  bringing  souls,  leading  along 
shades,  doing  -what  is  necessary  for  the  souls  in  the  water." 

On  the  later  -wooden  tablets  of  the  period,  ranging  from 
the  twenty-second  dynasty  to  the  Ptolemies,  the  procession 

of  the  solar  boat  is  hailed  by  the  soul  '|v\  ha,  -with  upraised 
hands,  and  the  shade  %aibit.2  Here  the  shade  appears  as 
a  companion  of  the  soul.  So  again,  the  Sun  says,  "  I,  the 
Sun,  manifest  -what  is  hidden,  throw  light  upon  mysteries,  I 

give  life  to  vour  souls      O    J\  seven  sen 

AAAAAA  I  |         I     I     I  AAAAAA 

her  -vaihtu  ten,  "who  alight  on  your  shades*';  so  in  the  same 
scenes  of  the  burning  hells  of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth 
dynasties,  the  texts  state,  "come  the  wicked  dead,3  from  whom 
I  have  escaped,  my  father  strikes,  after  his  wounding,  your 

bodies,  mutilating   your  souls   ["[]  J  halt,  expelling   your 

shades,  your  heads  are  cut  off." 

Ideas  like  those  I  have  already  given  are  translated  from 
monuments  of  the  papyri  relating  to  the  passage  of  the  Sun 
through  the  second  hour  of  the  day.  "  The  wicked  dead 
come,  whom  my  father  strikes  after  his  wounding,  your  bodies 
mutilating  your  souls  expelling  your  shades,  your  heads  are 


1  Egyptian  Grail.,  Brit.  Mils.,  10.  -  Pierret,  10,  p.  122. 

3  Pierret,  p.  135. 


On  the  Shade  or  Shadow  of  the  Dead.  395 

cut  off,  you  no  longer  have  a  type,  you  do  not  come  out, 
you  do  not  escape  the  burning  of  the  serpent,  devourer  of 
100,000  (years),  the  consuming  of  the  mistress  of  the  furnaces, 
the  flames  of  the  mistress  of  pits,  the  fires  of  mistress  of 
blocks,  the  mistress  of  swords  cuts  you  and  wounds  you,  she 
stabs  you,  you  will  never  see  again  those  on  earth."1 

In  the  same  hour  of  the  night  the  souls  of  the  opposers 
of  Osiris  Haratif  are  stated  to  be  the  jailers  of  the  hole  ;  they 
live  off  the  cries  of  the  souls  of  the  wicked,  suffocating  the 
souls  and  shades  who  raise  their  hands  at  the  burning  pit2 

m  hat). 


Again,  it  is  said,  "  The  serpent  Na  lives  off  the  cries  and 
roarings  of  Earth  " ;  those  attached  to  his  worship  proceed 
from  his  mouth  daily.  Those  who  are  in  this  future  receive 
the  excellence  (nefrit)  of  the  Sun's  boat,  crossing  from  those 
devoted  to  the  serpent  called  "  The  life  of  the  gods."  They 
love  the  great  god  in  the  heaven,  the  passage  is  to  the  upper 
distances.  They  assume  the  type  in  heaven  of  shades,  and 
rest  in  the  wind  and  water.  When  ordered  to  live  they  do 
so  in  the  great  boat  of  the  Sun  in  heaven." 3 

This  throws  some  light  on  the  representation  of  shades  in 
the  later  tablets,  their  existence  with  the  souls  in  the  solar 
boat,  and  their  connection  with  the  souls  of  men,  for  "  never 
to  see  again  those  on  earth,"  could  hardly  apply  to  demons,4 
and  when  ordered  to  live  under  the  type  or  form  of  shades, 
they  are  said  to  rest  in  the  wind  and  water,  and  to  participate 
in  the  boat  of  the  Sun  the  eternal  passage  through  the 
heavens. 

In  the  tomb  of  a  person  named  Nebunnef,  at  Thebes,5 
dated  in  the  4th  month  of  the  spring  of  Rameses  II,  at 
Gournah,  the  deceased  is  represented  in  adoration  to  the  four 
genii  of  the  dead.     Amset,  the  first,  offers  him  his  ka ;  Hapi, 


1  Pierret,  p.  136. 

2  Pierret,  i,  p.  136.  3  Pierret,  i,  p.  142. 

4  Congres  provinciale  des  Orientalistes,  1874 ;  Wiedemann,  p.  165 ;  Textor 
de  Ravisi,  p.  187. 

s  Champollion,  "Not.  Descr.,"  p.  536. 

Vol.  VIII.  26 


396  On  the  Shade  or  Shadow  of  the  Dead. 

the  second  genius,  a  vase ;  Tuaumutef,  the  third  genius,  his 
ba  or  soul,  represented  as  a  human-headed  hawk ;  Khabsenuf, 
the  fourth  genius,  his  shade,  represented  as  a  bearded 
mummied  figure  ft  having  a  flabellum  on  the  head ;  Thoth 
offers     him    the    jj  feather  of  Truth  and  a  mouth. 

In  the  magical  papyrus  the  shades  are  mentioned  along 
with  the  daimons,  but  not  in  the  same  parenthesis  as  the  soul, 
for  it  says :  "  Speak  to  me,  Ainset,  god  of  gods,  of  the  dark- 
ness that  eveiy  daimon  and  every  shade  which  is  in  the 
Amenti  sleeping  he,  and  that  those  who  are  dead  wake  for 
me  all  this  soul  to  live,  and  that  soul  to  breathe/'1  Here  the 
soul,  as  distinguished  from  the  shade,  is  supposed  to  breathe, 
one  of  the  functions  of  the  body. 

Other  descriptions  of  the  conditions  of  the  shades  are 
found,  as — 

<2>- 


-jn??,; 


ar         f         pu         m        tiau         n  ^aibitu 

he      does       is         in    the  lower  heaven  to       the  shades 

O      ^ 


am  %eftu 

eating      the  accusers. 

and  in  the  same  place  :  "  Said  by  that  great  god  to  the  gods, 
rising  to  them  when  ye  turn  back  and  are  resting  in  the  lower 
hemisphere,  to  your  souls  ye  rest  and  your  shades.2 

Different  ideas  have  prevailed  among  those  who  have 
treated  on  the  soul,  such  as  that  the  shade  represented  the 
obscurity  caused  by  a  dark  body,  and  of  the  soul  separated 
from  the  body,  the  radiancy  of  the  sahu  or  mummy  manifested 
on  earth  as  a  shadow,  and  in  heaven,  or  a  radiancy,  the  type 
or  form  produced  by  the  procreator  demiurgus ;  to  which 
I  could  add  the  thin  material  envelope  which  protected  the 
soul  from  the  intensity  of  the  solar  rays,3  following  the 
vicissitudes  of  the  soul  and  ghost. 

1  Maspero,  "  Mel.  d'Arch.,"  p.  39.  2  Sharpe,  "Eg.  Inscr.,"  pi.  32. 

3  Congres  provinciale  des  Orientalistes,  187-i  ;  Wiedemann,  p.  165  ;  Textur 
de  Ravisi,  p.  183. 


Trans.  Soc.3M.ArofvVol.Yni. 


Sun  shade, Funeral  procession 
Thebes.Yffllrinson.AaCjEnL.pL.83 


Sun-shade  RamessesTL 
RoseHoiu.M.'R.N°CIB.6. 


Shades  and  Souls,  ^^^k   ChaiapolHon.,N.D.II.  621. 


AJB.Maftm  del.  Vincent Brooks.Day 4 Savlidi.. 

Saul,  shade ,  and  body,  adorxn£  .Amnion  &  Solar  lypes  HosoQira,M.3  C  ~i$°.  LXX. 


On  the  Shade  or  Shadow  of  the  Demi.  397 

The  idea  of  a  resurrectionof  the  body  is  implied  in  some 
of  these  texts. 

On  the  arrival  of  the  Sim  Ra  at  one  of  the  gates  of  the 
Amenti,  "  Those,"  says  the  text,  "  who  are  in  this  picture,  their 
bodies  are  in  their  chests  in  their  holes.     "  Their  bodies  rise 

up  at  him,"  |^  In"^*!  V'  ^ie  ^un'  Anubis  keeps 
the  words  of  that  great  god  who  gives  light  to  them  from 
his  great  disk  to  their  chests  he  reckons  his  words.  His 
tires  and  his  abode  dissipate  the  darkness  when  he  flies  over 
them."1 

It  does  not  appear  that  there  was  any  resurrection  of  the 
shade. 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Le  Page  Renouf  for  calling  my 
attention  to  the  following  passage  at  Abydos 2 : — 

ta  nak  hetp  ba  aa  hr        ^at     f 

7  hou  hast     given  to  rest     the  Soul        great    upon         his   body 


/vww\ 


a,  I  o  -»^  1     © 

^aibit     f  m  atn 

his  shade  in         the  disk. 


1  Champollion,  "  Not.  Descr.,"  p.  543. 

2  Mariette,  "Abydos,"  Vol.  I,  pi.  52,  lines  22  and  23. 


398 


HANDICRAFTS  AND  ARTIZAXS  MENTIONED  IN 
TALMUDICAL  WRITINGS. 

By  Dr.  S.  Loos. 

Read   4th   March,    1SS4. 

The  following  observations  are  intended  to  throw  some 
rays  of  light  npon  the  social  and  industrial  habits  of  the 
Jews  about  two  thousand  years  ago.  As  far  as  the  degree 
of  their  civilization  and  the  state  of  their  industries  are  con- 
cerned, the  Jews  who  worshipped  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem 
are  as  much  an  extinct  race  as  the  Athenians  who  had  to 
stand  the  vexatious  cross-questionings  of  Socrates,  or  the 
Romans  who  applauded  the  eloquence  of  Cicero  in  the 
Forum ;  and  we  have  to  look  to  the  relics  of  by-gone  ages 
for  materials  to  construct  a  picture  of  their  daily  pursuits. 

The  art  of  sculpture  was  not  at  home  among  the  Jews ; 
the  law  which  excluded  every  kind  of  image  from  their 
places  of  worship  denied  them  the  chief  impetus  which 
monumental  art  received  among  other  nations  of  antiquitv, 
so  that  they  have  left  but  scanty  records  of  their  history  in 
stone  or  marble.  As  to  the  products  of  the  industrial  arts, 
beyond  some  coins  and  a  few  articles  of  jewelry  and  pottery, 
the  excavations  have  hardly  brought  to  light  any  object  to 
testify  what  kind  of  artizans  existed  among  them. 

But  in  the  Talmud,  and  the  various  works  which  have 
contributed  to  its  compilation,  we  possess  a  vast  literature, 
through  which  the  treasures  of  the  past  are  scattered  in  rich 
profusion ;  hidden  away,  it  is  true,  among  a  mass  of  matter 
of  which  a  large  proportion  is  uncongenial  to  our  modern 
ways  of  thought,  yet  opening  to  the  diligent  searcher  a 
wide  field  of  antiquarian  interest ;  and  as  the  spade  of  the 
excavator  sometimes  lays  bare  an  object  which,  insignificant 
in  itself,  becomes   important  as  a  witness  of  the  period  to 


Handicrafts  and  Artizans  mentioned,  fyc.  399 

which  it  owes  its  origin,  so  does  the  student  of  Rabbinical 
writings  occasionally  light  upon  a  word,  or  an  expression,  or 
the  mention  of  a  fact  which  becomes  a  source  of  precious 
information  to  the  reflecting  mind.  I  will  give  two  instances 
to  illustrate  my  meaning  : — 

In  the  treatise  of  the  Mislma  called  Kelim  (vessels  or 
implements),  there  occurs1  the  word  pft^YTfi,  meaning  a 
leather  case.  The  word  is  a  compound  of  the  Chaldean 
word  p*ljn>  "two,"  and  the  well-known  Greek  word  Qr\icr\, 
a  "  receptacle  "  or  "  case,"  and  thus  means  a  double  or  com- 
pound case  ;  it  is  explained  to  signify  a  leather  case  having 
separate  compartments  for  a  pen,  a  lancet,  a  knife,  and  a  pair 
of  scissors,  and  being  much  used  by  surgeons.  This  single 
word  thus  produces  before  our  view  the  surgeon  of  nearly  two 
thousand  years  ago,  going  to  visit  his  patients,  and  carrying 
his  case  of  surgical  instruments,  much  the  same  as  the 
medical  practitioner  does  in  our  own  day. 

In  another  part  ot  the  Talmud2  the  expression  occurs 
POU  "Hl^n?  "girls'  ovens,"  meaning  toy  ovens,  made  for 
little  girls  to  play  with.  This  expression  affords  a  peep  into 
the  nurseries  of  olden  times,  where  girls  might  be  seen 
playing  at  cooking,  as  they  can  be  found  to-day  in  many  a 
nursery  in  London. 

Such  words  are  eminently  suggestive ;  these  two  words 
naturally  lead  to  the  inference,  that  at  the  time  they  were 
written  there  must  have  been  surgeons,  there  must  have 
been  makers  of  surgical  instruments,  there  must  have  been 
leather  workers,  and  there  must  have  been  makers  of  fictile 
ware  who  were  occupied  in  providing  children  with 
playthings.  In  this  way  we  become  acquainted  with  handi- 
crafts which  have  left  very  few  substantial  traces  of  their 
existence. 

It  is  self-evident  that  a  population  of  perhaps  two  millions 
of  people  could  not  have  existed  without  artizans,  who 
furnished  the  necessaries  of  life,  and  even  some  of  its 
luxuries.  The  Bible  mentions  many  of  these,  such  as 
weavers,  fullers,  workers  in  metals,  both  the  useful  and  the 
precious  metals,  carpenters,  potters,  locksmiths,  and  others ; 

1  xvi,  8.  2  Niddah,  26  b. 


400  Handicraft*  and  Artizatu  mentioned 

but  we  are  more  concerned  with  the  handicrafts  as  they 
flourished  in  later  times,  namely,  in  those  centuries  of  which 
the  destruction  of  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem  forms  the 
central  event,  A  few  savings,  culled  from  the  pages  of  the 
Talmud,  will  show  in  what  estimation  handicrafts  were 
held  by  the  Rabbins :  "  Great  is  work,  for  it  honours  the 
worker/'1  is  an  exclamation  uttered  by  Jehudah,  celebrated 
among  the  learned  men  of  the  second  century.  Among  the 
duties  of  a  father  towards  his  son  is  enumerated  that  of 
causing  him  to  be  taught  a  trade,  with  this  emphatic 
addition :  '•  Neglecting  to  teach  your  son  some  handi- 
craft, is  like  bringing  him  up  to  robbery."2  Another  very 
characteristic  saying  is  this :  M  Though  a  famine  rage  in 
the  land  for  seven  years,  it  will  not  enter  the  door  of  the 
artizan."  3 

Not  all  handicrafts,  however,  were  esteemed  alike ;  it  is 
enjoined:  "Let  every  man  endeavour  to  teach  his  son  a 
clean  and  light  employment;"4  as  such  is  instanced  the 
trade  of  a  tailor,  because  the  stitches  form  neat  straight 
lines  like  the  furrows  of  a  field.  Several  trades  were  looked 
upon  with  disfavour ;  such  were  especially  those  which 
necessitated  a  frequent  absence  of  the  man  from  his  family, 
namely,  the  occupation  of  driver  of  asses  and  camels,  that 
of  sailor,  herdsman,  and  earner.5  Another  trade  which 
was  regarded  unfavourably  was  that  of  butcher;  it  may 
here  be  observed  that  the  butchers  not  only  supplied  raw 
meat,  but  were  likewise  purveyors  of  cooked  meats ;  a 
butcher's  hearth  was  therefore  understood  to  be  much  larger 
than  the  hearth  of  the  ordinary  household.6  Among  the 
trades  of  a  lower  grade  was  likewise  that  of  the  tanner,  but 
the  lowest  of  all  callings  seems  to  have  been  that  of  skinning 
carcases  in  the  market  place.7 

Though  some  pursuits  were  of  course  more  humble  than 
others,  a  man  was  not  considered  to  be  dishonoured  by  the 
nature  of  his  calling,  the  rabbinical  maxim  being :  li  Poverty 
and  riches  do  not  depend  upon  the  kind  of  handicraft  a  man 

1  >~edarim,  46  b.  ■  Kiddushin,  20  a.  3  Sanhedrin,  29  a. 

4  Berachoth,  63  a.         5  Kiddushin,  82  a.  6  Kelirn,  vi,  2. 

7  Pessachini,  113  a. 


in  Talmudical   Writings.  401 

has  chosen ;  but  let  every  man  pray  to  Him  who  bestows  all 
riches  and  possessions,  that  he  may  be  successful  in  the  trade 
he  shall  follow-"1 

The  practice  of  certain  trades  being  carried  on  in  special 
localities,  appears  to  be  of  very  early  origin.  From  the 
Bible  we  know  of  a  street  of  the  bakers,  a  potters'  gate,  and 
a  fullers'  field ;  in  the  Mishna2  mention  is  made  of  a  meat 
market,  and  in  the  Talmud3  we  find  the  regulation  laid 
down  that  a  tanner  was  not  allowed  to  cany  on  his  trade 
within  the  precincts  of  a  city.  This  prohibition  is  confirmed 
by  a  passage  in  the  Acts  (x,  32),  where  Simon,  a  tanner  of 
Joppa,  is  stated  to  have  dwelt  "by  the  sea-side" — necessarily 
so,  because  he  could  not  carry  on  his  business  within  the 
town.  The  Talmud  fixes  50  cubits  as  the  minimum  distance 
at  which  a  tannery  is  to  be  situated  from  the  city  gates; 
this  regulation  seems  very  inadequate  for  the  prevention  of 
unpleasant  odours ;  but  we  ought  not  to  attach  too  much 
importance  to  the  exact  number  of  cubits  indicated;  it  is 
of  sufficient  interest  to  find  that  considerations  for  the  purity 
of  the  atmosphere  were  not  altogether  neglected  in  those 
times  in  the  administration  of  cities. 

In  Alexandria  the  practice  of  artizans  who  followed  the 
same  trade  inhabiting  special  streets  or  quarters  of  the  city, 
was  very  minutely  carried  out.  It  is  stated4  that  there  were 
separate  quarters  for  the  goldsmiths,  the  silversmiths,  the 
ironworkers,  the  coppersmiths,  and  the  weavers,  so  that  when 
a  poor  artizan  arrived  there,  it  was  easy  for  him  to  address 
himself  to  the  men  of  his  craft,  and  among  them  to  find 
employment  for  the  maintenance  of  his  family. 

Such  statements  lead  us  to  suppose  that  some  bond  of 
union  existed  between  men  of  the  same  handicraft.  A 
confirmation  of  this  may  be  found  in  the  19th  chapter  of 
the  Acts,  where  it  is  related  how  Demetrius,  a  silversmith, 
addressed  the  men  of  his  craft  on  a  matter  touching  the 
interests  of  their  guild.  In  Jerusalem  these  guilds  enjoyed 
great  consideration  in  the  municipality  ;  when  processions 
from  the  provinces  arrived  bearing  offerings  of  first  fruits, 

1  Kiddushin,  82  a.  2  Becoroth,  v,  1.  3  Baba  bathra,  25  a. 

4  Succah,  51  b. 


4<>2  Handicrafts  and  Articans  mentioned 

they  were  received  by  the  principal  officials  of  the  temple  and 
by  the  craftsmen  of  Jerusalem,  who  offered  their  greetings, 
saying  :  "  Our  brethren,  men  from  such  and  such  a  province, 
be  welcome  among  us."1 

Mention  is  made  of  a  locality  in  Jerusalem  which  is 
generally  called  "the  synagogue  of  the  coppersmiths." - 
The  expression  used  is  PC12^  j~P2,  the  literal  equivalent 
of  avvayayyn ,  which,  as  is  well-known,  means  a  house  of 
assembly;  it  is  therefore  probable  that  this  "synagogue" 
was  not  simply  a  house  of  prayer,  but  served  also  as  a 
meeting-house  where  the  coppersmiths  assembled  for  pur- 
poses relating  to  their  particular  trade. 

A  custom  which  deserves  to  be  mentioned  was  that  of 
artizans  wearing  characteristic  badges  indicative  of  their 
trade.  It  is  stated3  that  the  tailor  earned  a  needle  stuck  in 
front  of  his  dress  :  the  scribe  went  out  Avith  a  pen  behind  his 
ear ;  the  carpenter  displayed  a  sort  of  foot-rule  ;  *  the  wool- 
carder  a  woollen  thread :  the  weaver  a  flock  of  wool ;  the 
dyer  a  number  of  threads  dyed  in  different  colours,  which  he 
used  as  patterns,  and  from  which  his  customers  could  select 
the  shade  they  desired :  even  the  money-changer  appeared 
in  public  with  a  coin  conspicuously  fastened  to  his  dress. 
As  a  characteristic  portion  of  apparel  may  likewise  be  noted 
the  tanner's  NvJ~0~r.5  a  kind  of  leather  apron  worn  by 
tanners  while  engaged  in  the  operations  of  their  business. 

It  was  natural,  as  is  the  case  in  all  countries,  that  the  son 
should  mostly  be  brought  up  to  the  handicraft  of  his  father, 
and  we  meet  with  instances  of  trades  becoming  hereditary 
in  certain  families.  In  the  fourth  chapter  of  the  first  Book  of 
Chronicles  a  family  of  linen  weavers  is  mentioned,  as  well  as 
families  of  carpenters  and  potters.  The  Talmud6  speaks  of 
two  families — the  family  of  Gomiu,  who  possessed  the  secret 
of  baking  the  shew-bread  for  the  temple,  and  the  family  of 
Abtinas,  who  were  skilled  in  the  preparation  of  the  holy 

1  Bicurim,  iii;  3.  :  Megillah,  26  a.  3  Sabbath,  1]  I. 

4  I  have  used  the  word  "foot  rule"  as  the  modern  equivalent  for  QDp, 
■which  is  probably  connected  with  tbe  Greek  word  a^fa-  an(i  signifies  a  chip  of 
wood,  which  carpenters  used  for  measuring. 

5  Kelim,  xvi.  4.  6  Joma,  38  a. 


in  Talmudical   Writings.  403 

incense.  It  is  recorded  that  when  these  families  refused  to 
teach  their  secrets  to  others,  the  authorities  sent  for  bakers 
and  perfume-mixers  from  Alexandria,  but  they  did  not  quite 
succeed  in  producing  the  requisite  articles. 

With  reference  to  competition  among  the  trading  classes,  it 
is  interesting  to  find  principles  of  political  economy  cropping 
up  in  the  pages  of  the  Talmud;  while  it  is  agreed  on  all 
hands1  that  officials  should  be  appointed  for  the  purpose  of 
periodically  examining  the  weights  and  measures  used  by 
traders,  there  is  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  advisability  of 
the  prices  being  fixed  by  the  authorities ;  those  who  dis- 
approve of  the  interference  of  the  overseers  believing  that 
prices  may  safely  be  left  to  be  regulated  by  competition, 
though,  as  I  shall  presently  have  occasion  to  point  out, 
pressure  was  put  upon  certain  traders  in  order  to  induce 
them  to  sell  at  a  cheap  rate.  A  fair  competition  was 
countenanced,  but  encroachments  upon  other  people's  trades 
were  very  severely  judged.2  Even  an  instance  of  trade 
combination  is  to  be  met  with.  A  case  is  related3  of  two 
butchers  in  a  town  who  made  a  compact  that  the  one  should 
not  kill  on  the  same  days  of  the  week  as  the  other,  so  that 
they  might  both  have  a  better  chance  of  selling  their  meat. 

The  foregoing  remarks  refer  to  artizans  and  handicrafts 
in  general ;  I  will  now  proceed  to  point  out  noteworthy 
features  in  special  crafts  as  they  existed  in  Talmudical  times. 

I.  Bakers. 

In  the  first  stages  of  society  the  bread  required  for  the 
family  was  baked  in  each  household,  and  it  was  mostly  the 
wife  or  the  female  servant  who  performed  this  domestic 
labour.  But  it  appears  that  among  the  Jews,  bakers  who 
prepared  bread  for  sale  in  the  market-place  have  existed 
in  very  early  times.  It  has  been  noted  before,  that  in 
Jerusalem  there  was  a  street  called  the  street  of  the  bakers, 
where  these  artizans  had  their  bakehouses. 

The  Talmudical  name  for  baker  is  DlfTC,  a  word 
probably  of  foreign  origin,  but  the  etymology  of  which  is 

1  Baba  batlira,  89  a.  2  Maccoth,  24  a.  3  Baba  bathra,  9  a. 


404  Handicrafts  and  Articans  mentioned 

not  satisfactorily  explained ;  another  name  for  baker  is 
"•fc^TTYQ,1  which  is  perhaps  connected  with  the  Greek  word 
i3p(OTov,  "food."  Neither  of  these  words  is  etymologically 
related  to  the  Talmudical  words  denoting  "bread,"  of  which 
there  are  three,  viz.,  JlE.  ISDTDj  aud  NflE^l ;  these  are 
used  indiscriminately,  without  a  special  meaning  being 
attached  to  any  of  them. 

Bread  was  made  of  various  kinds  of  cereals,  such  as 
wheat,  barley,  and  spelt :  inferior  sorts  were  made  of  the 
flour  of  beans  or  lentils.2  There  were  also  choicer  sorts 
called  miTTD,  "products  of  fine  flour,"  and  mNpDTOlj 
probably  corresponding  to  our  rolls.  It  is  likely  that  these 
choicer  sorts  were  made  by  special  bakers,  such  as  the 
family  of  Gonnu  to  whom  I  have  referred  before.  It 
appears  that  each  baker  adopted  a  particular  shape  for  his 
loaves,  so  that  the  bread  of  his  baking  could  be  dis- 
tinguished from  that  of  his  competitors.  The  townspeople 
of  Jerusalem  are  reported  to  have  been  very  particular  with 
respect  to  then  bread,  and  somewhat  looked  down  upon 
those  who  habitually  ate  stale  bread.3  As  implements  used 
in  making  bread,  are  mentioned4  the  kneading  trough,  the 
board  on  which  the  loaves  were  ranged,  the  rolling-pin,  and 
a  small  trough  filled  with  water,  in  which  the  baker  from 
time  to  time  cooled  his  hands. 

The  oven5  was  generally  made  of  earthenware,  some- 
times of  metal,  in  the  shape  of  a  pot  without  a  bottom, 
resting  on  a  basis  of  stones  or  bricks.  By  what  I  suppose 
we  must  call  a  police  regulation,  it  was  enacted  that  from 
the  top  of  the  oven  to  the  beam  of  the  ceiling  there  must 
be  a  distance  of  at  least  four  cubits ; G  this  as  a  precaution 
against  setting  fire  to  the  house. 

The  bakers  were  not  usually  the  bread-sellers ;  there  was 
the  TJT'E  (corrupted  from  the  Greek  word  irparrjp),  the 
factor  or  wholesale  dealer  who  bought  from  the  bakers,  and 
then  there  was  the  71Q3D,  the  retail  bread-seller.7  This 
word   71Q3D    is   evidently   identical    with  the   Greek  term 

1  Pesachim,  40  b.         2  Shebuoth,  22  b.       3  Sabbath,  62  b.       4  Kelim,  xv,  2. 
5  Bertinoro  on  Kelim,  v,  1.  6  Eaba  bathra,  20  J.  '  Demai,  v,  4. 


in    Talmudical    Writings.  405 

/jlovottgoXi}?  ;  but  instead  of  adopting  its  proper  meaning,  the 
Jews  seem  in  this  instance  to  have  applied  it  to  one  who 
sold  single  loaves.  A  similar  practice  (of  the  bread-seller 
being  distinguished  from  the  bread-?na£er)  appears  to  have 
prevailed  among  the  Greeks ;  so  at  least  I  infer  from  the 
occurrence  of  the  word  apToirwXis  (bread-seller)  used  by 
Aristophanes,1  as  distinguished  from  aproKoiros  (baker). 

This  arrangement  of  bread  going  through  three  hands 
before  it  reached  the  consumer,  must  have  had  a  tendency 
unduly  to  raise  the  price  of  the  staff  of  life;  on  the  other 
hand,  the  authorities  kept  the  price  well  under  control ;  we 
find  that  the  manufacturing  bakers  were  absolved  from 
certain  imposts,  because  the  overseers  were  always  urging 
them2  (the  text  says  they  used  to  beat  them)  to  sell  at  a 
cheap  rate. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  Jehudah,  a  learned  Rabbi  of  the 
second  century,  gained  his  livelihood  as  a  baker.  Indeed, 
many  men,  distinguished  for  their  learning,  belonged  to  the 
artizan  class,  thus  setting  their  pupils  and  their  contem- 
poraries a  praiseworthy  example  of  industry  and  self- 
reliance. 

II.  Metal- Workers. 

Goldsmiths  and  silversmiths  were  numerous,  and  their 
productions  comprised  household  utensils,  and  a  variety  of 
ornaments  for  women ;  among  the  latter  may  be  mentioned 
one  which  is  called  in  the  Talmud,  "  city  of  gold,"  or 
"Jerusalem  of  gold;"3  it  was  either  a  flat  piece  of  gold,  or 
in  the  shape  of  a  crown  (the  opinions  are  divided  on  this 
point),  and  had  the  outlines  of  a  city,  mostly  those  of 
Jerusalem,  figured  on  it. 

The  coppersmiths,  who  are  also  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament  (II  Timothy,  iv,  14),  have  already  been  re- 
ferred to. 

1  Frogs,  858 :   "  It  is  not  meet  that  poets  should  rail  at  each  other  like 
breacl-women."      From   this   it  would  almost   seem  as  if   these  female   bread- 
sellers  had  a  reputation  for  abusive  language  similar  to  our  own  market  women. 
2  Joma,  9  a.  3  Sabbath,  57  a  ;  Nedarim,  50  a. 


400  Handicrafts  and  Artizans  mentioned 

The  trade  of  blacksmith  must  have  been  carried  on 
extensively,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  long  list  of  agricul- 
tural implements  and  household  utensils  of  iron,  contained 
in  the  treatise  of  Keb'rn,  where,  among  other  articles,  iron 
tyres  of  wheels  are  mentioned.1  Although  the  furnace  and 
the  process  of  smelting  are  frequently  alluded  to  in  the 
Bible,  and  have  supplied  the  poetical  writers  with  many 
expressive  images,  yet  I  cannot  find  any  direct  indications 
that  the  operation  of  reducing  iron  from  the  ore  was  carried 
on  among  the  Jews :  I  rather  incline  to  the  opinion  that  iron 
was  imported  from  other  countries  in  bars  (fTCi,*),  or  round 
lumps,  technically  called  blooms  {TTTSH)  :2  the  word  used  for 
these  lumps  really  signifies  a  kind  of  cake  baked  on  coals, 
and  is  applied  to  these  pieces  of  iron  on  account  of  their 
round  shape.  The  use  of  charcoal  in  forges  was  well 
known.3  A  peculiar  law  referring  to  iron-workers  deserves 
to  be  noted ;  it  was  enacted4  that  if  a  spark  should  fly  out 
from  a  smithy  ("from  under  the  hammer"  is  the  literal 
expression  of  the  text)  and  cause  some  damage,  the  smith 
is  held  liable. 

The  occurrence  of  the  word  JTHTU,5  ";  iron  scrapings,*' 
proves  that  they  used  to  polish  iron  by  scraping  it. 

One  of  the  appliances  in  the  blacksmith's  shop  was  called 
"  the  smith's  donkey  ;6  it  was  a  block  of  wood,  probably  with 
some  resemblance  to  a  donkey  in  shape,  which  was  used  as  a 
stand  for  the  bellows.  The  word  '•  donkey  "  was  also  applied 
to  wooden  stands  used  by  other  artizans. 

One  of  the  Jewish  sages  of  the  second  century  was  a 
blacksmith  by  trade,  and  is  always  mentioned  in  the  Talmud 
as  NilEI  PITT,  "Isaac  the  smith."  He  died  very  young, 
but  is  well  remembered  through  his  son  Jochanan,  who 
became  a  renowned  teacher  in  Seporis.  R.  Jochanan  was  a 
posthumous  child,  and  according  to  a  custom  then  prevailing, 
which  was  instituted  probably  in  order  to  perpetuate  the 
father's  memory  in  such  cases,  he  was  known  by  the  name 
of  NnE2  "12 >  "the  smith's  son."  His  personal  history  is 
extremely  touching.     His  mother  died  shortly  after  his  birth. 

1  Kelim,  xi,  3.  -  Kelim,  xi,  3.  3  Sabbath,  130  a. 

*  Baba  Kama,  62  b.  i  Kelim.  xi,  3.  6  Kelim,  xiv,  3. 


in   Talmudical   Writings.  407 

and  the  orphan  boy  was  brought  up  by  an  aged  grandfather. 
His  whole  life  was  a  continued  struggle  with  pressing 
poverty ;  ten  sons  were  born  to  him,  but  they  all  died  during 
Ins  lifetime ;  there  is  thus  something  strangely  pathetic  in  his 
saying  :  "  The  wrath  of  the  Lord  is  upon  the  man  who  does 
not  leave  a  son  behind  him."1  R.  Jochanan  was  noted  for 
his  tolerant  opinions  in  regard  to  pagans ;  he  maintained : 
"  The  pagans  out  of  Palestine  are  not  idolaters,  they  merely 
follow  the  practices  of  their  fathers."2 

III.  Fullers  and  Dyers. 

The  early  existence  of  the  trade  of  fuller  is  evidenced  by 
the  fact  of  a  locality  called  "  the  fullers'  field "  being  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible.  The  following  substances  are  enume- 
rated in  the  Talmud  as  detergents  : — 3 

"lfO,  the  ancient  natron,  i.e.,  "soda;"  JTTn,  which  was 
probably  potash ;  fr^TTOp,  "  cimolite,"  a  white  earth  found  in 
Argentiera,  an  island  of  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  the  ancient 
Cimolus ;  }7t^N ,  some  alkaline  substance  which  I  cannot 
identify;4  and  Vl52£,  "soap,"  which  was  supposed  to  be  most 
effective  for  removing  stains,  and  was  to  be  applied  when  the 
other  substances  failed  to  produce  the  desired  effect. 

The  process  of  dyeing  seems  to  have  been  carried  on  to  a 
large  extent ;  at  all  events,  several  pages  of  the  Talmud 
are  devoted  to  the  discussion  of  the  dyer's  liability  if  he 
should  deviate  from  the  instructions  received  from  his  cus- 
tomer. The  dye-stuffs  used  appear  to  have  been  for  the  most 
part  vegetable,  so  at  least  we  may  infer  from  the  use  of  the 
word  ^2?2D,5  which  literally  means  "  herbs."  The  Jews  were, 
however,  acquainted  with  pOl,6  as  they  called  that  particular 
species  of  murex  from  which  the  celebrated  Tyrian  purple 
dye  was  obtained. 

Of  the  vegetable  dye-stuffs  applied  by  Jewish  dyers,  are 
named  :7 

1  Baba  bathra,  116  a.  -  Cbulin,  13  b.  3  Niddah,  62  a. 

4  Tbe  word  is  perhaps  connected  with  }?&,  "snow,"  and  may  either  mean 
a  white  substance,  or  a  substance  which  renders  materials  white  as  snow. 

5  Baba  kama,  101  a.         6  Menachoth,  44  a.         7  Shebiith,  vii,  1  and  2. 


408  Handicraft*  and  Artizans  mentioned 

D't&DNj  the  Greek  tVaTt?,  "  woad,"  yielding  a  blue  colour  ; 
TTT\p  and  nN")E.  red  colours,  probably  produced  from  madder. 
Bed  and  blue  seem  to  have  been  the  principal  colours,  though 
it  is  likely  that  other  colours  were  known. 

IV.  Perfumers. 

The  business  of  mixing  incense  has  already  been  alluded 
to  ;  with  this  was  most  likely  connected  that  of  preparing 
cosmetics;  it  is  stated1  that  from  the  time  of  Ezra,  itinerant 
vendors  of  perfumes  used  to  visit  the  cities  to  sell  toilet 
requisites  for  ladies. 

As  an  allied  trade  to  that  of  perfumer,  I  may  mention 
that  of  hairdresser.  A  female  hairdresser 2  is  referred  to  in 
the  Talmud,  and  likewise  a  kind  of  net3  in  which  women 
wrapped  themselves  while  their  hair  was  being  dressed. 
Josephus4  mentions  the  practice  of  sprinkling  gold  dust  upon 
the  hair  as  having  existed  in  the  time  of  King  Solomon. 

False  hair  was  also  worn  ;  women  used  artificial  plaits  to 
supplement  their  own.  A  curious  discussion  arises  on  a 
hypothetical  case5 : — If  a  woman  who  was  sentenced  to  be 
executed  should  express  a  wish  that  her  false  hair  should  be 
given  up  to  her  daughter,  whether  that  request  can  be 
granted  or  not. 

V.  Shoemakers. 

Two  terms  are  used  in  the  Talmud:  T7T-D,  "sandal- 
maker,"  and  p>!TV  "shoemaker,"  but  I  cannot  find  any 
indication  that  these  were  separate  trades.  Mention  is  made 
of  a  wooden  shoe6  covered  with  leather,  and  having  the 
upper  portion  fastened  to  the  soles  by  nails.  An  eminent 
sage  of  the  second  century  gained  his  livelihood  by  sandal- 
making,  and  is  always  referred  to  as  u  Jochanan  Hasandler." 
He  was  a  pupil  of  the  celebrated  R.  Akiba,  to  whom  he  was 
much  attached,  and  whom  he  visited  in  prison.7 

1  Baba  bathra,  22  a.  ■  Cbagigah,  ib.  3  Kelim,  xv,  3. 

4  Antiqu.,  viii,  7,  3.  5  Erechin,  7  b.  6  Sabbatb,  60  a. 

'<  R.  Akiba  was  put  into  prison,  and  died  the  death  of  a  martyr  under  the 
governorship  of  Titus  Annius  Riifus. 


in  Talmudical   Writings.  409 

VI.  Builders. 

The  more  ambitious  structures  among  the  Jews  were 
probably  the  works  of  foreign  architects ;  the  occurrence  of 
such  expressions  as  plO^Q,  "palatium,"  v72,  "balneum,"  and 
p/p"K3'  "triclinium,"  strongly  points  to  Roman  influence. 
The  ordinary  dwelling-houses,  however,  were  no  doubt  built 
by  native  workmen ;  there  must,  therefore,  have  been  brick- 
layers, masons,  carpenters,  plasterers,  and  whitewashes. 
The  houses  were  mostly  only  one  storey  high,  yet  houses 
with  more  than  one  storey,  where  the  upper  storey  formed 
a  separate  dwelling,  are  distinctly  mentioned.1  In  this 
connection  it  may  be  of  some  interest  to  note  that  the 
whitewashers  employed  a  brush  the  handle  of  which  was 
made  in  joints,2  so  that  they  could  make  it  longer  or  shorter 
at  will. 

The  following  description  of  the  construction  of  mud 
walls  is  introduced  by  Maimonides3  in  explaining  the  word 
"P"Ij.  This  word,  according  to  most  commentators,  means 
a  row  of  bricks  or  stones,  or  a  low  stone  wall  ;  but 
Maimonides  says  it  means  a  wooden  board,  used  in  the 
building  of  walls,  and  he  adds :  "  The  builders  take  two 
boards  about  six  cubits  long  and  two  cubits  high,  and  place 
them  parallel  to  each  other  on  their  edges,  as  far  apart  as 
the  thickness  of  the  wall  they  wish  to  build;  then  they 
steady  these  boards  with  pieces  of  wood,  fastened  with 
cords.  The  space  between  the  boards  is  then  filled  up 
with  earth,  which  is  beaten  down  firmly  with  hammers  or 
stampers  ;  this  is  continued  until  the  wall  reaches  the 
requisite  height,  and  the  boards  are  then  "withdrawn."  I  am 
informed  that  the  same  mode  of  construction  is  even  now 
in  use  among  the  natives  in  some  of  the  semi-civilised 
districts  in  the  Andes. 

VII.  Potters. 

The  trade  and  the  processes  of  the  potter  are  so 
frequently  referred  to  in  the  Bible   that  the  Talmud  has 

1  Baba  bathra,  G3  a.         -  Sabbath,  -47  a.         3  Content,  on  Kelim,  xx,  5. 


410  Handicrafts  and  Artizans  mentioned 

little  to  add.  A  peculiar  kind  of  manufacture,  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  Mishna  and  the  Talmud,  are  m\r\l  ^D,1 
literally  "vessels  of  natron."  The  opinions  of  commentators 
differ  very  much  as  to  the  substances  from  which  these 
—els  were  made.  As  far  as  I  can  ascertain,  they  were 
made  from  soda  obtained  from  the  Egyptian  natron  lakes, 
mixed  with  sand.  According  to  Maimonides,  they  were 
only  used  as  drinking  vessels,  and  were  too  brittle  to  stand 
the  fire.  They  seem  to  have  been  something  between 
earthenware  and  glass.  These  vessels  are  likewise  referred 
to  by  Pliny  (Hist.  Natur.,  xxxi,  10). 


VIII.  Physicians. 

According  to  Rabbinical  phraseology,  the  physician 
belonged  to  the  artizan  class;  he  is  generally  called  F21N, 
which  literally  means  "a  skilled  man,"'  and  is  commonly 
applied  to  handicraftsmen. 

The  existence  of  surgical  instruments  has  already  been 

alluded  to.  The  phrase  D^Nim  W  hyil  Tmn  fc&D,1 
"  as  much  as  a  large  spoon  of  the  doctors  will  hold,"  proves 
that  the  u  tablespoonful "  is  a  very  ancient  institution.  It 
was  usual  for  the  patients  to  be  attended  to  at  the  physician's 
house,  but  the  wealthier  classes  often  sent  for  the  physician 
to  attend  them  in  their  own  dwellings.3 

Many  of  the  learned  practised  the  healing  art ;  there  was 
a  celebrated  surgeon  in  the  third  century  named  Abba,  of 
whom  it  is  recorded*  that  he  had  separate  rooms  for  men  and 
for  women ;  he  also  provided  a  kind  of  wrapper  in  which 
women  were  wrapped  while  undergoing  operations.  A  place 
was  set  apart  in  the  wall  where  people  deposited  the  fee,  so 
that  he  did  not  know  how  much  any  particular  individual 
had  given.  From  learned  men  he  not  only  did  not  take 
any  fee,  but  when  the  patient  was  a  poor  man,  he  supplied 
him  with  money  to  procure  suitable  nourishment  for  his 
convalescence. 

1  Kelim,  ii,  1.  ';  Kelim,  xvii.  12.  3  Berachoth,  64  a. 

4  Taanith,  21  b. 


in  Talmudical   Writings.  411 

These  appear  to  be  the  principal  handicrafts  exercised 
among  the  Jews  in  the  first  centuries  of  the  present  era. 
There  existed,  of  course,  some  others — for  instance,  fishermen, 
weavers,  coopers,  millers,  &c. ;  but  I  have  not  found  in  them 
any  characteristic  features  that  seemed  to  me  noteworthy. 
AYhile  endeavouring  to  lay  before  you  the  salient  points  of 
ancient  Jewish  industries,  it  has  been  my  chief  aim  to  show 
that  the  inhabitants  of  Palestine  of  two  thousand  years  ago, 
although  chiefly  an  agricultural  people,  were  by  no  means 
indifferent  to  the  mechanical  arts  by  which  the  commodities 
and  the  embellishments  of  life  are  supplied ;  and  many  men 
who  were  emment  for  their  profound  learning  did  not  disdain 
to  earn  their  livelihood  by  the  labour  of  their  hands.  In 
pursuing  these  researches  I  have  often  been  struck  by  the 
discovery  that  many  practices  and  appliances  which  we 
generally  regard  as  the  offsprings  of  comparatively  modern 
times,  are  really  developments  of  what  existed  in  ages  long 
gone  by ;  and  I  have  been  strengthened  in  the  conviction 
that  the  past  comprised  the  seeds  of  the  present,  as  the 
present  comprises  the  seeds  of  the  future. 


Vol.  VIII.  -" 


412 


L'INSCRIPTION  DE  LA  DESTRUCTION  DES  HOMMES 
DANS  LE  TOMBEAU  DE  RAMSES  III. 

Par  Edouard  Naville. 
Read  3rd  March,  1885. 

Depths  que  j'ai  fait  connaitre  en  1875,  pour  la  premiere 
fois,  lTnscription  du  tombeau  de  Seti  I,  racontant  la  destruc- 
tion des  homines  par  les  dieux,  ce  texte  a  fait  l'objet  de 
plusieurs  travaux.  Le  Chevalier  de  Bergmann  l'a  pub  lie  a 
nouveau  d'apres  une  copie  qu'il  avait  prise  sur  les  lieux;1 
M.  Brugsch  en  a  fait  une  traduction  complete  accompagnee 
de  la  transcription;2  M.  Lauth  a  reproduit  ma  traduction 
en  y  faisant  quelques  corrections  :3  enfin  M.  Lefebure4  en 
a  interprets  une  partie  qu'il  a  comparee  a  un  texte  tire 
d'un  papyrus  de  Turin. 

D'apres  une  indication  qui  m'avait  ete  fournie  par  mon 
savant  confrere,  M.  le  Dr.  Stern,  j'ai  trouve  un  second 
exemplaire  de  cet  interessant  texte  dans  le  tombeau  de 
Ramses  III ;  j'en  ai  pris  copie  pendant  un  sejour  a  Thebes 
que  j'ai  fait  dans  l'hiver  de  1882,  et  depuis  lors  j'ai  pu 
collationner  ma  copie  sur  des  estampages  que  M.  Lefebure 
a  faits  Pannee  suivante,  et  qu'il  a  eu  l'obligeance  de  mettre 
a  ma  disposition.  Cette  reproduction  avait  evidemment  ete 
faite  d'apres  le  tombeau  de  Seti  I ;  il  s'y  trouve  un  tres  petit 
nombre  de  variantes,  mais  elle  est  utile  parce  qu'elle  remplit 
quelques  unes  des  lacunes  qui  se  trouvent  dans  l'origmal. 
La   chambre  du  tombeau  de  Ramses   III  dans  laquelle  se 

1  "  Hieroglyphische  Inschriften,"  pi.  lxxxv  et  seq. 

2  "  Die   neue    Weltordnung   nach    Verniclitung   des    siindigen    Menscheu- 
gi  -chlechtes."     Berlin.     1881. 

3  "  Aus  Egyptena  Vorzeit,"  p.  71  et  seq. 

1  "  Un  chapitre  de  la  chronique  Bolaire."     (Zeitschr.  fur  Aey.  Sprat-he,  1883.) 


L  inscription  de  la  Destruction  des  Hommes,  <$,-c.      413 

trouve  l'inscription  est  en  beaucoup  plus  mauvais  etat  que 
celle  de  Seti  I ;  la  pierre  s'est  delitee ;  il  s'y  est  forme 
beaucoup  de  salpetre,  et  les  chauve-souris  ont  acheve  ce  que 
le  temps  avait  encore  un  peu  respecte.  II  serait  impossible 
de  traduire  l'inscription  d'apres  le  texte  de  Ramses  III ;  mais 
je  vais  essayer  d'en  donner  une  nouvelle  interpretation  en 
m  aidant  des  travaux  et  des  corrections  de  mes  savants 
confreres,  en  particulier  de  M.  Brugsch,  et  en  relevant  deux 
ou  trois  points  ou  la  comparaison  des  deux  versions  m'a 
montre  que  le  savant  egyptologue  s'etait  ecarte  du  sens 
vrai.1 

Ligne  1 qui  se  leve,  le  dieu  qui  existe  par 

lui-meme,2  lorsqu'il  fut  en  possession  de  la  royaute  des 
homines  et  des  dieux  eusemble;  les  homines  prononcerent 
des  paroles  [contre  le  dieu]. 

2 lors  done  que  Sa  Majeste,  vie   saine  et  forte, 

etait  dans  sa  vieillesse,  ses  os3  etaient  d'argent,  sa  chair 
etait  d'or,  ses  boucles  de  lapis  vrai ;  Sa  Majeste  s'apercut 
des  paroles  [prononcees]  contre  lui 

3.  par  les  hommes.  Dit  par  Sa  Majeste,  vie  saine  et 
forte,  a  ceux  qui  etaient  aupres  de  lui :  j'appelle  devant  ma 
face,  Shu,  Tefnut,  Seb, 

4.  Nut,  et  les  peres  et  les  meres  qui  etaient  avec  moi 
quand  j'etais  encore  dans  Nun  (l'ocean  primordial) ; 4  et 
ensuite  mon  dieu  (mon  pere  divin)  Nun,  amenera  ses 

5.  compagnons  avec  lui.  Amene-les  a  petits  pas,  que 
les  hommes  ne  le  voient  pas,  et  que  ne  s'ecoule  (s'effi-aie)  pas 
leur  coeur.     Tu  iras  avec  eux, 

1  Pour  abreger  je  designerai  le  texte  de  Seti  1  par  S.  et  celui  de  Ramses  III 
par  R. 

2  La  le9on  de  R.  |  irrti  — »— I  montre  que  la  correction  de  Mr.  Lauth  : 
"  dessen  Wort  sich  verwirklicht  "  n'est  pa3  justifiee. 

3  Un  exanien  attentif  de  mes  estampages  m'a  prouve  qu'il  faut  lire  dans  S. 
2  |  |  |  ^^-»  et  plus  loin  Q  i>  |T\  .  (Brugsch,  "  Reise  nach  der  grossen 
Oase  El  Khargeh,"  p.  36  et  40.) 

4  -d  •  ■  ,  •  ,     t,      COO 
Kemarquer  ici  la  vanaute  de  R.    f=3  ' 


4L4  LJ inscription  de  la  Destruction  des  Hom\ 

6.  dans  le  grand  temple  quand  ils  auront  donne  leur 
consentemeut ;  je  sortirai  de  Nun  pour  aller  au  lieu  oil  je 
suis  ;  qu  on  m'amene  la  les  dieux. 

7.  Lorsque  les  dieux  furent  arrives  dans  son  lieu,  ils  se 
prosternerent  en  presence  de  Sa  Majeste  qui  prononca  ses 
paroles  en  ta  presence,  pere 

8.  des  anciens  dieux,  createur  des  hommes  et  roi  des 
etres  pins;  et  ils  dirent  en  presence  de  Sa  Majeste  : 

9.  Dis-nous  tes  paroles  afin  que  nous  les  entendions.1 
Dit  par  Ra  a  Nun  :  toi,  Paine  des  dieux,  duquel  je  suis  ne,  et 
vous  dieux  anciens, 

10.  voici  les  hommes  qui  sont  nes  de  mon  ceil,2  pro- 
noncent  des  paroles  contre  moi.  Dites-moi  ce  que  vous 
ferez  a  ce  sujet, 

11.  voici  j'ai  attendu,  et  je  ne  les  ai  pas  tues  avant 
d'avoir  entendu  ce  que  vous  direz  a  ce  sujet. 

12.  Dit  par  la  majeste  de  Nun  :  mon  fils  Ra,  plus  grand 
que  celui  qui  Pa  fait,  et  que  les  dieux  qui  l'ont  cree  ;  ton 
trone  est  bien  etabli,  et  grande  est  la  crainte 

1  Nous  aTons  ainsi  le  commencement  de  1' inscription  a  peu  pres  complet.  Le 
crime  des  hommes  est  celui  qui  est  rep6te  plus  loin.  Us  se  sont  permis  de  parler 
contre  leur  roi.  Mr.  Brugsch  retablissait  le  sens  ainsi  1.  1  :  "  Und  die  Menschen 
"welche  auf  das  Gebirge  gezogen  verschworen  sich  gegen  lhren  Herrn."  Cela  me 
para  it  aller  plus  loin  que  le  texte. 

;  II  est  fait  plusieurs  fois  allusion  dans  les  testes  mythologiques  a  la  puissance 
crSatrice   de   l'oeil,   ainsi   Todt.,   ch.    78    (je   cite   d'apres  le  texte   thebain  de 

^     ^       %   2^]    &  V&   t\      ^s»         A   ^p~.       "Jesuisun 
^^-n-rr  §jj    k (    W     III     £1    -hr\^   r.     v,  J]   I 


bienheureux  lumineux  qu'a  cree  Turn  lui-iueme.     Je  suis  ne  d'un  rayonnement 

de  son  ceil "  ;  et  plus  loin  :     j^fi  vA      awm  TSQSL  _^P    \>V 

OfU^S^fl"    M    £V^V     "Jesu.sun 


-<2>-                  <  n?  . 
o        I  HI 

ver  qu'a  cree  l'ced  du  maitre  unique  lorsqu'  Isis  n'avait  pas  encore  enfante 
Horus."  Puis  dans  le  chapitre  oil  Horus  demande  a  son  pere  de  pouvoir  voir 
comme  lui  ses  creatures  et  oil  il  est  puni  de  sa  presoinption  par  la  Measure  que 

Set  lui  fait  a  l'oeil. 


dans  U'   Tomheau  de  Ramses  III.  415 

13.  que  tu  inspires,  que  ton  ceil  se  dirige  sur  ceux  qui 
conspirent  contre  toi;  clit  par  la  majeste  de  Ra :  voici,  ils 
s'enfuient  sur  les  montagnes 

14.  et  leurs  coeurs  sont  effrayes  a  cause  de  ce  que  je 
leur  ai  dit.  Ils  dirent  (unanimement)  devant  la  majeste  de 
Ra :  laisse  aller  ton  ceil, 

15.  que  ce  soit  lui  qui  vainque  ceux  qui  conrplotent  des 
choses  mauvaises,  aucun  ceil  ne  sera  en  face  de  lui  (pour 
l'empecher  de  les  f rapper)  s'il  descend  sous  la  forme 

16.  d'Hathor.  La  deessealla  done  et  elle  tua  les  hommes 
sur  les  montagnes.  Dit  par  la  majeste  de  ce  dieu  :  viens  en 
paix,  Hathor. 

17 m'eloignerai  d'elle.      Dit  par  cette  deesse  : 

tu  es  vivant,  quand  je  l'ai  emporte  sur  les  hommes,  mon 
cceur  en  a  ete  heureux. 

18 dit  par  la  majeste  de  Ra :  je  l'emporte  sur 

eux  .....  leur  destruction.     De  la  vient  que  Sekhet 

19.  pendant  plusieurs  nuits  foula  aux  pieds  leur  sang, 
commencant  a  Heracleopolis.     Dit  par  Ra  : 

20.  J'appelle  vers  moi  des  coureurs  legers  et  rapides ; 
qu'ils  soient  prompts  comme 1 

21 ces  coureurs  arriverent  sur  le  champ;    Sa 

Majeste  leur  dit :  qu'ils  courent  a  Elephantine  et  qu'ils 
m'apportent 

22.  des  mandragores  en  grand  nombre ;  quand  furent 
apportees  ces  mandragores,  elles  furent  remises  au  meunier 
d'Heliopolis 

23.  pour  les  moudre,  en  merne  temps  que  les  pretresses 
etendaient  de  l'orge  pour  faire  de  la  boisson  ;  on  mit  les 
mandragores   dans  des   vases    avec    le   sang   des    hommes, 

1  II  y  a  ici  une  variante  curieuse : 


/WW\A 


O  q    i 


^ 


— h —  -*  2LL     M  I    #     l    r    £i  a      a      \ 

II  est  difficile  de  fcraduire  autrement  que  "festinenl  sicut  ventixs  ventris." 


416  TJ 'inscription  de  la  Destruction  des  Hommes 

et  Ton  fit  de  cette  boisson,  sept  mille  cruches.1  Alors  vint 
la  majeste  de  Ra  avec  ses  dieux  pour  voir  cette  boisson, 
apres  qu'il  eut  dit  a  la  deesse  de  tuer  les  hommes  pendant 
leiu's  jours  de  navigation. 

Dit  par  la  majeste  de  Ra  :  c'est  bien  (ces  vases)  ;  je  vais 
proteger  les  hommes  avec  cela.  Elevez  vos  mains  a  ce 
sujet  parceque  je  ne  lui  (a  la  deesse)  dirai  plus  de  tuer  les 
hommes.2 

La  majeste  du  roi  de  la  Haute  et  de  la  Basse  Egypte, 
Ra,  ordonna  a  la  faveur  de  la  nuit  de  repandre  le  liquide 
qui  etait  dans  ces  vases  ;  et  les  champs  qui  etaient  des  quatre 
cotes  furent 

29.  rempHs  d'eau  par  la  volonte  de  ce  dieu.3  La  deesse 
vint  au  matin,  et  elle  trouva  ces  champs 

30.  inondes.  Son  visage  en  fut  rejoui ;  elle  se  mit  a 
boire  a  satiete,  et  elle  s'en  alia  enivree, 

31.  et  elle  ne  vit  plus  les  hommes.  Dit  par  la  ma- 
jeste de  Ra :  viens  en  paix,  puissante  deesse;4  c'est  la 
l'origine 

1  II  y  avait  la,  un  membre  de  phrase   dont  il  reste   un   lambeau  dans   R. 

\   \J    V    I     — h —  %%%  ,  niais  qui  n'existe  pas  dans  S. 
IN    §1  %%% 


/VWW\     fWVWS 


2  II  est  regrettable  qu'a  cet  endroit  le  texte  de  R.  soit  en  aussi  mauvais  §tat ; 
cependant  j'ai  pu  lire  distinctenient  et   verifier  sur  l'estampage  ces  mots  de 

la  ligne  27  :       \   |t||  l)    "  I       1?     \\    ^  '    #  ne  lui  sera  plus  dit  de 

tuer  les  hommes.     Le  mot     z^\  manque  dans  S.     Quant  a  *, —  ^^  lj  ^    m 

il  est  plus  rtigulier  de  traduire  elevez  les  mains,  quoique  dans  ce  texte  il  ne 
faille  pas  se  tenir  de  trop  pres  aux  pronoms  et  aux  detemiinatifs  tela  qu'ils  sont 
indiques. 

3  Non  seulement  Ra  n'ordonnera  plus  la  destruction  des  bommes,  mais  il  ra 
faire  en  sorte  qu'Hathor  soit  obligee  de  s'arreter  dans  le  massacre  ;  pour  cela 
il  va  lui  faire  eprouver  l'effet  de  la  boisson  qui  a  ete  fabriquee.    Cette  boisson  est 

devenue  un      I    D^    J^l        '    une  boisson  qui  oblige  au  repos,  qui  endort,  un 

narcotique.     Dans  le  Livre  des  Morts  le  verbe      I    B&    /^    "  faire  coucher," 

est  un  eupkemisme  pour  "  mourir." 

Q      au  lieu  de    ( 


dans  le   Tombeau  de  Ramsks  III.  417 

32.  des  jeunes  filles  d'Amu.  Dit  par  la  majeste  de  Ra 
a  cette  deesse :  on  lui  fera  des  vases  de  boisson  enivrante  au 
temps  de  la  fete  ammelle,  leur  nombre  sera  d'apres 

33.  celui  des  servantes  (du  temple).  De  la  vient  que 
des  vases  de  boisson  enivrante,  d'apres  le  nombre  des  ser- 
vantes, sont  faits  par  tous  les  homines  a  la  fete  d'Hathor 
depuis  le  premier  jour. 

34.  Dit  par  la  majeste  de  Ra  a  cette  deesse :  s'il  y  a  une 
douleur  cuisante  qui  me  fait  souffrir,  dira-t-on  quelle  est  cette 
douleur? 

35.  Dit  par  la  majeste  de  Ra :  je  suis  vivant,  mon  coeur 
est  las  d'etre  avec  eux ;  je  les  ai  tues  en  vain, 

36.  Ce  n'a  pas  ete  une  destruction  de  la  longueur  de 
mon  bras1  (aussi  complete  que  j'aurais  pu  la  faire).  Dit 
par  les  dieux  qui  l'accompagnaient :  arriere  ta  lassitude,  tu 
as  obtenu 

37.  ce  que  tu  desirais.  Dit  par  la  majeste  du  dieu  a  Nun  : 
ma  chair  est  malade  pour  la  premiere  fois  ;  je  n'irai  pas  jusqu'a 
ce  que  j'atteigne  un  autre  (pour  me  soutenir). 

Le  texte  s'interrompt  ici  pour  faire  place  a  la  peinture  de 
la  vache  celeste,  et  a  la  description  tres-fragmentaire  qui 
l'accompagne.      II  manque  done  dans  le  texte  de  Ramses  III 

1  Malgre  l'autorite  qui  s'attache  a  tout  ce  qu'ecrit  Mr.  Brugsch,  je  crois 
devoir  maintenir  ma  traduction  precedente.  Mr.  Brugsch  traduit :  "  Meine 
Seele  ist  es  miide  geworden,  mit  ihnen  (deu  Menschen)  zu  seiu.  Ich  habe  sie 
vertilgt,  uud  kein  Mann  ist  iibrig  geblieben.  Nicht  kurz,  sonderu  lang  ist  inein 
Arm  gewesen."  Cette  interpretation  ne  me  parait  pas  concorder  avec  ce  que 
dit  Ra.  Le  dieu  se  plaint  de  la  lassitude  que  lui  cause  la  societe  des  homines  ; 
preuve  qu'il  ne  les  a  pas  detruits  aussi  completement  qu'il  l'aurait  desire. 
I-.  „  «awa  "^TT  ~^=&  \lp >  litt.  fois  ou  maniere  de  personne,  me  parait  une 
expression  composee  dans  le  genre  de  r-,  q  _~^  "^g?s>  2f  efc  devoir  signifier 
"nullement,  en  aucune  maniere."  ^^  ^fe^,  /T^\    ^^  "■ 

Le   mot    aa^va    "^5^     se    trouve   deja,    S.,   1.  15,   sous    la   forme   transitive 
^^^  ou  il  sign i fie  comme  l'indique  Mr.  de  Eouge,  "  detruire,  aneantir." 

Litt.  "  Ce  n'est  pas  une  destruction  de  la  longueur  de  mon  bras,"  c'est-it  dire 
aussi  complete  que  j'aurais  pu  la  faire  ou  que  je  l'aurais  voulue  ;  ou  bien  comme 
je  l'ai  propose  dans  ma  premiere  traduction  "  ou  j'aie  etendu  ma  main,"  e'est-a- 
dire  que  j'aie  faite  par  moi-meme. 


41 N  I/inscription  de  la  Destruction  des  Horn, 

l'une   des    parties    les   plus    importantes    de    l'inscription : 
l'enlevement  de  Ra  par  la  vac-he  Nut  et  le  pardon  accorde 


aux  hommes.     S.  35 


/^^fnfl^, 


/•.•^,-/.- 


I         I 


Vbs  peehds  sont  ■  vous,  le  meurtre  tloigne  le  meurtre ;    de 

la  viennent  les  sacrifices.  (II  faut  suppleer  dans  la  lacune  le 
mot  jjjj  <=>). 

Quand  1'inscription  de  R.  reprend,  c'est  aux  recommanda- 
tions  que  Ra  adresse  a  Seb  (S.  56)  de  se  garder  avec  soin 
eontre  les  serpents  qu'il  contient. 

R.  L  38.  "  Dit  par  la  majeste  du  dieu  a  Thoth :  appelle 
devant  moi  la  majeste  de  Seb,  disant :  viens,  hate  toi 
sur  le  champ.  Lorsque  fut  venue  la  majeste  de  Seb.  la 
majeste  de  ce  dieu  lui  dit :  prends  garde  aux  serpents  qui 
sont  en  toi,  qu'ils  me  craignent  tel  que  je  suis,  et  lorsque  tu 
connaitras  leur  science,  tu  courras  ensuite  au  heu  ou  est  mon 
pere  Xun  et  tu  lui  diras :  prends  garde  aux  serpents  de  la 
terre  et  de  l'eau." 

II  reste  trop  peu  du  texte  de  R.,  les  variantes  qui  s'y 
trouvent  sont  trop  peu  importantes  pour  qu'il  j  ait  heu  a 
tenter  une  nouveUe  interpretation.  L'inscription  s'arrete 
ljrusquement  au  milieu  de  la  ligne  $5  de  S.,  parceque  l'espace 
a  manque  au  scribe.  Xous  avons  ici  uu  exemple  de  la  negli- 
gence avec  laquelle  travaillaient  les  scribes  egvpriens.  On 
a  voulu  profiter  d'une  petite  chambre  au  fond  du  tombeau. 
et  Tomer  comroe  celle  de  Seti  I ;  evidemment  on  a  com- 
mence par  graver  sur  la  paroi  en  face  de  la  porte  la  belle 
vache  celeste  qui  est  la  partie  centrale  de  l'inscription.  puis 
on  s'est  mis  a  ecrire  le  texte  en  commencant  a  droite  de  la 
porte  sans  calculer  la  grandeur  des  signes  et  sans  s'inquieter 
si  l'espace  suffirait.  Aussi  n'etait  on  arrive  qua  S.  29  quand 
on  a  ete  arrete  par  le  dessin  de  la  vache.  II  est  probable 
qu'en  meme  temps  un  autre  ouvrier  gravait  la  seconde  partie 
de  rinscription  de  l'autre  cote  du  dessin.  car  dans  les  deux 
tombeaux.  apres  la  vache  le  texte  reprend  au  meme  endroit. 
Cet  ouvrier  a  fait  la  meme  faute  que  le  premier,  et  la  place 
lui  a  manque  egalement.     Mais  peu  importait  pourvu  que 


Tnscx-ipti on   du  Tomb e an  de  Ramses  III.  Plate  1. 


Trams.Soc.Bibb.  Arch.  Vol,  VIII. 


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dans  le  Tonibeau  de  Ramses  J IJ.  419 

]es  murs  fussent  recouverts;  qui  done  irait  controler  l'exacti- 
tude  de  la  copie  ? 

Resumons  encore  une  fois  la  partie  la  plus  inter  cssante 
de  ce  curieux  mythe.  Ra,  le  roi  des  hommes  et  des  dieux, 
deja  avance  en  age,  s'apercoit  que  les  hommes  prononcent 
contre  lui  des  paroles  seditieuses.  II  convoque  alors  les 
dieux  Shu,  Tefnut,  Seb  et  Nut,  ainsi  que  son  pere  Nun  pour 
leur  demander  conseil  sur  ce  qu'il  y  a  a  faire.  Ceux-ci 
1'engagent  a  envoyer  son  oeil  qui  prendra  la  forme  d'Hathor, 
et  qui  massacrera  les  rebelles.  La  deesse  execute  le  mandat 
a  la  satisfaction  de  Ra,  et  pour  achever  la  destruction  des 
hommes,  elle  devient  Sekhet  la  puissante,  qui  foule  aux  pieds 
pendant  plusieurs  nuits  le  sang  des  coupables.  A  ce  moment 
Ra  ordonne  a  ses  coureurs  d'aller  en  hate  a  Elephantine  lui 
chercher  des  mandragores  qu'i]  remet  au  meunier  et  aux 
pretresses  d'Heliopolis,  qui  en  melent  le  jus  au  sang  des 
hommes  et  en  font  7,000  cruches  de  boisson.  Ra  vient  pour  les 
voir  et  enchante  de  ce  spectacle  il  declare  qu'il  s'en  servira 
pour  proteger  les  humains,  et  que  desormais  il  n'ordonnera 
plus  a  la  deesse  de  massacrer  les  hommes.  Aussi  fait-il 
repandre  pendant  la  nuit  le  liquide  de  ces  cruches  qui  recouvre 
la  terre  de  tous  cotes.  Au  matin  arrive  la  deesse  qui  a  passe 
la  nuit  a  fouler  aux  pieds  les  cadavres ;  elle  boit  avec  avidite, 
s'enivre  et  ne  voit  plus  les  hommes  qui  echappent  ainsi  a  la 
destruction.  Cependant  Ra  se  sent  malade,  il  est  las  de  la 
society  des  humains,  et  il  se  fait  porter  au  ciel  par  Nut  qui  a 
pris  la  forme  d'une  vache.  A  ce  moment  les  lacunes  du  texte 
ne  nous  permettent  pas  de  reconstruire  completement  l'ordre 
des  faits.  Les  hommes  voient  passer  Ra,  et  il  sembie  que 
devant  lui  ils  s'engagent  a  detruire  ceux  des  leurs  qui  sont 
ses  ennemis.  Au  matin  les  hommes  sortent  portant  leurs  arcs, 
et  ils  percent  de  leurs  fleches  les  ennemis  du  roi.  Aussi  Ra 
leur  declare  que  leurs  fautes  leur  sont  pardonnees,  et  que  la 
mort  de  ses  ennemis  a  paye  leur  rancon.  Le  texte  ajoute 
que  e'est  la  l'origine  des  sacrifices. 

Ainsi  en  Egypte  l'idee  qui  a  conduit  a  l'institution  du 
sacrifice  est  presque  la  meme  que  chez  les  Hebreux  on  chez 
les  Grecs.  "  Le  meurtre  ecarte  le  meurtre,"  comme  dit 
l'Egyptien ;  la  mort  eloigne  la  mort.     Les  hommes  se  sont 


4"2<»       U inscription  de  la  Destruction  des  Homme?,  §-c. 

rebelles  contre  leur  roi,  ils  sont  voues  a  la  destruction  ;  mais 
une  partie  d'entre  eux  obtient  son  pardon  en  faisant  perir 
ceux  qui  persistent  dans  la  iv  volte,  et  desormais  les  sacrifices 
commemorent  cet  evenement  qui  a  sauve  les  homines  de 
l'aneantissement.  II  y  a  sous  cette  forme  bizarre  de  l'inscrip- 
tion  egyptienne  une  pensee  que  je  recommande  a  l'attention 
des  savants  qui  s'occupent  de  l'etude  comparee  des  religions. 


Traits.  Soc.Bvbl  Arch:  Vol  VIII 


WH.Bylands.del  1884 


Vincent  Broolis  .Bay  &  Stn,  Lift. 


Sandstone  tablet, of  Amenhotep  from  Thebes  nowm  the.Brius-h  Museum  N°  297 


421 


SANDSTONE    TABLET    OF    AMENHOTEP 
FROM  THEBES; 

Now  in  the  British  Museum.     No.  297. 

By  Samuel  Birch,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  &c.  {President). 

Tablet  with  rounded  top,  in  two  divisions ;  in  the  first, 
Amenhotep,  a  bearer,  a  title  formerly  supposed  to  mean 
judge,  but  lately  '  page,'  standing  before  an  altar,  on  which 
is  a  water  jar  and  stem  of  a  water  plant,  adoring  '  Osiris,  lord 
of  the  age,'  holding  the  crook  and  whip;  Isis,  the  great  mother 
goddess,  and  Harsaesis,  or  '  Horus  son  of  Isis,'  hawk-headed. 
In  the  second  or  lower  compartment  the  same  personage 
stands  shaved,  as  if  appertaining  to  the  priestly  order,  before 
Amenophis  I,  having  the  royal  attire,  and  holding  the  crook 
and  emblem  of  life,  followed  by  his  mother  Aahmes  Neferarit, 
the  wife  of  Amasis  I,  coloured  black,  also  in  queenly  attire, 
holding  a  lotus  flower  in  her  right  hand,  and  in  her  left  a 
kind  of  sceptre  or  ornament  in  shape  of  a  drooping  flower, 
resembling  the  sceptre  maks  (Lepsius,  "  Aelt.  Texte,"  p.  38). 
She  is  followed  by  the  divine  wife  Satkames  (the  daughter  of 
Karnes),  a  predecessor,  contemporary  of  Amasis  I.  She  holds 
a  lotus  flower  in  her  left  hand,  and  a  symbol  of  life  in  her 
right  hand.  She  is  coloured  yellow,  and  was  probably  the 
wife  of  the  king  (Birch,  «  Gall,  of  Antiquities,"  pi.  30,  fig.  143). 


422 


TERRA-COTTA  SEALS  IX  THE  POSSESSION  OF 
M.  G.  SCHLUMBERGER. 

By  W.  Hakrt  RrLAXDS,  F.S.A.  (Secretary). 

Ix  the  Revue  Archiologique  of  December.  1882,  M.  George 
Perrot  published  a  series  of  seals,  in  the  possession  of 
M.  Schlumberger;  and  with  his  kind  help  I  was  enabled  to 
place  before  the  Society  sketches  of  the  same  seals  in  the 
Proceeding*  of  February.  1884. 

Annexed  to  these  notes  will  be  found  a  photographic 
plate  of  the  same  seals ;  but  unfortunately,  owing  to  the 
fineness  of  the  engraving,  there  was  great  difficulty  in 
obtaining  a  very  satisfactory  negative.  With  the  assistance 
of  the  sketch  in  the  Proceedings,  however,  but  little  difficulty 
will  be  found  in  tracing  the  correct  forms  of  the  various 
characters. 

I  would  here  thank  M.  Schlumberger  for  his  kindness  in 
sending  the  original  seals  to  me  in  England,  and  so  generously 
allowing  me  to  retain  them  as  long  as  was  necessary  for  their 
publication  by  the  Society ;  also  to  M.  Perrot  for  having 
placed  at  my  disposal  the  plate  of  them  published  by  him  in 
the  Revue  Archeologique.  which  was,  however,  I  am  sorry  to 
say.  too  large  to  be  available  for  our  publications. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  some  terra-cotta  seals  were 
discovered  by  Sir  Henry  Layard  many  years  ago.  which 
have  been  several  times  engTaved ;  among  others  by  this 
Society  in  the  series  of  plates  published  in  the  Transactions. 

In  numbering  the  seals  on  the  plate  published  in  the 
Pr  \ceeding*  I  have,  hi  order  to  avoid  confusion,  retained  the 
numbers  used  by  M.  Perrot  in  the  Revue.  I  have  however 
only  given  the  best  of  the  four  examples  of  the  seal  bearing 


(Trans  Soe.  Eil  1.  Arch.,  vol,  viii ) 


TERRA-COTTA  SEALS  IX  THE  COLLECTION  OF  M.  G.  SOHLOIirURGER. 


feflfvg 


Terra-cotta  Seals.  423 

a  griffin  (No.  1),  and  also  of  the  large  round  one  (Nos.  2,  3,4). 
On  the  photographic  plate  annexed  will  be  found  the  three 
examples  of  the  latter. 

The  original  pieces  of  terra-cotta,  for  the  publication  of 
which  all  those  interested  in  the  inscriptions  called  "  Hittite  " 
are  so  much  indebted  to  M.  Perrot,  were  obtained  by 
M.  Schlumberger  in  Constantinople  about  the  year  1879, 
from  a  dealer,  who  assured  him  that  they  came  from  the 
interior  of  Asia  Minor.  For  a  full  description  of  them,  and 
general  discussion  of  the  subject,  I  must  refer  to  the  learned 
article  by  M.  Perrot  already  mentioned. 

It  may  be  well  however  to  call  attention  to  a  few 
peculiarities.  The  seals  are  all,  with  the  exception  of 
Nos.  1  8a  and  9,  or  have  been  conical  pieces  of  clay,  having 
inmost  instances  a  hole  near  the  point;  8a  has  engraving 
at  both  ends,  and  is  cylindrical  in  form.  These  shapes 
differ,  I  believe,  from  most  of  the  impressions  of  clay 
seals  known  to  us  ;  for  example,  those  of  the  same  class 
discovered  by  Sir  Henry  Layard,  and  might  appear  to  some 
rather  to  be  the  matrices  than  the  impressions ;  but  this  I 
can  hardly  believe. 

On  No.  15  will  be  found  a  figure  standing  on  some  animal, 
a  lion,  or  a  dog,  like  the  figures  carved  on  the  rocks  in  Asia 
Minor ;  and  again  on  No.  7  is  observed  a  priest-like  human 
figure  in  a  long  robe  of  Assyrian  form.  A  curious  duplication 
of  characters  is  to  be  noticed  on  Nos.  2,  3,  4  ;  5,  6,  10,  17,  &c.  ; 
and  in  Nos.  12,  13,  and  18,  a  vertical  inscription  is  placed  in 
the  centre,  with  two  others  more  or  less  alike,  and  also 
vertical,  running  down  the  sides.  The  characters  on  No.  8a 
are  peculiarly  placed,  as  unlike  any  other  example,  they 
appear  to  have  one  centre  hieroglyph  round  which  the  others 
are  placed,  reading  from  the  outer  edge. 

A  close  examination  shows  several  other  interesting 
points :  some  new  characters  and  variations  of  those 
already  known  to  us  from  the  inscriptions,  but  I  must 
differ  from  M.  Schlumberger  as  to  the  character  on  Nos.  5, 
12,  10,  &c,  which  I  take  not  to  be  a  serpent,  but  the 
hieratic  form  of  what,  as  I  have  already  pointed    out,   was 


424 


Terrarcotta  Seals. 


originally  a  human  face,  and  is  found  in  various  forms  on 
other  examples  of  this  language. 

For  a  knowledge  of  the  gem  from  Lajard's  "  Cidte  de 
Mithro."  added  at  the  foot  of  the  plate  in  the  Proceedings,  I 
am  indebted  to  Professor  Sayce  ;  it  contains  characters,  as 
will  be  seen,  of  a  striking  resemblance  to  those  under  notice. 


425 


INDEX  TO  VOL.  VIII. 


Aa,  Babylonian  goddess    166,  167,  168 
Aahmes-Nefert-ari  ....      146,  147 

.Aahnies-sa-Nit       ....         ....         ....  163 

Aat-tes-tes  323,  328 

Abaa  ....         ....         ....         ....  162 

A-ba-ya  (the  black  ibis)  ....        90,  140 

Ab-bu-un-nu  (tbe  pelican)   95,  96,  140 
Ab-ei-ni-ni-tuv      ....         ....         ....  136 

Abicta  sa  ecil         ....         ....         ....  136 

Ablaa  282,  290 

Abu-habba 172,  &c. 

Abu-babbab,  antiquities  froni     ....   164 

Abydos,  pylons  of 322,  323 

Ac-cu-u  (owl)        67,  134 

A-dam-mu-mu  (bird)       ....        71,  134 

Addia  272,  279,  281 

A-dim-ma  ....         ....         ....         ....  135 

Adoption  of  children  among  Ak- 
kadians ....         ....       238,  &c. 

A-edina  (a  Babylonian  divinity)       165 


A-gus  (bird) 
A-gus-se  (bird) 
Ahrnes 
Ahinas 

Ai 

Akabi-ilu   .... 
Akar 

Akbu         

Akki  

Al-lal-luv  (the  starling) 
Alms,    ancient    Hebrew 

about 
Am  (wild  bull) 
Ama-a 

Amen-hir-pi-mesha 
Amenhotep 

„     stele  of 
Amenophis  I 

„     III     


91,  141 
99,  100,  141 

28k 

162 

162,  300,  &c. 
275,  284,  285 

201 

137 

348 

77,  136 
customs 

37,  39 

49 

141 

163 

162,  391 

421 

117 

146,  160 


Amen-Ua  .... 

Ames 

Ames-mes  .... 

Amon 

Amsi  (the  elephant) 

Anachamen 

Anathemas,  Egyptian 

Ancestors,  worship  of 

Anenit 

Animals  on  Black  Obelisk 

Ankh-ars    .... 

Ankh-Psametik 

Ank-kha 

An-pa-tuv  (the  woodpecker) 

Ansaris,  the 

Ant,  the 

Antelope,  the 

Antum 

Apepi 

Apirak 

Apii,  or  Apepi 

Apu  (Panopolis)    .... 

A-ra-bu  (bird) 

Architect,  Egyptian 

Architects,  Egyptian 

„     list  of  Egyptian 

,,     Jewish 
A-ri-bu  (raven) 
' ApKtavoQ   .... 
'Api'5 

Armenians,  the 
Artizans,  Jewii-h    .... 
As-ci-ci-tuv  (the  swallow 
Assassins,  the 
Asshur 

Assyrian  Birds 
Assyrian  Empire,  the 
Assyrian  .Mythology 
At,  le  poisson 
A-ta-an  nari 


PAGE 

330 

204,  300,  &c. 

299,  336,  &c. 

20,21 

49,  123 

20,  23 » 

1-19 

....  144 

338,  &c. 

....  128 

....  161 

....  163 

....  161 

67,  134 

380 

113 

47,  48 

165 

200,  215,  &c. 

351 

...       330,  &c. 
...      300,  302 

109 

...      300,  312 

145,  &c. 

...       161,  &c. 

409 

...  61,  79,  138 

350 

350 

370,  375,  A'c. 
....  398 
72,  136 
....  383 
....  359 
42-142 
360,  &c. 
....  369 
....  14 
....  140 


426 


INDEX. 


PAGt 

A-ta-an  nahari  (the  pelican)         95,  96 
Atef-en-Osor  ....  ....  ....     27 

Augury,  Assyrian  ....         ....      115,  120 

Aui 330 

A-vur-sa-nu  (the  pigeon)  ....  106 

A-vu-se  (bird)        99,  100 

Az-ei-ku  (bird)      101 


B. 


Ba,  the  soul 
Babel,  Tower  of 
Babylon 
Babylonian  Art 

„     Mythology 

Badges  of  Jewish  artizans 

Bak-en-khonsu 

Bakers,  Jewish 

Bakrans  (Bocchoris) 

Balawat 

Bal-lu-du  (  ?  magpie) 

Bal-lu-tsi-tuv 

Bal-lu-tsi-tu  (  ?  magpie)  .. 

Banaa 

Bar-kha-a-ti  (the  vulture) 

Baaa  

Basa  

Basa  

Basia 
Basia 

Bast  

Baziati  (elephant)... 
Bear,  the  Great  ... 
Bee-eater,  the 

Bel  

Bel-alu-iddin 
Bel-edir 
Bel-iddina  .... 
Bel-Idlina .... 
Belus,  Tower  of    ... 
Ben-Hadad-natan ... 


873 

367 
185,  291,  307,  <5cc. 
347 


..  369 
..  402 

..  162 

..  403 

..  US 

..  365 

..  109 

..  13S 

..     S3 

..  271 

..     60 

..237;; 

....      272,.  274 

280,  2S1,  233 

....      280,  290 

272 

....    23,  26,  27 

131 

209« 

....      110,  142 

165 

....      2-      _    3 
....      2S6,  298 

272 

....       2£      - 

185   &e.,  191 
27  •    280,  281, 
282,  283,  284,  285 
Bennu  bird,  the  ....         ....  219 

Bertin,    George,    Akkadian     Pre- 
cepts tor  the  Conduct  of  Man 
in  his  Private  Life     ....       230-270 

Betrothal,  Akkadian  ....  ...     - 

Biban-el-Moluk     301 

Biblical  Nationalities        ...        25- 


PAGE 

Bin-Addu-amara  ....         ....         ....  275 

Bin-Addu-natan  238,  271,  272,  27^.  275 
Bin-gani      ....  ....  ....  350/» 

Birch,  S.,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.    (Presi- 
dent), Stele  of  Amenhotep  ....  421 

„  on  a  Tablet  in  the  British 
Museum  relating  to  two 
Architects      143-163 

„     on  the  Shade  or  Shadow  of 

the  Dead        3£ 

Birds,  Assyrian     ....         ....         42-142 

„     for  food,  Assyrian 51 

„     modern,  of  Mesopotamia     55-57 

Birds'  nests,  eggs,  &c Ill,  &c. 

Birs  yimroud       ....  185,  188,  367,  be. 

Bit-elat       237» 

Bit-Karzaginna     ....         ....         ....  166 

Blacksmiths,  Jewish         406 

Borsippa    ....         ....         ....  ....  292 

Bos primifienius  ^r'em  or  remu)         49 
Budge,  E.  A.  W  .  stelae  Egyptian, 
principally  of  the  18th  Dynasty, 

299-346 
Budhur  ini  (the  raven)    ....         ....     79 

Buffalo,  the  49,  130 

Builders,  Jewish 409 

Bulbul,  the  74,  137 

Bu-li-li  (the  swallow)     ....    53,  72,  136 

Bull,  the  wild         48,  49,  126 

Bunanit      ....         ....         ....         ...  275 

Bunanitu   279,  280,  281,  282,  284,  285 
Bunanitum....         ....238,271,272,274 

Bunting,  the  snow  ....         ....102a 

Bu-ri-du  (bird)      101,  138 

Bu-ru-um-tav  (bird)  ....         ....  Iu7 

Bustard      139 

,,     the  great       ....         ....         ....     87 

Bu-tsu  (  ?  falcon) 107 

Buzzard      ....         ...    135 

„     the  honey     110 


L'a-ca-ba-a-nu  (the  dove) ...  85,  138 
•  na-ari  (the  grebe)  ....  ....   102 

Calah  ....         ....         ....        365.  See. 

Ca-li-u  or  ca-lu-u 88,  140 

Ca-ri-ib  (the  vulture)        60 

- -a-bar-ti       ....  ....  ....   138 


INDEX. 


427 


PAGE 

Casid-cab-ruv        138 

„     or  casid-ca-bar-ti  (jackdaw)      82 

Ca-su-cud-da         135 

Ca-su-su  (owl  or  falcon) 103 

Ca-ti-ma-tuv  ....         ....         ....  134 

„     (?  vulture) GO 

Cat,  aud  jackal,  argument  between 

11-18 
Chacal,  see  Jackal. 
Xaibit,  xab,  or  xaibt,  see  Shade. 
Chaldean  Catholics  ....       370,  &c. 

„     Nestorians    370,  &c. 

Chaldeans,  origin  of  359 

„     the     373,  &c. 

Charity,  ancient  Hebrew  customs 

about 38,  40 

Xenti  300 

Children,  laws  about,  238,  &c,  261, 2G7 
Chnum-ab-ra         ....         ....         ....  163 

Choachytes  ....         ....         ....     5n 

Christianity  in  Egypt       ....  1-19 

Xuenaten ....         ....  300 

Ci-li-luv  (woodpecker)      ....         67,  134 

Cilijipu  (the  partridge)    85 

Ci-lip-pu     138 

Ciron,  le      14,  15 

Clouds,  the,  in  Egyptian  Myths  198,  &c. 

Cock,  the 97,  141 

Cones  (head  ornament)    ....      144,  147 

Coppersmiths,  Jewish      405 

"Cowbird"the    91,141 

Crafts,  Jewish       ....  401 

Crane,  the 88,  141 

Crow,  the  81,  79,  139 

Cu 137 

Cuckoo,  the  71,  135 

Cu-li-li  (the  woodpecker)  67,  134 

Cu-lu-cu-cu  (the  partridge)         ....     85 

Cu-lu-ku-ku  138 

Cu-mu  (bird)         ....         44 

Cu-mu,  see  Tusmu. 

Cu-mu-u    ....         ....         ....         ....  140 

Cunaxa,  battle  of  ....  ....         ....  181 

Cu-ni-pu  (bird)      97,  99,  140 

Cu-pi-tu  (?  the  flamingo)  ....  108 

Cups,  Akkadian     264,  270 

Cu-ru-bu  (bird)     106 

Cu-ru-uc-cu  or  ca-rac-cu  (bird)  ....  106 

Cus-du        103 

Cush  301 

Vol.  VIII. 


Cutha 

Cylinders    .... 


PAGE 

....  182 
355,  356 


D. 


Daan-Sum-iddina 279,  280 

Dabchick,  the        103 

Dair  16 1,  173 

Da-lu-lu  (?  magpie)  109 

Dan-Sum-iddina    271,  272 

Darius,  Marriage  Contracts  in  the 

reign  of  20-29 

Debts,  ancient  Hebrew  Laws  about  35 
Deity,  queen  made  ....      146,  147 

Demotic  papyri     ....        ....  1-29 

Destiny  bird,  the 73,  107 

Destruction,  the  bird  of 76 

Destruction    des    Hommes,    l'ln- 

scription  de  la  ....         ....  412 

Dhar-lugal-luv  (bird)       ....  91,  92 

Dha-ab-bi'-u,  the  Grebe 102 

Dhar-lugal-luv      140 

Dhar-ru  (bird)       ....  ....  ....   107 

Di-ic-di-ic  (the  sparrow) 108 

Di-ik-di-ku  (bird) 76,  136 

Dil-bat  (the  cock) 97,  140 

Disk  heresy  ....         ....         ....  146 

j,     solar 207» 

Divinities  on  cylinders     ....      355,  356 
Dodgson,  A.,  Demotic  Papyrus  in 

possession  of ....         ....         ....1-19 

Dove  83,  85,  86,  139 

,,     the  turtle     107 

Dove-cot    H6 

Dowry,  Akkadian....         237,  238,  266 

276, 
282,  &c. 

380 

76,  136 

107 

.  91,  93,  111 

70 

134 

95 

407 


Babylonian  laws  about 


Druzes,  the 
Duc-duc-cu  (bird) 
Du-du  (the  turtle  dove) 
Dudurranu  (bird)  ... 
Dulimmassat  (bird) 
Du-lim,  mas-sat    .... 
Dur-Yah  iii 
Dyers,  Jewish 


E. 


Ea-bani 
Eagle,  the 


350 

105,  120  135 
28 


428 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Ea-kha-an-tuv       ....         ....         ....  134 

E-baia        165,  166 

Ebionites,  the        31 

Eclipses,  myths  about      ....  ....  214 

E-ge-bu  (the  owl) 62 

Egg,  bh-d's....         ....         ....         ....  117 

Eggs,  Hebrew  law  about.  ..  ....     32 

„     for  food  (Assyrian)  51,  52 

Egibi  2S6 

Egyptian  money   ....         ....         ....  22/* 

.,     Myths  200,  &c. 

Ekur-suma-ibassi  ....         ....      165,  166 

Elephant,  the        123,  127 

Elgarini     184 

'E-na-mi  (the  cock)  ....        99,  100 

'Eribi  (locusts)      112 

'Eribu  (insect  bird)  ....         79,136 

'E-ru-u  (the  vulture)        ....         58,  134 
'E-ru-ul-luv  (the  vulture)  GO,  134 

Esagilite     168» 

Esarhaddon  ....         ....         ....  354 

Escilituv,    or      escininituv     (the 

swallow) 
Esiraa 
Esraa 
Es-se-bu 

E-ulbar-sakin-sumi 
Evil,  bird  of 
Eyes  of  Horus 
E-zida-sum-epus   .... 

'E-zi-zu  (bird)   ....    ....97 


280, 


72 

272 

290 

....  134 

165,  169 

....  63 

....  207 

282,  290 

,  99,  140 


P. 


Falcon,  the  142 

Falconry,  Assyrian  ....         51,  104 

Festivals,  Egyptian    304,  315,  323,  327 
Finch  114,  137,  139 

„     (the  snow)    ....         101 

Finches       ....         ....         ....         ....     76 

Fire-god     168 

Flamingo,  the       91,  92,  141 

Flycatcher,  the      ....         ....  1]2» 

Fortune,  good  and  evil,  associated 

with  birds       ....  ....  ....     53 

Fowls  97,  &c. 

„     (Babylonian)  51 

Francolin,  the        ....  ....  ....     85 

Francoline 139 


Frigate  bird,  the 
Frog,  the    .... 
Fullers,  Jewish 


G. 

Ga  mu  un  du 
Galdeans,  the 
Gam-gam-mu  (the  ostrich) 

Gam  gam  (khu)     .... 
Gar-mi-kharmes  (?)  (bird) 
Gatekeepers  in  Memphis.... 

Genii  of  the  dead 

Gi-il-gi-da-nu 
Gilgidanu  (bird)    .... 
Gir  gid  da  (the  ostrich)   .... 
Gir  gi  lum  khu  (bird) 

Giri-gid-da 

Gistubar  .... 
Gis  sir 

Goat-swallow,  the... 
Goblet  or  cup 

Gold  

Goldsmiths,  Jewish 

Goose,  the 

Grampus,  the 

Graveyard  bird 

Grebe,  the  .... 

Green,  colour  in  Egyptian 

Greyhounds,  mythical 

Grouse        

,,     the  sand 
Gudea 
Guebres,  the 
Gun  gd 


IF. 


PAGE 

...  48 
....  122 
....  407 


....  137 
....  382 
....  100, 
140,  &c. 
....  141 
....  99 
....  320 
....  396 
....  138 
....  86 
101,  &c. 
....  109 
....  141 
350,  355 
....  135 
....  73 
....  86 
86,  265 
....  405 
....  142 
....  127 
....  82 
....  102 
myths 
217,  218» 
....  214 
....  114 
....  107 
....  194 
....  382 
....  137 


Haeroon 

....  23« 

Hahoeroou 

26,27 

Hair,  Akkadian  rule  about 

....  241 

,,     locks  of 

....  211 

Hairdressers,  Jewish 

....  408 

Hammurabi 

....  355 

Hana 

....  352 

Handicrafts,  Jewish 

....  398 

INDEX. 


429 


PAGE 

Hanka         ....         ....         ....         ....  161 

Har  145 

Har-em-Saf  ....         ....         ....    L63 

Hariza        272,  274,  282 

Harizaa       ....  ....  ....  ....   27'.' 

Har-khen 162 

Har  Ra       303 

Has-shunu....  ....  ....  ....  163 

Hath  or       204,  208,  218 

Hea-baui    ....         ....         ....         ....  355 

Hebi'ew,  Ancient  Poor  Laws        30-41 

Heka  161 

HeliopoUs  322,  324,  325,  326,  327 


Hell,  Egyptian 

Hen,  the     .... 

Her-ab-apu 

Hercius 

Herir 

Heron,  the.... 

Hoopoe,  the 

Hor 

Horn 

Horsiesi 


8 

99 

330 

24,  25 

25,  26,  27,  28 

67»,  88,  91,  141 

72,  135,  142 

28)i 

....       126,  127 
9 


Houghton,  Rev.  Win.,  the  Birds 
of  the  Assyrian  Monuments 
and  Records  ....         ....         42-142 


Iba  272,279 

Ib-bil-tuv  (the  turtle  dove)         ....  107 

Ibis 141 

„     the  black      90 

Ibrahim- el- Khalil  ....  ....  192 

Iddin-Marduk  275,  281,  283,  281 

285,  290 

Iddina-Marduk      237»,  272,  274,  277, 

280 

Id  khu,  eru  (?)      135 

Idihi-Hana  242 

Igidu-zir'-iddina    ....  ....  ....  272 

Igidu-zira-iddina 280,  290 

Igimul       139 

1-lu-a-li  (the  honey  buzzard)       ....  109 
Ilu-bi'di      ....  ....  ....  ....  353 

Ilu-saba      352,  &c. 

Illumbi    ....  139 

II  lum  bi  khu  (bird)         102 

Imhotep     162 


Ina-e-sagili-raniat .... 
Ina-E-sagili-ramat 

Inundation-bird,  the        

Irani 

Ir-ca-bu  (the  dove)  ....        84 

Iribam-Sin.... 

[shmaelifces,  the    .... 

Isis 23»,  204 

Istar 

Its-isxir  Khar-ri  (?  falcon) 

Its-tsur  a-sa-gi  (bird) 

,,     ci-i-si  (bird  of  the  papyrus) 

„     khal-zi  (bird)  

.,     ki-i-si 

,,     limutti  (lord  of  evil) 

„     mu-si 

„     musi  (tlie  bulbul)    .  .. 

,,     -rabi.... 


sa-a-mu 
sa-me-di 


(the  bird  of  destruc- 
tion)   .... 


,,     sarau  (bird)  ... 

,,     samu     ,, 

,,     tu-ba-ci 
It-ti-du  (bird) 
Itti-marduk-balatu 
Ivory  


66 

272,  280 
86 


PAGE 

237» 

277 

93 

286 

,  138 
278 
383 
211 
354 
107 

108 

(--* 
<o 

106 

136 

63 

136 

74 

52 

138 

136 

76 
61 
82 
134 
106 
,290 
126 


Jackal  and  cat,  discussion  between 

11-18 
Jackdaw  (the)       ....      81,  82,  139,  142 

Jacobites,  Syrian  ....         ....        370,  &c. 

Jubilee,  Hebrew  law  of   ....         ....     36 

Justice,  Assyrian  lords  of  ....  168 


E. 


Ea,  the 


...   148,  302,  304,  305,  309, 
316,  322,  323,  332 

Ea-du-du 134 

Ea-du-u  (the  owl)  ....         ....     (>7 

Ea-ka-nu    ....  ....  ....  ....  138 

Ea-ku-u     138 

Ea-ku-ul-luv  ...         ....         ....   L38 

Kalah-Shirgat       364,365 


430 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Ka  minister  ....         ....      304,  310 

Ka-nefer    ....        ....        ....        ....  102 

Kanre.  see  Ames-mes. 
Kapti-ilani-Marduk  ....      2S1,  290 

Kaptu-ihiui-Marduk         ....         ....  272 

Ka-ri-ib  bar-kha-ti  ....         ....  13-4 

Karnak       ....  ....  14S,  157,  160 

KaSsu-nadin-ahi    ....         ....       165,  169 

Kha-akh     ....         ....         ....         ....     61 

Kha-akh  (bird)      82 

Kha-akb-khu         13S 

Kha-khar-ili  ....  ....  ....  134 

Kha-khar  (the  raven)       ....        79,  13S 

Kha-khar-ili  (the  vulture)  ....     60 

Khar-ba-ka-nu  (the  eagle)  ....  105 

Kha-tsi-ba-ru  (the  swallow)  72,  73, 136 
Khu-ra-tsa-ni-tuv  (the  oriole)   ....      75 

Kha-zu-u  (the  cuckoo)     ....         71.  134 

Khar-ru-kha-ai      62,  134 

Khein,  see  Ames    ....         ....         ...  204/? 

Khenar       ....         ....         ....         ....  162 

Kheperkara  ....         ....         ....  162 

Khorsabad  ....  ....         ....  362 

Khu-bir      112,  &c. 

Khu  rues    ...         ....         ....         ....  137 

Khu-rub  (insect  bird)       ....        79,  137 

Khu  rub  ba  cu  gusur  ra  ....         ....  137 

Khu  rub  kha  munu  (the  bee)     ....  109 

Khu  si  rum  u  khu  (?  magpie)    ....  109 

Khu-si-zi  (bird)     ....         ....         ....     89 

Khu-ti-zu-ga  (?)  (bird)    108 

KhufuAnkh  161 

Khufu-hotep         161 

Khu-ra-tsa-ni-tuv....         ....         ....  136 

Khu-si-i  (the  owl)  ....         62,  134 

Khu-u-ku  (the  cuckoo)      ...        71,  134 

Kimta-rapastum 355 

Kip-su         ....  ....  ....      136,  137 

Kite,  the     '.'0 

Koufi  (lc  chacal)    ....  ....  ....     11 

Koyunjik   ....         ....         ....       363,  364 

Kua  162 

Kurds,  the  ....         ....         ....  377 


La-ka-la-ka  (the  stork)     ....         89,  140 
La-kha-an-tuv  (bird  of  prey)      ....     59 


La-kubburu  282,  290 

Lal-la-ar-tuv  (the  honey  buzzard)  109 
Lal-la  cip-par        ....         ....        61,  134 

La-la-ri  (the  honey  buzzard)      ....  109 

Liimmergeier  ....         ....  60,  61,  135 

Lapwing,  the  ....  ....         71,  142 

Lieinian  rogations....  ....  ....     36 

Loans  ....  ....  ....  ....  141 

„      ancient  Hebrew  la«-s  about     35 

Locust-bird,  the    78,  79,  137 

Locusts      ....         ....         ....         ....  112 

"  Long-legged    Beneficent    bird "     58 
Louis,    Dr.    S.,    Handicrafts   and 
Artizans    mentioned   in   Tal- 
mudical  "Writings     ....       398-411 

Louis,  Dr.  Sigmund,  the  Poor  Laws 

of  the  ancient  Hebrews         30-41 
Lugalturda,  the  god  ....         ....     09 


M. 


Ma-ac-lat  ub-la      ....         ....         ....  1:5  i 

Ma-ae-lat  up-la  (the  oriole)  ....     75 

Jlji/fui        ....         ....         ....  ...    351 

Magpie,  the  ....  83,  109,  139 

Makan        ....         ....         ....         ....  351 

Mankind,  destruction  of 208 

„  „  by    the 

gods    ....         ....         ....       412,  &c. 

Man's-hand-bird,  the       ....         ....  71/? 

Marduk-sum-nasir  ....       282,  290 

Mariage,  les   contrats  de   (demo- 

tiques)  20-29 

Maronites  ....         ....         ....         ....  371 

Mar-ra-tuv  (the  owl)        ....         06,  134 

Marriage,  Akkadian  ....  ....  275 

Marriage  laws.  Akkadian....  ....  276 

„  rules  about,  Akkadian 

251,  263,  268-9,270 
Marriages,  Akkadian        ....       234,  236 

,,     ancient   customs,    and   laws 

235,  &c. 

Martin         137 

Mat-ti-ib-nutsal-mu  (the  swallow)     73 
Memphis     ....         ....  ....       320,  &c. 

Men  162 

Mendeans 382 


IXDF.X. 


431 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Merab         

L6] 

Nabu-3um-nasir     .... 

282,  290 

Meri-ra-ankh 

....  162 

Nabu-sum-ukin 

286,  298 

Mer  kat  (architects) 

....  145 

Nabii-zira-esir 

281,  290 

Mermer 

....  163 

Nabu-zir-eSir 

....  272 

Merodach  Baladan 

....     95 

Nada-kikarat 

...237» 

Metal  workers,  Jewish 

....  405 

Nadinu 

286,  298 

Meteor        

....     68 

Nahi           

....  330 

Mi 

....  162 

y<ihr-malka 

....  176 

Migration  of  birds 

....  115 

Naichrat     ...         ....         ....4 

,  8,  9«,  10 

Mist  and  cloud,  Egyptian 

mytho- 

Nakhiru,  the  grampus 

....  127 

logy  with  reference  to 

198,  &c. 

„     (?  Narwhal) 

....     48 

Monnaies  egyptiennes 

....  22» 

Nam-bir 

112,  &c. 

Monophosites 

....  371 

Nam  bir  dhar  khu  (bird) 

....  107 

Moon  god  .... 

165,  168 

Nam  bir  gis  u  gir  khu 

....  108 

Mulberry  eater  (bird) 

....    79 

Nam  bir  gi  zi 

....  137 

Munahhis-Marduk             2 

72,  280,  290 

Nam-bir-khu  (ravens) 

....     81 

Mur-ru-kha-ai 

62,  134 

Nam  bir  mukh  dil  luv  (the 

peli- 

Muteuma  .... 

....  330 

can)     

....     96 

Myths,  Egyptian 

200,  &c. 

Nam  bir  mukh  dil  luv 

....  141 

Nam  bir  nam  khu  (bird) .... 

....  101 

Nam  bir  us  khu    .... 

....  107 

Nam-bu-ub-tuv  (bird) 

71,  134 

N. 

Nam  khu  (the  turtle  dove) 

....  107 

„     (the  destiny  bird)   .... 

....     73 

Na  bird,  the 

....     91 

Nana-kisirat 

....  277 

Na,  the  serpent     .... 

....  395 

Nar,  le  poisson 

....     14 

Na-adh-ru  (bird) 

91,  140 

Naram  Sin  ... 

....  351 

Na-as-ru  (the  vulture) 

58,  13 1 

Narwhal,  the 

....     47 

Nabaa 

....  279 

Naville,  Edouard,  "  L'Inscri 

ption 

Nabaca       

....237» 

de       la       Destruction 

des 

Nabonidu  .... 

....  286 

Hommes    dans    le    Tombeau 

Nabonidus      164,  167,  177,  272,  274, 

de  Ramses  III " 

412-420 

275,  281, 

282,   283, 

Nebbi-Yunis 

....  195 

284,   291 

347,    351 

Nebbi-Yunis 

....  363 

Nabopolassar 

....  166 

Nebtu         

....  212 

Nabu-ahi-bullit 

282,  290 

Xebunnef  .... 

....  395 

Nabu-abla-iddina  .... 

165,  166 

Nechebet    .... 

....  208 

Nabu-alji-iddin 

....  275 

Next           

....   320 

Nabu-ahi-iddin 

286,  298 

Next-Ames 

299,  &c. 

Nabubalatsuikbi    .... 

....168» 

Neferha 

....  162 

Nabu-balat-su-ikbi 

286,  298 

Xeferhotep 

....  161 

Nabu-ibni  .... 

....237» 

Nefer-mennu 

....  162 

Nabu-nadin-ahi     .... 

280,  290 

Nefert-ari  .... 

146,  147 

Nabu-nadin-ahi     .... 

....  272 

Nefert-i-nutar  Su 

....  330 

Nabunnaa  ....              272,  2 

30,  281,  290 

X'eith          

204,  208 

Nabu-nur-ilani 

....  2S5 

Nekhterhebi          

....  393 

Nabu-mir-ili 

285,  286 

Nephthys  .... 

....  204 

Nabu-nur-ilu 

....  275 

Nergal-banunu      

286,  298 

Nabu-nur-Sin  or  -ili 

....  295 

Neshor 

....     21 

Nabii-sum-iskun     .... 

.      286,  298 

Nesinin        21,   27 

,  27,  2b  a 

132 


INDEX. 


Xespmete  .... 
Nest,  bird's 
Neetori&ns.... 

..     Chaldean 

Kiftesop     

Night,  tbe  bird  of 
Nightingale,  tbe    .... 
Night-jar,  tbe 

Nikbata      

Nikinadu.  see  Nikbata. 

Nimroud    .... 

y    evek 

Nin-gis-zi-da 

Nisroch 

North  Wind,  breatb  of 

Nubta         ....  275. 


Nur-Sin 


837», 


362, 


2S4. 
274. 
281, 


Nut  

Nutcracker.... 

Nutra,  tbe  word,  in  Egyptian 

Nu-um-ma 


O. 


PAGE 

4.   :'-.   10 
115 

374.  377 
370.  4c 
....  23,; 
.  ..  74 
74.  137 
....  73 
274,  291 

363,  365 
360,  &c. 

....  119 
....     59 

146,  147 

236,  295 

280, 

283,  290 

....   21s 

....  114 

224,  &c. 

62,  135 


Omens  of  birds     .... 

....     64 

Oriole,  the.... 

75.  137 

Oryx,  the  .... 

47,  4S 

Osirian,  tbe  (title) 

....  149 

Osiris 

219,  &c. 

,.     Ounnofre     .... 

...5,  S 

Osprey,  the 

....     90 

Ostrich,  tbe 

42.  100 

141,  &c. 

Owl,  tbe     ....  62,  65, 

70,  82, 

135.  13S 

„     tbe  screecb  .... 

....  104 

Pa-bu         

138 

Pa'hu  (?  crow)      

£1 

Pamaut 

9 

Pamouth.  Eituel  de 

15/! 

Panopolls,  see  Ajpu. 

Papyrus     

122 

.,     bird  of  the 

75 

Parrot,  the             

48,  52 

PAGE 

Parsis  ^j 

Partnership,  Babylonian  deed  of     ll  8 

Partridge,  tbe        85,  139 

Paser  102 

Paspasu  bird  52 

Pastor,  tbe  rose     78 

Patuamenapt  391 

Paur  162 

Pa-ur  301 

Pavement,  Assyrian  ....         ....   175 

Pea-fowl    HI 

Pechytes    23» 

Peewit        135 

Pebenuka ....  161 

Pelican,  tbe  ....  93,  114.  141 

Penaab       162 

Pepi  163 

Perfumers,  Jewisb  ....         ....  408 

Persen        161 

Petamenbotep       26,  27 

Petemin     27 

Petese        24.  26 

Petnofrebotep       ....         ....         ....     21 

Petuariese 2,  4,   10 

Petuosor,  or  Petosor  (Petros)       2,  19 
Physicians,  Jewisb  ....  ....  410 

Picidae        67 

Pigeon,  the  ....   83,  106,  116,  139 

..     tumbler        85» 

Pinches,  Theo.  G-.,  the  Antiquities 
found  by  Mr.  H.  Rassam  at 
Abu-Habbah  (Sippara)  164-171 
„  Babylonian  Legal  Documents 
relating  to  House  Property, 
and  tbe  Law  of  Inherit- 
ance....         871-286 

..     Babylonian  Art.  illustrated 
by   Mr.   H.    Rassam's   latest 

Discoveries    347-357 

Poor  Laws  of  the  Ancient  Hebrews 

30-41 

Potters,  Jewish     409 

Poultry,  Assyrian 97 

Prey,  birds  of        59 

Property,  Babylonian  laws  about 

276.  ic.  380 
„     rules  about ....  238.  272.  &c. 

Psenese      25.  27.  88 

Psepanofre  2.  4 

Psepoer      4,  10 


INDEX. 


!:;:; 


Ptahnuka  .... 
Ptahuash    .... 

Pt.u 

Ptu,  see  Petosor. 
Puta 


PAGE 

161 

161 

22 

20 


Quairich 


187 


E. 


Eag-gus  sa  (the  pelican)  ....         96,  141 
Rahaboth   ....         ....         ....       365,  &c. 

Ea-hotep    162 

Bainbow,  in  myths  ....  ....  220 

Eain  cloud,  the     ....         ....  ....  218 

Ea-ka-nu  ( ?  crow)  ....  ...     81 

Eak-rak-hu  (the  stork)     ....         89,  140 

Ea-ku-u  (bird)       106 

Eameses  II  337 

Eamses  III,  l'Inscription  dans  le 

Tombeau  de  ....         ....         ....  412 

Eana  162 

Eaneka       ....         ....         ....         ....  161 

Ea-pa-kak,  bird,  the         ....         ....  103 

Eassam,  H.,  Biblical  Nationalities, 

Past  and  Present....       358-385 

„      Eecent   Discoveries  of  An- 
cient  Babylonian     Cities, 

172-197 

Ea,  the   387,  388,  391 

Ea-xeperu-ari-mat    301,  303-305, 

306-312,  313-318 
Eaven,  the....  61,79,112,114,139 

"  Eaven  of  the  gods "       ....         ....     61 

Eem,  The 47,  48 

Eema  329,  &c. 

Eenici         299 

Eenouf,  P.  le  Page,  Egyptian  My- 
thology, particularly  with  re- 
ference to  Mist  and  Cloud  198-229 

Eeru  25,  26,  27 

Eesda  141 

Resen  364,  365,  &c. 

Eesi 27 


Revillout,  Eugene,  Les  anathemes 
d'uue  Mere  payenne  contre 
son  fils  devenu  Chretien  1-19 

,,     Pieces  relatives  a  un  Mariage 
du  temps  de  Darius  ....  20-29 

Ri-ga-bu(the  dove)  ....        84,  138 

Hi-hu  136 

Eobin,  the 120 

Roch  le  (serref)     14,15 

Eoller,  the 142 

Eook,  the  ....  43,  78,  81,  137,  142 

Eoyal-banded-bird,  the    93» 

„      variegated  bird      ....         ....     90 

Ru-ku-ul-luv  (the  partridge)      ....     85 

Eylands,  W.  H.,  Terra-Cotta  Seals 
in  the  possession  of  M.  Schlum- 
berger  ....         ....         ....  422 


Sabbatical  year 

34,  36 

Sabians,  the 

....  382 

Sacrifices  (Assyrian) 

....  166 

Sag-gus-su  (bird)  .... 

100,  141 

Sa-ka-tuv  (the  ostrich)       100 

140,  &c. 

Samaritans,  the     .... 

....  383 

Samas 

164,  &c. 

Samiu,  the 

....  213 

Sand-martin 

....     84 

Saradu-sa  cipratu.... 

....     61 

Sargina  of  Agade.... 

....  34S 

Sargon,  annals  of .... 

....     95 

,,     of  Agade 

347,  &c. 

Sar-rad  cip-ri 

....  134 

Sar-rad  kip-ri  (the  honey  buzzard)   109 

Sarrukinu  .... 

....  242 

Sarru-ukin 

....  350 

Scamnophagus  (bird) 

....     79 

Sculpture  among  Jews     .... 

....  398 

Seals,  Terra-cotta,  "Hittite" 

....  422 

Sebak 

...  215 

Sebast 

....     22 

Sebiu,  the  .... 

....  213 

Sechet        

....  20S 

Se-ga-ni-sar-lug     .... 

....  349 

Se-ip  a-ric  .... 

....  140 

Se-ip  a-rik  (the  ostrich)  .... 

100,  &c. 

Semnefer   .... 

....  161 

434 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Senmut      162 

Sennacherib  ....         ....         ....  354 

Senuti        ....         ....         ...  ....       3 

Sepulchral  Tablets,  see  Stelae. 
Sepulchres,  daughter  of  (bird)  ....     82 

Serpent,  in  Mythology    ....         ....  215 

Serref  (oiseau  monstrueux)  14,  15 

2et 2<W,  203,  212 

Setil,  tomb  of      412 

Seven  Cows,  &c 209« 

Shabbaks,  the   382 

Shade,  the      386 

Shadow,  the  (Egyptian) 386 

Shalac  (bird)         43 

Shahnaneser  II     353 

Shame        40 

Shatani      ....         ....  ....  ....  301 

Shat-el-Eai  193 

Shepherd-bird,  the  Utile  ....  55,  77 

„     the  jungle    70 

„     the 79 

Shir-nlk  (bird)      88 

Shoemakers,  Jewish         408 

Shu  203,  206,  213 

Sib 137 

„  tir-ra    ....         135 

„  tur  (the  starling)        ....         77,  137 

Si-li-in-gu  (bird) 101,138 

Si-lik-ku  (bird)     101 

Silla  272 

Silla  279 

Silver  264 

Silversmiths,  Jewish        ....         ....  405 

Simmas-sigu  ....         ....      165,  169 

Sini-Nana  ....         ....         ....         ....  278 

Si-nun-tuv  (the  swallow)  ....     73 

Sippara      343,  352,  353,  &e. 

Sippara,  see  Abu-habbah. 

Sir,  the  ciron         14,  15 

Sisinni  (bird)         US 

Si-ur-nenen-heb    162 

Si-zi  (bird) 89 

Slaves    and    Servants,    Akkadian 

laws  about     241,  &c. 

Smurmur  (shepherd-bird)  ....     79 

Sparrow,  the  ....    76,  108,  114,  137 

Star-bird,  the        85 

Starling,  the  ....  77,  114,  137, 
Stelse,  Egyptian  ....  143,  299,  394 
Stele,  Egyptian     299 


PAGE 

St.  John,  Christians  of     6^2 

Stork,  the S3,  141 

Storm-bird,  the  divine     ....         ....     69 

Su,  see  Shade. 

Su^um  mu  ....         ....         ....  139 

Sudinnu  (bird)     ....         ....         ....     86 

Su-di-nu  (bird)     ....         ....         ....     44 

Su-din-nu  ....  ....  ....  ....  138 

Suhaa         ....  272,  2S1,  282,  290 

Sulu  135 

Summatu  (the  dove)        ....         ....     84 

Sum-tsi-tsi  yum-u  (the  swallow)         73 
Sun  god,  Assyrian  ....       164,  &c. 

Superintendent  of  "Works  ....  156 

Su  urn  kur  sa  nu  khu  (bird)       ....  108 

Su-u-su  (animal)  ....         ....         ....  127 

Surgeon.  Jewish 399 

Susidi  bird....         ....         ....         ....     44 

Susudi  (bird)        118 

Sutenxat 330 

Suti  145 

Suta  165 

Su-um  (ma-tu  ?) 138 

Su-um-mu  (the  dove)      ....         ....     84 

Su-ur-du-u  (owl  or  falcon)  ....  103 

Su-vur-du  (bird) ....  105 

Swallow,  the,46, 53,  72, 77, 113, 115, 137 

Swan,  the 42 

Swift,  the 72,  73,  137 

Sycamore  of  Hathor        218 

„     Nut  218 

Syrian  Catholics 370,  &c. 

„     Jacobites 370,  &c. 

Syrians,  the  379,  &c. 


T. 


Ta-am-si-lu  (the  pigeon)....        S3,  138 

Ta-any       339 

Tabnea       278 

Ta-heb        163 

Tahei  21 

Tahonesi    ....         ....         ....         ....     21 

Takhati      300 

Ta-kha-tsa-se-nu  (the  eagle)        ....  105 

Tamsilu     106 

Tanners,  Jewish    ....         ....         ....  401 

Tarichentes  5it 


INDEX. 


435 


PAGE 

Tar-ma-zi-lu  (bird)  ....      106,  138 

Tar-ru  (the  dove) 85,  138 

Tas-ba-luv  (the  vulture)   60,  134,  138 

.,     (bird)  82 

„     (the  eagle)    ....         ....         ....  105 

Tata  162 

Ta-ti-du-tuv  (bird)  106 

Tbahor       23m 

Tefnut        203,  206 

Tel-Assur 366 

Tel-Ibrahim  182,  192 

Tel-lo         347,  355 

Tel-Loh      193 

Tel-sifr      278 

Temples,  Egyptian,  in  Roman  times     2 

Tenesi        20 

Teos  391 

Tet  (talisman)       211 

Teta  145 

Thothmes 299,  320,  &c. 

Thrush,  the  golden  75 

T'i 322 

Tii 161,  300 

Tir-ri-ta-ruv  (bird)  106 

Tithes,  ancient  Hebrew  ....         ....     33 

Tortoise,  mythical  ....         ....  214 

Toys,  Jewish         399 

Tree-creepers         ....         ....         ....     43 

Trees,  in  myths     217 

Tsa-lam-du  ....         ....         ....  136 

Tsa-pi-tuv  (the  swallow)   73,  136,  137 

Tsenhor      25,  26,  27,  28 

Tsi-li-li-tuv  (the  swallow)  ....  72,  136 
Tsi-tsil-du  (the  papyrus  bird)  75,  136 
Tsu-la-mu,  or   tsa  -  lam  -  du    (the 

bulbul)  74,136 

Tu  (Petosor)         3,  4,  10 

Tu-bal-la-ats  (magpie)  ....  83,  138 
Tu-khu  (pigeon  or  dove)  ....     84 

Tukulti-Mer  352,  &c. 

'  Tus  140 

Tusks         126,127 

Tus-mu  (bird)       44 

Tus-mu-u  (the  pelican)   ....  95,  96 


U. 


U-a  

Uah-ab-ra  Eam-ur 


TJast 

Tat/it 

Ubarta 

Ukin-Manluk 


PAGE 

....  301 
....  208 
....237m 

282,  291 


Um-mi-mi'i  (the  black  ibis)       90,  140 

Ur 372 

Orseus  goddesses 208 

Ur-bal-luv  (bird) 82 

I Ir-bal-luT  (the  vulture) 60 

Urbartu     277 

Uriniiu  (the  peacock)      Ill 

Ur-ni-gu    140 

„         or  ur-ni-ku  (the  crane)      88 
Ur-sa-nu  (the  pigeon)     ....        83,138 

Orsanu      106,  138 

Usir  237» 

Usra  1G2 

Uta-khonsu  162 


141 
163 


Vestments  (Assyrian) 
Vulture,  the 

W. 


166,  170 
58,  60, 135 


Wagtail,  the 

76 

Warbler     .... 

137 

Warblers    .... 

...74,  75,  142 

Whitewashes,  Jewish     . 

409 

Will,  Babylonian.... 

278 

Women,  rules  about,  in  Egypt  ....     7ra 
Woodpecker,  the  ....      43,  67,  68, 

70,  94,  119,  135 
Workmen,  Akkadian,  rules  about  260 
Wren         162 


Yau-bi'di   ... 
Yezidis,  the 


353 
381 


Z. 


Za-ai-khu  (bird  of  prey)     59,  109,  134 

Zi-i-bu       62,  134 

Ziria  237 

Zirla  271,  277,  279 

Zu  (bird) 69,  120 


i;;r, 


TEXTS  IN  THE  BIBLE 

Be f erred  to. 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Genesis       x,  11, 

12 

359,  366 

Psalm  Ixxviii, 

51  .... 

360 

„        xxiv, 

4 

372 

„               ci, 

—  .... 

94 

„        xxxi,  20 

24 

372,; 

,,           cxii, 

5  .... 

35 

,,        xxxi, 

47 

378 

Proverbs    vii, 

—  .... 

239 

Exodus  xxiii,  10, 

11 

34 

Isaiab         — 

—  .... 

49 

Leviticus  xix,    9, 

10 

32 

Hi, 

5  .... 

77 

Deuter.      it, 

11 

37 

Hosea         xii, 

12  .... 

...      372» 

„         xxiv, 

19 

33 

Mii-ali           v, 

6  .... 

359 

„        xxiv, 

25 

35 

Matthew    vi, 

—  .... 

39 

„         xxvi. 

5 

372/; 

,,           xix, 

21  .... 

39 

Judges     xvii, 

— 

239 

Luke         xix, 

8.... 

39 

1  Chron.     iv, 

— 

402 

Acts            iii, 

2  .... 

31 

Neheniiah  v, 

— 

36 

,,              vii, 

2-4  .... 

373 

Job       xxxix, 

— 

4S 

,»                x, 

32  .... 

401 

— 

— 

49 

,,             xix, 

—  .... 

401 

Psalm        lxi, 

14 

89 

2  Timothy  iv, 

14.... 

405 

»              lij 

6 

266 

in.t.'-os    am,   sum>.   PKINTEKS   IN    ORDINARY    TO    HER    MAJESTY,   ST.    MABTIN'S   LANE.    LONDON. 


437 


SOCIETY   OF    BIBLICAL   ARCHEOLOGY. 


LIST     OF     MEMBERS. 

Members  of  the  Council  marked  thus  f. 
Members  who  have  compounded  *. 

Adair,  Miss  H.  M.,  40,  Chester  Terrace,  N.W. 
*Ainsworth,  AVilliam  Francis,  F.S.A.,   F.E.G.S.,   Eavenacourt 
Villa,  Hammersmith,  S.W. 

Alexander,  Eev.  W.  Burton,  36,  Bloomsbury  Square,  W.C. 

Allen,  Edward  G.,  28,  Henrietta  Street,  Co-vent  Garden,  W.C. 
^Amherst,  William   A.  Tyssen,  M.P.,  E.S.A.,   E.E.S.L.,   &c, 
Didlington  Park,  Brandon,  Norfolk. 

Anderson,  J.  Corbet,  Croydon,  Surrey. 

Anderson,  John  Macvicar,  6,  Stratton  Street,  W. 

Anderson,  Eet.  James,  The  Manse,  Eorteviot,  Perth. 
*  Angus,  Eev.  Joseph,  D.D.,  Eegent's  Park,  N.AV. 

Appleton,  Eev.  Eichard.  M.A.,  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 

Armitage,  Eev.  Elkanah,  Easthill,  Eotherham. 

Austin,  Miss  Gertrude,  8,  Cavendish  Place,  Bath. 

*Babington,  Eev.  Churchill,  D.D.,  F.B.S.L.,  Cockfield  Eectory, 
Sudbury,  Suffolk. 
Backhouse,  James,  West  Bank,  St.  Mary's  Gate,  York. 
f  Bagster,  Robert,  15,  Paternoster  Bow,  E.C. 
Baker,  William,  M.A.,  LL.B.,  10,  New  Court,  Carey  Street,  W.C. 
Baker,   Eev,   William   James   Fdrneaux  Vashon,   M.A.,   The 
College,  Marlborough. 
|Ball,  Eev.  Charles  James,  M.A.,  15,  Chalcot  Gardens,  N.W. 
Barclay,  Joseph  Gurney,  Knott's  Green,  Leyton,  Essex. 
Barlow,  Rev.  W.  Crosby,  County  Grove,  Camberwell,  S.E. 
Barnard,  Rev.  William,  B.A.,  Alveston  Vicarage,  Stratford-on- 
Avon. 


438  List  of  Members. 

Bartox,  Col.  N.  D.,  64,  Regency  Square,  Brighton. 

Bartbam,  Captaix  Geobge    William,    B.E.,    Bocklands,   Tun- 
bridge  Wells. 

Bassett,  Miss  Maey,  Bovertou  House,  Cowbridge,  Glamorgan- 
shire. 

Bates,  Ret.  J.  Chadwick,  Castleton  Vicarage,  near  Manchester. 

Beamoxt,  William,  Orford  Hall,  Warrington. 

Beabdsley,  Amos,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S.,  Bay  Villa,  Graiige-over-Sands. 
Lancashire. 

Beaufobt,     Bey.     Daxiel    Augustus,    M.A.,    9,    Eliot    Park 
Lewisham,  S.E. 
jBeeciiey,   Bey.    Caxox   St.    Vincent.   31". A.,    Hilgay   Bectory, 
Downham,  Xorfolk. 

Belches,  Lady,  26.  Cumberland  Terrace,  Begent's  Park,  N.W. 

Bellmax.  Bobert  A. 

Belt.  William  Johx,  102,  Gower  Street,  Bedford  Square,  W.C. 

Bex  Oliel.  Be  v.  Maiwell.  M.A.,2,  Alma  Terrace,  Kensington,  W. 

Bexsox,  Mbs.,  Claremont,  Ashton-on-Mersey.  Cheshire. 

Berexs.  Bey.  Raxdolph  Hcmphbey  McLaughlix,  M.A.,  Sidcup 
Vicarage,  Chislehurst,  Kent. 

Bebby.  Bey.  Chaeles  Alered,  Chaplain's  House,  Royal  Arsenal, 
Woolwich. 

Bertix.  G..  care  of  Theo.  G.  Pinches,  British  Museum.  W.C. 

Besaxt,  Walteb;  M.A..  1.  Adam  Street,  Adelphi,  W.C. 

Beyax.  William,  12,  Bolton  Gardens,  South  Kensington,  W. 

Bicker- Caartex,    Chevalier,    P.,    cO,  Northumberland  Place, 
Bayswater,  W. 
tBiBcii,  Samuel,  D.C.L.,    LL.D.,    F.S.A.,  &c.,  British  Museum, 
W.C.  {President). 

Bird.  Samuel.  15.  Sussex  Place.  Victoria  Boad,  Kensington,  W. 

Bibdwood.  Dr.  G.  C.  M.,  F.G.S.,  India  Office,  Whitehall,  S.W. 

Bibks,  Bev.  Edward  Bickebsteth,  M.A.,  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge. 

Blaikie,  Prof.  William  G.,  D.D.,  0,  Palmerston  Road,  Grange, 
Edinburgh. 

Boldex.  Rey.  C.j  Preston  Bissett  Bectory,  Buckingham. 

Boxwick,  James,  F.B.G.S.,  South  Vale,  Upper  Norwood. 
tBosaxquet.  Berxard  Tixdal,  73,  Lombard  Street,  E.C.  (Hon. 
Treasurer). 

Bosaxquet.  Mrs.  J.  W.,  Pennenden,  Maidstone. 

BoiYERiE-Pr-EY.  S   E.  B.,  Posey,  Faringdori,  Berks. 


List  of  Members.  439 

Bowden,  Eev.  Charles  II.,  The  Oratory,  Brompton,  S.W. 

Botce,  Mrs.  Henry. 

Boyd,  Ret.  William,  LL.D.,  F.S.A. 

Brewster,  Rev.  Waldegrave,  Middletou  Rectory,  Manchester. 

Bravo,  Colonel,  33,  Cambridge  Street,  Hyde  Park  Square,  W. 

Brockbank,  Rev.  H.AV.,  Broekhurst,  Didsbury,  near  Manchester. 

Brocklehurst,  Miss,  Lonisome  Lodge,  Banteer,  co.  Cork. 

Brooke,  Edward. 

Brooke,  Col.  Thomas,  F.S.A.,  Armitage  Bridge,  Huddersfield 

Brown,  Alfred  Kemp,  11,  Richmond  Road,  Headingley,  Leeds. 

Brown,  Miss  Emma. 

Brown,  Is.vao,  Brantholme,  Kendal,  Westmoreland. 
*  Brown,  James  Roberts,  14,  Hilldrop  Road,  Camden  Road,  N. 

Brown,    Robert,    jun.,  F.S.A.,   Priestgate     House,    Barton-on- 
Humber,  Lincolnshire. 

Brown,  Rev.  Thomas,  Collace  Manse,  near  Perth. 

Broavn,  William  Henry,  72,  Chailwood  Street,  Belgrave  Road, 
S.AV. 

Brownen,  George,  F.C.S.,   Althorpe  Road,  Wandsworth  Com- 
mon, S.W. 

Budge,  E.  A.  Wallis,  M.A.,  British  Museum,  W.C. 

Bunsen,  Ernest  De,  Abbey  Lodge,  Hanover  Gate,  N.W. 

Burnett,  David,  ]18,  Huddleston  Road,  Tufnell  Park,  N. 

Burton,  Sir  William  W.,  54,  Chepstow  Villas,  Netting  Hill,  W. 

Burton,  Lady,  54,  Chepstow  Villas,  Notting  Hill,  W. 

Burton, Rev.  Robert  Clerke,  M.A.,  Taverham  Rectory,  Norwich. 

Burton,  Thomas  C,  M.D.,  AVestport,  co.  Mayo,  Ireland. 

Busk,  Miss  Rachel  H.,  42,  Grosvenor  Square,  W. 

Bute,  The  Marquis  or,  K.T.,  83,  Eccleston  Square,  S.W. 

Butt,  R.  M. 

Cable,  Mrs.  Edwin,  Trylebois,  St.  Martins,  Jersey. 

Cairns,    Principal    John,    D.D.,    United    Presbyterian    College, 

Edinburgh. 
Calvert,  Rev.  Thomas,  15,  Albany  Villas,  Hove,  Brighton. 
Camps,  William,  M.D. 

Carey,  Rev.  Jonathan  P.,  C.iftle  Street,  Tiverton,  Devon. 
Carlyle,  Rev.  Gavin,  M.A..,  5,  Eaton  Gardens,  Ealing,  W. 
Carpenter,  Rev.  J.  Edlin,  Leathes  House,  Fitzjohns  Avenue,N.AV. 
Carr,  Rev.  Arthur,  Wellington  College,  AVokingham. 
Carter,  JNJrs  ,  8,  Powys  Square,  AV. 
fCATES,  Arthur,  F.R.I.B.A.,  7,  AVhitehall  Yard,  S.AV. 


440  List  of  Members. 

Cave,  Eey.  Alfred,  B.A.,  Hackney  College,  Wells  Street,  E. 

Charteeis,  Peof.  A.  H.,  D.D.,  1,  Salisbury  Eoad,  Edinburgh. 
fCHETXE;  Eey.  T.  K.,  M.A.,  Tendring  Eectory,  Colchester. 

Chotzxeb,   Ely.   De.  Joseph,   Belleigli  House,  Harrow-on-the- 
Hill. 
*tCHEisTY,  Thomas,  F.L.S.,  155,  Fencburch  Street,  E.C 
♦Christy,  Thomas  Howard,  Malvern  House.  Sydenham,  S.E. 

Clark,  John,  133,  Upper  Kennington  Lane,  S.E. 

Clarke,  Benjamin,  F.R.G.S.,  Arbutus  Place,  Upper  Clapton.  S.E. 

Clarke.  Charles  Harwood,  B.A.,  F.S.A.,  Westfield,  Bromley, 
Kent. 
*Clarke,  Hyde,  32,  St.  George's  Square,  S.W. 

Clesdinntng,  Miss  Geraldixe,  29,  Dorset  Square,  NYW. 

Close,  Rev.  Maxwell  H.,  40,  Lower  Baggot  Street,  Dublin. 

Coex,  Eey.  John  Creagh. 

Compigsh,  Charles,  114,  Kennington  Park  Eoad,  S.E. 

Coxder,  Captain  C  R. 

CONYXGHAM,  LADY  FraXCIS. 

Corxforth,     J.,   Lime    Grove,    George   Eoad,    Edgbaston,   Bir- 
mingham. 
fCooK,  Key.  Frederick  C.,M.A.,  Cauou  of  Exeter,  Devon  (Vice- 
President). 

Cooper,  Eev.  Basil  H.,  B.A.,  F.E.S.L.,  Malvern   Lodge,  East 
Dulwicb  Grove,  Dulwich,  S.E. 

Cooper,  Eey.  James,  M.A. 

Courte>~ay,  Eight  Eey.  Bishop  Regixald,  D.D. 

Craxage,  J.  Edward,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Old  Hall  School,  'Wellington, 
Salop. 

Crewdsox,  Eey.  George,  St.  George's  Vicarage,  Kendal. 

Crosbie,  Mrs.,  Ardfert  Abbey,  Ardfert,  Ireland. 

Ceothers,  Capt.  "Wallace    Geoege,  Highfields,    Chew-Magna, 
Somerset. 

Crozier,  F.  H.,  Delawarr,  Lymmgton,  Hants. 

Cull,  Eichard,  F.S.A.,  12,  Tavistock  Street,  Bedford  Square,  W.C. 

Clmixg,  H.  Syer,  F.S.A.  Scot.,  63,  Kennington  Park  Eoad,  S.E. 
fCusT,  Eobert,  F.E.A.S.,  64.  St.  George's  Square,  S.W. 

Ctjst,  Miss,  20,  Thurlow  Place,  Kensington,  W. 

Daltox,  Eey.  Johx  Neale,  M.A.,  F.S.A. ,  Marlborough  House, 

Pall  Mall,  S.W. 
Darbishire,   Eobert  Deei>field,  BA.,  F.SA.,  Victoria  Park, 

Manchester. 


List  of  Members.  441 

Daubeny,  Mrs.  J.  Clayton,  40,  Redcliffe  Gardens,  South  Ken- 
sington, S.  \VT. 

D'Ayigdor,  Tue  Countess,  98,  Harley  Street,  Cavendish 
Square,  W. 

Dayies,  Eey.  John,  16,  Belsize  Square,  N.W. 

Davis,  Arthur,  30,  Abbey  Road,  St.  John's  Wood,  N.W. 

Davis,  Eev.  E.  J. 

Davis,  Edward  Thomas,  75,  Caversham  Road,  Camden  Road,  N.W. 

De  Bergue,  Mrs.,  5,  Cornwall  Mansions,  Cornwall  Gardens,  S.W. 

De  Cosson,  M.  Le  Baron  C.  A.,  E.R.G.S.,  Pyrcroft  House, 
Chertsey. 

De  Lacouperie,  Albert  Terrien,  62,  Chesilton  Road,  Fulham, 

S.W. 
*De  La  Rue,  Warren,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.,  &c.,  73,  Portland  Place,  W. 
Denison,  Rev.  James  Edward,  M.A.,  Cuddesdou  College,  Wheatley, 

Oxon. 
Denton,  Rev.  William,  M.A.,  22,  Westbourne  Square,  W. 
Deverell,  Frederick  H.,  6,  College  Park  Villas,  Lewisham. 
De  Worms,  The  Baron  Henry,  Carlton  Club,  Pall  Mall,  S.W. 
Di  Cesnola,  Major  Palma,  Via  Nizza  31,  Turin,  Italy. 
Dixon,  John,  C.E.,  1,   Laurence  Pountney  Hill,  Cannon  Street, 

E.C. 
Dodgson,  Aquila,  Limehurst,  Ashton-under-Lyne. 
Dodgson,    Rev.    James   Davy,   Highfield    House,    Elland,    vid 

Normanton. 
Donaldson,   Professor    T.    L.,   K.L.,   Ph.D.,   &c,    21,   Upper 

Bedford  Place,  W.C. 
Douglas,  Lady,  Bursledon  House,  Dawlish,  Devon. 
Douglas,  Rev.  Heiman,  M.A.,  Eduionthorpe  Rectory,  Oakham, 

Leicestershire. 
Douglas,  Rev.  Dr.  George  C.  M._,  18,  Royal  Crescent,  Glasgow. 
Droege,  Albert,  75,  Shepherd's  Bush  Road,  West  Kensington. 
Dryden,  James,  40,  Mauley  Grove,  Stratford,  Essex,  E. 
Dykes,  Rev.  J.  Oswald,  D.D.  49,  Gordon  Square,  W.C. 

Edelmann,  Mrs.  A. 

Edmonds,  Rev.   Walter  John,  B.D.,  Highbray  Rectory,  South 

Molton,  Devon. 
Edwards,  Miss  Amelia  B.,  The  Larches,  Westbury-on-Trym. 
♦Edwards,  William,  Eern  Bank,  Tunbridge  Wells. 
Elliott,  William  Timbrell,  5,  Verulam  Buildings.  Gray's  Inn, 
W.C. 


442  List  of  Members. 

Ellis,  Alexander  George,  B. A. ,  Suthrey  House,  Mortlake,  S.W. 

Elmslie,  Het.  W.  G.,  M.A.,  Willesden,  X.W. 

Ely,  Talfoerd,  M.A.,  F.S.A.,  Spring  Place,  Well  Eoad,  Hamp- 

stead,  N.W. 
Evans,  George.  M.  A..  8,  Washington  Terrace,  Mutlez,  Plymouth. 
Eya>"S,  J.  L.,  Moreton  Hoase,  Tyndalls  Park,  Bristol. 

Falkexer,  E  avard,  Glan-y-mor,   Laugharne,  Carmarthenshire. 
Faunce  de  Lauxe.  C.  P.  W..  Sharsted  Court.  W.  Sittingbourne, 

Kent. 
Fergesso>~,  James,  D.C.L.,  F.E.S.,  Y.PJJ.A.S.,  &c,  20,  Langham 

Place,  W. 
Finbis,  George  Carrethers,  13,  York  Terrace,  Eegent's  Park, 

X.AV. 
Flint.  Charles  A..  19,  Kensington  Gardens  Square.  W. 
Forloxg.  Major-General.  J.  G.  E.,  11,  Douglas  Crescent,  Edin- 
burgh. 
Fortntm,    Charles    Drery  Edward,    F.S.A.,    Stanmore   Hill, 

Middlesex,  N.W. 
Poster,  Miss  Sophia,  17,  Batenian  Street,  Cambridge. 
Fowler,  Eev.  Joseph  Thomas.  M.A..  F.S.A..  kc,  Bp.  Hatfield's 

Hall,  Durham. 
Franks,    Aegestes   Wollaston,    M.A.,    F.E.S.,    F.b.A..   &c. 

British  Museum,  W.C. 
Freeman,  Miss  Constantia,  7,  Beauchamp  Avenue,  Eeamington. 
Freeman,  Miss  Selina,  South  View,  Fulwell,  near  Twickenham, 

Middlesex. 
*Freer,  William  Jesse,  Stonygate,  Leicester. 
*Fresheield.  Edwin,  M.A.,  F.S.A..  New  Bank  Buildings,  E.C. 
Fry,  H   William,  Walthamstow,  Essex. 
Fry.  Miss  P.  A.,  The  Tower,  Cotha'n  Xew  Eoad,  Bristol. 
Feller,  Eey.  John  Mec,  M.A..  Bexley,  Kent. 

Gage,  The  Ho>".  Mrs.,  Firle  Place,  near  Lewes. 

Gawler,  Mrs.  Colonel. 

Geden,  Eey.  Prof.  John*  Dery,  D.D.,  Didsbury  College,   near 

Manchester 
Geikie,  Eey.  Cenningham,  D.D..  Barnstaple,  Devon. 
Gibbon".  Alfred.  17.  The  Gardens.  Peckham  Eye.  S.W. 
Gibb-.  George  Henry,  7.  Albion  Grove,  Stoke  Xewington.  N. 
Gibbs,  J.  G.,  Eiggendale-road,  Streatham,  near  London,  S.W. 


List  of  Members.  443 

Gibson,  Rev.  Prebendary  Edgar  C.  S.  (Principal,)  Wells  Theo- 
logical College,  Wells,  Somerset. 
Gibson,  Kev.  William,  B.A.,  4,  Rue  Roquepine,  Paris. 
Gill,  Thomas  R.,  2L,  Hare  field  Road,  Brocldey,  S.E. 
Gillespie,  Ret.  Charles  George  Knox,    20,    Dawson  Street, 

Manchester. 
Gilmore,  John,  3,  Upper  Pembroke  Street,  Dublin. 
Ginsburg,  Ret.  Christian  D.,  LL.D.,  Holmlea,  Virginia  Water 

Station,  Chertsey. 
Girdleston,  Rey.  R.  B.,  M.A.,  WyclifFe  Lodge,  Oxford. 
fGLADSTONE,   Right  Hon,  W.  E.,  M.P.,  D.C.L.,   &c,  Downing 

Street,  S.W, ;  Hawarden  Castle,  Flintshire  ( Vice-President). 
Gladstone,  J.  Hall,  Ph.D.,  P.R.S.,  17,  Pembridge  Square,  W. 
Glasier,  AV.  R.  M.,  3,  The  Paragon,  Blackheath,  S.E. 
Godsell,    William,    Auditor's    Department,   India    Office,    St. 

James's  Park. 
Gorman,  Ret.  T.  Murray,  Invermore,  Woodstock  Road,  Oxford. 
Gosse,  Phillip  H.,  E.R.S.,  Sandhurst,  Torquay. 
Gough,  Lieut.-Colonel,  Wolverhampton. 
Graham,  Ret.  Thomas,  D.D.  (President,)  St.  Mary's  Training  College, 

Hammersmith,  S.W. 
Grainger,  Ret.  Canon  John,  D.D.,  Broughshane,  co.  Antrim. 
*Grates,  R.  Edmond,  British  Museum,  W.C. 
Gray,  Mrs.  Hamilton,  113,  Queen's  Gate,  W. 
Greg,  R.  P.,  Coles,  Buntingford,  Herts.' 
Greenwood,   Proe.    J.    G.,   LL.D.,    Principal,    Owens    College, 

Manchester. 
Greer,  Thomas,  M.P.,  F.R.G.S.,  Grove  House,  Park  Road,  Regent's 

Park,  N.W. 
Griffith,  D.  Clewin,  F.R.G.S.,  10,  Heathfield  Gardens,  Hamp- 

stead,  N.W. 
Griffith,  Francis  Llewlyn,  Montpellier  Lodge,  Brighton. 
Griffiths,  Mrs.,  Hearne  House,  Swansea. 
Gurdon,  F.,  Hingham,  Atteborough,  Norfolk. 
Gtjrney,  John  Henry,  Northrepps  Hall,  Norwich. 
Gurney,  John,  Sprowston  Hall,  near  Norwich. 
Gutch,   Ret.    Charles,  B.D.,   39,  Upper   Park    Place,     Dorset 

Square,  N.W. 
Gwynne,  Ret.  Robert,  B.A.,  St.  Mary's  Vicarage,  Crown  Street, 

Soho,  W.C. 
Gwyther,  James  B.A.,  M.B.,  Argotti,  St.  Mary  Church,  Torquay. 
Vol.  VIII.  29 


444  List  of  M'  mbers. 

Hale.  Charles  George,  26,  Austin  Friars,  E.C. 

Hall.  Frederic  Thomas,  15,  Gray's  Jnn  Square,  W.C. 
tHALSBURT,  Lord.  99,  Gloucester  Place,  Portman  Square,  W.  (  Vice- 
President). 

Hamilton.  Eight  Hon.  Lord  Claud,  M.P. 

Hardcastle,  Edward,  M.P..  Hew  Lodge,  Hawkhurst,  Kent. 

Harmax.  Johx,  73,  Lombard  Street,  E.C. 

Harris  Eev.  Isidore.  192.  Portsdown  Eoad.  W. 

Harris,  Theodore,  The  Cedars,  Leighton  Buzzard. 
jHarrisox,  Charles.  F.S.A.,  17,  Quten's  Gate  Place,  South  Ken- 
sington, s.w. 

Harrisox,  James  Park,  M.A.,  22.  Connaught  Street,  Hyde  Park 
Square,  W. 

Harrisox,  James  William,  45,  St.  Martin's  Lane,  "W.C. 

Harrisox,  Bey.  Alexander  James,  Waterfoot  Vicarage,  Man- 
chester. 

Harrisox.  T.  H.,  Commercial  Chambers,  18,  Wardwick,  Derby. 

Hartlaxd,  Erxest,  The  Oaklands,  Cheltenham. 

Hartlaxd,  E.  Sidney,  Beresford  House,  Swansea. 

Hassikg,  Eev.  Antony  John.  St.  Anne's,  Keighley.  Yorkshire. 

HULBERT.  ElCHARD  S. 

Hawkseord,    The    Very  Eey.    Johx    A.,    St.    Mary's   College, 

Oscott,  Birmingham. 
Haydox.  W.  T..  General  Manager,  Oil  Seed  Crushing  Compaq-, 

Dover. 
Hay,  George  Eeexezee.  7,  Berners  Eoad,  Wood  Green,  X. 
Haywood,  W.  J.,  7,  Pen  Martin  Eoad,  Brockley  Eise,  S.E. 
Heaxe,  William,  E.B.C.S.,  The  Lawn,  Cinderford,  Gloucester. 
Heath,  Eey.  Duxbar  1.,  F.E.S.L.,  Esher,  Surrey. 
Hexeiques,  Alfred  Guttehes. 
Henstock,  F.  W.,  M.A. 

Herbert,  Miss  J.C.,  20,  Pelham  Crescent,  South  Kensington,  S.W. 
Herbert,  Johx    Eogers,  E.A.,    The   Chimes,  West  End  Lane, 

Kilburn,  X.W. 
.  *Hervey,  Eight  Eey.    and   Eight  Hox.  Lord  Arthur,  Bishop 

of  Bath  axd  Wells,  D.D.,  The  Palace,  Wells,  Somerset. 
Hetwood,  Bexjamix  Arthur,  M.A. 
Hirst,  Johx,  Dobcross,  Saddleworth,  near  Manchester. 
Hoernixg,  Dr.  Eeixhart.  British  Museum,  W.C. 
*Holmes,  Johx,  Holmsted,  Eoundhay,  Leeds. 
Hopgood,  Johx,  Erin  House,  Atkins  Eoad,  Clapham  Park,  S.W. 
Horsmax,    Eev.   Samuel  James  O'Hara. 


List  of  Members.  445 

Hotham,  Ret.  Henry  John,  M.A.,  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
Houghton,    Rev.    William,    M.A.,   F.L.S.,    Preston    Rectory, 

Wellington,  Salop. 
Howorth,  Henry  Hoyle,  F.S.A.,  Derby  House,   Eccles,  Man- 

eliester. 
Huisii,  Mrs.,  Combe  AVood,  Boncbnrcb,  Isle  of  Wight. 
Hdlbert,  Richard  S. 
*Hunter,  Rev.  Robert.,  LL.D.,  F.G.S.,  Forest  Retreat,  Staples 

Road,  Lougbton,  Essex. 
Hussey,  Mrs.  S.  M.,  Edenburn,  Gortatlea,  co.  Kerry,  Ireland. 
Hutchinson,    Surgeon-Major    Robert   F.,    care    of    Messrs. 

Grindley  and  Co.,  55,  Parliament  Street,  S.W. 

*Inglis,  Counelius,  M.D.,  Athenaeum  Club,  S.W. 

Jackson,   Rev.   William,   M.A.,  F.S.A.,   F.R.A.S.,   Pen  Wartha, 

Weston-snper-Mare. 
Jago,  Thomas  ri.,  Jeddah. 

James,  Rev.  Herbert,  Livermere,  Bury  St.  Edmunds. 
Jay,  William  Chickall. 

Jones,  Rev.  Alfred,  B.D.,  7,  Matheson  Road,  West  Kensington. 
Jones,    Winslow,    F.R.G.S.,    Devon    and    Exeter    Institution, 

Exeter,  Devon. 
Jones,  Rev.  William  Henry. 

Jones,  Rev.  William  Meade,  15,  Mill  Yard,  Goodman's  Fields,  E. 
Joseph,  D.  Davis,  77,  Portsdown  Road,  Maida  Vale,  W. 
* Joseph,  Hymen  A.,  45,  Aberdeen  Park,  Higbbury,  N. 
Joyce,  Samuel,  junr.,  113,  Richmond  Road,  Hackney. 

Karabegof,  Assadour. 

Keane,  Mabcus,  M.R.I. A.,  Beech  Park,  Ennis,  co.  Clare,  Ireland. 

Kelly,  Mrs.  Sophia. 

Kingdon,  Bishop  H.  Tully,  D.D.,  Fredericton,  New  Bruns- 
wick, 

Kisns,  Samuel,  Ph.D.,  The  College,  Highbury  New  Park,  N. 

Kirkpatrick,  Rev.  A.  F.,  M.A.,  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 

Kitchener,  H.  H.,  Captain,  R.E. 

Knocker,  E.  Wollaston,  Castle  Hill  House,  Dover. 

Knowles,  Rev.  John,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  Ph.D.,  F.S.A.,  F.G.S.,  Lome 
Villa,  Tunbridge  Wells. 

Lacy,  Charles  J.,  28,  Belsize  Park,  N.  \V. 


446  List  of  Members. 

Lapds.  Eey.  Thomaj.  M.A..  The  Vicarage,  Leighton,  Kimboltou, 

St.  Neots. 
Laing,  Alexander,  LL.D..  Xewburgh-on-Tay,  Scotland. 
Lambert,  George,  F.S.A.,  12,  Coventry  Street,  Haymarket,  W. 
Lang,   Eobert    Hamilton,   Adtninistrateur,  des    Contributions 

Indirectes,  Constantinople. 
Lawuence,  Edwin.  LL.B.,  B.A..  10,  Kensington  Palace  Gardens 

\V. ;  and  King's  Eide,  Ascot.  Berks. 
j-Latard.  Sir  A.   Henry,   G.C.B.,  &c.  (  Vice-President),  1,  Queen 

Anne  Street.  V\  . 
Lea.  Joh>-  Walter.  B.A.,  F.G.S.,  9,  St.  Julian's  Eoad,  Kilburu, 

N.W. 
Leather.  S.  Petty,  Corporation  Offices,  Buraiey. 
Lee,  George  H.,  Charity  Commissioners,  Whitehall,  S.W. 
Lethabt,  William,  H.M.  Consul,  Jerusalem. 
♦Lewis,   Bey.  Samlel  Sayage,  M.A.,  F.S.A..  Librarian,  Corpus 

Christi  College,  Cambridge. 
♦Lewis,  Prof.  Thomas   Hayter,  F.S.A.,   E.E.I.B.A.,  12,  Ken- 
sington Gardens  Square,  W. 
Lewis,  Alfred  Lionel,  35,  Colebrooke  Eow,  X. 
tLightfoot,    Eight     Eey.    Joseph   Barber,   D.D.,    Bishop   of 
Durham,  The  Palace,  Durham. 
Lindsay,  Hon.  Colln,  Deer  Park,  Honiton,  Devon. 
Lipscomb,  Mrs.  H.,  Estville,  Carlton  Street,  Cheltenham. 
Loewe,  Eey.  L.,  D.D.,  1  and  2,  Oscar  Villas,  Broadstairs,  Kent. 
Long,  William,  Wrington,  Somerset. 
Lons,  Dr.  Sigmund,  125,  Fellows  Eoad,  N.W. 
Loyell,     Eey.    George     Francis,    M.  A..     Vice-Principal,    St. 

Edmond's  Hall,  Oxford. 
LovFTT,  Eev.  Eobert,  36,  The  Chase,  Clapham  Common,  S.W, 
Lowe,  Eey.  Thomas,  8,  Lower  Villiers  Street,  Wolverhampton. 
*fLowY,  Eey.  Albert,  100,  Sutherland  Gardens,  W. 
LrCAS,  Frederick:  William,  F.L.S.,  &c,  St.  Swithin's,  Trinity 

Eoad,  Upper  Tooting,  S.W. 
Lttgasy,  Moses. 

Lumley,  Henry,  31  and  32,  St.  James's  Street,  W. 
Lyshington,  E.  L.,  D.C.L.,  LL.D.,  &c,  Park  House,  Maidstone. 
Lyall,  C.  J.,  care  of  Mrs.  Lyall,  55,  Susses  Gardens,  Hyde  Park, 

W. 

Macalister.  Dr.  Alexander,  11, Upper  Fitzwilliam  Street,  Dublin. 
M'Clure,   Eey.  E.,   M.A.,  Cambridge,   Office  of  the    S.P.C.K , 
Northumberland  Avenue,  S.W. 


List  of  Members.  447 

Maclagan,  Right  Rev.  W.  D.,  the  Loed  Bishop  of  Lichfield, 
The  Palace,  Lichfield. 

McGrigor,  Alexander  Bennett,  LL.D.,  19,  Woodside  Terrace, 
Glasgow. 

Maclaran,  G-.,  Mortlake  Road,  Kew,  S.W. 

Macmillan,  George  Augustin,  19,  Earls  Terrace,  Kensington,  W. 

McCaul,  Rev.  Dr. 

McLean,  Rev.  Malcolm,  M.A.,  B.D.,  Brodick,  Isle  of  Arran. 

Macphail,  Rev.  S.  R.,  M.A.,  77,  Canning  Street,  Liverpool. 

Manning,  H.  E.,  Cardinal,  D.D.,  Archhishop's  House,    West- 
minster. 

Marshall,  Rev.  James,  M.A.,  138,  Fellows  Road,  South  Hamp- 
stead,  N.W. 

Marshall,  D.,  7,  Rose  Street,  Newgate  Street,  E.C. 

Marshall,  James  Cutcliffe,  Eenton  Hall,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
*Martlneau,  Prof.  Russell,  M.A.,  British  Museum,  W.C. 

Masson,  Gustave,  B.A.,  Harrow, 

Matheson,  Rev.  Donald,  M.A.,  Roehampton. 

Maxwell,  Mrs.,  Carriechan,  Dumfries,  Scotland. 

Maylard,  Charles  Grayson,  Vine  Lodge,  Addlestone,  Surrey. 

Melville,  Rev.  Andrew,  6,  Eton  Gardens,  Glasgow. 

Meux,  Sir  Henry  B.,  Bart. 

Mitchell,  Dr.  J.  B. 

Miland,  Mrs.,  Clairville,  Lansdowne  Road,  Wimbledon,  S.W. 

Miles,  Rev.  Charles  Popham,  M.A.,  M.D.,  E.L.S.,  Hatherley 
Road,  Kew  Gardens. 

Mill,  John. 

Millar,  Gaskell,  Merton  Road,  Keddleston  Road,  Derby. 

Miller,  Mrs.  Jean  Morison   Campbell,  51,  Lauriston  Place, 
Edinburgh;  and  Morison  House,  Hetland,  Lockerbie,  N.B. 

Miller,  Rev.  George,  10,  Bessborough  Gardens,  S.W. 
*fMocATTA,  E.  D.,  9,  Connaught  Place,  AV. 

MoNTEFIORE,  CLALDE  A. 

Morison,   J.   Cotter,  M.A.,  Clairvaux,  19,  Eitz John's   Avenue, 

Hampstead,  N.AV. 
Morris,  Claude  John,  The  Mount,  Altrincham,  Cheshire. 
Morris,  H.,  Eastcote  House,  St.  John's  Park,  Blackheath,  S.E. 
*Morris,  AV.  H.,  Clifton  House,  Ealing  Road,  Brentford. 
Morris,  Mrs.  William. 
*fMoRRisoN,      Walter,     77,     Cromwell     Road,     S.W.      {Vice- 
President). 
Morton,  Rev.  William,  Lynesack  Vicarage,  Butterknowle,  R.S.O., 
Darling-ton. 


448  List  of  Member.*. 

*Moss,  Eet.  Johx  James,  M.A.,  East  Lydford  Hall,  Somerton. 
Muie.  W.  J.  CoOKBinar,  Melrose,  Scotland. 
Mlllixgs,  Johx,  Cirencester. 

Murdoch,  Alexander,  13,  Bethnell  Terrace,  Hillhead,  Glasgow. 
Myers.  Walter,   F.S.A.,  M.B.I.A..  21,   Queenborough  Terrace, 
Kensington  Gardens,  W. 

Napier,  Eet.  Frederick  P.,  B.A.,  Anglesea  Lodge,  John  Street, 
Eyde,  Isle  of  Wight 
tXewtox.  Charles  T.,  C.B..  D.C.L.,  &c,  British  Museum,  W.C 
(Vice-President). 
Tsicholl,  Miss  Eleanor.  Llantwit  Major,  Cowbridge,  Glamorgan- 
shire. 
Nicholson,  Eet.  W.  Millar.  M.A..  D.Sc.  St.  Heliers,  Jersey. 
f*XicHOLso>-.  Sie  Charles.   Bart..    M.D..  D.C.L.,  E.S.A..  &c., 
The  Grange,  Totteridge,  Herts  (Vice-President). 

XlCHOLSOX,  WlLLIAM. 

tXoemax,  James   Maxship,  M.A.,  Dencombe,    near    Handcross, 
Sussex. 
Nokth,  Alered.   F.E.G.S.,    1,   Hanover   Terrace,  Xotting  Hill, 
W. 

Xoethey,  Eet.  Alered  Edward,  M.A.,  Offley  Vicarage,  Luton. 

Oeeoed,  Joseph,  10,  Gordon  Place,  Campden  Hill,  Kensington,  "W. 
O'Gormax.  Mrs.  Epmoxd.  39.  Wilbury  Eoad.  West  Brighton. 
*Ommaxxey,  Admiral  Sir  Erasmus,   C.B.,  E.E.S.,  The  Towers. 
Yarmouth,  Isle  of  Wight. 

Page.  Rev.  William.  B.A  .  The  Manse,  Upper  Mall.  Hammersmith. 
*Paixe.  William  Dlnklet,  Cockshot  Hill,  Eeigate. 

Paixter,  Eet.   W.  Hlxt,   Knypersley,  near  Congleton. 

Palet,  Eet.  Thomas,  B.D..  Ufford,  Boscombe,  Bournemouth. 

Palmer.  Johx  Lixtox.  Fleet-Surgeon.  E.X.,  F.S.A.,  F.E.C.S.E., 
F.E.G.S..  21,  Eock  Park,  Eock  Ferry,  Birkenhead. 

Papwortii,  Wtatt,  F.B.I.B.A.,  33,  Bloomsbury  Street,  W.C. 

Parrish.  Dillwtx.  Widmore,  Bromley.  Kenr. 

Paul.  Alfred  H..  The  Close.  Tetbury. 

Payxter,  William.  10,  Bute  Crescent,  Cardiff. 

Pease,  Hexry  Fell,  J. P.,  Brinkburn.  Darlington. 
*fPECKOTER,  Alexa  vuer,  F.E.G.S.,  F.L.S.,  Bank  House,  Wisbech. 
*Peceoter  Miss,  Wisbech. 

Pelham  Eet.  Augustus  Thursbv.  Cound  Eectory.  Shiewsbury. 
*Perigal.  Hexrt,  9.  Xorth  Crescent,  Bedford  Square,  W.C. 


List  of  Members.  449 

Peeeam,  Eet.  George  Jubb,  M.A.,  128,  Fellows  Road,  South 

Harapstead,  N.W. 
Peeet,  Eev.  S.  G.  F. 
Peyton,  John  East  Huntee,  F.E.A.S.,    F.G.S.,   108,   Marina, 

St.  Leonards-on-the-Sea. 
Phene,  John  Samuel,  LL.D.,  F.S.A.,  F.E.G.S.,  F.R.I.B.A.,  &c, 

5,  Carlton  Terrace,  Oakley  Street,  S.W. 
Pilchee,  Mrs.  J.  Dendy,  15,  Taviton  Street,  Gordon  Square,  W.C. 
Piltee,  Eev.  William  Turnbtjll,  The  Hamlet  Parsonage,  Ewell, 

Epsom. 
Pim,  John,  Bonaven,  Antrim  Eoad,  Belfast. 
fPiNCHES,  Theophilus  Goldridge,  62,  Newman  Street,  W. 
Pitt-Eiyers,  General,  F.E.S.,  4,  Grosvenor  Gardens,  S.W. 
Plumptre,  Eey.  Edward  Hayes,  D.D.,  The  Deanery,  Wells. 
Pollard,  Joseph,  High  Down,  Hitchin,  Herts. 
Porter,  George  William,  British  Museum,  W.C. 
Poetee,  Eey.  De.  J.  L.,  President,  Queen's  College,  Belfast. 
Peice,  Edwaed  Dayid,  F.G.S.,  Sydney  House  Collegiate  School, 

Hounslow,  W. 
t  Price,  Fredebick  Geoege  Hilton,  F.G.S.,  29,  Weymouth  Street, 

Portland.  Place,  W. 

Eadcliffe,  Eey.  A.  H.  Delme,  Barnwell,  Cambridge. 

Eagg,  Eey.  Frederick  William, M. A.,  Masworth  Vicarage,Tring. 

Banking,  James  Lancaster,  Surgeon-General,  Welford  Lodge, 
Leamington,  Warwickshire. 
*Eansom,  Edwin,  F.E.G.S.,  24,  Ashburnham  Eoad,  Bedford. 

Sanson,  J.  Josselyn,  1,  South  Parade,  Weston-super-Mare. 

Kashleigh,  E.  W.,  Kilmarth,  Par  Station,  Cornwall. 

Eassam,   Hobmuzd,    F.E.G.S.,   Nineveh     House,    Spring   Grove, 
Isleworth. 
fEAWLiNsoN,    Eey.    Canon  George,  M.A.,  D.C.L.,  &c,  Canter- 
bury, Kent  (Vice-President). 
fEAWLiNsoN,    Sir    Henry    C,    K.C.B.,  D.C.L.,  F.E.S.,  F.S.A., 
&c,  21,  Charles  Street,  Berkeley  Square,  W.  (Vice-President). 

Rawnslev,  Eev.,  Habdwicke  D.,  Crosnaithe  Vicarage,  Keswick. 

Beady,  Bobeiit  Cooper,  British  Museum,  W.C. 

Eeed,  Percy  Eobert,  10,  Upper  Hornsey  Eise,  N. 

Reid,  Richard  Kirkintilloch,  Scotland. 

Eendell,  Eey.  Arthur  Med  land,  M.  A.,  Coston  Bectory,  Melton 
Mowbray. 
fRENOUF,    P.    Le    Page,    Grove    Lodge,    Thistle    Grove,    South 
Kensington. 


450  TAst  of  Members. 

Kice,  Mrs.  S.  G.,  Grove  Hill,  Bentham.  near  Lancaster. 
Richards,  Rev.  Thomas,  The  Manse,  Old  Hill,  near  Dudley. 
Richards.    Ret.    Walter,    J.B.,    D.D.,   St.    Charles's    College, 

Notting  Hill,  W. 
Richardson,  Thomas  Field,  Royal  Albert  Dock. 
Roberts,  Rev.  J.  A.  J.,  M.A.,  Chatton  Park,  Belford. 
Robertson,  Rev.  J.  Elphinstone. 

Robertson,  Rev.  W.  B.,  D.D.,  Westfield  House,  West  Calder. 
Robertson,  Rev.  James.  7.  Glasgow  University.  Glasgow. 
Rodwell,    Rev.    Joh>"  Meadows,  ALA.,  Hillside,  Upper  Maze 

Hill,  St.  Leonards-ou-Sea. 
Rogers,  Miss,  17,  Tadema  Road,  Chelsea,  S.W. 
Ross,  Rev.  Alexander,  D.D. 

Rothschild,  The  Baroness  de.  148,  Piccadilly,  S.W. 
Rothwell,  The  Marquis  de,M.A.,  118, Regent's  Park  Road,  X.W. 
Rowbottom,  AVilliam,  201,  Cowley  Road,  Oxford. 
Rowe.    Rev.   AVilliam    King  don,   3.    Streatharu    Place,    Brixton 

Hill.  S.W. 
Rule,  Rev.  Ulric  Z.,  Forton,  Gosport. 
Rule,   Rev.   William   Harris,  D.D.,   10,   Alexander    Terrace. 

Clyde  Road,  Addiscombe,  Croydon. 
Russell.  Francis  A.,  the  School  House,  Craven  Park,  Willesden, 

N.W. 
Rvder,   Rev.    Algernon    Charles    Dudley,   M.A.,   Ickleford 

House,  Hitchin,  Herts. 
Rtlands,    Thomas    Glazebrooe,   F.S  A.,  F.L.S.,  F.R.A.S.,  &c, 

Highfields,  Thelwall,  near  Warrington. 
fRYLANDS,  W.  Harry,  F.S.A.,  M.R.A.S.,  11,  Hart  Street,  Blooms- 
bury,  W.C.  (Secretary). 

St.  Clair,  George,  F.G.S.,  127,  Bristol  Road,  Birmingham. 
Samuel,  George,  29,  Park  Crescent,  Regent's  Park,  N.W. 
Saunderson,  Llewellyn,  10.  De  Yesci  Terrace,  Kingstown ;  and 

Dromkem  House,  Cavan,  Ireland. 
Savile,  Rev.   Bourchier  Wrey,  M  A.,  Rector  of  Shillingford, 

Exeter. 
ISayce.   Rev.    A.    H.,  M.A.,    Queen's    College,   Oxford    (Foreign 

Secretary). 
Scarth,   Rev.   Prebendary   H.  M.,    M.A.,    F.S. A.,    Wrington, 

Somerset. 
Scattergood,  James,  The  Beeches  Road.  West  Broniwich. 
Scott,  Rev.  Archibald,  D.D.,  18,  Regent  Terrace,  Edinburgh. 


List  of  Members.  451 

Seager,  Mrs.  Charles,  2,  Chartham  Terrace,  Ramsgate. 

Seager,  Ret.  John  Osborne,  M.A.,  Stevenage. 

Seebohm,  Frederick,  llitchin. 

Selwyn,  Ret.  Edward  John,  M.A.,  Pluckley  Rectory,   Ashford, 
Kent. 

Sewell,  Ret.    AVilliam   Henry,    lM.A.,  Yaxley  Vicarage,  Eye, 
Suffolk. 

Sharpe,  Ret.  John,  Elmley  Lovett  Rector}',  Droitwich,  Worcester- 
shire. 

Sheppard,  S.  Gurnet. 

Sibbald,  J.  G.  E.,  Accountant-General's  Department,  Admiralty, 
Spring  Gardens,  S.W. 

Siltester,  Mrs. 

Simcox,    George    Augustus,    M.A.,   1,   Douro    Place,    Victoria 
Road,  Kensington,  W. 
*fSiMPSON,  William,  F.R.G.S.,  19,  Church  Road,  Willesden,  N.W. 
(Hon.  Librarian). 

Sitwell,   Lady,    Renishaw   Hall,    Derbyshire ;    and    Woodend, 
Scarborough. 
*Small,  Ret.  George,  M.A.,  Stranger's  Home,  Limehouse,  E. 

Smith,  Basil  Woodd,  Branch  Hill  Lodge,  Hampstead,  N.W. 

Smith,  Mrs.  Eustace,  52,  Prince's  Gate,  S.W. 

Smith,  Joseph,  17,  Chelsham  Road,  Clapham,  S.W. 
tSMiTH,   Vert   Ret.   Dean   R.    Payne,  D.D.,    Deanery,  Canter- 
bury, Kent  (Vice-President). 

Smith,  Ret.  William  Saumaeez,  Principal's  Lodge,  St.  Aidan's 
College,  Birkenhead. 

Sole,  Ret.  S.  Heyden,  Holy  Trinity  Church,  Chipping  JNforton. 

Somertille,  Ret.  James,  E.,  M.A.,  B.D.,  Overtoun,  Dumbarton. 

Spicer,  Ret.  W.  W. 

Spurling,  Ret.  John  Walter,  M.A.,  Crowthorne,  Berks. 

Stenhouse,  Ret.  Thomas,  14,  Lyndhurst  Road,  Harapstead,  N.W. 

Stephenson,  Ret.  E.  H.  C,  30,  Silchester  Road,  JSotting  Hill,  W. 

Stephenson,  Ret.  Henry,  Major,  M.A.,  St.  Peter's  School,  York. 

Stevens,  Rev.  Mablow  Osmond,  M.A.,  Anlaby,  Weston-super- 
Mare. 

Stewart,  Robert,  116,  West  Regent  Street,  Glasgow. 

Stoughton,   Thomas  Wilberfokce,   Lynton   Villa,   Beulah  Hill, 
Upper  Norwood. 

Strassmaier,  Ret.  John  Nep,  36,  Farm  Street,  W. 

Strateord,  Lady  Olitia. 

Streanb,    Ret     Amseslly    William.    Corpus    Christi    College, 
Cambridge. 


452  List  of  Mem 

StuabTj  Henry  Villiers.  M.P..  Dromana,  Cappoquin,  Ireland. 
Stuart,    James    Melliss,    F.E.G.S..   Mansion    House    Chambers, 

Queen  Victoria  Street.  K.C. 
Stuart.  William  Geobge,  Meruien  Hill,  Coventry. 
Swainson,  Eev.  Charles  Anthony,  D.D.,  Cambridge. 
Swete,   Eev.   Henry  Barclay,    MIA.,    D.D.,  Asbdon  Rectory, 

Linton,  Cambridge. 
Swinburne,  Charles  Alfred,  32,  Upper  Hamilton  Terrace,  - 

Jobn's  Wood. 
Symmons,  Mrs.  Eleanor. 

Taylor,   Canon   Isaac,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  M.E.A.S.,   Eectory,  Set- 

trington,  York. 
Thompson,    A.    Dyott,     12.    Pembridge     Villas,     Westbourne 

Grove,  W. 
Thompson,  Eev.  Archer,  M.A.,  Milton  Lodge,  Wells,  Somerset. 
Thompson.  Eev.  Ealph  Percy.  Eanscomb  Villas,  Havant. 
Thorpe,  George.  Nelson  House.  Stoke  Newington  Road,  N. 
Tite,  Lady,  42,  Lowndes  Square,  S. W. 

Tomkins.  Eev.  Henry  George,  Park  Lodge,  Weston-super-Mare. 
Tooke,  Eey.  J.  H.,  M.A..  Monkton  Farleigb,  Wilts. 
*Tremlett,  J.  D.,  M.A.,  care  of  Miss  Gibson,  Olan  Bryn,  Eastnor 

Grove,  Leamington. 
Trevor,  Eey.  George  A..  48,  Queen's  Gardens.  Hyde  Park.  W. 
Tristram,   Eev.   Canon   Henry   Baker,  LL.D.,    F.B.S.,    Tbe 

College,  Durbarn. 
Turner,  Eey.  W.,  5,  St.  Andrew  Square,  Edinburgh. 
Turton,  Lieut.  William  Harry,  E.E.,  F.E.G.s. 
Tylor.  Edward  Burnett,  D.C.L..  F.E.S.,  Tbe  Museum.  Oxford. 
Tvser.    Eev.    Edward    Jarratt.   M.A.,    St.  Saviour's    Vica: 

Hoxton.  N. 

Lrwick.  Eey.  William,  M.a..  49,  Belsize  Park  Gardens,  X.W. 
XTzielli,  Madame.  Hanover  Lodge,  Eegent's  Park,  X.W. 

Vint,  Eev.  E..  B.D.,  Soutbampton. 

Wags,  Eey.  Henry,  M.A.,  King's  College,  Loudon. 

Waldegraye,  Hon.  H.  Xoel. 

Walker.  Eev.  Francis  Augustus.  M.A..  D.D.,  33,  Bassett  Eoad, 

Xotting  Hill.  W. 
Walker,  Eev.  Thomas.  M.A.,  Sleigtb  Vicarage,  Wbitby. 
Walkei:.   Walter  Frederick,  care  of   Dr.   Baber,  "  Braeside," 

Station  Eoad,  Harlesden,  near  Willesden.  N". 


List  of  Members.  453 

Walker,  Thomas,  The  Chestnuts,  Grove  Hill,  Tunbridge  Wells. 
Wallace-  Dunlop,  Miss,  care  of  Miss  Osborn,  10a,  Cunningham 

Place,  St.  John's  Wood. 
Warner,  Rev.  Arthur,  The  Vicarage,  Vincent  Square,  S.W. 
Warner,  Mrs.  Robert  Lee,  Tyberton  Court,  Hereford- 
Warren,     Lieut.-Colonel     Sir     Charles,     K.C.M.G.,     R.E. 

Brompton  Barracks,  Chatham. 
Waugh,  Rev.  Benjamin,  Editor  of  the  "Sunday  Magazine,"  56, 

Ludgate  Hill,  E.C. 
Weeks,  Caleb. 
*  Whitbreab,  S.  Charles,  F.R.S.,  F.R.A.S.,  Southill,  Biggleswade. 
White,  Frederic  A.,  Kinross  House,  Cromwell  Road. 
White,  William  Henry,  8b,  Oxford  and  Cambridge  Mansions, 

Marylebone  Road,  N.W. 
fWHiTEHorsE,  Frederic  Cope,  15,  5th  Avenue,   Brevoort,  New 

York,  U.S.A. 

Whyt&,  E.  Towry,  31,  Lansdowne  Road,  Clapham  Road,  S.W. 

Wilks,  Rev.  Mark,  12,  St.  Bartholomew  Road,  IS". 

Wills,  Howkll,  The  Temple,  E.C. 

Williams,  Miss,  3,  Hillgrove  Road,  South  Hampstead,  N.W. 

Williams,  Rev.  Watkin  H.,  Bodelwyddan  Vicarage,  St.  Asaph. 

Williamson,  Rev.  Alexander,  L.L.P.,  224,  West  George  Street, 

Glasgow. 
Willson,  Rev.  E.  N. 
Wilson,   Sir    Charles    William,    R.E.,    F.R.G.S.,    Ordnance 

Survey  Office,  Phoenix  Park,  Duhlin. 
Wiltshire,  Mrs.  Thomas,  25,  Granville  Park,  Lewisham,  S.E. 
Windle,  Christopher  Henry,  21,  Devonshire  Road,  Hastings. 
Winstone,  Benjamin,  53,  Russell  Square,  W.C. 
Wise,  James  F.  N.,  M.D.,  Rostellan  Castle,  Ireland. 
Wise,  Tuomas  Alexander,  M.D.,   F.R.C.P.E.,  Inchrye  Abbey, 

Newborough,  Fife,  N.B. 
Wonnacott,   Thomas,    F.R.I.B.A.,  Devonshire   House,  Farnham, 

Surrey. 
Woodford,  Rev.  Adolphus  Frederic  Alexander,  M.A.,  25a, 

Norfolk  Crescent,  Hyde  Park,  W. 
Woodhouse,  Coventry  A.,  9,  Pembridge  Crescent,  Bayswater,  W. 
Woodman,  W.,  Stobhill,  Morpeth. 
Woodrooffe,  Miss  Selina  M. 

Wordsworth,  Rev.  J.,  M.A.,  1,  Keble  Terrace,  Oxford. 
Wright,  Prof.  William,  LL.D.,  St    Andrew's,  Station  Road, 

Cambridge, 
f  Wright,  Rev.  William,  D.D.,  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society, 

Queen  Victoria  Street,  E.C. 


4o4  IAst  of  Members, 

FOREIGN"    MEMBERS. 
Autrax.  Eugexe.  Les  Charrnelles,  Geneva. 

Bahler.  Rev.  Louis  Hexri  Axtoixe.  Minister  of  the  Established 

Church,  Groningen,  Holland. 
Bezold.  Dr.  Carl.  31.  Brienner  Strasse,  Munich. 
Bihdle,  Geoboe.  208,  South  Fifth  Street,  Philadelphia,  U.S.A. 
Bixxey,  Rev.  Johx.  Middletown,  Connecticut.  U.S.A. 
Boxghi,  Sigxor  Roger,  Camera  dei  Deputati,  Rome. 
Briggs,   Professor    Charles   A.,   Union   Theological   Seminary, 

New  York  City,  U.S.A. 

Camfbox",  Alexaxder  Mackexzie. 

Campbell.  Professor  Johx,  MA..  Presbyterian  College,  Mon- 
treal ;  19.  Luke  Street,  Montreal,  Canada. 

Chastel,  A.,  4,  Rue  Roquepine,  Paris. 

Crawford,  Major-Gexfral,  Union  Club,  21st  Street,  Fifth 
Avenue.  N"ew  York,  U.S.A. 

Cfrrie.  Johx  Laxg,  Eildon,  Grey  Street,  St.  Kilda,  Victoria, 
Australia. 

Daxy,  Hox.  Charles,  P. .LL.D., SI.  Clinton  Place,  New  York,  U.S.  A. 
Delattre.  Rev.  A.,  Aneieane  Abbaye  de  Tronchiennes  lez  Gand, 

Belgique. 
Delitzsch,  Frifdrich,  Ph.D.,  51,  Xiirnberger  Strasse.  Leipzig. 
Deubxer.  J..  Moscow. 
Dexter.  Orraxdo  Perrt,  50.  West  56th  Street.  New  York  City. 

U.S.A. 
Di  Cesxola,    Gexfral    Lons    Palma,     107,   East   57th   Street, 

N'ew  York.  U.S.A. 
Dickermax.  Rev.  Lysaxder.  D.D.,  Hotel  Eliot,  Boston.  Mass.  U.S.A. 
Dicksox,  Johx,  H.M.'s  Yice-Consul,  Beyriit,  Syria. 
Drisler,  Prof.  Hexrt,  LL.D.,  IS,  "West  Forty-Sixth  Street,  New 

York.  U.S.A. 
Duxlop,  Johx,  M.A..  1003,  Bank  Street,  Richmond,  Ya.,  U.S.A. 
Dutaf,  Rev.  A.,  i.J.,  10,  Boulevard  d'Enfer,  Paris. 

Eastlake,  Fraxe:  AY.,  care  of  Hon.  AY.  F.  Rose,  Post  Office  Box 

4034,  Philadelphia,  U.S.A. 
Lastox,  Rev.  Peter  Z.,  Doma  Schwartz  Colony,  Tifiis,  Russia 


Li. <t  of  Members.  455 

Finlay,  William  Booth,  19,  Rue  Charles  Lafitte,  Neuilly,  Paris. 

Forbes,  Mrs.,  Lokia,  near  Smyrna. 

Fradenburgh,  Rev.  J.  N.,  Ph.D.,  Titusville,  Crauford  co.,  Pa.,  U.S.A. 

Gardiner,  Rev.   Frederic,   D.D.,    Professor   Berkeley  Divinity 

School,  Middletown,  Conn.,  U.S.A. 
Gast,  Prof.  F.  A.,  Lancaster,  Pa.,  U.S.A. 
Gautier,  Dr.  Lucien,  Lausanne,  Switzerland. 
Goertz,  Prof.  C. 

Golenischeff,  W.,  Quai  Anglais  12,  St.  Petersburg. 
Grant-Bet,  Dr.,  The  Sanatorium,  Cairo. 
Grant,  Rev.  W.,  B.D.,  Tullamore,  Ontario,  Canada. 

Hall,  Isaac  H.,  725,  Chestnut  Street,  Philadelphia,  U.S.A. 
Hamilton,   Rev.  S.   M.,  M.A.,  D.D.,   62,   West  11th  Street,  New 

York,  U.S.A. 
Harper,  "W.  R.,  Ph.D.,  Morgan  Park,  near  Chicago,  Illinois,  U.S.A. 
Haupt,  Dr.  Paul,  12,  Friedlander  Weg,  Gottingen. 
Hechler,  Rev.  William  H.,  H.M.  Chaplain  at  Vienna. 
Hitchcock,  Hiram,  U.S.A. 
Hoe,  Robert,  jun. 

Hofmann,  Prof.  Dr.  Carl,  Graz,  Austria. 
Hommell,  Dr.  Fritz,  Konigiustrasse  81,  Miiuich,  Bavaria. 

Jaeger,  Prof.  A.,  Gambier,  Ohio,  U.S.A. 

Jeffers,  Rev.  Prof.  W".  H,  D.D.,  Allegheny,  Penn.,  U.S.A. 

Kieme,  Rev.  Prof.  Gustavus. 

Kirberger,  W7.  H,  Rokin,  134,  Amsterdam. 

Kittredge,  Rev.  J.  E.,  D.D.,  Geneseo,  New  York  State,  U.S.A. 

Lamy,    Thomas    Joseph,    D.D.,   College   Marie   Therese,  Louvain, 

Belgique. 
Lansing,  Dr.  G. 
Lansing,  Rev.  Prof.  John  G.,  Theological  Seminary,  New  Brunswick, 

New  Jersey,  U.S. A. 
Leeming,  Thomas  James,  Charlotte  Town,  Prince  EdAvard's  Island. 
Lemm,  Oscar  Von,  Ph.D.,  AVaissily-Ostrow,  Musee  Asiatique  des 

l'Academie  Imperiale  des  Sciences,  St.  Petersburg. 
Lhotzky,  Heisrich,  Bautznei  Chausee  166,  Dresden. 
Lieblein,  Professor  J.,  Christiauia,  Norway. 


45fi  List  of  Members. 

Lotz,  De.  Willielm,  22,  Bahnhofstrasse,  Ca9sel. 
Lyon.  Dk.  D.  G.,  Lowell  Street,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 

Marshall,  Eey.  J.,  Nunda,  Livingston  co.,  N.T.,  U.S.A. 

McYYhoktee,  Peof.  Alexander. 

Mereill,  Key.  Selah,  D.D.,  United  States  Consul,  Jerusalem, 
Syria. 

Meex,  Adalbeet,  D.D. 

Millingen,  Eey.  Alexander,  M.A.,  Robert  College,  Con- 
stantinople. 

Moody,  J.  D.,  Secretary  of  La  Salle  S.S.  Association,  Mendota, 
Illinois,  U.S.A. 

Moore,  Geo.  A.,  418,  California  Street,  San  Francisco. 

*Mullens,  Josiah,  Eldon  Chambers,  92,  Pitt  Street,  Sydney,  New 
South  Wales. 

Mullee,  De.  D.  Helnrich,  Pbofessoe,  the  University,  Vienna. 

Newman,  Eev.  De.  J.P.,60,  7th  Avenue,  New  York,  U.S.A. 
Nimr,  Faris,  care  of  Rev.  Dr.  Lansing,  American  Mission  House. 
Cairo, 

Oberziner,  De.  L.,  via  S.  Yiglio,  No.  5,  Trent,  Tyrol,  Austria. 
Osgood,  Peof.  Howabd,  Rochester,  New  York,  U.S.A.  (GreYel). 

Paine,  Eey.  J.  A.,  Tarrytown,  New  York,  U;S.A. 

Peet,  Steehen  D.,  Clinton,  Wis.,  U.S;A. 

Peeks,  Samuel,  C.E.,  Larnaca,  Cyprus. 

Peters,  Eey.  John   P.,   Ph.D.,   99th  Street,  10th   Avenue,  New 

York  City,  U.S.A. 
Pierides,  Demetrius,  Larnaca,  Cyprus. 

Praetorius,  Dr.  Frantz,  Kaiserin  Augusta  platz,  5,  Breslau. 
Prasek,  Prof.  Dr.  Justin  V.,  Bohemia.  Kolin. 

Eeed,  Eey.  J.  Sandees. 

Eeed,   Eey.   Henry   Mobton,   M.A.,   111,    North    43rd    Street, 

Philadelphia,  U.S.A. 
Eeichardt.  Rev.  H.  ft,  Chaplain,  Post  Restant,  Tunis,  N.  Africa. 
Reynolds,  W.  D.,  Norfolk,  Virginia,  U.S.A. 
Robinson,  Rey.  Dr.  Stewart,  Louisville,  Kentucky,  U.S.A. 
Rohart,    M.    L'Abbe   C,   M.A.,    9,   Rue    de   Jerusalem,    Arras, 

(Pas-de-Calais). 
Rolland,  Rey.  William  S.,  Cargen  Lodge,  Kensington  Road,  South 

Yarra,  Melbourne. 


ldst  of  Members.  457 

Schott,  Dr.  Weill. 

Shea,  The  Hon.  George,  Chief  Justice  of  the  Marine  Court  of  New 

York,  205,  West  46th  Street,  New  York,  U.S.A. 
Sloane,  Prof.  William,  The  College,    New    Jersey,    Princeton, 

U.S.A. 
Smith,  Mrs.  H.,Directoress,  Syrian  Female  Schools,  Beyrut,  Syria. 
Stevens,  Prof.  Wm.  Arnold,  47,  North  Avenue,  Rochester,  New 

York  State,  U.S.A. 
Stuabt,  Eobert,  Grand  Hotel,  Pallanza,  Lago  Maggiore,  Italy. 
Stuart,  Whitewright,  care  of  Maquay,  Hooker  and  Co.,  Pirenze, 

Italia. 

Taylor,    Trof.    John   Phelps,    Andover  Theological    Seminary, 

Andover,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 
Tiele,  Prof.,  Leyden. 
Trumbull,  Dr.   H.   Clay,    4103,    Walnut   Street,    Philadelphia, 

Pennsylvania,  U.S.A. 

Ward,  Eev.  William  Hayes,  D.D.,  251,  Broadway,  New  York, 

U.S.A. 
Wilkins,  Dr.  C.  A. 

Zeuch,  Johannes,  Spitzenberg  8,  Niirnberg. 

Zimmerman,  P.,  care  of  Dr.  F.  Delitzsch,  54,  Nurnberger-Strasse, 

Leipzig. 
Zimmermann,  Bev.  Prof.  G.  A. 
Zimmern,  Heinrich,  Weisse-Ochsenstrasse  2,  Erlangen. 


458  List  of  Members. 


LIBRARIES. 

John  Hopkins  University  Library,  Baltimore. 

Universitat-Bibliothek  Basle,  Basle. 

Royal  Library,  Berlin. 

Birmingham  Central  Free  Library,  Ratcliffe  Place. 

Christiauia  University  Library. 

Owens  College  Library.  Manchester. 

Sion  College  Library,  London  Wall,  E.C. 

Breslau  Royal  and  University  Library. 

Boston  Athenaeum  Library. 

Gottingen  University  Library. 

Konigsberg  Royal  and  University  Library. 

Marburg  University  Library. 

Ambrosian  Library,  Milan. 

Astor  Library,  New  York,  U.S.A. 

Library  of  the  Parliament  of  Canada,  Ottawa. 

St.  John's  College  Library,  Oxford. 

Theological  Seminary,  Rochester,  U.S.A. 

Library  of  Congress,  Washington. 

Harvard  College  Library. 

Peabody  Institute  Library,  Baltimore. 

Watkinson  Library,  Hartford,  U.S.A. 

Library  Company,  Philadelphia. 

Mercantile  Library,  Philadelphia. 

Manchester  Free  Public  Library. 

Dr.  Williams's  Library,  Grafton  Street  East,  Gower  Street,  W.C. 

The  London  Library,  12,  St.  James's  Square,  S.W. 

University  Library  of  Aberdeen. 

Library  Western  Theological  Seminary,  Allegheny,  Penn.,  U.SA. 

Department  of  Antiquities,  the  National  Museum  of  Hungary, 

Buda  Pesth. 
Theological  Seminary,  Hartford,  Connecticut,  U.S.A. 
Union  Theological  Seminary,  1200,  Park  Avenue,  New  York,  U.S.A. 
The    University  of    St.  Andrew's  (J.   Maitland   Anderson),   St. 

Andrew's,  Scotland. 
L'Universite  Catholique  de  Lille,  56,  Boulevard  Vauban,  Lille. 
The  Alliance  Israelite  Universelle  de  Paris,  35,  Rue  de  Trevise,  Paris . 
The  National  Library  of  Ireland,  Dublin. 
Toronto  Public  Library,  Toronto,  Canada. 


JAst  of  Member*.  459 

Weston-super-Mare,  Church  Institute,  1,  South  Parade,  Weston- 
super-Mare. 
The  Library  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  116,  Queen 

Victoria  Street,  E.C. 
The  Library  of  the  Theological  Institute  of  Connecticut,  Hartford , 

Connecticut,  U.S.A. 
Library  University  of  Toronto  (Allan). 
Tale  College,  New  Haven,  U.S.A.  (Allan). 
The  Divinity  School  of  the  Presbyterian  Episcopal  Church,  39th 

and  Walnut  Streets,  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  U.S.A. 
Newton  Theological  Library,  Newton  Centre,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 
Manchester  Grammar  School  (S.  Dill,  Head  Master). 
Andover  Theological   Seminary  (Rev.  W.   L.  Ropes,  Librarian), 

Audover,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 
Metropolitan  Museum  of   Art,   Central  Park,  5th  Avenue,  82nd 

Street,  New  York,  U.S.A. 
Museum  of  Science  and  Art,  Edinburgh. 
Wells  Theological  College  Library  (Rev.  A.  Covele,  Librarian  \ 

Wells,  Somerset. 


460 


List  of  Members. 


HONORARY  FOREIGN  MEMBERS. 

Berger,  Philippe      Bibliotheque  de  l'lnstitut.  Paris. 

Brugsch-Bet,  Hei>-ri'ch         ..    Charlottenbourg,    near    Berlin, 

Prus.-ia. 

Clermont-Gaxxeau,  Ch 44.  Avenue  Marceau.  Paris. 

De  Horrack.  P.  J 4,  Rue  du  General  Foy,  Paris. 

De  Prangey.  Girault     . .       . .    Langres,  Haute  Marne,  France. 
De  Vogue.  Le  Maequfs  . .      ..2.  Rue  Fabert,  Paris. 

Dolllnger,  Prof The  University.  Munich. 

Dumichen,  Prof.  Johannes    . .    Strasburgh. 

Ebers,  Prof.  George       . .      . .   The  University,  Leipzig. 

Eisenlohr.  Prof.  August       . .    The  University,  Heidelberg. 

Hackett,  Rev.  Dr 

Halevt,  J.  26,  Rue  Aurnaire,  Paris. 

Lanzone,  Professor  R.  V.     . .    Via  St.  Quintino  No.  34,  Turin. 
Lauth,  Prof.  F.  J.  . .      . .    The  University,  Munich. 

Leemans,  Dr.  Conrad      . .      .  .    Musee   d'Antiquites  des    Pars 

Bas,  Ley  den. 

Lefebure,  E 41.  2.  Langier,  Paris. 

Lieblein.  Professor  J Christiania.  Norway. 

Maspero,  Prof.  G.  ..      ..    Musee  d'antiquites  de  Boulaq, 

Cairo. 
Menant,  Joachim.  .  ....   Rouen. 

Naville,  Edouarde  . .      . .    31,  Rue  de   Chanvine,  Courde 

St.  Pierre,  Geneva. 
Oppeet,  Professor  Jules       . .   19,  Rue  Mazarine,  Paris. 

Perrot,  Georges      Rue  d'Ulm  45,  Paris. 

Piehl,  Prof.  Dr.  Karl..      ..    Professeur  agrege  al'Universiie 

d'Upsala,  Sweden. 

Pierret,  Paul Musee  du  Louvre,  Paris. 

Plette.  W.         Musee   du  Pavs   Bas,   Leiden, 

Holland. 
Prideaux,  Lieut. -Col.  W.  F.  . .    Agent    Governor-.General  with 

King  of  Oudh,  Calcutta. 

Reinisch,  Prof The  University,  Vienna. 

Revillout,  Eugene  . .      . .    Musee  du  Louvre,  Paris. 

Safvhf.t  Pasha  Constantinople. 

Schlaperelli,  Ernest       . .       Egyptian  Museum,  Florence,  Italy. 
Schmidt,  Professor  Waldemar  The  University,  Copenhagen. 

Schrader,  Prof.  Eb N.  W.    Kronprinzen  Ul'er  20, 

Berlin. 

Stern,  Ludwig  Konigliches  Museum,  Berlin. 

Whitney,  W.  D Yale  College,  U.S.A. 

Wiedemann,  Dr.  A Poppelsdorfer  Allee  23.  Bonn. 

Germany. 
Wing.  Jckg         ,    Unted  Slates. 


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