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I
(fi
DECEMBER, 1913
TRANSACTIONS
The American Society of
Agricultural Engineers
WITH BUSINESS RECORDS
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY
MADISON, WISCONSIN
1913
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THE
STATE JOURNAL PRINTING CO.
MADISON, WIS
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GENERAL BOOKBINDING CO.
72 S23BA A 30 5 4*1-4035
QUAUTY CONTROL MARK
CONTENTS.
Page
List of Officers, 1914 5
List of Committees, 1914 5
William A. Cavanaugh — Obituary 8
Address of Welcome — Mr. Dillon, E. A. Gore 11
Response — P. S. Rose 15
President's Annual Address — L. W. Chase 17
Report of the First Annual Fanning Mill Competition — C. F. Chase - 25
Discussion— P. S. Rose, L. W. Chase, J. A. King, Mr. Miller,
John Bowditch 39
Methods and Benefits of Grading and Cleaning Grain— H. E. Horton 41
Discussion — H. C. Ramsower, C. F. Chase, L. W. Chase, J. B.
Davidson 60
Farm Sanitation with Special Reference to Water Supply and
Sewage Disposal— Paul Hansen 62
Discussion— L. W. Chase, M. L. King, C. F. Chase, J. A. King. . 96
The Design of Permanent Farm Buildings — E. S. Fowler 106
Discussion — John Bowditch, Mr. Chase, Mr. Foord, J. B. David-
son 118
Standardization of Farm Wagons — Ed. E. Parsonage 120
Discussion — E. W. McCullough, J. A. King, L. W. Chase, P. T.
Libberton 131
Concrete in Drainage and Irrigation — P. T. Libberton 135
Discussion— T. H. Harris, J. A. King, H. C. Ramsower, C. F.
Chase 146
Small Motor Applications for Farm Work— Carl J. Rohrer 151
Discussion — L. F. Seaton, P. A. Bates, Eugene Hunt, J. G.
Learned 177
The Five Winnipeg Motor Contests and Lessons to be Drawn From
Them — P. S. Rose 191
Score Card for Tractor Contest 196
Suggestions Concerning a Motor Contest — W. J. Allen 198
Discussion— H. W. Riley, L. W. Ellis, L. W. Chase 201
Extension Work in Agricultural Engineering in Wisconsin — Frank
M. White 206
Discussion — L. W. Mowry, J. E. Waggoner, Fred H. Rankin... 214
Laboratory Efficiency — J. B. Davidson 220
Discussion— Wm. N. Nye, H. B. Bonebright, C. O. Reed 227
Practical Stream Measurement — D. P. Weeks 236
Business Meeting and Reports of Committees 241
Secretary's Report 264
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Officers and Committees
THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OP AGRICULTURAL
ENGINEERS.
OFFICERS, 1914.
President, W. F. MacGregor, Racine, Wis.
1st Vice President, J. L. Mowry, St. Paul, Minn.
2nd Vice President, W. J. Brandon, Peoria, Ills.
Chairman of Council, A R. Greig, Saskatoon, Canada.
Secretary and Treasurer, F. M. White, Madison, Wis.
(Address all correspondence to the secretary.)
COUNCIL, 1914.
A. R. Greig (Chairman), Saskatoon, Canada.
J. B. Davidson, Iowa State College, Ames, la.
H. W. Riley, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
H. H. Musselman, Michigan Agricultural College, E. Lansing, Mich.
Li. W. Chase, Lincoln, Net).
STANDING COMMITTEES, 1914.
On Research.
M. L. King (Chairman), Bradley Mfg. Co., Bradley, Ills.
Daniel Scoates, Agricultural College, Miss.
John Pugh, J. I. Case Machinery Co., Racine, Wis.
On Standards.
J. B. Davidson (Chairman), Iowa State College, Ames, la.
J. A. King, Charles City, la.
P. E. Holt, Stockton, Cal.
On Drainage.
J. L. Mowry (Chairman), St. Paul, Minn.
M. E. Jahr, Urbana, Ills.
J. B. Frisbee, Ft. Collins, Colo.
On Irrigation.
H. B. Bonebright (Chairman), Bozeman, Mont.
F. L. Peterson, Reno, Nev.
E. M. Chandler, Burbank, Wash.
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American Society of Agricultural Engineers
On Farm Structures.
E. S. Fowler (Chairman), Chicago, Ills.
H. H. Musselman, E. Lansing, Mich.
E. Y. Cable, Cedar Falls la.
On Farm Power.
C. K. Shedd (Chairman), Ames, la.
L. R. Seaton, Lincoln, Neb.
E. P. Edwards, Schenectady, N. Y.
On Farm Power Machinery.
W. J. Brandon (Chairman), Peoria, Ills.
C. P. Holt, San Francisco, Cal.
F. N. G. Kranich, Newton, la.
On Farm Buildings Equipment.
A. J. R. Curtis (Chairman), Chicago, Ills.
John Bowditch, Jr., Detroit, Mich.
L. C. Hart, Athens, Ga.
On Roads and Highways.
C. W. Boynton (Chairman), Chicago, Ills.
J. T. Stewart, St. Paul, Minn.
E. A. White, Urbana, Ills.
On Farm Field Machinery and Equipment.
H. J. Podlesak (Chairman), Chicago, Ills.
C. O. Reed, Urbana, Ills.
C. F. Chase, Fargo, N. Dak.
On Manufacture op Agricultural Products.
F. S. Harris (Chairman), Logan, Utah.
Wm. Boss, St. Paul, Minn.
E. W. Hamilton, Moscow, Idaho.
SPECIAL COMMITTEES, 1914.
Motor Contest (For Tractor and Stationary Gas Engine Contest).
L. W. Chpse ( Chairman), Lincoln, Neb.
J. B. David son, Ames, la.
A. R. Greig, Saskatoon, Canada.
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Officers and Committees
On Grain Cleaning Contest.
0. P. Chase (Chairman), Fargo, N. Dak.
1. W. Dickerson, Urbana, Ills.
H. C. Ramsower, Columbus, O.
On Relations With Gas Tbades Ass'n.
P. S. Rose (Chairman), Madison, Wis.
J. E. Waggoner, Chicago, Ills.
H. R. Brate, Lakemont, N. Y.
On Emblems and Conventional Skins.
L». W. Chase (Chairman), Lincoln, Neb.
M. L. King, Bradley, Ills.
L. W. Ellis, Stockton, Cal.
Ox Publicity.
L. W. Ellis (Chairman), Stockton, Cal.
Raymond Olney, Springfield, Ohio.
R. A. Graham, Washington, Ind.
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WILLIAM A. CAVANAUGH.
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WILLIAM A. CAVANAUGH.
Our friend and associate, William A. Cavanaugh, died April
21, 1913, after a somewhat extended period of ill health, marked
by intervals of improvement, approaching recovery, only to be
followed by a sudden relapse. Although for some time he fully
realized his condition and knew the end was not far distant, he
displayed the fortitude, patience, and mental equilibrium which ,
were among the characteristics that charmed his acquaintances
during his entire life.
Mr. Cavanaugh commenced his career in the implement busi-
ness in 1883 with the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company
as an expert operator soon after the introduction of twine bind-
ers.. In the early days and during the development of this ma-
chine, manufacturers found some difficulty in securing the serv-
ices of expert field operators. Mr. Cavanaugh, who was then a
young man with natural mechanical tendencies, became a partic-
ularly effective field man and was sent East and South to follow
the harvest into the Northwest. He rendered such efficient serv-
ice that he attracted the attention of managers and was rapidly
promoted until he became a general agent. While occupying
this important position he still continued to give his personal
attention to field work, and his knowledge and success resulted in
his being called into Chicago to take an active part in the im-
provement and development of the different machines. For years
he has been connected with the experimental department and was
assistant manager at the time of his death. To his painstaking
efforts and to his determination to give at all times a fair hearing
to every invention which was presented for consideration must be
attributed much of the success which our machines have achieved.
Mr. Cavanaugh was elected a member of the American Society
of Agricultural Engineers in December, 1910, and because of ill
health, resigned January, 1913. During this time, he took an
active part in the affairs of the society and his work added greatly
to its success. He was always interested in the problems of the
agricultural engineers and his advice and counsel helped in their
solution.
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10 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
The writer of these lines has known and has been closely asso-
ciated with Mr. Cavanaugh during the thirty years of his con-
nection with the implement trade. This acquaintance has ex-
tended to his family, and it is a pleasure to state that during that
period he was never known to lose his temper or to act or speak
in a hasty or unguarded manner. Although possessed of high
spirit, sensitive to a marked degree, he possessed a self-control
and a mental poise which were truly remarkable. He was always
considerate of his friends and acquaintances and was a most con-
scientious man in all his transactions and associations. His fam-
ily life was perfect. No man could be a more considerate or
affectionate husband and father, and no member of this large
business family will be more missed or more kindly remembered.
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The American
Society of Agricultural Engineers
ADDRESS OF WELCOME.
By Mb. Dillon.*
Upon a very short notice I hardly suppose that you would
expect anything from me in the line of a speech. If I had had
a longer notice I could hardly have given you much of a speech,
because I am not acquainted with you and I have no special
knowledge of the business of your Society of Agricultural En-
gineers, nor have I any special knowledge of the special objects
of this convention. I, myself, belong to a profession about the
utility of which there is the widest possible difference of opinion.
Some people claim that it is the noblest of all professions, others
say that it does a great deal more mischief than good — it is the
profession of the law.
Now I do not think anyone could doubt that your profession
is a great one, at all events that it is an eminently useful one.
In a great country such as this there is no calling that I consider
of more utility to the public than the great profession of engi-
neering in all of its branches.
Now, gentlemen, without saying anything more, in behalf of
the Mayor, I bid you a most hearty welcome to the City of Chi-
cago and thank you on his behalf for selecting our city as the
place in which to hold your convention. It is a good thing for
us in Chicago to have these conventions held here. We learn a
good deal of what you do from the reports in the papers, and you
also learn something by coming here in seeing this city of ours.
On behalf of the Mayor I thank you most sincerely for having
selected Chicago as the place of your convention and bid you a
hearty welcome. I hope that your deliberations may be attended
with all pcssiible success.
♦Assistant Corporation Council for city of Chicago.
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12 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
ADDRESS OP WELCOME.
By Mr. Edward A. Gore.*
The organization which I represent is the Association of Com-
merce of Chicago. As its name implies, it gathers into its mem-
bership all of the interests of the city which are believed to be
promoting the extension of its commerce. It is truly the repre-
sentative business organization of Chicago. I can conceive of
no organization which Chicago would welcome more heartily
than one devoted to the advancement of agricultural science.
Chicago owes a debt to agriculture which it owes to no other
industry. Agriculture has built this big city. At the time of
its location, it was the most convenient place on the water 's edge
from which to ship grain to the consumers of the East and across
the ocean, and it was because of that location that the grain of
the West and of the Mississippi Valley has gone towards Chicago
and found here a market and a transfer point. The same is true
of livestock and of all the various products of agriculture. This
has been the great world-market, the great center from which
could be drawn the fund that the farmer needs in exchange for
the grain that he has produced. Chicago has built herself up on
that trade, and while her industries have extended in many other
directions, while she is interested in perhaps every line of manu-
facture that is to be found on the face of the earth, she still finds
her greatest interest in agriculture ; she finds her most profitable
business predicated upon the success of agricultural pursuits.
It is not alone Chicago, however, that is interested in the exten-
sion of agriculture and deeply interested in the science to which
you gentlemen are giving your attention, the United States has
come to a very important point in its progress; it has come to
the point where it is a question if the agricultural production is
sufficient to take care of the needs of the population. For many
years, in fact, until within a very few years, there was no such
question. We had a surplus to sell abroad. I well remember
how when I first was old enough to vote and went through a
political campaign in which tariff was the question, that an argu-
* Chicago Association of Commerce.
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Address of Welcome 13
ment universally made to the farmer by the tariff advocates was
that the tariff cannot possibly do you any good because the price
of wheat that you have to sell is fixed in Liverpool ; the tariff
has not a thing to do with it.
Times have changed since then. So long as we are not selling
any wheat abroad Liverpool is not fixing our price. The fact is
that the United States has made a very great advance in indus-
try. Our population, which used to be 73 per cent agricultural
is now only 53 per cent agricultural. The difference in propor-
tion has gone into the industries and into commerce that sur-
rounds and is connected with the industries, which are called
manufactures ; so that the proportion of producers has fallen and
the proportion of consumers has risen and the result is the high
cost of living. That is not the only cause, but it is one of the
principal causes. Now I can conceive of nothing that will do
more good to the United States, in view of that condition, than
the encouragement of more scientific agriculture ; teaching of the
agricultural community how to make an acre of land produce
more than it has produced before, and how to bring about the
extension of agriculture in countries that have never been
brought under the plow. It is a very serious question. There
is only one relief other than extension of agricultural produc-
tion, and that is relief in the extension of foreign trade, by look-
ing to Argentine to furnish us with grain and meat in exchange
for our manufacturies. I think we will have to come to that
eventually. Anyhow we are going to come to that if we make any
progress as an industrial nation, and in order to make the sell-
ing of our goods profitable we have to be in a position to buy
something from the other fellow. It takes two to make a trade.
It would be unprofitable to make a shipload of agricultural im-
plements to sell abroad and bring nothing back. It is a two-
sided proposition, and if we are going to prosper and extend our
industries, it is important to take in exchange something that the
other fellow has for sale.
It would be immensely better if we could keep a balance be-
tween the manufactured article produced, and the consumer of
those manufactured articles; keep that in balance or almost
equal with the production of the agricultural elements of our
population. We would be then in an ideal condition of pros-
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14 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
perity and one that must always make for prosperity. When
those proportions get out of line we come to the point of over-
production of agricultural products with the resultant poor
market and complaint among the farmers, or an under-produc-
tion and a complaint of the high cost of living. I did not intend
to go into a dissertation upon this proposition, but it is a very
interesting condition and one that has appealed to me. I have
seen it appear in so many different forms and prove itself so
many different ways that I could not avoid a reference to it,
particularly as I wanted to show why the Association of Com-
merce, which I have the honor to represent, was interested and
wanted to be here to welcome this particular organization.
We are especially glad to have this association in Chicago.
We believe that Chicago affords the most convenient meeting
place in America for almost any kind of a convention, unless it
be a convention of cotton growers, but this particular organiza-
tion, representing as it does, men who have given a profession
their profound study, who are bent upon discovery, if that be
possible, bent upon improving in various directions, coming to-
gether for the exchange of ideas, is an event of real interest, an
event of moment to the city of Chicago and to its commercial
interests.
Chicago is the one city of the United States which is able to
welcome pretty nearly everybody in his own tongue. I think
you will find as many former agriculturists in Chicago as you
will find anywhere on the face of the earth. We have people
here, you know, from everywhere. It is the most cosmopolitan
population found on the face of the earth. We can introduce
to you a representative of practically every race on the globe,
and we can introduce to you a native of every organized coun-
try on the globe, and in many cases many more of those citizens
than we want. We have people from every state in the United
States.
If there is anything in Chicago that you want and do not
know of any other way to get it just ask the Association of Com-
merce and they will try to break the lock if necessary. In
fact, we will go to almost any length that you want to jro, bo that
when you go away, if you must go away, you will feel that you
have had a good time and you will be glad that you came to
Chicago.
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Response to Address of Welcome 15
RESPONSE TO ADDRESS OF WELCOME.
By Mr. P. S. Rose.*
Mr. Chairman, and members of the society, as a rule an ad-
dress of welcome is merely a formality and the response is also
a formality. It is like saying "good morning/ ' or "how do you
do." It really does not mean a great deal, but they are those
little matters of courtesy which help to lubricate society and
make it fell better all around. We like to be formally welcomed.
We like to be told that we are important — that we have a place
in the general scheme of things, and that our work is useful;
and likewise our hosts like to know that their welcome is ap-
preciated and the nice things they say are taken to heart and
that we really feel welcome and appreciate what they have
given us.
This society is a serious society. It has a serious object. Some
of you, perhaps, in the beginning, may have wondered just what
the object of it was, but as we go on its line of activity becomes
clearer. You begin to appreciate more fully just what its lim-
itations are, and just what its mission is. It has a big work to
do, and it has an exact place in the scheme of agriculture in this
country, with its dwindling agricultural population and its fall-
ing-off in agricultural products. It is absolutely essential that
the mechanical side of agriculture be brought up and produc-
tion increased by mechanical means. That is one mission of this
society, and the other is that farm homes should be made more
liveable and that rural life be made more comfortable and bet-
ter through all of the new things that we have learned in me-
chanical science.
These are the things that you, as teachers, must promulgate.
These are the things that you as manufacturers must bear in
mind, to bring about honest goods, which will meet the demands
of the agricultural people. The work of the society in spread-
ing this information has only just begun. Under the County
Agent system it will be necessary for every county agent to know
the mechanics of agriculture as well as the art of agriculture. It
will be necessary for you to be able to teach men the scientific
* Editor Gas Review and American Thresherman, Madison, Wis.
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16 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
side of agriculture, to make them efficient. I am looking to the
time when the county agent system will be so well established
and so widespread that it will be necessary to have an agricul-
tural engineer in each county to help direct the farmers of that
county. They will require a lot of engineers, and it is up to us
to provide men to see that they are properly instructed to go
out and do their work faithfully and well.
We are very glad to.be in Chicago. It is the center of the
agriculture of America, and I have always considered that it
should be the home of the American Society of Agricultural En-
gineers. I believe in having an institution like this anchored
somewhere rather than rolling about over the country, and I
would like to see it stationed here. More people can come to
Chicago in a day's ride than to any other city in the country. It
is a big town ; it is an agricultural town, and it is a good place
for a convention.
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President's Annual Address 17
PRESIDENT'S ANNUAL ADDRESS.
By Li. W. Chase.*
Why is there a president's address? What is it for, why
should a president be compelled to deliver it and why should an
assembly be required to sit through one ? I will not say listen to
one, for who listens ? What member of an Organization attends
the president's address except out of courtesy to the president
and not because he expects to gather information ?
Insomuch as a president's address is a formality which we
must go through in order to get our machinery working, I will
abbreviate the customary annual report of the society's activi-
ties by saying that during the past year, our Organization has in-
creased its membership thirty-nine per cent., that the size of its
proceedings has increased, approximately fifteen per cent., that
it has handled the technical part of a motor contest, and a
grain cleaning contest, with all scoring and decisions made pub-
lic ; and that in addition to the many minor affairs which the sec-
retary must look after, the society is showing a permanent,
steady growth.
I might take more of your time and call your attention to the
excellent work which has been accomplished by our secretary,
but instead I will discuss with you what the society is, what it
stands for, and where its field of usefulness lies.
The largest part of our members are from the central United
States, a few from the East, a few from the South, many from
the West and some from the far East and some from the far
West. As to professions, although, naturally, all are in sym-
pathy with Agricultural Engineering, there are nearly as many
represented as there are states represented — farmers, profes-
sors, engineers, salesmen, authors, managers, extension men, and
others.
I have wondered why all these men are paying their ten dol-
lars a year and coming to these meetings? If I say that this
society stands for honest effort, the betterment of its fellowship,
the gathering and dispensing of engineering information, as it
•Professor of Agricultural Engineering University of Nebraska.
2
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18 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
pertains to agriculture, aiding manufacture, aiding and protect-
ing the farmer and the rural community, encouraging the prac-
tice of engineering accuracy, wouldn't I, at least, in part an-
swer the question? One of the chief reasons for our coming to
this convention is the chance to get acquainted with each other,
and acquire more enthusiasm for our work, which results from
friendly discussions and a comparison of experiences.
Those engineers who are in educational work should never fail
to be present; this is essential with heads of departments, more
essential with young instructors and most essential with senior
students and assistants.
Taking a personal illustration: How would I have known B.
B. Clark, P. S. Rose and H. W. Riley if I hadn't met them at the
Madison meeting? Would I have ever become acquainted with
W. P. MacGregor and J. B. Bartholomew if I hadn't met them
at Urbana ? When would I have become acquainted with L. W.
Ellis if I had not been at the Ames meeting ; and when would I
have ever met John T. Stewart if I hadn't been at the St. Paul
meeting? Then, to cap the climax, last winter, I met Mr. Hig-
gins, Professor Hirshfield, George Seaman, Mr. Greer, Mr.
Boynton, and many others.
But what of all these acquaintances? We are all connected
in a varying degree with the same line of work and it is to be
hoped that we are all making more or less of a success in this work.
It is highly important that all of us take advantage of every op-
portunity to be of more service to ourselves, our fellow workers
and constituents. We can gather more information in three
days at one of these meetings than in six months by staying at
home.
Since I know Professor Rose, I read each editorial of his paper
with a keen interest and feel that when he criticises educational
efforts, the criticism is made, not merely to fill newspaper space,
but for the best of us all, and I immediately take notice and
endeavor to improve my methods.
Since knowing Mr. Bartholomew, I can see in every machine
which comes from his factory that heavy, massive effect, which is
characteristic of his line of goods.
When the J. I. Case T. M. Co. comes out with a new machine,
I immediately look for fineness of design and engineering econo-
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President's Annual Address 19
my> typical of a canny Scotchman, resulting in a machine which
will serve its purpose and contain the least material.
I might say that whenever a change comes in the output of
the Rumely Co., I see Mr. Higgins' characteristics; and when I
see H. W. Riley '& name attached to an article or a letter, I com-
mence to look for something worth while from the reading of
which I will gain great good.
I might continue to enumerate many other educational ad-
vantages which I have gained at these meetings, such as a visit
to the Harvester Works, the Minneapolis Steel and Machinery
Co.'s Works, the Universal Portland Cement Co.'s Factory, the
Illinois Steel Works, etc., but, instead, I will explain briefly
some of the things which the society stands for.
To me, it stands for honesty, regardless of politics, of finan-
cial gain, of temporary influence and of personal considerations.
This society should be honest with the manufacturer, with the
dealer, with itself and, above all, with the farmer.
Some of you may be wondering how an engineering society can
be otherwise than honest with the manufacturer. It is composed
of practical engineers and instructors. The latter element of
the organization has an opportunity to do experimental work;
they can determine definitely what type, or for that matter, what
single machine is the best for its particular purpose ; then by re-
porting results through these meetings, the information goes
back to the engineers for the manufacturers, and they, in turn,
should make the most of it. We can be dishojiest to the manu-.
facturer, first, by failing to investigate, and, second, by neglect-
ing to report our results.
As an illustration, the department of Agricultural Engineer-
ing at Nebraska started some corn planter investigations a few
years ago. My Dean told me that we would get into trouble with
the manufacturers; Dr. True at Washington warned us; but
we had enough faith in the integrity of the manufacturers of corn
planters to see the game through, and so we took up the work.
We published the first results in a small folder and in the Di-
rector's report. The folders were sent to the manufacturers only.
The continued results of our work were reported at this meeting
last winter. An objection, as you all know, was made to the re-
sults. We invited the company that made the criticism to send a
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20 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
representative to inspect our work, and suggest changes whereby
better results could be obtained.
The man came; he could find no errors and he could suggest
no changes. But did he come back at us shouting that he had
not changed that planter in two years, that it was good enough
for him and that it should be for anybody else? Or did he
charge coercion, or that some big company owned us, and en-
deavor to create enough noise to cover up the defeat of his
planter in the test ? He was too big a man for such methods. In
about three weeks, he wrote back to us, wanting some of the
corn so he could make a planter which would drop it and drop
it accurately.
I will leave it to you if we were not honest with ourselves in
the matter, and if we were not honest with the manufacturer.
If we had destroyed the results of the test because they were not
beneficial to this planter, the company would have considered
us a joke. I believe that now they have faith in us and our
work ; and I know that we admire their methods.
This is only one of the many illustrations we can give to show
how we can be honest or dishonest to the manufacturer, but how
should we be honest with the farmer ? We are not a detective as-
sociation ; we are not a publicity bureau ; but we are an engineer-
ing association. "We certainly should not spy around in order to
find grounds for finding fault with some contractor's work or
the output of some manufacturer, and then, through our oppor-
tunity to use the press, publish it everywhere. But we can
gather honest data relative to engineering subjects and upon re-
quest pass the knowledge thus gained on to the farmer. We can
discourage unreliable methods of promoting sales and encourage
reliable ones.
Another illustration is necessary here to make clear what I
have in mind. For several years there has been a motor con-
test at Winnipeg. Unfortunately, it seems to have been located
in the wrong territory. This does not matter, however, for the
data which has come from this contest has been authentic — prob-
ably the greatest amount of comparative data that has ever been
assembled. The contest itself was demonstrative of what could
be done in power farming. Such contests should be encouraged
by us as the data gathered there is reliable.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
President's Annual Address 21
Several newspaper syndicates are inaugurating demonstra-
tions of power farming in order to assist their advertising de-
partments. These demonstrations are, no doubt, beneficial and
educational, if properly handled, but when put on by corpora-
tions which are absolutely non-technical, they operate much as
a big revival and get the farmers worked up to buy tractors,
without furnishing him any aid in selecting his machine ; and, in
fact, they leave his mind much more confused than if there had
been no demonstrations.
Such demonstrations have been put on without rules or regu-
lations. If all companies had strictly honest men representing
them, there might be no such need. As it is, some companies
burn kerosene in their engines, but get no credit for it, for other
companies burn gasoline and tell the farmers that they are burn-
ing kerosene and then point out how much more smoothly their
engines run on kerosene than those of their competitors.
I will give another illustration of how we can be honest to the
manufacturer and to the farmer by discouraging dishonest ad-
vertisements. Newspapermen are put under considerable strain
in handling advertising. They cannot scan every detail which
their columns contain. A falsehood, however, is a falsehood, no
matter whether spoken or implied. The following advertisement
has caused me to write three or four letters, explaining that the
Fremont Demonstration was not a contest and that awards were
not made and that prizes were not offered.
BLANK WINS
Four Cylinder 35 H. P.
BLANK TRACTOR in the field trials at the Fre-
mont, Nebr., Tractor Meet, Sept. 13th. The "Blank"
carried off the honors from 39 competitors. ITS LOW
PRICE, COMPACTNESS, LIGHT WEIGHT, DURA-
BILITY, FOUR CYLINDERS, BALLBEARINGS,
ENCLOSED PARTS AND INEXPENSIVE POWER
earned the popular verdict. Backed by " Blank's' ' 30
years reputation ; FIVE YEARS ahead of competition.
The most efficient tractor made. It proved that any
farmer could
SAVE, $1,000.00.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
22 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
How many farmers are there in the United States who have
read this advertisement and know nothing of the Fremont Dem-
onstration; who read only the implied meaning and not the ex-
act wording f
Now, the next point that suggests itself is how we may be of
benefit to ourselves.
Agricultural Engineering is not only becoming an established
profession but is such at the present time. The central and mid-
dle-eastern states are slow in regard to admitting this, but west
of the Rocky Mountains there are many men who have pro-
claimed their business as professional or consulting Agricultural
Engineers. Even the far East is in advance of us, for they al-
ready have their professional Agricultural Engineers, as shown
by this card :
V. R. Deshmukh, Agricultural Engineer, Shujaulpur, India.
Represents The Central India Agricultural and Engineering
Association.
Some of our great institutions see the field for Agricultural
Engineering, but are conservative about advocating it, the claim
being made that the mechanical, civil and electrical fields al-
ready cover it. These groups of engineering have been in exis-
tence from fifty to two hundred years, and what have they done
towards advancing the agricultural side of engineering ? Up to
within the last ten years, they have simply ignored it. I believe
that I am safe in hazarding the opinion that ten years ago you
could count on the fingers of one hand all the technically trained
engineers who were designing agricultural implements of any
kind. Now, look at the array of talent in such positions.
Since Agricultural Engineering is receiving such an impetus,
the other engineering departments are arousing to the needs of
the work, and it is hard to find one of those groups which is not
giving some attention to the work. The mechanicals are taking
up farm motors ; the electricals are taking up electricity on the
farm; the civils are beginning to push rural architecture. If
there isn't a field for Agricultural Engineers, why are all of
the older engineering groups endeavoring to get in on the work,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
President's Annual Address 23
and is their way of getting in of the most value to the public Y
An electrical engineer can design an electrical plant, but does
that mean that he can build highways, drain lands, plan farms
and farmsteads or manage great farms? It surely does not.
Isn't it far better to have trained men for this work and have
them trained so that one man can do the work of four in pre-
ference to having to employ four different men?
If we are honest to ourselves and to the public, we shall push
the necessity of developing Agricultural Engineering courses
and Agricultural Engineering groups, and thereby handle this
phase of Engineering in the most efficient manner.
Today the automobile is largely standardized, although it is
a new business, but the wagon business is far from being stan-
dardized though it is a far older business. Cultivator shovels,
cultivator wheels, axles, shanks and beams can be standardized;
likewise, manure spreader aprons, rake teeth, rake wheels, etc.
We have on our program a man who is working on the stan-
dardization of wagon wheels, and we can be of service to the wa-
gon manufacturer if our next president extends an invitation to
him to become advisor to a committee that will work in connec-
tion with him and get his efforts on record.
There is another important field for us, as a society, to look
into, that is, extension work. But in handling this, we must be
careful that the work stops with extension and does not intrude
into the professional field. It is our duty to get people interested
in a project or in projects, but we should leave it to the profes-
sional engineer to handle the project. Those of us who are in-
structors are apt to be carried off our feet by the publicity of
an enterprise and because the institutions we are working for
have the funds, and go out and do work for a farmer cheaper
than a contractor will do it. In such a case, we are interfering
with lawful business for temporary gain. It should be our duty
to interest the farmer ; then let the professional man do the rest
until he abuses his privilege ; then we can expose him. There is
a field for an extension department in our society, and I believe
we would do well to start on such a course.
Another field is the experimental field. This field has never
been attempted by the older engineering societies, but why need
we wait for them to set the example ? Cannot we start an ex-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
24: American Society of Agricultural Engineers
perimental department where points of vital interest can be
studied and the data gathered can be offered to all ?
As instructors, our time and money is required for instruc-
tional purposes, hence it will be years before we alone can fur-
nish to the farmer and manufacturer the service we should, but
if this society could form and carry on an experimental depart-
ment, many problems could be solved at a much earlier date than
through the present general system.
In closing, I wish to give all credit for the activities of the
society during the past year to our Secretary. He has been the
mainspring of the clock and I have been the hand which indi-
cates his bidding. I am sorry to see him drop the duties of his
office, but since he must do so, our nominating committee has
acted wisely in presenting to you the name of another man who
is noted for doing things; and with the proposed candidate for
president at the helm, there will be a team which will accom-
plish wonders.
Now since the manufacturing end of the Agricultural Engi-
neering profession is represented in the seat of honor, I ask that
you professional engineers get behind the Organization and
show us instructors how "big things" are carried on.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
First Annual Fanning 3! ill Competition 25
REPORT OF THE FIRST ANNUAL FANNING MILL
COMPETITION.
By C. F. Chase.*
The first Grain Cleaner Competition, of consequence, was held
at "Winnipeg, Manitoba, July 10th-13th, 1913 under the auspices
of the Canadian Industrial Exhibition Association and in con-
nection with the Winnipeg Motor contests.
The idea was originated by Mr. Geo. H. Greig, a board mem-
ber of the Exhibition Association. Professor L. W. Chase of Ne-
braska University, the engineer in charge of the Motor Compe-
tition, was given supervision of the contest. The speaker had
direct charge. The expense ran close to $1000.00.
A committee consisting of members of the A. S. A. E. was ap-
pointed to draw up a classification and rules to govern a grain
cleaner competition. The Canadian Industrial Exhibition As-
sociation accepted the work of this committee, with some unim-
portant changes, as regulations governing their contest.
The value of this competition was purely educational in char-
acter, enabling the promoters to evolve system and order for
future contests. There were j.ust enough entries to show up the
weak points in the present system, however, had the manufac-
turing companies known the character of the contest before-
hand there would have been a larger entry list.
I have chosen to give the main divisions of the regulations
governing the contest separately and with each part the changes
that are recommended.
Classification
Division 1.
"Hand Cleaners — % H. P. and Less.
Class A — Wheat Cleaners.
Class B — Oat Cleaners.
Class C — Barley Cleaners.
Class D — Flax Cleaners.
Class E — General purpose Cleaners.
♦Assistant Professor of Agricultural Engineering North Dakota
Agricultural College.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
26 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Division 2.
Class A — Wheat Cleaners.
Class B — Oat Cleaners.
Class C — Barley Cleaners.
Class D — Flax Cleaners.
Class E — General purpose Cleaners.' '
Our experience indicates that the two divisions, as outlined,
were a mistake inasmuch as any person can easily determine
whether or not a cleaner is a hand cleaner and many, in fact all,
hand cleaners can be and are at times operated by mechanical
power. The power consumed by the mills, also will show this to
be true.
With ample equipment two divisions, as follow, would be ad-
visable.
Division 1. Seed Grain Cleaners and graders.
Division 2. Market Grain Cleaners and graders.
Certain machines are designed for capacity, suitable for
market grain, primarily, while others can be used as either ca-
pacity or quality mills, and still others may be designed for
quality only. It is readily seen how difficult it would be to make
a fair rating between machines of the former and latter types.
Where equipment is limited experience indicates that there
should be but one division ; i. e. either one of the above as desired.
The classes A, B, C, D and E seems suitable. It might be nec-
essary to change slightly for some localities, as flax is not im-
portant in all localities while clover, alfalfa or other grass seeds
are.
Conditions and Entries.
Conditions.
"1. All entries must be in the allotted space by 9 A. M. Mon-
day, July 7th.
2. Extra sieves, screens and parts should be housed in a con-
venient rack or case furnished by the manufacturer.
3. All machines must elevate the cleaned grain into a grain
bag.
4. All machines must be provided with a belt pulley of the
proper size to operate the machine from a six-inch pulley at 120
R. P. M.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
First Annual Fanning Mill Competition 27
5. Grain will be furnished by the Exhibition Association for
all testing. The grain will contain impurities, typical of our
commercial grain.
6. Each entry is to be operated by a man furnished by the
entrant, who shall also furnish any assistance needed by the
judges.
7. Hand cleaners over-running the power specified will be
penalized in proportion to the over-run. ' '
Entries.
"1. All entries must be made on or before June 15th, 1913 and
accompanied by the following entry fees : —
Division 1. Division 2.
Class A $5.00 Class A $5.00
Class B 5.00 Class B 5.00
Class C 5.00 Class C 5.00
Class D 5.00 Class D. 5.00
Class E iO.OO Class E 10.00
2. Machines entered in Class E will be put through the same
test as those of other classes.
3. The same machine can be entered in as many classes as de-
sired by entrant, but an entry fee must be paid for each class.
4. An affidavit must accompany all machines showing that
they are stock machines (or new machines just being tried), and
that the company is ready to fill orders for same at once."
Conditions.
1. 4. No comments.
2. The matter of providing racks for screens and parts is a
minor one. In case individual booths are provided for competi-
tors this rule can be cancelled.
3. This should stand as it is or in case one machine is allowed
without the bagger, specifications should require all baggers
taken off.
5. There are different opinions pertaining to the preparing
and mixing of samples of grain. If the entry list is large and
a large amount of grain is needed the contest should be held in
an elevator where mixing can be accomplished by power even
then it would seem next to impossible to obtain pure adulterants.
Prom my own experience I believe it best to use market grain
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
28 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
that has not been cleaned or poorly cleaned and as it comes from
the elevator. We were very successful in getting uniform grain
containing impurities sufficient for a good test of the mills. Our
only difficulty being that we happened to get hold of two lots
of flax. We were able to separate the sacks, however, with but
little trouble.
6. To be operated by one man.
The rule is 0. K. but the grain should be put to the machine
mechanically or by outside help likewise the bagging of the
cleaned grain should be handled in the same way.
Entries.
1, 2, 3. No comment.
4. This rule pertaining to stock machines should remain as
given if it is a market grain cleaner contest.
For seed cleaners there is a diversity of opinion. The judges
at Winnipeg would favor no restriction. However, it is a debat-
able point and is undecided.
SCORE CARD (500 POINTS)
Points
"Efficiency 175
Cleaning : . ; 125
Grading 50"
A very careful investigation indicates that we do not need to
pay attention to the grading of seed grain. For market grain,
however, we find the grading of grain in the northwest of con-
siderable economic value. No doubt the same will hold true for
any section.
At the last moment before the contest, the above points on
cleaning and grading were subdivided. In the rush we made
some errors as would be expected. The table on page 29 very
nearly represents the subdivisions we used and is I think easier
understood than the original.
"Capacity 175
Capacity 100
Power Required per capacity 75"
For seed grain cleaners the capacity, and especially the power
required per capacity, is not of so much importance. The con-
sensus of opinion at Winnipeg was that this be cut to 125 points,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
First Annual Fanning Mill Competition
EFFICIENCY 125 POINTS
29
Cleaning 125 1 oints
Impurities by count
Wild Oats
Wild Buckwheat
Kinghead
Etc
Total Impurities- Wt
Waste of good grain— Wt.
Total (carried)
Perfect
Score
60
25
40
125
Grading 50 Points
Impurities by count
Perfect
Score
Grades of Grain
Per cent Grain in 1st Grade
-Wt
Size of Grain
Per cent Weight — ^
Coarse Screenings
Per cent Weight —
Pine Screenings
Grade of Screenings
Total
Brought forward
Grand Total .
25
15
50
125
175
giving the 50 points taken away to "Efficiency ", making its total
225 points. For market grain cleaners it seems suitable as given.
Subdivisions of the score on capacity were made at the last
moment as follows :
Capacity uncleaned grain per hour 25
Capacity cleaned grain per hour 75
Capacity uncleaned grain per II. P. Hr. 25
Capacity cleaned grain per H. P. Hr. 50
Total
'Design and Construction
Price f.o.b. Winnipeg
Weight
Floor spape
Gearing
Sieves
Quality and Construction 10
Methods of attaching 5
Screens
Quality and construction 10
Methods of attaching 5
175
10
10
15
5
15
150
15
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
30 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Frame 15
Fan 10
Materials of construction 15
Hopper and feed regulations 10
Vibration or rigidity 15
General convenience of operations 15
500"
The score card for design and construction covers all points
that have been brought to our attention save one. This one
point, suggested by a competitor at Winnipeg, is uniformity of
air blast as it strikes the grain. We might include a second point
in this connection i. e., control of the blast. Determination can
quite readily be made for either of the above with the use of a
watch size anemometer of the turbine type. Such an instrument
can be obtained from most of the supply houses at reasonable
cost.
EXPLANATION OP THE SCORE CARD.
"The 500 points have been divided about in proportion to the
value of the various headings — that is, 175 points have been given
to efficiency, 175 to capacity, 150 to design and construction.
The entry which bears the most efficient job of cleaning will be
given the highest number of points, and then each entry which
comes next will be given a number of points in proportion to the
efficiency of its cleaning as compared to the machine which cleans
the best. Likewise the same method will be followed out in
grading, also capacity and power required per capacity.
Under design and construction the judges will allot a certain
number of points to the machines which they feel are deserving
of that number. For instance, a machine which probably has
the smallest floor space per capacity will be given the highest
number of points under the points allowed for floor space : then
the machine which has the best type of gearings will be given the
highest number of points, and other machines scored accordingly.
This system of scoring will be followed throughout as per in-
dication of the score card."
This system of scoring proved to be a very good one. It is
easily applied and seems to give satisfaction.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
First Annual Fanning Mill Competition
31
From the foregoing it can be seen that in conducting the test,
the work is divided into three principal divisions and two or
three subdivisions as follows :
Principal Divisions:
1. Scoring for design and construction.
2. Power determinations.
3. Seed testing.
Fig. 1. — Apparatus Used in Taking Data.
Secondary Divisions:
1. Sampling grain before and after cleaning.
2. Weighing grain.
a. Before cleaning.
b. The cleaned grain.
c. The screenings.
1. Coarse.
2. Medium.
3. Fine.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
32
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
In scoring for " Design and Construction' ' a large part of the
data can be taken before or after the mill is put on the testing
platform. That pertaining to the screens used, the angle of in-
clination, the length of stroke, and the blast should be taken with
the machine in place at the completion of each test. The appa-
ratus used in taking data is shown in Fig. 1. This work should
be placed in the hands of an. expert mechanic.
Fig. 2. — Apparatus for Determining Power of Fanning Mills.
In determining the power required the first essential is an elec-
tric current and motor. By the aid of the Watt meter with an
ammeter and voltmeter as a check a man that understands elec-
trical apparatus and electricity can obtain very accurate results.
Fig. 2 is a view of the power determining apparatus used in the
contest.
The taking of samples and testing of same is the vital part of
the contest. In the Winnipeg Contest the grain was hauled to
the testing shed in sacks, as it was elevator grain. By use of a
sampling auger samples were taken from every fifth sack or
thereabouts and by test we found the grain uniform with the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
First Annual Fanning Mill Competition
33
single exception of the flax, mentioned before. With this known
the sampling necessary was that of the cleaned grain, the grades
and the screenings. A sample was taken with the testing auger
from every sack. These samples were then made into one com-
posite sample which was tested in a way to conform with the
score card previously given.
Pio. 3. — Seed Testing in Progress.
The size of grain was determined by passing a given amount
through a series of screens large and small and noting the per
cent falling on the different screens.
The impurities were found by separating by hand a given
amount of the composite sample. The percentage of impurities
was first found by count and then by weight.
The apparatus used in the seed testing laboratory of the Mani-
toba Agricultural College was moved to the grounds and used in
making these tests. The samples of grain taken were preserved
and are in the care of the seed analyist of Manitoba College at
the present time. Fig. 3 is a view showing the seed testing in
progress.
3
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
34
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
The weighing of the grain is an important part and requires
the services of two capable men each having a helper. We were
provided with two sets of scales, one for weighing in and one for
weighing out. Pig. 4 is a general view and shows the testing
platform with a mill in operation.
Fig. 4. — In the Process of Testing.
The time allotted each entrant in Classes A, B, C, and D was
one hour. In class E, one-half hours run was required for each
grain and another one-half hour on grass seed making the total
time on the floor for entrants in class E two and one-half hours.
One-half hour at a time requiring five settings.
The following table is a reproduction of the data and score
turned in by the judges as their report for the first four tests
made. This is the report for the tests on wheat and each of the
four mills in the contest are represented here.
In order to show graphically some of the essential features in
conducting a public grain cleaner competition I have prepared
the following plan (Fig. 5, p. 38) of a building to accommodate
such a contest. I do not think this could be called elaborate or
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
First Annual Fanning Mill Competition
35
beyond the means of an association of the magnitude of the Ca-
nadian Industrial Exhibition Association.
Test Number . .
Entry Number.
Class
Division
Grain
Fanning Mill
Price delivered
Wts. equipped (lbs. )
B. P. M. Drive Pulley
Vol. Hopper, Cubic Ins . . .
Length Feed Opening, Ins.
Fan
8ize
Diameter, inches
Length, inches
Wings
Number
Kind
Width, inches
Length, inches
RP.M
Direction of Travel.
Sieves (sv.) Screens (sc.)
Order top to bottom
Surface, square inches. .
Material
Angle, degrees
Size of Mesh, inches
Nnmber mesh per sq. in.
Gauge of metal, inch . . .
Sieves (sv.) Screens (sc.)
Order top to bottom
Surface, square inches .
Material
Angle degrees
Size of mesh, inches . .
No. mesh per sq. in . . .
Guage of metal, inches
1
2
I
7
A
E
I
2
Wheat
Wheat
Wonder
Chath'm
No. 2
No. 2
$43.00
945.00
216
284
115
357
2426
.3200
30
29.5
174
18
29
33
4
4
Wood
Wood
6
5
29
33
316
358
Under
Under
Shot
Shot
3
8
A
2
Wheat
Spenst
9200.00
346
642
1200
19.25
20
m
4
Wood
6
22f
537
Under
slvt
19
54
Zinc
54
6
643
Over
shot
4
3
A
1
Wheat
Chatham
No. 1
930.00
239
357
2384
21.25
17*
25
4
Wood
5
25
357
Under
shot
Test No. 1
lsv.
270
2 8 v.
300
3sv.
330
^sv.
360
1
5 s v. 6 sc.
4501050
zinc
84
«
14
.016
zinc
14
.016
zinc
8J
H
14
.016
Zl DC
84
ii
14
.016
zinc zinc
84 | 84
li 8xf
14 6.9
.016 .016
Test No. 2
1 8C.
2-8sv.
9sc
288
344
727
zinc
zinc
Wire
10
8
12
ri»
-»v
ft * ri»
72
11.2
21
.016
.016
.016
Vibration.
No. per min
End or side shake
Length, inches. ..
Test No 3.
Test No.
1 sv.
2sv.
3-8 sv.
5 8 c.
1 sc.
2-8sv.
330
387
446
392
215
249
Znc
Znc.
Znc.
Znc.
Znc.
Znc.
9
9
9
9
8
8
S*i
4
tV
VA
ri*
A
8.1
10
12.9
45.9
72
11.2
.016
.016
.016
.016
.016
.016
9se.
546
Znc.
12
21
.016
316 (Sa)
End(Sa)
278(Sa.)
Side,
Side
End
I 1111
362 (Same)
Side (Same)
444 4
277 (Sa.)
Side
Side
End
* I 44
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Time of test (hours)
Piinelost by operator, mi n.
Capacity and power.
Uncl'ed grain used (lbs).
Cleaned grain (lbs. )
Capacity cleaned grain—
Pounds per hour
Cap. cleaned grain for
perfect score -pounds-
per hour
Cap. uncleaned grain
pounds per hour . . .
Cap. uncleaned grain for
perfect score — pounds
per hour
Horse power
Cap. cleaned grain— lbs
per H. P. hour
Cap. cleaned grain for
perfect score— lbs. per
H.P. hour
Cap. uncleaned grain for
lbs. per H. P. hour...
Cap. uncleaned grain for
perfect score — lbs. pei
H. P. hour
Cleaning and grading.
Impurities.
Per cent by weight in
original grai n
Per cent by weight in
cleaned grain
Per cent by weight of
waste grain
Design and construction,
Price— 15
Weight- 10
Floor space — 15
Gearing— 5
Sieves.
Quality— 10
Method of att.— 5 . . .
Screens.
Quality— 10
Method of att— 5
Frame— 15
Fan— 10
Materials of cons. — 15
Hopper and feed
Regulations — 10
1
1
700
562
562
1000
700
1200
0.111
5063
6000
6306
75000
1
0.15
29.71
1
0
1238
939
939
1800
1238
2100
0.172
5460
6000
7198
7500
1
005
24
1
0
1694.5
1613
1613
1800
1694.5
2100
0.717
2250
6000
2363
7500
1
0.18
5
Final Score.
7 | 9
7 9
9 14
34 3*
I
8
3J
8
ft)
8
11
9
4*
9
12
9
9
4*
9)
8
14*
5)
1
0
931.5
845.5
843.5
1000
931.5
1200
0.142
5940
6000
6560
7500
1
0.21
9.5
8
7
10
3i
9
4*
8}
9
12
9
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First Annual Fanning Mitt Competition
37
Vibration or rigid-
ity—15
10
13
0
13
14*
0
15
9
25 (no bagger)
13
General convenience—
15
l»
Penalty *. . . .
Total— 150
Capicity-Power.
Cap. uncleaned grain per
hour — 25
106
15
42
21
42
128
15
39
24
45
89
20
67
8
19
121
19
Cap. cleaned grain per
Hour — 75
63
Cap. H. P. Hr. unclean-
ed grain— 25
Cap. H. P. Hr. cleaned
grain — 50
22
50
Total— 175
Efficiency.
Impurities— 75
120
30
30
22
123
66
25
28
114
20
45
23 "
88
152
18
Per cent waist of grain—
50
Grading— 50
40
30
Total-175
82
118
88
Grand total— 500
Hank
308
?
369
291
?
362
?
In many places it would be possible to work over buildings at
small cost to conform in a general way with a plan of this kind.
The wing of this building has a second floor, primarily for the
purpose of delivering the uncleaned grain to the hopper from
above.
The sampling and weighing of the uncleaned grain could all
be done on the second floor.
The line shafts connecting each competitor's booth is primar-
ily for the purpose of enabling them to adjust their machines for
the grain in question before coming on to the platform with it.
All line shafts would be speeded the same and equipped alike in
size of pulley at least.
It would be possible to have individual demonstrations at times,
a feature which would add to public interest.
You will note the raised seats on either side of the testing
platform from which the progress of the test can be observed, the
bulletin board in plain view and the work floor just back of this
for caring for the cleaned grain, grades, screenings, etc. The
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
38
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
seed testing laboratory should be provided with plenty of light
and facilities for the passing public to observe the seed testing
operations. A case or stand to accommodate the electrical in-
ft
-/*-
r
?
■t— <~
Fig. 5. — Ground Plan of a Building for a Grain Cleaning Contest.
struments used in determining the power should be placed to
one side of the work floor where the public could see and keep
in touch with that part of the contest.
In conclusion I wish to say that from the standpoint of entries
the first fanning mill or grain cleaner competition was not a suc-
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First Annual Fanning Mill Competition 39
cess. However, in case a competition, is held another year where
system, order, and thoroughness prevail, the manufacturers
will be glad to enter, particularly in their own territory.
In the Northwest our grains are infested with mustard, wild
oats, kingheads and other weeds to such an extent that special
means at large expense must be resorted to in order to raise
any kind of a crop. The grain cleaner properly used would
solve the problem in many instances. The value of this contest
cannot be questioned. Our goal should be "clean seed" with
minimum waste. At the contest in question every mill left a
higher percent of barley grains in the cleaned oats than there
was in the original. Is there room for improvement in fanning
mills! Will contests aid this improvement?
DISCUSSION.
Mr. P. S. Rose: Do I understand that it makes no difference
for seed grain whether it is graded or not f
Mb. C. F. Chase: Prof. Montgomery of Nebraska in bulletin
No. 104 found that shriveled grain gave as good results as the
plump grain.
Mb. P. S. Rose : Will you raise as good a crop with shriveled
grain as from the plump grain ?
Mb. C. F. Chase: In the same strain of wheat, Prof. Mont-
gomery found that the shriveled grain was just as liable to pro-
duce a plump grain as plump grain was to produce a plump
grain.
Mb. P. S. Rose: Have we not been taught for a number of
years that the thing to do is to carefully select corn as to size
of grain and as to the place it occupies on the cob ?
Mb. L. W. Chase : I do not know whether there is a corn ex-
pert here or not. I secured the largest yield from the worst look-
ing ear.
Mb P. S. Rose : Have we not been taught that the thing to do
is to select the corn for the uniformity of the grain ?
Mb. J. A. King: In experiments conducted by various Euro-
pean governments it was found that the heavy plump, solid
grains produced the largest yield, and also the largest percentage
of the yields were from large plump grains.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
40 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Mr. L. W. Chase: The corn I used was secured from the Ne-
braska Experiment Station. We had five prize winning corns
from the National Corn Exposition. We secured a better yield
from the f arihers ' corn than from the exhibition corn.
Mr. P. S. Rose : I did not intend to turn this discussion into
a question of agronomy as to the value of different kinds of
grain,, but it is pertinent to this discussion if a shriveled grain
will grow as well as plump grain. It would seem to me that a
plump grain would grow better; that is, it would start better
after the seed has sprouted and after it has taken root. It will
grow well enough, but in order to get it started you have got to
have the power and the energy behind it, as I understand it, and
that, you can only get from a good, plump seed. The seed con-
tains the energy to start the plant.
Mr. Bowditch : I think that Mr. Rose's point is extremely well
taken. It is a thing that we should think of very seriously. We
are making these tests and doing all this work. We, however, do
not adapt it to ordinary, everyday use.
Mr. Miller: In a series of experiments we picked out the mid-
dle sized oats and the small grain and we found that the largest
yield was attained from the large, plump seed and the second
largest from the middle sized and the smallest from the small
size.
Mr. C. P. Chase: It seems to me that one fanning mill will
take the same grain and give a greater weight of clean grain
than another, therefore the weight of grain per bushel is impor-
tant.
Mr. J. A. King : It has been the practice among grain buyers
to sell by weight instead of by measured bushel. I think most of
the food laws require that articles be sold by weight instead of
by measure. It would seem that it would be proper to include
the item of weight in wheat grading.
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Grading' and Cleaning Grain 41
METHODS AND BENEFITS OF GRADING AND CLEAN-
ING GRAIN.
By H. E. Horton.*
How Much Weeds Cost the Farmer.
Writers on weed pests enumerate a list of troubles due to the
presence of weeds in cultivated crops, but make little or no ef-
fort to place a money value on the losses weeds cause.
The Grain Inspection Bureau at Winnipeg furnishes authentic
actual figures by which to judge the money value of weeds.
How Wheat Graded in the Winnipeg Market.
The following figures are of the very greatest interest :
Total Number Cars Rejected! for Per Cent
Year Inspected Weed Seed Rejected
1904 37,902 603 1.59
1905 61,542 2,441 3.96
1906 68,315 4,659 6.82
1907 50,845 912 1.79
1908 52,395 1,518 2.89
How Wheat Graded in Minnesota.
The reports of the Minnesota State Grain Inspection Depart-
ment give equally startling figures — "The average dockage per
bushel on wheat for two years was found to be 19 ounces. This
dockage is very largely due to weeds. Minnesota produces an-
nually about 200,000,000 bushels of small grain. A dockage of
one pound per bushel means a loss of 200,000,000 lbs. Had the
land been free from weeds the same amount of plant food, mois-
ture and labor would have poduced over 3,000,000 bushels of
wheat or the equivalent in other grains. This makes an annual
loss due to weeds of about two and a half million dollars, or an
annual rental of about 30 cents per acre on every acre on which
small grain is grown. Added to this great loss we must include
the cost of fighting .weeds, loss of fertility and moisture, strain on
* Agricultural Commissioner, American Steel 6 Wire Co.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
42 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
machinery, extra cost of twine to tie up the weeds, freight charges
for shipping weed seed, etc. "Bulletin No. 95 (1906) Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, University of Minnesota.' '
Cleaning seed grain insures that the farmer deliberately does
not sow his fields with weed seed.
Cleaning at home grain which is meant for the market does
away with the necessity of the cleaning by the elevator and the
consequent loss due to dockage charge. Cleaned at home, the
weed seed, chaff, light grain, and stems can be utilized as feed.
Grain to become an article of commerce, must conform to the
established commercial standard, for without a standard buying
and selling are impossible.
The Size of the Seed Affects the Harvest.
While the losses enumerated are large, there is a still greater
loss due to small yields. A few facts expressed in paragraphic
form tell the story.
The size of the harvest increases with the size of the seed
planted.
The quality of the harvested grain depends on the seed
planted; large seed tends to produce large seed, and small seed
tends to produce small seed.
The ability of plants from small seed to live and do well is
less than plants from large seed.
Plants from large seed grain are more often larger, stronger
and develop earlier than plants grown from small seed. Small
seed has a tendency to produce plants with weak organs and is
slow to develop. The reason for this difference between large
seed and small probably is to be found in the rich store of food
available for the embryonic plant organs.
Plants grown from large seeds are more resistant to adverse
conditions and yield surer than plants from small seed.
Corn Grading.
It is not possible to obtain the maximum yield unless the stand
is near perfect.
The paramount advantage of sorting corn is the securing of a
perfect stand. No plant device exists which will uniformly plant
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Grading and Cleaning Grain 43
corn when the seed sample is a mixture of kernals from butt, tips,
sides, large kernals, small kernals, shrivelled kernals.
Too little attention is given to the preparation of corn to be
used for seeding, and farmers pay a big price for ignoring or
neglecting this work.
This sorting must be for uniformity in size and there are a
number of machines available for this work.
With this bald statement of the economic side of the problem
of grain cleaning, the subject of the actual cleaning methods may
be approached.
Consider for a few minutes the —
Foundations for the Study of Cleaning and Grading Gram.
No one means can be adopted to clean and sort grain. The ma-
terial must be studied to determine its peculiarities and so learn
how to approach the subject of the choice of ways.
A. Absolute separation of two bodies is only possible when the
possessed properties of the two bodies in question lie wholly out-
side the limits of each.
B. Average must be accompanied with the low and high limits
in order to form a sound decision.
Properties of Seeds of Which Use Is Made in Cleaning and
Sorting.
The differences in seed of which use is made in planning the
work of cleaning and sorting, are :
A. Size.
B. Form.
C. Absolute Weight.
Size.
Size is determined by length, breadth, and thickness, and of
these dimensions, breadth and thickness are the most important.
Pull ripe seed differs from unripe seed in that two of the di-
mensions are changed. Seed from plants, richly supplied with
food-stuff, differ from seed from plants poorly supplied with food-
stuff ; in this latter case all the dimensions being proportionately
reduced.
Seed varies in size within a variety more than between varie-
ties.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
44 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Form.
Form or shape of seeds may be used as a basis of separation.
(French machines make use of form of seed).
The general form of seeds is known and inside this form the
three dimensions — length, short diameter and long diameter — are
peculiar to the form. For example, the barley berry has both
ends pointed ; the rye berry has one end pointed, the other round.
To compare form in simple terms and thus best to grasp dif-
ferences, the smallest axis of the berry is made unity, and the
two other axes are expressed in terms of the unit.
It is not difficult to fix ratios in the eye when the eye once
knows for what to look. For example :
Wheat berry has the ratio 1 : 1.1 : 2.5
Rye berry has the ratio 1 : 1.1 : 3.2, and from these figures
it is not difficult to see that the rye berry is more slender than
the wheat berry.
A large number of grass seeds have the form represented by the
ratio 1 : 1.0 : 4. Others have form 1 : 1.6 : 9.5.
When the berry is so placed that its long axis is perpendicular
to the sieve plate opening, then the question of the berry passing
through this opening depends on its diameter being slightly less
than the diameter of the sieve opening.
When the sieve opening is oblong and one diameter greater
than B of the berry, a berry can only pass through when the other
diameter is larger than A of the berry.
These two observations lead to two statements of great prac-
tical value, namely :
A. With the circle opening the average diameter of the berry
determines.
B. With the oval opening the smallest diameter of the berry
determines.
Some Examples Showing the Application of the Foregoing Prin-
ciples Will Prove Instructive.
(1) Bear in mind that separation by sieve is only possible when
seed differ only in "A" or only in "B", the other diameter be-
ing the same. (2) When B and A of the one class is greater than
the corresponding axes in the other class.
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Grading and Cleaning Grain
45
Flax and Flax Dodder cannot be separated by the oblong hole,
but can be with the round hole which diameter is slightly smaller
than the ' ' B ' ' diameter of the flax seed.
Oats and linsen coincide in their smallest diameters and can-
not be separated by the oblong hole, but can be separated by the
round hole with the diameter 4 mm.
Bye and serradella seed cannot be separated by use of the
round sieve opening, but can be completely separated by the use
of the oblong opening.
Compare the following measurements, viz :
The B diameter of Rye varies The B diameter of Serradella
between 1.9 and 3.0 mm;
The A diameter of Rye be-
tween 1.8 and 2.9 mm.
varies between 1.8 and 2.7 mm ;
The A diameter of Serradella
between 0.6 and 1.1 mm.
Now, with an oblong sieve opening, with the longest diameter
at least 3.0 mm. the cross diameter between 1.1 and 1.8 mm.,
there will be a complete separation of rye and serradella.
Absolute Weight.
Having briefly considered "Size" and "Forms", just a few
words as to the part "Absolute Weight" plays in the separation
of seed. In a mechanical operation by which seed is moved
through space, the result, other things being equal, will depend
on the absolute weight of the body in question.
Tables of normal weights of berries are available and from
these weights judgments may be made looking to the separation
of grain.
Weight 1000 air dried grains.
Min. Max. Av.
Wheat 25.66 54.36 40.0 grams.
(T. vulg)
Rye 13.61 47.90 23.3 (with glumes)
Barley 32.22 58.10 45.1 grams.
(2 row)
Oats 23.92 54.09 39.0 grams.
(A. sativa)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
46 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Let us turn from the brief statement of elementary considera-
tions to the subject of their practical application in the form of
grain cleaning machines.
The study of grain cleaning and sorting machines leads to the
division of the machines into three classes, namely :
I. Machines which sort best according to average di-
ameter of berry.
II. Machines which sort best by "bushel weight' ' and
which are used to sort the clean grain of com-
merce.
III. Machines which sort and clean according to form.
In the first class of cleaning and sorting machines come the
common
Cleaning Mills.
The "Cleaning Mill" is a machine for removing very light
berries, chaff, dust, pieces of stalks from grain, and without the
separation necessarily of grain into light and heavy berries.
To accomplish this removal of the specifically lighter materials
the grain is run on a series of shaking sieves over which an air
blast is forced.
The efficiency of the cleaning mill is dependent on the kind
and amount of impurities, the area of the sieving surface, and
the operation of the blast wheel.
The sorting action of the blast is of little use in this machine,
for the height in which to fall is lacking. This machine can be
used to separate bodies differing greatly in their absolute weight.
In the second class of cleaning and sorting machines come the
machines which separate according to weight.
Separation of Seed According to Weight.
This separation is by allowing the seed to fall in a blast of air.
The lighter the seed, the farther it is blown by the blast; the
heavier, the shorter the distance.
The blast must be uniform to do good work, to secure which,
great care must be taken in turning the drive wheel.
It makes a difference what way the seed is struck by the blast,
head on, or otherwise. To insure that every seed is in a certain
position when struck by the blast, the seed is run over a fluted
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Grading and Cleaning Grain 47
feed board which insures that all the seeds are hit by the blast
broad side on.
Hand Sieving.
Just a few words on an old and still widely spread method
of sorting grain, that is, shaking the grain in the round hand
sieve.
If a mixture of bodies of different sizes, shapes and weights be
subjected to thrusts from the sides or the bottom there is a tem-
porary loosening and displacing of the parts of the mixture,
openings are produced in the mass which allow grains to fall, the
side thrust moves parts of the mixture to displace other parts.
The greater the specific weight of a body the greater its ten-
dency to work down and through a mixture, and this means in
practice a layer of heavy grains on the sieve bottom, with the
light chaffy mixture at the top.
In the third class of cleaning and sorting machines come the
Trieurs.
Trieur.
The Trieur simply consists of a metal cylinder which is lined
with cells of various depths and diameters.
The cylinder is mounted on an incline on a stout frame and is
provided with a driving mechanism.
When the revolving cylinder is supplied with a mixture of
seed to be separated, the berries are carried up, and depending
on their size and shape fall out of the cells at a certain point.
Round seed and broken seed remain the longest in the cells. The
-contents of the cells fall on top of an apron and run into a screw
conveyor and are removed from the machine.
The Trieur occupies so important a place in grain cleaning
and sorting that a description of the machine and a description
of the work it does cannot fail to be of interest.
Detailed Description of the Trieur.
Prom the hopper (a) the grain falls into the revolving cylin-
der. The weed seed, broken grain, etc., are elevated and dis-
charged into trough (c).
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48
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
The good seed escape from the compartment by the ring (d)
and fall on the sieve mantle (f).
The weed seed, broken grain, etc., are carried from the trough
(c) into the second part (p) of the separating cylinder.
The weed seed and broken grain taken out in this compart-
ment are caught in the second half of the trough (c) from which
Fig. 1. — Cross section of Trieur.
they are removed by a screw conveyor to the outside of the ma-
chine.
The whole, clean berries, roll to opening (i), from which they
are elevated to the hopper (k) from which they are discharged
into the tube (r) in which there is a screw conveyor (1). The
tube (r) lies in the trough (c).
The conveyor (1) carries the clean grain to the opening (m)
through which it runs on the sorting sieve (n).
What the Trieur Does.
The Trieur separates oats or barley from wheat. In the first
part of the cylinder the oats and barley are separated from the
wheat, and in the second part of the cylinder the wheat is sep-
arated from the weed seed.
The cleaned wheat is removed from the Trieur cylinder into
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Grading and Cleaning Grain
49
an encircling assorting cylinder, where it is graded into two or
three sorts according to size.
The Trieur separates oats from barley and removes weed seed.
In the first part of the Trieur cylinder the oats and barley are
separated and in the second part of the cylinder the barley is
separated from the weed seed.
The Trieur separates from grain, corn cockle, vetch and other
weed seeds, also broken berries of grain.
The Trieur is provided with a fanning mill placed at one end
and by this mill dust, chaff, etc., are removed by the air blast.
Fig. 2. — A Sample of Grain Separated by the Trieur,
The large sized impurities are held back by the shaking sieves;
the cleaned grain is fed into the Trieur for separation of the
varieties and the weed seed.
Cockle and Barley Cylinders for Trieurs.
A cylinder with indents or cells up to 5 mm. diameter is used
to remove cockle and other round seeds from wheat.
A cylinder with indents or cells from 5 to 7 mm. diameter is
used to remove round seed from barley or oats.
A cylinder with indents or cells above 7 mm. diameter is used
for removing barley and oats from wheat, or oats from barley.
4
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
50 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Grain Sorting Machines.
The Trieur cylinder is made with grain sorting mantles of
different lengths.
"Where the sorting mantle is as long as the Trieur cylinder
grain can be run direct from the shaking sieve at the head of the
Trieur to the sorting mantle, and this without entering the
Trieur cylinder. Arranged in this way the Trieur will clean
and sort flax, millets, legumes.
Capacity of Trieurs.
Trieur Cylinder.
Sorting Mantle.
Capacity per Hour.
Dia.
Length.
Dia.
Length.
Lbs.
11.8
59.8
16.14
26.37
176.3
13.78
64.9
18.50
28.34
264.5
15.74
78.3
20.86
34.64
496.0
17.71
90.9
23.22 .
40.54
727.5
19.68
106.3
25.58
46.84
947.9
21.65
123.
27.95
52.77
1168.4
23.62
133.8
30.31
59.05
1455.0
Single cylinder machines are built to handle 1763 lbs. and
2204 lbs. per hour. Twin cylinders 3527 lbs., 4408 lbs., per hour.
Work of Trieur.
Problem: To separate weed seed from wheat:
100 grams of wheat containing
23 Agrostemma Githago seeds,
32 Vicia hirsuta seeds,
30 other round seed,
were used for trial separation, and in 100 grams of the purified
product the weed seed were counted and with the following re-
sults:
Pieper machine produced sample free from weed seed ;
Mayer machine produced sample free from weed seed ;
Stupp machine produced sample free from weed seed.
Mayer machine produced sample which contained 2 vetch seed;
Schneider & Werner machine produced sample which contained
1 vetch seed *.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Grading and Cleaning Grain
51
Schneider & Werner machine produced sample which contained
4 Agrost. Gith. and 3 vetch seed.
Problem: To separate broken berries and short berries of less
than 5 mm. from a sample of rye.
All machines succeeded in the task.
Problem: To separate a mixture of oats and barley.
There were 278 barley berries in 100 grams of a mixture of
oats and barley. In 100 gfams of the sorted sample were the fol-
lowing counts of barley berries.
Mayer machine produced an oat sample in which were contained
14 barley berries ;
Stupp machine produced an oat sample in which were contained
124 barley berries ;
Pieper machine produced an oat sample in which were contained
160 barley berries.
Resume of Cleaning Machines; How One Machine Supplements
Another; Quantitative Example of Their Work.
The cleaning machine removes the chaff, dirt and light part
of the seed; the blast machine sorts the grain according to
weight ; both machines remove some of the weed seed.
Fig. 3. — Sorting Grain According to Weight.
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52
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
To remove all the weed seed the Trieur is necessary.
The Trieur separates pieces of broken grain and weed seed
corresponding to the insert in use in the machine ; separates
Fig. 4. — A Common Type of Fanning Mill.
grain berries according to size ; separates one grain from another
— wheat, rye, barley, oats.
A sample of wheat weight 3461 lbs. was threshed and produced
a sample of grain which was cleaned with the Rober " Ideal' '
machine. The sample of cleaned grain produced by this ma-
chine was further cleaned with the Rober " Triumph* ' machine.
The sample of grain produced by this machine was further
cleaned with the Mayer Trieur.
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Grading and Cleaning Grain
53
The result of these cleanings are shown in the following table :
3461 lbs. of Wheat Bundles gave on thrashing
1
1
1
IT n cleaned
Berries
Straw
Loss
1
1
i
Lbs. 'Percent
1 .
Lbs.
Percent.
Lbs.
Per
cent.
Actual and Percentage
Quantities and Product
Bushel Weight in lbs.
Weight of 1000 Berries
in grams
Sieve work, per cent.
Over 2.8 mm
" 2.6 "
" 2.4 '•
Under2.4 "
Purity per cent
Impurities per cent. . .
Broken Berries ......
Dirt, Stones, etc
Chaff and Bad Grain . .
Weed, Seed and Sand
Dust
1521
43.96
!
1807
52.23
131.6
3.81
Abnormal Wheat
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
54
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
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Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Grading and Cleaning Grain
55
1013.02 lbe. berries of I. Class from the " Ideal' ' cleaning mill were
further cleaned and sorted by the Rober "Triumph" cleaner
without sieve, and with the following results :
Berries
Chaff and
Loss
I. Class
II. Class
Darnel
Lbs.
Per
cent.
Lbs.
Per
cent.
Lbs.
Per
cent
Lbs.
Per
cent
Actual and Percent-
age Quantities of
Product
i
912.7
1 53.2
41.5
99.19
77
16
7
0
99.6
40
93.5
46.0
35.5
9.24
5.77
0.57
Bushel Weight, lbs.
Weight of 1000 Ber-
ries, grams
Sieve Horifc, percent.
Over 2.8 mm...
75
14
10
1
95.9
3.10
" 2.6 " ..
<< 2 4**
Under 2.4 " ..
Purity, per cent . .
Imparities, percent.
Broken Berries . .
Dirt, Stones, etc.
Chaff and Bad
Grain
1.0
Weed Seed, Sand,
Dust
Abnormal Wheat
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
56
American Society of Agriculttiral Engineers
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Grading and Cleaning Grain 57
Besides the cleaning and sorting machines already described
there are other useful and efficient machines, namely :
The Grain Centrifugal:
(Korant Machine).
The Snail Separator ;
The Oscillating Table;
(Hignette Machine, Josse Machine).
The Shaker, Revolving Cylindrical Sieve ; "
The Endless Belt ;
The Grain Pickling Machine, Smut Machine.
The Centrifugal Grain Cleaner.
The basket of a centrifugal machine is made of rods set to
form gratings, thus providing small openings at the bottom and
large openings at the top.
In this machine the berries are driven by the centrifugal force
against the grating which they climb and pass through. The
different size openings in the basket gratings thus make the sep-
aration into large and small berries.
The Snail Trieur.
The berries run over a metal path which is spiral in form.
The spiral is placed in a vertical position and the force of grav-
ity gives motion to the berries.
The round berries are driven to the outside of the metal path
up which they climb and spring over and out.
The apparatus is the best for purifying peas and mixtures of
rye and hairy vetch (Vicia villosa).
Oscillating Table.
A triangular, inclined, wooden table mounted on shaking
stands.
The grain led onto the shaking table is separated as follows:
the heavy berries are carried off the table at its lowest end, the
light berries at its upper end.
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58 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
The Shaker.
The rectangular shaker clothed with silks, wire or perforated
metal and vibrating in the direction of the longest dimension is
a familiar separating device.
The material is separated by passing through the sieve open-
ings and over the end of the shaker in the form of tailings.
Endless Belt.
The endless belt has found use in cleaning beet seed. A slowly
moving endless belt is used to remove dust, dirt, stems and to
separate the small beet seed.
The thrashed beet seed is fed through feed rollers on an end-
less apron. The round seed roll off the apron and the impurities
which do not roll off are removed by a cleaner working diagon-
ally across the endless apron.
Judging the Seed Grain.
In order to secure the best seed grain and to learn the weed
flora, the grain should be subjected to a painstaking examination
with sieve, scale, microscope and germinating apparatus.
The information secured by the critical examination of the
grain should be entered carefully, systematically and neatly in
a permanent record book.
The bushel weight, the sieve work, the berry uniformity, the
purity, the percentage germination having been determined,
there only remains the act of judgment to weight the results
found by experiment and thus determine the goodness of the
seed. Set down the figures, add the columns, and a figure re-
sults which expresses the value of the sample.
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Grading and Cleaning Orain
59
The following forms will make clear the steps in work of judg-
ing.
Bu. W
eight.
1
Spelzen in Oats
1000 Berry
Weight
2 Samples, 100
>>
berries each contain
.22
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SIEVING TEST- WHEAT. RYE, BARLEY, OATS.
2 Sample 8 at 100 grams each, contain Berries
Over
mm.
grams.
mm.
grams.
Under
mm.
grams.
mm.
grams.
IMPURITIES IN WHEAT, RYE, BARLEY, OATS.
2 Samples at 50 grams each.
Broken
Berries
Numbers or Amouuts of
and,
Gravel,
Stones,
Srtaw
Seeds of
other Plant f
Weed Seed
Weight of
Impurities
Impur-
ities per
cent.
Poritv
per cent.
GERMINATION.
Germi nation Energy
(end 3 days. Oats 4 days).
Germinating Ability
(counted after 10 days).
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60
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
JUDGING THE SAMPLE.
Scale of Pointe: 4 — very good, 3 — good, 2— medium, 1— not quite
acceptable, 0 — not acceptable.
Weight
Chaff
content
Uuiformity
of Berries
Puritv
Color
Odor
Germ-
ination
Sum of
Points
Remarks
DISCUSSION.
Mr. Ramsower: I wonder if Dr. Horton could direct us to
the information from which he draws his conclusion as to the
truth of the statement he just made in closing, that large seed
tend to produce large seed, and small seed tend to produce small
ones.
Mr. Horton : The question of large seed having a tendency to
produce large seed, and small seed having a tendency to produce
small seed, is away beyond the theoretical point. It has been
in literature, to my knowledge, for the last thirty-five years. I
do not know of any better authority that you can find in the
world than is contained on page 605, or 606, of Martin Ewald
Wollny's work "Saat und Pflege". There you will find all the
information you want on this subject.
Mr. C. P. Chase : I would like to ask if you have any definite
data to show that where you have two grains, that are equally
sound, say wheat, oats, barley, will the larger grains produce a
heavier yield?
Mr. Horton : Yes, large berries tend to produce large berries
and small ones tend to produce small ones.
Mr. C. P. Chase: But, will the yield be greater?
Mr. Horton : Yes sir.
The Chairman : I would like to ask, if the machines you have
described are owned co-operatively, or does each farmer have his
equipment, or is there a commercial association or concern which
uses those machines to clean the grain for the farmers ?
Mr. Horton : The biggest farmers own their own equipment.
The small farmers work co-operatively ; and as you know, in Ger-
many today there are 800 different kinds of farm co-operative
societies. I do not know of any concern making a business of
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Cleaning Grain 61
cleaning grain, for instance, as a man would have a threshing
machine, and go around over a certain territory and thresh
grain.
Mr. Davidson: Do you think that the American farmer could
be convinced that he ought to use these machines, which neces-
sarily have such a limited capacity, under individual conditions.
Mr. Horton: Last year I began some work with farmers, to
interest them in growing kafir in the southwest, Oklahoma, Texas
and Kansas. I put into those States over a million pieces of ad-
vertising matter. I had working with me every banker in those
three states, every superintendent of schools, and every agent
who represented ourselves in that country, and there are a good
many of them. I did not do this all alone, but was ably seconded
by Prof. Cottrell, of the Rock Island Railroad Co. As the result
of our work in the Southwest last year, there was over a million
acres of kafir corn put in. I believe that nothing is impossible
to a man who will advertise properly. If you put this subject up
in a way that is easily grasped by the farmer you can convince
him.
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62 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
FARM SANITATION WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL.
By Paul Hansen.*
Sanitary Engineering is a somewhat restricted specialty while
Agricultural Engineering is perhaps broader in its scope than
any other branch of the engineering profession. This statement
is certainly true if we accept as a definition of engineering, ''the
use and control of the materials and forces of nature for the ben-
efit of mankind", because more of the materials and forces of
nature are used on the farm than in any other line of business.
The work of the sanitary engineer is ordinarily confined to pro-
jects of considerable magnitude relating to the water supplies,
the sewerage systems and the refuse disposal systems of cities.
It also has to deal with plumbing and plumbing fixtures in build-
ings and houses, but this is branch nowadays commonly left to
the architect. It includes heating and ventilating, but this like-
wise has become so specialized that it is handled by a class of
engineers known as heating and ventilating engineers. The
work of the agricultural engineer, though relating to problems
of comparatively small magnitude and rarely very costly, covers
practically the entire engineering field.
It is not probable that many of the specific engineering prob-
lems of the ordinary farm will be solved by the sanitary engi-
neering specialists, though such specialists will from time to time
be called upon in connection with the design and installation of
water supplies and sewerage systems for institutions and large
country estates. The great mass of sanitary engineering work
on farms will, however, be relegated to the agricultural engineer,
to the architect, to the contractor, and in most cases to the farmer
himself. There is, however, much within the experience of the
sanitary engineer which renders him in a favorable position to
offer much suggestive advice to agricultural engineers, archi-
tects, contractors, and farmers and it will be the object of this
paper to discuss in a general way some of this experience.
The field is so very broad that a discussion of all phases of
engineering work on the farm which have a sanitary relation
* Illinois State Water Survey.
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Farm Sanitation 63
cannot be discussed in any adequate way within the limits of so
brief a paper. Therefore, those subjects such as heating and ven-
tilating, plumbing and plumbing fixtures, sanitary construction
of houses, drainage for the prevention of mosquito breeding, and
other sanitary purposes which do not in practice fall within
the field of the sanitary engineering specialists will be disposed
of with a few brief paragraphs. Whereas, the bulk of the discus-
sion will be devoted to the water supply and to the sewerage sys-
tem.
Sanitary Construction of Houses: The key to the sanitary con-
struction of houses is the avoidance of floors and surfaces that
cannot be readily cleaned and of dark and damp spaces. To
accomplish this for the house, an elevated location should be se-
lected, but should this prove impracticable, great care should be
exercised to build the cellar or basement thoroughly watertight
and to intercept all ground water before it reaches the cellar by
means of a drain tile placed completely around the house at a
level with the base of the foundation. An outlet for the drain
must be provided at some convenient point. Preferably the exca-
vation necessary to accommodate this drain tile should be back
filled with broken stone or gravel to within a foot of the surface ;
the top foot may be of ordinary loamy earth. The floor of the
■cellar should be constructed preferably of concrete made water-
proof and with a smooth surface. All portions should be sloped
to one or more points at which should be placed outlet drains
liaving trapped connections to the house sewerage system. When
possible polished hardwood floors should be used throughout the
liouse and removable rugs should be given preference to carpets
which cannot be regarded as other than dirty and unsanitary
notwithstanding the advent of the vacuum cleaner. Closets if
possible should be given an outside window, dark corners should
be avoided as much as possible and in every room there should
"be an abundance of sunlight, even if it does fade the carpets and
the wallpaper. Sunlight is a great purifying medium and should
be present in every house in abundance. To this end dark cur-
tains and closed blinds should be avoided.
Opportunities should always be provided for securing a fre-
quent change of atmosphere in the rooms. Where because of the
coldness of the climate and the use of storm sash windows this
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64 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
cannot be satisfactorily accomplished by means of open windows,
small ventilating openings in or under the windows should be
provided and there should be placed in the house a number of
open fireplaces, which though inefficient heaters are very efficient
ventilators. Aside from the usefulness of fireplaces as ventilat-
ors, they add great cheer on cold winter evenings. Whether fire
places are used or not there should be provided a reliable fur-
nace, a hot water heating plant or low pressure steam heating
plant.
PLUMBING AND PLUMBING FIXTURES.
There are but few principles to be laid down in connection
with the selection and installation of plumbing and plumbing
fixtures. First of all if possible all plumbing fixtures in the
house should be grouped around a single vertical soil pipe ex-
tending from the basement through the roof. This soil pipe
should be of cast iron of substantial thickness 4 to 6 inches in
diameter and put together with bell and socket leaded joints with
all bell ends looking upward. The top should be left open and
should extend at least two feet above the roof of the house. It
may, if desirable, be concealed within a false chimney or placed
in a chimney with several flues. The soil pipe at the base of the
house makes a turn and discharges into the house sewer which
is made of vitrified sewer pipe carefully laid with cemented
joints and never less than 6 inches in diameter. The turn at
the bottom of the soil pipe should be made if possible, with a
T or Y special placed with the through leg in line with the sewer
for rodding out obstructions. Contrary to general opinion it is
not necessary to place a trap on this sewer and it is quite per-
missible to provide for the ventilation of the sewer by means of
the up-current through the soil pipe. The usual plumbing fix-
tures comprise laundry tubs in the basement, kitchen sink and
possibly a lavatory with closet on the first floor, and bathroom
fixtures including bath-tub, washbasin and closet on the second
floor. These, of course, may be elaborated according to the size
of the house or to suit the owner's fancy. Sometimes it is desira-
ble to have two bathrooms and sometimes it is desirable to have
additional fixtures, such as a shower bath and a slop sink.
In the selection of fixtures the widest range of choice is avail-
able and the prospective buyer is limited only by his taste and
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Farm Sanitation 65
by his pocket book. Most modern plumbing fixtures are designed
to promote cleanliness and sanitation, but there is nevertheless
some latitude possible in the selection of plumbing fixtures to
secure those that may be readily kept clean and which will have
no inaccessible corners or cause wet walls. It is false economy
to buy unsubstantial and cheap fixtures since they are constantly
getting out of order and causing no end of annoyance and ex-
pense. There are a few items that require attention : one is that
the bathtub should have an outlet fluslj with the bottom and not
flush with the side and at right angles with the bottom, as with
this arrangement it is almost impossible to completely drain the
tub. Nor should there be used an inlet to the tub which is placed
below the water level when full for it is quite possible that a low-
ering of the water pressure such as may readily occur with a
small farm water works, this connection may become the outlet
instead of the inlet and persons in the laundry or kitchen below
may be somewhat surprised at seeing a soapy water come out of
the faucet and the bather will be equally surprised at seeing the
tub emptied instead of being filled. For the wash basin the best
arrangement is the flush metal stopper actuated from below by
means of a suitable handle placed at the back of the basin. Such
stoppers are in common use on Pullman sleeping cars. The de-
vice, however, is rather costly and complex and, therefore, not
always desirable. The best substitute is the old-fashioned rub-
ber stopper, though this is somewhat objectionable owing to the
attached chain which readily accumulates dirt.
All plumbing fixtures must be securely trapped and there are
many highly satisfactory traps now on the market for all man-
ner of fixtures. City plumbing ordinances ordinarily require
that in addition to the trap there shall be a vent connected to a
vertical vent pipe running through the house parallel with the
soil pipe. These vents are intended to prevent syphoning of the
traps, but this is a matter about which there has been unneces-
sary apprehension for the reason that properly constructed traps
rarely syphon to an extent capable of removing the water seal
and in the ordinary farm dwelling the venting of plumbing fix-
tures may well be omitted.
A word may be said with reference to the construction of the
interior of the bath room. Most to be desired, of course, is the
5
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66 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
tile floor and high marble or tile wainscoting, but this elaboration
can rarely be enjoyed on the farm. The next best is a well laid
oil-cloth floor covering of best quality with a wainscoting of oil-
cloth either plain or stamped to imitate tiling. The wainscoting
in any event should be carried well up above the height to which
splash may reach. The remainder of the wall and ceiling should
be papered with glazed water-proof paper of a light color and
simple design.
An approximate estimate of cost of plumbing a house is given
in the following tabulation and the figures relate to a two-story
house with basement :
Soil pipe with necessary Y and T connections. . $15 to $30
Two set tubs for laundry 20 to 60
Kitchen sink with drain board 7.50 to 30
Bath tub 20 to 200
Wash basin for bath room 7.50 to 40
Closet 17.50 to 75
Necessary piping and faucets for hot and cold
water including hot water boiler 20 to 40
Looking at the matter in another way : Complete house plumb-
ing including bath tub, sink and laundry tubs of wood and zinc,
wash basin of enameled iron, water closet of porcelain may be
installed for $200.00. Complete house plumbing including closet,
wash basin and sink of porcelain and bath tub and laundry tub
of enameled iron may be installed for $300. The first represents
cheap and somewhat flimsy construction; the latter represents
first class and substantial construction and is well worth the ad-
ditional hundred dollars.
Drainage for the Prevention of Mosquito Breeding and Other
Sanitary Purposes: The advantages of land draining for agri-
cultural purposes are well known by all up-to-date farmers. But
land drainage has an additional and very important value,
namely, for the purpose of draining swampy areas and thereby
preventing the breeding of mosquitos. The writer has in mind
certain districts in Ohio which were drained primarily with this
object in view, though of course, the same operation opened up
large additional areas for agricultural purposes. In certain flat
or low lying territory, deep drainage may be utilized for lower-
ing the ground water level, which facilitates the maintenance of
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Farm Sanitation 67
dry cellars and makes possible the installation of sanitary sew-
erage systems. One such case existed in a rural community near
the city of Louisville, Kentucky, where the topography was such
that large areas used for residential purposes were more or less
flooded during certain seasons of the year, with here and there
small pools which lasted throughout a large portion of the year.
There was no possibility of draining cellars because there was no
outlet. Sanitary sewers could not be installed because there was
no outlet, also, because the entrance of ground water into the
sewer conduits prevented the economical final disposal of the
sewage. The installation of a drainage system lowered the
ground water level to an extent that made it easily possible to
maintain dry cellars. Mosquitos and malaria disappeared and
there is now under way the installation of sewerage systems
which will afford houses in this locality all of the sanitary advan-
tages and conveniences of the city dweller.
WATER SUPPLY.
Sources of Water Supply: The principal sources of water sup-
ply on farms are wells and cisterns. Occasionally under favor-
able conditions the supply may be obtained from a spring, and
in certain instances where the ground water supply is limited,
surface streams are utilized. The conditions under which it is
permissible to use a water supply from a stream for domestic
purposes are so few as to be practically negligible. It must be
recognized, however, that streams even though moderately pol-
luted may constitute satisfactory water supplies about the barns
and for stock watering. Sometimes, in very rare occasions, a
small water fall on a stream may be utilized for pumping pur-
poses. For all practical purposes, however, it is not necessary
to consider streams.
Somewhat detailed attention will, however, be devoted to wells,
cisterns and springs in the ocder mentioned which is also the
order of their relative importance.
Wells: There are various kinds of wells available for farm uses
and as they differ greatly in their relation to sanitation, it is nec-
essary to obtain clearly in mind how they differ. Wells may be
broadly divided into dug wells and tubular wells. The former
are of comparatively large diameter, rarely less than 3 feet, and
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68 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
are lined with brick or stone. The lining in a substantially con-
structed well is made with cemented joints for at least 10 feet
below the ground. More crudely constructed wells have linings
without cemented joints. Dug wells range in depth from 5 or
6 feet to about 100 feet, but the great majority have depths
ranging between 10 and 40 feet. When a greater depth than 50
feet must be penetrated to reach the water-bearing stratum, it
is found more convenient to do so by sinking a tubular well.
Tubular wells are generally of small bore, seldom exceeding 12
inches in diameter. "When passing through loose material they
must be cased with steel or wrought iron pipe, but in solid rock
no casing is required. Where the water-bearing stratum is in
loose material, it is necessary "to use some form of strainer which,
will admit the water freely but will exclude sand. There is prac-
tically no limit to the depth of tubular wells except present lim-
itations imposed by the art of drilling. It is unusual, however,
for water wells to exceed a depth of 2,500 feet and the great ma-
jority of tubular wells on farms are less than 150 feet in depth.
There is another type of tubular well which is shallow, namely,
the drive well. This is nothing more than a pipe shod with an
iron driving point and provided at its lower end with a strainer
or screen. Drive wells are driven into the ground as one would
drive a pile. It is only applicable, however, where an abundant
supply of water cAn be secured at depths of less than 30 feet in
comparatively loose material.
There is one form of well which is on the dividing line between
the tubular and the dug well. This is the tile lined well. The
diameter of tile lined wells generally varies from 8 inches to
about 18 inches and the method of drilling is that ordinarily
used for tubular wells in loose material. The lining, however, in-
stead of being of steel pipe provided at its base with a strainer
consists of vitrified sewer pipe let down into. the well with open
joints. These wells have all the m characteristics of dug wells so
far as pollution is concerned, but resemble tubular wells in the
methods used in sinking them.
Another grouping of wells relates to the material in which
water is found and under this grouping we have drift wells or
wells in loose material above bed rock and rock wells. Drift
wells may be subdivided into so-called surface wells obtaining
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Farm Sanitation 69
their water from water-bearing strata fed from the surface in
the immediate neighborhood and deep drift wells which receive
water from a considerable distance. The dividing line between
these two classes is a rather indefinite one, but the extremes rep-
resent widely divergent conditions. There may also be another
sub-division relating to the character of the water-bearing ma-
terial such as clay, sand, sand and gravel, and gravel. Rock
wells may be sub-divided into groups according to the character
of the rock and the depth at which it is found. For example,
there are wells in sandstone, wells in limestone, surface rock
wells, and deep rock wells.
Finally and of much importance from a sanitary point of view,
all wells may be grouped into two classes according to the pres-
sure under which the water is found. When the water is under
no pressure we may for want of a better name term it a " com-
mon' ' well. Where the water is found under pressure due to the
presence of overlying impervious strata the well is described as
under artesian pressure. This pressure may be so great as to
cause the water to rise above the surface of the ground in which
case the well becomes a true artesian well.
Having reviewed the various types of wells it will be possible
to consider the relative purity of water derived from them.
Broadly speaking, there are but two types of wells which are
subject to serious contamination, namely, the dug well and the
well of whatever construction which derives its supply from
limestone rock.
The dug well (and this includes tile lined wells) may receive
pollution through penetration of polluting material downward
through the soil into the water-bearing stratum and thence into
the well. This occurs when privies or cesspools are placed within
close proximity to shallow dug wells. Sometimes leaching cess-
pools with open bottoms are placed near dug wells and are suffi-
ciently deep to enter the same stratum from which the well de-
rives its water. Perhaps worst of all, abandoned wells near other
wells are frequently utilized as cesspools. The porosity of a wa-
terbearing stratum serves to carry off the liquids which are re-
ceived in a cesspool and from the point of view of sewage dis-
posal is a very satisfactory arrangement, but from the point of
view of water supply it is quite unsatisfactory.
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70
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Pollution through the soil, however, in the case of dug wells
is far less common than is popularly supposed, but pollution by
direct entrance of filthy and infectious matter from the surface
Fig. 1. — A Common Type of Dug Well
at or near the top of the lining of the well is far more common
than is popularly realized. Where privies or other accumula-
tions of filth are near such wells the surface wash during heavy
storms may carry pollution into the well. Furthermore much
filth is tracked about on the feet of persons, domestic animals
and poultry, some of which from time to time is scraped off on
the covering of the well and thus finds its way readily into the
water supply. A very common source of pollution of shallow
wells results from the entrance of small animals such as rats,
mice, frogs and an occasional cat or rabbit. These may not cause
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Farm Sanitation
71
specific diseases, but when in a decaying condition may render
the water unpalatable and in any event such pollution is not
pleasing to the esthetic sense.
Fig. 2. — An Open Well.
The accompanying cuts, Figures 1 and 2 show clearly how
readily dug wells may receive direct contamination from the sur-
face of the ground. Figure 3 shows how a dug well may be ade-
quately protected against surface contamination. Figure 4 shows
a drive well protected against contamination. It will be ob-
served that no opportunity is given for the entrance of pollution
into the well through or underneath the covering which is made
of concrete. Even the manhole is placed at a slight elevation
above the general level of the concrete surface so that no drain-
age may enter. An ordinary well fitting manhole cover will serve
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72
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
tect the well, surface drainage which percolates into the ground
the purpose, but if extra precautions are desired, the manhole
should be of the gasketed type and bolted down. To further pro-
Due Well. Adequately Protected
Rgainst Surface. Contamination
Fig. 3.
in the immediate vicinity of the well is forced to travel at least 6
feet in a downward direction by plastering the outside of the
well with Portland cement mortar so as to render it impervious.
It is still possible for a well constructed as above described to
receive sub-surface pollution, but slow percolation or filtration
of polluting material through the soil results in a very high de-
gree of purification, and if surface privies, manure piles and pig
pens are maintained at a distance of 50 feet, there is no likeli-
hood of serious contamination of the well water in ordinary soils.
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Farm Sanitation
73
In the case of cesspools, however, the distance should be made at
least 500 feet and preferably some other means of sewage dis-
posal should be sought.
** V
• ••£
,^4^* :• '* »» ••T
OQ/i/EN WELL ADEQUATELY PQOTECTED
AGAINST SURFACE CONTAMINATION
Fig. 4.
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74 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Wells in limestone rock are the most treacherous of all wells
because of the action of water on limestone which creates large
underground channels by a process of solution and erosion. It
thus becomes possible for water to travel great distances under
the ground without undergoing any greater degree of purifica-
tion than would obtain in surface streams. Even a sanitary
analysis of the water in limestone regions is unreliable unless it
happens to show pollution for the entrance of contamination is
often intermittent. In typical limestone regions in Kentucky
whole communities get rid of their sewage by discharging it into
so-called sinks or openings in the ground which lead to subterran-
ean water worn channels in the limestone bed-rock. Often wells
penetrating the same channels are used for domestic purposes
and unless the sewage can actually be seen it usually takes an
epidemic to convince the public of the danger. In 1906 the writer
investigated a typhoid fever outbreak in the small village of Ris-
ing Sun, in northern Ohio. This village is built over a limestone
formation which is completely honey-combed with waterworn
channels, large and small, thus permitting a very free passage of
the ground water. Practically all of the wells in town used for
drinking purposes derived their supply from this formation at a
depth of only a few feet below the surface. It would seem that
the danger must be evident to almost anyone with reasoning pow-
ers, yet it took a severe typhoid outbreak to demonstrate the
danger. The .immediate cause of the outbreak was the discharge
into an abandoned stone quarry of a considerable quantity of in-
fected matter removed from privy vaults. The quarry was filled
with water which stood at the same level as water in neighbor-
ing wells and was undoubtedly drawn into the wells when the lat-
ter were being pumped. The use of the quarry for final disposal
of various sorts of filth had been in practice for some years, but
apparently had not previously received in quantity the specific
germs of typhoid fever.
All other types of wells are comparatively free from the danger
of contamination, yet it must be recognized that even tubular
wells when poorly arranged are subject to contamination from
the surface. Moreover the steel casings used in connection with
tubular wells are sometimes corroded to an extent that causes
them to leak badly and admit polluted water from the surface or
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Farm Sanitation 75
near the surface. Artesian wells always yield water of good san-
itary quality, for the very fact that they are under pressure ne-
cessitates the existence of impervious strata lying above the wa-
ter-bearing stratum, and further the water almost certainly will
have had a sufficiently long passage through the earth to insure
complete self-purification. It is only in the flowing wells, how-
ever, that danger from contamination is completely removed, for
even in artesian wells if the pressure does not force the water
above the surface there is a danger from defective casings as
above outlined. In concluding the discussion of the ways in which
well waters may become contaminated, emphasis should be given
to the fact that many perfectly good ground waters are contami-
nated after they are brought to the surface by insanitary hand-
ling.
Cisterns: The rain water cistern in regions where only hard
or otherwise objectionable water may be obtained from wells has
not been developed to the best advantage. If properly collected
and stored rain water constitutes a most desirable water supply
for all domestic purposes, and its availability in adequate quant-
ity will be greatly appreciated by the women on the farm. The
dimensions of cisterns as ordinarily constructed is determined by
rule of thumb and gives sizes which are approximately correct for
the storage of water in the eastern states where the rainfall is far
more evenly distributed than through the central west. In Illin-
ois for example, the annual rainfall is 30 inches or more, and most
of this is precipitated during the winter and spring months. At
comparatively frequent intervals such as in 1895, 1908, 1911 and
1913, there are periods of as much as six months in duration and
extending over large areas when the rainfall is almost negligible.
It becomes, therefore, desirable to provide cisterns of greater stor-
age capacity than is now customary. A storage equivalent to half
of the ordinary minimum annual precipitation is believed to be
advisable. This will permit the conservation in dry years of
nearly the entire rainfall and in wet years will make possible the
utilization of far greater quantities of rainwater than has been
practiced.
It has always been customary to divert the first flow of roof
water so that the roof may be properly washed and only clear
water enter the cistern. This is one way of securing a reasonably
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76
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
clear water, but it results in large waste which can be readily pre-
vented by equipping a large cistern with a suitable form of filter.
Figures 5a and 5b represents a cistern of 15,000 gallons and suit-
able for a house having a roof area of about 1,600 square feet. It
is provided with a filter wall which consists of two thin walls of
SECTION THROUGH AB
SUGGESTIVE. DESIGN
tor a
SAND FILTER «nd CI5TERM
SUITABLE FOR A HOUSE
HAVING
1600 SQ. FT ROOF ARE! A
Fig. 5a.
brick separated by an 8 inch space filled with a coarse sand or fine
gravel. The vertical joints in the brick work are made with ce-
ment mortar while the horizontal joints af e laid dry. At the base
are placed a number of loose brick at several points so that the
sand or gravel may be removed when it becomes unduly clogged.
The filter wall is built in an arch shape so as to give it strength
against the pressure of water on the upstream side and the raw
water compartment is made much larger than the filtered water
compartment so as to obtain the full benefit of sedimentation be-
fore filtration. Sedimentation may be much assisted by the oc-
casional use of about two pounds of dissolved crystal alum and
about one pound of freshly slaked lime, the latter in the form
of a dilute mixture with water. This application of chemicals
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Farm Sanitation
77,
need be made only two or three times a year. It results in mak-
ing the water slightly hard, but this increase in hardness will be
scarcely perceptible. The alum will prove unobjectionable be-
cause none of it will pass into the filtered water basin. It assists
sedimentation by creating a floculent precipitate which entrains
the finely divided solid particles washed from the roof and causes
Overflow
4'Gi
5AN0 REMOVED TO SHOW Rl
PLAN SHOWING ARCHES REMOVED
Pig. 5&.
them to settle more rapidly. The use of alum also will remove in
large measure the color from water that is derived from shingled
roofs.
Figures 6a and 6b illustrate another form of filtering device
which may be used in connection with a cistern. This filter is
built according to principles for many years successfully used in
the purification of public water supplies by what is known as the
slow sand filtration process. It is more costly than the method
previously described but is more certain in its action and has a
higher bacterial efficiency. Also it is more readily accessible for
cleaning and repairs. The maintenance of a filter of this type in-
volves the removal of about a half inch of sand once in a year or
perhaps once in two years, which can best be done when the cistern
is drawn low at the end of the summer season. A small quantity
of alum not over half pound in solution together with about a
quarter of a pound of freshly slaked lime introduced into the filter
compartment immediately after cleaning of the filter will ma-
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.78
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
terially increase its efficiency during the early part of the filter
run.
The foregoing discussion has been based upon the current prac-
Fig. 6a,
tice of utilizing the rain water from the house roof only and the
question may be raised as to whether it would not be highly de-
sirable to conserve carefully the water from the barn roof and
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Farm Sanitation
79
from the roofs of any other buildings that may exist upon the
farm. Where sufficient roof area is not available it may be de-
sirable to prepare catchment areas on the surface of the ground.
Fig. 66.
This may be accomplished by paving limited areas or by keeping
them in sod. In the latter instance the area must be roughly
about five times as large as the paved or impervious area. It is
•essential, however, that such areas be protected against undue
•contamination and to this end thev should be fenced in and the
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80 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
drainage from nearby areas subject to pollution must be diverted-
If an enclosed lawn is utilized it may be so arranged as to be
an object of beauty as well as a source of water supply. By these
various means it is quite practicable to obtain an abundant sup-
ply of very soft water for all domestic purposes which will prove
far superior to the supplies that are ordinarily derived from
yeells. Moreover, in houses which have plumbing and pumps for
distributing the water it will be feasible to do away with the
double system of piping and pumping arrangements made neces-
sary by the combined use of hard and soft water.
The illustrations shown depict rather substantial construction
made necessary by the large size of the structures and suitable
for use in almdst any kind of soil. In actual practice it is custom-
ary to use a much cheaper form of construction as for example,
thin walls of cement plaster applied directly to the sides of the
excavation or a mere four inch wall of brick plastered on the in-
side. While this sort of construction seems very flimsy, its fre-
quently demonstrated stability under favorable conditions may be
accounted for by the fact that the water pressure within the eis-
tern is always greater than the pressure of the ground water out-
side of the cistern, thus the lining is pressed outward against the
excavation thereby preventing collapse. The essential point in
any case, however, is that the cistern be made absolutely water
tight otherwise much of the stored water may be lost by seepage
into the ground.
A cistern with a filter wall as depicted in Figure 5 can be built
for about $300. The cistern and filter shown in Figure 6 will cost
$400. If a cheaper form of construction is desired, such for ex-
ample as the cement plastered walls it will be necessary to use a
smaller diameter and, therefore, two cisterns will have to be built
to afford the same capacity as the one illustrated. Two small
cisterns with cement plastered walls and filter partitions as shown
in Figure 5 and having combined, the same capacity as the single
cistern shown, will cost approximately $200.
Springs: In more or less rolling or hilly country springs may
often be used to great advantage on the farm. Springs are often
found at a sufficient elevation to permit of supplying the house
by gravity. "Where the spring is not high enough to afford a grav-
ity supply, the water may be present in sufficient quantity to per-
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Farm Sanitation
81
mit the installation of a water ram, a machine which utilizes the
principle of impact to pump a portion of the water flowing
through it to any elevation desired. The machine is easily in-
stalled, can be purchased at a comparatively small price and does
Overflew
i
to
<0
%
4
I
i
Hytw)',wi
is
n
M
wji<mtM
tovwum.
■O"
^Coding Space
WW#&=^AM9mWik—=*WMM&
PLAN
zUy$:\
SU66E5TIVE DESIGN
*§ FOR fl
SPBING HOUSE WITH DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLY
ADEQUATELY PROTECTED
Fig. 7.
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82 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
its work with practically no attention and without operating cost.
Sometimes it becomes desirable to utilize a spring both for a do-
mestic water supply and for cooling milk and butter. In such
case a structure shown in Figure 7 may be utilized to advantage.
It will be observed that the water which is pumped to the house
is maintained at a higher level than that which is used for cooling
purposes in order to prevent its contamination, furthermore, it is
tightly covered by an impervious concrete floor. It is assumed in
this case that the volume of water is not sufficient for the utiliza-
tion of a water ram and therefore, a gasoline engine with pump
attached is used. If dairying operations are conducted in the
spring house, it would be quite practicable to use the same engine
for operating the cream separator and churn.
In developing springs it is always of the highest importance to
ascertain from which direction the flow comes and to adequately
protect the watershed so as to prevent contamination. This is due
to the fact that spring waters are ordinarily derived from shal-
low depths and are particularly subject to the influence of sur-
face conditions.
Development of the Water Supply: The development of a water
supply for farm uses is a matter that does not need the considera-
tion of the sanitary engineer except insofar as to point out the
broad general principle that the water shall at no point in the
course of its handling be exposed to the possibility of contami-
nation. Aside from the gravity system of delivering water from
an elevated source through pipes the problem involves a selection
of some means of pumping and storing the water. With refer-
ence to storage there are three systems, known respectively as the
elevated tank system, the hydro pneumatic system and pneumatic*
system. The first involves the- storage of water in an elevated
tank placed either in the top part of the house or on a specially
constructed tower. Such towers are sometimes combined with
wind mill towers. The second involves the storage of water in an
enclosed tank under pressure at or below the ground level, the
pressure being produced by a cushion of air maintained in the
tank. Such tanks may be located in cellars or buried in the
ground. For structural reasons they are always made of steel
whereas the elevated tanks may be made of wood. The third or
pneumatic system strictly speaking does not store the water at all
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Farm Sanitation 83
excepting insofar as it may be stored in the well or cistern. The
same effect is secured by the storage of a large quantity of air un-
der pressure which upon opening a faucet forces water out of
smaller tanks or pneumatic cylinders located below the water level
at the source. With any of these systems power may be furnished
by wind mill, a gasoline engine, an electric motor, or any other
actuating device that proves convenient or economical. The wa-
ter ram is adapted to use with the elevated tank system only. It
may be added, that the gasoline engine seems to be coming into
general favor.
The several systems including the pumping equipment have
their advantages and disadvantages. For example, the elevated
tank system is relatively cheap and furnishes reliable service, but
it renders the water unpalatable by permitting it to become warm
through exposure to the sun 's heat in the tank and when the tank
is within the house it does not give good fire protection. The
hydro pneumatic system is somewhat complicated and costs more,
but furnishes excellent fire protection and maintains the water
reasonably ccol and palatable, unless, of course, the storage tank
is placed in a heated cellar. The pneumatic system is in certain
respects less complex than the hydro pneumatic system, but costs
more. It has a distinct advantage in that the engine or motor
and other parts that should be kept under cover may be remote
from the well even when water must be drawn from a great
depth. The principal objection results from leaky air pipes.
For details of design and cost of distributing systems for farm
water supply reference must be made to these who have given
special study to farm machinery.
DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE AND LIQUID WASTES.
But a few years ago farm houses with a complete plumbing
equipment were a rarity and even today the great majority of
farm houses depend upon primitive methods for water supply
and the disposal of their liquid wastes. It is not probable that
the laborious carrying of water necessitated by the old-fashioned
farm well and the inconvenience and unhealthfulness of the out-
door privy will be abandoned on all farms for many years to
come, and it, therefore, becomes necessary to give some attention
to the best method of disposing of human wastes under these
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84 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
primitive conditions. The liquid wastes of an ordinary farm
household comprise drainage from the kitchen sink, laundry wa-
ter, and comparatively small quantities of water used for wash-
ing and bathing. These liquids are as a rule thrown out upon
the surface of the ground, and if reasonable care is observed not
to water log the ground, this method of disposal of such wastes
is entirely satisfactory. The privy constitutes a different prob-
lem, however, and in this connection the principal requirement
is to so construct this device so as to prevent soil pollution, the
entrance of flies, and further to render it readily accessible for
cleaning purposes. This may be accomplished by the use of wa-
ter-tight receptacles such as half barrels placed at or above the
surface of the ground in a dry and well screened compartment
with a large door provided for accessibility. Another type which
has given satisfaction is that recommended by the United States
Public Health Service and comprises the use of one or more bar-
rels filled with water. These barrels act very much as ordinary
sewage tanks and serve to disintegrate the organic matters so
that the final liquid effluent may be disposed of with small diffi-
culty through drain tiles laid at a foot to 18 inches below the sur-
face of the ground or the overflow from the barrels may be col-
lected in a suitable receptacle and carried away and disposed of
on land where soil pollution will not endanger wells. This form
of privy requires very little attention though it is liable to pro-
duce bad odors in its vicinity. These odors, however, are cer-
tainly no worse than result from the ordinary outdoor privy as
commonly built.
With plumbed houses and the water carriage system for re-
moving wastes there is produced a sewage which is similar to that
coming from the sewer outfalls of small residential communities.
This liquid is large in volume amounting often to about 50 gal-
lons per capita per day. If permitted to flow into a drainage
ditch or into a small natural water-course it is very apt to create
foul conditions and hence there must be provided special means
for its final disposal.
The Principles Underlying Sewage Disposal: Sewage is merely
a dirty water containing rarely over oue part in a thousand of
organic matter. This small quantity, however, is sufficient to im-
part to the liquid a very disagreeable odor particularly when it
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Farm Sanitation 85
is in a putrefying condition. The circumstance that renders sew-
age dangerous, however, is the fact that it may cojitain the germs
of disease, and therefore special consideration must be given to
its final disposal so that it will not enter the water supply or con-
taminate the food intended for human consumption.
Practically all methods of sewage treatment are based upon
the one central principle of oxidation and mineralization of the
organic matters through the activity of microscopic organisms,
principally bacteria. These organisms always present in sewage
feed on the complex organic compounds found in sewage con-
stantly reducing them to simpler compounds until complete min-
eralization results. The same organisms do not function in all
stages of the process, but each successive stage is produced by
organisms that have vital requirements best adapted to the con-
dition in which the organic matter is found at that particular
stage of decomposition.
There are two distinct forms of decomposition, both of which
are used in the art of sewage treatment. One relates to decom-
position in the presence of an abundance of oxygen (aerobic de-
composition) and is usually accomplished without the production
of offensive odors. The other relates to decomposition in the ab-
sence of oxygen (anaerobic decomposition) and is commonly des-
ignated as putrefaction and is accompanied under ordinary con-
ditions by very offensive odors. Where organic matter decom-
poses in the presence of insufficient oxygen for complete oxida-
tion the first stages of the process are malodorous or of a putre-
factive character, and complete mineralization does not result
though it is possible to secure a liquid of fairly stable character
and comparatively free from bad odor. If oxygen is available,
however, or if the liquid is standing in contact with the atmo-
sphere it will soon begin to take up oxygen so that the final stages
of the process will be on an aerobic basis.
The simplest form of sewage disposal is so-called disposal by
dilution, in which the sewage is discharged into a watercourse
with sufficient volume of flow and sufficient oxygen content to ef-
fect complete mineralization on the aerobic basis. Thus the pro-
cess is unaccompanied by objectionable odors. For successful
disposal by dilution a stream flow of 4 to 6 cubic feet per sec-
ond is required for every thousand persons tributary to the sew-
ers discharging at a particular point.
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86 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Very often a stream of sufficient volume is not available for
the discharge of sewage and it becomes necessary to treat the
sewage. This may be accomplished in various ways, the most
primitive of which is direct application to the land. While this
method is apparently simple, it nevertheless involves many dif-
ficulties if carried out in an inoffensive and sanitary way and on
a large scale requires enormous areas and is very costly. Inten-
sive methods have been gradually developed which for large in-
stallations prove economical, but in the case of sewage disposal
on the farm it becomes desirable to revert to some of the more
primitive methods though such may be modified to some extent
by modern developments.
One of the modern developments that must generally be used
in the final disposal of sewage, no matter how small the quantity
of sewage, consists in giving the sewage a preliminary treatment
in some form of tank. The object of this treatment is to hydro-
lize or disintegrate the solid matters so that they can be more
readily disposed of and to produce a liquid effluent comparatively
free from suspended matter. Such effluent can be applied to sub-
sequent treatment devices more readily than crude sewage be-
cause difficulties due to clogging are greatly reduced. It should
be clearly understood that treatment in tanks, (septic tanks in
particular) does not produce a clear and odorless effluent.
The simplest form of treatment device that may be used for an
individual farm house comprises merely a tank capable of hold-
ing the sewage produced in a period of 24 hours or longer, and
provided with an inlet and outlet. Such a tank is shown in
Figure 8. This tank, as will be seen, is very simple in construc-
tion and can be built for approximately $30.00.
The effluent from a tank of this character contains no coarse
solids, is likely to be dark in appearance and upon close observa-
tion will be found to carry finely divided suspended particles. It
may b« discharged into a perennial stream of moderate size with-
out producing objectionable conditions, but where no such stream
is available some other method must be utilized. In a sandy or
gravelly soil the liquid may best be disposed of by permitting it
to flow into a system of open jointed tile drains placed at a foot
to 18 inches below the surface of the ground. The tile drain may
be made up of 4 inch farm drain tile and should have a length of
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Farm Sanitation
87
*&%*
I I r
SLUDGE OUTLET
*
Sump
■ ' ■ ! i ! ! ' n r
-^i^"-
1N
PLAN
SECTION
SUGGESTIVE DESIGN
FOB THE
SIMPLEST FORM OF SEWAGE TANK-
FOB A
FARM RESIDENCE
Fig. 8.
.1
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88
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
about 100 feet for every member of the household. The charac-
ter of soil may materially vary the amount of tile necessary. To
get best results the liquid should be applied to the tiles in the
form of a dose discharged rapidly within a few minutes once
every twelve or twenty-four hours. This can be accomplished by
=X=gi Ml1!
1^n f/Ag ,
dr^is^ ■ ■ ■ , i \ ,Wh ■ ■ ■
-j-TB i i i i i > i Ui ■ i ■ i ii'i ■ . J
PLfHi
Svb-Surtocx Droit
SUGGESTIVE DESIGN
FOB A
SEWAGE TANK WITH DOSIMG CHAMBEB
OlSCHflKING INTO A DBAIN TILE
SUB-SURFACE DISPOSAL SYSTEM
Fig. 9.
building in conjunction with the tank a small dosing chamber
equipped with an automatic discharge syphon as shown in Figure
9. Syphons, however, are subject to derangements and in most
cases should be omitted in favor of a more liberal use of tile. A
typical arrangement for a sub-surface sewage disposal system of
tile drains is shown in Figure 10. This assumes the necessity for
a system of distribution pipes and a system of collector pipes but
as a matter of fact the collector pipes can generally be omitted.
"Where the soil is of a finely divided character and capable of
absorbing large quantities of moisture as is characteristic of most
of the glacial drift throughout Illinois the same system may be
utilized, but can be relied upon to take care of the sewage ade-
quately only during periods of small rainfall. This, however,
often proves to be all that is needed for in wet weather the sew-
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Farm Sanitation
89
age may be discharged directly into a stream which will then
have flow enough to provide the dilution necessary for inoffensive
oxidation. Sufficient dilution may even obtain within the drain
tile itself. It thus sometimes happens that the discharge of the
GrvundSyrfaca_
4"openjoint
tHe distributor
TYPICAL SECTION
OF
DISTRIBUTOQ fiND DRGIN
TrPCflt Plan
roe ^
SUB-SURFACE SEWAGE &SPOSAL SrSTEM
SHOwint
use of distributing and collecting tile
Fig. 10.
effluent into the upper end of an existing long tile drain accomp-
lishes all that is required for in dry seasons the sewage will soak
into the ground while in wet seasons it will be carried to the out-
let of the drain along with a sufficient quantity of water to ren-
der the liquid inoffensive.
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90 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
In certain forms of clayey soil any attempt to cause the sewage
to soak away into the ground will prove futile, but this difficulty
may be overcome by placing beds of sandy or gravelly material
artificially about the tile. When this is done it is necessary to
place sub-drains for carrying off the more or less purified liquid
after it has passed through sand or gravel. This arrangement
constitutes the principle of a well-known proprietary device for
sewage treatment and can be counted upon to produce satisfac-
tory results so long as a sufficient quantity of porous material is
used. For large installations, however, it would prove costly and
uneconomical.
It is difficult to lay down any hard and fast rules relative to
the design and arrangement of subsurface sewage disposal sys-
tems. The proper length of drain tile, the necessity of collector
drains and the desirability of surrounding the drains with por-
ous material must under many conditions be determined by the
method of cut and try. Where the system is applicable, however,
it is certainly the simplest, least offensive and easiest to main-
tain.
With certain forms of secondary sewage treatment devices and
often where sewage is to be discharged into a watercourse, it is
desirable to maintain the sewage in as fresh a condition as possi-
ble, that is to say, it is desirable to maintain the oxygen content
of the sewage. To accomplish this there has recently been de-
veloped in the Emscher drainage district of Germany a two
story tank known as the Emscher tank which utilizes a small
compartment for sedimentation purposes and a lower compart-
ment for the digestion of the solid matters. The solid matters
which are settled out in the upper compartments gain access to
the lower compartments through a narrow slot so trapped that
the liquids in the two compartments may not readily intermin-
gle. The sedimentation chamber must be made very much larger
than is customary in connection with municipal sewage treatment
works for the reason that the very uneven rate of sewage flow
from an individual residence would subject the sedimentation
compartment to violent disturbances. For this reason an aver-
age period of 5 or 6 hours sedimentation should be provided.
The Emscher tank has another advantage in that the sludge or
solid matter is thoroughly digested and may periodically be dis-
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Farm Sanitation
91
charged into some nearby depression without giving rise to ob-
jectionable odors. When dry it has the consistency of rich loamy
earth and may advantageously be spread on lawns and gardens.
sueecynve ocsign
row
IMHOrr SEWGE TANK FOR A HOUSE
CONTAINING TEN PERSONS
FIG. 11.
A modification of the Emscher tank adapted to the use of a
household of ten persons is shown in Figure 11. The cost of such
a tank would be about $60.00.
Where simple tank treatment or subsurface drainage cannot
be utilized a system successfully experimented with at the engi-
neering experiment station of the Iowa State College may be
adopted. This consists of a preliminary sedimentation tank and
a sand strainer of 6 inches in thickness placed above a coarse
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92 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
grained trickling or percolating filter. The whole is covered over
with a roof and suitably ventilated to promote aerobic decompo-
sition. The construction is so simple that derangements cannot
readily occur. The sand strainer no doubt needs the most fre-
quent attention as this will from time to time become clogged. A
description of this method of sewage treatment by Professor An-
son Marston will be found in the Transactions of this society for
1909.
On large country estates or for isolated institutions such as
alms houses, asylums, sanitoria, etc. perhaps the most economi-
cal and highly efficient system is so-called intermittent sand fil-
tration. Figure 12 shows a plan for an intermittent sand filtra-
tion plant that will adequately care for the sewage of about 25
persons (generally they should not be built for populations of
less than twenty-five). The plant comprises also an Emscher
tank and a dosing chamber. The filters consist of a bed of sand
three feet in thickness, resting upon a carefully constructed un-
der drain system of drain tile" and graded gravel. The total area
of the installation is figured on the basis of one acre for every
750 persons tributary to the sewers. For a household of 25 per-
sons there would be required 0.033 acres or about 1500 square
feet. As the name intermittent sand filtration implies, the sew-
age is applied to the filters intermittently and this is accomp-
lished by a dosing chamber which is of such capacity that a sin-
gle dose will cover one filter bed to a depth of two inches. The
filter area should be divided into at least two beds, but preferably
three. The latter arrangement permits one bed to be out of serv-
ice for cleaning or repairs or for a protracted resting period with-
out serious reduction in filter area and without interfering with
the proper operation of other beds. The automatic dosing ap-
paratus is so arranged that it will automatically discharge upon
first one bed and then the other and valve arrangements are
such that any two beds may be maintained in service.
Intermittent sand filters will not operate without attention,
and they should be visited at least once every few days to see that
all parts are in proper working order and to keep the sand beds
free from weeds. At greater intervals, perhaps once per month,
it becomes necessary to take or scrape the sand lightly so as to
break up the surface mat formed by the solid matter in the sew-
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Farm Sanitation
93
Fig. 12.
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94 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
age, but with proper care this process should result in but very
slight loss of sand. During the winter in cold climates it is nec-
essary to furrow or mound sand beds in such way as to cause
the formation of a sheet of ice resting upon the top of the fur-
rows.. This will effectively prevent the freezing of the sewage as
it passes along the troughs of the furrows underneath. The au-
tomatic dosing apparatus requires attention as already noted,
but with a well settled sewage and syphons of reliable make de-
rangements will be infrequent.
A somewhat more intensive method of sewage treatment and
one which is especially adaptable to very large farm houses at-
tention as already noted, but with a well settled sewage and sy-
phons of reliable make derangements will be infrequent.
A somewhat more intensive method of sewage treatment and
one which is especially adaptable to very large farm houses, coun-
try clubs and institutions and for use in locations where the pro-
duction of odors is not permissible is treatment in so-called con-
tact beds. An installation comprising double contact beds is
shown in Figure 13. It is assumed that the contact treatment
will be preceded by sedimentation. The contact beds are merely
water tight basins filled with gravel, broken stone, hard burned
cinders, broken brick or any other material which presents a
fairly rough surface and which is not easily disintegrated. The
size of the material should not average less than y2 inch in diam-
eter or be greater than iy2 inches in diameter. Means are pro-
vided for permitting the sewage to flow into this bed and to fill
the interstices of the material which it contains where it may
remain in contact for a definite period of time. This feature of
holding the sewage in contact with the material gives rise to the
name of the device. The bed is emptied and the period of con-
tact is regulated by means of an automatic device which embodies
the principal of the syphon. In the design as shown on Figure
13, the effluent from the first contact bed passes into another con-
tact bed of exactly similar construction. A third contact may be
used if a high degree of purification is necessary. Upon emerg-
ing from the second contact bed the liquid will be fairly clear in
appearance and will have no offensive odor, thus rendering it
suitable for discharge into a small water course. For the pur-
pose of minimizing odors a specially constructed inlet arrange-
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Farm Sanitation
95
ment to the bed is provided which prevents the sewage from be-
ing exposed to the atmosphere. This device consists simply of
ing exposed to the atmosphere,
L
is
Fig. 13.
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96 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
short half tile 14 to 18 inches in diameter and laid with large
open joints. Within the invert of this half tile is placed fine
broken stone or gravel and over the top is placed a readily re-
movable roof. The device also has another advantage in that it
localizes all clogging in the fine material within the half tile.
When this becomes clogged so that it will not permit the entrance
of the sewage into the bed readily it may be removed easily and
replaced with new material.
There are various other sewage treatment devices, but none of
them, except under exceptional and peculiar conditions, can be
recommended for use upon the farm.
SUMMARY
By way of summary it may be pointed out that the dweller on
the farm now has at his command all of the household conven-
iences of the city dweller and moreover he can be fortified in the
same degree, or even to a greater degree, against a contaminated
water supply or offensive and insanitary final disposal of the
house sewage and that without excessive cost. It is impossible
in speaking of sanitation on the farm, especially as it relates to
water supply and disposal of sewage, to lay down hard and fast
rules which may be followed blindly. On the contrary, it will
be necessary in arranging for any of the conveniences outlined
in the foregoing to take full cognizance of the influence of local
factors. The problems presented are not, however, difficult or
at all complex and with a moderate amount of study the up-to-
date and intelligent farmer can with but moderate assistance
from the agricultural engineer design and install water supplies,
sewerage systems, plumbing systems, heating and ventilating sys-
tems, and all that is necessary of a material nature to render the
comfort of life on the farm complete and even luxurious.
DISCUSSION.
The Chairman: I am sure that Professor Hansen would be
glad to answer any question that you care to ask him.
Mr. M. L. King : With a contact filter system such as you have
described, what would be the cost for disposing of the sewage for
eight hundred to a thousand persons ?
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Discussion on Farm Sanitation 97
Mr. Hansen : I did not attempt to figure the cost of those more
complex devices, because it is merely a matter of finding out how
much material there is required, and the local prices.
Mr. Greig : Has that system been tried out ?
Mr. Hansen : Yes, very extensively. It is, however, being dis-
placed for municipal purposes to a great extent by the so-called
sprinkling or percolating filters, which are much more economi-
cal. They can take a population load of three or four times that
of a contact filter ; but for a small installation of this character,
the sprinkling filter is inapplicable, because it is too complex.
Mr. C. F. Chase : Have you any suggestion as to the placing of
the tile with reference to the frost line. Would it be possible to
distribute tile above the frost line ¥
Mr. Hansen : That is something my personal experience does
not enable me to tell you very much about, but I know that sew-
age is warm, generally about fifty degrees or over, and I there-
fore assume it would not be necessary to place the tile entirely
below the frost line. Even if it is within the frost line somewhat,
or within the depth of frost penetration, no serious harm would
result, because the sewage would tend to thaw out around the
tile ; but, on the other hand, I would say that it would be advisa-
ble to put it down near the base of frost penetration, and in order
to get the aeration desirable, it would be a very simple matter to
construct your arrangement for letting air into the tile.
Mr. C. F. Chase: If at certain seasons of the year, water came
up above your distributing tile, do you know of any way to
handle the sewage under this condition?
Mr. Hansen : No, because one must use some discretion in se-
lecting his site, and selecting the area that he proposes to put the
tile into.
Mr. C. F. Chase : Suppose we have not any discretion.
Mr. Hansen : In that case, would it not be permissible to dis-
pose of the sewage by means of the under drainage system in the
summer time, discharging it directly into drainage ditches or
streams during periods of high rain fall, when the ground water
is high %
Mr. C F. Chase : That may be perfectly feasible here in Illin-
ois in many places, but it would not be in Dakota.
Mr. Hansen : Under this condition the only outlet is some spe-
7
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98 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
cial form of sewage treatment, like intermittent sand filters ; but
that is always inadvisable, if you can side step it, because it in-
volves a good deal of care, and it is difficult to get a reasonable
amount of care on a farm.
Mr. J. A. King: We have a limestone formation in eastern
Iowa that comes to the surface in some places, and goes down
from 1,000 to 1,500 feet, and we have to go all the way from 90
to 150 feet for water. Would there be serious danger of con-
tamination of wells from putting the overflow from a septic tank
into an open fissure f
Mr. Hansen : There is a great deal of danger. A case of that
sort occurred in Southern Illinois, at the Anna State Hospital for
the Insane. They had limestone wells about 400 feet deep there,
that were decidedly polluted. Analyses showed that repeatedly.
It was subsequently discovered that the pollution resulted from a
poorly laid sewer in between some of the wells. The sewage got
out of the sewer and into the limestone fissures, and went down
to the water bearing stratum, and the water bearing stratum was
merely one of those honeycombed layers of limestone with occa-
sional large panels in it, as was evidenced by the dropping of the
drill in some of the wells.
Mr. J. A. King: I know of an instance, that until this year,
they had a catch sink drain that they connected with what we
call a "dry fissure", just a few rods from the house. When they
put in a sewage system with a septic tank, they connected the
overflow from the septic tank into this same dry fissure in the
limestone. About 300 feet from this point where the overflow
was discharged into the fissure, there is a well about ninety feet
deep ; and then about another 100 feet from that is a large spring
coming up just about on the edge of the river. The house is right
on the river bank. I wondered if there was any danger of con-
taminating that well or that spring.
Mr. Hansen: I should say that it is something that ought to
be very carefully investigated, because you can not tell what is
happening below the surface of the ground.
Mr. J. A. King: Would that be answered by analyses of the
water?
Mr. Hansen : Yes, and do not trust to a single analysis. You
should make frequent analyses, because there may be conditions
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Discussion on Farm Sanitation 99
under which the wells might be polluted at one time and not pol-
luted at another time. The most striking instance I know of the
pollution of a limestone water supply, was at Georgetown, Ken-
tucky. The water supply was derived from an enormous spring,
called the "Royal Spring", that flowed during low water about
two million gallons a day, or over. That served as a very satis-
factory water supply for quite a while; but after a while the
town grew up over the water-shed of this spring. In fact, about
one-fifth of the present town is located in that area, and all
through that area it is customary to get rid of the sewage by
building their privies over so-ealled sink holes. Of course, that
all goes right down to the water supply ; but nobody ever thought
of that until they had a typhoid fever epidemic, and then analy-
ses of the water — made too late — showed that it was simply full
of pollution. I say "full of pollution"; I mean, they showed
that it was grossly polluted, because it was more or less invisible,
of course.
Mr. J. A. King : If closets are^ built upon limestone which is
more or less limestone rubble at the surface, but not over an open
fissure, is there danger of contamination ?
Mr. Hansen : Prom what ?
Mr. J. A. King: If one digs an outdoor closet, he might run
about two or three feet deep, or a little over, in digging the sink
for it, and would go down into this porous limestone, limestone
rubble, disintegrated limestone. Now, is there much danger of
contamination of wells from those water closets ?
Mr. Hansen : Yes.
Mr. J. A. King : Even when thfcy are not over a fissure ?
Mr. Hansen: Yes, I should say there is a very great danger,
because there are minor channels, that are not so evident, which
would permit a comparatively free flow of water. You do not get
the same effect as you do in the percolation of water through
sand. That is a different proposition. You get a rapid flow from
the little channels leading into the larger channels.
Mr. J. A. King : It is not really a filtration.
Mr. Hansen : Not a filtration at all. Of course, there is a cer-
tain amount of self purification as the water flows on, just as
on the surface of the ground; but the purification is not rapid
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100 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
enough, because the water travels too fast; its movement is too
easy, too free.
The Chairman: I would like to ask Dr. Hansen a question
that has occurred to me in this connection. With an elevated
tank, how do you keep the pipes from freezing ?
Mr. Hansen: Well, there are various ways. Packing is per-
haps as good a way as any.
The Chairman: We have a good deal of trouble where the
pipes enter the tank.
Mr. Hansen : That difficulty used to confront us in connection
with public water supplies ; but the tendency now is to do away
with the small vertical pipe, and build a large stand pipe affair,
some four feet in diameter, and that does not freeze.
The Chairman : We have a great many people putting in con-
crete tanks, and they all have trouble just where the pipe enters
the tank.
Mr. Hansen : Is it not often feasible to enclose the entire base
of the tower ?
The Chairman: They nearly always are. They have simply
a round tower, and they use that for a pump house, with a door
entering it, and then put the tank on top of that; but in every
instance they froze all last winter and we could not keep them
from freezing.
Mr. Hansen: Could you not have put a small stove in the
house?
The Chairman: Well, of course, we could do that, but that
would be a nuisance.
Mr. M. L. King : In the last Iowa State College Bulletin, they
have illustrated a double pipe proposition that takes care of that
very nicely.
The Chairman : I do not know that I recall it. Perhaps you
had better explain it, Mr. King.
Mr. M. L. King : Of course, the trouble is, the pipe goes up into
the tank, and you can pack the pipe all the way up to the tank
bottom, but if it is a wood tank, you have the wet wood at the
bottom conducting your heat away ; and if you have a masonry
bottom, you have the masonry conducting the heat away, and
the pipe invariably freezes right at the bottom. I do not know
of any case where our method was not successful. We used a
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Discussion on Farm Sanitation 101
two inch water pipe. We put in the tank bottom a 3 or 4 inch
flange. In one case we had a2y2 inch pipe, and put a four inch
flange in the tank bottom, carrying the pipe up about 18 inches
from that, and also down about 18 inches. Then we put an end
reducer on it, reducing it down to 2y2 inches, bringing the small
pipe down through the larger one. In that way the tank bottom
does not touch the water pipe ; and the carrying of the pipes be-
low, that is, the four inch pipe, down about 18 or 20 inches, al-
lows for any settling of the packing. In some cases it is conven-
ient to pack with straw, chaff, etc., which is very efficient pack-
ing, if it can be kept dry. We used that in wood tanks and in
masonry tanks, and had occasion to investigate several cases of
freezing ; and invariably we found that they froze in that partic-
ular place. We also had an opportunity to thaw out a few tanks
that had afterwards frozen in other portions, and actually found
that after water had stood in that pipe, and been frozen in other
parts of the pipe, having stood there sometimes for as much as
twelve hours in bitter weather, opening a connection right below
this double pipe let the water right out of the tank. I had occa-
sion to disconnect the pipe right where it turned, at this double
pipe, and try to get an inch and a half pipe to flow out in the open
air. It had about an eight foot head above it, and it was so cold
that we had a man sitting straddle a board partition with a light
in each hand to keep the pipe clear ; but that double pipe propo-
sition took care of that satisfactorily. I found one tank 20 feet
in diameter, 20 feet deep, about half full of water, that had
frozen ; and in that case the ice had frozen from 18 to 24 inches
deep on the top of the water. There was a five inch pipe, and
the ice only extended from the top of the pipe down not over 24
inches. We were measuring quite carefully there, but the last
two or three inches we had not measured. The system through-
out the village had not frozen yet, and they had their pressure
on keeping the mains going. We were not worrying much about
the water pressure, although we knew that the pressure in the
pipe was greater than the head of water. We overlooked the fact
that there had been a great deal of air passed in the system
throughout, and when we were working there on the ice over the
whole tank, the water being about ten feet deep and the ice about
two inches thick, the whole thing suddenly blew up. It is a mys-
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102 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
tery to me that the tank did not burst and throw us all out on
the ground, 100 feet below; but it did not. That gave an air
chamber, preventing contact between the water pipe and the
tank bottom. In a flat bottomed tank, it is more or less objec-
tionable, in that it reduces the capacity of your tank somewhat ;
but that can be taken care of by bringing up a third pipe, which
takes care of the whole matter. A little projection over in the
tank is not very objectionable, and in any amount of tanks that
we worked with, which had conical bottoms, it was not objection-
able at all, because it only reduced the capacity of the tank by
the amount of the rim, the outer part of the cone, the cone with
the apex up ; so we got away with that proposition very nicely.
We did another thing that was not treated in a practical way,
but from a laboratory standpoint. The laboratory was at the
side of the building; and when the winter was good and cold, in-
stead of the ordinary method of putting a heating pipe outside
of the water pipe, where the heat might be supplied artificially,
and would radiate partially to the water pipe on the inside and
partially through the pipe outwardly, where it would do no good,
we put a pipe up through the water pipe. It came through the
plug at the bottom, and was opened at the bottom, and passed
clear up, following whatever bends, expansion joints, etc., there
might be up through the tank ; and then we hung a lantern down
below where the water went up. If you try to thaw out one of
these pipes it is quite a difficult proposition. In the first place,
you must get down in the ground at the bottom, and if the tank
is built at any height, you can turn on heat, and the chances are
the water is drawn away, and there is a vacuum below the ice,
and the water does not get any where near the ice. The conse-
quences are your heat may be carried to the top of the tower, but
because of the vacuum above it, it does not get up there. There
is little or no way of working down from above, except the slow
process of salt, or something of that kind. However, by having
this inner pipe following up through the water pipe, you are re-
lieved from trying to heat from below, or pouring down hot water
from above ; and from the little bit we have tried it out, it is very
promising, and very feasible from every standpoint, because it
is cheaper than a large pipe outside.
The Chairman: In Nebraska, in one or two instances, we
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Discussion on Farm Sanitation 103
found that we kept our pipes from freezing by setting our water
tanks over a well, and then having the second pipe go up by the
water pipe, opening next to the bottom of the tank. That gives
a warm current of air from the well along the water pipe, and
is sufficiently warm to keep the pipes from freezing. Wherever
we have had the opportunity to set a tank over a well, we have
always done that, and never have had any trouble with freezing.
There is another question I would like to ask Dr. Hansen. You
gave the comparative cost of those cisterns. Could you tell the
number of barrels capacity of such a cistern?
Mr. Hansen : This was 15,000 gallons.
The Chairman : Then in barrels it would be about 500 barrels.
With that Government sanitary privy, how do you keep the closet
from freezing?
Mr. Hansen: In ordinary climates the bacteria take care of
that. Their fermentation raises the temperature of the liquid to
the extent that will ordinarily prevent it from freezing. I dare
say it might get a coating of ice in a very cold climate.
Mr. M. L. King: What about this latitude?
Mr. Hansen : I believe it would be fairly successful in this lat-
itude.
The Chairman : In the Government Bulletin they do not say
anything about freezing.
Mr. Hansen : In designing that privy, they were particularly
interested in the hookworm districts, and it was designed primar-
ily with a view of preventing soil infection with the hookworm.
Mr. C. F. Chase : An idea that comes from the Wallace farm
in Iowa, is putting paraffin and glycerine on a pipe hot, and the
pipe exposed to freezing weather, and not freezing. Is there any-
thing to that?
Mr. M. L. King : Yes. I do not know about paraffin and glycer-
ine. We use vaseline. From the little that we have tried this
proposition, we found that the tapering could be used in prevent-
ing the ice from sticking to the pipe, and by giving it that taper,
the ice will not stick any where, provided it has clearance. It
will not stick to galvanized iron even.
Mr. C. F. Chase: What I had in mind was, applying those
things on the outside of the pipe.
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104 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Mr. M. L. King : Well, I do not know anything about that. On
general principles, cil is rather a poor conductor.
The Chairman : Mr. Hansen, do you consider that the maxi-
mum water used per capita is fifty gallons. Do you state that as
a maximum, and not as an average ?
Mr. Hansen : For the farm, yes. I have no figures on farm
water consumption where they have a distributing system ; but I
would assume it would be considerably less. In first class resi-
dent districts in cities, where they have been built to cover larger
consumption, of course there is a good deal wasted along the line
of mains, etc., but they will get a consumption of about fifty gal-
lons per capita, or a little over.
The Chairman: I conducted a short series of investigations
with regard to that matter last winter. I asked some farm wo-
men to keep track of the number of pails of water they used, and
found that they averaged, where they had an ordinary well, and
there were no bathroom fixtures in the house, about five gallons
per capita. Then I took up reading the meters for about twenty
families in the city of Lincoln, Neb., where I knew the exact num-
ber of people who had been staying in the household for three
months. We kept the readings for three months, and found that
they averaged 20.4 gallons per capita. I then connected a gas
engine explosion counter to the trip on the flush tank in our own
bathroom at home, and kept track of the number of people that
used the bathroom. That experiment is still running, but at last
accounts, which was within about five months, we were averag-
ing just a trifle less than ten gallons of water, going through the
closet flush tanks, per person. Some people assume that people
in the country use just as much water as they do in town. I do
not find it that way. The people who live in the country use the
same amount, because of the fact that they have the milk utensils
to wash and clean, and that makes a much larger water consump-
tion. Furthermore, the men in the country wear overalls, and
such clothing, which is very nearly always washed at home, while
in the cities it is taken to the public laundries. For that reason
we find that the country people use, where they have modern
homes, from five to ten gallons per capita more than they do in
town.
Mr. J. A. King : Dr. Hansen, I noticed some advertising matter
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Discussion on Farm Sanitation 105
put out in our section of the country by a concern in Minneapolis
that sells a sanitary closet for non-modern farm homes, consisting
of a stool, with a removable can under it, ventilating out through
the wall, and they use some secret chemical formula with that.
They put about four inches of water in the can, and about half a
pint of this chemical, and then they use about half a gallon every
three or four months, they say, for a family of four or five peo-
ple. I wondered if the general type of sanitary closets for a non-
modern home was any more sanitary or practical than the dry
earth closet, for instance, where they use chloride of lime.
Mb. Hansen : I do not believe you can get anything more effi-
cient than chloride of lime.
Mr. J. A. King: I found that type being used in the country
hotels out through the Canadian Northwest, where they did not
have sewer systems in the town.
Mr. M. L. King : I am not acquainted with that type of chem-
ical closet, but in another type that is on the market where they
use a little larger quantity of chemical, they use caustic soda, or
a saturated solution of it, and then put a film of oil on top. They
use a tank which holds about 25 gallons. In a good many cases
where that has been kept track of, the chemical has been suffi-
cient to decompose the sewage from a family of five or six for six
months. It is simply a matter of getting new chemical. It costs
three or four dollars.
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106 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
THE DESIGN OF PERMANENT FARM BUILDINGS.
By E. S. Fowler.*
Colonial farming did not demand large buildings. Early
farming was diversified and generally restricted to a small acre-
age. Large quantities of wild game afforded the chief meat sup-
ply; for this reason, but a small amount of stock was kept on
each farm and, therefore, large buildings were not required.
Great changes have taken place during the past few years.
Inventions, increasing population, and better transportation fa-
cilities have encouraged extensive farming; consequently more
elaborate farm structures have become necessary.
The first types of buildings in this country were wigwams,
which were supplemented by the log cabins of our Pilgrim Fa-
thers. The first permanent farm buildings were made of stone
and imported brick. The houses were generally large and fairly
well planned, for the period in which they were built, but the
barns were poorly designed and in most cases unhealthful.
The introduction of the sawmill somewhat checked the pro-
gress of this permanent building. Frame construction became
cheaper than either brick or stone, and up to the end of the Nine-
teenth century, lumber was our chief building material.
Owing to its increasing cost the use of lumber in farm build-
ings is becoming as expensive in first cost as permanent masonry
construction. The supply is rapidly diminishing, and there is
little chance for future reduction in prices. Not only this, but
the cost of labor has advanced to such an extent that where its
cost, a few years ago, was about one-third of the total expense
of the building, today, it is about one-half. The expense of
maintenance and insurance, together with the increased price
of lumber, make wooden farm buildings a costly addition to the
farm.
Building Sites.
When land was cheap it was not uncommon to set aside five to
ten acres for building sites which was necessary for fire protec-
* Assistant engineer, Information Bureau, Universal Portland Cement
Company.
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Permanent Farm Buildings 107
tion. Today, we are compelled to crowd our buildings together
because land is too valuable to be wasted by scattered farm build-
ings. With permanent and fireproof buildings, not nearly so
much land is needed for a building site.
Stringent laws backed by public opinion have established rigid
inspection of the farmer^ produce, especially in the east. Dairy
herds must pass health inspection and the stables must comply
with the rules and regulations of municipal Boards of Health.
Likewise, beef, pork, mutton — in fact all farm produce, must
pass inspection. Consequently, buildings for the housing of
animals and the storage and care of grains, hay and other farm
products need more careful design and construction.
Farm Compared to a Factory.
Farm buildings are the farmer's factory. In them raw ma-
terials are converted into finished products. The foods grown on
the farm may be compared to the raw materials in manufactur-
ing, and the milk, butter, cheese, beef, pork, etc., to the finished
products. As the manufacturer carefully considers the design
of his factory, in order that the work done in it will be economi-
cal and efficient, the farmer should carefully design his farm
buildings, that the animals housed in them will be comfortable,
enjoy good health, and receive the greatest possible benefit from
the feeds given them; also that the least amount of time and
labor will be required in caring for them.
Much depends upon the individual needs of each farmer, as
to the design of his buildings. A great mistake is made when
cne farmer duplicates what another farmer uses to advantage,
without considering its adaptability to his own needs. The size
of the farm, its environment and building site, are all important
factors in designing the buildings.
Pure Air, Pure Water and Pure Soil,
"Pure air, pure water and pure soil" are essential require-
ments of every building site. Naturally this would call for the
highest elevation on the farm. This, however, is not always pos-
sible. Nevertheless, the site selected must be such that the circu-
lation of pure air and abundance of sunlight will not be ob-
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108 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
structed. Pure water and good drainage — preferably natural
drainage — are very important because of the sanitary conditions
involved. The appearance of the buildings is due to a great ex-
tent, to the landscape surrounding them. Much of their attrac-
tiveness, however, depends upon their design and need not be
an added cost of construction.
As an example of what can be accomplished in permanent
building construction, we will describe the design of an all con-
crete barn planned and built during the year 1913 under our
supervision on Mr. A. J. Fowler's farm at Sheridan, Illinois.
An All Concrete Barn.
The farm which this building serves contains 217 acres of
land. About 30 acres of this would never be suitable for culti-
vation, but are excellent for grazing; consequently, a certain
amount of stock must be kept for this purpose. The natural en-
vironment of the farm is particularly adapted to either stock
raising or dairying, but at the present time, is farmed prin-
cipally for grains and hay.
Permanent System of Fertility Planned.
To continue this method of farming without returning fertil-
ity to the soil the farm would soon become a non-paying invest-
ment. In view of this, stock raising promises the greatest cash
returns and will, therefore, be a permanent system of farming.
All the buildings on the place were old and dilapidated when
the farm came into the possession of the present owner. After
deciding upon the kind of barn needed and investigating the cost
of such a structure in wood, it was found that this was slightly
less than the estimated cost of the all-concrete structure. The
building site was chosen midway between the present corn crib
and the old wooden barn. This site was chosen for efficiency, the
object being to save time and labor.
Size of Barn.
The shape of the barn is rectangular ; 34 feet wide and 54 feet
long. (Fig. 1).
The first story provides stabling room for eight horses and
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Permanent Farm Buildings
109
twelve cows. The stock stand in two rows, facing the outside
walls. A feed alley is provided the entire length of the barn
in front of each row. Extending lengthwise through the center
of the barn is a driveway that permits the collecting of the litter
with a manure spreader which can then be hauled directly to
the fields. In the center, next to the cow stalls, on each side of
Fig. 1. — An Attractive Concrete Barn.
the driveway, are two small grain bins. Crossing the barn, be-
tween the grain bins and horse stalls, is a passageway leading to
the feed alleys. At each end of this passageway is an outside
door, so located in view of future building. The second story
is for the storage of hay and straw.
Concrete Floors.
The driveway, cow stall and feed alley floors were made of
concrete mixed in the proportions of 1 part cement, 2Vs> parts
sand and 4 parts screened gravel. The horse stall floors were
made of concrete mixed in the proportion of 1 :2 :3, because of
the greater wear they would receive. The surface was struck
with a straight edge and then finished with a wooden float. This
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110
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
left a surface of the desired smoothness and one that would not
become slippery with wear.
Horse Stalls.
Reinforced concrete was used in making the horse stalls, parti-
tions and mangers. These partitions are 4 feet 6 inches high and
Fig. 2. — An Interior View of the Barn Showing Horse Stalls.
4 inches thick, reinforced with i/4-inch round rods spaced 12
inches on center, both vertically and horizontally. Every alter-
nate partition centers on a reinforced concrete column. On top
of the partitions are steel guards 28 inches high, fastened by the
bolts embedded in the concrete. The mangers and feed boxes
are 3 inches thick, reinforced with ^4-inch round rods. Only-
one set of forms was used for constructing the horse stalls.
(Fig. 2).
The scheme for tying the horses to the manger was accom-
plished by the use of an eye bolt. This, however, could not be
inserted when the concrete was placed because it would necessi-
tate tearing the forms apart when removing them. Therefore,
a half inch bolt containing nut and washer was inserted, through
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Permanent Farm Buildings
111
the form, into the concrete, which formed the feed box. When
the concrete had partially hardened the bolt was removed, and
an eye bolt inserted into this hole and turned into the nut.
Fig. 3.— A View of the Cow Stalls.
Cow Stalls,
Let it be remembered that the cows stand facing the side walls
of the barn. (Fig. 3). The entire distance from the edge of the
gutter at the driveway to the walls is 12 feet 7 inches. The gut-
ter is 18 inches wide. It is 3 inches below the driveway floor and
8 inches below the stall floor and the bottom has a slope of %
inch to the rear. This causes all liquid to accumulate at the
farthest distance from the stall, which insures greater cleanli-
ness.
The cow stall is 4 feet 8 inches long. Fourteen inches from
the manger curb and the full width of stall is a depression % 0f
an inch deep. This serves the purpose of holding the bedding
under the animals' front feet and offers a toe hold when reach-
ing for food in the manger. From this depression to the gutter
there is a slope of 1 inch for drainage.
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]12 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
The manger curb is 10 inches high and 5 inches thick and is
scalloped out under the stanchions to within 6 inches of the floor.
All corners are rounded and made smooth. The manager is 2
feet wide and with a curved bottom. The feed alley is 4 feet
wide and extends from the top of the manger to the wall.
Foundations.
One and one-half tons per square foot was used as the allow-
able bearing pressure on the soil for all foundations. In view
of this the column foundations were made 4 feet square and the
reinforcing rods for the columns set in them when they were
constructed.
The wall foundations were made 15 inches thick at the bottom
and extend 3Vk feet below grade in order that the footings may
be beneath the frost line.
Concrete Blocks.
Anchor continuous air space concrete blocks were used in the
walls of this building, made with an Anchor concrete block ma-
chine near the site. These blocks are so constructed that they
form two separate walls having no concrete connection between
the outer and inner surfaces. These two separate walls, however,
are held together by 4 steel rods for each block, the bent ends of
which are imbedded in both sides of the concrete block when
made. "When these blocks are placed in the wall they afford a
complete air space around the entire building. The total num-
ber of blocks required was 2326, the average cost of which was
11.8 cents each.
Aggregates.
The sand and gravel used for making the concrete blocks as
well as for the other concrete work was secured from a gravel
pit located on the farm. Tests of the sand from this gravel
proved that it was clean and well graded. That part passing a
% inch screen was used for making the blocks. For all other
concrete work this material was separated into sand and gravel
and remixed in the required proportions.
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Permanent Farm Buildings 113
Concrete Columns.
On each side of the driveway is a row of columns, 12'-0" apart
between rows. Lengthwise of the barn, these columns are spaced
10'-8" apart on centers. This spacing was necessary for arrange-
ment of the stalls.
The design of the columns to support the haymow floor re-
quired an effective area of 88 square inches. A column 10 inches
square was used. Each column was reinforced with four 11/16
inch round rods, extending through the beam into the haymow
column, where they were spliced with the rods in this column.
The columns in the haymow were made the same size as in
the first story to avoid rebuilding the forms. They were each
reinforced with four ^-inch rods, two of which extended
through the monitor walls and were anchored in the monitor
roof.
Pilasters.
The pilasters in the side walls which were made of monolithic
concrete reinforced with two one-half inch round rods are ve-
neered on the outside with concrete blocks, 4 inches thick, 8
inches wide and 24 inches long. These blocks overlap the two
concrete block curtain walls, 4 inches on each end.
Haymow Floor.
Reinforced concrete was used for the haymow floor. It was
designed for a live load of 100 pounds per square foot which is
equivalent to the weight of well settled hay 20 feet deep, or baled
hay 6% feet deep. The former condition would never occur but
the latter would be probable ; especially in the west end of the
building in which the haymow floor is located. This load re-
quired a concrete floor 5 inches thick reinforced with i/^-inch
round rods spaced 6 inches on center for transverse stress and
16 inches on center for temperature stress. The concrete was
mixed in the proportions of 1 :2 :4 and the surface finished with
a wooden float. Two hay chute holes were left in the floor near
the outside walls in the middle of the barn above the side doors.
Another opening was left 2 feet square in the center of the barn
beside a column for the ventilator shaft.
8
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114 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
This floor received a test load by the concrete blocks which
were stored upon it prior to the construction of the second story
block walls. The estimated load was 140 pounds per square foot.
No noticeable deflection nor any sign of cracking was evident.
Concrete Beam.
The reinforced concrete beams which carry the haymow floor
are spaced 10'-3" center to center. They are supported at the
ends by pilasters in the walls, and on each side of the driveway
by the reinforced concrete columns. These beams were figured
as "T-Beams" continuous over two supports. Three %-inch
round rods were used for reinforcing. At each support they are
reinforced with %-inch round rods for shear.
Concrete Roof.
The monitor type of roof was chosen. It consists of flat slop-
ing roofs over the two side bays, having a span of 11 feet, sup-
ported by the outside walls and a reinforced concrete beam, car-
ried by the concrete columns in the interior. Above this concrete
beam are the walls of the monitor made of reinforced concrete, 6
inches thick and 4 feet high, which support the monitor roof. In
these walls at each end of the barn are two windows which afford
ventilation and light to the haymow.
The side roof slabs are 4 inches thick, reinforced with %-inch
round rods spaced 4 inches on centers for transverse stress, and
8 inches on center for temperature stress. All the transverse
rods extend into the monitor wall instead of the beam.
The monitor roof is 3 inches thick at the eaves and 9 inches
thick at the center, reinforced with ^-hwli round rods, spaced
414 inches on center for transverse stress and 12 inches on center
for temperature stress. The design for this roof called for a
thickness of 6 inches at the center but it was found that by re-
ducing the thickness of the roof at the eaves to 3 inches and in-
creasing the thickness at the center to 9 inches the pitch would
correspond to the side roofs and at the same time the allowable
shearing stress of the concrete would not be exceeded at the sup-
ports.
In all cases the temperature rods in the roof, which extend
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Permanent Farm Buildings 115
lengthwise of the barn, were kept as nearly as possible within 1
inch of the top of the slab — the place where the greatest tem-
perature stress occurs.
The hay track is attached directly to the roof of the monitor
by means of inverted U-bolts embedded in the concrete strad-
dling a %-inch round rod. (Fig. 4).
The concrete for the roofs was mixed in the proportion of
1 :2 :3. The exposed surface was struck with a straight edge and
Fig. 4. — A View of the Hay Mow Showing Tract Location.
finished with a wooden float. When it had hardened sufficiently
to permit sprinkling, it was kept moist for two days and there-
after sprinkled four times a day for five days. This was neces-
sary to prevent too rapid drying of the upper surface. So far
no cracks have developed in the roof and it is water-tight.
Economy of Monitor Roofs.
Flat roofs of monitor type afford a most economical loft, be-
cause a minimum amount of space is occupied by posts and
braces. The estimated capacity of the loft of the concrete barn
is 40 tons ; only 56 cubic feet is occupied by the concrete columns
— the only obstruction. Thirty-three loads of hay were put in
this barn last summer (1913) and the last bent was only one
quarter filled ; also much space was still available in the monitor.
The cost of the concrete roof complete was about 25 cents per
square foot.
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116 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
According to the estimate of a rural contractor gable roofs of
timber construction cost from 12 to 25 cents per square foot de-
pending on the kind of construction and the grade of materials.
The estimated cost of a first-class wooden roof, such as could be
compared to the concrete roof of the above barn was about 19
cents per square foot.
It would appear that the first cost of the concrete roof com-
pared with a wooden roof would be 6 cents per square foot
greater. The first cost of the concrete roof, however, was actu-
ally less than the above wooden roof would have been because of
the lesser number of square feet of roof surface. (The concrete
roof cost $575 and the contractor's estimate of the wooden roof
was $637.) If it be said for the wooden roof that it will afford
more loft space, it can be said for- the concrete roof that this can
be accomplished by building the walls higher to obtain the cubic
contents.
Value of Permanent Construction.
In a similar way other farm buildings can be built of perma-
nent construction. While the first cost will exceed slightly that
of other construction, yet the permanent buildings will be the
cheaper because the cost of painting, shingling and renewing
floors, mangers and roofs will be eliminated. The cost of the
finished concrete barn was about $2,600. The estimated cost of
a wooden barn corresponding to the design of the concrete barn
(mortised and tennoned framing) was $2,100.
First Cost.
The first cost is often the only point considered by the farmer,
who proposes to build. Moreover, he does not consider that this
building may house a single animal whose value is greater than
its total cost. If it is not of permanent construction, its destruc-
tion by fire may mean a loss of twice its value.
The difference in cost between timber and concrete construc-
tion cannot be determined by any one list of figures. It varies
in the cost with the location, the type of building and its capac-
ity. Generally speaking, the first cost of permanent building
will exceed that of first-class mill construction by from 15 to 25
per cent, but after a few years' service, the two will have cost an
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Permanent Farm Buildings 117
equal sum, because of the expense due to insurance, maintenance,
etc., necessary for the latter, besides the loss due to the invasion
of vermin.
Permanent farm buildings add an intrinsic value to the land.
Modern improvements on a farm of 160 acres cost all the way
from $25.00 to $50.00 per acre. Farms with permanent build-
ing are, therefore, better investments than those with perishable
structures.
Concrete is particularly adapted to farm structures because it
can be so easily and rapidly manipulated. *"It grows in
strength for considerable length of time and after having at-
tained its ultimate strength it never weakens."
Farmers are recognizing the value of, and are building perma-
nent and attractive farm structures. As a noted educator has
said "Permanent farm structures are a sign of progress."
* Hering's Concrete & Stucco Houses.
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118 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
DISCUSSION.
Mr. Bowditch : I think that of all the subjects which this con-
vention is considering, including the standardization of pulleys,
gas engines and etc., that they are really very small compared
with this subject which Mr. Fowler has opened up on permanent
farm buildings. The question of housing machinery, stock and
all of the kindred accoutrements of a farm, depend upon putting
them inside of a structure which is going to protect them from the
weather as well as from fire. Mr. Fowler might have gone fur-
ther in the opening discussion and treated more generally the
various way of making permanent farm buildings.
I believe that the only construction which is permanent today
is really some form of concrete. Now the question comes to us
in our farm buildings, can a certain amount of wood be used
judiciously in conjunction with reinforced concrete? Is the ce-
ment block the best form of construction or is the poured con-
crete the best type of construction ?
I want to emphasize the fact that the people who are building
buildings for farm stock today, who have the money to invest,
are using a permanent building material. By permanent build-
ing material I do not mean that all parts of the barn necessarily
must be made of concrete or steel. Timber used properly and
in the right place is just as permanent and just as fire proof as
steel construction.
I wish to leave the idea with you, that concrete for permanent
farm buildings is the coming thing and that the use of concrete
and the method of using it is a big subject.
Mb. Curtis : We have had some experience in the City of Chi-
cago recently with livery barn fires. I have in mind two fires.
One was a one-story livery barn with masonry walls. That barn
had a lot of hay stored in it. The roof was of heavy, slow burn-
ing, construction, but during the course of the fire it caved in.
All the city ordinances had been complied with regarding mak-
ing it fireproof. I think that it is a well established fact, that
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Discussion on Permanent Farm Buildings 119
the roof is almost always a great deal weaker than the walls, and
if a fire should start it would be more than likely to blow the
roof off or cause it to cave in, than damage the walls. In both of
the fires the roofs gave way and the walls remained and were
used afterwards when the structures were rebuilt.
Mr. Chase: It seems to me the only kind of roof to put on is
the concrete roof.
Mr. Foord: What advantage is there in building the roof in
the form of a monitor ?
Mr. Fowler: The monitor roof appears to me to be the most
economical roof. By making the monitors through the center of
the barn you can fill the mow more completely than you can with
any other type of construction.
Mr. Davidson: I think the problem of construction is to use
a fire proof wall and to use a wall which will so thoroughly
envelop the combustible material which is in the barn as to pre-
vent the air from getting at the combustible material and enable
rapid burning to take place. I believe that arch masonry ma-
terial can be used to good advantage in building a barn. If you
are going to use masonry material and are determined to have
it fire proof then you want to use material in compression. You
can do that in the arch. There is no reason at all why a barn, 36
to 40 feet wide could not be built up with a concrete wall of three
to four inches in thickness, provided you put in ribs to stay the
wall at the gables.
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]20 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
STANDARDIZATION OP FARM WAGONS.
By Ed. E. Parsonage.*
In recent yeats manufacturers of farm implements have very
largely adopted steel construction. Wagons, however, of necess-
ity are built very largely of wood, and standardization of farm
wagons will tend toward economy in the use of wood stock. We
are therefore all interested in the conservation of our forests.
As an advance step, wagon manufacturers have done a great
deal toward standardizing wheel heights. Our firm has a set of
National Construction Rules governing the grading of wood
stock. Wagon axles, poles, etc., are standardized as to raw sizes,
whereas in times gone by each manufacturer had his own pat-
terns, and the mills were forced to cut accordingly, and the waste
was large as a result.
We have now come to a point where, in order to further stan-
dardize farm wagon construction,. it is necessary to get the co-op-
eration of the consumers.
I have some definite ideas that I will present, and I, myself am
positive that they will result in great benefit to the manufacturer
of wagons, the merchant who handles them, and finally to the
farmer who uses them. I hope to outline a plan that may serve
as a nucleus in attempting to remedy the ridiculous situation that
now exists in the wagon trade.
Let me start with the statement that since wagon factories are
compelled to cater to the individual ideas of wagon users in all
sections of the country, an ordinary farm wagon is costing the
manufacturer, and consequently the farmer, several dollars more
per unit than would be the case if farm wagons could be classi-
fied and built with the idea of fitting the conditions from a prac-
tical standpoint.
In other words, wherever the manufacturer of any standard
article of trade has studied the needs of the consumer and built
a line of goods to meet those needs in every practical way, and
has not listened to the whims and fancies of the purchaser as
have the wagon builders, the needs of the consumer are better
* Secretary and Manager John Deere Wagon Company, Moline, 111.
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Standardization of Farm Wagons
121
supplied, and greater efficiency in manufacturing is maintained.
The farm wagon of today is strictly a freight vehicle and its pur-
pose is to haul farm loads. Therefore, its use in practically all
the country is precisely the same, and there is no more real need
of the very large variety of construction and sizes than there is
in watches, or any other article of universal use.
Why, then, should wagons be made and marketed, in any given
locality, with the idea of furnishing the merchant anything and
everything he thinks he wants — regardless of its adaptability
from a practical standpoint, and regardless of the effect upon
the roads of the various styles of tire equipment, etc.? In this
one particular, you are all vitally interested in the tire equipment
of wagons, based upon approximate loads, and of such widths as
will insure the conserving of the roadbed, rather than the de-
struction of it through ignorance.
As an example, I have with me an order, which reads as fol-
lows :
Amt.
1 .
9
*6
c
00
i
X
tt
*
&
3*xll
3*xl0
1132
1130
40-44
40-44
3xfRE
3xfRE
3ixl0
3*xl0
1130
1130
40-44
40-44
2xfRE
2x*KE
3 x9
3 x9
3 x9
3 x9
1128
1128
1128
1128
40-44
40-44
40-44
40-44
2x*RE
HxfRE
2xfRK
UxfKE
2fxS4
2*x8*
2fx8*
1126
126
1126
40-44
44-52
40-44
Ux|RE
l}x*RE
HxfRE
3 x9
128
44-52
lixfRE
Ux7
ljx7
418
418
40-48
4<M8
tt*A
Remarks.
1
1
3
2
3
2
3
3
2
2
2
1
2
2
3x4 reach 12 in. lonjr.
8 in. stakes, 48 in. neckyokes.
8 in. stakes, 48 in. neckyokes.
8 in. stakes, 48 in. neckyokes.
8 in. stakes, 42 in. neckyokes.
10 in. stakes, 42 in. neckvokes.
8 in. stakes, 42 in. neckyokes.
10 in. stakes, 42 in. neckyoke*.
10 in. stakes, 42 in. neckyokes.
12 in. t takes, 42 in. neckvokes.
10 in. stakes, 42 in. neckyokes.
12 in. stakes, 42 in. neckyokes.
Please note that this is an order for a carload of 300 wagons,
and it includes 14 different varieties. This is a condition that is
nothing short of ridiculous.
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122 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
In order to lay a foundation for what I am about to recom-
mend, let me go oyer the sizes of standard 2-horse farm wagons,
as designated by skein measurements. They are as follows :
2|x7 24x8 2fx8} 3x9
3*xl0 34x11 3fxl2 4x12
Bear in mind that practically each of these eight classes of
wagons is built in all sorts of equipments — different heights of
bolster stakes, wide track, narrow track, wide track narrow bed,
slip pole, drop pole, 36/44 wheels, 40/44, 40/48 and 44/52
heights of wheels.
Now let us take the 3*4x10 wagon. This is the size of wagon.
that sells regularly in the central states from Ohio to the Wyom-
ing and Colorado lines. If a large wagon factory today should
have on hand in the 3*4x10 size of wagon only, one each of all
the styles and forms of equipment demanded in various parts of
the country, that they might be certain of being able to ship any
particular equipment within an hour's notice, they would have
to have on hand —
640 different styles of gears.
157 different sets of wheels with various heights and tire
widths.
140 different styles of wagon boxes.
This is a condition that is appalling, and these figures will
hardly be believed by the wagon manufacturer himself, unless
he spends a week or more tabulating the various equipment he
is compelled to furnish.
I have in mind four avenues of standardization, viz :
First — Standardizing and Simplifying the Sizes of Wagons.
Second — Standardizing the Track of Wagons.
Third — Standardizing and Simplifying Wheel Heights.
Fourth — Standardizing Tire Widths and Thicknesses.
FIRST — STANDARDIZING, OR IN REALITY, REDUCING THE NUMBER OP
SIZES OF WAGONS.
For instance, a 2V2x8 and a 234x81/2— 2 horse wagons. In
reality, it takes an expert to tell the difference in these two wa-
gons. Difference in carrying capacity is barely nominal, as there
is only from 35 to 50 lbs. difference in the weight of these wagons.
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Standardization of Farm Wagans 123
The box equipment, pole, axles — are the same. One wagon would
take the place of these two, were it not for the fact that — first,
the salesman is educated to sell both sizes — the merchant thinks
he needs both sizes, and buys them — and in turn asks the farmer
which of the two sizes he wants. If the implement man happens
to have on hand a 2^x8 wagon, he sells that. If he has the other
size, it sells equally well, as a rule.
Now we have eight sizes of two-horse wagons. Suppose we
remove the incentive of the purchaser of a farm wagon in the
measurements of the skein of the wagon that he is going to buy.
Suppose we forget the size of the skein, entirely. A farmer comes
to town. He wants a light 2-horse wagon, or he wants a medium
2-horse wagon.
Suppose we recommend that four sizes of 2-horse wagons be
bought, instead of eight, designating them as follows :
Light 2-horse wagon, equals standard 2^x8.
Medium 2-horse wagon equals 3x9.
Standard 2-horse wagon equals 3*4x10.
Heavy 2-horse wagon, such as is used for teaming work, log-
ging, hauling wood, etc., equals 3%xl2.
Results — The manufacturer of wagons would gain materially
by such an arrangement. Jobbing trade and merchants gener-
ally would gain for the same reason — that is, their stocks would
be simplified — they would need to carry less stock in order to
supply their trade, and a big incentive would be removed for the
user of a wagon to buy other than the wagon that is fitted for his
needs.
This, I think, would be brought about by concerted action, the
details of which I will discuss later.
SECOND — STANDARDIZING THE TRACK OF WAGONS.
There is no necessity or value in the variation in the track of
wagons, from 4-6" center to center to 5' center to center, and in
fact, the variation in track widths is a positive detriment, an in-
convenience in many sections of the country, and is simply
brought about by one of two reasons.
First — a local wagon maker, in many sections, has a track fig-
ured out of his own, and he sets the pace in his particular neigh-
borhood.
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124 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
The other reason for maintaining a wide or narrow track in
any one neighborhood has been simply the so-called necessity of
each farmer's buying his new wagon of a track that fills the ruts
made by the wagons of his neighbors.
There can be no objection made to standardizing the tracks to
conform to the standard narrow — 4'6" center to center. The wide
track wagons naturally carry longer axles — therefore, with a
maximum load on a given size of wagon, the wagon will stand up
longer and stand more hard usage by having a narrow track axle.
It may seem ridiculous to tell you that there are towns in sev-
eral of the states where an implement man is forced to carry both
wide and narrow track wagons — selling wide track east of his
town, and narrow track west of his town.
The necessity for following the custom as far as track is con-
cerned in any given territory is becoming less and less as the
country roads are becoming better. As roads are built up, and
"drained, the ruts formed even at the worst time of the year, are
becoming less noticeable. Seven or eight years ago in California,
all tracks of gears were demanded, and each small valley or com-
munity had its distinctive track. Thru the efforts of the National
Association of Wagon Manufacturers and the implement men
generally in that territory, the complicated situation was
changed, and now in California no other wagon is sold than the
regular Wide Track 5-foot width. In the southern part of our
own state, for many years there was a 51" track in use. This old
track has been eliminated by several of the larger manufacturers
of that territory, who refused to build 51" track.
I have a plan for bringing about a standard track which I will
go into later.
THIRD — STANDARDIZING AND SIMPLIFYING ALL WHEEL HEIGHTS.
Until comparatively a few years ago, there were more differ-
ent wheel heights in wagon wheels than could be counted on the
fingers of both hands; in fact — there were forty-one different
heights. Several years ago, through the efforts of the Wagon
Manufacturers Association, an attempt was made to simplify
wheel heights, by naming four heights, viz. :
36/44 40/44 40/48 44/52
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Standardization of Farm Wagons 125
This attempt at reducing the wheel heights to four standard
sizes has been very nearly successful. There are some exceptions,
however, owing to one or more manufacturers not having the
heart to refuse building all heights of wheels because of the fear
of losing a little trade. There is one manufacturer that at the
present time, makes a 54" rear wheel.
For the past year, our Wagon Association has agitated. a re-
duction in the height of wagon wheels.
There is a concensus of opinion that there is no longer any ne-
cessity for building a 44/52 wheel height. The reason for this
assumption can be summed up as follows :
First — Most, wagon spokes are sawed to equip 44/52 wheels.
"When 36/44 wheels are used, or any other height, from 2 to 4
inches of each spoke is wasted and thrown into the scrap pile.
In the interests of conservation of wagon stock, elimination of
the 44/52 wheel height is advisable.
Again — The higher the wheel, the greater the strain on the
axle and wheel also. It may be interesting to know that strain
or breakage on a wagon wheel or axle is not brought about by the
downward pressure of the load, but by reason of the side play or
has been standard, it has taken the place entirely of the 44/52
shifting of the load sideways.
For instance, a medium 2-horse wagon may be carrying a load
of 3,000 lbs. If the road were good and level, the wagon could be
loaded up to 5,000 lbs., or 6,000 lbs., without injuring it, but with
a 3,000-lb. load, one wheel drops sideways from the top of a
stone ; result — a smashed wheel or broken axle.
My proposal is to make the 40/48 wheel height the standard
high wheel construction. Wherever the 40/48 height of wheel
height.
Objection has been made that the 40/48 pulls harder than the
44/52. There is, however, only a 10 per cent reduction in height
of wheels, and tests show even under extreme conditions only a
2 per cent difference in draft. Under ordinary road conditions
the difference in draft is not readable on a dynamometer.
The only other possible objection to the elimination of the old
style high wheel is that in stump countries, as in Arkansas and
Eastern Texas, the stumps are so high as to interfere with the
front axle when using only 40" front wheels.
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126 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
The difference in the heights of the front axle from the ground
as between 40" and 44" front wheels is only 2 inches, the 40"
construction having 18" and 19" clearance. This so called med-
ium height wheel wagon has taken well in the rough sections of
the states mentioned, and a little education will wipe out these
fancied objections.
Furthermore, with the 40/48 wheel height the wagon box is
lower, closer to the ground, and easier, to load into.
Then — 40/44 as medium height, which is largely used in the
size of load carried by the average wagon, is of vast importance.
At the present time, there are over 50 different widths and
thicknesses of tires demanded on the various heights of wheels
East and South.
Then — 36/44 as low wheel construction.
FOURTH — STANDARDIZING TIRE WIDTHS AND THICKNESSES.
This last proposition is, I believe, of more vital interest to your
associations than the preceding sections. I take this to be a
fact, because you necessarily would be interested in good road
building and road preservation.
Therefore, a simple standardization of wagon tire widths,
based on various sizes of wagons and according to the maximum
and on various sizes of wagons, The result is that a wagon fac-
tory catering to the trade in various parts of the country, is com-
pelled to carry many hundreds of different sets of wheels in or-
der to supply the demands. This wheel situation alone is little
short of ridiculous.
Farmers throughout the country have clung to the narrow
tire because of the deep ruts in the road made by the other fel-
low's wagons having narrow tires, and when a farmer conies to
buy a new wagon, he dare not buy a 3" tire wagon because four
horses could not pull the wide tire wagon when the wheels got
down into ruts with narrow bottoms made by narrow tire wagons.
The sentiment of those interested in better roads lies entirely
in recommending and forcing the use of wide tires. Therefore,
I have the following table to suggest as a standard tire equip-
ment.
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Standardization of Farm Wagons
127
Wood Axle
with Cast or
Steel Skein
Wgg«» j THo.iaorw0r
Axle8 Axles
Width of
Tire
Size
Size
Size
Size
1-Horse
Inches
2i
2*
2|
2*
2*
3
3*
3}
3*
4
H
4*
Inches
1*
i*
1*
1*
H
2
2*
2f
2*
2*
Inches
i»
1*
1*
2
2i
2*
2»
24
Inches
Light 2-horse
2
Medium 2-horse
Standard 2-horse
Heavy 2-horee
2
2i
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
At the present time, something over 45 various thicknesses of
tire are required. Seme of the differences in the thicknesses are
so small that it takes an expert to tell the difference between the
tires. As an instance, the difference between 9/16" and 5/8"
thickness is 1/1 6th of an inch. This difference is so trifling that
an expert handling a dozen wheels, six of 9/16" and six of 5/8"
thickness, absolutely cannot tell them apart after he has handled
the first two of the twelve.
Then again, on a l1// tire alone, we are required to build
wheels of various heights and in the various thicknesses. l%x%,
i%*%, i%*%, i%*%, iy2x9/i6.
Now as to the various thicknesses of tire. On wide tire wag-
ons %" and %" thickness should be the rule; that is, on light
wagons carrying tires from 1%" to 2y2" in width. On the 3,
4 and 5 in. tires, I would recommend % in. for soft roads or
trucks used on the farm only; y2 in. thicknesses for ordinary
road conditions and % or % in. thickness for rough sections
where rock is encountered in the roads, macadam, etc.
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128 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
RECOMMENDATIONS AS TO METHODS FOR BRINGING ABOUT STANDARD-
IZATION OF WAGON EQUIPMENT.
The concensus of opinion is that we should have uniform wide
tire laws passed by the various State Legislatures. If we can
arrive at some decision as to what we want and what is needed ;
then only the problem of best reaching those men who have it in
their power to pass this uniform tire law remains.
We have all noticed that the various states are passing wide tire
laws, and every law is at variance with every other law.
I think what is needed is a plan worked out definitely whereby
each size of wagon now in use shall be equipped with a tire suffic-
iently wide to carry a maximum load without injuring the road
bed. Such a table, coupled with a road law worded as would be
approved by the Road Engineers connected with the various agri-
cultural colleges and backed by your society, would meet the
approval of the body of legislators in every state. It is no crit-
icism of our law makers to state that they have in the past, in
many cases, voted blindly for road laws because they have no
guide and have not understood just what was needed to better
preserve the road bed.
If laws are made in the various states With definite similarity
of wording and forced equipment of tire widths, farmers will
buy wide tire wagons accordingly, and soon change the road con-
ditions for the better.
The manufacturer has no selfish interest in forcing wide tires
in place of narrow tires. He would just as soon build one as the
other. However, we are all interested in simplifying the variety
and we have of course a big interest in road betterment. In
other words, we have no axe to grind in connection with the
changing of tire widths, other than simplification.
Wagon manufacturers, implement men and jobbers are vitally
interested in the other forms of standardization and simplifica-
tion as described. The consumer would be assured of a better
product in the wagon he buys, and he will, by co-operating with
the manufacturer, obviate the necessity of very large increases
in the cost of wagons within the next year or two. Farm wagons
cannot be long made under the job shop plan now existing with-
out the necessity of having to increase prices materially.
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Standardization of Farm Wagons 129
I believe that there is only one basis upon which to start an
agitation working toward the standardization described; viz. : To
create such a sentiment in various ways as will bring the public
generally to an appreciation of what is to be gained. A great
deal of good can be done by your association backing and recom-
mending standardization along the lines described— or with such
changes and additions as you may see lit to recommend. The
various agricultural colleges can do a great deal. The farm
papers can be enlisted in our favor. I believe they will cheer-
fully publish any matter that is given to them along these lines.
Then, I think that a definite plan should be laid out and pub-
lished through various channels, copies forwarded to the legis-
lators of our various states, and copies sent to all Road Commis-
sioners, enlisting their efforts.
In turn, the National Wagon Makers Association could get
back of a plan and pass resolutions agreeing that after certain
dates, certain changes in simplification and standardization be
adopted at all wagon factories.
In turn, the various wagon factories, through their traveling
salesmen and jobbers, could carry on a definite campaign with
the trade and farmers generally, working toward the same re-
sults.
There is no question in my mind but that every man in this
country, regardless of whether he live in a town or in the coun-
try, is interested in better roads. The automobile people are
wise in consistently refusing to build anything but narrow
track, and they have been able to hold to one track.
Wide tires on all wagons will mean better roads, the hauling
of heavier loads with less horse power, less wear and tear on the
wagon, team and equipment, besides saving of time required to
market the farmer's product. This matter of time alone is get-
ting to be a tremendous factor to the farmer, owing to the scarc-
ity and the high price of farm labor.
I think I can speak very decidedly for the Wagon Manufac-
turers in saying that they will be anxious to co-operate with this
society to bring about results that cannot help but be of great
benefit to the country as a whole.
In conclusion, I would be very glad to have your sugges-
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130 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
tions and criticisms. In speaking for the Wagon Manufac-
turers as a whole, I think I am safe in saying that our interests
and the interests of the consumer are so nearly identical that
they will be glad to co-operate for the standardization plan that
will work to the greatest benefit of all concerned.
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Discussion on Standardization of Farm Wagons 131
DISCUSSION.
By E. W. McCullough.*
In considering Mr. Parsonage's paper on Standardization as
applied to farm wagon construction, I believe that he has struck
the key note of mechanical and practical economy which is de-
veloping in all lines of manufacturing.
The evolution of production, from the small hand shop, ready
to humor the customers' every whim, to the power driven plant,
whose economies were made by reason of large volume and small
variety of product, covered a period of more than half a cen-
tury; but for sometime we have been swinging backward until
the evils complained of are exemplified in almost every line of
manufactured product.
Efficiency engineers encounter as their greatest difficulty in
systematizing plants for economical production, the tremendous
variety, imposed upon the factory by the sales department in
catering to the fancies, not the real needs of the purchaser.
The force of Mr. Parsonage's argument, that this departure
from standards even in farm wagons adds a burden of unneces-
sary expense to the consumer, is apparent.
The manufacturers of wagons, as he states, have accomplished
much in standardizing their requirements in rough wood ma-
terials and in the reduction of wheel heights, but there is a limit
to arbitrary changes, even though reason and experience dictate
them and at this point it is necessary to have the sympathy and
co-operation of those who use the product or are concerned in
the use of it. The function of the farm wagon is primarily that
of a common utility vehicle on the farm and in transporting
land products to market.
When the vast tonnage of our agricultural products and the
fact that all of it is handled some distance in this vehicle, is real-
ized, the importance of Mr. Parsonage's plea, that it be recon-
structed to meet the actual requirements of the situation from a
utility as well as from an economical standpoint, is clear. The
• Secretary and general manager of the National Implement ft Vehicle
Association.
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132 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
desirability of building this vehicle in a manner to cause it to
aid in the maintenance of good roads and not in the destruc-
tion of them may be best appreciated in considering the fact that
over (500,000) five hundred thousand are sold annually, and
their average life with reasonable care is more than ten years.
With this vast number (most of them with narrow tire wheels)
in action on our roads at all seasons of the year their road de-
stroying power is apparent.
The objections to the construction of a standard farm freight
vehicle have been removed since with the passing of years the
farm wagon once the only vehicle on the farm, no longer is used
in pleasure transportation and by investigation the same stand-
ard type of wagon usable in hauling cotton bales south would be
found to serve equally well in grain transportation north.
The cost of wagon construction, due principally to the in-
crease in kinds and equipment and the scarcity of hardwoods,
has greatly increased during the past ten years and bids fair
to continue, if steps along the suggested lines are not taken, for
farm products will be transported in this vehicle for many years
to come.
Mr. Parsonage, I believe, suggests the true remedy, education
and co-operation, but I would go a step farther in expressing
the belief that the present moment is most opportune to bring
together all elements concerned in conference, i. e. — representa-
tives of farmer organizations and state agricultural departments
— representatives of wagon manufacturers — delegates of good
road organizations — to begin a campaign for these betterments
in which all three are vitally interested.
Such a conference to devise ways and means might very prop-
erly be called under the auspices of your society, and I am quite
sure would meet with hearty support for it would mark the be-
ginning of an effort for a most desirable economy.
The Chairman: We appreciate very much having had these
two men with us, and I know that they will find that the Amer-
ican Association of Agricultural Engineers is willing to co-op-
erate with them in any way. I think that we, as agricultural
engineers, know better than anybody else the need of improving
the highways, and improving the machines that use the high-
ways. I know a great many of you have questions to ask, and I
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Discussion on Standardization of Farm Wagons 133
want all of you to ask as many as you possibly can; for in dis-
cussing matters with our new President, Mr. McGregor, I find
that he has decided that we should put emphasis on the work of
the Committee on Standards, which is a standing committee, al-
though appointed for the coming year. I think the plan he will
propose to the Chairman of that committee is of such a nature
that nearly every man in the organization will be a member of
the committee.
Mr. J. A. King: Is it practical, Mr. Parsonage, to make one,
and only one, width of tire ?
Mb. Parsonage : Do you mean one width of tire on all sizes ?
Mb. J. A. King: Yes. You spoke of a man's having a four
inch width of tire, going over soft roads, the ruts in which had
been formed by inch and a half or two inch tires. Now, with a
three, three and a half and four inch width of tire, will we not
have the same difficulty ¥ Why not make them all one standard
width, sufficiently wide to support the heaviest wagons?
Mr. Parsonage: I am afraid that would be rather difficult.
Of course, in any one locality, especially in the Central States,
farmers use pactically the same wagons, and it would be possible
for us to use as a standard a three inch tire. But where they use
the smaller wagons, they would not cut down a great deal if
they used a two or two and a half inch tire. In other words, even
if there was a little variation as between two inches, two and a
half inches, three inches and four inches, those tires should be
wide enough so that they would not cut down as much as an inch
and a half tire does.
Mr. J. A. King : So that the penetration under the same condi-
tions of hardness, would be the same.
Mr. Parsonage : Yes. The wider the tire, the more tendency
there would be to pack the roadbed rather than to cut it up.
The Chairman : I might say that Mr. McCullough stated that
we should not be hollering all the time about the improvement of
roads, but the improvement of the machinery that cuts up the
roads.
Mr. McCullough: Of course, it will be impossible to have
wide tires all over the country, except where the quality of the
roads warrant it. For instance, take the black gumbo soil of
Southern Illinois, and the black land of Texas. You get in there
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134 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
with a wide tire wagon, and you will never get out. It will all
have to come gradually. But where we have good roads, there
is no reason why the three inch tire should not prevail, as it does
in the pikes of Ohio, Pennsylvania and Virginia.
Mr. Libberton : I would like to speak for just a moment on one
point which Mr. McCullough brought out in his discussion of
roads. North of Chicago there is a fine stretch of road, but in it
he said, there is a small hole caused by the improper mixing of
materials. He gave as the reason for that hole the fact that au-
tomobiles passing over it had sucked out the material. I believe
that is true concerning a hole to which no cement has been added ;
but after that point is reached, I believe the automobiles will
have less effect on the hole than the harder tired vehicles. I can
see no particular reason why a wider tired vehicle would have
any more effect on it than a narrow tired one. I think there is
something to be said, in the discussion of the standardization of
wagon affairs, in favor of the standardization of roads. That
is, I think this point ought to receive some consideration; that
we make our roads fit our vehicles. It hardly seems fair that a
man who is paying a road tax, and earning his livelihood with
his treshing engine, should be deprived of the privilege of using
the road which lies near his own home.
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Concrete in Drainage and Irrigation 135
CONCRETE IN DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION.
By P. T. Libberton.*
It is but natural that concrete should obtain considerable rec-
ognition in the installation of drainage and irrigation projects
just as it has in the numberless other fields into which it has en-
tered. The materials of which it is composed may generally be
located within a reasonable distance from the project and local
labor may be used in the construction.
Previously, masonry construction required cut stone for good
appearance and economical laying ; thus large quantities of small
stone were rejected at the pit as worthless. With the extensive
development of concrete construction, little care is now taken in
the blasting, and the rock may be dumped into the crusher direct
from the pit. After the necessary washing and screening, we
have concrete aggregate.
The same also is true in a way of the gravel and sand, large
pits of which are daily being discovered. A pit of suitable well
graded sand and gravel is a gold mine to the owner, and many
farmers are finding the disposal of concrete materials far more
profitable than the tilling of the soil.
Emphasis must be laid continually on the necessity for obtain-
ing good material, since poor, dirty or otherwise unsuitable ag-
gregates are responsible for many failures of concrete. The ag-
gregates must be clean, hard and well graded, with the coarser
particles predominating. Clean, because if the separate particles
are covered with a coating or film of any kind the cement cannot
form a good bond with the surface.
As a chain is no stronger than its weakest link, so concrete is
no stronger than the weakest particles of wThich it is composed.
Consequently, the aggregate must be hard, and remain hard un-
der all weather conditions.
Some sands and gravels contain shale-like particles, which
after exposure to weather for a short time, go to pieces. When
such particles occur in the tile wall, oftentimes the absorption of
* Information Bureau Portland Cement Company.
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136 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
moisture causes them to swell and split, breaking large pieces of
concrete out with them. Stone of a chalky nature will not give
good results. Coarse particles should predominate because a
coarse aggregate presents a smaller surface area for the same
volume and is also more easily covered with cement than a fine
one, thus making stronger concrete with the same proportion of
cement.
The sand must be free from an excessive amount of fine ma-
terial, although small amounts are conducive to imperviousness,
which is always to be desired when concrete is being mixed for
use either in drainage or irrigation work.
With good materials and good workmanship it is possible to
produce concrete of such quality as will defy the elements in-
definitely. Porous concrete will defy nothing and whether
placed above or below ground is a prey to every destructive ac-
tion.
It has sometimes been contended that concrete is unsuited for
underground drainage because of its inability to resist the action
of ground water. In reality, concrete hardens best under wa-
ter and if it is of first class quality the conditions are ideal for
the development of maximum strength.
The early manufacturers of concrete tile were not cognizant
of the requirement of strength and imperviousness but rather be-
lieved that the best drain tile was the one most porous. In real-
ity the joints are sufficient to take in all the water which comes
to the drain line. Then too, no matter how porous may be the
fresh cement tile a short time after its introduction into the
drain, the pores begin to fill with silt and their draining value is
removed. The introduction of silt, however, adds nothing to the
strength of the tile, and the continual flow of water through the
line has sometimes been sufficient to wear away the lower part
of the tile completely, leaving nothing standing but the crown.
The reason for the extreme porosity achieved may be traced
first to lack of cement and second to extremely dry mixtures.
The reason for the little cement used in the early manufacture
of drain tile, may be traced to the original manufacturers of tile
machines, who were more anxious to dispose of their wares than
to insure the good reputation of the cement tile industry. "With
this in view their recommendation was more often 1 part of ce-
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Concrete in Drainage and Irrigation 137
ment to 7 or 8 parts of sand, than 1 part of cement, to 3 parts of
sand, which is now recognized as none too rich. The reason for
recommending a dry mixture may be that a porous tile presented
a selling point which the tile manufacturer could demonstrate to
the easily convinced buyer.
A customary demonstration which never failed to prove the
value of cement tile or drainage was to pour a glass of water
over the outside surface and see it appear almost immediately in
moisture on the interior. This happily has been done away with
almost entirely, and manufacturers now appreciate the need of
every precaution which will insure a dense and impervious con-
crete.
There are several shorthand methods of determining quickly
the quality of cement drain tile. The first is by tapping the tile
with a hammer, or piece of metal, and noting the quality of the
ring. The emission of a sharp metallic ring indicates the su-
perior quality in the product, while a wooden like sound fur-
nishes sufficient cause for rejection.
Practically all of the smaller sized tile are made in an outer
jacket by means of an interior rotating packer head, which packs
the concrete between itself and the jacket. When a sufficient
amount of water is used the quick removal of the outer jacket
is sometimes difficult and as a result, manufacturers are tempted
to decrease the amount of water to the lowest possible point, in
order to increase the output. A very easy cheek on whether or
not sufficient water has been used is found in the web-like mark-
ings which always appear on the outside of tile in which suffi-
cient water has been used. These are caused by a slight adhesion
between the jacket and the tile upon the removal of the former.
Another indication of the quality of concrete tile is presented
in the absorption test, which is made by immersing the specimen
in water for forty-eight hours, after having been dried to con-
stant weight and weighed. The increase in weight should not be
over 4 percent.
Pinal acceptance of tile should be made upon the strength
which they develop. There is no need for trying to approximate
ditch conditions in the methods of testing employed but rather
to ascertain whether or not the tile is of sufficient strength to
withstand the load which will be applied to it in the ditch. In
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138 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
reality every ditch in which tile are placed presents a new method
of loading, depending upon the care in the preparation of the
bed. Many times the tile rest only upon a line along the bottom.
A commercial machine is now marketed which provides for
what may be known as the three point loading along two lines
parallel to the axis at the bottom of the tile, and along a similar
line parallel to the axis along the top. By this method accurate
and uniform results have been obtained which have justified its
adoption by a number of drain tile manufacturers as standard.
It is possible also for the purchaser of tile to adopt this machine
and with the specifications which are now under consideration
by the American Society for Testing Materials, it will be possible
to accept or reject tile upon actual strengths obtained.
Because of a lack of sufficient strength, tile have sometimes
collapsed in the ditch, and those opposed to concrete for this pur-
pose have seized upon such failures as reason for advising
against the use of -cement tile of any quality. Such failures have
often been credited to the action of ground water "alkalies". In
reality the true cause has been poor tile. Mr. P. H. Bates, chief
chemist of the Bureau of Standards, who has made a considera-
ble investigation of " alkali* ' in the United States, and its ef-
fect upon concrete, states that the more widely distributed white
4 * alkali' ' consists of sulphate of soda or a mixture of this with
sulphate of magnesia. Other salts are present only in compara-
tively slight quantities. The black " alkali' ' is largely carbonate
of soda. Of this " alkali' ' the one which most actively attacks
concrete is the mixture of the sulphate of soda and magnesia, the
others being comparatively harmless.
Richard L. Humphrey, President of the Concrete Institute, re-
cently stated before the International Association for Testing
Materials that there are attributed to " alkali" action, many de-
fects of workmanship and materials. Mr. Humphrey and the
writer have both visited the principal works in the far west
where "alkali" action has been reported and there is only one
district confined to a small portion in Wyoming and South
Dakota wThere the black alkali seemed to have attacked the con-
crete to any appreciable amount and even at this location there
remained a good deal of question as to the quality of the con-
crete. The destruction was due, primarily, to the rapid evapcra-
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Concrete in Drainage and Irrigation 139
tion from the extreme dryness of the atmosphere, causing im-
mediate crystallization of this " alkali' ' salt in the concrete. The
more dense the concrete the less destructive is this action. In all
probability after the concrete has been broken down, chemical
action also takes place. The rapid formation of these crystals
causes a swelling or increase in volume, which has the same de-
structive action as frost.
It is generally overlooked, however, that this action is not
confined alone to concrete but affects, brick, stone and other
building materials similarly. The modern application of con-
crete being comparatively recent, any failure of this material
naturally attracts more attention than the failure of material
that has been used for a greater length of time.
Technologic Papers, No. 12, of the Bureau of Standards on
the ki Action of the salts in Alkali Water and Sea Water on Ce-
ments", which has been published this year, sums up the opera-
tions of the department in this regard, as follows :
1. Portland cement mortar or concrete, if porous, can be dis-
integrated by the mechanical forces exerted by the crystalliza-
tion of almost any salt in its pores, if a sufficient amount of it is
permitted to accumulate and a rapid formation of crystals is
brought about by drying; and as larger crystals are formed by
slow crystallization, there would be obtained the same results on
a larger scale, but in greater time if slow drying were had. Por-
ous stone, brick, and other structural materials are disintegrated
in the same manner. Therefore in alkali regions where a concen-
tration of salts is possible, a dense, non-porous surface is essen-
tial.
2. While in the laboratory a hydraulic cement is readily de-
composed if intimately exposed to the chemical action of various
sulphate and chloride solutions, field inspection indicates that
in service these reactions are much retarded if not entirely sus-
pended in most cases, due probably to the carbonization of the
lime of the cement near the surface or the formation of an im-
pervious skin or protective coating by saline deposits.
3. Properly made Portland cement concrete, when totally im-
mersed, is apparently not subject to decomposition by the chem-
ical action of sea water.
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140 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
These conclusions were arrived at after a period of 3V£ years
of continuous experimentation, and although not absolutely con-
clusive are fairly indicative of the confidence of the department
in the ability of good concrete to withstand the action of any
''alkalies" generally met with in drainage or irrigation opera-
tions.
Another point which is not generally given consideration in
the solution of our drainage problems is the concentration of
"alkali", due to surface irrigation, without provision for under-
drainage. The continual flooding of "alkali" water over a dis-
trict causes a concentration of the salts on the surface from evap-
oration and unless this is carried away by some means of under-
drainage the soil is not only in poor condition for cultivation but
also has an abnormal effect upon any building material which is
used in its vicinity. With adequate under-drainage there is no
ihance for a concentration of salts since a continual flow from
the surface to the drain keeps the soil in normal condition.
Were any considerable amount of difficulty encountered, the
-concrete tile industry would not have increased with such ex-
ceptional rapidity. In the year 1905 the first plant was estab-
lished and in 1911 a total number of 372 plants were in opera-
tion, with a yearly output of over 150,000,000 feet. Lean mix-
tures and lack of proper workmanship militated against the more
rapid development, but with the appreciation which seems to be
felt today of the need for plenty of cement and every care in
manufacture, there is no reason why enormous strides should not
be made in the future toward developing this industry.
The success of concrete tile for the regulation drainage sys-
tems has brought attention to the vertical method of drainage,
which has lately been developed by the American Drainage Co.,
of Dubuque, Iowa.
These rock pits have been handed down from one generation
to another and this system of drainage is familiar to the ma-
jority of us. All of these vertical drainage methods, however,
are reported to have given only temporary relief and very soon
clogged up, largely due, of course, to improper protection of the
inlets with some sort of device for preventing the earth and silt
from being carried in with the water.
On a number of farms, for which the engineer undertakes to
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Concrete in Drainage and Irrigation 141
provide adequate under-drainage, he is confronted with a serious
problem in disposing of the surface water from some particularly
low place, which is often below the level of his ditch. Even
though the outlet may be obtained, the running of a drain from
this low section through the higher portions of the farm is ex-
tremely expensive and may not justify the outlay for time and
material.
It is to such sump holes or low spots as these that this system
of vertical tile drainage is particularly applicable, as it furnishes
an outlet for draining the surface water away and down to the
water bearing earth, which will generally be found to include,
an underground stream.
The operation of installing a vertical drain is first to bore
down with an 8-inch auger, until water receiving earth, such as
sand, gravel, seamy rock, boulders, etc., is encountered. (Pig. 1)
The depth will vary from ten to thirty feet. Six-inch tile are
recommended for the drain and after the auger has been removed
its various sections may be laid out from the hole just bored.
It is possible then to determine the length of tile necessary to
fill the hole exactly. Two loops of wire are run through the tile
and the ends twisted around one of the auger extensions. After
all the tile are down the wire should be pulled taut and twisted.
The inside of the drain is then slushed out thoroughly with a
"well diggers slush bucket" or 4 inch sand lifting auger.
In order to provide for a good drainage at the outlet a bucket
full of broken tile, rock, or some such porous material is poured
into the tile. The whole line is now lifted up a few inches by
means of the wires, so that the rock spreads at the bottom, afford-
ing a good outlet basin.
Having filled the top of the tile with a gunny (Fig. 2) sack,
the excavation may now be started, by measuring off a 4 ft. circle
with the hole as the center. Digging and excavating are accom-
plished as shown, taking off tile as the excavation goes lower. A
concrete collar is placed around the tile at the base of the excava-
tion so that no water can wash down alongside. The drain head
is next placed and stakes driven down around the outside of the
excavation on which the cap is later placed. With the soil fender
(a larger sized tile) in position the next operation is the placing
of the cap, (Pig. 3) dumping and packing down clay or some
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142
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
hard packer's earth around its outer edge. The hole is next filled
in, tamping the edges only, leaving the center heaped up as it
will settle later.
Where quicksand or standing water is encountered a tempor-
ary steel casing may be put down first, which acts as a sort of
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Concrete in Drainage and Irrigation
143
cofferdam in which to work. The rest of the operations are iden:
tical with those just described for ordinary conditions. It is, of
course, necessary sometimes, when soft earth is encountered to
drive a greater number of stakes or even provide a brick or stone
backing to prevent caving, but such conditions are seldom met
with.
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144 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
The operation of the drainhead and vertical tile is practically
the same as the ordinary system of drainage ; the entire area of
the pit, being subject to the inflow of water from the surrounding
neighborhood. After the tile has been filled in the spring, the
water starting to recede has a slight suction action, tending to in-
crease slightly the drainage of the water from the surrounding
area.
Fig. 4. — The Result of Installing a Vertical Drain.
Where a number of saucer ponds or sump holes are encount-
ered, it is necessary to install a drainhead and vertical drain in
each one, but the cost of installation is not generally as much as
would be necessary were a complete system of drainage put in.
A number of letters and testimonials received from various users
of vertical tile drains indicate that this method is meeting with
much approval, although the commercial product has only been
on the market for a period of four years.
The illustration (Figure 4) shows the result of installing a
vertical drain on one side of the road, while the other was left
without.
Up to June 1, 1912, the corner of the field illustrated in (Pig.
5) had never been plowed. A year later, however, (Pig. 6) the
introduction of a vertical drain had made cultivation possible
with every prospect of a good crop.
Equally wonderful results have been achieved by concrete in
every branch of irrigation and drainage and during its period
of usefulness, has thoroughly demonstrated marvelous lasting
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Concrete in Drainage and Irrigation
145
qualities when sufficient care has been taken in its manufacture.
The materials should receive first consideration; the cement be-
ing manufactured according to standard methods need generally
receive only a portion of the inspection, spending the majority
of one 's effort in the selection of suitable aggregates. After good
materials have been located care must be used in the proportion-
ing and mixing of the concrete, being sure to use sufficient water
to make an impervious mass. Such concrete will be proof against
any adverse conditions to which it may be submitted.
Fig. 5. — Before Installing a Vertical Drain.
Fig. 6. — After Installing a Vertical Drain.
10
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146 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
DISCUSSION.
By F. H. Harkis.*
There is no doubt that concrete will find a wide use in drain-
age, but it is probable that its use in connection with irrigation
will be even more extensive. Since Mr. Libberton has discussed
the former rather fully, I shall confine myself to the irrigation
phase of the question.
In the early days of irrigation in the West, before cement was
available there was no end of trouble with diverting dams in the
streams and at the intake of canals. The dams were often made
of brush or rocks thrown into the bed of the stream at the point
of diversion. All went well as long as the water was low, but the
material was washed away by every flood, and as a result the
canal carried no water when it was most needed. Since the use
of concrete has become general these troubles have been largely
overcome as a concrete dam is usually permanent and does not
need to be replaced after each flood.
In most of the best irrigation systems that are being installed
at present, cement is used in the entire upper end of the canal.
The head gate that used to be made of wood is now built of the
more solid material, so that when the system is once constructed
there is but little trouble later with the intake.
Cement makes an ideal material from which to construct divid-
ing gates. In the earlier days of irrigation the water was divided
by digging out the side of the canal and allowing a stream to run
into a lateral. The flow through the lateral was discontinued by
throwing in dirt till the ditch was filled. Anyone who has had
experience handling water under this system can testify to the
great amount of labor often involved in changing the stream
from one ditch to another. The chief objection to this hit and
miss method of dividing water is that it is impossible to make any-
thing like an exact division. The whole thing has to be done by
guess. This leads to no end of disagreements over the water in
times when it is scarce. All these difficulties may be obviated by
* Director of School of Agricultural Engineering, Utah Agricultural
College.
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Discussion on Concrete in Drainage and Irrigation 147
installing a system of cement division gates even in small ditches
so the water can be turned by simply taking out or putting in a
board.
One of the most important uses of cement in connection with
irrigation is in the lining of canals. Taking the entire country,
not much more than half the water that enters the head of the
canal ever reaches the land. The greater portion of the loss
comes from percolation through the porous places in the bottom
of the canals.
It is probable that it will never pay to line all canals through-
out their entire length, but practically every one has certain
places in it where a cement lining could with profit be installed.
This is particularly true where the canal passes around rocky
points. In such places there may often be a loss of 25 per cent, of
the stream in a few rods.
In regions where water is very scarce and the land high in
price it will often pay to line the canal from its head down to
the place where the last lateral is taken out so that there can be
absolutely no loss by percolation.
Concrete can serve the irrigator in an indirect manner by its
use in making bridges over the canals. Where there are irriga-
tion ditches, many bridges must be made for the roads to cross
them. Where these bridges are made of wood they sooner or later
break down and are bad for the canal as well as for the road. No
other material is as satisfactory for making good, permanent
bridges over canals as cement.
In view of these uses of cement in connection with irrigation,
farmers and irrigation engineers should consider themselves in-
deed fortunate in having a material so well suited to their needs.
It is probable that in the future construction of irrigation works,
the need of cement will be exceeded in importance only by water
to flow through the canal.
The Chairman : The paper of Mr. Libberton is now open for
discussion. I hope you will confine your questions to Mr. Lib-
bertson's paper as he is here to answer questions, and afterwards
we will throw the meeting open to a general discussion of the sub-
ject.
Mb. J. A. King : I would like to ask Mr. Libberton his opinion
regarding the different methods of curing cement tile. The two
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148 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
methods known to me in our section of the country are to put
the tile into sheds, sprinkle them every so often with a hose ; and
the other method is to cure them for from forty-eight to seventy-
two hours in exhaust steam, in enclosed curing rooms ; then put
them into covered sheds and sprinkle them every twelve hours,
say, for a certain number of days, before putting them into the
storage yards. If Mr. Libberton has any opinion or information
regarding the relative merits of these two methods of curing, I
would be very glad to hear what he has to say.
Mr. Libberton : The two methods of curing tile, as Mr. King
has said, consist of the natural and the steam method. They dif-
fer, as far as results are concerned, only in the speed with which
the ultimate strength is obtained. The method of curing tile by
means of steam is merely to hasten the hardening by increasing
the temperature, without bringing in a condition of drying the
product. If we have any drying, of course, in the curing of tile,
we use the value of the hardening quality of the cement ; and as
Mr. King said it is the custom to cure tile in steam for* forty-eight
hours. With that method we can get strengths which will closely
approximate fourteen day strengths with the method of natural
curing. The installation of a steam curing plant requires a
larger investment because of the necessity of putting in a boiler
which is of large capacity, since it must work at low pressure
The steam itself has absolutely no value in adding water to the
tile, unless added when the concrete is mixed. The only object
in keeping the steam there is to provide against the evaporation
of any of the water away from the tile, which was originally
added in the mixing ; and at the same time, obtain a higher tem-
perature, so as to increase the rate of hardening.
Mr. J. A. King : Some four years ago I was called upon to in-
stall 25 miles of drain tile on a farm, and the question naturally
arose as to what kind of tile to use, cement or clay; and if ce-
ment, what cement and from what plant. Of course, we had no
economical methods of manufacturing the tile on the ground.
In inspecting the product of nearby factories, I chose the steam
cured tile, because I observed, in the methods followed by the
natural drying plants, the tile was not sprinkled often enough to
keep the surface of the tile wet. They would be sprinkled about
from six to eight hours apart, and in some instances twelve hours
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Discussion on Concrete in Drainage and Irrigation 149
apart ; and the surfaces of the tile dried. In inspecting the com-
pleted product in the storage yards, I found the steam cured tile
far preferable, even under the same conditions of mixing. It
seemed to me, therefore, that the steam cured tile was preferable
and I bought them.
Mb. Libbbbton : The contention of Mr. King is perfectly cor-
rect. We advise the use of steam curing plants, not because it is
not possible to obtain good tile by natural curing but because it
is more easily possible to obtain uniform results from steam cur-
ing.
Mb. Bamsoweb : There are quite a number of small molds made
for the use of individual farmers, which have been put upon the
market. These are meeting with considerable success from a
salesman's point of view. I would like the opinion of Mr. Lib-
berton regarding these machines, and their use by individual
farmers.
Mb. Libbebton : Regarding the use of small drain tile machines
for individual use of the farmer, there are two machines with
which I know it is possible to make an excellent quality of tile.
The question is, whether or not the man who uses the machine
has sufficient knowledge of the essentials in manufacture which
guarantee a good quality of tile. It would seem as though a
manufacturer, who is making a business of making concrete tile,
should be able to turn out a better product than a farmer, who
has had little experience. I say, therefore, it is always better to
advise a farmer to buy tile from a man who is experienced in the
tile business, than for him to make the tile himself. However,
we obtain many inquiries from farmers who are in localities in
which no tile plant of any kind is located; and in consequence
many times, exorbitant rates are charged. In that case we rec-
ommend that the man buy a machine, and then we do our best,
by personal assistance, and by writing him letters and sending
him booklets, to give him the necessary information to enable
him to make good tile.
Mb. C. F. Chase : Mr. Libberton, I wanted to ask you if it is
essential to have a canvas coating for the tile, as some of the
manufacturers recommend, or can we remove the sheet iron form
immediately ?
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150 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Mb. Libberton : I understand to what you refer, but I do not
know that it was referred to in the paper. With one type of
smaller tile machine there is a tar paper sleeve which is used in-
side of the outer jacket. The outer metal jacket may then be re-
moved, leaving the inner casing in position until the tile has
thoroughly hardened.
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Motor Appliances for Farm Work 151
SMALL MOTOR APPLICATIONS FOR FARM WORK.
CABL J. ROHRER.*
In giving consideration as to the treatment of this subject, the
writer was undecided whether the paper should be a strictly
technical one or whether it should deal with the material at hand
in a more popular way. After talking the matter over with some
of the members of the Society, the latter course was finally de-
cided on.
In order to read an intelligible paper on the topic assigned, it
will be necessary to take up the whole subject of electricity as
applied to the farm. As the title indicates, this paper is sup-
posed to include only power applications, but in the most prac-
tical uses of electricity on the farm, power and lighting are in-
separable. It is well to mention here that each one of the seven
topics treated in this paper would make an interesting subject
for discussion in itself.
In 1910, Mr. Edwards read a paper on this same subject, be-
fore your society. Since that time, however, great advances have
been made in this line; possibly more than most of us realize.
To illustrate, in California alone, the use of electricity has be-
come practically standard from the farmer's point of view, es-
pecially for irrigation and small power applications. One power
company, the Pacific Gas & Electic Co. of San Francisco, has
7,000 farmers on its lines. Another, the Great Western Power
Co. of San Francisco, has 4,000 and many others have from 1,000
to 3,000. In Colorado, Kansas, Washington, Oregon, and Utah
great numbers of farmers are using electric power.
The census of 1910 shows pumping plants for irrigation in the
United States to the extent of about 243,500 horse power. Of
this amount 128,000 horse power is used in California. More
than one-half of these installations use electricity as the source
of power. In addition, electric cooking and heating is used very
extensively.
In the central states especially in Illinois, Iowa, Indiana, Wis-
consin, and Minnesota the farmer has become a large user of elec-
1 Agricultural Engineer, General Electric Company, Schenectady, N. Y.'
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152 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
tricity for both light and power. In Illinois alone, there are over
1,000 farmers using electricity. In the eastern states progress
has not been so rapid, but its use is now steadily increasing.
Electricity as a means of light and power for the farmer has
come to stay. Anyone who has had the opportunity to witness
its spread within the last three years will be firmly convinced
that this statement is true. There are many conditions which
have brought this growth about, the most important being the
extensive use of pumps for irrigation in the west ; the great fire
risk involved when the kerosene lamps and lanterns are used in
the home and about the farm buildings; the farmer's desire to
have the comforts and conveniences of his city brother; his en-
deavor to shorten and eliminate as far as possible the drudgery
of farm chores ; and the scarcity and ever increasing cost of man-
ual labor. All these farm problems are either minimized or
eliminated by the use of electricity for light and power. Coupled
with this is the farmer's tendency towards the adoption of more
business like methods in keeping actual cost figures of his farm
operations, with the consequent realization of the great economic
benefits of electric light and power. So much for the farmer's
side of the question.
In the meantime, the electric manufacturers and the electric
light companies have not been idle. The former have developed
and placed on the market the Mazda lamp which has materially
reduced the cost of electric lighting. The isolated plant has been
improved and its cost reduced. A cheaper type of outdoor equip-
ment, such as is used by electric light and power companies for
farm supply, has been perfected, thus enabling the central sta-
tion to supply many farmers with electricity economically.
Formerly this was impossible on account of the small yearly rev-
enue derived from such installations. The central stations, too,
have made decided progress in this direction, for they have
studied the farmer's requirements and are now willing to meet
his demands.
The tendency of the electrical industry at the present time is
toward centralization, i. e., supplying a number of towns from
one large power plant, in order to operate more efficiently and
economically. This means that electrical transmission lines will
eventually network the country. In fact, there are hundreds of
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Motor Applications for Farm Work 153
them already built. The latter point has a very important bear-
ing on this farm problem, in that it gives an opportunity to
many farmers, who would otherwise be unable to secure elec-
tricity on account of being situated long distances from the near-
est source of supply. With the many lines already built it is a
simple matter to extend branch lines for several miles in any di-
rection supplying all the farmers who desire to purchase electric
current if there is sufficient business in sight to justify the ex-
pense. With this brief outline of the situation as it now stands,
we will proceed to investigate the possibilities of electric light
and power as applied to the farm.
Electricity is being used for over 125 different farm opera-
tions. In order to treat the subject to the greatest advantage we
will divide it into seven topics, as follows : — electricity for light-
ing, for the home, for the dairy, for the barn and field, for the
farm shop, for vehicles and for irrigation.
Electric Lighting.
Electricity furnishes the safest, cleanest, most effective and
convenient system of artificial lighting. If this statement is not
true, how do you account for its almost exclusive use in the city ?
Another important advantage of electricity is that it eliminates
all the drudgery of filling and cleaning oil lamps and all danger
of explosion with its consequent fire. The Mazda lamp has re-
duced the cost per c.p. for electric lighting one third, and as man-
ufactured at present these lamps are very rugged and produce
a light that is almost a pure white. Electric lamps have the great
advantage of being convenient in that a snap of the switch turns
the light off or on. This makes it unnecessary to leave lights
"burning when not in actual use.
The average charge for wiring and installing lamps in farm
buildings generally runs about $2.00 per outlet, which is ex-
tremely low, considering the service. It is a common impression
that electric lighting is an expensive luxury, but it is interesting
to note that in the last 20 years, the cost of farm labor has in-
creased 35% and the cost of living 30%, while the cost of elec-
tricity has decreased 88% during the same period. From this it
can be readily seen that electricity is not in the luxury class and
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
154 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
it is fair to assume that the cost will continue to decrease as time
goes on.
The following is a comparison of the old incandescent electric
lamp with the Mazda lamp and shows conclusively how the latter
has reduced the cost of electric lighting.
Comparison of Carbon and Mazda Lamps.
Rated Candle *Hours # Candle Power
Watts Power Hours for
one cent
Mazda 20 15 5 75
Carbon 20 5 5 25
Mazda 25 20 4 80
Carbon ..25 7 4 28
Mazda 40 32 2.5 80
Mazda 60 48 1.7 82
Carbon 60 18 1.7 31
Mazda 100 82 1 82
Carbon 100 31 1 31
From the table you will note that the last column entitled
"Candle Power Hours for One Cent" shows the Mazda lamp to
give about three times the light with the same consumption of
electric current.
Electricity in the Farm Home.
There are many other uses to which electricity can be put in
the farm home, besides illumination, for example; it will operate
the washing machine, electric iron, water pump, electric fan,
sewing machine, meat grinder, bread mixer, refrigerating ma-
chine, buffer and grinder, foot warmer and heating pad which
has the same uses as the hot water bottle. In all there are 50
uses for electricity in the farm home. The ones mentioned above
are the most common and important. These devices, when
used, do not consume a very large amount of electricity. The
motor for the water pump usually ranges in size from % to 1
h.p., the average being y2. The power cost ranges from 2y2 to
* Number of hours the lamps can be used at cost of one cent for elec-
tricity #(at ten cents per kilowatt-hour).
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Motor Applications for Farm Work 155
10c per hr., depending on the size of the pump. A six pound
electric iron uses from 4 to 6c worth of electricity per hour.
What is 6c an hour for the convenience of being able to iron in
the open or in a cool room on a hot summer day. For conven-
ience one motor can be used to run the washing machine, cream
separator, pump, churn, meat grinder, ice cream freezer, vegeta-
ble peeler and bread mixer.
Here is the amount of work that can be done with a cent's
worth of electricity at 10c per kw. hr.
It will operate a 6 lb. flat iron for 15 minutes.
It will drive an electric vacuum cleaner long enough to clean 450
sq. ft. of carpet.
It will lift 100 gal. of water 100 ft.
It will run a sewing machine 2 hours.
It will run a 12" electric fan 2 hours.
It will keep a heating pad hot from 2 to 3 hours.
It will run a buffer and grinder 1*4 hours.
The electric washer will eliminate a large amount of the physi-
cal labor involved in washing and in addition the attendant can
perform other household duties, while the electric motor does the
work.
The following curves illustrate the saving accomplished by the
electric washer.
IN ALL THE CURVES ON OPERATING COSTS WHICH
ARE TO FOLLOW, INTEREST ON THE MONEY IN-
VESTED IN THE MACHINERY NECESSARY IS FIG-
URED AT 6% AND A DEPRECIATION CHARGE OF 10%
IS MADE. ALL NECESSARY LABOR IS FIGURED AT
15c PER HOUR.
Example of how to read cost curve : — Supposing a family has
5 washerfuls per week. Then reading on curve #5, the labor
cost is 1.2c for the electric washer. The labor and power cost is
1.6c (curve #4) and the total cost is 5c (curve #1). Comparing
this with the hand washer, the labor cost alone is 5c, (curve #3)
and the added depreciation and interest on the hand washer
brings this cost per washerful to 5.75c (curve #2), or a saving
of .75c per washer if the electric machine is used.
The following table shows the size of motors to use on different
household machines.
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156
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
v.r.' is a.i:: c?i:...:jg> .
> a..caiais
^ACk.'r.« C»F»*<*iti- Tie* j-or J.I. c? Aot^al Kn. nx\». Coot of Col*, of faarly Labor
In ofceoti worhor- Co tor h.p. In per vaah- aachlno •loctrldty Int. 1 tiro atv«d •
for vatL- f.l Uwod pa*, lr. erf-l por lev. hr. 4«». por aaah-
arfal fao'.cr 1« Tful ,
land
2C sin.
20 oln.
1/8
.1*6
.cu
t66.vX
10. GG
10;
#6.90
1.60
16 da.
AMP£L£CTAfC/*CL Y O*BmT£0 MHSWMf /49CMMES.
(DTotaZ cast oar urtLSherfitl including fhtfajBkta&ar and power Ar
e feet nearly operated machine.
(£Y7eta? cost per- wasJker/itt ine?udi*f Int. Aqpand ?a2x?r far '"
hand operated -machine.
(3Vo forces tin, cents far band urasker:
(4Ua*or andpotvwr cost ?n_ cents for etectrtc urwsArer.
(SiCoJar cast in cents far electric trasAe'rr
(€)Costtn dollars fo do ane years daas/kinf uritJk electric power:
\C7)Costin dollars to da one years *ras7rtny 2p Aaxd.
Electric Versus Hand Operated Washing Machines (Plate I).
SIZE OF MOTORS TO USE ON DIFFERENT HOUSEHOLD MACHINES.
Machine
Sewing machine
Buffer and grinder 1/50
Vacuum cleaner 1/8
Ice cream freezer 1/8
Washing machine 1/8
Meat grinder 1/4
Water pump 1/4
H.P. of Motor
Min. Max.
1/30
5
1/4
3/4
Size most
commonly used
1/icT
Both
1/8 to 1/4
1/8
1/8 to 1/2
1/4
1/2
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Motor Applications for Farm Work
157
Note : — It should be remembered in this connection that inter-
nal combustion engines are not made in fractional horse-power
sizes.
Electric Drive for the Dairy.
An electric drive in the dairy offers great advantages to both
the average farmer and the dairyman. The motor can be placed
Electric Versus Hand Operated Cream Separator (Plate II).
out of the way and all belting can be easily eliminated. As is
well known, cleanliness is a big factor in milk and butter produc-
tion and electric motors meet every condition. There are 20
uses for electricity in the dairy, the most important being cream
separators, churns, water pumps, milking machines, refrigerat-
ing machines, milk clarifiers, pasteurizers and milk circulating
pumps.
The electric motor is especially valuable for a cream separator
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158 Ameiican Society of Agricultural Engineers
as its use insures a constant speed and eliminates the use of a
governing pulley, which means that cream giving a uniform test
will be secured day after day.
The following curves show the operating cost :
Example of 500 lb. curve : — Supposing a farmer separates 300
lbs. of milk per day. Then reading on (curve #4) the power
cost is .3c per hundred pounds and the total cost is 2.2c per hun-
dred pounds (curve #2). Comparing this with the hand op-
erated separator the labor cost is 3c (curve #3) per hundred
pounds of milk, and the total cost including interest and depre-
ciation is 4.1c per hundred pounds (curve #1), or a saving of
practically 2c per one hundred pounds separated.
Example of 1100 lb. separator curve: — Taking the same
amount of milk separated per day as above, i.e., 300 lbs. shows
the cost of hand operation to be 2.80c per hundred pounds
against 2.40c for the electrically operated separator, or a differ-
ence of .4c per hundred pounds in favor of the electrically driven
machine.
The size of motors used for driving churns ranges from 1/8 to
3 h.p. The complete cost averages about lc for every 10 lbs. of
butter churned and worked.
Usually a 1 or 2 h.p. motor will supply all the water necessary
for both the farm and dairy. This of course, depends some-
what on the lift and the distance the water is to be pumped. The
pumping equipment can easily be made automatic and no atten-
tion need be given it, as it will keep the water at a constant level
in the tank, unless the well goes dry.
Tests made on an 8 machine milking equipment driven by a 3
h.p. motor indicate that the power cost is about 2 mills per cow
with electricity at 10c per kw. hr. The average load on the mo-
tor was 2.3 h.p. and the vacuum maintained by the pump 15".
The complete equipment cost $900 and with it from 90 to 100
cows are milked twice a day. This milker is used by a man who
keeps accurate cost records and he is an authority for the state-
ment that the saving in labor cost in 11 months was enough to
pay for the equipment. Eleven men were formerly required, but
with the aid of the milker the work can be done by five. This,
however, is not the only advantage as the work around the farm
can be so adjusted as to keep the five men busy all the day. This
was impossible under the old conditions.
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Motor Applications far Farm Work 159
There has been and still is considerable discussion as to the ad-
visability of using mechanical milkers. The New York Agr. Exp.
Station, Bull. #153 states that after extensive tests, they found
no injurious effects from the use of mechanical milkers.
Each machine will milk 2 cows at a time. One man can tend
two machines, which will milk about 22 cows per hour. The aver-
age man will milk about 6 cows per hour. Supposing a farmer
has a 30 cow dairy, the 2 machine outfit would be the cheapest to
use as far as an actual cash basis is concerned. However, a 6
machine equipment would probably be more satisfactory, espe-
cially if the milk had to be delivered early in the evening to a
milk station. The labor and power cost for the 2 machine equip-
ment is .97c per cow, for the 6 machine ,87c and for the 10 ma-
chine is 1.65c for the 6 machine equipment 1.4c and for the 2
machine equipment 1.3c as compared with 2.5c per cow for hand
milking.
The electric motor is ideal for driving refrigerating machin-
ery, in that it is able to work for long periods of time without a
shutdown. In many cases motors are allowed to run for six
months at a time without once stopping them. Refrigerating
machinery and equipment as a rule is fairly expensive, although
several companies are now placing on the market a cheaper type
of outfit suitable for the average country home. Where electric
power is used, the control is automatic, i. e., a thermostat is used
and the motor started and stopped as the temperature varies
from a pre-determined point. The average dairy will use a 5
h.p. motor for the refrigerating pump.
SIZE OP MOTOR TO USE ON DIFFERENT DAIRY MACHINES.
Machine Min.
Water pump 1/2
Cream separator 1/10
Churn 1/8
Milking machine (vacuum
system) 1
Refrigeration 1/2
H.P
. of Motor
Max.
Size most
5
commonly used on
Average Farm
3
1/4
3
1/8
1/4
3
3
10
5
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
160
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Electric Motor Drive for Barn and Field Machinery.
There are over 30 applications of electric drive for barn and
field machinery, among the more important being water pumps,
feed grinders, corn shellers, ensilage cutters, grain elevators,
concrete mixers, grain threshers, grain graders, bone grinders,
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euwfssxoMMf C0srar&vn&/A& s/f£ii£0 &?A/r caw. &v *#*/* mtth
£l£CTX/C P0N£X#S C0*P*9*£0W/rrt H/9M./AM TC MLL.
CjTota? cosi zrt cents p*r£*sAe? ifer+in. is Amuted to mtlZ exy distance np to
eleven *m?es .
(2)i.*}*r- and 'peuser- cast en cents per- 2tvshe? wken j 'rr'ndtny is done -3y
i etectrfc power- *t tAe farm.
\ (3)flf2?Z c/tarf*, cents per- 2n/she2
\ &)la*or- c<>3$ cents per- ZcsAet tf frzntNny t* d+ne en feme.
\ (5)Int Oep.oH complete jrindr'njT outfit.
(£)Int. pep a* motor:
^/iites Ay 2. Cvnt% per KJif*.
Electric Versus Hand Operated Corn Shellers,
hay hoists, hay balers and clover hullers. The operation of barn
and field machinery by means of electric motors is advantageous
in that the machines can be safely and effectively controlled and
the necessary power is at all times available instantly.
For this reason feed grinders, oat crushers, corn crackers, etc.,
can be started up each day and the feed prepared fresh thus elim-
inating not only the storage bins, but the waste consequent to ex-
tra handling.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Motor Applications for Farm Work 161
Peed grinders require considerable power, the smaller sizes re-
quire from 3 to 10 h.p. and the larger ones from 10 to 30 h.p.
A grinder running at 650 RPM and driven by a 5 h.p. motor
was tested. The power consumed with this equipment for grind-
ing dent corn was .433 kw. hr. per bu. (Plate 3.)
A TEAM OF HORSES UNDER AVERAGE CONDITIONS
WILL NOT TRAVEL FASTER THAN 2% MILES PER
HOUR WITH A HEAVY LOAD. IT WILL REQUIRE AT
LEAST ONE HOUR TO LOAD THE WAGON AT THE
FARM, UNLOAD AND RELOAD AT THE MILL, AND THEN
UNLOAD AGAIN AT THE FARM. A MAN AND TEAM
ARE WORTH ON AN AVERAGE $3.50 A DAY.
CUSTOM CHARGE AT THE MILL 5c PER BUSHEL:
All the following curves vary slightly from the preceeding
ones, in that they are accumulative i. e., the power cost and the
interest and depreciation costs are separate and must be added
together in order to determine the total cost.
Example of how to read cost curve (Plate 3) : — Supposing a
farmer has 600 bu. of corn to grind each year, that he lives 3.5
miles from town and can get electric current for 7c per kw. Hr.
The labor and power cost is 4.2c (curve #2). The depreciation
and interest is 4.3c (curve #6) on the motor alone and 4.95c
(curve #5) on the complete outfit, or a total cost of 9.25c per
bu. for grinding at the farm. The cost of the mill is 5c per bu.
grinding charge. plus the hauling cost which makes a total cost
of 8c (curve #1) which shows 1.25c per bu. saved by hauling to
the mill. However, this is assuming that the motor is used ex-
clusively for this one operation. But if only half of the motor's
time was chargeable to this operation the charge of 4.3c curve
would be cut in two, thus reducing the total cost by 2.16c per bu.
or to 7.09c. The difference of .91c per bu. is now in favor of
grinding by electric power at the farm.
The power required to grind flint corn considerably exceeds
that necessary for dent corn being about .700 kw. hr. per bu.
11
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162
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Power consumed in grinding flint ear corn with this equipment
is practically double that of grinding shelled dent corn.
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ex
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In larger machines having a capacity of 40 bu. per hr., the
efficiency is much better and the amount of current consumed
per bu. of shelled dent corn is .272 kw. hrs.
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Motor Applications for Farm Work
163
Tests on another large grinder driven by a 15 h.p. motor
showed a current consumption of .411 kw. hrs. per bu.
The corn sheller is another machine which is used considerably
by the farmer, especially in the central west. The one and two
hole sheller require very little power, the amount ranging from
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■f
IfiZtonp wifJi an Electrically Operated Milking Outfit.
y2 to 1% h.p. Tests en a one hole sheller show that it takes
about 28 watt hrs. to shell a bu.
The larger power shellers require from 10 to 15 h.p. and the
amount of current consumed per bu. by the larger shellers as de-
termined by rough tests is practically the same as for the smaller
ones.
Grain elevators are rapidly coming into universal use, the size
of the motor required ranging in size from 1 to 51 h.p., depend-
ing en their capacity. A grain elevator capable of unloading 25
bu. of ear corn in 3 minutes will elevate 45 bu. 19 ft. at a power
cost of only lc with electricity at 10c per kw. hr.
In driving ensilage cutters, huskers, shredders, threshing ma-
chines, and clover hullers by means of electric motors there is
obtained the additional advantage of a more uniform operating
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16±
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
speed than can be secured from either steam or gasoline engine
drive, because the electric motor will respond instantly to in-
creased demands for power and is capable of carrying as large
as 100 and 150% momentary overloads. Thus, a 10 h.p. motor
A lo H. P. Motor Driving an Ensilage Cutter.
A Portable Motor Outfit for Farm Service.
is capable for short periods of a minute or so of developing 25
h.p. This means increased efficiency. Other advantages are that
an engineer is unnecessary when an electric motor is used.
Furthermore, the motor can be stopped and started instantly
thus eliminating the cost of continuous running. Another im-
portant consideration enters into the operating of the machinery
above mentioned, that is the element of personal danger, which
is sometimes considerable in using these types of machines. With
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
. Motor Applications for Farm Work
165
the electric motor the switch can be placed within reach of the
operator and at the first sign of danger the power can be instantly
shut off.
Ensilage cutters as a rule require from 10 to 25 h.p., the most
common sizes being 15 h.p. In general, the amount of current
consumed in cutting a ton of ensilage varies from 1.2 to 1.75 kw.
hr. per ton, depending on the size and efficiency of the cutter.
Threshing machines having wind stackers and self feeders re-
quire quite a bit of power, ranging from 12 to 19 h.p. for a 19"
cylinder machine and from 30 to 50 h.p. for a 32" cylinder; a
42" cylinder machine requires from 70 to 90 h.p. with of course
much larger momentary overloads.
This table shows the electric current necessary to thresh a ton
of oat straw averages about 2.62 kw. hr. per ton. Barley 2.36 kw.
hr. per ton.. Wheat 2.27 kwr. hr. per ton. The power consump-
tion per bu; of oats averages .07 kw. hr. Barley .108 kw. hr.,
wheat.160kw.hr... . .
Yield Per Acre.
Kind of
Grain.
3
1
. «*- 6
. as
feCg
© ao
a
'2
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O -
33
5
2 c
~ o
2 a
3 °
Cost of Pr. at
5c Per Kw. Hr.
' a
3
5
Xi
u
Oh
Oats
Barley
Wheat
31
, 5
. 10
1.09
2.27
1.97
73.0
49.9
27.9
2.62
2.3H
2 27
0.070
0.108
0.100
$0.13
0.128
0.113
$0.0035
0.005
0.008
The power cost per bu. at 5c per kw. hr. is 3l/2 mills for oats,
5 mills fbr barley and 8 mills for wheat. #, These results of course
were secured from a small machine having a 28" cylinder, 42"
separator and driven by a 15-H.P. electric motor.
It must be understood that these figures are averages and the
conditions of the grain as to dampness, length and method of
feeding will give figures varying quite widely from those given
above. The machine used did not have a wind stacker nor an
automatic weigher. Figures from tests made in Germany show
that their results are from 40 to 60% higher than those given
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166
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
above, but this very probably was due to the fact that the Ger-
man machines are equipped with binding attachments and are
not as large or efficient as those used in this country.
In this connection it might be interesting to describe a gaso-
Threshing with Electricity as the Power.
Pumping Water for Irrigation with an Electric Motor.
line-electric harvester which is being used extensively in Cali-
fornia. It consists of an 80-h.p., 6 cylinder gas traction engine
which, in addition to supplying the motive power for the tractor,
drives a 20-kw. generator, through belting. A 25-h.p. motor
drives the entire harvester and is connected to the thresher cyl-
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Motor Applications for Farm Work
167
inder by flexible coupling, the other sections of the machinery be-
ing operated from the cylinder through gears or chains. The
crew required for the operation of this outfit consists of an en-
grineer, two sack sewers, one tender and one header man. The
Cream Separator and Washing Machine Operated by y± HP. Motor.
great advantages of this equipment are the constant speed of the
harvesting machinery, elimination of the necessity of securing
the power necessary for the operation of the harvester from trac-
tive effort. Marked savings in operation have been obtained and
with all allowances for up-keep and depreciation this outfit has
reduced the cost of harvesting to approximately 60c per acre,
thereby effecting a saving of at least $2.00 per acre. This equip-
ment under normal operating conditions will harvest, clean and
thresh 2,200 bushels per day of ten hours.
Power hay hoists are now coming into use and again the elec-
tric motor is an excellent source of power. There are several
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168
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
manufacturing companies who now have hay hoists on the market
which can be controlled from the load, the power necessary to op-
erate them ranges from 3 to 15-h.p. The large size is used
in unusually large barns, where the whole load is taken up in a
Automatically Controlled Pumping Set Driven by Alternating Current
Motor.
sling at one time. The remote control feature of the electric
hoists makes it possible to save quite a bit of time in the course of
a day.
Another interesting application for the vacuum pump besides
milking is the cleaning of horses and cattle. No figures are avail-
able on the power consumption per animal.
The table on page 169 shows the different applications of elec-
drive about the farm and the size of motors most commonly used.
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Motor Applications for Farm Work
169
SIZE OP MOTORS TO USE ON THE DIFFERENT FARM MACHINES.
Machines
Min.
Peed grinders (small) 3
Feed grinders (large) 10
Ensilage cutters 10
Shredders and huskers 10
Threshers, 19 in. cylinder 12
Threshers, 32 in. cylinder 30
Corn shelters, single hole %
Power shelters 10
Fanning mills
Grain graders
Grain elevators 1.5
Concrete mixers 2
Groomer, vacuum system 1
Groomer, revolving system ... 1
Hay hoists 3
Root cutters 1
Cord wood saws 3
Wood splitters 1
Hay balers 3
Oat crushers 2
H.P
. OF MOTOR
Max.
Size Most
Commonly Used on
Average Farms
10
5
30
15
25
15-20
20
15
18
15
50
40
1%
1
15
15
%
%
5
3
10
5
3
2
2
1
15
5
5
2
10
5
4
2
10
7y2
10
5
Motor Drive In The Farm Workshop.
Among the twelve principal applications for the farm shop, the
most important are the driving of grind stones, saws, drills and
forge blowers. Soldering irons and glue pots can also be used
to advantage. The ordinary grind stone can be operated by a
1/8 to 1/4 h.p. motor. The size of the motor necessary for the
wood saw depends upon the diameter of the saw. It may run
anywhere from 1 to 5-h.p. Soldering irons and glue pots and
portable breast drills are very handy pieces of farm equipment
as any of the three may be attached to a lamp socket anywhere
about the farm. There are many handy applications for the glue
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170
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
pot, namely, the heating of water in case of sickness among the
animals, keeping paint warm in cold weather, etc.
The portable drill is especially valuable about the farm, as it
Electrically Operated Cream Separator.
enables the accurate drilling of holes in iron or wood where in
many cases it would be impossible, or at least difficult, to use a
brace and bit.
One cents worth of electricity at 10c per kw. hr.
Will keep a 1-lb. soldering iron hot for 40 minutes,
Will keep a y2 pint glue pot hot for 5 hours,
Will operate the grind stone and emery wheel for 30 minutes,
Will drive a farm forge blower for two hours,
Will operate a portable drill from 20 minutes to one hour, de-
pending upon the conditions.
Electric Vehicles on the Farm.
Electric vehicles are rapidly coming into use on the farm, espe-
cially in the eastern states where they are used extensively for
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Motor Applications for Farm Work
171
truck garden marketing. They are also valuable vehicles due to
their simplicity and ease of operation ; the simple controlling ap-
Five Horse Power Motor Belted to Concrete Mixer.
paratus permitting of a maximum range of speed variation with-
out the use of gears.
Irrigation.
To be beneficial, rains must come at such times and in such
amounts as will moisten the soil and produce growth. A check
in this supply of soil moisture at any stage of the growth affects
both the quality and quantity of the crop and greatly reduces the
profits of the grower. The real test of the necessity of irrigation
is not the total annual rainfall but the monthly and in the case
of most crops the weekly amount of precipitation throughout the
growing season. In general, it is safe to say that a drought oc-
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172
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
curs whenever the rainfall totals less than 1 inch in any 15 da.
period. Crops will usually suffer if they fail to receive more than
this amount of rain, especially during the spring and early sum-
mer months. Irrigation may be considered not only crop insur-
Feed Grinder and Wood Saw Operated by a 5 H. P. Motor.
ance, but an investment which will return good interest even dur-
ing years when the rainfall is ordinarily considered sufficient.
Instances are numerous where irrigation has resulted in an in-
crease in yield of 50 to 100% even in normally wet years.
It cannot be expected that such yields can be obtained where
the nutritive elements of the soil are lacking or at least unbal-
anced. But, it is safe to say that with proper adjustment of soil
conditions and the intelligent application of water that a profita-
ble increase in crop yields may be obtained by irrigation. In the
west almost all the land which can be irrigated by gravity system
is now being farmed and at present almost all of the new develop-
ments depend upon the pump for the water supply. In the cen-
tral and eastern sections it is rarely possible to irrigate by the
gravity method. Consequently we can consider the pump a ne-
cessity, if irrigation is to be practiced in these sections.
Electricity will be the ultimate power used to drive these
pumps, because as irrigation becomes a general practice the elec-
tric power companies will give extremely low rates on account of
the off peak nature of the pumping load. The other advantages
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Motor Applications for Farm Work 173
of the electric motor such as constant speed, remote control, low
first cost, capacity for operating for long periods of time with-
out a shut down ; all tend to make it the ideal motive power for
irrigation.
The cost of electricity at the present time to run a pump will
probably exceed the cost of gasoline in case a gas engine is used.
However, the additional cost of repairs, labor, maintenance and
the depreciation on the gas engine equipment will counteract the
saving of gasoline. Bull. #181 issued by the Office of Experi-
ment Sta. shows the depreciation on electrical equipments to be
about 7%, gasoline engines about 12 to 15% and steam engines
11%. Everything considered, the cost of electric tnotor operation
will be found to be as pheap if not cheaper than any other power,
although, as stated before, the cost for electricity may exceed
slightly that of the cost of gasoline.
Irrigation will be practiced more and more ea,ch year and in
most places is even now considered indispensable for the truck
and market garden crops. It has been tried out; on orchards and
vineyards with marked success and has been proved beneficial in
the growing of small fruits. The market demands at the present
time are for quality as well as quantity anjefneither of these can
be secured without providing sufficient moisture.
IT. S. Dept. of Agr. has issued two bulletins through the office
of Experiment Station, bull. #167, '"Irrigation in the North At-
lantic States' ' and bull. #148 " Irrigation Investigation in the
Humid Sections of the U. S." which gives numerous instances
where irrigation has more than paid for itself in one year.
General Advantages of the Electric Motor.
In farm work the electric motor has the decided advantage in
that its weight per h.p. is very small, being less than % and its
floor space only 1/7 of that of the average gasoline engine of
equal h.p. capacity. In addition the motor can be attached to the
walls or ceilings further reducing the space required. A 5 h.p.
electric motor can easily be carried around by 2 men while a 5
h.p. gas engine would weigh from 750 to 1,000 lbs. Cold weather
has no effect on the electric motor, in fact if a 10 h.p. motor is
out doors in zero weather, where the heat radiations are good, it
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174 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
will carry 20 h.p. the whole time. There are no adjustments to
the electric motor neither is there any water to freeze and it starts
just as easily in cold weather as in hot; True, in order to operate
an electric motcr, it is necessary that wires be strung from the
A Sewing Machine Motor.
central source of supply. However, this can be taken care of
easily by stringing wires to the various general locations where
electricity is going to be used and then having a coil of cable sev-
eral hundred ft. in length with the portable mctor to care for all
of the machines within that range. The danger of connecting
the motor to the live wires is obviated by plug switches which are
not only safe but fool-proof.
We have now covered in a general way the applications of elec-
tricity to the farm. The next consideration is the best way for
the farmer to secure electric current.
There are two general methods. First, to purchase electricity
and second to generate it.
The first method consists of purchasing from a local electric
light and power company. In this case the farmer pays for what
he uses, i.e., by the kw. hr. Of course, a certain minimum charge
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Motor Applications for Farm Work 175
is made, which is usually $2.00 per month and if the bill runs un-
der this amount no reduction is made and if over it, the regular
rates are charged for each additional kw. consumed.
The second method is to generate the power from an isolated
plant which usually consists of an electric generator, storage bat-
teries, switchboard and some kind of a driving unit for the gen-
erator, such as water wheel, gasoline, oil or steam engine.
In general the first of the two methods is the more economical
and satisfactory. First, because of the small investment nec-
essary. Second, because central station power practically elimin-
ates attendance and maintenance cost. Third, because of the
availability of the unlimited amounts of light and power, with-
out a change of equipment. Fourth, the benefit of the advice
and help of experienced electricians.
Electricity is destined to become the principal source of light
and power for the farm. Its applications arc no longer an exper-
iment but an actual working fact. The cost of living has in-
creased 30% in the last 20 years ; the cost of farm labor 35% ; but
electricity has decreased in cost 88% in the same period. This
difference will become greater as time goes on, the future rate
of electricity will not increase, but will continue to decrease.
We cannot continue to feed % of our grain and hay crops to
the horse, who must eat 365 days a year and who works on an
average only 3 hrs. per day. We cannot afford to pay the ever
increasing prices for gasoline and crude oils. Manual labor is too
expensive even to be considered, if any other kind of power will
do the work. We must have some other power and that power
is destined to be electricity. This means that the farmers of the
future will form co-operative companies in connection with the
public service corporations as they have already done in Germ-
any, in order to secure the greatest economic benefits available.
For, as the cost of manual labor, horse labor and fuel increases,
just in that same proportion will the saving shown by electric
power increase. In other words, the superior efficiency of the
generating plants, due to the many different types of load which
they carry, will be such as to make it impractical for the farmer
to act independently. He should realize and understand all of
the items which go to make up the cost of production. He must
understand that fuel cost and cheap first cost are not the only
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176 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
items that require consideration, and that a 10% increase in ef-
ficiency, or a years longer life may more than off-set the advan-
tages of the other two. Therefore, in order to make an accurate
determination, it is necessary to investigate and carefully com-
pare every item of expense for a period of years.
These are the problems of the Agricultural Engineer. He must
lead the way. He must solve these problems for the farmer, who
has neither the time nor opportunity to give them the considera-
tion which they warrant. The power problem of the farmer is a
large and vital one, and he is looking expectantly to the Agricul-
tural Engineer for help and advice.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Discussion on Motor Applications 177
DISCUSSION.
By L. F. Seaton.*
In Nebraska, as yet there are very few transmission lines in the
country, and as Mr. Rohrer has stated in his paper, the centra-
lized power plant which necessitates transmission lines through
the country has made the small electric motor a common machine
on the farm.
In pointing out the advantages of electricity on the farm, elec-
tric lighting was given much weight. In Nebraska a great many
farmers are installing electric lighting plants. These plants .
usually consist of a generator driven by a gas engine. The manu-
facturers have given this little plant a great deal of attention,
and some have gone so far as to make them entirely automatic in
their action. That is, the outfit is run in connection with a stor-
age battery, and as soon as the battery becomes sufficiently dis-
charged, the generator is converted into a motor which revolves
the gas engine, until it takes up its cycle, when the motor is au-
tomatically converted into a generator and the battery is re-
charged. These outfits are usually of the low voltage type and
until recently it has been somewhat difficult to get appliances,
such as electric irons, toasters, etc., which could be used. At
present, however, these are obtainable and even with the small
outfits above mentioned, attempts are being made to use the ap-
pliances where outfits are installed.
The advantages of electricity on the farm are so keenly felt,
that some farmers in Nebraska are arranging to run electric gen-
erators by windmills. This has been more or less unsatisfactory,
due to the fact that the generators have not been designed for this
kind of unsteady work, which results from using the variable
wind velocities as applied to the prime mover. It seems, however,
since the electric generator has been perfected to give satisfactory
service when placed on the automobile, that this same generator,
or perhaps one similarly constructed, might be used satisfactorily
with windmill propulsion.
* Professor of Agricultural Engineering, University of Nebraska.
12
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178 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Another scheme was devised whereby the windmill was used to
pump water into a tank. When the tank was filled, the water was
automatically siphoned out through a water turbine, which ran
an electric generator, the energy being stored in a storage bat-
tery until the tank was again filled with water.
In adopting electricity on the farm, the women are not the only
ones benefited. The men in doing their chores will have the elec-
tric light in the barn and out buildings. The water will be
pumped by pressing a button, and various other duties may be
accomplished by using the electric motor as has been outlined in
Mr. Rohrer's paper.
Probably one thing which has caused the farmers of Nebraska
to be slow in adopting electricity on the farm, is that they have
been afraid of being electrocuted in handling it. They are of
course being educated that the low voltage used about the farm
can be handled without any unpleasantness.
The small gas engine at the present time has found a good field
on the Nebraska farm. There are, however, several disadvantages
of the small gas engine which the electric motor does not possess.
For instance, it is often times necessary for the women about the
farm to use the motor when the men are not about. It is much
easier for them to close the switch of an electric motor than to en-
deavor starting the gas entine. We all know, in cold weather at
least, that the gas engine is very similar to a mule in starting.
A great deal has been said about keeping the boy on the farm
by adopting up-to-date methods of farming, but not so much has
been said about the dissatisfaction of the country girl who goes
to the city and sees her city sister in all her luxury. Would it not
be well to consider for a moment that this country girl would not
be so attracted with city life if she had in her own home electric
lights, an electric iron, and other electric conveniences ?
I have cited the above cases to show that the advantages of elec-
tricity on the farms of Nebraska are becoming apparent, and I
have every reason to believe, that when transmission lines become
common as they are in some other states, electricity used in small
motors, as well as in other appliances, will be universally adopted.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Discussion on Motor Applications 179
DISCUSSION.
By P. A. Bates.*
The copy of Mr. Carl J. Rohrer's paper entitled "Small Motor
Applications for Farm Work", upon which you have asked me to
present a discussion, I have read with interest and regard it as
adding materially to the now rapidly accumulating literature on
the general topic of "Electricity on the Farm,\ This latter sub-
ject, as I believe you know, I have been preaching the importance
of for many years past.
Mr. Rohrer has, through the presentation of his several curves
showing comparative cost of hand and electric operation of cer-
tain apparatus suitable for the farm, made, I think, a clear case
of the advantages of the modern form of energy for everyday use
upon the farm, as elsewhere, and I hope he may continue this
work so as to include data with reference to several of the other
important operations that have to be conducted on every farm,
such as filling silos, water pumping for domestic supply, wood-
sawing, etc.
To those familiar with electric drive in other industries, such
data is of passing interest only, but to the farmer, the great sav-
ing in time and labor is perhaps best appreciated through graphic
illustration.
There are certain points which this paper mentions, which, I
believe, will justify bringing out more emphatically. For ex-
ample : This Autumn during the harvest season, one of my clients
was able to fill his silos without additional labor from that re-
quired for the routine farm work, due to the fact that he had
adopted electric drive for the operation of his ensilage machine,
whereas heretofore he has been obliged to hire considerable extra
labor and many additional teams to bring in the corn and operate
a steam traction engine for filling his silos under the old method.
The saving was so obvious and so great that this farmer is now
increasing his electrical power equipments for other operations
owing to the fact that he has recognized clearly the great advan-
tage of being able to conduct his work in such a manner as to
* Consulting engineer, New York, New York City.
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180 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
avoid the halting of the routine work in order to accomplish the
special harvest work. This advantage of course is largely due to
the fact that electric power can be started up so much more easily
than any other form of drive and can be operated efficiently even
for a short period should it not be convenient to devote a full
day to any one piece of work.
A careful analysis and tabulation of the various factors that
will show comparative costs, is, of course, an important duty of
the agricultural engineer, and Mr. Rohrer's work, if continued
along similar lines, throughout the full list of operations to which
the use of electricity may be applied, will go a great- ways toward
convincing our progressive farmers and extending the use of elec-
tricity on the farm.
Our electricians, however, should not regard this as an un-ex-
plored field for there has been a good deal of pioneer work al-
ready done and the fact that the fruits of the early efforts are
only now apparent, is due, in no small measure, to the time that
it takes for manufacturers to devise ways and means of construct-
ing their already standard apparatus to the conditions that ob-
tain in a new field and there is still a great deal of work to be
done, with respect to this particular phase of the general problem.
Generally speaking, there is no reason why the use of elec-
tricity should not be just as advantageous in agriculture as it
has proven in other industries. I think it is fair to state that it
is only recently, within the last three or four years, that the man-
ufacturers and the central power station companies have been
satisfied that the time has come to work up this new field. We
know, however, that long ago, efforts were made to bring this con-
dition about and that wherever electricity has been supplied at
a reasonable rate in an agricultural section, this form of energy
has been pretty well adopted for both power and lighting.
But until of late, there has been very little organized effort in
disseminating existing knowledge of the practical use of elec-
tricity for the farm, with the result that farms so equipped have
been greatly in the minority, except as I have stated in those lo-
calities as for instance on the Pacific Coast, where electricity has,
for a decade or more, been supplied at a reasonable rate. These
really were our first electric farms, the period of their establish-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Discussion on Motor Applications 181
ment corresponding with the development of the nearby water
powers.
As far back as fifteen (15) years ago, I interested myself in
this general idea and even at that time there were some farm
homes on the Pacific Coast where electric lights and some electric
power applications were in use. These people who were enjoying
the convenience and economy of this modern equipment were con-
tent to enjoy those advantages and did not seem to regard their
conditions as unusual. Their farms, however, were in fact "elec-
tric farms". In such localities as I refer to, there were at that
time examples of canneries, fruit packing houses, etc., which were
operated and lighted by electricity. This perhaps is the first
word with reference to the general subject of "Electricity on the
Farm" and in the entire development from that time until the
present day, the progress has been a slow growth, but a steady
growth, until today we can hardly read a technical paper, a pop-
ular magazine or even the daily press, without noting a descrip-
tion of some new installation that is regarded as of especial in-
terest.
We have learned from our early western agricultural develop-
ments and from the lessons of the old world that for proper crop
culture, all lands must be drained and all crops need water.
Thus it may be seen that scientific agriculture, irrigation and
electricity are destined to go forward hand in hand. The natural
waters may be played with at will, sometimes passing directly to
the land, but more often the mountain streams are carried con-
siderable distances in flumes or canals, only to give up energy at
one or more points along their course and ultimately to irrigate
the land. The use of electricity comes in admirably in the solu-
tion of problems of this character and I am glad to note that Mr.
Rohrer has not overlooked the importance of irrigation and the
advantage of electricity in connection therewith.
One of the most interesting commissions with which I am en-
gaged at the present time is the development of 20,000 acres of
land in Atlantic county, New Jersey, on which property there is
an old water power capable of development to not less than 1,000
h.p. and the scope of this project embodies the laying out of 1000-
20 acre farms which are to be developed for intensive farming
under irrigation, the water being obtained from the sub-surface
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
182 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
flow by means of electric pumping. Each of these 1,000 farms is
to be an "electric farm", in fact.
Such buildings as are to be erected are to be wired for electric
lights and motors with which to conduct the small power opera-
tions in the outbuildings and in the home.
This entire project is admirably balanced in that it at once be-
comes a complete unit, having a sufficient water power for the
utilization of the number of small farms contemplated on the en-
tire tract, calculating on the basis of the load factor which may
be expected from the intermittent service that would be required
to meet the needs that obtain.
This installation, I believe, represents the last word as to "elec-
tricity on the farm" and I take the liberty of making reference
to it here in my discussion of Mr. Rohrer's paper as I believe it
will add impetus to the importance of the movement in this di-
rection, which has, unquestionably, now become very general, and
I might add that it is gratifying to me to make my first public
announcement of this undertaking, through you, before your so-
ciety of engineers.
In concluding my remarks regarding the paper under consid-
eration, I would point out that there are three imperative de-
mands for electricity on the farm, namely: electric lighting for
the reason of safety, if for nothing else ; electric power, both in
and near the barn on account of its great labor saving; and elec-
tric power in irrigation and water supply pumping due to con-
venience of control.
Other refinements in the form of electrical equipments in the
home and afield must depend upon the degree to which the in-
dividual farmer is in a position to take advantage of the improve-
ments of the day. The three important needs just mentioned,
however, come under the head of requirements of good farming,
and it is sufficient to say that no new farm of any size should be
planned without the adoption of electricity for the uses I have
named.
One further word I must add in closing. It is my firm belief,
and I hope I may see it some day borne out, that through the
general introduction of electricity on our farms and the use of ir-
rigation oji all of our garden fields, America will lead the world
as an agricultural nation.
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Discussion on Motor Applications 183
DISCUSSION.
By Eugene Hunt.*
The subject is an exceedingly interesting one to the writer and
has been presented remarkably well by Mr. Rohrer. He has,
however, had opportunity to make his observations from a wide
field, while the writer is able to discuss it only from his experience
in a limited field ; that of the Pacific Northwest.
There is no question but that the application of electricity to
farm use has increased very rapidly in the last few years, and
that it will increase much more rapidly in the next few years. In
this locality alone, in the past three years, many farms have in-
stalled generating plants to operate lights, domestic appliances
and farm machinery, and the Public Service Corporations are
putting forth a great deal of energy to increase their loads, es-
pecially for farm uses.
The average cost per outlet given as $2.00 appears to the writer
as extremely low. A local engineer who makes a specialty of such
installations advises that in his experience $3.50 is a good average
cost per outlet.
In the table of comparison of carbon and Mazda lamps the
writer finds no data that checks accurately with the wattage and
candle power given. No comparison is given on the 40 watt lamp.
From tables at hand the following can be derived for Mazda and
Gem lamps.
Rated Candle Hours C. P. Hours
Watts Power for one cent
Mazda 40 32 2.5 80
Carbon (Gem) 40 15.6 2.5 39
It is assumed that the statement that a water pump usually
requires % to 1 horse power that a small pump for domestic
use only is considered. In this locality irrigation pumps are
used extensively, both for domestic and irrigation purposes and
this statement might be misconstrued.
The average rate of 10c per kw. hour the writer believes is a
• Gilbert Hunt Co.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
184 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
little high in some cases. Prevailing rates in this section apply-
ing to this service are as follows :
For connected load of one kw. or less : First 30 kw. hours per
month 10c per kw. hour. All over 30 kw. hours per month 8c
per kw. hour.
For connected load of over one kw. hour : First 50 kw. hours
per month 10c per kw. hour. All over 50 kw. hours per month
8c per kw. hour. In each case the minimum is $1.50.
The industrial rate, that is for three phase power service, is as
follows :
For Twenty Hour off Peak Service.
$1.25 fixed charge per horse power connected load per month
plus meter rate as follows :
First 30 kw. hours per kw. of connected load per month 3c
per kw. hour.
Next 60 kw. hours per kw. of connected load per month 2c
per kw. hour.
Next 120 kw. hours per kw. of connected load per month lc
per kw. hour.
All over 210 kw. hours per kw. of connected load per month
V^c per kw. hour.
Less 10 per cent discount if paid within 10 days after date of
billing.
From the consumptions given in Mr. Rohrer's paper few in-
stallations for lighting and domestic application would exceed
the 30 kw. hours enough to materially reduce the rate below 10c.
On the other hand an installation of 1% horse power on the first
schedule above or one of iy2 horse power on the second schedule,
used 2 hours per day would insure a sufficient consumption to
reduce the average rate below 10c per kw. hour.
Under the industrial rates a 3 to 5 horse power installation
gives an average rate of from 3V2C to 2*/2C per kw. hour de-
pending on the number of hours used, including the fixed charge.
The writer has no data at hand to compare the results given
in dairy machines, etc. He has, however, had considerable ex-
perience in connection with Feed Mills. Mr. Rohrer gives as an
example a farmer with 600 bushels of corn per year, a haul of
3.5 miles and a 7c per kw. hour rate. A typical example for this
locality would be 1,000 or more bushels per year, 11 miles haul,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Discussion on Motor Applications 185
in many cases 20 miles, and an 8^c per kw. hour rate. (If 3
phase service 3^c). Prom the chart the result would be as fol-
lows :—
Cost of grinding and hauling at Mill ..... $12.85 per bu.
Labor and power cost when ground at
home 4.9c
Interest and depreciation on complete
outfit 3.0c
Total 7.9c per bu.
These results are much more in favor of home work. They
cannot be considered accurate, however, as they are based on
corn and very little corn is grown in this locality.
A test made by the writer in 1911, using a roller feed mill
(Manufactured by the Company he is employed by) crushing
barley with a three phase motor gave the following results :
Capacity of grinder in bushels per hour 35
Horse Power of Motor used. 3
Actual average horse power input motor 1.13
Maximum instantaneous horse power input 1.36
KW. hours to roll one bushel 029
Cost of motor $65.00
Cost of Mill $75.00
Average rate per kw. hour 03Vfcc
Prom experience the writer has found that in crushing wheat
and oats the capacity is increased about one third and the power
required is about the same as in the case of barley, while in
crushing corn the capacity is decreased about one half and the
power required is increased a little over one half.
Owing to lack of time the writer will not take up the rest of
the paper in detail. It appears, however, that the horse power
given to drive threshing machines is excessive in some cases.
Our power schedule for different sizes of machines of our manu-
facture with the same equipment, is as follows :
Size Average Capacity Horse Power
24r-44 2000 bu. 16
28-48 2400 bu. 18
32-56 2800 bu. 20
36-60 3200 bu. 25
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186 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
The table on page 185 is based on steam power.
As stated in the paper it is very difficult to determine this
factor on account of the varying conditions of weather and dif-
ferent local conditions of the grain.
The source of power in this locality is a great draw back, as
there are many places where transmission lines will not be avail-
able for some time and the cost of construction would be prohib-
itive for individuals. In such cases either gasoline or water
power can be developed. There are many water power sites
that could be developed, especially in the foot hill districts.
An engineering firm, making a specialty of this work here
kindly submits the following data on typical installations they
have made :
GASOLINE.
Horse Power Developed 4
Size of Generator in KW 2
Cost of Installation $350 - $550
Cost of operation per KW. hour, gasoline at 20c 2%-3c, distil-
ate iy<&
Estimated life of plant 10 years
Up-keep per year $5.00 - $10.00
.WATER
Horse Power Developed 10
Size of Generator in KW 4
Cost of Installation $600 - $1000
Cost of operation per KW. hour, total operating cost $2 for oil
per year.
Estimated life of plant 25 years
Up-keep per year $5.00
It can readily be seen that in the case of water power the cost
per KW. hour used is very small, even when interest and de-
preciation is considered.
The subject has many sides and much detail is yet to be worked
out. It is certainly an important subject for investigation by
the Agricultural Engineer.
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Discussion on Motor Applications 187
DISCUSSION.
By Mb. J. G. Leabned.*
Mr. Rohrer has given you facts and figures which are educa-
tional, and put in your hands the means of going out and educat-
ing the farmer. I am of the opinion that the whole subject of
electricity on the farm is one of educational work ; and if it were
possible to get this paper in the hands of every farmer in the
country, in conjunction with the other literature they get on the
same subject, I am sure that the work of the manufacturer, the
Central Station Company, and last but foremost, the agricul-
tural engineer, would be simplified to a considerable extent. If
it is possible for this society to get this paper within the hands
of the farmers, I earnestly urge them so to do.
I will not attempt to discuss any further, this very detailed
paper. But, in view of the fact that Mr. Rohrer 's paper is prim-
arily built around the central station company (he has men-
tioned the central station company in preference to the isolated
plant), I will tell you a little something of what we are doing in.
this state. Our territory comprises all of the northeast section
of the state of Illinois. Kankakee is the town farthest on the
south, Pontiac on the southwest, Chillicothe on the west, and on
the north is the western state line. The territory is made up of
146 different towns, which formerly were operated from isolated
central stations. They were privately owned, but we from time
to time took them over and tied them together with transmission
lines, thereby eliminating the generating stations at the different
points. Now we have about seven principal generating stations,
where before there were probably eighty or ninety. This only
goes to give you a fair idea of the economies that are effected in
central station work, as a whole. In connecting these towns
we have transmission lines. Some of them are high tension lines,
and some of them are just ordinary distribution lines, having a
voltage of from 4,000 to 8,000 volts. The transmission line of
highest voltage is 33,000. You can see readily that we have an
object in going to these different towns. The primary object, of
* General Electric Co., Chicago.
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188 Discussion on Motor Appliances
course, is to eliminate the generating stations. Therefore we are
in a position to acquire the farm business on the low tension
lines. TV hen I speak of low tension lines, I mean those lines that
have a voltage of 8,000 and less. Our experience has been that
it is a very easy matter to get the farmer whose farm is adjacent
to these lines interested in central station service. We contract
with the farmers for power, as Mr. Rohrer has outlined to you.
That, of course, is a very simple matter. In interesting the
farmer who is two or three miles off our line, we have a different
situation. Prom our standpoint, bringing electricity to the
farmer, is not profitable. We have the main object in view, of
getting some larger industry, or some other town, to come to us
for our service. The farming business, so far as we are con-
cerned, is incidental to our general business. In rural communi-
ties we supply different industries, such as stone quarries, gravel
pits, brick yards, and pumping systems for railroads, with
power.
It is a question with us how to handle this business that is off
of our transmission lines. We have endeavored to get farmers to
deposit with us the cost of the extension incident to giving him
service. In some cases we return that money to him in an
amount equal to each alternate light and power bill. We often
have to get the farmers along the proposed line to deposit with
the company the entire cost of the extension, and then we will
give them the service. That brings up another problem that has
to be taken care of, whether or not we can educate the farmer to
do a certain amount of electrical work or whether we will have
to do it ourselves. It would be unreasonable to ask any central
station company to send a "trouble man" out on a stormy night,
to put in fuses in a transformer when the farm is three miles
from the beaten path, and there are lots of them so located.
There is also the expense incident to reading the meters of the
farmers off our lines. We have overcome that by preparing
cards, which show a reproduction of the face of the meter, and
we take the word of the farmers for each of their readings. The
farmer makes his reading monthly, and mails in the reading to
us ; and at the end of three or six months we check it up, and if
there is any deficit between what the bills actually are, and what
the readings were that he gave us, he pays for it at the end of
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Discussion on Motor Applications 189
the period for which we read the meter. We have a number of
farms that have all of the applications Mr. Rohrer has referred
to, with the exception of the electric vehicle.
Some of the farmers are what we call ''gentlemen farmers".
They are men who have been successful in business, and they
have a farm as a fad. Some of them have a thousand or two
thousand acres, and they have all of the latest and most efficient
equipment that can be bought. To give you an illustration, last
winter on one of these farms the water distribution system was
entirely frozen. It became our business, at the expense of this
farmer, to prepare a thawing outfit, and we thawed out his pipes
in about three hours. Under normal conditions that farmer
probably would have been without water all winter, if it had
not been for the use of central station power. This particular
farm that I speak of consumes a current, at our standard rates,
to the amount of about $150 a month. The current is used for
cooking, in addition to the other things that Mr. Rohrer has sug-
gested to you.
One very important thing, I think, in conjunction with the
central station company's work in serving farmers, is the ex-
pense incident to giving service. In order to handle this busi-
ness successfully, over a large area, it is necessary to use alter-
nating current, high voltage, and that, of course, to be a com-
mercial voltage, is either 110 or 220. For power application it
is 220 volts, and 110 volts for lighting purposes. That, involves
transformers, which again involve transformer losses. With the
ordinary farmer the transformer losses in some cases are in ex-
cess of his bills for electricity at our standard rates. When it is
necessary to provide transformers of sufficient capacity to take
care of his largest equipment; we must provide some means to
overcome that loss. One scheme suggested is to meter the cur-
rent on the high tension side of the line, and put in switches, so
that the transformers may be disconnected at such times of the
year as they are not in use. That, I think, will make things
more satisfactory. We also are of the opinion that it is to our
advantage, and probably that of the farmer as well, for him to
purchase the transformers, let them be maintained by us, and
retained by him as his equipment. Just how soon we can get the
farmers educated to adopt this equipment is, of course, prob-
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190 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
lematical. But I think that it demands constant and unlimited
effort on our part, as a central station company, and on the part
of this society, through its members, to further the work.
The Chairman : What is your lighting rate per kilowatt hour ?
Mb. Learned : The lighting rate is the maximum demand rate.
The primary charge is 13Vfc cents per kilowatt hour, with a sec-
ondary charge of 7 cents. Under that rate we furnish the lamp
renewals, meters, etc. The power rate is a maximum demand
rate, starting at 10 cents a kilowatt hour for the first thirty
hours' use, of the maximum demand, and the maximum demand,
under this form of contract, is assumed to be a certain percent-
age of the connected load. Then the rate is 5 cents per kilowatt
hour's use for the second thirty hours use of the maximum de-
mand; and three cents for all the current consumed in excess
of that each month. The average rate paid by the farmer under
this form of contract is approximately 6 cents ; so that compar-
ing it with the figures that Mr. Rohrer submitted, showing a
figure of 10 cents per kilowatt hour, our service is considerably
cheaper. Of course, the basis that he has taken of 10 cents per
kilowatt hour, I think is a fair basis, because that probably is
the average. In fact, I think it is a little higher than the aver-
age. But it gives us something to work on. You can fit any load
on his curves. If you have a rate of two cents per kilowatt hour,
as they have in California, or 2x/2 cents, you can fit it in very
nicely in that way, and show a greater saving than he stated.
The Chairman: Can you tell how much it cost for lighting
the average farm house along the line?
Mr. Learned: The average, I would say, for lighting alone,
would amount to about $1.50 a month. I think the large pro-
portion of that light is used in the morning. It is pretty hard
now to draw a fine line on the lighting, for there are so many
appliances which cut in on the lighting circuit ; for example, the
washing machines, flat irons, and other small current consuming
devices, of 110 volts.
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Lessons from the Winnipeg Motor Contests 191
THE FIVE WINNIPEG MOTOR CONTESTS AND LES-
SONS TO BE DRAWN FROM THEM.
By P. S. Rosk.*
The first Winnipeg contest was held in 1908 and was adver-
tised as a light tractor affair. The idea of the Winnipeg Expo-
aition people was to develop the light tractor. Conditions, how-
ever, did not favor that sort of machine in Canada, especially in
the Red River Valley. There were very few entrants with light
machines. The rest of them were heavy. Conditions, there are
peculiar. The western part of the country, west of Winnipeg,
was all new, and it required heavy power to break the prairie
sod ; and in order to make a test at Winnipeg, which is in the Red
River Valley, where the soil is a dense black gumbo, it required
heavy power to get along and pull any plows at all. The first
contest was more or less of a success. Some of the machines ran
part of the time, but I think none of them ran all of the time.
The best and perhaps most highly developed tractors, however,
were not in that contest; at least, not those that have been on
the market longest. I say that out of deference to certain mem-
bers of this assembly. It was rather a pitiable sight to see some
of the first machines. That comparison was brought very vividly
to my mind during the time of the Peoria Implement show. I
went outside of Peoria a little way to see them plowing, and
they were hauling any where from six to ten plows, depending
upon the capacity of the engine, up grades of from 12 to 15 per
cent, and going right along. In 1908 they could not have done
that work. That shows the development of the tractor since
1908. I believe that a great deal of the development has come
about through the keen competition which the contest aroused.
As a contest it lacked some features of a scientific nature that a
good many people have deplored. It was a contest, and yet it
was not a very scientific one ; no contests have been. Conditions
were not such that they could be. Time was limited ; apparatus
was limited ; men were not very plentiful to do the work, and a
strictly scientific test could not be carried on, although there was
* Assistant editor American Thresherman and Gas Review.
Digitized by LiOOQ IC
192 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
more or less show made of science in the work, and the tables and
the curves would indicate a greater degree of scientific accuracy
than the contest itself showed to the observer.
The lightweight tractor was not developed at Winnipeg. It
was the heavy-weight tractor that was developed there, and the
heavy-weight tractor has probably reached as high a stage of de-
velopment, under the present form of machinery, as it can reach.
The contest in 1910 showed that the average horse power hours
for a pound of gasoline amounted to 1.2. In 1912 it was ad-
vanced to 1.5, an increase of about 25 per cent. In 1910, 1.68
horse power hours were delivered from a pound of gasoline. In
1912, 1.84 horse power hours were delivered on the same amount
of fuel. In 1910 it required 18.67 pounds of fuel to plow an
acre. Reduced to the same conditions, in 1912 it required 15.74,
showing that the 25 per cent increase in economy followed
through ail of the tests.
In figuring the development of the engines another way, you
will find some rather peculiar results. There was the same varia-
tion nearly every year. Some of the engines or motors appar-
ently might be made more economical; but the question arises,
can they be made more economical, and do continuous, hard,
grinding work. That is something which your contest never
brings out. It never brings out reliability. Those are things to
be considered. The contest has been a fuel efficiency contest, and
that only. Regardless of long columns of figures which have ap-
peared in the reports, and there are about 46 folio pages of those
figures in the eight reports, it was a fuel efficiency contest. The
thing that the farmer or the user wants to know is never an-
swered in the contests, and I do not believe a contest can be de-
vised that will answer it. That is, nobody can tell, after reading
the reports, which is the most reliable engine.
This brings me to a little discussion on that part of the report
known as " Design and Construction." There are a number of
different kinds of machines, representing the ideas of as many
different designers, or as many different kinds of superintend-
ents, and it is manifestly absurd for three or four judges to go
over all of them and say which is the best and which is the poor-
est. It is very likely the designer has had as much experience,
any one of the designers, as any one of the judges. It is very
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Lessons from the Winnipeg Motor Contests 193
likely that any one of the designers is as competent to judge what
is right and proper as any one of the judges ; and consequently
it becomes merely a matter of personal opinion. You can take
one man's opinion and weigh it against another man's opinion,
and take your choice. The judges, however, in all these contests,
have apparently recognized that fact; and so, if you will look
them all over, you will find that the rules on design and construc-
tion have in no wise changed the ratings of the machines over
fuel and economy. Consequently it was a blindness and an ab-
surdity to have it in there. The judges would not do it them-
selves, and I am glad they had the good judgment not to do it.
Here is one of the difficulties in design and construction, which
you must always take into consideration in judging: Here is a
machine. It is presumably a new machine, as these tractors were
designed for a kind of work in which we had no precedent to
guide us. Should you have a finely built machine, with a fine
finish all the way through, or should it be relatively coarse?
Should the gears be of wide pitch, or not? Should they be cut
gears, or should they be cast? How could you answer that? No-
body could. Nobody knew. A machine, to be designed right,
must be designed for the kind of work it is doing; and as soon
as you have no way of judging what kind of machine is best
adapted for those peculiar conditions, it is manifestly impossible
for you to pass righteous judgment. Another thing : In these de-
sign and construction tables that were laid down, I discovered,
on reading them over carefully, that it would be perfectly pos-
sible for any designer to build a wooden engine, and win the
prize with it on design and construction. They were very
crudely drawn in every instance, from 1908 to 1913.
The Winnipeg contest is a matter of history. I am reliably
informed that there will never be another one. Those contests
have served their usefulness. There is a lull in the tractor trade,
due to a good many conditions, principally financial, and there
will not be as much interest in it during the present year as there
was last year, or the year before. It is a question if it will not
take four or five years to bring it back to a stable and substan-
tial basis. Regardless of the fact, that we have been filled full
of electricity this afternoon, there is no question in my own mind
but that the steam and gas tractor will hold their own for another
13
Digitized by LiOOQ IC
194 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
generation in this country, for field work. Both of these ma-
chines have a definite place in agriculture. They also have defi-
nite limitations. The gas tractor, in order to meet present day
conditions, must be developed along the line of kerosene or heav-
ier oil ; and if we are to have a contest again, it ought to be with
the object of developing that sort of a machine. The Winnipeg
contest has served its purpose in developing the gasoline ma-
chine. There has been some talk about kerosene, but we might
as well forget that. The development of the kerosene tractor id
a matter for the future to take care of. The development of the
oil tractor certainly is. We might, if we held another tractor
contest at any time, take up the subject of the kerosene tractor,
and also the lightweight machine. I have on file in my office
cards representing about one hundred different light tractors.
Those tractors range all the way from a one wheel drive to a four
wheel drive, and they are all sorts of shapes and sizes. Some of
them are very freakish looking. There is no question but that a
lot of them are wrong in design. It will be a good thing if there
is a contest in this country that will weed out a lot of those
freaks. It will save the people something. If at the same time
we could help in the development of a heavier oil machine, it
would be a good thing. Personally — I am not speaking as the
representative of our company — I should like to see this society
working in co-operation with some other interests that would
put up the money and hold some contests in this country. It
would be a good thing for the tractor trade, and I believe that
the present conditions of the business show that that is what is
needed to rehabilitate it.
Now, there are demonstrations. There was a demonstration in
Fremont put on by private interests. I have no fault to find
with it, except that it did not do any particular good ; it was a
local affair. However, the result of such demonstrations will be
just what your president intimated yesterday, that mis-state-
ments will be thrown broadcast. They will be called contests
when they are not contests. They will be advertised as winning
prizes when no prizes were offered. They will represent a vast
deal of expense, but there will be no beneficial advertising whatso-
ever in them.
If we are to have another contest, I would like to see it simpli-
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Lessons from the Winnipeg Motor Contests 195
fied right down to the bare bone of the subject. I would like to
see it made a little bit more practical, more of value to the man
on the farm; and I would like to see it held some where in the
Middle "West. It would be a good thing for the society and for the
manufacturers to lend a hand. There is some talk to the effect
that such a contest may be put on at the Panama-Pacific Expo-
sition, and that is worthy of consideration. As regards the atti-
tude of the manufacturers, I have written to a good many of
them in regard to the subject, whether they would be interested
in it or not, and I find that there is no objection to it. If it could
be put on under proper auspices, with the right kind of judges,
not too severe rules, all of the large companies, would consider
it. There are one or two who say they would not; they do not
want anything to do with it ; but most of them would consider
such a project.
The contest in Canada is dead. There is a chance for one here,
and the manufacturers are willing to cooperate, but this society,
of course, is at sea on the proposition of finances. Notwithstand-
ing, I believe that if you had a real live committee go around and
interview the people of different communities which might want
such a thing as that, the money might be raised. In regard to
preparing new rules, I do not believe we should do anything like
that. If you want to have a contest, you might go ahead and see
if you can not get one. It will not take very long to write out the
rules as to that. As a matter of fact, we have had a little bit of
experience along that line. I should advise writing fewer rules
in the future than we have in the past. Make them simple, and
get what help you can from the right people.
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196 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
SCORE CARD FOR TRACTOR CONTEST.
By E. A. Johnson.*
I believe that it will be generally admitted that the method of
scoring at Winnipeg, and other contests, has been very unsatis-
factory and that results have been unfair to many of the tractors
entered, not on account of any intention on the part of the con-
test management, judges, or observers to be unfair, but on ac-
count of a great many conditions, such as, condition of land and
weather, variation of plows, attitude of observers, trouble with
prony brakes, and the awarding of many points not determined
by actual comparative results.
In order to interest a large number of representative manu-
facturers in a tractor contest, I believe that it will be necessary
to arrange a score card which will award all points for actual
comparative results. The purchaser of a tractor should be inter-
ested in cost per ton mile ; and cost per belt horse power hour,
and nothing else. These, of course, are affected by cost of up-
keep, delays on account of breakage, depreciation, inconvenience,
durability, material, operator, etc., but as it is impossible for
judges to consider or compare these intelligently with facilities at
hand, and during the short duration of a contest, they should be
eliminated, and the cost per ton mile, and cost per horse power
hour should be determined by actual operating expense only.
Ail engines of the same type should be classified by their piston
displacement per minute, not using any given piston travel but
their actual piston displacement at their regular speed, which
they must maintain at ail times during the contest, thereby pre-
venting the speeding of engines above their safe and normal
speed in order to do more than their normal capacity during the
contest. The test on belt and daw bar should not be of less than
four hours' duration. It is absolutely impossible ot get a fair com-
parative test unless all tractors are operated under precisely the
same conditions, and the variable results due to difference in
weather, observers, plows, depth of plowing, condition of land,
belts, brakes, etc., must be eliminated.
* Superintendent International Harvester Corporation Tractor Works.
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Score Card for Tractor Contest 197
For the draw bar test I would recommend the use of a dynamo-
meter car provided with means for varying the load from 1000#
to 12000#, and with devices for accurately recording rate of
travel, total distance traveled, draw bar pull, time, etc. This
dynamometer car could be designed and built for $3000 to $5000,
and each tractor should haul the same car over the same course.
For the belt test I would recommend the use of an electric
brake of the Sprague type, recording both electric and scale load.
All engines of the same class should be provided with pulleys to
give the same belt speed and use the same belt. All engines
should be tested at their rated horse power, both at the draw bar
and on the belt.
I realize fully that there will be much criticism of the plan out-
lined here, but after attending many contests, and designing
many tractors, I feel sure that in order to be satisfactory to all
concerned it will be necessary to eliminate everything of a ques-
tionable nature and to consider only actual comparative results.
The purchaser of a tractor must depend upon the manufacturer
for durability, material, workmanship, protection of working
parts, accessibility, etc., and other items, such as, diameter of
wheels, weight of tractor per horse power, proportion of weight
on front and rear wheels, efficiency of transmission, form of lugs,
etc., will affect cost of draw bar horse power directly in propor-
tion to their true value. If a tractor contest could be conducted
as outlined here, I believe that all manufacturers who are inter-
ested in a fair comparison of tractors would be entered and there
could be no question of dissatisfaction regarding results.
Further, engineers who are designing tractors would derive much
benefit, and the prospective purchaser would be able to determine
which size and type of tractor would be best adapted for his re-
quirements.
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198 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING A MOTOR CONTEST.
By W. J. Allan.*
Assuming that I am going to be in charge of the steam engines
in the brake and plowing contest at Winnipeg for 1914, as a rep-
resentative of some one of the different companies that enter,
my first duty shoud be to see that the test is conducted in such a
manner as to demonstrate which engine would be the most suita-
ble in design and construction for the ordinary farmer or cus-
tomer to purchase. By this, I mean that the actual performance
of the different engines should be brought to his notice, not by
large head lines that are stretched and exaggerated to such an ex-
tent that he is at a loss to know just which engine to select.
While I have always been the representative of the same comp-
any, I have always felt that the engineer in charge, as well as
the judges were men who thoroughly understood their business
and were at all times fair in their dealings with the different
companies, still I have known circumstances where, in my opin-
ion, certain engines lost gold medals for reasons that were no
fault of the judges, but owing entirely to the rules governing the
test.
In order to start a brake test, let us decide to proceed as fol-
lows, and assume that the test is to take place in 1914 at Winni-
peg as usual :
First : In my opinion one of the first moves to be made should
be to select a committee consisting of one representative from
each company which has an engine or engines entered, they to
work in conjunction with the engineer in charge to prepare the
brake so that it will work satisfactorily and not seize on the rope,
causing unnecessary friction, as occurred during the 1913 test.
In that test, some of the judges were in favor of lubricating the
brake and others were not. However, before the brake test was
over, all agreed that it was necessary to apply a certain amount
of oil on the brake so that it would act more sensitively. Engine
No. 13 during this test was penalized six points for variation of
speed. When first started on the brake, the speed was set at the
* Engineer, Sawyer, Massey Co., Hamilton, Ontario.
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Discussion of Motor Contest 199
rate specified in the entry form ; a speed that was maintained for
a few minutes, when the rope on the brake seized, (no fault of the
engine). In order to get back to the speed it was necessary to
open up the governors. This being done, the speed was increased
of course, but the operator on the brake could not hold the brake
steady, on account of the rope seizing. In other words, it was im-
possible to control the brake. This particular engine was beaten
only 1.35 points, owing entirely to a defective brake. Should
this suggestion be adopted in the future, I might add, that the
representatives oould agree by drawing lots or some other means
who amongst them should supply the engine or engines necessary
to work out the brake or brakes.
Second: Permit me to suggest that a change should be made in
the penalty clause, wherein an engine is penalized if the operator
adjusts a bearing during the brake test. Is this reasonable %
Take a farmer who has his engine attached to a threshing ma-
chine, he starts at 7 a. m. ; all goes well, everything is running
smoothly, and the twenty-five or thirty men engaged are as busy
as can be. About 8 a. m., the engineer imagines a certain bearing
is warming up. He feels it and is convinced in his own mind that
it is liable to heat. If the bearing is one that he can conven-
iently get at and adjust in such a manner as to avoid stopping
threshing operations and compelling several men to stand idle, is
it not a reasonable request to make, that instead of penalizing
the engineer, that we give both he and his engine credit for go-
ing on instead of having to stop ? It might be said, that if he
left the bearing alone it would have gone through without caus-
ing any serious difficulty. Be that as it may, the fact remains
that both engine and engineer performed their respective duty
whether the act of his adjusting the bearing should be given the
credit of it or hot. This is exactly what happened in the 1913
contest with the engineer in charge of No. 13 Steam Engine. He
was no expert, simply an ordinary farmer who owns and operates
an engine of his own. This act of his was the means of penal-
izing No. 13 Engine twenty points more, and permit me to add,
cost the engineer a silk hat which he would have gotten if he had
left the bearing alone. I do not wish to be misunderstood and
am in favor of the penalty clause in cases such as that of Engine
No. 16, which was entered by the same company. In this par-
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200 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
ticular case, it was necessary to stop the engine during the test
on account of the nozzle turning over in the smoke stack. For
this, the engine and the company deserved all the penalty they
received in this or any similar cases.
Third: The classification of compound engines up to the last
contest, were placed in a class with a simple engine having a
cylinder 12" in diameter. Our compound had cylinders 7% and
1214" in diameter, while in 1913 our 9x/2" simple cylinder was
placed in a class with a compound engine having cylinders 9%"
and 13". Would it not be possible to take diagrams off the dif-
ferent engines, from which you could get the M. E. P.t This
figured in proportion to the area of the cylinders might make a
fairer comparison and be acceptable to all. For instance, if two
engines of different makes in the same class have cylinders of the
same diameter, but of different strokes, is it not unfair to the
longer stroke engine to figure the piston displacement when the
actual point of cutoff in each engine might be the same ?
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Discussion of Tractor Contest 201
DISCUSSION OP TRACTOR CONTEST.
By Howahd W. Riley.*
The paper by Mr. Johnston places fairly before us the whole
problem of industrial contests. It is proposed in this paper that
hereafter awards be made only on a basis of performance and
that design and construction be eliminated except as they affect
performance indirectly. The paper also suggests refinements in
the testing methods and apparatus.
I heartily agree with the speaker in the opinion that awards
in these competitions should be made on some basis such that the
personal opinions of the judges shall not enter as a factor. I do
not agree with the speaker however in the contention that the
report of the contest should be such as to leave a prospective pur-
chaser who reads it as much at sea in the matter of design and
construction as he is at present.
My ideas on this matter may be summed up as follows :
1. Tests of performance should be conducted only with the best
apparatus obtainable ; — variations in conditions should be, so far
as possible, eliminated; — and the tests should be so arranged as
to emphasize to the greatest possible extent the effect upon per-
formance of variation in design and construction.
2. Important features of design, dimensions and weights of
each machine should be determined by the judges in conference
with representatives of all the competitors in meeting assembled
and recorded on a specification blank previously prepared.
3. The publication of the results of the competition tests to-
gether with the specifications of important details of construc-
tion should constitute the report of the judges.
4. The awarding of prizes and medals should be discontinued.
The competition should live on the basis of the amount of real
information derived from it.
5. The layout of thorough, fair, educational tests; the design
of testing apparatus; and the preparation of the specification
* Professor Agricultural Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
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202 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
blanks should constitute the work of a society of competent men
and should be undertaken long before the actual occurrence of
the competition.
A contest conducted along these lines would, I believe, be fair
to every one concerned and the report of the judges would be a
valuable addition to engineering literature.
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Discussion of Tractor Contest 203
DISCUSSION.
By L. W. Ellis.*
It seems to me, from the standpoint of the manufacturer, that
the motor contest has served its purpose. I agree with Prof.
Rose, that the motor contest has had a great influence on the
rapid development of the tractor industry. It has established
confidence in the minds of the thresher men who have seen the
manufacturers go into these contests, year after year and not be
afraid to take their medicine if they did not happen to show up
all right. Every year we have seen the designers and experi-
mental men of the different companies there upon the ground,
watching matters closely; so that there is no question but that
the motor contest has helped the tractor for the work it has to do.
I agree with Prof. Rose, that so far as Western Canada is con-
cerned, the motor contest has demonstrated what it set out to
demonstrate. The next big field for the tractor to invade is the
Middle West and South. The educational feature — and I am
speaking now from the sales standpoint — is the big one that the
manufacturer has to overcome. Demonstrations" like the one
given at Fremont Nebraska are good, just so far as they affect
the people who are able to attend, and those who read the ac-
counts of the contest. I happened to be interested in the Fremont
contest a couple of years before it happened. Talking with the
representatives of the Twentieth Century Farmer along about
October, 1911, at the Omaha tractor exposition I suggested a
demonstration that would show the utility of the tractor for all
kinds of farm work. Now, I grant you, it ismore difficult to pro-
vide a tractor for every kind of work, from plowing, etc., right
on through the list, than it is to hold simply a plowing demon-
stration. The spectacular feature, from the standpoint of the in-
dustry, would be much greater if, instead of determining just ex-
actly which engine was the best adapted to get down to a frac-
tional pound of fuel per horse power hour, they could actually
see the tractors going through the stunts. I suggested to them
that they could put on dummy exhibitions, so to speak. They
* Holt Mfg. Co. Stockton, Cal.
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204 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
would not necessarily have to have very much ground to rig up
a set of drills, a set of discs, and a set of harrows, and do some
road work, and have some huskers, shredders, and threshing ma-
chinery there, and actually show the farmer how to do all the
things in the way that he could do them best. We believe that
the average man, the average purchaser, is a little bit lacking in
imagination as to how to get the most use out of his tractor in a
year. That educational feature was what I suggested for a dem-
onstration, which finally took place at Fremont. Now, that could
be of great value in an educational way, because the representa-
tives of the farm papers, with their little pencils and their cam-
eras, would make notes and take pictures of those machines doing
the different things, and it would seem a little bit more realistic.
I am speaking now from the sales standpoint. It seems to me,
however, that without attempting to go into too great a degree
of refinement on the rules, etc., in a contest in the Middle West
we should start with an educational demonstration, and grad-
ually, as the points at issue in each operation with the tractors
were evolved, begin scoring. I do not think it would be a hard
problem to work up something of that kind. I am sure it would
be a great deal more interesting to those who come than to
simply see thirty or forty tractors out plowing side by side.
Prom being excessively interested in the figures of the motor
contest, and working out all these fine comparisons, I have swung
around to the other extreme, where I think the educational fac-
tor is the big thing, from the manufacturer's standpoint. I
think, along with that, you can gradually work in the contest
feature, and get a great deal of information of a reliable nature.
Therefore I say that I do not want to offer any suggestion or any
criticism on the contests in the past.
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Discussion of Tractor Contest 205
DISCUSSION.
The Chairman : I might discuss this paper for just a moment
or two myself. In regard to the brakes sticking, there has always
been more or less trouble in Winnipeg starting off the brakes.
So this year the brakes were actually run four, five, six or eight
hours before they started in on the contest. The companies very
gladly put in engines to limber up the brakes. Companies that
were not in the contest offered to lend their engines and run them
all day to limber up the brakes. A peculiar thing about the
brake was — and I had charge of the brake myself — and last year
we did not put a bit of oil on the brakes, and it ran straight
through, and we had no trouble. This year we had a different
operator up there, and he could not make it run at all without
grease. Now, I could not see why it did not work all right this
year, if it did last year. I have forgotten who had charge of it
up there, whether it was Prof. Dickerson or Prof. Riley ; but any
way, it was a rather peculiar thing that the brakes ran right
straight through last year, with a compound engine, without
trouble. Here is another item which I will just put in to defend
the committee* which will report later on rules, and also to
show how the men of this association have endeavored to protect
the farmers, their constituents, so to speak. We have looked at
it in this way : If a traction engine cannot go on and run in the
hands of an expert for two and a half or three hours without
having to be adjusted, and worked over, how can you expect a
farmer to take one and run it for thirty days without having to
be tinkering with it all the time ? I may be a little bit wrong in
the matter, but it seems to me, notwithstanding the fact that
there has been some criticism of the motor contest, that it does
not develop the thoroughness of the mechanical makeup of the
engine. It seems to me that the demonstration of a few of thosS
things, in a contest which would run not only for two hours, but
for five hours, or some such time, would very nearly decide
whether an engine was made so as to stand a run for several hours.
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206 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
EXTENSION WORK IN AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING
AT WISCONSIN.
By Frank M. White.*
In order to develop the science of agriculture, it is necessary
not only to train the young men who enter our Agricultural Col-
leges, but to carry information directly to the farmer. If we de-
pended alone on the young men who have graduated in the past
and those who will in the future, for improvement of our agricul-
tural conditions, it would take a long time to bring about any
real development. There have been various methods of carrying
information to the farmer, and some form of agricultural exten-
sion service has been in operation in Wisconsin for twenty-eight
years. The results which have been obtained through extension
work are evident in practically every rural community of the
state.
I doubt if Agricultural Engineering extension has been, or is
at the present time, organized with any definite policy of assist-
ing the farmer in applying successful engineering practices to
the small-farm engineering problems. This is true because the
agricultural engineer has not at hand information concerning
such subjects as the power requirements of various farm ma-
chines, the best type of farm buildings for certain localities, or
the plans and specifications for them. Since the organization of
Agricultural Engineering Departments are very new, the exten-
sion work has in the past been carried on by various other de-
partments of the Agricultural Colleges. At Wisconsin, the Agri-
cultural Engineering extension service was forced onto the Agri-
cultural College by the desire of the farmers themselves to know
more about such subjects as silos, better farm buildings, lighting,
heating, ventilating, cement and concrete, gas engines, and small
farm machinery.
The late Professor P. H. King of Wisconsin was the first man
to start investigational work in the mechanics of agriculture, and
the foundation of our extension work can be laid to the work of
* In charge of Agricultural Engineering at the University of Wiscon-
sin.
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Agricultural Engineering Extension 207
Mr. King. His work on power of windmills, the amount of power
required for feed mills, the King system of ventilation, better
farm buildings, and drainage, mark a great start, not only in ex-
tension work but in experimental and research work.
Before considering Agricultural Engineering extension in
Wisconsin, it would be best to outline the definite policy which
the University pursues in its extension service. Wisconsin is dif-
ferent from some of our neighboring states, in that there is a
large amount of undeveloped land. In some sections of the state
large drainage districts must be formed and many acres cleared
before agriculture can be developed. This state ranks twenty-
third in size of land area, and thirteenth in population. Our
agriculture is varied due to the large area of the state and the
influence of the lakes. Many of the farmers in our newer sec-
tions are men coming from lumber camps, cities, or are foreign-
ers, and our agriculture is not bred into them. Many lines of
agriculture, are, therefore, new and the field for extension work
is great. In this respect the conditions which exist in this state
are not different than those found in many other states. The
University of Wisconsin in its extension work stands for giving
the farmer efficient service and information which will make him
a better farmer : where possible, will make him able to grow bet-
ter crops, to live better, and to save money by securing the assist-
ance of the state. If the information which would secure the
above mentioned results could be given in bulletins or lectures, it
would certainly be the better method of handling the work, but
every one knows that lectures and the distribution of reading ma-
terial benefits only a very small percentage of the recipients.
Only real personal contact or definite plans seem to meet our re-
quirements. The county representative system, now being
adopted by a large number of states, will make it possible to
carry a large part of extension service through the representative
to the farmer. Better results should be secured at much less cost
than by the present method.
There are many lines of Agricultural Engineering which are
of particular interest to farmers, and we should try to meet their
needs. The introduction of the silo has had a very beneficial ef-
fect on our dairy interests. It affords a cheap method of storing
B succulent feed which is of great value to the dairy men. The
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208 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
publication and distribution of silo literature, and lectures at
farmers' meetings, have done much to influence the farmers of
our state towards the improvement of their farms. However, in
order to bring this silo question to the farmer more directly, it
was found advisable to build some silo forms for constructing a
permanent type of silo of concrete. Before doing this the Agri-
cultural College built a concrete silo on one of the farms, and
after this silo proved successful, offered to rent a form to any
community of farmers who were interested in the building of a
permanent silo. The object in renting forms to farmers was;
first, to arouse interest in silos ; second, to advise the building of
permanent silos; and third, to develop the community idea
among farmers, of handling their work. It was, and is, not the
intention of the college to enter competition with any local con-
tractors, but to stimulate interest among farmers in methods of
permanent construction, and to do their own work wherever pos-
sible, provided it does not require the services of a more skilled
laborer. Although a farmer may not be able to build his silo as
cheaply as a contractor in the business, yet as far as labor is con-
cerned he can save a great outlay of money, as the labor required
is exchanged among the group renting the forms. In some of
the more recently developed sections in this state if the farmer
had to invest $400.00 or $500.00 in order to secure a silo, it
would be impossible for him to think of building one. Conse-
quently, if he can secure the use of a form for a maximum price
of $10.00, and three or four farmers work togeteher without hav-
ing to pay out a great deal of money for labor, with the materials
for concrete construction on their own farms, there are many in-
stances where silos have been built for $100.00. The following
will give an idea of the distribution of the cost of the items of a
silo built at Hortonville, "Wisconsin.
42 V2 bbls. cement at $1.40 per bbl $59.50
300 lbs. iron 9.00
400 lbs. #9 wire 12.00
2"x4" 4.24
Rent of forms 10.00
Rent of mixer 5.00
$99.74
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Agricultural Engineering Extension 209
No charge was made for labor or sand and gravel as there was
plenty of this material on the farm.
However, the average cost of the concrete silo in this state is
much higher. From the figures we are able to secure from the
silos built here during the years 1912 and 1913, we find the aver-
age cost to be, considering materials and labor, from $300.00 to
$350.00. The following will give an idea of how this cost is dis-
tributed on a 14'x36' silo.
27 yds. crushed rock, at $1.64 per cu. yd $ 44.28
46V^ bbls. cement, at $1.35 per bbl 62.77
15 loads sand, at $.10 per load 1.50
1600 ft. reinforcement 25.00
Building wall and staging 78.00
Building roof 16.00
Digging hole and constructing derrick 8.00
Outside finishing 5.00
Inside finishing 8.00
Floor 4.00
Rent of forms 10.00
Cost of hauling sand, rock, cement, and etc 20.00
$282.55
Labor is figured at $2.00 per day.
The silo circuits formed have not been a detriment to the vari-
ous silo companies or contractors, but have stimulated interest
in farmers to use a silo, and have been the means of bringing a
great deal of business to silo concerns. Through this organiza-
tion of silo circuits, we have gone into twenty-two counties and
assisted sixty-seven farmers during the past three years. The
following application blank will give an idea of the method used
by a farmer in securing our forms :
APPLICATION TO THE AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF
THE UNIVERSITY OP WISCONSIN FOR SILO FORMS
AND ASSISTANCE.
Wis 19..
Gentlemen :
We, the undersigned, town of County of
do hereby make application for the use of the Wisconsin
14
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210 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
silo form, and assistance to instruct in the method of handling
the form on the first silo. We desire to erect a concrete silo 12,
14, or 16 feet in diameter.
It is understood that charges for the use of the silo forms ac-
cording to the prices herein stated, are to accompany the appli-
cation, unless arranged for before forms are shipped to the ap-
plicant, the remittance being made by money order, express or-
der, or bank draft.
CARE OF FORM. In order to secure the best finish on a silo
wall, it is necessary to keep the form free from concrete. The
form will have to be oiled from time to time with a cheap oil or
soap solution in order to prevent the concrete sticking to the
form. We agree to return the form as free from concrete as re-
ceived. After the silo is finished, we agree to return the form
promptly to the railroad station, tagged and ready for shipment.
CHARGES. The charges for the silo forms are to be at the
rate of $10.00 per silo where three silos are built ; $9.00 for four
silos ; $8.00 for five silos ; and $7.00 for six silos. We desire to
have as many farmers secure the use of the silo forms as possi-
ble, and we, therefore, limit the time which these forms may be
used for each silo at the above rate to 21 working days. For
every day the form is used over the 21 days, the applicant agrees
to pay the University of Wisconsin twenty-five cents.
It is desired to start construction work not later than
If not possible to secure the forms at this date
Remarks :
Signed Name Address
1
2
3
4
Farm buildings have never received any particular attention
from architects and contractors. The farmer is usually his own
designer and the local carpenter is the builder. The farmer has
not had the opportunity of seeing many barns, nor has he
grasped ideas of economical construction and arrangement. The
many inquiries sent to the Department of Agricultural Engineer-
ing made it imperative that this department should furnish plans
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Agricultural Engineering Extension 211
which would be of assistance to the farmer in securing a better
building. Unfortunately, perhaps, the barn is the first building
to receive the attention of the farmer, and as a result the depart-
ment in 1909 drew up a set of plans for a barn which has met
the average requirements of the farmers in this state. Since
that time the demand for plans has grown until last year we sent
out free of charge to the farmers of this state fifteen hundred
barn plans. These plans may be secured free by any one inter-
ested who resides in this state. The demand for building plans
has grown to such an extent that the department can now furnish
detailed plans of a general type of hog house, chicken house, ma-
chinery shed, home made cow stalls, and round dairy barn.
At the present time there is a great demand for more informa-
tion on modern improvements for farm homes, and as a result
the department published a circular of information on septic
tanks and sewage disposal. By means of these circulars and blue
prints, which can be furnished to farmers and residents of small
towns, we are able to supply them with information on the instal-
lation of modern improvements in their homes. The community
idea is also being developed in this line of work as it has been in
handling the silo work: that is, the department will assist a
group of farmers who wish to install a sewage disposal plant in
their farm home. If called upon the department will furnish a
man who will go to the community, make the necessary survey,
stake out a plan for one of the farmers of the group who is going
to install such a system. By getting one plant started, the others
can see how this is installed and will pattern after it. The de-
partment at the present time is not in a position to furnish house
plans and detailed suggestions for making the home more live-
able. Farm mechanics applied to the home should, and will, be
made one of the leading features of our future extension lecture
work supplemented with drawings, charts, and slides giving ex-
act information as to how the home work may be made easier.
Farm life, generally considered the most healthful life, does not
entirely deserve its reputation according to statistics which show
that the death rate for typhoid fever, diphtheria, and pneumonia
is constantly increasing.
Although farm drainage is not in the Agricultural Engineer-
ing Department, the method of carrying on this work in the
Digitized by LiOOQ IC
212 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Soils Department is to develop the community idea of handling
the work. At first thought, it might seem impractical to attempt
to meet the calls which would come from the state for free ad-
vice and service necessary for the lay-out of a drainage system.
The method of conducting this work is as follows. First the pre-
liminary survey is asked under the following conditions.
Mr. A writes that he is the owner of some marsh land, which
he desires to drain, but is dependent upon the drainage of the
surrounding marsh land owned by others. As soon as convenient
a member of the department staff is directed to spend a day in
the field examining Mr. A's land and the surrounding marsh
land. After the examination, the field man writes his recommen-
dations in the form of a letter to Mr. A with the request that he
circulate it among his neighbors or publish it in a local news-
paper. The examination and recommendations are made as ex-
tension work of the Soils Department and no charge is made for
services or traveling expenses, but Mr. A is expected to provide
the field man with living and working necessities after arriving.
Applicants may be asked to wait a number of weeks for the field
examination to economize in the time and traveling expenses of
the field man, who arranges to serve several applicants on a single
trip. Thirty areas aggregating about 60,000 acres of swamp,
marsh, and overflowed lands were surveyed and reported on last
year under the procedure outlined above.
After this preliminary work is arranged for, a field demon-
stration in farm drainage according to the following request
may be secured.
When Mr. A., from X township, writes to the Department de-
scribing his wet land, the Department makes such recommenda-
tions as seem warranted from the data at hand. If correspond-
ence shows that in this township there are several farms that con-
tain wet lands similar to Mr. A's, it is put on the list of places
where a demonstration of a farm-drainage system would help to
solve the drainage problem of a community.
Pom August 1st to December 1st, this Department sends its
field man to make as many of these demonstrations as time per-
mits. On the appointed day, Mr. A. meets the field man at the
railroad station and they proceed to Mr. A 's farm. The wet land
is examined first in a general way and then in detail with the aid
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Agricultural Engineering Extension 213
of a soil auger and a level. In the presence of the farmers who
have assembled, the proposed plan of the entire system is ex-
plained and a few lines are staked out. Time prevents the field
man from locating all of the lines and from running final levels
over any of them. Furthermore, stakes set at this time may be
disturbed and destroyed before construction commences. The
farmer is told how to lay out the rest of his system, but is warned
that he should have a surveyor run final levels over all lines
where there is a question as to the amount of fall, and to change
location of lines where necessary. He is told how many tile of
the different sizes to order.
In the evening the farmers assemble in a school house or some
other convenient place for a discussion of the drainage problem
on the community. On the following day a number of farms are
visited and are handled in the same way as was that of Mr. A.
A single community sometimes orders 10 carloads of tile. This
attracts tiling contractors who sometimes lay tile for less than
50 cents a rod. A demonstration of this kind in September 1912
resulted in laying 14 carloads of tile before June 15, 1913 in a
community where no tile had ever been laid before, and where
only two men out of about one hundred, who attended the meet-
ing, had ever seen a drain tile.
The expenses for traveling and service are borne by the Ex-
tension Service of the Department, but, as before stated, those
interested are required to furnish the field man with living and
working necessities after arriving.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
214 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
DISCUSSION.
By J. U Mowby.*
There is no room for argument on the question as to the value
of that extension work which is carried to the farmer, and actu-
ally placed in his hands, compared with the lecture and bulletin
method.
It takes a year for men and women in our colleges to learn to
follow instructions. It takes two years for them to learn to take
notes. What wonder is it, then, that James J. Hill says that col-
leges do no good, and that the United States Government admits
that only ten per cent of the crop raisers are approaching sane
and scientific methods of production.
Therefore the man, the institution, or the organization, which
puts the man in the field, along with the advice, is the fountain
which should be freely fed and encouraged.
Mr. White has discussed Agricultural Engineering as it is
practiced in Wisconsin. He has mentioned three lines of activi-
ties. He has shown how the silo question is handled, which is
very tangible and very positive, as to results. There is, in my
mind, however, very much of a question, as to the value of the
community idea as fostered by this scheme, because community
effort, not directed as regularly organized bodies, too often re-
sults in contention and enmity because of lack of organized re-
sponsibility.
The Wisconsin program on farm buildings is indicative of pro-
gress, but Mr. White leaves the question unanswered as to the
methods pursued in arriving at a set of farm building plans
which will serve the widely diversified operations of that great
state, that will meet the demands of those living in the older
settled southern section, as well as the pioneers of the central and
northern sections.
I believe I am not alone in the feeling that the Wisconsin paper
would be much more interesting if it would give us some idea
as to what use has been made of these plans and details, — or have
* Professor of Agricultural Engineering, University of Minnesota.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Discussion on Agricultural Engineering Extension 215
they been used at all ? Have they not gone the way of the thou-
sands of building plans published in agricultural journals and
periodicals ?
As to tile drainage, I can say, with firmness, that the commun-
ity idea does not get such tile laying results as we find necessary,
upon which to base conclusions, from the Experiment Station
standpoint. We find that the system may be well laid out, care-
fully staked, and checked back, and be turned into a failure by
the man who lays the title in the ditch. If it is possible to make
a competent and reliable tile layer in a brief demonstration of a
few hours, then we, in Minnesota, are behind the times in our
pedagogics. We believe that a job worth doing is worth doing
well, and that concealed work, under ground, like heating, light-
ing and plumbing distribution in the building, should be done
under careful inspection.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
216 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
DISCUSSION.
By J. E. Wagooneh.*
In Mr. White's discussion of the ways of reaching the farmer,
he speaks of the County Agriculturist as affording a means of do-
ing more effective work with the farmer. This is entirely true.
The counties in which this work has been conducted will undoubt-
edly reap great benefits in a few years if they have not already.
The county men not only serve as a means of reaching the farmer
personally, but living in the county as he does, he becomes more
thoroughly acquainted with the conditions and with the people
of that county, all of which help him to make the work more ef-
fective. Many of the county men are distributing building plans
for farm structures, they assist also in putting up new buildings.
This is especially true of the silo.
In connection with the discussion of the means of reaching the
farmer, attention might be drawn to the more recent practice fol-
lowed by some in the extension work, namely, that of using the
automobile as a means of reaching the farmer. This method has
the advantage of meeting the farmer under conditions and en-
vironment with which he is familiar and reaches many farmers
who would not take the trouble or time to go to town for an agri-
cultural meeting. "When a lecture is delivered in the field, in the
barn, dairy basement, front yard, kitchen or on the front porch
of a home, all of the disadvantages of a hall or lecture room meet-
ing are done away with and it has been the writer's experience
that the farmers are freer to ask questions and show a great deal
more interest than under other environments.
The combining of the special train and the automobile, as a
means of reaching the farmer has brought good results. The
plan as worked out is as follows. Arrangements were made
ahead for country meetings and a meeting in the town hall or
on the street, and a meeting in the high school. The automobiles
were in readiness at the station, on schedule time. Arrangements
were made on the train so that each speaker would know where
he was going. The train stayed at the station two hours, giving
* Extension Department International Harvester Co., Chicago, 111.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Discussion on Agricultural Engineering Extension 217
a half hour to run out, an hour for the lecture and a half hour
to run back to the train. In many instances as high as eight lec-
tures were going on at the same time, covering a large scope of
territory. In this way, as high as forty meetings of an hour or
more each were held in a single day.
I am pleased to note the plan of the Agricultural Engineering
Department of Wisconsin, of loaning forms for building concrete
silos. This kind of work is bound to result in a great deal of
good and arouse much interest.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
218 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
DISCUSSION.
By Fbed. H. Rankin.*
I have made a careful study of the facts set forth in Professor
P. M. White's address upon the subject "Agricultural Engineer*
ing Extension in Wisconsin," and believe he has struck a key-
note that might well be taken up and sounded in unison by all the
extension departments in other colleges. It seems to me to be the
note of a wise bell-wether sheep, and I have no doubt but that the
flock will follow as is its custom.
In accordance with the definition of extension work given by a
committee representing the American Associations of Colleges,
and Experiment Stations, "extension teaching in agriculture em-
braces those forms of instruction in subjects having to do with
improved methods of agricultural production, and with the gen-
eral welfare of the rural population, that are offered to people
not enrolled as resident pupils in educational institutions.." We
can easily recognize the importance of this phase of extension
work. My experience in talking with farmers on the farm, at
institutes, fairs, and exhibits, is that they are looking for con-
crete knowledge ; — the actual dimensions, cost, and construction,
etc., of the things they believe will benefit them.
I know of no greater field than through the agricultural en-
gineer to give demonstrations of actual progress and improve-
ment in the form of efficient and economical and more perma-
nent houses, barns, silos, etc., and the results obtained from a
home power plant, farm conveniences, drainage projects, etc.
The speaker has foreseen the coming demand for the works of an
agicultural engineer, and has advanced a practical solution to
meet it.
Other solutions may be carried out by other states to fit par-
ticular conditions, but the community co-operation and actual
demonstration and construction by extension workers appeals to
me as a good method of getting combined interest and desired re-
* Superintendent of Agricultural Extension Work, University of Illi-
nois.
Digitized by LiOOQ IC
Discussion on Agricultural Engineering Extension 21i>
suits of a general progressive movement as against the "par ex-
cellence' ' of a few individuals scattered here and there.
A book for the agricultural engineer and farmer that would
take the place of "Kent's Hand Book" to the mechanical engi-
neer would fill an enormous gap in the life of a farmer ; — some-
thing that he could get results from, act by, swear by, and pros-
per.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
220 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
LABORATORY EFFICIENCY.
By J. B. Davidson.^
Of late years the value of laboratory instruction in college
work has become more and more appreciated until we have now
reached the point where a large part of nearly all technical col-
lege courses is made up of this kind of instruction. In many
cases so much laboratory instruction has been introduced as to
make it difficult to secure time for it in the program of the col-
lege working day. It has been found that the effectiveness of
class room instruction was raised when supplemented by labora-
tory work. It has also been demonstrated that laboratory work
in many respects took the place of actual practical experience in
doing the work discussed in the class room.
What is true of technical courses in general has been espe-
cially true of agricultural courses. Agricultural Engineering,
as a branch of agricultural education, has been called upon to
furnish a rather large part of the laboratory instruction intro-
duced.
It is easy to find that laboratory instruction has several definite
purposes which may be outlined as follows :
First: to give students an opportunity to secure actual per-
sonal experience in the operation of apparatus or tools. This
makes the work more practical.
Second: to illustrate and demonstrate certain scientific prin-
ciples and show their application to practice. This enables the
student to receive instruction from a different source and by a
different method, which will make a different impression. It is
the experience of all instructors that some students learn more
easily by laboratory instruction than by class instruction.
Third: to give students practice in doing certain tasks or pieces
or work accurately.
Fourth: to teach methods of preparing for and making a test
or an investigation.
* Professor of Agricultural Engineering, Iowa State College, Ames,
Iowa.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Laboratory Efficiency 221
Fifth: to give training in writing accurate reports. It is de-
sired that the student shall be trained to state accurately what
he sees or observes.
Sixth: to lead students to appreciate more fully the value of
time.
College instruction is a serious matter. It is not difficult to
see how some men can reach the conclusion that unless college
instruction is carefully handled, it will do more harm than good.
College instruction is also expensive. Of the three large items
which make up the cost of a college course in a state institu-
tion:— the cost to the state, the student's personal expenses, and
the value of his time — the last should be the greatest under nor-
mal conditions. It is, no doubt, because the writer has given
some attention to the matter of training students to appreciate
more fully the value of time, that has been the occasion for re-
ceiving the invitation to prepare this paper on laboratory effi-
ciency.
Laboratory work in Agricultural Engineering usually in-
cludes the following lines :
1. Shop work in blacksmithing.
2. Shop work in carpentry.
3. Farm machinery laboratory.
4. Farm motors laboratory.
5. Surveying.
6. Drafting and map making.
7. Designing of farm structures.
8. Instruction in the use of and properties of materials.
The essentials of efficient laboratory instruction would seem to
consist of the following: First, a good instructor who is well
trained, experienced, filled with enthusiasm for his work and
with a desire to impart instruction to others. Second, laboratory
instruction adopted to the special need of the student. All col-
lege instruction should be valuable ; first, on account of the in-
trinsic value of training furnished, and second, on account of
the practical value of the information imparted as related to the
future work of the student. One feature of the instruction
should not be over-emphasized to the neglect of the other.
Third, good equipment, adapted to the special purpose for which
it is used should be provided. Fourth, the course should be well
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
222 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
planned, thought out carefully, and dispatched to the student.
It is along this latter line as previously stated, that we have been
working in particular.
It should be stated emphatically that a good instructor is an
absolute essential to efficient laboratory instruction and no
amount of planning or system could compensate for the second-
class instructor. The plan where the laboratory is turned over
to the students to work without the personal supervision of a
capable instructor is to be criticised. If the college is to fulfil
its function in the largest way, laboratory instruction at the
college must do more than give a student a chance to learn cer-
tain things in the laboratory work by his own effort and initia-
tive. True, a student should not be given so much instruction
and direction as to make his work merely the performance of
a mechanical operation. On the other hand, he should have as
much demonstrated to him as will conserve his time, and he
should be instructed and have explained to him all that it is pos-
sible for him to receive.
The 'dispatching of laboratory work is simply making use of
a principle used for many years in commercial shop practice.
In preparing to dispatch a laboratory course it is necessary to
carefully plan and outline the entire course of instruction. The
first step is the separating of the entire course into individual
exercises or tasks. The credit for the course should be put
strictly upon the basis of so much required work rather than
upon a basis of so much required time. In other words, a pre-
mium is put upon industry. In dispatching it is desired to mag-
nify the capacity of the man to magnify the ability of the stud-
ent to get work done. When a student has finished the required
work of his course satisfactorily, he is to be excused regardless
of whether it is the end or not. This does not necessarily mean
that we are to overlook the quality of the work performed.
In order to dispatch the work, it is necessary to make a time
study of the various exercises. In placing the laboratory courses
at Iowa State College, on this basis, a tentative study of the time
required to finish the various exercises was made. This esti-
mated time was given to the students as a standard. As the sys-
tem was used from year to year the average record of several
hundred students was used as a standard. The quality of the
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Laboratory Efficiency 223
-work performed is not overlooked. As a student finishes each
individual task or exercise, he is graded: this grade, of course,
being based upon a laboratory standard chosen by the instructor.
After one or two semesters of use a standard grade is furnished
to the students by averaging the grade of several hundred stud-
ents who have finished the exercises. Thus it is seen that a
standard of quantity and a standard of quality is provided.
The actual working of this system is such that the output of
the student has been increased about twenty-five per cent. In
our own course it has been necessary to increase the amount of
work required for credit in order to have the average student
-1
IE i ~
■
■
^^^■^^^^^^■^^■^^^
Fio. 1.
finish somewhere near the end of the semester. An incentive for
effort in the direction of more work and better work is pro-
vided. Students value their time to the extent that they work
earnestly from the beginning of the laboratory period to the end.
Every young man is desirous to be near or above the standard
which represents the average.
In introducing this system, we have made use of a system so
common to commercial shops and factories. Cases have been
provided which have pockets sufficient to hold the cards for one
section of students at each laboratory. An additional case is
provided which is used as a receiver while the students are in
the laboratory. At the opening of the laboratory period the case
containing the cards of the student is opened, and each student
removes his own card and places it in the receiving case. This
is done in the presence of the instructor. At the end of a cer-
tain period, ten minutes being the practice in our laboratories,
this case is locked and the instructor proceeds at once to the
work of instruction. A student coming in late, in order to get
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
224 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
credit for his work, must secure his card from the instructor,
and this plan enables absences to be checked easily. At the
closing hour, the case is again unlocked and students are re-
quired to replace their cards. The illustration on page 223
shows these cases as used in the shop at Iowa State College.
IOWA STATE COLLEGE
DCrARTMENT Or AGRICULTURAL CNGIKEERtNG
STUDENTS TIME CARD AND RECORD
roixew tmi mmwcTioM closely
rmervr ihi« card with emre I»o noi hw* it ik» not muti
late it. .iii.t do not «oil it nnnecewnlv I'Utr it in ««. proper
compartment at the tn«l of each exercise
1 pan twifinuniK tin- fir*t exerey* rill in the -lair «« »«*gin
niiiK •» in* n>»l column
After an exerciae is finisbol and rea.lv lor inspection, the
instructor will eumine it. and N acceptable will aak tbc rtu-
clcnt to nil in Ibe ftate of nnidiing an<l the tin* of making
tnd Uteo (TTJ'le it and record grad«- in grade column
The aradent will lill in Uie date of 1-etnnnine; the lollowinK
exercise before llie *tnck for it will lie i»«ue«l
all i
I di
The time ©I mnkini; -m ««fl«» intln<l«»
recti? on the work and all ume upeni in preparation ami i» to
be reckoner I from ibe limning ol the period to the *rcept
ance of the work, or Ikmii tli« acceptance of the prece»Un»:
work to the acceptance ol the work in hand, or from the
acceptance ol the preiedimj" work to tin- end of thr period, no
that tlie totnl of limr rolumn will e*|nal llie total working
Iwitr*
I'jmti compK ting thi» oiur« ol eaerciM* <lepo«t lbi« Rer
ord villi tli> instructor
uctcise
Hand.
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Fig. 2.
(Fig. 1) A sample of the card for the carpentry shop is also
given as follows: (Fig. 2) When a student finishes an exercise he
reports to the instructor with the finished exercise and his card ;
if accepted, the student is required to fill in his own time. The
instructor enters the grade upon the card and also in his own
class book which he carries with him. There is no desire on
the part of the student to distort the time, because the time
taken from one exercise will appear against another.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Laboratory Efficiency
225
This plan of instruction was introduced some three years ago
in the carpentry shop. It was later introduced in the forge shop
and has still later been introduced in nearly all of the laboratory
courses in the department. In the farm machinery laboratory,
LABORATORY RECORD,
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i
*3
KellJaa; SII4*VI« Woei' B*v
*
00
.*•
swaai Tractor OaaraODO
2
00
S»
^rajiag Merktaet*
1
30
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1
Fia. 3.
15
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
226
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
the laboratory record (Fig. 3) and the laboratory manual, to-
gether with the regular reports, are kept in a special case. (Fig.
4) This case is so arranged that the students may remove the
books at a stated time in the beginning of the period and may
Fig. 4.
also return the books at a stated time at the end of the period.
Any late-comer or student desiring to leave the laboratory early
must report the same to the instructor.
In brief, the one thing of especial interest about the labora-
tory methods used at Iowa State College, is the use of standards
for quantity and quality. We have been thoroughly convinced
of their merit. In the beginning, the instructors did not take
kindly to the plan. They thought "too mueh red-tape" was be-
ing introduced, that too much time was being compiled in aver-
aging the records. At the present time all are thoroughly recon-
ciled to the system.
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Discussion on Laboratory Efficiency 227
DISCUSSION OP LABORATORY EFFICIENCY.
By W. N. Nye.*
The writer has had the feeling for some time that a great deal
of our college laboratory work is inadequate, inefficiently car-
ried out and, in very many cases, poorly administered. We do
not quite accomplish all we should expect to in the time spent.
The proportion of time given to laboratory work is large com-
pared to that devoted to class and lectures, hence the amount of
actual work accomplished and experience gained should be com-
mensurate with the time spent.
Prof. Davidson is right in saying that competent instructors
are of the first importance, and that no amount of equipment or
organization will replace them. A good laboratory instructor
should have knowledge of his subject gained by experience and
practice, be thorough in his methods and imbued with a contagi-
ous enthusiasm. Equipment and laboratory manuals are only of
importance when the other conditions are right.
Prof. Davidson has considered the subject of laboratory effi-
ciency from the same standpoint that the factory efficiency ex-
pert views it. The ultimate aim of such a system, either in the
laboratory or shop, seeks to accomplish the maximum amount of
work in minimum time or with minimum effort. In some forms
of work involving physical dexterity in the accomplishment of
certain tasks, such as shop work, the system developed and used
by Prof. Davidson should give admirable results.
If properly taught a student can learn to accompany the skill-
ful use of tools with a fair degree of speed, and it is the writer's
impression that the system outlined by Prof. Davidson and in
use in the Iowa State College will tend to produce this result.
There is another kind of laboratory work, however, which
should be viewed somewhat differently. This applies to work de-
signed to present certain facts to the student and in doing so to
teach him also initiative, independence, ability to obtain neces-
sary data and to present the results of his work in a clear, logi-
* Assistant Professor Farm Mechanics, Purdue University, La Fayette,
Ind.
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228 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
cal and forcible manner in a written report. The efficiency of
such work cannot be wholly measured by the figures on a time
card.
There is a weakness in any laboratory system when a student,
in trying to stick to hard and fast rules laid down in a manual
and do the exercise or experiment in a set way in a given time,
fails to recognize the important principle or fact which the ex-
periment is designed to bring out.
As illustrating the results usually attained, attention is called
to the case of the average college senior assigned to a thesis de-
manding some experimental and practical work. The first thing
he does is to inquire how to start, or else asks the instructor how
he wants it done. He has spent so much of his four years try-
ing to do work to please the instructor and get a grade that he
cannot get away from it on his thesis. If left entirely to his
own resources he is at a loss how to proceed and is very apt to
make a sorry mess of the affair.
It is for this kind of laboratory work that greater efficiency
should be sought. This would not be the efficiency of speed or
quantity of work done. It would be the efficiency of actual ac-
complishment and progress. The result would be measured by
the degree of ability, discernment, and self reliance attained
by the student. The right kind of instructors, smaller labora-
tory sections, and laboratory manuals giving more attention to
reasons than to rules will make far greater efficiency.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Discussion on Laboratory Efficiency 229
DISCUSSION OP PAPER BY J. B. DAVIDSON ON LAB-
ORATORY EFFICIENCY.
By H. B. Bonebriqht.*
While Professor Davidson has discussed Laboratory Efficiency
from the standpoint of the large college, the writer, whose six
years of teaching experience has been wholly confined to col-
leges where the classes are small, will endeavor to present an-
other phase of the subject. First: Methods employed for the
long or regular course students, (four years of nine months),
must be different from the laboratory courses for the short course
students, (two or three years of seven to eight months). Our
long course men can get only a smattering of the actual field
practice in surveying, drainage, irrigation, farm machinery,
farm buildings, carpentry and forge. They get what one of our
leading western educators is pleased to call a " talking knowl-
edge' ' of the work.
On the other hand, the short course men, who are not obliged
to take so much chemistry, botany, entomology, mathematics etc.,
get more real field practice than do the long course men. They
get what the writer calls a "working knowledge" of the subject.
When they leave school at the end of four years, the long
course men can discuss the subjects fluentljr. The short course
men can do the things that are required of them speedily and ac-
curately, but of course their ability to deliver a set speech on any
of the subjects would probably be ridiculously weak. These men
usually make good as farm managers and as farmers. The other
class make good in scientific work, in Government positions, and
in general where a "talking knowledge* ' of agricultural engi-
neering subjects is sufficient to fill the bill.
One of our eminent educators who has a "talking knowledge :'
of agricultural engineering subjects, attempted to manage a large
Montana farm last season. He has discussed the advantages of
mold board plows over disc plows, in speech and in bulletin, but
didn't know which type he was securing when he started plow-
* Professor of Agricultural Engineering, University of Montana, Boze-
man, Mont
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
230 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
ing. His knowledge of tractors, of drainage and of irrigation
proved to be only a "talking knowledge" too. In two months he
lost more than his lucrative salary amounted to. He promptly
came back into college work and is still insisting on the teaching
of a "talking knowledge' ' of the subject. Had he really studied
his laboratory work in farm machinery, farm motors at the mid-
dle western college which graduated him, he might have suc-
ceeded. One of our practical course students has handled three
times as big a proposition for the past two years and receives a
very neat raise of salary each year. He has a "working knowl-
edge'\
One of the points which Professor Davidson has not discussed,
I consider very important. That is, the impressing of the stud-
ent with the value of the machinery he handles, the loss due to
not understanding its use and abuse. Among our most outstand-
ing agricultural failures in this state, I aril ashamed to admit,
are many men carrying college degrees in Agriculture. They can
discuss subjects fluently, but a broken bolt, a bent brace, a poorly
sharpened plow shear, a shorted plug or a total negligence of
lubrication often means days and days of time wasted, — time
that often means from $50.00 to $500.00 per day. The Labora-
tory is the place to correct these evils so far as it is in our power
to do it. Not only should the student make his time count, but
he should be impressed with the fact that a "working knowl-
edge' ' is necessary for practice in the field. He must be made to
understand that a lack of this working knowledge means more
than a slightly lowered grade on the registrar's books.
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Discussion on Laboratory Efficiency 231
DISCUSSION OP PAPER BY PROFESSOR J. B. DAVID-
SON ON LABORATORY EFFICIENCY.
By C. O. Reed.*
There can be but little discussion following Professor David-
son's excellent paper if we are to discuss only what has been
said, for we heartily agree with the author on the general prin-
ciples brought forth. Professor Davidson is to be commended
for his success in expediting systems which have great value in
our business of teaching, and rather than spend much time ar-
guing details, we might better direct our efforts to emphasizing
the importance of the subject.
There is a point or two, however, on which all of us will not
agree. In the first place, in giving the purposes of laboratory
work, the author neglects to include that very important pur-
pose of developing the student 's initiative. This is not the first
purpose of laboratory work, but it certainly is not the last. The
student comes to us with few creative ideas, yet his success in
applying principles to practice depends largely upon the devel-
opment of this initiative. Laboratory work is a means of giving
further information, and, if we are not using this means of giv-
ing as an instrument of training, then we are neglecting a mis-
sion which we are responsible for as educators ; we are not thor-
oughly conserving the student's time and our laboratory effi-
ciency is lowered. The first purpose of laboratory work, as Pro-
fessor Davidson says, is to secure for the student actual exper-
ience in the operation of apparatus and tools, and the second
purpose is to show the application of certain demonstrated prin-
ciples to practice. I would place this development of the stud-
ent's initiative as the third purpose, and of fourth value I would
place the purpose of teaching time value, accuracy, and preci-
sion. The purpose of teaching students to write accurate re-
ports I believe the least valuable purpose of all.
As far as student efficiency is concerned, the setting of stand-
ards of quality and quantity is a decided step in advance of our
older methods. The method described for determining the
* Instructor in Farm Mechanics, University of Illinois.
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232 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
standards is not to be criticised, but the standards must be raised
each year to keep pace with the continually rising standard of
scholarship. I am inclined to believe that a part of this 25% in-
crease in output, which the author speaks of, is due to the better
quality of student we find in our class rooms each year.
The card and case system of checking is to be commended, es-
pecially for carpentry and blacksmithing, and where handwork
is to be graded, the efficiency-grade system is to be advocated.
In this system, as you know, a grade is given for efficiency of
manipulation, which is the ratio of time taken to perform a piece
of work to the time that should be taken, and this efficiency
grade then counts sixty per cent, of the final grade. The card
and case system must be confined to small sections if used in lab-
oratories for field and power machinery. A similar system is
necessary, however, in all laboratory sections whether large or
small, and it is simply a matter of working out details which
differ somewhat at different institutions.
Placing credit, of course, upon a basis of required work rather
than upon a basis of required time is a more just method than
our former system where the rule was reversed. It suffers the
disadvantage, however, that the good student is prevented from
obtaining as much training as he would like, or as much as he is
capable of, and should have. He is hampered by the poorer
student who may be the average and enjoys having the standard
fall somewhere near his own abiltiy. This disadvantage may be
largely eliminated by presenting additional elective laboratory
work which will lead to higher standing in the course. I think
a system which combines the work and time basis are most ideal.
By such a method the student is compelled to spend so much
time on the work; if he can work faster than his neighbor, he
does more, and is justly compensated for it in standing and in
additional training. In our systems we should not admit to the
student that there is a limit to his industry. In addition to plac-
ing a premium on industry we should give it free expanse. The
practice of excusing the bright student who has completed so
much work before the end of the semester is to be criticised. His
time with us is entirely too short even if he remains the entire
semester, and, too, the chances are he does not know any more,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Discussion on Laboratory Efficiency 233
and perhaps considerably less, about farm mechanics than does
his slower, more comprehensive neighbor.
Professor Davidson has treated the subject especially from the
standpoint of student efficiency and has told us of methods for
driving the standard to more effective results. There has been
good reason for this. He was asked to describe the methods he
had found most satisfactory and that he has done. The secre-
tary, however, in requesting discussions, asked: "What addi-
tions do you deem advisable ?" This gives us considerable lati-
tude for discussion of the subject, and permit me to take up Lab-
oratory Efficiency from another angle.
Thus far we have not hit upon what, to me, are the very fund-
amentals of the question, namely, the efficiency of our laboratory
as an instrument of education, or, in plainer words, — the effi-
ciency of what we give and how we give it. Professor Davidson
tells us that of the items which make up the cost of a college
course, the student's time is the most valuable. If the youth's
time is invested with us we are under heavy responsibility to
make it a profitable investment to him and our failure to do so.
may almost be termed a sacrelege. Have we a proper standard
of what laboratory work should consist of to be the best invest-
ment? Have we a standard of the student's needs as well as a
standard of quality and quantity to measure his work?
If we use poor judgment in selecting the proper material to
give students, we are forcing upon them a greater loss of time
than any compulsive system can make up for. In the one case,
we are forcing a loss of time upon an entire class, while in the
other case it is but a few shiftless students who will be negli-
gent to a good quality of work if presented. I believe, therefore,
that our first step in raising laboratory efficiency is to standard-
ize what we teach ; our method of presenting the work is of sec-
ondary importance, and our system for checking or rating the
student's efforts is only of third significance. Such a rating of
the value of standards, I believe in better keeping with the rat-
ing of the purposes of laboratory work mentioned above.
In my work with 130 men studying field machinery, I cannot
possibly squeeze into the allotted time all I feel is essential to
give. In institutions where field and power machinery are taught
in the same course, the condition can be no better. We must
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234 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
pick out what is of greatest value to our student's time, or, in
other words, we must raise what we have to the highest standard.
There is a grave responsibility upon our shoulders as well as
upon the student's, and every effort put forth by us is an effort
from the chief source for laboratory efficiency. Some of us will
be inclined to say : " Why, I decided long ago just what was most
essential to give", but that phrase %ilong ago" is just why we
have not an up-to-date standard at present. Not an instructor
in agricultural engineering today can be. fully satisfied with
what he is giving as laboratory work. If he is, then he is not
keeping pace with progress in the business of farming or with
the increasing efficiency of his students. Are we in the least to
blame for any part of the failures that some of our agricultural
students make in practice? Let us look at the proposition
squarely. If we are to blame, then our standards are wrong.
We cannot be guided entirely by what the student thinks he
wants. He often is a poor judge of his needs. We must be
guided more by the experience he has had, and by the conditions
to which he is going. This is particularly true in institutions
" where agricultural engineering subjects are required for gradu-
ation. On the other hand, in colleges where our subects are elec-
tive, a more detailed outline of the work should be presented to
the student at registering time than is usually to be found in
college catalogues.
In deciding what constitutes most efficient laboratory work,
our first difficulty may be that we have two classes of students,
one class from the farm, the other from the city. The problems
in each case are a little different until we have raised the city
chap's conception to the plane of the farm youth's. We are
justified in requiring more work of this city man, regardless of
time, and here is another argument in favor of the work basis
for credit. A standard of quantity can be set for each class.
We must then decide what work is most efficient in each class to
acquaint the student with machine operation, to demonstrate
principle, and to develop the student's ability to help himself
in the future. After that is accomplished, we are justified in
turning to the second essential for laboratory efficiency, namely,
the most adequate methods of presenting the work.
Of course, suitable equipment is necessary. Then a thoroughly
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Discussion on Laboratory Efficiency 235
standardized laboratory guide is essential where a one right way
of doing something is to be impressed upon the student. Our
methods of developing initiative must always be of secondary
importance and must honor all rules for directness.
Where machines are to be studied in the laboratory, we must
decide whether written reports are more efficient than oral
quizzes. The mechanical recording of dimensions or the writing
of questions on machine detail denies the student the advantages
of discussion, and such reports are a waste of time. The oral
quiz, held in small sections in the class room, is fast displacing
the written report except where data is to be recorded for com-
parison. The oral quiz enables the instructor to dwell on points
where he finds the student weak. It invites free discussion, it
emphasizes the important points, and allows for a clearing up
of points left hazy in the student 's mind.
Granting that we have standardized what should be taught
and how it should be presented, we are now justified in directing
our efforts to seeing that the student gets the work, and our
standards of quantity and quality fall into their proper place at
this point in our rating of methods for greater laboratory effi-
ciency.
I have mentioned the last points to elicit further discussion.
This whole subject has great bearing upon the efficiency of our
departments and upon the value of ourselves as educators. I
suggest that more papers treating of the various phases of the
topic be presented at our next convention.
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236 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
OFFICIAL PAPER OF THE STUDENT BRANCH, UNI-
VERSITY OF NEBRASKA.
PRACTICAL STREAM MEASUREMENT.
By D. P. Weeks.*
Unlike the atmosphere, which is more or less evenly distrib-
uted over the surface of the earth, our water resources are un-
fortunately in the opposite extreme, concentrated at certain
points, while other sections are badly in need of moisture. In
his various attempts to bring about, to a certain extent, an arti-
ficial distribution, the engineer meets problems daily where a
knowledge of the amount of flow in certain channels is necessary
to carry out his plans. Formulae pertaining to the flow of water
fail when applied to irregular channels found in nature, so other
means of measurement are resorted to.
Before considering these methods, it might be of interest to
note the different phases of engineering for which the results
are used. Irrigation is perhaps the field which makes the most
use of such data. With the increase of irrigation projects, wa-
ter for this purpose is becoming valuable and hence accuracy of
measurement is becoming an important item, especially when the
measurements are for the actual sale of water. Determinations
for future predictions of course are not necessarily so accurate.
Power possibilities are usually determined by a thorough study
of stream flow. Maximum and minimum stages are given much
attention. Such information is often very useful to the engineer
in charge of large drainage propositions, and certainly flood pro-
tection could be carried on more systematically by referring to
an accurate history of discharge.
Many other instances might be cited, including source and
sewage contamination of city drinking water supplies, bridge
construction, and investigation for navigation carried on by the
army engineers. It is readily seen that the subject should be
of interest to engineers of all classes — electrical, mechanical,
civil, and certainly agricultural.
♦Junior in University of Nebraska, Department of Agricultural En-
gineering.
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Practical Steam Measurements 237
As has been stated, formulae are of little value under natural
conditions. Frequently, however, Kutter's formulae is applied
for rough approximations. In the case of flood investigations in
Ohio, no other method was possible, for technical skill was not
resorted to until a late date and no preparation had been made
for gagings. Even if such had been made, the volume was so
great that only rough estimates could have been made at the
most. On the other hand, the application of Wiers is very lim-
ited because of excessive cost and impracticability in the case of
large streams. The method usually followed, therefore, is this:
The stream is considered as flowing in several strips, each with
a different cross-section area and velocity. The discharge of each
strip is the produce of its cross-section area and velocity and the
discharge of the stream, of course, is the sum of the discharges
of the strips.
It would be preferable to make observations as frequently as
the stream fluctuates, but as this would be very expensive, obser-
vations are made at different stages. Someone living in the lo-
cality is hired to make daily reports of the height of the surface
of the stream above a given datum. When an actual discharge
measurement is made the height is also observed above the same
datum and this makes it possible to plot a curve, using gage
heights as ordinates and corresponding discharges for abscissae.
Prom this curve, a very good etimate of the daily flow may be
made by comparison with the report of the daily observer.
To obtain the various factors in the method just presented, a
certain amount of equipment is necessary which, if described,
will give a better understanding of the principle. Velocities are
obtained by one of the many types of current meters. The gen-
eral principle of the meter is that a vane is made to rotate by
the water in proportion to its velocity. Before the meter is put
into use, it is passed through still water at known rates and the
results are tabulated, giving a definite relation between revolu-
tions per second and velocity of the water, relative to the meter.
By noting the revolutions in a given length of time and com-
paring with this table, velocities in different parts of the stream
are obtained. The type of meter which has met with most favor
is one suspended by a cable or rod which forms part of an elec-
tric circuit, the making and breaking of the circuit recording
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
238 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
the revolutions of the vane by a click, as in a telephone receiver.
The clicks are timed by means of a stop watch. A lead weight
is used to hold the meter in position and to sound for depths.
Measurements are made from a bridge when convenient, but
often it is desired to make gagings where there is no bridge. In
this case, the observations are made by wading or from a car on
a cable stretched across the stream. Sometimes a boat is used,
but it is not a satisfactory method.
In order to get reliable daily reports as to heights, a gage is
installed. These are of many types and that kind is installed
which best suits the conditions. A staff gage is simply a straight
rod painted into intervals of feet and decimals. A chain gage is
a chain on the end of which is a marker, usually a rivet. This
chain runs over a permanently fixed pulley and the marker
passes along a scale graduated to feet and decimals until the
weight just touches the surface of the water. One kind of gage
is made which follows the slope of the bank of the stream. In
this type, the intervals are established by means of a level. Au-
tomatic gages are made which give a continuous report of the
fluctuations in height of the stream. These are usually too ex-
pensive to install in ordinary work.
Having the general principle in mind and a general knowl-
edge of the paraphernalia, it might be instructive to proceed on
a field trip. Much consideration and deliberation is made in se-
lecting a site for a series of observations. With the purpose in
view for which the data obtained will be used, the engineer pro-
ceeds on a trip for reconnaissance. He is searching for a place
near the point where development is likely to take place, which
is suitable. This means that there shall be no bends or eddies
which will cause irregular or pulsating flow, that the stream shall
in all parts of the cross-section have a direction parallel to the
banks and that driftwood or other obstructions shall be a mini-
mum. A shifting bed is a menace to accurate results, as it de-
stroys the accuracy of gage height estimates. Water that is
shallow or that is too slow or too fast is avoided. The gage must
be accessible to the daily gage observer and also to the hydro-
grapher who makes the actual discharge measurements from time
to time. These conditions can seldom all be fullfiled, but cer-
tain allowances and corrections can be made for a few defects.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Practical Steam Measurements 239
Having decided upon a location, provided there is a bridge,
intervals are painted on the rail, ranging from five to twenty or
more feet in length. A gage is established with datum below ex-
treme low water and several permanent bench marks are located"
to enable the replacing of the gage if disturbed or destroyed. A
cross-section of the channel is made to above high water, and
with the hiring of the observer, the station is established. A
full record of the procedure is kept and a description of all
equipment and a map of the locality are filed in the office.
The station being thus established, the gage is then read and
actual measurements are begun. The gage is read at the begin-
ning and end of the work, the mean value being used. Sound-
ings for depth are made at each interval and in the same opera-
tion velocities are obtained. It would be desirable to obtain ve-
locities at very short intervals from the bottom of the stream to
the surface, thus getting data from which a curve may be plot-
ted, using depths as ordinates and velocities as abscissae. This
curve is valuable in obtaining mean velocities, but as .fast
work is an important factor, because of the fluctuations in the
bed and surface of the stream, this method is not ordinarily used.
The usual procedure is to take velocities at two tenths and
eight tenths the depth from the surface, the mean of these being
taken for the mean velocity in the vertical. This closely ap-
proximates results obtained by the velocity curve. It is some-
times necessary to take ony one reading in the vertical in which
case the depth of observation is six-tenths the depth of the
stream.
After depths and velocities are taken, should there be an angle
other than ninety degrees between the stream and the section of
measurement, this is recorded by drawing intersecting lines, one
in the direction of flow and the other parallel witli the bridge
or gaging section. Often there are many such angles in one
channel which must each be recorded and marked by the interval
numbers at which they occur.
Computations are only a matter of finding the velocities cor-
responding to the different revolutions per second and from these
finding the mean velocity in the vertical and mean velocity in
the different strips. The discharges are then computed in the
manner described in a previous paragraph. Corrections for
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240 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
angle are made by taking the product of the computed discharge
and the sine of the angle. A graphical correction may be made
by scaling the computed discharge, from the point of intersec-
tion of the two lines representing the angle, along the line in the
direction of the stream. The perpendicular distance from the
end of this line to. the other is the corrected discharge.
These discharge measurements, together with the estimated
daily discharges and total run off are tabulated, and in case a
private engineer is conducting the investigation, are kept for
reference. If the work is being done by the state or federal
government, they are published in annual or biennial reports for
the use of the public. The United States Geological Survey has
a large department devoted to this particular work. Various
state governments are working in co-operation with the federal
engineers in getting information which would otherwise be dupli-
cated.
Most of this discussion has dealt with measurements in natural
streams, but the current meter is used to a great extent in canals
and for rating irrigation flumes. It is the same principle, how-
ever, which is followed in all cases. Any degree of accuracy,
within practical limits, is obtainable, but unfortunately there is
a tendency to overlook the value of careful work.
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Business Meeting and Reports of Committees 241
BUSINESS MEETING OP THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OP
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERS.
The Chairman : We will now proceed to the business of this
society.
I will ask the committee on By-Laws for Student Organiza-
tions to report.
Report of Committee on Sindent Branches — December 1913.
Your committee on Student Branches reports as follows :
We have checked over very carefully the report of the com-
mittee on Student Branches for 1912 and have been unable to
find any changes which we think would better the Student
Branches. We, therefore, recommend as follows :
First: That each Student Branch be entitled to one delegate
to the A. S. A. E. Annual Meeting. Such delegate to have, dur-
ing the meeting, the same privileges as a member of the Society,
except that he cannot hold any office.
Second: That each Student Branch be entitled to one vote on
all ballots of the Society.
Third: That bulletins sent out from the offices of the Secretary
and the President from time to time during the year to the mem-
bership of the Society, shall also be sent to the Secretary of each
Student Branch.
Fourth: That the names of the officers and all members in good
standing of each Student Branch be published in our Annual
Proceedings; also that the names of student members of the A.
S. A. E. be published under a separate heading.
Fifth: That each Student Branch shall be required to pay the
same amount of annual dues as is required of active members.
Sixth: That each upper-classman enrolled in an Agricultural
Engineering course, and an active member of the Branch So-
ciety, if there be one in the College, upon presenting proper cer-
tificate and the payment of the annual dues will be promoted to
the rank of affiliate or junior subject to the usual requirements
by the council. When said student shall graduate or be out of
school four (4) years, he must then, if he wishes to continue to
16
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
242 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
be a member of the Society, put in application in the regular
manner for associate or active membership;. but he shall be ex-
empt from initiation fees. He shall receive all publications and
proceedings of the Society during his membership.
Seventh: That the A. S. A. E. pin committee be authorized to
design a pin to be worn by student members of the A. S. A. £.
Eighth: That it shall be the duty of each Student Branch to
send to the Secretary of the A. S. A. E. at least one month before
the Annual Meeting, each year, a copy of one of the best of the
papers that have been presented by the members of that Branch
within one year. Any papers from Student Branches which are
of sufficient merit may be read at the Annual Meeting and pub-
lished in the Proceedings.
Ninth: The A. S. A. E. shall, if possible, furnish to each Stud-
ent Branch for at least one meeting each year a speaker who
shall be a prominent Agricultural Engineer, without expense to
the Student Branch other than the traveling expenses to said
speaker.
(The report was duly accepted as read.)
The President : I will ask for the report of the Committee on
Standards, Professor Davidson, Chairman.
Mb. Davidson : We have just two definite things to report for
your consideration at this time. In conference with the other
members of the committee, we recommend to you that the society
recommend as standard practice the U. S. standard screw threads
for coarse threads and the A. S. E. standard for fine threads.
The President : When you adopt the report of the committee,
do you adopt what they report ?
Mr. Boynton : In most organizations, the adopting of the Com-
mittee's report does not automatically adopt the standard recom-
mended, but the by-laws provide for submitting all matters of
standards to letter ballot.
Mr. Davidson : I think the suggestion offered by Mr. Boynton
is a very good one. I am not satisfied with the verbal report of
this committee. It is not satisfactory, — not the way to do things
at all, and, if I may offer a suggestion, I would suggest that the
committee bf instructed to put this matter in definite form, so
that it may be submitted to the society by letter ballot.
The President : What shall we do with the report of the com-
mittee ?
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Business Meeting and Reports of Committees 243
Mr. Davidson: Mr. Chairman, as the chairman of that com-
mittee, I will move that the committee be instructed to prepare
the recommendation in definite form so that it may be submitted
to the society by letter ballot.
The President: It has been moved and seconded that this
committee prepare its report in a definite form, so that it may be
presented to the society, for their consideration by letter bal-
lot. (Motion carried.)
The next is the report of the committee on Farm Field Ma-
chinery.
Mr. C. F. Chase: Mr. Chairman, the committee has nothing
to report.
The President : The committee on Farm Power Machinery.
Mr. MacGregor : I have nothing to report from that commit-
tee.
The President: The committee on Farm Buildings Equip-
ment.
Mr. Boynton: Mr. Chairman, I regret I have no definite re-
port to make, but there has been some progress made. I sug-
gest that later on the committee be allowed to offer a report of
progress.
The President: It has been moved and seconded that the
Farm Buildings Equipment Committee report progress. (Mo-
tion carried.)
The President : The Roads and Highways Committee, accord-
ing to Mr. H. H. Musselman, have nothing to report.
The committee on Drainage, C. W. Boynton, C. 0. Reed and
C. A. Ocock.
Mr. Boynton: Mr. Chairman, I have the following report to
submit.
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244 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
REPORT OP COMMITTEE ON DRAINAGE AMERICAN
SOCIETY OP AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERS
DECEMBER, 1913.
The Committee has compiled a list of references on the sub-
ject of farm drainage. This is the first report of a committee of
this society on the subject of drainage and the committee be-
lieves that a report in this form is most suitable as a preliminary
to detailed investigation which may be undertaken in the future.
The committee has endeavored to list in this report only refer-
ences to articles containing information of value to the agricul-
tural engineer in designing and constructing drainage systems
of such extent as may be required for individual land owners
and for drainage districts from the smallest up to the point
where it is customary to employ the services of a consulting en-
gineer to supervise the work. In the larger field of drainage,
wherein canals, levees, pumping stations, tunnels and culverts
are required, there is no lack of literature pertaining to the de-
sign and construction of the necessary works. It is believed,
however, that scientific knowledge of the details of the smaller
systems of land drainage and the elementary parts of the larger
systems is not readily available. It is to supply this latter de-
ficiency that the committee has endeavored to present to the so-
ciety a list of references to literature on the subject.
INDIANA ENGINEERING SOCIETY.
Proceedings 1907, page 121. The Kankakee River Drainage.
M. H. Downey.
Proceedings 1910, page 170. Drainage in DeKalb County.
Phil. Holman. Describes farm drainage in this county in In-
diana.
Proceedings 1910, page 180. Southern Engineering Experi-
ences. John W. Pulwider. Describes drainage of the southern
farm lands.
Proceedings 1911, page 219. Report of ommittee on drain-
age. Contains statistics on drainage in Indiana.
Proceedings 1911, page 233. The Proposed Wabash Patoka
Levee in Posey, Gibson and Pike Counties, Indiana. Estimates
of area and costs.
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Business Meeting and Reports of Committees 245
TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OP AGRICULTURAL ENGI-
NEERS.
Vol. 1, December 1907, page 81. The Literature of Agricul-
tural Engineering. Wm. Hummel. Contains information of the
various sources of agricultural engineering literature.
Vol. 3, December 1909, page 116. Capacity of Tile Drains.
Everett W. Hamilton.
IOWA STATE DRAINAGE ASSOCIATION.
Proceedings of the Ninth Annual Meeting, 1913. Page 32.
Tile Curves, by John T. Stewart. In order to determine the ra-
dius of curvature at which tile of various sizes should be laid to
reduce the expense and difficulties of laying to a minimum, tile
of various sizes were secured and curves of varying radii for
the same sizes actually laid on the ground. The openings be-
tween the joints due to curvature, the time required to lay, the
effect of cutting on the tile, and the appearance of the tile in the
curve were the factors which determined the curve selected.
Proceedings of the Ninth Annual Meeting, 1913. Page 40.
Ditching Machines and Implements. Cost of digging ditches.
February 16 and 17, 1909. Fifth Annual Meeting. Page 52.
The Drainage Investigations of the Iowa State College Engi-
neering Experiment Station During 1908. Prof. A. Marston,
Dean of Engineering, Iowa State College. Gagings of ground
water in tile drainage systems. Investigations of cement tile.
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS.
Vol. 11, 1911, page 833. Standard Tests for Drain Tile and
Sewer Pipe. A. Marston. With discussion.
IOWA STATE COLLEGE, ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION.
Vol. 4, No. 4, December 1909. The coefficient of roughness of
Tile Drains. John F. Rightmire, Milford Chappel. Thesis,
Experiments on Title to Determine Value of Coefficient n in Kut-
ter's Formula for c to be applied in Chezy 's Formula V = c |/rs
No. 31, February 1913. The Theory of Loads on Pipe in
Ditches and Tests of Cement and Clay Drain Tile and Sewer
Pipe. A. Marston and A. O. Anderson.
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246 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
ENGINEERING AND CONTRACTING.
October 23, 1912. Vol. 38, No. 17, page 466. Solution of Hy-
draulic Problems Relating to Tile Drainage, by Louis Schmeer,
Irrigation Engineer, Colton, Cal. In an average soil proper
depth of plane of saturation below surface as indicated by ex-
perience is given: Basis for drainage calculations. Table gives
distances between laterals which have been found safe in prac-
tice.
September 6, 1911. Notes on Method of Salt Marsh Land Rec-
lamation. Based on studies made for the office of Experiment
Stations, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Ills. 4500 w.
April 26, 1911. The 320,000-Acre Mud River Drainage Pro-
ject in Minnesota. W. R. Hoag. Map and illustrated descrip-
tion of the work. 4000 w.
December 22, 1909. Proposed Plans for the St. Francis Val-
ley Drainage, a Statement of Methods of Construction and Some
Estimates of Costs. Map. 5500 w.
Vol. 32, No. 15, page 319. October 13, 1909. Methods and
Costs of Drainage Work in Illinois. Tile drainage systems.
Ways of protecting the tile outlet, concrete outlet; tile embed-
ded in concrete. Refer to Bulletin No. 110. University of
Minnesota. (Engineering-Contracting, November 18, 1908)
May 1908. Vol. 29, No. 20, page 296. The Development of
Agricultural Drainage in Illinois and Iowa; Controlling Laws,
Physical Conditions and Cost, by Jacob A. Harman.
Vol. 30, No. 17, page 263; No. 19, page 304; No. 21, page 339.
Methods and Cost of Constructing a Farm Drainage System.
(Abstract of a report on the installation of an experimental
drainage system at the Northwest Experiment Farm, University
of Minnesota, Crookston, Minnesota. Bulletin No. 110)
MUNICIPAL JOURNAL & ENGINEERING.
September 16, 1908. Reclaiming Newark Meadows. Discusses
the most economical method of reclaiming land in New Jersey,
as reported by the commission appointed. Ills. 2000 w.
JOURNAL NEW ENGLAND WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION.
March 1902. The Drainage of Swamps for Water-shed Im-
provement. Edward S. Larned. An illustrated article ex-
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Business Meeting and Reports of Committees 247
plaining methods used in draining the Sudbury watershed in
Massachusetts, giving costs. Also discussion. 5000 w.
ENGINEERING NEWS.
January 15, 1903. Rural Engineering. Condensed report of
the Committee on Rural Engineering of the Association of Amer-
ican Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. Deals
with drainage, irrigation, farm requirements, etc. 3000 w.
February 13, 1902. Drainage Improvement by Dredging,
E. E. Watts. Abstract of a paper read before the Indiana Engi-
neering Society. Discusses drainage improvement works, meth-
ods and cost. 2500 w.
January 9, 1902. The St. Francis Levee Districts of Arkansas
and Missouri. Harry N. Pharr. An interesting account, with
maps, of the important engineering work now in progress for
reclaiming the land of this basin.
January 12, 1911. A Land Drainage Project near Louis-
ville, Kentucky. Map and outline of a proposed drainage system
to reclaim marshes. 1800 w.
March 30, 1911. Reclamation Drainage in South Dakota.
A. B. McDaniel. Explains conditions in this State, and the rich
agricultural lands being reclaimed by drainage, describing the
steps necessary to secure the construction of a drainage project
under the State law. Ills. 2500 w.
March 2, 1911. Tile Drainage for reclaiming wet lands. Ab-
stract of paper read at 33d annual convention of Illinois Clay
Manufacturers Association at Chicago, January 17, 19.
TRANSACTIONS OP THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS.
Vol. 51, December 1903, page 441. Discussion on Railway
Construction. A. G. Allen. Area of waterways for drainage
areas of 0.01 to 6,000 square miles. Table and discussion.
Vol. 54, June 1905, page 51. The Reclamation of River Deltas
and Salt Marshes, by J. Francis LeBaron. With discussion. Re-
fers to Mississippi Delta.
Vol. 60, June 1908, page 1. The Bracing of Trenches and
Tunnels with Practical Formulas with Earth Pressure. J. C.
Meam. With discussion. Information on sheathing and brac-
ing.
Vol. 70, December 1910, page 352. Pressure, Resistance and
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248 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Stability of Earth. J. C. Meam. With discussion. Experi-
ments on arch action.
Vol. 71, March 1911, page 158. The Tieton Canal. E. C
Ilopson.
Vol. 72, June 1911, page 475. The Water-Works and Sewer-
age of Monterey, Mexico. Geo. Robert Graham Conway. With
discussion. Costs.
U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.
Reprint from Report of June 30, 1909. Reclamation of the
Southern Louisiana Wet Prairie Lands. A. D. Morehouse. An
illustrated article based on reports to the chief of drainage in-
vestigations. Gives information concerning the development of
these lands now in progress. Ills. 8000 w.
Circ. 104. January 21, 1911. A Preliminary Report on the
Drainage of the Fifth Louisiana Levee District, Comprising the
Parishes of East Carroll, Madison, Tensas and Concordia. A. E.
Morgan, S. H. McCrory and L. L. Hidinger. 10500 w.
Bulletin 230. Serial. Part 1. January 20, 1911. Report on
the St. Francis Valley Drainage Project in Northeastern Ar-
kansas. Arthur E. Morgan. Assisted by O. G. Baxter. General
report with maps and illustrations. 40500 w.
Bulletin 234. January 14, 1911. A Report Upon the Recla-
mation of the Overflowed Lands in the Marais des Cygnes Valley,
Kansas. S. H. McCrory. Assisted by D. L. Yarnell and W. G.
McEathron. General description of the watershed, river, floods,
etc., with report of investigation made, and plans recommended,
the probable cost, etc. Maps. 13000 w.
Circ. 103. January 12, 1911. The Drainage Situation in the
Lower Rio Grande Valley, Texas. L. L. Hidinger. Information
concerning the drainage, soils, rainfall, alkali, methods of recla-
mation, etc. Maps. 12600 w.
BRICK.
June 1904. Tile Drainage. F. L. Knight. On locating sys-
tems of tiling and matters related. 5000 w.
August 1904. Tile Drain Laying. 2nd Prize Paper. F. N.
Pitkin. Describes methods, instruments used. Ills. Serial. 1st
part. 5200 w.
October 1905. Drain Tile Laying. Gilmer Siler. The pres-
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Business Meeting and Reports of Committees 249
<?nt article considers the essential characteristics of a good drain
tile, the various sizes and their capacity of flow, how lands should
be drained and best practice in laying tile. Serial. 1st part.
2500 w.
THE CLAY WORKER.
December 1912. Practical Tile Drainage. A paper by Daniel
W. Stookey, Editor Drainage Department of the Clay- Worker,
read before the Ohio Brick and Tilfe Association. December 10,-
1912. The Cost. When to Tile. Lands that may be profitably
drained. Sources of Water. Pall, etc., Size of Tile. Quality of
Tile and How to Make the Drains.
CEMENT WORLD.
October 1911. How to Lay Drain Tile. Principles that Must
Govern the Layout of a Drainage System to Secure Best Results
in Improving Wet Land. Prom a paper read by A. P. Greaves-
Walker before the N. W. Drain Tile Association.
(On motion duly made and seconded the report of the commit-
tee was adopted.)
The President: The next committee to report is Irrigation.
(No report.) The next committee to report is the Special Motor
Contest Committee. This committee of which I am chairman
will hand in a written report later which will cover a complete
history of Motor Contests. (On motion duly made seconded and
Toted upon the report was adopted.)
The President : This committee was divided up into a Motor
Truck and General Utility Engine contest and a large field trac-
tor contest. Mr. Davison is the chairman of the other part of the
committee. Have you anything to report ?
Mr. Davidson : We will say that we tried to arrange for a con-
test in this country and at no place could we find conditions
which would seem to justify the putting on of a competition. At
the present time, the committee is divided as to the advisability
of continuing efforts in this direction.
(On motion duly made and seconded the report of the sub-
committee was accepted.)
The President : We have a special membership committee, of
which F. M. White is chairman.
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250 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Secy. Dickerson: I might report, in lieu of that committee,,
that I took up the matter of the membership campaign. In
fact, I guess we proposed it in Illinois. The president appointed
this committee and the full intention was to start a campaign
about six weeks before the convention, so as to have the thing
well warmed up at this time. But, sounding out the conditions
for the details of the membership campaign, it developed that
there is a difference of opinion among the council and those who
were consulted, so we thought that it would be better to wait and
take up the matter here, and then the committee could start out
with a clear understanding of what should be done.
I think that the matter should come up for discussion at this
time, as to just what plans should be followed. Now, we proposed
giving all available back numbers of the transactions to any new
members entering during 1914, and I don't see any reason why
that might not be done, and it was the feeling of the members
in Illinois, that the initiation fee ought to include the price of a
pin.
I think the Membership Committee ought to have some expres-
sion pf what the feeling of the society is on these two points.
I move that the committee be excused without reporting.
(The motion was duly seconded and carried.)
The President: Does anybody want to get the matter under
discussion in regard to the dues, including the cost of a pin?
That was one of the things you wanted brought up here.
Secy. Dickerson : To get the matter before the society, I move
that in each class of membership, the dues, as set forth in the
constitution, shall include the price of a pin, for all new mem-
bers.
Mr. Boynton : I would like to ask what the pin is worth f
Secy. Dickerson : The regular price of the pin has been $2.50.
I wrote to the company manufacturing it and asked them to send
me all the pins they had on hand, that I thought we could dis-
pose of some here. They said, under that condition, they would
make the price $2.25.
Mr. Scoates : I would like to ask the President whether we can
afford to do that or not.
Secy. Dickerson : I believe we have a balance of $6*37.
I do not see that that point would cut any figure particularly*
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Business Meeting and Reports of Committees 251
because all new members will pay a separate initiation fee that
will pay for the pins.
The President : The motion is that the initiation fee cover the
cost of the pin in all classes of membership. (The motion was
seconded and rejected.)
We would like to have the report of the Auditing Committee.
Mr. Davidson: Mr. Chairman;
" December 30, 1913.
"We, the Auditing Committee, find the accounts of J. L.
Mowry, as itemized to be correct, the receipts being $1150.72, ex-
penditures $512.91, and the balance being $637.81."
(The report of the auditing committee was duly moved, sec-
onded and carried.)
The President: The committee on Local Entertainment will
please give their report.
Mr. Fowler: Mr. Chairman, I didn't know that I was to be
called on for a written report. The music cost us $15.00 and the
printing of the song books was $15.00, $1.50 for tickets, and 40
cents for plate cards. There were 86 served at the dinner last
night at $2.00 a plate.
(It was moved, seconded and carried that the report of the
committee be accepted and the committee discharged.)
The President: I will ask for the Resolutions Committee, of
which Mr. King is chairman.
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252 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
REPORT OP RESOLUTIONS COMMITTEE.
Whereas the Seventh Annual Convention of the American
Society of Agricultural Engineers is now closing and
"Whereas it has been one of the most successful and one of the
most beneficial sessions ever held and
Whereas it has been one of the means of bringing to light
many needs and opportunities that lie before us as a society.
Therefore, be it resolved that
1. We extend to Mr. Roth, General Manager of the Great
Northern Hotel, our heartiest and most sincere thanks for the
uniform and unfailing kindnesses received by us as individuals
and as an organization, for the generous spirit which he has
shown at all times, both personally and through his employees
in anticipating and caring for our every need and want.
2. That we extend our thanks to those commercial firms who
have cooperated with us in our work by sending us men who
have presented very high class and instructive papers on sub-
jects of vital interest.
3. That we extend to those individual men our thanks and ap-
preciation for the excellence and quality of their papers and dis-
cussions which they have presented before our society.
4. That we hereby express to Mr. Fowler our thanks and ap-
preciation for the very successful and satisfactory manner in
which he has discharged his labors as local committee on Ar-
rangement and Banquet. Nothing has been wanting, nothing
has been left undone ; therefore, we thank him.
5. That we thank Mr. Hall of the Universal Portland Cement
Company for the very delightful buffet lunch which he served to
our association and its guests prior to the annual banquet.
6. That we express the fullest appreciation to Dr. Lewis, Mr.
Goodwin, and Professor Dinsmore and the other speakers at our
banquet for the delightful feast of reason and flow of soul which
they furnished us at this banquet.
7. That it is the consensus opinion of this society that our
newly appointed committee on publicity shall leave no possible
effort untried to get before the widest reading public possible at
an early date, all those portions of the proceedings of this so-
ciety, reports on work done, and information gathered by or
through our members which shall be of interest and benefit to the
agricultural public; that this effort shall be continuous through-
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Business Meeting and Reports of Committees 253
out the year to the end that information along the varied lines
of Agricultural Engineering may be spread broadcast and ef-
fectively.
8. That it is the consensus of opinion of this society that one
of the most important tasks being before it, is that of the proper
handling of the subject of standards and standardization, and
that every member hereby pledges himself to give his best avail-
able efforts in response to any demands which may be made upon
him by the committee on standards.
9. That is the opinion of this society that efforts should be
made at once to have endowed in several of our state colleges and
universities, fellowships in Agricultural Engineering; that the
purpose of this fellowship shall be to aid the work of the com-
mittee on research and on standards.
10. That it is the opinion of this society thM our president
should appoint a committee of not less than three members ; such
a committee to be known as a Committee on Suggestions. That
their duty shall be to keep in close touch with the work of the
society as a whole and of its various committees to the end that
they may at each annual session or between times offer sugges-
tions to the society as a whole as to such committees which shall
be of benefit to them in carrying out their work or undertaking
new work of material importance. Also that they may be availa-
ble at all times to be called upon by any officer or committee of
this society to act in an advisory or consultative capacity to such
officer or committee.
11. That we give our unanimous vote of thanks to Professor
I. W. Dickerson, for the very excellent service which he has
rendered to this society as its active secretary.
12. That we render our official condolence to the various mem-
bers of the family of Mr. "William Cavanaugh because of the un-
fortunate death of Mr. Cavanaugh. The death of this gentleman
has been a distinct and lamentable loss to this society and to
the cause of Agricultural Engineering.
(The report of the committee was accepted.)
The President-. The report of the Research Committee was
overlooked so I shall ask Mr. Scoates to report at this time.
Mr. Scoates : Mr. Chairman, I have the report all written out.
It is just a compilation of results of things that we have secured
from other members.
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254 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
REPORT OP THE COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH.
The work of the committee for this year was limited as the
various members did not receive notification of their appoint-
ments until about the 1st of December.
In the time, however, two things were attempted; first to de-
termine what research work was being done along agricultural
engineering lines in the various agricultural colleges of this coun-
try; and second, to get a list of subjects suitable for undergra-
duate thesis work in agricultural engineering.
The first was attempted in order to find out just what was
being done and just what subjects were being taken up. This
information is timely, it seemed to the committee, in order that
not too much duplication may occur, and further that members
wanting information along certain lines may know to whom to
apply for it. All colleges were not heard from and some did not
give as detailed a report as was wanted. Below is given a list of
the subjects, each grouped under the various heads.
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Business Meeting and Reports of Committees 255
1 RESEARCH WORK BEING DONE IN THE AGRICUL-
TURAL COLLEGES.
Drainage.
Runoff in Clay. Robb, Cornell University.
Depth & Spacing of Tile. Hall, Miss. A&M College.
Runoff for various soils. Hall, Miss. A&M College.
Irrigation.
Utah Agric. College spending $10,000 per year on irrigation
investigation. (Projects not given)
Duty of Water, Weir Studies in submerged orifice. Bixby, N.
M. College of Agric.
Canal Seepage & Cost of Irrigation Pumping. Bonebright,
Montana Agric. College.
Farm Buildings.
Barn trusses. Riley, Cornell University.
1 Hog Houses & Building Materials for same. Chase of Uni-
versity of Nebraska.
Silo Construction. Davidson, Ames.
Hog Houses, Davidson, Ames.
Masonary Arch Barns, Davidson, Ames.
Roofing Materials, Davidson, Ames.
Hog House Construction, Scoates, Miss. A&M College.
Silo Construction, Scoates, Miss. A&M College.
Negro Tenant House, Scoates, Miss. A&M College.
Farm Building Equipment.
Water Supply Tanks, Davidson, Ames.
Corrosion of Wire Pence, Davidson, Ames.
Farm House Sewerage Disposal Plant, Riley of Cornell Uni-
versity.
Durability of Pence Posts, Chase, N. D. Agric. College.
Manufacture of Agricultural Products.
•Creamery Building Construction, Davidson of Ames.
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256 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Farm Power.
Fuel Economy of Gasoline Engines, Dickerson, U. of 111.
Horse Power Hours per Acre required to raise the various
crops, Chase, of U. of Nebraska.
Draft of Farm Wagons under various conditions, Chase.
Draft of Corn Planters, Chase.
Draft of Plows in Various Soils, Blastingame, Penn. State
College.
Draft of Plows for Deep & Ordinary Plowing, Blastingame,
Penn. State College.
Six-cycle Internal Conbustion Engine, Davidson, of Ames.
The Use of the Tractor in Iowa, Davidson, of Ames.
Effect of discing on draft of plows, Chase, N. D. Agric. Col-
lege.
Farm Machinery.
Accuracy of Drop in Corn Planters, Reed of 111. University.
Accuracy of Drop in Corn Planters, Chase, of U. of Nebr.
Depreciation of Farm Machinery, Chase, of U. of Nebr.
Handling of Silage, Chase, of U. of Nebr.
Use of Windmill, Manure Spreader & Corn Binder, Davidson.
It seems that this information should be collected each year,
not alone from the colleges, but all other places where research
work is going on along our lines.
The list of subjects for undergraduate thesis work is of spe-
cial interest to the instructor members as the question of getting
subjects for student thesis is a trying one. The list given is far
from complete, and is not near as full as the committee would
like to see it. However, it is hoped that it will be added to from
year to year and soon a list of desirable proportions will be ob-
tained. Some of the subjects offered may be too extensive, while
others may not be extensive enough. However, it is hoped that
they will offer suggestions w7hich will prove profitable.
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Business Meeting and Reports of Committees 257
LIST OF UNDERGRADUATE THESIS SUBJECTS.
Farm Power.
Draft of Plows as affected by Depth & Width of Furrow, Type
of Bottom, Type and Condition of Soil, Condition of Sharpness,
Etc.
Draft of Binders, Mowers & Other Hay Tools as affected by
Condition of Soil, Grain, Etc.
The Horse as a Motor and the Effect of the Various Factors
which Govern his Power of Development.
The Power Curves for Different Sized Farms as Affected by
Type of Farming, Season of the Year, Weather Conditions, Etc.
Draft of Friction and Roller Bearing Wagons. (Friction
Tests.)
The Power Required For Grinding Feed, with Various Types
of Grinders.
The Use of Alcohol as a Fuel.
Design of a Farm Tractor.
Storage Power of a Windmill.
The Use of Electric Power on the Farm.
The Efficiency of the Windmill Sail.
The Use of Small Quantities of Water Power for Farm Light-
ing, Etc.
The Light vs. Heavy Tractor.
Motor Truck on the Farm.
Kerosine vs. Gasoline in small engines.
Farm Power Plant Design.
The effect of Traction Engine upon the Yield of Crops, where
the former is used for farming.
Design of Power Farming Equipment.
Standards.
Present Status of Standardization of Bolts, Nuts, and Rivets.
Present Status of Standardization of Mower Cutter Bars.
Present Status of Standardization of Chain Drives.
Standardization of Specifications and Naming of Various Lu-
brication Oils.
17
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258 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Standardization of Specifications and Naming of Paints and
Oils.
Standard Arrangement of Specifications used in Selling Farm
Machinery.
Farm Machinery.
The History and Present Status of the Cotton Picker.
Development of the New Type of Plows.
Farm Machinery Equipment for Various Sized Farms used
for Various Purposes.
The Time Lost in Fields Because of Poor Organization in
Handling Farm Machinery.
Farm Structures.
The planting of the farmstead.
The planting of various sized farms for various purposes.
Plans and specifications for a set of farm buildings, built of
hollow vitrified clay blocks.
Fire-proof farm buildings, design and cost.
The strength of various barn roof trusses.
The proper amount of space to allow for various kinds of
stock in farm buildings.
Methods of ventilating a farm home.*
The proper amount of space to allow for the storing of various
farm implements.
The rat and weevil proof corn cribs.
Plans and specifications for model farm home.
Farm Building Equipment.
Modern conveniences of the farm home, their cost of installa-
tion and operation.
Farm refrigeration plant.
Farm electric plants.
Acetylene Plants.
Lightning Rods.
Farm Sewerage Disposal Plant.
Farm Water Supply Systems.
Cost of lighting farm homes with kerosine, acetylene, gasoline,
& electricity.
Number of candle power hours used per person in farm homes
when using lamps.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Business Meeting and Reports of Committees 259
The cost of handling farm produce with present equipment.
The cost of handling farm produce with farm motor equip-
ment.
Drainage.
Determining the value of "n" in Kutter's Formula per tile.
Comparison of results obtained from various tile drainage
formula.
Strength of tile manufactured in various states.
Runoff of various soils.
Vertical drainage.
Depth and Spacing of tile in various soils.
Designing system of tile drainage for a certain farm.
Machine vs. hand ditching for tile.
Terracing, spacing and fall for various soils.
Terracing, cost of construction by various methods.
Concrete tile made on the farm. Tests of various methods.
Concrete Tile as affected by alkali soils.
Irrigation.
Duty of Water with different crops and soils.
Efficiency of various sprinkling systems of irrigation.
Cost of pumping water for irrigation.
Sewerage irrigation farming.
Use of concrete and vitrified clay tile for carrying irrigation
water.
Roads & Highways.
Designs for small farm bridges.
Farm Roads, proper width, cross section, grade, and cost of
maintenance.
Best methods of obtaining maintenance of earth roads.
Concrete country roads.
Another source of information, but which could not be ob-
tained this year on account of lack of time, is a list and digest of
the best theses that are presented each year along agricultural
engineering lines in the various institutions. Of course, large
numbers of the theses have very little value, but usually there
are some that have considerable merit and contain information
that would be of interest.
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260 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
The Committee wishes to thank the various members of the So-
ciety who have aided them in their work.
D. Scoates, Chairman,
S. P. Morse,
John Pugh, Jr.
(The report of the committee was accepted.)
REPORT OP THE IOWA STATE COLLEGE STUDENT
BRANCH OP THE A. S. A. E.
The President : I will ask for the report of the student branch
of the Iowa State College.
The American Society of Agricultural Engineers : —
The student branch of the American Society of Agricultural
Engineers at Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa, has held meetings
regularly every two weeks during the past fall. At each meet-
ing three men from the Junior and Senior years have discussed
subjects bearing on Agricultural Engineering. Some of the talks
have been illustrated by stereoptican and moving pictures, and all
of the subjects have been thrown open to general discussion. The
interest which we take in these meetings is evidenced by the fact
that they often last much longer than the scheduled time so that
members not on the program can participate in the discussions.
Following is a list of the subjects which have been presented :
Cement Drain Tile.
Alcohol as a Fuel for Internal Combustion Engines.
Experiences in Silo Construction.
The Present and Future Status of the Farm Tractor.
Eectric Lighting for the Farm.
Possibilities of Extension in Agri. Eng.
The Farm Water Supply.
Seepage Losses in Irrigation Ditches.
Motion Study Applied to Farm Operations.
The Automobile and the Agri. Eng. Professions.
The Roosevelt Dam.
The Holt Caterpillar Tractor.
Electric Power for the Farm.
Pumping for Irrigation.
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Business Meeting and Reports of Committees 261
Acetylene Lighting Plants.
Oil Tractors.
Recent Developments in Silo Construction.
Homesteading in Montana.
The Farm Shop.
The Testing of Commercial Plants.
Respectfully submitted,
M. H. Hoffman, President,
A. W. Clyde, Secretary.
(Upon motion duly made and seconded the report of the Stud-
ent Branch at the Iowa State College was accepted.)
The President : The Nebraska student branch will please re-
port.
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262 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
REPORT OP THE NEBRASKA STUDENT BRANCH OF
THE A. S. A. E.
The Agricultural Engineers Club of the University of Ne-
braska begs leave to submit the following report :
The students of the Agricultural Engineering Department,
iealizing the need of some sort of an organization, in order that
they might promote the interest of their intended work and
maintain their standard among the department societies, peti-
tioned the American Society of Agricultural Engineers for per-
mission to organize a student branch of the A. S. A. E. The per-
mission was granted and steps were taken towards perfecting the
organization. Although all minor details are not definitely set-
tled as yet, the organization is, nevertheless, making splendid pro-
This society, together with the student branches of the A. S.
M. E. and A. I. E. E. and the C. E. Society, also the newly
formed Architectural Engineering Society, form a general col-
lege organization called the Engineering Society. This society
meets once a month and each of the above named departmental
societies has complete charge of one of these meetings in regular
order.
Besides this general meeting, the departmental clubs hold sep-
arate meetings once a month, at which the business of these or-
ganizations is transacted and programs, treating of subjects per-
taining to the work in the department, are given. The Agricul-
tural Engineers have been favored with talks by several faculty
members of the Engineering College. Besides this, student talks
and papers have been given. Special mention may be made of
talks given by D. P. Weeks on " Steam Measurements, ' ' and by
0. W. Sjogren on "Silo Construction. ' '
The membership is not very large as yet, but is on the increase.
The regular members are ten in number with several freshmen
as associate members.
Owing to the fact that the talks given so far have not been
written, this report will not include a copy of any of the talks
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Business Meeting and Reports of Committees 263
given. We hope, however, to remedy this condition before an-
other report is due.
Respectfully submitted by,
J. G. Thompson, Secretary.
(The report of the Nebraska student branch was accepted.)
The President : We will ask for the Report of the Secretary.
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264
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
SECRETARY'S REPORT.
Urbana, 111., December 31, 1913.
On January 23, 1913, Mr. Wm. A. Cavanaugh tendered his
resignation as a member of the society and of the council, on ac-
count of failing health. He grew steadily worse and died on
April 21, 1913.
Mr. M. P. Miller, of the University of Missouri, resigned Sep-
tember 26, 1913.
On June 1, 1913, President L. W. Chase appointed the follow-
ing committees :
Standards.
J. B. Davidson, Chairman
P. S. Harris
P. B. Holt
Farm Field Machinery.
Newell Sanders, Chairman
R. A Graham
C. F. Chase
Farm Power Machinery.
W. J. Brandon
W. J. Brandon, Chairman
C. P. Holt
W. F. MacGregor
Research Committee.
Daniel Scoates, Chairman
S. F. Morse
John Pugh
Farm Power.
J. B. Waggoner, Chairman
G. K. Shedd
L. F. Seatotn
Farm Buildings Equipment.
H. W. Riley, Chairman
C. W. Boynton
A. J. R. Curtis
Roads and Highways.
H. H. Musselman, Chairman
W. J. Gilmore
H. B. Bonebright
Drainage.
C. W. Boynton, Chairman
O. O. Reed
C. A. Ocock
Irrigation.
F. S. Harris, Chairman
F. L. Peterson
J. B. Frisbee
Nominative Committee.
C A. Ocock, Chairman
J. E. Waggoner
M. L. King
Special Motor Contest Committee.
L. W. Chase, Elected Chair-
man
J. B. Davidson
H. W. Riley
A. R. Greig
L. J. Smith
F. M. White
J. L. Mowry
The above committee to be di-
vided as follows:
Motor Truck and General Utility
Traction Engine Contest.
J. B. Davidson, Chairman
H. W. Riley
F. M. White
Large Field Tractor Contest.
Ii. W. Chase, Chairman
A. R. Greig
L. J. Smith
J. L. Mowry
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Business Meeting and Reports of Committees 265
Special Membership Committee. Special Committee on By-Laws fob
F. M. White, Chairman Student Organizations.
5' ™ ' « 4!y C. K. Shedd, Chairman
?'i?\20£0n L. F. Seaton
X B L^vidson M L Kln
W. J. Brandon
«• « *»gS0Ili~ Committee on Local Arrangements.
H. H. Musselman
F. S. Harris B. S. Fowler, Chairman
Daniel Scoates J. B. Waggoner
Committee on Grain Cleaning and
Grading Contest Rates.
C. F. Chase, Chairman
H. C. Ramsower
I. W. Dickerson
On July 31, 1913, H. W. Riley asked to be excused from serv-
ing as chairman of the Membership Committee and P. M. White
was appointed in his stead. W. P. McGregor, A. J. R. Curtis,
P. S. Rose, B. A. White and H. J. Podlesak, were later added to
this committee.
On December 22, 1913, President Chase appointed as a com-
mittee on the 1915 meeting, W. H. Nye, Chairman, John Pugh,
Jr.. P. S. Harris, with a request that they make a recommenda-
tion on the subject at the 1913 meeting.
At the same time he appointed the following committee to con-
fer with the new president and secretary and outline rather defi-
nitely the work of the society for the year 1914, and report at
the 1913 meeting: H. W. Riley, Chairman, E. A. White, W. F.
McGregor, C. W. Boynton, Newell Sanders.
Early in the year the Secretary took the draft of the proposed
new constitution and by-laws submitted by the committee on re-
vision and worked it over in accordance with the discussion at
the 1912 meeting. This draft was resubmitted to the committee
for their approval and several minor changes were recommended.
A revised draft was submitted to the council and unanimously
approved. This was placed before the membership by letter bal-
lot and unanimously approved. It, was declared in effect Au-
gust 1, 1913. By authority of the council 1000 copies of this
were printed.
At the 1912 meeting the Secretary was directed to have printed
1000 copies of the Conventional Signs for Agricultural Engi-
neering Drafting, as reported to the Society by the Committee
on Emblems and adopted by the society as recommended prac-
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266 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
tice. This was done as a society affair and the expectation was
that the members would purchase these liberally. Up to date
only a few have done so and a more liberal response would be
appreciated. The prices at which these are sold are as follows:
Single copies, 15 cents.
10 or more, per copy 12 cents.
50 or more, per copy 11 cents.
100 or more, per copy 10 cents.
On September 25 the secretary placed before the council all
the information available concerning the case of Mr. W. G. Hum-
mel, who was voted into the society at the 1909 meeting, but
wrho had never paid any dues. Mr. Hummel claimed that he
had never been notified of his election and the correspondence
and statements of former secretaries seemed to bear out the
statement. The council voted that Mr. Hummel be considered
either a Member or Associate in good standing upon payment of
the admission fee for the grade he preferred. The Secretary no-
tified Mr. Hummel of this action, but was courteously informed
that he could not see his way clear at this time to accept the in-
vitation thus extended.
In a similar manner the doubt concerning the membership of
Mr. B. B. Clark, Madison, Wisconsin, was cleared up and it
was determined that Mr. Clark had been elected an honorary
member of the society and his name was so placed on the mem-
bership roll.
A word of explanation is due the members of the society and
of the Emblem Committee in regard to the lack of definite ac-
tion on the matter of a society certificate of membership, identi-
fication card, and official seal Early in August Mr. E. A. White,
then acting-secretary, took up the matter of a certificate and seal.
He had Mr. Baldwin, one of our engineering seniors with good
artistic ability, draft out roughly several designs for seal, cer-
tificate and card. These were afterwards worked over until
fairly satisfactory to the members who could see them. Photo-
graphs of these designs were then mailed to the council and to
the members of the Emblem Committee with a request that they
be voted on to determine their suitability. The answers indi-
cated so wide a variance among those consulted that it was
deemed more expedient to turn the whole matter over to the em-
blem committee to thresh out and report to the society. Atten-
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Business Meeting and Reports of Committees 267
tion should be called here to a suggestion of Professor A. R.
Greig that a competitive contest be instituted with a prize of $20
for first prize, $10 for second and $5 for third. The Secretary
feels this is worthy of serious consideration, if only of the sav-
ing in drafting cost, as this sort of work is rather expensive.
By a ballot November 3, 1913, the council awarded the con-
tract for reporting the 1913 convention to the lowest bidder, Mr.
Alex. A. Norton, at the following rates:
Attendance, $7.50 per day.
Original copy of transcribed notes, per page of 3.25 words, 40
cents.
First carbon copy, per page of 325 words, 10 cents.
Additional copies, per page of 325 words, 5 cents.
A plan was proposed about the middle of November of in-
augurating a membership campaign before the annual meeting,
but on sounding out different members there seemed to be quite
a difference of opinion as to the way in which this should be ap-
proached, and as the Secretary had about all he could do any-
way, it was decided to wait until the matter could be taken up
for discussion at the convention. It is hoped that this will be
cleared up and a good live membership campaign inaugurated
immediately after the convention.
The secretary has on hand fifteen copies of Volume I Transac-
tions, twenty-five copies Volume II, nineteen copies Volume III,
and 150 copies Volume IV. Volume V has been in the printer's
hands for about two weeks.
By a ballot December 18, 1913, the council voted to authorize
the printing of 1000 copies of Volume VI (1912) Transactions
A. S. A. E.; awarded the printing contract to the Chicago Legal
News Company at the following rates :
Copies: 500 750 1000
For setting up and correcting type,
binding and finishing in good
shape 165 pages of straight matter. $150.80 $165.95 $190.65
Same, each additional four* pages. . . 2.00 3.00 4.00
For setting up tables, extra per page 1.00 1.00 1.00
For printing and pasting inserts,
per page 2.00 3.00 4.00
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268 American Society of Agriculture^, Engineers
For setting ads. per page 2.00 2.00 2.00
and voted to solicit advertising at the following rates :
Full page, $12.00
Half page, 7.00
Fourth page, 4.00
Eighth page, or trade card, 2.50
During 1913 the following new members, satisfied the consti-
tutional requirements and were voted into the society :
Carl A. Bachelder (associate), Treasurer Holt Caterpillar
Company, San Francisco, California.
M. M. Baker (member), Vice-President and General Manager,
Holt Caterpillar Company, Peoria, Illinois.
I. N. Baughman (member), Agricultural Engineer, Marseilles,
Illinois.
C. W. Boynton (member), Inspection Engineer, Universal
Portland Cement Company, Chicago, Illinois.
W. C. Brown (associate), Ex-president New York Central
Lines, Terminal Building, New York City.
G. R. Buchanan (member), Assistant Manager Cape Cruz
Company, Ensenada de Mora, Cuba.
Harvey R. Burr (junior), Instructor in Agriculture, William-
son School, Pa.
E. B. Cushing (member), President Board of Directors Agri-
cultural and Mechanical College of Texas, Chief Engineer of
Construction Texas and Louisiana Div., Southern Pacific R. R.
Houston, Texas.
V. R. Deshmukh (member), Agricultural Engineer, Shujaul-
pur, India.
K. J. T. Ekblaw (associate), Associate in Farm Buildings,
University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois.
E. C. Gee (member), Instructor in Rural Engineering, Texas
A. & M. College, College Station, Texas.
Fred Glover (member), Vice President Emerson-Branting-
ham Company, Rockford, Illinois.
R. W. Gottshall (member), Assistant to Vice President Holt
Caterpillar Company, Peoria, Illinois.
E. R. Greer (member), Designing Engineer Big Four Works,
Minneapolis, Minnesota.
G. B. Gunlogson (member), Agricultural Engineer, Fargo,
North Dakota.
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Business Meeting and Reports of Committees 269
M. E. Jahr (affiliate), Instructor in Drainage, University of
Illinois, Urbana, Illinois.
J. B. Kelley (Junior), Instructor in Agricultural Engineer-
ing, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.
M. A. R. Kelley (member), Instructor in Rural Architecture,
University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri.
James Logan (member), County Engineer, Mount Holly, New
Jersey.
E. M. Mebvine (member), Assistant Professor Agricultural
Engineering, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.
H. E. Mubdock (member), U. S. Irrigation Engineer, Garden
City, Kansas.
E. H. Norelius (member), Designing Engineer Holt Caterpil-
lar Company, Peoria, Illinois.
Haeleigh Pabkhurst (member), President Abenaque Ma-
chine Works, Westminster Station, Vermont.
J. C. Schboedeb (member), General Sales Manager Hyatt
Roller Bearing Company, Chicago.
F. C. Schwedtman (member), Vice President and General
Manager, Racine-Sattley Company, Springfield, Illinois.
S. S. Swanson (member), Superintendent Experiments Ohio
Cultivator Company, Bellevue, Ohio.
F. A. Wibt (junior), Assistant in Farm Mechanics, Kansas
Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kansas.
This makes a membership increase of 39 per cent, and makes
the present number 97.
I. W. Dickerson, Secretary.
The report of the secretary as read was accepted.
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vol. vm
DECEMBER. 1B14
TRANSACTIONS
The American Society of
Agricultural Engineers
WITH BUSINESS RECORDS
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY
MADISON, WISCONSIN
1914
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\
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CONTENTS
List of Officers, 1914 iii
List of Committees, 1913 iii
Address of Welcome — John W. Gorby 1
Response — J. B. Davidson 3
President's Annual Address — W. F. MacGregor 5
The Place and Field of the Agricultural Engineer —
Dean R. S. Shaw 11
Dean A. Marston 19
Dean Davenport 27
P. S. Rose 30
Discussion— L. W. Chase, E. A. White, Mr. Aitkenhead, J. B.
Davidson, Dean Marston, Emil Podlesak 35
Comparison of the King and Rutherford Systems of Barn Ventila-
tion—L. J. Smith 42
Discussion— K. J. T. Ekblaw, William Louden 54
The Rotary Tiller or Soil Milling Machine— Max Patitz 57
Discussion— A. R. Whitson, L. W. Ellis 69
Economy of Small Farm Gas Engines — D. P. Da vies 73
Discussion— E. R. Wiggins 80
Draft of Farm Wagons— E. B. McCormick 84
Architectural Problems of the Farm House— Wm. Alonzo Etherton 111
Some Phases of Teaching Agricultural Engineering— H. C. Ram-
sower 1*0
Agricultural Engineering in the Short Course— C. I. Gunness 147
Discussion— C. O. Reed, C. A. Ocock 154
Location of Farm Buildings— Spencer Otis 162
Reports of Committees I66
Reports of Student Branch Organizations of the American So-
ciety of Agricultural Engineers 210
Secretary's Report 21**
Advertising Supplement
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Officers and Committees
THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF AGRICULTURAL
ENGINEERS.
OFFICERS FOR 1915
President, H. H. Musselman East Lansing, Michigan
First Vice-pres., J. E. Waggoner Chicago, Illinois
Second Vice-pres., L. W. Ellis Stockton. California
Secy.-Trea8., F. M. White Madison. Wisconsin
COMMITTEE APPOINTMENTS FOR 1915
STANDING COMMITTEES
On .Research
D. S. Scoates, chairman
M. L. King
S. S. Swanson
On Drainage
M. E. Jahr, chairman
J. B. Frisbee
E. R. Jones
On Farm Structures
E. S. Fowler, chairman
W. A. Etherton
S. D. Harding
K. J. T. Ekblaw
H. H. Niemann
H. J. Hughes
Rolf Thelen
On Farm Building Equipment
A. H. Gilbert, chairman
I. D. Charlton
L. B. Crandall
On Farm Field Machinery
C. O. Reed, chairman
C. I. Gunness
E. R. Wiggins
On Standards
J. B. Davidson, chairman
P. E. Holt
Max Patitz
On Irrigation
F. L. Peterson, chairman
E. M. Chandler
On Farm Power
C. K. Shedd, chairman
L. R. Seaton
On Farm Power Machinery
C. P. Holt, chairman
F. N. G. Kranlch
On Roads and Highways
J. S. Dodds, chairman
A. W. Schulz
E. C. Gee
On Manufacture of Agricultural
Products
Wm. Boss, chairman
E. W. Hamilton
C. E. Lord
On Motor Contest
L. W. Chase, chairman
J. B. pavidson
A. R. Greig
On Publicity
L. W. Ellis, chairman
J. R. Stone
Oh Agriculural Statistics
I. W. Dickerson, chairman
P. S. Rose
A. H. Gilbert
On Membership
F. M. White, chairman
D. S. Scoates
J. B. Davidson
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VI
Officers and Committees
M. E. Jahr
F. L. Peterson
E. S. Fowler
C. K. Shedd
C. P. Holt
A. H. Gilbert
J. S. Dodds
C. O. Reed
Wm. Boss
L. F. Chase
C. F. Chase
L. W. Ellis
I. W. Dickerson
H. W. Riley
On Grain Cleaning Contest
C. F. Chase, chairman
H. C. Ram sower
C. O. Reed
On San Francisco Meeting
L. W. Ellis, chairman
J. B. Davidson
F. M. White
On Farm Sanitation -
H. W. Riley, chairman
L. M. Schindler
L. J. Smith
Tellers
P. M. White
P. S. Rose
R. A. Andree
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The American
Society of Agricultural Engineers
ADDRESS OF WELCOME.
By Mr. John W. Gorby.*
The Chicago Association of Commerce is very glad you are
here. More than four thousand of us are delighted that you
are in Chicago, because we know you are here to help us. You
help all of us when you help the farmer. I was born on a farm,
brought up on a farm, and I never enjoyed life as much, though
I didn't know it at the time, as when I was on the farm.
We welcome you to Chicago, because Chicago is a great city of
engineering achievement. We are the only city in the world
that has turned a river right-about-face in its course. We sim-
ply didn't like the direction the river ran, so we turned it
around. Now its waters, instead of going into the St. Lawrence,
drop into the tepid waters of the Mexican Gulf.
Chicago is the home of the skyscraper and we hope will soon
be the home of another subway. Chicago is attempting to assist
the whole United States in establishing a successful Federal
Reserve Bank. We are delighted further that* you are here be-
cause you mean improvement, you mean increased efficiency, you
mean better agriculture. You are battling with one of the larg-
est of the difficulties in the United States, namely, the habits of
the American farmer. Habit, when it is in your favor, is a
wonderful ally; when it is against you, it is always almost an
invincible enemy.
We have land in Illinois worth $300 an acre, and we have
land worth less than fifty dollars an acre. We have all kinds,
Representing the Chicago Association of Commerce.
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2 American Society Agricultural Engineers
and we have all kinds of farmers and we are glad you are here
because you mean better farming, better methods, better ma-
chinery. We trust that while you are in the city you will catch
that invincible spirit of Chicago and will take it to Utah, to Ore-
gon, to Iowa, to Florida, to the uttermost corners of our great
land.
Once more I welcome you in the name of the Chicago Associa-
tion of Commerce, and in the name of the citizenship of Chicago,
as a band of men working steadily and courageously together for
the betterment of thingB.
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Response 3
RESPONSE TO ADDRESS OF WELCOME.
By Mr. J. B. Davidson.*
The welcome of Mr. Gorby makes us feel that we are really
doing something that is worth while. Chicago is a great city.
We appreciate that the Chicago Association of Commerce is a
great organization and we feel highly honored to have such a
man come and give us this enthusiastic welcome. We have found
Chicago to be the center of the agriculture of the United States
and Canada and so have held our annual meetings here for the
past two years.
I will say to Mr. Gorby that we believe that as engineers we
have a work to do. We believe that we can be factors in the
advancement of the great industry of agriculture, and, in ad-
vancing the condition of the farmer along the lines of pleasure,
of comfort and of profit.
Agricultural engineering, as it has of late been recognized,
consists of several distinct branches. Agricultural engineering
would include farm machinery, farm power, farm structures,
public roads, rural sanitation, drainage and many other things.
A good many people do not appreciate how important these va-
rious phases of agricultural activity are, and how vital they are
to agriculture in general. I do not believe that the occupation
of farmer would be one which would appeal at all to the young
man today if it were not for the department of machinery. If
the old time hand methods prevailed now, we would not find the
young men taking up agriculture. Agriculture "is a desirable
vocation today because we have developed farm machinery. We
can prove by agricultural statistics that the income of the Ameri-
can farmer is almost in direct proportion to the amount of power
he uses. Power means capacity and capacity means income.
We do not appreciate how great this thing that we call Ameri-
can farming is growing to be. In the state of Iowa we are
spending for farm buildings approximately forty million dol-
lars per year. We have a dam in the southeastern part of the
* Professor of Agricultural Engineering, Iowa State College, Ames,
Iowa.
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4 American Society Agricultural Engineers
state, the Keokuk dam, which cost $25,000,000, and that is one
of the great undertakings of the country, but in Iowa we are
spending more than that every year for farm structures.
We have found out in recent years that the health conditions
on the farm are not as good as they are in a well kept and well
managed city. We have not been as particular about seeing
that the farm has a good water supply, and that the waste is
well taken care of as we should have been, and here is a field
for the agricultural engineer. It is up to the engineer to show
the farmer how to provide for such improvements as will make
farm life more healthful.
The social, economical and educational conditions of farm life
depend largely upon the development of a good system of public
roads, and here is another line of work in which the engineer is
interested in a most vital way.
I think we ought to feel that we have a glorious opportunity
before us, an opportunity to be of real service in advancing the
great industry of agriculture. So we ought to be enthuse<J when
we have a man like Mr. Gorby to extend to us such a cordial
welcome, which will go far to make us believe that we are doing
something really worth while.
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President's Address 5
PRESIDENT'S ANNUAL ADDRESS.
By W. F. MacGregor.*
In compliance with a custom of the American Society of Agri-
cultural Engineers it becomes my privilege, by virtue of the
honor you bestowed upon me a year ago, to give you the annual
message of the president of the society.
It is encouraging to note the increasing attendance at our an-
nual meetings. The benefits derived from attending these meet-
ings is well expressed by Professor Goss in the following words
addressed to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
and they apply equally well to our society.
The mingling together of the members of our society must and
does create a spirit of fellowship which persists throughout the
year. This fellowship in the business and professional world
conserves and upbuilds, while working out the world's great
problems of mutual respect, of mutual help and of concentra-
tion of purpose. In the development of future ideals and prac-
tices, tradition and prejudice are likely to diminish, while the
spirit of fellowship, enhanced by such societies as ours steadily
increases in importance.
It will not be my purpose to attempt to tell you of the field
embraced by agricultural engineering, since this subject is to
be so thoroughly covered at this meeting by eminently capable
men. For the moment it will be sufficient to say that of the
twenty-six billion dollars that annually come from this country's
bounteous mines and forests, its factories and soil, six billion
dollars come directly from the soil alone, as agricultural prod-
ucts. But agricultural engineering deals not only with the
products of the soil, but with a very material portion of the fac-
tory products as well, embracing all agricultural machinery and
materials used for buildings and other improvements in an agri-
cultural community.
With such a body of men as are before me it is scarcely neces-
sary to call attention to the importance of scientific investiga-
* Superintendent Experimental Department J. I. Case Threshing
Machine Co., Racine, Wis.
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6 American Society Agricultural Engineers
tion, which a society like ours may promote, if not directly un-
dertake. Nearly all, if not all, scientific work eventually proves
to be of commercial value, although its intrinsic worth may not
at first be apparent. Take for an extreme example the Polar
expeditions, which at first thought seem to be absolutely worth-
less from any but a purely scientific viewpoint. However, a
little study will show that even in this most unpromising field
there are commercial possibilities. With improved transporta-
tion facilities much of the inaccessibility of even the pole itself
fades away. When purchased, Alaska was considered by many
merely a worthless ice field. Who can deny that if some valu-
able deposits of metals, as gold, tin or copper, were discovered
in the extreme north, even at the pole itself, there would not be
some way of mining and transporting them. In addition there
are possibilities of raising fur bearing animals commercially, as
the most valuable fur comes from the extreme north.
So all scientific investigation sooner or later becomes of tangi-
ble value. As a concrete example of what may be done only by
a society such as ours, let me call attention to a certain piece of
very necessary work which is being undertaken by one of our
sister organizations, the American Society of Mechanical Engi-
neers. I refer to the code of model rules for the construction
of steam boilers on which a committee of the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers has been at work for three years. The
general agitation in regard to "Safety First" has called atten-
tion to the annual loss of life and property from boiler explo-
sions, and is leading numerous states and municipalities to enact
boiler legislation of some sort. There is, therefore, an urgent
need of a uniform boiler code. At the present time ten states
and nineteen municipalities have some law in force for compul-
sory inspection of boilers, while others are preparing similar
laws for enactment. There are differences in all of the existing
laws, and unless some influential body, such as the American So-
ciety of Mechanical Engineers comes to the rescue, each new
law enacted is likely to differ from all of the others.
On account of the differences in the existing laws, a boiler
built according to the laws of one state may not be shipped into
another state having boiler laws, not because it is any less safe
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President's Address 7
in one state than another, but simply because it does not con-
form to the precise construction requirements of that particular
state. Another deplorable example of the existing conditions is
the fact that any state having no boiler law becomes a common
dumping ground for the unsafe, condemned and worn out
boilers, that are not allowed to operate in the states having
boiler laws. It is evident that on account of this lack of uni-
formity in laws, deplorable confusion now exists which threatens
soon to become intolerable. Even now it is practically impos-
sible for a boiler manufacturer to comply with all of the various
rules of construction. This condition seriously affects virtu-
ally every manufacturing interest in the United States. It
affects all manufacturers of boiler material because the mate-
rials cannot be made to uniform specifications; it affects the
makers of fittings, and safety appliances because they cannot
be standardized, and it affects every user of steam power
because the cost of their boilers is increased in an unnecessary
and unwarranted manner. Should the boiler manufacturers or
the boiler insurance companies unite and agree upon uniform
construction rules they would be charged with being prompted
by selfish motives and. treated accordingly by the legislatures.
Therefore, this most necessary work may be successfully under-
taken only by a body of men, such as the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers, which is known to be both highly quali-
fied and uninfluenced by commercial interests. It may also be
observed that state legislatures, prompted by the desire to fall
in with the "Safety First' ' movement, without giving due
consideration to the far reaching results, have in one or two
cases enacted laws, the enforcement of which would lead to a
disastrous disturbance of business. In one particular case, the
laws now standing on the books would, if enforced, prevent the
operation of over sixty per cent of the boilers in the state. The
boiler code is not mentioned with the idea that this society
should take immediate action thereon, but purely as an exam-
ple of the class of work that we, as a society, can do better than
anyone else. There may be an opportunity for us in this direc-
tion a little later.
In this connection it may be said that, in the speaker's opin-
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8 American Society Agricultural Engineers
ion, one of our chief avenues for activity lies in the direction
of the committee on standards. There are conditions existing
today in some lines which properly fall within the legitimate
endeavor of this society, that are almost as chaotic as the boiler
laws. I am convinced that we cannot do better than to make
strenuous efforts along this line and I recommend that we pub-
lish during the coming year a pamphlet approving the recog-
nized standards in our line, as well as proposed standards now
being considered. The dearth of literature in Agricultural En-
gineering has been often commented on, and at one of our early
meetings Professor Davidson recommended that a bibliography
of all agricultural engineering literature be compiled. This
should be done.
All of our committees should have in mind the apparatus at
the disposal of our agricultural colleges, for very often we can
suggest lines of investigation which may be taken as subjects
for theses and thus be accomplishing some needed work. In
many of our undertakings we should co-operate with the colleges
for the technical school and the professional society may well
be classed as partners.
A society such as this can be useful because it embraces in its
membership talent of high character from various sources in its
line, and because its work is undertaken from purely scientific
motives, uninfluenced by commercialism or politics. In order
that we occupy our full sphere of usefulness it is necessary that
we avoid all appearance of influence of commercialism, as well
as the influence itself. I trust at no distant date that our finan-
cial condition will be such that it will not even be necessary to
print advertisements in our publications. Certainly we must
bar from our printed transactions all matter which is intended
to exploit any individual firm or institution.
The next important policy which we must pursue appears to
the speaker to be that of accuracy. We must take every pre-
caution to see that no inaccuracies creep into our publications.
Since it is not possible for any one man to be an authority on
all subjects, it seems to me that it would be wise to have a pub-
lication committee, whose duty wrould be to inspect and edit as
to accuracy and neutrality all matter intended for publication.
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President's Address 9
This committee should be composed of members of the council.
Also all papers for publication should be submitted to their au-
thors for proof reading. This need not necessarily delay the
publication of the transactions, since two proof copies could be
made, and if the one submitted to the author was not returned
within one week, the other copy could be corrected and the print-
ing proceed without delay. This committee could aid rather
than retard the work of the secretary, and would certainly have
a tendency to improve the quality of the society's publications.
The permanent character of the transactions must be kept in
mind. Chas. W. Hunt, in speaking of the engineering societies,
said: "These societies become, so to say, the savings banks of
our civilization, the repositories and guardians of the results of
investigations, experiments and experience that otherwise would
be lost to the world.' '
I am glad to note that the nominating committee has sub-
mitted the name of the present secretary-treasurer for re-elec-
tion and I am convinced that he will prove to be even more
valuable to the society during the coming year than during the
past one, through which he has served us so efficiently. I trust
the day is not far distant when we may reward our secretary
with something more substantial than vocal bouquets. More-
over, I believe the advantage of two years in office will be so
apparent that the nominating committee will see fit to recom-
mend the return of the president to office. (As the ballot for
officers was closed over a month ago I can make this suggestion
as an experienced, disinterested party, and I therefore respect-
fully submit it to the incoming nominating committee.)
In closing there is one more suggestion I would like to make
to our incoming president. It is possible that we have had too
much harmony. There is nothing that will spur members, and
especially committees, into action like a controversy in which
the two opposing factions honestly differ in opinion. For ex-
ample, if members having decided opinions on a certain subject
in opposition to the views of the society as a whole, were ap-
pointed on a committee, they would then have the opportunity
of convincing others to their way of thinking, and they would
be certain to turn in a strong report. Moreover, when such a
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10 American Society Agricultural Engineers
committee's report came up for discussion before the society we
would be benefited by some good lively debate. As John Fritz
has said, "If there were no differences of opinion and profes-
sional rivalries, we would be without progress.' '
In our late membership list it is gratifying to observe that we
now include among our members a number of men actually en-
gaged in farming. Our work as a society will be of the highest
character if the practical and theoretical men co-operate in a
broad and friendly spirit. We need the wisdom and experience
of the farmers and our society will be greatly benefited if we
are fortunate enough to interest them in our work.
It is highly gratifying% to note the increase in our member-
ship, for the highest flattery we as a society may receive is the
knowledge that we are attracting men of a high standard to our
ranks. There is plenty of work to be done and the benefits each
member receives from the society are very nearly in direct ratio
to the effort he puts forth. The most successful membership
campaign we can carry on is to attract the public attention by
efficiently accomplishing some needed work.
"The modern need in the field of engineering is for men who
can perform the exceptional task, and whose activity and under-
standing detect the defects in established practice, and find a
way to improve the practice.7 '
The nineteenth century differed from the preceding ones prin-
cipally because of the work of the engineers and this is proving
true of the twentieth as well. We as agricultural engineers
must play our part during this twentieth century and thus build
up the profession and our society.
4 'The engineer is a devout believer in natural lawTs. He needs
no supreme court to define them as reasonable. Every infrac-
tion of them brings its own punishment. The knowledge that
every mistake or neglect invariably results in failure is in-
grained in the very fibre of his being. To men thus trained
the progress of the race is to be confided/ '
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I
Place and Field of the Agricultural Engineer 11
THE PLACE AND FIELD OP THE AGRICULTURAL
ENGINEER.
By Dean R. S. Shaw.*
The most logical place for the agricultural engineer so far as
educational institutions are concerned is in connection with
those institutions in which both agriculture and engineering are
taught and in which both agricultural and engineering investi-
gations and extension work are in progress as well. This defini-
tion, therefore, specifically designates the so-called land grant
colleges organized in the various states for purposes of "agri-
cultural and mechanical education.' ' Examination discloses
the fact that it was in institutions of this class that this move-
ment began and has continued to develop rapidly. While,
however, the institutional conditions just referred to seem to bo
best adapted for stimulating and fostering agricultural engi-
neering, it should not be inferred that the work could not or
should not be developed in institutions of other types, as in a
few instances this is being done successfully.
The exact location of the agricultural engineer within the
particular institution must depend somewhat on the general
educational system of the state, the particular forms of organ-
ization within its institutions and the variety and character of
the demands of various industries. So far as the first consid-
eration is concerned it is the safest policy to associate agricul-
tural engineering with that division of the particular institution
most closely identified with the agriculture of the state for the
following reasons: (1) A full appreciation of the general agri-
cultural conditions is necessary, (2) Ability to see the prevail-
ing fundamental conditions and properly interpret them is de-
sirable, (3) The closest association with the active agricultural
agencies will lend a stimulus, (4) The proper environmental
conditions will tend to develop the desired sympathetic relation-
ship with the farmer and (5) The interdependence of agricul-
ture and agricultural engineering demands the closest possible
* Dean of Agriculture, Michigan Agricultural College, East Lansing,
Mich.
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12 American Society Agricultural Engineers
association that can be established. In some states the situation
will be far more complex than in others because of greater diver-
sity of interests in the industries, as well as in all the various
phases of agricultural production. Michigan, for instance, has
five great and equally prominent industries, all of which have a
close bearing on agricultural development and progress; her
agricultural and horticultural products are as numerous and as
greatly varied as any state in the Union, her geographical loca-
tion produces conditions both varied and unique; the variety
and varying conditions of soil types present numerous complex
problems; these things, together with peculiar environmental
conditions, make the problems of the agricultural engineer in
Michigan numerous, distinct and urgent.
My experience and conclusions are the result of several years
of effort and close observation in connection with the organiza-
tion of a Farm Mechanics department at the Michigan Agricul-
tural College; within the Agricultural Division, on exactly the
same basis as the nine other departments of the division includ-
ing the following, viz. : Horticulture, forestry, soils, crops, agri-
cultural education, animal and dairy husbandry, poultry and
farm and horses. The results of my experience have led me to
believe that this organization is the most desirable setting
for a farm engineering department because of the inter-depend-
ence upon all the various technical units of the division.
I believe too much stress cannot be placed on the question of
proper location in an attempt to provide environment tending
to develop a sympathetic attitude and establish the closest re-
lationship between agricultural engineering and agriculture, the
former being closely allied to improved modern agricultural
practice.
In order to furnish conditions by which agricultural practices
may be observed and correctly interpreted and the desirable
sympathetic attitude developed much will depend on the ex-
perience, training and inclinations of the agricultural engineer.
In the proper training it is highly desirable that a knowledge of
agricultural practice shall have been acquired on a well operated
farm to which good business principles have been applied.
Having been reared on a farm of this type is, therefore, of prim-
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Place and Field of the Agricultural Engineer 13
ary importance. These experiences should be followed by the
thorough training of a four year course in engineering including
some technical work in agriculture, supplemented later by an
opportunity for a year or two to apply the principles of engi-
neering to farm practice after graduation. It is not unreason-
able to expect that a man trained only in the technique of profes-
sional engineering, with success in the accomplishment of great
engineering feats as the highest ideal, would be either unable or
disinclined to become interested in or even to see some of the
smaller and apparently more commonplace applications of en-
gineering to agriculture.
As heretofore stated nearly all that is included under agricul-
tural engineering is not engineering in the most technical sense
but is rather close affiliation with modern farm practice. The
endeavors of an agricultural engineering department should,
therefore, focus directly on agricultural needs and practices.
This should be considered even in the simple mechanical train-
ing at forge and bench. Period after period of painstaking
effort in the making of a miniature absolutely watertight box as
specified by blue prints may apply desirable disciplinary meas-
ures and result in trained eye and hands to a greater degree of
exactness than the same amount of time spent in making a car-
penter's saw horse or a wheel barrowr, but would not satisfy or
interest the restless spirit of the youth ambitious to see and
realize the practical value of every movement and every
effort to the eventual agricultural application in mind. Adapt-
ability of the forms of instruction to the student and his aims
must be carefully considered. And so, too in the forge shop the
making of the skilled hands and trained eye of the exact work-
man can be speedily accomplished by rapid preparation for the
forging of chain links, rings, hooks, clevises, etc., rather than
through the tedious following step by step of the long drawn
out blue print exercises. The training in such simple mechanics
ought to be prescribed and applied under the direction of those
understanding farm conditions and associated most intimately
with the purely agricultural departments of the institution.
The training imparted through courses in farm machinery is
fully as essential and even more difficult to apply than other
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14 American Society Agricultural Engineers
lines of work in agricultural engineering. The technically
trained mechanician, unacquainted with agricultural practice
would impart to the student training pertaining only to details
of design and machine technique which to the prospective farmer
would he inadequate and unsatisfying. Suppose we illustrate
in the case of the corn planter. A properly trained agricultural
engineer would supply the limited amount of information re-
lating to machine design, technique, etc., and would then pro-
ceed to demonstrate from a basis of practical application. In
this connection he must recognize the need of varying adjust-
ments in order to cope with different types of soils under vary-
ing physical conditions. This demands personal training of the
proper kind together with the closest possible association with
the investigations and teachings of the department of soils. In
much the same way also special adjustment and manipulation
of the corn planter is necessary in order to accomplish the de-
sired results from the crop standpoint, varying factors are in-
troduced by different varieties and conditions of seed and actual
methods of planting demanded whether in the form of drills or
by the check row system. There must, therefore, be a bond of
close connection between the departments of agricultural engi-
neering and farm crops in order to procure efficient and har-
monious results. This illustration as applied to the corn planter
only, showing the intimate relationship that ought to exist
among the three departments mentioned is equally applicable,
though with some variations, to nearly all the machinery used
on the farm.
The interdependence of the farm engineering department
with others of the agricultural division is fully as apparent in
studying engines and other power machines in their relation to
farm practice. The successful use of the power plow on the
farm does not end by any means with the acquirement of abil-
ity to successfully and skillfully operate the engine. Some soils
would be ruined by the weight of an engine while too wet, while
others might not be injured. Differing soil types, physical con-
ditions and crop demands may call for widely varying applica-
tions of the power plow. No matter for what purpose power is
applied on the farm, the greater the knowledge of the instructor
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Place and Field of the Agricultural Engineer 1§
in farm practice and the closer his association with applied de-
partments, the more efficient will be the result.
Farm building design not only involves the principles of ar-
chitecture and mechanics, but in order to meet the needs of all
classes of farm animals and permit of the economic "handling
and housing of farm crops the detailed needs of these depart-
ments must be well understood. The successful planning of the
farm home demands a thorough knowledge of farm life condi-
tions. And so, too, farm home heating, lighting, water supply,
sewage disposal, etc., present problems differing materially from
those of urban conditions and can only be met successfully
through a perfect understanding of rural conditions. The
planning of the dairy barn requires the closest co-operation with
the dairy department in order to fully determine the actual
needs. The building of the silo is neither a purely mechanical
or engineering problem for the requirements of farm live stock,
crop production and general farm management considerations
must be observed as well.
One of the most important reasons for the close association of
agricultural engineering in the organization of the agricultural
division arises from the extent and variety of the instruction
work demanded on account of the hundreds of students involved
in short courses. Special horticultural courses require work
with power and spray machinery demanding the closest co-op-
eration of farm engineering and horticultural departments.
The situation is precisely similar in relation to the demand for
instruction in creamery mechanics in short dairy courses, while
the requirements of the classes in general agriculture are even
greater and more varied. I am firmly convinced that it is best
to establish and maintain the closest possible relationship be-
tween short course students and agricultural divisions, which,
in order to accomplish this, must include agricultural engineer-
ing. We believe in this case that the relationship ought to be
made still more intimate, if possible, even to the extent of in-
cluding the class rooms and laboratories under the same roofs
as other agricultural departments as far as possible.
The future offers a wide range of usefulness to the agricul-
tural engineer in the fields of investigation and extension ; his
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16 American Society Agricultural Engineers
activities should not be restricted to educational work alone.
Before agricultural engineering extension work can progress
rapidly and safely much investigating must be done in order to
procure data from which safe conclusions can be drawn, upon
which to base extension teaching. Extensive publicity cam-
paigns in specific lines of endeavor cannot be organized and
launched until this work is done. We are today confronted
with many questions pertaining to farm buildings, fencing,
drainage, sewage disposal, land clearing, etc., upon which there
is little reliable data available. In carrying on these prelim-
inary agricultural engineering investigations it is absolutely
essential that the investigator be properly trained and inclined
and closely associated with other active agricultural investi-
gators of our institutions. These efforts will necessarily involve
much field work requiring personality, experience, interests and
sympathies in the investigator such as will enable him to ap-
proach the farmer in a way sure to inspire confidence and re-
sult in success.
The opportunities of the agricultural engineer in the exten-
sion field are great indeed. We shall illustrate with the drain-
age problem alone, with which the agricultural engineer only
can successfully deal so far as the single farm as a unit is con-
cerned. In Michigan, comprising about 36,000,000 acres of
land with one-half this area included in farms there are 206,-
000 farms almost all of which have their individual drainage
problems. In a state like Michigan this undoubtedly presents
the largest and most useful field for the agricultural engineer
with his special training and adaptability to agricultural con-
ditions. So far as the farm as a unit is concerned the drain-
age problems, in reality being a part of our agricultural prac-
tice, are not to be solved by the professional engineer. The
farmer cannot pay for high-priced professional services and
shies at a superabundance of instruments, mathematical calcu-
lations and the profuse application of formulae. The agricul-
tural engineer's training enables him to approach the farmer;
with a simple level he can determine the fall when in doubt,
and suggest as to the location of mains and laterals and the
various sizes of tile to be used, etc. In doing this, however, the
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Place and Field of the Agricultural Engineer 17
agricultural engineer is expected to be able to interpret soil
and crop conditions with a fair degree of accuracy ; in fact, his
training, perceptions and inclinations must be such as to enable
him to fully appreciate the individual farmer's problem. At
the same time, however, there is an extremely useful field open
to the professional engineer which could be occupied to good
advantage by the Engineering Divisions of our Land Grant
Colleges. For example, in Michigan alone there are some
4,500,000 acres of swamp land which, when reclaimed, will fur-
nish some of the most valuable lands in the state. In connec-
tion with this reclamation project the services of the profes-
sional engineers of our colleges could be made very useful.
Just recently a number of farmers in Jackson county, Michi-
gan, met and appointed a committee of five of their number to
consider ways and means of reclaiming a 20,000 acre tract of
undrained land in their vicinity. In this case an engineer
could soon determine the possibilities, methods of procedure,
length and size of mained ditches and laterals and estimate the
probable cost of the project — an engineering problem. Such a
voluntary preliminary survey would furnish definite informa-
tion having the effect of attracting capital and stimulating ac-
tion in hastening reclamation.
While I am a firm believer in the closest association and organ-
ization of the agricultural engineering work of our college with
the agricultural divisions, I am also equally as firmly of the opin-
ion that the engineering division of our land grant colleges
should affiliate themselves actively with agricultural development
work. Agriculture and engineering have always been interde-
pendent, the latter paving the way for the development of the
former, which in turn continues to stimulate and sustain the de-
velopments of the latter. It would seem particularly fitting just
at this time when so many agencies are engaged in stimulating
agricultural development, while the industrial and financial
status is at a low ebb, that the engineering organizations of our
land grant colleges should join in the movement for greater
agricultural production upon which general prosperity is de-
pendent. Abundant opportunities present themselves to the
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18 American Society Agricultural Engineers
professional engineering departments through numerous purely
engineering projects relating to agriculture. One of the greatest
of these is illustrated in the community drainage project hereto-
fore presented. In the arid and semi-arid sections irrigation
problems arise. Numerous problems remain unsolved in con-
nection with our road building projects in which the country is
becoming more and more generally interested and which is not
only closely associated with agricultural welfare, but includes
the interests of all other industries as well. There is abundant
opportunity for both the agricultural and professional en-
gineer; it is possible that the efforts of the former might
be confined to the interests of the farm as a unit including the
close associations with modern agricultural practice, while the
energies of the latter could be devoted to the primary purely en-
gineering problems of communities as a whole in which the bear-
ing on agriculture may be direct.
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Place and Field of the Agricultural Engineer 19
THE PLACE AND FIELD OF THE AGRICULTURAL
ENGINEER.
By Dean A. Marston.*
Agricultural engineering is that branch of engineering which
is concerned with special applications of engineering to agricul-
ture.
The land grant college was the birthplace in the United
States and is still the home training place of agricultural en-
gineering. There it first received formal recognition, both as
a branch of technical education and as a calling, and there most
agricultural engineers still receive their college training. The
land grant colleges were established for the main purpose of
providing adequately for education in agriculture and, the me-
chanic arts. These two great branches were associated and
placed on a par with each other for carefully considered and
weighty reasons, and in studying the " place and field of the
agricultural engineer" much light can be obtained from an ex-
amination of a correct definition of mechanic arts, and from a
careful consideration of the relations between mechanic arts and
agriculture.
At its annual meeting at Washington, in November, 1914,
the Land Grant College Engineering Association adopted offi-
cial definitions of the term mechanic arts, prepared by a special
committee after an investigation extending more than a year.
Two definitions were adopted, one of mechanic arts as an educa-
tional term, and the other of mechanic arts as arts, as follows :
"Mechanic arts is a broad educational term, which includes
engineering education as its higher or professional phase, trade
school and short course instruction as its collateral and exten-
sion phase, and experimental and other technical investigation
as its research phase."
"The mechanic arts are those arts which are characterized
by applications of the science of mechanics."
Historical investigation shows that the above meanings of the
term mechanic arts were accepted without question at the time
* Dean and Director of Engineering1, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.
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20 American Society Agricultural Engineers
of the passage of the Morrill land grant act, in 1862, as well as
immediately before and afterwards. Hence, engineering courses
were at once developed in the land grant colleges : With the ap-
proval of the best educational opinion of the time; with the
written approval of the author of the law, Senator Morrill ; and,
finally, with the formal approval of congress, as expressed by
the passage of the Morrill law of 1890, which made large appro-
priations for the further support of the engineering and agri-
cultural work already started.
Only of late has an attempt been made to confuse the mean-
ing of the term " mechanic arts' ' with the term " mechanic. ' '
The fact is that neither of these terms is derived from the other,
but both are derived from the distinction made by the ancients
between mechanical science and other science. The original
distinction was made between mechanic arts, liberal arts and
fine arts. Mechanical science, whose applications constituted
the mechanic arts, was anciently (but is no longer) thought to
be of lower order than the laws of rhetoric, grammar, philoso-
phy, music, arithmetic, geometry and astronomy, the ancient
liberal arts.
Hence the ancients ranked the mechanic arts lower than the
liberal arts, whereas the moderns realize that the science of me-
chanics, and the mechanic arts call for the exercise of the high-
est faculties of the human intellect, and rank at least equal to
other science and other arts.
Mechanic arts are not so named because mechanics work at
them, but mechanics are so designated because they work in arts
which are characterized by applications of the science of me-
chanics. Moreover mechanics are not, by any means, the only
class of men who work in the mechanic arts. The mechanic is
the skilled workman. Below him, employed in the mechanic
arts, are multitudes of common laborers, comparatively un-
skilled; while above the mechanic is the engineer, the profes-
sional man. To quote again from the report of the committee of
the Land Grant College Engineering Association:
"Engineering is the professional phase of mechanic arts. The
engineer is the man who directs mechanic arts work. To be
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Place and Field of the Agricultural Engineer 21
qualified to direct he must have a thorough technical education
as well as extended experience. ' '
This concept of engineering and of its relations to the me-
chanic arts is extremely enlightening in considering the place
and field of the agricultural engineer. Those who have ques-
tioned whether there is really any place for the agricultural
engineer as a member of a profession which is distinct from
other branches of engineering, fail, as it seems to me, to under-
stand and properly realize the differences between engineering
and other learned professions. While engineering is a real,
learned profession, its character is widely different from law and
medicine. Engineering is much bigger and broader, and is not
so sharply delimited.
In law and in medicine each professional man renders to a
specific client a specific, personal, professional service, of a well
understood general character, for which he receives a direct per-
sonal remuneration. He is not directing or employing multi-
tudes of men working in law or in medicine. There are no
unskilled laborers, skilled mechanics and foremen in these pur-
suits, with graduated qualifications, culminating almost insensi-
bly in those entitling to the name "professional."
In engineering, on the other hand, while there are tens of
thousands of men employed on salaries and thousands in private
practice, yet by far the greatest opportunities, both as regards
remuneration and accomplishment, are in managing, establish-
ing, developing and owning mechanic arts enterprises. The man-
ager, the vice-president and the president of a great railway
line, if properly qualified, are all much bigger engineers than
the chief engineer. The competent manufacturer or contractor
who hires rooms-full of engineers is a greater engineer than the
engineers he hires.
What makes engineering so great a profession, much greater
than any other yet recognized, is that it includes all the higher
and more responsible positions and opportunities in the immense
fields of the great mechanic arts industries, and this is especially
true of agricultural engineering.
Too often engineers themselves fail to understand what engi-
neering really includes. They think only of the salaried engi-
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22 American Society Agricultural Engineers
neer and the one in private practice. They think of engineering
service as confined to work with the draftsman's instruments,
the designer's computations and pencil, the surveyor's transit,
the inspector's observations and tests, whereas the highest engi-
neering is done with men as instruments (the most ingenious,
complex and costly instruments in existence) in organizing, de-
veloping and directing industrial enterprises.
I have heard of an engineer who resigned a salaried position
in the designing room because the firm was trying him out on
responsible outside errands connected with their general busi-
ness, and he feared he was being forced out of real engineering !
The other day I met at a Chicago hotel an old college mate
in civil engineering, whom I had not seen for twenty-five years.
Ever since his graduation he has been engaged in the invention,
manufacture and sale of a certain type of machinery. He hires
a room full of draftsmen and designers, has made a fortune at
the business, and has accomplished work important to tens of
thousands of men employed in a great industry. To my mind
he is a much greater engineer than those of his class mates who
are still working along on modest salaries.
The teachings of our engineering schools should be made to
inculcate these broad ideals of engineering in the souls of the
coming generations of engineers. We too often, by our narrow
ideals, afford apparent justification to those mistaken persons
who claim that originally an engineer was a mere engine driver.
The fact is that the word engineer was never derived from the
word engine, but both were derived from the old root which
meant genius, ingenuity. An engine is an ingenious machine,
but an engineer is something higher, an ingenious man, and
the use of the word engineer to mean an ingenious man is at
least as old as the use of the word engine to designate a machine.
In our ideals of engineering we should hold fast to the con-
cept that its highest expression is all mechanic arts work which
demands genius.
I have dwelt at some length on these fundamental definitions
and concepts of mechanic arts and of engineering because I be-
lieve them essential to any proper concept of the place and field
of the agricultural engineer. Also essential is a correct under-
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Place and Field of the Agricultural Engineer 23
standing of the relations between mechanic arts and agriculture.
•"Examples of mechanic arts include manufactures, mining,
the processes of working metals, woods, the ceramic materials,
and the other materials of construction, and the design, construc-
tion and operation of roads, pavements, railways, bridges, water
supply and sewer systems, power and lighting and heating
plants, telephone and telegraph systems, buildings, harbors,
canals and other public work, besides numerous trades."
Agriculture is the art of cultivating the earth.
Agriculture and the mechanic arts have many points of gen-
eral similarity with each other, and of difference from other
pursuits.
Both deal with great industries, in which hundreds of millions
of men are engaged, and tens of billions of capital invested.
In both, the industries are older than history itself, but in
both the development and application of a high order of science
is quite recent.
Tn both the special training and qualifications of the multi-
tudes of men employed grade almost imperceptibly from the
case of the unskilled common laborer to that of the professional
engineer or agricultural expert.
The engineer has obtained recognition as a member of a real
profession somewhat earlier than the agricultural expert, but
the latter is now just as truly a professional man. One of the
important needs of the moment is a good, distinctive name for
the professional side of agriculture. (Scientific agriculturist,
with the professional degree of S. A., is hereby barely sug-
gested.)
Agriculture and mechanic arts actually overlap in many im-
portant particulars. Farm machinery, farm power and farm
structures are instances of mechanic arts on the farm. When
work in these lines is carried on by farmers, merely as inci-
dental to the cultivation of the soil, it belongs to agriculture;
but when the work is done by specially trained men, such as
carpenters, masons and even threshermen, who devote them-
selves to such work as callings in life rather than as merely in-
cidental to cultivation, then it belongs to mechanic arts.
* Proceedings Land Grant College Engineering As&ociation, Novem-
ber, 1914.
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24 American Society Agricultural Engineers
Irrigation engineering, drainage engineering and highway en-
gineering have always been considered branches of mechanic
arts, but are essential to the interests of agriculture.
Those engaged in the mechanic arts industries and those en-
gaged in agriculture have many vital interests in common. They
all are producers. The great multitudes in these industries
have about the same station in society. Each group must ob-
tain from the other many of the absolute necessities of life, and
all are specially interested in reducing the cost of exchanging
products to a minimum.
It is with good reason that agriculture and the mechanic arts
have been associated and placed on a par with each other in the
land grant colleges. One of the conclusive proofs of the wisdom
of this plan has been the development of agricultural engineer-
ing. I believe that such development is of the greatest value to
both agriculture and the mechanic arts, and that it could not
have occurred so early had not the two been so closely associated.
Agricultural engineering is that branch of engineering which
is concerned with special applications of engineering to agri-
culture.
The "field and place of the agricultural engineer' ' are the
special applications of engineering to agriculture.
All branches of engineering have much in common. Agricul-
tural engineering has much in common with mechanical engi-
neering and civil engineering in particular, and in addition
touches agriculture.
The * ' field ' ' of agricultural engineering has been stated by
Professor J. B. Davidson, of Ames, to include eight separate
fields, as follows: Farm machinery, farm power, farm struc-
tures, the manufacture of farm products, farm sanitation, irri-
gation, drainage, highways.
Farm machinery, farm power and farm structures, the first
three of these eight fields, would be conceded exclusively to agri-
cultural engineering by almost every authority at the present
time, I think, and even they alone constitute an immensely im-
portant field, capable of enormous future development. Already
achievement in these lines have completely revolutionized agri-
culture.
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Place and Field of the Agricultural Engineer 25
Irrigation engineering, drainage engineering and highway en-
gineering are older than history, and have always been under
the general direction of engineers not generally associated espe-
cially closely with agriculture. Ever since civil engineering was
first recognized they have been considered branches thereof.
However, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering and
mining engineering have split off from civil engineering in the
past, and it is possible that the process may extend further in
the future. For some time to come these three lines of engineer-
ing, the last three of the eight as named above, will undoubt-
edly be claimed by civil as w7ell as by agricultural engineers,
and will be taught to both in our engineering schools.
Agricultural engineering has a most important " place' ' for
the farmer as well as for the agricultural engineer himself.
AVhile it is true that the farmer, and even the ordinary county
agricultural expert, need only quite elementary instruction in
agricultural engineering, which they make no pretense of prac-
ticing as a profession, yet it would be difficult to exaggerate the
importance of this " place/ ' for agricultural engineering
reaches many millions of farms and farmers in North America
alone.
There seems to be more diversity of opinion among agricul-
tural engineers with whom I have talked on the subject con-
cerning the exact " place" of the agricultural engineer as a
professional man. Personally I have become convinced that the
place is already of great importance, and that its future will be
vastly greater than its present.
In this connection I wish to call again to your attention the
view already expressed that the greatest opportunities in engi-
neering are the responsible places in directing, developing and
owning mechanic arts enterprises. I suppose that in irrigation,
drainage and highway engineering the agricultural engineer
will probably practice in the same general way as the civil engi-
neer, that is in general design and direction of construction,
though even here both the civil and the agricultural engineer
might well look to contracting as often affording bigger oppor-
tunities. But think of the limitless opportunities ahead for the
agricultural engineer in connection with the invention, manu-
facture and sale of improved farm machinery ; or in connection
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26 American Society Agricultural Engineers
with the imminent substitution of mechanical for horse power
on our hundreds of thousands of farms; or in connection with
the manufacture of farm products!
Then I feel sure that any competent and energetic young agri-
' cultural engineer in Iowa today, who has ability to organize
construction and handle men and equipment economically, can
secure financial backing and make such a success in the con-
struction of farm structures by contract that both his income
and his accomplishment will be out of sight of the salaried engi-
neer.
The agricultural engineer is now entitled to a well earned
"place" among recognized professional engineers. His recog-
nition by the engineering profession at large is something which
all engineers should grant themselves, and labor to secure from
engineering societies and periodicals.
Agricultural engineering is real engineering just as much as
any other. ■ At our agricultural and engineering schools the
agricultural engineering work is coming to be associated more
and more closely with the other engineering work and such close
association is essential to the interests of both. Wherever a four
years' professional agricultural engineering course is offered,
leading to an agricultural engineering degree, with any consid-
erable number of students enrolled, the engineering division is
actively associated in the administration of the work, and this is
essential in order to avoid duplicate schools of engineering on
the same campus. The agricultural division should also be as-
sociated, to insure proper adaptation to agriculture.
Here is a great work in which the agriculturist and the engi-
neer can join hands. Agricultural engineering is fortunate in
having the support of both agriculture and mechanic arts.
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Farm Mechanics: What Is It 27
FARM MECHANICS: WHAT IS IT?
By Dean E. Davenport.*
The work we do with farm machinery, drainage, fencing, and
buildings: Is it farming or is it engineering? Indeed, what
difference does the name make, for shall we not do the same
work in either case?
The name of a course makes little difference except as it di-
rects and helps to establish the point of view on the part of in-
structors and students, so that if the name is badly chosen it
may serve to lead instructors, students, and institutions away
from the original and the proper line of work. Such a name, I
think, is agricultural engineering, and the proof of it is that we
are beginning to hear of the products of these courses as agri-
cultural engineers, rather than as farmers.
It makes a good deal of difference in the end whether we re-
gard these lines of instruction as separate courses and a part of
the preparation of the farmer for the operation of his farm, or
whether we mould and hammer them into a single professional
course for the turning out of an agricultural engineer. Before
we do the latter, we need to inquire whether there is such a pro-
fession as agricultural engineering aside from that of the prep-
aration of teachers; and if there is, whether the agricultural
colleges are the proper agents to give the course.
What would the agricultural engineer do? We must not be
deceived by the fact that our students get jobs in machinery
"experting" during summer vacations, for "experting" is
hardly a profession to be followed through life. It is rather a
side issue, or at most a preparation for salesmanship, which is
business. There is room for much study in farm buildings, but
I am convinced that it must be made by the colleges and by ar-
chitects and put in published plans, for I cannot see how a pro-
fessional architect could make a living by designing buildings
for farmers.
If, however, it can be shown that there is a profession in this
field aside from farming, it is my opinion that it should be de-
* Dean of the College of Agriculture, University of Illinois, Urbana,
111.
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28 American Society Agricultural Engineers
veloped by the engineering colleges or the schools of business
with a sufficient number of agricultural courses to provide for
the farm element of their technical training. Special care is
involved in developing the territory in which subjects meet and
overlap. For example: Our study in dairy bacteriology: Is it
dairying or is it bacteriology ? Is soil fertility farming or is it
applied chemistry? Is our study of the nutrition problem to
be regarded as animal husbandry or as physiological chemistry ?
Is crop production agriculture or is it plant physiology? Is
farm mechanics farming or is it engineering ?
We may easily go astray in answering any one of these ques-
tions. The laboratory in dairy bacteriology looks like a bac-
teriological outfit even more than a dairy equipment; and we
never can tell which it is until we know the point of view of the
occupant. That point of view, though, makes a vast difference
in the results. If the worker has most in mind the cow and her
conditions when making food, it is farming ; and bacteriology is
a means to an end. If, on the other hand, his chief attention is
held in the field of bacteriology, then the cow and her product
are the means to an end, and the end is to furnish material for
the bacteriologist's amusement.
Chemistry has studied almost all phases of agriculture, — some-
times in the hands of farmers but more often in the hands of
chemists who had only a general interest in agriculture and at
most regarded it as a field fruitful in materials for the chemist 's
study.
That animal nutrition is to be regarded as a part of animal
husbandry and not a branch of physiological chemistry, is shown
by the fact that it contains a large element of physiology and of
physics, both of which would be overlooked by the chemist.
Half the errors that have crept into agricultural practice
through the avenue of commercial fertilizers have come in by
reason of the fact that the one who took the lead was a chemist
and not a farmer.
So we might multiply examples indefinitely in which the
means have been mistaken for the end. This mistake ought not
to be made in this newest field of agricultural development.
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Farm Mechanics: What Is It 29
Rocks enough have been struck by early navigators to serve as
guides to us if we but look around.
The means is never to be mistaken for the end; nor is the
manner of study or the material involved to confuse our judg-
ment and point of view as to the object ultimately to be attained.
This work was started in order to teach young farmers the
proper operation and care of machinery and something of the
mechanical problems in which the farm abounds. That is, and
should remain, the great object. Whatever else develops is an
accident, just as landscape gardening and floriculture are acci-
dental developments or shoots thrown off from horticulture.
Even though these develop into strictly technical courses, they
are not to divert nor distort the attention that must always be
given to the fundamental work in horticulture, which is the rais-
ing of fruits and vegetables on the farm.
When signs begin to appear that a really technical course is
developing in the field of farm mechanics — and I have seen no
such signs yet — it will be time enough to talk about the name for
it ; but in the meantime we are vastly safer to understand that
in teaching all these subjects we are still teaching agriculture
and doing our part in preparing young men for the farm, what-
ever else may develop as incidental accessories.
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30 American Society Agricultural Engineers
THE PLACE AND THE FIELD OF AGRICULTURAL
ENGINEERING.
By Philip S. Rose.*
Presumably all the active members of this society are agricul-
tural engineers, yet if I should ask any of them to define exactly
what the term "agricultural engineer" means he would have
difficulty. The term is broad and includes a multitude of ac-
tivities. For instance, among our membership we find, in
addition to professors of agricultural engineering, electrical
engineers who have specialized on the farm use of electricity;
civil engineers, who have made a specialty of irrigation or drain-
age; mechanical engineers who design or experiment with farm
implements, and architects and constructors who specialize on
farm structures.
Evidently, if we accept the society's ruling of eligibility for
membership, anyone is an agricultural engineer who has a broad
knowledge of some branch of engineering and then has applied
that knowledge long enough to become identified with agricul-
ture. Agricultural engineering as a profession must be con-
cerned with agricultural machinery, with farm buildings, with
the land and its reclamation, or with teaching. The commercial
professional engineer specializes in some narrow field just as
he does in the older engineering professfons. The teacher may
become a specialist in a large institution or cover the whole field
in a small one. In any case, his work, if he is a practicing engi-
neer or his teaching, if a professor in a college, must be directed
towards the solution of agricultural problems. The agricultural
engineer may be a factory man, a designer, an inventor, or an
experimentalist. His field is broad and it contains vast areas of
virgin soil.
This brings us up to the matter of agricultural engineering in-
struction, its scope, and its limitations. It has been urged that
agricultural engineering contains nothing new, that mechanical
engineering as presented in our engineering colleges contains all
and more engineering subjects than agricultural engineering.
* Editor American Thresherman and Gas Review, Madison, Wis.
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Place and Field of Agricultural Engineering 31
This is perhaps true, and it is also true that the same thing was
said of mechanical engineering when it broke away from civil
engineering. Civil engineers even yet, at least many of them,
appear to believe they cover the whole field. You find many
doing mechanical engineering work, laying out power stations,
designing machinery, and even writing books on mechanical en-
gineering subjects. Still the world has come to recognize a need
for men trained in mechanical engineering. It has become es-
tablished as a profession. It has proven its worth to society and
undoubtedly has advanced the nations of the world industrially.
Yet fundamentally, so far as their sympathies are involved and
their relations to society in general are concerned there is less
difference between civil and mechanical engineering than be-
tween them and agricultural engineering. They are related
closely to manufacturing* and commerce, while agricultural en-
gineering is primarily related to agriculture and only in a sec-
ondary way to manufacturing and commerce.
The difference is more in their basic relationship than in sub-
ject matter. In addition to his engineering knowledge the agri-
cultural engineer must know intimately farm practice and rural
social and economic conditions. His engineering knowledge
must have a rural setting and his sympathies must be with farm
life.
In the majority of his practice the agricultural engineer will
never be. called upon to build great works, like a Brooklyn
bridge, a transcontinental railroad or a Panama Canal. His
work is and will be usually of a humbler kind, and does not in-
volve the expenditure of great sums of money. His work is un-
romantic: no one would ever write of him perhaps as a soldier
of fortune. Yet his work is destined to become of immense
practical value to the nation, as I shall presently attempt to
show.
Since agricultural engineering differs fundamentally in its
aims and sympathies from the older engineering groups, it
seems to me that instruction in agricultural engineering should
be, as it is in most state institutions, directly under the direction
of the agricultural department. The student will have all his
sympathies directed toward farm life and farm problems. If
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32 American Society Agricultural Engineers
he goes to the general engineering college for all of his instruc-
tion he will unconsciously drift away because both the in-
structors and the student body have different life aims and
ideals.
There is no reason why the two departments should not work
in harmony and I am pleased to observe a growing tendency in
that direction, but from what I have seen of most instructors in
the regular engineering departments, their attitude toward both
agriculture and agricultural engineering has not been sympa-
thetic and that is not a good atmosphere for the student.
Agricultural engineering is related to agriculture, it seems
to me, in about the same way as botany or horticulture or field
crops. For the great majority of students it has no more pro-
fessional significance than botany or horticulture. It has been
put into the general course in agriculture because it is recog-
nized that every farmer ought to know some engineering to be
a good farmer. Just how much depends upon local and in-
dividual circumstances. There is wisdom, therefore, in the
course adopted by most colleges of agriculture in making a cer-
tain amount of agricultural engineering required, and offering a
large group of electives. To those who wish to fit themselves
as professional agricultural engineers, use can well be made of
the general engineering departments for the acquirement of
certain branches under the general direction of the head of the
agricultural engineering department, which is in turn $ depart-
ment of the college of agriculture and not of the college of en-
gineers. This avoids the duplication of laboratories and is
rather a matter of economy than of efficiency in teaching.
For the individual there are perhaps not as many opportuni-
ties open yet for the agricultural engineer as for the civil engi-
neer, the electrical engineer or the mechanical engineer.
Outside of teaching, his opportunities are limited. Just now,
the most inviting field lies in designing, contracting for and con-
structing farm buildings. The farmer has not yet learned that
he can afford to pay a designer for a set of plans. The only
way he can be educated to do this is by a contractor who also
executes the plans. There are undoubtedly thousands of com-
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Place and Field of Agricultural Engineering 33
raunities where such a contractor would flourish financially and
much to the benefit of the communities.
There are approximately 175,000 farms in this country con-
taining more than 500 acres and 50,000 with more than 1,000
acres. Most of these farms might well afford an engineer and
probably will do so, "as do the large estates in Europe, when
properly trained men are available- When it comes to the big
jobs of reclamation the agricultural engineer will naturally come
directly into competition with established civil engineers.
Another field of usefulness that may open up sometime is that
of county advisers in engineering ; but this is contingent largely
upon the success of the agricultural adviser. If he succeeds and
becomes a permanent institution then agricultural engineering
advisers is the next logical step. In the design and manufac-
ture of agricultural implements the agricultural engineer of the
present has no better chance than the mechanical engineer who
spent his early life on the farm, though when he becomes better
known and better established it is possible his services in manu-
facturing may be in greater demand.
Considered from a national economic point of view this coun-
try needs more men in agriculture who know something of engi-
neering. The rural expenditure in engineering works in the
aggregate is enormous. According to the 1910 United States
census the total agricultural wealth amounted to approximately
$41,000,000,000, of which over seventeen per cent, was in build-
ings and three and one-tenth per cent, in farm machinery, lie-
sides this there is a certain proportion of the value of the land
due to roads, ditches and clearing that the census took no ac-
count of. It probably is not far wrong to estimate that one-
quarter of the total farm valuation is the result of work that
should come under engineering direction.
In the matter of sanitation and health it is well known that
the country is not as safe as a wTell regulated city. Typhoid is
now called a country disease. Farm buildings are generally
badly planned, poorly constructed and not properly heated. I
am convinced that by adding from two to four per cent, to the
cost of most residences in both country and city it would easily
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34 American Society Agricultural Engineers
be possible to reduce the fuel consumption of the entire nation
for domestic purposes fully twenty-five per cent.
A recent survey of farm conditions by a government bureau
showed that the majority of farm women put running water in
the house as the first necessity for making country life more at-
tractive. These are all matters of engineering that must be met
in the future. At present they are met very imperfectly
through the propaganda of advertisers and ignorant local deal-
ers. Farmers and country life generally can profit as much
from well trained agricultural engineers as manufacturing has
from mechanical and electrical engineers.
If, as was said here this afternoon, the financial returns of
farming are in direct proportion to the power employed, you
can see the possibilities for the future prosperity of this country
when I inform you that there is only one work horse available
for every twenty-five acres of cultivated land in the United
States. All the work of plowing, seeding, cultivating, harvest-
ing the crop on twenty-five acres and hauling it to market must,
on an average be performed by a single work animal. Evidently
agriculture is not over-powered.
Just now there is need for a more general knowledge of engi-
neering and of what engineering can do for agriculture. This
can probably be best met by training large numbers of men in
the elements of engineering through short course instruction in
subjects of most local importance and by giving limited instruc-
tion to all agricultural students, together with extension work
and a general publicity propaganda. If added to this, our agri-
cultural colleges thoroughly prepare a few men who can take
charge of construction work and do general agricultural engi-
neering work our colleges will be better fulfilling their mission
and farming will be made more pleasant, more efficient and more
remunerative.
There are thousands of problems for the agricultural engi-
neer to solve. There are many problems involving long and pa-
tient research work, others of a strictly commercial nature, and
some pertaining to education. The agricultural engineer's field
is as big and broad as agriculture itself. It is a new field that
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Discussion 35
has not been tilled and the possibilities in it for the individual
engineer are as large as his own mental capacity and character.
And best of all, he will have the privilege of helping to direct
the nation's greatest industry along those sound economic lines
that have brought manufacturing and commerce to their present
high positions.
DISCUSSION ON THE PLACE AND FIELD OF THE
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEER.
L. "W. Chase (University of Nebraska) : I agree with the
point brought out in one of the papers that agricultural engi-
neering must be confined to small units, but there are millions
of these small units, so that agricultural engineering is a far
larger field than any other field of engineering. Those who follow
the profession of agricultural engineering will not receive any
big reward for building a suspenson bridge across the Niagara
River, or a Keokuk dam or a Panama Canal, but they can do a
real good to the farming community as a whole.
In Nebraska we had a farm mechanics' department with Prof.
Davidson in charge. Two or three years later it was made an
agricultural engineering department, and was under the direc-
tion of the mechanical engineering department. Later it was
switched back to the agricultural college, and now it is both in
the engineering and the agricultural departments, and has been
for four or five years. Our work is affiliated with the engineer-
ing department. The dean of our engineering college is an irri-
gation expert, nevertheless he has requested that just as soon as
we can get a man who can handle the work that the irrigation
work be placed in our department. He feels it is strictly an
agricultural engineering subject. The drainage engineering
was placed in the agricultural engineering department at the
start ; highway engineering he feels is logically ours, but because
we have no highway engineer, we believe that the course should
be given in the civil engineering department.
I think that the biggest field for the professional agricultural
engineer is in the county or community work. For instance,
there is no farmer who does not occasionally need the advice of a
professional agricultural engineer, but, by the time he gets the
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36 American Society Agricultural Engineers
man out from some place, perhaps across the state, the expense
has eaten up the profits that will accrue, so by having an agri-
cultural engineer in the community, he could look after the
individual wants of the community for a very reasonable com-
pensation.
In considering the statement of Prof. Rose I will say that in
Nebraska we have an agricultural engineering adviser to the
county demonstrators.
Out on the prairies the farmers are willing to pay us a very
good compensation for designing and planning their buildings.
We believe that in some of the states, as Iowa, Ohio, New York
and Wisconsin, which have a big field in this line of work, that
they will furnish the opportunity for our agricultural engi-
neers. There is one field which Prof. Rose spoke about ; that is
the field of the local implement dealer. Here is a big field for
that kind of work when you consider water systems, lighting
systems, heating systems, ventilation and building construction,
all of wrhich can be taken care of by the local dealer.
I cannot help but feel as Dean Marston said that there is a
big future for the agricultural engineer as soon as he finds out
where he is going to land.
Mr. E. A. White (University of Illinois) : The Illinois idea
has been sufficiently well expressed tonight so that it does not
need much enlargement. I am very sorry that Dean Davenport
is not here to express his ideas on the subject. There are a few
fundamental points that we, down in Illinois, are very well
agreed upon, and perhaps I can enlarge on them a little so that
you may better grasp the ideas of Dean Davenport.
At a conference held a year ago, nearly all the heads of the
departments from the engineering college and those who were
interested in this work in the agricultural college came together
to study the entire field of agricultural engineering. There were
a few points that we unanimously agreed upon. The first was
that at the present time this work is essentially agricultural, be-
cause it has to do with the needs of the farmer. The second was
that we are very doubtful if there is a place for the professional
agricultural engineer at the present time. We do not believe
that the remuneration is sufficient to attract men in this line of
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Discussion 37
work. We believe that the farmer can get his information
through the channels which are already in existence. The third
point we agreed upon was that if there ever is a field for the
agricultural engineer, that the work should be developed through
our engineering colleges. We believe that if a demand for a pro-
fessional agricultural, engineer ever comes that the engineering
men are big enough and far-sighted enough to take care of it.
Furthermore, the reason that we do not believe there is a place
for the professional agricultural engineer is this: there is no
line of agricultural engineering that is not touched by some of
the other lines of engineering at the present time.
In regard to the subject of drainage, which has been brought
up, I may say that the civil engineers are very well trained in
that direction, and that that department is capable of taking
care of all large drainage propositions. The smaller drainage
projects of the farmer can be taken care of as occasion arises,
and I may say that Illinois is the best drained of any of the cen-
tral states. More than once our agricultural college has offered
to assist farmers in their drainage work, and the response al-
ways comes back, "You needn't mind; we have a civil engineer
who is competent to do the work." They are taking care of
that work in splendid shape. They have made mistakes, but
that is no excuse for our going into their field.
On a mechanical engineering proposition we have well trained
operators. If a machine company wants a designer, I do not
believe you can beat the well trained mechanical engineer, and
I do not see any use in going over into their field, which is well
covered already, and engineers are hunting for jobs.
In regard to the building proposition. I believe in the next
thirty or forty years you are going to see the farm buildings of
our country materially changed; more permanent building ma-
terial will be used and some of our architects are already work-
ing on this proposition. These men have better architectural
training than we can hope to give, and we certainly do not want
to step in and take their field.
We, at Illinois, believe in making this work an agricultural
proposition and we believe in letting the older established linea
of engineering take care of the professional engineering side.
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38 American Society Agricultural Engineers
Mr. -Aitkexhead (Purdue University, La Payette, Ind.) :
The discussion tonight seems to be whether you can put all these
abilities and capabilities into one man. As far as I can see,
heretofore the designers of agricultural implements, through
their experts, have very largely taken care of the mechanical
end. The same is true with the makers *of bam equipments;
they are watching for new designs in barns. The creamery men
are watching all the details of creamery construction and here-
tofore the commercial men have largely taken care of the work
of the agricultural engineering department.
Now, the proposition is : Is it possible to take one man and put
all these professions inside of one skin ? Nebraska seems to think
we can. Illinois seems to think we can not. It seems to be a
fight for a name, whether there is going to be an agricultural
engineer or not. Well, there is.
The designing of a barn does not call for high architectural
ability; it does not deal with the renaissance, the classical, and
the orders, but a man who studies it and is really interested can
get so he can design an economical barn.
It is possible for a man to be in a community and to be of
service to that community by having at hand information re-
garding the various phases of agricultural life, drainage, barn
building, and new machinery.
Mr. J. B. Davidson (Ames, Iowa) : In the development of
technical education in the United States it became divided into
two principal divisions: agriculture and engineering. I believe
that this division has been responsible to a large extent for the
fact that agricultural engineering has been slow in developing.
It is a matter of general knowledge that a rivalry grew up be-
tween these two principal branches of education, which requires,
even at the present time, quite a little liberality on the part of
all to overlook. We have heard tonight the question discussed
whether or not agricultural engineering is agriculture or engi-
neering. I have been in the work for ten years, and I am of
the opinion that it is both agriculture and engineering. I am
satisfied that the views presented tonight are more optimistic
for agricultural engineering than those expressed eight years
ago at Madison. In other words, there is a general rec-
ognition of agricultural engineers. Even the United States de-
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Discussion 39
partment of agriculture is now proceeding to recognize the
agricultural engineer in a way that they have not seen fit to do
in the past.
It is our idea that the professional agricultural engineer ought
to have the same foundation as any engineer. He ought to have
the same fundamental sciences, mathematics, chemistry, physics,
etc. He should not be called upon to take a back seat for any
engineer as far as the foundation of an engineer's training is
concerned. To this we add special training in agricultural en-
gineering, the engineering allied to the great industry of agri-
culture. We would also add enough technical agriculture to put
the man in touch with and in sympathy with the engineering
problems of agriculture.
Some would say that it is impossible to furnish to the agricul-
tural engineering student all this work in one college course.
The man who makes that statement has not thoroughly investi-
gated the question.
It has been mentioned that agricultural engineering consists
of at least eight branches. The agricultural engineering course,
if you look upon it as a training, contains more work in farm
machinery and farm power than the mechanical engineering
course. It contains more instruction in drainage and irrigation
than the civil engineering course, and besides that it has the
branches of farm structures which is not touched upon in engi-
neering and it gives more definite practical, useful training in
farm structures and rural sanitation than other courses.
Some one has asked the question : Is there a field for the agri-
cultural engineer? Some one has said that we ought to have
good instruction for agricultural students. The greater part of
the time and effort of the department of agricultural engineer-
ing in the Iowa State College is taken up with the giving of in-
struction to agricultural students. The farmer has need for a
practical engineering training.
Take, for example, the growing of wheat; the plowing of the
ground, the smoothing of the surface, the cleaning and grading
of the seed, the placing of the seed at the desired depth beneath
the surface, the harvesting, the threshing and the transportation
of the grain to market, are all mechanical processes, subject to
engineering methods.
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40 American Society Agricultural Engineers
The farmer has need for instruction along these lines, and
the best instruction can be given by the professor of agricultural
engineering, the man trained specifically for that particular line
of work.
My training has been that of a mechanical engineer. I hap-
pened to have one year of agriculture. I realize that many parts
of that training are of little use to me in agricultural engineer-
ing. If I had had a good course in agricultural engineering, I
would be better prepared for the work I am trying to do than
I am with the training which I have had. So, a sufficient excuse
for the training of the professor of agricultural engineering lies
in the professional work which exists in college, experiment sta-
tion and extension work. The man who is best fitted to do this
work is the man especially trained for it.
We started out with the idea of training some of these men,
but as soon as they were trained, we found that there were more
remunerative positions in agricultural engineering elsewhere be-
fore. The graduates of our collges did not go into the teaching
work, as they could command more money along other lines of
activity. The field is not only in the giving of instruction in
college and secondary schools, but there are often positions of
importance in agricultural implement industries, places where
the knowledge of engineering and of technical agriculture is im-
portant. There are often positions as managers of farms where
farm machinery, the use of power, drainage, or irrigation are
the important features. Our graduates are finding these posi-
tions. One of our men is working on a farm where there are
six forty-eighty horse power traction engines used. They are
finding work as contractors. Two of the graduates from the
agricultural engineering department of the Iowa State College
are making good money in the drainage contracting business.
There is less opposition to agricultural engineering than there
was years ago. It is a good thing to have criticism; it has
been a good thing for our pioneers, our first graduates in agri-
cultural engineering. Agricultural engineers were looked down
upon to a certain extent, but they had backbone; they have
stood by their guns. We ought to lay aside the old time rivalry
and get together, and I consider we are specially fortunate in
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Discussion 41
having an administration which will permit engineering to serve
agriculture and which will permit agriculture to serve engineer-
ing.
Dean Marston : I came to this school to learn from you, but
I think I can say that the sentiment toward agricultural engi-
neering among other engineers has changed a great deal since
the time that this society was established. As I talk with engi-
neers now, I find they are very optimistic about agricultural
engineering. I attended some six weeks ago a convention in
which the majority of the land grant colleges were represented
and their representatives were extremely friendly, both toward
agricultural engineering and agricultural instruction in general.
I believe we are going to have still more friendship in the fu-
ture.
Mr. Emil Podlesak (Racine, Wis.) : I knew of a man who
had a new barn. Then he wanted his farm drained and he
got a man to lay out the drainage scheme and it had to go where
the barn stood. One man had told him where to put the barn
and the other told him where the drainage must go. If he had
had one man for the whole project, it probably would not have
happened in the way it did. A man in a manufacturing line
wishes to build a factory and he desires to put some flowers
around it, or he wants to put in a heating plant. Perhaps he
feels that he is not equal to the landscape work and he gets a
landscape gardener and suppose the landscape gardener wants
to put the flower bed where the factory manager thinks the em-
ployees ought to go out. You have two professional men there :
you have your factory architect, you have your landscape gar-
dener. It is the manager of the factory who ultimately must
take the blame of the whole business.. Why couldn't you put
the entire job into the hands of an agricultural engineer! Why
could not he be the final authority ?
I believe thoroughly in the idea that somebody should be the
final authority in such a combination of affairs. There must be
somebody who is going to give you a complete whole just as you
find it everywhere in manufacturing establishments, and for
that reason it looks to me as if the agricultural engineer has a
very broad field, and if he does not make money, it is his own
fault.
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42 American Society Agricultural Engineers
A COMPARISON OF THE KING AND THE RUTHER-
FORD SYSTEMS OF BARN VENTILATION.
By L. J. Smith.*
To most of us who attend these annual meetings of the Agri-
cultural Engineering Society, who largely live in what in Can-
ada is commonly called "The Country to the South/' there is,
so far as barn ventilation is concerned, one widely known and
commonly accepted system in general use, at least in the colder
portions of this country. Under almost all conditions it has
met the problem so satisfactorily that no other method has been
sought. It, therefore, would not be surprising if little is known
of any other system of barn ventilation, or of the system in such
common use across the northern boundary. This system orig-
inated with Dr. J. G. Rutherford, late Veterinary Director Gen-
eral and Live Stock Commissioner for Canada, and is commonly
called the Rutherford system. As stated in a recent publica-
tion (Bulletin No. 78), which summarizes the work of the Domin-
ion experimental farms along ventilation lines, "the Rutherford
system is now in operation in our barns from Charlottetown,
Prince Edward Island, to Agassiz, British Columbia, and has
proven uniformly satisfactory and effective. " This statement,
coming from the Director of the Dominion Experimental Farms,
is sufficient evidence of the fact that there is at least one system
of ventilation beside the King system that has been tried with
success under a wide variation of climatic conditions.
Granting then the existence of two well established systems
of ventilation, it will be of interest to spend a few minutes in
comparing the two. It is scarcely necessary in these enlight-
ened days to spend time defending barn ventilation, but it might
be of value to discuss briefly some phases of the subject that
have come up in recent years. Abundance of light, smooth
white-washed walls, sanitary fixtures and concrete floors are all
important, but cannot in themselves complete the sanitary re-
quirements of a building for the housing of stock. Experiments
* Prof. Agricultural Engineering, Manitoba Agricultural College,
Winnipeg, Man.
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Comparison of Barn Ventilating Systems 43
have been made that on the surface, at least, would make it ap-
pear that animals can not only live but thrive under conditions
affording no change of air except that which might leak in
around closed doors and windows and through the walls of the
ordinary barn. We have recently learned that it is possible to
breathe over and over the same supply of air until the propor-
tion of carbonic acid gas in it is very high, without apparent
ill effects if the temperature of the air breathed and surround-
ing the body be kept low. We have similar examples in the
country where in the winter months many sleep in cold un-
heated bedrooms with the windows down tight, with practically
no change of air, and experience no physical discomfort because
of the lack of fresh air. Those trained in the idea of having
ample ventilation might not sleep well under these conditions,
but the difficulty would be largely mental. Perhaps you have
heard of the commercial traveler who was put in one of these
tight rooms one winter night in a small country hotel, who could
not sleep because of his inability to raise the window. Finally
exasperated beyond endurance, he raised up in bed, threw some-
thing through the window and then went to sleep readily after
having thus vigorously obtained ventilation. In the morning,
however, upon awakening, he discovered that it was not the
window that he had broken at all, but the mirror in the dresser
beside it.
A great part of the ill effects experienced in close and poorly
ventilated buildings is due not to the rebreathing of the air so
much as to the rise in temperature due to the animal heat sup-
plementing any other means by which the building might be
heated, and to the lack of a good circulation of air, which would
assist in keeping down the temperature of the body. All this
has given rise to suggestions in the practice of forced ventila-
tion for using the same air over and over again by putting it
through a cooling and cleansing process.
From the above it might seem that under conditions where
the stock has been tested and founcl in good health, and where
no animals were breathing out dangerous germs, the same air
might be breathed over a considerable number of times without
affecting the health of the stock so long as the temperature of
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44 American Society Agricultural Engineers
the stable was not allowed to get too high. Granting that this
is true, one would scarcely care to risk using the same air for
fear of possible germs in spite of the apparent good health of
the stock.
There is, however, another side to the question of the restric-
tion of ventilation. It has been found by tests that while ani-
mals might not suifer, at the time, in appetite and general good
health under these circumstances, still restricted ventilation
under the most favorable conditions tends to break down the
capacity of the animals for successfully resisting the disease
germs with which they come in contact from time to time. If
these tests just mentioned have been sufficiently exhaustive to
establish a fact, we have here probably the greatest argument
against restricted ventilation.
Any attempt to regulate the temperature of a stable without
some arrangement for the introduction of cool outside air,
would be very difficult to accomplish. Indeed, the main object
of barn ventilation is not primarily to dispose of the carbonic
acid gas breathed from the lungs of the animals, but to regu-
late the temperature of the stable, and to remove germs, moist-
ure, and other impurities in the air; fresh air is, of course,
amply provided by so doing.
It is recognized as impossible to give animals, even in well
built barns, what is accepted as sufficient ventilation during
the coldest periods of our northern winters, and still keep the
inside temperature above freezing. It takes about all the ani-
mal heat thrown off to overcome the heat losses of the walls,
windows, and doors, and to warm to above freezing point the
air that leaks in around the doors, windows, and loft open-
ings. With this we must be content during the coldest days,
resting easy in the thought that cool air partially rebreathed
for short periods of time, does no harm. In considering barn
ventilation, the thought should not be how little fresh air is
necessary, but rather how much will the climatic conditions al-
low. Abundance of both light and ventilation should be had,
even at the expense of heat, in the stable. It is better to have
the temperature at thirty-five degrees and have dry walls and
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Comparison of Barn Ventilating Systems 45
ceilings than to have a barn temperature of forty-five degrees
and damp air and a dripping interior.
There is a broad field open for investigation along the line
of barn ventilation, not by one person or group of persons in
any one locality, but by a number working under various clima-
tic conditions. It is possible that careful investigation and
tests might lead to some new and better ideas or to a modifica-
tion of those already in use that might prove more suitable for
particular localities and more economical in construction. Pro-
fessor King and Dr. Rutherford worked along independent
lines of investigation and under different climatic conditions.
Both devised natural systems of ventilation. Both use intake
flues and out-take flues passing up through the loft, but the
systems differ widely in a number of important features.
THE KING SYSTEM.
In the King system, the fresh air enters above the sill at A
(Fig. 1), rises between the studding, entering the stable at the
ceiling, at which point the air is regulated in various ways by
a hot air register, by a sliding damper, or a little door hinged
at the bottom, as at B, and controlled as to position by means
of a stick being dropped into notches on the side of the wall,
below the opening. Upon entering the stable the air curves
downward, mixing with the warmer air and setting up a good
circulation. The out-take flues, which are fewer in number,
two in the small barn, four in the average, and six or more in
the large or very large barn, open near the floor as at C, pass
up along the inside wall and along the inside of the rafters
or the roof bracing, on up through the loft to the cupola or
out through the curb of the roof as at 2. They also have
openings at D which can be used in the summer or in mild win-
ter when the stable temperatures get too high. At this point
it might be stated that one of the best possible methods of sup-
plementing any system of ventilation in the cool weather of
the fall and spring is by means of transoms above each of the
barn windows. They have been used in all the new barns at
the Manitoba Agricultural College, and have proved very satis-
factory. When transoms are so used, the windows beneath
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46
American Society Agricultural Engineers
can be put in in one solid sash and are therefore less expensive
and can be fitted much more closely. The transoms opening
inwards, throws the entering air toward the ceiling, mixes it
well with the warmer air and avoids drafts such as would be
gotten from open doors or the ordinary open windows.
..I L,
Figure 1
The size of the intake flues is limited to the area between
studding, which is ample, there being no reason, however, why
the area cannot be made smaller and more intakes used. For
cold climates this would be preferable. The total area of the
intake and out-take flues is made the same in the King system.
While this is satisfactory where the winters are milder and less
windy than in the Northwest, for these conditions it would be
better to have the total area of the intake flue openings about
two thirds thfit of the out-take flues ; for air leakage around
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Comparison of Barn Ventilating Systems 47
the doors, windows, loft openings and through the walls, will
easily provide one-third of the ventilation.
The following table gives figures for calculating flue areas:
AREA OP OUT-TAKE FLUES PER ANIMAL.
Vertical Height of Flue. 40 ft. 30 ft. 20 ft.
Square Inches.
Horse 36 40 44
Cow 30 34 38
Pigs 12 14 16
Sheep \ • 8 9 10
These figures provide ample area for still weather conditions
and wrhere the temperature is fifteen to twenty-five degrees F.
above zero. Under these conditions there is a slower move-
ment of air than where it is colder and windy. This means
that the flue area must be greatly reduced in windy and ex-
tremely cold weather.
A slight objection to the King system of intakes is that the
icy air rising through the flues makes the adjacent inside walls
very cold, and in the coldest weather the moisture in the air of
the stable condenses on these cold portions of the wall and
freezes, forming a thick layer of frost which melts and runs
down the wall at the next rise in temperature. This will occur
to some extent around any intake opening in severe weather.
In case of the King intake, it can be largely overcome by mak-
ing a good dead air space between the studding, as shown at 1,
Fig. 3.
THE RUTHERFORD SYSTEM.
The Rutherford -system of ventilation is illustrated in Fig. 2
in connection with a gambrel roof with purlin posts. From the
cut it will be seen at once that the air inlet and exit openings
are located just the reverse from those in the King system. The
fresh air enters the intake flues just above the ground level,
turns downward, passes inside the stable, and then rises. The
outside is protected by a little slanting roof and louvers R. R.
If the system is installed when the barn is built, the intake flues
may be built in the foundation wall as at A, or if the system is
installed later, the flues are put in about the floor level as at
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48
American Society Agricultural Engineers
B, or may enter just above the sill. In any ease, the entering
air is made to turn downward before passing into the stable,
then horizontally and upward again just as it enters the barn.
On the inside a partition of concrete or wood rises above the
floor level to keep the dirt from sliding into the flue, and to
direct the entering air upwards. Sometimes the intakes are
made in the form of a U tube, passing down under the founda-
%m
Fkjtre 2
tion and then rising and entering the barn beside the inner sur-
face of the wall. In another variation, the inside opening is
boxed up eighteen to twenty-four inches to give the entering
air more of an upward movement. In some cases, the fresh
air has been brought in under the foundation and carried hori-
zontally to the central feed passage, where it rises and mixes
with the air in the center of the stable. The opening is covered
with a removable grate in order to provide for cleaning out dust
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Comparison of Barn Ventilating Systems 49
and sweepings, which accumulations are the bad features of
this method of intake. Air entering in this way, however, has
a chance to become slightly warmed before entering the stable.
Where a central feed passage is used, this method of intake
brings the air near the heads of the stock without bad drafts.
Regardless of what method is used, the intake openings should
be so located that they will not come opposite or near an out-
take opening to avoid a direct movement from one to the other.
Where the winters are severe, lids should be provided for reg-
ulating or entirely closing the intakes when necessary. It is
well also to protect them with coarse screens to prevent their
becoming filled with leaves, straw, etc. The small mesh poultry
screen does very well for this purpose. From eight to ten
square inches of inlet area per head of cattle is recommended.
Horses should be given ten to twelve square inches of inlet
area. If a barn contains thirty head of stock, the total area of
the intake flues should not be more than 300 square inches. If
four intake flues were put in, the area of each would be seventy-
five square inches, or an opening five by fifteen inches, which
would make a bad draft. If six intake flues wrere used the area
of each would by fifty square inches or less, which would give
an opening about four by twelve. For Manitoba conditions, a
large number of smaller intakes would be preferable to a small
number of large intakes.
The out-take flues start at the ceiling and pass up through
the loft (usually alongside the purlin posts, if there are any),
to the cupola, being put in in pairs in large barns. There will
probably be one or two in the small barn, four in the ordinary
barn, and six in the very large barn. The out-take flues can be
carried up through the roof in various ways. At 1, the flue
leaves the purlin post and takes a steeper slant up to the
cupola, which is better than 2 in so far as the ventilation system
is concerned, but takes more space in the loft. Number 3 affords
the most direct exit for the foul air, and is, in the writer's
opinion, the best one to use. It is a little unsightly and the
outgoing air cools a little more rapidly in the portion above the
roof exposed to the direct contact of the cold winter winds, but
the suction is greater, and the hay track can be put in higher
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50 American Society Agricultural Engineers
by not having the outlets feed into the cupolas. Also the cost
of construction should be, if anything, a little less in the case
of the straight out-take flue. When installing out-take flues,
avoid carrying the flues along horizontally when it is necessary
to get to the cupola, but rather keep the flues slanting upwards.
The total area of the outlet flues in the Rutherford system is
made twice the total area of the intake flues. In other words,
sixteen or more square inches of out-take flue is allowed for
each cow, and twenty or more per horse, depending on the
height of the flues. Thus it is figured (and correctly so) that
a good deal of the fresh air entering the stable comes in around
the doors, windows, etc. The outlet flues are controlled by
means of dampers, D. D. pivoted in the center and regulated
by a cord. These dampers should be so made as to close fairly
tight, but should not fit the inside of the flue too closely. If
they are pivoted off center, one cord may be sufficient for reg-
ulation, except in the more severe climates where frost some-
times collects at this point. In the Northwest it has been found
best to close some of the out-takes entirely in very cold weather,
rather than to close all partially. In the latter case the flues
would not handle enough air to keep them warm, and they
would condense the moisture in the outgoing air, and fill with
frost, and would then drip badly with the next rise in tempera-
ture.
The size of outlets is of some importance; they must be
neither too small nor too large. Two to two and one-fourth
square feet area is about right. " Where materially exceeding
this area, they are likely to work unsatisfactorily and to be con-
stantly dripping in warm weather and freezing in cold, due to
the air currents being too sluggish. Where less in area by any
considerable extent, they are sure to be wet and dripping prac-
tically all the time and to carry impure air off too slowly."
From the above discussion of the two systems, it is apparent
that there are grounds for debate as to which is the best adapted
to the various climatic conditions of the country. The Domin-
ion experimental farms have experimented with a large number
of systems of ventilation during the past ten years, and do not
hesitate in reporting that (to quote from their literature) :
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Comparison of Bam Ventilating Systems 51
"The Rutherford system of ventilation has proven much su-
perior to any other tried.' ' In their horse barn at Ottawa they
had both systems installed. They do not give full results of
their tests or sizes of flues, but the following is a statement con-
cerning the comparative tests. "These two systems have now
(1914) been in operation for nearly eight years. Results have
been decidedly in favor of the Rutherford system in freeing this
stable of moisture and foul air, and in consequence this system
only is now used and recommended for climatic conditions re-
sembling those of Ottawa, Ontario/ '
After having been familiar with the King system of ventila-
tion, one would naturally think the Rutherford system peculiar ;
at least some features of it so impressed the writer when he
first became familiar with it. To those in the North who have
been more familiar with the Rutherford system, the King
method of intakes and out-takes seems odd. In referring to the
King system an experimental farm report says, "It is most re-
markable in this, that the foul air is drawn from the floor and
the fresh air enters at the ceiling.' ' The points claimed in
favor of the Rutherford system of ventilation over other systems
experimented with are as followrs:
1. Ease in installation in buildings, old and new.
2. Adaptability to all classes of stables.
3. Suitability to variety of weather and climate.
4. Facility of operation and control.
5. Effectiveness in control of temperature in all parts of the
stable.
Without doubt, the Rutherford system has merit in its ease
and economy of installation. When the wind blows hard some
air will pass out the intake flues on the lee side of the barn, un-
less the flues on the windward side are practically closed or
have some means of preventing any great increase in volume
of entering air under these conditions. The louvers at R. R.
deflect the air upwards, and so at least partially hold back the
entering air in windy weather. If the louvers are made of gal-
vanized iron about three inches in width and curved upward,
the tendency to back up the entering air under the little roof
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52
American Society Agricultural Engineers
would be still greater. Fig. 3 shows another arrangement
with which we are experimenting for protecting the outside
opening from the direct force of the wind. There are no lou-
vers on the front but openings A. A. at each end directly under
the little slanting roof. The roof overhangs the opening about
three inches. With this arrangement, if the wind is blowing
squarely against the side of the barn, the in-going air has to
make two right angle turns before it can enter the intake flue
Fig. 3.
proper, which would considerably cut down the velocity of the
entering air. If the size of the two openings A. A. is made two-
thirds of the area of the intake proper, this will help to reduce
the velocity of the air entering the stable. If the wind is blow-
ing against the barn at an angle it will enter one of the openings
at A and tend to blow out through the other side. The bottom,
B, need not be made tight. Then if the rain blows in under
the little roof, it will readily leak through. So far our tests
have not shown as much an advantage with this construction
as was first hoped for. "While speaking of louvers it might be
said that it has been found better not to have louvers in the
cupolas, but rather to allow the wind to blow straight through.
Cupolas should not be made too large. There is a tendency to
entirely discard them in late barn construction and to use gal-
valized iron cowls instead, both for barn ventilation and for
ventilation of the hay loft. There are quite a number of good
cowls advertised at the present time.
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Comparison of Bam Ventilating Systetns 53
Any escape of air out the inlet flues does no particular harm,
except that it prevents for the time as uniform a distribution
of fresh air in the stable as would be had in still weather. The
ordinary inlet flue of the King system is not without this de-
fect, though perhaps to a slighter extent. The writer has
tested properly constructed King inlet flues in windy weather
and found all the fresh air entering the windward side of the
stable and very little movement either way on the opposite side.
Proper protection of the entrance to the inlet flues would assist
very materially in giving uniform ventilation throughout the
stable.
The location of the Rutherford out-takes is ideal, in that they
draw the foul air from all directions. In this respect they are
much better distributed than those of the King system, located
as they are along the side walls of the stable. The objection to
the location of the Rutherford out-take is that they obstruct the
loft to quite an extent unless there are purlin posts for them to
follow. The objection to having the out-take flue begin near
the stable floor is that it takes up space. On the other hand,
while no comparative tests have as yet been made (or at least
have not been published by any one), since the King out-take
draws off the coolest of the stable air, one would naturally ex-
pect that, everything else being equal, this type of out-take
would with the same amount of ventilation maintain a higher
stable temperature than would the Rutherford out-take which
takes off the warmest air of the stable. With other things being
equal, it is quite probable that with the same size flue, the
Rutherford out-take would discharge more foul air than the
King out-take when it takes the air off the floor. From the
number of square inches of out-take recommended per animal
by the two systems of ventilation, it is readily seen that for
flues of the same height and under similar weather conditions,
the King system will give about fifty per cent, more ventilation
than does the Rutherford system.
Enough has perhaps been said in comparing these two sys-
tems, together with the discussions which will follow, to start
a current of thought along these lines, and arouse some interest
in making further tests and experiments of this most interest-
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54 American Society Agricultural Engineers
ing and important subject. At the present time I would classify
this subject of barn ventilation under the head of research
work, but hope that five years hence, we may be in a position to
turn it over to the standardization committee to there take per-
manent form with the approval stamp of this society.
DISCUSSION.
K. J. T. Ekulaw (University of Illinois): A discussion of
ventilating systems would be more to the point than one of the
comparison of the King or Rutherford systems which Professor
Smith has presented. The most significant thing in Professor
Smith's presentation is his statement that there is a broad field
open for investigation along the line of barn ventilation. At
the present time, a great deal of thought is directed toward
rural sanitation, and ventilation is one of the most efficient
means of sanitation we possess, though it is not receiving the
attention it deserves, probably because the results are not so
evident nor so direct as those achieved from other sources. Any
investigation along the lines of ventilation must, to be of real
value, be conducted very thoroughly, and exhaustively. This
involves time, labor, and equipment, all of which are more or
less expensive ; but let us hope that something may soon be ini-
tiated, or if already initiated, may soon be presented, which
will give us a true appreciation of this very important problem.
The terms "King system' ' or "Rutherford system" are
merely distinguishing terms, for all such systems are funda-
mentally natural systems in which natural principles are ap-
plied. We think the terms good, however, if they serve no
other purpose than to perpetuate the names of the men who
possessed the originality to apply natural principles to barn
ventilation. We know that heated air rises, and that cool air
falls, and that C02 is heavier than air. We also know that
these things are influenced to a greater or less extent by other
factors, such as outside temperature, wind, degree of humidity,
etc. In the design of a successful ventilating system all these
things must be borne in mind, and since these factors are so
variable, we believe that a perfectly operating natural system of
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Discussion 55
ventilation will never be devised. In the Rutherford system
the assumption is made that the expired air, being warmer, will
rise to a position near the ceiling, and be carried out. While
this may be true at times, it is not equally true that when there
is considerable moisture in the air, as there will be occasionally,
the percentage of carbon dioxide may become so great as to
cause the expired air to fall to a lower position near the floor.
In a case like this the King system might be more effective.
Judging from the illustration given of the Rutherford system
there might be a tendency toward the formation of a direct cur-
rent from the intake to the beginning of the out-take valve, thus
resulting in uneven distribution of the air, and the possibility
of the formation of a dead body of impure air near the center
of the barn.
The King system operates upon the assumption that the ex-
pired air, because of its C02 content, will be heavier than the
fresh air brought in; thus the outlet flues originate near the
floor, though they are provided with an auxiliary opening near
the ceiling to be used in warm dry weather and when the C02
content is not sufficiently great to bring the expired air to the
floor. The intake flues open near the ceiling, and the fresh air
has thus an opportunity to become somewhat warmed before
descending to the level at which it is breathed. It would seem
that from a simple consideration of the principles involved that
the King system would possess most of the points enumerated
in favor of the Rutherford system, but we must take the opinion
rendered by Dominion experimental farms to show how widely
practice may vary from theory.
As a final suggestion, is it not possible to devise an economical
system which will not depend upon natural causes for its opera-
tion, but will be positive in its action? We believe that such a
system can be adapted, especially where electricity is available,
so that motor-driven fans may be used, either for plenum or
vacuum design. Such a system would be positive in action,
practically constant in operation, and independent of any clima-
tic changes or conditions.
Mb. William Louden (Fairfield, Iowa) : The only natural
ventilation is out of doors where there is no interference
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56 American Society Agricultural Engineers
by either walls or ceilings. The nearest approach we can get
to that in a building is to have an opening right up through
the center, or in the ceiling, to let the heated air pass out,
while the cold air outside comes into the building. It is the
difference in the temperature between the inside ancl outside air
that causes the movement of the air. If the air on the inside
of a building is warmer than the air on the outside, the air out-
side will tend to rush into the building and that inside to come
out. The object of the King system and all artificial styles of
ventilation is to conserve the heat in the building and not open
the barn up and let a current of air pass through it in a natural
way. I haye known of cases where parties have tried the King
system and other systems of ventilation and finally put in three
or four registers in the middle of the ceiling of the barn, and
and then got better ventilation but at the expense of having the
barn somewhat colder. As soon as the warm air, which gen-
erally carries a large amount of moisture, strikes the cold sur-
face, the moisture condenses, and this has been one of the worst
problems of ventilation in dairy barns.
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The Rotary Tiller 57
THE ROTARY TILLER OR SOIL MILLING MACHINE.
By Max Patitz.*
About the year 1850 a number of articles on agricultural sub-
jects appeared in the Gardener's Chronicle and Agricultural
Gazette, written by Chandos Wren Hoskyns. These articles
were later published in book form under the title of "Talpa or
the Chronicles of a Clay Farm."
In the last chapters of the book the author explains to Mr.
Greening, one of the neighboring farmers, his ideas about the
cultivation of soil and describes to him a motor driven machine,
by means of which it will be possible to prepare a perfect seed
bed in one operation:
He says:
" There are three kinds of 'power' employed by man. The
first is manual power, the second is animal power, and the third
and most recent is mechanical power. Each has its own pecul-
iar mode of action, and refuses to adopt that of either of the
others. The power of man from his erect figure, and the direc-
tion of his spine, acts most effectively in lifting. When he
works at a winch, his greatest force is in lifting the handle
from its lowest point in the circle to about half-way up. For
the same reason in pulling at the oar, or towing a barge, he in-
clines his figure as much as possible in a direction perpendicular
to the stress. In digging, he lifts the soil more than the plough
does, and in pressing the spade into the ground he still employs
perpendicular force, limited only by his weight. Manual labor
is, in fact, most powerful in perpendicular action.
"But when a man gives up the spade, the hoe, or the flail, and
employs his horse to cultivate or thresh for him, a new direction
of applied power takes place. The backbone of the quadruped
is horizontal, not perpendicular, to the ground, and the adapta-
tion of the power must be accordingly. The horse cannot lift
and press the implement of cultivation, but he can draw it
along; so the spade and the hoe are turned into tools of draught,
* Chief consulting engineer, Allis Chalmers Manufacturing Co., Mil-
waukee, Wis.
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58 American Society Agricultural Engineers
and are drawn through the soil, raising it with the spiral-wedge-
like action of the plough, very, damaging to the subsoil upon
which the whole stress and hardening pressure come, but cheap
and expeditious compared with the spade, so far as regards the
mere inversion, or partial inversion, of the soil, though doing
Httle towards its cultivation. Again in threshing, the applica-
tion of the horse 's power must still be horizontal, like his figure,
and his work be done by lateral pulling. The direction of ani-
mal power, in fact, is horizontal, and horizontal draught is the
only form in which it can be applied.
* ' But draught is not necessary to cultivation, nor is it even de-
sirable. The plough, the harrows, the scuffler, and the horse-
hoe, are but processes rendered necessary by the only possible
mode of applying horse-powrer to the turning and breaking of
the soil.
"Mechanical power is totally different, and has no more busi-
ness to be applied to the plough than a horse to a spade. When
horses have been taught to dig, the steam engine may perhaps
be taught to plow ; but nothing will be gained by either, because
it is not their mode of action, respectively. The laws of matter
and of motion are imperative, and pay no service to the preju-
dice of man. Mechanical power has many modes of action ; but
whether wind, or water, or steam be the driving agent, the
favorite motion is the vertically-circular, or 'rotary.' Where
steam is employed, rotary action is almost universal. For in-
stance, the steam-paddle, the screw-propeller, the common fly-
wheel, the locomotive driving-wheel, the circular saw; the drum
of the threshing-machine, the steam-pump, and many others
that will occur to the recollection. When we plough the sea,
by steam, we do it with the blades of a circular paddle. Why
not the earth ? When we cut wood into saw-dust by steam, we
do it with the revolving teeth of a circular saw. Why not the
clod into soil as fine by the same mode of action?
4 * What has the laborious dragging of a plough to do with steam-
mechanism, wThose mode of action lies in rapid revolution which
applied behind your locomotive (which must travel forward on
the hard soil), could cut a trench a food deep, and with its case-
hardened tines, rasp away the soil from the land-side to any
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The Rotary Tiller 59
pattern of fineness as easily as a saw can cut a board, taking a
moderate bite five or six feet wide as it goes."
Again he expresses his opinion very emphatically thus:
"But I hold it to be an idea fundamentally erroneous to at-
tempt to combine steam machinery with the plough, and record
my conviction that until the idea of the plough, and, in a word,
of all draught-cultivation is utterly abandoned, no effective
progress will be made in the application of steam to the tilling
of the earth.
"Why should not a strip or layer of earth be cut up into fine
soil at one operation (and sown and harrowed in, too), as easily
as a circular saw cuts a plank into saw-dust? But when you
come to employing
a Steam Engine
to turn a Drum,
to wind a Rope,
to drag a Plough,
to turn up a Furrow, —
and all this as a mere prelude for an after-amusement to all
the ancient tribe of harrows, scufflers, rollers, and clod-crushers,
it reminds one of 'The House that Jack Built.'
"I say the plough is essentially imperfect. What it does is
little towards the work of cultivation; but that little is tainted
by a radical imperfection — damage to the subsoil — which is
pressed and hardened by the share, in an exact ratio with the
weight of soil lifted, plus that of the force required to effect the
cleavage. Were there no other reason for saying it than this,
this alone would entitle the philosophic machinist to say and
see that the plough was never meant to be immortal. The mere
invention of the subsoiler is a standing commentary on the mis-
chief done by the plough.
"W7hy then should we struggle for its survival under the new
dynasty of steam? The true object is not to perpetuate, but as
soon as possible to get rid of it. Why poke an instrument seven
or eight inches under the clod, to tear it up in the mass by main
force, for other instruments to act upon, toiling and treading
it down again in ponderous attempts at cultivation wholesale,
when by simple abrasion of the surface by a revolving toothed
instrument with a span as broad as the hay-tedding machine or
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60 American Society Agricultural Engineers
Crosskill's clod-crusher, you can perform the complete work of
comminution in the most light, compendious, and perfect de-
tail?
"Imagine such an instrument (not rolling on the ground, but)
performing independent revolutions behind its locomotive, cut-
ting its way down by surface abrasion, into a semi-circular
trench about a foot and a half wide, throwing back the pulver-
ized soil (as it flies back from the feet of a dog scratching at a
rabbit-hole) ; then imagine the locomotive moving forward on
the hard ground with a slow and equable mechanical motion,
the revolver behind, with its cutting points (case-hardened)
playing upon the edge or landside of the trench as it advances,
and capable of any adjustment to coarse or fine cutting, moving
always forward, and leaving behind, granulated and inverted
by its revolving action, a seed-bed seven or eight inches deep,
never to be gone over again by any after-implement except the
drill, which had much better follow at once, attached behind
with a light brush-harrow to cover the seed."
I have quoted quite extensively from Hoskyns, because he de-
scribes so clearly the soil milling machine, several types of which
have been developed in Europe within the last few years, and
which is also being introduced into this country.
It has taken a long time before Hoskyns' dream has come
true. When motive power was applied to agricultural work,
the horse was replaced by the tractor, but even in the beginning
of the era of the tractor, inventors thought of discarding the
plow and devising a tool which would do away with the supple-
mentary disking, harrowing, etc., and dependence on the uncer-
tain assistance of natural forces, but would prepare a good seed
bed in one operation. Quite a number of machines, more or
less resembling the one Hoskyns described, were patented in the
decade of 1850 to 1860, but none of them seems to have been
successful, probably due to the excessive weight of the machine,
as no light motors and high grade materials were available at
that time.
In the nineties of last century E. Mechwart in Hungary de-
signed a machine with rotary cutters, of which a number were
built by the well known firm, Ganz & Co., in Budapest, operated
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The Rotary Tiller 61
by steam and gasoline motors. I saw one of them in the Ger-
man technical museum in Munich.
A great deal of work has been done on rotary tilling machines
in the last ten years. Koscegy, von Meyenburg and Konig de-
veloped such machines in Europe. In the United States quite
a number of them have been patented, but none of them is being
manufactured, as far as I am aware.
The Koscegy rotary tiller is being built by the firm, H. Lanz,
in Mannheim, Germany, noted for its high class locomobiles
and agricultural machinery. A number of these tillers are in
operation in various parts of Europe.
The Meyenburg machine is being built in Germany by the
great firm Siemens-Schuckert and in France by the firm La
Bui re at Lyons; in the United States the Allis-Chalraers Manu-
facturing Co. has recently taken up its manufacture.
The rotary tiller or soil milling machine consists of a motor-
driven tractor or truck and a rotor or tiller operated by a gaso-
line or oil motor on the tractor. The tractor is built similar to
one used for pulling plows, but much lighter, as the tiller or soil
miller rotates in a direction to assist the forward motion of the
machine. The tractor is geared to run at a number of speeds —
four in the Allis-Chalmers machine. It serves merely as a pace
maker, determining the amount of forward motion of the tiller
which runs at constant speed.
A great advantage the rotary tiller possesses over the tractor
with plows is that weight is not essential for doing its work;
objectionable packing of the soil is avoided.
The rotor or tiller proper carries a large number of tools for
cutting up the soil. The tiller acts on the soil like a milling
cutter, while the plow works like a plane. The circumferential
velocity of the tools is much greater than the forward motion
of the machine. The soil is cut off in small chips and these
being thrown against one another by centrifugal action are
broken up into small pieces, so that the soil is left behind the
machine in a granulated condition, the sizes of the granules de-
pending on the nature of the soil and the speed of the tractor.
The rotor can be set so as to work the soil to various depths and
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62 American Society Agricultural Engineers
can be lifted by motive power when turning at the end of a field
and when not in use.
In the following is given a short description of the rotary
tiller of the Meyenburg type, which the Allis-Chalmers Manu-
facturng Co. has recently started to manufacture, under license
from the owners of the patents.
Only one type has so far been developed. A number of these
machines have been sent out for demonstrating purposes. The
tractor has one steering wheel in front and two driving wheels
in the rear of fifty-two inch diameter by eleven inch width.
The drivers have a cast steel rim with horizontal triangular
projections on both sides of a flat rim. On the road the machine
will run on the flat portion only. The projections will come
more and more into action the softer the soil. The weight of
the machine with the tiller is approximately 4,500 pounds.
The motor is a four-cylinder, four-cycle vertical motor, giving
thirty H. P. at 1,000 R. P. M., built for tractor service and is
provided with a governor. It is water-cooled and a large radia-
tor is mounted in front of the machine. The motor is placed
lengthwise of the tractor and forward of the driving wheels.
It is accessible from both sides.
A multiple disk clutch connects the motor and the gear trans-
mission. The gears are all cut of best material, and the high
speed shafts run on ball bearings. All parts, even the gears for
the drivers, are encased and run in oil. It is a so-called unit
power plant.
To operate the tiller, a separate shaft is driven by spur gear-
ing from the first gear back of the clutch. This shaft can be
thrown in and out of action by a jaw clutch. Where it leaves
the gear casing, another shaft is driven from it through a uni-
versal coupling. This in turn drives the tiller by means of
bevel gear and pinion. A casing surrounds the gears. The
tiller tools are mounted on the shaft driven by the bevel gear,
which extends from both sides of the casing. The gearing for
lifting and lowering the tiller is also enclosed in the main gear
casing. It is designed so that the operator simply has to move
a hand lever in the same direction for either lifting or lowering.
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The Rotary Tiller 63
Part of the weight of the tiller is taken up by an adjustable
spring.
To fix the depth of tilling a small shoe is hung from the gear
casing enclosing the bevel gear drive of the tiller. The great-
est depth to which the present machine can till is twelve inches.
The speeds at which the machine can operate are respectively
— eight-tenths, one and one-third and two miles per hour for
tilling and three and six-tenths miles per hour for traction. The
tiller being five feet wide, four to ten acres can be tilled in ten
hours.
When making turns of 180° at the end of a field, the tiller
must be lifted out of the soil and lowered again. Very short
turns can be made with the machine, as the driving wheels on
either side can be locked by means of the brake on the corre-
sponding side, so that the tractor will turn around one of the
wheels as a center. Both brakes can be put on simultaneously,
when required.
One man can operate the machine. He is placed above the
front wheel. All levers and pedals are within easy reach.
There are
a steering wheel
one clutch pedal
two brake pedals which may be operated as one
two hand levers for shifting gears
one " " " jaw clutch of tiller shaft
one " " " lifting mechanism of tiller
This may look like a great array of levers and pedals, but in
regular operation a man has only to use the steering wheel and
when turning to move the lever for lifting and lowering the
tiller and one brake pedal. The wheels of the tractor are six
feet ten inches center to center. The whole machine with tiller
is fourteen feet over all, so that very little space is required for
turning.
The tiller may be disconnected from the tractor easily, and
the tractor may be used for other purposes ; also a pulley driven
from end of motor is provided for running farm machinery.
The greatest difference in rotary tillers built at present is
that the tools are either rigid or flexible. Mr. Greening in Hos-.
kyns' book said, after the author had finished the description
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
64
American Society Agricultural Engineers
of his new soil cultivator "Gently over the Stones.' ' In both
kinds of tillers, provisions are made to minimize the effect of
striking stones on the tools.
The tools of the Koscegy tiller, Fig. 1, are shaped somewhat
like hoes. They are made of flat steel plates bent over at their
outer ends and are fastened to flanges on a drum. They can be
Fig I
replaced when worn or damaged. To lessen the shock on the
machine, the tiller is driven through a friction clutch, which
will slip when striking a stone. Small stones will be thrown
out. Over large boulders the tiller will climb.
The tools of the Meyenburg tiller are shown in Fig. 2. The
claws or hooks are made of hardened steel. They can be easily
replaced when worn out or broken.
The claw holders are made of best spring steel, are mounted
on the tiller spider and can also be replaced individually when
broken.
When the claw strikes a stone the spring claw holder is forced
back toward the center of tiller shaft, and either throws out the
stone or climbs over it. But there is this difference between
the tillers of Koscegy and Meyenburg that the rigid tool can
only slip around in a circle of the diameter of the tiller while
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
The Rotary Tiller
65
the flexible tools recede toward the center. It is, therefore, not
necessary to lift the tiller as high nor in so short a time as with
the rigid tool. The shock on the machine is lessened a great
deal, allowing of a lighter construction.
Another disadvantage of the rigid tool is that when striking
•^L«
Fig. 2.
a small stone, it pushes it through the soil, while the flexible
tool will slip off the stone. This is one reason why it takes more
power to drive the rigid tool through the soil. Another reason
is that it has larger surfaces coming into contact with the soil
than the flexible tool. The flexible tiller, with its claws, resem-
bles a dog digging a hole. Although it will not have as much
difficulty with stones as the plow, it is not intended to give the
impression that the rotary tiller is a machine especially well
adapted to stony land or for clearing land of stones. On the
contrary it is essentially a machine for cultivated land.
Hoskyns says "A seed bed is, simply described, a layer of
soil from six to twelve inches in depth, rendered fine by com-
minution and, as far as possible, inverted during the process. ' '
The rotary tiller will prepare a seed bed answering this de-
scription; it makes a better seed bed than the plow, disk and
harrow. It does not press the soil in the bottom of the furrow
like the plow, and occasional deep tilling to break the compressed
surface is not required.
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66 American Society Agricultural Engineers
The tiller leaves a fine dust mulch on top of the soil, and
evaporation of the moisture in the soil will, therefore, be very
small, also capillary attraction between the cultivated soil and
the subsoil is not interrupted, which is likely to be the case in
plowed soil. For these reasons, tilled soil holds water better
than plowed soil. The rotary tiller will prove to be an ideal
machine in a dry farming country.
The Meyenbuvg Tiller in Operation.
Manure is distributed in the soil by the tiller, not simply
turned under as with the plow. Due to this fact manure will
be more effectively utilized.
Fertilizer may be delivered through feed boxes carried on the
tractor in front of the rotor and will then be well mixed with
the soil.
Land may be tilled in the fall and seeded in spring after go-
ing over it with a spring harrow or similar implement.
When tilling land in spring the seeder may be attached be-
hind the tiller or under some conditions the seed may be carried
on the tractor and dropped in the rear of the tiller, so that the
seed will be covered by soil thrown up by the tiller, the depth
to which the seed is covered, depending on the distance at which
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
The Rotary Tiller
67
it is dropped from the rotor. This method has been success-
fully used in Europe.
A smaller amount of seed should suffice for tilled soil, as there
are no cavities in the soil often found in plowed land into which
seed might drop and not be able to sprout. According to ex-
periences gained in Europe, twenty to thirty per cent, of the
seed can be saved.
The Meyenburg Tiller Shouting Tiller out of the Ground.
The tractor may be used for pulling reapers during harvest.
The land should be stubbled immediately after harvesting, so
that the soil may not lose too much of its moisture, that the
weeds and lost grain may come up quickly, or that a cover crop
may be sown and given as much time as possible to grow before
being turned under as green manure in the fall.
The manufacture of the rotary tiller having been taken up
only recently by the Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing Co. in Mil-
waukee, Wisconsin, it is not possible to give any data as to the
cost of tilling the soil by this machine ; even the cost of the ma-
chine has not been definitely determined yet. A number of
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
68 American Society Agricultural Engineers
these machines have been built to be used for demonstrating pur-
poses in various parts of the country.
The amount of fuel required to till an acre is practically the
same as for tractor and plow, according to reports from Europe
and from observations made here. I hope to be able at a later
meeting to present accurate data to the society determined un-
der various conditions of soil in this country.
The first machine was completed in May, rather late for spring
plowing. The results obtained are very favorable. A tilled
field of oats gave thirty per cent, higher returns than the
plowed one. This figure, however, is only an estimated one.
In Europe very thorough investigations are being made to
determine the relative results from tilled and plowed land. I
hope that the agricultural colleges in this country will take an
interest in this matter and make comparative tests.
A commission appointed by the Deutsche Landwirtschafts-
Gesellschaft is making experiments on a large scale to extend
over a period of five years. In a report of yields of potatoes on
fields near Berlin the results are given as 438 bushels per acre
for tilled land and 393 bushels for plowed, a difference in favor
of the tilled land of eleven per cent.
Comparative tests in Hungary reported by Prof. Raszo gave
crops of wheat, rye, oats, corn, sugar beets from 6.8 per cent, to
52.7 per cent, greater for tilled than for plowed land, the aver-
age increase being twenty-one per cent.
In the Mitteilungen der Deutschen Landwirtschafts-Gesell-
schaft of May 30, 1914, appeared an article by Dr. Ruth, "My
Experiences with Green Manure,' ' in which he says:
' * This highest amount has been obtained on those experimental
field sections which had been prepared with the soil tiller of
Meyenburg (built by Siemens-Schuckert Works, Berlin) in the
spring of 1913. It has been observed here that from the field
sections prepared by the soil tiller, eleven per cent, more pota-
toes were harvested than from the plowed sections. It did not
matter whether the soil
1 — was plowed 12" with the steam plow in fall and then milled 8" in
spring.
2 — was first plowed 10" in spring with the steam plow and immediately
afterwards milled 8".
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Discussion 69
3 — at first plowed 10" in spring with the steam plow or in spring only
milled 8".
4 — was plowed in spring with horses 8" or only milled 8".
"All the sections were manured alike, but in all four cases
eleven per cent, more potatoes were produced on the tilled sec-
tions than on the (plowed ones, although the yield could not be
increased on the plowed lands by applying more manure.
"From this the conclusion may be drawn, how important a
thorough loosening of the soil is for the growing of potatoes.' '
Last year I traveled in Europe and saw rotary tillers work-
ing satisfactorily on heavy clay soil, as well as on sandy heather
land and moor land. On heather land, which has never been
broken it takes a number of years before it is ready for seeding,
as the heather is just like a covering of felt on the sand and
when turned over by the plow will not rot.
The tiller, however, tears it into small pieces, distributes it in
the soil and the land can be seeded the same year.
I am fully convinced that Hoskyns' dream is being realized,
that the machine of which he had such a clear vision, will,
through its better preparation of the seed bed, effect a marked
increase in the crops of this country.
DISCUSSION.
A. R. Whitsos (University of Wisconsin) : There are two
claims which this machine may well make for the attention of
American farmers; first, that with reference to the effect of the
machiue on the character of the seed bed prepared, and, second,
that due to the fact that operations usually requiring the use
of two or more tools are done at once by this single machine.
So far as the relation to the principles of fertility and soil
management are concerned, my interest would be chiefly in con-
nection with the first mentioned claim, since the second matter
would be largely an economical one.
There have always been distinct objections to the use of the
ordinary mold-board plow as a means of fitting the ground for
the growth of crops. Among these objections may be men-
tioned, first, the fact that it reverses the furrow slice, which in
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70 American Society Agricultural Engineers
the case of some lands is very undesirable. This is particularly
true in heavy soils in a wooded country which has recently been
cleared. Soils of this character occur very extensively in the
northern part of Wisconsin and in this region deep plowing
with the ordinary mold-board plow has the effect of bearing
the active organic matter under a layer of inert soil, so that
the rate of chemical processes on which fertility depends is
greatly reduced.
A second objection to the mold-board plow is that it leaves a
smooth and in many cases hard surface below that which is af-
fected by the plow itself. This in itself is objectionable. More-
over, the fact that the furrow slice is turned over often without
sufficient shearing to disintegrate it leads to the leaving of con-
siderable air space between the subsoil and the furrow slice so
that the surface soil dries out and the heat is not conducted
properly to the subsoil.
In mjr judgment there can be no question, so far as principles
are concerned, but that the result of the action of a machine
of the kind under consideration must be very much superior to
that of the mold-board plow. The loose seed bed, as left by this
machine, could scarcely be improved on as a mulch, both for
collecting and absorbing moisture and permitting its retention
by later surface cultivation. It is, of course, true that carefully
conducted experiments to determine the value of this machine
in comparison with the mold-board plow must be made before
final conclusions can be drawn, but from the work I have seen
the machine do I should certainly predict that it will prove, so
far as its effect on the soil is concerned, very profitable. The
question regarding the cost of work done by this machine is one
which I am not now in position to take up.
L. \V. Ellis .(Stockton, Cal.) : Konrad von Meyenburg, the
inventor of the milling tool which Mr. Patitz describes, is, with-
out any question, the best posted man on tractors and power
farming it has been my pleasure to meet. He and his assist-
ants, Messrs. Bloch and Grunder, with their splendid library in
eight or ten languages, constitute the most complete source of
information on the broad field of moto-culture that exists out-
side of the greatest libraries of the world, and it is probable that
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Discussion 71
not even these need be excepted, because of the vast amount of
manuscript, clippings and commercial literature which these
three men have assembled.
The Meyenburg cultivator, soil milling machine, Boden-fraser
or rotary hoe, as it has been variously called, is, to my mind,
without question the most perfect instrument yet devised by
the mind and hand of man for preparing a perfect seed bed in
one operation.
This sweeping statement applies only to the working tool and
not even to the driving mechanism which actuates that, but it
is upon this tool that Herr von Meyenburg has spent his many
years of labor, and it is upon this, and not upon the vehicle
which carries it, that his claim to consideration rests.
I have seen this tool operate under various conditions, upon
fallow ground in Switzerland, upon grassy stubble in Germany
and upon wet pasture in Indiana. In every case, the work was
excellent and there seemed to remain only the matter of per-
fecting the vehicle and transmission, which is more or less a
simple tractor problem.
Mr. Patitz has described the springs and hooks which are the
essential part of the tool. It is this combination which removes
this machine from the general class of rotary tillage instru-
ments. The action of our common mole or the South African
ant-bear shows what a vast amount of work may be accom-
plished by quick scratching strokes of a flexible claw. The
grave questions as to commercial feasibility of Meyenburg 's
invention lie in the fact that man does not yet control a material
so perfectly flexible as the animal muscle. In other words, it
seems likely that with all of the splendid advantages which
must be freely conceded to the principle in question, there is
still the likelihood that crystallization may occur within a short
time in the very finest material that can be procured, and that
the cost of replacements may offset to a large extent the advan-
tage which the flexible tool has over the more rigid types.
Heinrich Lanz, of Mannheim, Germany, the largest manufac-
turer of traction engines and other machinery on the Continent,
has bought the patents of an Austrian named Koscegy. In this
machine, circular discs supporting triangular segments, on the
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72 American Society Agricultural Engineers
periphery of which are fixed rigid hoes or cutting tools, are util-
ized in place of the mechanism described by Mr. Patitz. The
raising and lowering devices are similar, but the tool is much
heavier. The chassis is very much heavier and the work far
inferior. Yet there is no doubt but that in anything but rocky
ground the wearing qualities will be greater. In rocky ground,
by the way, the Meyenburg tool behaves splendidly, as I have
proved by personal tests. It also has made a splendid demon-
stration at an abandoned brick yard where the soil was ex-
tremely hard.
I saw another rotary machine, the Universal Land-Bau-Motor,
in which wooden break pins are used, so that the machine has
both rigidity and insurance against accidents. There has been
a great variety of rotary machines, but of all these only the
Lanz and Meyenburg seem to have come anywhere near to the
commercial state. Very probably there is a field for both types,
and there must always be the compromise in the mind of the
purchaser between a high repair cost and great efficiency on the
one hand and lower repair costs with poorer work on the other.
At least three years ago I stated that I believed a rotary ma-
chine would eventually take the place of the plow and harrow,
because crop returns would justify the extra expenditure in
power necessary to drive it over the given acreage. I am quite
satisfied that in the end the efficiency of the work will be the
prevailing factor and that in the Meyenburg we have the fore-
cast of the universal soil working tool of the future.
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Economy of Small Farm Gas Engines
73
ECONOMY OF SMALL FARM GAS ENGINES.
By D. P. Davies.*
When asked by this society to present a paper on the "Econ-
omy of Small Gas Engines, " I was at a loss to know just what
data would be of the most interest, not only to the engineers,
but to the users and prospective purchasers of gas engines in
general.
Nevertheless, while my paper will present the fuel economy
side only, the fact should not be lost sight of that this is only
Fig. 1. — Combustion chamber of 11-2-horse power engine.
one side of the economics of this form of motive power, espe-
cially when applied to general agricultural work.
The ease and time saved and the amount of work performed
is one of the main advantages of this form of power for agri-
cultural requirements.
There are many diversified power requirements on the farm
w'here engines are used for only a comparatively small period
of time, such as sawing wood, cutting feed, pumping water, etc.
A number of us here can no doubt remember when nearly all
the small power requirements on the farm were performed
manually or by animal power. Especially is this recollection
vivid if one has had the experience of going out on a cold morn-
ing to saw wTood with a buck saw or to pump water for a large
number of cattle.
If the time required and the results of the work performed
• J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co., Racine, Wis.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
74
American Society Agricultural Engineers
were taken into consideration and compared* with the work ac-
complished today by gas engines, I believe it would be found
that this form of power could be allowed a very high fuel cost
and still show greater economy than the old method.
The fuel consumption of engines at varying loads is very in-
teresting. While considerable data is available for fuel con-
sumption of different engines at rated loads, the information as
to results at varying and no loads is meager.
Fig. 2. — Combustion chamber of 6 and JO-horse power engines.
My belief is that gas engine manufacturers in general would
derive considerable valuable information in regard to their
product, should they conduct such tests on the different sizes of
engines which they are manufacturing and" a comparison be made
of the fuel curves so obtained.
The facts here presented were obtained on a line of portable
engines just recently designed, and while this covers only three
sizes, namely, iy2, 6 and 10 H. P. sizes, two other sizes have
been built, an 8 and 15 H. P. of identically the same design as
that of the 6 and 10 IT. P. on which this data was obtained.
I regret that the time for the preparation of this paper was
somewhat limited, so that the test of these two other sizes could
not have been included.
The power of engines was measured by a beam prony brake
mounted on one of the engine fly wheels and all instruments
used were calibrated.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
Economy of Small Farm Gas Engines
75
Engines were first operated on their maximum loads and the
fuel valve and ignition timing set for the best results. They
were then marked and left under this adjustment for all loads.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OP ENGINES TESTED.
\yo H. P. horizontal hopper cooled:
Bore: 3%" x 4^" stroke.
R. P. H. 500.
Ignition: Jump spark.
Fig. 3. — Diagram showing horse power load with corresponding fuel
consumption of 1 1-2-horse power engine.
Valve construction: Both valves in head.
Governor: Hit and miss operated on exhaust valve.
Compression: 75 lbs.
Small diameter of inlet and exhaust valve: 1*4".
Total piston displacement: 28.8 cu. ft. per min.
Piston displacement per rated H. P.: 19.2.
Piston displacement per maximum H. P.: 12.8.
6 H. P. horizontal hopper cooled:
Bore: 6" x 8" stroke.
R. P. M. 350.
Ignition: Made and break.
Valve construction: Both valves in combustion chamber at right
angles to bore.
Governor: Hit and miss operated on exhaust valve.
Compression: 75 lbs.
Small diameter of inlet and exhaust valve: 2".
Total piston displacement: 91.6 cu. ft. per min.
Digitized by VJOOQlC
76
American Society Agricultural Engineers
Piston displacement per rated H. P.: 15.26.
Piston displacement per maximum H. P.: 12.2.
10 H. P. horizontal hopper cooled:
Bore: 7" x 10" stroke.
R. P. M. 325.
Ignition: Made and break.
Valve construction: Both valves in combustion chamber at right
angles to bore.
*
®
Fig. 4. — Horse power and fuel consumption curve of a 6-horse power
engine.
Compression: 75 lbs.
Small diameter of inlet and exhaust valve: 2%".
Total piston displacement: 144.8 cu. ft. per min.
Piston displacement per rated H. P.: 14.48.
Piston displacement per maximum H. P. : 12.07. *
From the above description it will be noted that the 6 and ,10
H. P. engines are all identical in design, and while the l^fc H.P.
size has both valves located in the head, the form of combustion
chamber and location and type of ignition is different.
The valve location and form of combustion chamber used on
the IV2 H. P. engine is shown by Figure 1 and that used by the
other two sizes shown in Figure 2.
The form of combustion chamber shown in Figure 2 is ideal,
both for economy and power, and while the surfaces of the com-
bustion chamber are greater than those of Figure 1, the location
of igniter in the narrow part of the chamber makes for rapid
flame propagation.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Economy of Small Farm Gas Engines
77
Figure 3 gives the H. P. load with corresponding fuel per
brake H. P. for the l1/^ H. P. engine. Figures 4 and 5 the same
information on the 6 and 10 H. P. sizes.
Figure 6 shows comparative performance of the three engines
tested.
From these figures it is learned that the engines developed
their best fuel economy, not at their maximum load, but at a
load approximately sixty-seven per cent, of the maximum load.
This is rather remarkable as it holds good for all three engines.
Fig. 5. — Horse power and fuel consumption curve of a 10-horse power
engine.
In connection with the tests, I desire to say that all the en-
gines carried their maximum load without giving signs of dis-
tress.
It is to be borne in mind that different designs of engines
will not have this same characteristic. I believe it is also safe
in saying that all gas engines, however, have a point at which
they will show maximum economy and this is not at their maxi-
mum loads but at some lower load.
This has been proved by gas engine tests which have been con-
ducted by the Winnipeg industrial exposition, and while in some
instances engines have shown higher economy at their maximum
than their economical loads, when an analysis is made, it is gen-
erally found that the engines are of such size that their maxi-
Digitized by VjOOQIC
78
American Society Agricultural Engineers
mum load is what they ought to have carried, when making their
economy run.
I find from the report of the tests conducted this year at the
Winnipeg industrial exposition that of all five engines tested,
two showed greater fuel consumption at maximum loads and
three less than at their economy load. The two engines in the
kerosene test used more fuel at their maximum loads than on
their economy load.
M*«*£ ******
^ — 1r
Fio. 6. — Horse power and fuel curves of all three engines.
Below is submitted a table giving the H. P. developed by these
engines, both on the economy and maximum load; also their
cubic foot displacement for rated and maximum horse power :
TESTS OF ENGINES AT WINNIPEG INDUSTRIAL EXPOSITION.
Economy Load
No. of Engine Rated Brake H. P. Fuel per B. H. P.
1 6 5.97 .915
2 7 6.14 .720
3 8 7.00 .88
4 5 3.98 .84
5 4 3.41 .77
Maximum Load
No. of Engine Rated Brake H. P. Fuel per B. H. P.
1 6 6.46 .795
2 7 7.75 .905
3 8 7.86 .84
4 5 5.8 .765
5 4 3.95 1.72
Digitized by VjOOQIC
Economy of Small Farm Gas Engines
79
Figure 7 gives a table showing the loads at which the differ*
ent engines were operated and from which the consumption fuel
curves herein were laid out.
In conducting any fuel consumption tests, it is rather remark-
able what slight variation, either in the adjustment of the fuel
m
%
:£T
M — - J - - - - ..,, , . . .\:\ i.:.,\
Fig. 7. — Table showing loads at which the different engines were oper-
ated and from which curves were laid out.
valve or time of ignition has to do with the amount of fuel used.
Another peculiarity was noted that the point of greatest fuel
economy coincided with the load where the governor cut out
every other explosion stroke.
It is possible that this condition has a scavenging effect on
every explosion stroke taking place, resulting in a higher mean
effective pressure for a given amount of fuel.
This was brought forcibly to my notice in one of the tests
conducted, where the governor became sluggish due to lack of
lubrication. At the same time, no great variation could be de-
tected in the number of revolutions. The fuel consumption
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80 American Society Agricultural Engineers
•under this condition, however, was all out of proportion to pre-
vious results obtained. Immediately after the governor was
properly oiled and the test reconducted results again were nor-
mal.
It would be interesting to all engineers that further tests
along this line be conducted on different designs of engines to
establish absolutely if there is not a point determined by the
operation of the governor which will give the most economical
results.
DISCUSSION.
E. R. Wiggins, Deere & Co., Moline, 111.: One of the great
problems of the present day engineer is that of economy
and efficiency. The production of labor-saving machinery and
the development of the most economical source of power is
without doubt the most important of present day problems.
The future will show that the time taken in studying ways
to make our power producers more efficient in the use of
fuel has been wisely spent. The purpose of this paper is to
consider some fuel economy problems that the present day farm
gas engine engineer has to think about, and to give a few specific
results of the performance of certain engines designed and built
according to modern methods.
The tests that will be used as examples, therefore, were made
during the past summer by the speaker in one of the leading
gas engine factories of this country. The management of this
concern have kindly allowed me to use this data. The object of
the tests was to obtain the actual performances of five different
sized gasoline engines of a certain make and to compare these
results with performances of five similarly rated engines of an-
other make. The type of engine in both cases was the same,
being the hit and miss. The engines used were stock engines,
being selected at random by the speaker, who was the disinter-
ested engineer in the various tests. No special adjustments
were made, so that we may consider the results were obtained
under average conditions and are of value, therefore, because
they are average results.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Discussion 81
Each engine was ran at a load as near its rating as was pos-
sible. A Prony brake was used to absorb the power developed
and the usual apparatus necessary to make a commercial brake
test was at hand. The actual time duration of the test in which
readings were taken was two hours. However, the engines .were
run for at least one hour under load before readings were taken
to insure normal conditions.
The following table gives the data obtained :
2
2
0Q
.3
« 0Q
*5 rfl
3 $
< GO
Actual Load
during Test
H.P.
X
^ ft
cd
a
1
o
SI
i
00
.53 rt
J ©
as
•7 ©
Z o
« V
Q rH
a a
© .2
A
4
5x7
349
3.66
.80
7.7
408
3.40
4.35
30
B
4
4%x7
408
4.08
.76
4.3
450
3.50
4.48
30
A
6
6x9
341
5.95
.84
6.0
510
6.10
7.8
30
B
6
5Vix9
376
6.02
.72
5.0
565
5.60
6.5
32
A
8
6x12
301
7.38
.90
5.6
600
7.21
9.2
35
B
8
5%x9%
374
7.95
.81
4.0
594
6.54
8.4
31
A
10
6%xl2
301
10.2
.87
4.5
600
9.1
11.7
36
B
10
6*4x10
360
10.0
.82
3.4
600
7.8
10.1
30
A
12
7x13
277
11.2
.82
4.1
596
9.72
13.5
35
B
12
6%xll
353
12.1
.68
3.3
640
9.4
12.09
32
Av. .80
Both makes of engines are the kind and size of engines mostly
used by farmers, and are not equipped with carburetors but use
the common type of air mixers. This type of engine is the most
commonly used stationary engine and the general design fav-
ored. The problem is to build a highly efficient engine and at
the same time not bring the costs of manufacture too high. This
one particular make of engine — B — here discussed is built with
this efficient idea in view.
The speaker wishes therefore to consider briefly one phase of
gas engine design as applied to these specific B engines, namely,
compression; because the fuel economy depends largely upon
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
82 American Society Agricultural Engineers
the compression carried. When gasoline gas and air are com-
pressed, the relation between pressure and volume is
II. - [_Y^ln - f 1 plus C ) n
P. - I V. ) " I C \
Where PQ = the pressure at the beginning of compression and for
these B engines is approximately 12 lb. absolute 2.7 lb. be-
low atmosphere.
P = the final compression pressure and for the B engines
ranges from 65 lb. to 70 lb.
C = percentage of clearance and is given in the table.
N =the index of the compression curve for a perfect gas as
air is 1.405 on these B engines is 1.33.
Vt = clearance volume.
V =the piston displacement plus clearance.
o
The compression curve of these gas engines is very nearly
adiabatic, because during admission the entering charge is
heated by the cylinder walls and continues through the early
part of compression. During the compression the charge is
heated and becomes hotter than the cylinder walls, so that there
is an exchange of heat.
Consider now the theoretical efficiency of the B engines given
in these tests. We know that efficiency depends upon compres-
sion, as shown by the following well known formula:
Efficiency = l-j-4;|n~1 = 1 -J-,^—1
For the case at hand
( qa ) 1.33 - 1
Efficiency = 1 - j j-^ J. = 38.5*
The actual efficiency of these B engines is, of course, much
less than the theoretical. In the smaller sizes of gas engines
the actual efficiency is about fifty per cent, of the theoretical.
The fuel used in these tests had an average heating value of
19,000 B. T. U. per pound. Figuring the fuel consumption at
eight-tenths of a pound per horse power hour, the kinetic effi-
ciency, or the brake thermal efficiency, is sixteen and seven-
tenths per cent. Now, the mechanical efficiency of these B en-
gines averages eighty-five per cent., which means that the actual
indicated thermal efficiency is nineteen and six-tenths per cent.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Discussion 83
The spea&er does not wish to go on record as saying that
these are exceptionally good results, but does wish to emphasize
these results, as they represent average conditions of the farm
engines.
The ordinary farmer is not greatly concerned about fuel econ-
omy-r-but he should be. To illustrate the need of study along
this line let me say in 1910, according to the U. S. census, the
United States was using gasoline at a rate of 10,806,000 barrels
a year. If we had generally used gasoline engines which had
a fuel economy of fifty-eight hundredths of a pound, as Mr.
Robert M. Strong obtained and reported in Bulletin No. 32 of
the Department of the Interior, the saving over engines using
eight-tenths of a pound would have been 2,956,000 barrels. In no
better way can the modern engineer create means of conserving
the natural resources than to build highly efficient internal com-
bustion engines.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
84 American Society Agricultural Engineers
DRAFT OP WAGONS.
By E. B. McCobmick.*
The draft required to haul wagons and other vehicles, under
varying conditions of road surfaces and grades, and of vehicle
construction, has been the subject of considerable investigation,
but, unfortunately, very few of the investigators have made
experiments covering long distances, and comprising large
numbers of tests. Furthermore, the results of much of the
work that has been done have not been published in a form that
make them generally available. For this latter reason much of
the good work that has been done in the past has never been
given the recognition that it deserved.
So far as the writer has been able to determine, the first in-
vestigation on the dTaf t of wagons was made in England prior to
1684, by Dr. Hook. This was apparently a theoretical study
rather than an experimental investigation, as no record can be
found indicating the use of measuring instruments. What are
probably the first actual experiments are those made by Richard
L. Edgeworth, the results of which he published in 1817. Edge
worth's work was done using small models working on plank
runways, and were made primarily to determine the advantages
of springs in vehicle construction. He concluded as a result of
these experiments, that the advantage in the use of springs in-
creases with the velocity. Edgeworth 's son continued these
experiments, and extended the work to include vehicles of com-
mercial sizes. He designed and constructed an instrument that
he called a peirameter, which consisted of a horizontal pulley
supported on a carriage, as shown in Figure 1. In making his
experiments, he attached two wagons behind the peirameter by
means of a cable passing around the pulley. In some of the
experiments he used wagons of different construction, and in
others, the same type of wagon, running over different types
of roadways, which were constructed for the experiments. It
was claimed by him that this apparatus worked in the same
manner as a balance, and that the resistance to traction was
* Mechanical engineer, office of Public Roads, U. S. Department of
Agriculture.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Draft of Wagons
85
measured by the relative lag of one of the wagons behind the
other. He overcame this lag by varying the loads until the
wagons advanced uniformly, the difference in load being taken
as a measure of the relative drafts required. He investigated
the effects of changes in size of the different members compris-
ing the running gears, and also made tests on quite a variety
of road surfaces, but apparently did not make more than one
or two tests in each case.
Pigube l
In 1820, J. S. Fry wrote an essay based on Edgeworth's tests,
and on geometrical deductions of his own. He contended that
vehicles were improperly designed, and recommended the use of
six and eight wheels.
In 1838, Thomas Hughes published the results of tests made
by him to determine road resistances. His method was to use
inclined surfaces, from which he determined the angles of re-
pose of vehicles on different surface, and from this, calculated
what he called, the frictional resistance of a particular vehicle
on a given road surface. He was, however, unable to deduce
general formulae, because of the bewildering number of varia-
bles that entered into his calculations.
About this time Sir John McNeil designed and constructed a
dynamometer that has since borne his name. Tests were made
to determine draft actually required to haul coaches over the
English roads. This instrument was later sold to the Prussian
government. In 1845, Morin published the results of the tests
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
86 American Society Agricultural Engineers
he had carried on in France. This work is the most extensive
as regards the scope of subjects covered of any work that has
been carried on up to the present time. The results of Morin's
work have been more generally used than those of any other in-
vestigator, and have formed a basis for much of the work that
has been done since then. Since Morin's time much good work
has been done in connection with the determination of the draft
of wagons, but has been too restricted in its scope to permit the
drawing of general conclusions from the results.
Some years ago the writer, who was then acting in a consult-
ing capacity for the Office of Public Roads, U. S. Department of
Agriculture, undertook the design of a traction dynamometer
that would, if possible, overcome some of the uncertainties
which existed in the records made from instruments then avail-
able. The principal object sought was to secure an instrument
that was sufficiently delicate to register every change of draft,
and, at the same time, was not subject to error in the record,
due to vibration. The instrument was designed in 1908, con-
structed by the Office of Public Roads, and attached to a stand-
ard city dray that was equipped with eight sets of wheels,
having tires varying from one and five-eighths inches in width
to six inches. A brief description of the instrument and its
operation is as follows:
The frame of the instrument is suspended rigidly from the
bed of the wagon. Two coil springs, through which the power
is transmitted, are in the line of draft from the tongue. The
tongue slides freely in its guides and is attached to the traction
rod of the dynamometer. As this traction rod is moved for-
ward by the pull on the tongue, the springs are compressed an
amount corresponding to the draft exerted. This compression
is transmitted through a rack and gear to a ribbon wheel, which,
through a steel ribbon, moves the record point, or rather per-
mits the record point to be moved by a coil spring which is in
tension, and which is attached to the other end of the guide
carrying the needle point. It has been found in several hun-
dred miles of tests carried on, that this arrangement does away
with all effects of vibration without, in any degree, decreasing
the delicacy of the mechanism. A roll of sensitized paper ten
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Draft of Wagons
87
inches wide and some -100 yards in length, is used. This paper
is fed through rolls which derive their motion from a sprocket
wheel on the hub of one of the rear wheels. The reduction of
motion is such that each inch of paper traveled represents
twenty-two feet of road travel, or 240 inches of record on the
paper shows a draft for one mile of road travel.
Figure 2
In Figure 2 is shown an assembly of the dynamometer, and in
Figure 3 a diagramatic drawing.
In Figures 4 to 12, inclusive, are shown photographic repro-
ductions of records taken by this instrument. An examination
of these records will show that the serrations or irregularities
vary strictly in accordance with the nature of the surface passed
over. AVith the exception of records Nos. 6 and 9, Figures 9
and 12, there is shown in each case, the effect of a stop and start.
At the time the tests were being made on the Belgian block
pavement, the frequency of the serrations and their irregularity
were noted. Several observers at different times walked along
with the horses, and it was unanimously agreed by them that
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
88
American Society Agricultural Engineers
for each irregularity in the record, there was apparently a dis-
tinct blow recorded on the shoulders of the horse by the collar;
in other words, that each serration showed a distinct change in
the draft. This conclusion is confirmed by the comparative
smoothness of the record taken on asphalt block, sheet asphalt,
and loose sand. On record No. 6, Figure 9, it will be noted that
the effect of the cross-planking on the bridge is clearly indi-
cated. Records 1 to 4, inclusive, Figures 4 to 7, inclusive, were
ft
-aV
Figure 3
taken during the same test, and are parts of one trip." The
other records shown were selected from tests in various locali-
ties. Because of the fact that the grades corresponding to rec-
ords 1 to 4 varied, it is not possible to compare these records
for draft purposes until grade corrections are made.
The work now being carried on by the Office of Public Roads
includes investigations into the effect of road surface, grade,
width of tire, diameter of wheel, and size of skein on the draft.
In connection with this work there are being conducted pre-
liminary and final tests on post-roads being constructed in vari-
Qigitized by VjOOQ IC
Draft of Wagons 89
ous localities of the United States under the supervision of the
Office. The method of conducting this work is as follows:
Preliminary tests are run over the entire length of the road
before improvement is started, and the average draft required,
0
SuASACt • 3tc9tAN O LOCK
Gaojs Loao • 6630 tij.
TmAcito* at
Start . 7/0 las.
Avi. Traction • 200 Lbs.
Brad*. • / 16 /• Up
Figure 4
and average horse-power exerted over the entire route, are cal-
culated. After the completion of the improvements final tests
are run, using the same load and width of tire, and wherever
possible, the same team and driver. The average draft required
<D
Sua FACE • &£lc/a/t Block'
6aoss Loao • 6630 lbs.
TKACTiON AT
STAJffT = 7BO Lss.
Grade. * /./a/« Doiyn,
J\
FlGUBE 5
and average horse-power exerted during the final tests, are cal-
culated and compared with those of the preliminary tests. The
relative drafts in the two cases afford a means of measuring the
effect of the improvement as a whole. In this calculation no
account is taken of changes of grade, relocations, etc., the de-
sire being to secure merely the general saving effected by the
improvement. An analysis is made, however, of each road, and
sections taken out where changes have been made in grade, and
where the type of surface has been changed and calculations
made showing the effect of any particular improvement. In
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
90
American Society Agricultural Engineers
each ease tests are made, using from two to eight different
widths of tires.
Other work that is projected, but on which very little has
been done as yet, is an investigation into the effective pulling
power of horses and mules as affected by :
(a) Weight of team.
(b) Road surface.
(c) Grade.
(d) Continuity of effort.
(e) Methods of hitching and adjusting harness.
(f) Rations.
®
SunFAce. m Asphalt Block.
6*oss Load • 6*so l*x
TmACTtOH AT
Start - 700 Lbs.
Avt. Taact»h ■ /S3J Lbs.
Figure G
The dynamometer has been equipped with a timing device to
enable calculations to be made for the horse-power developed.
The horsepowers that have been developed during portions of
several tests are shown in Table No. 1.
®
Sy»Mc* m Shmmt Asphalt.
Gmoss Icmo- 6S3C Imx
TmAcrtoH at -
SrA/rr - 600 Is*.
An. Tmactw tSZ Los.
Figure 7
It is generally considered that a horse is capable of exerting
for an extended period 22,500 foot pounds of work per minute,
instead of one mechanical horse-power of 33,000 foot pounds
per minute. An inspection of the table shows that the teams
used in these experiments exerted considerably more horse-power
than this, even over considerable stretches of road; for instance,
two horses on one of the tests at Dubuque, Iowa, developed
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Draft of Wagons
91
H
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Digitized by VjOOQ IC
92 American Society Agricultural Engineers
three and thirty-three hundredths horse-power over a stretch of
1,831 feet; at Ames, Iowa, four horses developed five and forty-
eight hundredths horsepower over a stretch of 1,618 feet, and at
5UXSAC£
m
3ric/k
Gross Load
»
4Soo Las,
T* ACTIO* AT
START
»
230 Les
Ay. Traction
8
$6S Lbs.
^^^J^^X^^
Figure 8
Alexandria, Virginia, four horses exerted five horse-power over
a stretch of 1,088 feet. It is interesting to note that at Du-
buque, Iowa, two horses repeatedly developed, over short
6*o*s Loao m €480 Cms.
A* T*. action w 142.1 Lmx
^mM^hM^M^M^k^^
Figure 9
stretches, more than six horse-power, in one case developing
nearly seven; while at Portland, Maine, two horses developed
as high as five and five-tenths horse-power over short stretches.
A reference to the record diagrams shows that the increased
draft required for starting a load, varies materially with the
nature of the road surface, and that the increase in draft is
relatively greater on the harder types of roads; for instance,
on Belgian block the starting draft may be four to six times the
average of the run; on brick and on block and sheet asphalt, it
may be three to four times, while in the case of hard dirt roads,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Draft of Wagons
93
it is seldom more than two or three times. The tests made so
far on loose sand indicate that the starting draft will average
about twice the running draft. The figures given for the start-
ing and for the running drafts in Table Xo. 1 do not appear to
bear out these statements, but it must be remembered that these
figures are taken on stretches of road where the running draft
was excessive. @
Su*r*cM
*
W**d Dimr.
Cm&ss 1*4 9
*
6330 Lbs
TftoCTIO* AT
Staat
a
/260 L3S.
AtC TffACTiOOf
•
361 Lbs.
5** to
*
32 M.PH
Ar Hf>
M
4.B4
feu* ttoAses.
tfr
*
//CO £AC*4
^^^^^
Figure 10
The figures that have been given in the past by different au-
thorities for the draft required per ton for hauling wagons over
various types of roadways vary in the case of hard dirt roads
all the way from sixty-nine pounds, found at the Missouri Agri-
cultural College, to 224 pounds, as determined by BeVan, and
quoted in Morrison's Highway Engineering. The draft on
sheet asphalt varies from seventeen pounds per ton, to fifty
pounds; on block asphalt from twenty-eight pounds, as found
by the Iowa State College, to fifty-two pounds ; on Belgian block
from thirty 'pounds as given in the handbooks of Gillett and of
Frye, to fifty pounds, as determined by Morin. The draft re-
quired for loose sand as given by different authorities, varies
from 285 pounds per ton to 448.
The tests from which the records shown in this article were
take gave the following drafts in pounds per ton on the differ-
ent roadways:
Hard dirt 106.4
Sheet asphalt 50
Block asphalt 52
Belgian block 47
Loose sand 315
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
M
American Society Agricultural Engineers
In the case of dirt roads, this value is the average taken
from some fifty tests over eight different sections of roadway,
the sections averaging about 900 feet in length. In the case of
SympAtK
6*04S LOAO
TlHACrtON AT
STA*T
A*» Thacticn
imrr str. smm
Fou* MtM.MJ.fTr.
L—si Jano
4.7SO Lss.
/SCO l*±
BSZ Las.
IZOO L*s.£ac<
WAr~^^rr-~
Figure 11
the pavement, the results are the averages from several miles
of tests, while with the sand the value given is the average
draft for one mile. Although for a distance of 750 feet, from
SUXFACB
Gao&s Load
Taaction at
Start •
Ak Taactisn Sgr. Srcs ■
T#* Homes, t& - »
* Loo*£ Sand.
» SOOO LSS.
0SO LSS.
690 -lss.
//SO LSS. SAC*.
Figure 12
which length the record shown in Figure 11 was taken, the aver-
age draft was 358.5 pounds per ton. In the sand, a one and
five-eighths inch tire was used, on the pavement three inch
tires, but in the case of the hard dirt road, the result is the
average of eight different tire widths ranging from one and five-
eighths inches to six inches.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Draft of Wagons
95
The question of the effect of the width of tire on the draft is
one that is being investigated in all the tests being made with
this dynamometer, particularly as regards cumulative effect,
that is to say, the relative draft after a repeated number of
runs. In order to get data on this subject, as many as seventy-
five consecutive runs have been made over the same roadway,
u
^l: . i- .:.--■
m
m
\
if
?TtSJli '
n«|njrt»-»|; '.• I '— < —
» jS.ci u ^ ii'u 1 f" tar u-tr rwft
■f"4
Figure 13
particularly in the case of dirt and gravel roads. Because of
the large number of variables that enter into an investigation
of this kind, it is impossible to draw conclusions from a small
number of tests, but it is believed that the work as now being
<jarried on is sufficient in extent to warrant us in eliminating
from our records individual tests that show results distinctly
varying from the others of the same group. In working up the
results, we have had occasion to eliminate one or possibly two
runs out of a series comprising fifty to seventy-five tests. Much
work yet remains to be done with respect to this investigation,
but computations made from the data corrected to date, con-
vinces the writer that there is a definite law by which the cumu-
Digitized by VjOOQIC
96
American Society Agricultural Engineers
lative effect of the width of tire may be measured, and that this
law is the equation of a true parabola, the constants of which
vary with the road material. This variation may be sufficient
to change the constants for a given width of tire to such an ex-
M^aM.;, .1 ■ . . -aag
~ECJ
ii ■ rv *t- fey* t n
Figure 14
tent that the curve will be convex upward for one material, and
convex downward for the other.
Figure 13 shows the curve plotted from a test of thirty-two
runs made with a one and five-eighths inch tire on a gravel
road. The points indicated by the small crosses show the actual
gross load draft for each run; the points in the small circles,
the averages of five runs, and the parabola indicated by the
dotted curve, the locus of the equation (D — 238)2 = 1187N,
where D represents the draft, and N the number of the trip.
The numeral 238 is the constant representing the ordinate of
the axis of the parabola, and 1,187 the focal distance. These
constants are the ones that vary with the material of which
the road is composed, and its condition, especially with regard
to moisture. Reduced to unit drafts, the equation becomes
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Draft of Wagons
97
(d — 76.8)2=123.1N. Figure 14 is taken from a test using
two inch tires, and comprising seventy-five runs, the equation
:-3D 3^
,1
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-'2 • • •■"- • -■':''■
r^pf: :
:!ii~1 :-: .•' : - • ■'']
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•:.|
^Vr-" .j|£
Uh'-i :'"l •• :
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fei*?; =**! :t T. i '"• . :T~I
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ails£s|& :£■ M. 5 ; r
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Figure 15
being (D — 251.5) 2 = 59.3N; the unit equation becoming
(d — 94.7)2=8.4N.
In making a comparison of the draft of wagons under differ-
ent conditions, it will, of course, be necessary to correct values
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
98
American Society Agricultural Engineers
found in any one test for the per cent, of grade of the road,
and also to reduce the figures to pounds per ton. In making
the corrections for grade it has been customary to consider that
the effect of the grade is absolutely independent of the road sur-
Figure 16
face, and also that in grades up to twenty per cent, the sine of
the angle is practically the same as the tangent. This gives a
correction factor of — (or twenty pounds per ton) for each
per cent, of grade. The point has been raised by several per-
sons that while theoretically the increase of draft due to gradt*
was independent of the road material or road surface, yet that
in actual practice it would be found that the nature of the road
material and the condition of the road surface would have
a decided effect on this increase in draft. There have ap-
parently been no tests made in connection with this phase
Digitized by VjOOQIC
Draft of Wagons
99
of the subject, and the writer recently selected frora tests
made in various localities, data relative to the increased
draft found on different road surfaces at different grades.
Figures 15 to 28, inclusive, show the draft in pounds per
ton actually found on different road surfaces, the small cir-
cles being the actual drafts per ton from tests, while the straight
line shows the path along which the draft should increase for
an increase of twenty pounds per ton for each per cent increase
in grade. This straight line crosses the T axis at the point
representing the draft per ton actually obtained in the test
made on level ground, where that value is plotted.
Figures 15, 16 and 17 are taken from tests on Belgian block,
sheet asphalt and block asphalt with a loaded cart weighing
4,710 pounds. Figures 18, 19 and 20 represent tests made on
Digitized by VjOOQIC
100
American Society Agricultural Engineers
the same pavement with a power fiusher weighing 8,375 pounds,
the tires in each case being about three inches in width. Fig-
ures 21 to 28, inclusive, show the results of tests made on dif-
ferent widths of tires. The values plotted are taken from a
^^v^f:L^.i.-.|,^::H::;li^
*■
Figure 18
large number of tests made in some ten or a dozen localities
throughout the United States. These tests were made on dif-
ferent types of earth roads and under various moisture condi-
tions. Practically every condition of earth road is represented,
except the extreme conditions of deep mud and deep loose sand.
The gross loads varied from two to three and one-half tons. It
will be noted that in spite of these varying conditions, the line
of theoretical draft increase approximates very closely to a
line representing the average of the points plotted.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
Draft of Wagons
101
These results indicate very clearly that the increase in draft
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Digitized by VjOOQIC
102
American Society Agricultural Engineers
sand road, it will require a grade of over fifteen per cent, to
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Digitized by VjOOQIC
Draft of Wagons
103
Fig. 21. — One and five-eighths inch tires.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
104
American Society Agricultural Engineers
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Fig. 22.— Two inch tires.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
Draft of Wagons
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Fio. 23. — Two and one-half inch tires.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
106
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Digitized by VjOOQIC
Draft of Wagons
107
Fig. 25. — Three and one-half inch tires.
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Digitized by VjOOQIC
108 American Society Agricultural Engineers
<7-/R*J*C iff wfa
Fig. 26. — Four inch tires.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Draft of Wagons
109'
Fig. 21.— Five inch tires.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
110
American Society Agricultural Engineers
t-.&m-r^m'MJ&ams&ssms
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Digitized by {j OOQ IC
Architectural Problems of the Farmhouse 111
ARCHITECTURAL PROBLEMS OF THE FARMHOUSE.
By William Alonzo Ethebton*
Architecture as an art is concerned primarily with the ele-
ment of beauty in buildings, but as a profession it has to do
practically with all building problems. It is concerned with
structural and sanitary engineering, with heating and lighting,
sculpture and painting, landscape architecture and gardening
as auxiliaries to the general problem of preparing building
plans and specifications and superintending construction. On
large undertakings, the architect is generalissimo of an army of
artists, engineers and artisans whose art, genius and skill are
harmoniously combined to produce a useful, strong and beauti-
ful structure.
The architectural problems of the farmhouse, notwithstand-
ing its diminutive size, are as inclusive as in monumental work.
The house should be useful, strong and beautiful, and these re-
quirements involve more complex relations and difficult prob-
lems in the dwelling than in any other class of buildings. The
house is domestic, and it should be planned and designed for the
needs of individual families. Churches, school houses, court
houses, office buildings, capitol buildings, factories, etc., are pub-
lic and they are planned and designed for public needs accord-
ing to established rules and practices. They are, most often,
planned along very simple lines. Office buildings and factories,
in particular, are composed of units which are repeated many
times, perhaps, on twenty or thirty floors; but in the residence
there usually are no two rooms the same in size, finish and dec-
oration, and seldom two exterior elevations alike. The house
may have the plumbing, heating, lighting, vacuum cleaning,
telephones, electric bells, etc., found in public buildings, and
other conveniences peculiar to the residence alone. It has all
the complex relations of the multiple purposes it serves.
For the better consideration of these problems they are di-
vided here into those having to do with (I) Utility, (II) Stabil-
* In charge of Farm Structures U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
132 American Society Agricultural Engineers .
ity and (III) Beauty in buildings, and the problems to be dis-
cussed will follow in this order.
I. UTILITY.
Buildings are erected primarily for their usefulness and they
cannot be good examples of domestic architecture if this purpose
is subserved to other requirements.
The house should protect the family from heat and cold, wind
and rain, hail and snow, lightning and fire. It should afford
protection from outside foes and provide means for sanitation,
privacy, convenience and for social life in the home. These
utilitarian purposes must needs be carefully considered for effi-
cient planning. Constructive and aesthetic problems are but
incidental to their attainment.
A. Protection from Heat and Cold. Architectural problems
are the more difficult for having to provide for the extremes of
climatic conditions. If we could plan either for summer or win-
ter, these problems would be much simplified, as in equatorial
or polar regions; but in our temperate zone we must plan to
open the house to the summer breezes and the winter sun, and
to close it against the summer heat and the winter winds. These
requirements involve principles of planning and of orientation
that need more to be regarded.
It is not always practicable on city or suburban lots to so
orient the house that no part of the yard near it will be in per-
petual shadow, nor is it always practicable there to arrange the
rooms satisfactorily with regard to wind and sun; but the farm
site is free of this handicap and, in this respect, it offers unex-
celled opportunities for ideal planning.
The long, hot summers of the South and the cold, rigorous
winters of the North caused the early development in this coun-
try of distinctive plans designed primarily for the high or the
low extremes of temperature. The wide hall, open to the inland
breezes, was the central feature in one and the huge stone chim-
ney> with its several fire places, was characteristic of the other;
but industrial conditions and household equipment have greatly
changed in recent years, and these changes have necessarily af-
fected our domestic architectural problems. The heated kitchen,
formerly removed from the southern house, is now7 necessarily
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Architectural Problems of the Farmhouse 113
brought nearer to it and, in many instances, attached, or built
in. The massive stone chimney in the northern house has been
removed, or its inefficient fire places boarded up.
These new conditions in modern house planning have been
provided for in both the South and the North, but not suffi-
ciently long and well to develop new and distinctive types of
houses for the two sections. The South is fortunate in its mod-
ern bungalow adaptation, which is a southern type, and prob-
ably should be distinctive of that climate, but bungalows are
now built along the Canadian border and on the coast of Maine.
Many northern farmers have built for protection from the cold
and they enjoy the comforts of a modern heating system which
1 maintains an equable temperature in the house for several
months of the year; but the same kind of a northern house and
the same kind of a heating system are to be found far south of
the latitudes to which they belong. Climatic conditions are not
so clearly evidenced in our domestic architecture as formerly
and it is now quite impossible to determine the approximate
location of many farmhouses from their plans and photographs.
This would seem to be an inevitable result of the prevalent
use of dollar plans which, though prepared in accordance with
local conditions, have been sold everywhere. It would seem to
be the result of plans prepared by the U. S. Department of Agri-
culture if they should be described as suitable to all sections of
the country, or if the press should erroneously denominate them,
as some papers did with a sketch released for publication some
months ago, as "Uncle Sam's Model Farmhouses." The depart-
ment may exemplify the general principles of farmhouse plan-
ning, but it cannot develop any plan or design of value that is
equally suitable for hot or cold and wet or dry regions; and it
will fail in an important purpose if it does not clearly demon-
strate this fact. If state institutions would undertake rural
architectural problems with due consideration to climatic condi-
tions, we might rightfully expect new and distinctive types of
farm houses far better suited to the families' needs than one in-
digenous to another soil and transported half the width of the
continent.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
314 American Society Agricultural Engineers
B. Protection from Wind. The house should protect the fam-
ily from wind. The loss of life in cyclones and the horrifying
fear and dread of storms sufficiently justify the careful study
and demonstration of such details of construction as are neces-
sary to make farmhouses wind resisting. The subject will be
further considered under the head of " Stability."
C. Protection from Rain, Hail and Snow. The house should
protect the family from rain, hail and snow. These require-
ments involve problems of roofing: the design and construction
of cornices, gutters, rain leaders, storm sewers, etc. ; the protec-
tion of doors, windows and sleeping porches; the removal of
surface and ground water ; and the insulation against dampness
of walls and cellar floors. It involves also the matter of orienta-
tion, for it is quite desirable to have all roof, wall and ground
surfaces exposed to and dried by the sun.
Each utilitarian purpose involves problems more or less re-
lated to others. For instance, the cornice, window shutters,
weather strips, etc., that protect from rain and snow, protect
also from heat and cold; and the paint that protects the walls
from dampness adds materially to the durability and the beauty
of buildings.
The roof serves, primarily, the one purpose of shelter, but it
seems quite reasonable that it could be so designed and con-
structed as to serve in our warmer climates, and especially so
in the drier ones, the same utilitarian purpose that it serves in
the warm and dry climates of the Orient. It would be a radical
departure from present practice to design flat roofed farmhouses
and an unusual custom for farm families to use such roofs for
sitting and sleeping purposes ; but if state institutions should
endeavor to develop plans of farmhouses best adapted to local
climatic conditions as previously suggested, such houses would
very probably become a practical reality in portions of the
"West and South. There is unquestionably room for great im-
provement in the planning of our houses for comfort in sum-
mer and the Egyptian roof plan appears to offer possibilities for
some of our states that may well justify study and experimental
work along this line.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Architectural Problems of tlie Farmhouse 115
D. Protection of Buildings from Lightning. The house should
protect the family from lightning, and to this end it should it-
self be protected. That such protection is possible is affirmed
by scientists and confirmed by experience. The fire marshals
of this (Illinois) and nearby states report that of 461 fires in
Wisconsin caused by lightning in 1913, only ten buildings were
rodded; of 732 in Indiana, fourteen were rodded; of 130 in Kan-
sas, nineteen were rodded ; of 419 in this state, none were rodded.
The estimated loss from these fires caused by lightning is, for
rodded buildings in "Wisconsin, $20,435, and for the unrodded,
$586,485. In Indiana the corresponding figures are $37,227 and
$596,947; in Kansas, $14,861 and $206,119. In Illinois there
was no loss whatever from rodded buildings and $1,104,693 for
buildings not rodded. We cannot know what percentage of the
unprotected buildings would have been saved by rodding, but
the evidence seems quite enough to prove the efficiency, the
economy and the desirability of such safeguards. The Indiana
fire marshal reports that "only three or four total losses on
buildings equipped with rods occurred in Indiana. In these in-
stances when an examination was. made, it was found that the
rods were not properly placed or that, as in one instance, they
had been in service thirty years without repair. * * * Two
farmers' mutuals in this state (Indiana) make a reduction of
twenty per cent in the rate on buildings properly equipped with
rods. This step has been taken after keeping careful records of
the losses from lightning on both rodded and unrodded risks.
Several mutuals in other states refuse to insure buildings not
provided with this protection. Destruction during the past year
of property worth half a million dollars would have been pre-
vented by the proper rodding of buildings on Indiana farms."
In a report by Ernst J. Berg, professor of electrical engineer-
ing, University o£ Illinos, read before the Illinois State Electric
Association, October 24, 1912, he states that "to people living in
cities the subject (Lightning Protection of Buildings) is of lit-
tle or no interest. Experience has shown that the extensive net-
work of wires, metal roofs, etc., are usually ample for protec-
tion. The man living in the country, however, is very much
concerned, as experience has shown that in certain localities, at
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
116 American Society Agricultural Engineers
least, it is indeed tempting Providence not to have some light-
ning rod scheme."
Such protection seems, therefore, fully to justify the means
and it is incumbent upon the architect of a farmhouse to pro-
vide in the specifications for a practical system of lightning
rods.
E. Protection from Fire. The house should protect the fam-
ily from fire. As commonly built, it causes the fire, feeds its
flames and jeopardizes the lives of the occupants. Although iso-
lated, farmhouses are in greater risk of destruction by fire than
congested city residences, which are well protected in construc-
tion by rigid building ordinances and at all times by efficient fire
companies.
A large percentage of country fires, is, however, due to faulty
planning and building construction, which may well be im-
proved. The insurance commissioners of Vermont report that
of 261 farm dwelling fires in 1913, ninety caught from the chim-
ney, thirty-three from lightning, fifteen from overheated stove
pipes, fourteen from chimney sparks, and five from exposure — a
total of 157 fires, or more than sixty per cent of all the farm-
house fires reported. All of these causes are subject to such im-
provement in location, planning and construction that more than
half the fire loss from such buildings may be avoided. The sub-
ject will be considered further under "Stability."
F. Protection from Ouside Foes. The farmhouse is no longer
a fortress against foes of the woods or marauding bands of rob-
bers; but there are foes yet to be contended with, and none was
ever more blood-thirsty than the mosquito or more persistent
than the fly. The dangerous bite of the one and the filthiness
of the other are now quite generally understood, and it is not in
the province of the architect to proclaim them. Protection
against these insects is, however, an architectural problem and
one of considerable importance and consequence in the. planning
and in the design of farmhouses.
The use of fly screens has already developed a marked change
in city and suburban residences and real estate builders have
learned that screened sleeping porches and kitchen porches are
important factors in the selling and renting of houses. The
Digitized by LiOOQ IC
Architectural Problems of the Farmhouse 117
farm dwelling offers even greater possibilities for such improve-
ments, and many of them have been generously provided with
screens; but the fact that a large majority of such houses have
not been planned and built with better provisions for out-door
living is probably due, in part to the lack of architectural serv-
ice. Domestic habits yield but slowly and stubbornly to innova-
tions, and the family long accustomed to sleeping in-doors is not
easily persuaded to change' this habit for what may appear to be
a fad of city folk.
There is need of farmhouse plans made with careful considera-
tion to the greater needs of out-door living which is made pos-
sible by the use of wire screening ; and it seems entirely reason-
able to assert that all plans of farmhouses prepared by public
institutions should thoroughly emphasize and provide for this
need.
We referred under another heading to the possible uses of the
flat roof after sunset, and it seems a reasonable prediction that
the protection afforded by wire screens will not only help to
make this a practical reality, but it will influence the future de-
velopment of rural architecture to an extent that has not yet
been indicated. It will count for greater health, comfort and
happiness in the farm home, and these are worth our most per-
sistent effort to obtain.
O. Provisions for Sanitation. The house should provide
means for and promote cleanliness. This division of our subject
is inclusive of all of the problems of sanitation that need to be
considered in (1) locating, (2) planning, and (3) equipping
houses. It includes problems of location, for it is concerned
with the purity of air, with shade and sunshine, with water sup-
ply, with drainage, and with the facilities for sewage disposal.
It includes problems of planning, for it is concerned with the
amount of floor, wall and ceiling surfaces to be cleaned, with
the physical nature of these surfaces, with their irregularities,
and with their exposure to dirt. It is concerned with provi-
sions made for light, sunshine and air, and with the protection
afforded the family from the weather, and from filthy and dis-
ease-laden insects. It includes problems of equipment, for it is
concerned with the facilities for bodily and household cleanli-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
118 American Society Agricultural Engineers
ness and with furniture, fixtures and utensils as articles to be
cleaned.
(1) The value of location with respect to healthful conditions
has been well emphasized by sanitary engineers and other writers
on farm sanitation, but (2) the relation of house planning to
such conditions appears to have been but little considered,
(a) It is, nevertheless, quite evident that the overworked house-
wife would either be less burdened by the cleaning of a smaller
house or she would clean it more often and better. A house may
be smaller and yet adequate for the family *s needs by being well
planned and the requirements for cleanliness emphasize the im-
portance of planning for reduced Hoor, wall and ceiling surfaces.
A good supply of large rooms, halls, stairways and store rooms
have advantages; but these have, in many houses, been obtained
at the sacrifice of cleanliness and possibly of health.
(b) The physical nature of the surfaces to be cleaned has had
the very careful attention of architects and of the manufacturers
of Hoor and wall surfacing materials, and a compilation of arti-
cles written on this subject would seem to indicate that it had
been exhaustively handled; but what farmer has the advantage
of this information or could handle it to good advantage if he
had it in its present form ? If he wanted advice on the subject,
would he know where to get a specification well suited to his
needs? Valuable information on the materials for floors, walls,
and ceilings and their coverings has been published; but it is
not reaching and serving the country folk as it should.
(c) House workers have justly condemned the indiscriminate
use of moulded and panelled surfaces. Such irregularities add
greatly to the difficulty of cleaning and thus to unsanitary con-
ditions. A popular prejudice has been created against such
practices and as a result we are witnessing the other extreme —
all interior finish and furniture severely plain. This extreme is
not wholly satisfying, either from the view point of design or
cost, and it is reasonable to expect a reaction. It is, therefore,
one of the architectural problems of the farmhouse to detail the
interior finish with due regard to the requirements for sanitation
and cost, but to avoid the bizarre in design.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Architectural Problems of the Farmhouse 119
(d) Cleanliness and sanitation in the farmhouse may be pro-
moted by planning carefully the lines most travelled by the men
when they enter. One woman despaired of keeping her dining
room floor clean because the men crossed it so often to the stair-
way. Others complain of the men tracking dirt through the
kitchen. It is not the least of architectural problems to avoid
the cause of such complaints about the farmhouse and it is quite
possible to do so.
(e) It seems now to be commonly understood that pure air,
light and sunshine are the most potent agencies in combating
the disease that levies heaviest toll upon mankind. It is also
commonly believed that the proverbial ounce of prevention is,
for this purpose, worth far more than a pound of cure and that
the disease can be successfully combated only by removing the
cause. Tuberculosis, like dry rot in timber, germinates and
thrives in unventilated places and it probably will continue to
thrive and to reap its toll of death as long as human beings and
domestic animals are housed under prevailing conditions. They
must be housed better if our knowledge of the disease gained by
the long and laborious efforts of scientists is to avail us anything.
The public importance of improving housing conditions is clearly
evident from social, moral and aesthetic considerations ; but that
it is a public necessity is evidenced by the fact that the vitality
of the nation is jeopardized by inattention to it.
Architects are striving more than ever before to plan gener-
ously for pure air, light and sunshine and suggestive plans and
designs for farmhouses worked out by public institutions should
emphasize strongly the effort to provide these health giving
agencies. They should provide, as previously stated, for more
out-of-door living, and to this end the architect should not be
greatly handicapped by precedence. The house that is designed
primarily for the needs of farm life, that is most conducive ta
health, wealth and happiness, will be best and soon will look
best to the neighborhood notwithstanding radical changes from
the prevailing practice.
(f) We have discussed under another heading the protection
of the family from the, weather and from insects.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
120 American Society Agricultural Engineers
(g) The requirements for sanitation bring us to a considera-
tion of building equipment, (a) The words " house sanitation' '
have been so closely associated with water supply and sewage
disposal that they suggest them as the most important of sani-
tary problems. They are emphasized as the greatest need of
the farmhouse and unquestionably they do constitute an impor-
tant one ; but this emphasis, as it comes directly from the home,
seems prompted more by the requirements for convenience than
of sanitation. Practice, at least, indicates that this is true, for
in many instances the plumbing system is an unsanitary con-
trivance.
It was recently urged by one interested in such problems that
a bulletin should be prepared on the subject " Every Parmer His
Own Plumber/ * It was explained in reply that this would be
as injudicious as a bulletin on "Every Farmer His Own Archi-
tect, Lawyer, Dentist or Doctor. " The farmer can and should,
to some extent, design his own buildings, take care of his legal
business, pull teeth and doctor his family, and similarly he can
and should do some of his plumbing work ; but with all due con-
sideration for his intelligence and varied experiences in mechan-
ical work, it now appears as needful to discourage him from
attempting installations of complete plumbing systems without
the help of licensed plumbers as it is to encourage him to im-
prove his home with modern conveniences and sanitary equip-
ment. Assuming that simple installations may economically
and safely be made by the farmer, it is a problem, in the plan-
ning of inexpensive farmhouses, to so detail, specify and explain
such installations that sanitary work will be assured. This sub-
ject will be further discussed under " Convenience.' '
(b) The subject of ventilation has been discussed as a sanitary
problem, but it arises again for consideration in connection with
heating equipment. Heating and ventilating are closely asso-
ciated in practice, notwithstanding that conditions favoring effi-
ciency in one may be diametrically opposed to efficiency in the
other. Houses are being insulated against the cold and the need
of artificial ventilation increases with the efficiency of the insu-
lation. The mechanical contrivances for this artificial ventila-
tion are not entirely automatic ; they are not fool proof, and they
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Architectural Problems of the Farmhouse 121
may as easily be manipulated to save fuel as to save the health
of the family.
Heating and ventilating is not a problem for further develop-
ment by architects interested in farm structures. It has and it
will continue to be ably handled by heating and ventilating en-
gineers, but it is for architects to clearly exemplify the princi-
ples of the subject, to emphasize their importance and to assist
in their practical application.
Notwithstanding the sentiment associated with the old and in-
efficient fire place, it has. necessarily, been abandoned and the
new, scientifically developed design has not regained the confi-
dence that its efficiency as a heater and a ventilator deserve.
The experience of living in a house heated with intelligently
built fire places is, perhaps, necessary to convince the skeptical
that such contrivances are more useful than ornamental and that
with their use the family may enjoy better health than with
more expensive heating systems; but the inclusion of such fire-
places in suggestive plans and specifications of farmhouses will
aid in repopularizing this part of the sanitary equipment.
(c) The handling of fuel and ashes and vacuum cleaning are
items of more or less importance in the sanitary equipment of
houses, and these will be referred to under * ' Convenience. ' '
(d) The requirements for sanitation tax the ingenuity of
architects in attempting to design cupboards, china closets,
built-in tables and other fixtures inexpensively, and possibly
there has been more incentive to avoid such designs when it has .
been at all possible to do so, than to strive for improvements in
present practice. That there is, however, the possibility of
marked improvement along this line is evidenced by the progress
made by manufacturers in designing and building so-called sani-
tary furniture. They have a practical advantage for such work
that secures them against the competition of builders, but their
products will not wholly suffice. The mechanic will continue
for some time to build in shelving, cupboards, tables, etc., and it
is an architectural problem to improve the details, with respect
to cleanliness, for this class of work.
H. Provisions for Privacy. The farmhouse should provide
well for the privacy of the family. That these provisions, well
made, will, in a large degree differentiate it from the city resi-
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122 American Society Agricultural Engineers
deuce, seems evident from the difference in conditions affecting
the domestic habits and customs of city and country folk. That
these difference have not been well considered and provided for
by builders is evident from the similarity in plan and design of
detached houses in city and country. Notwithstanding that the
stranger and the neighbor drive to the so-called rear of the
farmhouse, that they go most naturally to the kitchen or dining
room door, and that they reach the front "entrance," if at all,
from within, the farmer continues to plan the most public part
of his house as the urbanite plans his private service quarters,
and thus disregards an advantage for good planning and design
due to his isolation and environment that is particularly favor-
ble to his needs. The fact that the kitchen is so public in the
farmhouse and that rooms intended for strangers and callers
are so little used for such purposes, is due in large measure to
the arrangement of rooms, doors and porches, and there appears
to be a need and a possibility for a considerable improvement in
these features of the house.
The need of a private room, an office for the farmer, has often
been included in the stated requirements for the modern farm-
house. It is to be found in many of the larger houses, but. its
practical importance to the average farmer has probably been
overestimated. The actual need for such a room should be well
understood and carefully considered with other needs before it
is provided for in suggestive plans of limited cost.
The housing of farm help interferes more or less with the
privacy of the family and it presents a problem deserving the
careful consideration of owners. As an architectural problem
it presents no serious difficulties.
I. Provisions for Convenience. It is in the planning of the
farm dwelling for convenience that the architect encounters
problems differing most from those with which he deals in plan-
ning city or suburban residences. This is particularly true for
that class of city homes in which servants are employed. In
these, the kitchen and other service rooms are of secondary im-
portance. They are in many homes a sort of necessary evil to
be miti gated as much as possible by obscuring them from the
senses of sight, smell and hearing. To this end they are re-
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Architectural Problems of the Farmhouse 123
moved as far as practicable from other rooms and quite com-
monly to the rear of the house where they may be reached from
the outside only by a servants7 walk and an inconspicuous en-
trance.
The master of such a home leaves it in the morning to return
in the evening. He may seldom see the kitchen. He has no
business there and possibly nothing more than a financial inter-
est. The mistress is engaged in the living room and parlors, or
with social duties elsewhere. She has only supervisory duties
in the service quarters.
The family on the farm is seldom away from home and the
men are in and out of doors during the day. All members of
the family and the farm help have their " three square meals' ' a
day, two of them in many instances while the sun is below the
horizon. During harvest time, when the well-to-do city family
may be in the mountains or at the beach, and little or no kitchen
work is done at their home, the farm family is busiest and the
kitchen and dining room are taxed to their greatest capacity.
All members of the family at home are farmers and workers
and the house is a part of their industrial equipment. It is the
workshop for the women from dawn until dusk and the kitchen
is the center of their activities. They have parlors, but for oc-
casional use only. If they succeed in getting help for the house
work it is to assist and not to serve. The relative importance
of living and service rooms is, therefore, reversed in city and
country and in like manner the relative value of working equip-
ment. Convenience is one of the most important provisions for
the farmhouse and the possibilities for its attainment have yet
to be commonly understood and realized.
The problems to be considered under this division of our sub-
ject may be divided into those having to do (1) with duties ap-
pertaining to meals, (2) to clothing, (3) to care of the house
and (4) to care of the person.
(1) For greater convenience in the preparation and serving
of meals and the cleaning and putting away of dishes and
kitchen utensils after the meals, it is necessary thfit the (a) fuel,
(b) water, (c) food supplies, and (d) working equipment be
nearer to the places where needed. These requirements are
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124 American Society Agricultural Engineers
commonly understood ; they have been strongly emphasized many
times and progress has been made toward their attainment ; but
this progress has been slow and insufficient. There are appar-
ently greater possibilities for improvement in these things and
urgent need of such improvement, and the results to be expected
are well worth striving for.
(a) Plans have already been developed to exemplify the prac-
ticableness of wood boxes and coal bunkers near the kitchen
range to be filled from outside of the house and of ash pits be-
neath the range into which the ashes may fall.
(b) Water supply and sewage disposal systems have been well
developed except for cost. Present cost makes them prohibitive
to many farmers and there is a very great need of inexpensive
layouts that may be used without danger from freezing in houses
without heating systems. This need is evidenced by such in-
quiries as the following, which probably come to every state
-agricultural college, as well as to the department of agriculture.
"Could you tell me if I might manage to use a hot water boiler
in connection with water front to range without having water
works in house?"
(c-d) Plans have been developed with careful attention to
the distances between places where food is stored, where it is
prepared and where it is consumed ; but none yet evidences the
studious care and development that has made the portable
kitchen cabinet an article much to be desired, if not a necessity
in the modern kitchen. The service rooms and porches are cer-
tainly as important as any unit of their equipment and they will
undoubtedly yield as much to studious efforts to improve them.
(2) Convenience in duties appertaining to clothing is to be
obtained by more careful attention to the problems having to do
with (a) sewing, (b) washing, (c) drying, (d) ironing and
(e) storing of clothing.
(a) Farm women who have sewing rooms well located are
quite enthusiastic in their praises of them. In weeding out
from the many things to be desired the things that cannot be
afforded, the convenience for sewing should not lightly be con-
sidered. The size of this room, its place in the plan, its light.
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Architectural Problems of the Farmhouse 125
its cupboards, etc., and the advisability of its serving the two
purposes of sewing room and office, are a few of the problems to
be considered by the architect in providing this convenience.
(b, c, d) The laundry is being very well provided for in the
best of modern farm houses; but it has been little improved in
the great majority of country homes. Practice varies with re-
spect to its location and all women, save one, who were asked
in the speaker's investigation for an opinion on this subject,
were quite sure that it should be in the basement, on the ground
level, on the first floor level, or removed some distance from the
house, accordingly as their laundry happened to be so located*
Individual opinions appear, therefore, to be contradictory and
possibly of little worth; but the trained investigator and ob-
server will find in them the essence of his problems and a relia-
ble guide to the solutions.
(e) The amount of room that may consistently be given to
elothes closets, linen closets and wardrobes seems never to have
been seriously considered, notwithstanding the convenience and
the popular demand for plenty of closet room. The amount of
shelving, hooks and drawer room continue to be a matter of guess
work and get-as-much-as-you-can, and but little has been done
for efficiency in room and for convenience in handling the
clothing.
(3, 4) Conveniences for house cleaning and for bodily clean-
liness are conveniences for sanitation also, and this subject has
previously been considered.
J. Provisions for Social Life. The farmhouse should serve
the social needs of the family. It should be a home and to this
end it must be more than a work shop. It may necessarily be
reduced to the essentials for bodily comfort and decency, but
it may have all the advantages of good location, proper orienta-
tion, pleasing surroundings, etc., of more costly houses and such
comforts as may obtain from careful planning and design. Hav-
ing these, it will have the material prerequisites for social life
in the home. A good house will by no means assure sociability,
but it will promote health, comfort and happiness which are
essential to it.
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126 American Society Agricultural Engineers
The following article clipped some years ago from a farm
papfer,* describes an extreme example of unsociable conditions,
but one which we fear is extremely too common:
"The writer recently stopped at a country home (?) to have
s, talk with the proprietor on a matter of importance to both.
The day was exceedingly hot, the sun seemingly shooting its
rays down like spikes from a catapult. The narrow porch on
the south side of the house did not keep out the sun and the only
•chance for shade was on the north side of the house where the
breeze could not reach us. There we finished our business,
bathed in perspiration. We learned that this farmer had owned
the 285 acres, which he cultivated for many years. The house
was a fairly comfortable box house of six rooms — no bath rooms
or running water for domestic purposes. The barn was really a
better and more comfortable building than the residence. For
the livestock water was drawn by bucket from an 80-foot well.
Not a tree for fruit or shade, nor a vine for ornament. Father
and Mother toiled and slept and the children attended a nearby
school with equally unattractive surroundings a few months
each year. The rest of the time they toiled and slept like
Father and Mother.
"This house was not in any sense a social center and the
brightest spot in the perspective for the broken wife and mother
was the nearby grave yard on a hill between this home and the
village postoffice. This farmer was well off in this world's goods
viewed from a dollar-and-cents standpoint, but miserably pov-
erty-stricken in those things that make life worth the living."
It is quite improbable that a plea for better social conditions
in the home would appeal to such families as this either in the
country or in town; but a better house for the money would at
once engage their attention and, when built, it would serve the
purpose for which it was designed: viz., to assist "in those
things that make life worth the living.' '
II. STABILITY.
The Permanency of Farm Buildings has been the subject of
previous papers and discussions in the Society and it will be
* "Farm and Ranch."
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Architectural Problems of the Farmhouse 127
the purpose of this one only to enumerate and to comment upon
a few of the structural problems in farm dwellings that appear
to be most in need of attention.
The farm dwelling, to be of greatest usefulness, must be in-
geniously contrived out of heterogeneous materials to provide for
these requirements now and for future generations. It must
ondure the wear and tear of daily use and of wind and weather,
and withstand lightning, fire and decay.
A. Destruction of Buildings by Wind. The destruction of
property by wind and the resulting loss of life due to flimsily
constructed buildings is quite appalling and the disasters so
often charged to Divine Providence might more correctly be
charged to criminal carelessness or to ignorance in construction.
The opinion seems common in regions frequented by storms
that cyclones are irresistible and that some houses escape de-
struction only because of the freakish nature of such winds. It
is explained to the skeptical that large brick and stone buildings
have been wrecked in storms and that no small dwelling house
of wood, however well constructed, could withstand such a force.
It does not appear to have been so commonly observed that mod-
ern office buildings rise from a narrow base to more than fifty
stories in height ; that they sway in the mighty grasp of an un-
obstructed wind, and that none has yet yielded to its power.
Farmhouses are not built upon a skeleton of steel and it is
necessary that they should withstand many of the winds that
now destroy them. About thirty years ago, a Kansas twister
scattered the debris of a three-room house far and wide
over the prairie j but this house was supported on piers and
■carelessly framed. It offered but little resistance to the wind.
The small stable nearby was built upon posts which extended
two or three feet into the ground. The posts were inclined by
the force of the wind and the roof was blown off; but the walls
of the stable stood and the horses were unharmed. The com-,
plete wrecking of the house was to the neighborhood an evidence
of the irresistible force of the storm and the partial escape of
the other shack was considered one of its miracles.
In a village of the same prairie stands the two-story house of
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128 American Society Agricultural Engineers
a banker. It has the wide overhanging cornice so desirable in
hot climates, large and elegantly finished rooms connected with
wide openings for the better entertainment of guests, and all of
the conveniences usual to such homes. This house is built upon
a frame work of one and one-half inch lumber, not a stick of
which is more than seven and one-half inches wide. The stud-
ding are one and one-half by three and one-half inches, and are
covered on the outside with nothing more than thin boards of
bevelled siding. There is no sheathing, or building paper, wind
braces or* firestops— only a framework of sticks and these rather
carelessly put together. This type of construction is not excep-
tional. It is, in fact, very common in some of the stormiest
regions of our country.
The masonry work is often as carelessly done as the woodwork
and its greater resistance is, in many buildings, due solely to its
greater weight. In removing portions of a thirteen-inch wall
in a college building of the West, it was found that mortar in
the outer courses had practically no adhesion to the bricks be-
cause of the latter having been laid dry, and that many bricks
of tJie inner course had been laid without any mortar at all.
These walls have, for twenty years, resisted wind by sheer force
of gravity and friction, and it is inconceivable that they could
withstand such cyclones as are common to that region.
It may be unreasonable to assert that the farm dwelling can,
without much additional cost, be made wind proof; but it is not
unreasonable, or irrational, to declare that with greater care
and intelligence in planning and construction and with but
slightly increased cost, it may be made so wind resisting as to
be proof against all but the severest winds that blow.
B. Destruction of Buildings by Fire. It has been affirmed
(p. 116) that the causes of farmhouse fires may be so reduced by
better location, planning and construction as to save more than
one-half the houses thus destroyed. When the states provide
building restrictions against fire hazards and enforce them, de-
sired improvements will be made, but much may be done by
educational institutions to emphasize the importance (1) of bet-
ter chimney construction, (2) of lightning rods, (3) of the safe
distances between heated surfaces and combustible materials,
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Architectural Problems of the Farmhouse 129
and (4) of the use of fire stops in the frame work. When these
and other safeguards are clearly explained to the farmer and
accompanied with data relative to fire losses, and when the pos-
sible reduction in insurance rates due to more careful construc-
tion is better understood, then there will be little need of any
other incentive to persuade him to protect his property in the
manner shown.
(1) Chimney fires are so common as-to be regarded by many
as a matter of course and as an unavoidable cause of destruction.
However, an examination would probably disclose the fact that
not one farmhouse chimney in a hundred, perhaps not in a thou-
sand, is provided with flue lining; that a smaller number have
more than four-inch walls ; that many are supported on brackets ;
that many are racked over in the attic to reach the ridge of the
roof and supported on timbers; that in most all instances the
wood work is built tight against the chimneys and in some in-
stances built into it ; that lime mortar is used almost exclusively
above and below the roof and that the bricks are laid so dry as
to absorb the water before the mortar sets. The additional cost
of good chimney construction is so small and the advantage so
great that few would hesitate to use an intelligible specification
for the better work.
(2) The impositions of the agent are probably responsible for
the disuse of the lightning rod on farm buildings. Simple and
inexpensive rods suffice and ample instructions are now obtain-
able for their installation.
(3) The safe distances between heated surfaces and com-
bustible materials are stated in every municipal building ordi-
nance and these should be made available for the farmer's in-
formation.
(4) Firestops in walls, floors, ceiling and roof are most effec-
tive in retarding the spread of fire and vermin and they are
quite inexpensive. It is for the lack of them that so many
frame and veneered houses seem to burn like tinder and before
the men can reach them from the fields, and that wood has come
to be regarded in many places as a very unsafe building ma-
terial. One farmer states in a letter relative to the subject that
"Matches are made of wood."
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130 American Society Agricultural Engineers
C. Dampness. Of the inquiries that come to the department
for information on the protection of buildings, many have ref-
erence to ground dampness. "How can I keep the water out
of the cellar?" Waterproofing is an engineering subject that
has had the careful attention of experts and it has been well de-
veloped; but information on the subject is not, in its present
form, of practical value to the farmer. It constitutes one of
the structural problems of the farmhouse.
D. Selection of Building Materials. The relative merits of
building materials is the subject of many inquiries that come
to the department and the selection of such materials has be-
come to the layman a perplexing and difficult problem. In pio-
neer days, our ancestors built their cabins with hewn timbers
from the forests about them and with stones from the creeks
and the hillsides. When they emerged from the woods onto the
windswept plains, they could not build as they had learned to
do in the past, except for using the materials at hand. This
they did, and when their sod or adobe hut was done they en-
joyed an immunity from the hot sun and a protection from the
wind that is impossible in the flimsy shacks now so common on
the plains. Pioneering experiences are, however, of the past
and the "Mother of Invention' ' seems no longer to guide the
rural builder. If she could whisper again one word of advice
it might be: "Choose first the materials at hand."
This advice, however, would not wholly relieve the prospective
builder of his perplexity for there are, in many localities, vari-
ous kinds and grades of stone, clay, cement, gypsum and wood
products. He has to decide whether to build masonry walls of
stone, brick, or concrete; or of blocks of terra cotta, cement or
gypsum. If he builds of wrood, he has to choose from various
kinds of siding, shingles and stucco for the wall covering. He
has a seemingly endless variety of roofings, a number of which
are advertised as superior to the home product, whatever it may
be, and as cheaper. Of shingles alone, he has a choice of various
kinds of wood, asbestos, metal, asphalt, composition, clay tile
and slate. There are, in addition to these coverings, various
weights of plain and corrugated iron and steel, black and gal-
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Architectural Problems of the Farmhouse 131
vanized, and of tinned plate with different thicknesses of metal
and coating. There are tar and gravel compositions, canvas
and asbestos roofings and other ready prepared products galore.
There is need of more definite information as to the relative
costs, durability and suitableness of building products for vari-
ous purposes. The lack of needed information of this kind
results in waste, inefficiency and inconsistency in construction
work.
E. Working Drawings and Specifications. There have been
many enthusiastic writers on the subject of better farmhouses,
who condemn present practices and point to needed improve-
ments but howr few have there been who have been able to assist
with practical working drawings and specifications ! Each en-
thusiast has discovered one, two or three glaring defects, the
improvement of which is the "crying need of the farmhouse/'
but when he attempts to show his benighted brethren how to
make these improvements, he either encounters innumerable dif-
ficulties hitherto unsuspected by him or he offers a sketch plan
that may prove to be quite impractical. Suggestions for house
improvements may be good, sketch plans exemplifying these
suggestions are better, but working drawings and specifications
carefully prepared with due consideration to all utilitarian,
structural and aesthetic problems of the house are best. The
farmer and the mechanics he usually employs are not skilled in
reading architectural drawings, however, nor are they familiar
with all technical building terms, so it is quite necessary that
many of the plans be prepared in perspective or isometric pro-
jection and that the specifications be written in language that"
the layman can easily understand.
"With such helps as these, the farmer may be persuaded to
make improvements in his present house that he would not other-
wise undertake. Many questions asked of the department and
of agricultural colleges may be answered definitely by such de-
tail drawings and specifications when once prepared.
III. BEAUTY.
Architecture as an art is concerned primarily with beauty in
buildings and it has in the farmhouse a problem of peculiar in-
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132 American Society Agricultural Engineers
terest and value. This problem is interesting because of the
unexcelled advantages it offers for good and varied design and
because of the great possibilities for improvement in this class
of work. It is valuable because of its beneficent influence upon
the social, moral, and ethical standards of living.
The conditions under which our country has developed have
not, in their earlier stages, been propitious to a high standard of
rural architecture, and habits formed in pioneer days have,
like tide and season, lagged behind the passing cause of their
existence ; but love for the beautiful lives in .our rural com-
munities ; and it is seeking suitable means for its expression. It
is, in fact, so virile as to supersede in many instances utilitarian
needs and, in such cases to make it as much a problem to explain
the needless sacrifice in the house of either utility or beauty as
it is to urge the value of either quality.
Notwithstanding, the "crying need," as it is so often denom-
inated, of running water in the house and of other conveniences
and comforts, no possible improvement will appeal more to the
farmer than that of beauty. It is not a new quality. It ob-
tains on many farms, particularly so in older states, and there
is an increasing effort for it everywhere. It embodies no new
principle of design. The same requirements for (1) size,
(2) harmony, (3) proportion, (4) symmetry, (5) ornament and
(6) color pertain to the farmhouse as to other dwellings and it
is only in the freedom of their application that the problem sug-
gested by these elements of beauty are unique.
conclusion.
. The merits of a house or of a house plan cannot be determined
at a glance. The points to be considered are too numerous, their
relative values too uncertain and their complex relations too
little understood for quick conclusions. We have enumerated
6ome of the more important points to be considered and these
are inclusive of and suggest others.
It may be argued that solutions of farmhouse problems are
more to be desired than citations and it has been so intimated
in this paper; but it has seemed desirable for this address to
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Architectural Problems of the Farmhouse 133
visualize, as well as the speaker is able, this new field of endeavor
for agricultural institutions and to emphasize the importance of
the work to be done therein.
A few agricultural colleges have for some time been engaged
in the work and they are making progress ; but, for the present,
this progress is necessarily slow. Notwithstanding that housing
problems are as old as agriculture itself, and that they have
long been in need of attention, it is a well-known fact that such
problems on the farm have never had the careful attention of
experts and that such experts are not now to be found. Rural
architects must be trained, or rather, architects must train them-
selves for this special work, and with the help of state and fed-
eral institutions. They must acquaint themselves with rural
housing needs, try as best they can to solve the rural architec-
tural problems, profit by their mistakes and try again. It will
take time to accomplish much of apparent value so the begin-
ning should not be delayed. We can afford to start aright with
our housing problems, for the work to be done is not for months
and years, but for decades and centuries, and it is of incompara-
ble value.
The need of present attention to rural housing is greater be-
cause of our increasing tenure system. The farm owner who in-
tends to remain on the farm is making the strongest pleas for
architectural help and the greatest effort to build useful, strong
and beautiful dwellings; but the absentee landowner, including
capitalists, lawyers, bankers, merchants, college professors and
others seem, in general, least concerned about the comfort of
the tenant family and the looks of the farmstead. He is more
interested in cheaper buildings and he will have to be convinced
that better farmhouses will pay before he will aid such a move-
ment. This statement is necessarily modified by many excep-
tions; but, as a class, the absentee landowner constitutes the
greatest obstacle to such improvements.
This obstacle, however, is not insurmountable and there are
forces at work that are destined to break it down. Not least
among these is the study and demonstration of the farm man-
agement problems, which are necessarily concerned with the
material things that affect efficiency in farm labor. Managers
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134 American Society Agricultural Engineers
of other industrial concerns have demonstrated beyond question
the economic value of more convenient, comfortable and beauti-
ful homes for their workmen and of such beauty as seems prac-
ticable in and about factory buildings. Agriculture is in
competition with these industries for its tillers of the soil and,
until it takes a lead in its bidding for intelligence, skill and labor
with better home buildings, there will be no "back-to-the-farm,r
movement. Until it removes the social stigma assumed by many
young people of the farm because of a consciousness of their un-
equal home conditions, it cannot hope to retain many of the boys
and girls that otherwise would become the best farmers of the
land. When the absentee landowner is persuaded that better
tenant houses can be built without much, if any, additional cost
and that such improvements will make for profits in agriculture
as in other industries, then this menace to better farm houses
will have been successfully contended with.
There is another force of increasing potency combating the
obstacles to better and more beautiful farmsteads. This is good
roads and rapid transit, it is bringing the farmer nearer to
town and taking the city man farther into the country. It is
breaking down the farmer's isolation and privacy and placing
his home or his tenant's home under the scrutiny of numerous
passers-by. It is enlarging his neighborhood and bringing more
neighbors and city folk to his doors. He cannot remain wholly
indifferent to the change. He will feel more the need of im-
provements and will rejoice for having made them or be ashamed
for his negligence.
There are no insuperable difficulties to the attainment of a
rural architecture in this country that will make the farm cot-
tage the pride of the family, an object of admiration, and the
dream of many a city boy and girl.
The domestic needs of farm women were among the first of
important problems to be considered officially by the present
secretary of agriculture. He states in his 1913 report:
"The woman on the farm is a most important economic factor
in agriculture. Her domestic work undoubtedly has a direct
bearing on the efficiency of the field workers, her handling of
the home and its surrounding contributes to the cash intake, and
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Architectural Problems of tlie Farmhouse ' 135
in addition, hers is largely the responsibility for contributing
the social and other features which make farm life satisfactory
and pleasurable. On her rests largely the moral and mental de-
velopment of the children, and on her attitude depends in great
part the important question of whether the succeeding genera-
tion will continue to farm or will seek the allurements of life
in the cities.
" According to the testimony of many who are thoroughly
familiar with conditions, the needs of the farm women have been
largely overlooked by existing agricultural agencies. Endeavor
has been largely focused on inducing the field workers to meth-
ods of crop production. The fact that the woman's work and
time have a real monetary value and that her strength is not
unlimited have not been given the consideration they deserve.
As a result, on many farms where there is always money enough
to buy the latest agricultural appliances there is seldom sur-
plus to provide the woman in her productive work with power
machinery that will lighten her physical labor, running water
that will relieve her of the burden of carrying from the pump
all water used in the household, or kitchen equipment and house-
hold devices that will save her time, increase her efficiency, and
enable her to make important monetary saving.
44 The department believes that intelligent help to women in
matters of home management will contribute directly to the agri-
cultural success of the farm. It purposes, therefore, to ask Con-
gress for means and authority to make more complete studies of
domestic conditions on the farm, to experiment with labor-saving
devices and methods, and to study completely the question of
practical sanitation and hygienic protection for the farm family.
"Thfe farmers' wife rarely has access to the cities where labor-
saving devices are on competitive exhibit, nor does she often
meet with other women who are trying these devices and gain
from them first-hand information. It seems important, there-
fore, that the department, co-operating with the proper state
institution, should be ready to give the farm home practical ad-
vice. ' '
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136 American Society Agricultural Engineers
The causes responsible for the lack of improvement in the
farm home were recognized some years ago by Prof. W. J. Spill-
man, agriculturist in charge of the office of Farm Management,
U. S. Department of Agriculture, who states :
"The science and art of agriculture have naturally developed
in connection with agricultural business, but this business is
pre-eminently urban. Farmers usually solve their own archi-
tectural problems and the solutions are not often satisfactory.
The wealthier farmers do employ architects, but the great ma-
jority do not and will never do so. It appears to me, therefore,
that the general problem of rural architecture is a proper sub-
ject of investigation on the part of the state and nation. It was
such considerations as the above which lead us in the office ot*
Farm Management to undertake this work. We have been much
gratified at the favorable attitude of the architects of the coun-
try toward our efforts in this direction. I may add that the
farming community has received us with an enthusiasm that has
been embarrassing, for it has made it necessary to spend much
time in letter writing that we had hoped to spend in investiga-
tional work."
To ascertain, if possible, the interest of farmers in house plan-
ning, Prof. Spillman suggested, in 1910, the first competition of
the kind ever held in this country. It resulted in 666 plans
prepared by the men and women on the farm and revealed an
interest in the subject hitherto unsuspected. He has since ini-
tiated and enthusiastically supported the work in the Depart-
ment of Agriculture.
The first sketch plan of a farmhouse prepared by the depart-
ment was released for publication several months ago and it
resulted in so many inquiries and requests for agricultural as-
sistance, which we were unprepared to give, that further pub-
lications have, for the present, necessarily been delayed. The
correspondence evidenced the farmer's eagerness for such help
and his readiness to use it. It also revealed the interest of
others who saw in the project a problem of unusual public im-
portance.
The interest of architects in the work being done for better
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Architectural Problems of the Farmhouse 137
housing by public institutions is well expressed by such letters
as the following from Mr. F. L. Ackerman of New York City:
"I am writing concerning an article in the New York Sun
of Feb. 22, entitled " Uncle Sam Plans a Model Farmhouse.' ' I
was very much interested in the plan and I congratulate you
upon its excellent arrangement. It is exactly the sort of thing
that should be encouraged and is prophetic of a better day for
the farmer when ideas of the sort you are advancing shall have
taken root.
44 As chairman of the committee on Public Information ("The
American Institute of Architecture"), I am writing in the hope
that you may in some way make use of the committee in the ad-
vancement of this idea. I wish you would forward me from
time to time such material regarding this work as you give out,
for 1 believe it pertinent to make mention of it in our publica-
tions. I would like to see this work given very full publicity
and if I can co-operate in this I shall be glad of the opportun-
ity."
This interest is further evidenced by the following paragraphs
from a recent report of the committee on Public Information,
which follows an explanation of the department 's work in Farm
Structures :
"It seems to your committee that this effort is of great impor-
tance, for at present there appears no direct way of exerting
any material influence upon the erection of that great group of
structures constituting the architecture of rural communities.
Great appreciation is, however, due the Minnesota State Art So-
ciety for the work which it has done toward stimulating interest
in farm structures and grounds, accounts of which have ap-
peared in the Journal.
"It is quite possible for an agency such as the federal gov-
ernment to exert a strong influence in this field of work in ex-
actly the same manner as it has in that of raising the general
standards of farm efficiency and production.
"We all well recognize the need of improved conditions and
we should also recognize the efficiency of the proposed methods
of directing the forces, of the federal government along the line
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138 American Society Agricultural Engineers
of improving rural housing conditions. When we consider the
possibilities, it makes any effort we might exert along this line
seem quite impotent. We, therefore, recommend that a special
committee of the Institute be formed, whose duties would be to
confer with the Department of Agriculture upon the best
methods of developing this work, for surely here we have before
us an unusual opportunity to exert an influence over a large pro-
portion of our people.
44 * * * Thus far in the United States little has been
done along this line, except by comparatively small groups of
individuals. Only one or two states have given consideration to
the subject, with the result that we have little vital information.
We have expended through federal agencies vast sums toward
increasing the productivity of our land, but as yet we have spent
practically nothing through the state or the federal governments
looking toward increasing that efficiency which arises out of
better housing conditions. In rural communities the solution
of the problem has been left to ignorance and chance; in our
suburban and urban communities, the question has been left to
the real estate speculator and chance, and thus the house has
become a temporary condition, something which must give way
to a seemingly more important factor in life — business.
<4Nowr, this discussion may seem far afield, but your commit-
tee recognizes that good architecture in structures relating to
the housing of workers, whether in country or city, must be
based upon sound conditions, and a better understanding of the
whole question than now7 exists. We also recognize our impo-
tence, and the impotence of our societies interested in such mat-
ters, to alone cope with the situation. It is therefore that we
suggest this co-operation with the federal department now in-
terested in this problem and we also suggest that if possible
there should be developed from this effort a federal agency
which would have for its object a thorough study of the larger
aspect of housing to the end that the knowledge thus gained,
and the suggestions resulting, could be given out to the people
in such a manner as to create a definite public opinion concern-
ing such things."
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Architectural Problems of the Farmhouse 131>
This report was enthusiastically received and adopted by the
200 architects of the Institute present.
The need of improved farm homes constitutes a part only of
our housing problems. Such homes, notwithstanding the in-
adequacy of many of them, are in some respects far in .advance
of the dwelling places of the cities' poor. The home is the
cradle in which is moulded the character of the nation and every
influence upon it counts for weal or woe in our national life.
Poster love for the home and there will result an unshakable
love for country ; stifle it and anarchy will walk abroad. Study
the problems of the home as carefully as the science of war and
expend upon it funds as great as those spent upon our armed
defense, and we will have a citizenship so strong in body and
mind, so prosperous and so loyal as to be invincible to any foe
that might then assail us. The housing of the so-called common
people is of vital importance to the nation Ts welfare. It has be-
come a problem for statesmen and for the promotion and support
of government. With better houses we will have better homes;
with better homes, better citizens, and with better citizens, a
stronger and a better nation.
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140 American Society Agricultural Engineers
SOME PHASES OP TEACHING AGRICULTURAL
ENGINEERING.
By H. C. Ramsower.*
It strikes me as being presumptious to an extreme that one
who has had scarce five years of teaching experience should at-
tempt the presentation of a paper on the subject proposed. And
yet those of us who are banded together as agricultural engi-
neers, and particularly those of us who are connected in the
capacity of teachers with school or college are young in experi-
ence, if not in years, and the problems lying before us are both
large and real and in their solution we must not falter. And
again, it is beyond my comprehension that anyone should have
addressed himself thoughtfully and earnestly to the subject of
teaching for even five years without having presented to his
mind a host of questions to which he longingly looks for an an-
swer. As a rule we agricultural engineers have occupied our
time in school and out of school with other things than peda-
gogy, having been more concerned with what we shall give than
how we shall give it. And though I am aware that some of the
most successful teachers in our universities, east and west, have
never given a single hour to the study of the science of teaching,
the thoughful consideration of their business from day to day
has been a noble substitute.
Teaching is a serious business ; in fact, I am inclined to think
there is none other to be compared with it. As one sits before
a class of eager youths, their faces turned expectantly toward
him, one, if he takes his business seriously, must feel keenly the
great responsibility devolving upon him. And just how far,
may we inquire, does that responsibility extend?
And just here we come face to face with the question, What
is a college course for? Presumably it is to educate, and to
educate in this commercial age is to so train one that he may be
better fitted for his chosen profession; "to educe the man," as
Browning says, which being interpreted means, to ennoble the
man to discover himself. And in this process of educing, not
* Ohio State University.
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Phases of Teaching Agricultural Engineering 141
one man but hundreds and even thousands, each of us must
have a part. Our responsibility, then, in this process of " educ-
ing' ' extends beyond the mental requirements of the individual
to those that are physical and moral. Toward the last of
these I fear many of us feel but slight concern. However this
may be it is with the intellectual development of the student
that the instructor takes first and keenest interest.
The thought as to what constitutes an efficient college training
is very different now from what it was even ten years ago. The
evolution of this thought has extended, too, back into the high
school where, in many respects, the curriculum has undergone
more radical changes than has that of the college. Today it is
possible in the state of Ohio for a candidate to enter our state
university as a regular student without even having had the
training which comes from digging out Greek verbs or pruning
Latin stems, nor has he been asked to acquaint himself with any
language other than English. His time, on the contrary, has
been spent on subjects of commercial value, in manual training,
and in agriculture. And our state says, "Who will dare to say
that four hours per week through the year spent in the carpen-
ter shop under the guidance of a skilled instructor has less value
in the development of the young mind than the same time spent
on Latin or German?" Or "who will argue that efficient train-
ing in a course in bookkeeping will not prove a better founda-
tion for certain degree courses than ancient history or algebra
beyond quadratics ?" In other words, Tom, Dick and Harry
are no longer put into our preparatory straight jackets and
forced to conform their differing natures to its cruel and rigid
lines but their minds are 'permitted to roam within certain re-
stricted boundaries.
There are those who tell us that we are belittling the name
"university graduate " by branding as such those who are
trained in this trade school fashion; that no man is truly edu-
cated who neglects the humanistic side of his university oppor-
tunities. "With such we have no quarrel, for I myself have had
just enough of such work to impress me with my woeful ig-
norance in this respect, but I must insist that my mind is no
less well trained or balanced because of this lack in my educa^
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142 American Society Agricultural Engineers
tional training. And since my training has been such as to best
fit me for certain lines of work, who shall say that I am not as
truly "university trained" as any one else.
Our colleges of agriculture have undergone and are under-
going changes as radical as any in high school or other colleges.
And back of it all is a real desire for service to him who wrests
his livelihood from the soil. No one of us would make our agri-
cultural graduates mere trade school men, lacking in that polish
which characterizes those who have dwelt long with the masters
of the humanities, but we, as farmers, are more interested in
having waterproof soles on our boots than a brilliant polish on
the uppers. So that, be they trade school methods or not, those
things which help to lighten the burdens of those whom we
would serve must command our first attention, and what is the
place which agricultural engineering should occupy in this gen-
eral scheme of service?
Agricultural engineering should be regarded as merely a de-
partment within the college, co-ordinate with agronomy, animal
husbandry, agricultural chemistry, etc., and in common with
these departments it should put forth its greatest effort to train
young men for the farm. Is it not true that often times we are
led far away from our real duty in that we forget that we are
training young farmers rather than teachers or professional
men? Recently while listening to a discussion in one of our
agricultural colleges in the middle west concerning a proposed
change in the curriculum I was struck with the oft-repeated
statement that our experiment stations, our colleges and our
United States Department of Agriculture would not want men
whose training did not include such and such subjects, emphasis
being put upon the training of men for such positions. True,
we must train men to fill such worthy positions, but is it not
wrong to outline courses which make their strongest appeal to
this class of students rather than to the farm minded boy ? Not
only does the outline of our course often times make the wrong
appeal but the constitution of the individual courses bears in
the wrong direction. And just here is the point which must
•determine the teacher's point of view.
You tell me that the student scientifically trained will readily
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Phases of Teaching Agricultural Engineering 143
acquire the necessary technical information to master any line
of farming, and will soon attain the skill to put this informa-
tion into practice; that we need not project ultra-practical
details into our college classes. I once knew the head of a de-
partment of industrial arts in which agricultural as well as en-
gineering students were given instruction in elementary shop
work. AH were given the same course of study and upon in-
quiring why a series of exercises smacking of the farm was not
given to the agricultural students, the reply was that if they
knew how to use the hammer, saw, plane, chisel, etc., they could
make any reasonable object met with on the farm. The diffi-
culty in this case was that a pedagogical principle of vast im-
portance was overlooked, as subsequent changes clearly showed.
The construction of a hog house was later included in the course.
Students worked overtime of their own free will. They needed
no urging to complete the work; they worked with an earnest-
ness and zeal that was surprising. It was not necessary to have
them make complex joints, which never have real application on
the farm, in order to teach the proper use of the plane and chisel
and in the process dull the student's interest. This is a speci-
fic illustration to enforce the importance of the proper point of
view.
The question of the teacher's point of view is, to me, ex-
tremely important and is influenced by several factors. The
training which one has been given will enter most largely into
the molding of one's outlook. The instructor who is trained
as an engineer, who associates with engineers, who lives the life
and thinks the thoughts of an engineer, is necessarily trained to
view everything with a critical mechanical eye, to make every-
thing conform to his theoretical ideas of good engineering prac-
tice. It is a far cry from this point of view to that of the man
on the farm using the tools which have been designed for him.
He does not see, in fact he does not care about the mechanical
construction of his machines, just so they do the work. Per-
formance is his yardstick and if the machine conies up to his
standard, well and good ; if it does not, then it must be discarded
in favor of another.
Between these two extremes there is a happy medium and
here the best teacher of agricultural engineering will be found.
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144 American Society Agricvltttral Engineers
It is just as impossible to make a good teacher in this profession
without an abundance of farm experience as to expect him to
succeed without technical training. I would not for a moment
minimize the latter, but second only to it is farm experience.
I am really coming to believe that to have been born and raised
upon the farm is not enough. Conditions have changed since
we were boys on the farm. New standards are set for the
farmer of today and to appreciate to the fullest the conditions
under which he must work we ourselves should be close to the
soil. While boys at home the problems of farm management
gave us but little concern. We performed out tasks perfunctor-
ily, with but little idea of the economy of things. And in the
face of such training I fear we often give advice that we would
not care to follow ourselves if we were furnishing the neces-
sary funds. It is a very easy thing to contrast the economy of
the gas tractor with the cost of maintenance of three teams of
horses. But could the farmer sell all of his teams? Could he
sell any of them? Suppose the teacher himself were making
the exchange? In such case, I venture he would consider the
matter far more seriously than when he advised others to do the
same thing. Surely none of us give advice without adequate
consideration, but I insist that were we in closer touch with
things of the farm, did we appreciate more keenly the financial
circumstances of the average farmer; in short, were we shoul-
dering the responsibility of a farm ourselves where all improve-
ments must be wrenched from a stubborn soil, many of our
finely spun theories would vanish in the air and in their places
would be found the sober expression of things practical, of
things within the reach of all. I speak with feeling on this
phase of teaching because I am convinced that much poor ad-
vice is given with ignorance of real conditions the only excuse.
Not one of us is free from blame.
Again the teacher's point of view is and should be influenced
by the students under his care. Manifestly the four-year stu-
dent demands instruction very different in kind and quantity
from that given the short course man. The boy without farm
experience should be found in classes apart from the country
bred boy, a condition which none of us, I fear, are able to meet
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Phases of Teaching Agricultural Engineering 145
because of lack of instructors. And further, even students in
the same class, if individually instructed, would be given very
different treatment. But we with our large classes must drive
them all into the same ihute as sheep are driven to the washing
and each left to swim boldly through the course or to flounder
in the mud and silt, coming out at the end but little better off
than when they went in.
The question of how best to present the subject matter of our
courses is one on which there is a difference of opinion. Some
prefer the straight lecture plan, relying on written examinations
to test the student's knowledge on the subject. Very good for
advanced lecture courses but for underclassmen a constant spur
to lagging ambition is needed by way of a weekly or daily quiz.
In many cases where classes reach into the hundreds the custom
is followed of dividing the class once a week into sections of
twenty-five or thirty for quiz. It is very difficult for assistants
to quiz on work given in lecture by someone else and the student
is placed at a disadvantage. If a test which covers the subject
fairly well is available the task is easier.
The ideal method, in my opinion, is to teach by lecture and
recitation combined. There is no incentive for a student to
review his notes daily equal to the possibility that he will be
called upon to recite the next day. A skilful instructor can in
this way manage a class of seventy-five or one hundred boys and
not allow the quiz to drag. This method, too, gives the student
opportunity to ask questions, which is practically denied in the
weekly quiz plan> since the amount of work to cover will not
permit of interruptions.
A quiz is the teacher's opportunity to find out not alone how
much the students know, but how well he presented the subject
the day before. A great deal of harm can be done by injecting
the wrong spirit into the work.- I once had an instructor in
college who attempted to spur his students on to greater effort
by constantly reminding them that failure in the course seemed
inevitable. His motive was commendable but his method was
positively vicious. If, except in rare cases, it becomes neces-
sary for an instructor to frighten his pupils into a working
mood there is something wrong either with the instructor or
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146 American Society Agricultural Engineers
the subject he is presenting. Such a method, and the practice
is not uncommon, makes a pass the object and the end of the
course. Little love for the work will be engendered under such
management and the teacher will be held by his pupils in little
more than righteous contempt.
On the other hand, a quiz should be entered into by instructor
and student alike as an hour in which hazy points are cleared
up, troublesome questions are untangled, and the student should
not be made to feel that as soon as called upon he is placed on
trial and a verdict is certain from the class as well as the
"prof." In courses that are required of all students there will
always be those who are there because they have to be and such
are the bane of the teacher's life.
A teacher at all times must endeavor to make his work inter-
esting. He is forced to give certain lectures which must of
necessity be rather dry, but in the main the enthusiastic treat-
ment of a dry subject will do wonders. A prosaic statement of
facts is not enough. They should be couched in language that
will prove attractive and given in a spirit which breathes im-
portance at every turn. If the instructor lags, the students
cannot be blamed for sleeping. The vigor of an instructor who
knows just what he is going to say and just how he is going to
say it and knows that he is using the best material at his com-
mand will make an impression of which he need not be ashamed.
So I closq as I began with the statement that teaching is a
serious business. We should often sit down and watch ourselves
go by taking an inventory the while of our stock in trade, which
is not alone our technical knowledge but is made up of our
point of view, our enthusiasm, our knowledge of the ways of
boys, and our own desire to serve in the capacity of a teacher.
Oh, wad some power the giftie gie us, to see ourselves as our
students see us! Were such forthcoming it is barely possible
that some of us who are teachers today would not be classed in
that profession tomorrow.
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Short Course in Agricultural Engineering 147
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING IN THE SHORT
COURSE.
By C. I. Gun ness.*
Short courses in agriculture and mechanic arts have found a
place in many of the agricultural colleges of this country and
seem to meet a real need. We find in every state large num-
bers of young men who are anxious to get into the agricultural
college, but who cannot spend the time or money to take a four
year college course. Many of these men can get away for a
short time during the winter months and it would seem the
duty of the colleges to give such instruction to these men as can
be properly given in short term courses. The agricultural col-
leges were planned primarily to educate the farmer and to ac-
complish this it seems necessary to offer additional courses to
those which require an attendance of four years after a man
has completed high school.
It may be argued by many that this class of instruction
should not be given at the agricultural colleges but should be
given in the high schools and in special industrial schools. This
may be the ultimate arrangement but for the present it will de-
volve upon the colleges to give this vocational training in agri-
culture and engineering.
The short courses offered at the various institutions can be
classified under three heads:
1. Two year courses running nine months a year, or three
year courses running six months a year. These are, in fact,
abbreviated college courses, giving the more essential technical
subjects which will be of the greatest benefit to the practical
farmer or mechanic. In addition a variety of general subjects
are included in the curriculum.
The entrance requirements for these courses vary in the dif-
ferent institutions. In some the same requirements are imposed
as for the regular college course, but in most institutions men
who have completed the eighth grade are admitted.
* Professor of Rural Engineering Massachusetts Agricultural Col*
lege, Amherst, Mass.
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148 American Society Agricultural Engineers
2. Single term courses running from eight to ten weeks. In
these courses the student may carry four or five subjects, not
necessarily correlated.
Entrance requirements for these courses are very liberal and
we find a heterogeneous set of students in the same classes.
Young boys sixteen years old are often to be found alongside
of mature men forty to fifty years old.
3. Single term department courses of from one to four weeks.
These courses have been offered at various institutions by dif-
ferent departments for the benefit of men who are especially in-
terested in some one line of work. Oftentimes the students in
these courses are mature men who would not take the variety
of subjects required in other courses. As examples of this
third class we have the courses offered in dairying, silo con-
struction, road building and steam and gas engineering.
The students in these last courses have oftentimes had ex-
perience in the work they are studying or have definite plans
for taking up the work in the near future. They are as a rule
intensely interested and anxious to get practical information
which they can put to immediate use.
In addition to the courses mentioned are the " farmer's
weeks" but they come more properly under the head of exten-
sion service.
Practically all the subjects listed under agricultural engineer-
ing are offered to short course students at the various colleges
and there is no good reason why they should not be.
In order that a subject can be offered to advantage to this
class of students it must be of a practical nature. It must not
be too highly theoretical and it must give information which the
farmer or mechanic can make use of in his daily work. Agri-
cultural engineering subjects can qualify on these points.
It is no reflection on the profession of agricultural engineer-
ing to say that it popularizes engineering subjects. This does
not mean that these subjects are skimmed over and given in a
half-hearted manner. There are two ways in which engineer-
ing subjects may be attacked in the class room. One is to study
them from a theoretical standpoint, giving most of the time to
the development of formulae and the consideration of abstruse
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Short Course in Agricultural Engineering 149
hypotheses. The other is that of studying the practical appli-
cation of the subject to every day problems. The engineer who
is to qualify as a designer must of necessity be well informed
on the technical side. On the other hand, the agricultural stu-
dent who is taking engineering subjects is better prepared for
his work if he is taught the practical application of the subjects
to work in the field. Take reinforced concrete construction as
an example. The agricultural engineer is better prepared if
he is taught to use the available tables for placing the reinforce-
ment than if his time is .spent on developing the formulae used
in calculating the amount of reinforcing.
If this principle of teaching the application rather than the
theory holds true for agricultural engineering in general, it is
especially true with reference to the subjects taught to short
course students. With the limited time of the short courses and
oftentimes lack of training on the part of the students, it is very
essential to make the courses practical.
Work in the forge shop and wood shop can be given with suc-
cess to short course students provided sufficient time is avail-
able. In this connection it is well to remember that a given
number of hours spread over a few weeks are of greater value
than the same number spread over a whole semester. In teach-
ing forge work and wood work to short course students, it may
in many cases be necessary to vary the mode of instruction
from that pursued with the regular college men. It may not be
possible to work from blue prints but from models. This to
many may seem undesirable in school work. It should be borne
in mind, however, that the average man who takes the course
will not have occasion to work from drawings later on. While
the use of drawings in school will give the student practice in
reading drawings, it will not help him in the use of the shop
tools. The inability to read drawings should not prevent a
man from getting instruction in the use of tools.
Instruction in the planning and erection of farm buildings
can be given in the short course but the success of such instruc-
tion will depend upon the amount of time which can be devoted
to the course. It seems rather difficult to give instruction in
regard to plans for buildings unless the student has an oppor-
tunity to do some work on the drawing board, and this again
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150 American Society Agricultural Engineers
consumes a large amount of time. In many cases it may be
necessary to give a general consideration of the subject without
giving the student an opportunity to draw plans. Many valu-
able suggestions can be given on the general method of attacking
a problem which will be of material help to the student when he
later is called upon to plan or alter buildings.
A course in concrete construction can be given embodying
both lectures and laboratory practice. It would' seem that in
order that such a course might be of the greatest value, the lab-
oratory practice should permit of some practical work such as
determining voids in aggregate, making posts, blocks or sections
of foundation walls. With large classes it may be necessary to
let the laboratory work take the nature of a demonstration but
even then it would seem to be of greater value than if it were
limited to tests of cement. It may occur to many that there
is no necessity for giving such work as actually placing the
concrete on the assumption that the students have either seen
the work done or even helped at some time or another. This
may be true in some cases but in general the student has a very
vague idea as to how to proceed in placing a walk or building
forms for a wall.
A course in drainage would have to be of a general nature, so
much so that its value may be questionable. There would, as
a rule, be but little opportunity for field work and without this
the course would be incomplete. There is no question but that
lectures on planning the drainage system, on estimating and
even directions for laying the tile would be of great value to
the short course student.
Courses in the care and management of farm machinery and
farm motors are given to short course students in many institu-
tions. It is only natural that this branch of agricultural engi-
neering should appeal most strongly to the man who expects
to become a farmer. The information he gets on these points
will be used by him every day of the year. While information
on buildings, concrete, and drainage are of great value to him,
he will make the improvements which these subjects cover only
at long intervals. His farm machinery and engines will be used
continually or at least everv season.
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Short Course in Agricultural Engineering 151
Short course students are oftentimes better prepared to take
up work on farm machinery than the regular college men. It
should not be forgotten that the student may have a general
knowledge of many of the machines but this does not mean that
he needs no additional information. The best students in these
branches are usually those who have had the largest amount of
experience.
If a student is to get full value out of a course in farm ma-
chinery, it is essential that he should have ample opportunity
to handle the machines. Field work is, not as a rule, practic-
able, but valuable work can be given in the laboratory. The
work should not be confined to bringing out principles. Most
of the students need practice in the use of tools and the in-
structor should not hesitate to assign a task which will require
steady work for an hour removing nuts and bolts, even though
no new principle may be brought out. This is especially true
in the case of gas engines. A day ?s work on tearing down and
assembling a good sized engine is time well spent. The number
of students and time available will, of course, determine how
much of this work can be undertaken.
It is by no means a simple matter to provide practical labora-
tory exercises on farm machines. Inasmuch as the machines
can not be operated under field conditions it is very difficult to
give work which will help the student in the operation of the
machine. What is done in many instances is to turn the exer-
cise into a study of design. This is of questionable value to
the short course student. In many cases the exercise consists
of going over the machine in detail, measuring wheels, shafts,
bearings and parts in general. The object of the exercise is two-
fold : first, to provide an exercise which will require the student
to go over the machine and learn the parts, and, secondly, it is
supposed to bring out the relative merit of different points of
design. In so far as the exercise leads the student to study the
machine it is of value, but any attempt to have the student pass
on the relative merits of the design lies beyond the scope of in-
struction.
Let us assume that a student is studying mowers and that he
has examined carefully two or three standard machines. It
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152 American Society Agricultural Engineers
is not to be expected that the student should be able to .pass on
the relative merits of the machines on the strength of this study
and there is no reason for asking questions which will lead him
to study the machines with that point in view. The student
will very likely select one machine as the best on the strength
of a few points which to him seem to be of greatest importance,
while he may overlook other points of equal importance.
Every farmer has well defined ideas as to the relative value
of different makes of farm machines. The fact that two neigh-
bors seldom agree shows that one of them must be wrong. I
believe a course in farm machinery should make the student
more charitable and liberal along this line rather than more
prejudiced.
I do not wish to give the impression that a course in farm ma-
chinery should not be helpful to a man who later has to buy
implements. The student should gather information on the
adaptability of various machines to certain conditions and such
information will be of value to him when he faces the problem
of selecting his machinery. The student should learn what
type of plow is best adapted to his soil but his class work should
not necessarily bring out what make of plow would be most de-
sirable to buy.
A course in farm machinery should give information on the
following points in every machine:
1. General operation.
2. Adjustments.
3. Care and repair.
The first should be a general consideration of the machine
to bring out the principle of operation of the machine as a
whole and the function of its various parts. This part of the
exercise would be very simple for the farm boy who has had
experience in operating the machine. The city boy, on the other
hand, would need to give considerable time to this study.
All students should give careful attention to the matter of
adjustments. Many will feel that they are familiar with the
machines and know the adjustments, but in most cases there are
points on which they need information. Work on care and re-
pair is the most difficult to give but is of the greatest importance.
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Short Course in Agricultural Engineering. 153
The troubles experienced by the average operator of farm ma-
chinery come very largely from his inability to make repairs.
Students should be given practice in removing gears and other
parts which can be expected to need repair during the life of
the machine. Every student should have the opportunity of
pulling a key and removing a troublesome pulley, gear or
sprocket from a shaft. Other exercises along this same line will
prove of great value to the man who expects to actually operate
machinery in the field or to superintend farm work.
The great difficulty in giving this class of work lies in getting
suitable equipment. It is out of the question to use new ma-
chines loaned by manufacturers for repair work. Old machines
and parts of machines can be used to advantage for this class
of work. Even parts obtained from the scrap heap may be
used for certain exercises. With large classes it is very difficult
to give the work outlined, but I believe an effort should be made
to give this practical work to the short course student.
Aside from the two or three year courses the department
courses are by far the most satisfactory. In those courses the
students are in earnest about their work and not registered for
the subject to fill out the schedule and secure a credit, as is
sometimes the case in other courses. The fact that the student
puts in the whole day on one subject or on related subjects will
bring greater results than if his time is divided up among a
variety of subjects as in the average college course. It is absurd
to expect maximum efficiency from a college student studying
philosophy, soils, concrete, stock judging and gasoline engines
at the same time. If a student is to get the most out of a
course on gasoline engines, he should be able to stay by the en-
gine for the greater part of the day and the same, no doubt,
holds true with many other courses.
The demand for department courses, is, however, not very
great and they will probably not become of any great impor-
tance. The tendency of most colleges is to discourage too great
specialization on the part of short course students. They feci
that these students need information on a variety of subjects
pertaining to the farm. No doubt they are justified in this at-
titude, as many short course men are anxious to select subjects
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154 American Society Agricultural Engineers
which appeal to them without considering seriously the relative
practical value of the various courses. Where students are
given a free choice, agricultural engineering subjects will be
found to be very popular.
In my opinion it is possible to adapt practically all the courses
in agricultural engineering to the needs of the short course stu-
dents. The main requirement is that the courses should be
practical and should preferably be laboratory courses. We can-
not afford to let the short course work overshadow the college
work, but in many cases it may be of actual benefit to the lat-
ter. The short course must of necessity be practical and this
may help to keep the college courses on a practical basis, both
in the choice of equipment and in the material given in the
class room.
DISCUSSION.
C. 0. Reed (University of Illinois) : The term " short course"
has such a variety of meanings between the different institutions
that the subject is not clearly defined. I believe that in general
students in so-called short courses of more than fifteen weeks'
duration should receive the same course in agricultural engineer-
ing as students pursuing the long course, having, of course, much
freedom in choice, and hence at the outset I will eliminate such
courses from this discussion and confine myself to what I believe
the subject means, namely, short courses of fifteen weeks' dura-
tion or less.
In such short courses the work must be of a practical nature.
When sufficient time cannot be allowed a course, the practice
has been, and rightfully should be, to cut out as much labora-
tory work as is necessary to permit a fairly full presentation
of practical principles by lectures. The value of laboratory
work lies in the opportunity it affords for the presentation and
emphasis of detail and practice. In the short course, if time is
the limiting element, and laboratory work must be crippled,
then the lecture work must necessarily be of a more practical
nature than it could be if followed by considerable practice. In
short, time allowed for such lecture work should be taken up
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Discussion 155
by talks on practical principles and their application, though
interesting theory be ofttimes omitted.
In farm building work I think the short course student should
study the "why," making only such rough, yet intelligent,
sketches as will give him some practice in arrangement without
carrying him into the architect 's detail. In drainage work, much
detail must give way to broad general instruction first. The
short course man cannot hope to become thoroughly familiar
with a good instrument. If he does master such detail, then
those broad principles must be neglected which would render
him the manager of his drainage project rather than the detail
man. If such a student has no time to master the engineering
side of his problems his next move is to master the agricultural
side. The agricultural side of many of these problems is the
big side and we must ever keep in mind that we are to make
a farmer of this short course man, not an engineer.
The present status of the farm machinery field is such that
the farmer has nothing to say about designing implements. He
is pretty well satisfied to let the manufacturer work out the
problems confronted in producing an efficient machine; but
what this short course farmer does want to know is how to use
and adjust what the manufacturer gives him, and our first ef-
forts in short course work along machinery lines should be di-
rected toward this end. I heartily agree with Prof. Gunness
in his statement that "turning laboratory exercises into a study
of design is of questionable value/' and to go a step farther I
will state that much practice is of questionable value to all stu-
dents in farm machine study, except those doing advanced work
in preparation for teaching or designing. I do wish, however,
to take exception to Prof. Gunness' statement that "inasmuch
as the machines cannot be operated under field conditions it is
very difficult to give work which will help the student in the
operation of the machine.' ' In most instances the short course
student comes to us fresh from practice and he is especially
keen to grasp principles of operation which may in any way dif-
fer from his previous practice, even though he must remain
within the lecture or laboratory walls.
We cannot hope to make agricultural engineers of short
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156 American Society Agricultural Engineers
■course men. They are usually men with definite problems
which demand what is the hardest for the instructor to give —
personal instruction. My solution of the problem of the short
course student is not the easiest to effect, but it is this — give the
class as much of fundamental practical principle as time will
permit and then encourage each student to seek your personal
advice or instruction along his specific problems..
C. A. Ocock (Peoria, 111.) : The instructors from the various
institutions of learning differ in their opinions as to what a
short course student is. The man from Montana has a concep-
tion of what this student should be and of what work he should
be required to complete during his college career. The man
from Nebraska has an idea that he knows the type of student
and the work that must fit his conditions. The man from Ohio
or New York comes forward with another phase of the subject,
while the men of the central states think that they have the key
to the situation.
The short course student, as the name implies, is necessarily
a student of short duration and may be of one of three classes:
that is, from the secondary school, academy, or college. He may
be a youth from the grades, high school, academy, or he may be
more mature and may have finished a college course.
Then again, the short course student may be a man of years
who has had little training in any school system, but may be a
keen observer of nature and one extremely desirous of bettering
his conditions.
With these various circumstances confronting the would-be
educator we find a problem which is indeed a difficult one to
solve and one which, in all probability, will not be solved in the
present generation. Just so long as men from all stations of life
intermingle for the purpose of more practical knowledge, just so
long will these conditions exist, and the work to be given in agri-
cultural engineering must necessarily be of a fundamental na-
ture.
It is by far the best to give this work in a practical way, as
the short course student is not looking for theoretical or ab-
struse propositions; he is after something tangible, something
which will better equip him for the every-day duties of life, and
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Discussion 15T
the agricultural-engineering field is of such a nature as to fur-
nish abundant material to meet the requirements.
The basic principles of agricultural engineering are agricul-
ture and engineering, and the foundations upon which these two
great arts are founded are the sciences of chemistry and physics.
The average student has more or less to do with these scien-
tific subjects directly or indirectly, knowingly or unknowingly.
He may have had the opportunity of becoming acquainted with
them in a school curriculum under the direction of a generous,
instructor, or he may have unknowingly studied them in nature
as he has been in daily contact with the forces of nature.
The student with agricultural training usually comes to the
higher institutions of learning with a better foundati6n for ac-
quiring the sciences of chemistry and physics than those less for-
tunate, and a foundation of this character is the best on which
to build.
Instructors are usually looking for students and not men. I
emphasize again "students," individuals who have a power of
assimilating everything in a mechanical way, so that all one has
to do is to touch a spring and they will run down repeating ver-
batim the work which has been given in the class room. This
faculty is good but is weak in one particular, in that it lacks
individuality. The student who thinks and acts for himself is
the one to look to for greater and better things in the future. It
makes little difference to the practical man what the whys and
wherefores are for a geometrical problem ; what he wants is facts,
and facts that will bring him returns in the immediate future.
He comes to learn of those things which will be a source of in-
come to him in the every-day duties which he is about to assume.
You men as instructors are dealing with men, and men of the
world ; you are not meeting children of the grades, teaching the
rudiments of pedagogics.
You are in a business which means dollars and cents to the
student, and this must be kept uppermost in your minds. The
sooner you get away from the exalted ideas of a demagogue, the
sooner will the work in agricultural engineering be of real bene-
fit to those entering your classes.
The paper which you have just listened to has cited you to facts
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158 American Society Agricultural Engineers
which are frequently presented ; that is, where agricultural engi-
neering work should be given. It has shown there are reasons to
believe that it should be given in secondary or intermediate
courses. Some of you will agree to this and I will admit it is
well to give some of the work as has been suggested; yet there
is abundant opportunity to exercise your faculties in the busi-
ness which is before you and give to the world your strength and
wisdom in making a better and more serviceable race of intelli-
gent business men.
The various subjects to be emphasized will depend entirely
upon the section of the country in which you reside, but wher-
ever it may be, you cannot overlook the importance of giving to
the world* your best efforts in outlining the fundamentals of
those subjects which make a better home, state, country and na-
tion. Your personality alone is one big factor in the work.
You must be able to win the confidence of men, otherwise you
are a detriment to any line of work. Enter the field knowing
that you know your men, study them as you study the subjects
you are teaching, make your students believe in the work and
you will win.
The time of the three R's has passed but the principle still
holds. The student must be able to read with understanding.
He must also be able to write or express himself to a certain de-
gree, and last, but not least, he must be able to calculate to a
greater extent. All of this work will be of a fundamental nature
coupled with vocational work if the best results are to be
Achieved.
Courses to be given, I would suggest for the average condition,
would be divided into three classes:
Building effectiveness.
Machinery productiveness.
Important generalities.
The first of these will naturally have to do with the farm
buildings which should be the executive mansion, no matter how
humble it may appear, and the necessary barns and out-build-
ings. The student should be made to understand the importance
of a comfortable and attractive place in which to live. He
should be instructed in the best and most economical method of
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Discussion 159
Seating, lighting and ventilating. This does not require expen-
sive or complicated methods. He should learn the importance
of ventilation in the house as well as in the barn. The reasons
should be touched upon why a man can do more work after a
good night's rest in a well ventilated room in mid-winter than
he can if sleeping in a warm and poorly ventilated room. Far
too many of our country boys and girls sleep in rooms which
have little, if any, fresh air or any means for the escape of the
vitiated air. The result of such environment may be seen in
most any class room which you may enter.
We hear a great deal of barn ventilation, and it is important,
but the average instructor in agricultural engineering overlooks
the house problem, forgetting that man, the power plant of the
farm, needs proper fuel. One hour spent in emphasizing this
•subject will be of vastly greater benefit to the student than will
two or three hours of something which may appeal more to his
practical nature.
The writer of the previous paper suggests the drawing of
plans for farm buildings and regrets that the time is so short.
The idea of giving students blue prints is, however, very good
and should be encouraged. I would suggest that you work with
him by sketching on the blackboard an enlargement of the draw-
ings placed in his hands. I would also suggest criticizing the
drawings after one or two sets had been studied. Point out the
good and bad features of floor plans, in houses and barns alike,
in regard to both convenience and inconvenience. This method
will provoke mental criticism by the student of places with
which he is familiar and the future will bring its reward.
I thoroughly believe in giving some work in drawing in con-
junction with this work of reading drawings but believe also
that great care should be exercised in the selection of this work.
Some are more apt than others and the true instructor will tem-
per his demands accordingly.
Machinery productiveness, — our second division, — is of a
strictly manual nature and, naturally, appeals to the average
student. The title chosen is self-explanatory and dfcals with
teaching the student how to get the most out of his farm imple-
ments. Here again is business; no ethics in this, for he
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160 American Society Agricultural Engineers
must make every effort count if he is to make a success of his-
farm work. Keep away from the theoretical, scatter it to the
winds and give him the plain, every-day facts of the case,
whether it be a gas engine or a plow. " Facts are. stubborn
things" and the man who tries to dodge them is a coward and
does not deserve the name of instructor. One instructor I have
known required the students to count the links in the chain of
a grain binder in order to occupy their time rather than explain
to the class the adjustments of the binder. Time and money
thrown away, I should say, just to satisfy the whims of a beingr
.who assumed himself to be a man.
Manual work with farm machinery is, undoubtedly, more fas-
cinating and will hold the attention of the student much more
readily than will drawing, but like drawing it is very essential
to punctuate this manual work with well-timed lectures and
quizzes, otherwise the effectiveness of your labors will be lost.
The chief aim of the machinery work should be to enlarge
the student's earning power, whether for himself or for some
one else. The plow, harrow, drill, seeder, planter, binder, gas-
engine and steam engine should be made special subjects and,
where time permits, give as much work on other machines as-
possible.
Questions may be prepared for large classes so that they may
fill out and compare one machine with another. After two or
three exercises of this kind, hold a meeting of the whole class,
and talk over the good and bad qualities of the machines studied.
Meetings of this kind should not be the means of letting the in-
structor commit himself as to what he thinks is the best machine,,
for as a rule all machines have many good points.
Teach the student how to make slight repairs of all machines
and the adjustments of the grain binder, also the proper timing
of a gas engine. Do not try to go into the ignition system too
deeply or you may get him confused. Tell him the difference
so that lie gets the facts fixed in his mind.
Generalities, the third and last subject, includes those sub-
jects of a general nature, such as surveying, drainage, roads,
concrete work, fences, the filling of ice houses, shop work, etc.
These subjects are more difficult to handle and will, of necessity,
have to be given in a more or less abbreviated wyay.
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Discussion 161
Surveying and drainage may be given in a way that will be
of a benefit to the student and still not become irksome.
Roads should be discussed in a general way, emphasizing the
importance of drainage and dragging.
Concrete work can be given as already suggested in the pre-
vious paper and does not need further discussion.
The farm fence should be called to the student's attention,
for this is an important feature in keeping up the appearance
of the farm. Any one having the proper spirit cannot lose sight
of a matter so essential in proclaiming the farm boundaries.
Shop work is also an important subject and where the work
can be given it is a valuable asset to the short course student.
Success in the field of agricultural engineering subjects to
short course students will never lie in the students but in the
instructors. The true instructor is a leader, a man, not a dema-
gogue, and those in this work must enter into the spirit of it
with a feeling that each student deserves the best that can be
given. A spirit of this kind will produce the greatest success
in the teaching of agricultural engineering subjects to short
course students.
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162 American Society Agricultural Engineers
THE LOCATION OF FARM BUILDINGS.
By Spenceb Otis.*
You have asked me to talk to you tonight about the location of
farm buildings, and as the agricultural engineer must be an all
round athlete, I will include with the engineering features of this
subject those of health and attractiveness. The question of
drainage is first, as the location of farm buildings is naturally
permanent. For the health of the owner and his family, and for
the cattle, drainage is a prime requisite.
All buildings should be located on a considerable rise of ground
if possible so that the surface water will flow from them in all
directions, and enough too, so that the drainage from the house
will have ample fall to some larger tile or water way. The loca-
tion necessary for drainage will also as a rule prove the most
sightly.
Knolls or ridges are very likely to have some permanent tim-
ber and if not they lend themselves to the simpler forms of
landscape planting, that does so much to make the country at-
tractive and to enhance the value of the property.
I presume all of you have followed more or less closely rail-
road engineering and know something of what the ton-mile means
to a railroad. Let me say to you right here that there is no
place on earth where the cost of moving a ton of material one
mile cute as much figure as it does on a farm.
Think of it! It is estimated that the cost of moving one
ton a mile on a railroad is less than three mills, that is, less
than one-third of a cent. The cost of moving a ton of material
one mile on a farm wagon is generally estimated at twenty-
five cents. Based on my own experience, I am sure that the
actual cost of moving a ton a mile over the fields is at best
thirty cents, or one hundred times as much as it costs to per-
form the same service on a railroad. How important then for
the farmer to locate his buildings so that he will have Vie,
least possible average movement of his crops to the barn and
of his manure to the fields. The distance to his market town
* Barrington, 111. (presented at the annual banquet).
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Location of Farm Buildings 163
should also be taken into account. I put this last because as
a rule all the product of a farm must be hauled to the barn,
and all the manure and waste products must be hauled back
to the fields, while a very small part of his produce is hauled
to market. In dairy farming this is not to exceed one-tenth of
the whole. In stock farming location if within reasonable dis-
tance is negligable, because the cattle are usually driven to the
railroad. In grain farming, under ordinary conditions, less than
one-fourth of the produce is hauled to market.
Let us get down to particulars. We will take a farm of 640
acres where general farming is practiced, — corn, of which a
large part is put into silos, small grain and hay. Let us suppose
as an extreme but .not unusual case that the buildings are lo-
cated at one corner of the farm nearest the main road and that
the farm is a complete section. In this case all the produce
raised must be hauled on an average of five-eighths to three-
quarters of a mile, and all the manure must be hauled approxi-
mately as far. Let us say that an average of six tons are pro-
duced per acre. At least as much manure will be hauled back
to the land. On such a farm 500 acres would be under cultiva-
tion. In other words that farmer must handle 6,000 tons five-
eighths to three-quarters of a mile or 4,500 ton miles each year.
If his barns could be located approximately in the center of tht
farm, the haul would be one-fourth of a mile and his 6,000 tons
would mean 1,500 ton miles, — the difference or 3,000 ton miles
at thirty cents means $900 a year. But this does not by any means
tell the whole story. With a one-fourth mile haul, a man could
keep a silo cutter running to full capacity with six teams, and
with the same haul the same number of teams will bring hay to
a barn as fast as you can unload it. With from five-eighths
to three-fourths of a mile haul, it will take nine teams to do the
same work. This means not only the added cost of the teams
for that particular work, with the cost of additional wagons,
harnesses, etc., but it means that these teams must be kept
throughout the year. It means greater difficulty to get men,
because there are more of them. It means more loss in case
of bad weather and additional trouble from break-downs. It
means too, more time lost going to and from the fields for plant-
ing and cultivating. With a one-fourth mile average haul, one
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164 American Society Agricultural Engineers
hour, or ten per cent, of the day for men and teams is used in
going to and from work. With a three-fourths mile average, one
and one-half to two hours or fifteen to twenty per cent, of the
day is used without doing actual work. All these items are di-
rect losses and apply every year. But they are not the only
losses caused by poor location. I have in mind a case where a
half mile cut off of the haul would have enabled a farmer to get
his crops in out of the weather, and have saved what proved to
be a loss of thousands of dollars. I have seen cases where a half
mile less haul would have meant that a good many acres would
have been cultivated before wet weather set in and as it proved
could never be cultivated afterwards.
The facts are that while this possibly may not be the only
reason, you rarely see a successful farmer whose buildings are
badly located for the kind of work he has to do, and except in
cases of wretchedly bad tenant farming, a farm on which the
buildings are well located is generally prosperous.
The question of nearness of the buildings to market is very
much more important in some classes of farming than others.
As a rule the road to the market is good and at any rate easier
to haul over than the fields, and except in cases of dairy farming
where the milk must be delivered regularly every day, the farmer
can usually pick his time for delivering his produce to market,
while with the harvesting of his crops the time has been fixed for
him by the weather. The work must be done then or it can not
be done at all.
I believe the day will come whep the lay-out of the farm in-
cluding the buildings, fences, and the decision as to crops to be
marketed will be settled after consulting with an agricultural
engineer, who has given each of the matters a close study. Cer-
tainly they all mean much to the owner in the way of profits,
and as the land becomes more valuable and as farming as a whole
is done more intelligently, these matters will receive the atten-
tion they deserve.
When called into a consultation an engineer will of course
study all the conditions surrounding the particular case he has
in hand. I will give you two examples. One case is a farm of
480 acres with a ridge running along its eastern edge and all
the rest low land. That ridge was the only proper location for
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Location of Farm Buildings 165
the buildings, but it was right on the edge of the property. The
owner was induced to exchange 180 acres off the west side of his
land for 240 acres east of it. This not only gave him an ideal
location for his buildings, but gave him a ridge or well drained
road through the center of his farm.
Another case was 800 acres of flat land. Near the center of
the property was one low spot of two and one-half to three acres,
which had from one foot to eighteen inches of water on it most
of the year. This was scooped out with wheel scrapers, giving
about thirty inches additional depth, and the dirt- was used to
raise the house lot about five feet and the barn lot about two
feet. This left the barn lot dry and gave the necessary fall for
the drainage from the house through a septic tank. The pond
scooped out as noted proved profitable. It helped very much the
looks of the place and furnished ice for the farmer and a num-
ber of his neighbors, and produced a lot of fish. In this case a
road was cut through the center of the place running from the
main road north to the house and from the buildings through to
the north line. All the fields opened on this road, giving an
almost ideal arrangement from an operating standpoint.
There is just one other feature of this subject I want to talk
about. Agricultural engineering is new. I can remember when
mechanical engineering was equally new, and how hard it was
to get an owner to realize that an engineer could help him in the
location of tools and lay-out of a power plant, and plan for the
movement of material. The same thing exists today in agricul-
tural engineering. The business man who goes into farming as
a new proposition and on a large scale, will very naturally turn
to an engineer because he is used to doing so when building his
factories or developing necessary power. But such cages are
comparatively few, not enough to make a living for the present
crop of agricultural engineers, who must prove to the ordinary
farmer that they can help him, if they are to survive. And I
believe there is no subject where the engineer will be as likely
to get a foothold as in the location and arrangement of farm
buildings.
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REPORTS OF COMMITTEES.
REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON DRAINAGE.
Drainage activities during the year 1914 have been continued
as in previous years. Drainage work is gradually being ex-
tended into the unimproved areas of the various states and large
swamp areas which have hitherto been considered as worthless,
or not of sufficient value to justify their improvement, are
gradually being drained.
Drainage developments are probably, at the present time,
more active in the south than in the north, although the amount
of drainage work actually done in any one of the southern states
is small compared to that in some of the north central states.
The National Drainage Congress held its annual session dur-
ing the month of April in Savannah, Ga. There was a fair at-
tendance. A great deal of interest was manifested, and steps
were taken to secure legislation for the improvement of swamp
lands in the various parts of the United States.
The number of large size tile that are being used is steadily
on the increase and there seems to be a continuous demand for
increased sizes of tile, as in the older drainage areas there is a
great demand for replacing open ditches with under drains
wherever it can be done. Tile as large as forty-two inches in
diameter have been manufactured and laid and during the past
two seasons segmental blocks have been used in several localities
for drainage purposes. Unless there is some unlooked for diffi-
culty in the laying of under drains of this latter material it will
probably come into rapid use for large underground drains, due
to the fact that it can be easily handled and transported.
Machines for all lines of drainage work are being continually
improved and their field of work widened. None of the states
have any definite system by which actual statistics on drainage
work are placed on record and kept in any one office. Several
states now have a state official who in a general way has super-
vision of drainage projects, while in other states there is no
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Report of Committee on Drainage 167
state supervision whatever and all public work gets no further
than the county in which it is located. A very large percentage
of the work, from the standpoint of actual cost and benefits, is
done by land owners and private individuals without any offi-
cial supervision whatever and there are, therefore, no records.
Consequently statistics of drainage work from many of the
states are only partial and incomplete at best.
ORGANIZATIONS.
A number of the states now have organized either independ-
ent drainage associations or a state engineering society which
gives part of its time to a consideration of drainage problems.
Practically all of the state engineering societies which are on
the exchange list of the Illinois Society of Engineers and Sur-
veyors give a certain portion of their program to drainage prob-
lems and these are printed in their annual reports. The State
Drainage Association of Iowa has published its tenth annual
report and a number of other states, including Illinois, New
York, and North Carolina have drainage organizations that are
issuing reports. Various other states from time to time hold
drainage conventions and publish a report of the proceedings.
These organizations, both national and state, tend to call at-
tention to the value of the development of swamp lands, promote
drainage improvements, keep up a public interest in the subject,
and a few of them deal with the technical details of drainage
construction which will ultimately improve drainage methods.
The development of peat and muck lands for agricultural
purposes is receiving a great deal of attention at the present
time in states where there are tracts of land of this nature. The
American Peat Society, which holds annual meetings and pub-
lishes a quarterly journal is giving a great deal of attention to
the agricultural development of these lands, as well as to their
value for commercial purposes.
STANDARDIZATION.
The committee appointed by the American Society for Testing
Material have completed the greater part of their work and a
set of specifications for strength tests and quality of drain tile
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168 American Society Agricultural Engineers
are published in the Year Book, 1914, for the American. Society
for Testing Material, pages 323 to 334. While the work of this
committee is not yet complete, its work up to date should be of
great value in areas where large tile are being laid.
TESTS.
A systematic test of the lasting qualities of cement tile is now
being carried out by the bureau of standards in co-operation
with the office of drainage investigations, United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, and the United States
Reclamation Service. Eight hundred feet of tile are included
in each test and these tests are scattered throughout a number
of states, some in alkali lands and some in non-alkali lands. The
tile were all made at one factory and under the same conditions.
They were laid and are tested under the supervision of one man.
The complete test will cover a period of ten years. One-tenth
of the tile laid will be taken up and tested each year.
It is not the aim of this report to give results of any specific
work done, but simply to point out those organization which are
active. Application may be made to them for copies of reports
covering work done in their respective territories.
ACTIVE ORGANIZATIONS.
American Society for Testing Materials, 1914, pages 323-334.
Office of Drainage Investigations, Washington, D. C.
United States Reclamation Service, Washington, D. C.
American Peat Society, 209 St. Clair Bldg., Toledo, Ohio.
Iowa State Drainage Association, M. F. P. Costelloe, Ames, la.
North Carolina Annual Drainage Convention, Jos. Hyde
Pratt, Chapel Hill, N C.
Association of Drainage and Levy Districts of Illinois, Guy L.
Shaw, Beardstown, 111.
New York State Drainage Association, Prof. E. O. Pippin,
Ithaca, N. Y.
Report was accepted as read.
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Report of Committee on Farm Structures 169
KEPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON FARM STRUCTURE.
The preliminary work of your committee was to ascertain what
had been done on the subject of farm structures by previous
organizations, and we found that very little had been recorded.
Your committee therefore began work with the following tenta-
tive outline:
1. Presentation of standard plans for stalls, mangers, alleys,
etc., as recommended practice.
2. Presentation in a tentative way of types of plans and de-
signs for small farm buildings.
3. General specifications for types of barn framing.
4. The design of the farm home.
Accordingly the work was sub-divided among the members of
the committee. On October third we had a meeting in Chicago
and went over the work which had been done and formulated
plans for the final report. We found that the scope of the work
of this committee was so large that we could not undertake to
cover the entire field. It was, therefore, decided to confine our
efforts to an investigation and study, with the aim of securing
data which would be useful in further work of this committee.
For this investigation the following sources of information were
selected :
1. Personal investigation and study.
2. Co-operating with the United States Department of Agri
culture.
3. Co-operating with the state universities and colleges.
4. Co-operating with the state art commissions.
5. Co-operating with the farm journals and magazines.
6. Co-operating with practical farmers.
7. Co-operating with commercial organizations.
8. Co-operating with contractors.
The kind of information sought was :
1. The designs of farm buildings.
2. The results of investigations by other organizations.
3. The opinions of practical operators.
Results of this investigation, however, have been somewhat
retarded on account of the slow replies to our inquiries.
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170 American Society Agricultural Engineers
SMALL FARM BUILDINGS.
Your committee finds that plans for small farm buildings
vary greatly in their design, depending largely on the size of
the farm. For milk houses, pump houses, poultry houses and
hog houses, the supreme requisite is sanitary construction.
We find the opinion of the various agricultural colleges differ
greatly as to the design of poultry houses according to the local-
ity in which they are built. They all agree that poultry houses
should be designed to contain plenty of light and fresh air.
For hog houses the design depends upon the size of the herd.
Special emphasis is given to sanitary designs, plenty of light,
and provision for good ventilation.
The tool house depends on the size of the farm. The best ex-
amples which we have investigated are those built rectangular
in plan and twenty to twenty-eight feet wide.- The length de-
, pends on the amount of tools to be housed. The best design
which your committee has investigated is one which is rectan-
gular and has both sides enclosed by sliding doors, mak-
ing it possible to drive in and out from either side. This form
of construction would not seem to be more costly than where
only one side is provided with sliding doors but we believe the
saving in labor in backing or pulling tools into or out of the
shed would justify the extra expense.
Your committee finds the general opinion for size of dairy
barns and horse barns varying from thirty-four to thirty-six
feet in width. The arrangements of stock in the interior, where
they are confined to stalls, is generally in two rows extending
lengthwise of the barn. We find the opinion about equally di-
vided as to whether the stock should face the outside walls or
be arranged so as to face one another with the center feeding al-
ley lengthwise of the building.
The committee's investigation of barn framing shows that
'frames erected by many builders are at fault. This is espe-
cially true of plank frame construction. Two or three good
typos of framing, such as the Wing or Showrver construction,
would meet nearly every requirement. For example, the Show-
ver frame is admirably adapted to the wide barn, the basement
barn and gives open center construction. The Wing frame, self-
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Report of Committee on Farm Structures 171
supporting roof, is of simpler design and well adapted to smaller
structures, and especially to the two-story barn with provision for
housing animals in the first floor. Your committee believes it
possible to reduce these designs to standards to be submitted as
recommended practice. However, the subject should be given
further consideration.
Comparatively speaking, little study has been given to the
design of the farm house. The United States government pub-
lished a bulletin in 1906 on the Modern Conveniences for the
Farm Home and Accessories Thereto, offering three general
plans for the location of the house with respect to the surround-
ing landscape.
The most extensive study pertaining to the farm home has
been done by the Minnesota art commission, St. Paul, Minn. In
1913 a prize was offered by this society to all the designers in
Minnesota. Six prizes were awarded in this competition. The
requirements for this model farm home were arranged by
farmers. The home was to contain ten rooms and not to exceed
a cost of $3,500. The prizes were judged by a farmer, a teacher
of home economics and an architect. After the prizes were
awarded all of the plans submitted by the various designers to
the Minnesota state art commission wTere turned over to the Uni-
versity of Minnesota Department of Agriculture for publica-
tion and appeared in Extension Bulletin No. 52.
After the publication of these plans the chief criticism made
was that the designs offered would cost too much for the average
farmer.
Accordingly "The Parmer" (a farm journal of St. Paul) de-
cided to ascertain what kind of a model farm house the farmer
would design. They selected several hundred names at random
from their subscription list, to each of whom a letter was ad-
dressed asking for suggestions as to specifications of a model
farm home which they would build, assuming this house to be
built on the average Minnesota farm comprising 168 acres, and
to accommodate a family consisting of from four to seven mem-
bers, which would include accommodations for the ordinary farm,
help. One hundred replies were received in response to this
inquiry and it was found that the majority desired a square
house about 28 x 30 feet in dimensions, containing about eight
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172 American Society Agricultural Engineers
rooms and to cost between $2,000 and $3,000. Some estimates
were as low as $1,000, while others were as high as $5,000.
Writers of these letters seemed to unanimously agree that the
house should be modern, containing water and sewerage facili-
ties, full basement, heated with hot water or hot air, and lighted
with electricity or artificial gas. The specifications pertaining
to water system were equally divided between the pneumatic
system and storage tank. All agreed that a two story house was
desired.
Accordingly this information was submitted to an architect
with instructions to design a house that would embody all of
these specifications. To build such a house it would cost approx-
imately $3,000 to $3,500.
You will note this investigation and design compares in cost
to the plans submitted by the Minnesota state art commission,
which would indicate that a house to comply with the specifica-
tions of farmers themselves, and to embody all the modern con-
veniences will cost in the neighborhood of $3,500.
Twenty-five plans were furnished various persons throughout
the state of Minnesota by "The Farmer' ' for building. The
names and addresses of these parties were secured and a letter
was addressed to each to ascertain if the house was built as
originally planned.
We obtained three replies. One of these was from an in-
structor in a high school, the other two were from farmers.
Neither of the farmers had built the house. One offered a few
suggestions as changes, while the instructor in the high school
completely re-arranged the plan. We regret we did not receive
more replies to our inquiries but those received would seem to
indicate that each builder requires a special design.
Your committee has attempted to divide the farm home into
three classes:
Class No. 1 called "Small Modern Farm Home," costing
from $800 to $2,000.
Class No. 2 called "The Modern Farm Home," costing from
$2,000 to $3,500.
Class No. 3 called "The Large Modern Home," costing from
$3,500 to $7,500.
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Report of Committee on Farm Structures 17&
Class No. 1 may be likened to frontier homes such as is used
by pioneer settlers. We find examples of these homes in the
more developed section of our country which are now being
used in conjunction with the second farm house, as homes for
tenants and hired help. Usually either the "Modern Farm
Home'' (class No. 2) or the "Large Modern Farm Home,, (class
No. 3) follow this construction.'
Your committee is of the opinion it is possible to plan mod-
ern conveniences, such as running water, sewage disposal, heat
and light for all of the above classes. For class No. 1 it will be
necessary to make one room serve as a combination of one or
more rooms in either of the other two classes.
Your committee was interested in the modern kitchen in-
stalled in a railway coach, which was part of the agriculture
train which toured through St. Louis county, Minnesota, last
spring. Farm homes in St. Louis county are of the frontier
type, most of which are built of log construction. The domestic
science division of the Extension Department, University of
Minnesota, planned a kitchen suitable for these houses. The
entrance to this car imitated the back entrance to a farm house.
In this entry room a wash bowl was connected with the hot
water plant. Leading off from this room was a bath and toilet,
at one end of which was a small room in which the cream sep-
arator was placed. Passing from this entrance the visitor en-
tered the kitchen part of the car. In this was a steel range,
home made kitchen cabinet, table and shelf and fireless cooker.
A common wooden barrel was placed in the corner and connected
with cast iron pipes to the range behind the stove, which pro-
vides hot water. The wash bowl in the entrance room, the bath
tub and sink in the kitchen were connected to this barrel with
pipes, making it possible to use a tap of hot or cold water at
either of these places. The windows were tastefully draped
with cheap but attractive curtains and in each stood a pot or
two of plants.
Your committee has investigated several farm homes and cite
you three instances which in their opinion are worthy of men-
tion.
The first farm home is on Isaac Lincoln's ranch at Aberdeen,.
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174 American Society Agricultural Engineers
South Dakota, serving a farm of 1,760 acres. This farm home
was built about two years ago. A basement is constructed under
the entire house, the walls, floors and partitions of which are of
monolithic concrete. This basement is divided into the follow-
ing compartments for fruit and vegetables, furnace, laundry,
bath room (containing tub, toilet and shower bath) and a work-
ing men's reception room. The latter is provided with several
wash bowls for the farm help and a large library table. Along
the walls of this room are racks containing magazines and daily
and farm papers. A stairway leads from this reception room
to the dining room above. In the dining room are two tables —
one for the farm help, the other for the farm foreman's family.
Adjoining this room is the kitchen, provided with hot and cold
running water, cupboards, working table and a coal and gas
range. Adjoining the dining room is the living room.
The second* floor contains sleeping rooms, bath and toilet for
the private use of the foreman's family.
The third floor contains sleeping quarters for the farm help.
A stairway leads to this part of the house direct from the base-
ment and from the outside, so that it is not necessary for the
farm help to pass through the foreman's part of the house, in
reaching their quarters. Also on this floor is a wash room sup-
plied with hot and cold water. The whole house, as well as the
farm buildings are lighted with electricity.
The water supply for the farm is obtained from an artesian
well which maintains a constant pressure in its mains of forty
pounds per square inch.
The second farm home is on the Caribou Farms at Twig, St.
Louis county, Minn.
A basement is built under the entire house and divided into
compartments for fruit and vegetables, laundry, furnace and
fuel. The plan of the first floor is a large reception room for
the farm help, in which is a large library table and magazine
rack. The literature is mostly farm magazines and daily papers.
Adjoining this is a large dining room for the farm help, which
has a separate table for the family of the farm superintendent.
On this floor is a bed room, kitchen and a library in which the
farm superintendent has his office. On the second floor is sleep-
ing quarters for the superintendent's family and house help.
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Report of Committee on Farm Structures 175
The sleeping quarters for the men are provided for in the sec-
ond story of the creamery. This house is equipped with electric
lights, the electricity being secured from a local plant on the
farm. Hot and cold water is installed in the house and the pres-
sure is obtained from an underground pressure tank.
The third farm home is that of C. B. Cook, Owoseo, Mich.,
serving a farm of 160 acres.
The plan is rectangular, with a basement under the entire
house divided into laundry, furnace and fuel, fruit and vege-
table (large potato bins) and parage. Wagons may be backed
into the garage for loading and unloading vegetables and fuel.
The superstructure is of frame construction, the first floor of
which is divided into kitchen, dining, a large living room, and
a small room serving as an office and library. The toilet room
on the first floor may be entered from the kitchen or library,
the latter which may easily be adapted for use as a sick room.
An open stairway leads to the sleeping rooms above.
Your committee finds that it is generally desired that the
farm home should provide quarters for the farm help which will
be comfortable and commodious as well as congenial, so that
they will be contented with their work. The farm help on the
above farms was interviewed to determine their attitude toward
their work. We found that all were satisfied and several re-
marked that they were more contented spending their evenings
on the farm than at the country town. They use the living room
provided in the above homes in the evening for social quarters,
and the reading material supplied is an aid in the creating of
greater interest in better farming.
In view of this brief study of the farm home, the following
would seem to summarize the desirable features in the design
of a farm house:
1. Simple and substantial appearance.
2. Durable construction.
3. Plan rectangular.
4. Broad, low roof with few breaks.
5. Large porches.
6. Good light and provision for ventilation.
7. Provision for farm help.
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176 American Society Agricultural Engineers
8. Ample storage for fruits and vegetables.
9. A well planned kitchen.
10. Good systems of heating, lighting, water supply and sew-
age disposal.
Your committee recommends:
That standard plans for stalls and mangers be submitted in
the report of this committee at the next annual meeting.
That suggestive plans be submitted for small and large farm
buildings.
That the study of barn framing be continued and standard
types submitted.
That further study be given the farm home, with a view of
determining the principles governing its design.
That the personnel of this committee be increased to five
members, so that sub-committees may be appointed on special
work.
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Discussion 177
DISCUSSION OF REPORT OP COMMITTEE.
Mr. L. J. Smith (University of Manitoba) : It seems that
something should be done 'in regard to the system of bracing
roofs of barns. The insurance companies have found in the
Northwest that the open type of barn construction is so varia-
able that they will not insure a building of greater width than
thirty-four feet, and the only reason they will not do so is be-
cause there is no standard that can be depended upon. If some-
thing could be done in the way of educational literature, it would
facilitate the work of the barn builder in the country.
Mr. L. W. Chase (University of Nebraska) : There should be
some definition made of the self-supporting roof. As it is ordi-
narily referred to in the agricultural papers, it is a gambrel
roof.
Mr. Niemann (Louden Company) : I have made a study of
various methods of barn framing, more particularly of what is
generally known as the self-supporting roof. It seems that this
type of barn is generally accepted on account of the require-
ments for handling hay overhead, which demands a barn without
obstructions. With that in view, and on account of the rapid
increase in the price of lumber, it becomes very necessary to in-
vestigate the strength of material and the different methods of
construction in order to determine which type of construction
would really be the most economical, and at the same time give
the required strength. I have figured up the difference in the
cost between the several methods of plank frame construction:
I find that by building trusses up out of plank and spacing them
twelve feet apart that it will cost considerably more than by
distributing the same braces on each rafter. That is, if each
rafter that frames an arch from one side to the other is so braced
as to take care of all the strains that are put onto this rafter,
it is more economical to distribute the weight of the barn equally
over the length of the foundation wall than it would be if the
trusses were strong enough to space a section of the barn twelve
feet long, and the entire weight was concentrated on these points
twelve feet apart. By putting the braces on each rafter and the
rafter framing similar to what is called the gambrel roof, the
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178 American Society Agricultural Engineers
framing will require about twenty-five per cent, less material
to give the same strength, as it would built up of plank trusses
twelve feet apart. Those figures are taken on a barn thirty-six
feet wide, which seems to be the accepted width of barns.
I believe that if barns ever are standardized, they will be built
rectangular with two rows of stock ; it seems to be more economi-
cal in deeding and cleaning and secures better ventilation and
light. If you have two rows of cattle you can work between the
two rows, cleaning and feeding to better advantage, and at the
same time you have one row of windows for each row of stock.
The barn is correctly lighted and the light will be equally dis-
tributed and equally disinfected.
I do not believe that there has been very much of a study
made in the most economical and practical construction of farm
buildings for various climates. I think work along this line will
be of great advantage to all interested in agricultural develop-
ment. Concrete and hollow tile as a building material are being
favored. Concrete can be applied to most any climate, and it
can be bought in most any market at so reasonable a price that
it will probably be only a short time when much more concrete
will be used in preference to frame construction.
Mr. Curtis (Universal Portland Cement Co.) : We have
learned some interesting things in investigations of fires in con-
crete structures. For instance, it was shown that eighty-seven
and one-half per cent, of the concrete was undamaged by the
fire. In some cases the concrete was badly damaged. One build-
ing contained several tons of wax, and it was not protected by a
sprinkler system, nor by steel casings or window frames nor by
wire glass. The walls were concrete and the contents very in-
flamable. Under those conditions eighty-seven and one-half per
cent, of the concrete work remained unharmed. The tempera-
ture at which cement is hurt, something like 3,000 degrees, will
assure you that we can not hope to withstand a temperature
greater than that.
(On motion of Mr. Chase, duly seconded, the report was ac-
cepted.)
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Committee on Farm Building Equipment 179
REPORT OP COMMITTEE ON FARM BUILDING EQUIP-
MENT.
GOOD AND BAD FEATURES OP STANCHION DESIGNS.
William Louden (Louden Company) : The object of a stan-
chion is to hold a cow in place while in the barn, and to prevent
her going where she should not go. A cow barn, like a horse
barn, is usually divided into a number of spaces called stalls,
each provided with a manger and intended for the accommoda-
tion of a cow. Formerly ties of various kinds were used to hold
the cows in the stalls, but in time, devices known as stanchions
began to take the place of the ties, until at present the former
have almost completely taken the place of the latter.
The old-fashioned cow stanchions were made of vertically dis-
posed bars of wood, spaced apart and their upper and lower
ends inserted between two sets of wooden scantlings set up edge-
wise— one set on the floor of the barn and the other held above
the heads of the cows. The alternate bars jvere bolted or other-
wise rigidly fastened between the scantlings, and the intermedi-
ate bars were pivoted at their lower ends between the lower
scantlings, while their upper ends were left free to be moved
back and forth into open and closed positions between the up-
per scantlings. When opened the cow would pass her head
through between the bars and then the movable bar would be
closed and latched in this position to hold the cow. The stan-
chion bars did not have to be brought closely against the cow's
neck, but only close enough to prevent her from drawing her
head out between them.
This arrangement answered a fairly good purpose, the cows
being free to stand up or lie down without danger of choking
or becoming entangled in the ties. It was also much handier
than the ties, in fastening and releasing the cows but, on the
other hand, it had some extremely objectionable features. The
cow was actually held in stocks and could not have the freedom
necessary for her comfort. She could not turn her head to lick
her side or to brush away a troublesome fly. If she lay down
in the stall a little to one side or the other, her neck would be
cramped against the rigid bar so she could not rest with ease.
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180 American Society Agricultural Engineers
As a cow generally lies down in the stall at one side or the other,
arid hardly ever in the center, this lack of flexibility was a seri-
ous drawback and many dairymen persistently refused to use
stanchions on this account.
In addition to this it was impossible with stanchions of this
kind to keep the stalls and mangers clean or in any kind of a
sanitary condition. The two lower scantlings which were gen-
erally eight or ten inches wide, were set up edgewise on the
floor about two inches apart, which made a regular catch-all
for every kind of dirt and debris. This mixed with the slob-
berings of the cow and the droppings of her feed made a fertile
breeding place for all kinds of germs, and sometimes live mag-
gots were found in these places. The construction w$s such that
it was impossible to keep them clean. The pockets were so deep
and hard to get at that even the "Old Dutch Cleanser" could
not reach them.
There are two requirements in the construction of cow stalls
and mangers. They must be easy to clean and keep clean and
they must be comfortable for the cows. Certain manufacturers
claim to make a "self-cleaning manger,' ' but this is an impos-
sibility. The best that can be done is to make the stalls and
mangers so they are easy to clean and easy to keep clean. To
do this it is necessary that they be made of the best cement and
the smoothest metal, without any cracks or crevices or pockets
or sharp corners anywhere to catch and hold dirt. The manger
and the curb to which the stanchions are anchored and over
which the cow has to eat, should be trowelled as smoothly as
they can be made, so the feed will not stick to the surface, and
the cow will be tempted to lick it and thus clean up every par-
ticle of food, and then be thoroughly washed at least once a day
or after every feeding.
For the comfort of the cow there should be no sharp corners
on the curb or anywhere else for her to rub her jaws over or
strike her knees against. The stanchion should also be free
from cracks or crevices or sharp corners, and it should be flexi-
bly hung so that the cow will have the greatest possible free-
dom. A swiveled stanchion alone is not sufficient. While it will
permit the cow to turn her head to the side it will not permit
her to lie down at one side .of the stall (as she will nine times
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Committee an Farm Building Equipment 181
out of ten), without cramping her neck. Neither will it afford
her the necessary freedom in getting up and lying down.
A cow in getting up and lying down invariably pitches for-
ward, and with a rigidly hung or a swiveled stanchion, she is
sure to jam her shoulders more or less against the stanchion.
The lower end of the stanchion should always be anchored by
means of a single slack chain, long enough to permit it to swing
forward, backward and sideways in a circle of at least eight
or ten inches.
The best material of which a stanchion can be made is high
carbon tubular steel. It is the lightest and the strongest. It is
also the smoothest and the most easily ke#pt clean. Sometimes
stanchions are made of T-iron with a wood lining next to the
cow, but this is not as good as the tubular steel. It is not as
strong unless made extremely heavy, and it has sharp corners,
both inside and outside, which are also objectionable. The
wood linings are popularly supposed to keep the cow's neck
warm but as a matter of fact there is nothing whatever in this
contention, or at least, not enough in it to be taken into consid-
eration when summing up the advantages of different construc-
tions.
With the wood lining there are two pieces instead of one,
which have to be fastened together and which are liable to get
loose and come apart. There will always be more or less of a
crevice between the wood and the steel to catch and hold dirt
and form breeding places for disease germs. Every argument
that is made in favor of the wood-lined stanchion can be made
with greater force in favor of discarding tubular steel stalls
and concrete mangers and stable floors, and returning to the
old discarded unsanitary wooden stalls and mangers.
Another fad is the adjustable stanchion. As well have ad-
justable coats, adjustable hats or adjustable shces. The stan-
chion does not have to fit the cow's neck snugly. I have seen
a six-month old calf and a full grown cow standing side by side
securely and comfortably held by stanchions exactly the same
size. Standard stanchions are made of different sizes to suit
the smallest calf or the largest bull, and it is as easy to take out
and put in a larger or a smaller stanchion as it is to adjust
an adjustable stanchion. Sometimes the adjusting rigging gets
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182 American Society Agricultural Enginters
tight or rusted and will not work, or it gets loose and will not
hold.
Another idea is the simultaneous release; that is, arranging
the stanchions so they can be all unlatched at one operation and
'thus release all the cows at the same time. Some of the great-
est catastrophes have been caused by people all trying to get
out of a building at the same time. For instance, the Iroquois
theater of Chicago a few years ago. Experienced dairymen
forbid their stablemen releasing the cows too rapidly. They in-
sist that one cow shall have started toward the door before an-
other is released so as to prevent crowding and thus prevent
injuring the cows. It* is claimed that this simultaneous arrange-
ment would be beneficial in case of fire. This is uncertain but
if it should be so it would not happen more than once in ten
thousand times that the cows are released. In the meantime the
damages would far overrun the profits. This is simply a lazy
man's expedient to save a little work at the expense of the cow's
well-being and the dairyman's interests.
The lower end of a swiveled or swinging stanchion should al-
ways be sloping or rounded. It should never be square or have
sharp corners, because if made this way the cow is liable to have
her foot caught between the square lower end or sharp corners
of the stanchion and the curb where the stanchion is anchored,
and get it severely injured.
Stanchions should be fitted with a " push-down ' ' latch which
can easily be opened with one hand even when the hand is closed
or covered with a mitten, instead of a "lift-up" latch or a
"door-knob" latch which cannot be opened in this wray.
Cow stalls should always be provided witn partitions to keep
each cow in her own place and prevent her from turning around
lengthwise and soiling the adjacent stalls, or tramping on the
adjacent cow's udder or crushing her teats when lying down.
That was one of the defects of the old wooden stalls and stan-
chions. In addition to this the old-style stanchions were gen-
erally set so close together that only a part of the cows could
lie down at the same time. For average size cows the stalls
should be three feet six inches wide.
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Committee on Farm Building Equipment 183
For partitions, curved pipes, three feet sjx inches high by
three feet six inches wide in the clear, connected to the stall
posts at their upper ends and their lower ends set in the con-
crete of the floor, are sufficient. A single continuous curve is
better than a double or 0. 6. curve, which may be called a
" sway-back" partition, because the cow is liable to get astride
of the latter and injure her udder by hanging on the flat part
of the " sway-back.' '
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184 American Society Agricultural Engineers
PRELIMINARY REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE
MANUFACTURE OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS.
The aim of this report is to call attention very briefly to the
need for more manufacturing establishments in farming dis-
tricts, to point out some of the manufacturing industries that
will benefit farming communities, and to discuss the relation
of the agricultural engineer to these industries.
NEED OF FACTORIES IN RURAL DISTRICTS.
One of the greatest needs of agriculture today is the estab-
lishment of more factories in rural districts where the products
of the farm may find a ready market, and where farm hands
.may obtain employment during seasons of the year when farm
work is slack.
When all farm products have to be shipped away in the raw
state, market prices are so changeable that the farmer cannot
tell what to depend on, and his profits are likely to be irregular
and uncertain. When, on the other hand, a local factory be-
comes a regular market and prices do not vary greatly from
year to year, farming assumes a stability that adds greatly to
its attractiveness. A good example of this may be found in
Cache Valley, Utah, where the agriculture has been completely
changed and placed on a much more stable basis by the estab-
lishment of two sugar factories and a number of condensed
milk factories. Since these factories were built land has dou-
bled in price and every branch of agriculture has been given an
impetus. Examples of this kind might be cited from all parts
of the country.
KINDS OF FACTORIES FOR RURAL DISTRICTS.
The kinds of factories which convert farm products into the
finished articles of commerce are almost without number. Some
of these pertain strictly to the farm and are operated by the
farmer himself; others properly belong to city manufacturing
centers ; but the ones in which the agricultural engineer is most
interested belong to neither of these classes, but are enterprises
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Committee on Manufacture of Agricultural Products 185
of sufficient proportions to require the services of technically
trained men and, at the same time, are not entirely remote from
rural conditions.
Among these industries may be mentioned the following:
creameries, cheese factories, condensed milk factories, fruit and
vegetable canneries, fruit evaporating plants, pickle factories,
meat curing establishments, sugar factories, molasses and syrup
mills, cereal products factories, starch factories, flour mills, oil
factories, stock feed plants, fiber and textile industries, and nu-
merous other lines of manufacturing. Certain of the industries
mentioned above, in their specialized phases, do not belong to
the farming district, but to manufacturing centers. All these
industries, however, have to do with farm products and the
prosperity of agriculture depends, to a considerable extent, on
the development of them.
RELATION TO THE AGRICULTURAL ENGINEER.
The exact place of the agricultural engineer in relation to
these manufacturing enterprises is, as yet, not well defined. It
is believed, however, that the technical side of this work should
be considered as a branch of agricultural engineering, and that
colleges having a division of agricultural engineering should
provide for a department of agricultural technology, or manu-
facturing. It is further believed that colleges maintaining en-
gineering experiment stations should make provision for the
investigation of problems relating to the manufacture of agri-
cultural products.
Your committee recommends that this subject be given the
serious consideration of the society in the future.
(The report of the committee was accepted as read.)
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186 American Society Agricultural Engineers
REPORT OP COMMITTEE ON MOTOR CONTEST.
We, your committee on motor competition, beg leave to sub-
mit the following report:
WORK FINISHED.
(1) Completed the 1913 report;
(2) Assisted in formulating the rules for four power farming
demonstrations ;
(3) Furnished the field men for one such demonstration.
NEW WORK.
In view of the fact that there is now a motor competition be-
ing considered in the West, this committee has been requested
to formulate rules governing such a contest. Having this mat-
ter in view, the following tentative rules are offered :
I.
Tractor power competition.
Brake tests.
And in connection with both, economy of power and plowing
tests for economy.
The rules governing the above competitions to be similar ta
those used at Winnipeg in 1913.
II.
There shall be a tractor assembling competition.
III.
Tractor operation competition.
You will notice that this is a new feature that we are suggest-
ing in connection with the tractor contest. The first is the
tractor assembling competition and the second is the tractor oper-
ating competition. The tractor operating competition will be
made up of two classes, amateurs and professionals. Tt is sup-
posed that the amateurs will consist of student teams from the
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Report of Committee on Motor Contest 187
various agricultural or engineering colleges, the same as our
stock judging teams and our horticulture judging teams.
The idea is that the various schools send a student-competing
team. This team will operate either one, two or three or four en-
gines, depending upon the number the judges shall specify, and
put the engines through a regular power and economy test.
Then they will go through the power test, and through certain
operating stunts, and the judges will decide which" team handles
the contest the most smoothly.
In the professional contests, the operators will consist of me-
chanics in the field who will have an opportunity to prove how
they can handle engines and do certain stunts.
In regard to the tractor-assembling part of the competition,
the idea is to have each company entering such a competition
ship in the parts for two complete traction engines. The com-
pany would furnish a certain number of men, we think about
four, and a certain kind of equipment for assembling. Then
when the gun is fired or the whistle is blown, the men will start
to work and assemble all the parts. It will be a very good les-
son to farmers to see how engines are made, and I dare say it
may be a good lesson to the manufacturers to see how hard
farmers have to work to get the repair parts put into their en-
gine. At least the farmers may learn how that is done. Fur-
thermore, manufacturers could get a lesson from such a com-
petition by noticing the parts that must be duplicated.
The committee did not make any definite rules for the gov-
erning of this competition, because we thought wre should take
more time for the consideration of such rules.
(Mr. Dickerson moved the acceptance of the report.)
DISCUSSION.
Mr. Dickerson (University of Illinois) : It seems to me that
the question that the farmer is interested in is what the engine
is going to do, not on the brake, but what it is going to do in
the actual operation of the machine. I realize that the work out-
lined is all that could be actually carried out in the contest, but
I was wondering if it would be possible to include in such a
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188 American Society Agricultural Engineers
contest some threshing work; for instance, I have in mind a
demonstration that is to be carried on at Fremont, where they
are thinking of having about a hundred and fifty or two hun-
dred acres of wheat. I was wondering if it would not be a
splendid opportunity for the society to show what some of these
small tractors, or some of these tractors that we consider " freak' '
tractors, would do or can do at threshing. They say there are
separators made for every kind of a tractor, or at least, they can
use them on all kinds of belt power. There are not very many
separators on the market. We want tractors that will hold two
and three plows. It is a pretty good thing to know what kind
of a separator that engine is going to hold, and I think if we
could run a test of that kind it would be a good thing.
The Chairman: I think the committee has already given
some attention to the possibility of incorporating some such
work in the test, and I am sure the committee will be very glad
to receive any suggestions you have to offer along that line.
Mr. Dickerson: I would suggest to the committee that per-
haps it would be of more value to the farmer and could be more
easily carried out, either to replace the assembling process or
add to it the matter of repairs — the time required to make
certain repairs, for instance, replacing a crank shaft.
The Chairman : As 1 understand it, part of the object of this
assembling contest was to show how the repair parts could be
put on.
Mr. Chase : The committee is very anxious for all these sug-
gestions. It may be that Professor Dickerson 's point would fit
into the bigger scheme which we have started to carry out in
connection with the manufacturers. We have considered very
seriously the matter of threshing and we have in mind that
there are three sides to all these contests — there is the in-
structor's side, the manufacturer's side, and the farmer's side.
The instructor wants everything as technical as possible, the
manufacturer wants it super-technical, and the farmer wants it
so far from technical that neither the manufacturer nor the in-
structor likes to enter into it, because of the confusion.
(The reiport of the committee was duly accepted.)
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Report of Committee on Publicity 189
REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON PUBLICITY.
Your committee on publicity really has little to report in view
of the splendid opportunities that exist on every hand for the
exploitation of the society. The unfortunate geographical dis-
tribution of tha committee's membership has left much to be de-
sired, and the chairman wishes to accept full blame for not se-
curing more of the assistance which Mr. Olney and Mr. Graham
were willing to extend..
The principal activity of the committee has consisted of send-
ing mimeographed news items to a list of thresher, gas en-
gine, popular engineering, professional engineering, implement
dealer, lumber, sugar, mining, highway, irrigation and farm
journals, numbering in all 112 publications. Unfortunately, a
large number of the publications on this list do not come to the
chairman's attention and his clipping service has been faulty,
so that it is impossible for him to determine the amount jof pub-
licity actually secured.
Among the news items sent to the entire list and published
by a greater or less number of the papers were the following:
Membership increase, sale of proceedings, present convention,
grain cleaning contest, farm machinery standardization, stand-
ard construction for barns and small buildings, etc.
In addition to the material actually published, there is the
further advantage resulting from the education of editors, who
look up to the society as an organization of some prestige.
Some members who contribute more or less regularly to vari-
ous publications have followed a suggestion made several years
ago that they add to their signature the abbreviation "Mem.
Am. Soc. Agr. Eng.," thus advertising the society and at the
same time adding to their own standing. This practice could be
more general with benefit to the organization and the individual
members.
Copies of the monthly bulletin or galley proofs of items from
the bulletin that would be of interest to the public at large
might be mailed to the publication list enclosed, or even to a
much larger list which the publicity committee could easily
compile. Coming through the secretary's office, the material
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190 American Society Agricultural Engineers
would have a little more standing than from the chairman of
the publicity committee.
Chairmen on all committees should report about twice during
the year to the chairman of the publicity committee a brief sum-
mary of the work which they are covering and upon which they
expect to report at the annual meeting. This should have a
double effect. It will make the publicity work much easier and
result in more advertising of the society, with a probable gain
in members as a result. On the other hand, it will place the
various committees on record in such fashion that they will be
less apt to disappoint the members who have attended the con-
vention on the strength of a publicity item about some work
that is being carried on during the year.
During the past year the chairman of your committee has
mentioned the society in a number of publicity stories dealing
with matters quite foreign to work that it has actually tinder-
taken. This was by way of securing additional publicity, also
for the -purpose of leading the general public to demand more
of the society by revealing greater opportunities. Publicity for
the society should include not only what it has done and what
it is actually doing, but what it might do if it lived up to its
name. A glittering prospectus is almost necessary in promoting
any organization, whether it be pure buncombe or absolutely
gilt edged.
The present chairman's location makes it difficult for him to
keep in as close touch with the society as is necessary in fur-
nishing the up-to-the-minute news that is most rigidly demanded
by editors. Therefore, he would suggest that a more active head
for the committee be selected, though still offering the fullest co-
operation aj3 an individual member of the society.
(The report of the committee was accepted as read.)
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Committee on Grain Cleaning Contest 191
KEPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE ON GRAIN CLEAN-
ING CONTEST.
The committee met on December 30 and 31, 1913, and te-
Tiewed the work of the year 1913, including the suggestions of-
fered by your society in regular session at its seventh annual
meeting.
Upon the suggestion of the members of the committee the
chairman assembled the material at hand, making up from this
■a score card for a .seed grain cleaner contest with suggested
rules, twenty-five copies of which were mailed to members of
this society, enterprising manufacturing concerns and members
of the press, requesting them to offer suggestions for the im-
provement of the proposed rules and regulations. There were
but two replies to this letter of inquiry received, both of these
coming from manufacturing concerns occupying large fields in
the grain cleaner trade. One suggested the simplifying of our
outline to that of cleaning a particular grain of a certain weed
seed. The other had very little to offer..
Arrangements were made for a contest at Winnipeg as was
held in 1913. Owing to a general business depression through-
out the provinces there were not sufficient entries in the proposed
-contest to make it worth while, it becoming necessary, therefore,
to cancel it.
The proposed rules and regulations for a seed grain cleaner
contest are as follows. These, it should be understood, are given
sb suggestive. It would probably be necessary to alter them to
suit any given conditions.
SEED GRAIN CLEANER COMPETITION.
(Introductory.)
In order that the various types of machines may be placed in
competition the following classification will be adhered to:
Division 1.
Hand Cleaners 1/6 H. P. and Less.
Class A — Wheat cleaners.
•Class B — Oat cleaners.
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192 American Society Agricultural Engineers
Class C — Barley cleaners.
Class D — Flax cleaners.
Class E — Grass seed cleaners.
Class P — General purpose cleaners.
Division 2.
Power Cleaners 2 H. P. and Less
Class A — Wheat cleaners.
Class B — Oat cleaners.
Class C — Barley cleaners.
Class D — Flax cleaners.
Class E — Grass seed cleaners.
Class F — General purpose cleaners.
Conditions.
1. All entries must be in the allotted space by 9 A. M»
(Date)
2. Extra sieves, screens and parts should be housed in a con-
vergent rack or case furnished by the manufacturer.
3. All machines must elevate the cleaned grain into a grain
bag. By judge's decision this rule may be dispensed with.
4. All machines must be provided with a belt pulley of the
proper size to operate the machine from a six inch pulley at
120 R. P. M.
5. Grain will be furnished for all testing. The grain will
contain impurities typical of commercial grain.
6. The grain will be fed to the machine by gravity or by the
judge's assistants.
7. Each entry is to be operated by a man furnished by the
entrant, who shall be the only representative of his company
and the only competitor on the platform.
8. Hand cleaners over-running the power specified will be
penalized in proportion to the over-run.
Entries.
1. All entries must be made on or before (date) *
and must be accompanied with the following entry fees:
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Committee on Grain Cleaning Contest 193
Division 1.
Class A $5.00
Class B 5.00
Class C 5.00
Class D 5.00
Class E 5.00
Class F 10.00
Division 2,
Class A $5.00
Class B 5.00
Class C 5.00
Class D 5.00
Class E 5.00
Class F 10.00
2. Machines entered in Class F will be put through the same
tests as those of other classes, though less time will be taken for
each test.
3. The same machine may be entered in as many classes as
desired by the entrant, but an entry fee must be paid for each
class.
Score Card.
500 Points.
Points
Efficiency 250
Cleaning 200
Impurities by count 100
Total impurities — wt 60
Waste of grain — wt 40
Grading 50
Grades of grain . ; 5
Per cent, grain in 1st grade — wt 25
Size of grain 10
Per cent, coarse and fine screenings 5
Grade of screenings 5
Capacity 125
Capacity uncleaned grain per hour 20
Capacity cleaned grain per hour 50
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194 American Society Agricultural Engineers
Capacity uncleaned grain per H. P. hr 20
Capacity cleaned grain per H. P. hr 35
Construction 125
Price 5
Floor space 5
Gearings and bearings 15
Attachment of 10
Protection 5
Sieves or riddles 15
Attachment 5
Construction 10
Screens (in lower shoe) 15
Construction 10
Methods of attaching 5
Frame 5
Fan 5
Uniformity and control of air blast 20
Materials of construction . 10
Hopper and feed control 15
Convenience in operating 15
Total 500 500
Explanation of the Score Card.
The 500 points have been divided about in proportion to the
value of the various headings; that is, 250 points have been
given to efficiency, 125 to capacity, and 125 to construction.
The entry which bears the most efficient job of cleaning will be
given the highest number of points and then each entry which
comes next will be given a number of points in proportion to
the efficiency of its cleaning as compared to the machine which
cleans the best. Likewise the same method will be followed out
in grading, also capacity and construction. In other words, the
machine that is best in any one feature will be given the highest
number of points and the others scored from that one as a stand-
ard for that feature.
(The report of the committee was accepted as read.)
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Report of Farm Power Committee 195
REPORT OF FARM POWER COMMITTEE A. S. A. E. 1915.
In outlining the year's work for this committee, we were un-
able to find a definite statement of its duties. It seems that the
committee has not, in previous years, made any report.
After looking the ground over carefully, it seems to us that
the work of this committee should be to study developments in
farm power and to record their observations in an annual report
to the society.
During the past year more interest has been shown in the
development of gasoline and kerosene tractors than in any other
farm power problem. There is a steady increase in the use of
the internal combustion tractor of large size. Some of these are
used for threshing and other work which is more generally done
by steam tractors; and in many cases these same tractors are
being used for such work as road grading and plowing, which
is not generally attempted with a steam tractor.
But there has also been a very widespread interest in at-
tempts to put out a small tractor which can be used profitably
on the average corn-belt farm. A great variety of designs of
these small tractors have come on the market recently. Some
of them are small editions of the large tractors. Others have
such features as : a single drive wrheei so as to eliminate side
draft in plowing, so designed that they may be used to cultivate
growing crops, etc.
A public demonstration open to all kinds and sizes of tractors
has been held near Fremont, Nebraska, for the past two seasons.
One member of this committee, Prof. L. F. Seaton, has made a
careful study of the tractors shown at this demonstration, and
he submits the following report:
The public interest which was shown at the Fremont demon-
stration goes to show that the tractor is becoming more and more
popular as a substitute for the horse. At the present time there
seem to be several reasons for this. They may be briefly out-
lined as follows: High cost of maintenance for work animals;
the scarcity of hired help on the farm; the working day is
lengthened when the tractor is used, since the tractor does not
become fatigued — especially on hot days. Then, again, the mod-
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196 American Society Agricultural Engineers
ern farmer realizes that the ground must be plowed deeper. It
is advocated by some scientific agriculturists that fifty per cent,
deeper plowing is necessary for the best production of crops.
This would require a great many more horses, which at the
present time, due to the European war, are hard to get. Even
if they could be secured, the hired help problem again confronts
the farmer. He also realizes that there are certain times when
it is best to plow the ground. If the tractor is brought into use
this can be easily done. If the tractor is used for general farm-
ing, such as seeding and harvesting the grain, the above is also
true.
There were all sizes and types of tractors demonstrated at
Fremont, ranging in price from $400 to $3,500, and in weight
from 3,000 pounds to 27,000 pounds. It would seem to a person
who visited the 1913 demonstration that there were designers
who were on the ground to observe the interest the farmer
showed in the light weight tractor so that he would be justified
in spending a year of hard work to prepare a light tractor for
the farmer to buy in 1914. There were several such tractors to
be seen, and there were also many farmers who decided that
some particular machine was the one of the future. This was
especially true if it sold for a very low price.
At the present time there are many inquiries coming to the
Department of Agricultural Engineering of the University of
Nebraska regarding the advisability of buying a certain tractor,
and in most cases it is the one designed to pull two or three bot-
toms and to take the place of from six to eight horses in general
farm work, such as seeding, harvesting, etc.
One criticism which might be offered was that the majority
of light tractors were designed, primarily, for plowing, while
the demand from the farmer is a machine which could be used
for all purposes.
By comparing the specifications of the tractors used in the
1913 demonstration with those in 1914, several interesting con-
clusions can be drawn as to the tendency of the manufacturers
to build their tractors. The tendency to produce a tractor much
lighter in weight could easily be seen. The average weight of
the tractor in 1913 was 13,430 pounds, while in 1914 it was
10,260. Of course the reason for this was that the tractors were
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Report of Farm Power Committee 197
being built of lower power; that is, instead of pulling from six
to twelve bottoms, only plows of from two to six bottoms were
being drawn. It could easily be seen that the farmer waa most
interested in the small machine, since the largest crowds were
following them. When talking with the most interested farmers,
they seemed to think a tractor which would handle four bottoms
in favorable soil conditions, and two or three in any kind of
soil, was the one most needed.
There were many types of motors to be found on the different
machines. They might first be classified as to the number of
cylinders employed, namely —
2 1 cylinder
9 2 cylinders
16 4 cylinders
2 6 cylinders
It might be interesting to compare this with the 1913 results,
which were:
3 1 cylinder
14 , 2 cylinders
18 4 cylinders
This shows that there is a large tendency to continue to build
the two cylinder motor, although the four cylinder motor is more
universally used.
A classification as to arrangement of cylinders shows that in
1914 there were
23 engines with vertical cylinders.
4 engines with opposed cylinders.
2 engines with twin cylinders.
In 1913 there were
17 engines with vertical cylinders.
15 engines with opposed cylinders.
3 engines with twin cylinders.
This would indicate that the tendency was to come to a verti-
cal type of motor. The reason for this undoubtedly was to re-
duce vibration which would cut down up-keep expenses.
The general design of many of the motors were very closely
approaching the automobile motor ; that is, a four cylinder high
speed engine, equipped with ignition systems, oiling devices and
cooling apparatus, which are identical with modern automobile
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198 American Society Agricultural Engineers
practice. There are probably several reasons for this: first, the
tractor manufacturer believes he can take advantage of the costly
experience the automobile designer has had in perfecting his
machine; second, the farmer objects to using a heavy tractor,
since it packs the ground, etc. The only solution to this prob-
lem is to cut down weight for a given power, and the high speed
engine is the first resort.
Some tractor manufacturers are in another way profiting by
the automobile manufacturer; that is, they are building assem-
bled machines. As an illustration, there were four or five
tractors which used motors made by the same concern.
In 1914 there were twenty -nine engines equipped with throt-
tling governors with not a single one using the hit or miss type.
In 1913 there wTas one engine which employed the hit or miss
type of governor. This proves that the hit or miss type of gov-
ernor is practically obsolete in tractor practice.
In 1914 there were twenty-one tractors designed to burn gaso-
line or kerosene and eight designed for gasoline only. In 1913
twenty-five were equipped with kerosene burners and ten for
gasoline only. In the waiter's opinion there were many of these
so-called kerosene burning tractors which were such only in
name. In talking with one of the factory representatives of a
well known tractor concern, he told me that when they went out to
demonstrate the kerosene engine to the farmer, they spent most
of their time in persuading him to burn gasoline. It has been
my experience that even though the machine company did not
talk it to the farmer, he soon decided for himself that gasoline
was the most satisfactory fuel at the present time for him to use.
This shows that even though the majority of tractor manu-
facturers claim they have a kerosene engine, yet the greater part
of the engines in the field are burning gasoline, which goes to
show there is much need of a more successful oil burning engine.
In 1914 there were twenty-one kerosene burning engines using
high tension ignition systems, and five using low tension. In
1913 there were sixteen kerosene burning engines using high
tension and seven using low tension. This tendency toward the
high tension systems is no doubt due to the fact that spark plugs
are much more accessible for cleaning than contact point ignitors,
and also to do away with moving parts in the cylinder of a high
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Report of Farm Tower Committee 199
speed engine. Here again the tractor manufacturers profit by
the experience of the automobile manufacturers.
There were many types of transmissions to be found on the
tractors, but there were almost one-half of them using an en-
closed transmission, which, if not identical with automobile
practice, very closely approached it. In many cases, there were
three speeds forward and one reverse. The transmissions from
this point on differed much in design ; that is, some made use of
chains, while others used spur and bevel gears.
As to the individual weights of the tractors in 1914 —
16 weighed less than 10,000 pounds.
5 between 10,000 pounds and 15,000 pounds.
3 between 15,000 pounds and 20,000 pounds.
5 over 20,000 pounds.
In 1913—
12 weighed less than 10,000 pounds.
8 between 10,000 pounds and 15,000 pounds.
7 between 15,000 pounds and 20,000 pounds.
8 over 20,000 pounds.
As stated before, there were many of the tractors demon-
trated in 1914 which were of a freakish nature and probably
being built by concerns with very little capital and with little
or no reputation at stake. Since the tractor business is in its
infancy and its progress depends more or less upon the farmer
who, in most cases, wants the best tractor for considerable less
than the cost of manufacture, it seems that there ought to be
some way in which this society, with the help of the different
universities, could enlighten the farmer along this line and try
to prove to him that he would be much better off to pay a higher
first cost to some manufacturer who has a reputation for putting
out machinery on its merits, and who in putting out newly de-
signed machinery finds he has made some mistake, is willing to
make it good to his customer, rather than buy from some concern
which is of the get-rich-quick quality and will not be in existence
in the near future.
If there were some way in which this society could encouarge
a contest of some kind which would show the farmer these
chances of the cheaper machine for failure, it would do a great
deal toward bringing power farming to a degree of perfection
which it is sure to attain in the future.
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200 American Society Agricultural Engineers
REPORT OF SPECIAL COMMITTEE TO ADVOCATE THE
INSTALLATION OP A DEPARTMENT OP FARM
POWER INT THE UNITED STATES DE-
PARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
July 16, 1912, Congressman Henry T. Raney of Illinois in-
troduced in the House of Representative "A bill to establish in
the department of agriculture a bureau of farm power.' ' This
bill was known as H. R. 25782. It provides for a new bureau
in the department of agriculture to be known as the bureau of
farm power, and was to include not only the subjects of farm
power but also farm machinery.
There have been various committees appointed by this society
since this was introduced, to push its adoption. These commit-
tees have all done good work.
February 23, 1914, Congressman Maguire of Nebraska intro-
duced in the House of Representatives the same bill as was
previously introduced by Congressman Raney. This bill was
known as H. R. 13766.
During the summer session of 1914 a letter was sent to Con-
gressman Raney asking the status of his bill and if he had any
assurance of its passage. The following letter from him is self-
explanatory :
"My bill for the establishment of a bureau of farm power
has received the approval of the agriculture department, and
in the proposed reorganization of that department a bureau of
farm power will be recommended. It may be known, however,
as a bureau of farm economics or something of that kind.
"Inasmuch as a complete reorganization of the department
of agriculture is contemplated the committee has not reported
out my bill. I have had the matter up before the chairman of
the committee and members of the committee and I have not
the slightest doubt that when the matter is brought up this im-
portant subject will be properly taken care of."
When this letter was received, a letter was sent to Secretary
D. P. Houston of the department of agriculture asking him what
his plans were regarding agricultural engineering work in the
reorganization of the department of agriculture. It was also
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Report of Special Committee 201
stated in this letter that agricultural engineering covered the
following subjects: Farm machinery, farm motors, farm struc-
tures, drainage, irrigation, roads and rural sanitation. The fol-
lowing letter was received in reply to this inquiry:
"Replying to your letter of October 31st, I would say that our
plans for some modification of the work of the department are
still not matured, and can not, of course, be put into effect with-
out congressional action. In readjusting the work we are con-
templating changing the office of public roads to the office of
public roads and rural engineering. We contemplate transfer-
ring to this office the division of irrigation and drainage, farm
structures, and some other phases of the rural engineering work.
The subject of farm machinery will be dealt with in a measure
by several bureaus, but so far as engineering features are con-
cerned, by the proposed new office. Rural sanitation we can not
touch upon only as an ally of the bureau of public health and
marine hospital service. We are arranging to work in co-operrf-
tion with this bureau with a view to using our machinery, which
touches all sections of the rural districts to convey to the people
of the rural districts suitable information. ' '
It is needless to say that this letter was a pleasant surprise,
as it is getting a much better bureau than was first though pos-
sible and which would have been if the Raney bill was passed.
Some though that the name of this new bureau should be the
bureau of agricultural engineering. It certainly would have
been doing the job handsomely if this name had been given. It
would have been an improvement to have had the name of office
of public roads and agricultural engineering instead of office of
public roads and rural engineering. Secretary Houston was
&sked about changing the name, but stated that his recommen-
dation to congress had been made. He thought that there was
little choice between the two titles anyway. We can fully agree
with him when he also said: "It seems to me that the vital point
is to perfect this reorganization. ' f To further give the ideas
of Secretary Houston regarding the work to be covered in this
new office, the following is quoted from the 1914 report of the
secretary of agriculture.
"It is proposed to change the name of the office of public
roads to the office of public roads and rural engineering, to
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202 American Society Agricultural Engineers
eliminate from the office of experiment stations the work in ir-
rigation and drainage, and from the bureau of plant industry
the work in rural architecture, and to locate these three lines
of work in the newly named office. There seems not to have
been any logical reason for locating the work in irrigation and
drainage in the office of experiment stations, and that office in
its higher administrative branches is not organized with a view
to the direction of engineering work. The office of public roads
is primarily an engineering office, and irrigation and drainage,
as well as architecture, naturally belong to it."
Also a clearer idea can be obtained from the portion of agri-
cultural department appropriation bill for fiscal year 1916.
General expenses, office of public roads and rural engineer-
ing:
" (38) For investigating and reporting upon the utilization of
water in farm irrigation, including the best methods to apply in
(practice; the different kinds of power and appliances, and the
development of equipment for farm irrigation; the flow of
water in ditches, pipes, and other conduits; the duty, appor-
tionment, and measurement of irrigation water; the customs,
regulations, and laws affecting irrigation ; for the purchase and
installation of equipment for experimental purposes; for the
giving of expert advice and assistance ; for the preparation and
illustration of reports and bulletins on irrigation; for the em-
ployment of assistants and labor in the city of Washington and
elsewhere ; for rent outside of the District of Columbia, and for
supplies and all necessary expenses. * * *
"(39) For investigating and reporting upon farm drainage
and upon the drainage of swamp and other wet lands which
may be made available for agricultural purposes ; for preparing
plans for the removal of surplus water by drainage, and for
giving expert assistance by advice and otherwise in the drain-
age of such lands ; for conducting field experiments and investi-
gations concerning the construction and maintenance of farm
drainage works : for investigating and developing equipment in-
tended for the construction and maintenance of farm drainage
structures; for the purchase of materials and equipment; and
for preparing and illustrating reports and bulletins on drain-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Report of Special Committee 203
age; and for the employment of assistants and labor in tlie
city of Washington and elsewhere, for rent outside the District
of Columbia, and for supplies and all riecessary expenses.
# # #
" (40) For investigating farm water supply and drainage dis-
posal, the construction of farm buildings and machinery, and
other rural engineering problems involving mechanical princi-
ples, and for giving expert advice by demonstration or other-
wise, including the employment of labor in the city of
Washington and elsewhere, supplies and all other necessary ex-
penses.' '
It will be noticed in the items given that nothing is said about
an appropriation for public roads or farm motors. There is
undoubtedly another paragraph for public roads, but as to the
question of farm motors, we have been unable to determine
whether this subject is to be taken care of in another bureau
or to be left out altogether. It is to be noticed that all the
other subjects are taken care of.
This office of public roads and rural engineering is then prac-
tically an assured thing. We believe that the society should
pass a resolution commending Secretary Houston on this part
of the reorganization - of his department and pledging the so-
ciety individually and as a whole to do all in its power to get
congress to adopt his proposed reorganization and after the
office is established to support it and give it whatever assistance
it is possible for us to give. A copy of such resolutions should
be sent to Secretary Houston, each member of congress, and
each member of this society. Each member of this society
should also be asked to write his congressman and senators ask-
ing them to. support this part of the reorganization and to allo'w
a very liberal appropriation for its maintenance.
(Report of committee was accepted as read.)
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204 American Society Agricultural Engineers
REPORT OF RESOLUTIONS COMMITTEE.
Whereas, The eighth annual meeting of the American Society
of Agricultural Engineers has been one of the most successful
in the history of the organization, in that the meeting has not
only been helpful in a definite way to the members and has been
the occasion of renewed enthusiasm for the growth and develop-
ment of the society. And, whereas, the meeting has been one of
great pleasure in a social way and has been the means of pro-
moting general good fellowship, and Whereas, the honorable
secretary of agriculture, D. F. Houston, has seen fit to recog-
nize the work of the agricultural engineer in a more definite
way in the reorganization of the United States department of
agriculture, and has arranged to give definite and special atten-
tion to one of the most important, though neglected, phases of
agricultural engineering, namely, rural architecture, and
Whereas, the legislature of the several states and municipali-
ties are preparing to enact rules governing the construction and
inspection of team boilers, and Whereas, any variation in such
rides increases the cost of the construction of boilers in an un-
necessary and unwarranted manner; be it resolved
First: that the society extend to the officers a most hearty
vote of thanks for their earnest and efficient efforts to expedite
and promote the work of the society and also commend the ef-
fective work of the various committees.
Second: that we voice our appreciation and thanks to those
outside of our membership who so kindly furnished papers
which have added to the interest and value of the meeting.
Third: that we extend our thanks to the membersof the local
committee on arrangements, who have contributed so much to
the success and pleasure of the meeting, and also to the speakers
at the banquet and the Universal Quartette who so generously
contributed to our own enlightenment and pleasure.
Fourth: that we vote our thanks and approval to the honor-
able secretary of agriculture in behalf of the important devel-
opment in the United States department of agriculture and for
so kindly arranging for the appearance of two members of the
United States department of agriculture on our program.
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Report of Resolutions Committee 205
Fifth: that we, the American Society of Agricultural Engi-
neers, assembled in annual meeting, do hereby unanimously ap-
prove of the efforts of the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers to formulate a code of rules for the construction of
steam boilers that may be used as a model by legislative bodies
and thus promote uniformity.
Sixth : that we unanimously recommend the adoption of these
uniform rules by the various states and municipalities having
boiler legislation pending.
(The report of the committee was accepted.)
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206 American Society Agricultural Engineers
REPORT OP COMMITTEE ON STANDARDS.
Your committee on standards begs to make the following re-
port:
1. The committee on standards has during the past year been
active along the following lines :
Standardization of wagons.
Standard methods for rating gas engines.
Standard methods of testing gas engines.
Standards for screw threads.
Standard sizes of catalogs, folders and bulletins.
Standard sizes of drawings and specifications. Only the last
two lines of work mentioned have been brought to a definite
•conclusion.
2. The National . Implement and Vehicle Manufacturers has
a very active committee at work on the standardization of
wagons. It now seems possible to reduce the many hundred
sizes and combinations of sizes of wagons to a reasonable num-
ber. Your committee did not learn until late in the year that
this work was being carried on by the wagon manufacturers.
The chairman of the committee was invited to meet with the
committee of the National Implement and Vehicle Manufac-
turers Association when they met in Moline, but found it im-
possible to do so. We have indicated, however, that we would
do all we could to co-operate and assist in bringing about the
needed standardization.
3. The matter of gas engine rating has been before the so-
ciety for some time. Some data has been collected, but nothing
definite has been accomplished. It is evident that we should
co-operate with the Gas Engine Association. Professor P. S.
Rose represents the committee from that association and we have
agreed to give this, matter immediate attention.
4. Some are of the opinion that the matter of standard
methods of testing a gas engine is even more important than
rating, as the results of tests must furnish the basis for satis-
factory rating.
5. Standards for screw threads were discussed last year at
our annual meeting. The U. S. and S. A. E. standards were
approved but the committee was instructed to furnish a guide
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Report of Committee on Standards 507
as to the conditions which should govern the use of one or the
other.
6. In regard to standard sizes for catalogs and folders we
have the following to report:
STANDARD SIZES FOR CATALOGS, FOLDERS AND BULLETINS DESCRIBING
AGRICULTURAL EQUIPMENT.
A. Reasons for standardizing the sizes of catalogs, folders and
bulletins.
1. Standard sizes of catalogs, folders and bulletins will
make their filing easy and insure preservation and
efficient use.
2. Proper standards of sizes will result in less expense for
printing and paper.
3. For mailing of catalogs, folders and bulletins will be
facilitated.
4. The standardization of folders and bulletins will per-
mit the sizes of engraving to be standardized.
B. Recommend sizes.
Inches.
1. Catalogs and bulletins, small size 6x9
2. Catalogs and bulletins, large size 8V2 * H
3. Polders, small 3-% x 6
4. Polders, large Ws x 8V*>
5. Index cards, small 3x5
6. Index cards, large 4x6
C Advantages of the sizes recommended.
1. Most of the catalogs now printed are six inches by nine
inches, indicating that this is more or less a recog-
nized standard at the present time. This size is also
a standard size for agricultural bulletins, which
make up a large part of a modern agricultural li-
brary. Printers state that this size can be econom-
ically made from standard paper stock twenty-five
inches by thirty-eight inches.
2. A larger size than six inches by nine inches is needed
for many purposes. It is often desired to use large
cuts or place descriptive matter on the same page
with cuts. The eight and one-half inch by eleven
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
208' American Society Agricultural Engineers
inch size makes up well from standard paper stock.
The size is recognized as a standard sheet for corre-
spondence. This size of catalog can be conveniently
filed in a standard letter file.
As an over-size the nine inch by twelve inch is rec-
ommended but it is well that this size be confined to
catalogs with stiff sides to be placed on shelves.
Aa an under-size for large size catalogs the eight
inch by ten inch is recommended. This size is in
quite general use and can be filed easily with the
standard large size catalogs.
3. The three and three-eights inch by six inch folder is a
suitable size to enclose with correspondence in a
standard No. 2 envelope.
4. The eight and one-half by eleven, folded twice, makes
a convenient folder to enclose with correspondence
in a larger No. 9 envelope.
5. The three inch by five inch index card is now a gener-
ally recognized standard.
6. For a card large enough to contain additional data and
information which cannot be placed on the small in-
dex card, the larger four inch by six inch index card
is recommended.
Z>. The following general recommendations are made:
1. That all catalogs bear a date and number.
2. That catalogs should have a title on the back where the
catalog is of sufficient thickness to permit. This
title should read from the top down when the cata-
log stands on the lower edge.
7. A tentative report concerning the sizes of catalogs, folders
and bulletins was furnished to the membership early in the
year. The reports on the sizes proposed were generally favor-
able. The sizes proposed have been reported to the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers by special committee of the
society, and also approved by the American Institute of Archi-
tects. Mr. E. S. Ralph, chairman of committee on the stand-
ardization of advertising matter of the National Implement and
Vehicle Manufacturers Association, wrote that this organization
had adopted the following standard for catalogs.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Report of Committee on Standards 209
Maximum size 8 x 10 inches
' Minimum size 6 x 9 inches
. For folders —
3% x G, 3*4 x 9, 6 x 9 inches.
8. STANDARD SIZES FOB DRAWINGS AND SPECIFICATIONS.
A. Reasons for standardizing the sizes of drawings and specifi
cations :
1. Standard sizes of drawings will facilitate the filing and
mailing of drawings.
2. The success of the vertical file for drawings, which is
coming in more general use, depends to a large ex-
tent upon uniformity in the size of drawings.
B. Recommended sizes:
A. 8I/2 x 11 outside dimensions.
B. 11 ~x 17 "
C. 17 x 22 "
D. 22 x 34 "
All drawings to have a border line one-half inch from
edge, and all drawings to have a title in lower right-
hand corner when the drawing is held with the long
dimensions at bottom.
C. Advantages of the sizes recommended.
1. All sizes can be filed and mailed with correspondence
as each size proposed is a multiple of the standard
correspondence sheet.
2. All sizes can be cut from thirty-four to thirty-six inch
tracing cloth with little or no waste.
3. Blue prints can be made from thirty-six inch paper
with little or no wraste.
SPECIFICATIONS.
A. Size recommeded:
Sy2 x 11 inches.
B. This size, on account of its general use for correspondence,
f makes it more convenient than the legal size often used.
This size can be filed in the ordinary letter file. There
does not seem to be any particular advantage in the legal
size.
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210
American Society Agricultural Engineers
REPORT OF STUDENT BRANCH ORGANIZATIONS OP
THE A. S. A. E.
REPORT OP THE IOWA STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE STUDENT
BRANCH OF THE A. S. A. E.
The names of the officers and members of the local student
branch of the A. S. A. E.:
Snyder, S. D. — President.
Johnson, G. W. — Vice-President.
Carter, Deane G. — Secretary.
Clyde, A. "W. — Treasurer.
Fletcher, L. J. — Sergeant at Arms.
NAMES OP MEMBERS.
Armour, C. R.
Bliss, H. B.
Carter, D. G.
Clyde, A. W.
Davidson, 0. D.
Drake, Wilber
Englund, C. V.
Farmer, W. H.
Fletcher, L. J.
Goede, Martin
Gordon, D. V.
Gaylord, B. E.
Hall, Harry
Hawthorne, Fred
Hodsdon, F. G.
Johnson, W. G.
Josselyn, H. E.
Lovelace, O. R.
McClung, V. \V.
McConnell, R. E.
McMahon, G. D.
Merten, E. L.
Miller, R. C.
Middleton, A. E.
Patterson, R. E.
Patty, R. L.
Reed, M. K.
Searle, W. C.
Shidler, Chas.
Stagerwalt, Frank
Smith, E. W.
Snyder, S. D.
Sunderlin, H. H.
Valdez, J.
Peterson, A. E.
Van Vlack, C.
Watson, M. R.
Wolley, J. C.
Zimmerman, J. C.
TThl, E. J.
In general, the plan of our meetings is as follows :
The society meets on alternate Thursday evenings at 7:15.
Owing to the size of the membership, each member has an op-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Report of Student Branch Organizations 211
tunity to present a paper at one of the eighteen meetings held
during the school year. He also has an opportunity to lead a
discussion of one paper and an opportunity to assist in discuss-
ing a paper presented by a member of the society. The papers
must be typewritten and handed in to be approved by the head
of the department, two weeks before it is presented to the so
ciety.
The meetings of the society have been very interesting this
year and attendance very good. It is recognized as the best
organized department organization on the campus.
The topics discussed this year are as follows :
Sept. 24 — The Recent International Harvester Court Decision —
By A. W. Clyde.
Pulley and Belt Transmission— By O. D. Davidson.
Oct. 8 — My Experience in Bridge Construction — By C. B. Ar-
mour.
Clay Block Construction — By II. B. Bliss.
Oct. 22— Sewage Disposal Plants— By D. G. Carter.
Concrete Roads — By C. V. Englund.
Nov. 5 — Dam Construction — By H. E. Josselyn.
Agricultural Engineering as a Profession — By L. J.
Fletcher.
Nov. 19 — Maying Machinery — By "Wilbur Drake.
The "Windmill for Electric Lighting — By Martin Goede.
Dec. 3 — Kerosene as a Fuel for the Internal Combustion En-
gine— By D. V. Gordon.
Electric Lighting for the Farm — By Harry Hall.
Dec. 17 — Tractor Farming in Iow7a — By Fred Hawthorne.
Tractor Road Grading — By F. G. Hodsdon.
(Signed) S. D. Snyder,
President.
REPORT OP THE NEBRASKA STUDENT BRANCH OF THE A. S. A. E.
In accordance with the by-laws governing the student
branches of the A. S. A. E., the University of Nebraska branch
submits the following report:
The officers for the school term of 1914-15 are as follows :
President, D. P. Weeks. Treas., J. G. Thompson.
Vice-Pres., Leroy Rhodes. Secy., J. P. Fairbank.
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212 American Society Agricultural Engineers
Members.
Fairbank, J. P. Rouse, P. L.
Garrett, M. M. Sjogren, 0. W.
Pettie, W. R. Thompson, J. G.
Rhodes, L. Weeks, D. P.
Regular meetings are held on the first Thursday of each
month during the school term. In the meetings discussions fol-
low lines of general engineering interest, particular attention
being paid to the agricultural engineering field. As a rule, the
speakers are men of experience, men out in practical work as
well as faculty members.
October 1st, Professor 0. V. P. Stout, dean of the College
of Engineering, give a description of the Burt- Washington
drainage project, in which work he was acting as consulting
engineer.
On November 5th, J. D. Wood, agricultural engineer in the
extension department, talked on ''The Agricultural Engineer
and the Farmer," and Leroy Rhodes described in detail the
use and management of dynamite.
The local branch had charge of the general engineering so-
ciety meeting on December 16th. Professor L. F. Seaton gave
an illustrated * lecture on * * Power Farming and the Fremont
Power Farming Contest." Dr. G. E. Condra showed moving
pictures of the 1914 demonstration at Fremont, Nebraska.
It is the hape of this branch that they may be favored with
an address by some member of the A. S. A. E. whom the na-
tional society chooses to send here to Lincoln. In all probabil-
ity this lecture would be held before the engineering college as
a whole.
Respectfully submitted by
J. P. Fairbank,
Secretary.
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Secretary's Report
213
SECRETARY'S REPORT.
Madison, Wisconsin, December 31, 1914.
On January 1, 1913, President W. P. MacGregor appointed
the following committees:
Research.
M. L. King, Chairman
Daniel Scoates
John Pugh
Standards.
J. B. Davidson, Chairman
J. A. King
P. E. Holt
Drainage.
J. L. Mo wry, Chairman
M. L. Jahr
J. B. Frisbee
Irrigation.
H. B. Bonebright, Chairman
F. L. Peterson
E. M. Chandler
Farm Structures.
E. S. Fowler, Chairman
H. H. Musselman
E. Y. Cable
Farm Power.
C. K. Shedd, Chairman
L. R. Seaton
E. P. Edwards
Farm Power Machinery.
W. J. Brandon, Chairman
C. P. Holt
E. N. G. Kranich
Farm Buildings Equipment.
A. J. R. Curtis, Chairman
John Bowditch
L. C. Hart
Roads and Highways.
C. W. Boynton, Chairman
J. T. Stewart
E. A. White
Farm Field Machinery & Equip-
ment.
H. J. Podlesak, Chairman
C. O. Reed
C. F. Chase
On Manufacture of Agricultural
Products.
F. S. Harris, Chairman
Wm. Boss
E. W. Hamilton
The method of OK'ing bills, as stated in the constitution and
by-laws, was temporarily suspended, due to the fact that Mrv
Nominating Committee.
P. S. Rose
J. B. Bartholomew
J. B. Davidson
SPECIAL COMMITTEES
Motor Contest.
L. W. Chase
J. B. Davidson
A. R. Greig
On Grain Cleaning Contest.
C. F. Chase
I. W. Dickerson
H. C. Ramsower
On Relations with Gas Trades
Ass'n. .
P. S. Rose, Chairman
J. E. Waggoner
H. R. Brate
On Emblems and Conventional
Signs —
L. W. Chase, Chairman
M. L. King
L. W. Ellis
On Publicity.
L. W. Ellis, Chairman
Raymond Olney
R. A. Graham
Special Membership Committee.
F. M. White, Chairman
M. L. King
J. B. Davidson
J. L. Mowry
H. B. Bonebright
E. S. Fowler
C. K. Shedd
W. J. Brandon
A. J. R. Curtis
C. M. Boynton
H. J. Podlesak
F. S. Harris
L. W. Chase
C. F. Chase
P. S. Rose
L. W. Ellis
E. A. White
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
214 American Society Agricultural Engineers
Greig was not familiar with the business of the organization,
and refused to 0. K. bills sent by the secretary. By order of
the president and council, the secretary was authorized to go
ahead and honor all bills, leaving it to the discretion of the sec-
retary as to their validity.
On February 16, 1914, the council authorized the secretary to
let the contract for volumes 6 and 7 to the State Journal Print-
ing Company, Madison, Wisconsin. Their itemized bid is as
follows :
Copies: 750 1,000 1,500
For setting up and correcting type,
printing, binding and finishing in
good shape $200.00 $220.00 $253.00
Same, each additional page, over
160, extra 1.25 1.35 1.60
For setting up tables, extra per page 000 000 000
For printing and pasting inserts, ex-
tra per page 4.00 3.75 4.75
April 6, 1914, council voted to publish motor contest commit-
tee report separately from the regular proceedings.
Council voted to send volumes 6 and 7 to libraries of United
States.
April 13, 1914, sent volume 5 to members and libraries.
April 16, 1913, directory issued.
July 1, 1914. first monthly bulletin issued.
It is the desire of the secretary to support these bulletins,
but it is difficult to get material. Co-operation of all members
is earnestly solicited.
Mr. P. S. Rose, Mr. MacGregor and Mr. White on June 21
outlined a plan for carrying on our special membership cam-
paign. The plan of this campaign is a follow-up system of
letters in which certain members of the organization will be
assigned men, by the secretary, to whom they are to write. By
this method six letters will be sent to each prospective member.
Every man writing to the prospect will be expected to present
his own ideas of this organization, and this will make him see
the organization from various angles.
On August 16. 1914, William M. Nye tended his resignation
as a member of this society, owing to the fact that a change in
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Secretary's Report 215
his line of work made him no longer directly interested in the
society.
August 8, 1914, volume 7, was received* from the printer, but
as volume 6 had not been printed, it was deemed advisable that
volume 7 be held in the secretary's office and sent out with
volume 6.
September 19, 1914, Frank D. Blakely resigned.
September 28-29 volumes 6 and 7 sent out to membership and
libraries.
October 16, 1914, Edmund P. Edwards resigned.
December 15, 1914, sent out programs for annual meeting.
Cost of programs, $9.50.
The correspondence of the secretary has increased so that it
is necessary for him to have a clerk and stenographer on half
time. During the year approximately 1,850 letters were writ-
ten and 1,300 membership ballots sent out.
During the year the following- men satisfied constitutional re-
quirements and were voted into the society :
R. E. Kenny (affiliate), Manager Advertising Department,
Parlin & Orendorff Co., Canton, 111.
C. E. Leslie (member), Editor, Engine and Tractor Adver-
tising, International Harvester Co., Chicago, 111.
James R. Stone (associate), Editor, Thresherman Review and
Power Farming.
R. A. Andree (member), Assistant in Agricultural Engineer-
ing, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
Lloyd M. Schindler (associate), Assistant in Agricultural
Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
R. W. Trullinger (member), Specialist in Rural Engineer-
ing— Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department
of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
A. II. Hoffman (member), Student, Senior year in Agricul-
tural Engineering.
J. S. Black (member), Manager Manson, Campbell Co., De-
troit, Mich.
H. R. Brate (member), Secretary National Gas Engine
Trades Association, Lakemont, N. Y.
James Koeber (member), Inspector in Farm Mechanics, Uni-
versity of California, Davis, California.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
216 American Society Agricultural Engineers
I. A Weaver (member), Agricultural Implement Designer,
Racine; Sattley Co., Springfield, 111.
Spencer Otis, Jr. (associate), Parmer, Harrington, 111.
O. H. Day (junior), Detroit Tractor Co., La Fayette, Ind.
Fred Hilty (member), in charge of Experimental Engineer-
ing Department, David Bradley Manufacturing Works, Brad-
ley, 111.
C. E. Lord (member), Patent Lawyer, General Patent Attor-
ney, and Manager Patent Departments for all International
Harvester Cos., 606 Michigan Ave., Chicago, 111.
E. W. Dennison (member), Secretary-Treasurer, American
Cultivating Co., New York, X. Y.
J. S. Dodds (member), Engineer in charge of Educational
Department, Iowa State Highway Commission, Ames, Iowa.
C. 0. Aspenwai.l (affiliate), General Manager, Engine,
Tractor and Thresher Department, International Harvester Com-
pany of America, Chicago, 111.-
0. W. Israelsen (member), Assistant in Irrigation Investiga-
tions, conducted by United States Department of Agriculture,
with University of California, Davis, Calif.
G. F. Weston (member), Agricultural Expert and Engineer,
36 E. 23d St., New York N. Y.
E. B. Doran (member), Instructor in Agronomy in charge of
Farm Mechanics, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, La.
A. H. Gilbert (member), Instructor in Farm Mechanics,
Purdue University, La Fayette, Ind.
G. W. Kable (member), Assistant Irrigation Engineer, New
Mexico College of Agriculture and Mechanics Arts, State Col-
lege, N. M.
E. B. McCormick (member) United States Mechanical Engi-
neer, Washington, D. C.
E. E. Parsonage (associate), Secretary and General Manager,
John Deere Wagon Co.. Moline, 111.
E. R. Wiggins (member), Gas Engine Inspector for Deere &
Co., Moline, 111.
R. E. Wiseman (junior), Assistant in Farm Mechanics, Kan-
sas State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kansas.
1. D. Charlton (member), Professor Farm Engineering,
Washington State College, Pullman, Washington.
I
Digitized by LiOOQ IC
Secretary's Report 217
C. D. Kinsman (member), Instructor in Drainage and Farm
Mechanics, Purdue University, La Fayette, Ind.
J. W. Carpenter, Jr. (junior), Assistant in Agricultural En-
gineering Extension, Starkville, Miss.
Max Patitz (member), Chief Consulting Engineer, Allis
Chalmers Co., Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
Donald McCluer (junior), employed on a farm, Jackson,
Miss.
A. W. ScnuLz (associate), Assistant Agricultural Engineer,
Information Bureau, Universal Portland Cement Co., Chicago,
111.
F. M. White.
Secretary.
(The report of the secretary as read was accepted.)
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218 American Society Agricultural Engineers
TREASURER'S REPORT, A. S. A. E.
P. M. WHITE, TREASURER, 1914.
Balance, 1913 $637.81
Receipts —
Fees 169.00
Dues 905.25
Advertising 132.84
Transactions 16.10
Conventional signs .45
Pins 44.35
$1,905.80
Disbursements —
Transactions $919.21
Prospecti 66.25
Annual meeting .' 28.97
Exchange 22.50
Stenographer 438.51
Telegraph 1.00
Postage 198.16
Express 14.88
Stationery 89.35
Bank balance 127.33
$1,905.80
(Twenty pins worth $45.00 in hand of treasurer.)
Audited and found correct, Dec. 28, 1914.
P. S. Rose,
E. A. White,
I. W. Dickerson.
Digitized by VjOOQlC
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Digitized by VjOOQ IC
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Digitized by VjOOQ IC
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A Small-Farm Tractor for all Farm Work
This new Mogul 8-16 tractor has eight horse-power at the
drawbar and sixteen on the belt.
Being a four-wheeled, all-purpose tractor, you can use it
every working day.
It will do all the plowing, disking and seeding.
It will draw manure spreaders, wagons, hay loaders,
mowers or binders.
It will run any machine a 16 H. P. stationary or portable
engine will run, including a corn sheller, feed grinder, small
shredder, thresher or ensilage cutter.
Any farmer can buy this new Mogul 8-16 tractor for $675.00
cash, f. o. b. Chicago.
The man who can use one of these Mogul tractors pays, at
this price, the least for which a good, reliable, all-purpose
8-16 tractor can be sold.
Remember that the International Harvester lines of Mogul
and Titan oil tractors is full and complete, practical tried-
out tractors of all sizes and capacities ranging from 8-16
H. P. up to 30-60 H. P. The right kind of power, at draw-
bar and belt, for every farm. If you do not know a dealer
who sells I H C tractors, write to the address below for full in-
formation regarding any size or type.
Internatienal Harvester Company of America
(Incorporated)
CHICAGO USA
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Ait
I i
Vol. IX.
No. 1.
TRANSACTIONS OP THE
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF
AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERS
r
REPORT OF THE NINTH ANNUAL MEETING
CHICAGO, DECEMBER, 1915.
WITH BUSINESS RECORDS.
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY
AMES, IOWA.
MARCH, 1916.
Digitized byCjOOQlC
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
CONTENTS
Pago
List of Officers and Committees for 1916 5
President's Annual Address — H. H. Musselman 7
SESSION ON MODERN FARM CONVENIENCES
Introductory Remarks — H. H. Musselman 11
Farm Efficiency — X. Caverno 12
Sewage Treatment and Disposal — Burton J. Ashley 30
Electric Lighting Systems for Farm Use— C. H. Roth 34
Farm Residence Heating — L. W. Eggleston 41
General Discussion 50
TRACTOR SESSION
Tendency of Farm Tractor Design — C. M. Eason 59
Discussion of Farm Tractor Design — E. T. Adams 68
Discussion of Farm Tractor Design — E. R. Greer 74
General Discussion of Tractor Design 76
Economics of Farm Tractors — E. R. Wiggins 79
Discussion of Tractor Economics — A. P. Yerkes 93
Engine Plows — I. A. Weaver 104-
INSTRUCTIONAL SESSION
Problems for Agricultural Engineering Research— P. S.
Rose i 110
Discussion 113
Sprocket Wheels for Detachable Link Belting— F. N. G.
Kranick 115
Experiments in Fertilizer Application — H. G. Bell 127
Discussion 129
Fencing Materials — H. E. Horton t 134
Discussion 180
Agricultural Engineering Work in Other Countries — Daniel
Scoates 181
Amount of Agricultural Engineering Work Offered in the
Agricultural Colleges of the United States — A. H.
Gilbert • 187
Character of Instruction in Farm Machinery — F. A. Wirt. . .190
Recommendations Concerning Agricultural Engineering In-
struction for Agricultural Students — J. B. Davidson. . .197
General Discussion 199
REPORTS OF COMMITTEES
Committee on Standards 200
Discussion 201
Committee on Farm Structures 202
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Committee on Farm Buildings Equipment (Lightning Pro-
tection) 230
Discussion 232
Committee on Farm Power Machinery 232
Committee on Farm Field Machinery 236
Committee on Farm Power 237
Committee on Drainage 243
Discussion on Drainage and Irrigation 243
Committee on Roads 243
Committee on Research 245
Discussion 254
REPORTS OF STUDENT BRANCHES
Iowa State College 255
Nebraska 258
BUSINESS SESSION
Secretary's Report 259
Treasurer's Report 262
Business 263
SAN FRANCISCO MEETING
Report of San Francisco Meeting — J. B. Davidson 264
Agriculture and the Engineer — J. B. Davidson 267
The Extent and Value of Farm Power Equipment — P. S.
Rose 275
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OFFICERS 1916.
President— F. M. White.
Secretary-Treasurer — C. K. Shedd.
First Vice-President — Spencer Otis, Sr.
Second Vice-President — M. M. Baker.
COUNCILMEN TERM EXPIRES
M. L. King, Chairman, - December 31, 1917
W. F. MacGregor, - December 31, 1916
H. H. Musselman, December 31, 1917
William Louden, December 31, 1918
F. S. Harris, December 31, 1919
STANDING COMMITTEES 1916.
NOMINATING COMMITTEE PARM P0WER MACHINERY
t^ ■ i c x nx. • E. M. Mervine, Chairman
Daniel Scoates, Chairman j g Kelley
£■ 4' ^hite + „ I ' N * Baughman
M. F. P. Costelloe &
STANDARDS
research j w Dickerson> Chairman
D. Scoates, Chairman M*x Patitz
M. L. King F- N- G- Kranich
E. A. White Emi1 Podlesak
C. H. Roth
drainage J. G. Wynn (advisory)
E. R. Jones, Chairman irrigaton
H. C. Ramsower M. F. P. Costelloe, Chairman
E. M. Chandler o. W. Israelson
FARM STRUCTURES H. E. Murdock
TT TT XT' ni. • FARM P0WER
H. H. Niemann, Chairman
W. A. Etherton L. P- Seaton, Chairman
K.J.T. Ekblaw C. 0. Aspenwall
Rolf Thelen A. A. Andree
A. H. Connolly roads and highways
farm buildings equipment John S. Dodds, Chairman
ac a t> tt ii ni • E. B. McCormick.
M A. R Kelley, Chairman James L
W. J. Gilmore
manufacture of agricul-
farm field machinery tural products
C. 0. Reed, Chairman E. W. Hamilton, Chairman
E. R. Wiggins C. E. Lord
H. E. Bell H. J. Podlesak
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American Society of Agricultural Engineers
TRACTOR DEMONSTRATON
P. S. Rose, Chairman
I. W. Dickerson
E. C. Gee
L. F. Seaton
O. D. Davidson
SPECIAL COMMITTEES 1916.
DATA COMMITTEE
P. S. Rose, Chairman
J. B. Davidson
I. W. Dickerson
E. R. Greer
H. R. Brate
FARM SANITATION
L. W. Chase, Chairman
X. Caverno
R. W. Trullinger
W. B. Clarkson
J. G. Shodron
PUBLICITY
L. W. Ellis, Chairman
J. R. Stone
O. D. Davidson
EDUCATIONAL COMMITTEE
A. H. Gilbert Chairman
A. H. Hoffman
F. A. Wirt
TELLERS
M. F. P. Costelloe, Chairman
E. M. Mervine
C. K. Shedd
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Musselman: President's Address 7
OPENING SESSION.
Invocation: Roy G. Smith, of First Methodist Church, Chicago.
Address of Welcome : Mr. William R. Moss, Representing Chi-
cago Association of Commerce.
Response: M. L. King.
PRESIDENT'S ANNUAL ADDRESS.
By H. H. Musselman*, Pres. Am. Soc. A. E.
At this time it falls to my lot as a privilege and honor to de-
liver to the society the annual address of the president.
At this season when friends gather from all sections of the
country to exchange experiences and to mold their experiences
into a common purpose, it is gratifying to note the interest and
enthusiasm displayed. We come here not only to form arid shape
and weld together the material which has accumulated through
the year, but to enlarge our acquaintance and fellowship, and to
secure inspiration through the renewal of friendship and the ex-
change of ideas. Aside from the material accomplishments of
the organization, there is a deep and far-reaching influence
which permeates the membership and determines in a large meas-
ure the course of action of the individual members. And in such
an organization as this where the material rewards do not stand
out as prizes for our efforts, it is essential that enthusiasm and
inspiration play an important part. To me it seems that the
society should, in selecting its officers, put at least one man on
the staff who recognizes the importance of these factors ; and who
can supply the inspiration to keep the committees instilled with
the idea that continued and persistent effort counts. He should
also emanate inspiration to the individual members, for their
work is done in most cases, in addition to other regular duties,
under conditions where they are isolated from others whose en-
deavors run along the same line.
This organization represents a wide diversity of effort.
Agriculture in itself presents a wide and most inclusive field of
knowledge. Its individual problems are small and likely to be
overlooked as insignificant by those aspiring to the accomplish-
ment of monumental achievements. Engineering, too, presents
a vast field of knowledge ; and the problems of Agricultural En-
gineering though sometimes small as in agriculture in their in-
dividual applications, are in the aggregate and in their broad
application as great and as inviting as any presented for solu-
•Prof. Farm Mechanics. Mich. Agri. College.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
8 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
tion. To apply the principles of engineering to agriculture is a
problem of great complexity indeed.
Out of all the mass of material with which we have to work,
it seems to me that what the society needs to do is to concentrate
on a single line of endeavor which will represent as well as may
be the diversified interests represented here. We need to do
something to which every member may lend a hand. Surely now
with the increased membership and interest, we have the talent
which, if directed in the proper channels, can accomplish some-
thing definite and worth while. I am not unmindful here of the
start that has been made, but the point which should be empha-
sized is that we are not making use of all of our talents. Through-
out the year this question of concentrated purpose has revolved
through my somewhat erratic thought. This plan has been car-
ried out to a degree in the past. There was a time when the
tractor contest presented an inviting opportunity, and the unity
of effort along this line is evident.
If the society has not done anything more worth while than
demonstrate its place in the field of Agricultural Engineering,
through the capability of its members in bringing something of
order out of chaos in regard to the rules governing these contests,
its work has not been in vain. Already the development of the
tractor seems to have reached such a stage of perfection that
there seems to be little to be done in furthering these contests.
The problem has expanded. An opening of great promise is pre-
sented along the line of co-operation with the Division of Rural
Engineering of the United States Department of Agriculture in
establishing standard methods of rating and testing tractors.
Perhaps as the way is opened similar procedure may be followed
with regard to other farm and power machines. This should
have a powerful influence in bettering and standardizing farm
equipment. It is the opinion of the speaker that the best effort
of the organization should be extended in the direction of giving
this work our most careful consideration. In much of the work
which might be done by the society, progress by the committees
is hindered by the lack of funds. At our present stage of devel-
opment and financial standing there seems to be little offered to
relieve this situation. However in projects like the one above
mentioned, it seems that if we can be of assistance in helping the
Division of Agricultural Engineering to spend its small appro-
priation wisely, our work will not be counted for naught.
There is another line of work to which the society has given
some attention, and which I believe is deserving of continued
and greater effort. It is a line of work wrhich has a goodly num-
ber of representatives in the society. I refer to the courses of
instruction in the colleges and to the organization of. the work of
Agricultural Engineering within the institution. I trust that
some new thoughts will be brought out at the instructional ses-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Musselman: President's Address 9
sion at this meeting in regard to courses offered and with regard
to making them efficient and uniform as far as possible. In re-
gard to the organization of the departments giving work in agri-
cultural engineering; ideas were brought out at last year's meet-
ing which were somewhat at variance. The position of Agricul-
tural Engineering in the colleges is a peculiar one. It must
represent both agriculture and engineering, which in nearly all
colleges are organized separately. Agricultural Engineering
should correlate and coordinate these two great fields of en-
deavor. To the speaker it is clear that our duty is to make engi-
neering of the greatest service to agriculture. To do this, we
must bring the engineer to a sympathetic viewpoint of the farm-
er's problems, and bring the farmer to an appreciation of the
value of engineering science as applied to his problems.
Please do not understand that I would solve the teacher's
problem to the exclusion of others. The professional and com-
mercial man is interested in the society, and the mutual exchange
of ideas will be most beneficial. To suggest a single line of
effort which would deal alone with the problems of the teacher,
the manufacturer, or the professional man, would not be in-
clusive enough. While such might meet with the approval of the
society, they would scarcely meet with its undivided effort or
support.
It seems that we might still find a project which, while it
would not discourage effort in the directions already named,
might bring into activity a greater number of our membership.
The dearth of literature along the line of Agricultural En-
gineering has often been commented on. If reference to per-
sonal experience as a teacher may be excused, I may say that in
1910, when I began teaching, about all the useful mat-
ter available was four or five books — a dozen bulletins, and a few
publications by commercial organizations. This situation has
been somewhat relieved, especially within the last two years, by
the publication of numerous books, bulletins, and publicity mat-
ter by commercial organizations. The point that should be em-
phasized is that as yet this information is somewhat scattered.
It may be ventured that if the design of a dairy barn were to be
attempted in all its details, it would be difficult to find the infor-
mation desired, without going to several sources. Not long ago.
I examined a dairyman's handbook which gave a great deal of
compiled and classified matter relative to dairy barn require-
ments and construction. This is an idea which it seems might
be developed further. The plan to which I refer is the compila-
tion and publication by this society of an Agricultural Engi-
neers Handbook, which would be a valuable addition to the lit-
erature now available on the subject. This publication should be
similar in makeup and completeness to Kent, used by mechan-
ical engineers. This book should be to the designer, the manu-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
10 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
facturer, the dealer, the farmer, the county agriculturist, the
teacher, and the student what the other publications are in their
respective fields. I am further impressed that there is an im-
portant need for such a publication by the number of unusual
inquiries which have come to my attention within the last year.
I do not know that such a book is in preparation, but I am con-
vinced that the combined efforts of the members of this organ-
ization would produce a publication which would be sought by
everyone connected with this widely diversified phase of agri-
cultural development. It would afford a means of bringing into
play in a definite way all the talent of the society. Whether it
is feasible or possible, I do not know. If it can be done, I know
of no better way of bringing credit to the members of the organ-
ization, and to the society itself, than in the publication of such
a work. Can we not have something of this kind to which we can
point with pride as having accomplished? A work of this kind
could be made to illustrate in a definite and inclusive way, the
aims of the society.
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SESSION ON MODERN FARM CONVENIENCES.
The President: The problem tonight consists of all of
the matter pertaining to the general subject of Modern Farm
Conveniences. With the coming of these modern improvements,
living conditions are being made as good for the farmer as any
man can have in the city so far as his home surroundings are
concerned. The farmer is waking up to these things without
doubt; and he is bringing them into use as rapidly as his
finances will allow, and as rapidly as his knowledge on the sub-
ject will tell him what is the thing to do. We are fortunate in
having men on the program tonight who are in pretty close
touch with this situation in general, and who, I think, will have
something worth while for us to think about.
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12 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
FARM EFFICIENCY.
How It Depends on Efficient Equipment for Living.
By Xenophon Caverxo*, Mem. Amer. Soc. A. E.
The brain power required for the continuous successful
farming of a quarter section of land up to standards which may
be called efficient, measured by present agricultural knowledge,
is as great as is required for the successful management of a
bank, agricultural college, or any other type of business.
Efficient farming today requires brain strength. Proper liv-
ing and working equipment will open farming to an immense
number of men and women who have the brains to succeed but
have not the physical ability to stand the fatigue and hardship
of farming under the conditions prevailing on the average farm.
If these facts are true they should be given their proper
place in all plans for the promotion of agriculture, and their
place is near the foundation, in fact, just below it.
More attractive living and working conditions on the farm
will attract a higher type of people. A higher type of people
working with more efficient equipment will bring higher yields.
Higher yields will support a higher type of living, which will
attract a higher type of people, and so on. This is a circle with
no beginning and no ending, but in it lies the success of all our
agricultural effort. Which should come first? — the attractive
equipment or the intelligent people? The problem is not so
simple as that. Now it will be one, now the other, now a little
of both. The first step is to catch the ideal. Ways and means
will develop with time and experience.
WHERE THE BREAK COMES.
A farm, like an army, breaks dowrn with its commissary and
sanitary departments. The slender link of a woman's endurance
limits the strength of the chain of farm living. The eyes of the
nation have been fixed on our farmers just as they were on our
fighting men at the time of the Spanish war. The brass bands
did not march at the head of the sanitary and commissary de-
partments, and the result is history. It is the same with our farm
living today. The sanitary and commissary departments have
made no advance since the days of our great grandmothers. The
substitution of the stove for the open fireplace is- the last, in fact
the only, real improvement in the equipment of the farm home
which has been generally adopted.
THE FARMER'S WIFE.
The work of the farmer's "wife is not only hard and exhaust-
*Pres. Kewanee Private T'tilities Co.. Kewanee. 111.
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Caverno: Farm Efficiency J 3
ing, it is continuous and practically unvarying. The seasonal
changes, which relieve the monotony of the outdoor work on the
farm, do not penetrate to the kitchen. There is the same lugging
of water and slops, the washing and ironing, the sweeping and
scrubbing, the filling of lamps and making of beds, the sewing
and mending, the care of the children, and the everlasting three
meals a day. No other class has derived so little from modern
progress and invention, in comfort and luxury, in relief from
grinding toil, as the farmer's wife.
LIFTING A TON OF WATER A DAY.
Neither is the possible saving in the wear and tear on a
woman's life exaggerated. President Joe Cook, of the Mississippi
Normal College, in a bulletin of the United States Bureau of
Education, makes the rather startling statement that the average
farmer's wife has to lift a ton of water a day. Here is how he
figures it :
' ' The getting of the water from the source of supply to the
point of application requires more manual labor than any other
item of housekeeping. The water for the kitchen has to be lifted
from the well, carried to the kitchen, poured into a kettle, poured
out of the kettle into the dishpan, and from the dishpan out of
doors. This makes six times the water is handled, and a bucket
of water containing two gallons, with the containing vessel, will
weigh 20 pounds. When this is handled six times, the total lift-
ing is 120 pounds. The cooking of three meals a day on a meager
allowance of .water will necessitate 10 buckets, which will make,
for cooking alone, 1,200 pounds of lifting per day. When to
this is added the water necessary for bathing, scrubbing and the
weekly wash, it will easily bring the lift per day up to a ton;
and the lifting of a ton a day will take the elasticity out of a
woman 's step, the bloom out of her cheek and the enjoyment
from her soul. ' '
SUPPOSE.
Imagine an average farm home without modern improve-
ments and conveniences. Picture to yourself an average farm-
er's wife as she goes through her daily routine. Follow every
Ftep from the time she starts the fire in the frigid kitchen till
she lays wearily down the last pair of mended stockings at night.
Now by magic transfer her in her sleep into a house with just
the plain conveniences: a heating system, running water, hot
and cold ; a bathroom with lavatory, closet and bath tub ; a sani-
tary system of sewage disposal; a power plant that not only
pumps the water, but runs an electric lighting plant with storage
battery; a power washing machine and wringer, a power sep-
arator and churn, a vacuum cleaner and perhaps an electric flat-
iron and a little motor to run the sewing machine.
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14 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Give her an extra hour to sleep. The kitchen is warm, the
water is hot, and she can get breakfast in a jiffy on the oil stove.
Now picture to yourself her day's work and her day's uplift to
body, mind, and soul. It is the difference between losing and
winning, between conquering and being conquered. Look at
these pictures from the standpoint of efficiency, of humanity, of
romance. No magic of Aladdin's lamp could work a greater
transformation or bring greater joy and comfort.
THE COST OP A MIRACLE.
And what would be the cost? A long spell of sickness and
first-class funeral would buy the whole plant. The wages of a
hired girl, or two weeks of a nurse and doctor would much more
than carry the interest on the investment, so would the price
of a fair cow or a poor horse.
A PAYING INVESTMENT.
In addition to the saving in health and strength, in hired
help, nursing, medicine, and doctor bills, such equipment affords
many other advantages. A good heating system will heat, the
whole house at less cost than stoves will heat half of it. A
sprinkled garden in a dry season may easily save a hundred dol-
lars in groceries. A little water at the right time and in the right
spot frequently saves the house from burning. The farmer him-
self might profit by a good warm bath in winter and a cold one
in summer after his day's work. Oil lamps, candles, lanterns,
and matches cause most country fires, both in house and barn.
Time saved in the house could be spent profitably in the garden
or with the poultry or bees. And these outdoor interests would
not only be profitable financially, they would introduce the
change and variety of interests which break the monotony of liv-
ing and bring physical health and mental sanity.
EQUIPMENT FOR LIVING.
A farm needs two types of equipment — equipment for living
and equipment for operating. Efficient equipment for living
comes first and should include everything that makes farm living
healthful and attractive and reduces the wear on vitality to the
lowest limit. Such equipment includes good houses, heating,
plumbing, water supply, gas or electricity, sewage disposal,
power to drive washing machines, vacuum cleaners, small sep-
arators, churns and sewing machines, ice houses or refrigerating
machines, sleeping porches, porch screens and awnings, electric
fans, electric flatirons, lawns, gardens, orchards, croquet sets,
tennis courts, swings, automobiles, pianos, organs and phono-
graphs. Any or all of these, and a great many more such things,
may be made the basis of farm efficiency. Whatever adds to the
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Caverno: Farm Efficiency J 5
attraction of country living, whatever promotes physical health
and mental sanity ; whatever reduces the wear and grind of work
and saves time for better things, is just as necessary equipment
as buildings: live stock, farm implements, or even the land itself.
It is not expense, it is basic investment.
MAKING MONEY WITH A MORTGAGE.
It pays to borrow money to buy good permanent equipment
for efficient living and working. "Our trouble has been that
there is not enough debt on the American farms. Contrast them
with the railroads, which represent an investment of $15,000,-
000,000. Yet they are mortgaged up to $11,000,000,000, or
nearly 80 per cent. But this indebtedness has meant new equip-
ment, enlarged service, increased efficiency, and more income.
Our farms are worth approximately $40,000,000,000 and carry
debt burdens of barely $6,000,000,000, or 15 per cent. With a
larger mortgage load they would have a bigger producing power
if the money were wisely spent. Our mortgaged farms are more
valuable than the unmortgaged. Their average of acreage under
cultivation is greater, their yield larger, their equipment better,
and their assessment higher.' '
THE BANKER'S PART.
Bankers, and especially country bankers, are taking greater
interest in better farming. They frequently encourage the farmer
by offering to lend him money for silos or other farm improve-
ments. There is no better way for a banker to benefit his com-
munity or lay a foundation for the prosperity of his bank than
by helping the farmer to put in first-class equipment for living,
and for doing all possible work by machinery in the most effi-
cient way. Such equipment is not "unproductive investment."
The road back to the cash box is not more crooked than it is in
the case of a silo, a good barn, tile drainage or quality live stock.
MINIMUM EQUIPMENT FOR HOUSE AND BARN.
No farm is equipped for efficient work which does not have
a comfortable house with a heater (hot air, hot water, or steam),
running water, hot and cold, a complete bathroom, a kitchen
sink, laundry trays or slop sink, a lavatory on the first floor if
the bathroom is on the second, a sanitary system of sewage dis-
posal, and a power washing machine. These should be classed as
necessary equipment for every farm home.
Nor is any farm equipped for efficient work which does not
have a plentiful supply of running water conveniently distrib-
uted for stock watering, sprinkling, and fire protection.
The cost of this minimum equipment of a high grade type
for the average farm will vary from $700 to $1,000 according to
the size of power plant and the type of heating system. Taking
the larger figure, the interest charge at 6% will amount to $60
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16 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
per year. Let us consider the direct as well as the indirect ways
in which this equipment will earn its carrying charges and pay
a cash dividend.
THE NATURE OF FATIGUE.
No one can draw correct conclusions as to the financial sav-
ing which can be effected by having labor-saving equipment on
the farm, without a knowledge of the physiological effects of
overstrain and overwork. There are two ways of poisoning the
system by the toxins of fatigue : overwork and overtime — work-
ing too hard, and working too long hours. The question of how
hard a man or woman can work or how many hours they can
keep at it and preserve their physical and mental efficiency has
been given some attention by physiologists, philanthropists, and
efficiency experts as it relates to industrial employment.
The items of overwork and fatigue cannot be neglected in
striking the cash balance at the end of the farm year. They cost
money in reduced efficiency, in doctor's bills, in funerals. And
it is not only from equipemnt that saves the body and nerves
from fatigue that the cash value from increased health and effi-
ciency comes, it comes also from anything that produces rest,
relaxation, and repose, and allows the body to repair the phys-
ical and nervous waste which accumulates during the day on
even the best equipped farm.
THE BIG FOUR.
Keeping in mind the nature of fatigue and the value, not
only of equipment which reduces fatigue, but also of equipment
which aids the fatigued body and brain to recover their vigor
through rest and relaxation, let us consider the cost and value
of the four main items of equipment — Heating, Water Supply,
Plumbing, Lighting.
THE HEATING PROBLEM.
A good heating system is not only a necessity for the protec-
tion of water pipes and plumbing fixtures, on which health so
largely depends, but it is even more directly connected with the
health problem. Sleeping in a cold room may be a good thing,
but sleeping in a bed which has absorbed the damp chill of an
unheated room is another matter. Heat should be available in
every room in the house. To heat the whole house by stoves
would cost more than with a heater, and the house would not be
well heated at that.
Stoves make work in carrying fuel and ashes, blacking the
stove, sweeping and dusting rooms, cleaning rugs and carpets,
and washing curtains. The soot and ashes blacken walls and ceil-
ings. This not only takes time and vitality, which might be used
at a profit, but it soon calls for a cash outlay to renew rugs, car-
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Caverno: Farm Efficiency 17
pets, and curtains, and for repapering and painting . Heat from
stoves fluctuates greatly.
A hot air heater is low in price, supplies fresh air, heats up
quickly, and supplies much or little heat according to the
weather. In a small, compact house it is very efficient. In large
houses and where the pipes are of unequal length, it is hard to
get an equal distribution of heat, and even in well-built houses
it is hard to deliver heat against the wind.
A steam heater will deliver heat anywhere. The piping sys-
tem and radiation cost less than in a hot water system, but the
fuel cost is higher. It is too intense for mild weather, however,
and the heat is apt to fluctuate greatly. Steam heat is better
adapted to large buildings than to homes.
A vapor system of heating lies between steam and hot water
in cost of equipment, cost of fuel, intensity of heat and general
fitness for home conditions.
A hot water system is the best for house heating. The heat
can be varied to suit the weather, and the fuel cost is low. It is
slow to heat up, but it is slow to cool off also. It requires more
head work to lay out the piping system, and it costs more to in-
stall than steam or vapor, as it takes more pipe, radiation, and
labor.
A hot air, steam, or vapor heater must be set below the
rooms to be heated and the piping system must be run in the
cellar. No matter how well the pipes are covered the heat is apt
to spoil the cellar for the storage of vegetables.
A hot water heater may be set on, or above, the level of the
radiators and the hot water pipes distributed to the radiators
without going through the cellar. Only the cold water return
need come through the cellar. Where there is no cellar or where
for any reason the heater and pipes are not wanted in the cellar,
a hot water heater may be set in a woodshed or other addition to
a house, and waste heat may be used to heat the room.
Heating equipment is so well standardized that local dealers
almost anywhere can be depended on to install a satisfactory
system.
The cost of a heating system will vary from $125 for a
small house heated by hot air, to $300 for a large house heated
by hot water.
WATER SUPPLY.
The addition of an efficient system of water supply to the
farm equipment brings two distinct values. 1st. — The saving of
time and strength from doing by machinery the hard work which
formerly had to be done by hand. It will pay every farmer and
his wife to take careful note for a week of the time and strength
spent on pumping and carrying water and measure the value of
this time and strength if applied in other ways, including work,
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18 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
rest, reading, and planning. 2nd. — The new avenues it opens
for health, comfort, and efficiency, including a plumbing system,
the sprinkling of lawns and gardens, the washing of floors,
vehicles, implements, and live stock, the prevention of fires, the
proper watering of live stock.
With good equipment wrater can be delivered anywhere on
the farm at a cost of 3 cents per thousand gallons with gasoline
at 18 cents per gallon. The cost of a first class pneumatic water
supply system, driven by gasoline engine will vary from $200 to
$400 according to size of farm, number of people, amount of live
stock, and other factors.
WATER FOR STOCK.
The value of having an abundant supply of water stored
under pressure in an air tight sanitary tank cannot be over-
estimated. A large open tank or trough is dangerously unsani-
tary because the water is liable to be contaminated through the
air, through diseased stock, and through the pollution of the
well from the mudholes wrhich always surround such tanks. Com-
pare even the best type of stock tank with a number of small
metal troughs or drinking bowls distributed at convenient points
around the yards and buildings, and supplied automatically with
pure, fresh water while the animals drink. The well may be
located away from the barnyard where there is no danger of pol-
luting the water. The cost of equipment is small and the gain
in efficiency great. A few hundred feet of pipe will bring the
water to every point where it is wanted and save time and money
every day in the year for a generation. Here again it is not only
time and work that are saved. Cattle will not drink the amount
of water required for their best development or the greatest milk
production unless the water is near them when they want it, and
always of a moderate temperature, cooling in summer, and warm-
ing in winter. This item alone can be counted on to pay a cash
dividend of $60 per year from increased production of beef or
milk.
To keep barn and hog house floors clean and sanitary re-
quires flushing with water under pressure-. A few germs of
tuberculosis or hog cholera, left to incubate in cracks and cor-
ners, may easily make $60 look very small. Hogs should not be
compelled to wrallow in filth. A concrete hog wallow is of no
use unless it is kept sanitary by an abundant supply of clean
water. Two cents worth of clean bath water per day will help pay
dividends in pork.
Mud and manure should not be allowed to dry on horses and
cattle. To keep them clean requires a hose connection at con-
venient points. If time, clean milk, and healthy live stock are
worth anything, a little cash dividend can be figured for the
handv hose connection.
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ARTIFICIAL RAIN.
Irrigation in the region of slack rainfall as the basis of gen-
eral farming is a specialty and requires a special type of ma-
chinery, but there isn't a farm, or even a country home, in the
United States, where limited irrigation for a garden would not
pay. There are few seasons in which gardens are not delayed in
starting or cut short in growth by drought. A few dry weeks
in early summer frequently put the garden out of commission
for the balance of the season. The expense of installing the un-
derground or overhead pipes for supplying "artificial rain"
over a home garden is very small, and one sprinkling at a critical
time would frequently pay the whole expense. With a shower
available every evening, and with the surplus time and vitality
saved by good equipment, any farm family could save $60 in gro-
ceries and in the sale of extra garden produce, and this figure
might be multiplied many times, for yields would be greatly in-
creased and could be counted on every day throughout the grow-
ing season, and there is a health value as well as a cash value in
eating green things from the garden.
Pigs, lambs, and calves are apt to be permanently stunted
by lack of green feed. It will pay any farmer to have a small
plot of ground under sprinkler where he can be sure of a pasture
of rape or some other green forage crop in spite of drought, and
keep his young stock growing. Here again is a reasonable assur-
ance of another $60 cash dividend.
In selecting a water supply plant, provision should be made
for artificial rain and the machinery should be built to carry a
good pressure and produce a fine spray so that the water will
work into the soil gradually and not puddle the surface and
cause it to bake in the sunshine.
SELECTING A WATER SUPPLY PLANT.
There are individual cases scattered all over the country
where a farm water supply can be obtained from streams or
ponds at a higher level, from flowing streams by rams or water
wheels, or from flowing wells, but these cases are so rare com-
pared with the total number of farms that they may be neglected
in laying down general rules.
The vast majority of farmers must pump water from wells
with a pump driven by a gasoline engine or electric motor, and
must choose between an elevated tank system, a pneumatic tank
system, and a non-storage system.
The best way to approach the selection of a water supply
plant is not through the talk of rival salesmen, but by consider-
ing the points which an ideal water supply system should have.
The following are suggested as the really important points :
First — It should be of such quality and size that it would
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20 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
be ready to respond to the maximum demand every minute of the
year.
Second — It should not disfigure the landscape or be exposed
to extremes of temperature or the action of the elements.
Third — It should be so located that it will not be a menace
to life and property in case of accident.
Fourth — It should be practically indestructible and free
from delicate parts.
Fifth — It should be absolutely tight, so that no dust, disease
germs, or other foreign substance can get into it.
Sixth — It should keep the water aerated so that it will not
become foul or stagnant.
Seventh — It should have sufficient storage and high enough
pressure for fire protection.
Eighth — It should be compact and simple, easy to install
and easy to operate.
Ninth — It should be quiet in operation.
Tenth — It should be efficient and low in operating cost.
A high grade pneumatic system of water supply fully meets
these requirements. If the best type of machinery is selected
there is small room for improvement.
PLUMBING.
Plumbing is a prosaic word and yet our language is too
poor in adjectives to give it proper praise. It is the basis of
healthful living. The outside privy is a great menace to health.
It is inherently dangerous. Pollution of well water and infec-
tion from flies are always probable. The use of earth closets,
chemical closets, and the screening of buildings is only a partial
protection with the best of care, and the best of care is unusual.
Dishwater and slops thrown on the ground attract flies and fur-
nish a breeding place for disease germs.
Personal hygiene demands that people be clean inside as
well as outside. The inconvenience of going to an outside privy
and the dread of exposure in cold weather are fruitful causes of
disease through the absorption of poisons, and the exposure it-
self is a shock to the system which not only invites pneumonia
and kindred diseases, but lowers the vitality which protects from
diseases of all kinds. The interest charge for plumbing and
sewage disposal is about $15. It can be depended on to save
this in doctor's bills in addition to increasing the earning cap-
acity of the family an indefinite amount.
Not only is plumbing healthful, sanitary, convenient; it is
a mental and moral stimulus. It borders on romance and re-
ligion. Cleanliness is next to Godliness. A clean bathroom is
the best physical expression of cleanliness. It sets a constant
mark to live up to.
It is no argument against the necessity of plumbing on the
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Caverno: Farm Efficiency 21
farm that few farm families appreciate its value. Plumbing is
an acquired taste. It is one of the latest refinements of civiliza-
tion, but it is a real necessity, not a useless luxury. People who
have never lived with a modern sanitary bathroom look on one
as a degenerate luxury. People who have lived with one, always
begiif with the bathroom when they .plan a new house.
Every farmhouse should have a bathroom with clean white
walls and fixtures, and a clean white sink in the kitchen. The
price 6i fixures brings them within the reach of any man who
can buy a farm or build a house. The pipe work should be done
by a good plumber. It is no work for a bungler or an amateur.
The cost should vary between $150 and $200 according to the
type of fixtures and amount of pipe work.
SEWAGE DISPOSAL.
Plumbing on the farm requires a system of sewage disposal
as well as of water supply. Discharge of sewage over the sur-
face of the ground, and even into a stream or lake is always
dangerous. It should be prohibited by law and frequently is.
A cesspool collects sewage, it does not reduce and purify it.
It is more liable to pollute wells than a privy vault, as the large
amount of water soaks off into the soil to a great distance carry-
ing filth and disease germs with it.
Fortunately modern science and invention have developed
a sanitary system of sewage disposal by means of bacteria, which
is all but perfect in operation, is easy of construction, low in cost,
and requires practically no attention.
Unfortunately, the idea of sewage disposal by means of
bacteria caught the fancy of newspaper and magazine writers,
who have greatly misrepresented the results obtained and the
equipment required.
This free advertising has enabled ignorant and unscrupulous
people to claim that when sewage is run into one side of a steel
tank, stone jug, barrel, box, or concrete pit, an equal amount of
pure water is discharged from the other side, and an analysis by
a chemist is frequently offered to prove it. No detailed explana-
tion of the process is offered, and where material is offered for
sale, it is strongly intimated that the bacteria required will work
only for the seller of the material. This secrecy is due to the
fact that if the buyer only understood the process he would
know enough not to buy the material offered.
Not only is the equipment offered for sale misleading, but
the information on the subject is also. A study of the catalogues
of dealers and engineers, articles written for magazines and farm
papers, and bulletins issued by colleges, universities and depart-
ments of agriculture, shows such a wide difference of design that
it is evident that the authors either have different ideas as to
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22 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
what the process is, or very poor judgment in designing suitable
equipment.
The principle involved in a bacterial sewage disposal plant
is very simple. Certain bacteria, called anaerobes because they
thrive only when kept out of contact with air, have the power to
reduce vegetable and animal solids to liquids and gases. Certain
other bacteria, called aerobes because they thrive only when kept
in contact with air, have the power to purify this liquid product
produced by the anaerobes, by oxydizing it and reducing it to
pure water and harmless gases.
The bacteria necessary for this work exist everywhere, and
all that is necessary is to provide the best conditions for them to
live and multiply. Without going into full details it may be
stated that a study of the best books on the subject, of successful
and unsuccessful plants, and of patents and the expert testimony
in patent suits, where the object is to bring out and not to con-
ceal information, lead to the following conclusions :
A farm sewage disposal plant should consist of —
1st — A concrete liquefying tank containing approximately
24 hours' supply of sewage, in which the depth of sewage is
maintained at not less than four feet, and from which the sew-
age overflows into
2nd — A smaller concrete syphon tank in which, whenever
the liquefied sewage collects to a depth of about 18 inches, it is
discharged by an automatic syphon into
3rd — A tile disposal field consisting of a main line of
sewer pipe laid with cemented joints, and of branch lines of drain
tile laid within a foot of the surface of the ground, the capacity
of the branch lines of tile being greater than the discharge from
the syphon tank.
The cost of such a system will be approximately $100. The
interest charge is $6.00, expense and depreciation nothing, if
properly designed and constructed.
ELECTRIC LIGHTING.
Most farms are out of reach of the electric light wires and
must use kerosene lamps or install a gas plant or electric lighting
plant. Electric light is universally conceded to be superior to
any other method of artificial lighting. It is the safest, requiring
no matches and having no flame. It is the most healthful, taking
no oxygen from the air and giving off no products of combustion
to pollute the air. It is the cleanest, producing no soot and
making no air currents which deposit dust on walls and ceilings.
It is the easiest to install, as wires can be run almost anywhere,
in old buildings, as well as new. It is the handiest, as lights can
be located out of reach and switches placed wherever most con-
venient.
Electric powrer also stands in a class by itself. Motor driven
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Caverno: Farm Efficiency 23
machines need not be grouped around the source of power, but
can be installed wherever a wire can be run. The smaller ma-
chines can be made portable and "plugged in*' anywhere on the
line. For driving fans, sewing machines, portable vacuum clean-
ing machines, the electric motor is practically the only suitable
power.
Elecric flatirons, toasters, chafing dishes, shaving mugs,
curling iron heaters, and other small heating devices are fast
becoming household necessities.
By doing away with the use of matches, candles, lanterns,
and oil or gas lamps, the electric current provides what is better
than an insurance policy or a fire extinguisher — a prevention of
fires.
The kerosene lamp is unhandy. Filling and cleaning take
time and strength. It consumes the oxygen in the air and throws
off so much heat that it is neither comfortable nor healthful to
sit by it. The New York State Health Department reports that
5 per cent of city children and almost 22 per cent of country
children have defective vision, and this is laid to the poor light-
ing of country homes by kerosene lamps. When defective eye-
sight is thrown into the balance the kerosene lamp becomes more
expensive investment than an electric lighting plant.
Until veiy recently the use of electricity has been a city
luxury. The development of the gasoline engine and storage bat-
tery made the service of the isolated plant equal to that supplied
by the central station. The Tungsten lamp with its low current
consumption reducing the capacity of battery and size of engine
and generator required, and the use of low voltage lamps, reduc-
ing the number of cells of storage battery required, have brought
the price of the plant within reach of the average owner of a
farm or country home.
The market is flooded with all sorts of experiments in the
line of electric lighting plants for which the farmer is footing the
bill. In selecting a plant the following facts should be consid-
ered :
Any switchboard can be wired so that the generator can be
used as a motor to start the gasoline engine. It is not advisable
to do this, however, as it puts a heavy jolt on the battery and is
more liable to damage it than a year of ordinary service. A
small gasoline engine starts so easily by hand that it takes little
more effort than throwing on a switch, and it is good practice to
turn the engine over by hand occasionally to see that the com-
pression is good and that all parts are working freely. In elec-
tric automobile starters the motor is wired to protect itself and
the battery, but this is done at the expense of generator effi-
ciency. A generator, if designed for efficient electric lighting,
is not so wired and should not be so used just because it will
generally stand the punishment.
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24 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
The automatic electric starting of a gasoline engine, when
the supply of current in the battery is reduced, is an ingenious
stunt which multiplies the chances of trouble by many hundreds.
It is a talking point only. A storage battery does not thrive on
frequent charging and discharging, and should be large enough
to hold at least two or three days* average supply of electricity.
Every gasoline engine should be looked over at least once every
day that it runs, so the automatic starting feature is not only a
useless but a dangerous complication as it encourages neglect of
the care and inspection which is an absolute essential of good ser-
vice. Constant service should be secured by the size of the bat-
tery and not by the frequent starting and stopping of the engine.
A plant of this type which starts every time the lights are
turned on without depending on current storage in the battery
has reached the height of folly.
The cash return from an electric light plant, and the saving
in time and labor and health are not as direct as is the case with
plumbing, heating, and water supply, so the electric plant is not
listed as necessary equipment. The advantages, however, are so
great that it should be installed whenever possible. The average
cost of adding the electric plant to the water supply plant will
vary between $300 and $400, including wiring of all buildings
and fixtures. The interest charge will be from $18 to $24 per
year. It is worth that as fire prevention only.
GAS.
Gas has one argument over electric lighting. It can be used
for fuel as well as light. But a gas stove is little better than a
gasoline or kerosene stove, and electric light is superior to gas in
every way. Before the invention of the modern low voltage stor-
age battery electric plants, acetylene or gasoline gas plants filled
a great need very acceptably. Now, however, it is no exaggera-
tion to say that progress has left them behind.
PLANS FOR FARM POWER PLANTS.
1 — Every farm should have a plan for a power plant, a
"mechanical lay-out,' ' to provide for every operation which can
be done by machinery at a saving of time and strength.
2 — This plan should cover present requirements and a long
look into the future, and a drawing, or blueprint, should be made
showing the present and future position of each machine.
3 — The power should be divided and the different machines
grouped around each engine or motor to give the greatest conven-
ience and economy of operation.
4 — It is false economy to drive a small load with a big en-
gine, a big load with a small engine, or to have a machine or set
of machines located in an inconvenient position to save buying
an extra engine.
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Caverno: Farm Efficiency 25
5 — No regular work, such as pumping or electric lighting,
should be done with a portable engine.
6 — No regular work, such as pumping and electric lighting,
should be done by a cheap engine "built for farmers." Such
work is generally done by engines of from one to four horse-
power, and in these sizes price competition has been so fierce that
quality has frequently been cut until they are unfit for continu-
ous service.
7 — A "farm type" engine may do for occasional work such
as filling silos, baling hay, shelling corn or sawing wood, but even
for such service it is generally good business policy to pay a little
more and get a "shop type" engine that will be a lifetime invest-
ment.
8 — A house power plant should never have line-shafts or
counter-shafts attached to any part of the frame of the house be-
cause the vibration and rumbling will be transmitted to all parts
of the house.
9 — The different machines to be driven should be grouped
compactly around the engine or motor, taking up the least pos-
sible space and requiring no special foundations, or expert work
in setting up or in lining up shafts and pulleys.
10 — Every machine should be shipped practically ready to
be run when the crate is taken off, and should drop into the place
reserved for it on the plan without expert work, whether all the
machines are bought and installed together or one at a time.
The farmer who has a plan of this kind can throw back on
the manufacturer the responsibility for the proper working of
his machinery under the exact conditions shown.
A DANGER IN RURAL CREDITS.
The chief trouble with the farmer has been less his lack of
money than his lack of judgment in buying, and especially in a
systematic plan of buying. Few farmers have enough mechan-
ical knowledge to be good judges of machinery and any system of
exending rural credits will open up a big field for loss unless
accompanied by intelligent and systematic buying of farm equip-
ment.
As a matter of fact, there has been very little engineering
and very little conscience in the way the growing demand of the
farmer for better and more efficient living equipment has been
met. Twenty years ago villages and cities were putting in public
utility plants of the same general type as those now sold to farm-
ers for private plants. They all had to be paid for and then thrown
away and a higher type of equipment substituted. A man living
in a city may have a ten-thousandth part of a public utility plant
at his service. If he lives in the country he should have just
exactly as good service from a "private utility plant' ' one ten-
thousandth as large, but this service cannot be had if the quality
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26 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
of machinery is reduced with the size. In fact, the small plant
requires better quality because it will have less expert care.
BUYING DREAMS.
It is unfortunate that government and state bulletins still
advocate cheap temporary makeshifts in the sanitary and me-
chanical equipment of the farm, and that much of the advertis-
ing to farmers is so misleading as to be practically fraudulent.
In the bulletin of the V. S. Department of Agriculture on
the Domestic Needs of Farm Women, we read, "Many women
complain of having been induced to purchase worthless appar-
atus, while others assert that although their husbands cannot
be persuaded to risk any money in new inventions, this attitude
would be different* toward those which were stamped with Gov-
ernment approval. Writers who realize the obstacles in the way
of the Government's standing sponsor for articles manufactured
by private concerns ask for an explanation of the general prin-
ciples involved which might guide them in buying. ' '
GETTING SOMETHING FOR NOTHING.
A "guide for buying ' for the farmer should begin with
the following sage advice from Mr. Dooley, ' ' Whiniver annybody
offers to give you somethin' f 'r nawthin\ or somethin' f 'r less
than it's worth, or more f 'r somethin' than it's worth, don't take
any chances. Yell f 'r a pelisman. ,f
EXPERT JUDGING.
The farmer is not to blame because he is not a judge of
machinery any more than the mechanical engineer is that he is
not a judge of live stock, but think how the farmers would
laugh if a mechanical engineer should buy his stock on the same
basis that they buy their power equipment. Suppose he ordered
shotes by mail, "sight unseen,' because they were valued at
$15 each, but were priced at $4.98, suppose he went to town and
picked up all the cows he could find for sale cheap. Suppose he
bought spider-legged, raw-boned, stiff-jointed, sway-backed
horses, blind, spavined, ring-boned, and sweenied, without find-
ing out what good horses looked like or acted like, under the im-
pression that a horse was a horse. Wouldn't the farmers laugh?
There are live stock breeders who care more for the quality
of their stock than they do for the money it brings. They breed
quality stuff and get a quality price. Both buyer and seller get
a fair and honest value. There are live stock breeders and deal-
ers who impose on the buyer and sell defective or poor quality
stock at a quality price. There are stock raisers and dealers who
sell scrub stuff at a scrub price and who make no effort to breed
up to any standard at all. They breed what they happen to get
and get what they can.
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Caverno: Farm Efficiency 27
What the farmer needs to understand is that there are the
$ame classes of men in the machinery line, and that there is scrub
machinery and grade machinery, and pure bred machinery, and
that each has its price, cost and value.
PRICE is what you pay for a thing when you get it. You
pay it once.
COST is what you have paid for a thing when you are done
with it. It includes original price, running expense, repairs,
depreciation, trouble, loss of time, loss of service.
VALUE is what you get out of a thing while you have it.
It is measured by economy of operation, freedom from repairs
and trouble, constant service and length of life.
High price does not necessarily mean big value, but when
low price is put forward as the main selling argument, it is a
safe bet that the value is low and the final cost will be high.
The lowest cost and highest value never go together. Good
material and good finish cost more than poor material and poor
finish, and in any machine that gets regular use, good material
and good finish pay back far more than their extra cost.
Improved processes of manufacture may reduce cost, and
where the reduction in price is due to this factor, the higher
priced machine will be driven from the market in time. But the
same shop processes and equipment are open to all manufac-
turers, and where a higher priced machine holds a place on the
market against a lower one it is a safe bet that it is because the
intelligent buyers are not all dead, and that the cheaper ma-
chine actually costs more and gives poorer service. There are
1 H. P. gasoline engines on the market that sell for $70.00, and
hold a market against engines selling all the way down to-
$30.00. The ignorant man who goes on his own knowledge, never
buys the higher priced engine. From his point of view it would
be throwing away money. The man who knows machinery pays
the higher price because he knows he will more than get it back
in economy of operation, freedom from repairs and trouble, con-
stant service, and length of life. The man who does not know
machinery can at least know that there is reason back of the
choice of the man who does, and follow him. And he doesn't
even need to know the other man. The existence of the higher
priced machine on the market in face of competition with cheap-
er machines shows that the other man exists and is continually
making his judgments. This argument applies only to time-tried
types of machinery like gasoline engines and the standard deep
well and suction pumps which have established their fitness to
survive in the long course of mechanical evolution. That a new
invention or a non-competitive article sells for a high price means
nothing. To have the price mean anything to the man who is
not a judge of values, it must have held its own against com-
petition.
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28 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
A GUIDE TO BUYING.
To obtain ideas which should guide him in the purchase of
a water supply or electric lighting plant, the farmer should go
into a good public service plant and examine the type of equip-
ment which would be placed at his service if he lived in town.
He should notice the compact design, the careful machining and
finish, the smooth, quiet running. He should talk to the en-
gineer on the relation between high quality and economy of oper-
ation, freedom from trouble, and expense for upkeep and re-
pairs.
All catalogues, salesmen and agents will give him quality
talk. Probably his own knowledge of machinery will not enable
him to tell how much of this talk is true. Quite likely the manu-
facturer or agent has too little mechanical judgment to know
himself. The farmer 's best protection will be to make a mental
picture of the machinery he saw in the public utilities plant, re-
duce it to 1-1,000 or to 1-10,000 of its actual size, and see if the
machinery he is considering buying falls into the same class.
WORKING WITHOUT TOOLS.
The greatest fallacy in the farm world today is the idea that
good living equipment for the farmer, instead of being the basis
of efficient living during his active life, should be a rewrard in his
old age after a lifetime of effort, shortened and handicapped for
the lack of it. We are so used to this that we do not see its
economic waste, its pathos, its tragedy, its grim humor. Think
of it — living wastef ully the best part of your life, and wrhen you
can't stand it much longer, getting living equipment to die
among. "Some die too late and some too soon," and the vast
majority of farmers die too soon for the achievement of even this
belated ambition. Suppose the manufacturer should try to make
his product first and equip his shop afterward. Suppose the
skilled workman should dig in the ditch to earn money to buy
tools rather than borrow money to buy tools and pay his debt out
of his higher wages. It would be no more ridiculous or wasteful.
The foundation of American industry is spending money before
making it, getting the best equipment no matter what it costs,
even throwing away good machinery to get the best.
American farming has lagged behind American industry
because it has not learned this lesson. A farmer's home is more
than a shelter ; it is the most important tool used in his business.
FARMING AS A BUSINESS.
In the industrial field the development of machinery has
put a premium on the skill, brains, and independence of the few
at the expense of the many. The employer is constantly striving
to obtain machinery which will enable him to employ a lower and
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Caverno: Farm Efficiency 29
less skilled class of labor. The saving in time and efficiency goes
to the employer, not to the man who operates the machine.
On the farm it is different. The farmer is both employer
and employee. The efficient use of machinery gives him time to
develop his own skill, brains, and independence for his own bene-
fit. The more efficient machinery he has, the less he is dependent
on unskilled labor. He does not have to use machinery to make
himself so rich that he and his wife can hire servants. He can
use it to make himself and his wife so efficient that his family is
a self-supporting unit.
A farm power plant should not be a rough toy for the
farmer to monkey and tinker with ; it should be of the best and
most dependable type for continuous service like a public service
power plant. The farmer should rise every morning with the cer-
tainty that the power plant will do its full assignment of workand
leave him free to attend to his own without wasting his time and
strength on the work which the power plant should do, or in fix-
ing up defective or balky machinery. A dependable power plant,
good for a lifetime of steady service with the labor saving and
good living equipment which it makes possible, go far toward
taking the element of chance out of farming and making it a
regularly prosperous business.
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30 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
SEWAGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL.
By Burton J. Ashley*
"Sewage Treatment" is one thing. "Sewage Disposal" is
quite another. Ordinarily, sewage treatment consists in passing
sewage through some form of mechanical, biological or chemical
process for the purpose of destroying the harmful substances
contained in it as far as practical, so that the products of the
treatment will neither become a nuisance nor a menace, no mat-
ter what the character of disposal may be.
Sewage disposal means just what it says, viz., getting rid of
the resultant liquids and solids produced by the treatment. Sew-
age may be, and in numerous instances is, disposed of without
any treatment.
"Sewage" is one thing and "Sewerage" is another and the
meaning of these two terms as well as to differentiate between
"Sewage Treatment" and "Sewage Disposal" should be dili-
gently explained and defined by Engineers, Editors and others
until the terms and their meanings are generally well under-
stood by the laity.
In the very broad use of the term "Sewage Disposal" it
might be properly used to include Sewage Treatment as one of
the functions of Disposal, but the present tendency of writers on
sanitary subjects is to discriminate in the uses of the words
"Treatment" and "Disposal."
The processes now most generally employed in Sewage
treatment are chiefly biological in their nature, i. e., living or-
ganisms have an important function in such treatment. Mechan-
ical and chemical forces naturally and unavoidably enter into the
biological operation more or less, in accordance with the form of
sewage treatment contrivances used. For instance, the "Septic
Tank," at one time heralded as a powerful biological- adjunct
in the destruction of the solids, has later been found to exert as
beneficent an influence mechanically in preparing sewage for fur-
ther purification as does biological action itself. Excessive septic
action in the septic tank may entirely prevent further purifica-
tion in beds, for the reason that when the oxygen in the sewage
liquid is consumed by septic fermentation, then offensive odors
arise and the resultant effluent is in no fit condition for further
purification by oxidation. It is a principle in the biological treat-
ment of sewage that the fresher the sewage, consistent with the
ridding it of solids, the better the preparaion for the secondary
or nitrifying process. These statements may be a little imper-
fect from the standpoint of a chemist, but the meaning may be
sufficiently understood by an engineer to be useful for the pur-
poses in question.
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Ashley: Sewage Disposal 31
It is a well-known fact that septic tank effluents are baeterio-
logieally almost as impure as the raw sewage itself. Reduction,
sedimentation or septic tanks may be built too large to send the
liquids through in a fresh condition, or too small to permit of
sufficient settling out of the solids before causing the discharge
therefrom, or improperly designed so that liquids are not sent
through in a defined current, and fresh sewage is mixed with
stale material. Hence there is a nicety involved in designing a
sewage receiving tank. It must be so designed as to not over or
under detain the sewage in the tank to the hindrance of further
purification.
One of the best types of sewage treatment tanks now in in-
creasing use is what is known as the Emscher tank, invented by
Dr. Carl Imhoff of Essen, Germany, and patented in this country
a few years ago. The "flow through" time in this tank is much
less than the time necessarily consumed in passing sewage
through the more common forms of septic or sedimentation tanks.
This feature of the Imhoff tank is because of its interior plan and
construction. The Imhoff tank is really a two-storied affair, the
upper story being the trough or depositing chamber and the
lower the sludge or decomposing or storage chamber.
It is not impossible in dealing with some kinds of sewage to
get excellent results from the use of the Emscher or Imhoff tank
alone without passing the effluent from it through the nitrifying
process. The speaker has obtained very excellent results with
such installations in quite a number of instances; but particu-
larly in the Calumet Mining Regions in Northern Michigan. The
sewage treated was produced in the wash houses of the miners
and in the schools in the mining district and therefore largely
excrementitions and diluted. The fall of the ground practically
prevented the construction of nitrifying beds except at a cost
disproportionate to the necessities of the case. Such installations
are and should be made the exception and not the rule ; for dan-
ger must, from the nature of such cases, lurk in any tank efflu-
ent that is sent on its way unnitrified.
Nitrification, the world wide natural force, is the act of
oxygen chemically combining with organic substances to form
nitrates, which are the salts of nitric acid. Nitrates are soluble
in water. A nitrate is a harmless stable compound. Nitrifica-
tion in sewage treatment is accomplished in filter beds by sub-
jecting the organic impurities of uswage or tank liquids to the
aerobic film that covers the sand grains of which the nitrification
bed is built. The aerobic film is colloidal in composition and is
the medium that houses the aerobes, a class of bacteria that can
only live in the presence of air. The aerobic film can only be
made useful in the purification of sewage in beds by supplying
the right quantity and quality of air to the beds.
Waring, that eminent sanitist of a quarter of a century ago,
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32 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
suspected the purifying potency of filter beds to be in conse-
quence of the fresh air that the voids contained. He made ex-
periments by forcing excessive amounts of air through the beds
in hopes of intensifying their potency ; but the experiments were
failures because the amount of air he forced through was exces-
sive. The application of air to filter beds can be overdone, just
as stuffing a goose to fatten her can be overdone. It can also be
underdone, the results of underdoing being to smother the nitrifi-
cation bed to suffocation and to put it out of operation.
The size of the sand grains, and the depth of filter beds are
also very important factors, as well as the quantities of liquid a
certain area of the beds may receive without overloading the
beds. The method of applying the tank liquid to the beds is
equally important. As air passes downward through beds, it be-
comes vitiated and impotent, proving that greater purification is
accomplished in the upper strata of the filter bed.
The colloidal composition of tank liquids is a feature not
generally well understood even among engineers, and is the fre-
quent cause of failure in cases where the discharge of tank
liquids directly into underground absorption ducts is attempted.
Dr. Travis at Hampton. England, worked out the factor of col-
loids in his extensive experiments there and conclusively proved
the possibility of collecting them on the surfaces of suspended
baffles. But when the colloids are passed from the tank into ab-
sorption ducts without destroying them by nitrification or sep-
arating them by chemical process, trouble is bound to result
sooner or later in the absorption field. Plumbers sometimes tell
us that cesspools fail to work because of grease. A second
thought should tell us that grease and water do not mix easily,
the grease rising to the top. The fact is that the stoppage of ab-
sorption in cesspools is caused by colloids in the liquid and not
necessarily by the greases. A colloid is a gluey substance, semi-
solid in its nature and very slow to penetrate any substance it
comes in contact with. It may be nearly as abundant in the
clearest tank effluent as in the contents of cesspools. Clearness
in tank effluents speak but little in the treatment of sewage since
even the clearest flow from tanks is bacteriologically very im-
pure.
All these and a multitude of other factors must be known to
the designer of sewage treatment plants before positive results of
operation can be foretold with any degree of certainty.
In applying this selected branch of the art of sewage treat-
ment to the agricultural communities, the first essential is that
the farmer or agriculturist should become acquainted with the
foregoing fundamentals that he may judge of the quality of the
service he is likely to get in the purchase of schemes offered for
the treatment of sewage.
Commercialism is already trying to add sewage treatment to
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Ashley: Sewage Disposal 33
its curriculum by offering unvarying forms of apparatus for the
purpose; but ultimately commercialism will lose out, for at-
tempts to use unvarying forms of apparatus to purify sewage
under the always varying conditions to be overcome will never
be a safe basis in the practice of this art. Sewage treatment is
an art to be practiced as a doctor practices medicine and has be-
come a specialty in engineering just the same as optics or den-
tistry has become a specialty in medicine. Capable engineers,
editors of farm journals, and educators necessarily become the
fanner's instructor as well as his defender in the introduction of
this art into the farming community and to do so the editor and
others must be posted on these fundamental principles of sew-
age treatment lest he lead the farmer astray and they both fall
into the ditch.
The engineering art has become divided into various sec-
tions : Rairoad, Steel Constructional, Mechanical, Electrical,
Agricultural, Sanitary, Bridge, Municipal, and Architectural,
each with his own special work to perform and by which divi-
sions the laity will get a higher class of service than otherwise.
Now, with regard to the farmer or agriculturist adopting
advanced sanitary equipment in his home. Farmers are becom-
ing rich. Agriculturists were rich before they became farmers.
My experience with the agriculturist is that he will be found on
the advance line regarding sanitary matters, while the farmer
will bring up the rear and will be about the last man to wake up
to the age of advanced sanitation. The average agriculturist
usually adopts the best there is in sewage treatment and disposal.
The farmer, when he does begin, will probably buy the cheapest
thing out to help P. T. Barnum keep his word good. After he
has been faked to the point of posting himself, he will then be-
come wary in believing in anything offered by the name of a
sewage disposal plant and persistently refuse to buy anything
under that name. He may find out as has already been found
out that the "Septic Tank" is not all there is of sewage treat-
ment. He will find out and know that a well-designed nitrifica-
tion bed does more than two-thirds of the purifying of sewage.
He will know why a plant consisting of a tank discharging di-
rectly into absorption drains is bad practice in the long run. It
is hoped that by the time this is found out that he will have be-
come sufficiently wealthy and posted to buy only that which he
has some knowledge of or that may be recommended to him by
his protector — the Agricultural Engineer, whom I have had
much pleasure to meet with tonight.
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34 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
ELECTRIC LIGHTING SYSTEMS FOR FARM USE.
By C. H. Roth#, Mem. Amer. Soc. A. E.
Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen : — I have been connected with
the electrical manufacturing industry for over twenty years, and
during that time there has been a regular and steady advance
and standardization of matters electrical. I have followed this
growth closely during this period, and of course am interested in
anything which will help along the work.
The electric lighting systcim for use on the farm has not
been standardized to any extent. There are a great many
systems in use and they have not been classified at all that I
know of, and so I thought I would try to do something along that
line in this paper.
At the present time there are probably 100 or more manu-
facturers and assemblers of Farm Lighting Plants in the United
States, and the number is increasing as the need for such systems
becomes more evident.
Most of the plants installed are naturally enough of the
simplest type, depending entirely on manual control for their
successful operation.
This brings up the thought that we may best start out by
dividing these systems into Classes and Types :
(a) Plants that give light only when the generator and engine
are running.
(b) Plants that give light only from the battery, the generator
being used only for charging the battery.
(c) Plants that give light from the battery, or from the bat-
tery and generator combined.
(d) Plants that give light either from the battery, or generator,
or from both combined.
I would suggest the following Types:
MANUAL
Plants that' are entirely manually started, operated, regulated,
and stopped.
SEMI-AUTOMATIC
Plants that are partially automatic in some one or more feat-
ures, but not entirely so.
ALL AUTOMATIC
Plants that are entirely automatic in starting, regulating the
voltage and charging battery, automatically stopping when
the charge is complete or no lights are in use.
•Pres. Roth Bros. & Co., Chicago.
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Roth: Electric Lighting Systems 35
Now starting with Class "A", manually operated Type, we
recognize the old established isolated or centralized station plant
which is furnishing current to millions of lights, and hundreds
of thousands of motors of various sizes. The larger the size of
such plants the less necessary is automatic control, because the
loads average so well that the regulation is naturally not much
interfered with. Class (a) manually operated plants cannot be
very successful unless a very good regulating prime mover is
used. Therefore, we find systems which are of the Class "A"
semi-automatic type.
The smaller the plant, the more a certain amount of auto-
matic action seems necessary because of the lack of a steady
prime mover, small amount of attention given the plant, and lack
of an experienced operator. A plant of this type requires man-
ual starting ; but once started it will automatically regulate the
voltage by changing the magnetic strength of the generator fields,
or by changing the generator speed by throttling the governor of
the engine, or by similar means, until the last light is turned
off, when the plant will be manually shut down.
Further refinements and added electrical devices bring us
to the Class "A", all automatic systems. The action cf at least
one of these systems is as follows : Upon turning on a light an
electrical connection is completed that relays current from a
small automobile type of storage battery to an automobile type of
starter, thereby starting the engine and generator. When the
last light is turned off the engine and generator automatically
stop. These plants find particular favor at season resorts and
other places where the plant is in operation for a comparatively
short period of the year, because ordinary care in storing the
plant for the off season is all that is required. If a complete
storage battery plant were used, considerable expert care would
be necessary in storing it for the off season, and if entirely for-
gotten the battery would probably be ruined. Furthermore,
these plants can use the standard 115 volt lamps and other ap-
pliances, their voltage not being dictated by the necessity of
keeping battery cost down.
Class "B" using current only from the battery for lights
would be of the Manual Type, or of the Semi- Automatic Type.
In this plant the generator would usually be running only during
the day when the engine was being used for other work and no
lights were needed. An attendant would probably be near at
hand, who could take care of the voltage regulation. If the load
on the engine was such as to often cause the speed of the gen-
erator to fall below the critical charging speed, the circuit
breaker would open and would then have to be manually closed,
which would be very inconvenient. If a small engine is used to
drive the generator only, then the engine does not necessarily
need to be very close regulating, as the storage battery charge,
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36 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
being elastic, will usually take care of such variation in speed.
Certainly the Semi-Automatic Type, with automatic circuit
breaker and automatic voltage regulation would be the better
type and perhaps absolutely necessary if the engine and gener-
ator varied considerably in speed due to heavy and intermittent
load on the engine, or to poor inherent regulation of the engine.
('lass 4,B ' all automatic plants need not be eonsidered as
they would really come under Class ,%C".
In many old Class "B" plants duplicate sets of batteries are
used so one can be charging while another is being discharged.
Class *'C" — Manually operated plants that give light from
the battery, or from the battery and generator combined can be
successfully operated from the ordinary farm engine, because
the charge to the battery can accommodate itself to such varia-
tions as occur unless they arc very violent, in which case an auto-
matic circuit breaker becomes necessary, thereby bringing such
plants into the semi-automatic type.
Class "C" semi-automatic type having voltage regulation;
automatically takes care of the battery charge, giving a charge
that is in proper relation to the condition of the battery, gradu-
ally tapering or reducing the charge until a balance is obtained
at which little or no current will go to the battery, when nat-
urally the engine and generator will be manually shut down.
Ordinary farm engines are satisfactory for such a plant.
Class "C" — All automatic plants are special assemblies of
engine, generator and battery with the necessary automatic de-
vices and regulators to make a complete, more or less self-con-
tained outfit for lighting and electric power purposes only.
They are made in several forms with varying character-
istics. One of these furnishes current from the battery until ap-
proximately 10% of the connected load is put on, when the en-
gine and generator automatically start up and the additional
load is taken by the generator. When the load gets below 10%
or other point at which the underload circuit breaker is set, the
engine and generator automatically stop.
Others operate on the principle that when the battery volt-
age gets low, relays operate and the engine and generator auto-
matically start up, continue running until the battery is fully
charged as indicated by the voltage, when another relay trips
and automatically stops the engine and generator. The voltage
of the battery is not always a safe indication of the condition
of the battery, therefore hydrometer readings must be occasion-
ally taken as a check.
The total capacity of all Class 4iC" plants is that of the
battery plus that of the generator.
Class "D" — Manually operated plants. The remarks con-
cerning (lass kt(1" manually operated plants apply to this class
except that as light is likely to be used from the generator only,
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Roth: Electric Lighting Systems 37
it would be necessary to have a very steady engine, or a heavy
fly-wheel on the generator, or suffer poor voltage regulation.
Class "D" — Semi- Automatic Type. The remarks pertain-
ing to Class "C" semi-automatic plants apply here also, but as
light is likely to be used from the generator only, it would be nec-
essary to have a very steady engine, or a heavy fly-wheel on the
generator, or suffer poor voltage regulation.
It may here be stated that where both a voltage regulator
and a heavy fly-wheel on the generator are recommended, the
voltage regulator takes care of prolonged variations in speed
such as the difference between no load and full load, whereas the
fly-wheel takes care of violent and very rapid fluctuations in the
engine speed, such as are found in the hit and miss type of en-
gines, especially at light load.
Class "D" — All automatic plants would p re-suppose auto-
matic starting and stopping and automatic voltage regulation
with generator only furnishing current, or both generator and
battery furnishing current. It is evident that in this type there
is not much advantage in taking current from the generator only,
except in case of breakdown of battery, under which condition
the plant could not automatically start.
Therefore, with present developments and thought on the
subject there does not seem to be a need for Class "DM — all auto-
matic plants, as they are covered by Class "CM all automatic
plants.
Refinements — various refinements or accessories are in use
for securing results that the individual designers and inventors
wish to accomplish. An ampere hour meter is one of these. It
registers the amperes multiplied by the time in hours (called
ampere hours) that the battery has been charged. When current
is taken from the battery the meter runs backward and gradually
recedes to zero, indicating an empty battery and time to re-
charge. Contact points at zero and at full charge positions of the
ampere hour meter give signals to the operator, or can be used to
automatically work relays to stop and start the engine.
Volt meters are much used to assist in equalizing the volt-
age of the generator and the battery just before connecting the
generator with the battery in manually operated plants, and for
reading the voltage of the battery to assist in determining the
condition of the charge in the battery, and for locating grounds
in the system.
Ammeters are used for reading the amount of charge that is
going into the battery and the amount of discharge when the
lamps are in use. They are also useful as tell tales to prevent
overloads on the generator or battery should too many lights be
on at any one time.
An automatic circuit breaker or cut-out switch is an abso-
lute necessity with plants using storage batteries; otherwise
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38 American Hociely of Agricultural Engineers
should the engine stop when an attendant is not near, the bat-
tery would run the generator as a motor and would rapidly dis-
charge itself .
An automatic circuit breaker and an automatic circuit closer
is used with many plants. These take care of all stops and starts
by opening the circuit when the charge gets to, or near zero, and
by closing the circuit when the voltage is at a point where a
small charge will go into the battery.
Some plants of the manually operated and semi-automatic
type, use so-called "end 06118* ' or "counter E. M. F. cells" in
series with the regular battery cells. These are connected in the
light circuit to take up the excess voltage necessary to obtain a
full battery charge while lights are being used, the generator be-
ing connected across the main portion of the battery, while the
lights are connected across the whole.
Other manufacturers use a dead resistance in place of the
"end cells" to use up the excess voltage in the light circuit while
charging and to keep a fairly constant voltage on the lamps when
not charging, by manually operating the resistance according to
the state of the charge of the battery.
The alternative for the above, and the method recommended
by the majority of manufacturers, is to more often charge the
battery, thereby maintaining a fairly constant voltage. Further-
more, Tungsten lamps are able to stand the small variations in
the battery voltage obtained in actual practice, and still give
very good light. This leads to the question, how often should the
battery be charged ?
General opinion seems to be that frequent charging, without
letting the battery get down below about one-half charge, gives
best results. Occasionally, however, the battery should be given
a full freshening charge as this tends to prolong its life and effi-
ciency. The particular class and type of plant will of course
determine this to some extent, and other benefits may offset the
gains that would accrue from a strict adherence to the best rules
for charging batteries.
The type of battery to use is a question that is not agreed
upon. Some prefer the sealed up type and others prefer the
open type. The sealed up type comes to the user ready for
service. They are not readily examined to determine their internal
mechanical condition and therefore are usually used until some
trouble develops, when they most likely go back to the maker, or
to some competent repair man. The open type comes disas-
sembled and must all be correctly assembled, connected up and
given initial or forming charges of certain amounts during a
fixed time to get them into proper working condition. Thereafter
they can be readily examined, cleaned, and necessary repairs can
in some cases be made by the user. The use of the open type bat-
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Roth: Electric Lighting Systems 39
tery usually means the sending of an expert to install the plant
and get it properly started.
The comparative output of the generator alone and the bat-
tery alone is an interesting question. In Class "B" it is a matter
of using a generator large enough to charge the battery in the
time available and at the rate recommended by the battery man-
ufacturer.
In Class "C" manually operated and semi-automatic types,
this proportion would be determined by the amount that one
wished to invest in the plant and the convenience desired. If the
battery is very small it must be charged daily and the engine and
generator must be run to assist the battery at times when most
of the lights are used. The battery in this case would be consid-
ered simply a reserve for giving 24 hours service without con-
tinual operation of the generator. A larger battery may have
capacity to care for the lights for several nights with one charge.
This desire for convenience may grow, to such an extent that a
larger size of plant is required because the generator must also
be large enough to charge the battery in the time recommended.
In Class "C" all automatic plants this proportion is deter-
mined to some extent by the system of control of the charge to the
battery. In the type that utilizes the battery for only about 10%
of the lights and then switches the balance of the load onto the
generator, there is no necessity for a large battery, but it must
of course be large enough to start the engine without fail.
In the type of plant that starts and stops by the voltage
condition of the battery it seems to be the practice to use a fair
size battery and carry the load on the battery until the voltage
drops below the predetermined value. The voltage must not be
allowed to run so low that the battery will not have sufficient
capacity left to start the engine.
In Class "D" manually operated and semi-automatic plants
the proportionate output of battery and generator is determined
by the amount one wishes to invest and the convenience desired.
The smaller the battery the more often it must be charged. The
larger the battery the less often it needs to be charged, but the
greater the initial cost. Experience with plants already in, and
being put in will before long enable data to be gathered that may
be utilized to standardize this feature of proportion of battery
and generator output.
VOLTAGE — Thirty-two volts has become a standard for
small plants having lights in a small area. 115 volts is better
if the distribution system covers a considerable distance from
the plant and if motors other than small household motors are
to be used
SPEED OF GENERATORS— If belt driven, 2300 R. P. M.
or less gives general satisfaction. If direct connected to the en-
gine the speed should be lower, perhaps 800 to 1,000 maximum,
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40 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
although experiments are continually being made to produce
higher speed engines that are not noisy and have a reasonable
life.
CAPACITY OP PLANTS— It might be well for the manu-
facturers in conjunction with committees of the A. S. A. E. and
the Electric Power Club to work together toward standardization
of sizes and other characteristics.
In view of the improvements that are constantly being made
in lamps to reduce their current consumption, it would also be
well to get the manufacturers to rate their plants on the funda-
mental basis of watts output, specifying separately the number
of lights of a particular candle power, or the total candle power
of the plant.
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Eggleston: Farm Residence Heating 41
FARM RESIDENCE HEATING.
By L. W. Eggleston*
With the scientific development of the farmer, there has
been progress in the matter of caring for the personal comforts
of himself and family. Not alone is this true in the size and
exterior character of his residence, but in the interior furnish-
ings as well ; and particularly in the methods employed in creat-
ing a wholesome, comfortable and satisfactory living atmosphere.
This naturally has been attended with constant progress in all
the elements that go into the accomplishment of this purpose.
To my mind, the most important element is a satisfactory heat-
ing apparatus.
In order that we may fully appreciate the advancement in
the heating art, which carries with it a wonderful degree of
health and comfort, we must go back and cover the field step
by step that led to the present high standard of heating for the
home, be it cottage or mansion.
No doubt the most primitive method of heating a house wras
the fire-place. This method had the advantage of ventilating the
building. However, the results obtained from a fire-place were
very unsatisfactory, due to the small area that it would heat.
Besides it has been estimated that 85% of the fuel energy escaped
through the chimney. Perhaps one phase of this cheerful method
of heating has been overlooked, the exercise a person received in
trying to warm all sides of the body.
The next step forward was the stove, which is manufactured
in all styles to meet the local conditions under which it is to be
installed. For the ordinary size home,' several stoves would be
required to furnish heat for all rooms ; and at the best, the rooms
would be unevenly heated. It would be hot near the stove with
cold floors and cold spaces near the outside walls where the heat
would be most appreciated.
The stove imposes a great amount of labor in the carrying
in of fuel and removing the ashes. This operation, besides in-
volving a great amount of work, spreads dust and dirt through-
out the house, producing an unsatisfactory living condition.
However, the stove is more economical in fuel than the fire-
place, though it does not provide for the ventilating feature ob-
tained in the latter.
The apparatus which wre will next mention in the heating
art, is the hot air furnace. This method overcomes the objection
of carrying coal and ashes through the house. The furnace is
placed in the basement near the coal bin and receptacle for the
ashes. This method heated a larger area than the stove and was
*With American Radiator Co., Chicago, 111.
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42
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
provided with a ventilating feature. But it was not as sanitary as
the stove on ecount of the exhaustion of the moisture of the air
by passing over a frequently superheated fire-box. Poisonous
gases come from the contact of organic particles with the same
surface, and sulphur escapes from burning coal through the iron
surface when overheated.
With the best conditions of furnace heating there are evils
from which there is no escape. It is a comparatively short time
in the life of the fire-box before the cement of its seams becomes
loosened through warping, cracking, or burning out, and dust
and gases permeate the house. But if the cement remains intact,
there is an escape of sulphur through the iron plate every time
it bcomes red-hot.
If the furnace were a necessity of life, there would be the
second necessity of submitting to its various drawbacks with the
best grace possible ; but among what have been called the prob-
lems of prevention none has been more satisfactorily solved than
that of heating. The dust, which is at the same time a trial to the
housewife and a peril of the family, impure air, and noxious
gases are eliminated as factors of discomfort and danger in the
home when it is heated by steam or hot water, which marks the
next step f orwrad in the heating art.
The system of steam heating is installed with the boiler in
the basement and a radiator in each room with a system of piping
connecting the boiler with each individual radiator. These radi-
ators are located on or near an outside wall and arrest the cold
air, heating same before it has an opportunity to chill the room.
The only communication between the boiler and radiators is a
small pipe which conveys the steam, thereby eliminating any pos-
sible chance of any dirt or dust being conveyed from the boiler
to the rooms. The amount of heat delivered to each room is gov-
erned by the amount of heat produced by the boiler and not af-
Fig. i.
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Eggleston: Farm Residence Heating
43
Fig. 2 — One- Pipe Circuit.
fected in any way by wind pressures, as is the case with the hot
air method of heating.
Steam heating is very easily installed in any kind of a build-
ing, from a residence of a few rooms up to and including the
skyscraper. The radiators are placed at or near an outside wall
as shown on floor plan, Fig. 1. The steam heating installations,
most commonly used, are the one and two pipe gravity return
systems. The one pipe system consists of a boiler in the base-
ment with the main steam supply pipe connected with the top of
the boiler. This main pipe is carried around and suspended from
the ceiling of the basement. The radiators are installed on the
floors above and connected by branches to the main pipe. The
main pipe makes a complete circuit of the basement and returns
to the bottom of the boiler. It supplies the steam to the radiators
and also returns the water of condensation from the radiators
back to the boiler. See Fig. 2.
Each radiator is equipped with an air valve installed on the
opposite end from where the steam is supplied. These air valves
are usually of the automatic type, which permits the air to be
exhausted from the radiator and automatically operates to pre-
vent the escape of steam or water of condensation.
The two pipe system of steam heating is similar to the one
pipe, wTith the exception that the water of condensaion is re-
turned to the boiler through a separate return pipe, with a
branch line connected with each individual radiator on the op-
posite end from the supply pipe. A complete eircuit is formed
from the top of the boiler through a main steam supply pipe, and
supply branches to each individual radiator, and a similar set
of return branches and main return pipe connected with the bot-
tom of the boiler.
Each radiator is provided with an air valve installed in the
same manner as provided for in the one pipe system. This sys-
tem is illustrated in Fig. 3.
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44 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
I
1
-'1
■7 <ik)
1/ liiL \
Fig. 3— Double -Pipe Circuit.
There are other forms of steam heating installations known
as the vacuum or vapor systems, all of which conform in general
with the one or two pipe systems. They have slight modifications
to provide for special equipment, the function of which is to
regulate and control the heat in various parts of the building.
None of the systems herein described can be installed by the
layman. The services of experienced heating contractors regu-
larly engaged in the business if installing heating apparatus are
required to insure successful and economical operation.
if-
D !
>
tK
Fu'. 1
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Eggleston: Farm Residence Heating 45
The steam and hot water heating systems might be likened
to an automobile — they are very easily controlled when properly
constructed by expert mechanics. On the other hand a poorly
constructed mechanism of any kind will be expensive in the long
run. A well constructed heating plant installed by the best con-
tractor available will invariably pay the largest dividend in com-
fort and fuel.
The boilers installed and used in connection with the one and
two pipe systems of steam heating are provided with a pressure
damper regulator, which can be adjusted to automatically con-
trol the pressure of steam from a fraction of a pound up to and
including ten pounds. A cut of this regulator is shown in Fig. 4.
This regulator is furnished as a regular equipment with all
boilers.
A further control of the heat in the rooms may be secured
by installing a thermostat, Fig. 5. This thermostat is located in
one of the living rooms and will automatically open and close the
drafts on the boiler with the variation of one or two degrees of
temperature at any point from 60 to 80 degrees, allowing for an
automatic control of one temperature during the day, and a
lower temperature during the night.
The hot water heating apparatus is considered by many the
ideal heating plant for the home. The boiler and radiators are
located the same as in a steam plant, connected by a system of
piping which conveys the hot water from the boiler to the radi-
ators. A similar system of piping conveys the water that is
cooled by the radiators, back to the boiler, making a continuous
flow from the top of the boiler to the various radiators, returning
the water that has given up its heat back to the bottom of the
boiler. This simple method of construction might be likened to
an electric' lighting system — one wire conveys the electricity from
the generator to the lighting medium, a second wire connected
to the lighting medium and extending back to the generator keeps
up a continuous flow of energy until the circuit is broken by
turning a switch which corresponds with a valve on the radiator.
This method of heating is shown in Fig. 6.
The hot water system of heating may be provided with a
regulator installed on or near the boiler, which will automatically
control the temperature of the water at any point from 120° to
220°. This regulator is shown in Fig. 7. It is operated in con-
junction with the thermostat.
Steam and hot water heating may be installed in new or old
homes without cutting or disfiguring the building. This is made
possible on account of the small pipes used to convey the heat
from the boiler to the various rooms. It is not necessary to pro-
vide a special water supply for the successful operation of either
the steam or water systems — they can be filled by a bucket or
any other available water supply. After the systems are once
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46 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
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Eggleston: Farm Residence Heating 47
filled, a very small amount of water is required to keep them in
operation.
The cost of installing a steam or hot water plant in a resi-
dence is governed largely by the amount of radiation required
to offset the loss of heat through the glass, outside walls and the
number of changes of air in the rooms per hour caused by the
opening and closing of doors, and the leakage of air around win-
dows, doors, etc. Consequently it is impossible to assign an
average cost figure for heating homes by either method in any
given locality, but accurate estimates can be readily secured free
of charge from heating contractors in any part of the country.
The operation of steam and hot water heating plants is very
simple, requiring no expert knowledge outside the instructions
furnished by the boiler manufacturers. However, the designing
of the apparatus is a very important factor for the successful in-
stallation of a heating plant.
There are many formulas for estimating the radiation re-
quired to heat a given space. However, owing to the great varia-
tion in building construction, altitudes, prevailing winds, etc.,
these formulas should only be used by heating engineers and con-
tractors who are thoroughly familiar with all the conditions.
One of the most important factors to be considered in the
installation of a heating plant is the chimney or boiler flue. Fig-
ures 8 and 9 will show some of the good and bad conditions of
this important element of the heating plant.
Another important factor is the correct placing of the radi-
ators which brings comfort, cleanliness, and health and appeals
to the aesthetic as well, for artistic improvement has kept pace
with hygienic. It insures an equal temperature, and if one
chooses, there can be a constant inflow of fresh air, freshly heated
by a direct-indirect radiator as shown in Figure 10.
A study of vital statistics shows that throughout the civil-
ized world during the last century, there has been a decrease in
the death rate, and that in turn is explained by the great advance
in scientfic discoveries and their practical application. Not to
take precautionary measures for the preservation of health is
now in many cases a contravention of the law, and ignorance is
almost classed with criminality. Tennyson said, "Knowledge
comes, but Wisdom lingers.' ' Knowledge or slow-trailing wis-
dom profit little unless applied. The foundation of the
social fabric is the home, and upon the health of the individual
rests his value to society. From the home should be barred all
that is antiquated and insanitary, and into the home should be
built that which modern invention proves best for safeguarding
the family. As the famous Ruskin said: "I would have, then,
our ordinary dwelling houses built to last, and built to be lovely,
as rich and full of pleasantness as may be within and without.
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48 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.
Pig. 10.
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Eggleston: Farm Residence Heating 49
with such differences as might suit and express each man's char-
acter and occupation, and partly his history."
We may not express in the home each man's character and
occupation, but there has ceased to be an excuse for its lack of
loveliness or healthf ulness ; for when the radiator system of heat-
ing, by either steam or hot water, is installed, the danger to
health from dust and vitiated air is lessened as greatly as com-
fort is increased by a uniform temperature.
In their search for the best, boiler and radiator manufac-
turers have harnessed utility and beauty — neither to lead, but to
progress together in the fulfillment of Ruskin's ideal of the lovely
home, * ' full of pleasantness. ' '
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50 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
GENERAL DISCUSSION: MODERN FARM CON-
VENIENCES.
A Member : I would like to ask Mr. Caverno the attitude of
the country banks on this question of loaning money for home
equipment on the farm.
Mr. Caverno: I wish I had a letter with me which I re-
ceived from Mr. Wheeler of Columbus, Wis., who is a member of
that special committee of the Bankers' Association. I had with
me a copy of part of the paper I have read this evening, when
with Mr. Hatch I saw Mr. Wheeler. Mr. Wheeler took the paper
and looked it over and he just happened to strike that section re-
ferring to this matter that the gentleman asks about, the attitude
of bankers on loaning money for home and farm equipment. He
said to me, i i Of course you understand that the bank cannot lend
on anything and everything ; it cannot lend on anything but what
is properly productive, like a silo, or something like that." Of
course I knew that referred to National Banks, and I said I was
not referring to National Banks, I was referring, especially, to "
farm investments. I left the paper with Mr. Wheeler, and he
read it, he said, and then he wrote me, and I wish I had his
letter. He gave me a long list of banks he wanted me to send my
paper to. Mr. Wheeler is a progressive banker, on the associa-
tion of bankers agricultural committee, and that he was con-
verted I have no question, — to the idea that the home equipment
is part of the productive equipment on the farm. That is a sen-
timent I would like to try to create.
Mr. L. W. Chase : Mr. Caverno, did you total up the cost
of the equipment that you suggested, not the minimum nor the
maximum, but the average ?
Mr. Caverno : Well, I have stated there as to what I would
consider as necessary equipment which would be, first, the heat-
ing plant; second, the water supply and plumbing, and sewage
disposal — they might go together — and the power washing ma-
chine. I would call that necessary equipment for the comfort-
able running of any farm home. My figure was from seven hun-
dred to one thousand dollars for that equipment, and from two
to four hundred dollars additional for electric lighting. Of
course, something depends on how much farm they are working
and how much power will be needed, but taking the average plant
and the power needed to work the average farm, I would say it
would be about $1,000 and I took the maximum figure in figur-
ing out whether it was a profitable investment.
Mr. G. I. Stadeker* : Mr. President, if I may have the privi-
lege of saying a few words here, not being a member of your
•With Weatern Electric Co.
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Discussion: Modern Conveniences 51
organization — I personally am interested in the electrical end of
this paper this evening.
I think, speaking just in a casual way with reference to Mr.
Roth's very able review of the field, that the most impressive
point that stands out is that at the present time the farm lighting
plant is far from standardization. It covers almost every type
of equipment anybody could figure out. There is not even a
standard way of rating a plant. One manufacturer will rate his
plant, say, at twenty lights, meaning 12-candle power, 15 watt
lights. Another will rate his as a twenty-light plant, and he
means his battery will run twenty lights. Another will take the
generator and battery combined, etc. There is a very definite
need of some sort of standardization along this line, and I do not
think there could be any better place where this could start than
with this organization. There should be some steps taken to
standardize the method of rating plants, so that when one sales-
man makes certain representations to a farmer, speaking, for
instance, of a twenty-light plant, that he will mean the same
thing that another salesman means in using the same words.
Further reviewing the conditions outlined by Mr. Roth —
that there is absolutely no standardization in the equipment of
plants. Some plants are far too simple for the requirements,
other plants are so complicated that they won't do. There ought
to be some medium somewhere that could be decided to be used
in the average farmer's home of six or eight or ten rooms which
could be easily explained by you gentlemen to show what it
means.
Another big difference is in the storage battery. An organ-
ization of this kind can do a great deal in helping the farmer out
of his trouble and confusion when he goes to purchase a plant, if
they could draw up some sort of specifications for a storage bat-
tery to meet the average condition.
Mr. Caverno brought out the point that the average farmer
must be educated before he can realize that his equipment needs
some attention, and that point refers especially to the lighting
plant. Some manufacturers develop a plant which they tell the
farmer they can forget all about. Now, they cannot do that,
especially in connection with a battery. A special emphasis must
be placed on the storage battery, it must all be explained to the
farmer to make him understand his battery.
The battery problem is practically solved when a large
enough battery is purchased. Most of the troubles are when a
battery is purchased just too small for the requirements. There
will be trouble with it, and trouble which may be practically
solved if a large enough battery is installed.
The question of sealed jars, as against open jars, is one
which each farmer meets when he goes to buy a plant. The ma-
jority of the complaints which were registered against farm light-
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52
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
ing plants formerly were due to the fact that the battery was
not given a sufficiently long initial charge. The trouble is that
most farmers think they know all about it anyway and they will
charge the battery for eight or ten hours, when they ought to
charge it for fifty or sixty. m This trouble has been practically
overcome when you buy the sealed battery, which, however, has
other troubles in maintenance.
But the one point which I want to reiterate is, that this or-
ganization could go a great way forward if they would try to
draw up some standard rules which must be met and lived up
to by the manufacturers, relative to batteries, and other equip-
ment for a small plant of this sort.
H. N. Gilbert* : I think possibly the members of this organ-
ization will be interested in the design of a plant recently put out
by the company with which I am connected. In designing this
plant the following four ideas were kept permanently in view.
First — simplicity. It was desired to keep the plant simple
so that the ordinary man around the farm could install it and
operate it. The ordinary farmer has some knowledge of ma-
chinery, but like the ordinary city man is no expert with elec-
trical machinery.
Second — ruggedness. It was desired to make the machine
rugged so that it would not be easily injured by the rough hand-
ling it would receive in shipment, and perhaps in installation,
also no delicate parts were wanted which would get out of order
and refuse to operate if a little dust collected on them.
Third — ease of connection. A plant was wanted which
would be simple and easy to connect up so that the farmer would
have no difficulty in connecting the plant to the house wiring.
The terminals on different parts of the plant were to be arranged
so that any particular piece requiring repairs would be removed
and sent in for repairs and when received back could be con-
nected up without possibility of mistake. This was to be accom-
plished by using different sizes and shapes of terminals.
Fourth — low cost. It was desired to obtain a plant with as
low a cost as was consistent with good workmanship and quality.
Quality was on no consideration to be sacrified in order to get
low cost as it was realized that it was more important to get a
plant that was dependable than it was to get one that could not
be depended upon but had a low cost.
The consideration of the above points led to the adoption
of what Mr. Roth has called Class "d" semi-automatic plant ,that
is a plant which will give light from the battery alone, from the
generator and battery combined, or from the generator alone.
The plant automatically regulates for the voltage, but must be
started up and shut down manually. The plant consists of shunt
•With Roth Bros. & Co., Chicago.
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Discussion: Modern Conveniences 53
wound, high speed generator with fly-wheel voltage regulator,
automatic battery charging switch and fifteen cells of enclosed
type storage battery.
GENERATOR.
The generator is fitted with dust proof roller bearings lubri-
cated with hard oil or grease in compression caps. It is shunt
wound and possesses the same characteristics as an ordinary
generator. The fly-wheel is placed on a tapering shaft and held
on by nut and key so that there is no danger of its coming off.
For the convenience of the manufacturer in stocking, the
pulley is mounted on the hub of the fly-wheel. This permits
stocking of machines and putting on a pulley to suit the engine
that is going to drive the generator. The automatic battery
charging switch and the regulator are mounted on a bracket at-
tached to the generator. All connections are made at the factory
so that it is only necessary to run two wires from the generator
to the switch and two wires from the battery to the same switch,
thus making connections very simple.
VOLTAGE REGULATOR.
The voltage regulator used automatically regulates for volt-
age. It is used in place of the ordinary field reostat. The part
in series with the shunt field consists of a tapering carbon rod
dipped in mercury. The mercury and carbon rod are totally en-
closed in a nitrogen filled tube so that there is no chemical ac-
tion on the carbon or mercury. The carbon rod is fastened to the
end of the steel rod which projects up through a solenoid. This
solenoid is connected in series with a resistance and plays across
the brushes of the generator so that it gets the full voltage of the
machine. The resistance can be adjusted to get different voltages
on the machine. As the generator voltage increases the lifting
power of the solenoid on the steel rod carrying the carbon resist-
ance increases, raising the carbon out of the mercury, thus in-
creasing the resistance in the shunt field tending to lower the
voltage. This of course soon reduces to a balance and the volt-
age is kept steady at a predetermined point.
This regulation takes care of a large range of speed, such as
from no load to full load on the gas engine. It will take care of
a range in one size from 1750 R. P. M. to 2350 R. P. M. of the
generator. It will not, however, take care of the sudden varia-
tion in speed obtained from a hit and miss engine when it fires.
The only way that a voltage regulator can operate is by
changing the* strength of the magnetic field of the generator. It
is a fundamental principle of magnetism that a magnetic field
resists being changed rapidly. There is no voltage regulator
which can change the magnetic strength of the generator and
field rapidly enough to keep up with the change in speed obtained
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
54 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
when a hit and miss gas engine fires. This makes it necessary
to use the fly-wheel as well as the voltage regulator.
AUTOMATIC BATTERY CHARGE.
This is a simple circuit closing switch containing a series
and shunt coil. The shunt coil is connected across the generator
brushes so as to receive full voltage. The series coil is connected
in series with the armature and battery so that it carries the cur-
rent flowing to or from the generator. These coils are so con-
nected that they assist each other when the battery is being
charged, but oppose each other upon the switch when the battery
discharges through the generator.
When the generator voltage reaches the proper point, the
shunt coil will close the switch and the battery will start charg-
ing. If the engine should slow down so that the voltage of the
generator drops below the battery voltage, the battery will dis-
charge momentarily through the generator. This will open up
the switch and it will remain open unless engine speed picks up
again and the generator voltage becomes greater than the bat-
tery voltage.
ENCLOSED TYPE BATTERY.
The enclosed type battery was chosen rather than the open
type for the reason just given by Mr. Staedaker. The principle
reason being that they can be installed by the ordinary farmer
and it is not necessary to send an expert to give them initial
forming charge.
There are, of course, some objections to the enclosed type
battery that do not apply to the open type, but we believe the
advantages outweigh the disadvantages.
Mr. L. F. Meissner* : As a representative of one of the man-
ufacturers in th efarm lighting plant business, I am interested in
this sii£ region about ratm* piants. Tnere is an unfair advantage
taken of the farmer when he is told we have a fifty light plant.
I know of one manufacturer who rates his plant at fifty lights
and this rating combines the capacity of the generator with that
of the battery based on a two and one-half hour discharge, which
is an unusually high rate of discharge for a battery in farm
lighting service. That is not fair at all.
The company with which I am connected rates its battery
and dynamo separately. We state the candle power, wattage
and the number of hours our batteries are rated for. That is,
we have different discharge rates, some for quick discharge and
others for slow discharge. All those things should be stated in
a fair way so that people buying plants will not be deceived by
unscrupulous manufacturers. It seems to me that anything this.
•WJth Edison Storage Battery Co., Chicago.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Discussion: Modern Conveniences 55
organization can do will certainly be appreciated by reliable
manufacturers.
Mr. Roth : Standardization of this matter is an important
question, and I should think that if this organization could give
its stamp of approval on any particular rating and say it was a
conservative rating, it would give the farmer something to buy
on. He would have that stamp of approval the same as the un-
derwriters give their approval on various articles which they
cover, like electrical pumps, fire escapes and other things here
in the city.
Mr. Stadeker: I think that what we are after is not to
pick out a manufacturer's plant and say that it meets the re-
quirements, but for you to figure out the requirements and then
let the manufacturers say, "We meet the regulations and rules
of the Agricultural Engineers/ ' that is better than to use some
particular plant and to say this plant is the proper plant.
Mr. Caverno : I want to call attention to one possible dan-
ger. The Board of Fire Underwriters has been named here as a
model. In my experience, the Board of National Fire Under-
writers constitute a great deterent against all improvements in
machinery. I have run up against them pretty hard sometimes.
They have totally senseless rules, made up by somebody and ap-
plied by miscellaneous inspectors. The biggest trust that I know
of is the Underwriters' system of rules. They give no incentive
whatever, no encouragement in the direction of improvements;
in fact, they have a static incentive not to change any of their
rules. If you should follow them in drawing up rules or regu-
lations, you would run against people who are absolutely against
improvements.
The Chairman : It would seem that like a good many other
standardizations there are a good many angles to that subject,
although I am sure it is worthy of a good deal of study and
thought.
Mr. Chase : I think it would be proper for the Standards
Committee to meet tomorrow morning with the representatives
of these various electric concerns.
The Chairman : I think it would be entirely possible and
advisable for these gentlemen to meet with the Standards Com-
mittee. These meetings are for the purpose of exchanging ideas
with those outside of the Society as well as in it.
Mr. RotfH : I should like to ask Mr. Dunne to state the prin-
cipal troubles the farmers have with battery maintenance.
Mr. Dunne# : We find that the idea of gravity seems to
cause more trouble than anything else, the idea that the battery
fluid has to have certain density in order to operate. Many peo-
ple think that if the gravity falls below .12 that it will not
•With Electric Storage Battery Co., Chicago, 111.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
56 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
operate. They try almost everything to keep it up. That is a
mistake. The gravity can be up as high as .1260 and can be as
low as .12, and the new batteries do better with low gravity. If
we start out with medium low gravity, it is all right, but it may
be too low, so that the capacity will be low at the end and the
cells have to be renewed. Another idea is that there is trouble
from freezing. There is absolutely no trouble from f reeziug, pro-
viding water is not added without starting the charging right
afterwards. If the water is added and the charging is not started
so that the water remains on top, it will freeze and break the jar.
In the closed type it is .more likely to cause trouble than the
open, because the jar is not quite as strong. One trouble is that
people do not give the equalizing charge as they should. If the
battery is not given a sufficient charge weekly, or at some regular
interval, the acid is never driven out, because the normal charge
never reaches the point where the acid is driven out, and if it is
allowed to remain in, it takes on a form which is hard to remove.
If the battery is charged every week, the battery gives a better
efficiency.
Another point which was brought out was that the battery
should not be completely discharged unless it is absolutely nec-
essary. If the charge is not cut off at the right point there is a
tendency to run beyond the limit, and when this is done the dis-
charge of the acid tends to go beyond the normal limit, and that
hurts the plate. If the charge is started when about half or two-
thirds of the charge is taken out, you do not have that result and
you are not in position where you have no reserve capacity on
hand, which is a considerable advantage.
Another point that should be looked out for is the water
that is used. If care is not taken to use pure water impurities
will begin to affect the whole plant. These impurities will re-
main in the battery and do not pass out by evaporation so that
they accumulate. If there are certain amount and kinds of im-
purities they will cause the plates to disintegrate in a short time.
Mr. George M. Warren* : I have in my hand the Quarterly
Bulletin of the New Hampshire State Board of Health for July-
October, 1915, which contains many excellent practical sugges-
tions in the design and construction of small septic tanks. It is
one of the best bulletins on the subject that I know of. It con-
tains an article entitled, "Free Plowing Tight Sewage Tanks as
Developed in New Hampshire. Partial Purification in Such
Tanks, Sufficient Treatment Under Favoring Conditions." I
would like to point out some of the salient points in this paper ;
for the experience of the authorities of New Hampshire for some
five years in designing, building and operating small sewage
plants is very illuminating. This paper is prepared under the
•Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering, U. S. D. A.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Discussion: Modern Conveniences 57
direction of Robert Fletcher, Director of the Department of Civil
Engineering at Dartmouth, and President of the New Hampshire
State Board of Health. He says : ' The author has investigated
the subject by suspending in septic tanks a large number of solid
organic substances, such as cooked vegetables, cabbages, turnips,
potatoes, peas, beans, bread, various forms of cellulose, flesh in
the form of dead bodies of animals, skinned and unskinned, vari-
ous kinds of fat, bones, cartilage, etc., and has shown that many
of these substances are completely dissolved in f ro>m three to four
weeks. They first presented a swollen appearance and increased
in weight. The turnips had holes on the surface, which gradu-
ally became deeper. The edges of the cabbage leaves looked as
though they had been bitten. Of the skinned animals, the skele-
ton alone remained after a short time; with the unskinned ani-
mals the process lasted rather longer. The experiments were so
arranged that no portion of the substances could be washed
away; their disappearance was therefore due to solution and
gasification. The skinned body of a guinea pig was allowed to
remain in the septic tank for three weeks, when the clean, white
bones alone remained. Objects suspended in the sludge itself de-
composed almost as quickly as those suspended in the super-
natant liquid*.
' ' The process would not go on in a stagnant cesspool ; only
in one allowing a free flow of liquid from the inlet end to the
outlet. This was proved by trial. It always develops heat, and
some of the gases formed (marsh and olefiant gases) are very in-
flammable, so that on applying a lighted match close to the scum,
when that is disturbed, a blue flsyne appears.
"We may give this definition of a free flowing sewage tank
for the purpose of this article: A plain, rectangular box, pre-
ferably made of concrete, about five feet deep, and with a length
at least one and a half times the breadth, receiving only domestic
sewage, which enters by an inlet pipe submerged 18 to 24 inches
below the surface of the tank contents, and which has a slow
and regular flow to the outlet pipe which is also submerged 18 to
21 inches. The effluent from a tank in proper action is but little
discolored, carries no solid matter and has scarcely any odor. The
cover of such a tank must be at least one foot above the scum,
which forms, and must be tight enough to exclude light, and so
that the gas pressure from within will exclude the air. At least
one opening should be made in the cover so as to give access to
the inside when necessary ; but this must be tightly closed and no
vent in the cover is allowable. The smallest tank used was 6 ft.
long, 3y2 ft. wide, and 4% ft. deep below the outlet bend. This
•Quoted from "Sewage Disposal," Kinnicutt, Winslow and Pratt, Wiley &
Sons, 1910, p. 109. This description of the septic process is by Dunbar,
an English authority, 1908.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
58 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
would serve twenty or more people, supposing the period of flow
to be 24 hours.
" Preferably a single tank should not be wider than five
feet. The flow, which is very slow, would then be more uniform
over the entire width and there is less chance for stagnation in
the corners. Rainwater and both surface and subsoil drainage
must be excluded.
"It was at first proposed to discharge the effluent into
gravel-filled trenches and keep it out of sight; but, under the
conditions of high altitude and large open spaces there existing,
the nearly clear effluent gives no offense when flowing in shallow
trenches in the meadow grass. " "The effluent was not improved
by passage through a siphon chamber and the attempted aera-
tion in the filter trenches. The best results have come from dis-
charging the effluent directly from the tank. This effluent has
been nearly colorless, without appreciable odor, and two samples
have stood eight months on the writer's table almost unchanged
— looking like nearly clear water and showing no tendency to
putrefaction. ' '
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Eason: Tractor Design 59
TENDENCY OP FARM TRACTOR DESIGN.
By C. M. Eason#, Mem. Amer. Soc. A. E.
In summing up the bulletin, "Farm Experience with the
Tractor, ' ' Mr. Yerkes of the Department of Agriculture states :
"Up to the present time the tractor appears to have made for
itself no important place in the agricultural economy of this
country." He also said, with reference to the data presented:
"It must be borne in mind that they are a record of a machine
in process of development." This was written about two years
ago. The tractor has been greatly improved since, although it
cannot be said that the evolution is as yet complete.
PRESENT DEVELOPMENT.
About two years ago there was brought out, and sold in
considerable quantities, the first low priced tractor designed for
pulling two plows. This machine was sold at less than five hun-
dred dollars and immediately placed within reach of many farm-
ers the means for a beginning in power farming. Up to the
time this machine was brought out, the smallest tractors were
generally about four plow units, and sold in the neighborhood of
fifteen hundred to two thousand dollars. To most farmers who
already had a reasonable number of horses to meet their power
requirements an investment in one of these larger machines
necessarily meant taking a considerable chance. They could not
be entirely sure that they, personally, could succeed with power
farming, however attractive it might appear in theory. The
smaller tractor, at a very low price, placed power farming ex-
perience in reach of many people who could not otherwise have
taken it up. As a result of this the tractor business has increased
tremendously in the past two years. Almost one-half as many
farm tractors were produced in 1914 as had been built since the
start of the gas tractor industry. During 1915 last year's output
has almost been doubled, and the indications are that next year
the demand for tractors will greatly exceed the supply, although
there is a planned production for 1916 of nearly twice as many
tractors as were made during this past year. Judging from this,
it is quite evident that the tractor has at least begun to be recog-
nized as having a place in the agricultural development of the
country.
While the low priced tractor was chiefly responsible for the
increased volume of business, it has been assisted greatly by the
vast amount of educational publicity carried on by the tractor
companies with the co-operation of the farm journals and numer-
ous publications specializing on farm power requirements.
•MgT. Tractor Bearings Dept., Hyatt Roller Bearing Co.
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60 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Farmers throughout the country are now thinking about and
discussing, tractors and many of them are quite familiar with
the subject, where two or three years ago they had probably only
a very indefinite idea as to what tractors, or power farming,
meant. Agricultural colleges have given very valuable support
by including in their course instruction in the handling and
maintenance of gas tractors. There has also been a tremendous
interest awakened by the public power farming demonstrations
started at Fremont three years ago, and carried out in a dozen
or more states this year. All of these things have contributed
toward informing the public about tractors and have helped
make possible the rapid developments seen during the past two
years.
POSSIBILITIES OF GROWTH ALMOST UNLIMITED.
It was at one time the firm belief of many of the pioneers
in the tractor business that a new era in agriculture was open-
ing up wherein animal power would be replaced exclusively by
mechanical power. They have also believed that the develop-
ment of the gas tractor for the farm would keep pace with, or
even exceed the development of the automobile. That these ex-
pectations will not, however, be entirely fulfilled, has lately come
to be the opinion of the better informed tractor builders. Grant-
ing this there has come a more certain knowledge as to the pos-
sibilities of using tractors on the farm. While it cannot be ex-
pected that they will replace horses entirely it has been proven
conclusively that tractors can be used, in connection with horses,
to better advantage than either the tractor alone or the horses
alone. Statistics have been compiled on this basis showing that
there are over two and one-half million farms in the United
States on which tractors can be used to advantage.
DETALS OF DESIGN.
Turning from the broader side of the tractor situation to
the matter of detailed design, one finds an amazing variety of
types and constructions. There are, at the present time, on the
market something over one hundred and fifty tractors, no two of
them alike. The designs are so widely dissimilar that it is even
difficult to classify them except in a most general way. Each de-
sign represents an evolution based on the condition as analyzed
separately by the different engineers and no two have achieved
exactly the same result. One difficulty is that the fundamentals
of tractor design have not as yet been thoroughly analyzed or
clearly established. To produce a satisfactory plowing tractor
requires a combination of certain elements. To make this same
tractor more widely applicable for crop cultivation, harvesting,
and road hauling requires the addition of a great many elements
not necessary in a tractor to be used for plowing only.
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Eason: Tractor Design 61
The early efforts in the development of the gas tractor were
confined almost exclusively to producing a satisfactory plowing
engine. The result was large units, whose range of usefulness
was practically limited to plowing large fields of fairly level land.
They were quite successful when used for breaking prairie sod,
but after the vast tracts of virgin land had been broken up their
limitations becajne apparent, since they were too heavy to be
used efficiently on newly plowed fields. About three years ago
the market for these machines was considerably oversold. It was
the necessity for a greater volume of business and wider adapt-
ability that first brought into the field, the light-weight, low-
priced tractor. The early developments along this line consisted
of merely simplifying and reducing the size of some of the older
models. When several thousand of these were placed in the
hands of more or less unskilled operators it quickly became ap-
parent that greater reliability with less attention to maintenance
and repairs was an absolute necessity. Tractor designers were
quick to see the weaknesss of the earlier small machine and they
immediately turned their attention to the use of the better ma-
terials, enclosed working parts, and a general refinement of the
entire design. The necessity of providing for a greater range of
adaptability has resulted in bringing out an almost endless va-
riety of types and combinations all developed with a view to
making possible more different kinds of work with the same
tractor. In this evolution of detail there has been a great many
failures and but few successes. Some tractors have succeeded
mechanically as judged from an engineering standpoint, but
have failed commercially, and other machines which have been
an indifferent success mechanically have attained considerable
distribution by virtue of the selling force behind them. No pos-
sible agreement can be reached as to the future development of
the detailed construction or type of tractor by a study of what
has either succeeded or failed in the past. In studying the speci-
fications of various types now on the market, one is forced to con-
clude that the occasion for at least much of the variety is simply
a matter of having something different to sell or to promote,
and that the success of one type and the failure of another are
more the accidents of commercial development than any real
merit or defect of the construction involved.
PRINCIPAL GENERAL TYPES.
While the detail of tractor construction is, in practically
every machine different from any other, yet it is possible to
group the various tractors under thre6 general classifications.
First : the heavy type based on stationary engine practice ; sec-
ond: the so-called automobile type, embodying a great many feat-
ures found in present day automobile construction ; third : a com-
posite type, which in modified form, contains certain features
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
62 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
common to either of the other two types. Back of every tractor
design are certain specific reasons for the construction used. It
will doubtless be of interest to present some of these reasons as
advanced by the engineers responsible for the different designs.
The builders of the heavy type tractors declare that any ma-
chine to be a success at farm work must be made very heavy to
stand the rough usage and continuous service. To this end they
employ slow speed single or double cylinder motors having rather
large cylinder dimensins. They make all of the bearing surfaces
extremely large, using babbit or bronze bushings practically
throughout. The transmission systems of these tractors are usu-
ally rough cast gears of coarse pitch and large diameter. Owing
to the difficulty of enclosing these large gears they are usually
run in the open, and some mechanical means of lubrication for
the gear faces is employed. Frames and wheels are also necesar-
ily very heavy. The carburction, ignition and cooling systems are
usually reduced to the utmost simplicity, and being designed for
practically constant speed and load, there is very little necessity
for fine adjustment or flexible control. They point to the fact
that all other farm machinery is comparatively crude in design,
cast and malleable iron, rough bar forgings and similar construc-
tion being used almost exclusively. They state that while this
type of construction may be crude, from a mechanical stand-
point, it is better understood and easier taken care of by the
average farmer than a machine of higher mechanical refinement.
They further state that a single cylinder motor will give a farmer
just half as much trouble as a two cylinder, and one-fourth as
much trouble as a four, and being less sensitive to delicate ad-
justment will run for a greater length of time without proper at-
tention than any other type.
The designers of tractors built along automobile lines claim
that fundamentally the use of a single or double cylinders of
large diameters is incorrect for tractor duty, because it is neces-
sary to make all of the design so extremely heavy to obtain
proper wearing surface or bearing area. It is a well established
principle, of automobile motor design, that the effective life is
proportional to the area of the uncooled parts, (i. e. valves and
piston heads), and to the weight of the reciprocating parts.
Motors having small bores, small diameter valves, light pistons
and light connecting rods will show a greater effective life than
motors of larger dimensions and heavier reciprocating parts. To
substantiate this argument they point to the fact that automobile
designers are working toward greater reliability with less atten-
tion and that this has led them to the development of six, eight
and twelve cylinder motors which have been proven to have a
greater effective life than motors of equal horsepower but fewer
number of cylinders. They further state that the life of a motor
is dependent upon the ratio of bearing surface to piston area,
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Eason: Tractor Design 63
and that it is possible to get a lower pressure per square inch, on
the crank shaft and connecting rod bearings of a multiple cylin-
der engine than would be practical with single cylinder motors
of the same horsepower. It is also said that for a given power it
is easier to build multiple cylinders than single cylinders due to
the greater facility for handling small parts in duplicate. As to
gears and shafts of the transmission system they point out that
an alloy steel gear properly heat treated only weighs about 15%
as much as a cast iron gear for transmitting a given power, and
that after taking into consideration the cutting, hardening and
extra handling of the smaller pieces they can actually be pro-
duced for the same or less money than the heavier gear of
cheaper material. They also maintain that the only way to in-
sure reliable operation in a transmission system is to absolutely
protect same from dust and dirt and run it in a bath of oil. To
accomplish this it is, of course, necessary to have dust proof and
oil tight cases making self-contained units of the transmission
system. This type of construction permits of the use of some
type of anti-friction bearing instead of plain babbitt or bronze
and insures a higher percentage of the motor power being deliv-
ered to the drive wheel.
Carrying out this type of construction to its logical conclu-
sion will result in the production of a tractor weighing about
one-third as much as a tractor built along the lines of the heavy
single cylinder slow speed motor. Whether this construction will
be entirely too light for tractor service remains to be proven by
actual expeidence in the field with tractors of each type working
under similar conditions. So far there are, at least in fairly suc-
cessful operation, tractors of both types. It would seem that an
answer to the question as to which will predominate in the future
must wait until more practical experience has been obtained.
Most of the experienced tractor designers of today have
brought out during the past year, or are preparing to bring out
next year, tractors which show plainly a combination of both the
heavy type and the automobile type of construction. The argu-
ments which they advance for this composite type are substan-
tially the same as advanced by the advocates of the two extreme
types. They qualify all of these arguments by saying that a
tractor is neither a perambulating stationary power plant, nor a
pleasure car and is unlike the motor truck, being a distinct and
separate type of machine. Some of the tractors produced in this
class have been developed from the stationary type as a basis and
brought to their present form by cutting down sizes where per-
missible, using better materials where strength was required and
applying anti-friction bearings at the points where the loads are
heaviest. Others in this same class have been developed from
the light weight construction, as a starting point, by building up
and strengthening various parts as they have developed weak-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
64 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
nesses in the field. The engineers designing the conservative
type tractor frankly acknowledge the good points in both the
heavy and light type, and try to reach a compromise which will
meet the demands of tractor service. They feel quite certain that
developments along these lines will result in the production of a
design which will be the final answer to the tractor problem.
SOME OF THE REQUIREMENTS.
That a tractor must be reliable in operation, low in first
cost and cost of maintenance, efficient in the use of fuel, and
adaptable to a wide range of farm work, are points on which all
tractor builders agree, regardless of the type of machines which
they believe answers these requirements. Some designers place
low cost as a first consideration and make their tractor as good
as they can for a given price. Others insist that the tractor must
be reliable first and then sold for a price consistent with its
quality. It would seem from an unprejudiced standpoint that
quality will have to be obtained first because a tractor must do
the work if it is to be a success.
It is universally conceded that a tractor must be capable of
running continuously with very little attention, other than re-
plenishing the fuel and lubricant supply. When ground condi-
tions are right for plowing, or the grain ready for harvest, a
tractor must go out and work straight through until the job is
finished. In fact, the tractor should run an entire season without
adjustment of any of the bearings either in the motor or the
transmission system. Carburetion and ignition system adjust-
ment must be arranged so that frequent changes are unnecessary.
A delay of even a few hours in replacing a broken part or adjust-
ing bearings may often result in the loss of hundreds of dollars.
Five thousand hours' service is expected of a tractor before any
of the principal parts need replacement and at least twice this
service before the replacement of parts would make the cost of
repairs prohibitive. In other words, the tractor should be de-
signed to give about ten years of usefulness. This will certainly
require the very highest grade workmanship and material and a
type of construction superior to any of the existing farm tools of
today which usually have a life of five hundred to a thousand
hours. Some idea of the duty required of a tractor, as compared
to an automobile, may be had when one realizes that ten thou-
sand miles running, or in the neighborhood of five or six hundred
hours use, is very good service from an automobile before ex-
tensive adjustments are required. More service is expected of a
tractor than almost any other kind of machinery in common use
at the present time.
Even with this sort of service in view, the first cost of the
tractor must be kept down, if same prove a profitable investment.
First cost is governed both by the type of design, by the total
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Eason: Tractor Design 65
weight of materials used and by the quantities in which the
tractor is produced. Low first cost can best be obtained by quan-
tity production, and this is only possible by interchangeable
manufacturing in large volume as has been demonstrated by the
development of the automobile. With this in view, it would
seem that the automobile type of construction would have some-
what the best of tne situation as regards quantity output. When
we speak of automobile type of design it does not mean auto-
mobile proportions. A gear or a bearing in an automobile
having a given size motor will only be called upon to take the
full power of the motor at rare intervals. In a tractor, gears
and bearings must stand practically the full load capacity of the
motor at all times. This necessarily means large bearing sur-
faces throughout even though the tractor has only the same size
motor as used in an automobile.
Low maintenance cost, or durability, and freedom from re-
pairs are proportional to the area of the working parts with
reference to the loads carried. The advantage in this direction
to be obtained from the use of multiple cylinder engines having
small piston diameters is at once apparent when it is borne in
mind that all parts of the tractor must be proportionate to the
area of the piston, regardless of the horsepower transmitted. The
heavy explosion shock of a single cylinder motor is, in itself,
very destructive to gears, bearings and shafts in the transmission
system. With multiple cylinder motors these parts can be made
lighter in proportion to the horsepower carried, and still have a
considerably greater wearing value on account of the lower
shock of explosion.
Efficiency, or fuel economy, is an important consideration.
Essentially a tractor is a mechanism for converting heat units of
a liquid fuel into useful farm work. To do this efficiently mo-
tors must be designed to deliver as high a percentage of the heat
value in the form of useful work as is possible. The energy thus
developed should be transmitted to the work with the least pos-
sible loss from friction and to accomplish this the use of cut and
hardened gears, mounted on roller bearings, in rigid cases, would
seem to have by far the best of the situation. In order to absorb
as little of the energy as possible in propelling the machine, it is
desirable that the total weight be kept down to a minimum. The
kind of fuel used and the market price of same also has a bearing
on this problem. Three years ago a great deal of attention was
given to kerosene burning tractors, but this has since been more
or less abandoned, due to the low prices which have later pre-
vailed for gasoline. It is quite likely that the kerosene burning
tractor will receive considerable attention during the next few
months, since the price of gasoline has lately advanced sharply
and indications are that it will reach the former high prices
within a short time. So far the large cylinder slow moving motor
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66 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
seems to be most satisfactory for burning kerosene. There have
been, however, several fairly successful methods developed ex-
perimentally for handling kerosene in the higher speed multiple
cylinder motors. These have not been placed on the market ex-
tensively because of the prevailing low price of gasoline.
The effort to obtain the greatest possible range of adapt-
ability has probably been the primary cause for the present wide
diversity in types. It hardly seems possible to combine the
ability to perform all of the farm operations efficiently into one
piece of mechanism and it is quite likely that the future develop-
ment of the industry will bring out several different standardized
types which will be particularly adaptable to conditions which
may be more or less local in character. For instance, it is gen-
erally conceded that the endless track type of machine is su-
perior to a round wheel tractor for working in extremely sandy
or marshy lands. A special type of tractor has also been de-
veloped to meet conditions of corn cultivation. Soil milling, by
the revolving tooth cutter, instead of using plows and harrows,
is receiving considerable attention in this country, and is quite
the accepted method in Europe. Up to this time tractors suit-
able for soil milling operations have been a special type, although
there seems to be no good reason why, with slight modifications,
the ordinary type designed for pulling could not be arranged to
take care of the soil milling operations as well.
The all around tractor, for which there seems to be a great
demand, is one which can be used efficiently at plowing, plant-
ing, harvesting, belt work, road work, and road hauling.
The foregoing are only a few of the numerous requirements
of a tractor. To meet all of them successfully will require the
earnest co-operation of the best engineering talent available. The
future development of tractor design will undoubtedly follow
logically along the line of combining the knowledge of the agri-
cultural engineer, the automobile engineer and the tractor engi-
neer. Each have much to learn from the other. The agricultural
engineer can furnish much data regarding the power require-
ments from the standpoint of farm operation. The automobile
engineer can contribute important information in regard to the
intensive use of high grade materials and the development of de-
sign to take the utmost advantage of quantity production. The
tractor engineer can combine these data and by co-operating not
only with the engineers in other lines, but with the engineers in
his own line, will be able to work out the solution to the prob-
lem better than if each attempted the solution separately.
FUTURE DEVELOPMENT.
One of the things that has handicapped tractor designers in
the past has been the comparatively limited number of tractors
built. Having established a design it was necessary to main-
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Eason: Tractor Design 67
tain same for several years in order to absorb the cost of de-
velopment, pattern tools, etc. The tractor of the future will be
produced in enormous quantities, and the design will be very
greatly influenced by quantity production. Refinement and the
use of better materials will be more generally possible when the
tractor output reaches approximtaely the proportions of the
present automobile production. The tractor is, undoubtedly, the
next big commercial development of this country. The prob-
lem of tractor design is not as yet solved. To reach the proper
solution will require accurate data on the requirements of tractor
service by measuring the actual performances of different con-
struction in practical field work. The correctness of any type
cannot be judged by its commercial success, but only by scien-
tifically determining the fitness of the tractor to do farm work
efficiently.
Quoting again from the bulletin on tractors, issued by the
Department of Agriculture, the statement is made that to make
the economical utilization of the tractor possible on the farm will
"Depend upon the production of smaller cheaper outfits, cost-
ing considerably less per unit of draw bar power than its equiva-
lent in horses, thus offsetting the difference in their working life.
It must be simple and absolutely certain in operation when prop-
erly handled. Given such an outfit the average farmer can afford
to reorganize his farm work, so as to discard one or more teams,
and by utilizing the tractor for heavy field work and driving
machinery, be able to reduce the cost of crop production/ ' The
tendency in farm tractor design is toward the development of
better tractors at a lower price.
To reduce the cost of crop production is certainly a worthy
object and should be at once the inspiration of all tractor engi-
neers and the achievement of same the measure of their success.
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68 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
DISCUSSION OF MODERN TENDENCIES IN TRACTOR
DESIGN.
By E. T. Adams*
Under ordinary circumstances one would find it difficult to
discuss a paper which one had not seen ; but, in the present case,
the obvious tendency in tractor design is toward the use of
higher grade of material — toward better workmanship. In no
other way can we at once attain both higher efficiency and lower
cost.
By training and experience there is no one better fitted than
Mr. Eason to discuss this phase of the subject; therefore it ap-
pears entirely reasonable not only to discuss a paper which I have
not read but also to begin that discussion by commending any
statements which Mr. Eason may make on this phase of his
subject.
I shall not discuss, as I presume Mr. Eason has not dis-
cussed, the design of special machines. What I have to say re-
lates entirely to tractors which are of a size or type which one
may reasonably assume are capable of extensive sale and there-
fore of manufacture on a production basis.
Machines for which there is a small demand and wrhich are
therefore built rather than manufactured are special machines ;
their design is a compromise and has no broad tendencies for
anyone to discuss.
For a real tractor we have a market of over 5,000,000 square
miles, which we may fairly call a home market, a rich fertile
land which needs power for its fullest development. This great
market affords an opportunity for quantity production which in
time should enable us to reach out irresistibly to greater markets
over seas.
With such a reality before us it is idle to talk of makeshift
design or of antiquated manufacturing methods. We must con-
sider the farmer 's needs on the broadest possible basis. We must
avail ourselves of the benefits to be derived from high grade ma-
terials. Ordinary cast iron, structural shapes and ordinary car-
bon steel are as much out of place in a tractor as they would be
in an automobile. Any machine built of such material will be
too heavy and clumsy for universal use on the farm, and further
cannot compete in price with the better machines built from high
grade material.
For tractor gearing, we will use forged alloy steel ; it is not
only the best, it is the cheapest material to use. Tractor gears
will be accurately cut and hardened ; they will be enclosed in a
rigid dust-proof case and run in oil ; they will be carried by rigid
•Consulting Engineer, Detroit, Mich.
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Adams: Discussion Tractor Design 69
shafting mounted on anti-friction bearings, insuring perfect
alignment and pitch line contact of the gears themselves.
That the load on these gears may not be foolishly doubled,
there will be a clutch, which today and always every day will
pick up its load absolutely without shock. Add to this a con-
stant torque motor and we have the vital elements of a modern
tractor. I shall assume that Mr. Eason has discussed this phase
of the matter so fully that there is little, save commendation, to
add to what he has already said.
I shall ask your attention to another tendency in tractor de-
sign which is also obvious and which to me seems equally im-
portant. I refer to the tendency to bring out strange, curious,
peculiar, even freakish designs. Manifestly there can hardly be
two designers who will agree as to what a tractor is or as to what
it should do.
I have no manufacturing affiliations. I am the farmer's
man, 1 see tractors from his viewpoint, I voice his needs. Look-
ing at tractors from the farmer's viewpoint, there is evidence
of more effort to produce talking points for the salesman than to
produce earning points for. the farmer ; a tendency to select the
new and patentable in preference to the old, but tried and re-
liable. It is not well to forget that from all this mess of design
it is the farmer who will choose what shall survive, or that he
will choose, as he should, on a financial basis. In the future,
as in the past, some tractors will be sold * ' on time ' ' to men with-
out money to buy horses or barns in which to house them ; but
the big tractor market is with men who have cash in the bank.
They are the successful farmers, men who buy with real money
and on a business basis ; they are looking for an added balance
at the bank or added comforts in the house, or both. These men
are not to be taken in by mere talk; they are concerned very
little with what a salesman will say, they are interested in what
a tractor will do ; they have felt the need of a new power ; they
have longed for the added leisure which a real tractor will give.
They have not bought the type of tractor offered in the past be-
cause they did not believe it would pay them to buy it and they
have said so in just these words. It is not well to forget that
this is the man who will also pass on the merits of the designs
now offered.
It seems self-evident then, that the only safe and solid foun-
dation for a tractor business must be an assurance that the trac-
tor buyer will find his purchase a good investment. The most
obvious tendency in tractor design therefore should be a tend-
ency to place first emphasis on making the tractor pay ; this has
not been done in the past; no responsible firm of accountants
would say that one tractor in ten, of the older type of tractor,
has proved a paying investment to the owner. Depreciation and
interest absorbed the returns, and no one can look at the newer
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70 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
designs and not be fearful that in too many eases, interest and de-
preciation will absorb the greater part of their earnings.
Depreciation can be lessened by better construction, or by
the use of higher grade materials ; there is a tendency in this di-
rection now, which is most commendable, but by no means have
we even approached the limit of the gains to be thus made.
Interest piles up by day and by night; it may not be re-
duced, but it may be offset by earning power, by increasing the
range of usefulness and consequently lengthening the earning
season of the tractor. Thus by keeping the tractor busy we may
overcome this expense item which, more than any other, retards
the universal use of the tractor.
There are no items so broadly fundamental to tractor design
as interest and depreciation, and none which are so superficially
considered. We say to the farmer, "When it doesn't work it
doesn't eat." To ourselves, and with added emphasis, we should
say, "When it doesn't work it doesn't earn.'' It is neither
honest, nor is it a safe business policy to talk of the horse which
eats his head off in winter and to forget or ignore that the idle
machine rusts its wheels off, summer or winter. If the tractor
is to pay, the owner must be able to keep it busy throughout the
working season, even as his horse is busy ; when it does not work
it surely does not earn, and if it does not earn it is an economic
failure.
Now, the farmer needs, and will have, a gas power plant to
replace his present horse power plant ; he needs and will have a
gas power plant which is in every way better than his horse
power plant. The tractor will be such a gas power plant and
such a tractor will be the great economic success of the age. Prom
my standpoint, therefore, these machines which do not earn are
not tractors at all; maybe they are plowing machines, I don't
know. Let the one who designed them also name them, and let
him also show, if he can, how it is possible for a machine, an ex-
pensive machine, to stand idly rusting for 90% of its life and
after paying interest and depreciation charges to have left a
dividend for its owner.
The farmer's interest is financial. He talks plowing, be-
cause it is his peak load, but he demands dividends, and he will
never be a big buyer of tractors until those dividends are safely
secured. It is not well to ignore considerations of sound finance.
There are too many designs which appeal to the farmer's de-
sire for help, for greater speed, for added leisure; and which
ignore the fundamental financial need of the farm as apart from
its owner. There is evident need to develop a clear true ideal of
what a tractor is, of what it should do. What constitutes a trac-
tor? What should a tractor do? From the standpoint of the
farmer I answer: It should be to the farmer a more efficient
and a more economical source of power than the horse, not a
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Adams: Discussion Tractor Design 71
mere plowing machine, not an additional source of power, but
a really acceptable substitute for the horse, capable of carrying
on any important power using activities of the farm. To the
very large farm possibly this may seem simply farm power and
any work connected with the preparation of the soil to receive
the crop ; but to the average farmer, and probably to any farmer,
it means a machine useful alike in preparing the soil, in culti-
vating the growing crop, or in harvesting the same and hauling
it from the field.
In these statements I have merely included the features
necessary to economic success. I am stating the conditions which
must be fulfilled to enable the farmer to keep a tractor busy
and thus to make it pay. I am looking forward to a day when
traction farming will be the rule, not the .exception ; a day in
which a man may sell enough horses to buy him a tractor and
have the tractor do the work of the horses sold and also pile
up a surplus at the bank in real money. If one has made a profit,
one should be able to show it in real money.
It will be found that this definition of a tractor and the
statement as to what a tractor will do set some very definite
limits to the design of the tractor. Let us consider some of these
limits :
SIZE : The horse comes in small units — even the team is a
small unit of power — too small, but because it is small it is
" handy,' ' it is active and versatile, and therefore admirably
adapted to meet the varied demands of the farm. Without ques-
tion it is this handiness, this versatility, which constitutes the
chief element in the value of the horse to the farm. And the
tractor which is to replace the horse must have power, but it
must also be handy and active and versatile. Therefore it will
be small, not because we wish to limit its size or power to that
of some arbitrary horsepower unit, but simply because we do not
know how to produce a tractor of great size and power which is
also handy and versatile and therefore capable of really taking
the place of the horse in all the varied minor tasks which in
the aggregate make up the major part of farm activities.
The tractor will be small and light because the majority
of farm tasks are light*. Farm hauling, discing, harrowing, hay-
ing, harvesting, are all light tasks even for a small tractor.
Plowing is not light work, but on a 160 acre farm the average
furrow is less than five minutes long. Even here lightness and
consequent activity in turning is an item of note, a point in favor
of the light and active, and against the heavy and cumbersome.
If a tractor is so small and light that it will not pack the soil,
we may utilize its power and great speed, and work the soil so
thoroughly as to very largely take the place of cultivation after
the crop appears. The tractor which is to cultivate a growing
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72 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
crop must be small and light, and it must turn in a very small
space and do it quickly.
For all these reasons and others, the tractor will be light
and it will be small. It will be light and small also because it
can be and still have very great capacity and efficiency in plow-
ing and belt work; it is entirely possible to combine lightness
and flexibility with sufficient power to fully meet the farm de-
mand for both handiness and capacity to do heavy work.
WEIGHT: A tractor whose weight is recorded in tons is
not likely to be especially agile, but a tractor must be decidedly
agile if it is to replace the horse in even a remarkable percent-
age of its farm activities. There is no hope of large output for a
tractor which weighs two tons. I predict that the big market is
for a tractor which weighs less than 3,000 pounds. That is to
say, there is no hope of a production price, a low price per plow
pulled, or per brake horse power, except from the light machine.
Ordinarily cultivated soil will not bear a load of three to
four pounds to the square inch without packing. The tendency
is to design for double and treble this weight. Such weights are
too great for any soil to bear. There is grave danger that each
path of the drivers across the field, even in plowing, will be
marked by the poor growth of the grain in the next year's crop.
And for discing, harrowing or cultivating such weights per
square inch are simply impossible.
Not only must we have a light total weight, but we must
have extremely light weight per brake horse power. The older
designs weighed 400 pounds and upward to the brake horse
power; the newer designs average around the 300 pound mark.
Too high, much too high. With modern material there is no
reason for a weight in excess of 100 pounds of tractor per max-
imum brake horse power. Thus we secure power, capacity for
heavy work, without sacrificing activity and handiness and abil-
ity to perform the lighter farm tasks.
Without further consideration of details of design, let us
consider results: Take plowing, a tractor wTithin the limits we
have defined, a tractor light and active enough for any farm
task, will plow an acre an hour, with plows set deep in hard
soil. Two light tractors will do as much plowing as one big 50
or 60 horse power tractor, and here is the meat in the nut — the
two can be sold for less than half the price of the single big ma-
chine, and they can be kept for less than half the price of the
single big machine, and they can be kept busy on any farm task,
while the big machine is fit only for belt work or plowing, and
sometimes hardly that.
Consider discing or harrowing. A light tractor will draw
a disc at 3 or 4 miles an hour, or a harrow at 5 to 6 miles an
hour. One who has used a light tractor at this work at these
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Adams: Discussion Tractor Design 73
speeds will never again be satisfied with horse power for this
service.
Farm haulin gdemands a tractor which will handle like a
truck. Great power is not needed. For a short haul one cannot
bother with a string of wagons. The service demands flexible
control, ability to turn around in its tracks, and to get its full
power on soft soil. This is especially true of a tractor used
to haul a mower or binder, a service for which the light tractor
is especially well fitted, as it will keep them fully up to speed
in weather which would be deadly to the horse.
In cultivating, even the lightest tractor, which is capable
of effective work in plowing, is inferior to the intelligent horse,
yet any tractor, which really replaces the horse is capable of
effective work in this field, and as against the admitted defi-
ciency in this work, as compared to the horse, the light tractor
offers power for belt work, 20 to 35 brake horse power even for
the small tractor which we have described.
Finally money — A tractor such as we have -defined will be
a paying investment even on farms of less than 100 acres.
First: Because its working period will be long, even on a
farm of this size. This insures good earning power.
Second : Because its first cost will be low, quantity produc-
tion will insure this, with correspondingly low interest charge.
Third : Because its life will be long and its repair cost low,
the weight and horse power specified can only be attained by
use of a grade of material and workmanship which should in-
sure this.
It would appear then, that there is no tendency in modern
tractor design which offers such great rewards to the farmers,
the manufacturer and the nation, as a tendency to design trac-
tors such as we define ; a substitute, on the farm, for the horse,
a farmer's power plant.
But there must be no half-hearted measures. There must
be a broad and vigorous attempt to produce a machine to meet
the basic economic needs of the farm. Interest and depreciation
work night and day — it is idle to combat them with a design
which only halts and works and stands and halts again; it is
idle to combat them with a type of machine which cannot be
paid for by the sale of the horses which it actually displaces, or
one which is not busy daily, even as the horse is busy. Gentle-
men, if it doesn't work, it doesn't earn; if you can't keep it
busy, it is not a tractor.
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DISCUSSION OP TENDENCY IN FARM TRACTOR
DESIGN.
E. R. Greer*, Mem. Am. Soc. A. E.
I think Mr. Eason has covered his subject exceptionally
well. It is certainly a fact that there is a great tendency to
use anti-friction bearings, and what is perhaps an oil-type of
construction over the way tractors were built several years ago.
It seems to me that the most regrettable thing about the
tractor business is that every tractor engineer seems to be trying
to get out something that is different. There has absolutely no
effort been made, as far as I know, toward the standardization
of even some of the parts. Now, it seems to me it is absolutely
necessary that the tractor engineers get together and agree on
some things, at least, and I have been hoping that this society
would take up the work, and now is the time for you to do it,
I think.
The society of mechanical engineers had a meeting in Min-
neapolis at the University of Minnesota this fall, and they sug-
gested doing this work. I do not believe they are the right ones
to do it. Somebody has got to do it, or else it is certain that
the tractor engineers are going to get together themselves and
form an organization that will do this work, and I would like
to see this society do it, and I would like to hear from some-
body that has something to say on that subject.
It is my belief that there will be more than one standard
type of tractor, according to the conditions the tractors work
under, and the different kinds of work that they are expected to
do, because there are a good many different kinds of work and
it would require different types. If you just take into consider-
ation plowing alone, you will see that it makes a great deal of
difference whether you are talking about a two-plow tractor
or four or six ; it will be a problem when you come to design
your tractor for a different number of plows, and it may be
that the lines will be drawn along lines of power as well as along
lines of the different kinds of work they are to be especially de-
signed for.
There has been an effort to get a cheap tractor. I think the
way to get a cheap tractor is to get a good one first, so that
you can get the volume. If you can get the volujne, it doesn't
cost as much to build right as it does to build tractors wrong.
Mr. Eason brought up the subject of gasoline and kero-
sene. He didn't say very much about it. I would like to hear
what some of you members have to say about whether we have
got to have tractors that will handle both kerosene and gasoline,
•Mechanical Engineer. Minneapolis, Minn.
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Greer: Discussion Tractor Design 75
or whether gasoline is going to be plentiful enough so it will
do for all the work.
He also mentioned the replacing of horses. It is certainly
the fact that at the present time at least, tractors cannot com-
pletely replace horses, but I think we all of us, down in our
hearts, think we are going to get tractors to a point where they
will do that.
He mentioned tractors being designed from two different
standpoints, and I think it is certainly a fact that tractors are
a special line in themselves and they have got to be not designed
from any one standpoint, but from the standpoint of tractors.
There is one thing about a tractor design that I have always
contended for, and that is that the main obstacle is the kind of
a load that the tractor gets. Always there is a shiver that you
have got to work against, and the great thing will be to get the
parts so they will stand that kind of shiver or vibration. It is
a very different thing from anything you will get in automo-
bile or stationary engines. The draw bar pull puts a tension
on all the parts, it is a rigid construction and all the parts are
subject to that continuous vibration which certainly loosens nuts
and rivets faster than anything I know of, unless it is on a lo-
comotive.
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GENERAL DISCUSSION TRACTOR DESIGN.
Mr. Hughes : There was one statement made in the paper
that interested me, and that was the statement that two of these
small tractors could be sold for — I believe less than one of the
large ones, the idea being at any rate that we could get a larger
number of the small tractors than of the large. The thought
occurred to me that one of the elements that enters into tractor
sales is the fact that the tractor does away with a good deal of
human labor, and it also simplifies labor. If we are to have small
tractors, of what advantage from the labor standpoint are they
over horses for plowing?
Mr. Greer: The statement was not idly made. It was
based on the fact that the older type of machine of fifty or sixty
horse power cost in the neighborhood of between $1100 and
$1200 at the time I refer to. It had a speed when plowing of
around a mile and an eighth per hour. The type of machine I
speak of, working at full speed, would make two and a half
miles per hour. If you will check that out you will find that
you have from the . small machine the same acreage per day.
It is true that the large machine with the self -lift plow would
be operated with one man, and it is true that the other two
machines would be operated with two men. However, this refers
to plowing, and plowing is only a small percentage of the total
work, and with the small machine you would have the advan-
tage of replacing horse labor through all the balance of the
year. I don't think you meant to say that there would be not
advantage in running two machines, making two and a half
miles an hour, as against one large machine, which would go
one and a half miles.
A Member: The point was made about the weight on the
ground. I would like to know the advantage gained by spread-
ing the weight over a considerable surface of the ground.
The Chairman: Is there anybody that wants to answer
that question?
A Member: You might put the question: What are the
the disadvantages? Then perhaps somebody can answer it.
Mr. Bartholomew (Responding to call) : Mr. Chairman,
I must say that the discussions that have been had here are very
good in some respects. They do not appeal to me as a general
proposition in a very strong way. In the first place, I am go-
ing to tell you a little incident that happened a few weeks ago.
We were at Cedar Rapids, at a dealers' convention. We had a
room where there were quite a number of tractors running. A
fellow that we took to be a farmer came in. He walked up to a
certain tractor and said, "What tractor is this?" He was told,
a certain name. Then he said, "I have got a tractor. It is a
mighty good thing, too. I have seen a lot in the farm papers
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General Discussion: Tractor Design 77
lately about the farmers being opposed to buying tractors ; that
if they buy tractors it will bust them up in business ; but I don't
believe it. I bought a farm scale once and paid $750 for it
and never got the scale, and that didn't bust me up."
We are talking about the tendency of tractor design. In
so far as these discussions apply to that subject, I think they
are all right — better material, light weight, enclosed gears, and
all that sort of thing. But, after all, the tractor is not intended,
as I see it, never was intended and never will supplant the
horse, as it is utilized on the farm to do the work that the horse
ought never to be called on to do. I got a photograph sent to
me the other day by a man who owns a two hundred and fifty
acre farm, and the letter he sent with it expresses my views
quite vividly on the tractor business. He sent me a picture of
six brood mares standing on one side with his tractor on the
other side and he said, "That is my farm power.' ' The horses,
of course, under favorable conditions, could do the work that
the tractor could not perform, and at the same time could pro-
duce colts. The tractor enabled him to eliminate from his farm
the service of horses to a degree, and at the same time he was
able to retain the brood mares and stay in the horse raising busi-
ness as part of his profit making operations on the farm.
Another thing, the tractor has been developed up to the
present time on almost reverse order to any other farm imple-
ment. Any other farm implement was generally introduced in
the East and was made to fit the Eastern farm. It was then
remodeled and introduced farther West, being there made in
larger sizes and stronger to meet the demand of the Western
farm. But the tractor, if you will observe, started in the North-
west, started as a large machine, and its introduction has worked
east, and as it has gone east it has been reduced in size to meet
the conditions on the smaller farms. I don't want to take up
any more of your time, and will simply say this, that the tractor
business as I see it is here. The tendency of tractor design is
not a very serious problem for the tractor investor. I
may be all wrong, but I believe there are a great many
tractors to be sold the coming year. I believe it is going to be as
a manufacturing proposition way ahead of all the manufactur-
ing games that have been introduced in this country. As to
whether it is to be finally made this way, that way, or the other,
I don't think there is much to it. I think it is pretty much a
question of wise selection now ; that is, if you are going to build
tractors, are in the tractor building business and are riot satis-
fied, what is before you is the business of selecting wisely from
the elements that are established to make up the tractor which
you are going to manufacture.
Mr. Dickerson : There has been one line of thought that
has been advocated by two or three of the speakers that seems
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78 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
to me a little bit in the wrong direction, a line that will have a
very great influence on the design of tractors. I have talked
with a good many crowds of farmers, and I find that they agree
very closely with my idea on the subject, which is that the tractor
is not intended to do all the work on the farm. It is not a gen-
eral purpose machine, as some people would like to make out.
I look on the tractor as a supplementary power on the farm,
and I feel safe in stating that it is not possible on any general
purpose corn belt farm to get along without some horses.
If you are going to try to design your tractor to do all the
work on the farm and do away with horses entirely, it is one
proposition ; if you are going to design your tractor to do only
your heavy peak-load work and your belt work, that is another
proposition and will require a different design.
I believe that the tractor will displace a certain number of
horses on the farm. If you are going to have a combination
tractor and horse power, and must keep one or the other idle
part of the time, the tractor rather than the horses better stand
in the shed, that is, for the work for which he horses arc well
adapted. This for the simple reason that, as Mr. Adams
pointed out, while the interest is a very important part of the
tractor's cost, it is also a very important part of the horse's
cost. The shelter is also an important part of the cost of both.
But when you come to the matter of depreciation and the
care which must be given the two, the fuel and the feed, the
tractor has it over the horse, because the horse must be fed and
cared for, whether it is used or not. It seems to me this is a
very important part of the question which ought to be thought
over very carefully.
I would agree entirely with Mr, Bartholomew that the
tractor is not intended to take care of all the work on the farm,
and I think the great field for the tractor is the plowing, the
soil preparation, and belt work, with some other work which
will come in when the horses are busy. But I do not think it is
intended to supplant the horse for drilling wheat or such work
on the ordinary corn-belt farm, wrhere there are a lot of these
little odd jobs which require very little horse power. I don't
think you can save any time by using a tractor for that kind
of work. You can do the work quicker and better with the
horse than you can with the tractor. Of course a consideration
of this question will largely influence the question of the de-
sign of the tractor.
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ECONOMICS OF THE FARM TRACTORS.
By E. R. Wiggins*, Mem. Amer. Soc. A; E.
The cost of living goes up, up, up. Efficient production
can check this steady increase and it is our duty to study meas-
ures and methods whereby such cost can be reduced.
With agriculture, the problem of power is more acute than
in any other industry. Animal power is, and has been for all
time, the main power producing agency for the farm. No one
will deny that this power is inadequate to our increasing needs,
and what is more, the horse consumes the products from the
land that could supply food for man. The farm tractor is be-
ing developed to supply this economic need for power.
The purpose of this paper is to give the results of a study
of an investigation made of tractor costs. The basis for this
was a thesis investigation of tractors in Nebraska. The field
of Nebraska was chosen because that state offers a wonderful
opportunity to study tractor operation in so many different
phases of farming, as regards size of farm, topography, distri-
bution of population, soil, climate, and crops. Data obtained
from that section should be of value because of its general char-
acter.
A good definition of economics, and one easy to remember
is, it is the "social science of business." So that a study of
tractor operation economics involves the business problems that
go with power farming. The main problem is cost. Costs are
relative, so that if we are to know whether such tractor costs
are out of proportion, we must compare such costs with the
costs of another method of fanning as a standard which in our
present discussion is horse farming.
Systems of Tractor Farming :
Let us consider first three systems of tractor farm manage-
ment, namely,
1 — Private ownership;
2 — Co-operative management ;
3 — Custom operation.
Consider private ownership of tractors, as that is first in
numbers and popular favor and appears to be the most prac-
ticable plan. By this method, each farmer owns his own tractor
and does his own work. This plan is more popular with the
small tractor. A farmer owning his own tractor is independent,
because when the time is ripe to perform a certain field opera-
tion, his machine is at hand to do the work. The investment
per acre, however, in the tractor and the machinery to go with
it, is higher in this system than in any other, for each individual
•Inspector for Deere & Co., at Root & VanDervoort Engineering Co., East
Moline, 111.
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80 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
farmer. The size tractor best suited to his particular farm,
however, can be obtained by private ownership, and this is the
most important feature of all.
From this plan, turn next to the system of successful co-
operative tractor management, which can best be .explained by
a concrete example of a farmer in Nebraska, Mr. W. E. Flory
of Thayer County. He states that five farmers, own a tractor
together. They use the tractor for threshing, plowing, grading
roads, filling silos, pulling stumps, and moving buildings. His
comment on this plan is as follows : ' ' The ideal way is for five
or six farmers to form a company and buy a tractor, plow, sep-
arator, and other machinery. The plan is to thresh for Jones
first this year, and last next year, and so on around the ring.
The same plan is followed in plowing — plowing first for the
man who threshes last." In this particular instance, and in
several other cases studied, this plan has proved successful and
so should be given considerable thought in future tractor de-
velopment.
The advantages of such a system are that the investment
per acre per farmer is much less than for private ownership.
More extensive machinery can be purchased and the overhead
in labor is reduced. As this system lends itself more naturally
to the large tractors, fewer men per unit of power are required.
With five small tractors, for example, five men are required,
while with the large tractor, three men will suffice. These men
can be the pick of the company as far as mechanibal ability
is concerned, and good results will come therefrom. The co-
operative scheme of farmers going together in other enterprises
is prudent; why then should not tractor co-operation be suc-
cessful? A farmer from Holmesville, Nebraska, reports that
there is a tendency in this direction, and states that many old
hedges are being removed that have heretofore divided the farm
land and that the union of farms is more common than sub-
division.
The fault with coo-perative tractor farming, if there has
been any real fault, is not an economic difficulty, but a fault of
management. One farmer would want the tractor at the same
time the other farmer had it. In some cases there has been a
lack of proper organization, because of the ' ' inadaptation of
rural life and character to the co-operative method of managing
business. ' ' Then there have been local causes of failure, such as
quarrels and jealousies that existed before such an enterprise
was started. I do not care to dwell at length on this phase of the
tractor problem more than to reiterate that co-operative tractor
farming has great possibilities and therefore must be given
thought and study.
Custom work is the plan of hiring the tractor to do the
work required. One man owns the tractor and then goes from
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Wiggins: Tractor Economics 81
farm to farm to plow,thresh, fill silo, and do other work. This
eliminates the investment on the part of the man doing the hir-
ing. The price of custom work is slightly higher than the actual
cost of tractor operation because of the profit to the owner of the
tractor. Usually, however, the owner is a competent tractioneer,
so that more can be accomplished in a given time than is true
otherwise, and the time saved pays for the profit. The amount
to be charged for such work depends upon location, competition
and the amount of work to be done. Custom work also adapts
itself to hauling, and road building. Many farmers do their own
work with a tractor and in their spare time they utilize the trac-
tor in road work. In connection with this, I wish later to give
cost figures covering grading and hauling.
WEATHER CONDITIONS GOVERNING TRACTOR OPERATION :
In order to study the economics of the tractor more com-
pletely, let us now consider, from an agricultural standpoint, the
conditions that govern tractor operation. The first factor is
weather and its effect. Upon the number of rainy days and quan-
tity of rainfall depends the time that either horses or tractors
may be worked in the fields.
In calculating from accumulated weather statistics the num-
ber of days in the working season during which the tractor can
be used, it should be noted that some days without rain are still
too wet from recent precipitation for the tractor to be used, and
by no means all rainy days are unfavorable for the tractor. As
a consequence it becomes necessary to make a new 'set of calcula-
tions to get at the approximate number of days when the soil
will be in condition for the tractor to do the peculiar kind of
work that each period in the working season has to be done.
Such a study as this was made by the speaker at the Uni-
versity of Nebraska in 1913 as part of a thesis. The data was
taken at Lincoln, Nebraska, but varies only slightly from con-
ditions throughout the entire corn belt. The purpose was to de-
termine approximately how many days that a farmer can work
in the field. It is highly probable that the number of days that
a tractor can be used differs from the number of days that horses
are used ; but in this study, it is considered the same.
A table was made up of rainfall in inches in Lincoln, for
every day for fifteen years, from 1898 to 1913. In this same
table the soil temperature within certain limits for the same
periods are given. The rainfall data was supplied by Mr. 0. A.
Loveland of the Weather Bureau, at Lincoln, and the soil tem-
perature are found in the Sixteen Annual Report of the Agri-
cultural Experiment Station. In working out the table, it was
considered that six inches is the average depth of plowing done
in Nebraska, since most of the land is plowed about that deep*.
•Mr. G. A. Loveland, Prof. L. \V. Chase and Prof. L. F. Seaton agTeed to
this; and from personal observation.
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82 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
The thermometer readings at depths of 1", 3" and 6" only were
considered.
Good plowing cannot be done when the ground's tempera-
ture at any point 1", 3" or 6" deep is 32 degrees or below. So
that any period that had a soil temperature below 32 degrees
would be out of the question for tractor field work. It was also
considered that no farm field work is done on Sundays or holi-
days. It was calculated that .1" rainfall will stop work for the
day. This, of course, depends upon the kind of rain, and the
time of the year this rain occurs. Mr. G. A. Loveland stated that
it was a question in his mind if .1" would stop operations for
the day. However, .1" would stop threshing, and plowing on
some land. Other land could be plowed after any amount of
rainfall. It was his belief that .1" is a good average figure. The
exact period of time that work is stopped after a rain is hard to
determine. The time of the year has its influence ; winds, kinds
of soil, and topography in connection with moisture, all affect
these delays.
In order to clearly understand the speaker's method of com-
puting the number of field work days a concrete example wijl be
given. Consider the year 1912 as an example. On April 20th,
1.93 inches of rain fell, and no work could be done for two days.
Work was resumed on April 23d and continued the 24-25-26 and
27th, but on Sunday, April 28th, it rained .28 inches. This rain
at this time of the year would retard operations the next day,
and then on the 30th .13 inches fell and no work was done that
day. Work was done then until May 4th, when .36 inches fell,
and then resumed again on the 6th, since the 5th was Sunday.
No work could be done on the 10th and 11th because .22 and .13
inches of rain fell respectively on those days, and the 12th was
Sunday, but work could be done steadily from May 13th to 31st,
except for Sundays.
In cases of days in the months when the soil temperature is
below 32 degrees, no work can be done even if there is no rain.
This has been taken into consideration in adding up the number
of days in a year that farm work can be done in the fields. The
days of each month that work could be done were added up and
the total for the year given. An average was made of the 15
years studied and was found to be 172 days. This means that
out of the 365 days in a year, 172 days can be used for tractor
field work. Out of these 172 days„jt was calculated that the
tractor can be used 132 days, on the, Rightly tractor organized
farm, to do all field work, silo filling, threshing, and shredding
work. This leaves 40 days to do road work and hauling. But
it must be remembered that the tractor can be used outside these
172 days for belt work, such as grinding and shelling corn, and
hauling in the winter. I find, however, that the average num-
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Wiggins: Tractor Economics
83
ber of days a tractor is actually used a year is very nearly 100,
making the time efficiency of a tractor about 58%*.
1
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Fig. 1.
SIZE OF FARM :
I wish next to consider the size of farm for each size tractor.
This really means the tractor unit, which is to say the area of
farm land that the tractor can profitably be used upon. At this
point, let me digress to say that the figures that follow through-
out the discussion are up-to-date and as authentic as has been
possible for me to obtain. Authorities are given for nearly every
figure and when estimates have been made, such estimates have
been checked by actual cases.
In Nebraska it was calculated that the minimum tractor
crop area unit is 400 acres, for the 30-60 tractor. This area is
taken because three 30-60 tractor owners whose farms were care-
fully studied, have successfully farmed 400 acres of crops. A
640 acre farm is not an infrequent farm unit, and this sized farm
in the eastern third of Nebraska, has 400 acres of crops1.
The curve (Fig. 1) shows the relation of farm size to num-
ber of work horses on 88 farms in Nebraska. Twenty horses are
approximately the number usually employed on a section of land
•See article by Mr. H. O. Brockman, Tractor owner In Cuming- County,
in "Nebraska Farmer," February 26th 1913.
United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 174, by A. P.
Yerkes, gives 91 days.
Page 186 "Horse, Truck and Tractor," by L. W. Ellis — 102 days.
1. See speaker's thesis at the University of Nebraska, taken from personal
interview with 128 Nebraska farmers; reports from 114 agricultural stu-
dents, 72 tractor owners and 244 farmers who report crops foo the Gov-
ernment.
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84 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
when farmed with horses alone, but on the farms studied that
used the 30-60 tractor, eight horses were used1. The tractor thus
displaced 12 horses. Similar calculation shows that our next
smaller sized tractor, the 20-40 H. P., would handle a farm from
380 to 640 acres in area with a minimum crop area of 250 acres.
On this farm there would be twelve horses minimum under the
horse system, but the use of the tractor would displace seven
horses. The smallest tractor in our discussion — a 12-25 — can be
successfully used on a 160 acre farm up o 380 acres. On this
farm of 160 acres, eight work horses are usually used. The
tractor would displace at least four.
The curve shows that by farming with horses alone, there
is one horse to 32 acres of farm. When the tractor is used,
there is one horse to about 60 acres.
Table I is a summary giving data of tractor sizes, and num-
ber of men and horses required on various sized farms. The
prices of the tractors, as given, were obtained from a large num-
ber of tractor concerns and are fairly close to the average. As
to the number of men displaced, the speaker gives these figures
from the investigation made in Nebraska and from personal ob-
servation elsewhere in the corn belt. There is a question as to
the exact man labor displaced on a 160 acre farm, but experience
has taught me that two men cannot farm 160 acres without addi-
tional help part of the year under the present system. The addi-
tional help, therefore, is estimated.
TABLE I
•
Size of
Farm
Size of
Tractor
H.P.
No. of
Plows
Men
H T
Price
of
Tractor
Horses
Without With
Tractor Tractor
640
Large 30-60
8 or 9
5 4
2950
20 8
380-640
Medium 20-40
5
4 3
1700
12 5
160-380
Small 12-25
3
21 2
1020
8 4
1. Cxtra man one-half time.
Note: Tractioneer included in number of men on tractor farms.
COST OF MAN LABOR :
Our next step in the study of economics will be the cost of
man abor2. Wages in different sections of the United States
vary widely, averaging highest in the far western states and low-
est in the south Atlantic states. The highest state average
monthly rate without board, $56.50, in Nevada, is 3.2 times high-
er than the lowest rate, $17.90 in South Carolina. In the corn
belt, including therein the North Atlantic, North Central and
western states, the average rate is $39.56. In Nebraska the aver-
1. Mr. H. O. Brockman, Cumins County, Nebraska.
2. Farmers Bulletin No. 584, Department of Agriculture, Page 8, March 23.
1914.
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Wiggins: Tractor Economics 85
age rate is $46.40, which includes therein board, lodging, wash-
ing, and mending1.
The number of hours per year that a farm hand works is
as follows :
Hours per year, week days 2316
Sundays 163
Total 2479=
Calculation : —
39.56 X 12
= 19.2c per hour.
2479
COST OF HORSE LABOR :
The cost of horse labor enters vitally into a study of tractor
costs. Tractors do not entirely displace horses. The tractor does
displace a certain number of horses and then supplements the
use of horses needed for certain kinds of farm work.
TABLE II.
HORSE COSTS FOR ONE YEAR.
Total cost of feed —
Pasture 5.66
Hay 17.80
Grain 36.54 60.00
(Averaged from large numbers of sources, as for
examples, article in the Feb., 1913, American
Thresherman, written by Prof. H. C. Filley of
Nebraska. Article by C. M. Bennett, U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture, in " Prairie Farmer.' '
Personal investigation in the Corn Belt.)
Interest on $180 at 6%3 10.80
Shelter (Minn. Bulletin No. 15) 2.50
Depreciation at 8% (Minn. Bulletin No. 15) 14.40
Harness (Minn. Bulletin No. 15) 2.00
Shoeing (Prof. H. C. Filley) 1.00
Care (or labor) (average of all available data) 15.20
Veterinary service (Prof. H. C. Filley) 1.00
$106.90
1. 13th Biennial Report of Labor of Nebraska, page 591.
2. IT. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 73, page 58. The cost of
producing Minensota farm products, 1902-1907.
3. Mr. A. P. Yerkes on page 38 of U. S. Bulletin No. 174 gives the average
value per horse as $182.48.
The figure of $180.00 for the average price of work horses will be used. The
speaker found this to be true in 1913 after an extensive investigation
and study of the markets in Chicago, St. Louis. Kansas City and Omaha.
Mr. E. Buckingham, General Manager of the Union Stock Yards in
Omaha, was also consulted.
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86 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
The average horse works 1,000 hours per year (Minn. Bul-
letin No. 15). The horse labor cost per hour, therefore, is 10.69
cents.
TRACTOR COSTS :
TABLE III.
30-60 TRACTOR OPERATION COSTS PER DAY ON 640 ACRE FARM
Selling price of 30-60 tractor, $2,950.00.
Depreciation per day @ 12.1% for 8 years (Prof. F. M.
White at Champaign, Aug. 4, 1915) $ 3.59
Interest on investment @ 6% (Figured on average price
of five makes of tractors) 1.77
60 gallons of gasoline @ lie per gallon1 (Moline price in
October, 1915) 6.60
Lubricating oil2 — .36 gallons per engine per hour @ 40c. . 1.44
Repairs @ 3% (Estimate, also see U. S. Bulletin No. 174) .88
Engineer, and other labor (Prof. L. W. Chase before Stu-
dent A. S. M. E., Lincoln, Neb., Jan., 1913) 5.00
Storage estimate (" Power and the Plow" by Ellis and
Rumely) 10
Horse labor — 2 hours per day @ $1.06 per day estimated
(See speaker's thesis) 43
$19.81
TRACTOR EQUIPMENT ON 640 ACRE FARM :
It will be necessary to give a list of the equipment that
goes with a tractor. The equipment as given is that not com-
mon to both tractor and horse farms. For example, hay tools
are not listed. Such tools are to be found on both types of farms
and there is no special power problem in haying. The prices
of the machines as given are taken from unpublished data very
kindly loaned by Prof. L. W. Chase, and personal investiga-
tion. As to the number of machines used, this is taken from
the thesis study and from Bulletin No. 212, "A Study of Farm
Equipment in Ohio," by Mr. L. W. Ellis.
TABLE IV.
EQUIPMENT ON 640 ACRE TRACTOR FARM.
Tractor complete 30-60 $2,950.00
Miscellaneous equipment — chains, hitches, blacksmith
outfit (Estimate) 125.00
5 disc harrows @ $35.50 (price in Lincoln) 177.50
1. Average taken from speaker's thesis and average results of Winnipeg
Contest in 1912 of 1.44 HP hours per unit of fuel. Also article by Prof.
P. S. Rose, American Thresherman, March, 1915.
2. U. S. Bulletin No. 174, by A. P. Yerkes, page 23.
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Wiggins: Tractor Economics 87
8 bottom plow (average of five makes in Lincoln) 571.00
1 20-ft. harrow (Prof. L. W. Chase) 20.20
2 land rollers. 6 ft., @ $27.00 (price in Lincoln) 54.00
1 drill (Chase) 80.00
4 grain binders @ $144.10 (Chase) 576.00
8 horses @ $180.00 1,440.00
1 tank wagon (estimate) 80.00
$6,073.70
Investment per acre=$9.50.
TABLE V. . .
EQUIPMENT ON HORSE FARM OF 640 ACRES.
20 horses average @ $180.00 $3,000.00
Miscellaneous equipment 50.00
4 gang plows @ $62.50 (Chase) 250.00
2 discs @ $31.17 (Chase) 62.34
2 harrows (Chase) 32.32
1 grain drill (Chase) 80.00
2 grain binders @ $144.10 (Chase) 288.20
$4,352.86
Investment per acre=$6.80.
TABLE VI.
20-40 TRACTOR OPERATION COSTS PER DAY ON 380-640 ACRE FARM.
20-40 tractor costs $1,700.00.
Depreciation per day @ 12.1% for 8 years $ 2.30
Interest on investment @ 6% 1.02
40 gallons gas @ lie 4.40
Lubricating oil 1.16
Repairs 3% 51
Engineer and other labor 4.75 ,
Storage 08
Horse labor V/2 hours per day @ $1.06 per day 32
$14.54
TABLE VII.
TRACTOR EQUIPMENT ON 380-640 ACRE FARM.
20-40 tractor $1,700.00
Miscellaneous equipment (estimate) 85.00
2 disc harrows @ $35.50 71.00
5 bottom plow @ $71.00 355.00
1 12-ft. harrow 12.12
1 land roller 27.00
1 drill 80.00
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88 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
3 grain binders @ $144.10 432.30
5 horses @ $180.00 900.00
1 tank wagon 80.00
$3,742.42
Investment per acre — $9.85.
TABLE VIII.
EQUIPMENT ON HORSE FARM OF 380-640 ACRES.
12 horses @ $180.00 $2,160.00
Miscellaneous equipment (estimate) 40.00
3 gang plows @ $62.50 187.50
2 discs @ $31.17 62.34
1 16-ft. harrow 16.16
1 grain drill 80.00
2 grain binders 288.20
$2,834.20
Investment per acre — $7.45.
TABLE IX.
12-25 TRACTOR OPERATION COSTS PER DAY ON 160-380 ACRE FARM.
12-25 tractor costs $1,020.00.
Depreciation @ 12.1% $ 1.23
Interest on investment @ 6% 61
25 gallons gas @ lie 2.75
Lubricating oil 67
Repairs 30
Engineer, and other labor.. 4.50
Storage 05
Horse labor one hour per day 20
$10.31
TABLE X.
TRACTOR EQUIPMENT ON 160-380 ACRE FARM.
12-25 tractor $1,020.00
Miscellaneous equipment . . . , 60.00
1 disc harrow 35.50
3 bottom plow 225.00
1 12-f t. harrow 12.12
1 land roller 27.00
1 drill 80.00
1 grain binder 144.10
4 horses @ $180.00 720.00
Tank for hauling fuel (estimate) 25.00
$2,346.72
Investment per acre — $14.60.
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Wiggins: Tractor Economics 89
TABLE XI.
EQUIPMENT ON HORSE FARM OF 160-380 ACRES.
8 horses @ $180.00 $1,440.00
Miscellaneous equipment 35.00
2 gang plows @ $62.50 125.00
1 disc harrow 31.17
1 16-f t. harrow 16.16
1 grain drill 80.00
,1 grain binder 144.10
$1,871.43
Investment per acre — $11.68.
FARM POWER AND MAN COSTS PER YEAR 640 ACRE FARM.
Tractor Farm:
Tractor (30-60) cost per 1,000 hours $1,981.00
8 horses for 1,000 hrs. @ $106.90 per year 855.20
3 men @ $39.56 per month 1,425.00
$4,261.20
Horse Farm :
20 horses @ $106.90 $2,138.00
5 men 2,373.60
$4,411.60
Investment of tractor equipment $6,073.70
investment of horse equipment 4,352.86
Difference $1,720.84
$1,720.84 @ 6%=$103.25=Interest on the difference in
equipments.
Horse farm — horse and man cost $4,411.60
Tractor farm — horse, man and tractor cost 4,261.20
Difference in power costs $ 150.40
Interest on difference in equipments 103.25
Saving in favor of tractor for one year $ 47.15
FARM POWER AND MAN COSTS PER YEAR 380 ACRE FARM.
Tractor Farm :
Tractor cost for 1,000 hours $1,454.00
5 horses for 1,000 hours 534.50
2 men 949.40
$2,937.90
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90 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Horse Farm:
12 horses @ $106.90 $1,282.80
4 men 1,898.80
$3,181.60
Investment of tractor equipment $3,742.42
Investment of horse equipment 2,834.20
Difference $ 908.22
$908.22 @ 6?f =54.49=Interest on the difference in equip-
ments.
Horse farm — horse and man cost $3,181.60
Tractor farm — horse, man and tractor cost 2,937.90
Difference in power costs $ 243.70
Interest on difference in equipments 54.49
Saving in favor of tractor for 1 year $ 189.21
FARM POWER AND MAN COSTS PER YEAR 160 ACRE FARM.
Tractor Farm :
Tractor cost for 1,000 hours $1,031.00
4 horses for 1,000 hours 427.60
1 man 474.72
$1,933.32
Horse Farm :
8 horses @ $106.90 $ 855.20
2 men 949.44
One-half of 1 man's time 237.36
$2,042.00
Investment of tractor equipment $2,346.00
Investment of horse equipment 1,871.43
Difference $ 474.57
$474.57 @ 6%=$28.47=Interest on the difference in equip-
ments.
Horse farm — horse and man cost $2,042.00
Tractor farm — horse, man and tractor cost 1,933.32
Difference in power costs $ 108.68
Interest on difference in equipments $ 28.47
Saving in favor of tractor for 1 year $ 80.21
COMPARISON OF COSTS PER HORSE POWER HOUR.
Let us, as a matter of interest, briefly study the cost per
horse power hour of horses and tractors. Prof. F. M. White at
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Wiggins: Tractor Economics
91
Champaign, August 4, 1915, said that one horse equals % horse
power. A horse working 1,000 hours per year, according to Min-
nesota Bulletin No. 15, at our rate of 10.69 cents per hour,
would bring the power cost to 12.2 cents per horse power per
hour.
Figuring the tractors to work at a load as figured from the
fuel consumption at Winnipeg, 1912, the 30-60 tractor would
develop 59 BHP or 30 DHP at a resulting cost of 6.7 cents per
DHP per hour. The 20-40, at a load of 40 BHP would cost
7.28 cents per DHP per hour, and the 12-25, at a load of 25
BHP would cost 8.6 cents per DHP per hour.
TABLE XII.
SUMMATION
OF COSTS.
Size Power Costs
Tractor Equip.
Horse Equip.
of Cost per Cost per
Per
Per
Farm year DHP
Total acre
Total acre
30-60 T.
640 A $1981.00 $.067
$6073.70 $ 9.50
$4352.86 $ 6.80
20-40 T.
380-640 A 1454.00 .0728
3742.42 9.85
2834.20 7.45
12-25 T.
160-380 A 1031.00 .086
2346.72 14.60
1871.43 11.68
1 Horse
106.90 .122
POWER SAVING ON TRACTOR FARM OVER HORSE FARM.
640 A
380-640 A
160-380 A
Per year
$ 47.15
189.21
80.21
COST OF GRADING ROAD WITH TRACTOR.
As hauling and road building work come outside the reg-
ular farm operations, the costs will be briefly given separately.
From a study made of Nebraska and Wisconsin conditions,
I find the cost of grading with a tractor to be approximately
$18.00 per mile, grading a 20 foot width of road. In a general
way, we may say that tractor grading costs $1.00 per mile per
foot width of grade.*
COST OP HAULING HORSES, TRUCK AND TRACTOR.
In regard to hauling, I wish to quote a table from an ar-
ticle by Mr. R. L. Niles, Jr., in the "Cement Age" for March,
1913, as this checks very closely with Nebraska conditions and
as it is the result of a number of tests, will be given here. The
table is as follows:
•See article by Mr. W. H. Seabrook of Nebraska in the Threshermen's Re-
view and Power Farming, Dec, 1914.
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92
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
TABLE XIII.
Two Motor Tractor
Hone Truck with
Team 3 Ton Trailers
Average haul (miles) 2 2 2
Average speed, loaded (miles per hour) 2 8 4
Average speed, empty 3 10 5
Running time for round trip (minutes) 96 27 55
Idle time for round trip (minutes) ... 24 . 13 20
Total time for round trip (minutes) . . 120 40 75
Round trips per ten hour day 5 15 8
Average load per trip (tons) 2 3 12
Total quantity delivered per day (tons) 10 45 96
Total work done per dav (ton miles) . 20 90 192
Total cost per day $6.00 $13.30 $23.30
Cost of hauling, per ton mile (cents) . 30. 14.8 12.1
conclusion.
In conclusion, I wish to say that a study of costs of tractor
operation does not show up the complete advantages of tractor
over horse farming. While it is true there is a saving in favor
of the tractor as far as costs are concerned, one must remember
the added investment that the farmer must make. The advan-
tage, however, comes and this is the most important point in
the discussion, in the added accomplishment that can be made
with the tractor, at the same cost, and besides all this, the tractor
does not use materials that man can use to reduce the cost of
living. Future tractor development should be conservative. It
will pay to go slowly, but thoroughly. The thing most needed
is careful scientific investigation so that the way of tractor
progress may be clear.
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DISCUSSION OF TRACTOR ECONOMICS.
By Arnold P. Yerkes.*
Mr. Wiggins has defined " economies' ' as "the social sci-
ence of business" and stated that a study of tractor operation
economics involved the business problems that go with power
farming. J wish to offer another definition of "tractor eco-
nomics/' which, while similar, has a slightly different mean-
ing. I would define it as "the science which treats of the means
and methods of profitably utilizing the tractor/'
The study of tractor economics in which I have been en-
gaged for the past few years is part of the work of the Office
of Farm Management of the United States Department of Agri-
culture, of which Professor W. J. Spillman is chief. Farm
management, as you know, is the science of the organization
and management of a farm business so as to obtain a maximum
continuous profit. If we consider engineering in its broad sense
of being the science of utilizing the resources of nature for the
good of the human race, then Farm Management would prop-
erly be included therein. It involves a study of all the factors
which influence the net returns from the farm and this, of
course, includes equipment. The particular branch of the Office
of Farm Management under which Tractor Economics are be-
ing studied is known as the Section of Farm Economics, which
has for several years been under the personal direction of Mr.
E. H. Thompson, now assistant chief of the office.
The work of farm management is very similar to that of
efficiency engineers in other lines of business. The facts and
principles which are the foundation of the efficiency engineer's
work are obtained not from laboratory or other tests, but from
a study of conditions in numerous shops, offices, etc., in order
to determine the good and bad features of the various details
involved in carrying on the work. When he finds inefficient meth-
ods being used he substitutes therefor a method which has shown
its superiority in some other shop. Occasionally he may originate
some details of the methods, but as a rule his completed system
of shop management is composed of the best features from the
organizations of a large number of shops, combined so as to
make an efficient whole.
So it is with farm management; the facts and prin-
ciples on which it is based cannot be ascertained by laboratory
or office tests, but they have been demonstrated in actual prac-
tice on a large number of farms.
The study of tractor economics has been conducted in a
manner similar to that used in other lines of farm management
•Assistant Agriculturist, Office of Farm Management, U. S. Department of
Agriculture.
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'94 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
work, that is, it has involved a study of the results obtained
with tractors by a large number of farmers. The information
thus obtained is of considerably more value that that which
would be derived from a series of tests, no matter how care-
fully conducted. These would at best be limited to only a few
of the different conditions existing. At the same time they
would have no real relation to any particular farm business.
By studying the results obtained on a large number of farms
in all sections of the country the influence of the numerous fac-
tors involved can be determined, and the data so gained are
based on actual service conditions which are practically im-
possible of duplication in a test.
Mr. Wiggins designates ''costs" as the principal problem
in connection with a study of power farming. I would modify
this somewhat by stating that costs and returns form the prin-
cipal problem. In comparing the horse and tractor it is essen-
tial that costs and returns for both should be considered. If the
returns from the tractor are greater than from the horse, it
would not matter if the cost of operation was proportionately
higher. On the other hand, if the returns are less, the cost of
operation should be correspondingly lower. These two factors
are practically inseparable.
Now, in considering the three methods of providing tractors
for farm work mentioned by Mr. Wiggins, namely, private own-
ership, co-operative management, and custom operation, I wish
to say that individual ownership is usually more satisfactory
than joint ownership. Mr. Wigigns mentioned the advantages
of this method, so I shall not repeat them. But in connection
with joint ownership I wish to call particular attention to the
fact that if one tractor is capable of doing all the field work
on five farms (or whatever the number of joint owners hap-
pens to be) within the time which the seasons allow, the total
area of all these farms is only sufficient to make one farm of an
optimum size for the system of farming followed in that section.
If the one tractor will do all the work on this land when di-
vided into five farms, each organized individually, there is no
reason why the land should not all be owned by one man and
operated as a single farm, as by this means considerable unnec-
essary work as well as over-head charges are eliminated. Joint
ownership of farm implements is one indication that the farms
are too small to permit of farming them economically by mod-
ern methods. It also has the disadvantage that the wrork must
usually be done in a number of small fields rather than in a
few large ones.
Authorities on Farm Management have pointed out the fact
that farms which do not provide employment for the owner as
well as other members of the farm family throughout the year
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Yerkes: Discussion of Tractor Economics 95
do not usually render sufficient returns to permit of a desirable
standard of living on the part of the farmer and his family.
Prof. Spillman is the authority for the statement:
"The ideal size of farm is somewhat larger than the mini-
mum efficient unit. It is such as to permit of a high standard
of living and the education of the farm children. The minimum
efficient unit in agriculture is a farm of sufficient size and so
organized as to give full employment at productive labor to the
farm family."*
The fact is frequently mentioned that improved farm im-
plements reduce man-iabor on farms, but the loigcal result of
this reduction of man-labor is commonly overlooked and fre-
quently deplored as a calamity. It is obvious that as improved
farm machines reduce the man-labor necessary to produce crops
the number of farm workers is reduced. Most of the farm work
in this country is done by the farmer and his family ; therefore,
reducing the man-labor on farms means reducing the number of
farmers, and this is equivalent to reducing the number of farms,
that is, these small farnis which did not furnish profitable em-
ployment for the owners are combined so as to make farms of
sufficient size to permit being farmed economically with modern
implements.
There are numerous other points which might be mentioned
in this connection, some of which will be given later. I wish to
make only one more remark concerning joint ownership of trac-
tors, to the effect that American farmers, as a class are not well
adapted to it. It has been my observation that joint ownership
is more often a failure than a success, for the reasons given by
Mr. Wiggins.
As to the last method mentioned, that of hiring a tractor,
I would state that 1 have confined my work principally to the
men who own tractors, and so have but little information on this
point. However, the data which I have obtained from the men
who have done custom work with their tractors lead me to be-
lieve that very frequently their customers have the best of the
bargain, as in many cases the price charged for custom work
is not sufficient to cover the overhead charges on the tractor,
and such work is done at an actual loss to the tractor owner.
Personally, I do not believe in the practice of a farmer do-
ing custom work with his tractor. If he has time to do custom
work it is an indication that his farm is too spnall to be an effi-
cient unit. It will usually pay him better to buy or rent suffi-
cient additional land to provide work for his tractor during the
working seasons ; work done on his own crops will usually prove
more profitable than custom work for his neighbors. His neigh-
bors expect to make a profit from their crop after paying him
•See U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. 341.
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96 American Society of Agricultural Engineers-
for his work; why should he not raise the crop himself and
enjoy this profit ?
I wish to digress here to remark that a farmer who is con-
templating the purchase of a tractor should not rely on profits
from custom work to justify its purchase. And it seems to me
that the practice of some tractor enthusiasts in including fan-
cied profits from custom work in their figures showing, (on
paper), the savings effected through the use of a tractor is to
be condemned. They seldom if ever consider the possible profits
from the use of horses for custom work, although they comment
frequently on the fact that the horses are idle a large part of
the time; and if idle, then they are available for custom work.
Then, I might repeat that custom work with a tractor is often
unprofitable, and a well organized farm of the proper size should
provide work for the tractor on the home farm during the work-
ing seasons. And, lastly, I think we are all agreed that the
tractor is eventually to be a part of the ordinary farm equip-
ment on the farms where its use is practicable, in which case
each farm should have its own tractor, and there would be prac-
tically no more opportunity to do custom work with the tractor
than writh horses at present.
In connection with the figures as to the number of days avail-
able for field work with the tractor, based on the moisture con-
tent of the soil, as given by Mr. Wiggins, I wish to call atten-
tion to the fact that these figures represent a .maximum which
it could not even be hoped to attain on any ordinary farm. It
must be remembered that practically all farm operations must
be carried on within a limited season, and that between these
seasons there will often be no field work which the tractor can do.
either on the home farm or on those of neighbors. Each crop
has its own season for planting and harvesting. The fact that
weather and soil conditions are such as to permit field work with
a tractor does not mean that there will be work the tractor can
do. Farm Management plays an important part in organizing
a tractor farm so as to provide employment for the tractor dur-
ing as many days as possible. Such organization involves the
planning of a crop rotation which wrill furnish a large amount
of work which the tractor can do, and which will distribute the
work over as wide a period as possible. At the same time the
rotation must include only crops which can be grown at a profit
in that particular section.
Mr. Wiggins quotes from U. S. Department of Agriculture
Bulletin No. 174 of which I was the author, the fact that tractor
owners reported using their outfits approximately 100 days an-
nually. The tractor owners who furnished those figures were
men who owned large outfits, and they were all located west of
the Mississippi River. Their farms averaged more than 700
acres in size. Many of these men still had considerable virgin
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Yerkes: Discussion of Tractor Economics
97
sod to break, and this could be done at times when no other
field work was available. Their figures also included custom
work/which too was, to a considerable extent, breaking. These
conditions have already changed. Comparatively little break-
ing remains to be done, and the tractor's work will henceforth
be principally in connection with the ordinary farming systems.
This means fewer days' work annually.
In this connection it may be of interest to state that on
over 100 Illinois farms from which I obtained records last year
the average number of days which the tractor was employed
on the home farm was between 40 and 45, while the custom work
done annually did not average 15 days per tractor. This would
make less than 60 days' use of these tractors per year, yet the
farms averaged slightly over 400 acres in size. I am convinced
that these figures are not too low for this size of farm under
average conditions; in fact, I am of the impression that they
are slightly too high. Since they were obtained I have secured
a large number of more detailed records, wrhich from a hasty
examination, promise to reduce the above averages somewhat.
I had hoped to have the tabulation of these data completed in
time to use here, but was unable to do so.
It must be remembered that when a tractor is used, some
horses are necessary, and these do the light work which formerly
made up quite a large percentage of the horse-labor. It has
been found that the average farm horse works only 100 days
1400
1110
S
5 iooo
i
i
2 600
$
UO
0
tO 40 60 *0 IOO HO 140 160 160 ZOO
SIZE OF FARMS- ACRE5
Fig. 1. Relation of Size of Farm to Farmer's Labor Income. (Chester
County, Pa.)
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98 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
per year where no tractor is used. The tractor only does part
of the work which the horses formerly performed, and does it
more quickly ; it is very evident, therefore, that the number of
days the tractor will be employed on the home farm will be con-
siderably less than 100. Tractor enthusiasts tell us that a tractor
will permit work to be done in half the time required with
horses, and some place it even lower. At this rate, if it did all
the work the horses previously performed, it would require only
fifty days; but horses are still required to do the cultivating
and other light work, and this on many far,ms, is quite a large
percentage of the entire farm work; so it is evident that the
number of days a tractor will be employed on a farm will in
most cases be less than fifty, unless additional acreage is farmed
after the purchase of a tractor.
The next subject which Mr. Wiggins considered is the size
of farm as related to the size of tractor. I have already offered
some remarks as to the size of farms, but I wish to again refer
to U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 341, in which Prof.
Spillman says, in part:
4 'The notion widely prevails that the ideal in American
agriculture is the small farm. It is a distinct fallacy. Very
small farms are difficult to make successful anywhere, and it is
only the exceptional jnan who is equal to the task. * * *
American farmers have thus far found it to their advantage
to spread their work over more acres rather than to increase
unduly the amount of work per acre. The small farms on the
average make just about the same yields per acre as the large
ones and it does not pay their owners to apply the necessary
additional labor and materials to increase these yields very ma-
terially."
It is obvious that farms which are too small to be profitable
and which do not furnish sufficient employment for the owner
when farmed with horses, will be even less economical in size
when farmed with a tractor which will still further reduce the
man-labor required. The fact that the cost of operation may be
reduced by the use of the tractor does not alter the case; the
small farm will still bear practically the same relation to the
large one as before tractors were used, for if the cost of crop
production is lowered the price will also eventually be lowered.
Mr. Wiggins gives the cost of maintaining a horse for one
year as $106.90. This will probably appear rather high to most
farmers at first glance, but I believe the figures accord very
closely with facts. There is one point in connection with it,
however, to which I wish to call attention, and that is to the
rate of depreciation, which has been placed at eight per cent.
I do not wish to assume the attitude of questioning this figure,
since it indicates a working life of twelve and a half years for
a farm horse, which is probably close to the average, but it is
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Yerkes: Discussion of Tractor Economics
99
of interest to know that on a great many farms the actual rate
of depreciation is much less than this. This is because of the
fact that young horses are used for farm work to a great ex-
tent, and after they have reached maturity or perhaps after
their valuation has begun to decrease somewhat but not appre-
ciably, they are sold to city buyers or for other kinds of work.
It is a well known fact that many city buyers prefer such horses
to young stock, as the latter do not stand up so well on the hard
pavements as do the older horses.
From figures secured in a survey of several hundred farms
in Chester County, Pa., it has been found that the actual aver-
age depreciation of the work horses on these farms was
less than $2.50 annually. I do not believe that it is possible
for farmers in all sections of the country to reduce their de-
preciation charges on their work stock to such a minimum fig-
ure; but it is obvious that farmers who are maintaining their
stable of horses at such figures as these will be somewhat slow
to adopt the tractor if the question of costs only is to be con-
sidered.
The cost per hour for horse labor depends very largely
upon the amount of work the horse is required to do annually.
The maintenance cost will be nearly the same no matter whether
pfCcasTO
FM
DA3C UttM AS RCUTEDTOTME AMOUNT OF *
ORflf LABOR OW RELfl
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op
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MM.
AW.
MAY
JUNL 1 JUL.
MM.
mt>
OCT.
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mc.
MfM
*•
t—
•K
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no*
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if
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Fig. 2.
the horse is used a large number of days or for only a short
time. It is plainly evident, then, that by organizing the farm
so as to keep the horses busy during a large part of the year
the cost per hour for horse-labor will be reduced. See Figure 2.
One of the problems of farm management is the organization
of farms so as to distribute the work of the horses over as large
a part of the year as possible, at the same time avoiding high
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
100 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
peak loads. By such means it is not only possible but frequently
occurs in actual practice, that the cost per hour of horse-labor
is reduced to four or five cents, which is lower than the cost
per drawbar horsepower-hour of a tractor as given by Mr.
Wiggins, based on the fuel consumption at Winnipeg in 1912.
In this connection I wish to submit that the fuel consumption
in a test such as that at Winnipeg, is by no means a fair com-
parison with the cost of horse-labor per hour on an ordinary-
farm. The one represents a minimum, while the other represents
the cost under conditions which are usually anything but effi-
cient* Nor should it be assumed that a tractor is developing
its full rated power at all times, for such is not the case. The
load which it will pull in plowing must average less than its
power capacity ; otherwise it would very frequently stall. The
draft in nearly all kinds of farm work fluctuates considerably.
The claim is frequently made that farms do not have suffi-
cient power to carry on their work. This is true, but should
be modified by stating that most farms are not properly organ-
ized to utilize their power efficiently. The progress of farming
methods has not kept pace writh the progress in the development
of improved farm implements. It has been demonstrated time
and again that by a proper reorganization of many farms it is
possible to do the work in an entirely satisfactory manner with
fewer horses. A great many farmers pay little attention to the
arrangement of their crop rotation and frequently raise crops
which demand a large amount of work at the same season.
The comparative costs of the tractor and horses on different
sized farms, as given by Mr. Wiggins, are of considerable inter-
est, but, as he stated in his conclusion, a study of costs alone
is not a fair criterion. In all cases the results accomplished
by the two methods must be considered. Many different opin-
ions have been expressed as to the advantages and disadvantages
of both horse and tractor farming, and it is obvious that no defi-
nite figures can be furnished on this point, because the results
will vary widely under different conditions. In fact, the ques-
tion of whether a tractor will prove profitable on any given
farm must in most cases be worked out individually for that
particular farm, as figures for no other one will apply.
I consider the two principal advantages of the tractor over
the horse for farm work are the fact that it furnishes a large
amount of powTer which permits of carrying on the farm opera-
tions at the proper time, while it also furnishes power for belt
work and thus frequently avoids the expenditure of money in
hiring such work done. This is somewhat at variance with the
common practice of crediting the tractor with considerable value
in increasing the crop yields ; but from my observations this is
a less important factor than either of those mentioned. As a
matter of fact, the use of the tractor frequently has no bearing
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Yerkes: Discussion of Tractor Economics 101
whatever on the crop yield and has perhaps been responsible
for as many decreases as increases in yields. I make this state-
ment advisedly and will offer some facts in its support.
The principal reason advocated by tractor enthusiasts as
to why the tractor should increase the crop yields, is that plow-
ing can be done deeper than with horses and the soil put in
better condition. Because deeper plowing is advocated by many
agriculturists the fact is frequently lost sight of that it is recom-
mended only in connection with other fundamental principles of
good farming methods. Promiscuous deep plowing is as apt
to decrease as to increase the crop yield. I have seen numer-
ous instances where this has happened. I wish to mention one
case in particular. The soil on this farm was a fairly rich loam
well supplied with humus. It had been plowed to a depth of
about six inches for a great many years and a plow sole had
formed, as is commonly the case. The subsoil, however, was
not sufficiently compact to prevent roots from going through,
and many authorities on plowing state that so long as the soii
can be penetrated by the roots subsoiling and deep plowing are
usually unprofitable. In this case from one-half inch to perhaps
two inches of the subsoil was thrown on top of the ground.
This subsoil contained very little humus and of course no bac-
teria, as bacteria do not thrive where no humus is present. The
result was that the field, after it had been plowed, was covered
with a thin layer of soil in which bacteria could not thrive,
and this top crust is where 'bacteria are most abundant in a
fertile soil and where most feeder roots are located. This field
was plowed three years ago and has not since produced a nor-
mal crop. The yield the first year was very poor indeed. This
is but one example of what has happened many times.
In connection with a consideration of deep plowing I wish
to call attention to the fact that experiments which have been
carried on for a number of years at over a dozen field stations
throughout the Great Plains area have almost invariably shown
that the greatest profit is obtained in that section from the
cheapest method of preparing the soil. The yields were in many
cases better where the ground was merely disked instead of
being fall or spring-plowed. The result of these experiments
are given in detail in U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletins
Nos. 214, 218, 219, 222, and 268, covering the production of
crops in the Great Plains area and the relation of cultural
methods to yields.
It should be borne in mind that the farmer is most inter-
ested in the greatest possible profit and not the largest possible
yield, for in many cases the profit from a large yield is more
than offset by the increased cost of production.
I do not wish to be understood as intimating that the tractor
will not increase crop yield as in many cases it will do so ; but
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102 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
such increases are a great deal more likely to result from plow-
ing and preparing the seed bed at the proper time than from
more intensive cultivation in the form of deep plowing, subsoil-
ing, etc. These are by no means new, and while experiments
indicate that in some cases crop yields are increased thereby,
it seqms to be the general experience among farmers that the
increased yield is not usually sufficient to offset the increased
cost of production.
I fully agree with Mr. Wiggins in his statement that future
tractor development should be conservative; but I believe that
it should be progressively so. The tractor can only be developed
by being used on farms, and I believe that it should be adopted
as rapidly as possible on farms where its use will prove valuable.
The tractor has barely emerged from the experimental
stage ; in fact, a great many makes have not yet emerged.
One of the most important factors in the future tractor
development from a farmer's standpoint, as it has been in the
past, will be the price at which tractors can be sold. The large
outfits of a few years ago were altogether too expensive to
justify their purchase on the average farm, and the prices of
many of those now on the market are also too high to make a
really economical investment for the farm. It is more than
probable, however, that as the volume of business increases the
prices will be reduced. This has occurred in the case of other
machines and there would seem to be no reason why it should
not occur with the tractor. The general adoption of the tractor
like that of other machines is not likely to occur until the prices
of tractors reach comparatively low figures. At the same time
quality must be first class. The tractor of poor quality is dear
to the farmer at any price. In speaking of low-priced tractors,
I do not mean those of cheap construction. The price is very
important to the farmer, but quality is still more important.
There is just one more point in Mr. Wiggins' paper which
I wish to discuss, and that is his remark that the tractor does
not use materials that man can use to reduce the cost of living.
This is of less importance to the farjner than to the remainder
of the population. It is obvious that if tractors are adopted
and the consumption of materials which can be used by the
human race for food is reduced to a considerable extent, as
would certainly appear reasonable to believe would occur, the
prices of these materials will decrease as the supply would be
greater in proportion to the demand. This should not only
make these particular foodstuffs lower in price but should also
reduce the cost of meat, as the expense of feeding other live-
stock on the farm would be lowered. Looking at it from the
farmer's standpoint alone, however, he is probably serving his
best interests by raising colts and selling them, and thus pro-
viding a market for a great deal of the material which he raises
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Yerkes: Discussion of Tractor Economics 103
on his farm. So long as he is doing this he is not dependent upon
outside sources for the power required for his farm operations,
and at the same time has a number of business men in the
cities dependent upon him for material with which to feed the
horses they have bought from him. As the number of horses
used in the cities decreases, as it probably will, but not at the
rate stated by Mr. Edison more than ten years ago, when he
predicted that within a decade the horse would be a curiosity,
the market for a great deal of the material now raised on the
farm will also decrease, and at the same time there will be a
smaller demand for horses, thus making the rasing of colts less
profitable.
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ENGINE PLOWS.
By I. A. Weaver*, Mem. Amer. Soc. A. E.
In discussing the modern engine plow we will divide them
into two classes, the light duty, rigid beam built in two, three
or four bottoms; and the large flexible beam type of four bot-
toms and larger. To the casual observer it might appear that
the only problem involved in designing the light tractor plow
would be to arrange a special hitch on a horse drawn plow or
to attach a number of walking plows to a platform mounted on
wheels to make the large flexible beam plow.
It is an imposing sight to witness a large plowing outfit
operating in a large field under favorable conditions and in
soil uniform all over the field. However, they are not always
operated under such favorable conditions. Sometimes the field
is full of stone and grubs or the ground so hard that it is im-
possible to plow with horse plows. Again the same type of
plow bottoms are expected to do good work, running from a
few inches to a depth that is impossible to go without special
type bottoms.
It would be interesting, if time permitted, to go into the
detail construction of the various makes of engine plows in
general use, but we can only discuss some of the general fea-
tures found in all of them.
Engine plows must necessarily be stronger than horse drawn
plows as they are expected to work in harder ground and go
deeper, also from the fact that the draft of the engine is much
different than with horses. A four horse team on a gang plow
could easily straighten out one of the beams, yet there are few
beams bent for the reason that horses will not exert their full
energy when an obstruction is encountered. This is quite differ-
ent when the plow is drawn with an engine.
Owing to the peculiar construction of the flexible beam
plow it must be much heavier per bottom than the rigid beam
type, as with the latter the entire weight of the plow, includ-
ing the axles and wheels would be thrown on the bottoms to
assist them to penetrate if necessary; while with the flexible
beam type about fifty per cent of the entire weight is in the
platform. Even one end of the beam is held up by the platform
which leaves but a small per cent of the entire weight of the
plow on the bottoms.
There are just two things that will cause a plow to take
to the ground, — suction, and weight. Suction is created largely
by the point and does not differ much in the different make
of plpws. A thin shaped point will penetrate and pull easier
than a thicker one but would wear away faster and could not
•Designer, Racine Sattley Co., Springfield, 111.
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Weaver: Engine Plows
105
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
106 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
be sharpened as often. As the points begin to get dull, it re-
quires considerable weight to keep the plow in the ground.
Contrary to the general opinion, a high hitch hinders the
plow from taking the ground instead of forcing it in.- This
is shown in Fig. 1, which shows a plow drawn by a horse. In
this case the power is applied at the horse's shoulder and the
point of hitch on the beam is approximately in line with the
center of resistance on the plow. By raising or lowering the
point of hitch on the plow, the line of draft is not changed but
the point of the plow is raised or lowered to make it run the
depth desired.
Figure 2 shows the two extremes of the high and low hitch
of a plow attached to a platforjn. It will be observed that the
low hitch has the advantage of the high one in this respect.
The instant the plow starts in the soil it goes forward in
relation to the point of draft and the deeper it goes the greater
this movement increases, or the higher the hitch the greater the
increase. This is also largely affected by the length of the
beam. The long beams have the advantage over the short ones
in working qualities but require greater strength in order to
overcome the increased leverage to hold against the side pressure
when the share engages an obstruction and to insure even width
of furrows.
This type of plow must be provided with a gauge wheel to
regulate the depth and elevate the plow and is usually con-
trolled by a lever mounted on the beam. This wheel must nec-
essarily be placed between the end of the beam and the bot-
tom. When the wheel passes over an obstruction the bottom is
elevated higher than the obstruction. This defect is largely over-
come by mounting the lever on the platform and connected to
the guage wheel with compound connection. As a plow usu-
ally cuts fourteen inches there is a limited room between the
bottoms and coulters for the wheel. If too close to the rolling
coulters they will cause trouble in certain soils and in other
positions will cause the plow to choke where there is much trash.
Therefore in designing a plow of this type, the locating of the
guage wheel demands the most careful consideration of all pos-
sible conditions and contingencies to be met with in operation.
The coulters should be strong and capable of having aiL
adjustment that will set them near the point of the share so that
in soil full of large boulders, such as are found in the Northwest
they will throw the plow over these obstructions and prevent
breakage. Ordinarily the coulters should be set about one-third
of the depth of the furrow and about five-eights of an inch to
the land. If set too far back and too far to the furrow side,,
the pressure will be light above the shin of the plow which will
retard the scouring. In soils full of loose stones and gravel
a jointer will usually work better than a rolling coulter which
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Weaver: Engine Plows 107
has a tendency to fide over the small stones. When equipped
with combined coulter and jointer the scouring qualities are
also affected if too much soil is turiied in front of the shin of the
plow.
The engine plow generally operates a little deeper than the
horse drawn plow. In a field that has been cultivated for years
at a depth of, say, five inches, the soil is sometimes loose and
mellow to that depth while below it may be of a very soggy,
sticky nature and if you attempted to go six inches deep the
face of the moldboard would be covered with a layer an inch
thick of the heavy, sticky soil which the loose soil would be
unable to push off; and, as a result,, the plow would be pre-
vented from scouring. Under these conditions it is necessary to
either go a little deeper and secure greater pressure on the
face of the moldboard, or plow a little jnore shallow, and avoid
the sticky soil.
With plows having more than four bottoms the force re-
quired to pull them is greater than the strength of each indi-
vidual bottom, which makes the break pin hitch impractical.
It is therefore necessary to provide some safety device, usually
in the form of a break pin on the plow standard. These pins
are generally of wood about one inch in diameter.
In many cases when an obstruction is encountered the pin
will not shear clear off but will be crushed and will throw the
plow on the point and the board out of position. The longer
this leverage the smaller the pin and the less the point would
be thrown out if the pin was partly crushed, as shown in Fig. 2.
I have experimented with cast iron pins that would break
with a force of thirty-five hundred pounds applied at the point
of the share and found that if the pin is supported between
two supports it is necessary to have it necked shorter than the
space between the supports so when it breaks, should it frac-
ture at an angle, it will not wedge between the supports.
With the smaller type of plows the break pin hitch can be
used very satisfactorily. These wood pins should be long enough
so that they may be driven in several times to avoid the waste
of time in supplying new ones.
The difficulty experienced with all for,ms of break pins is
the fact that many operators will supply iron pins rather than
go to the trouble of putting in the wood ones.
In fields where there are high ridges by reason of the crop
heing planted in rows, the rigid beam plow will require less
attention than the flexible beam where the depth of each plow
is governed by a gauge wheel.
By referring to the diagram (Fig. 3) you will note that
the plows running on top of the ridge would not go deep enough
while the one between the ridges would be too deep. It would
then be necessary to lower the depth of the plows on the ridges
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
108
Weaver: Engine Plows
and raise the one between the ridges so the bottoms of the plows
wTould be practically level. ' The results would be practically
the same as with the rigid beam type. However, with the light
plows it is necessary to change the land wheel to keep the plow
level under these conditions.
In the light duty plow the depth is controlled by the two
forward carrying wheels. One of these wheels runs in the fur-
row and should be at least three inches from the bank of the
furrow. It is not necessary to run it in the corner to govern
the width of cut as with horse plows, as the lighter engines
are either made self-guiding or arranged so that the width can
be governed very closely. This will allow for a greater varia-
tion when making the turn so the wheel will always drop in
the furrow. If it does not, some distance will be travelled with
the front plow practically out of the ground.
These plows are generally provided with a rear furrow
wheel. This wheel has nothing to do with regulating the depth,
the object of it is to relieve the pressure from the bottom of
the plows and from the landside and to assist in transporting,
the plows and from the landslide and to assist in transporting.
However, they are not effective in relieving the side pressure
unless some provision is made for the wheel to force the land-
side from the bank and lock it in that position until the end
of the field is reached. With plows having two wheels this is
accomplished by setting the wheels on a slight angle to relieve
the side pressure for the reason that a stiff hitch is always used.
The pressure on the bottom of the furrow can be largely re-
lieved by adjusting the hitch up or down. The two-wheel plow
has the advantage over the three-wheel plow in backing.
There is a great deal said about engine plow hitches. This
one thing has caused more trouble than all the others. How-
ever, there is little said about the hitch on the engine. To my
mind this is as important as the plow hitch. I saw a four-bot-
tom plow behind an engine capable of pulling six or eight
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Weaver: Engine Plows
Fid- 4
109
plows. Naturally, the center line of draft of the engine and
plow was from two to three feet out of line. It was necessary to
hitch the plow to one side of the center of the draw bar, but
no up and down adjustment was provided. The parties were
attempting to run the plow quite deep and used a short hitch.
The height of the angle was such that it pulled the back
of the engine down, removing most of the weight from the
front wheels. With the weight removed from the front wheels
in this manner and the pull coming to one side of the draw bar,
as described above, the front wheel was swung over into the
deep furrow where it was impossible to get it out without con-
siderable trouble. The effects of side draft by the long and
short hitch is shown in Fig. 4.
Angle "A" shows an extremely short hitch; the line "BM
show 8 this hitch flattened down about fifty per cent. By moving
it still forward an equal distance we have the angle "C". It
will be noted that when moved to "B'\ the angle is getting
so slight that there is no particular advantage gained. The
long hitch is especially advantageous with the disc plow.
There is a general opinion among farmers and operators
of the traction engine that the short hitch makes lighter draft
and that there would be an advantage at the end of the field
with a short hitch. Both are mistaken ideas. Two or three feet
of extra chain will not make any difference on the turn if the
outfit will work better.
A good way to start out with a large engine and small plow
is to make the hitch extra long, then shorten it up from time
to time until you get the best results. In other words, the cor-
rect length of hitch is where both the plow and engine work
best.
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PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING RE-
SEARCH.
Philip S. Rose*, Mem. Amer. Soc. A. E.
Something over a year ago I submitted a plan to the Na-
tional Gas Engine Association for obtaining data on gas en-
gines and the machinery operated by them. After considerable
discussion the plan was adopted and the task of gathering the
data began.
The necessity for this work is apparent to anyone who is
familiar with rural life and our methods of distributing ma-
chinery to the country users. The average dealer knows no
more about mechanical problems than the people whom he serves.
He is more frequently than not a retired farmer or an unsuc-
cessful farmer which is just as bad. He merely handles a cer-
tain line of goods and is not able to serve his customers as a
competent adviser. Usually the best he can do is to accept
what he finds printed in the catalog.
The inevitable result of such a method of distribution is
that the farmers are poorly served. They are continually buy-
ing jnisfit outfits and are generally dissatisfied. The trouble
is the dealers are not informed. When a farmer comes into
town and asks his dealer to figure on a lighting plant or an
irrigating outfit or in fact anything of an engineering nature,
he can never be sure that he is advised right, and if he buys
he has no assurance that the various units will work well in
harmony.
The problem is a serious one and you may well ask how
it can be solved. Possibly the solution is difficult, but it seemed
to me that one way is to supply the dealer with exact informa-
tion that he might rely upon — not what he finds in various
catalogs with the natural bias all catalogs have — but data that
has been checked up by disinterested people. Not only that,
but I proposed to show by examples how the easy problems of
farm engineering might be solved so that he could make an
estimate on a lighting plant or advise the size of engine for any
particular purpose.
The outline of the plan seems to appeal quite generally not
only to manufacturers of gas engines but to manufacturers of
all other lines of farm machinery, and I have talked with a
considerable number. The plan as I said, was adopted by the
gas engine people and we began to compile data and then, as
we expected, our troubles began. Nobody had any data on
even the simplest machinery that we felt we could absolutely
rely upon.
•Editor American Thresherman, and Gas Review.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Rose: Problems in Research 111
There is an immense amount of general information extant
on every phase of farm equipment but a relatively small amount
that is certain and reliable. In a circular letter sent to the
college members of this society asking for data on farm ma-
chinery and the power required for its operation I got prac-
tically nothing. Here is a group of men ostensibly teaching a
scientific subject and advising the farmers of their respective
districts about the kind and size of machinery to use and they
admit they have no exact knowledge. Something is wrong. There
is evidently an opportunity in this Society for an efficiency
engineer.
If I were not personally conversant with conditions under
which you men work, I should be inclined to harsh criticism.
But I do know your difficulties and know your conditions and
so I have no disposition to blame or to scold. It seems to me,
as I have studied this problem, however, that there must be a
way to better things. A splendidly equipped body of men
like this ought to accomplish more and they can if they will
work together and with the business interests of the country.
One reason for the small amount of research work done is
that you do not know what needs doing. You are not in close
touch with commercial needs and you lack funds and you are
pressed for time. But much as it may surprise you to hear
me say it, I consider the lack of funds and time the least ob-
stacle you have to contend with. You can obtain both of these
if you find a problem that needs solving and can map out a
plan of action that will lead to its solution.
There are a great many minor problems that need solution ;
as, for example, the power required to operate various classes
of machinery under different conditions that would take one
man 's time for perhaps a year or more. But if you have the
proper organization there is no reason why the work cannot be
divided up among a large number. This would require a cen-
tral committee or bureau that would apportion the work, but
that is not difficult to do. For example let some one in the
corn belt work on ensilage cutters and silo fillers, another in
the wheat country on grain cutting and threshing. It would
not be long with that system of apportionment before we would
have an immense mass of exact data available.
Then let this data be published as fast as collected after
being compiled and edited. If this plan were followed for a
few years we should soon have a very valuable agricultural
engineer's handbook.
Manufacturers all over the country have expressed them-
selves as willing to co-operate in any such movement and we
have already- been assured of the co-operation of the United
States Department of Agriculture. It seems to me that the
plan is entirely feasible and I haven't the slightest doubt that
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
112 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
we could obtain financial assistance from business houses for
any worthy project a committee of this organization might
propose.
There are a great many interesting problems for research
work that occur to me, only a few of which I shall mention, and
these merely to indicate the magnitude of the field.
First. Plows and plowing. Very little is known except
by a very limited number of plow makers in this country about
plows. And what they know they know by experience and ex-
periment and not through scientific investigation. We know
absolutely nothing about plow curves or plow design.
Thousands of draft tests have been made but they do not
mean anything because conditions were not standardized as to
soil and soil moisture content. It ought to be possible to work
out a scientific plan to test draw bar pull now that practically
all our soils are named and described. Such information would
be valuable alike to farmers, plow manufacturers and tractor
builders.
Second. Building and Heating. For years I have had in
mind a series of tests of building materials, especially with
the idea of determining the comparative value of heat insu-
lating construction. Most houses are not well built. They are
not warm «and they require too much fuel. It would be easy,
anywhere there is a central heating plant to erect a number of
small houses — they need be no larger than 6x8 or 8x10 built in
a variety of ways and with different materials. In each of
these houses place a steam radiator with thermostatic control
and catch and weigh all the condensation. This would provide
an accurate, comparative measure of the value of the different
insulating and building materials and prove to the prospective
builder whether he should use one kind of material or style of
construction in preference to another. He would be able to
estimate his fuel saving with any type of construction or build-
ing material. Such tests would be of great national economic
value and doubtless financial assistance could be obtained from
certain business houses in carrying them out.
Third. Another line of research work that should be taken
up more widely, but which is expensive, is farm survey work,
provided that back of it there is a plan to use the information
thus obtained for practical ends.
I might go on and mention other lines of research work but
my purpose is not to submit problems but to show you how
by close co-operation among yourselves and the interests you
represent you may accomplish the most in the least time and at
least expense.
It may interest you to know that there is a general move-
ment on foot to line up the great university laboratories of the
country with the country's business interests. Up to the pres-
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Rose: Problems in Research 1J3
ent, business has looked askance at the colleges in this country.
The last year and a half, however, has revealed to the world
the value of national co-operation and efficiency, and now there
is a general sentiment in this country to utilize all our agencies
for national development co-operatively.
Only a few days ago the Chamber of Commerce of the
United States sent out a general letter to its membership out-
lining a plan to obtain university co-operation with business.
The time would seem propitious for this organization to present
a plan whereby it may aid business and I suggest such action
may be taken as shall lead to that end.
DISCUSSION: RESEARCH PROBLEMS.
Mr. Rose: The scheme proposed in my paper is merely
another phase of a general scheme which has been proposed by
the Chamber of Commerce of the United States.
In a very recent bulletin, sent out by the Chamber of Com-
merce, they recommend that the various industries enter into
some co-operative scheme whereby business and education can
work hand in hand, whereby the business interests can work
with the great laboratories of our universities, and the plan is
to call a conference in Washington of the manufacturing inter-
ests and the representatives from a dozen of our universities
and see what can be worked out. My scheme is only a part, ap-
parently, of that general movement, and I would like to call
upon Mr, Brate, Secretary of the Gas Engine Association, to
tell us briefly what that Association has done so far.
Mr. Brate: I think Prof. Rose has covered the ground
pretty thoroughly. It was originally his scheme and we give
him the credit. A year ago last June, he took the matter up,
but, unfortunately, we were at that time taking a trip on Lake
Michigan, and most of the members were seasick, and they were
not in condition to appreciate Mr. Rose's scheme. Last June
they took it up again. Our Association was organized on a
different basis than it has been heretofore, and it gave us the
finances to make a start on gaining data. Up to this time, this
is the size of the book which we have sent out to our members,
containing this data. (Holding up book.)
Regarding the co-operating of the Department of Agricul-
ture through the kindness of Mr. Yerkes, I went over with Mr.
Page and saw Secretary Houston. Mr. Page is an officer of
the Bureau of Rural Engineering, and he presented the propo-
sition of making tests on various designs of power machinery,
and the Secretary fell right in with the scheme. Just at pres-
ent, we are not able to get anything done on account of lack
of finances, but we are going to make an appeal to the manu-
facturers to write their congressmen to see than an appropriation
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
114 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
is made for carrying on this work. As soon as money is avail-
able, that work will start, and that work will be along the line
of the power necessary to operate various types of power driven
machines under various conditions. I don't know that there is
anything more that I can tell you.
Mr. Rose: What are the nature of the tests to be made?
Mr. Brate : That has not been decided. I expect that will
be taken up soon after the tractor tests. We find that these
data sheets have appealed to the manufacturers and we have
increased our membership considerably since we started this
work. They are in the loose leaf form, and we of our Society
believe that this work is one which will be very profitable to the
members of the industry at large, and also have a tendency to
fill up the membership, which is something every organization
needs.
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SPROCKET WHEELS FOR DETACHABLE LINK
BELTING.
By F. N. G. Kranick*, Mem. Amer. Soc. A. E.
The early history uf detachable link belting dates back to
1873, when Wm. D. Ewart first invented this type of power
transmission.
From that day its use has become more appreciated and
more general. There is hardly an agricultural impleonent manu-
facturing concern but what uses detachable chain for some pur-
pose or another.
During recent years this means of transmission of power
has been developed and today we have some very efficient chain
drives. From the plain detachable Ewart link has evolved,
roller chain, pintle chain, ball and socket chain, pressed steel de-
tachable link chain, and the silent chain. This latter is claimed
to be more efficient than cut gears. Many of the roller chains,
too, run on cut sprocket teeth. Outside of leather belting there
is, on agricultural machines, no other means of power transmis-
sion so general for long drives as detachable sprocket chain or
link belting. From the small sizes used on fanning mills and
washing machines to the Jarger sizes used on manure spreaders,
ditchers, and traction engines, we find a great range.
To have sprocket wheels and chains run properly means
jnuch to the farmers who use these machines, and it seems that
about 75 per cent of all detachable sprocket chain drives are
used on agricultural machinery. Simplicity is one of their great
advantages on farms, where these machines fall into the hands
of inexperienced operators. For all general purposes, chain
belting is a most satisfactory drive for all farm machinery, con-
sistent, of course, with the conditions in question.
The different manufacturers of these detachable chains have
kept very closely to standard pitches ; that is, they all manufac-
ture similar sizes and their sizes all correspond almost exactly
as to length, width, thickness, and strength.
It is the purpose of this paper, however, to present the dif-
ficulties encountered in the use and misuse of the toothed wheels
upon which these chains run and through which the power is
transmitted.
Each manufacturer, no doubt, has a different method of
making these sprocket wheels. One company, in trying to find
how different chain manufacturers made their sprocket wheels,
ordered one 12 tooth wheel from each of the four largest builders
of chains and sprocket wheels. From these it was easily seen
that there was no definite rule by wrhich these manufacturers
•Engineer, Advance-Rumely Co., Battle Creek, Mich.
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116
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
made their sprocket wheels, as they differed very much with
reference to diameter and shape of teeth.
On the face of this, it must be apparent that not all are cor-
rect. Some one type of tooth will work better than the other.
Not only does each manufacturer have a different way of
making these sprocket wheels, but each draftsman in the same
shop frequently makes them different. Too often, this is left to
the judgment and skill of the individual pattern maker.
Ultimately the .metal pattern will have to be made. It will
be a cut and try method and will take lota of time and delay
and too often, cause trouble in the field afterward. The writer
has seen men at work erecting farm machinery where each man
grinds or files the sprocket wheel until the chain will run with-
out climbing. This makes some good and others bad. The re-
TABLE I.
Difference in root diameter of 12 tooth sprocket wheels, from the
product of nine different prominent manufacturers.
Name of
company
Root Dia
of
sprocket
Remarks
1
A
5.750
5:625
driver
2
driven
3
B
C
D 1
E |
5.540 i
5.625 |
5.500
5:250 |
5.673 |
5.812 |
5.562
5.687
5.531
from figures
4
from casting
5
6
7
8
F
G
H
I
9
10
11
pairs when sent out, however, are not tested in this manner and
the result is a very unsatisfactory piece of machinery. (See
table I.)
From the catalogs of three of the largest sprocket chain
manufacturers it can be seen that they differ when it comes to
sprocket wheels. In spite of the fact that their chains are as
nearly alike as it is possible to make them, their wheels' differ
in some cases, and in others they nearly agree. This is strange
and puzzling. Table 2 shows the pitch diameter given in these
three catalogs. It will be noticed that some are larger and others
are smaller, and often all three agree within 1/100 of an inch.
The strangest part of all is that the difference is not constant one
way or another.
The writer has measured sprockets of the same number of
teeth on different machines and found that the diameter at the
root of the teeth differed as much as 7/16 of an inch. On
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Kranick: Sprocket Wheels
TABLE II.
117
Difference in pitch diameter of sprockets as listed by three promi-
nent chain manufacturers and their greatest difference. For chains of
7.4 links per ft.
Number
of
teeth
Pitch die. of sprocket
Greatest
difference
Number
of
teeth
Pitch diameter of
iprocket
C
Greatest
a b C
a b
difference
, 5
6
7
8
2.75* | 2.50" | 2.50"
3JL5 | 3:00 | 3.00
3.78 | 3:50 | 3-75
4.28 1 4.25 |4"25"
.25" |
.15 |
.28 |
.0*3 j
1 16
1 "
1 18
1 19
8.32"
8.84
9737
9785
8.25"
8.75
9.25
9.75
8.50"
8.75
9T50
To7bo
.25"
.09
.25
.25
9
4.80 | 4.75 | 4.75
.05 |
| 20
10.37
10.25
10.50
.25
10
5.28 | 5.25 | 5.25
.03 |
1 21
10.92
11.00
11.00
.08
11
5.76 | 5.75 | 5.75
.01 || 22
11.47
11.25
11.50 j
12.00
.25
12
6.24
6.25 | 6.00
.26 |
| 23
11.93
12.00
.07
13
6.77
6.75 | 7.00
.25 |
1 24
12.44
12.50
12.50
.06
14
7.30
7.25 | 7.25
.05 ■ |
| 25
12.95
13.00
13.00
.05
15
7.80
7.75 | 8.00
.25 |
1
sprockets made in the same shop by different draftsmen and
different pattern makers the variation was as much as 1/4 of an
inch. This is for No. 55 chain. On sprockets of 12 teeth a dif-
ference of 9/16 of an inch was found.
Chains, of course, run on these sprockets in one way or an-
other. Some climb and others do not seat properly. Frequently
the chain is hammered to stretch so it will fit.
All this isn't at all strange. For making gears, we find a
formula, for making pulleys we can find a formula, and for
nearly all other machine parts we have certain rules that work
out well and give excellent results, but there is practically no in-
formation at all that will give us a clue as to how sprocket
wheels should be made and why. In Machinery's Hand Book
there is a table of sizes, much of which is duplicated and the
whole is very limited. No formula is given. Neither is any data
given, as to* why and what all these figures mean, or ho^y they
were obtained. This makes its usefulness doubtful. Books of
various kinds mention link belting only in a casual way, yet its
usefulness is not to be questioned and its convenience is a great
thing indeed.
There are right and wrong ways of using the chain. There
is a difference whether the hook or bar runs forward. There is
much to be gained by correct or incorrectly designed teeth of
the sprocket wheels, also by the diameter of the wheels.
First of all, in the use of these sprocket chains, it must be
remembered that these chains are not perfect. There are slight
differences in the pitch, differences in the link itself. In ten foot
lengths, they vary 1/2" ; that is, 1/4" more or less. This is the
manufacturers ' tolerance and they are particular about this
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
118 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
length. All chains arc very accurately measured to be sure that
they do not run over or under this figure. The foundry mix-
tures are watched very closely to control this.
After a chain has been used for a while it stretches quite
a bit. This also adds to the inaccuracies and must be compen-
sated for.
Besides the errors in the chains, there are errors in the
sprocket wheels, due to errors in drafting, errors in pattern mak-
ing, erors in rapping in the foundry, and in the shrinkage of
the iron. The molds frequently swell, depending on the condi-
tions in the foundry.
One of the first things to remember is the fact that, owing
to above conditons, it will be impossible to get a theoretically cor-
rect sprocket because the chains are not theoretically correct.
The problem of how to compensate for this is solved by
making one tooth the driver or driven. This is essential and
must not be lost sight of. This means that sufficient clearance
must be allowed to get this result. This clearance, therefore,
will vary a trifle with the number of teeth. Large wheels need
more, because this clearance is cumulative. Usually from 1/16"
to 5/32" is allowed for all the discrepancies mentioned above.
Wear and stretch, too, ,must be considered.
The object of this clearance is to prevent the chain from
climbing or even tending to climb on the teeth of the wheel.
Sprockets too large or too small will cause this. The result of
climbing is rapid wear, much unnecessary strain, uneven run-
ning, a useless consumption of power, and more often breakage,
which causes costly delays.
The point sought in every case is, of course, to get the action
in the joint of the chain rather than on the sprocket wheel, con-
sistent with the work, of course. This can easily be understood
because all the action or most of it on the sprocket will cause
much wear here because this is the point that does all the work
of driving.
The illustration, Fig. 1, Plate 1, shows this plainly. To get
all the action in the chain hook is ideal. Wear here can more
easily and more cheaply be replaced and it will be less, because
there are usually so many more points to wear for there are
usually more chain links than teeth. Furthermore this wear
isn't apt to distort the teeth, whereas if the teeth themselves
become worn badly, the chain works poorly. A hook worn on a
sprocket tooth makes a very hard working and badly acting
chain drive. Lubricants, too, will stay better in the chain hook
than on the sprocket.
There are four points on all chain drives that should be
considered. The action at the entering tooth on the driver, the
action at the entering tooth on the driven, the action at the re-
leasing tooth on the driver and the releasing tooth of the driven.
Digitized by LiOOQ IC
Kranick: Sprocket Wheels
1J9
Actual trials have proven that by running the hook first,
the chain gives best service, will last longest, and transmit its
maximum amount of power and with the least friction and least
noise. On this point nearly all engineers agree. This is appar-
ent on all agricultural machines.
On elevator chains or vertical drives, however, the reverse
is true. The head sprocket is usually the driver, the lower
merely an idler, and by running the bar first the best results
are obtainable.
In sprocket design, the base or root diameter of the sprocket
is the determining factor because the chain blocks rest on the
bottom, and since rough cast sprockets cannot be made exactly
alike, neither can the chain be exactly correct, therefore the
sprocket and chain will not correspond exactly.
Since the above is true, the question arises as to where and
how these differences should be accounted for. The problem is
whether the driver or driven sprocket should be larger or smaller
than the theoretical pitch as figured from the chain.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
120 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Fig.l and 2 on Plate 1 shows a chain drive where, in one
case, Fig. 1, the driver is made smaller than the actual chain
pitch and the driven larger than the actual chain pitch.
In Fig. 2, this is reversed. The driver is larger and the
driven smaller. This difference is very small, it is 1/16" more
and 1/16" less than the actual pitch figured from the chain.
It will be seen that in the case as shown in Fig. 1, the pitch
of the chain is less than thit of the sprocket on the driven A and
is more at B, the driver. With the direction of rotation shown
in the figure, it will be seen that the block, a, of the chain is
caught by the tooth, a1, and this tooth becomes the driver, carry-
ing the whole load. Block b is just a trifle ahead of tooth b1,
and the block c still farther ahead of tooth c1, etc., this increas-
ing until the end or at h, when it leaves the sprocket.
On the driven, A, the chain block 1 enters on tooth l1 and
block 2 is just ahead of tooth 21, and so on around through 3\ 41,
51, 6\ 7\ 8\ until it leaves the last tooth 9\ The entering tooth
is the driver and carries the entire load here also.
From this it will be seen that the chain leaves the sprocket
with plenty of clearance and in good shape.
In Fig. 2, the sprocket wheel D used for driving is larger
than the driven C, just the reverse condition of Fig. 1.
Here the chain pitch is smaller than the wheel D, with the
result that the entering block j of the chain falls just behind the
tooth j1, and block k of chain just behind tooth k1, and so on,
the clearance growing less until at tooth q1 where block r touches
this tooth. The block s, having just left tooth r1, slides back
on the inclined face surface so that the tooth q1 takes the load
of driving easily and quietly.
At the driven sprocket C, which is smaller than chain pitch,
the clearance at chain block 10 and tooth 101 is very small. It
can be seen that this increases until at tooth 181 where it and
chain block 17 touch, for this tooth carries the load.
It will be seen that in Fig. 1, when the entering tooth, as at
a1, does the driving, that this chain block, a, must necessarily
slide on this tooth, a1, toward the base of sprocket so it can rest
on the bottom or on the root diameter. Furthermore, when the
chain does this, it must push itself ahead, if the sprocket is a
positive driver, so as to give clearance to the preceding tooth b1.
The case in the driven A is the same, but here the sprocket must
slide ahead enough so the chain can seat properly because block
1 must be the driver and give clearance to the preceding tooth
21. In doing this, much wear of course comes on the tooth and
jnuch unnecessary power is consumed, due to this existitig con-
dition. The motion too of the driven is therefore jerky and very
irregular, bringing much unnecessary stress on the chain. The
action on the driver is also very bad, causing undue wear and
loss of power.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Kranick: Sprocket Wheels 121
In figure 2, the chain block j enters behind the tooth jl, and
k enters behind tooth k1, and so on until at q1 where this tooth
takes up all clearance and touches block r and carries the load
just received from the preceding tooth r1.
The driven sprocket C likewise enters with tooth 101 behind
block 10, and so on, the clearance becoming less until at tooth
18\ the block touches it and this tooth 181 carries the load.
From this it will be seen that where the chain enters the
sprocket, it is always with the clearance in front of it so that
there is no tendency to climb on the tooth as is the case in Pig. 1.
This, then, is the ideal condition and with sprockets made in this
way, the wear will be the minimum and the life of the chain and
wheels prolonged considerably. The chain runs over the wheels
and seats itself quietly and easily, eliminating all tendency to
climb.
Furthermore, one reason why chain drives are frequently
so noisy is because they are run as in Fig. 1 and the entering
tooth doing the driving causes a loud clatter as the chain slips
ahead or as the wheel lags behind as in the case of the driven.
To eliminate this tendency for the chain to climb the teeth,
will be equal to eliminating 75 per cent of the chain trouble ; first
by prolonging the life of the chain and wheel, second by in-
creased service and reduction in friction and a consequent sav-
ing of power. Then too much of the noise will be eliminated.
There is another element even, with the above conditions
ideal as in Fig. 2, that causes much trouble and almost defeats
the entire problem of chain drives. It also causes rapid stretch-
ing of chains and lots of noise, besides consuming much power.
This is the tooth shape.
It will be seen that in Fig. 1, Plate 1, where the chain leaves
the sprocket D at tooth r1 that it must, as mentioned before, slip
back a trifle so that tooth q1 can carry he load when block s is
released by tooth r1. The shape of the tooth should be such that
this block of chain can easily slide off the tooth and with just
enough slant to it so that before it has entirely left the tooth r1,
that tooth q1 will have received it without jar or jump.
It is apparent that the majority of sprockets have not been
given the consideration that they should have. In Plate 2 will
be seen the shapes of teeth used by four of the largest manufac-
turers of sprocket chains and sprocket wheels. It is, of course,
sure that these are not all correct; that is, that one will work
better than another. The difference is quite great. These
sprockets, as mentioned above, were purchased from the manu-
facturers just to find out how much difference there really was
with a view of getting the best for standard use.
In Plate 3 is shown another variety of tooth shapes. These
were all traced from metal patterns in one plant and used in the
manufacture of their goods. Some are good and some are not so
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
122
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
IC
IX T
I* T
Rare E
good. They all have been used and it might be said, gave satis-
faction, for in each case chains ran and transmitted power from,
or to, these wheels.
In Pig. 1, Plate 4, we have a tooth that shows clearly why a
curve should be used. It is apparent that the links bend on a
radius as at r. Running in the direction shown by the arrow,
the tooth a is the one just receiving the load. Now then, as the
chain block d leaves tooth b of the wheel in a horizontal direction,
this block must, of course, swing with e as a center along the
path, g h, on the center, and the edge slide along the path, f j.
a
it T
h
13 T
d
d T
C
ir T
plat* nr
Digitized by VjOOQI<2
Kranick: Sprocket Wheels
123
Plate IT
-E^S#=^§^
If this tooth curve is just the correct shape it will allow block d
to slide easily and gradually so tooth a and block e1 will touch
so the latter tooth can pick up the load with ease and wtihout
noise or clatter.
But suppose the tooth b had straight face, k k, then the
block d would slide up this face until it was about at the center
of the tooth and then block el would be touching tooth a, and to
get past the end of this straight faced tooth, k k, block d would
have to slip out again, drawing block e1 away from tooth a, and
over the end of the tooth b, because its distance at this end is
greater than at the center. When letting go, then, he block e1
would again have to slip back to tooth a, so it could follow up
and take the load.
Besides causing lots of wear, this would consume much ad-
ditional power and in general give much bother. It would be
noisy and give a very uneven and jerky motion to the chain and
shaft to which the power was transmitted. The easier the load
can be carried from one tooth to the other, the less will be the
power loss, and the less will be the wear and tear from the causes
given above.
It must be apparent that with the various sizes and kinds
of sprocket wheel teeth already shown, that some are better than
others, consequently some will give better results than others.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
124
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
In Fig. 2, Plate 4, are shown a few links of ordinary de-
tachable link belting. The dimension b is one of the important
ones. It is the distance from the center line of the chain to the
bottom of the chain block and is usually called " backing". This
dimension gives us the figures that we need to get the root
diameter of the sprocket, which is the determining factor, the
one which determines whether the chain will run well or poorly,
even more than the pitch diameter, which is really of no im-
portance at all except for laying out the sprocket.
The distance y is of value only when idler or tightener
sprockets are to be made and used on the reverse side of the
chain. P is the pitch or the distance from center to center of
chain links.
To help this matter of sprocket chain drives, the following
tables and rules, table III, for making sprocket wheels are here-
with submitted.
TABLE III
Number of
chain
Chain
pitch
Backing
Pittance above pitch line
25
.902" |
32
1.154 |
34
1.398 |
35
1.630 |
42
1.375 |
45
1.630 |
52
L506 |
55
1.631 |"~
62
1.654 |
Mall, chain Steel chain ! Mall. Steel
| "2031" ~|_ 1775"~~| "1-8
5-32
.2450 | .2275 | 5-32
3-16
.2623 | .2575 | 5-32
.2623 | .3000 | " 5-32
1-4
7-32
| .2820 | .2625 | 3-16
9-32
.2934 | .3000 | 3-16
9-32
.3466 | .3000 | 7-32
5-16
.3533 | .3175 | 7-32
9-32
| .4106 | .3325 | 1-4
5-16
chord — ch
backing — b
chain pitch — cp
root diameter — R.D.
Pitch diameter for one inch chord pitch.
No.
of
teeth
P.D.
inches
No- | P. D.
teeth! incnc«
No. I P
teetll !
D.
inches
No. |
of
teerh
P.D.
inches
4
| 1.414 |; 12
5
1 1.701 || 13
6
| 2.000 || 14
7
| 2.305 || 15
8
| 2.613 || 16
9
| 2.924 || 17
10
| 3.236 || 18
11
|3.549 || 19
No. I
of
teetl |
I 36 |
I 37 |
| 38 |
f39"|
I 40 I
I "41" I
I 42 |
L43J.
cp X <* — (2 b) = Root Dia.
If for driver add 1-16" to R.D.
If for driven subtract 1-16" from R.D.
P. D.
inches
No.
of
teeth
P.D.
inches
| 3.864 || 20
| 6.392 ||
28
| 8.931 1
| 4.179 || 21
| 6.710 ||
29
| 9.249 |
| 4.494 || 22
| 7.027 |
30
| 9.567|
| 4.810 || 23
] 7.344 |
31
| 9.884|
| 5.126 || 24
| 7.661 1
32
1 10.202 |
| 5.442 || 25
| 7.979 |
33
1 10.520 |
| 5.759 |i 26
| 8.297 |
34
1 10.838 |
| 6.076|| 27
| 8.614 |
35
1 11.156 |
11.474 || 44
14.018
11.791 1| 45
14.335
12.110 || 46
14.653
12.427 || 47
14.972
12.746 || 48
15.291
13.064 || 49
15.608
13.382 || 50
15.927
13.699 i|
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Kranick: Sprocket Wheels 125
In this table will be seen a list of nine of the most common
sizes of chain used on agricultural machines with their import-
ant dimensions. Important, of course, because from them, the
calculations are made with which the sprocket is finally drawn
and dimensioned.
The table above contains the chain pitch, the distance from
center to center of link, the backing, or distance from center line
or pitch line of chain to the bottom of chain block, also distance
above pitch line.
These figures were obtained from the largest chain manu-
facturers. They were further checked closely with actual chains.
Quite contrary to many opinions of designers, malleable
and steel chains will not run equally well on the same sprockets.
These chains differ enough so that what may prove a perfect run-
ning chain and sprocket in one case may, by changing chains,
be a total failure.
It is highly probable that the manufacturers of the steel
chain have long before this discovered the same thing. This is
because the steel chain is limited in making the hook by what
material is obtained from the inside of the link.
This is important and must be considered in sprocket design
as it means success or failure afterward.
The table of pitch diameter for one inch chordal pitch is
merely a table of polygons. If this is considered instead of the
circumference of a circle, the per cent of error will be less.
With these figures we can now construct a formula which
will give us the root diameter of the sprocket wheel.
If the wheel is to be used as a driver 1/16" is added to this
result. If a driven, 1/16" is subtracted. This is done for the
reasons already explained.
If a chain idler or tightener is to be made, this distance
above the pitch line of the chain should be considered. Tight-
eners on the top side of the chain do not, however, give as good
results as those below and should be avoided when possible.
On Plate 5 are shown some tooth dimensions. This illustra-
tion is primarily given to show how drawings and dimensions
can be given so that patterns may be more easily and more cor-
rectly made.
These figures have all been very carefully made and nearly
all have been tried. The tooth shape is such as to give the chain
the freest movement from tooth to tooth.
It would be well for those who make sprockets to have cast
on them whether they are for " driver' ' or " driven.' ' Fre-
quently this might save lots of trouble, for if cast on the wheel,
no excuse could be had for its improper use.
These figures and this data are the result of a good many
years of work. They have all been tried and found to give per-
fect satisfaction.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
126
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Ifumbcr
chain
Tooth D
i mensions
*R
w
H
r
T
s
3
25
if
75
&
i
32.
r
ft
i
3*
*
*
5
i
i
11
3fc
ft
•
a
3+
l&
i
%
ft
s
*
1
5
a
35
ii
I
ft
h
!
i
A
*fc
<s
4
13
h
*
a
1
4
ft
•45
ii
5
II
A
h
I
3
16
5Z
«i
i
1
ft
1
iS
3*
1
16
55
'4
f
.1
ft
II
I?
i
*
6t
«4
1
I
ft
I
•
16
rLflre 3T
This plan of making the driver and driven sprocket wheel
of different sizes is not at all new. Tho the writer found this out
for himself, he is not the only one who has reached these con-
clusions.
In an article in The American Machinist by H. Tuttle, some
five years ago, the same points were brought out. The Link Belt
Company also have published a leaflet on this subject.
The writer wishes to acknowledge the kindness of The Link
Belt Company, The Chain Belt Company, The Locke Steel Belt
Company, and Mr. H. W. Tuttle for their help in furnishing
samples, sizes, and figures, from which much of this data was
obtained.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
EXPERIMENTS IN FERTILIZER APPLICATION.
Henry G. Bell#, Mem. Amer. Soc. A. E.
The value of the farm crops produced in this country be-
tween 1900 and 1910 advanced over one-half billion dollars.
At the present time, their value exceeds two billion dollars.
The acreage of various crops increased some six, others seventy-
two per cent during the decade mentioned. Undoubtedly, much
of this increase was the result of the rapid development of more
efficient farm .machinery. In 1900 there was an investment in
farm machinery per farm, of $131.00. In 1910 this investment
in machinery was increased to $199.00 per farm. The census
report herein shows an increase of $68.00 per farm invested in
farm machinery between 1900 and 1910.
In this production of more corn, more wheat, more crops
in general, the use of available plant food or fertilizers supple-
mented the valuable supplies of plant food carried by farm
manures and legumes. In 1900 American fanners were using
less than three million tons of fertilizers. In 1915 they used
over seven and one-fourth million tons. Such a quantity repre-
sents an investment of hundreds of millions of dollars on the
part of the farmer. Like farm machinery, if fertilizers are
used wisely they render very profitable service to the farmer.
Fertilizing application is distinctly an engineering prob-
lem. Like farm machinery again, fertilizers must be properly
applied if they are to render maximum profits.
This problem of fertilizer application is one in which I
wish to interest the agricultural engineers of experiment sta-
tions, and colleges. In the twenty-one state colleges of agricul-
ture, east of the Missouri River and north of Tennessee and
North Carolina, 19 institutions are giving courses in fertilizers
in their agronomy studies. Two of the prominent middle west-
ern institutions do not yet make mention of the important phase
of soil fertility studies. In the curricula of all of the twenty-
one state institutions, there is special announcement made of
courses in agricultural engineering. In these courses mention
is made of instruction in operating gasoline tractors and spray-
ing machines, installing bathrooms and running Fords, but no
mention whatever is made of machinery for applying this iy±
millions tons of plant food.
The method of application of fertilizers is an untouched
field in this country. It is purely a subject for the agricultural
engineer.
To place before you .my ideas in definite form, I have out-
lined only one phase of this great problem in the hope that this
•Agronomist, National Fertilizer Association, Chicago, 111.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
128 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
work, which is in such great need of attention, may be under-
taken.
EXPERIMENTS IN APPLYING FERTILIZERS TO CORN.
The following divisions of the experiment are recorded :
(a) Depth of Application of Fertilizers.
(b) Manner of Application of Fertilizers.
(A) DEPTH OF APPLICATION.
Rate — IrOO lbs. per acre.
1. Broadcast with lime and fertilizer distributor on top
of seed bed and harrow in.
2. Drill fertilizer in with the fertilizer attachment of the
grain drill at a depth of 2 inches to 3 inches.
3. Apply the fertilizers with the planter at a depth of 2
to 3 inches.
4. Apply the fertilizers on top of soil and plow under at
a depth of 6 to 8 inches.
(B) MANNER OF APPLICATION.
Rate — 400 lbs. per acre.
Application so far as possible shall be at a uniform depth.
1. Broadcast all the fertilizers with lime and fertilizer
distributor.
2. Broadcast all the fertilizers with fertilizer attachment
of grain drill. (Conductor tubes or hoes removed from
furrow opener.)
3. Brill the fertilizers in with the fertilizer attachment of
the grain drill just before the corn is planted.
4. Apply all the fertilizers in the row through the fer-
tilizer attachment of the planter, with the fertilizer run-
ning continuously.
5. Apply all the fertilizers in the row through the fer-
tilizer attachment of the planter dropping the fertilizer
just behind the hill.
6. Apply two-thirds of the fertilizers with the fertilizer
attachment of the grain drill and the remainder in the
row through the fertilizer attachment of the planter,
the fertilizers running continuously.
7. Apply two-thirds of the fertilizers with the fertilizer
attachment of the grain drill and the remainder in the
row through the fertilizer attachment of the planter,
dropping the fertilizers just back of the hill.
8. Apply two-thirds of the fertilizers with a broadcast
lime and fertilizer distributor and the remainder in the
row through the fertilizer attachment of the planter,
allowing the fertilizers to run continuously in the row.
9. Apply two-thirds of the fertilizers through a broadcast
lime and fertilizer distributor and the remainder in the
row with the fertilizer attachment of the planter, drop-
ping the fertilizers just back of the hill.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
GENERAL DISCUSSION FERTILIZER APPLICATION.
Chairman Musselman: Mr. C. 0. Reed was chairman of
the committee which had this matter of farm and field ma-
chinery in charge for this year. Mr. Bell presented this prob-
lem to me at the close of the session last year, and I referred it to
the committee on Farm and Field Machinery. I do not know
whether we got just clear in mind what Mr. Bell had in-
tended or not, but I turned the problem over to this committee,
and in the discussion that was brought out, the Farm and Field
Machinery committee seemed to think that this was a problem
more for the agronomist, or for the soils man or the crops man,
rather than the Agricultural Engineer. That is about the gist
of what the correspondence showed. Now, undoubtedly there
is somewhat at least of that feature attached to the problem.
However, there are some mechanical things involved in that
problem that ought to be taken care of by machinery, the ma-
chinery which would be used for applying the fertilizer, etc.
That question has been under consideration this year, but no
progress was made. It was further suggested, I believe, by the
committee, that they did not have the money to carry on any
definite experiments along this line. I think that is about all
with reference to the correspondence of the committee. Mr.
Gunness and Mr. Wiggins are on that committee.
Mr. Costelloe: I believe we ought to have something to
do with some things in this field at least. I made a guess at
the number of acres which would be covered by the seven and
a quarter million tons which have been referred to and that
space would be a little larger than the State of Iowa. Now if
there is an area that large in this country that requires fer-
tilizers, I believe that it will be better applied by mechanical
means, and I doubt if very much has been done to demonstrate
the proper way of applying it. I believe as a general proposi-
tion it is now put on as a top-dressing.
There is a little machine invented by one of the men of our
College which is called a scarifier. It is a little embarrassing to
us Agricultural Engineers to have inquiries come in about the
clover-scratching machine, that we don't know anything about,
and I believe we should at least keep posted on these things.
Mr. Davidson : I think that the experiments suggested by
Prof. Bell are somewhat interesting from the standpoint of the
last speaker. The Agricultural Experiment Stations have not
been an important factor in developing the methods of doing
agricultural work. There have been exceptions, and Prof. Cos-
telloe has mentioned one, and I can think of a few others, but
in the machinery line, the Experiment Station has not been
much of a factor in improving methods in the use of equip-
ment, which is the outstanding feature of American agriculture.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
130 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
American agriculture differs from the agriculture of all other
countries in the extensive use of equipment ; and the Experiment
Stations and the great National Department of Agriculture have
not been factors in this feature of our agriculture. We do not
even have up-to-date equipment in the Experiment Stations, and
it seems to me that this is an appeal that we might well look into.
Can' we set up some ideals or practices at our Experiment Sta-
tions which are at least as good as the best practice now used any-
where in the country? We are not doing it now. The methods
used in the average Experiment Station are obsolete and they
have not been a factor at all in this matter.
, There has been a change on the part of Agricultural educat-
ors in their understanding of the proper function of agricultural
engineering research work. There are only a few stations now
that appropriate money definitely for such research work. I can
remember the time when nearly every educator in the country
would say that it was not the function of agricultural engineers
to initiate anything themselves. They could pass along some-
thing that somebody else had initiated, but I think there is a
change in that respect ; now, we are called upon to initiate things.
When Mr. King was associated with me, there were some
exceptions taken as to certain work in the Department along the
line of certain farm structures. After we had started, everyone
appreciated that that was a proper function for an Experiment
Station to undertake, and we believe we are going to be a factor
in the development of American agriculture in that respect.
Mr. Ramsower: It seems to me that Mr. Bell has thrown
some very definite and pertinent questions at the Agricultural
Engineers; for instance in his second suggestion under " Depth
of application. Drill fertilizer in with the fertilizer attachment
of the grain drill at a depth of two to three inches.' '
I wonder how many grain drills there are on the market of
a type which would make it possible to put our fertilizer in to a
depth of two to three inches, and cover it? I believe there are
very few who, under average soil conditions, would put their
fertilizer in to a depth of two inches. Isn't it under average
conditions somewhat difficult to cover it at all with the drills
we have ? To get down to a depth of two to three inches is quite
impossible with any drill we have today.
Another suggestion. Here it is suggested that the fertilizer
be applied at a rate of four hundred pounds per acre. That is
more than twice the usual application of fertilizers in the
State of Ohio. Two hundred pounds are regarded as a heavy
rate by the majority of farmers. Is there a broad-cast distributor
on the market that will distribute evenly four hundred pounds
per acre ? I doubt if there is. I know I have tried it on my own
farm and I found it difficult to distribute two hundred pounds.
Another question is, whether the single disk or the double
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
General Discussion: Fertilizer Application 131
disk is the better proposition for use on the grain drill. If we
take the words of the manufacturers, the farmers in many parts
of the State of Ohio are going back to the old methods. I. don't
believe there is a man in this State or outside of it that can an-
swer that question today. I don' believe there is a manufacturer
who can answer it and back up his answer with definite proof.
It seems to me that is a wonderful field for some of us to go into.
Mr. Bell : That question of the amount per acre was simply
put in roughly. We don't know what is the best depth either.
That was a suggestion, we might find out something about it if
we could.
Mr. Gregory: There are some other points that are not
brought out that I think might well be considered in connection
with that. One of our greatest problems is the maintenance of
a supply of organic matter in the soil. It is unfortunate that in
Illinois, and even more in States farther west, there are still a
great many strawstacks burned, a great many stalk-fields burned,
and that is a tremendous loss, a loss that our agriculture cannot
afford to stand. One of the principal raesons that strawstacks
are burned is that there is no standard machine for spreading
straw, and it is a hard job to do it by hand. I think such a ma-
chine would be a good thing for this associtaion to take up. One
of the reasons that stalkfields are burned is because it is so diffi-
. cult a matter to reduce cornstalks, that they do not bother. That
is certainly a proper subject for this Association to determine,
what sort of implements could be used that will reduce those
stalks so thoroughly that they will not bother in the cultivation
of the land.
Another point is the application of fertilizers in the shape
of rock phosphate and limestone. These are applied frequently
in the case of limestone at the rate of five tons per acre, and this
presents an entirely different problem. A fertilizer distributor
that will handle four hundred pounds of fertilizer will not handle
five tons. It has been a very practical problem to distribute lime-
stone as high as five tons per acre and rock phosphate up to two
tons per acre, and the proper kind of machine to handle those
two products is a very important thing, which I believe the
Agricultural Engineers ought to consider.
Mr. Hayes: My experience with fertilizers goes back to
about 1894. At that time very few people agreed as to the
proper way of putting on the fertilizer. Some wanted to broad-
cast it, some wanted to drill in the row, and part of them wanted
to check it in. Some wanted to check the fertilizer and the corn
together, but t^ey didn't try that very long.
The practical practice today is that they plant the fertilizer
about two or three inches, either ahead or back of the corn, ac-
cording to the machine. Most of them drop it about two or
three inches back of the corn. All of the fertilizing machines
Digitized by LiOOQ IC
132 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
that I know of on the market attempt to plant the fertilizer at
the same depth as the seed. There has been no machine that I
know that attempts to plant the fertilizer at any other depth,
and it would require entirely different machinery to do it. A
great many machines check the fertilizer with the corn or drill
the fertilizer continuously in the same furrow where the corn
is planted. This year our sales on those machines were about
three-quarters of them with the checking machine and about one-
quarter with the drill in the row. It seems to be a feeling of the
farmers through the country that they get a little more eco-
nomical results by checking the fertilizer. The checking ma-
chine is a little more trouble to take care of. If the farmer leaves
his machine out, it gathers moisture, and then there is trouble,
and that is the reason why many prefer the drill attachment.
There have been a great many types of feeds devised for
handling fertilizers, and we have found that the very simplest
feed, the one that is the easiest cared for, gives the best results.
It should be one that will always work and one where there is
the least chance of trouble, and one that will handle the largest
variation of fertilizers gives the best satisfaction to the farmer.
Now, as to the amount : Very rarely do we ever see any one
plant over one hundred pounds to the acre. A ,man would have
to travel a good many hundred miles before he would find#one
farmer that went over that. In Illinois there are very few fer-
tilizers. About sixty per cent of the machines that go into In-
diana are fertilizer spreaders. In the Eastern country, New
England and New York State there is a larger percentage of fer-
ilizers around 80 or 90 per cent. On the ordinary field corn, the
amount of fertilizer is from fifty to one hundred pounds per acre.
We have made a special field machine, adapted to corn rows, and
most of the people who are using fertilizers want a machine that
will handle up to three or four hundred pounds. Whether they
can put that much on or not, I doubt, because that is about the
limit expected of our machine, and if they are using very light
fertilizer they cannot put that much on. When we first started
out, we used to tell a man how much fertilizer a device would
drop, but we soon got tired of doing that, because one man was
planting heavy rock phosphate and another fertilizer that
weighed hardly anything. Then again, you take wet fertilizer,
and you will not plant as much as if it were dry. We don't pre-
tend to tell them now how much our machine could plant; we
simply give them a ratio of twelve different quantities. We can
vary about twenty-five pounds to the change and we find a whole
lot better success when we do not tell them than when we did.
We have entirely quit giving them definite amounts. We can
plant from three to four hundred pounds, according to the type
and condition of the fertilizers, and the, man must buy a ma-
chine to suit his conditions.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
General Discussion: Fertilizer Application 133
Mr. Ramsower brought out another question, as to the single
or double disk drill. That is a point everybody has argued for a
long time ; we think the solution is very simple. If a man pre-
pares his ground well, we don't think there is any trouble put-
ting in any fertilizer with the double-disk drill. If his ground
is lumpy, perhaps he better use a single-disk drill. With the hoe-
drill, it is much easier. If the ground is in good shape, there is
no trouble in the world about it, and nothing in the world to beat
a hoe-drill for putting the fertilizer just where you want it and
for cheap maintenance.
We are selling a man anything he wants, but that is our
personal observation.
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FENCES: MATERIALS, MANUFACTURING AND BUILD-
ING.
By H. E. Horton*.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OP FARM FENCES.
"In 1909 there were 6,361,502 farms in the United States,
averaging 138.1 acres each. It has been found that the average
140-acre farm requites six rods of fence to the acre, or a total
of 828.6 rods to the farm. This would mean that there were in
round numbers 5,271,000,000 rods or 16,472,000 miles of fence
in use in the United States in 1910. This amount of fence would
encircle the earth about 659 times. To replace this with only a
medium grade of woven wire fence, a type which has been very
commonly used by American farmers in the past, would cost at
the rate of 65 cents per rod for wire, posts, miscellaneous ma-
terials, and labor, $3,426,241,362, which is 8.3 per cent of the
total value of all farm property, 12 per cent of the value of all
farm land, 54.1 per cent of the value of farm buildings, 69.5 per
cent of the value of domestic animals, poultry and bees on farms,
and more than double the value of all implements and machin-
ery on farms, according to the values estimated for these items
by the last census. It must be borne in mind, however, that the
figures represent the first cost of fences, while the census figures
represent the present value of buildings and machinery. There-
fore the ratio will not be quite as great.
It may be fairly assumed that the average woven-wire fence
constructed of materials which will permit its erection at a cost
not to exceed 65 cents per rod, will not give satisfactory service
for more than fifteen years. Assuming this to be the case, the
renewal cost of farm fences in the United States would amount to
$228,416,090 annually. Data obtained by this office show that
there is an annual repair charge of 0.024 cent per rod on woven
wire fence. At this rate the repair charges on all fences in the
United States will total $126,507,373. The interest on investment
at 5 per cent is $171,312,068. Totaling these three items gives
an annual upkeep charge of $526,235,531, or a cost of $82.72 per
farm, or 59 cents per acre, or 15.37 per cent of the value of the
fence as above estimated. There is, of course, a great deal of
fencing that is not made of woven wire, but the depreciation, re-
pair, and investment charges on it would be even greater than
in the case of woven wire.,,##
WHY BUY FENCE?
Whv does the farmer buy fence? The prime reason is imi-
tr.tion: his neighbor has fences. Another reason is selfishness,
•Agricultural Commissioner. American Steel and Wire Co., Chicago.
••By H. N. Humphrey. Cost of Fencing Farms in the North Central States.
In U. S. Dept. of Agr. Bulletin No. 321. 1916.
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Horton: Fences 135
for the real ownership of land is not felt unless it is guarded
against intrusion. Another reason is to make money.
Thinking of fields, and in a superficial way, the fence will
of itself neither directly raise nor lower the yield of potatoes,
grains, etc. Indirectly, and through livestock keeping, fence
means the major part of maintaining permanent fertility for the
soil and increased income from the sale of livestock.
There is always material produced on the farm which has no,
or doubtful, market value — weeds, stubble, straw, corn stalks.
Through the medium of livestock these materials may be con-
verted into meat on the hoof, which has a value the world over.
A flock of sheep, a bunch of swine, a herd of cattle, furnish
manure and meat.
Shut in stalls, these domestic animals do not make the most
economical gains, for these come only when stall feeding is sup-
plemented with feeding in the field. Fence makes possible this
profitable combination.
Th invention and rapid production of barbed wire marked
an epoch in farming history of this country. In the beginning it
was believed by many that barbed wire solved all fence problems.
As time passed barbed wire was execrated more and more, but
still its production and distribution continued in quantity.
The perfecting of the Bates loom in 1896 and the production
of a woven wire fence was hailed with great enthusiasm. It was
thought that the woven wire fence had doomed the barbed wire,
but there seems to be room for both.
The first record of barbed wire being sold is in 1874 and the
quantity was 10,000 lbs. In 1880 40,000 tons were sold ; in 1885
the sales had grown to 150,000 tons.
In 1900-1901, it is estimated that between 180,000 and
200,000 tons were produced and sold a year. In 1913 the pro-
duction was increased to 300,000 tons.
THE IMPORTANCE OF FENCES ON THE FARM AS SHOWN BY
THE PRODUCTION OF A LARGE COMPANY.
9 months, ending 12-30-898. 15,156 net tons
1899 27,687
1900 35,393
1901 70,336
1902 107,098
1903 143,789
1904 155,316
1905 204,510
1906 198,494
1907 220,356
1908 239,040
1909 260,822
1910 285,039
1911 364,406
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
136 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
ORIGIN OP WOVEN WIRE FENCE.
The farmer had the barbed wire fence around his fields and
while it did much toward developing better farming there always
was present in the mind of the farmer feeling against the barbs.
Out of the barbed wire grew a fence of three strands of
barbed wire connected with short stays (U. S. Patent No. 186716,
January 30, 1877, A. C. Decker, Bushnell, 111.)
Wm. Bell, of Verona, Miss., clearly expressed the idea of the
present woven wire fence in U. S. Patent No. 349559, September
21, 1886.
While not possessing the evidence coming from a patent, it
is known Mr. J. Wallace Page was working prior to 1886 to pro-
duce a woven wire fence. Page drove rough stakes in the ground
and wove wire in and out among the stakes and tied these wires
into place. He followed this by giving rigidity to his fence by-
nailing a board along the top of the stakes. When his ideas were
sufficiently developed and his vision cleared, he built in the
spring of 1884 a wooden loom and started the weaving of all wire
fences.
1892-1894
During this period the triangular Ellwood fabric was devel-
ped by the efforts of Herman Schnabel, Sam Swanbaum and A. J.
Bates.
1893-1896
In this period A. J. Bates conceived and perfected a loom
to manufacture the square mesh fabric now known as American
field fence.
SUMMARY OF DEVELOPMENT.
PIONEERS IN WORK FOR AN EFFECTIVE WIRE FENCE.
Year 1877 A. C. Decker.
Year 1884 Page
Year 1886 Wm. Bell.
PRINCIPLE OF COMMERCIAL WOVEN WIRE FENCE ESTABLISHED.
11 Ellwood.' ' Triangle mesh fabric.
P. J. & P. W. Sommer. Trapezoid mesh fabric 1889. 10-29
U. S. Pat. 414125.
C. M. Lamb 1894-1895. U. S. Pat. 598265. (Taken over by
Peerless in 1910.)
A. J. Bates. Square mesh fabric.
J. C. Perry. Electric Welded Fence. (Pittsburg Fence Co.)
U. S. Pat. 576069, Jan. 26, 1897.
D. P. Anthony. U. S. Pat. 662662, Nov. 27, 1900.
G. E. Mirfield. Youngstown Fence. U. S. Pat. 894971,
Aug. 4, 1908.
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Norton: Fences 137
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION.
On every side there is someone ready to say — "if we could
only have the same kind of steel they had when I was a young
man. ,f
In the year 1876 the use of Bessemer steel began in the
United States. Up to this time the metal used in making wire
came from many different points and uniformity of quality was
unheard of. When the Bessemer steel wire came into use the
process of making steel was comparatively new, the source of the
raw ore little developed, and the steel was not noted for uni-
formity.
As the production of Bessemer steel increased, as knowledge
of the ores available for making this steel became known, as men
increased in efficiency, there was a steady improvement in the
quality and uniformity of the Bessemer steel produced. Little
by little the process has been improved until today it is almost
perfect so far as uniformity of quality is concerned.
The big manufacturer of today is jnade up of all the best in
the small manufacturers of the past. Today there is perfect
<motrol of raw materials and manufacturing processes, from the
iron ore mined in northern Michigan and Minnesota to the fin-
ished wire ready for use on the farm. Men who have grown gray
at their work have brought to the highest state of perfection all
the manufacturing steps from the Furnace to the Farm. The art
is known in is smallest detail and it is safe to say that the present
hig manufacturer is an expert when it comes to the subject of
making iron and steel and manufacturing it into fence for the
idvm.
Steel going into woven wire fence is made by two processes,
the Bessemer and the Open Hearth*. Economic changes taking
place in the country are having the effect of increasing the pro-
ducion of Open Hearth steel and at this time it is possible to
look far enough into the future to see the relative production of
the Bessemer and the Open Hearth steels reversed.
At the present period more low carbon Bessemer steel is
.going into fence wire than any other kind. A considerable ton-
nage of Open Hearth basic steel and a very small quantity of
high carbon steel is going into fence wire.
The composition of the low carbon Bessemer stock used in
.fence wire is i
Carbon 0.10% (the limits being 0.08—0.12%) ;
Manganese 0.35 to 0.45%;
Sulphur 0.12% and under.
The composition of the Open Hearth basic steel, equivalent
*Vide Horton, H. E.: Fencing the Farm. Am. Soc. Agricultural Engineers
Ann. Meeting. Dec. 28, 1910.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
13S
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
to Bessemer steel for fence wire, is :
Carbon 0.17 to 0.18%
Manganese 0.30 to 0.45%
Sulphur 0.05% and under
Phos. 0.08%
The composition of a few samples of the high carbon wires
used in fence wire is :
Carbon 0.64 % .85 % .59 %
Manganese 0.82 .84 1.12
Sulphur 0.085 0.035 0.024
Phos. 0.032 0.020 0.046
EFFECT OF WORK ON THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL.
Every bit of hammering, rolling or drawing, no matter how
slight, done on steel, effects two of its physical properties, —
tensile strength and elongation.
The cast steel ingot is rolled into a bloom (7" x 8" section),
and the bloom rolled into a billet (4"x4" section). The billet
is reheated to the proper rolling temperature and is rolled down
to a No. 5 gage round rod. The No. 5 gage round rod is drawn
through a die to make a wire.
By wire drawing is meant the reduction in area of a piece
by drawing through a conical shaped hole cut in a hard sub-
stance as chilled cast iron, special steel, diamond.
Working the metal by rolling and drawing increases the
tensile strength and decreases the elongation.
Drawing the steel through the wire die produces a wire
which is hard and brittle, in which condition it is not suited for
use as fence wire. Wire for fence must be strong and tough.
To produce a strong and tough wire from the hard and
brittle wire it is only necessary to anneal the wire. The best
method of annealing the wire is by passing it slowly through a
kettle of molten lead in which the lead is mantained at the best
temperature f r developing strength and toughness.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF GALVANIZED WIRE FOR FENCE
WEAVING.
Size of
Tensile strength Ultimate strength Elongation Torsion
Wire
lbs.
lbs.
%
turns
No. 9 (Hard)
104400
1767
7.79
6
No. 10 (Soft)
72335
985
12.65
37
No. 11 (Hard)
98075
1100
10.57
19
No. 12 (Hard)
112960
946
7.27
12
No. 13 (Soft)
78149
515
13.40
42
GAUGE OF FENCE WIRE.
Upon the recommendation of the U. S. Bureau of Standards
a number of wire manufacturers and important consumers of
wire agreed to designate the wire gauge used in the U. S. as the
* * Steel Wire Gage. ' ' As the British Government has the British
Standard Wire Gauge the gauge of the United States may be
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Horton: Fences 139
accurately designated as "U. S. Steel Wire Gage."
The constants of fence wire are:
Size Diameter lbs. Wire per Mile Miles per Ton
8 .1620 369.6 5.411
9 .1483 309.7 6.458
10 .1350 256.7 7.792
11 .1205 204.5 9.780
12 .1055 156.7 12.764
12% .0985 135.9 14.717
PROTECTING THE STEEL WIRE AGAINST RUSTING.
Fence wire is protected against the elements by a coating of
zinc variously called "spelter", " galvanizing' \
Molten zinc will adhere to perfectly clean untarnished steel.
As the steel wire comes from the annealing kettle of lead, it
carries on its surface flecks of lead and lead oxide and on expos-
ure to air the steel tarnishes. To remove the lead, etc., the wire
is run through a vat of muriatic acid. The acid adhering to the
wire as it comes from the cleaning vat is removed by flushing
water.
The cleaned wire is rapidly dried by passing over a hot plate
and instantly plunged into the kettle of molten zinc.
As the wire emerges from the molten zinc there is more of
the zinc adhering to its sides and bottom than to the top, and in
this condition the coating is not uniform and the wire unfit for
use in the looms.
To secure the uniform coating of zinc, the wire is wiped,
that is, run through a " wiper" made of two balls of soft asbestos
held in a frame, one ball placed below the wire and one on top
of the wire, and a slight pressure is applied.
The wire is air cooled by winding on reels.
TESTING THE ZINC COATING FOR UNIFORMITY AND QUANTITY.
The important thing about zinc coating on a wire is the
uniformity of the coating, the quantity of zinc per ton of metal
means absolutely nothing. If one side of a wire has a coating of
zinc sufficient to last ten years and the opposite side of the wire
a coating sufficient to last one year, the life of the coating of the
fence will be one year. The chain is no stronger than its weak-
est link and the zinc coating of a wire is no stronger than the
thinnest spot of the coating.
The uniformtiy of the zinc coating is discovered by dissolv-
ing off the zinc in a strong solution of copper sulphate. In this
dissolving there is a chemical reaction between the metallic zinc
and the cupric sulphate in which the copper of the cupric sul-
phate is deposited in the spongy form on the metallic zinc and the
tine is dissolved by the liberated sulphuric acid. The spongy
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
140 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
copper is readily removed from the testing piece by wiping with
a cloth or even rinsing in water.
When the zinc has been dissolved at that point in the coat-
ing at wl\ich the thickness is the least, then the further attempt
at dissolving will result in the deposition of metallic copper in
massive form on the steel.
The position in the coating and the size of the dissolved area
gives criteria for judging the quality of the coating.
For some reason, not clearly understood, it sometimes hap-
pens that copper of the copper sulphate solution when used to
dissolve zinc coatings on steel wires, will deposit on the coating
and adhere and this is likely to mislead in the examination for
uniformity of the coating. It is possible, with practice, to dis-
tinguish copper deposited on the zinc coating from the copper
deposited on the steel, — the copper deposited on the zinc coating
is lighter colored, it is yellowish red, while the copper deposited
on steel is the red color of the new copper penny.
COMPOSITION OF ZINC USED AS COATING.
A few analyses of the tvpical zincs used in coating wire are r
Lead (Pb.) 1.26 % 1.54% 0.97 %
Iron (Fe.) 0.028 0.103
Cadmium (Cd.) 0.0113 0.0037
Arsenic (As.) 0.0015 Trace
The quantity of zinc applied as coating to a wire is directly
as the gage of the wire. A No. 9 wire properly coated, carries
126 lbs. zinc per ton ; No. 20 wire, 2730 lbs. zinc per ton.
THE UNIFORMITY OF ZINC COATING OF WIRE AS SHOWN BY THE COP-
PER SULPHATE TEST.
The numbers stand for percentages of line wires testing
good.
A BCDEFGHIJKL
Four immersions
11.1* 14.2* 0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
0*
OK
Three "
77.7 71.1 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Two "
100 100 0
0
0
57.1
28.5
20
40
11.1
0
0
One ''
100 100 100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
85
71.*
The capital letters of the alphabet stand for wires from
fences of different makes. "A" and "B" stand for samples of
wire made by a company practicing the most advanced technique
in galvanizing wire. The two samples "A" and "B" do not
stand for small tonnages, on the contrary they stand for some
of the largest tonnages in the country.
TWO TESTS FOR GALVANIZING.
There are two tests for the galvanizing or zinc coating of
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Horton: Fences 14 J
wire: one, the copper sulphate test* which determines the uni-
formity of the coating, and the other, the lead acetate test which
determines the quantity of the zinc coating.
The copper sulphae test is sometimes used as the means of
determining the quantity of zinc coating, but the test should not
be used for this purpose, for the results obtained are misleading.
TEST FOR UNIFORMITY OF COATING.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING CHEMICAL TEST OF WIPED GALVANIZED
WIRE.
STANDARD SOLtFTON :
The standard solution of copper sulphate shall consist of
commercial copper sulphate crystals dissolved in cold water in
about the proportion of 36 parts by weight of crystals to 100
parts by weight of watev. The solution shall be neutralized by
the addition of an excess of chemically pure cupric oxide (CuO)
and agitation. The presence of an excess of cupric oxide will be
shown by a sediment of this reagent at the bottom of the contain-
ing vessel. The neutralized solution should be filtered before
using. This solution shall have a specific gravity of 1.186 at
65 deg. F.
The differences in the density of the solution may be cor-
rected by adding water or copper sulphate crystals according as
the solution is too heavy or too light, but if the solution does not
approximate the proper strength or has become dirty or im-
paired for any reason it must be thrown out and a fresh supply
prepared.
CLEANING OF SAMPLES OF WIRE TO BE TESTED :
Samples must be cleaned thoroughly to remove oil and dirt,
by dipping in benzine or gasoline, then thoroughly rinsed in
clean water and wiped dry with clean white cotton waste before
making the test.
apparatus :
The apparatus required for the test is as follows :
1 — Fahrenheit thermometer with large scale to read to at least
80 deg. F.
1 — Specific gravity hydrometer.
1 — Hydrometer cylinder 3" x 15".
2— Jars for washing samples.
4 — Glass test jars 2" in diameter and 5" in height. (These can
be procured from Eimer and Amend, New York, if not else-
where.)
1 — Copper or galvanized sheet steel box, equipped with running
water and waste pipe connection in which test jars may be
•The so-called "Preece Test."
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142 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
immersed in the water to maintain constant temperature.
White cotton waste free from grease.
Benzine or gasoline.
The place for testing should be clean and with good natural
light.
For tests in summer time ice may sometimes be required.
test:
Pill one of the glass test jars with standard solution to a
mark one inch (1") from the top. The temperature of the solu-
tion must not be lower than 65 deg. nor higher than 70 deg. F.
at any time during the test and the water used for washing
samples must be the same.
Not more than seven wires shall be simultaneously immersed
in one jar and they must not be grouped together, but must be
well separated so as to permit the action of the solution to be
uniform on all immersed portions of the samples. The ends out-
side of the solution must no.t be grouped together. The ends in-
side jar are likely to touch, but this is not objectionable, as indi-
cations on the lower inch of the samples are disregarded. After
each complete test of seven wires, or less, the solution must be
thrown away and a fresh solution taken for the next set.
The specified dips must be made on each sample and the
periods of time accurately observed. After each dip the samples
must be immediately rinsed in water having a temperature with-
in the specified limits of the solution temperature, thoroughly
cleaned with soft cotton waste (not with a brush) and wiped
dry. Samples mus be dry at the time of immersion. For an ex-
tended series of tests the wash water should be frequently re-
newed, and in order to maintain the proper temperature of the
wash water the jars should be placed in the same tray as the
test jars.
specified dips :
The standard test for wiped fence wire will be what is com-
monly known as the "two-minute" immersion test. In order to
make it perfectly clear what this means, it is described in detail
as f ollow8 :
The cleaned, washed and dried samples are immersed in a
f resh standard solution, within the temperature limits of 65 deg.
to 70 deg. F. for exactly one minute. They are then removed,
rinsed in water of the proper temperature, and wiped with cot-
ton waste — to remove the dark deposit of spongy metallic copper
— until they are dry. They are then immersed again in the same
solution for exactly one minute, removed, rinsed and wiped as
above. Samples so treated should show no trace of metallic cop-
per on the steel more than one inch from the end, although they
may be black, (indicating nearly complete removal of zinc). If
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Horton: Fences 143
they do show copper on the steel they will be considered to have
failed on the test. (Occasionally copper deposits on the zinc,
without removing the latter, and can be scratched off without
destroying the zinc coating. Such cases, after the second im-
mersion, are not counted as failures.)
The two-minute test will be applied to samples of all wire
12y2 gauge and coarser. It is the intention to procure No. 12
galvanized wire that will withstand the two-minute immersion
test, but it is recognized that this has not been altogether success-
fully accomplished with wire required to meet the bending and
kink tests to which it is subjected in forming stays of- woven
fence. However, samples of No. 12 and 12y2 wire will be given
the two-minute test. Samples of No. 13 and No. 14 wire will be
given a test of 1% minutes, meaning that the first dip will be one
minute and the second dip % of a minute, all other conditions
being precisely the same as for the two-minute test. Sizes 15
and 16 will be given a test of iy2 minutes and smaller sizes 1^4
minutes, in every case the first dip being for one minute.
TEST FOR QUANTITY OF ZINC COATING.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR LEAD ACETATE TEST OF GALVANIZED WIRE.
STANDARD SOLUTION :
Dissolve 3 lbs. of lead acetate (Pb(C2H302) . 3H20) and 1
oz. of litharge (PbO) in 1 gallon of distilled water. Allow any
insoluble residue to settle to the bottom and decant the clear
solution for use.
CLEANING OF SAMPLES :
Samples must be cleaned thoroughly of oil and dirt by dip-
ping in benzine or gasoline, then thoroughly rinsed in clean water
and wiped dry with clean white cotton waste before making the
test.
SELECTIONS OF SAMPLES :
The test is made on a sample exactly 6" in length and the
wire before cutting must be straightened, using a mallet and a
maple block for the purpose.
The samples tested should be cut adjacent to samples cut
for the copper-sulphate test, and the result of the lead-acetate
test should be entered in the record book on the same line with
the copper-sulphate test.
apparatus :
Maple block and mallet.
Shear for cutting samples.
Chemist's balance
(A low priced balance such as No. 287 sold by the Scientific
Materials Company, Pittsburgh, at $45.00, is sufficiently sensi-
tive for this work.)
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
144 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Set of weights — 1 milligram to 20 grams (Eimer & Amend 's
Cata. No. 2185).
7" test tubes on foot (Eimer & Amend 's Catalogue No. 4878).
Small steam coil for drying samples.
Shoe knife.
test:
After being straightened and cut, the sample is weighed
and placed in the test tube containing sufficient solution to com-
pletely immerse the sample, and allowed to remain for not less
than three minutes. Metallic lead, usually in spongy form, will
be deposited on the sample and can be easily removed. In doing
this, care must be taken to avoid "burnishing" the sample, as at
times the lead adheres so closely that it tends to plate over the
zinc. In such cases the lead may be removed by the careful use
of a sharp knife. The test piece is then replaced in the solution,
and after another three minutes' immersion the lead removed as
before and the operation repeated until the zinc coating has been
entirely removed and the bright surface of the steel exposed.
The bright steel (or iron) base differs notably in appearance
from the spongy lead or adherent film of lead, so that after a
little experience the tester will be able to determine with cer-
tainty when the zinc coating has been entirely removed.
The sample is then washed in water, dried over a small
steam coil and weighed. The difference between the first and sec-
ond weighings gives the weight of the zinc coating. The weight
multiplied by a constant figure gives the weight of the coating
in pounds per mile or per 100 feet, as may be desired. The
length of the sample being six inches, if the weights are ex-
pressed in grams, the constant by which the difference in weights
is to be multiplied to obtain pounds of zinc per mile of wire is
23.28. If the weight of zinc per ton of wire is desired, a differ-
ent constant must be used for each gage.
As many as ten or more samples may be tested at the same
time, the work being carried along together, weighing or sojne
other operation being done on one sample while others are in the
solution. The accuracy of the test is not affected by increasing
the time of immersion, and thus it is unnecessary to work by the
clock as in the case of copper sulphate test.
Fresh solution is not needed for each sample, it may be used
until all the metallic lead has been precipitated, or until it works
so slowly that it does not pay to continue using it.
The testing should be done in the same room as the copper
sulphate test, as both tests require good light. This means day-
light when the sun is shining and plenty of electric light from
tungsten lamps on dark days or at night.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Hortonr Fences 145
CORROSION.
Mr. D. M. Buck* has so apty and fully expressed my views
on the subject of corrosion that I want to use his words :
4 * While the writer is aware that some metallurgists advance
the theory that a content of manganese is detrimental to steel in
its corrosion resistance, we neither agree with the theories ad-
vanced nor have we observed the slighted evidence of proof that
such claijns are justified. Much the -greater part of the man-
ganese present in steel exists alloyed with the iron, in which
form we would not expect it to influence corrosion as far as the
electrolytic theory is concerned, since two materials differing
chemically or mechanically are required to start electrolysis, and
these conditions are not obtained by simple alloying. Some of
the manganese unites with sulphur, forming manganese sulphide,
which exists in isolated patches and which is at best only a feeble
conductor of electricity, and as such should stimulate corrosion
to only a slight extent, if at all. It is possible that these patches
of manganese sulphide, when they occur at the surface of the
steel, or as they become exposed by the wasting of the steel,
become oxidized to sulphates, in which form the efficiency of the
moisture as an electrolyte would be increased. This action, how-
ever, is due to the presence of sulphur and not to the presence
of manganese. Sulphur in steel must exist in combination, and
if there is not sufficient onanganese present, it will unite with the
iron, forming iron sulphide, in which form it will be at least as
harmful as in the form of manganese sulphide. Tests made by
Burgess and Aston indicate that manganese alone in steel rather
lessens than hastens corrosion. ' y
EXAMINATION OF A BUNDLE OF WOVEN WIRE FENCE.
Weight of roll 190 lbs.
Length of roll 20 rods and 1 inch
Height of roll 9-39-12.
Height of fence when stretched 38%
Tension of stretched fence 3600 lbs.
Does fence stretch evenly? Yes.
Are there any long or short wires? No.
Kind of mesh Square
Number of stays in 20 rods 329.
Average spacing of stays 12 1-32 in.
Stays continuous or cut Cut.
Method of fastening stays to line Hinged joint.
Is the fastening well made? Yes.
Do the stays slip on the line wires? No.
Any long ends or prongs on the stays? No.
(top 9
Gage of line wire < intermediate 11
/ bottom 9
♦Vid. Bibliography.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
146
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Gage of stay wire
Gage of fastener
b pacing of crimp
Depth of crimp
Inside diameter of bundle or roll
Outside diameter of bundle or roll
How wound?
Any rough wire?
Quality of line wire
Quality of stay wire
Tensie strength of line wires
Tensile strength of stay wires
Chemical composition
Uniformity of zinc coating
1
11
6 in.
hi in.
8 in.
19 in.
Tight.
No.
Hard.
Soft.
No. 11—1265 lbs.
No. 11—1270 lbs.
No. 11—1250 lbs.
No. 11—1185 lbs.
No. 11—1225 lbs.
No. 11—895 lbs.
No. 11—860 lbs.
No. 11—875 lbs.
No. 11—810 lbs.
No. 11—820 lbs.
No. 11—980 lbs.
No. 11—790 lbs.
Carbon 0.10%
Phos. under 0.10%
Manganese 0.38%
Sulphur under 0.12%
1 immersion 100%
2 immersions 100%
3 immersions 77.7%
4 immersions 11.1%
TYPE AND DESIGN IN FENCES.
Type is that form which combines the characteristics of a
group. The fences known as U. S., National, Royal, Anthony
and American are of one type ; the mesh of these fences is quadi-
lateral in shape ; the spacing of the line wires, or bars, is from
3 to 9 inches apart, according to a fixed pattern and common to
all the fences ; they occur in the same heights.
By design of a fence is meant the shape of the mesh, the
spacing of line wires, crimping of the line wires, the construction
of the stay and the way it is fastened to the line wires.
Fig. 1. Tension Curve.
The design of the weave of the fence varies and thus af-
fords opportunity for personal choice. The heights of the fence
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Horton: Fences
147
vary to conform to the use made of the fence. In the square mesh
fabrics the stays are made 6 and 12 inches apart.
One element in the design of a woven wire fabric is the ten-
sion curve. In the American fence it occurs in the line wire be-
tween the stays ; in the U. S., National and Royal it occurs in a
less pronounced form where the stay is secured to the line wire.
FENCE STAYS.
The stay may be one continuous wire from top to bottom, or
discontinuous, and form a hinge joint on each line wire. The
stay in both forms grips the line wires and there is slight chance
for it to slip.
There are three types of the square mesh continuous stay
fences, with the stay itself securely knotted to the line wires.
U. S. Knot.
National Knot.
Royal Knot.
Fig. 2.
These fences are known as "Royal", "U. S." and "Na-
tional."
The structure of the knot is shown in the illustration.
There is a design of the square mesh continuous stay fence,
"Anthony" by name, with the stay wire not knotted around the
line wires, but instead tied to the line wires by means of a knot
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
148 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
made of a separate piece of wire. The construction is shown in
the illustration of the knot.
Front. Anthony Knot. Back.
Wig. 3.
Another and popular type of the square mdsh fence is the
' ' American ' \ having the discontinuous stay. There are as many
pieces of the stay as there are line wires, minus one. These
pieces are wrapped around the line wires to form hinge joints.
Two pieces of the stay wire are interwrapped around the line
wire so there is slight chance to slip sidewise.
Fig. 4. American Knot.
IlKliJUT OF FENCE AND HOW DESIGNATED.
The height of a fence and the number of its line wires, or
bars, is made known in the trade by the use of a number of
either three or four figures, in which number the two right hand
figures stand for height and the one or two figures to the left of
these stand for the number of line wires or bars. For example,
the No. "726M means a fence 26 inches high, with seven line
wires or bars; the No. "1155" means the fence is 55 inches high,
with 11 line wires or bars.
A "style'' of fence is made in different weights called "Spe-
cifications", and this is accomplished by using different size
wires.
The woven wire fabric comes in rolls of 20, 30 and 40 rods.
SHORT DESCRIPTION OF FIVE POPULAR FENCES.
THE U. S. FENCE.
The U. S. fence is a continuous stay fence and for this rea-
son very rigid. The stay wire is smoothly knotted around the
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Horton: Fences
149
line wires and there are no rough edges to catch. The mesh is
quadilateral in shape. The tension curve is incidental to the
stay knot.
tt
Fig. 5.
This fence is made in the following styles: Nos. 1155, 1047,
939, 832, 726 and 620; 949, 845 and 635, comjnon to the National
Royal and American.
This fence comes in several weights, namely :
Top Bar No.
Bottom Bar No.
Intermediate
Bars No. 11
Fig. 6.
The U. S. fence is duplicated in the National in that it has
the continuous stay knotted around the line wires, and in mesh
and height. The tension curve is incidental to the stay knot.
THE NATIONAL PENCE.
This fence is made in the following styles : Nos. 1155, 1047,
939, 832, 726 and 620; 949, 845 and 635, common to the U. S.,
Royal and American.
*
Fig. 7.
This fence comes in several weights. See Pig. 6.
THE ROYAL FENCE.
The Royal Fence duplicates the U. S. and National Fences
in having the continuous stay wire knotted around the line wires,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
150
American Society of Agricultural Engineer*
and in the mesh and height. The tension curve is incidental to
the stay knot.
I*"- "J*
Fi*. 8.
This fence is made in the following styles : 1155, 1047, 939,
832, 726, 620; 949, 845, 635, common to the U. S., National and
American.
This fence comes in several weights. See Pig. 6.
THE AMERICAN FENCE.
The American Pence is a square mesh, discontinuous stay
fence. There are as many pieces to the stay wire as there are line
wires or bars, minus one. There is a tension curve in the line
wires between the stays.
Fi*. 9.
This fence is made in many styles or designs: 1155, 1047,
939, 832, 726, 620 ; 949, 845, 635, common to the U. S., National
and Royal fences.
This fence comes in several weights. See Pig. 6.
THE ANTHONY FENCE.
The Anthony Fence is a square mesh, continuous stay fence.
The stay, a continuous piece of wire, is tied to the line wires
by a secure knot made of a separate piece of wire. The fence
has no tension curve.
Ft*. 10.
This fence is made in the following styles: Nos. 1155, 1047,
939, 831, 726; 949, 845, common to the U. S., National, Royal
and American fences. In this style of fence there is no 635, but
in its place there is a 636, which differs in design.
This fence comes in several different weights. See Pig. 6.
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Borton: Fences
151
T* 0»
iMlpl
•■a-l
S d * «
o !? 5
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
152
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
A TYPE OP WOVEN WIRE FENCE.
Four fences are made in the same heights, with the same
spacing of line wires and the same spacing of stays (either 6 or
12 inches apart). All of these are shown- in the illustration.
If fence Style No. 1155 be taken as the standard, then the
other fences are derived from this by removing top or bottom
bars. For instance, to secure close spacing of bars in a low
height fence, suitable for hogs, use the bottom section of the
standard, while to secure wide spacing of bars, suitable for
cattle, the top section of the fabric is used.
By changing the pattern for the loom another series of
fences may be woven.
If fence Style No. 1258 be taken as the standard, then the
other fences may be considered as derived from this by drop-
ping top or bottom bars or line wires.
The effect of dropping out top line wires is to secure fabric
which shall at the same time turn cattle and swine — the "Com-
bination Fence".
DESIGN
12 58"
DESIGN
II 55"
t t t
ROYAL ROYAL ROYAL U.S. - U.S.
ANTHONY AMERICAN AMERICAN ROYAL ROYAL ROYAL
AMERICAN * * NATIONAL NATIONAL NATIONAL
ANTHONY ANTHONY ANTHONY
AMERICAN AMERICAN AMERICAN
Flff. 12.
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Horton: Fences
153
THE PROBLEM OP FENCING THE FARM RIGHT.
On the farm carrying hogs, cattle and horses, the farmer
should wish all his fields fenced " hog- tight' ' and "cattle and
horse-high", for only in this way can be produce livestock to
best advantage.
The properly erected, all-nine-wire woven wire fence at
least 26" high, with at least seven line wires, and stay wires 6"
apart — gives the elements of the hog-tight fence.
The woven wire fence, 55" high, with eleven line wires, and
stay wires 12" apart, gives the cattle and horse-high fence.
It is evident that the combination of the two fences will be
the right fence to use for hogs and cattle ; that is, the fence 55"
high, with eleven bars properly spaced, and with stay wires 6"
apart on the lower bars and 12" apart on the upper bars.
If the fields are to be used at any time for horses any com-
bination of woven wire fabric, with barbed wire strand, is to be
avoided.
THREE WAYS OF SOLVING FOR THE "RIGHT. WAY " TO FENCE THE
Height
FARM.
11 Bart _»bck_
Tig. 13. Combination Fence.
Solving with due regard to horses, cattle and hogs :
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
154
American Sdciety of Agricultural Engineers
The Combination Fence solves the problem of fencing the
farm for horses, cattle and hogs in the ideal way. This fence
is made in five designs and of the heavy all-nine wire.
To make this fence really hog proof, one strand of thick set
or hog barbed wire should be run at the bottom and under the
ground.
Fig. 14. Note that the woven wire fabric it brought
close to the ground.
Solving with regard to cattle and hogs :
The popular hog fence in use everywhere in the West at
this time, consists of the 26" woven wire fabric, 7 bars high, with
the stay wires 6" apart, and above this, on the post, three strands
of barbed wire.
To make this fence really hog proof, one strand of thick
set or hog barbed wire should be run at the bottom and under
the ground.
This fence that grew out of an economic condition is bound
to give place to the woven wire fabric, 47" or 55" high.
This type of fence owes its existence to the fact that the
farmers of the country at one time had used large quantities of
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Horton: Fences
155
barbed wire for fencing. When the time came to give up the
barbed wire fence and use the woven wire fence the thrift of the
farmers demanded a use for the barbed wire they had on hand
and the result was this well known combination.
Height _ HBiit „ 15 Inch
Fig. 15.
Another solution having regard to horses, cattle and hogs.
The general purpose fence of great strength and endurance,
when properly erected, makes a splendid fencing for horses,
cattle, hogs, and with the addition of properly placed strands of
barbed wire, it makes the dog proor sheep fence.
In 1909 Jardine of the United States Department of Agri-
culture first investigated fences on the ranch to protect sheep
from the depredation of wild animals and dogs. Out of this work
has come the composite dog-proof fence : the woven wire fabric
in the middle, three strands of barbed wire above it and one
strand of barbed wire below it.
The specification for the dog proof fence given by McWhar-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
156 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
ter of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture is : ' ' Posts 7*4 feet in length,
set 2Vfe feet in the ground, and 16 feet apart; a barbed wire
stretched flat to the surface of the ground : three inches higher a
36 inch woven wire fence, having a 4 inch triangular mesh; 5
Wit
y»».
H*
6
H * * * H' W ■* W M « W «'
inches higher a second barbed wire ; 7 inches above this a third
barbed wire. Total height 57 inches. ' '
There is one defect in this specification* and this, — "wire
stretched flat to the surface of the ground ;'' the better plan
would be to place this strand of barbed wire in the ground at the
^bottom of a shallow furrow and the furrow thrown back after
the wire is in place.
THE FENCE POST.
The fence post has an importance that few people realize.
Millions of tons of barbed wire, plain wire and woven wire fences
are hung on posts the country over and every year adds 600,000
to 700,000 additional tons of fence to that already in place.
Every year millions of wooden fence posts rot and should
be replaced. Of the woods available for replacing the enormous
number of posts, fifty per cent will last only two years when set
in the ground.
The woods available on the farm for fence posts are syca-
more, black gum, yellow poplar, willow, white poplar, sweet gum,
hirch, pin oak, maple, beech, pine, chestnut and locust. Consid-
ering fence posts made of some of these woods, the percentage of
failure after being in the ground for two years is as follows :
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Norton: Fences 157
Sycamore 100 per cent
Black Gum 100 " "
Yellow Poplar 100 " "
Willow 100 " "
Birch 100 " "
Sweet Gum 80 " "
Pin Oak 80 " "
Maple 80 " "
Pine 80 " "
Locust 52 " "
Beech 40 " "
Chestnut 40 " "
To use a wooden fence post without knowing something of
its history is to err. How few men know that the most durable
lumber is from the tree cut at maturity and before decay starts,
or that when cut too soon, while the tree, is full of sapwood, the
heartwood is soft.
It is the sap in the cut tree that produces decay. Who
thinks to cut the tree in the dead of winter, during December
and January, when it contains the least sap?
Is it generally known that the pieces of which posts are
made must not be piled on the ground or where they come in
contact with moisture, and that, depending on that kind of tree,
different lengths of time are necessary to proper maturing?
Who knows how long to season posts?
The cured piece when used for a post is sometimes "treat-
ed" to protect it against decay, and this in several ways : coating
with tar, painting, injecting creosote, smoking or tarring, water
seasoning.
To summarize: To cut the different trees at maturity re-
quires expert knowledge. To season properly requires study and
care. To treat requires a lot of fussy, hard work, and when all
has been done the post may last two years !
About thirty years ago the start was made to secure posts
from some material other than wood, and iron and steel were
materials used in the experiments. After thirty years some of
these early posts have been examined and found to be in first
class condition.
Following the use of iron and steel for posts, cement, either
alone or reinforced, with straight wires, came into use. There
have been many cases of failure when using the cement post, and
this due to the lack of skill on the part of the maker of the post.
A comparison of the wooden fence post with the steel fence
post, from the standpoint of efficiency, brings out some very in-
teresting facts and these may be shown to advantage by the use
of the parallel volumns :
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
158 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Steel Wood
Service of post Lifetime. 2 to 10 years.
Cost Reasonable High.
Culls and rejections None. Large percent.
One man can set in day Average 300. Average 50.
Labor for setting post Driven. Holes must be dug.
Stapling fabric Not stapled hence Stapled with great dan-
galvanizing unin- ger to galvanizing,
jured
As the steel fence post is to play a prominent part in the
immediate future, it is worth while to make an examination of
posts now offered the farmer.
There are two classes of steel posts classified according to
the composition of the metal. A considerable tonnage of posts
is made of old railroad rail stocks, and with the great disadvan-
tages of nonuniformity of composition. Depending on when the
rails were rolled and also on the weight of the rail, the compo-
sition of the steel varies between the widest limits, with carbon
running from 0.12% to 0.60%.
The big tonnage of steel posts is made of steel of special
composition to meet the physical requirements of the post. Such
a specification is a Bessemer steel, with carbon about 0.12%,
manganese 0.30 to 0.50%, phosphorus 0.108% and sulphur "the
regular mill practice.
The forms of the steel and iron posts have been flats, angles,
channels, tees and tubes.
The posts have been protected against rust by galvanizing
or painting.
SPECIFICATION OF AMERICAN STEEL AND WIRE COMPANY
STEEL TUBULAR POSTS (CORNER AND END).
Specification A
No. 16 Gage No. 13 Gage
Top Bottom Approximate Approximate
Length Diameter Diameter Weight Weight
Feet in Inches in Inches Pounds Pounds
Plain top Plain top
5 11-2 1 25-32 5.7 8
6 11-2 1 27-32 6.3 9.3
6 1-2 1 1-2 1 29-32 7.0 10.
7 11-2 1 15-16 7.75 11.5
7 1-2 1 1-2 1 31-32 8.5 12.25
8 11-2 2 9.0 13.25
9 11-2 2 3-32 10.5 15.
10 1 1-2 2 3-16 12.3 17.
11 1 1-2 2 1-4 14.0 19.29
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H or ton: Fences
159
Specification B
No. 12 Gage
No. 13 Gage
Top
Bottom
Approximate
Approximate
Length
Diameter
Diameter
Weight
Weight
Feet
in Inches
in Inches
Pounds
Plain top
Pounds
Plain top
5
2 1-8
2 15-16
14.75
18.0
6
2 1-8
3 3-32 '
17.5
22.5
6 1-2
2 1-8
3 11-64
19.2
25.4
7
2 1-8
3 1-4
21.3
28.2
8
2 1-8
3 13-32
24.7
33.25
9
2 1-8
3 9-16
29.0
37.25
10
2 1-8
3 23-32
33.0
43.
11
2 1-8
3 7-8
36.5
47.5
U.
S. Standard Gage.*
Gage No.
Thickness
10
0.1379"
12
.1072"
18
.0919"
16
.0613"
SPECIFICATIONS OF AMERICAN STEEL AND WIRE COMPANY
STEEL TUBULAR FENCE POSTS (LINE).
(With tongues down one side.)
Thickness of
Metal
No.
. 16 Gage
16
««
•
16
i«
16
ii
16
if
16
ri
No
. 13 Gage
13
tt
13
ii
13
t*
13
<«
13
44
13
II
13
II
Length in
Feet
5
6 1-2
7
7 1-2
8
9
5
6 1-2
7
7 1-2
8
9
10
11
Approximate
Weight
Lbs.
5.7
7.
7.75
8.5
9.
10.5
8.
10.
11.5
12.25
13.25
15.
17.
19.29
Note: — The diameter of the top of the post is 1%" and the post tapers
♦ *4" to the foot.
END POSTS.
For the most part end posts and corner posts are eyesores
for the farmer has little aesthetic development. Especially is
this true of end posts at gateways at the entrance of the farm-
stead. Some of the most hideous examples of end posts are in con-
crete and pointed to with pride by the builders.
The steel post for end and corner posts offers every advan-
* This gage was established by Congress. The following figures
are the thicknesses of steel sheets equivalent to the weights of the
U. S. Standard Gage.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
160
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Chicago Steel Fence Post with Anchor
Plate in Position.
No. 10 Gage Line Post.
mgth
Approximate
in
Weight In
Feet
Lbs.
6
7.1
6 1-2
7.7
7
8.3
8
10.
Selway Steel
Post. No. 10
Gage Line
Post
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Horton: Fences
161
Kin 20. Iluie* Kxpunded Steel Truss
Com puny Poat,
it:
iflfaa
Figr. 21. American Steel Pence Post
Nos. 13, 16 Gage.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
162 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
tage of utility and is free from the blemishes of the "monu-
ments". The steel post is amply strong, does not offend the eye,
is placed with minimum of work and expense. It is inexpensive.
INTERMEDIATE POSTS.
The steel post for the intermediate post is perfectly adapted
to the work. It has the peculiar and great advantage of requir-
ing the minimum of labor to set. The end posts being set a line
is stretched between them and the intermediate posts are placed
against this line and driven into the ground. When fencing
stony ground it is always well to explore the soil with a soil
auger or crowbar for stones before driving the post.
To drive the post nothing is better than the home made mat-
tock made of several pieces of 2" x 8" lumber solidly nailed to-
gether and provided with a handle. The driving cap should be
used on the post to prevent the bruising and possible crushing
down of the post.
• PENCE BUILDING.
In the sale of a million tons of fence distributed all over the
world it would be strange if there were no complaints and kicks
regarding quality. There are complaints and there always will
be complaints.
Where complaints have been carefully investigated and the
reports of the investigation analyzed it has been found that the
mill practice is rarely at fault, and the fault usually is traceable
to the user.
The farmer has left undone those things which he ought to
have done and has done those things which he ought not to have
done ; one or all of three things come out of the investigations
made covering complaints.
A. The end or corner post has not been set securely enough
to withstand strains put on it ;
B. The fabric has not been properly stretched ;
C. The zinc coating on the line wires has been injured in at-
taching the wires to the post — end post and intermediate post.
The wire fence properly built should extend between end
posts that are so solid they will not give or yield under the strain
to which they are subjected. The fabric should not be tightly
stapled to the intermediate line posts because to do that means
to build a fence which constitutes a separate panel between each
two posts, and if any shock or strain comes upon the fence, the
whole strain must be borne by the individual panel, which is
usually about one rod long. On the other hand, if the staples
are not driven home but are allowed to stick out just enough so
that the line wires of the fence may play in them, it means that
any shock coming against the fence is borne by the entire length
Digitized by LiOOQ IC
II or ton: Fences
163
M
of the fence from one end post to another, and as this is usually
20 or 40 rods at least, the fence fabric has elasticity enough to
withstand any ordinary shock without injury. A fence built in
this way and tightly stretched is just as solid and well supported
as a fence built on the other plan and has the added advantage of
allowing the fence fabric to adjust itself to conditions.
When the fence has not been stretched, but instead draped
on the posts and looks like the edge of a cross cut saw, the ani-
mals soon learn to despise it as a barrier and work it down un-
til they can step over it.
ATTACHING FENCE FABRICS TO POSTS.
When the fence is erected on wooden posts, the
fabric is attached by staples driven into the wood.
When the fence is erected on steel posts, the fabric is
attached to small tongues, part of the posts, or using
staples.
When the fabric is erected on wooden posts and
the line wires stapled into position the fence maker
usually drives the staple in too far and it frequently
happens that a last, vicious blow is given the staple as
though the man says to himself "I bet shell never
budge/ '
What happens when the fence builder works in
this wav is the breaking or bruising of the zinc coat-
ing of the wire and bruising the wood of the post and
making it like a sponge. When the rain cqmes, the
spongy wood absorbs moisture which together with
the oxygen of the air attack the bruised fence wire
and induce the destruction of the zinc coating and
the underlying steel. When rust starts in this way
it nevor stops and the fence is doomed to early de-
struction.
Fig. 22.
STRETCHING THE FENCE FABRIC.
Unroll enough of the bundle so the end of the fabric can
be stood up against the end post. Make sure the stay wire is
perpendicular and use three staples to retain it so. Wind the
free end of the top line wire around the post keeping close to
the post all around and when seven-eights around bring the wire
over and once around itself, then use the wire splicer to make a
good splice. Repeat with all the line wires.
Unroll the bundle flat upon the ground alongside of the
fence posts. Attach the stretcher to the auxiliary post by the
post chain. Engage one of the links at the end of the stretcher
i
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
164 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
wih one of the dogs of the stretcher. Straighten out the chaiA
and decide how far back from the end of the fabric to attach the
clamps of the stretcher. Attach the clamps to the line wires be-
tween two stays.
Hook on the long hook of the stretcher chain to the wooden
clamp with the open side of the hook toward the fence post. Ad-
just the hook so that there are an equal number of line wires
above and below it.
Everything being ready the long wooden lever of the fence
stretcher is worked back and forth and the slack gradually taken
out of the fabric when the fabric rises from the ground and
stands vertical against the line posts.
On level ground 160 rods or more of the fence can be
stretched at one time. On uneven ground 20 to 60 rods, some-
times more, can be stretched at one time. Stretch the fabric un-
til it is taut like a fiddle string. Don't staple the fabric at the
first stretching, but stretch two or three times at intervals of
several hours, or even longer.
If the fence is to be run through a slight depression, or a
shallow gully is to be crossed, leave enough slack in the fence so
that two men standing on the bottom bar will be necessary to
bring the fabric down into place. Don't make the mistake of
taking all the slack out of the fabric and then expect to bring it
down into depressions to conform to the land.
To prevent the fence fabric crushing down at the brink of a
gully or depression when the fabric is being forced down to con-
form to the ground, staple the line wire next to he top to the
post, but do not drive home the staple, leave it far enough out so
the line wire can be drawn through without difficulty.
THE WOODEN STRETCHING BENT.
The stretching bent at the ends or corners must be well de-
signed and built.
Fig. 23.
The posts making the bent should be not less than 8" in
diameter and not more than 16" at the bottom. They should be
long enough to admit setting 4 to 4y2 feet in the ground.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Horton: Fences
165
In building the stretching bent, the second or brace post, is
set 11 feet from the end or corner post. The wooden brace goining
between the posts is a clear strong piece of 4"x4". This
brace is held in place on the posts by shallow morticing into the
post 10" down from the top, and the other end attached by mor-
ticing to the brace post 10" up from the bottom. Fasten the
brace to the posts, using spikes.
The two posts are held together, using a piece of No. 8 gauge
wire twisted tight, to draw the posts together.
In long stretches of fence stretching bents should be built
into the line.
Fence Building
. With Wood Posts
End Post With
Anchors
The first act in fence
building is the set-
ting of trie end poets
4 to 4-* feet deep in
a hole which has one
side flat where the
pott wilJ come Hush
with the flat side
and Lean against
the solid earth.
End posts have
n c h o r I ,
securely
each post,
with 6-i n. spikes,
the/top anchor)
Placed so it will
bear against
the ground in
the direction of
fence puH, the
bo f torn atiehojj
on the opposite side.
Once set* the earth
liilintt of the hole
ihould be thor-
oughly tamped, to
* secure the great-
est possible
solidity.
Corner Post
Anchors
A corner post, being
subject to a tremen-
dous pull from two
directions, is supplied
with three anchors. It
is set in the hole
4 to 4tf feet
deep, as is the
tall po itt t h e
[top anchorjind
(Soltom incKoffck -
ingihclcdct pull in
0 redirection white
the third anchor*
placed juii under
tin top trow*- piece
PUT IT fight flFifftd
on the port, acta u
■ jriffcnef ifiiurt
ihc putting power
from the direc-
tion in which
it li i piked.
^
Fig. 25.
Setting the corner
post.
Fig. 24. Setting the end post.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
166 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
SETTING THE STEEL END AND CORNER POSTS.
^:="
Fig. 26. End Post.
For ordinary soil the End Post hole should be 18"x20" by 3' deep.
The brace block hole 18"x20" by 1W deep. The two holes require 11^4
cu. ft. of concrete.
Fig. 27. Corner Post.
For ordinary soil the Corner Post hole should be 20"x20" by 3'
deep. The brave block holes 18"x20" by 1W deep. The three holes
require 16 cu. ft. of concrete.
ANCHORING POST IN GULLEY.
In fencing the gully and hollow with fence fabric, erected
on steel posts, the post must be anchored securely in the ground,
especially if the gully carries running water.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
Horton: Fences
167
Post Anchorf
for
Hollow Placed
A bottom an-
chor on a line
post is neces-
sary where
there is a
hollow of.
depression^1
in the ground *
along (he fciKC Vr
J i n e Thif&
a^choHia placed jg
at the very low- I
est point on the fc
post so that the i
fence shall not d
pull the pott &
ui of th*£
ground
Fig. 29.
Fig. 28.
3ft:;i$ ■ :*3 EiftSraEI
Fig. 30.
The anchor may be made of a brick or a rectangular stone
and is fastened to the bottom of post by wiring. To hold the fence
fabric down, and in place, a wire is made fast to the anchor and
Digitized by VjOOQIC
168
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
carried up and made fast to the line wires of the fabric by being
wrapped around these wires.
If the post is set in the bottom of a running stream the post
hole should be filled with stones, carefully tamped into place.
Fig. 31.
The secret of running fence over rough land and through
gullies is to stretch the fabric without trying to closely conform
to the land and rely on the weight of two men to bring the fabric
down to conform to the land. Only in this way is it possible to
secure a well stretched fabric. To hold the fabric in place the
use of anchors is necessary.
THE POST AT THE BRINK OF THE GULLY.
If the gully is not a deep one, or is deep, and the slope of
the side is not abrupt, the line wires on the post at the brink of
the gully should not be stapled tight to the post.
When the slope of the sides of the gully is steep, it will be
necessary to cut the fence fabric, stretch it and make it fast to
the. post and then start anew down the face of the gully to the
bottom.
AT THE CORNER POST.
Do not attempt to stretch the fence fabric around a corner.
Stretch up the corner, cut to proper length and make fast. This
done attach the other line to the corner post and proceed with
the building.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
Horton: Fences
169
Fig. 33. American Double JacK stretcher
gitized by LjOOgle
170 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
The fence fabric is brought into position up against the
posts and all the slack taken out, by the use of the fence
stretchers.
There are two kinds of stretchers the simple stretcher of the
Lott type, and the double jack stretcher of the American type.
SINGLE WIRE STRETCHER AND ITS USE.
Stretching the fence fabric with the big stretcher is not all,
— the line wires of the stretched fabric must be attached to the
end posts without losing any slack. This work is done with the
single wire stretcher and the illustration shows how.
Fig. 34. Stretching the Fence.
Each horizontal or line wire is brought around the post,
carefully stretched taut, fastened temporarily with a twist and
then twisted around the wire using the wire splicer.
Fig. 35. Single Wire Stretcher.
A satisfactory finishing stretcher. In connection with a
fence stretcher makes a complete outfit. All metal. Does not
injure the wire. See Fig. 35.
SPLICING LINE WIRES.
One of the unsightly jobs on the farm is the wire splices
which have been made with main force and without tools.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Horton: Fences
171
To properly splice a wire is a very easy job when the small
malleable iron tool, called the Wire Splicer, is available; it is
easy to use this tool, and with it perfect workmanlike splices may
be made.
Cut the line wires of the fence fabric to be spliced, as shown
in the illustration. Bring the two ends of the fabric together
so the stay wires touch, and holding them together with the
clamping tool attach the wire splicer to the line wire, catch the
free end of the wire and with the splicing tool wrap it around
the line wire.
The illustrations show this splicing better than words can
describe it. See Fig. 36.
Fig. 36. Wire Splicing Tool.
Fig. 37. An Auxiliary Post: Proper Way to Attach Fence Stretcher.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
172 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
AUXILIARY POST FOR STRETCHING FENCE.
Do not attach the post chain to the end post, but set and
use an auxiliary post.
By attaching the stretcher to the galvanized end post, the
zinc coating of the post is bruised and may easily be cut through
Fig. 38. Fence Tools.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Horton: Fences
173
exposing the steel and in which case the spot forms the starting
point for rust, which once started never stops.
It always will be necessary to dig some post holes on the
farm, and the inexpensive post hole digger should be in every
tool shed.
To explore the ground preparatory to driving metal fence
posts in stony land, the soil auger or the crowbar may be used
to advantage.
Metal posts should not be driven without using the malleable
iron driving cap. Otherwise the top of the post is likely to be
Fig. 39. Burning the Fence Line. The right way — note the wind blowing
heat and smoke away from the fence line.
split down or totally collapse by the blows necessary to drive the
post to position.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
174 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
The driving maul, with all metal head, should not be used,
but that maul having wooden inserts in both faces. There is no
better maul than the home made one, made of two pieces of
two by eight inch plank, nailed together and bored out for a
helve.
l
Number of Rods of Fence Required to
Enclose Fields of Different Sizes
1
!4 mile or 80 rods
i
S 80 Acres §
Req«lr«« IK mile*
or 480 rode of fence *
i
U mile or 80 rode
40
e 4* ©S'lfiS
20 rods
e ^ S-
40 rod, f
j, 20 rods
forodt
2*
40 rods
|t 10
sAore"s
40 rode
i
14 mile or 80 rode
40 Acres g
Reqeiree 1 mile
or 320 rode of
Jeaee to enclose
!4 mile or 80 rode
K mile or 160 rode
3
160 Acres
ReseJree 2 milee or 640
of fesme to
H mile or 160 rods
i
I
▲Wee Dieftram Show. & Section, or 320 Acres
Fig-. 40.
FENCES AND NOXIOUS FARM WEEDS.
From the weed eradication work I carried on over the period
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Horton: Fences
175
of six years one fact was made clear — dirty fence corners and
fence lines are the spots from where weeds are distributed over
the farm. Cleaning the corners by hand pulling the weeds,
takes care of the corners, but the extensive fence lines cannot be
handled in this way.
Dimensions of 1, 2, 3 and 4- Acre Lots
and lenoe required to enclose them.
1 Acre
1 Acre
£
et
1 Acre
Beaalrcs
MM*
of
i m
a
Beqolres
52
Rode of
S
!
5»
Requiree
50 Rode
10 ft. of
Fence
Fenee
fence
12 rods 10 It »la
10 rode
8 rods
16 rod*
22 rode
2 Acres
3 Acres
Require*
8 i
Require* 88 Rode
72 rode of
of Fence
Fenee
• «
20rode
25 rode 5 ft.
4 Acres
Require* 104
Rede of
Fenee
U
?*
h
4 Acres
Require* lOl Rode
3X feet of
i
Fe.ee
V)
et
Dimenei
feuee,
lone bItou are enaet. ao that In burins
oient eilowenoe ehould be made to
tenon up in wrapping around end end
Fig. 41.
Anyone who has tried cleaning fence lines erected on wood-
en posts by burning knows the danger and anxiety of the work.
When the fence fabric is on steel posts the fence lines jnay be
cleaned by burning.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
176 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
To burn a fence line select the day when the wind is blow-
ing across the line and fire the vegetation from the windward
side.
If there is a large accumulation of dead vegetation along the
line the fire will be very hot and may damage the wire, but burn-
ing the accumulation of one year will not injure the wire.
FENCE AND LIGHTNING.
In the summer time when the thunder caps appear in the
sky and the storm sweeps down over the farm, the farmer thinks
less of his own safety than he does of that of the livestock. When
the stock is in the field during the storm it may happen that the
animals drift against the wire fence which is heavily charged
with electricity and are shocked to death.
The ordinary fence built on wooden posts should be
grounded every sixth post. To ground the fence means to twist
a piece of wire six or eight feet long around the bottom line wire
of the fence and then dig a hole in the ground near the post and
bury the other end of the wire. The hole should be dug deep
enough so that the wire comes in contact with moist earth. A
fence so grounded offers no danger to livestock during the
thunder storm.
The wire fence built on galvanized steel fence posts is
grounded at every post and no thunder storm with its discharge
of lightning can injure the cattle enclosed by such a fence.
TENTATIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY OlF FENCES AND FENCE BUILDING
MATERIALS.
Brackets [ ] are used to call attention to defective titles.
Bainer, H. M. & H. B. Bonebrightj — Concrete fence posts.
Colo. Bulletin No. 148 (1909), pp. 3-36;
Colo. Bulletin No. 146 (1910), abbreviated edition of Bulletin
No 148.
Besley, F. W. — Increasing the durability of fence posts.
Md. Bulletin 163 (1912).
Brown, W. — On agricultural fences.
1873.
Buck, D; M. — Copper in steel. Its influence on corrosion.
Jour. Industr. & Eng. Chem. Vol. V (1913), p. 447.
Buck, D. M. — Keystone copper bearing steel, discussion of corrosion.
Pittsburg, 1915.
Buck, D. M. — Keystone copper bearing steel. A discussion of corrosion.
Pittsburg, 1915.
Buffum, B. C. — Life and preservation of pitch pine fence.
Wyo. Bui. No. 75 (1907), p 18.
Burgess, C. F. & J. Ashton. — Influence of various elements on the
corrodibility of iron.
Jour. Industr. & Eng. Chem. Vol. V (1913), p. 458.
Card ,F. W. & A. E. Stone. — Treatment designed to add to the durabil-
ity of posts.
R. I. Report 1903, pp. 226-229.
Crumley, J. J. — The relative durability of post timbers.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Horton: Fences 177
Ohio Bulletin 219 (1910), pp. 605-640.
Cushman, A. S. — The corrosion of fence wire.
U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bui. No. 239.
Cushman, A. S. — Information in regard to fabricated wire fences and
hints to purchasers.
Yearbook 1909, pp. 285-292.
Cushman, A. S. — The corrosion and preservation of iron and steel.
New York 1910.
Cushman, A. S. — Pure iron vs. copper bearing steel.
Institute Industr. Research Bui. No. 5 (1913)*.
Emery, S. M. — Fences for pig pastures.
Mont. Bull. No 14 (1897), p. 34.
Fitzherbert, Sir A. — Book of husbandry.
1532.
Fortescue, John. — De laudibus legum Angliae. 1463.
Gedge, F. C. & E. Boley. — History of the manufacture of barbed wire
fencing. Two parts. 1913.
MSS. American Steel & Wire Company.
Gedge, F. C. & E. Boley. — History of the manufacture of woven wire
fencing. 1913.
MSS. of American Steel & Wire Company.
Haase, A. R. — Index of economic material in documents, etc.
Hayward, A. I. — [Fence post preservation.]
Md. Report 1891, pp. 377-378.
Horton, H. E. — Fencing the farm.
Am. Soc. Agr. Eng., December 28, 1910.
Horton, H. E. — Barbed wire . Memoranda collected during a search of
flies of Iron Age for market prices. Chicago.
Humphrey, H. N. — Cost of fencing farms in the North Central States.
U. S. Dept. Agr. Bui. No. 321 (1916).
Jardine, J. T. — Coyote-proof pasture experiment, 1908.
U. S. Dept. Agr. Forest Service, Circular 160.
Jardine, J. T. — The pasturage system for handling range sheep. In-
vestigations during j.909.
U. S. Dept. Agr. Forest Service, Circular No. 178.
Jardine, J. T. — Coyote-proof inclosures in connection with range lamb-
ing grounds.
U. S. Dept. Agr. Forest Service, Bull. No. 97.
Lambert, B. — An electolytic theory of the corrosion of iron.
Metal & Chem. Engin. Vol. XI (1913), pp. 5, 272.
Martin, G. A., Editor. — Fences, gates and bridges A practical manual
Chicago, 1909.
McDonald, G. B. — Preservative treatment of fence posts.
la. Agr. Exp. Station Bui. No. 158 (1915).
McWharter, V. O.— The sheep killing dog.
Farmers' Bull. No. 652 (1915).
Meaker, Jr., J. M. — Steel making. An illustrated lecture.
Chicago, pp. 32. Illustrations 91.
Merriman, A. D. — Barbed wire: paper prepared by A. D. Merriman, to
be delivered before the Salesmen's Training School Course,
American Steel & Wire Co., Cleveland, O. January 8, 1913.
Michael, L. G.t et al.**— [Wire fences, Corrosion.]
la. Biennial Report 1907-8, pp. 145-148.
Page Woven Wire Fence Co. — Jubilee catalogue . 25th year.
Saunders, S. B. — Railway fences and boundaries.
Scott, John. — Farm roads, fences and gates.
Somerville, . — Essay on fences.
*This~is~the publication of a commercial laboratory.
••While this title has been given in a bibliography I am unable to verify it
and believe it should be dropped.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
178 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
•
Stead, J. E. & F. H. Wigham. — The effect of copper on steel wire
making.
Proc. Brit. Iron and Steel Inst. Vol. 60 (1901), Part 2, p. 125.
Tyler, . — Law of fences.
Vernon, Arthur. — Estate fences, their choice, construction and cost.
London 1909.
Walker, W. H. — The corrosion of iron and steel.
Jour. Industr. & Eng. Chem. Vol. V (1913), p. 444.
Weiss, H. F. — The preservative treatment of fence posts.
U. S. Dept. Agr., Forest Service, Circular No. 117.
Washburn & Moen Mfg. Co. — The fence question in the southern states
as related to general husbandry and sheep raising, with
the history of fence customs and laws pertaining thereto;
and a view of the new farm system of the South, as shown
m the census of 1880.
Worcester, Mass. 1881. pp. 1-44.
Washburn & Moen Mfg. Co.— The fence problem in the United States
as related to general husbandry and sheep raising. Facts
and statistics from authoritative sources, with a view of
fence laws and customs.
Worcester, Mass. 1882. pp. 1-47.
Washburn & Moen Mfg. Co. — Barb fencing; its merits and features.
(Four page folder of newspaper comments about the year
1881.)
Washburn & Moen Mfg. Co. — Fence laws. The statute prescription as
to the legal fence in the United States and territories,
the Dominion of Canada and Provinces, and Australia.
With illustrative, historical notes and judicial decisions,
and a view of fences and fence laws in Great Britain.
Worcester, Mass. 1880.
A rich source of information in connection with this subject is the
records of law suits tried to establish patents of fence designs and
fence making machines. To mention a few valuable and interesting
court domucents:
A. The Denning Wire & Fence Company vs. Americal Steel & Wire
Company. Filed June 5, 1908. U. S. Court of Appeals, 8th Circuit,
No. 2866. Complainant's Record in Equity No. 33.
B. American Steel & Wire Company vs. The Denning Wire and Fence
Company. Complainant's Record in Equity No. 34.
C. Washburn & Moen Mfg. Co. & Isaac L. Ellwood vs. Jacob Haish.
U. S. Circuit Court Northern District Illinois, in Equity. Complain-
ant's Record 1879
D. Ohio Steel Barbed Fence Company vs. Washburn & Moen Mfg. Co.
& Isaac L. Ellwood. U. S. Circuit Court Northern District Illinois,
in Chancery. Defendant's testimony. 1885.
( ). — Mode of fencing and ditching, etc.
U. S. Patent Office Report, 1842, pp. 93-97.
( ). — Fencing and ditching, etc.
U. S. Patent Office Report, 1844, pp. 455-460.
( ). — Laws relating to fences and farm stock.
U. S. Department Agr. Report, 1869.
< )# — statistics of fences in the United States.
Ann. Report U. S. Dept. Agr., 1871, pp. 497-512.
Digitized by LiOOQ IC
Horton: Fences 179
( ). — Fence post trees.
U. S. Dept. Agr., Forest Service Planting Leaflet No. 16. Cir-
cular No. 69, (1907).
( ). — The construction of concrete fence posts.
Prepared by the office of Public Roads.
U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bull. No. 403 (1910).
( ). — Farm fencing problem.
Weekly News Letter, U. S. Dept. Agr. Vol 3, No. 23. January
12, 1916.
( ). — Record of setting fence posts for the determination of
durability, when prepared in different ways.
Md. Agr. Exp. Station 1st Ann. Rpt. 1888, p. 76.
Another source of information relating to fences and fenec mak-
ing machines or looms are patent specifications.
Woven Wire Fabric Patents (Types) :
Wm. Bell 9-21-1886 344,59$
P. J. & P. W. Sommer 10-29-1889 414,125
M. M. Shellaberger 4-4-1890 422,842
G. M. Depew 4-11-1893 495,02$
J. E. Jones 4-28-1896 558,960
A. J. Bates 6-2-1896 561,193
I. L. Ellwood 8-25-1896 566,567
J. W. Griswold 1-19-1897 575,345
J. C. Perry 1-26-1897 576,069
C. M. Lamb 2-1-1898 598,265
J. M. Denning 1-3-1899 617,084
J. M. Purdue 10-9-1906 833,082
P. W. & W. M. Dillon 1-5-1909 908,757
Field Fence Machine Patents:
J. W. Page & C. M. Lamb 11-12-1889 414,844
P. J. & P. W. Sommer 1-31-1893 490,775
A. J. Bates 10-19-1897 591,996
J. C. Perry 9-19-1899 633,213
J. M. Denning 10-18-1904 772,405
D. P. Anthony 11-27-1900 662,662
G. E. Mirfleld 8-4-1908 894,971
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
180 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
DISCUSSION: FENCES.
Mr. Pleischman: Why the Bessemer product with low-
carbon content, instead of the open-hearth product?
Dr. Horton: There is an economic reason for this. (Illus-
trating the two methods on the blackboard.) There are large de-
posits of Bessemer steel ore that are only twenty feet under the
ground, and that can be mined with a steam shovel, which means
that it is the cheapest mining on earth. Today we are making
a Bessemer steel at a minimum price. With the open-hearth pro-
cess, we could not come anywhere near that price. But there
is a change taking place; we already see the exhaustion of the
supplies of Bessemer ore, and at the same time we see the great
freight rates from Chicago points to points in the South and in
the West.
Now, the great question is: Is it possible to get a factory
for making steel in the West and in the South? Yes, there is,
there is this basic open-hearth process, and wherever you can
get that basic process, it is a winner. We are just now between
the two processes, but you gentlemen in the next five years will
see a great increase in the tonnage of open-hearth steel. At pres-
ent, we are making both and shipping both. We make no dis-
tinction whatever, and we are unable to discover any difference
in the standing-up quality of the two steels for the uses we
make of them.
A Member : In making the test that you have showed us to-
day, isn't it a good plan to make the test to cover the joints in
the wires where the wire is bent ?
Dr. Horton : That is a good suggestion.
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AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING WORK IN OTHER
COUNTRIES.
Daniel Scoates*, Mem. Amer. Soc. A. E.
It is of some interest to us as agricultural engineers to know
what is being done along the lines of our profession in other
countries. Two years ago I started to look into this subject, but
found that due to the war which is raging in Europe, it was very
hard to get very much information. However, through the aid
of Mr. L. W. Page and Dr. E. W. Allen (who in several places
I quote) of Washington, I have got together enough to give an
idea of what is being done.
ENGLAND.
"England has a number of different organizations which
conduct, among other agricultural investigations, numerous
studies of farm machinery and farm motors. Chief among these
appear to be the Royal Agricultural Society, with headquarters
in London; the Agricultural Society of England, at London; the
Royal Sanitary Institute ; the Highland and Agricultural Society
of Edinburgh ; the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, London ;
and the Ireland Department of Agriculture and Technical In-
struction.
"From the different English agricultural papers, it appears
that nearly every county or main division of Great Britain has
an agricultural society which is supplementary to the larger so-
cieties. Mechanical plowing seems to constitute one of the main
investigations and small and large tractors and motor plows have
received considerable attention. The board, of Agriculture and
Fisheries and the Royal Sanitary Institute have in the past con-
ducted quite extensive investigations of farm buildings and rural
sanitation. One of these investigations extended over 80 years."
England seems to be doing very littLe work along irrigation
lines, and has given no financial aid with drainage reclamation
project since 1856.
QERMA&Y.
" There are a few main agricultural societies in Germany,
chief of which appears to be the German Agricultural Society or
the so-called Deutsche Landwirtschafts Gesellschaft. This insti-
tution, with headquarters at Berlin, has in the past reported in-
vestigations of nearly eveiy conceivable type of farm implement.
From the nature of the reports it seems that each year all new
developments of a particular type of agricultural machine are
subjected to a preliminary and a final competitive test, the tests
taking up not only mechanical and agricultural efficiences, but
•Prof. Agricultural Engineering. Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical
College.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
182 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
price and cost of operation. Thus, the advance in a particular
line of agricultural machinery is kept on record."
I append a report of and rules governing the work of the
"Implement Department and Implement Station/ y which is a
part of the German Agricultural Society. This department has
charge of testing farm machinery.
"The other agricultural experiment stations or institutions
of Germany, while in some cases acting independently, seem to
exist in somewhat of a supplementary capacity to the main so-
ciety. Among these are the Bohemian Technical High School at
Prague ; the United Agricultural Machine Testing Station, with
headquarters at Hanover ; the Chemical Control and Experiment
Station for Plant Diseases for the Province of Saxony ; the Agri-
cultural Experiment Station of Munster; and the Department
of Agriculture of Bavaria. These are not mentioned as special
cases, but are names which were available. In addition to these
are a large number of so-called 'moorkultur' stations which have
to do with the reclamation and development of the extensive
swamp areas of Germany."
In Germany assistance from the government is granted to
small groups of farmers and in some cases to large groups along
drainage lines.
They do very little with irrigation, although before the war
they were starting some important investigations under the con-
trol of the Imperial Department of Agriculture.
FRANCE.
"The so-called Institute Nationale Agronomique, with head-
quarters at Paris, so far as we are able to learn, has conducted
rural engineering investigations of practically the same nature
as those conducted by the German Agricultural societies, but ap-
parently not nearly so extensive. Farm buildings and sanita-
tion have been included in these studies quite frequently. In
France the mechanical cultivation craze has been very prevalent
and numerous investigations along that line have been reported.
There is also in France a society of Agronomy which has con-
ducted similar work. It seems that in both France and Germany
the manufacturers of agricultural machinery are the main sup-
port of such investigations.",
"In a recent number of the Literary Digest appeared the fol-
lowing paragraph :
" 'In France has recently been made an arrangement by which
the Department of Agriculture will grant subsidies to farmers
for the purchase of tractors for farm use. The proportional
amount of the subsidies will vary with conditions, but in no case
will it exceed one-third of the total cost of the machine, except
in cases where the applicant has suffered by the war, when the
amount will be one-half of the total cost. Co-operative farming
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Scoates: Agr. Eng. in Other Countries 183
societies may obtain the subsidies as well as farmers' clubs. As
outlined in the Commercial Vehicle, the arrangement provides
that applications must be made to the department through the
local prefect, who is expected to give an opinion on the case, with
details as to the nature of the land on which the tractor is to be
worked, the character of the purchaser, etc. Once the request
meets with approval and the purchaser's share of the cost has
been paid, the subsidy becomes available. It is believed that this
scheme, once it goes into operation, will be of far-reaching effect
on agriculture in France.' "
France advocates loans to reclamation companies and gives
a limited amount of engineering inspection.
' ' In France the irrigation work is controlled by the National
Department of Agriculture, and perhaps the most important
part of such work has been carried out in the valley of the
Rhone. In France also, the law on syndical associations enable
public-service associations to compel people to join in securing
any particular public work that is of communal interest. This
law affects work on drainage, irrigation, and other similar enter-
prises.
RUSSIA.
Russia is doing quite a little along the lines of testing farm
machinery through their Bureau for Agricultural Machinery, a
part of the Ministry of Agriculture.
In irrigation, they are, through their Reclamation Service
Branch of the Imperial Russian Government, reclaiming
15,000,000 acres.
ITALY.
"In Italy the Italian Touring Club and the Italian Federa-
tion of Agricultural Practice have conducted quite extensive
mechanical plowing investigations which are practically the same
as those conducted elsewhere. These institutions have their head-
quarters at Parma. The Rice Cultivation Experiment Station at
Vercelli, Italy, has conducted numerous tests of motor and me-
chanical plowing apparatus, paying particular attention to the
requirements of rice cultivation.' '
The drainage work is executed by the State or under con-
cessions from it, and the State contributes part of the cost. The
irrigation work is done by hydraulic engineers under State con-
trol, and part of the canals are owned and controlled by the
State.
SWEDEN.
"Sweden is another country having a number of agricul-
tural stations, which, it seems, are supplementary to a main sta-
tion. They have conducted a considerable number of investiga-
tions on the subjects of drainage, soil blasting and the use of
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
184 Wirt: Character of Instruction
explosives in general, tillage machinery, milking machines, and
other agricultural implements."
Sweden gives engineering advice in drainage work.
SWITZERLAND.
1 ' Southern Switzerland, or what is commonly called Roman
Switzerland, has a society of agriculture which, among other
things, has looked into farm water supplies."
In drainage work, she gives a certain amount of financial
aid.
MISCELLANEOUS COUNTRIES.
"The following provinces and dependencies have so-called
departments of agriculture, which are evidently government in-
stitutions: Union of South Africa, New Zealand, Queensland,
New South Wales, Belgium, Congo, Ceylon, Egypt, and Java.
All of these have more or less recently reported tests of agricul-
tural machinery of various types. The Egyptian Department
of Agriculture has dealt largely with drainage and irrigation
and that of Ceylon has reported an extensive set of tests of the
use of explosives in agriculture. The Java Sugar Experiment
Station is another station which has conducted tests of mechan-
ical plowing ; in this case, however, emphasizing sugar cane cul-
tivation requirements. ' '
"Tunis has a Department of Agriculture, Commerce and
Colonization. We are unable to determine just how this depart-
ment or society is at present conducted. The main activity, it
seems, is the reclamation of waste and desert land. They also
have done some work in agricultural hydraulics."
Nothing in the foregoing has been said about the question
of public roads. It is a well known fact that the European
countries have paid considerable attention to this phase of agri-
cultural engineering. Hon. Jonathan Bourne, Jr., made an ex-
tended study of this subject and published the results of his in-
vestigations in a government document, "Public Road Systems
of Foreign Countries and of the Several States/' To anyone
interested, I refer them to this paper.
I am appending a limited bibliography of publications deal-
ing with the results of this foreign agricultural engineering re-
search work.
I am sure there is some interesting information and data to
be obtained from our co-workers in foreign countries if we only
had some way to get in touch with them and have their work
translated after we got it.
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Scoates: Agr. Eng. in Other Countries 185
APPENDIX.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Experiment Station for Agricultural Machines.
(In Grandeau, L. 1' Agriculture et lea institutions a agricoles du
monde au commencement du XX siecle. (Agriculture and Agricultural
Institutions at the Beginning of the 20th Century) Vol. 3, pp. 76-92.)
"Among the experimental stations I have named, there is one hav-
ing a special character with only one or two similar ones in foreign
countries. This is the Station for Trials of Agricultural Machines."
Nachtweh, A. "Places for testing agricultural machines and im-
plements (In Mitteilungen des Verbandes Landwirtschaftlicher Masch-
inen-prufungs-Anstalten." (Journal of the Association of Agricultural
Machine Testing Institutes), 6th year, 1912, No. 4.)
"I shall furnish an exhaustive paper on this subject to appear in
the next number."
Giordano, Frederigo. Le ricerche sperimentali di meccanica
agrarica (Experimental researches on agricultural machinery), 321 pp.,
Illus., Milan, 1906.
Contents: Measuing instruments; testing arrangements; labora-
tories; and institutes; the Experimental stations for agricultural ma-
chinery in general, their foundation and scope.
India — Government. List of agricultural implements and ma-
chines which have been tested during 1897-1898.
Sweden — Styrelse for maskin — och redskapsprofning — sanstal-
terna. (Proposal (?) fo ra machine and implement testing institute.)
Meddelande (?) 1905.
Russia — Bureau for Agricultural Machinery. "Reports of the
Bureau for agricultural mechanics in the Ministry of Agriculture/*
(Latest publication of Bureau, 1914.)
Saxon machine-testing stations in Leipsiz, Journal of, 1904.
Tests of agricultural implements and machinery at Otchet in 1911.
(Published in 1913 under Russian Dept. of Agriculture.)
Denmark. Government implement output (?) Government imple-
ment tests, 1914.
The machine experiment stations (in Ungrans Landwirtschaft)
(Hungary's agriculture), 1896, published by the Royal Hungarian Min-
ister of Agriculture, Buda-Pest, 1897, pp. 174-175.
LangsdorfT, Karl von. Die Landsirtschaft in Konigreich Sachsen
und ihre entwickelung in den jahren 1876 bis einschl. 1879. inclusive.
(See pp. 285-286; pt. 2, pp. 743-746.)
Matlekovits, Alexander von. Die Landwirtschaft Ungarns. Leip-
zig, 1900. (Hungary's Agriculture). See pp. 358 et seq.
Daranyi, Ignatius. The state of agriculture in Hnugary, London,
MacMillan Co., 1905. See pp. 218-219.
REPORT ON GERMAN AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.
There exists in the German Agricutural Society an "Implement
Department and an Implement Station," the purpose of which is to test
new inventions, and if found satisfactory, to solicit their introduction.
An extensive description of the tasks and organization of this Imple-
ment Department is contained in the "Basis Rule" of October 16, 1902,
a copy of which is enclosed herewith. Apart from the above, the in-
troduction and propagation of practical innovations along the line of
agricultural machine building is undertaken by the chambers of agri-
culture which are established in every province.
Governing Principles for the Implement Department and Imple-
ment Station.
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186 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Decided upon in the Session of the Entire Board held on October
16, 1902.
I. DEPARTMENT.
I. The task of the Implement Department consists in furthering
the building of agricultural implements in the interests of agriculture.
To accomplish this aim the following measures are adopted:
a. The calling of meetings with a view to discussing the require-
ments regarding agricultural machinery and implements and the ex-
periences made with the same.
b. Annual shows of machinery at traveling expositions.
c. Final tests of machines regarding their efficiency by prize
contests.
d. Preliminary tests of newly invented implements on the occa-
sion of traveling expositions.
e. Efficiency tests of a number of groups of implements at the
instance of members of the society and agricultural unions or manu-
facturers.
f. Study of agricultural machine building at home and abroad as
well as publication of any experiences made which might assist in the
development of German machine building.
II. The general provisions for the organization of the German
Agricultural Society apply to the Implement Department and for the
tests the regulations of the "Schau-Ordnung" (Exhibition Regulations)
as well as the Prufungsor-Ordnung (Testing Regulations) for individ-
ual tests of machines.
II. STATION.
III. The duty of the carrying out of the tasks of the Department
falls to the Implement Station. The supervision of the same is in the
hands of a business manager, who is subordinate to the committee and
.chairman of the Department.
The manager signs for the Implement Station as follows:
Deutsche Landwirtschafts-Gesellschaft,
Implement Station,
(Signature of the business manager)
IV. Besides having to arrange for the Department's work the
Implement Station is charged with carrying out the following special
duties :
a. Transmittal of wishes and requirements from agricultural
circles to the machine industry pertaining to the construction of agri-
cultural implements.
b. Consultation of farmers in regard to the purveyance and use
of agricultural implements.
c. Drawing up designs for the establishment of agricultural ma-
chine plants on behalf of farmers by giving due consideration to the
special interests of the customer; distribution and acceptance of work.
V. For work of the kind as stated under b and c done by the im-
plement station a charge is made unless it is restricted to the furnish-
ing of some short information either verbal or written. The tariff of
fees is fixed by the committee.
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AMOUNT OF WORK OFFERED IN AGRICULTURAL
ENGINEERING.
A. H. Gilbert*, Mem. Amer. Soc. A. E.
A study of the catalogs from the various institutions shows
that some phases of Agricultural Engineering are offered in
every state agricultural college in the United States. It is true
that some institutions do not have separate departments nor divi-
sions, but subjects classified as Agricultural Engineering are of-
fered to students in Agriculture. A comparison of the chart
shown below with a similar one compiled by Professor J. B.
Davidson a few years ago reveals the interesting fact that the
amount of work offered in Agricultural Engineering is rapidly
increasing.
On classifying the courses given, it seemed expedient to di-
vide them into twenty courses, namely, wood work, forge work,
free hand drawing, mechanical drawing, farm structures, gen-
eral course, farm machinery, farm motors, surveying, drainage,
irrigation, cement work, farm sanitation, field practices, roads,
fences, dynamite, horticultural machinery, dairy machinery and
special work. A few more subjects such as horse-shoeing and
tractors, might justly be added to the list, but owing to the
small number of institutions offering such work it was considered
advisable to include them with forge work and farm motors.
The chart outlines the work as it is given to four year Agri-
cultural students. It does not include all of the work given in
the regular Agricultural Engineering courses. Such courses are
found only in a few institutions and are usually associated with
other engineering branches.
The figures on the chart represent credit hours. One credit
hour is equivalent to one lecture or three laboratory hours per
week unless otherwise designated. The courses are also consid-
ered as being given for semesters and where the school year is
divided into three texpis,* the hours are figured on the semester
basis.
A brief survey of the chart indicates that the subjects most
commonly taught are Farm Machinery, Farm Motors, Farm
Structures, and Drainage. The total number of hours devoted
to this branch of work in the various institutions ranges from
4 to 82. In some schools, however, Agricultural students are
permitted to elect any subject desired from the Engineering De-
partment, and in such cases the number of credit hours are far
more than those offered in the Agricultural Engineering Depart-
ment proper. The average of the required subjects is 10 credit
•Farm Mechanics Division, Purdue Universtiy, Lafayette, Ind.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
188 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
n
.A'
* Eft
-lb]
hi it
iitt
Digitized by VjOOQIC
Gilbert: Work Offered in Agr. Eng. 189
hours, average elective 12.5 credit hours, and the final average
is approximately 22.5 credit hours.
Replies were not received from a few of the institutions and
for this reason, it is expected that many errors exist in the chart.
However, it is hoped that this survey will be of interest to all
connected with the instructional side of Agricultural Engineer-
ing and of special interest to those who contemplate reorganizing
or reconstructing their courses.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
CHARACTER OF INSTRUCTION IN FARM MACHINERY.
F. A. Wirt#, Jr. Am. Soc. A. E.
Of the different branches of Agricultural Engineering:
Irrigation, Drainage, Road Construction, Blacksmithing, Car-
pentry, Rural Architecture, Farm Machinery and Farm Motors ;
the last two mentioned, Farm Machinery and Farm Motors, are
taught under the greatest difficulty. Rural Architecture is a
possible exception. On account of these greater difficulties such
as extremely large classes, rapid changes in machinery construc-
tion, inadequate subject matter and lack of standards only years
of teaching can produce, this paper will be limited to a discus-
sion of Farm Machinery. It will be further limited by omitting
any reference to rope work, babbiting and the like, which are
often included in this course. With few exceptions, however,
these remarks will apply to farm motors, and in a lesser extent
to the other branches of Agricultural Engineering.
Character of instruction will be interpreted to mean what is
taught and how it is presented.
The study of Farm Machinery includes principles, con-
struction, operation, adjustment, repairs, uses, care and selection.
Development of initiative, accuracy, speed, self-reliance, phys-
ical and moral attributes, as in other courses, depend largely on
the instructor and his opportunities.
Present practice in teaching farm machinery seems to re-
quire a few class periods devoted entirely to principles. Then,
later in the course, a detailed study is made of the important
machines. The extent of this study depends on the time given
to the course. The speaker is firmly convinced that more time
than is now the common practice should be given to the study
of these principles, for some of them apply to all farm machines.
As construction governs operation, adjustment, repairs,
uses, care, and selection, it is of consequence. Too often the
relation between construction and these other factors are not
emphasized. On the other hand, time spent in taking measure-
ments is largely wasted. It can be said that a machine in the
hands* of a farmer is worse than useless unless operation, adjust-
ment, repairs, care and selection are understood.
Before taking up the second phase of instruction in Farm
Machinery — presentation — your attention should be called to the
fact that the few words here devoted to subject matter is no cri-
erion of its importance. The speaker pleads justification for this
procedure as very little attention is commonly paid to how a
subject is taught. Invariably this is true of courses compara-
tively new to college curricula.
•In charge Department of Farm Machinery, Kansas State Agricultural Col-
lege.
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Wirt: Character of Instruction 191
Examination of thirty college catalogs for information on
the beginning course in Farm Machinery brings out many im-
portant points. The names of these courses may be interesting :
Farm Machinery, Field Machinery, Farm Motors and Machin-
ery, Farm Mechanics, Agricultural Engineering, Farm Mechan-
ics and Farm Machinery, Farm Machinery and Farm Motors,
and Farm Equipment.
The tables below give the number of lecture and laboratory
periods :
TABLE I.
No.
No.
Class Periods.
of Schools
No. of Lecture or
Recitation Periods
per Week.
No.
of Weeks.
Total No. of
Class Hours.
2
2
12
24
1
3
12
36
1
4
12
48
8
1
18
18
5
2
18
36
4
3
18
54
Lester assumed to be 18 weeks and terms 12 weeks long.
TABLE II.
Laboratory Periods.
of Schools
No. of Hours Lab-
No.
of Weeks.
Total No. of
oratory per Week
Laboratory Hours.
1
2
12
24
1
3
12
36
2
4
12
48
3
2
18
36
2
2%
18
45
5
3
18
54
4
4
18
72
1
6
18
108
By comparing separately the number of classes and labora-
tory hours for each school, we find that for fifteen schools using
the semester plan the ratio of class to laboratory hours is 1 :2,
that is, one hour lecture for every two hours laboratory. For
the four schools having the term plan the ratio is 1 :1.25, that is,
one hour lecture for every l1^ hours laboratory work. The table
brings out prominently the number of institutions — 8 out of 21,
or 38% that have only one hour class periods per week.
From the number of schools giving one hour class periods,
it is doubtful if the rate of forgetting is considered. How many
here today have paid any attention to this factor when planning
their courses? Yet experiments conducted on the rate of for-
getting show that it is very rapid for the first few days, and
then proceeds more slowly.
"My own impression from the experimental material is
that intervals of a day between recitations are better than inter-
vals of two days, certainly better than intervals of half a week,
Digitized by LiOOQ IC
192 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
and that weekly recitations ought not to be tolerated — except
where, as in certain courses in literature, much intervening read-
ing must be done which serves to check the effects of disuse.' '
This paragraph is quoted from a paper read by R. P. Angier be-
fore the Engineers' Club of the Sheffield Scientific School of
Yale University, Good reading matter on Farm Machinery is con-
spicuous by its absence.
Referring again to the catalogs investigated, it is discovered
that 18 of these institutions conduct their class work by the lec-
ture method, 4 by recitations, and 3 by both recitations and lec-
tures. The superiority of the recitation over the lecture can
hardly be doubted. A prominent educator, while addressing a
Boston assemblage lately, said that the undergraduate seldom
thinks. Lectures are not conducive to thinking. Where notes
are taken in full the student takes down what is said in a per-
functory manner, and if the student waits until after the lec-
ture to write up his notes they are seldom written, on account of
other school work. It can be said that lectures on farm machin-
ery are not particularly interesting. This drawback of being dry,
however, can be overcome in a slight measure by a wide-awake
enthusiastic instructor, but it is almost impossible to maintain a
student's motive or interest when the lecture method is used.
Our classes are usually too large ; the use of farm machinery
is increasing greatly; machines are constantly being changed;
and we have a very limited amount of available printed matter,
which is aways necessary for a recitation course, consequently,
lectures are necessary. But if they are combined with recita-
tions and the recitations are emphasized, the class work will
have none of the disadvantages of the lecture method and almost
all of the advantages of the recitation method.
When the speaker gave his final examination in his begin-
ning course in Farm Machinery a year ago, one question asked for
suggestions. With hardly an exception, every one of the one hun-
dred and forty-five students said that the lectures and recitations
could be improved by having the machines in front of the class.
If the lecture and recitation is on riding plows, one or two styles
should be before them. It is not surprising that students have
difficulty in grasping quickly what is said in the class-room when
the machine lectured upon is not before them. To only speak
of how to adjust the rear plow wheel of a high lift sulky plow
means little, but if the instructor illustrates his lecture by really
making the adjustment before them, the student will not forget
it soon. In like manner, a recitation is improved by having the
student name parts, make adjustments, etc., on a machine before
the class. Any mistakes can then be quickly and easily corrected.
In that same final examination, a large percentage of the
students suggested that hereafter the farm and town boys be
divided into separate sections. While all farm lads are not
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Gilbert: Work Offered in Agr. Eng. 193
equally familiar with machinery, yet such a division would un- .
doubtedly be an aid, and a great one, to better instruction.
Passing now to the laboratory, we find that there is not an
educational institution in the country that does no include a few
hours of laboraory work in their beginning course in Farm Ma-
chinery, and furthermore, all of these institutions use a labora-
tory manual of some kind. Only a few manuals arc printed, the
others are mimeographed.
Laboratory exercises can be divided into three general
classes — assembling, operation and examination. Of the assem-
bling type, only a few are found in the manuals. While they offer
valuable training in familiarizing the student with the machin-
ery, assembling requires a vast amount of time. A machine is
almost ruined if torn down and put together again hundreds of
times yearly, and lastly it is seldom necessary for the farmer to
set up his machinery.
Operation exercises include exercises on calibration, econ-
omy and efficiency tests, and adjusting. Draft test of a plow, cali-
bration of a grain drill, cost of grinding feed, comparison of re-
sults obtained from a walking plow and an engine gang, and set-
ting sulky plow wheels are examples of operation exercises. The
farm boy cares more for this form of exercise than any other. He
needs it. Investigation of the Farm Machinery Manuals already
referred to shows that this form of exercise is given wherever
possible. Very little operating work can be given outside of the
laboratory, for it requires too much time and the results
are of doubtful value where the classes are so large that it is im-
possible to assign some particular duty to each student.
The examination form of laboratory exercise requires no de-
scription, but the questions deserve great consideration. The ma-
jority of the fifteen Manuals contain too many questions on meas-
urements and other questions of minor importance. Such exer-
ercises require much mechanical work on the part of the stu-
dent from which he obtains very little actual benefit. Instead,
it often results in positive injury. Such uninteresting and time-
wasting methods have a decidedly detrimental affect on the stu-
dent 's motive or interest in the course.
Grading reports on examination exercises is an almost end-
less task, yet if the errors are not graded and the reports handed
back to the student, the instructor has overlooked one of the best
methods of showing a sudent how he is improving.
To overcome this handicap, two of three institutions, so the
writer understands, require but very few written reports of the
examination or comparison form, then only when data are neces-
sary for computations, calibrations, etc. Where written reports
are not called for, an oral quiz affords the instructor an oppor-
tunity to find out what the student has been doing and to clear
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194 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
up obscure points. This scheme is undoubtedly the best, where
the teaching staff is not too small.
It is a mystery why questions in the examination or compar-
ison form of exercises are arranged in so loose a manner. For
instance, among the questions in one sulky plow exercise is found
a question on management, it is followed by a question on frame,
and it in turn is followed by one on levers. A far better plan
would be to arrange the questions so that those pertaining to
the share would be in consecutive order, with the same arrange-
ment for wheels, etc. Systematic grouping of these questions is
the logical method and will enable the student to make the most
of his time.
The wording of each question is often neglected as in the fol-
lowing example taken from a feed mill exercise will show. Orig-
inal question, "Has the mill a divided hopper ?" When writing
the report the student glances at the mill and writes down
"Yes" or "No". In no way has the student been helped by
this question, in fact he has wasted time that could be profitably
spent elsewhere and he knows it. Suppose that the question
reads, "Explain how the divided hopper can be used?" Yes, or
No, will not do this time. The student must think before answer-
ing. Another example taken from a feed mill exercise, "Are the
crusher knives made of steel or cast iron ? ' ' The answer is either
"steel" or "cast iron." Except indirectly, it does not matter
what material is used. Now suppose that this question is changed
to read as follows: "The crusher knives serve what purpose?"
This is a logical question and requires some thought before it can
be answered. From fifteen manuals on hand this list of similar
examples could be prolonged almost indefinitely.
Gentlemen, why is it that a student taking special work in
Farm Machinery or other courses always works harder, learns
and does more in the same length of time than the student tak-
ing the regular work? Why is it that he will put in over-time
working early and late requiring little or no urging? The rea-
son for this is simple. He has a motive aroused which drives
him to learn on his own initiative. He has an interest in the
subject which can hardly be quenched.
Almost all students taking Farm Machinery are at least slight-
ly interested in the subject to begin with. Many are intensely
interested. They realize that farming taday is based on the use
of machinery, that if they are to make the greatest success pos-
sible they .must have a thorough understanding of their farm
implements.
Yet it is only too true that this interest usually wanes be-
fore the term is far advanced. While we cannot expect our stu-
dents taking a required course to be as interested in the subject
as those electing our advanced work, yet that is no excuse for the
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Wirt: Character of Instruction 195
spasmodic efforts commonly made towards improving our re-
quired courses.
While the student's interest can be appealed to in many-
ways, one method that is always available and of great worth is
the inherent nature of mankind to take pleasure in his own im-
provement. It is probably more important than successful com-
petition with others. First, it involves competition with one's
self, and second, forms 4 ' The habit of achieving independently of
social stimulus and develops, therefore, a more enduring motive
for work when this stimulus is absent."
Whether intentional or not, one institution makes use of
this factor of interest by posting the grades obtained at the last
laboratory meeting for inspection when the class meets on the
following period. The results, the speaker is informed, are
splendid. A student is a poor judge of his improvement unless
he knows where he is making mistakes and how they can be cor-
rected. Consequently it is essential to the student's welfare that
the results of his efforts, amount and kind of his errors, should
be made known to him. The plateau of learning, or the point
where the student seems to make no advance commensurate with
his efforts, should be understood thoroughly by both the instruc-
tor and the student. Unless the student understands that this
plateau must be passed if he is to be master of the subject, re-
gardless of the seeming lack of improvement and hard work, then
poor work will result. The student should be informed that only
by conscientious effort can he hope to pass this region.
What to teach and how to teach it : The points the writer
has attempted to bring out require more space than given here to
do them justice. Many have either been omitted entirely or only
touchd upon lightly, not however because they are thought to be
unimportant, but because the writer does not wish to cloud the
vital points with a mass of detail.
In a nutshell, the men in Agricultural Engineering have
been spending their time in hunting material to teach not what
to teach and how to teach it. Our work, especially in Farpi Ma-
chinery, is below standard; one man is trying one scheme, one
man another ; a great many are dissatisfied, but all are too busy
to devote a great amount of time to study how to teach Agricul-
tural Engineering. When the speaker asked the men in charge
of Agricultural Engineering subjects at other institutions for a
copy of their Manuals, many of them wrote asking for a copy of
the speaker's manual; they, too, were either contemplating or
had already begun a change in their manual.
The time is here when a thorough study should be made of
what to teach in Farm Machinery and how to teach it. There
is no better way to accomplish this than to have a committee of
three or five appointed to study the methods now practiced
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I
196 American Society of Agricultural Engineers \
throughout this country, and report with recommendations at
our next meeting. With a copy of the report in the hands of
each instructor before the Convention meets, a discussion would
follow that would be worth an untold amount. While a general
method will not suffice in every detail for the entire country,
there is not the slightest doubt that such a report and discussion
would mean a wonderful stride forward in bettering Agricul-
tural Engineering.
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RECOMMENDATIONS CONCERNING AGRICULTURAL
ENGINEERING INSTRUCTION FOR AGRICUL-
TURAL STUDENTS.
J. B. Davidson*, Mem. Amer. So. A. E.
(Abstracted by the Author.)
Recommendations are usually made after co-operative con-
sideration by several persons, but this paper represents individ-
ual opinion.
Recommendations usually refer to needed improvements or
changes and are not made concerning satisfactory conditions.
There are perhaps three reasons why changes in agricultural
engineering instruction to agricultural students may be justified
at this time :
First : Agriculture has become more specialized, requiring
that coures in agricultural engineering, if they are to serve their
largest purposes, must be specialized.
Second: Farming methods are changing; a larger and
larger use is made of machine methods. For example, it is to
be noted that the value of farm machinery in the United States
increased over 68% between 1900 and 1910.
Third : Students entering the agricultural colleges do not
have the sajne preparation now as formerly. At one time nearly
all of the students came from the farm, familiar with practical
farm work, while in many states, the majority of the agricultural
students now come from the cities. This condition would jus-
tify a re-arrangement of agricultural courses to compensate for
the lack of practical experience.
With these changed conditions in mind, the author has the
following recommendations to make, concerning the development
of agricultural engineering instruction:
1st: That special studies for special students be devel-
oped. For example, a general course will not serve in the fullest
way the requirements of the student in horticulture and at the
same time serve the animal husbandry student.
2nd: The practical features of agricultural engineering
instruction should be emphasized to compensate as much as pos-
sible for the lack of practical experience on the part of a large
number of the students.
3rd : Agricultural engineering instruction should be strict-
ly along engineering lines. If the agricultural engineering in-
structor has a message of value for the agricultural student, it
is along the line of his particular specialty. The methods used
•Professor Agricultural Engineering, University of California.
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198 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
in agricultural production are not especially dissimilar from
those used in other industries.
4th: An effort should be made to increase the amount of
agricultural engineering literature. Instruction cannot progress
rapidly until a larger fund of information in definite tangible
form is available.
5th : The amount of agricultural engineering research work
carried on in the country along agricultural engineering lines is
deplorably small. An effort should be made by each and every
college to carry on some definite line of experimental or research
work.
6th : A standing committee should be organized to continue
the work started by Prof. Gilbert this year, and report annually
to the society.
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GENERAL DISCUSSION: INSTRUCTION.
Mr. Ramsower : The subject this morning has been Courses
in Agricultural Engineering for General Students in Agricul-
ture.
I should like very much to have heard a discussion on the
question of a course in Agricultural Engineering for general
students.
As our course is laid out in the Ohio University, all stu-
dents, no matter in what they are specializing, must take one
semester in all of the various departments of the college and I
know that this is true in a number of other universities. I also
know that those courses differ very largely in content as offered
at the various universities. In the Ohio University, we have one
course, and that is all the students must take. Just what ought
we to put into that course to make it of greatest value to the stu-
dents who are specializing in husbandry and other branches?
I know in some universities a general course is offered in
which no farm machinery is included. In other university
courses, they are made up largely of farm machinery and mo-
tors. Now, to make it include house sanitation, sewage disposal,
lighting plants, etc., and include farm motors also, is a very great
mistake to my mind. Perhaps it is only to induce the students
to take a special course. If that is the attitude it is a wrong
attitude. We want to give them in that general course, all the
information concerning agricultural engineering that we pos-
sibly can.
A Member : How many credits do you give in this course
of yours?
Mr. Ramsower: Pour hours, three hours lecture and one
laboratory.
Mr. Wirt: Following Mr. Ramsower ?s remarks about the
contents of such a course, I would suggest that the committee,
as I represented in my paper, should study the content of courses
given throughout the United States and make any recommenda-
tions they see fit, hoping we may have time for discussion at our
next meeting.
Mr. Costelloe: We want to remember how much condi-
tions vary in making such a course to fit everybody. In Califor-
nia, there are no restrictions as to weather conditions; in most
other States we could only work out doors in the summer tipie,
and there are certain things that can be done and shown only
in the summer time, so that the outside and the inside work
would have to be planned for.
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REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON STANDARDS.
*
J. B. Davidson, Chair., P. E. Holt, Max Patitz.
We have only a brief report to make, but there are some
matters which we beileve are of importance. In the first place, wc
recommend that the Society give its approval, if it be prac-
tical to do so, to the standards recommended arid adopted by the
National Implement and Vehicle Manufacturers ' Association for
Wagons. We thing we ought to take advantage of these stand-
ards, which have been proposed. If the manufacturers
agree not to manufacture other sizes than the standard sizes, per-
haps that is not necessary, but we, at any rate ought to do what
is in our power to secure the general adoption of these standards.
They are right in line with the things that we think will be best
for those concerned.
In the second place, the committee has undertaken to find
out whether or not the gas engine manufacturers would be in-
terested in standard methods of rating gas engines. Last year
it was suggested that the manufacturers themselves did not ap-
prove of any standard methods of rating gas engines, but we
sent out a few feelers to which over half of the firms replied
favorably, but the committee noticed that each manufacturer
would like his own method adopted. There was a difference of
over thirty per cent in the value of the formulae proposed.
Those of you who were here last night know that the mat-
ter of standards for rating farm electric lighting plants came
up, and this morning one member of the Standards Committee
met with others who are interested, and we have now the follow-
ing definite recommendations to make in this connection :
1st. That a special committee be appointed to give imme-
diate attention to the standardization of the methods of rating
farm electric lighting plants ;
2nd. That it be the duty of this committee to inquire
among the manufacturers as to the forms of electric lighting
plants and their equipment, to determine their interest, wishes
and recommendations concerning such standards;
3rd. That it be further the duty of this committee to call
a conference as soon as feasible of the manufacturers and other
interests involved ;
4th. That any standards prepared at this conference which
shall meet with the general approval of that committee and the
members of that conference shall be submitted to this Society;
5th. That the committee be responsible for one session of
the next annual meeting, which will be devoted to. the matter of
the standardization of farm electric lighting plants and equip-
ment.
It was brought out clearly in this conference this morning
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Committee on Standards 201
that perhaps there would be no serious objection to the standard-
ization of methods for rating farm electric light plants. We
have not run against the snag that we did in connection with the
rating of gasoline power.
GENERAL DISCUSSION: STANDARDS.
Mr. Roth : I think the Society can do a very good service
for the farming people and also for the manufacturers of these
plants if they will take this course, and I feel sure that the man-
ufacturers will heartily co-operate with you in every way. This
question of standardization is something that I think will re-
dound to our benefit as manufacturers very quickly, as soon as
this Society has standardized outputs, ratings, etc., so that we
are all figuring on the same basis, then the farmer will know how
to compare the different manufacturers' articles, and he can
then use his own judgment as to what he is getting.
Mr. Staedaker : The only point that I might bring out in
connection with this discussion is that which is most forcibly
brought out by the fact that at the present time the two severest
competitors in the battery field rate their plants on a different
basis. The standard rating with the Edison battery is a five-
hour rating. The lead battery people give their batteries three
ratings; one on amperes which will be carried for three hours,
another for five hours, and another for eight hours. The trouble
with that is that, for instance, the three-hour rating is just
double the eight-hour rating; the current-carrying capacity of
the plant is in inverse proportion to rate of discharge. But the
two can be co-ordinated and both settled upon the five-hour basis
very readily, and I think that if this is left with the committee
they will go forward in this matter and get the manufacturers
to agree to this basis, and then the manufacturers can advertise
the fact that they are agreeing to the rules of this Society.
Mr. Dickerson : I think that this committee should take ac-
tion on the standard rating for belt speeds. It strikes me that this
is one of he most important points as affecting farm machinery in
general, both motors and driven machinery, and it is a^ matter
which ought to be carefully standardized.
Mr. Davidson : This matter has not received the consider-
ation of the committee. Personally, I think that is a splendid
subject to take up. The present practice has been very seriously
criticised and we really ought to get together.
We didn't make any definite recommendations concerning
the standardization of wagons. I suppose most of the member-
ship have received the Bulletins published by the National Im-
plement and Vehicle Association. The whole plan was to cut
down the number of sizes, reducing the cost of the product to the
consumer.
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REPORT OP COMMITTEE ON FARM STRUCTURES.
E. S. Fowler, Chairman, W. A. Etherton, S. D. Harding, K. J.
T. Ekblaw, H. H. Niemann, H. J. Hughes, Rolf Thelen.
The Farm Structures committee as a whole, divided their
work into sub-committees as follows :
1. Barn Floors, Stalls and Mangers.
2. Minor Farm Buildings.
3. Major Farm Buildings.
4. Farm Home.
We would like to make one recommendation as a committee
of the whole, and that is, that the ventilation of farm buildings
be turned over to the Farm Structures committee. We find that
in giving full details of farm buildings the ventilating system
must be included.
The following reports of the sub-committees on the above
division of our work will constitute the report of this committee.
SUB-COMMITTEE ON BARN FLOORS, STALLS ANI>
MANGERS.
K. J. T. Ekblaw, Chairman.
Your committee on Barn Floors, Stalls and Mangers have
made a general survey covering these particular features of farm
buidings and find :
That, dairy barn floors, stalls, mangers and alleyways for
rectangular buildings are fairly well standardized.
That, there is a wide variance of opinion with regard to the
design of horse barn, hog house, and poultry house floors.
That, farmers realizing the importance of sanitation are ask-
ing for designs of farm buildings paying particular attention to
these features.
That, round barns are becoming more or less favored in cer-
tain localities and that much improvement is needed for the de-
sign and arrangement of floors.
Your committee has confined its report to dairy barn floors.
We have received valuable assistance and data from barn equip-
ment manufacturers who have made a study of dairy barn floors
and have standardized their designs for their particular type of
equipment ; also from building material manufacturers who ad-
vocate the construction of dairy barn floors with their materials.
We have tried to incorporate the best features obtained from all
these sources and have combined them with our own investiga-
tions and study.
We find sanitation and durability are of prime importance
and recommend that the materials used in the construction of
dairy barn floors possess these qualities in connection with econ-
omy. Concrete is recommended as a material for use in passage-
ways, gutters, mangers and stalls. This does not necessarily ex-
clude other materials which at present give promise of fulfilling
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Committee on Farm Structures 203
requirements in a satisfactory way, but which have not as yet
been in use a sufficient length of time to demonstrate thoroughly
their entire effectiveness.
The following dimensions are recommended practice:
Minimum width of barn 32'. Width of stalls from 3' 4" to
4' according to size of cows.
COWS HEADED IN.
Minimum width of central feed alley 6'.
Width of mangers, minimum 24". Maximum 40".
Length of stall from stanchion to gutter, minimum 4' 6".
Maximum 5' 2".
Width of gutter, minimum 18". Maximum 24".
Width of litter alley, minimum 3' 6".
COWS HEADED OUT.
Width of feed alley, minimum 3'.
Mangers, minimum 26". Maximum 40".
Length of stall from stanchion to gutter, minimum 4' 6".
Maximum 5' 2".
Width of gutter, minimum 18". Maximum 24".
Width of central litter alley, minimum T.
Thickness of concrete floor, minimum 6".
Where the cows are headed in, the central feed alley may be
raised to the top of the manger or made level with the stall floor
as desired. The stall floor should slope to the rear not less than
1/4" Per foot. It is an advantage to locate the gutter so that the
length of stalls will vary from 4' 6" to 5' 2". This will make it pos-
sible to place a cow in a stall according to her length. A slight
depression in the floor of %" to 1" about 14" from the manger
curb will aid in retaining the bedding under the animal's front
feet and will prevent them from falling in reaching for food.
The feed alley should have a slight slope towards the point se-
lected for the drain. The surface, if made of concrete should
be troweled as smooth as possible. A smooth feed alley with no
corners to hold food prevents them from becoming sour. The
gutter should slope crosswise towards the litter alley, to give bet-
ter drainage and lengthwise towards a drain connected with the
manure pit, to be used principally for flushing and washing the
floors.
Your committee submits the following design for building
concrete floors in dairy barns. Most of the barn equipment
manufacturing companies loan steel form guides for curb and
manger construction in connection with the sale of their equip-
ment.
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204 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
CD E~t
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Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Committee on Structures 205
Your conunittee recommends:
That study be given to the arrangement and design of
floors for round buildings.
That study be made of horse barn floors with special regard
to the effect on the horses' feet.
That a further study be made of floors for minor farm
buildings.
That study be made of feeding floors and barnyard pave-
ments and that these be embodied in a design to be submitted
with specifications as recommended practice.
That where concrete is used for floors in farm buildings an
expansion joint of 1" be left between the floor and the founda-
tion around the entire building. That some form of insulating
material be inserted in this expansion joint to within */£" of the
top of the floor and that this be sealed w itshome kind of bitmui-
nous compound. This construction will reduce the conduction of
cold from the outside wall through the floor and therefore, make
the floor next to the foundation much warmer.
That a study be made of the slope and depth of gutters for
dairy barn floors in order that they may be standardized.
That a study be made of gratings and drains used in dairy
barns.
SUB-COMMITTEE ON MINOR FARM BUILDINGS.
S. B. Harding, Chairman.
Your committee confirms the findings of last year's com-
mtitee :
That plans for dairy houses, poultry and hog houses vary
greatly with the size of the farm and locality.
That the supreme requisite for these buildings is sanitary
construction and we recommend that such construction be used.
HOG HOUSES.
Your committee finds much difference of opinion regarding
the construction of hog houses. This is divided mostly into two
arguments. Those opposed to centralized hog houses versus
colony hog houses. Those opposed to tha former argue, disease
is harder to control while those opposed to the latter argue : too
much labor is involved.
Your committee believes, however, that the advancement in
science in controlling hog diseases with the aid of sanitary con-
struction should bring those differing on these points together.
In the colder climates we find centralized houses are essential
while in the warmer climates colony houses may be favored.
Your committee recommends for centralized hog houses the
design of the buildings be such that it will accommodate two rows
of pens with a central feed alley running lengthwise of the build-
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206 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
ing. The minimum size of these pens should be 7' x 9' and the
maximum size 8' x 10'.
That provision be made for a small supply of feed.
That a room in one end of the building be provided which
can be used as a nursery during farrowing tune.
That ample provision be made for ventilation and light.
That the floor of the centralized hog house slope towards the
feed alley in which there is constructed a small drain.
TOOL HOUSES.
Your committee confirms the finding of your last committee
with respect to tool houses. Wo suggest for such a building a
plan 20/ to 28' wide and length to afford sufficient room for hous-
ing tools required ; we suggest that the building be located some
distance from the farm buildings to reduce the risk of fire ; that
it be provided with sliding doors on both sides in order that the
heavier machinery can be pulled in with horses, thereby reducing
the cost of labor in handling it and that the interior be provided
with a good floor or that it be covered with at least 6" of cinders
or gravel to reduce dampness and thereby lessen corrosion of
metal part of tools.
Your conunittee recommends:
That further study be given to all forms of minor farm
buildings.
That special study be given to the design and construction
of poultry houses.
That special study be given to the design of roofs for hog,
sheep and poultry houses.
SUB-COMMITTEE ON MAJOR FARM STRUCTURES.
H. H. Niemann, Chairman.
Your sub-committee on major farm structures has carefully
gone into the work and finds that the subject assigned them is
of such magnitude that it can not be completely covered in one
annual report.
Therefore, your committee has after a brief study of the
location, size, capacity, arrangement and general construction
concluded to confine its report for this year's work to the effi-
ciency of various types of wood construction.
LOCATION.
All structures on a farm should be clustered in the most
convenient manner possible.
Each building is to be a cog of the farm machine, and if
the machine is to run right each cog must be in its proper place
to perform its part.
The essential factors in locating the building are :
Convenience to fields pastures, lanes and feed supply ;
Proper drainage ;
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Committee on Farm Structures 207
Shelter from winter storms;
Out of line with prevailing winds ;
With due consideration to landscape architecture and a
general pleasing effect.
The buildings should be far enough apart to prevent the
spreading of fire ; and at the same time close enough to save all
unnecessary steps in doing the chores.
All structures housing live stock should be grouped for con-
venience in feeding.
One end of each building becomes permanently fixed by its
position relative to other buildings and driveways, while the
other end should be constructed subject to the extension of its
capacity as the future may dictate.
SIZE.
Whenever a barn is built or any other kind of a building, it
is built for a definite purpose; this definite purpose should be
kept in mind from start to finish. Whether it be for housing
live stock, for the storage of feed and farm implements, for pre-
paring products for market, or for a combination of these, no
matter what the purpose may be, it should be built with the cor- .
rect amount of floor space for each purpose, the total of which
will determine the size of building.
This becomes complicated when the question of economical
construction is taken into consideration. For example, a barn
40 ft. square having a floor area of 1600 square feet, may be of
the correct size to meet all requirements for which it is intended.
At the same time a building 32 by 50 ft., which has the same
floor area, may also meet the requirements, and cost less on ac-
count of not requiring so heavy construction for a 32 ft. span
as would be necessary for a 40 ft. span.
From this the committee concludes that each building should
have the width and height fixed to meet the definite requirements
of the intended use.
The height of each structure should be made to give the
capacity that will be required for the present and near future
use and the arrangement should be such that its length can be
increased at will, without interfering in any particular with the
regular farm routine.
CAPACITY.
Unless the farm is so situated that a change in its area is
not probable, all structures should be built on a plan that is
flexible in capacity.
Market and weather conditions may compel the farmer to
change the greater part of his products from dairy to beef, from
poultry to fruit or from grain to truck, as the market conditions
may dictate.
Therefore the buildings should be flexible enouglwn ar-j
Digitized by VjOOQ lC
208 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
rangement so that any department of the farming business can
be increased in one direction without in any way causing other
departments to suffer.
Likewise a barn originally designed for various kinds of
live stock should be so planned that the capacity for one kind can
be increased without destroying the stalls required for other
stock.
This can be done by arranging the buildings with the view
of future expansion of each division of the buildings.
CONSTRUCTION.
The most efficient type of construction for farm structures
depends to a large extent on climatic requirements, current local
prices of building materials, labor conditions, transportation and
how permanent the buildings are to be.
If the farmer is building structures on his own land, for
permanent use, their construction should be as fire and weather
resisting as the financial investment will permit.
In general the construction should be sample and free of all
unnecessary posts and other structural members that would in-
terfere with the convenience and economical handling of ma-
terials, stock, products and by-products.
In the southern states a structure for live stock is better
without glass in the openings for light, while in the northern
states glass is absolutely necessary, at least during certain
months.
It is therefore necessary to divide the construction into two
types, one for northern and one for southern conditions.
These can again be divided into several types to suit local
material and labor conditions.
In order that various types may be compared as to cost and
efficiency, we have worked out estimates of cost that may be used
in a general way. These estimates are given in the latter part
of this report.
ARRANGEMENT OF STALIS.
For rectangular barns the arrangement of two rows of stalls
running lengthwise of the barn has been found most desirable
because the sidewalls paralleling each row furnishes better light.
Such an arrangement is a saving of labor because two rows
can be attended to at once in caring for the stock.
A barn containing a single row of stock can be made the
most sanitary because it can be so located, and arranged, that
sunshine will fall on the stall floor, gutter and litter alley, all
day, by having the stock face north and the south wall open or
full of glass as the climate may require.
This arrangement is out of the question in most cases be-
cause it would require a barn too long for economical feeding
and caring for the stock. On the other hand, a bam with more
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Committee on Farm Structures 209
than two rows becomes so wide that unless skylights are used,
the inside rows of stalls never get any sunshine to disinfect
them and are too dark to be healthy.
SIDEWALLS.
The sidewalls of a building containing live stock must meet
several requirements ; they must be substantial and permanent,
strong enough to sustain all internal and external stresses. They
must be so constructed that large openings can be had for doors
and windows without materialy weakening them and they must
contain vertical ducts for ventilating flues.
The window openings and venilating flues are as important
as the walls themselves. The live stock could live without walls,
but not without light and air.
The area of window and flue space required in proportion
to the area of sidewall, will naturally depend upon the area of
sidewall and the number and kind of stock to be housed. All
animals require a certain a»mount of sunshine and air to keep
them in perfect health. Therefore the arrangement of stalls
must be considered before the window surface in walls can be
determined.
WINDOW AREA REQUIRED.
The two end walls of a stock or dairy barn are generally
cut full of doors for convenience so that practically all windows
and flues for light and air must be constructed in the two side
walls.
Barns containing dairy cows must be of the most sanitary
construction, so we will consider their requirements first.
Under the heading, "Arrangement of Stalls,' ' is stated why
it is advisable to build the bam of the width to properly care for
two rows of stalls. Let us therefore consider the window re-
quirements for this arrangement.
Dairy cows placed in rows take up an average stall width
of 3y2 feet per head. For each cow at least 4 sq. ft. of window
glass surface should be allowed. If six or eight sq. ft. of glass
could be had per cow, it is still better.
Therefore each 3^ ft. of wall length should contain at
least 4 sq. ft. of window glass. This makes an average of 1 1-7
sq. ft. of glass per foot of wall length.
The windows should be of such height that they can be
spaced far enough apart to admit the required materials to give
strength to the walls and also to allow ample space for the ven-
tilating flues.
The following table gives the minimum size of windows
(having stock size glass) and their maximum spacing as required
for dairy barns having two rows of cowstalls.
Digitized by VjOOQIC
210 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
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Digitized by
Google
Committee on Farm Structures
211
Size of
glass
8"xl2"
9"xl2"
9"xl4"
10*xl2f
10"xl4"
lcxie"
10"xl8"
12"xl4*
12"xl6"
SPACING OF THE WINDOWS.
Given in feet and inches, from center to center of windows
4 light
sash
2'— 4" or less
2'— 4"
2'— T
3'— 0"
3'— 0"
3'— 4*
3'— 10"
4'— 4"
4'— 0"
4'— 8"
» i«
II f$
n >•
ii n
»» tt
ii ii
ii ii
ii ii
it ii
6 light
sash
2'— 10" or less
3'— 5"
3'— 11"
4'— 6"
4'— 4"
5'— 0"
5'— 10"
6'— 6"
6'— 1"
- 7'— 0*
ii ii
»» ii
ii ii
ii ii
»» ii
»i »»
ii ii
ii H
9 light
sash
4' — 4" or les
4> 4» ii »»
5'— 11" " "
l'__10" " "
6' — 6« »» »
•7/ g*r fl ll
8'—— 9* " "
9' — io" » "
o> O" " "
10' — 5" » »
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rat* a* nits /r^mau> j&srjMW mi Mema/riWLC\
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nut
Fig. 2.
FLUES REQUIRED IN SIDEWALLS.
For proper ventilation in the room containing the live stock
it is necessary to provide air flues for conducting air to and from
the room as will be explained by the committee on sanitation.
These flues must run in a vertical position in order to per-
form their function. They should terminate at certain locations
in the room and should run as directly to these points as the
arrangement of the room will permit. In order to keep the room
free from unnecessary obstructions, it has become general prac-
tice to build these flues into the sidewalls where they will be out
of the way. Figures 1 and 2.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
212 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
y\ si NTNa qHi *qv
=•««
Figr. 3.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Committee on Farm Structures
213
COMPARING COSTS OF VARIOUS TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION.
There is no question but what concrete, tile, brick and steel
will always be the most permanent and in the long run, the most
efficient materials to use for the construction of farm structures.
These materials will also grow more popular as land becomes
more valuable and as their superior qualities will be brought
more forcibly to the farmers' attention.
But the farmer who is forced to buy cheap land cannot be
persuaded to consider concrete or tile as long as the cost of wood
construction will keep down the cost of his necessary farm im-
provements.
Again in this day of keen competition, the capital invested
in farm improvements and operating expenses must be carefully
pitted against the productive capacity of the farm.
For the purpose of determining the cheapest type of con-
struction, we have compiled the following types with estimates
of their costs, all based on one given market price for materials,
and a uniform cost for labor.
The estimates quoted may be too high for one locality and
too low for another, but the same proportion of cost would re-
main the same for the various types of construction.
MATERIALS AND ESTIMATE OF BARN CONSTRUCTION
PLANK TRUSS TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION
For 12 Ft. intermediate section of barn 36 ft. wide with 16 ft. side
walls. See Fig. 3.
A
4 :
pes.
2x10— 12' Sill
80'
B
4
it
2x10—16' Truss posts
108'
Bl
4
»»
2x10 — 7' Truss posts
47'
B2
2
»»
2x10 — 10' Truss posts
33'
B3
4 *
' tt
2x10— 8' Truss posts
52'
320'
@ 26.00
$ 8.32
C
4
II
2x10 — 24' Lower truss chords
160'
@ 30.00
4.80
D
2
tt
2x12 — 30' Main truss chords
120'
<3> 38.00
4.56
E
2
"
2x 6 — 12' Upper truss chords
24'
F
2
It
2x10— 6' Truss collars
20'
G
4
11
2x 6 — 5' Purlin posts
20'
H
4
It
2x 6 — 7' Purlin braces
28'
I
2
II
2x 8 — 3' Truss ties
8'
J
2
"
2x 8 — 4' Truss braces
11'
111'
@ 26.00
12.88
K
14
It
2x10—12' Outer joist
336'
Kl
6
tt
2x12 — 14' Center joist
168'
504'
@ 28.00
14.03
L
4
tt
2x10—12' Purlins
80'
LI
2
tt
2x 4 — 12' Purlin cleats
16'
M
4
*l
2x10—12' Wall plates
80'
N
11
tt
2x10 — 12' Ridge pole
20'
0
12
tt
2x 6—12' Nailing girts
144'
P
12
tt
2x 6 — 16' Lower rafters
192'
Q
12
it
2x 6 — 12' Upper rafter
144'
R
12
tt
2x 6 — 4' Lookouts
48'
724'
<g> 26.00
18.82
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
214 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
S 8
»»
2x12—12' Girders
96'
T 5
»»
2x 6 — 8' Collar beams
40'
U 8
»
2x 6— 7' Studding
56'
Ul 2
»
2x 6— 9' Studding
18'
V 4
»
2x 6—10' Wall braces
40'
W 4
f>
2x 6—12' Plates
48'
X 36
>r
2x 4— 2' Bridging
48'
Total 1
ran
aing lumber
2285'
<Q> 28.00 2.68
250' @ 26.00 $ 6.50
Carpenter work on framing & $10.00 per 1,000 ft 22.85
432 sq. ft. hay mow floor surface, requires: —
32 pes. 1x10 barn siding 16 ft. long, 426 ft. & $35.00 14.91
32 pes. lx 3 battens 16 ft. long 6.40
744 sq. ft. roof suface, requires: —
93 pes. 1x6" sheathing boards 12' long (2" apart) 558' @ 22% 13.23
6696 Shingles (4%* to weather) -4.00 26.78
432 sq. ft. hay mow floor surface, requires: —
518' 1x6" matched flooring & 25.00 12.90
168 sq. ft. wall surface in lower story, requires: —
200' 1x6" matched flooring & 25.00 5.00
EA/D rPAM/M? Or &#?A/CQVjmuCT/QH
Fig. 4.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Committee on Farm Structures
215
432 8Q. ft. lower story ceiling surface, requires: —
540' %x4" beaded ceiling <g> 35.00 18.90
Finishing lumber, etc.: —
24 ft. 1x12" frieze board @ 35.00 84
4 window frames complete with casings 9 It. 9x12 6.00
4 sash 9 It. 9x12, 1%" SS glass 6.40
4 set window catches and ventilator shields 4.00
Carpenter work for enclosing and finishing 44.65
4 Anchor bolts 40
2 iron pipe columns 4"x8' 8.00
2 Gal. paint @ 1.60 3.20
108 cu. ft. concrete foundation wall @ 25c 27.00
408 surface feet concrete floor — 136 cu. ft. @ 30c 40.80
Total estimated cost $324.85
MATERIAL AND COST OF BARN CONSTRUCTION
PLANK TRUSS TYPE.
End Construction including % of end bent. Barn 36 ft. wide with 16
ft. side walls. See Fig. 4.
34 lin. ft. 2x10 Sills 57' •
pes. 2x10—16' Truss posts 108'
2x10 — 7' Truss posts 47'
2x10 — 10' Truss posts 33'
2x10— 8' Truss posts 52' - 297' @ 26.00 $ 4.72
2x10 — 24' Lower truss chord
2x12—30' Main truss chord
2x 6 — 12' Upper truss chord
2x10 — 6' Truss collar
2x 6— 5' Purlin post
2x 6 — 7' Purlin braces
2x12—12' Outer joists
2x12—14' Center joist
2x10—12' Purlins
2x 4 — 12' Purlin cleats
2x10—12' Wall plates
Ml 2 " 2x12—28' Wall plates
N 1 " 2x10—16' Ridge pole
O 342 lin. ft. 2x6 Nailing cleats
P 9 pes. 2x 6—16' Lower rafters
Q 9 " 2x 6—12' Upper rafters
R 9 " 2x 6— 4' Lookouts
A
34
B
4
Bl
4
B2
2
B3
4
C
4
D
2
E
2
F
1
G
4
H
2
K
9
Kl
4
L
2
LI
1
M
2
S
4
" 2x12—12' Girder
T
4
" 2x 6 — 8' Collar beams
U
6
'" 2x 6— 7' Studding
Ul
2
" 2x 6— ' Studding
U3
6
" 2x 6—16' Studding
U4
4
" 2x 6—18' Studding
V 2 " . 2x 6—10' Wall braces
V2 2 " 2x 6—18' Wall braces,
W 2 " 2x 6—12' Plates
160'
@ 30.00
4.80
120'
& 38.00
4.56
24'
10'
20'
14'
@ 26.00
1.76
216'
112'
328'
@ 28.00
9.18
40'
8'
40'
88'
@ 26.00
2.28
112'
<g> 38.00
4.25
26'
342'
144'
108'
36'
656'
@ 26.00
17.50
96'
@ 28.00
2.68
32'
42'
18'
96'
72'
260'
@ 26.00
6.76
20'
36'
24'
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
216 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Fig. 5.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Committee on Farm Structures 217
X 18 " 2x 4— 2' Bridging 24'
Y 2 " 6x 6— 6' Posts 36' 140' @ 26.00 3.64
Total amount of framing lumber 2185'
Carpenter work on framing @ $10.00 per 1,000 ft $ 21.85
104 pes. barn siding 1x10— 16'— 1392' @ 35.00 47.72
104 pes. battens 1x3—16' 25.26
496 sq. ft. roofing surface requires: —
47 pes. 1x6 sheathing 16 ft. long— 376' <g> 22.50 8.46
4,464 shingles @ 4.00 17.85
216 sq. ft. mow floor surface requires: —
260 sq. ft. 1x6" matched flooring & 35.00 9.10
216 sq. ft. lower story ceiling requires: —
270 ft. %x4" beaded ceiling @ 35.00 9.45
336 sq. ft. lower story side wall and door requires: —
400 ft. 1x6" matched flooring @ 35.00 14.00
72 ft. 1x12 Frieze board 72'
4 pes. 1x4 — 16' Corner board..... 22'
3 " 1x4—14' Door casing 14'
3 " 1%x10— 12' dr track plank..60'
3 " l%x 8—16' Door Jamb 64'
8 " 1x8—16' Door stiles 85' 317' & 35.00 11.09
Concrete wall
264 cu. ft. <g> 25c 66.00
Concrete Floor
56.7 cu. ft. @ 30c... 17.00
Carpenter work for enclosing and finish 61.33.
Total ■. $352.39
MATERIALS AND ESTIMATE OF BARN CONSTRUCTION
BRACED RAFTER TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION.
For 12 ft. Intermediate section of barn 36 ft. wide with 16 ft. side
walls. Fig. 5.
A 4 pes. 2x 6— 12' Sills 48'
B 8 " 2x 6— 16' Studding 128'
Bl 4 " 2x6— 7' Studding 28'
B2 4 " 2x 6— 9' Studding 36'
B3 8 " 2x 6— 4' Studding 32'
B4 4 " 2x 6— 3' Studding 12'
C 4 " 2x 6—12' Wall plates 48'
D 12 " 2x 6—16' Lower rafters 192'
E 12 " 2x 6—12' Upper rafters 144'
F 12 " 2x 6—12' Rafter braces 144'
G 12 " 2x 6—14' Studding braces 168' 980' @ 26.00 $25.48
H 24 " 1x8—1%' Brace ties 24'
I 24 " lx 8— 1' Brace ties 16' 40' <g> 25.00 1.00
J 12 " 2x 4— 4' Lookouts 32'
K 6 " 2x 6— 3' Ledgers 24' 74' @ 26.00 1.92
M 8 " 2x12—12' Girders 192'
N 18 " 2x12—12' Joist 432' 624' @ 28.00 17.47
O 12 " lx 6— 4' Joist ties 24' @ 25.00 .60
Digitized by LiOOQ IC
218 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
P 36 " 2x 4— 2' Bridging 48' @ 26.00 1.24
Total framing lumber 1790' 47.71
Carpenter work on framing @ 10.00 per 1000 ft $ 17.90
380 bq. ft. side wall surface, requires: —
456' 1x6* matched drop siding @ 35.00 15.96
720 sq. ft. roof surface, requires: —
90 pes. 1x6" sheathing boards 12' long (2" apart) 540' <g> 22%.... 12.05
6,480 shingles (4%" to weather) @ 4.00 25.92
432 sq. ft. hay mow floor surface, requires: —
518' 1x6" matched flooring @ 25.00 12.90
168 sq. ft. wall surface in lower story, requires: —
200' 1x6" matched flooring @ 25.00 5.00
432 sq. ft. lower story ceiling surface, requires : —
540' %x4" beaded ceiling @ 35.00 18.90
Finishing lumber, etc.: —
24 ft. 1x12" frieze board @ 35.00 84
4 window frames 9 It. 9x12. complete with casings, etc 6.00
4 sash 9 It. 9x12", 1%" SS glass 6.40
4 set window catches and ventilator shields 4.00
Carpenter work for enclosing and finishing 44.00
4 anchor bolts 40
2 iron pipe columns 4"x8' 8.00
2 Gal. paint @ 1.60 3.20
108 cu. ft. concrete foundation wall @ 25c 27.00
408 sq. ft. concrete floor, 136 cu. ft. <g> 30c 40.80
Total cost $296.98
MATERIALS AND ESTIMATES OF BARN CONSTRUCTION
BRACED RAFTER TYPE OF CONSTRUCTION.
End Construction including % of end bent. Barn 36 ft. wide with 16 ft.
side walls. Fig. 5.
A 6 pes. 2x 6—12' Sills 72'
B 24 " 2x 6—16' Studding 384'
Bl 2 " 2x6- 6' Studding 12'
B2 4 " 2x 6—10' Studding 40'
B3 8 " 2x 6— 4' Studding 32'
B4 2 " 2x 6— 3' Studding 6'
B5 2 " 2x 8— 8' Door lintel 21'
B6 3 " 2x 6—12' Girder posts 36'
B7 236 lin. ft. 2x6 Gable studding 236'
C 2 pes. 2x 6—12' Wall plates 24' 863' @ 26.00 $22.43
CI 4 " 2x12—18' Gable plates 144' @ 30.00 4.32
D 9 " 2x 6 — 16' Lower rafters 144'
E 9 " 2x 6—12' Upper rafters 108'
F 5 " 2x 6—12' Rafter braces 60'
G 5 " 2x 6—14' Studding braces 70'
H 10 " 1x8—1%' Brace ties 10'
I 10 " lx 8— 1' Brace ties 7'
J 9 " 2x 4— 4' Lookouts 24'
K 2 " 2x 6— 3' Collar braces 6'
L 1 " 2x 6—12' Ledger 12' 441' @ 26.00 11.46
M
4 "
2x12—12' Girders
96'
N
11 "
2x12—12' Joist
264'
360' @ 28.00
Digitized by
Gttflgle
Committee on Farm Structures
219
(W£ S70EY STOCK 5AQN CCNS7PUCT/OM
LLLVAT/QM OT LVD TP/M/A*?.
CMC J7D&Y STOCK 6APA/ CQUST8UCT/ON
ZLLV4T/0A/ QT \5/Dl ff?AWAG
QEA/02AL CBOSS SOCT/OV OT QV£SnX>Y&#?M
JWfc TYPE CT &4BA/C4V 6C UXD /OK OTAZB L/VZJ70CX
Fig. 6.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
220 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
0
7 " lx 6— 4' Joist ties
14'
p
16 " 2x 4— 2' Bridging
22'
Q
3 " 2x 6 — 20' Gable wall braces
60'
96' <3> 26.00 2.49
R 2 " 2x12—14' Gable plates 56' @ 28.00 1.56
Rl 2 " 2x 6—14' Gable plates 28' @ 26.00 .72
SI" 2x12—12' Ridge pole 24' @ 28.00 .67
Total framing lumber 2012' $53.73
1272 sq. ft. side wall surface, requires: —
1526' 1x6" matched drop siding @ 35.00 $ 53.41
Carpenter work on framing <g) $10.00 per 1000 ft 20.12
480 sq. ft. roof surface, requires: —
45 pes. 1x6" sheathing 16' long (2" apart)— 360' @ 22% 8.10
4,320 shingles (4%w to weather) @ 4.00 17.28
216 sq. ft. hay mow floor surface, requires: —
260' 1x6" matched flooring @ 35.00 9.10
216 sq. ft. lower story ceiling surface, requires: —
270' %x4" beaded ceiling @ 35.00 9.45
336 sq. ft. lower story side walls and doors, require: —
400' 1x6" matched flooring @ 35.00 14.G0
72' frieze board 1x12" 72'
4 pes. 1x4 — 16' Corner board 22'
3 " 1x4—14' Door casing 14'
3 " lVfcxlO— 12' Sldg. Dr. track plank 60'
3 " l%x 8—16' Sldg. Dr. Jamb 64'
8 " 1x8—16' Sldg. Dr. stiles 85' 317' @ 35.00 11.09
Carpenter work for enclosing and finishing 60.00
264 cu. ft. concrete wall @ 25c 66.00
.56.7 cu. ft. concrete floor @ 30c 17.00
Total cost $339.28
MATERIAL AND ESTIMATE OF BARN CONSTRUCTION.
ONE STORY PLANK FRAME TYPE, STOCK BARN.
For 12 ft. intermediate section of barn 34 ft. wide. Fig. 6.
2 pes. 2x4—12' Sills 16'
10 " 2x4— 8' Studding 53'
4 " 2x4—12' Plates 32'
6 " 2x8—12' Girders 96'
12 " 2x4—18' Rafters 144'
10 " 2x6—3%' Braces 35'
6 " 2x4—12' Ceiling joist 48'
8 " 2x2—12' Furring 32' 456' @ 26.00 11.45
486 ft. ship lap sheathing No. 2 @> 25.00 12.15
500 ft. %x6" beaded ceiling @ 35.00 17.50
180 ft. 1x6 flooring for side walls @ 35.00 6.30
.200 ft. 1x6" drop siding <g> 35.00 7.00
4.32 sq. yds. 3 ply asphalt roofing @ 3.00 12.96
4 windows complete with frames @ 3.10 12.40
4 window catches and vent shields „ 4.00
24 ft. 1x12" frieze board @ 35.00 84
Carpenter work and other labor 18.56
% gal. paint 80
Digitized by LiOOQ IC
Committee on Farm Structures
221
84 cu. ft. concrete foundation @ 25c 21.00
160 cu. ft concrete floor <8> 30c. 48.00
2 iron pipe columns 3"xl2' <8> 4.00.. 8.00
4 anchor bolts ». 40
Total cost of 12 ft. section $181.36
MATERIAL AND ESTIMATE OP COST OF EACH GABLE END
WALL CONSTRUCTION FOR THE ABOVE TYPE, AS FOLLOWS:
2 pes. 2x4—12' Sills 16'
4 " 2x4— 9' Studding 24'
2 " 2x4—10' Studding 7'
10 " 2x4—12' Studding 80'
2 " 2x4—14' Studding 19'
1 " 2x6—16' Door headers 16'
2 " 2x4—18' Rafters 24' 186' @ 26.00 4.86
500 ft. drop siding 1x6" matched @ 35.00 17.50
500 ft. 1x6" flooring for side walls and doors @ 35.00 17.50
60 ft. finishing lumber 2.10
Carpenter work and other labor 16.00
119 cu. ft. concrete foundation @ 25c... 29.75
4 anchor bolts i .40
1 Gal. paint 1.60
Total cost of end construction $89.71
MATERIALS AND ESTIMATE OF BARN CONSTRUCTION.
PLANK FRAME HAY BARN.
For 12 ft. intermediate section of barn 34 ft wide with 16 ft. side
walls. Fig. 7.
A 2 pes. 2x 8 — 16' Truss posts 43'
B 2 " 2x8—6%' Truss posts 18'
C 2 " 2x 8—10' Truss posts 27' 87' & 26.00 $ 2.26
p
2
»t
2x10—20' Truss chord
67'
& 28.00
1.87
E
2
II
2x 8 — 16' Truss brace
43'
F
2
II
2x 8 — 18' Truss brace
48'
G
2
II
2x 8— 5' Tie brace
13'
H
2
II
2x6—3%' Strutt
7'
I
2
99
2x10— 5' Collar Tie
16'
127' @ 26.00
3.30
J
1
•9
2x12—12' Ridge pole
24'
@ 28.00
.67
K
4
99
2x 6 — 9' Roof braces
36'
L
2
II
2x 8—12' Purlins
32'
M
2
II
2x 8—12' Purlins
32'
N
2
»l
2x 6—14' Braces
28'
P
2
If
2x 8—12' Wall plates
32'
Q
2
II
2x 8—12' Top girt
32'
R
4
If
2x 6— 9' Wall brace
36'
S
2
l»
2x 4—12' Nailing girts
16'
T
2
II
2x 6—12' Nailing girts
24'
U
2
f>
2x 4— 3' Girt splice
4'
V
2
99
2x 6—12' Nailing girts
24'
296' <g> 26.00
7.69
W
2
99
4x 6—12' Sill girt
48'
<8> 32.00
1.53
32
\ "
' 1x10—16' Ship lap siding No. 2 432'
@ 25.00
10.80
768'
' sq
. ft.
galvanized cor. metal roofing <Q>
4.00..
30.72
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
222 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
OV£ \570PY my 3AQN construction
QV£ STC&Y my &ABA/ COA/3TRUCT/CW
Digitized by CjOOQ IC
Committee on Farm Structures 223
Carpenter work and other labor 10.43
8 cu. ft. concrete foundation <8> 25c 2.00
Total cost of 12 ft. section $71.27
Comparing the cost and efficiency of these three types of
frame construction, we find that the plank frame type of the
two story construction costs about $324 per bent of 12 ft. length,
which is equal to $27 per running foot.
The braced rafter type of the two story construction figures
$24 per foot, which is 11% less than the plank truss type.
The one story construction costs $15 for the stock shed
and $6 for the hay shed, making a total cost of $21 for its com-
plete cost; a saving of 12% on the braced rafter construction
and 22% on the plank truss construction.
In other words ,if the farmer builds the plank truss type of
barn, he is adding about 28% more to the cost of the barn than
the amount the one story barn of equal capacity would cost him.
This 28% added to the cost of the barn, is just that much
more capital invested to pull down the per cent of profits of the
farm and should be carefully considered.
In the heart of a city, where ground area is very valuable, it is
perfect economy to multiply the floor area of a building by build-
ing into the air, but why build "sky scrapers' ' in the country?
Considering the efficiency of the one story barn from the
labor point, the hay being stored on the same ground level with
the stock, saves labor in filling the mow, because the hay track is
10 ft. nearer the ground — a saving of about 30% in hoisting of
hay to track.
When first class milk is produced in the two story barn
requiring hay to be thrown down from mow into a dust proof
room below, the one story barn saves labor in feeding hay to
stock because it is not necessary to climb up a ladder to get into
the mow and then carry the hay to the chute.
From a sanitary point of view, the one story barn is much
better because there is less danger of contaminating the hay and
feed supply if stored in an adjacent shed than if stored directly
over the stock, no matter how well the mow floor is built.
More dust is excluded by eliminating the chute, and less
odors from the stock will reach the hay.
Risk of fire is lessened becaused flames and heat from the
burning hay shed will not reach the stock as quickly, giving more
time to drive out the stock to safety.
There is a possibility of saving the stock barn if the hay
shed burns or vice-versa when the wind is in a favorable direc-
tion. Risk of storm is less because the stock is in a low building
and the hay barn does not extend so high in the air.
The hay shed built to the north of the stock barn and at
right angles to it, forming an "L" gives protection from north
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224 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
winds for the stock barn and exercising lot.
By the proper use of air spaces and building paper, the one
story barn can be made just as warm as the barn with the hay
above the stock.
The one story barn will admit making the ceiling higher in
the center so air can be taken out at the highest point in the
summer. The higher ceiling also gives more cubical feet of air
in the barn per animal.
This article about the one story type of construction was
not written with any view of its being recommended by the So-
ciety as practical construction, but rather as a suggestion of
something that may be worth while to investigate.
At the reading of this report at the 1915 meeting the fol-
lowing criticism was offered by members present.
That the labor involved in feeding hay would be greater
where it had to be carted from an adjacent shed than if thrown
down from a mow above the cows.
That the ventilation in a one story building would be more
difficult than that in the two story type.
As subjects for future investigation, your committee recom-
mends :
First, that the construction of the round barn and its adapt-
ability to dairy and general farming be investigated. This type
of construction has been used quite extensively in some localities
and a careful study of it would no doubt prove interesting and
beneficial.
Second, your committee recommends that the use and adapt-
ability of tile and concrete for the construction of farm struc-
tures be investigated.
Third, your committee recommends that the use of struc-
tural steel for the framing of major farm structures be investi-
gated.
SUB-COMMITTEE ON FARM HOMES.
Hugh J. Hughes, Chairman.
Your sub-committee on farm homes bases its work for the
current year on the work of the Farm Structures Committee of
the year preceding. That committee, as you recall, outlined
three types of farm homes :
The small, inexpensive home, ranging below $1800 in price.
The middle class home from $1800 to $3000.
The home of more pretentious dimensions and cost ranging
from $3000 and upward.
These prices, of course, are approximate and will vary con-
siderably for different parts of the country. They represent
ideas rather than dollar values.
The preceding committee very properly agreed that the
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Committee on Farm Structures 225
kitchen, as the work-shop of the home, and the bed roomg, where
the family spends a large part of its time, ought to receive spe-
cial attention at the hands of the committee.
We were expected, as we understand it, to present standard
ized plans that would meet country life conditions, but this we
have been unable to do. We discovered that a social survey lay
at the foundation of real constructive work, and we attempted to
make such a survey as far as lay within our power. We offered
the farmers of the northwest prizes for plans of homes and home
conveniences. Housing in this locality needs particular atten-
tion on account of the wide variations of temperature through-
out the year. As a result of this offer nearly 200 plans were re-
ceived. From a study of these plans we offer the following ob-
servations :
The farm kitchen needs to be large, well lighted and well
ventilated. Our opinion of the size of the kitchen is counter to
practically all the teachings of the present day, but it is based
upon a very vital social need. Where the mother is the nurse,
the housekeeper, the business associate, and where practically her
only opportunity during the long day's work to talk with her
husband or the men of the family is confined to the few minutes
while the meals are in preparation and progress, there needs to
be sufficient room in the kitchen for them to sit down without
disturbing her in her work. Where the children are small, she
cannot be looking after them with closed doors between her and
them. Where there are old people in the family they like to
sit out where life is going on busily to chat or dream as they de-
sire. A small kitchen is a good thing where you have a hired
girl who has no social or business connection with the family out-
side of her everyday duties, but the farm home needs a work-shop
that will accommodate the other partners in the family business
whenever they see fit to drop in.
Further, in many farm homes it is desirable that there be
room in the kitchen for the hired help to eat at a table separate
from that of the fajnily. Many of the plans submitted indicate
this desire, just as many of them lost sight of the labor problem
entirely.
There should be a good storage room in connection with the
kitchen, and the dishes and prepared supplies of food should be
conveniently located with reference to the dining room or table.
Lighting was especially bad in nearly all the plans sub-
mitted.
There should be adequate heating arrangement, and a sep-
arate chimney for the kitchen stove in order to give more effect-
ive draft, both to the stove and to the heating plant as a whole.
The kitchen should be planned so that the ice and wood box
or coal box can be filled from the outside.
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226 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
In the larger type of homes a cold-storage room taking a
wagon-load or more at a time of ice, is a feature to consider.
In connection with the kitchen should be mentioned the
laundry. The basement laundry is a feature that belongs to the
city home, but has no call for being in the country home. The
laundry should be on the ground floor, and may very well be in
a detached building. The prevalent use of gasoline as motive
power is to be noted, and the growing introduction of electric
and gas and electric power systems needs the thoughtful consid-
eration of the architects who should carry forward the work of
this committee.
Sleeping rooms shown in the plans submitted were in a
large number of cases deficient, both as to lighting, ventilation
and heat. When it is remembered that practically one-third of
one's time is spent in sleep, during which the body is supposed
to build up out of the food taken into the system and the oxygen
furnished in the air, new tissues for the coming day's require-
ments, the quality of the air furnished becomes a very vital prob-
lem. Apparently the farmer has not learned the value of the
sleeping porch, nor the open-air bedroom. There is a psychology
about this that needs to be taken into account. He lives in the
open air so much that he apparently likes a change, and he bat-
tens his windows and tries to make his sleeping room warm by
excluding the outside air.
It is quite essential that there should be at least one of the
bedrooms fitted up with stovepipe connections to the chimney so
that in case of sickness, or where there are older people this room
can be heated independently of the heating system of the house.
Perhaps the best feature of the bedrooms studied in our
survey was the size of closets. Practically all the plans showed
large closets — sometimes not properly arranged. This is a feat-
ure that should not be neglected in any farm house plan that
may be ultimately worked out.
In this connection the problems of bathroom facilities and
of sleeping quarters for the hired help ought to be mentioned.
In many of the better plans a bathroom on the first floor is pro-
vided for, but most of these place the bathroom in such a posi-
tion that it would be very difficult to secure soil-pipe connec-
tions. The tendency to scatter the water system was very
marked, and the whole subject of water supply should be studied
as a unit and provision made for bathroom facilities, preferably,
in our judgment, on the second floor.
The common use of the home bathroom by the family and
the hired help is a matter to be considered. In the lower priced
homes this is made unnecessary by the cost problem. In the bet-
ter homes there should be virtually separate sleeping quarters
and bathroom for the hired help, except that this should not
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Committee on Farm Structures 227
place the hired men and girls in the same suite of rooms isolated
from the family. The servant girl on the farm needs all the pro-
tection that is extended to the daughters of the family, more
especially in view of the transient and irresponsible character of
the male help found in the country.
It would better serve the purposes of satisfactory home life
if the male hired help could be housed separately from the fam-
ily, and your committee suggests that a comfortable, inexpensive
lodging house for hired help, constructed along lines harjnoniz-
ing with the home itself, be provided for farms employing any
large amount of hired help; such lodging house to have well-
aired and large sleeping quarters consisting of private rooms
and with single beds for not more than two in each room, and
provided with closets, smoking or lounging room and bathroom
fitted up with shower bath.
Extending this same subject further, your committee sug-
gests the advisability — both from the sanitary and from the
moral standpoint — of placing a toilet somewhere in the barns
themselves. This can easily be connected either with a dry pit
or with the water systems becoming common on the better farms.
The halways of the second floor in plans submitted are gen-
erally poorly lighted, cramped and inconvenient for the mov-
ing of furniture to and from rooms. This matter should be care-
fully considered from the standpoint of the upstairs arrange-
ment as well as from the convenience of the downstairs rooms.
There is much to be said against an open stairway in the country
home. It makes the rooms in which it is situated drafty and
cold, especially if the proper ventilation is going on in the bed-
rooms above. Here we believe artistic effect may be carefully
balanced against the practical values of comfort and health, and
a decision on this point should be reached only after it is clearly
determined what are to be the heating arrangements and what
will be the composition of the family. Little children, especially,
should be provided with rooms of reasonably even temperature,
particularly since the temperature near the floors is consider-
ably colder than that at the level in which we grown people
breath.
Living Rooms. The living rooms should be designed care-
fully with reference to the facing of the home. This applies to
the plan as a whole and needs especial reference here. Where
possible, north and west facings are to be avoided in the colder
parts of the country, because in order to secure adequate light
they open up a wall surface that allows an unusual amount of
cold to enter the house. On the other hand, since it is essentially
vital that the kitchen be well lighted, the only possible arrange-
ment may be such a facing. Or it may be forced by the location
of the available site, in which case the lighting arrangement
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228 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
needs serious study and departures from the ordinary checker-
board arrangement of the windows are called for, not merely by
a striving for the artistic, but by the most practical considera-
tions.
Your committee suggests that throughout the whole plan
the interior lighting effect be carefully considered and worked
out by suggestions relating to the choice of interior finish, the
height of ceilings, wall paper and lighting systems to be in-
stalled . Of the latter, possibly the most satisfactory is the elec-
tric and it is now possible to have, at an expense not exceeding
$300 to $500, according to the size required, a lighting plant that
will take care of the farm buildings as well. This plant, well
installed, appreciates the value of the property materially and
depreciates the fire risk. There are other systems, such as the
hollow wire gasoline, carbide, and gas, that should be consid-
ered and provided for in any detailed plan of a modern home.
The desirability of making the living rooms so that they can be
set off separately or thrown together into one suite should not
be overlooked.
Office. Much is said in these days of an office for the farmer.
Your committee believes this to be practical only in the larger
and more costly type of home, but in the living room of the
smaller home where the family gather, and if, possible by an old-
fashioned fire-place, there should be a wall space convenient in
one corner for a good-sized rolltop desk. Here locate the tele-
phone, and here the business of the farm can be carried on and
kept track of, and will be, while in a cubby-hole of a room, set
aside for that particular purpose, the natural tendency will be
to make a storage space of it rather than to use it for the pur-
pose for which it was designed.
Dining Room. In the middle-sized and larger homes your
committee suggests the desirability of a dining room reserved to
that exclusive purpose, and it also suggests the desirability of a
separate sewing room where space can be allowed for that pur-
pose. Beside the dining room, which should be restful and cool
in its effect, there will quite naturally be at least two large liv-
ing rooms, and the committee believes that the more warmth and
comfort that can be placed in these rooms, the better for the in-
fluence upon and through the family.
If possible, provide a fire-place connecting with a central
heating plant to lend its cheer to the family gatherings, and in-
cidentally to assist in the ventilation of the home.
The heating plans need particular attention and emphasis.
Four systems are prevalent; which is the most desirable is in
part a matter of location and in part a matter of money. The
proper system of heating for any good home or locality is a
matter that should receive the closest attention and should be
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Committee on Farm Structures 229
worked out in connection with the plumbing and lighting sys-
tems as a most vital part of the home construction.
These are some of the more important phases of the home
building problem. Not all of the problem has been covered by
your committee. The desirability of ample porches, both for
sleeping purposes, for outside living and dining in the summer
time, and for the family work that can be done thereon when
the weather is fair, needs strong emphasis.
Every factor that goes toward lightening the labor burden
of the wife and mother should be carefully considered because
the securing of hired female help in the farm home is practically
beyond solution.
Wherever power can be installed to take care of the laun-
dry and cleaning and other work, it should be put in.
Simple lines and the smallest number of places for the dust
to collect should be sought after. The kind and finish of the
woodwork should look to the same practical ends of comfort and
cleanliness.
Such matters as proper wash-room facilities for the men,
without tracking into or through the rooms in their dirty clothes
should be attended to.
This properly concludes the report of your committee on
farm housing, but we feel that a word more should be said. No
farm home can be satisfactory, no matter what the expense in-
volved in its construction unless the surroundings be well taken
into account and its location with reference to the out buildings
be carefully considered. The temptation is very great to build
on the site of the old home, no matter how badly situated that
home may be. There should be good lighting, and hedge rows,
and protection against winds, and especially a screen of shrub-
bery hiding the less pleasant sights of the barnyard. There
should be vistas up and down the road, but the house should not
stand bare to the public highway. It should have a certain pri-
vacy that only properly arranged clumps of shrubbery can give.
Walks and driveways should be arranged with the same attention
to artistic effect. Angularity should be avoided. The location of
the house should be carefully considered with reference to the
prevailing winds and the possible odors blown from the barn-
yard, cesspool or septic tank.
The sanitary problem of freedom from flies is frequently a
matter of only a short distance or a different direction in loca-
tion. Where flies are allowed to breed and the winds carry
them, naturally toward the house, the most pains-taking house-
keeper can scarcely expect to keep her home free from them.
All these factors necessitate more than passing thought on
the part of the committee that may carry the work forward. We
have tried to present to you, not so much definite plans to be fol-
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230 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
lowed, as suggestions based upon the social problems that are in-
volved in country home building. We suggest to this Associa-
tion the desirability of carrying forward this work, building
upon the suggestions we made as we have tried to build upon
the reports of the committees of the past. It is our thought that
the housing sub-committee for the coming year should properly
consist of men conversant in a practical and technical way with
construction problems. The immense sociological importance of
the home leads us to suggest the advisability of a somewhat larger
sub-committee for this particular field of effort, such committee
to divide its activities into the following lines :
(a) Location of the home and its surroundings.
(b) Detailed plans of space arrangement.
(c) Light, heat, ventilation and plumbing.
Possibly the latter group should be further sub-divided. We
feel that this work need not be hastily done. The efforts in this
direction so far made, have shown that precipitancy can lead to
some very ill-advised results. If at the expiration of two or
three, or even five years we have worked out something tangible,
standardized to certain needs, and valuable because of its social
fitness, we shall have accomplished results that shall be lasting
and worth while.
REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON FARM BUILDINGS EQUIP-
MENT.
A. H. Gilbert, Chairman, I. D. Charlton, L. B. Crandall.
The work of this committee was divided into three dif-
ferent headings.
First, haying equipment ; that is, hay forks, tracks and car-
riers.
Second, litter carriers and grain elevators ; and
Third, lightning protection for farm buildings.
The committee of three was divided, each one working on
one of the above phases. The plan worked well. The committee
sent out inquiries to the manufacturers, who furnished a great
deal of valuable information, but at the present time the commit-
tee has nothing that they could offer in the way of recommenda-
tions for standards. They felt that the matter needed further
consideration. .
LIGHTNING PROTECTION.
By A. H. Gilbert.
As to the work on lightning rods : I will give you the points
we have tried to cover in our recommendations:
1st. Chance of a lightning stroke ;
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Committee on Farm Buiding Equipment 231
2nd. Location;
3rd. Material used in construction of building ;
4th. Possible losses;
5th. Cost of lightning protection, and
6th. Security.
We want you to understand that it is not the purpose of
this committee to prove to you that lightning protection is nec-
essary, though we could do it if you wanted us to. We are just
giving you facts to consider in running the rods.
The first point is governed by geographical situation, stand-
ing water, local metallic ore, etc.
Location : In the first place, records prove that over 75 per
cent of damage done by lightning occurs in farming districts,
and upon the buildings situated on high ground. Under that
same point, we find that due to humidity of the atmosphere,
lightning seldom manifests itself in certain localities.
Then third, buildings having steel frame work or metallic
roofs, if well grounded and good terminals be used, need no rods.
Of course, on concrete farm buildings and brick, it is considered
, that some protection should be made.
Possible loss : We consider what would be loss of build-
ing if destroyed, and also we include the inconvenience in con-
necion with that loss.
Cost: It should not cost enough to make it prohibitive.
That to be worked out.
Security: If buildings were filled with valuable material
which could not be easily replaced, the owner could not afford
to run the risk of fire. The advantages of a peaceful mind and
financial returns are both enjoyed, as in many States lower fire
insurance rates are offered where buildings are wired.
I have the following recommendations for consideration :
(1) That if the purchaser is not familiar or personally ac-
quainted with the dealer, he should receive data concerning the
rating and reputation of that dealer. That recommendation is
made, because there has probably been more crooked work done
in connection with lightning protection than any other one feat-
ure of farm building equipment.
(2) Copper or iron conductors to be used. Under that, of
course, copper in the form of tape or small cable, can be used
very satisfactorily. For small farm buildings, the weight to be
from 3 to 5 ounces per foot. Where cable is used, wires not less
than No. 12. Iron conductors of the tape form should be heavy,
one-eighth inch tape, and where a pipe is used the standard %
inch pipe is recommended. The pipe is probably the most satis-
factory form of the iron, as it is a little cheaper and a little
easier to get hold of.
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232 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
(3) Conductors should be grounded at least at two opposite
corners of the building.
(4) Conductors to be connected direct to building without
use of insulators.
(5) Terminals to be erected on all prominent points of the
structure, such as cupolas, gables, dormers and flues. Terminals
to extend no less than 18 inches above parts being protected, and
their maximum distance apart to be twenty-five feet.
(6) Grounds: The ends of conductors to be buried below
line of permanent moisture. Efficiency increased by tamping
coke around conductor.
I have the following suggestions to make to the committee
on Farm Building Equipment: That they secure reports of
Fire Marshalls in all States, and determine the States in which
insurance rates are decreased and the amount ; that they further
the study of haying machinery and carriers, etc. ; that they fur-
ther the study of litter carriers and grain elevators.
Further, to determine the territory in which lightning rods
justify their cost; and, third, to determine how much the farmer
can afford to spend for lightning rods ; that is, what personal in-
vestment he can afford to stand; what the insurance company*
gives him, or just how much should be considered. I think those
three points on lightning protection could be studied to very good
advantage.
DISCUSSION: BUILDINGS EQUIPMENT.
Mr Clarkson: May I suggest also that next year's com-
mittee might profitably study the question of the lightning as it
relates to the barn. To make myself more clear, I might say
that my study of this question has shown me that the time of
year in which barn fires most usually occur is the fall, and that
the reason that they have occurred at any particular time is this :
We all know that a large amount of the curing of hay is done in
the loft, or in the barn structure, and some investigation has
been made privately along that line and there appears to be a
large percentage of fires during the fall of the year. Now,
whether the curing of the hay in the loft, or putting in green
hay, has any relation to that fact that so many fires occur at
that time of year, I am not prepared to say, but it seems to me
it would be profitable for a committee of this Society to take up
that question and study it.
REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON FARM POWER MACHIN-
ERY.
F. N. G. Kranich, Chairman, E. B. Doran, Fred Hilty.
All machines on our farms today, which require mechanical
power to operate would no doubt come under this head. They
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Committee on Farm Power Machinery 233
would include such as grain separators and attachments, corn
huskers, power plows, corn shellers, corn and grain binders, sil-
age cutters, feed grinders, balers, hullers, cream separators,
pumps, electric light plants and water systems, hoists, washing
machinery, and other light household machines.
To the man who must necessarily buy these machines, the
question of size, capacity, power to operate, and cost, are mat-
ters of vital concern. Unless he has had some experience with
them he is quite at sea with reference to these points. There is
no place to which he can go to get the information needed, and
no agricultural school nor the Department of Agriculture or
anyone, so far as we know, has it on file. The libraries do not
contain it. He must rely on what other farmers tell him or on
the glib-tongued salesman.
The first thing to do when contemplating a purchase is -per-
haps to send for catalogs of the machines he wants. These
catalogs don't give him the information that he really needs.
Some catalogs give nearly all this information. The others give
hardly any. One gives sizes and capacities, and still another
gives only weights and sizes, another gives only sizes and price.
He may have an engine and wants a machine that will not over-
load it, or he may have the machines and wants an engine to run
them properly.
To compare these machines, the catalogs should all have de-
scriptive matter alike. They should all give the information that
the farmer needs to buy conservatively. How many manufac-
turers are there who, themselves, actually know what their ma-
chines will do ? They may have testimonials by the hundred, but
what have they, that actually gives the power requirements of
their machines? What do they know about actual capacity?
They know the weight, size, and selling price, but what do they
amount to if the other items are not known? The farmer is most
of all concerned with what this particular machine will do for
him.
When a manufacturer wants to buy a shop tool, a planer,
a shaper, a grinder, or lathe, he can get accurate information
from the builder. He can get this information so that his saving
can be figured out beforehand almost to a penny. Our farm
power machinery should be built, cataloged and listed in that
way.
No doubt the manufacturers are the ones who are at fault.
They do not know. They haven't time to make tests of power re-
quired to run their machines, empty and under load, or in work-
ing condition. To do this entails some expense, and their pur-
pose is to eliminate this item as far as possible. The result is
that these items are guessed at, or arrived at by what some
farmer has found out, in his case, was the fact. His case may
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234 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
have been an exceptionally good and favorable one. Then, too,
it might have been a severe case. It might have been slightly,
although not intentionally, exaggerated. There is too much of
this guess work and not enough really known truth and facts.
It is hardly fair to the farmer to leave it to him to find out.
Why not experiment at our own expense rather than the far-
mer's?
It is the accurate, true and fair test of power and capacities
of farm machines that we must have to present here. Unless
they are obtained in such a way as to be absolutely reliable they
serve as no part of this committee's report.
Our salesmen, in their ardor to sell, too often over-rate
capacity and under-rate power requirements. They do this be-
cause they have no real facts and something must be said to meet
competition which, at best, is very keen in some lines.
The first thing we need, is a uniform engine rating. One
catalog says that their 13" ensilage cutter requires from 8 to 12
H.P. steam. Another that their 13" requires from 12 to 15 H.P.
gas. To the average farmer there must be a lot of mystery to
this. How can he understand this when he has been told, time
and time again, by the farm papers that the H.P. is one certain
thing the world over? It is always a horse-power whether de-
veloped by men, horses, steam, gas, or anything else. It is al-
ways the same thing.
This problem was brought before this Society at the Ames
meeting six years ago, in 1909, by ^Ir. McGregor. It would be
interesting to know if any action has ever been taken to establish
a uniform engine rating among manufacturers.
Capacities of machines are at present rather vaguely given.
A grain separator is listed in a catalog to thresh 1000 bushels
of wheat a day. Very well, it may do it with wheat running
60 to 80 busheis of wheat to the acre, but what about a yield of
6 or 8 bushels per acre ? It might do it if headed grain was tp be
threshed with a fairly good yield, but suppose this same grain
was cut and bound, the conditions would be different. These
capacities should be put on an hourly basis rather than daily.
The day's length varies with the season, therefore, by using the
hour for the time period, less confusion is liable to enter into
this part of the question.
The power required would also have a certain range and
coud not be given specifically because conditions vary consider-
ably. Then, too, the load of threshing varies during the work,
frequently changing during a minute from a half to a full load
or even more.
With grain separators it might be well to give the per cent
of waste. One company even now gives this in their catalog and
guarantees a certain per cent of efficiency. Whether this should
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Committee on Farm Power Machinery 235
be listed, could be left to the manufacturer. This subject of
waste of threshers is a very important one. It is at present cost-
ing the American farmer millions of dollars. This is a subject
that catalogs should enlarge upon.
Silage cutting machinery is a class that is very poorly rated
at present. To cut silage and blow it into the silo depends on
several things. First, length of cut; second, quantity cut in a
given period of time ; third, height to blow ; fourth, material cut ;
and fifth, condition of knives. This fourth item concerns the
sorghum, because it is stickier than corn.
Yet these things are not cataloged, with the result that the
purchaser never knows where he is at. The writer saw a silage
cutter designed to run 750 R.P.M. running at a speed of 1,300
R.P.M. This farmer had to blow up into a 50 ft. silo and had
put on smaller pulleys and increased the speed gradually until
this point was reached. It is strange that this machine did
stand up without breaking. The farmer was appraised of the
danger and by bringing the speed down to 1,000 R.P.M. and
feeding about 30 per cent of full capacity, the silo was filled.
An actual field test for the I.H.P. is the only real way to
get figures that are absolutely correct as to power requirements.
We believe that every machine should have a name plate in a
conspicuous place. This plate to contain the following infor-
mation :
Manufacturer's name and address.
Size.
Serial or shop number.
Weight.
Date — Year made.
Speed of drive pulley.
Power required, from to — .
Capacity, from to per hour.
Engines, too, should have name plates on which will be
forfhd most of the above, particularly the H.P. and the speed.
If a traction, draw-bar-pull in pounds should be given with the
rate of travel.
This committee is going to refrain from furnishing what
might be expected as a part of its report ; that is, a table of ma-
chines and their respective horse-power. We are not going into
this for the reason above given. We are, however, going to pro-
pose an entirely different program. If it will be found radical
or impractical, the chairman should be given the criticism, as it
was he who proposed it, and having taken it up with the rest
of this committee, was permitted to incorporate it in his report.
Therefore, we humbly beg to propose the following:
A standing committee, composed of members of this Society,
whose business it would be to provide the manufacturer with the
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236 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
information required in the form of a very complete detailed '!
analysis of what any machine will do in actual operation in the |
field under regular working conditions. i
Such a committee would have to be thoroughly capable to go .,
out and get all this information in an unbiased manner. The
manufacturers could also be represented. The U. S. Depart- I
ment of Agriculture could be represented on this committee. i
If, for instance, one company designed a new corn sheller
and had it perfected up to that point where manufacture would
be started in quantity, one of each size, if more than one is to be
made, could be turned over to the A. S. A. E. committee for tests.
A committee of this sort could do much work in a year. The
variation of the machines being used at so many different sea-
sons of the year would give ample time to work the entire year
on some type of machine or other. It might be possible to get
each manufacturer to contribute, and it would only be reasonable
to expect some pay from them for this work. A set charge might
be made for a complete report on a machine within a certain
range of weight.
A committee of this sort might do for farmers and manu-
facturers what the A. S. M. E. boiler code committee have done
for them. Only instead of formulating rules, this committee would
be at work continually, providing the farmer and manufacturer
with the data of their machine, which would form the basis for
proper description for advertising matter.
It is suggested by this committee, that instead of having a
Farm Power Machinery Committee, that it be called a Farm Belt
Power Machinery Committee. That a committee be named on
Draft Farm Machines to handle draft machines such as plows,
cultivators, and harrows, wagons, etc.
REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON FARM FIELD MA-
CHINERY.
C. 0. Reed, Chairman, C. I. Gunness, E. R. Wiggins.
Your committee on Farm Field Machinery for the year just
closing begs leave to state that it has carried on no committee
work of consequence. No member of the committee has been en-
gaged in work yielding results of value to the Society, and lack
of funds for even starting one line of research in an authori-
tative and thorough manner has discouraged activity.
As a matter of record it should be stated that the commit-
tee received suggestions from the National Fertilizer Association
for work to be carried on to determine the proper depth and
manner for the application of fertilizers to corn, and to ascer-
tain what soil tillage should be practiced after such application.
The experiments as suggested were not started by the committee
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Committee on Farm Power Machinery 237
— first because they pertain mostly to questions of soil fertility
and crop production rather than to agricultural engineering,
and secondly, because no member of the committee was in a po-
sition to inaugurate the work.
REPORT OF FARM POWER COMMITTEE.
C. K. Shedd, Chairman, L. F. Seaton, E. B. Sawyer.
Our report covers two phases of farm power, as follows :
POWER DRIVE ON BINDERS AND OTHER FARM MA-
CHINES.
By E. B. Sawyer.
There has been an increased demand during the past sea-
son in most of the grain growing sections of the United States for
the gasoline engine as an attachable power drive for the grain
binder.
engine on rice binder. The extremely wet harvest season
has proven to thousands of farmers that a binder engine is not
only practical and successful, but is absolutely essential in sav-
ing the wheat crop in a great many wet fields. The advantages
of an engine on the binder were probably first best appreciated
in the rice fields of the South. The rice being grown in water,
which is only drawn off shortly before harvest time, usually
leaves the ground in a soft, wet, or slippery condition. The bull
wheel on the rice binder, though enclosed and wider than the
grain binder bull wheel, in a great many cases has been found
ineffectual in giving the necessary power to drive the mechanism
of the binder. Therefore much time, rice and labor was lost in
harvesting, due to the slipping of the bull wheel and clogging of
the general mechanism of the binder. The present modern, light
weight type of binder engine was therefore first used and de-
veloped a number of years ago in the rice growing sections of the
South. It was used there to a greater extent than in some wheat
sections until the past season, when the binder engine demand
was so general and extensive.
red river valley binder engine demand. Some seven or
eight years ago "Necessity was the mother or invention" with a
great many of the farmers in the Red River Valley of the North,
when the extremely wet season made it impractical for them to
save their wheat with the ordinary grain binder on account of
impossibility of getting the necessary traction for power drive to
operate the binder in the soft ground. The general condition in
the Red River Valley of the North was the average condition in a
great many different sections in different states in the past sea-
son. Therefore a great many devices of binder engines and at-
tachable power drive to binders was tried out with varying suc-
cess.
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238 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
mounting of engines. Two principal methods have been
tried, one to attach or mount gasoline engine at convenient place
at the rear of the binder, either supported from the platform or
more generally directly attached to the main A frame, and then
make direct chain or belt drive from the engine shaft to the pit-
man shaft of the binder.
some failures. The other method has been by mounting
gasoline, engine on some kind of a truck to be pulled behind the
binder, and power drive made by flexible couplings or universal
joint from engine to the pitman shaft of the binder. This latter
method has been tried by several companies building the ordi-
nary or regular type of medium and heavy weight farm engines.
In most cases this method has been found impractical for a
number of reasons, one of them being that it adds about as much
weight and extra draft as it gives in additional power saving.
The other difficulty in handling on uneven ground has also
helped to make it unsatisfactory so that the company formerly
making the most of the outfits of this type have entirely discon-
tinued their manufacure.
light weight engine success. The idea of putting a light
weight or medium weight engine on the rear of binder has been
tried out in every conceivable form during the past season on
account of the unusual demand for it. The real practical, spe-
cially built binder engine could not be obtained, making it nec-
essary to substitute any engine available, mounted the best that
circumstances would permit, and giving enough aid to the
horses in operating the binder mechanism to save grain that
would otherwise have been lost.
over 12,000 one type in use. The details of mounting and
using the light weight type of engine on the binder have been
thoroughly worked out and perfected in practical use. Something
over 12,000 of the original successful binder engines were in
actual use the past season. Many single engines were rented
out to cut different fields. Some of them were shipped from
southern states after harvest, so great was the demand on account
of the unusually wet harvest which was the real cause of the un-
paralleled demand this harvest. But for the fact that one manu-
facturer had done a great deal of educational work in putting
out a binder engine, thousands of acres would never have been
cut.
special vertical type. Briefly the real binder engine is the
light weight automobile type of single cylinder vertical engine,
4 cycle type, about 4 HP and weighing around 200 pounds.
It must be smooth running, with little vibration and automat-
ically governed, so as to keep the speed of the binder operation
constant when cutting heavy grain, the same as when cutting no
grain in turning corners.
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Farm Power Committee 239
bracket mounting. The engine is bolted on a slotted ad-
justable bracket, clamped to the main cross-bar of the A frame
on rear of binder. A direct chain drive is made from sprocket
on a special clutch pulley on engine to a double sprocket on pit-
man shaft of binder. This gives direct independent drive to
binder regardless of the speed of the horses, as the bull chain is
not used. The clutch allows the binder mechanism to be started
and stopped without stopping the engine.
water cooled. The engine should be of the water cooled
type, so as to permit of full power for long continuous runs in
hot weather, and also because forced water cooling permits the
placing of the water tank out on the tongue so as to aid in bal-
ancing the weight of the engine on the rear. The automatic
governor, the special clutch control, the adjustable bracket at-
tachment, the surplus of power, and balance with water tank on
tongue are some of the special features.
chain drive. The necessity of a different double sprocket
for the regular binder chain drive and the engine power drive
for every different model of binder is merely one of the details
handled by the manufacturer.
It may be of further interest here to give a brief report
from the Stephen Schultz Implement Company, who sold a few
dozen binder engines at Hastings, Nebraska, during the past sea-
son, where they had an excessively wet harvest.
binder device in soft ground. They state that the "sim-
plest and most practical attachment that was used as an aid in
harvesting the wet field was the 12" plank fastened with two
swivels to the front of the binder main frame and of such length
as to leave the plank about 3" below the rear binder frame when
the machine was standing on solid ground.
binder engine needed. When this machine was taken on
soft ground, the main wheel carried it until it sank down about
3" when the plank took a part of the load. In this way the plank
did not interfere with the working of the machine, and was there
when needed most. We found that in real soft ground that when
the weight of the machine was taken off of the main wheel, that it
was necessary to supply other power to drive the machine, and
this was supplied by means of a Cushman engine.
draft ordinary seasons. We have found that the attaching
of the engine to a binder used in usual harvesting conditions will
reduce the draft at least 40%. We have in years past, found
that farmers were so harvesting their crops with two horses to a
machine, where it required four without the engine.
It would be difficult to say just how the draft was on bind-
ers this last year, for we found that a binder equipped with en-
gine and plank required four horses, and it seemed as though
the horses were worked harder just making their way through
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240 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
mud that was knee deep than they were pulling the machine."
engine saves one or more horses. Other reports from other
sections show the real necessity of a binder engine in the wet
season, and also show some real advantages in the ordinary dry
season. The saving of even one horse on a grain binder, corn
binder, potato digger or other farm machine, where attachable
power drive may be used, is an economic advantage that should
not be overlooked. The advantage of steady power drive to the
mechanism of a binder or any machine, whether it goes fast or
slow, up hill or down hill, on soft ground or hard ground, is a
material advantage. It increases the efficiency and service of the
machine, and at the same time lightens the work for the horses.
binder engine used on other machines. The same light
weight type of engine used on the grain binder can be used with
different attachments on the different corn binders, giving a
somewhat similar service and advantage on that machine. The
same engine may also be attached to the potato digger, so as to
operate the elevators, shakers and sorters independent of the
horses pulling. The elevating and handling of tons and tons of
dirt per day by the engine has been demonstrated as a practical
service in a number of potato growing sections.
also for general farm work. The same exceptional ad-
vantages of these engines that make them successful for attach-
able power work on moving machines — such as light weight, bet-
ter material, vertical action, high speed, throttle governing —
make them also very desirable and successful for all other farm
work. In fact, this type is the only really all-purpose engine,
and on this account its use is rapidly increasing.
FREMONT POWER FARMING DEMONSTRATION.
By L. F. Seaton.
The fact that the public is becoming more and more inter-
ested in the tractor was shown this year by the large crowds of
people, most of them farmers, who attended the various plowing
demonstrations which were held in the different states.
Since the last report of this committee on the tractor was
based upon the Fremont demonstration of 1913 and 1914, it
seems most fitting to study the machines which were shown there
this year, with the idea of determining the trend of the design.
As was noticed last year, the farmers were most interested
in the light weight machine. As a whole, the tractors exhibited
were of lighter weight than those shown in 1914 and much lighter
than those of 1913. There seemed to be more machines shown
which were built for more general purpose work. However, the
majority seemed to be designed for plowing alone.
It might be interesting to continue the comparison of speci-
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Farm Power Committee 241
fications of the 1915 tractors with those of 1913 and 1914. First
in the motor construction the percentages of 1-2-4 and 6 cylinder
motors used in the different years are as follows :
No. of Cyls. Year Percentage Used
1 1913 8.6 %
2 1913 40 %
4 1913 51.4 %
6 1913 0
1 1914 6.9 %
2 1914 31. %
4 1914 55.2 %
6 1914 6.9 %
1 1915 4.84%
2 1915 27.4 %
4 1915 61.3 %
6 1915 6.46%
The above shows only the tractors on the ground. This
shows that the tendency is towards the 4 cylinder motor, while
the 6 cylinder motor just about holds its own.
It was aso observed this year that most motors were ar-
ranged vertically. This arrangement is said to reduce vibration
which means a lower expense cost.
It was observed that the motor construction in most trac-
tors still more closely approached the automobile motor of the
heavy duty type. The cooling and oiling systems are identical
with that of automobile practice. The ignition systems were of
the high tension type and for the most part high tension mag-
netos were used which are found to be very dependable.
All the motors were governed by throttling governors, which
have replaced the hit or miss type which was used to a large ex-
tent on the older machines.
The percentage of tractors intended for burning different
fuels for each of the three years are as follows:
Year Fuel. Percentage.
1913 Kerosene and Gasoline 71.4 %
1913 Gasoline only . . i 28.6 %
1914 Kerosene and Gasoline 72.5 %
1914 Gasoline 27.5 %
1915 Kerosene and Gasoline 61.3 %
1915 Gasoline only 23.9+%
1915 Kerosene only 14.8 %
This shows that the manufacturers are trying to develop a
motor which will successfully handle kerosene as a fuel. It is
very doubtful, however, if the perfect kerosene motor has yet
been built for tractor work since it is a hard matter to design a
light weight motor which can successfully handle the heavier
fuels.
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242 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
The transmission systems, especially on the light machines,
were as a whole very much the same as those used in previous
years, and with probably a still further tendency toward the
automobile enclosed type of sliding gears.
The fact that the working parts of the tractors are being
much better protected from the dust was clearly shown this year.
There is no doubt but that this is very important to the success-
ful tractor. There were also tractors equipped with dust pro-
tectors on the carburetors, which is a very good thing, especially
in dry, sandy soil.
That many conveniences are. being added to the tractor
equipment was revealed by the fact that one outfit was equipped
with electric lighting and starting devices. There are several
concerns now which are able to add this equipment to their ma-
chines.
There were many machines which were entirely of an as-
sembled nature. It is probable that this type of machine will be
as popular in the future as the assembled automobile is today.
It will mean, however that there will be a great deal of work
necessary for the correct standardization of parts. At the pres-
ent time, the Society of Automobile Engineers are doing a very
great work by standardizing automobile parts, and it is reason-
able to think that this society will be called upon to take this im-
portant work in hand with regard to the tractor as soon as
is thought advisable. At the present time, the farmer is taking
many chances when he buys a tractor of new design, since he is
unable to say whether or not the company will be in existence
when it is necessary for him to buy repairs. If the machine was
of an assembled nature using standard parts, he would be greatly
protected in this regard.
There is no doubt but that some definite conclusion should
be drawn as to the horse power rating of tractors. For instance,
there were two machines exhibited at Fremont having the same
size motors and one was rated at approximately twice the horse
power of the other. Attempts have been made to develop an
empirical formula which might be used successfully. It seems,
however, with the wide diversity in design that this is impossible.
It would seem much more desirable if these machines could be
rated in accordance to their actual performance. They should
be tesetd for brake horse power, and also for draw bar pull, since
some tractors are lighter and also have much more efficient trans-
missions than others for which they should have credit in their
ratings. Such ratings as this would be of mutual benefit to the
farmer and manufacturer, and it would seem that if this society
could promote anything, which would bring about a uniform
rating of tractors, it would have accomplished a very good work.
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REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON DRAINAGE.
M. E. Jahr, Chair., J. B. Prisbee, E. R. Jones.
Early in the year the Committee considered the matter of
securing original data on the subject of drainage legislation and
its effect on progress in drainage work as applying in particular
to the amount of money spent by drainage districts for engineer-
ing aid compared with the amount spent in court litigation. This
work, however, was not carried out, due to a lack of financial
assistance.
For the benefit of any work which may be contemplated by
succeeding drainage committees your committee wishes to sug-
gest a feature peculiar to drainage work which probably is not
true of most other lines of work, namely, that the majority of
drainage roblems are not universal, but- local. For this reason
it is extremely difficult to obtain the united efforts of a commit-
tee whose members are geographically widely separated. Your
committee believes that better results might be accomplished by
making each member of the committee a chairman in his particu-
lar territory, or by the appointment of several territorial com-
mittees under one central chairman or committee.
DISCUSSION ON DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION.
Mr. Ramsower : All of us who are engaged in Agricultural
Engineering work know that drainage and irrigation is one of
our big problems in any of our States, and while it is difficult
and represents a long period of time to make any scientific in-
vestigation along the line of drainage, something like that is
bound to come, sooner or later.
I know that men engaged in college extension work get a
wonderful lot of information, and might help this committed
very much in the practical end of this thing. If all these people
could be requested to make systematic observations and submit
those observations made in their practical experience in their
particular lines of work, it would be a help. I suggest that the
committee be requested to write the various colleges, asking for
just that sort of information. We want this much to go on rec-
ord, that it may appear that we are vitally interested in the sub-
ject of drainage and irrigation.
REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON ROADS.
J. S. Dodds, Chair., J. A. King, E. C. Gee.
Our committee has a very brief report to make. We were
organized late in the season and had not a very good season for
extensive experimentation along the line that we adopted.
We did not take up any part of road construction. We be-
lieved that that is a proper line for highway engineers, but we
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244 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
do believe that the Agricultural Engineers are vitally interested
in roads and highways and especially are going to be effective
agents in the future in solving our maintenance problems. The
Agricultural Engineer comes in direct contact with road con-
struction in many ways, and should work hand in hand with
the road engineer. He can develop the side of road maintenance,
we believe, because of the use of mechanical power in that work.
We lay down a few sugestions as to why we should make an
attempt to substitute mechanical power for horse power in road
maintenance. Road maintenance, as it is now being carried on,
is not satisfactory. We want, first, a source of power that is
available at a moment's notice, because that is the proper time to
do road work, or make road repairs, and that time is not always
of very long duration.
We want a source of power that is available when the horses
are needed, — the horse power is required for other work.
We want a source of power that does not cost much when
it is being used, and we want to increase the capacity of mail and
machine for road work, and we want to evolve a satisfactory
system of maintenance where now we have one that is not satis-
factory. In order to do this, the committee proposes substitut-
ing a tractor for horse power in road maintenance by select-
ing or developing a type of tractor, the first cost of which is as
nearly as possible that of a team of horses, so that we can con-
tract with a man to go out and take a certain piece of work to
do and expect him to furnish his own equipment.
The committee suggests that equipment be selected suitable
to the character of the road that is to be maintained, and suit-
able to the power of the tractor.
We want a one-man outfit, we want a tractor of short turn-
ing radius and low center of gravity. We want a tractor that
will go out and do the work when the roads are slippery. That
is extremely important in the estimation of road engineers.
' In its investigation so far, the committee has found that the
main troubles confronting the tractor relate to the last point. We
need a tractor that will cover the ground and do the work and
develop power when the ground is slippery, though the other
points each have a proper bearing on this subject.
We suggest that future work be carried on along the lines
discussed above. The effort must be made by manufacturers to
produce a small tractor which any man can buy, drive and use
for road maintenance.
The committee should encourage this by conducting experi-
ments with all available tractors. In this way the defects will
be discovered and remedied. The costs of operation should be
carefully tabulated and some standard developed towards which
manufacturers generally will be able to work.
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Committee on Roads 245
The committee suggests that farm implement manufacturers
give the disk harrow more publicity as a road-building machine.
The committee suggests that more emphasis be laid by drain
tile manufacturers on the need for under-drainage.
The committee have started some advance investigations on
the effect of modern tires on road maintenance. This is with a
view to the adoption of recommendations for standard practice
in tire design, with special reference to the proper proportioning
with respect to load and speed.
The report of the committee on standards takes this ques-
tion up, but we have a little different phase of it than the com-
mittee on wagons. This wagon report deals with wagons only,
and not the other vehicles used, and it may be possible for this
Society to effect the proportioning of tires of different types as
they relate to ro&ds.
REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH.
D. Scoates, Chairman, M. L. King, S. S. Swanson.
This committee, through the secretary of the society, sent
out to the members of the society engaged in college work a cir-
cular letter asking for information along the following three
lines :
1. Agricultural Engineering problems that you are investigat-
ing this year.
2. A list of Agricultural Engineering subjects that you would
suggest suitable for undergraduate thesis work.
3. A digest of any thesis on any Agricultural Engineering sub-
ject that has come to their attention which would merit the
attention of the society.
The answers to these letters were not as numerous as they
should have been. However, the most of the larger colleges and
universities responded. The data as received has been tabulated
below :
RESEARCH WORK BEING DONE IN THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES.
DRAINAGE.
A study of the chemical properties of muck soils and the effect
of drainage on these properties. — H. W. Riley, Cornell Uni-
versity.
Drainage investigations. — F. S. Harris, Utah Agri. College.
Construction, Operation and Maintenance of Drainage Improve-
ments.
Drainage of Peat, Turk and Muck Soils.
Farm Drainage.
Drainage of Irrigated Lands.
Organization, Financing and Legal Regulation of Drainage Dis-
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246 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
tricts.
Run-Off Investigations.
Drainage of Tidal Marshes.
— U. S. D. A. Office of Public Roads & Rural Engineering.
IRRIGATION.
(a) The use of Water for Irrigation in Growing Alfalfa.
In this project we are endeavoring to ascertain :
(1) Quantity of water used (acre feet per acre) per irrigation
and per season.
(2) What becomes of water applied, i. e., per cent retained by
upper six feet of soil which is considered, under normal val-
ley conditons, the zone of greatest root activity, and per
cent which percolates below the upper six feet of soil. This
we attempt to do by taking numerous observations of moist-
ure content of soil immediately before and shortly after
irrigation.
(3) Most desirable methods of preparing various soils for irri-
gation, i. e., whether square or border check should be used
and width and length of checks, and where border checks
are used, the most desirable slope.
(4) The optimum number of cu. ft. per second to use in applying
water to soils of various types.
(b) The use of water for irrigating deciduous orchards.
The objects of this project are 1st. to gather some in-
formation on topics substantially the same as (1) and
(2) under project (a), 2nd to endeavor to determine the best
methods of applying water, whether in checks, basins
or furrows, and 3rd to corrolate, if possible, methods
of applying water, size of stream, etc., with types of
soil.
Project (a) has been in progress during the past two
years, while project (b) is just being initiated.
— 0. W. Israelson, University of California.
Duty of water investigations with corn, potatoes, sugar beets,
wheat and alfalfa.
Experiments on the pumping of irrigation water.
Practical irrigation methods in different parts of Utah.
A study of the methods of managing irrigation systems in Utah.
— F. S. Harris, Utah Agricultural College.
Utilization of water in irrigation.
Pumping for irrigation.
Irrigation appliances and equipment.
Plow of water for irrigation in ditches, pipes and other conduits.
Measurement of water for irrigation.
Customs, regulations and laws relating to irrigation.
— U. S. D. A. Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering.
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Committee on Research 247
Development of underground water for irrigation purposes.
Pumping machinery for irrigation purposes, including tests of
pumps, engines and wells.
G. E. P. Smith, University of Arizona.
FARM BUILDINGS.
The preservation and treatment of various types of wood for
fence posts.
The effect of silage acid on concrete and the effect of various
methods of treating concrete to prevent the action of silage
acids.
The study of effect of creosoted wood on the quality of milk and
health of cattle.
The study of the relative durability of creosoted woods for silos.
— F. M. White, University of Wisconsin.
Transmission of heat through building materials. — L. C. Lichty,
University of Illinois.
Barn Ventilation. — L. J. Smith, Manitoba Agricultural College.
Farm Barns. — H. H. Musselman, Michigan Agricultural College.
Hog Houses.
Poultry Houses.
Roof Trusses for Barns.
Corn Cribs.
D. Scoates, Miss. A. & M. College.
Farm buildings.
Sio Construction.
a. General. Bulletins 100 and 141.
b. The Iowa Silo. Bulletin 117.
c. The Wood Hoop Silo. As above.
Farm Structures.
Sub-projects : —
a. Farm Houses.
b. General Farm Barns.
c. Dairy Barns.
d. Horse Barns.
e. Poultry Houses.
Co-operation with poultry section.
Bulletin 132.
f . Swine Houses.
Co-operation with Animal Husbandry Section.
1. Colony. Bulletin 152.
Community.
g. Sheep Sheds.
h. Buildings for Crop Storage.
1. Granaries.
2. Corn Cribs.
3. Potato Storage Houses.
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248 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Co-operation with Horticultural Section.
4. Root Cellars,
i. Milk Houses,
j. Smoke Houses,
k. Manure Pits.
1. Machinery Sheds,
m. Oarages,
n. Power Plants.
Roofing Materials.
a. Prepared Roofing.
Fence Wire Corrosion.
Fences.
a. Concrete Panel Fences.
b. Fence Posts.
The Preparation and Storage of Ice.
Construction of Ice Houses.
Creamery Building Construction.
Co-operaitng with Dairy Section. Bui. 139.
Farm Conveniences.
Co-operating with Animal Husbandry Section.
a. Equipment for Livestock Feeding and Management.
1. Feed bunk, alfalfa racks, mixing box, dipping tank,
combination sheep rack and other miscellaneous equip-
ment.
2. Self-feeders for swine.
Rural School Houses.
— Agricultural Engineering Department, Iowa State College*
FARM MACHINERY.
Study of the mathematical equations of the surfaces of plow
mold boards, an investigation being carried on at Cornell
University by Professor E. A; White of Urbana, 111.
The effect of various types of eveners on side draft of plows. —
F. M. White, University of Wisconsin.
Influence of different types of cultivators on crop yields. — R. W.
Stark, University of Illinois.
Calibration of seed drills. — 0. Allyn, University of Illinois.
Cultivation as a factor in crop production — J. G. Mosier, Uni-
versity of Illinois.
Devices for accurate planting. — A. N. Brunson, University of
Illinois.
Cost of grinding grain with different kinds of machines — F. S.
Harris, Utah Agricultural College.
Testing several varieties of agricultural paint on farm machin-
ery.—E. C. Gee, A. & M. College, Texas.
Standardization of Farm Machinery.
Grain Grading and Cleaning Machinery.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Committee on Research 249
Clearing Stump Land — Data on file.
— Agricultural Engineering Department, Iowa State College.
FARM MOTORS.
Distribution of farm motors.— I. W. Dickerson, University of
Illinois.
Relative economy of gasoline and kerosene as a fuel for internal
combustion engines. — G. W. McCuen, University of Illinois.
Tests of dry cells and commercial batteries. — E. A. Williford,
University of Illinois.
New type of transmission dynamometer. — T. J. Sweeney, Uni-
versity of Illinois.
Friction clutches and brake linings. — Prof. 0. E. Leutwiler,
University of Illinois.
Explosion of gaseous mixtures. — A. P. Kratz, University of
Illinois.
Tests with traction engines. — F. S. Harris, Utah Agric. College.
Fuel economy tests on a 6 horse-power hay press. — E. C. Gee,
A. & M. College, Texas.
Cost of plowing with light tractor. — H. H. Musselman, Michigan
Agricultural College.
Iowa Cycle Engine.
Study of the use of tractors.
— Agricultural Engineering Dept., Iowa State College.
MANUFACTURE OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS.
Milling methods and milling qualities of wheat. — F. S. Harris,
Agricultural College, Utah.
ROADS.
Tests of various road materials. — F. S. Harris, Utah Agricul-
tural College.
Collection of Data on Road Mileage, Revenues and Expenditures.
Colelction of Current Data Relating to Highways.
Utilization of Convict Labor in Road Management.
Observation of Experimental Convict Camp in Connection with
Road Making.
Economic Study of Highway Systems in Selected Counties.
Economic Study of Selected Post Roads.
Economic Study of County and Township Highway Systems.
Economic Study of State Highway Departments.
Traffic Census.
Microscopic Examination and Classification of Road Building
Rocks.
Research on Dust Preventatives and Road Builders.
Experimental Bituminous Road Construction and Maintenance.
Physical Tests of Road Building Materials.
Concrete Road Investigations.
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250 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Non-bituminous Road Material Investigations.
Road Material Investigation Instruments.
Standardization of Methods of Testing Bituminous Road Ma-
terials.
Standardization of Methods of Testing Non-bituminous Road
Materials.
Investigation of Relative Value of Road Building.
Materials and Methods of Construction.
Traction Tests (width of tire, height of wheel types and size of
axle bearing, etc.).
— U. S. D. A. Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering.
RURAL SANITATION.
The development of a septic tank for country use whereby the
privy is located directly above the septic tank chamber, no
water being used with the privy, but water being allowed
to enter the septic tank from the home sink. We are also
getting ready to develop a septic tank which will operate
without the introduction of water into the tank, if this is
possible. — H. W. Riley, Cornell University.
Sewage disposal for farm conditions. — L. J. Smith, Manitoba
Agricultural College.
Sewage disposal and septic tank. — H. H. Musselman, Michigan
Agricultural College.
Farm Water Supply.
a. Masonry Water Tank.
— Agricultural Engineering Dept. — Iowa State College.
LIST OF UNDER-GRADUATE THESIS SUBJECTS.
DRAINAGE.
The length and intensity of saturation or immersion toler-
ated by various crops in your state ,as influenced by time of year,
degree of maturity and rate of removal.
The rate of vertical progression of the zone of saturation in
drained soils during and after periods of ordinary or unusual
precipitation. In other words, the time which would elapse be-
tween the time maximum rate of precipitation occurred on the
surface and when the maximum discharge takes place from the
drains.
The influence of crop and cultural conditions upon run-oft
from surface and tile drains.
The number of inches of rainfall necessary to mature vari-
ous crops in your state.
An investigation into the number of inches of rainfall re-
moved by systems of under-drains during various years.
An investigation into the permanency of open relief chan-
nels or cut-offs for your state streams.
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Committee on Research 251
An investigation into present methods of levying drainage
assessments with comments on their efficiency and equity with
recommendations for improvements.
The acreage value of drainage improvements, as secured
through open drains, large tile outlets and through under drain-
The loss in fertility due to too thorough drainage.
The influence of thorough under-drainage upon soil temper-
ature in the spring. Verified by thermometer measurements
upon drained and undrained soils.
The relation of surface slope to surface absorption of pre-
cipitation in various soils under various cultural conditions.
An investigation into the conditions which limit maximum
agricultural production in your state.
(a) Total amoutn of rainfall.
(b) Distribution of rainfall.
(c) Tillage methods.
(d) Plant types.
The possibility of increasing production by regulating
height of water table in drained soils.
. (a) By depths and frequency of under drains.
(b) By sub-irrigation with tile.
The economic importance of field erosion in your state.
(a) Problem of different soil areas.
(b) Attitude toward controlling it.
(c) Methods attempted in your state.
(d) Methods used in other states, with items of costs and
applicability to your state conditions.
Laying out a drainage system.
Relative merits of cement and clay tile.
IRRIGATION.
Movement of irrigation water in soils.
Water requirements of crops.
Practical and economical methods of applying water.
Factors which control the efficiency of pumping plants.
The delivery of water to the irrigator.
Laws governing the determination and acquisition of water
right and the distribution of water under established rights.
Commission control of public waters.
A discussion of water rates in irrigation practice.
Irrigation organization, public service corporations, irriga-
ton distrcts, mutual companies and government projects.
The need of modern accounting in irrigation activity.
Laying out an irrigation system.
Pumping water for irrigation.
Measurement o f irrigation water.
Seepage in irrigation ditches.
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252 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
FARM BUILINGS.
Designs of model farm buildings.
Figures on silo capacities.
Breaking loads in actual size construction in barn trusses
and other framing.
Silo temperatures.
Concrete posts.
Concrete aggregates.
Detailed plans for a complete set of farm buildings for the
average sized farm.
Digestion of the present literature on the strength of timber
for building and other purposes and the safe strengths for the
different classes of buildings.
Use of concrete on the farm.
Important points in planning farm homes.
Materials to use in construction of farm buildings.
The arrangement of farm buildings.
Electric lighting on the farm.
Acetylene lighting plants.
Corrosion of fence wire.
Bracing a corner post.
Mechanical devices to aid the housewife.
The farm shop.
Concrete reservoirs.
Silo construction.
Relative merits of round and rectangular barns.
A routing plant for feeding operations.
The farmstead plan.
Prepared roofing.
Holow vitrified clay for farm buildings.
General farm barns.
FARM MACHINERY.
Draft of plows.
Draft tests on spreaders and other farm machines.
Standardization of sprocket wheels and chains.
Standardisation of sizes, mesh and methods of numbering
sieves and screens for fanning mills.
The number and distribution of different field machines.
Determination of the oil requirements of different farm ma-
chines.
Improvements in farm machinery which should come.
Haying machinery.
Efficiency of different types of pulverizers.
Harrow attachments.
Hay carriers.
Grain grading and cleaning machines.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Committee on Research 253
Relative merits of the internal and external force feed for
grain drills.
Types of feed grinders.
Silage distributers.
Ensilage cutters.
Will mechanical corn husking displace hand husking?
Use of two-row cultivator.
The relation between farm machinery and production.
Special machinery for irrigated farms.
FARM MOTORS.
The windmill as a source of electrical energy.
Comparative cost of feed grinding gas engine vs. horses.
Draft of farm machinery.
Comparative tests on various traction engines comparing
theoretical H.P., brake H.P. and draw-bar H.P.
History of the gas engine.
Relative merits of steam and gas engines.
Plowing with mechanical power.
The cost of operating various farm machines.
The number and distribution of the different farm motors.
Specifications for farm machinery.
Recent development in engine plows.
Transmitting power to a pump at a distance.
Traction dynamometers.
Specifications for gasoline engines.
Electric power for agricultural purposes.
Gasoline tractors.
The automobile and its use on the farm.
The relative merits of high wheel and pneumatic tired
wheels for farmers' automobiles.
A farm power plant.
MANUFACTURE OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS.
The manufacture of sugar.
The manufacture of milk products.
Opportunities for the manufacture of agricultural products.
ROADS.
A survey of the road situation in a county.
Available road materials.
Relative cost of the different kinds of culverts.
RURAL SANITATION.
The siphon of septic tanks.
The farm water supply.
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254 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Rules for rural sanitation.
A farm sewage disposal plant.
(For additional thesis subjects see page 257, Vol. 7, of
A. S. A. E. proceedings.)
THESES WORTHY OF ATTENTION ON FILE AT VARIOUS COLLEGES.
Farm Water Supplies. — E. W. Lehmann, Iowa State College.
Conductivity of Different Kinds of House Walls. — Hoffman and
Good, Iowa State College.
Survey of the Use of Field Implements and Average Acreage of
each, 1912— W. C. Funk, Agricultural Expert, Rumely Co.,
La Porte, Ind., Univ. of 111.
A New Type of Accurate Drop for Corn Planters. — L. R. Rink,
Geneseo, 111. University of Illinois.
Barn Ventilation. — Manitoba Agricultural College.
The committee thinks that a report of the three things in the
above report should be submitted each year, as a college man has
occasion to refer to it many times during the year.
.It is to be regretted that more colleges and universities do
not do more research work along agricultural engineering lines.
This is due to three things: First, the members of the various
agricultural engineering departments are so burdened with
teaching that they have little time for research work; second,
the limited funds available for experimental work, and third, the
slowness of the directors of agricultural experiment stations to
see the need of agricultural engineering xperiment station work.
It is urged, however, that each college man take every op-
portunity to impress on those in authority that there is a need
of this work.
It would be a fine field for next year's research committee
to determine the amounts of money expended on the various
lines of agricultural experiment work, in order to show the posi-
tion of our .work. This, alongside of the amount of money ex-
pended by the country on the different branches of agriculture,
will be a telling argument. The amount expended along various
lines of agricultural extension work would also be interesting.
The committee wishes to thank all those who replied to its
circular letter, and made this report possible.
DISCUSSION: RESEARCH.
Mr. King: Prof. Scoates, chairman of the Research Com-
mittee this year, planned this year that each member of the com-
mittee should bring in separate reports, or rather, recommenda-
tions which would help to put the future research work of the
Society on a more definite basis, and be productive of more re-
sults. In accordance with that, I have prepared a blank form to
serve as a guide for collecting information concerning farm
buildings, especially with reference to the cost of different types
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Discussion: Research. 255
of buildings made of different materials. This form is simply a
suggestion, but we hope that it will assist the Society in deciding
on something in the way of a general form, with the idea that
most of us shall use these forms at the Experiment Stations, so
that the information that is collected at Ohio University, Wiscon-
sin University, and Iowa, or any of the rest, shall be in such form
that they can be collected and really become of use as a collec-
tion.
In collecting information from farmers, either by mail or
personal visits, I find it fully as necessary for me to have the
question blank for filling out, for my own guidance in asking
questions and getting the information, as though we were simply
sending a question blank by mail to get replies. Not that these
forms shall be followed right along like a catechism, one ques-
tion after another, but that when you are through talking with a
man, you simply glance at the form and can tell whether or not
you have omitted any importan questions.
The idea was simply o have a guide to go by, standardizing
our material information, and thereby securing information that
can be used to better advantage than a miscellaneous lot of in-
formation got together in a miscellaneous way, and based upon
miscellaneous units of four dozen different kinds. We will be
glad to have your suggestions in this matter, and incorporate
them in our suggestions.
REPORT OF THE IOWA STATE COLLEGE STUDENT
BRANCH A. S. A. E.
OFFICERS — FIRST SEMESTER
1915-1916.
President R. C. Miller
Vice President J. C. Zimmerman
Secretary E. L. Merten
Treasurer B. E. Gaylord
Sergeant-at-Arms V. W. McClung
Each member is required to give one paper and two dis-
cussions on some topic of interest to the Agricultural Engineer
duirng the year. The discussions are to be given in connection
with some other member's paper and to be in the form of criti-
cisms on that paper or on an* additional feature of the subject
discussed in the paper. Each meeting is one hour in length.
This limit of time makes it necessary for the speakers to put con-
siderable time on their papers in order to present them in the
time alotted. It also necessitates that the meetings be snappy and
businesslike.
The society also forms the nucleus for other activities of the
Agricultural Engineers. Last spring the society held a most
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256 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
successful banquet, which also was our last meeting as a body
with Professor J. B. Davidson. Other features as a baseball
game between the Agricultural Engineering faculty and seniors
and putting on floats at both the Engineering Campfire and the
Agricultural Carnival, are promoted by the society and thus
help to develop a better fellowship among ourselves and between
our department and other departments of the college.
We feel that the society has been of great benefit and help
to us and that it deserves our effort to make it an even stronger
and more beneficial society in the future.
Our society programs have been very successful. The sub-
jects discussed have been very interesting and of great variety,
which is very symbolic of the different fields of work our gradu-
ates have gone into. The following are the subjects discussed
in our meetings the first semester, 1915-16:
4 * Inspection of Construction of Large Tile Drains/ '
"Excavation and Relaying of Obstructed Drains.' '
"Special Features of Silo Construction in the Summer of
1915.' '
"The Use of Hollow Tile in the Construction of Reinforced
Concrete Floors."
"Reinforced Concrete Floor Construction of the New Ames
Hotel.' '
"Reinforced Concrete Floor Construction of the Ames City
Hall."
"Summer Employment with Farm Machinery Companies."
"Opportunities in Agricultural Engineering.' '
' * Grain Elevators for Farm Use. ' '
"The Farm Shop."
"Electric Lighting on the Farm."
"Agricultural Engineering Problems of the Keokuk Power
Development. ' '
"The Holt Combined Harvester and Thresher."
"The Farmstead."
"A Motion Study of Farm Choring Operations."
"The Construction of Reinforced Concrete Railway Cul-
verts."
"Refrigeration on the Farm."
"Methods of Storing the Apple and Potato Crops in Iowa."
"The Farmer's Losses Through Faulty Storage Facilities."
"Public Drainage Improvements in Minnesota from the
Farmer's Standpoint."
"Educating the Farmer to Appreciate the Difficulties Met
in Constructing Large Drainage Improvements."
"Commercial Methods of Preservative Treatment for Struc-
tural Timbers."
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Report: I. 8. C. Student Branch
257
" Investigation of Preservative Treatment of Wood by U.
S. Forestry Service.' '
"Tests of Preservative Treatment of Railway Cro88ties.,,
1 ' Preservative Treatment for Wooden Fence Posts. ' '
''The Problem of Painting Farm Buildings in Iowa."
"The Manufacture and Use of Prepared Sheet Roofing Ma*
terials."
"Mechanical Operations in Distributing the Des Moines
Register and Leader.' '
"The Use of Farm Tractors in the United States."
"The Field of Usefulness for the Farm Tractor in Irrigated
Section."
"Report on Trip to John Deere Plow Works."
"Report on Trip to John Deere Harvester Works."
"The Manufacture of Twine by the International Harvester
Co.
The student membership of the Iowa branch is as follows :
J. L. Ahart
G. W. Baker
F. M. Binger
W. H. Boynton
E. Brandt
G. A. Cummings
Ross Dowell
E. M. Dudley
G. M. Duncomb
P. L. Edwards
D. M. Finley
R. H. Finley
John S. Glass
L. L. Greaser
E. A. Hardy
M. Havenhill
F. W. Hawthorne
J. B. Kerwin
H. H. Legett
R. M. Merrill
F. E. Miller
L. Moore
R. Newcomb
C. S. Nicholson
E. Pruessing
Edw. Rclyea
B. F. Rothrock
H. Rutherford
Virgil E. Smith
E. J. Stirniman
A. W. Turner
G. L. Wilder
H. B. Bliss
W. Drake
C. V. Englund
B. E. Gaylord
A. R. Williams
J. C. Wolley
J. 0. Zimmerman
M. H. Goede
H. Hall
O. H. Lovelace
E. L. Merten
H. E. Middleton
R. C. Miller
V. W. McChing
R. E. Patterson
R. L. Patty
W. Peterson
M. K. Reed
E. W. Smith
Frank Steigerwalt
T. A. Toeujos
E. J. Uhl
M. L. Watson
(Signed) R. 0. Miller, Pres.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
REPORT OP STUDENT BRANCH OF A. S. A. E.
UNIVERSITY OP NEBRASKA.
Meetings are held during the first week of each month, at
which the regular business of the society is transacted, and talks
given on assigned subjects by faculty members and students, a
discussion following the presentation of each paper. The follow-
ing is a list of the most important subjects which have been pre-
sented this semester:
4 * Results of Cesspool Investigations/ ' by Dr. LaZelle Stur-
devant.
"Plans for the Proposed Agricultural Engineering Build-
ing, ' ' by Professor L. W. Chase.
"Repair of Farm Equipment/ ' by Mr. F. B. Coe.
"Farm Implements and the Size of Farm,,, by Professor
H. C. Pilley.
To promote good felowship among the students and faculty,
the society has been entertained at the homes of Professors
Chase and Seaton. A smoker was held this fall, and plans are
made for more this year.
Last spring the constitution was rewrtiten and accepted.
The sections on eligibility to membership are included here for
your discussion and any criticisms you may have will be appre-
ciated.
ARTICLE III.
Section 1. "Any student who is registered in the Agri-
cultural Engineering Department and has twenty (20) hours
credit in the College of Engineering may become an active mem-
ber of this society."
Section 2. "Any student who is registered in the Agricul-
tural Engineering Department or who is majoring in Agricul-
tural Engineering may become an associate member of this so-
ciety."
This branch will be glad to furnish your Committee on
Student Branches with copies of the Constitution if you so de-
sire.
The student membership of the Nebraska Branch is as fol-
lows :
M. M. Garrett F. R. Nohavec
G. L. Clark E. H. Husman
J. M. Root C. A. Happold
A. W. Tell Henry Knutzen
G. F. Wilcox C. A. Draper
C. R. Bentz H. B. Camp
Grant Bloodgood Frank Henninger
C. B. Dickinson J. P. Fairbank
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Nebraska Student Branch 259
OFFICERS.
J. P. Fairbank President
A. W. Tell Vice President
M. M. Garrett Secretary
G. F. Wilcox Treasurer
This branch hopes that more student branches o fthe A. S.
A. E. will soon be established and that a more definite co-opera-
tion between the main society and the branches will be evolved
for our mutual benefit.
BUSINESS SESSION.
secretary's report.
On Jan. 1st President Musselman appointed committees as
published in Vol. VIII. The following changes and additions
were made in committees later on.
Committee on Irrigation, added G W. Kable.
Committee on Farm Power, added E. B. Sawyer.
Committee on Farm Power Machinery. C. P. Holt did not
accept appointment, E. B. Doran and Fred Hilty added.
Committee on Publicity, added C. E. Leslie.
Committee on Roads. A. W. Schulz did not accept appoint-
ment, and J. A. King was appointed in his stead.
On January 28th, Mr. C. W. Boynton resigned. His resig-
nation was presented on account of the fact that he is no longer
connected with an organization interested in the promtoion of
engieering in agriculture.
On January 29th, Mr. E. B. Cushing, President of the Agri-
cultural and Mechanical College of Texas at College Station,
Texas, resigned.
On February 15th, an invitation was extended to the so-
ciety by the Honorable William Jennings Bryan, Secretary of
State, to participate in the second Pan-American Scientific Con-
gress to be held at Washington, D. C, Dec. 27, 1915, to Jan. 8,
1916. As this organization was not financially strong enough to
afford the expense connected with accepting such an invitation,
nothing was done regarding it.
On February 16, the Executive Council authorized the Sec-
retary to let the contract for printing 1000 copies of Vol. VIII
of the nAnual Proceedings of the A. S. A. E. to the State Jour-
nal Printing Cocpany, Madison, Wisconsin. Their itemized bid
is as follows :
1000 copies
For setting up and correcting type, printing, binding
and finishing in good shape 250 pages $307.00
Each additional page extra 1.20
Setting up tables extra per page 0.00
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
260 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Printing and pasting inserts, extra per page 0.00
Printing the stationery for the office of President and Sec-
retary was authorized by the Council and let to the lowest bid-
der, the State Journal Prining Company, Madison, Wisconsin.
The account is as follows :
1000 large envelopes $ 4.50
5000 small envelopes 13.50
2000 ballot envelopes 4.25
6500 letter heads , 15.75
On March 1st Vol. VIII was sent to all members of the so-
ciety and to all state libraries. According to vote of the Execu-
tive Council the previous year it is now the policy of the society
to send free copies of our proceedings to the state libraries. Pub-
lic libraries and libraries of private corporations are charged
the usual rate.
On March 19, Carl A. Bachelder resigned. No reason given.
On March 20, the Council voted to hold the annual A. S. A.
E. meeting in Chicago, Dec. 28-29-30, at the Hotel Sherman,
provided suitable arrangements could be made at this hotel.
On April 8, the resignation of Dr. E. A. Rumely was re-
ceived, on account of the fact that he is no longer connected with
the Rumely organization.
On April 20, the Council authorized the purchase of an
Underwood typewriter at the special price of $67.75. The rent-
ing of a machine for the previous year proved to be too ex-
pensive.
On May 24, the resignation of R. E. Kenny, Manager of the
Advertising Department of Parlin & Orendorff Co., Canton, 111.,
was received, the reason given being that he could not attend the
annual meetings if they continued to be held between Christmas
and New Year.
On November 1, an invitation was received by the Secretary
to address the National Association of Thresher & Tractor Manu-
facturers at Chicago, Illinois, the object being to urge a closer
connection of these two organizations and to attempt to show the
Thresher Manufacurers' Association what service we could be
to them. A very cordial reception was accorded and I feel sure
now that that organization is better acquainted with the work
of our society.
On December 6, Mr. W. F. McGregor was appointed to act
for our society in co-operating with the U. S. Dept. of Agricul-
ture, Bureau of Rural Engineering, in attempting to standard-
ize the draw bar rating of gas tractors.
Bulletins were issued by the society on the following dates
throughout the year : Jan. 1, April 1, June 1, August 1, Septem-
ber 1, and November 1.
Mr. Geo. P. Weston was appointed as a delegate to attend
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Secretary's Report 261
the meeting of the Joint Committee on Classification of Technical
Literature held in New York City, May 22, 1915.
As reported by the Secretary, W. P. Cutter, 29 West 39th
St., New York City, the object of this meeting was to secure the
co-operation of the societies interested in the devising of a classi-
fication common to all applied science literature, the adapting of
the same to the various societies represented, the general use of
the same, and finally the ultimate formation of a permanent li-
brary service covering the same both national and international.
The following societies were represented by delegates : Sam-
uel Sheldon, Library Board, United Engineering Society ; Rich-
ard Moldenke, American Foundrymen's Association; C. Clifford
Kuh, Society for Electrical Development: Cullen W. Parmelee,
American Ceramic Society ; Sullivan W. Jones, J. A. F. Cardiff,
American Institute of Architects ; Geo. F. Weston, American So-
ciety of Agricultural Engineers ; F. L. Pryor, American Society
of Refrigerating Engineers; H. W. Peck, American Gas Insti-
tute ; Nicholas Hill, American Water Works Association ; Edwin
J. Prindle, L. P. Alford, L. P. Breckenridge, American Society
of Mechanical Engineers; F. J. T. Stewart, National Fire Pro-
tection Association ; J. J. Blackmore, American Society of Heat-
ing and Ventilating Engineers ; C. F. Clarkson, Society of Auto-
mobile Engineers; F. L. Bishop, Society for the Promotion of
Engineering Education; George R. Olshausen, U. S. Bureau of
Standards; E. C. Crittenden, American Physical Society; Alfred
Rigling, Franklin Institute ; W. P. Cutter, American Institute of
Mining Engineers ; Edgar Maruberg, American Society for Test-
ing Materials ; A. S. MacAllister, National Electric Light Asso-
ciation, American Electro Chemical Society and Illuminating
Engineering Society; C. E. Lindsay, American Railway Engi-
neering Association ; G. W. Lee, Librarian.
The delegates present expressed most hearty and enthusi-
astic interest in any system which might be worthy of general
adoption; they could not, of course, promise at this early date
anything more than moral support to the idea, reserving for
themselves and for their societies the right to thoroughly ex-
amine any system that might be evolved before recommending
is adoption.
During the year the following men satisfied constitutional
requirements and were voted into the society :
Wm. Aitkenhead (member), Asst. Professor of Farm Me-
chanics, Purdue University, LaFayette, nldiana.
H. G. Bell (associate), Agronomist of Middle West Soil Im-
provement Committee of the National Fretilizer Association, 930
Hinman Ave., Evanston, Illinois.
M. F. P. Costelloe (member), Associate Professor of Agri-
cultural Engineering, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa.
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262 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
G. J. Baker (associate), General Manager of Detroit Trac-
tor Co., LaFayette, Indiana.
P. L. Bixby (member), Irrigation Engineer, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, State College, N. M.
Bradford Brinton (member), Vice President and Secretary
of Grand Detour Plow Company, Dixon, Illinois.
W. B. Clarkson (associate), Vice President and Sales Man-
ager of King Ventilaitng Company, Owatonna, Minn.
A. H. Connoly (member). General Consulting Engineer,
Mason City Brick & Tile Company, Mason City, Iowa.
W. A. Etherton (associate), Architect in Charge of Farm
Structures, Dept. of Agriculture, Manhattan, Kansas.
Wm. K. Freudenberger (member), Chief Engineer, Public
Service Commission, Carson City, Nevada.
A. A. Gilmore (member), Architect for Farm Building
Dept. of Metal Shingle and Siding Company, Preston, Ont.
S. B. Harding (member), Civil, Mechanical, Electrical En-
gineer and Contractor, Stormsafe Construction Company, Chi-
cago, Illinois.
Ralph Haves (member), General Manager of Haves Pump
and Planter Co., 702 N. W. 3rd Ave., Galva, Illinois.
H. J. Hughes (affiliate), Editor Farm Stock & Home, Ex-
celsior, Minnesota.
E. R. Jones (member), Assoc. Professor of Soils, University
of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin.
Charles Kratsch (member), Manager of Sumter Electric
Company, Chicago, Illinois.
Wm. Louden (member), Head of Designing & Structural
Dept., Louden Machinery Company, Fairfield, la.
E. B. Marsh (associate), Architect, Champlin. Minn.
H. H. Niemann (member), Manager of Agricultural Archi-
tecture Department, Louden Machinery Co., Fairfield, la.
G. W. Rice (member), Works Manager, Aultman & Taylor
Machinery Company, Mansfield, Ohio.
E. B. Sawyer (member), President Cushman Motor Works,
Lincoln, Nebraska.
J. G. Shodron (member), Consulting Engineer for James
Mfg. Co., Ft. Atkinson, Wis.
Rolf Thelen (associate), Engineer in Forest Products Lab-
oratry, Madison, Wisconsin.
P. A. Welty (associate), Manager of Santo Ysabel Ranch,
Paso Robles, California.
Total membership, 132.
treasurer's report.
F. M. White, Treasurer, 1915.
Balance— 1914 $ 127.33
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Secretary's Report 263
Receipts —
Fees 108.00
Dues 848.25
Adv 52.00
Transactions and pins 31.26
$1166.84
Disbursements —
Transactions $ 540.45
Annual meeting 239.77
Stenographer 217.45
Postage 110.90
Express .98
Stationery 38.00
$1147.55
Baance in bank 19.29
$1166.84
(Nine pins worth $20.25 in Treasury)
During the year the society purchased and paid for an Un-
derwood typewriter, $67.50. The Secretary-Treasurer was also
paid $100 as an honorarium. These items are distributed among
the headings in the above report.
BUSINESS.
The treasurer was authorized by vote to assume the balance
due on the banquet.
The next business brought before the house was the consid-
eration of the name of the committee heretofore acting under
the name of ''Motor Contest' ' committee. Mr. Kranich, chairman
of the committee to which that matter had been referred, moved
that the name of this committee be changed from " Motor Con-
test" committee to "Motor Demonstration" committee. ' Sec-
onded.
An amendment was offered as follows: "That the name of
this committee be amended to read 'Tractor Demonstration' com-
mittee instead of 'Motor Demonstration' committee." Amend-
ment seconded and carried.
The original motion, as amended, was carried.
On motion, duly seconded, an honorarium of $100 was al-
lowed the Secretary-Treasurer for his services during the next
year.
The next business brought up was the Agricultural Engi-
neers' Hand Book. Attention had been called to the need for
such a hand book in the address by P. S. Rose, and also in the
President's annual address.
After some discussion, Mr. Davidson moved that this whole
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264 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
matter be left to a committee of this organization, consisting of
the President, the Secretary-Treasurer, and the Chairman of the
Council. Motion seconded and carried.
Mr. White moved that in order to straighten out certain
complications which have developed, that Mr. King be chairman
of the Council until his term expires in 1917, making that term
two years rather than one, and that either Mr. Louden or Mr.
Harris be elected for two years rather than three years, to be
arranged by the Council. Motion seconded and carried.
On motion of Mr. Ramsower, duly seconded, Mr. Gilbert was
assigned by the president to continue the work done by him on
a general course of agriculture and to have assisting him, two
other members, constituting an educational committee.
At this point in the proceedings, the retiring president
called the newly elected president, Mr. White, to the chair.
Mr. White : About all I have to say is that I want to thank
the members of the organization for the very hearty co-operation
which I have had during my office as secretary. It is utterly
impossible for any one to carry on this sort of work without co-
operation, without getting men who will work. In making ap-
pointments of committees for the ensuing year, I naturally hope
to give the preference to those people who I think will work,
and if I find after appointing these committees there are some
men among them who do not work, I would like to reserve th
right to rmove them and appoint somebody who will work. I want
our committee work to be one of the most important features of
the organization during the ensuing year. We have. I think,
accomplished a great deal since our committees have got down to
business, and I wish to ask for the co-operation of the Society
during the next year in the same spirit that it has shown during
my office as Secretary. I have thought some of making announce-
ments regarding committees, but I believe that I will leave that
until the first News Letter or Bulletin, which the secretary
puts out, with the exception of one which I have already de-
cided upon. I have appointed Mr. Neimann chairman of the
Farm Structures committee. Mr. Fowler and Mr. Hughes asked
to be released.
I have no further remarks to make and the motion to ad-
journ is in order.
Motion to adjourn, seconded and carried.
REPORT OF THE SAN FRANCISCO MEETING.
J. B. Davidson, Mem. Amer. Soc. A. E.
I have just a few things to tell you about the Agricultural
Engineers ' section of the meeting of the International Engi-
neersT Congress, which was held in the Municipal Auditorium,
in San Francisco, on November 21st, last.
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Report of the San Francisco Meeting 265
The attendance was about such an attendance as we have
here. Dean Durand of Leland Stanford University presided and
he turned the meeting over to Prof. Merriman, who is known to
many of us through his text books.
The Agricultural Engineering papers read were a paper on
"Some Observations Concerning Farm Power," by Prof. Rose,
and a paper by myself entitled "The Agricultural Engineer."
Prof. Rose's paper developed much discussion, and that discus-
sion showed that the attitude of the professional engineer in the
West is very favorable toward agricultural engineering. Prof.
Rose 's paper has been abstracted in several papers and has cre-
ated quite a stir in the profession. Prof. Rose called attention to
the fact that the farm power problem was perhaps the largest
engineering problem before the country. He called attention to
the fact that the total amount of power used on farms and in
agriculture exceeded the power used in all of the manufacturing
industries and he supported his statement by data from census
reports and other reliabel sources.
It would seem that there is no place where the professional
phase of agricultural engineering is recognized to the same ex-
tent as in the West, and that is due to several reasons: The
engineer has been very close to agriculture, indeed, agriculture
has been dependent to a large extent upon the services of the
engineer in the West.
It is interesting in this connection to note that the man who
seems to be the most interesed in agricultural engineering out-
side of those directly interested in the agriculture in the West is
the electrical engineer. This may be explained perhaps by the
fact that there is 600,000 electrical horse-power used on the
farms.
Mr. Rose called attention to the fact that we have about
twenty-five milion horses on our farms, and a very conservative
estimate of their cost of maintenance would be $60 a year, which
would mean the enormous sum of one billion five hundred mil-
lions spent for the maintenance of horses alone, about 25 per cent
of the value of the field products in the United States. You can
imagine that opened the eyes of the engineers.
Mr. Costelloe: After hearing Prof. Davidson's remarks,
it occurred to me that it might be a good thing if we could have
reprints of these two papers.
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AGRICULTURE AND THE ENGINEER.
J. B. Davidson*, Mem. Amer. Soc. A. E.
Agriculture is the world's greatest industry. It always has
been so and must continue to be. As long as the human race
endures, agriculture must supply the constant demand for food.
What is true in this respect of the whole world is true of the
United States. Prom the Thirteenth Census report, the follow-
ing data is taken to emphasize the present status of agriculture
when compared with other industries.
Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1909.
Total value of agricultural products $8,244,000,000
Value of products, all manufacturing industries 20,672,052,000
Value of products, meat packing industry (largest) 1,370,568,000
Value of products, foundry and machine shop industry.... 1,228,475,000
Horse power, used in manufacturing industries 18,755,286
Value of the products of the mines 1,255.370,163
Horse power used in the mines 4,722,479
It is noted from this data that the value of the agricultural
products in 1909 was 40 per cent of the value of all the products
of the manufacturing industries grouped together, and nearly
seven times the value of the products of the mines. It is esti-
mated that the available horse power used in agriculture is
twenty million horse power, or nearly equal to the power used
by the manufacturing and mining industries combined.
The production of agricultural products involves many
varied operations. Some of these are far removed from the
purely mechanical operations which generally prevail in the
factory. The fertility of the soil, the seed, and the climate
which nature provides are vital factors in crop production.
Vet, a large part of agricultural production involves many me-
chanical operations not dissimilar to those used in the factory.
That this is true may be proven, indirectly, by the relation in
the various states between the value of the crops produced and
the amount invested in farm machinery per rural resident, as
revealed by the Census. The following table shows quite clearly
that farm crop production increases with the investment in farm
machinery and the number of work animals. The last item fur-
nishes the best information obtainable in regard to the amount
of power used, as the Census does not take into account me-
chanical power used on the farms. It would be somewhat more
satisfactory to have this data per rural worker rather than per
rural resident, but the Census does not furnish this. The pro-
portion ought, however, to be very nearly the same.
•Prof. Agr. Eng., Univ. of Cal., Davis, CaJ.
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Davidson: Agriculture and the Engineer 267
Table Showing the Relation etween Investment in Farm Machinery,
Value of Farm Crops Produced, and the Mature Horses and
Mules on the Farms per Capita of Rural Population.
(Thirteenth Census)
Investment
in Farm Value Mature Horses
Machinery Farm Crops and Mules
Florida $ 8.33 $ 67,80 $ .12
Mississippi 10.68 92.60 .21
Ohio 24.60 109.60 .39
Minnesota 42.80 157.50 .55
Iowa 61.85 204.50 .86
North Dakota 85.50 350.10 1.11
Farm surveys which have been made show that the farm-
er's income varies almost directly with the investment in farm
machinery. Under-equipped farms cannot furnish the same
income as well-equipped farms. The small farm, which, for
economic reasons, cannot be so well equipped, simply provides
"a means to furnish a laborer's wage to the operator." Eco-
nomists generally agree that farm machinery and the extensive
use of power has been a most important factor in the develop-
ment of American agriculture. It has not only been the means
of increasing the production per capita, reducing the cost of
production, and improving the quality of the products, but
also has had an important and far-reaching influence upon the
welfare of the farmer himself. The matter has been well stated
by J. R. Dodge when he wrote : " As to the influence of machin-
ery on farm labor, all intelligent expert observation declares it
beneficial. It has relieved the laborer of much drudgery : made
his work and his hours of service shorter ; stimulated his mental
faculties; given an equilibrium of effort to mind and body;
made the laborer a more efficient worker, a broader man and a
better citizen. ' '
In the production of livestock and livestock products, the
mechanical and constructional features are also important fac-
tors. The efficiency of the labor depends directly on the con-
venience of arrangement and the character of the equipment.
Livstock cannot be expected to do well unless quartered in com-
fortable and sanitary buildings. The quality of many of the
livestock products, such as milk, depends directly upon the
sanitation of farm buildings, thus influencing in a general way
the health of all of the people. In 1909 over $6,325,000,000 was
invested in farm buildings in the United States, representing
nearly 15 per cent of the fixed capital of the farms. The value
of farm buildings increased between the years 1900 and 1910 at
the rate of over $277,000,000 yearly. If it is assumed that an
equal annual expenditure is required to cover the repair and
depreciation of buildings, it follows that the farmers of the
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268 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
country are spending over five hundred million dollars annu-
ally for farm buildings.
A very small proportion of the rural population is in-
eluded in registration area from which vital statistics may be
obtained. There is abundant evidence, however, that notwith-
standing the generally favorable conditions which prevail in
rural communities conducive to good health and longevity, the
heatlh conditions in the country are not so good as in well reg-
ulated cities, nasmuch as 50 per cent or more of the popula-
tion of the United States is essentially rural, the question of
rural sanitation must be recognized as being of first importance,
not only from the medical, but also from the constructional
standpoint.
It must be appreciated by all that an increase in the area
of agricultural land in the United States must come through
reclamation of now worthless areas, either by drainage or irri-
gation. It is estimated that the total area of land reclaimed by
drainage is thirty-two million acres and twenty million acres
have been reclaimed by irrigation. It is further estimated that
seventy-four million acres may be reclaimed and two hundred
and fifty million acres made more productive by drainage, and
that fifty million acres may be reclaimed by irrigation, for
which water is available. An attempt will not be made to esti-
mate the value of the lands reclaimed by drainage and irriga-
tion, but it is recognized that it would be represented by an
enormous sum.
Public road6 are a vital factor in the social and economic
condition of rural life, and have a direct bearing upon the cost
of production and distribution of agricultural products. This
fact has been recognized for many years, and there are many
federal and state organizations for the purpose of directing
and aiding in the expenditure of the normous sums which are
spent annually for this purpose, and which the Secretary of
Agriculture, Houston, estimates to aggregate $200,000,000.
That the road problem is important to the entire nation and
offers a splendid opportunity for economic advancement, is
clearly emphasized by the estimated present cost of transporta-
tion on country roads, which is given as 23 cents per ton mile,
or nearly one hundred times the cost of railroad transportation.
Many of the purely manufacturing processes involved in
preparing agricultural products for the market cannot be sep-
arated from the farm and must be carried on in conjunction with
the purely agricultural work. The manufacture of dairy prod-
ucts is an example of such a correlation. Again, many of the
manufacturing processes, although removed from the farm
must be closely related to agriculture.
The foregoing discussion has been for the purpose of set-
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Davidson: Agriculture and the Engineer 269
ting forth, in a brief manner, the extent and importance of the
various features of agricultural activities which are of a me-
chanical nature, and which can best be executed by the use of
engineering methods and practice. It is obvious that agricul-
tural development and progress is dependent to a large extent
upon the use of engineering science and art. It is quite a gen-
eral custom in the United States to style the engineering in-
volved in and identified with the industry of agriculture as
agricultural engineering.
A committee of the American Association of Agricultural
Colleges and Experiment Stations on methods of teaching agri-
culture, defined and described the scope of rural engineering
as follows: "In its most comprehensive sense rural engineer-
ing includes ail of the branches of civil and mechanical engi-
neering relating to the location, arranging and equipping of
farms and the construction, operation and care of farm imple-
ments and machinery." Agricultural engineering may be lik-
ened to mining engineering in that it is a branch of engineering
connected and identified with an industry, rather than engineer-
ing of a special type or class.
"Agricultural Engineering" and "rural engineering" as
indicated above, by the use of the latter term, are used with a
common meaning. "Agricultural engineering" is the more
generally used term and is almost universally used in the West
and Midwest, while "rural engineering" is more generally used
•in the East. "Farm mechanics" is a term used to represent
certain phases of agricultural engineering, and no doubt has
been used in the same sense as "mechanic arts" was used at one
time where the term "engineering" is now used.
To develop agricultural engineering, it is not necessary to
create an entirely new science, for it is largely the adaptation
of civil, mechanical and architectural engineering to the prob-
lems of agriculture. It is true, however, that new branches of
agricultural engineering are being developed and extended. As
now gnerally recognized, agricultural engineering consists in at
least eight branches, viz :
Farm Machinery
Farm Power
Farm Structures
Rural Sanitation
Manufacture of Agricultural Products
Drainage
Irrigation
Pubic Roads
The first four of these relate more directly to the farm, and
naturally are of more recent development, while the last three
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270 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
relate to the agricultural community and have reached a higher
state of development.
Agricultural engineering, in America at least, did not at-
tain early recognition as a distinct branch of engineering. This
late development was due largely to two facts: first, agricul-
ture was in such a state of development that there was little or
no demand for the services of the engineer, and second, techni-
cal education developing, in particular, along the line of scien-
tific agriculture and engineering identified with other indus-
tries made it difficult to emphasize and develop the engineering
closely related to agriculture. Scientific agriculture in the
United States made sow progress for many years. It is obvi-
ous that a branch of engineering depending upon an industry
cannot forge ahead of the industry itself. When agriculture
did begin to make progress, the conditions in technical educa-
tion were such as to make the development of agricultural engi-
neering slow.
A discussion of agricultural engineering may be divided
between agricultural engineering as an applied science and
agricultural engineering as a profession. An elementary
knowledge of the principles of nearly all of the branches of
agricultural engineering is valuable to those who would make
the farm the object of their life's work. This necessitates the
organization of agricultural engineering informtaion and re-
search and investigation to develop and extend the science. In
addition, one or more phases of agricutural engineering may.
be made a specialty for a professional career.
The value of agricultural engineering as an applied science
is recognized by the agriculturist. He cannot, however, be ex-
pected to become a specialist in agricultural engineering, but
would ordinarily specialize in one of the more important
branches of agriculture, such as grain growing, animal hus-
bandry, horticulture or dairying. That the value of agricultu-
ral engineering in the training of the young farmer is recog-
nized by agricultural educators, is evidenced by the more and
more general introduction of agricultural engineering into the
curriculum of the agricultural college course. These studies
are not arranged to make the farmer an engineer, but merely
to enable him to perform his necessary duties in a more efficient
manner. It ought also to lead the farmer to appreciate more
fully the value of the services of a trained engineer. It is true,
however, that the farmer must be an all-round man and must
be prepared to perform many functions he would not be called
upon to perform under other conditions, such as might exist
in a large organization with a special staff for each special line
of work.
It is not best to pass, without due consideration, the value
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Davidson: Agriculture and the Engineer 271
of training in agricultural engineering science to the agricul-
turist. It may be called "farm mechanics" by those who so
desire. In many respects, the farm may be likened to a factory.
Small grain production, although requiring a fundamental
knowledge of the seed, fertilizers and methods of tillage, is
largely a series of mechanical operations. The plowing of the
soil and its smoothing for preparation, the drilling of the grain,
the harvesting and threshing of the crop when it is grown, and
finally its transportation to commercial centers where commer-
cial transportation companies may transport it to the consumer,
are all mechanical operations requiring for their successful exe-
cution engineering methods. Much of the comfort and pleas-
ure of farm life comes through the introduction of engineer-
ing methods and appliances. Reference is here made to such
things as better homes, water supply, sewage disposal, etc. The
farmer can now afford, in the present state of prosperity in
agriculture, to have more of this work performed for him by
a specialist, but, nevertheless, he must do for himself much work
of an engineering nature. This will not keep the professional
engineer from the field, but will lead to a more general appre-
ciation of the work of the engineer by the agriculturist.
Agricultural engineering is gradually opening as an invit-
ing field for the professional engineer. In Europe the agricul-
tural engineer has been recognized for a long time. The writer
has in his library a book in French, on the fly-leaf of which are
listed the writings of no less than five "ingenieurs agronoms."
Some nine years ago an organization of the agricultural en-
gineers in the United States and Canada was formed, known
as the American Society of Agricultural Engineers, and the
membership has increased from a very few to the neighbor-
hood of two hundred. The membership, during the past year,
increased nearly forty per cent.
It is to be noted, however, that agriculture is not generally
organized on such a large scale as to provide a place for the
specialist of one or a few of the various branches of agricultural
engineering. Like the work of the farmer, whose activities are
quite general, the work of the agricultural engineer must, like-
wise, be quite general. If his work is not made general, he will
not be able to serve to the extent that he will be able to obtain
a livelihood. This condition has created a demand for an agri-
cultural engineer with a special training confined to the engi-
neering identified with agriculture.
This demand for the agricultural engineer first appeared
in colleges for men to handle instruction in agricultural en-
gineering. It was not possible, as this work was introduced
into the curriculum, to employ a complete staff of men consist-
ing of a mechanical engineer, a civil engineer, and an architect.
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272 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
It was necessary that one man offer the work along all lines. It
was found, furthermore, that first, there was much in any one
of the other branches of engineering that had little or nothing
to do with agriculture; second, that in the older branches,
emphasis had been laid on engineering foreign to rural life,
and such an engineer was not in a position to render the best
service in solving agricultural problems; and third, familiarity
with agricultural conditions was found to be necessary, not
only from a practical but also from a scientific standpoint. The
early positions were filled by mechanical and civil engineers
and by men trained purely in agriculture. It was soon recog-
nized that each of these men had much difficulty in handling
the work satisfactorily. Further, it was recognized that al-
though the work was fundamentally of an engineering nature,
the man agriculturally trained had some advantages to his
credit in being able to correlate his work to that of the various
branches of agriculture.
Several colleges in the United States of late years have
undertaken to supply this demand by training agricultural en-
gineers. The college courses offered for this purpose differ
slightly in their make-up, but, in the opinion of the writer, a
course in agricultural engineering should be fundamentally a
strong engineering course, having the same foundation in mathe-
matics, science, cultural studies and general engineering sub-
jects— such as analytical mechanics and materials — as either civil
or mechanical engineering. The man so trained cannot be said
to be weak in fundamentals. To this fundamental training is
added the branches of civil and mechanical engineering which
relate to agriculture, and special courses in agricultural engi-
neering. The value of these special courses in agricutlural en-
gineering cannot be overlooked, as they bring the student into
immediate touch with the engineering problems in agriculture
and furnish as much information as is available relating thereto.
It is obvious that little of this work can be offered to students
in either civil or mechanical engineering. The engineering prin-
ciples may be the same, but there is a direct application which
counts much toward the development of the subject. In addi-
tion, it will be found impossible to include some of the general
courses in agriculture. If an engineer is to solve the engineer-
ing problems in agriculture, it is quite necessary that he know
something of the modern scientific methods of agriculture and be
in sympathy with the industry and its workers. A general prac-
tical knowledge will not suffice. For an example, a knowledge
of soils is useful to the man doing drainage or irrigation engi-
neering. Many other examples might be cited.
It shoud be emphasized here that no attempt should be
made to offer as agricultural engineering an elementary course
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Davidson: Agriculture and the Engineer 273
in engineering. It should be just as thorough and strong as
any engineering course, recognizing the limits to which a sub-
ject may be exhausted in an undergraduate course. Experi-
ence has demonstrated that all of the eight branchs of agricul-
tural engineering can be carried farther in an agricultural en-
gineering course than in any other, with the possible exception
of highway engineering, which has in many places become a
specialty in itself. Thus, drainage engineering is carried farther
than in a civil engineering course, and additional courses in
agriculture and mechanical engineering are added which are re-
lated to the subject.
A course in agricultural engineering should not be con-
fused with an agricultural course where, by a group arrange-
ment, a student is permitted to select more agricultural engineer-
ing work than is usually required. T,his arrangement, no doubt,
meets a desired end, but the student so trained is still an agri-
culturalist and not an engineer.
The argument that it requires a distinct type of man to
handle either civil or mechanical engineering is not tenable.
Neither is it correct that an engineer of one branch of the pro-
fession can avoid entirely the work of another branch. All
constructional work is more or less mechanical, and this is
especially true of drainage and irrigation practice and high-
way construction. The civil engineer engaged in either of these
branches cannot avoid the use of machinery and the mechanical
problems involved.
At Iowa State College, which was the first to offer a course
in agricultural engineering, the original purpose was to assist
in supplying the demand for instructors in agricultural en-
gineering. Although many of the graduates are now engaged
in educational work, the majority have found it a special in-
ducement to enter other fields of activity, indicating that there
is at this time a demand for the professional agricultural en-
gineer. Graduates are now filling the following positions :
a. Professional agricultural engineers.
b. Agricultural contractors.
c. Instructors of Agricultural Engineering in colleges and
secondary schools.
d. Managers of farms where agricultural engineering prac-
tice is the principal feature of the management.
e. Positions in the agricultural machinery industry.
f. Government and experiment station experts.
One of the fields which may yet develop is that for the
consulting agricultural engineer. It is believed that when this
branch of engineering is more fully developed and the work
of the trained engineer more generally appreciated, it will be
possible for an engineer to build up a lucrative practice in pro-
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274 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
gressive rural communities if he will be able to render service
in several branches of agricultural engineering. At least two
engineers in Iowa are attempting to do this. It is proposed in
one wealthy county in another state to supplant the county
advisor or expert with three experts; one an agronomist, one
an animal husbandryman, and one an agricultural engineer.
This has been taken by some to mean a general development
along this line.
It is not proposed to exclude from the field of agricultural
engineering all except those who have had a special training
in the work. There are in agricultural engineering many fields
of work where the civil or mechanical engineer will find he can
render efficient service. The design of agricultural machinery
may be such an example.
It is very easy, by the additon of a little extra time in
training, to make a combination of agricultural engineering
with either civil or mechanical engineering. Such a combina-
tion is to be highly commended and usually requires about one
extra year, and experience has indicated that this additional
time is profitably expended. The work of the architect is so
little involved outside of the science of structures, that there
is little need of laving special emphasis on this branch of agri-
cultural engineering. Farm structures must be especially
practical.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Thirteenth Census for the United States.
"Influence of Farm Machinery on Production and Labor/' H. W. Quain-
tance.
"An Agricultural Survey," G. P. Warren and K. C. Livermore, Bui. 295,
Cornell Agric. Exp. Sta.
"Agricultural Engineering and the Demand for Agricultural Engi-
neers," Samuel Fortier, Vol. IV, Trans. Amer. Soc. A. E.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
SOME OBSERATIONS ON THE EXTENT AND VALUE OF
FARM POWER EQUIPMENT.
P. S. Rose*, Mem. Amer. Soc. A. E.
When one travels about over this country and sees the great
factories and mammoth power stations that furnish power to our
manufacturing industries, he is apt to conclude that the power
used in manufacturing exceeds that used in all other industries.
But such a conclusion is wrong. There is actually more power
used on the farms than in all other industries combined, and the
sum invested in farm power exceeds that invested in all other
power in this country.
Horses and mules are the farmer's principal source of pow-
er. There was a time when oxen were used, but that time has
long since passed. In the earljr days, wehn the country was
poorer and when agriculture was less highly developed, they were
a factor, but at prsent they are a negligible quantity. Farmers
find it cheaper to use horses, even though they are more expen-
sive because of their greater activity. Here is a fact worthy of
serious consideration in the contemplation of the possible change
to mechanical power.
The last government census of 1910 showed that there are a
tota of 24,042,882 horses and mules on the farms of the United
States. Estimates of the Department of Agriculture, on Janu-
ary 1, 1914, placed the number at 25,411,000. If we assume that
eighty per cent of these animals are mature, there are now avail-
able for farm work purposes 20,328,800 work animals. On the
basis that each animal will develop an average of seven-eighths
of a horse power, we find that the total available animal power
amounts to 14,230,000 horse power expressed in mechanical units,
or almost exactly three-fourths as much power as was employed
in all branches of manufacturing as shown by the 1910 census.
The total value placed on these animals by the officials of
the Department of Agriculture, on January 1, 1914, was $2,842,-
655,000. The value of the harnesses and equipment for the ma-
ture animals, on the basis of ten dollars each, amounted to
$203,200,000, making a total investment in animal power of
$3,045,855,000. This investment, large as it is, does not include
barns and stable equipment. Based on a total of 14,230,000
available horse power, the investment per actual horse power
amounts to $214.05. This is a much higher rate than in the most
elaborate manufacturing plants equipped with all modern im-
provements. For example, Gebhart in his ' ' Steam Power Plant
Engineering,' ' on page 711, presents the following figures on the
initial cost and operation of steam plants up to 80 horse power
that are considerably cheaper than horses. As a rule, the larger
the plant the cheaper the horse power cost.
Editor, American Thresherman, Madison, Wis.
Digitized by LiOOQ IC
276 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
TABLE I.
Size of Plant— Horse Power 20 40 60 80
Cost of plant per h.p $200.00 $190.00 $180.00 $175.00
Fixed charegs at 14% 28.00 26.60 25.20 24.50
Coal per h.p. hour in lbs 12.00 10.00 9.00 8.00
Cost at $4.00 per ton 66.00 55.00 49.50 44.00
Attendance, 10-hr. basis 30.00 20.00 15.00 13.00
Oil, waste and supplies 6.00 4.10 3.00 2.60
Chart I. Improved acreage for each work animal, by decades, since
1870. (U. S. Census.)
Chart II. Improved acreage by decades since 1850.
Chart III. Number of horses in the United States, by decades. (IT. S.
Census.)
It might be supposed, with such an enormous investment
in work animals, that the farmers were heavily overstocked or
that many more animals are being used than good business con-
ditions would warrant. This hardly seems to be the ease, how-
ever, when we examine the facts extending back over a number
of decades. In 1870, there were 20.3 acres of improved land for
each horse and mule in the farmers' hands. During the next ten
years, the number of work animals failed to keep pace with the
development of the country, for at that time we find there were
23.4 acres for each animal. From then on, horses increased
faster than the increased acreage, as will be seen by referring to
Chart I. In 1900, there were only 19.2 acres of land per horse.
During the last fourteen years, the increase in the number of
horses and mules has kept very close step with the development
of our arable lands.
Chart II shows the amount of improved acreage in each dec-
ade since 1850, and Chart III shows the number of horses and
mules at the end of each decade since 1870. It will be noted
that the number of work animals has increased at about the
same rate as the acreage during all that time. So far as the
amount of animal power to work our farm lands is concerned,
the country has stood practically still. We are using practical-
ly the same number that our fathers used to. The majority of
farmers, even yet, depend upon one horse to do the plowing, pre-
pare the land for the crop, do the seeding and cultivating, and
finally the harvesting and hauling of the crop to market for
each twenty acres of land. If the work could be spread out over
all the year, the animals would not be overworked and the land
could be thoroughly tilled, but this is not possible. In our nor-
thern states, a horse works on an average only about three hours
a day throughout the year, but in the busy season it works long
hours and even then the work is not always done as it should be.
Farmers are obliged to do a great deal of spring plowing, and
yet all agree that, for best returns, plowing should be done in
late summer or early fall.
It would seem as though the number of work animals kept
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Rose: Value of Farm Power Equipment
277
for farm work is not governed by the power necessary to do the
work to the best adventage, but rather by what the farmer can
afford to keep and get the work done after a fashion. All the
authorities on tillage agree that the depth of plowing should be
increased from the average depth of four or five inches to eight
or nine inches, and in some sections of the country, deeper. Very
few farm lands are plowed as deeply as they should be, and it
is doubtful if the present animal equipment is equal to the task
of cultivating the soil to the proper depth. The authority for
this opinion is based on the following figures taken from some
experimental work done by Professor Ocock on the draft of
plows.
Ocock found in plowing prairie loam on an Illinois farm
that had raised a crop of corn and was, therefore in good con-
dition, that the draft of a f ourteen-inch sulky plow at different
depths was as follows:
24-
23
» >
1
2! /
V
\
\
/
VI
Dec<
ides.
1
22
21
20
19
IBTO SO dO OO I9IO K
Chart I. Improved acreage for each work animal, by decades.
since 1870.
TABLE II.
of Furrow
Draft in
Weight of Team
Inches
Pounds
Required in Pounds
4
275
2200
5
310
2480
6
360
2880
7
410
3280
8
450
3600
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
278 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
■3/Yl
1
460
4€0
440
*ZO
400
560
360
A
.' 1
1
1
1
1
0
c
1
1
320
300
280
260
240
220
200
160
160
140
120
S
1
c
1
o
i
1
a.
/
1
<
/
1
1
/
1
/
1
-^
f
1
y
s
/
1
/
1
1
/
1
IOO
c
ecac
es
(8
SO 6i
0 7(
0 8C
> 9<
5 o<
3 191
01
4
Chart II. Improved acreage, by decade since 1850.
Professor J. A. Jeffries, formerly with the Michigan Ag-
ricultural College, states that the draft in clover sod ranges be-
tween 300 and 400 pounds and in blue grass sod from 400 to 700
pounds.
Dynamometer tests at the New Hampshire Agricultural
Experiment Station give results as follows:
TABLE III.
Depth
Kind of Plow Inches
Ordinary walking 7
6.5
8.5
..- 7
— 7
" " (no coulter) 7.5
" " (new coulter) 7.5
Width
Inches
14
14
14
12
17
14
14
Draft
Pounds
450
427
637
412
475
549
495
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Rose: Value of Farm Power Equipment
279
I
(D
L
o
*^***
£
I
Deo
Tdes
_J
\e
170 8
0 9
o o<
0 IC
> i<
4-
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
II
10
9
8
Chart m. Number of horses in the United States, by decades. (U. S. Cen-
sus;
It will thus be seen that Ocock's figures are very conserva-
tive.
The weight of teams required is based on Professor King's
statement that a horse is capable of hauling only one-eighth of
its weight continuously at a speed of two and a half miles for
a period of eight hours. According to that basis of figuring, the
power of an animal is directly proportional to its weight and,
therefore, if we double the depth of plowing we must increase
either the number of horses seventy per cent, or what is the
same thing, increase the number of horses now on the farms of
this country seventy per cent, with a corresponding increase in
investment and cost of maintenance.
If it were only the initial investment we had to contend
with, the problem would be comparitively easy to handle but,
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
280 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
added to the initial investment, there must be taken into account
the animal charge for maintenance. The magnitude of this
charge is not very well realized by the majority of people.
The cost of keeping a horse as given by the Bureau of
Farm Management on an Illinois farm in 1914, amounted to
$82.50 annually. Thomas Cooper found that the cost on Minn-
esota farms in 1907 amounted to $65.23 on a large farm in the
southeastern part of the state and to $90.40 on another large
farm in the northern part of the state. Estimates by Professor
E. P. Humbert, of New Mexico, placed the cost at$117.50. In
some of the Eastern states the estimates ran as high as three
hundred dollars annually and in some of the western and south-
ern states as low as fifty dollars. The average of estimates for
the entire United States, by the professors of animal husbandry
of our state colleges, amounts to $118.20
These estimates all take into account interest on investment,
depriciation, housing, shoeing, care, and veterinary charges, and
are based on estimates for working animals. In any estimate
covering all the animals of the country, the fact must not be lost
sight of that the immature animals can be maintained much
more cheaply and that in some sections of the country, notably
in the South and in certain parts of the West the animal main-
tenance charge will fall below fifty dollars a year. In view of
all the estimates given, it seems reasonable that the average
maintenance charge for the entire country will amount to at
least sixty dollars a year. Using this figure as a basis, we find
the total maintenance cost for the work animals of the entire
country amounts to $1,524,660,000 annually.
If, as our estimates show, there are 14,230,000 horse power
available, then the annual maintenance charge per horse power
amounts to $107.14. If the increase in improved acreage has
increased at the same rate during the last four years that it did
during the decade from 1900 to 1910, there are now 500,000,000
acres of improved land in the United States and the investment
in animal power amounts to six dollars an acre. The mainte-
nance charge amounts to a tax of $3.08 per acre ; or, figurred on
the total value of agricultural products for 1904, of$6,044,480,
000, it required the products of 120,569,400 acres of land, or
25.2% of all our improved land, to feed and take care of the
work animals.
Considering the amount of investment and the cost of main-
tenance, it does not seem as though the farmers could afford to
increase their investment in this kind of power much more and
make it profitable.
On the other hand, the experience of our best farmers and
the teachings of scientific agriculturists all point to deeper
plowing, more thorough tillage and the expenditure of more
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Rose: Value of Farm Power Equipment 281
power on the soil, if we are to obtain larger crop yields. Also,
and this is important in this connection, investigations by the
Bureau of Farm Management on a large number of farms show
that the small farm of less than 160 acres is an uneconomical
unit, in view if the prices of farm labor and power. They show
quite conclusively that large farms of from two hundred acres
to a half-section give the best profits.
This brings us to a consideration of the size of power units
and its influence on the cost of crop production. With the
exception of the combined harvester, about the largest number
of animals that can be used effectively in any farm work is the
five horse team drawing two plows. The size of the power unit
is less than four horse power and there is required a man to
operate it and a considerable amount of his time and energy
must be spent in taking care of it — in feeding, currying, har-
nessing, etc. More generally, two or three work animals are
used, and in many farm operations only one. The number of
farm laborers required with such a power system is, therefore,
necessarily very large and expensive. All things considered,
the cost of farm labor is not far from two dollars a day. This
makes the attendance charge per horse power unit excessively
high as compared with power used in manufacturing or in any
other kind of work.
But what is of even more importance is the fact that work
with animals can not always be carried on at .the required rate
of speed in the busy season, as for example, when the weather is
very hot in mid-summer, or in the short preparatory season in
early spring.
Expriments in early plowing in Kansas show that the yield
of wheat is materially increased if the ground can be plowed
immediately after harvest, but the weather is very hot at that
season of the year, thus making it impossible to get the. work all
done during the most favorable period. It is also found that in
order to control insect pests to the best advantage, plowing in
certain sections of the country must be performed within a very
brief period and that, too, when the weather is unfavorable for
the use of animal power.
The price of horses and mules has advanced year by year
for a number of years, until today the cost of a good team of
draft animals is four or five hundred dollars. Heavy drafters
bring even higher prices. The trend of prices is shown in Charts
IV and V. Chart IV gives the average prices since 1899 and
Chart V the average maximum and minimum prices of draft
horses, general purpose horses and Western horses from 1.899 to
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
282 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
1907 in the Omaha horse market. These averages were computed
from tables given in the Agricultural Year Books for these
years. The object of f 'hart V is to show how the average for the
entire country is affected by the Tow cost of the small range
horses. It will be noted that the trend of horse prices has been
pretty steadily upward and there is little likelihood that there
will be any appreciable drop in prices for a number of years.
The total horse population of the world is estimated at a
little over one hundred millions, of which the United States has
about one-fourth. The war in Europe will undoubtedly deplete
the horse population of all the European countries and especially
of European-Russia, which has about the same number as this
country. After the war is over, we may confidently look forward
to a heavy exportation of horses for a number of years that will
have a tendency not only to maintain prices, but enhance them
and make the necessity for mechanical power even more acute.
While the writer can not conceive of the time when animal
power in agriculture either will be or should be entirely dis-
MO
130
IK>
;z
100
z
90
;z;
-t^*^jjg£^
60
•O
90
40
50
CO
Mfeieoo oi — oc 03 64 « <* ch 58 3* 13 i if 13 i*
Chart IV. Average value of all horses and mules.
pensed with, it does seem to him, in view of the figures just pre-
sented, that the future development of farm power can not eco-
nomically be carried out by increasing the number of our work
animals and that an increased use of mechanical power is certain.
The multiplicity of machines for doing various kinds of
farm work that have been brought out during the last score of
years has made it impossible for any farmer to compete with the
old hand methods and prosper. Power-driven machines are now
a necessity and are becoming more so every year. Machines
have been invented for almost every kind of work. There are
sawing machines, pumping machinery, machines for grinding
feed, cutting ensilage, shelling and shredding corn, and for a
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Rose: Value of Farm Power Equipment
283
Z50
/
£30
/
/
££0
£10
£00
190
P
y
9
^
s
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(rattil
mf
V
c
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180
170
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s
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r//7 we
vten
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1899 1900 01 02 OS 0* 05 06
Chart V. Average maximum and minimum prices paid for horses in the
Omaha horse market, showing the effect of small range horses on aver-
age vaules. (Year Book, U. S. Dept of Agr.)
thousand and one other kinds of work. No up-to-date farmer
will now do by hand what can be done by machinery, if he has
enough work to occupy more than a day or two. In fact, with
the high cost of hand labor, he can not afford to do so. The fol-
lowing table, taken from data submitted in an address by Carl
J. Rohrer, delivered before the American Society of Agricultural
Engineers at their 1913 meeting in Chicago, will give a very good
idea of the amount of power required to drive the principal farm
and household machines. Mr. Rohrer obtained this data in doing
experimental work for the General Electric Company.
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
284 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
TABLE IV.
Size of motor
commonly
used on
Machine Minimum hp. Maximum hp. Ave. Farm
Sewing machine 1-30
Buffer and grinder 1-50 1-30 both
Vacuum cleaner 1-8 5 1-8 to 1-4
Ice cream freezer 1-8 1-4 1-8
Washing machine 1-8 2 1-8 to 1-2
Meat grinder 1-4 3-4 1-4
Water pump 1-2 5 • 3
Cream separator 1-10 1-4 1-8
Churn 1-8 3 1-4
Milking machine 13 3
Refrigeration 1-2 10 5
Feed grinders, small 3 10 5
Feed grinders, large 10 30 15
Ensilage cutters 10 25 15 to 20
Shredders and huskers 10 20 15
Thresher, 19" cylinder 12 18 15
Thresher, 32" cylinder 30 50 40
Corn shelers, single hole 3-4 1 1-2 1
Power shelters 10 15 15
Fanning mills 1-4
Grain graders 1-4
Grain eelvators 1 1-2 5 3
Concrete mixers 2 10 5
Groomers, vacuum system 13 2
Groomers, revolving system 12 1
Hay hoists 3 15 5
Boot cutters 15 2
Cord wood saws 3 10 5
Wood splitters 14 2
Hay balers 3 10 7 1-2
Oat crushers 2 10 5
The available mechanical farm power consists of steam en-
gines, internal combustion engines, wind mills and water power.
Electric power, generated either by steam plants or hydro-elee-
tric stations, is used to a limited extent in some favored localities,
as along the Pacific seaboard, in Montana and in some of the Cen-
tral States, but, as yet, it has not come into serious competition
with any of the other powers, nor is it likely to do so for many
years to come. Throughout the Central States of Illinois, Indiana
and Ohio, electricity is ditsributed to a number of farm homes,
but the cost is high. The farmers are obliged to build their own
pole lines, furnish the wire for transmission to the nearest supply
main and put in their own transformer, and then pay at the rate
of ten cents a kilowatt hour for current. While electric power
is very convenient, the cost of motors and other equipment just
mentioned makes the cost too high for general adoption.
Small water-power plants are available in only a few fa-
vored localities, and then the cost of the dam and power equip-
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Rose: Value of Farm Power Equipment 285
ment is exceedingly expensive, so this kind of power may be left
out of general consideration.
The use of windmills has been on the decline for a number
of years. The principal objection to their use is the smallness
of the power units and the uncertainty of obtaining power when
needed. The principal use of windmills is for pumping water
and for this purpose they are very widely distributed. On an
average, a windmill will not generate more than one-quarter to
one-half a horse power. Large mills, with twenty-foot wheels
in a strong wind may deveop as much as one and a tenth horse
power Even the immense mills of the Netherlands rarely de-
velop more than five horse power, so as a general source of power,
they are also a negligible quantity except for the single purpose
of pumping water.
The first cost of windmill power is extremely high. An
ordinarly ten-foot mill on a forty-foot steel tower will cost,
erected, about $120.00, and it will develop only about 0.12 of a
horse power, according to figures furnished by one of the leading
windmill companies. In units of this size, the cost per horse
power amounts to nearly one thousand dollars. In large sizes,
of course, the initial cost will be much lower, but in any event
it is high. The only advantage it possesses is very low operating
and maintenance cost. There are no statistics avaiable as to
the number of windmills in use, but a safe estimate would place
the number at approximately 750,000. During the last ten years,
windmills have been quite rapidly superseded by small gasoline
engines.
This, then, leaves only two sources of power for serious con-
sideration, namely the steam, gas or oil engine. The former has
been in use in this country since about the year 1830. Steam
did not come into very extensive use until after the Civil War,
and then only for operating threshing machines, running small
saw-mills and for grinding feed. Experiments were made in this
country, along in the seventies and eighties of the last century,
with steam plowing outfits but not with much success, either be-
cause the engines were not designed rigidly enough, or because
the country was too poor to invest in such costly machines. Prob-
ably both causes had an influence on the situation.
About the year 1898, however, when the Western prairies
were being opened up so rapidly, a demand arose for heavy
power outfits to break up the virgin sod and within the next five
years a number of excellent steam rigs were put on the market.
Practically every threshing outfit sold throughout the West in
the early nineties was sold not only for threshing but for plow-
ing also. Thousands of acres were broken by these rigs, but
their great weight and the difficulty of getting water to them on
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
286 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
the dry Western plains created a demand for something different
and better.
It was these conditions, together with the rising price of
horses, that paved the way for the gas tractor. The first of these
machines came out about the year 1900, but it was not until
six years later that they became practical machines. Two com-
panies divided the honor of being pioneers in this new industry,
the Hart-Parr Company of Charles City, Iowa, and the Kinnard-
Haines Company of Minneapolis, Minn. The success of these
machines brought into the field a host of competitors, among
the old threshing machine manufacturers, and by 1912 the trac-
tor industry had grown to considerable proportions. That was
the banner year. It was freely predicted by many enthusiasts
that the horse was doomed and that in a very short time all farm
work would be done with tractors. They practically crowded
the steam plowing outfits off the market and thousands of farm-
ers bought them.
A considerable number succeeded with the tractor, but a
large number failed. In some cases, the cause of failure was
due to the failure of the machine, but in the majority of cases it
was due either to the ignorance of the operator or to the fact that
his style of farming was not adapted to power machinery. It
was also found that the heavy outfits that were used to break up
the prairies were not adapted to general field work, and so the
industry has suffered a partial collapse during the last two years.
Another factor that contributed to the general slump in busi-
ness was the faulty mtehods employed by most of the companies
in doing business. The market was not well sold. Farmers were
induced to buy, who could not possibly make a success with a
tractor, and there was not enough care given to the instruction
of the operators. The tractor has suffered in comparison with
the automobile because the latter has had the help of countless
garages to help keep them in good working order. The tractor,
on the other hand, has had to get along generally without any
expert attention. Invariably, those who have made a success
have been good mechanics. In fact, failures among mechanics or
those of fair mechanical ability have been rare.
At the present time, February, 1915, there is a decided re-
vival in the use of the light-weight tractor that sells for a few
hundred dollars and will take the place of half a dozen horses.
There are perhaps fifty companies that will bring out a light-
weight tractor this spring in response to a demand by the farm-
ers of the corn and wheat belts. This demand is not one that
has been worked up by ingenious and persistent advertising, but
comes from the farmers themselves, who realize the limitations
of animal power and who desire to do a better grade of farming
than they have done in the past. Just how the light-weight tractor
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
Rose: Value of Farm Power Equipment 287
will develop is difficult to forecast at this time, but where such
a genuine need exists there seems little doubt that the manu-
facturers who have had a number of years' experience will be
able to produce a machine that will be able to supplement the
horse and the mule, even if it does not displace them. The pres-
ent tendency toward very light machines weighing only 3,000 or
4,000 pounds, probably marks the extreme swing of the pendulum
toward light weight. The tractor that appears, to the writer, to
have the best chance for ultimate success will weigh from 6,000
to 8,000 pounds and have about a 30-horse power motor.
A careful canvass of the States west of the Mississippi made
last winter by Mr. A. P. Yerkes, a government agent connected
with the Bureau of Farm Management of the United States De-
partment of Agriculture, shows that there are something like
thirteen thousand tractors in operation. There are probably not
to exceed one-quarter as many east of the river, making some-
thing less than 20,000 tractors in use in the entire country. These
tractors vary greatly in size, but will doubtless average close to
forty brake horse power each.
The possibilities for the use of the tractors are ,however, al-
most unlimited when the number of farms of large size contain-
ing 175 acres or more, is considered. Each one of these farms
would appear to be large enough to make profitable use of some
form of mechanical power for general farm use, provided one
can be built and sold for a price at which the farmer can afford
to make the envestment.
Steam traction engines are still used as a principal source
of power for threshing, and it does not seem likely that they will
be displaced entirely for a great many years. From the best
information available, which, by the way, the writer has checked
over in several ways, it is estimated that there are a total of close
to one hundred thousand steam tractors in this country used for
threshing and other agricultural work. The average brake horse
power of these machines is probably about forty horse power.
Quite a large number are used for plowing, for filling silos, grad-
ing roads, grinding feed, shredding and husking corn and for
operating small portable saw-mills.
We have now left for consideration the small stationary
and portable gas and oil engines. The writer has made many ef-
forts to obtain reliable data as to the number in use, but with not
very great success. In 1911, statistics for that year were ob-
tained from f ory-five manufacturers of farm engines, whose total
output of farm engines amounted to a little over 126,000. There
are half a dozen companies whose annual output exceeds 15,000
annually, and at least three that will double that figure. The
average size of these engines was 5 horse power. There are, alto-
gether, something over two hundred companies making small
Digitized by VjOOQ IC
288 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
farm engines in this country, and it is the writer's opinion that
their total annual output has been at least 250,000 for a number
of years. The average life of these engines is not far from ten
years, so that it seems a conservative estimate would be a million
engines with a total of about five million horse power. Alto-
gether, there were 6,261,352 farms in the United States in 1910
and one engine to six and one-third farms seems a reasonable
estimate when one stops to consider that many farms have any-
where from one to six engines.
These small machines are used for a great variety of pur-
poses, such as sawing wood, pumping water, grinding feed, fill-
ing silos, furnishing electric lights for farm homes, for spraying
fruit trees and for many other purposes about the farm home.
For all work requiring power about the house or barns, they have
proven themselves the most economical and most reliable power
available. They require little attention and the cost of operation
for fuel is only about two or three cents per horse power hour.
In the raising of fruit, the gasoline spraying engine is indispen-
sable. And yet. in spite of its wonderful record for efficiency,
the gasoline engine is not used as generally as it should be. There
are several million farms that, as yet, have never heard the chug
of the gas engine.
There is still left the automobile and the farm truck tocon-
sider. The latter is used very little, but of the former, the num-
ber is very large, running into hundreds of thousands. In the
state of Iowa alone it is estimated that there are 65,000 automo-
biles owned by farmers, and a number of other states are not
much behind. Since these are primarily pleasure machines
rather than farm power machines, I shall not spend much time
with their consideration. Suffice it merely to say that they arc
finding a rapidly increasing use in marketing light farm produce
and paving the way for better roads and for the use of trucks.
I said in the beginning that farm power exceeds in value and
amount that used in all manufacturing industries. The proof
has been submitted in the foregoing pages, but to make it more
aparent let us tabulate the results :
TABLE V.
Kind of Power Number Average Total Value Total Power
Value
Horses & mules 25.411,000 $ 111.85 $2,842,655,000 14,230,000
Harnesses 20,382,000 10.00 203.820,000
Windmills 750,000 100.00 75,000,000 75,000
Steam tractors .... 100,000 4,000,000
Gas tractors 20,000 2,000.00 40,000.000 600,000
Gas engines 1,000,000 150.00 150,000,000 5,000,000
$3,311,475,000 23,905,000
The total power used in all manufacturing enterprises, ac-
cording to the 1910 census, was 18,755.286 horse power. Even
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Hose: Value of Farm Power Equipment 289
allowing a large riiargin for possible error, it is thus seen that the
farmer's power problem is a big one and involves millions of
dollars. Mechanical power, as yet, is much smaller in amount
than animal power, but it is rapidly increasing and within a few
years will doubtless assume first place.
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290 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
■rr / 1
iguumni
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Sftx»<Mi«—i>i^HM — «W>^»*t
HYATT
ROLLER BEARINGS
THE anti- friction bearing
that is fundamentally
different and better for
tractors, separators and all
other power machinery used
on the farm. Made in various
sizes to meet all conditions.
Hyatt Roller Bearing Co.
Tractor Bearings Department
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American Society of Agricultural Engineers 291
IN THE MANUFACTURE OF THE
RȣUS.PAtOff
TRACTOR
The materials used are selected with special care, after
long experience and exhaustive test.
Only the highest standards of accuracy and precision
are employed throughout.
Without slipping, miring, or packing the soil, the
CATERPILLAR provides the greatest measure of
drawbar power under all conditions.
Turns shortest. Easiest and simplest to operate.
AWARDED GRAND PRIZE, SAN FRANCISCO 1915. THE
HIGHEST AWARD FOR EXCELLENCE.
The Holt Manufacturing Co. Inc.
Factories at Peoria, 111., and Stockton, Cal. Branches and
Sales Agencies at all Principal Points.
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292 American Society of Agricultural Engineers
Do You Know About the Nine Units in a Tractor?
THERE are so many differ-
ent tractor designs on the
market that many men
find H difficult to decide which
to buy. Have yoa learned the best way
to cumpare tractors? IE you haven't,
here are some sujfiresiions of vulue.
Era? tractor, no matter what fti design,
it made up of UhsM tun* uuu^-
Then are also nfne thine* which the cronbl*
Italian of thete nine units into the W^jjjl
tractor ahouiJ produce—
1, Durability «. Speed
2, Rot lability 7. Economy
*. Simplicity S. Acc«c»lbftrty
4. LJkht Weight S. Eate of Handling
The Brit thing; to do fa deciding which make
of tractor to buy i* to cimn pan? them On the
buia of the diBifni ami conit ruction of the*e
nine units in each tractor and MMril) of
thi-ir enmhi nation tnlo the complete mac bine.
Then there art three othtT points to consider
and com pare — fini ,t he teat n to which each trac-
tor ha* been put -»rcondr the price and {guaran-
tees—lhirdt the company behind t ~_L
1. Motor 6. Clutch
2. Fuel Syttam 7. Tranamlaatoq
1. Ignition ftyatem 6. Frame
4. oiling syatem w, Whnla
5. Cooling System
The 1916 Avery Catalog Makes It Easy for
You to Compare Avery Tractors With Others
We have prepared the n^w ijie Avery Catalog to bring out clearly these facts about Avery
TrurTr.rp and lJkjwH-the design and eonrtnjcuon of each of the nine DJi its and how they ere
cr*nbin«d m an A?ery Trartne— the le*t* to which Avery Tract™-* and flows ban been pot—
the B4'llanie plan on which they are offered— and the company behind them,
We wi Jrome invert Ration an J company™ of Avery Tractor* and How* from every ■tand*
point. Write now r.r a new lalii Avery Catalog and laurp the Facta about Tractor Farm
~1 Aver* uu'-Si'.h
AVEfiY COMPANY, 161 S fpw» St, Pwria, IIL
Ask fur addrcsi of nearest Branch House
or Juober
jOne Man Outfits 6 Sizes Fit Ami Size Farm
wmrnmmnmmwm
The World's Lighest and Most Practical Farm Engines are
The Cushman's 4 to 20 h. p.
The Original Binder Engine
Learn Why Get Catalogue
Cushman Motor Works
LINCOLN, NEB.
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For Drainage Use
HpHE DIETZGEN No. 6100 Level meets every
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Writm for Catalog of Our Complmtm Engirt— ring Linm
EUGENE DIETZGEN CO.
Manufacturer*
Drawing Materials Measuring Tapes Surveying Instruments
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THE POST DEFERRED-PAYMENT PLAN
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The Frederick Post Company
Dept. AE Surveying Instrument Division. Chicago
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