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HARVARD UNIVERSITY.
1. 1 B K A R Y
OF THE
MUSEUM OF COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY.
\, \\^\ - \aa^ ^ , 1^0^
TRANSACTIONS OF THE
CONNECTICUT ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
Incoui'OK'ai ED A. D. 1799
VOLUME XIII
J 907- 1 908
Publications of Yale University
NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT
1908
THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR PRESS
Copyright 1908.
Connecticut Academy of Akts and Sciences.
OFFICERS FOR 1907-08.
President.
Hon. SIMEON E. BALDWIN.
Vice-Presidents.
Prof. ALEXANDER W. EVANS. Prof. CLIVE DAY,
Prof. HANS OERTEL.
Secretary.
Dr. GEORGE F. EATON.
Treasurer.
Mr. THOMAS LEE McCLUNG.
Ijibrarian.
Prof. JOHN CHRISTOPHER SCHWAB.
Cotnniittee on Publication.
Hon. S. E. BALDWIN, Chairman, Prof. A. W. EVANS,
Prof. E. S. DANA, Prof. CLIVE DAY,
Prof. H. OERTEL, Prof. J. C. SCHWAB,
Prof. A. S. COOK.
OONTElSrTS.
PAGE
Additions to the Library, Jan. 1, 1907 to April 1, 1908 vii
Art. I. — The Effect of Diet on Endurance. By Irving
Fisher 1
Art. II. — Relations Between Bermuda and the Ameri-
can Colonies During the Revolutionary War. By
Addison E. Verrill 47
Art III. — Maturation of the Egg of the White Mouse.
By William B. Kirkham 65
Art. IV. — Poesies de " Maistre Eloy du Mont, Dict
Costentin." By David H. Carnahan 89
Art. V. — The State Works of Pennsylvania. By
AvARD L. Bishop 149
Art. VI. — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda ; I — Bra-
CHYURA AND AnOMURA : ThEIR DISTRIBUTION, VARI-
ATIONS, AND Habits. By Addison E. Verrill 299
Art. VII. — Studies in Cervantes. Persiles y Sigis-
munda III. By Rudolph Schevill 475
ADDITIO]^S TO THE LIBEAEY
OF THE
Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences,
By Gift and Exchange from Jan. 1, 1907, to Apr. 1, 1908.
American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Proceedings. Vol. XLII. 14-XLIII. 14. 1907-1908.
American Antiquarian Society.
Proceedings. New Ser. Vol. XVIII. 1-3. 1906-1907.
American Astronomer.
I. 1-2. 1907.
American Entomological Society.
Transactions. Vol. XXXI. 1-4. 1905.
American Geographical Society.
Bulletin. Vol. XXXIX. 1-XL. 2. 1907-1908.
American Museum of Natural History (New York).
Bulletin. Vol. XXII. 22-30 ; XXIII. 1-36 ; XXIV. 1-2. 1907-1908.
Amherst College.
Catalogue. 1906-1907 ; 1007-1908.
Amsterdam. — Kon. Akademie van Wetenschappen.
Jaarboek. 1906.
Proceedings. Section of sciences. Vol. IX. 1-2. 1907.
Verliandelingen. Afdeel. Natuurkunde. Sectie I, Deel IX. 4 ; Sectie
II, Deel XIII. 1-3. 1907.
Verslagen van de gewone vergaderingen van de wis- en natuurkundige
afdeeling. Deel XV. 1-2. 1907.
Annalen der Hydrographie und Maritimen Meteor ologie: Zeitschrift filr Seefahrt
und Meereskunde.
Bd. XXIX-XXXVI. 3. 1901-1908.
Augsburg. — Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein filr Schwahen und Neuiurg.
Bericht. XXXVII. 1906.
Basel. — Naturforschende Oesellschaft.
Verhandlungen. Bd. XIX. 1-2. 1907.
Batavia. — Kon. Nattiurkundige Vereeniging in NederlandscJi-Indie.
Natuurkundige tijdsschrift, Deel LXVI. 1907.
R. Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory.
Observations. Vol. XXVIII and Appendices II-III. 1905.
Regenswaarnemingen in Nederlandsch-Indie. Jaarg. XXVII-XXVIII.
1905-1906.
Bergen. — Museum.
Aarbog. 1906, I-III ; 1907, I.
Aarsberetning. 1906.
Account of the Crustacea of Norway. By G. O. Sars. Vol. V. 13-16.
1906.
Meeresfauna.von Bergen, Appellof. H. 2-3.
viii Additions to the Library.
Berlin. — Kon. Museum fiir 'Saturkunde.
Bericht. 1906.
Mittelhingcn aus der zoologischen Sammlung. Bd. III. 3. 1907.
Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum of Polynesian Ethnology and Natural History,
Honolnln, S. I.
Occasional Papers. Vol. II. 5 ; III. 1. 1906-1907.
Bolivia. — Ministeno de Colonizaci6n y Agriculturn.
Revista. Ano III. Tomo III. 23. 1907.
Bologna. — R. Accademia dclle Scienze dell'Istituto di Bologna.
Meraorie. Classo di Scionze Morali. Sezione di Sclonzo Ciuridicho
Ser. I. Tomo I. Fasc. I. 1906-1907.
Sezione di Scienze Storico-Pilologiche.
Ser. I. Tomo I. Fasc. I. 1906-1907.
Rendiconto. N. S. Vol. IX-X. 1904-1906.
Classe di Scienze Morali. Ser. I. Tomo I. Fasc. I. 1908.
Bombay. — Bombay Branch o/ the Jioyal Asiatic Society.
Journal. No. LXI-LXII. 1906-1907.
Bonn. — Naturhistorischer Verein der preussischen Rheinlandi . Wrstfalcns und
des Regierungs-Bezirks Osnahriick.
Sitzimgsberichte der niederrheinischen Gesellschaft fiir Xniur- nnd Ilcil-
kunde. 1905. 2-1907. 1.
Verhandlungen. LXII. 2-LXIV. 1. 1905-1907.
Bordeaux. — Commission M6teorologique de la Oironde.
Observations pluviometriques et thermometriques. .Jnin. I'.tO.j a niai.
1906.
Socictv des Sciences Physiques et Natnrelles.
Cinqiiantenaire. Jan. 15-16, 1906.
Procfes-verbaux. Annee. 1905-1906.
Boston. — Museum of Fine Arts.
Annual report. 31st-32d. 1906-1907.
Bulletin. No. 24-31. Feb. 1907-Feb. 1908.
Society of Natural History.
Proceedings. Vol. XXXIII. 4-XXXIV. 1. 1907.
Bremen. — Meteorologisches Ohservatorium.
Deutsches meteorologisches Jahrbuch. Jahrg. XVII. 1906.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
Abhandlungen. Bd. XIX. 1. 1907.
Breslau. — Schlesische Gesellschaft fiir vatcrldndische Cultur.
.Tahres-Bericht. LXXXIV and Ergilnzungsheft. 1900.
Brooklyn. — Museum of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences.
Science bulletin. Vol. I. 10-13. 1907-1908.
BRtJNN. — Naturforschcnder Verein.
Bericht der meteorologischen Commission. XXIV. 1906.
Verhandlungen. Vol. XLIV. 1905.
Bruxelles. — Acadimie Royale des Sciences, des Lcttrrs et des Beaux-Arts de
Bclgique.
Bulletins. Classe des sciences. 1906. 5-1907. 8.
Annuaire. LXIII. 1907.
M6moires de la classe des sciences. 2e Ser. Tome I. Fasc. III-VIII ;
Tomo II. Fasc. I-II.
MusCe Royal d'Histoire Naturclle de Bvl</iiiii<\
MCmoires. Tome III. 1906.
Observatoire Royale de Belgique.
Annales Astronomiques. T. IX. 2-3, 1906-1907: T. XI. 1, 1907.
Annales : Bulletin climatologique de Tannoe 1899. 1-2.
Annales. Nouv. ser., Annales meteorolo.uiquos. T. V-XI, XIII-XIV.
1901-1904.
Annales : Observations nifitfiorologiqups faites il Ucclo pendant Fannc^e
1900, 1901.
Additions to the Library. ix
Bruxelles. — Observatoire Royule de Belyique.
Annales : Physique du globe. Nouv. s6r., T. III. 2-3. 1907.
Annuaire astronomiqiie pour 1907, 1908.
Annuaire meteorologique pour 1901-1906.
Soci6t6 Entomologuiue dc Belgiqnc.
Annales. Tome L. 1907.
Soci6t6 Royale de Botanique.
Bulletin. Vol. XLII. .'', ; XLIII. 1-3. 1904-1906.
BUCAREST. — lustitut mctcoroloc/ique de Roumanie.
Annales. Tome XVIII. 1902.
Socicte dcs Sciences.
Bulletin. Vol. XV. 5-6; XVI. 3-6. 1906-1907.
Budapest. — Koniglich Ungarische Jieichsanstalt filr Meteorologie und Erd-
magnetismus.
Bericlit. 1905.
Jahrbiicher. Jahrg. XXXIII. 4-XXXIV. 3; XXXV. 1-4. 1903-1905.
Bibliothek, Verzeicbniss erworbener Biicher. 1905 (4).
Bdenos Aires. — Museo Nacional.
Anales. Ser. 3. Vol. VI-VIII. 1907-1908.
Sociedad Cientifica Argentina.
Anales. LXII. 2-LXIV. 3. 1906-1907.
Buffalo. — Society of Natural Sciences.
Bulletin. Vol. VIII. 4-6.
Caen. — Societe Linneenne de Normandie.
Bulletin. 5e ser. Vol. IX. 1905.
Calcutta. — Asiatic Society of Bengal.
Journal and proceedings. Vol. II. 4-10; III. 1-4. 1906-1907.
Memoirs, Vol. I. 10-19 ; II. 1-4. 1907.
California Academy of Sciences
Proceedings. Vol. I, pp. 1-6, 4th ser.
Cambridge (England). — Philosophical Society.
List of Fellows, etc. August, 1907.
Proceedings. Vol. XIV. 1-4. 1907.
Transactions. Vol. XX. 11, 13-16. 1907.
Canada. — Geological Survey.
Preliminary report on Rossland, B. C, mining district. By Brocls.
1906.
Report on Chibougamau mining region. By Low. 1905.
Annual report of the section of mines. 1904-1905.
Geological map of the Dominion of Canada. Sheets Nos. 59-65 ; 74-76 ;
82-83.
Summary report of the department of mines. 1905—1907.
Catania.- — Accademia Oioenia di Science Naturali.
Atti. Ser. IV. Vol. XIX. 1907.
Bolletino delle Sedute. Nuova serie. Fasc. 92. 1907.
Societd degli Spettroscopisti Italiani.
Memoire. Vol. XXXIV. 7 ; XXXV. 6.
Cellule (La). Vol. XXII. 1-2; XXIII. 1-2; XXIV. 1-2.' 1905-1907.
Cherbourg.- — Societe Nationale des Sciences Naturelles.
Memoires. Tome XXXV. 1907.
Chicago. — Field Museum of Natural History.
Publications. 115, 117-126. 1907-1908.
Christiania. — Videnskabs Selskabet.
Forhandlinger. 1906.
Chur. — Naturforschende Gesellschaft OrauMindens.
Jahresbericht. Neue Folge. Bd. XLVIII-XLIX. 1905-1907.
Cincinnati. — Museum Association.
Annual exhibition. Vol. XIV. 1907.
Annual report. Vol. XXVI. 1906.
X Additions to the Library.
Cincinnati. — University.
Teachers' bulletin. Vol. III. 5, S. ser. 3. 1907.
Record. Ser. 1. Vol. HI. 2-0; IV. 1-4. 1906-190S.
University Studies. Ser. 2. Vol. II. 3-4; III. 1. 1906-1907.
Colorado College.
Publications. General series. No. 24, 26, 29-33.
Scicniific Society.
Proceedings. Vol. 11. 1-3; III. 1-3; IV-VI ; VII, pp. 53-VIII, pp.
422 ; IX, pp. 5-20.
Colorado, University of.
Studies. Vol. IV-V. 1.
Copenhagen. — L'Acad6mie Royale des Sciences et des Lettres de Danemark.
Bulletin (Oversigt). 1906, no. 4-6; 1907, 1-4.
Naturhistoriske Forening.
Videnskabelige Meddelelser. 1906.
Ckacow. — Akademija Umiejetnoaci.
Komisya fizy.jograficzna. JIateryay zobrane przoz. Sekcye meteoro-
logiczna w roku 1905. (Spraw. Kom. fizyogr. T. 40. Czesc I.)
K. K. Stcrnirarte.
Meteorologische Beobachtungen, Oct.. 1906, bis Feb.. 1907.
Resultate der meteorologischen Beobachtungen. 1907.
Danzig. — Naturforschcnde Gesellschajt.
Schriften. Neue Folge. Bd. XII. 1. 1908.
Davenport, Ia. — Academy of Sciences.
Proceedings. Vol. X-XII, p. 94. 1906-1907.
Denison University.
Bulletin of the Scientific Laboratories. Vol. XIII. 4-6. 1907.
Dijon. — Acad6mie des Sciences, Arts ct Belles Lettres.
Memoires. S6r. IV. Tome X. 190.5-1906.
DOEPAT. — ^atnrforseher-Gesellschaft ici der Universitat Dorpat.
Schriften. Bd. XVII. 1907.
Sitzungsberichte. Bd. XIV. 2 ; XV. 1-4 ; XVI. 1-2. 1905-1907.
Verzeichnis der Editionen. General-Namenregister zu den Bilnden.
III-XIV. 1869-1905.
Universitat. Institut Zootomique.
Bulletin biologique. No. 1. 1907.
Dresden. — ^atuncis.'icnschaftlichc Gesellschaft Isis.
Sitzungsberichte und Abhandlungen. Juli, 1906, bis Juni, 1907.
Yercin filr Erdkunde.
Mitteilungen. Heft 6. 190T.
Dublin. — Royal Dublin Society.
Economic proceedings.
Scientific proceedings.
Scientific transactions.
Edinburgh. — Oeoloyical Society.
Transactions. Vol. IX, part 1. 1907.
Royal Observatory.
Annals. Vol. II. 1906.
Royal Physical Society.
Proceedings. Vol. XVI. 7 ; XVII. 2-3. 1907.
Royal Society.
Proceedings. Vol. XXVI. 6; XXVII. 1-5; XXVIII. 1-2. 1906-1907.
Eliaha Mitchell Scientific Society.
Journal. Vol. XXII. 3 ; XXIII. 1-3. 1906-1907.
Emden. — Naturforschtnde Gesellschaft.
Jahresbericht. XC. 1904-1905.
Erfcrt. — Kon. Akademie gemeinniltziger Wissenschaften.
Jahrbiichor. Neue Folge. Heft XXXII-XXXIII. 1906-1907.
Florence, Italy. ^ — liihliotrca ]<axionnh' Ccnirale.
Bolletlno delle Pubblicazioni Italiane, 73-87, Jan., 1907-Mch., 1908.
Vol. I. 9-11. 1907.
Mew ser. Vol. V. 7 ;
XI. 13-19.
190:
Ser. II. Vol. V. 6 ;
IX. 4-6.
1907.
Additions to the Library. xi
Fkankfdrt a. M. — Deutsche Malakozoologische Gesellschaft.
Nachrlchtsblatt. Jahrg. XXXIX-XL. 1. 1907-1908.
Scnckenbergische Naturforschende Gcsellschaft.
Abhandlungen. Bd. XXIX. 2; XXX. 3. 1907-1908. •
Bericht. 1906, 1907.
Franklin Institute.
Journal. Vol. CLIX-CLXV. 3. 1905-1908.
Freiburg i. B. — T^'aiurforschende Gesellschajt.
Berichtc. Bd. XV. 1907.
Geneva. — Society de Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle.
Memoires. Tome XXXV. 3. 1907.
Genoa. — Museo Givico di Storia Naturale.
Annali. Ser. 3. Vol. II. 1905-1906.
Germany. — Kais. Leopoldinisch-CaroUniscJie deutsche Akademie der Natur-
for seller. (Halle a. S.).
Leopoldina. Heft XLII. 1906.
GiESSEN. — Oberhessische Gesellschaft fUr Natur- iind Heilkunde.
Bericht. Neue Folge. Medizinische Abteilung. Bd. II. 1907.
Naturwissenschaftliche Abteilung. Bd. I. 1904-1906.
Glasgow. — Natural History Society.
Transactions. New ser. Vol. VII. 3. 1904-1905.
Royal Philosophical Society.
Proceedings. Vol. XXXVII. 1905-1906.
GOrlitz. — Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Abhandlungen. Bd. XXV. 2. 1907.
GoTEBORG. — Kon. Vetenskaps och Vittcrhets Samhdllc.
Handlingar. 4de fol.i. Hiift. VII-IX. 1906.
GOttingen. — Kon. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften.
Nachrichten. Geschaftliche Mittheilungen. 1906, 2 ; 1907, 1-2.
Philosophisch-historische Klasse. 1906, 3-4 und Beiheft ;
1907, 1-3 und Beiheft.
Halifax. — Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science.
Proceedings and transactions. Vol. XI. 2. 1903-1904.
Department of Mines, Nova Scotia.
Report. 1906.
Halle a. S. — Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Abhandlungen. Bd. XXXV. 1903-1906.
Hamburg. — Deutsche Seewarte.
Aus dem Archiv. Jahrg. XXIX. 2 : XXX. 1-2. 1906-1907.
Deutsches meteorologisches Jahrbuch. Jahrg. XXVIII. 1905.
Katalog der Bibliothek. Nachtrag. Bd. VII. 1905-1906.
Naturivissenschaftlicher Verein.
Abhandlungen. Bd. XIX. 1-2. 1907.
Verhandlungen. 3te Folge. XIV. 1907.
Harlem. — Musee Teyler.
Archives. Ser. II. Vol. X. 3-4 ; XI. 1. 1907.
Societe Hollandaise des Sciences.
Archives n^erlandaises. Ser. II. Tome XII. 1-5 ; XIII. 1-2. 1907.
Harvard College. — Astronomical Ohservatory.
Annual report. 1906-1907.
Annals. Vol. XLVII. 1 ; XLIX. 1 ; LII. 1 ; LV. 1 ; LVII. 1 ; LIX. 1 ;
LX. 3-8 ; LXII. 1. 1907.
Circulars. No. 119-135.
Museum of Comparative Zoology.
Annual report. 1905-06 ; 1906-07.
Memoirs. XXXIV. 1 ; XXXV. 1-2. 1907.
Bulletin. Vol. XLIII. 5 ; XLVIII. 4 ; L. 6-9 ; LI. 1, 4-10. 1907-
1908.
xii Additions to the Jyihrary.
IlARVAKP College. — Museum o] Comparative Zoology.
lUiIIotin. Geological sor. Vol. VIII. 5-6. 1908.
Havana. — Real Colcgio de Helen.
Obsorvaciones metoorologicas y magneticas. 1906.
HEL.siNGFon.s. — Socictd.t Scieiilianim Fcnnica.
Observations publios par I'lnstitut M6t(5orologique Central. 1895-96
(hiver).
Acta. Tome XXXII. 1906.
Bidrag till kiinnedom af Finlands natur och folk. Hilft. 63. 1905.
Oefversigt af fiirhandlingar. XLVII. 1904-1905.
Socictas pro Fauna ct Flora. Fcnnica.
Acta. Vol. XXVII-XXVIII. 1005-1906.
Moddclanden. Vol. XXXI-XXXII. 1904-1906.
IlEiiJiANNSTADT. — Siebenl)urgischer Terein fur Naturwissenschaften.
Verhandlungen und MitthPllungen. Bd. LV-LVI. 1905-1906.
Illinois. — State Lahoraiory of 'Natural TJistory.
Bulletin. Vol. VII. 6-9. 1906-1907.
India. — Imperial Department of Agriculture.
Memoirs. Botanical series. Vol. I, No. 1, Part II ; I. 6 ; II. 1-2, 4
1907.
Memoirs. Chemical series. Vol. I. 2-5. 1907.
Memoirs. Entomological series. Vol. I. 2-5. 1907.
Agricultural Ilesearcli Institute (Pusa). Bulletin. No. 4. 1906.
Oeoloyical Survey of India.
Memoirs. Series XV. Vol. V. 1-2. 1907.
Records. Vol. XXXIV. 3-XXXVI. 2. 1906-1907.
Palaeontologia Indica. New ser. Vol. II. 3. 1906.
Meteorological Department of the Government of India.
Indian meteorological memoirs. Vol. XVIII. 1. 3. 1907-1908.
Monthly weather review. May, 1906, to Jan., 1907.
India weather review. Annual summary. 1905.
Rainfall of India. 1905.
Report on administration. 1906-07.
Board of Scientific Advice.
Annual report. 1905-06.
Indiana. — Academy of Science.
Proceedings. 1894-1896 ; 1904-1906.
Ingegneria Ferroviaria (Rome). Vol. IV. 18. 1907.
Iowa. — .4cademy of Sciences.
Proceedings. Vol. VIII : XIII. 1906.
Geological Surrey.
Annual report. Vol. XVI. 1905.
Irkutsk. — Ol).<ierva1oirc Physique Central Nicolas.
Annales. Supplement. 1903.
Italy. — lieale Comitato Geologico d'ltalin.
Bullptino. Vol. XXXVII. 3-4. 1907.
Jenafsche Zcitschrtft fiir Naturv:i.<isenschaft.
Vol. XXXV. 1-3 ; XXXVI. 1-2. 1907.
John Crerar Library.
Annu.Tl report. 1900.
Handbook. 1907.
Johns Iloplcins University.
Circular. 1906, 10 ; 1907, 1-9 ; 1908, 1.
Journal of Comparative Neurology and Pspchology.
Vol. XVII. 1-4. 1907.
Kan.sas. — Academy of Science.
Transactions. Vol. I-III ; XVIU-XX. 2 ; XXI. 1. 1907.
Unirvrsity of Kan-sas.
Bulletin. Vol. VII. 5: VIII. 3. 1907.
Additions to the Library. xiii
Kasan. — Socicte Physico-niathematUjuc dc I'Univcrsite ImpSriale.
Bulletin. Ser. II. Tome XV. 2-3. 1905-1906.
Kiel. — Natunvissenschaftlichcr Vereln filr Schleswig-Holstein.
Schriften. Bd. XIII. 2. 1907.
Ron. Christian Alhrechts-Univerntdt.
Chronik. 1905-06.
Vei-zeichnis der Vorlesungon. 1905-06, Winter Semester ; 1906. Som-
mer Semester.
109 dissertations. 1905-1906.
Kiev. — Socivte dcs Naturalistes.
Memoiros. Tome XX. 2. 1907.
KodaikAxal — Observatory.
Bulletin. No. 7-11. 1907.
Annial Report. 1906.
Kyoto. — Collrge of Science and Erir/inecriny, Imperial Universitij.
Memoirs. Vol. I. 3. 1906-1907.
La Plata. — Arehovos de Pedagogia y Cicncias Afines.
No. 4-9. 1907-1908.
Museo.
Anales. Seccion botanica. Tome I (1902).
Seccion paleontologica. Tome V (1903).
Revista. Tome XI (1904).
Lausannk. — Societe Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles.
Bulletin. 5e scr. Vol. XLII. no. 156-XLIII. 160. 1906-1907.
Leiden. — Nederlandsche Dierkundigc Tereeniging.
Catalogus der bibliotheek, 5de uitgave. 1907.
Tijdscbrift. Ser. II. Deel X. 3. 1907.
Sternwarte.
Annalen. Bd. IX. 1. 1907.
Verslag. 1904-1906.
LEirziG. — Kcin. Sdchsische Gesellschaft der M'issenschaften.
Berichte. Mathematisch-pbysische Klasse. Bd. LVIII. 3, 5-8 ; LXIX.
1-3. 1906-1907.
Fiirstl. JahlonowsM'sche Gesellschaft.
.Tahresbericht. 1907.
Naturforscliende Gesellschaft.
Sitzungsberiehte. 1899-1906.
Lemberg. — Sevccnko-Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften.
Cbronik. 1906, 3-4 ; 1907, 1-3.
Sammelscbrift der mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlich-arztlichen Sec-
tion. Bd. XI. 1907.
LifeGE. — Societe Royale des Sciences.
Memoires. Ser. III. Tome VI-VII. 1907.
Lima. — Cuerpo de Ingenieros de Minas del Peru.
Boletin. No. 41, 44-49, 51-54. 1907-1908.
Lisbon. — Sociedade de Geographia.
Boletim. Serie XXIV. 9-XXV. 12. 1906-1907.
London. — Geological Society.
Geological literature added to tbe library. 1906.
Quarterly Journal. Vol. LXIII. 1-3 ; LXIV. 1. 1907-1908.
Linnean Society.
Journal. Zoology. No. 191-196, 203. 1905-1907.
List. 1907-1908.
Proceedings. 1906-1907.
Royal Society.
Reports of the Commission on the :Mediterranean fever. Parts V-VII.
1907.
Reports on Ceylon pearl oyster fisheries, by W. A. Herdman. V. 1007.
xiv Additions to the Library.
London. — Royal Society.
Philosophical transactions, Series A. No. 414-427. 1007-1908.
Series B. No. 252-259. 1907-1908.
Proooodinsrs. Series A. No. 52«-537. 1907-1908.
Series B. No. 528-536. 1907-1908.
Royal Microscopical Society.
Journal. 1907-1908. 1.
IiOUlSiAN.v. — State Hoard of Agriculture and Immigration.
Gulf Biologic Station. Bulletin. No. G-7. 1907.
LuxEMBOCRO. — Tnstitut Grand-Ducal.
Archives trimestr. Tome I. Fasc. II-III. 1906.
Lyons. — Soci6te d'Aoriculturc, Sciences et Industrie.
Annales. 190G.
Madrid. — Comisidn del Mapa GeoUgico de Espana.
Boletin. 2a ser. Tomo VIII. 1906.
Memorias. Tome VI. 1907.
Otscrvatorio Asironomico.
Anuario. 1907-1908.
Resumen de las observaciones metoorologicas. 1899-1900.
Manchester, Engt.and. — Literary and Philosophical Society.
Memoirs and proceedings. Vol. LI. 1-3 ; LII. 1. 1906-1908.
Manchester, N. H. — Institute of Arts and Sciences.
Proceedings. Vol. IV. Part. I. 1902.
MARB0RG. — Gesellschaft zur Beforderung der gcsnmmten Naturivissenschaften.
Sitzungsborichte. Jahrg. 1906.
Mecklenburg.— Feretw der Freunde der Naturgeschichte in Mecklenburg.
Archiv. Jahrg. LX. 2; LXI. 1. 1906-1907.
Meriden. — Scientific Association.
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XX Additions to the Library.
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TRANSACTIONS OFJIIF.
CONNECTICUT ACADEMY OF AFiTS ANi> StlfeNCES
lNCOUlH)UATFa A I), Ti
VOLUME XIII. PP. 1-46
MAY. 1907
Publications of Yale University
THE EFFECT OF DIET ON ENDURANCE
BASED ON AN EXPERIMENT, IN THOROUGH MASTICATION,
, WITH NINE HEALTHY STUDENTS
AT YALE UNIVERSITY, JANUARY TO JUNE, 1906
BY
IRVING FISHER, Ph.D.
Professor of Political Econohiv at Yale University
NEW HAVEN. CONNECTICUT
1907
THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR PRESS
^"^ I 19(^7
I. — The Effect of Diet on Endurance, Based on an Experi-
ment WITH Nine Healthy Students at Yale University.
January-June, 1906.
Introduction.
There appears to be very little literature on the subject of endur-
ance. Since the eiDOch-making work of Mosso, much has been written
on fatigue, and many varieties of ergographs have been constructed
to record muscular fatigue ; but no systematic study of endurance
as such a^jpears to have been made. Even the concept of endurance,
as related to strength and fatigue, has been lacking. No corre-
lations have been worked out between endurance and the factors
upon which it depends, excejDt that it has been a matter of common
experience that endurance increases with exercise. In respect to
diet, opinions as to its relation to endurance, so far as the writer knows,
have rested on no better foundation than the personal impressions of
adherents of special dietary systems, such as those of Salisbury,
Dewey, Haig, Kellogg, and Fletcher. In Professor Chittenden's
painstaking study on " Ph^'siological Economy in Nutrition" he has
shown that one result of a gradual and systematic reduction in proteid,
from the amount ordinarily consumed, has been an increase in strength,
but no data were obtained in respect to endurance.
The present experiment had a somewhat accidental origin. I was
engaged in collecting statistics of labor-power in relation to various
factors, among them especially diet. The data were collected because
of their economic beariuQ-s and without anv intention at first of mak-
ing independent experiments. But some of my students, whom I had
engaged to make computations and diagrams, became interested in
the material with which they thus came in contact, and expressed a
strong desire to tiy dietetic experiments upon themselves. Not
being a physiologist, I asked Professor Chittenden if he could not
take charge of these experiments for them. It so haj^pened that on
account of other similar work he was unable to do so, but suggested
that I should conduct them myself. I have done so with consider-
able hesitation, not being equipped for physiologic studies. I have
therefore restricted my attention to the simpler practical aspects of
the problem, although some of the technical points have been inves-
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 1 May, 1907.
2 IFisher — The Efect of Diet on Endurance.
tigated through the very kind cooperation of able colleagues. My
thanks are especially due to Professor Chittenden and his co-workers.
Professor Mendel and Dr. Underhill, for the aid rendered by the
Sheffield Scientific School Laborator}^ in determining the nitrogen
excreted, and for much helpful advice and criticism. I wish also to
express my obligations to Dr. J. P. C, Foster for his services as
medical adviser to the students ; to Dr. W. G. Anderson, Director
of the Yale Gymnasium, and his corps of assistants, through whom
the endurance tests were conducted ; to Professor Rettger for fecal
tests ; and to the subjects of the experiment themselves, Messrs.
Bauer, Edwards, Lagerquist, Lawton, Mitke, Parmelee, Reeds, Taylor,
and Weyman, whose patient submission to the painful tests of endur-
ance was little short of heroic.
In January, 1906, the students above mentioned organized them-
selves into an eating club. The experiment began with an endurance
test on January 14, and consisted of two main parts, each of which
lasted about ten weeks.
The object of the first half of the experiment was to test the claims
which have been made by Mr. Horace Fletcher, as to the effects upon
endurance of thorough mastication combined with implicit obedience
to appetite. Our conclusion in brief is that Mr. Fletcher's claims, so
far as they relate to endurance, are justified.
Mr. Fletcher's method may be briefly ' expressed in two rules.
1. Mastication. Thorough mastication of all food up to the
point of involuntary swallowing, with the attention directed, how-
ever, not on the mechanical act of chewing, but on the tasting and
enjoyment of the food ; liquid foods to be sipped and tasted, not
drunk down like water. There should be no artificial holding of food
in the mouth beyond the time of natural swallowing, even if, as is to
be expected at the start, that swallowing is premature. It is not
intended to " count the chews," or hold the food forcibly in the front
of the mouth, or allow the tongue muscles to become fatigued by any
unnatural eft'ort or position, or in any other way to make eating a
bore. On the contrary, every such effort distracts one from
the natural enjoyment of food. Pawlow has shown that without
such attention and enjoyment of the taste of food, the secretion of
' The reader who desires to pursue the subject is referred, as to mastication
and instinctive eating, to Higgins, Humaniculture, Stokes, N. Y. , 1906; as to
proteid, to Chittenden, Phijsiological Economy in Nutrition, Stokes, 1904; and
as to the general subject, to Horace Fletcher, The A. B.-Z. of our oivn Nutri-
tion, Stokes, 1903.
Fisher — The Effect of Diet on Endurance. 3
gastric juice is lessened. 'The point of involuntary swallowing is
thus a variable point, gradually coming later and later as the practice
of thorough mastication proceeds, until the result is reached that the
food remains in the mouth without effort and becomes practically taste-
less. Thus the food, so to speak, swallows itself, and the person eats
without thought either of swallowing or of not swallowing it ; swal-
lowing is put into the same category of physiological functions as
breathing, which ordinarily is involuntary.
2. Eolloioing instinct. Never to eat when not hungry, even if a
meal (or more than one, for that matter) is skipped. And when a
meal is taken, not to be guided by the quantity of food offered, or
by past habit, or by any theories as to the amount of food needed.
The natural taste or appetite is alone consulted, and the subject
selects, from the food available, only those kinds and amounts which
are actually craved by the appetite. After practice, the appetite
gradually becomes more definite and discriminating in its indica-
tions.
These two rules — thorough mastication and implicit obedience
to appetite — were alone employed during the ten weeks which con-
stituted the first half of the experiment.
Shortly after the beginning of the second half of the experiment,
there was an interim of six days at Easter recess, during which the
few men who remained in New Haven took advantage of the tempo-
rary absence of the cook to try the possibilities of living without one
entirely. During this brief period use was made not only of raw foods,
such as fruits, nuts and milk, but also of foods which could be pur-
chased already cooked, such as the flaked breakfast foods. But all
the food was cold, and several of the men found it cheerless and
xinsatisfactory. Judging from their feelings, they Avere losing in
weight and vigor. This part of the experiment was too brief, how-
ever, to justify any reliable conclusion as to the virtues of a raw, or
rather a cookless, diet.
The second half of the experiment lasted about nine weeks. The
same two rules which were employed during the first half were
continued during the second, but a third rule was added. This was
the use of suggestion, as follows :
3. When instinct is in doubt, use reason. — This rule consists of
acquiring and applying a little knowledge of foods and food elements.
For this purpose, in the present experiment two lists of food were
given. One was arranged in a tentative order of intrinsic merit,
beginning with, fruits and ending with alcohol, and the other in
4 I'ls/ier — T/ie Ejf'ect of Diet on Endurance.
the order of tlie proportion of proteid. The inen were then asked,
when and only wlien the a])petite was entirely xc ill in g, to choose the
better and puicr foods and the low proteid foods in preference to
those high in proteid. In tliis way the men gradually sliifted their
diet upward in the two lists, and thereby pursued a little faster the
same direction in which they had already been found to be uncon-
sciously moving under the influence of thorough mastication and
implicit obedience to appetite.
It would too greatly lengthen this report if any attempt were made
to repeat in detail all the specific advice given to the experimenters
under Rule '-i. What has been said covers in a general waj"- all the
points except the advice (subject always to the consent of appetite)
to eat light and quickly digested suppers in order to go to bed on an
empty stomach.
Careful record of the amounts of food eaten and the constituents
of proteids, fats and carbohydrates was kejjt for each man each day,
certain days being omitted if for any reason the record was incom-
plete, as when, for instance, the men were out of town or took their
meals away from the club.' To avoid weighing at the table, the
food was all weighed in the kitchen and served in "standard portions"
of 100 calories each, or simj^le fractions or multiples thereof, and the
men merely recorded the number of portions eaten. The proportions
of proteids, fats and carbohydrates were found by means of the
writer's " Mechanical Diet Indicator. " '^ Atwater and Bryant's
tables were used as a basis for calculation. For the first few weeks
the figures were probably subject to some errors, and in all cases
more or less guessing had to be practiced with reference to the
amount of lean and fat of meats ; but the influence of any errors on
the results must necessarily be small, because meat supplied, at
the highest, o\)\y a small fraction of the total calories. It is believed
that the results are in general correct to two significant figures.
For the first two weeks of the first half of the experiment, the men
ate in their ordinary way. During the following eight weeks they
masticated moi'e thoroughly and followed the leadings of taste more
carefully. Most persons, while nominally following taste, are largely
^ The number of days each week on which the record of diet was kept was sel-
dom under six.
-For a description of this instrument, seethe writer's "A New Metliod of
Indicating Food Values," American Journal of Fhyaioloyy, April, 1906. For a
description of its practical uses see "A Graphic Method in Practical Dietetics,"
Jour, of the Amer. Med. Assoc, Apr. 20, 1907.
Fisher — The Effect of Diet on, Endurance. 5
controlled in their selection of foods by many other circumstances, —
as, conventionality^ or the desire to eat what others eat and the unwil-
lingness to appear "different"; politeness, the desire to please one's
host and. hostess \foo(l notions, the opinion that certain foods and cer-
tain amounts of food, are " wholesome " even if not palatable and that
certain foods should, be avoided as injurious even if delicious to the
taste ; narrowness of choice, as at a boarding house table, which
often supplies what is not wanted and withholds what is ; and
habit, by which the particular kinds and amounts of foods which
have become customary thi'ough the previous causes— conventionality,
politeness, food notions, and narrowness of choice — are repeated day
after day without thought. The subjects of the present study were
given a wide range of choice, the menu including fruits, nuts, cereals,
puddings and pastry, vegetables, milk, meats, etc. Meat if desired
was available three times a day.
The object of the experiment was to find what effects on diet and
endurance would follow from a strict obedience to the taste-instinct,
when this instinct was given a longer chance to act b}^ prolonged
mastication and attentive tasting. Each man was therefore encour-
aged to choose his own food out of the menu for the day. Nothing
was set before him until it was ordered, and even after a food was
ordered it was not eaten if taste did not so dictate. The men were
specially warned, during the fii'st half of the experiment, against any
conscious effort to decrease their food, proteid, or meat ; and while it
is possible that subconscious suggestion played a part, so far as could
be observed they were freer from its influence than any ordinary
experimenter who might take up the same experiment after reading
Mr. Fletcher's or Professor Chittenden's books.
That this conclusion as to the relative absence of subconscious suw-
gestion is correct was evidenced by the experiences both before and
after this j^art of the experiment. For a month prior to its actual
beginning (Jan. 14), the experiment had been fully decided upon,
and its plan and scope understood by the men. Had subconscious
suggestion played an important role, it would probably have shown
itself in a reduction of proteid during this month ; but determinations
of the grams of nitrogen daily excreted in the urine, taken at the
beginning and end of this month, indicated no substantial change, as
the following table shows. (M. does not appear in this table, owing
to the absence of any specimen for December.)
6 Wisher — TJie Effect of Diet on Endurance.
TABLE I.
B E Lq Lw P R T W Average
Middle Dec. 11.2 11.1 13.8 12.3 11.3 13.9 14.2 15.9 13
Middle Jan. 10.4 12.7 14.3 14.3 11.1 14.8 12.2 15.4 13.1
On the otiier hand, during the second half of the experiment (Mar.
28-June 1), wlien tlie force of suggestion was consciously introduced,
the reduction of flesh and proteid went on rapidly, as is seen in
Table II. The facts, therefore, seem to show that the men followed
directions closely, avoiding largely the influence of subconscious sug-
gestion and following that of conscious suggestion in e.xact accord-
ance with the directions given them.
Changes in Diet.
During the first two weeks of the first period when no change of
habits was undertaken, the food showed little tendency to change in
amount or in kinds. On the other hand, for the remaining eight
weeks, during which thorough mastication and instinctive eating
wei'e practiced, there was a distinct though gradual tendency toward
reduction in the amount of food, in the quantity of proteid, in the
quantity of flesh foods, and in the quantity of liquids of all kinds —
water, tea, coffee, cocoa, and even soup.s. Exact figures were kept
for calories, proteid and flesh foods. These showed that the total
calories gradually fell about 10^^, the proteids, 15^, and the flesh
foods, 40^,
In the second period, dui'ing which the force of suggestion to
reduce proteid and flesh foods was added, the same effects were
noted in a still greater degree. During this period the calories
dropped nearh'^ 20^, the proteid over 25^, and the flesh foods about
70^. Comparing the diet at the close of the entire five months of
the experiment with the diet at its beginning, it was found that the
total calories had fallen about 25^, the proteid about 40,^, and the
flesh foods over SO;^, or to about one-sixth of their original amount.
A part of the reduction, at least of the calories, is ])robably due to
the change in season, as the experiment began in cold weather and
closed in hot weather.
These results are shown in the following table :
Fisher — The Effect of Diet on Endurance.
1st
Period
2iid
Period
TABLE IL
AVERAGE DIETETIC RECORDS OF ENTIRE CLUB
Average
Calories
Daily
no. of
of proteid
"portions"
Average
' ' portions "
per lb. of
of flesh
Week
weight
daily
body \vt. •
foods
f Jan. 17-23
149.8
28.3
2.7
2.4
24-30
30.3
2.6
2.1
31-Feb.
6
27.8
2.5
1.6
Feb. 7-13
27. «
2.4
1.2
14-20
25.8
2.1
.9
21-27
26.4
2.2
1.1
28-Mar.
6
25.3
2.2
1.2
Mar. 7-13
24.6
2.1
1.3
14-20
25.9
2.2
1.1
21-27
148
26.7
2.2
1.4
28-Apr.
3
26.7
2.1
.8
Apr. 4-10
25.7
1.9
.5
11-17-
27.3
1.7
.4
20-26 3
26.1
1.7
.1
27-May
3
25.5
1.9
.5
May 4-10
25.7
1.9
.4
11-17
26.2
1.9
.4
18-24
24.9
1.7
.4
25-31
23.2
1.4
.4
June
144
Remembering that a "portion " is 100 calories, we see that, dui'ing
the first four weeks, the men consumed an average of from 2760 to
3030 calories per da}^, of which 120 to 240 were in the flesh foods,
such as meats, jioultry, fish and shell-fish, and that 2.4 to 2.7 calories
of proteid were ingested for each pound of body-weight. Trans-
lating Professor Chittenden's figures for the physiological require-
ment of ingested proteid, we find it to be from 1.3 to 1.7 calories per
pound of body-weight. Thus the men were at this time consuming
nearly double the Chittenden allowance. During the last four weeks
of the experiment all these magnitudes were lower. The per capita
calories ranged from 2220 to 2620, of which only 40 were in flesh
foods, and the proteid had fallen to 1.4 to 1.9 calories per pound of
body-weight, which corresponds closely to the Chittenden standai'd.
Table II was constructed from the following three tables giving
separate data for the individual experimenters.
' This column is calculated throughout on the basis of the body-weights on
Jan. 14.
-Except E., M. and P.
3 Except E. The last two days of the Easter recess, Apr. 18, 19, are omitted
in tables II, III, IV, V.
Fisher — The Effect of Diet on Endurance.
TABLE III.
DAILY QUANTITIES OF FOOD
(in "jDortions" of 100 calories each).
Week
B
E
Lq
L\v
M
P
R
T
W
Average
' Jan.
19-23
25.4
26.1
22.4
32.6
23.9
27.0
32.0
30.1
29.4
28.3
24-:}0
27.9
29.1
24.3
32.6
26.8
26.2
34.5
37.3
33.9
30.3
31-Feb. 6
26.3
26.4
25.0
29.8
24.4
23.8
30.9
30.8
33.0
27.8
1st ^
Period
Feb.
7-13
25.7
27.8
25.7
31.3
22.0
23.2
28.0
32.8
31.6
27.6
14-20
24.0
32.4
24.0
26.1
21.6
20.3
25.1
29.2
29.4
25.8
21-27
23.0
30.9
23.4
28.3
24.5
18.2
26.7
30.3
32.2
26.4
28-Mar. 6
23.3
25.7
23.6
27.4
24.1
18.0
25.4
29.1
30.8
25.3
Mar.
7-13
23.2
23.0
24.5
27.4
26.4
19.2
23.5
23.7
30.1
24.6
14-20
21.9
21.6
24.5
29.1
30.2
20.8
25.0
30.8
28.9
25.9
21-27
21.1
24.2
25.2
31.6
25.9
21.2
26.5
34.4
30.4
26.7
-
28-Apr. 3
22.6
26.3
26.2
27.5
25.2
23.0
26.1
33.5
30.2
26.7
,
Apr.
4-10
24.2
24.2
24.6
27.7
22.5
22.5
26.2
30.5
28.7
25.7
11-17
24.0
26.0
24.9
.
29.0
30.4
29.8
27.3 >
3nd
Period '
20-26
26.5
24.1
24.5
23 'd
23.3'
25.5
32.0
29.4
26.12
27-May 3
25.5
22.6
25.4
24.8
24.1
24.4
23.9
29.0
29.8
25.5
May
4-10
23.0
25.5
26.5
24.4
27.1
23.1
26.0
28.7
26.7
25.7
11-17
21.8
19.2
26.5
27.6
24.5
23.8
27.6
30.3
34.2
26.2
18-24
22.7
19.1
23.7
27.8
19.5
25.4
24.6
26.5
35.2
24.9
25-31
19.3
17.2
23.6
27.1
17.8
21.9
24.2
20.3
28.6
22.2
From this table we see that there were wide differences between
the men in regard to the change in the quantity of food. During
the first period the men who reduced their calorifis conspicuously
were B., P. and R., the very men, as Table IX will show, who lost
weight during this period.
During the second period, reductions were noticeable in E., Lw., M.
and T. These, together with B. and P., wei-e the men who lost
Aveight during the second period. We see here a distinct correlation
between quantity of food and loss of body-weight.
TABLE IV.
PROTEID (ill calories) PER LB. OF BODY-WEIGHT
(Body-weight as taken Jan. 14, 1906)
Week
B
E
Lq
Lw
M
P
R
T
W
Average
'Jan. 17-23
2.6
2.9
1.8
2.8
2.6
2.8
2.5
.3.3
2.7
2.7
24-30
2.5
2.8
2.2
2.8
2.7
2.5
2.5
3.0
2.8
2.6
31-Feb.
6 2.2
3.1
2.4
2.9
2.5
2.0
2.3
2.7
2.6
2.5
Feb. 7-13
2.1
2.9
2.2
2.6
2.0
2.1
2.0
2.9
2.6
2.4
1st
Period '
14-20
2.0
3.1
1.8
2.0
1.9
1.7
1.8
2.7
2.2
2.1
21-27
1.8
3.2
1.9
2.3
2.0
1.5
1.9
2.8
2.4
2.2
28-Mar.
6 1.8
3.0
1.8
2.3
2.4
1.5
1.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
Mar. 7-13
1.9
2.5
2.0
2.3
2.5
1.7
1.7
2.1
2.6
2.1
14-20
1.9
2.3
1.9
2.5
2.7
1.7
1.9
2.8
2.4
2.2
21-27
1.6
2.6
2.0
2.7
2.4
1.7
1.9
2.7
2.2
2.2
I
^ Not including
E., M. and P.
1 <<
(1
F.
Fisher — The Effect of Diet on Endurance.
TABLE lY—Contimied.
PROTEID (in calories) PER LB. OF BODY-WEIGHT
(Body-weight as taken Jan. 14, 1906)
3nd ,
Period '
Week
B
E
Lq
Lw
M
P
R
T
W
Average
f Mar. 28- Apr. 3
1.8
2.6
2.0
3.2
2.2
1.9
1.8
2.7
2.2
2.1
Apr. 4-10
1.5
2.9
1.7
2.0
1.7
1.5
1.8
3.4
1.8
1.9
11-17
1.3
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.9
1.9
1.7
20-36
1.8
1.6
1.6
l'7
1.5
1.5
3.3
1.6
1.7
27-May 3
1.7
3". 5
1.7
1.7
2.0
1.7
1.6
3.2
1.8
.1.9
May 4-10
1.6
3.0
1.9
1.9
3.2
1.4
1.8
2.1
1.5
1.9
11-17
1.6
1.9
1.7
1.9
1.9
1.6
1.9
2.1
2.0
1.9
18-24
1.5
1.8
1.4
1.7
1.8
1.6
1.6
1.7
2.1
1.7
25-31
1.1
1.3
1.5
1.6
1.6
1.3
1.7
1.4
1.5
1.4
We observe from Table IV that the men who reduced their proteid
the most during the first period were B., P., R., T. and W, Of these
the first thi'ee only lost weight appreciably, and this was partly ascrib-
able, as we have seen, to reduction in their calories. Careful
examination of the figures would seem to show, however, that there is
some correlation between I'eduction of proteid and loss of weight.
During the second period there was a decided reduction of proteid
in all cases except that of R., who had already brought his proteid
down considerably in the first period. E. reduced his proteid, but not
until the last three weeks, when he seemed to try to make up for lost
time. E., in fact, was the only man in the club, except possibly M.
who (through mere inadvertence) did not follow out the rules of the
e.xperiment systematically. It need scarcely be said that this is not
stated as censure ; for the very fact of the moderation of E.'s and M.'s
mastication added to the value of the final comparisons. Even E.'s
sudden reduction in proteid at the end was not maintained two weeks
afterward, as was shown by the exci'etion of nitrogen in June,
given in Table VI.
It will be observed that the proteid at the end of the experiment
was reduced to a fairly uniform level for all the men. Moreover, the
proteid at the end corresponds closely with the results of Professor
Chittenden's experiments. This is especially significant in view of
the fact that this level was reached unconsciously— for only one of
the men, Lq., Avho used the mechanical diet indicator for the entire
club, knew regularly the exact character of each man's food propor-
tions— and without any food prescription as was employed in the
experiments of Professor Chittenden. This means that there is a
simple way of reducing proteid to the level of "physiological econ-
10 Fisher— TJie Effect of Diet on Endurance.
omy," open to the ordinary man, M-ithout the necessity of special
knowledge of foods and without the necessity of weighing and measur-
ing food, either by the subject himself or by others.
Aside from the changes in proteid, the proportions of food elements
did not vary greatly, the percentages of fat and carbohydrate in the
total fuel value remaining very nearly constant. At the close of the
experiment it Avas found that for all of the men the proteid in propor-
tion to the total fuel value was very nearly 10,^, having been reduced
from about 14^. This reduction in the percentage of proteid was
almost entirely offset by the increase in the percentage of fat, which
rose from about 30^ to about 33^ on the average. The percentage
of carbohydrate thus remained almost constant. Individual varia-
tions were much less than might have been expected. The proteid
at the close of the experiment among the different subjects deviated
very little from lO^*^ ; the proportion of fat varied from 28 to 36^j
and the carbohydrate from 51 to 62^.
The results of the experiment may throw some light on the
problem of the proper amount of food and food constituents for
healthj" men eating in a natural manner. " For the five men, Lq., Lw.j
M., R. and W., whose weights showed least tendency to fall and
whose average weight at the close of the experiment was 151.4, we
find the avei'age total calories were 2620, of which 10.7^ was proteid,
33^ fat, and 56.3,^ carbohydrate. The number of calories agrees
closely with the estimates (for sedentary persons) of Atwater and
Benedict by means of the calorimeter.
TABLE V.
QUANTITIES OF FLESH FOODS CONSUMED (meat, fish,
shell-fish, poultry)
(In "portions" of 100 calories each).
1st
Period
Week
B
E
Lq
Lw
M
P
R
T
W .
Average
Jan.
17-23
2.7
2.4
1.5
2.6
2.4
2.6
2.3
2.9
2.1
2.4
1
24-30
2.2
2.2
1.7
2.0
1.8
2.2
2.1
2.1
2.2
2.1
31-Feb.
o
1.3
1.9
1.2
2.1
1.6
1.3
2.1
1.9
1.4
1.6
Feb
7-13
1.3
1.6
.9
1.7
.6
1.2
1.5
1.8
1.2
1.2
1
14-20
.1)
2.3
.2
1.1
. i
.9
.9
1.6
.5
.9
1
21-27
1.2
2.0
.2
1.6
.6
1.6
2.1
.6
1.1
28-Mar.
G
.8
2.1
.3
1.5
1.1
1.1
1.6
1.5
.8
1.2
Mar
7-13
.7
1.6
.1
2.4
1.0
1.2
1.9
1.6
.9
1.3
14-20 1.0 1.7 .03 1.9 .9 .7 1.8 1.5 .7 1.1
21-27 1.0 2.5 .0 2.5 1.7 .7 1.2 2.5 .6 1.4
Fisher — 2Vie Effect of Diet on Endurance.
11
TABLE Y —ConliniLed.
QUANTITIES OF FLESH FOODS CONSUMED (meat, fish,
shell-fish, poultry)
(In "portions" of 100 calories each).
Week
B
E
Lq
Lw
M
P
E
T
W
Aver
' Mar.
38-Apr. 3
.9
1.7
.0
1.7
.6
.8
1.1
.8
.1
.8
Apr.
4-10
.4
1.1
.0
1.0
1.0
.1
.8
.0
.5
11-17
.1
.0
.9
.8
. t
.0
.4
2nd
20-26
.0
.0
.1
'i
'o
.2
.4
.0
.1
27-May 3
.16
1.2
.0
.6
.8
.2
.9
.5
.0
.5
erioo.
May
4-10
.0
.9
.0
.8
.8
.0
.5
.6
.0
.4
11-17
.0
1.2
.0
1**
. 1
.8
.0
.4
.3
.0
.4
18-24
.0
1.3
.0
.5
.5
.0
.8
.2
.0
.4
25-31
.0
1.0
.0
1.0
.9
.0
.8
.4
.0
.4
Table V shows that during the first period all except E. and Lw.
reduced their consumption of flesh foods considerably. It is note-
worth}', as Tables XI-XIII will show, that these two were the men
whose improvements in endurance were probably among tlie least
during this period.
During the second period Lq., W., P. and B. virtually abandoned
flesh foods entirely, the " portions " consumed daily averaging nearer
zero than .1. These men improved greatly in endurance also. On
the other hand, E., Lw., M. and R. reduced their flesh foods the
least, and their ranking in respect to increased endurance was in
general relatively low.
Excretions, Body- Weight, Strength.
The following table of nitrogen excreted in the urine is interesting
in connection with the preceding table. It will be seen that the
reduction in nitrogen daily excreted corresponds in general to the
reduction in proteid consumed.
TABLE
VI.
GRAMS
OF
NITROGEN EXCRETED DAILY. i
B
E
Lq Lw
M
P
R
T
W
Middle Jan. 10.4
First April 6.6
Middle June 6.3
12.7
14.7
13.1
14.3 14.3
9.2 11.1
8.4
8.72
13". 7
11.1
6.3
6.1
14.8
11.6
12.2
12.4
8.8
15.4
9.0
9.4
N. in middle')
J"^^ P"" !- .093
kilog. of 1
body-weight J
.22
.12 ...
.21
.09
—
.13
.13
' Each figure is obtained by averaging 2 or 3 consecutive days' specimens.
2 Jan. 23 and Feb. 10.
] 2 Fisher — The Effect of Diet on Endurance.
This tabic shows that all the men excepting E. and M. greatly
reduced their nitrogen excretion during the experiment, and that at
the close (with the two exceptions noted) the men were on about the
same niti'Ogen level as the subjects of Professor Chittenden's exper-
iment, namely, near one-tenth of a gram of nitrogen per kilogram of
body-weight.
Through the kindness of Professor Benedict of Wesleyan Univer-
sity, nitrogen analyses were made in December, 1906, six months
after the close of the experiment, to discover to what extent the men
had adhered to their newly acquired diet after the eating club in
which it had been practiced was disbanded. The results were B.
11.0, Lq. 10.5, Lw. 7.9, M. 9.9, P. 6.8, R. 11.5, T. 11.9, W. 8.9. These
show that half of the men had reverted to some extent toward their
original diets. The men stale that the reason for this reversion was
the difficulty in selecting food differing greatly in kind and amount
from that customarilv served at their boarding houses.
The following table shows that the volume of urine daily excreted
was greatly reduced during the experiment :
TABLE VII.
VOLUiME OF URINE DAILY EXCRETED (in cubic centimeters)
B E Lq Lw M P R T W
Middle Jan. 1435 1160 1130 1391 SIT^ 700 1287 1792 1177
First April 630 985 900 1252 629 1025 930 797
Middle Jime 802 1120 822 785 480 .... 696 970
From this table we see a striking reduction in the volume of urine
excreted, with the same two notable exceptions, E. and M. These
two, who reduced their excretions least, were the men who Avere the
least assiduous in observing the rules of the experiment.
A careful examination of the feces was made by Professor L. F.
Rettger of the Sheffield Scientific School. A summary of his report
follows. In it was included a comparative statement for three sets
of specimens of two days each, taken in January, March and June,
referred to below as series I, II and III. These included data as to
the color, odor, quantity, consistency, approximate determination of
the number and predominant kinds of bacteria, putrefactive and
fermentative properties, and a true microscopic bacterial examination.
In brief, to quote from Dr. Rettger's report and letter :
' Jan. 23 and Feb. 10.
Fisher — The Effect of Diet on Endurance. 13
" The odor was very slight in almost every specimen in the last
series, a marked difference between these and series I and II,
particularly I. The average weight is less than in both series I and
II (av. wt. of series 1= 137.3 grams; of II — 164.8 grams, and
III = 120,4 grams).
" The figures indicate considerable difference in the putrefactive and
fermentative properties of the three series, and the decrease is progres-
sive. In series I the amount of proteid dissolved was much larger
than in II and III. . . The specimens [of series III] were more
solid generally than in both previous series. I was unable to note
any api^reciable difference in the microscopic appearance of the last
series as compared with the previous, except that in specimen B of
the last series a large number of moulds were present. This has little
significance, however."
TABLE VIII. FECAL TESTS'
Putrefactive Deuree Fermentative Property
■Mid.
End
Mid.
Mid.
End
Mid.
Jan.
March
June
Jan.
March
June
B
?
1
8%
+ +
+
+
E
30^
25^
Wc
+ +
+
+
M
mo
\%
15$g
+
+
+
Lq
m%
%
50%
+ +
+
+
Lw
25%
ihfo
t
+ +
+
f
P
20;^
1
1
+,
—
E
30^
m%
t
+ +
+
T
T
20^
1
5%
?
+
+
W
30$^
m
5%
+ +
+
+
We here observe that the degree of putrefaction in the last two
tests was usually considei'ably less than its magnitude in the first
test. The least change in the feces occurred in the cases of Lq., M,
and E., and the greatest changes in P., T. and W. Here again we
find some correspondence between the assiduity of the men and the
observed physiological changes ; for E. and M. were the least and P.
and W. the most careful among the experimenters.
A critic has raised the question whether the improvement in the
feces indicates lessened absorption of poisons, and whether, if the
feces were longer retained, the improvement in their character might
not be in consequence of the abstraction from them and absorption
' In the table, " + " signifies the presence and " — " the absence of fermenta-
tive property ; " + + " I'epresents a high degree of fermentative property ; " ?"
signifies that the putrefactive degree was doubtful, if not absent.
f No specimen.
14 Fisher — The Effect of Diet on Endurance.
into the system of a larger amount of poisons. The length of time of
retention of the feces was not measured in any way. So far as can be
guessed from the impressions of the men, it was not lengthened, cer-
tainly not greatly, as in the case of ]Mr. Fletcher. ' As to the sig-
nificance of the improvement in feces, Dr. Rettger writes :
"The subject of intestinal putrefaction is one of which very little
is as yet known. A retention of feces may have the tendency of
lowering the amount of putrefactive products. This is due, I believe,
to two things : first, an absorption of such products as indol and
mercaptan ; and second, an unusual amount of antagonistic action
exerted on the evil-producing (putrefactive) bacteria by the ordinary
and presumably he]{)ful bactei'ia. Recent work seems strongly to
emphasize the latter point. . . There is nothing to show that a
small degree of retention would make a very great difference.
" The absence of appreciable amounts of putrefactive bodies from
feces under the ordinary conditions of peristalsis does, beyond a
doubt, indicate a lessened i:)roduction of the products (toxines) ; the
system must be the better off on account of this . . . the inter-
pretation of the facts must be dealt with rather cautiously."
The following table shows the body-weights of the men (after
deducting weight of clothing).
TABLE IX.
BODY-WEIGHTS IN POUNDS (without clothing)
B E Lq Lw M P E T W Average
Jan. 14 148 127 147 153 141 144 170 lafi 153 149.8
Mar. 28 144 128 147 154 142 136 176 155 151 148
June 16 138 122 146 149 138 131 175 148 149 144
We see that during the first period, the weights, except of P.,
remained practically stationary, but that in the second period all of
the men lost somewhat in weight, though the loss was trifling in most
cases. The only substantial losses during the two periods combined
were : P. 13 lbs., B. 10 lbs., and T. 8 lbs. Of these it may be said
that B. was distinctly over his normal weight at the start.
The distinct correlation between the loss of weight and the reduction
in food, and to some extent in proteid, has already been noted. P.'s
loss is ascribable largely to overstudy. The general slight reduction
in weight of the entire club is probably explained in the same way,
for all the men, with possibly two exceptions, distinctly overstrained
' See The A. B.-Z. of our own Nutrition.
Fisher — The Effect of Diet on Endurance.
15
in their college work. Besides the influence of overwork, there was
also present the influence of the season, — at least if the common
impression is correct that persons usually lose weight with the
approach of warm weather.
Gymnasium tests were made at the beginning, middle and end of
the experiment. These tests were of two kinds, — tests of strength
and tests of endurance. The times of the tests were widely separated,
partly because those of endurance were too exhausting to be often
repeated, and partly because it was desired to avoid the influence of
"practice"; for not only does practice increase strength and en-
durance, but it also gives the users of the strength-registering
apparatus a facility or "knack" in manipulating it which produces
a false appearance of improvement.
The dates of the three tests were January 14, a week after the end
of the Christmas vacation ; March 28, just before the Easter recess ;
and June 10, ' just before the summer vacation.
Tests of strength, taken at the beginning, middle and end of the
experiment, show the following effects :
R. Grip
L. Grip
i
Date
Jan. 14
. Mch. 28
( Jun. 16
( Jan. 14
- Mch. 28
( Jun. 16
( Jan. 14
Back Lift - Mch. 28
/ Jun. 16
Leg Lift
Total
( Jan. 14
- Mch. 28
( Jun.
(
16
Jan. 14
Mch. 28
Jun. 16
TABLE X.
STRENGTH TESTS (in lbs.)
B E Lq Lw M
100 135 95 98 145
93 130 110 100 112
91 130 110 92 105
94 115 82 112 107
82 115 110 100 105
75 115 97 105 105
275 400 280 340 375
260 440 375 380 275
280 300 290 250 330
520 600 370 400 460
515 600 455 450 410
400 545 440 445 400
989 1250 827 950 1087
950 1285 1050 1030 902
846 1090 937 892 940
P R T W Average
95 132 120 125 116
102 127 130 117 113
103 125 121 115 110
82 131 95 127 105
70 115 106 111 102
70 125 98 110 100
250 360 370 365 335
275 390 400 400 355
265 345 330 364 306
320 820 545 635 519
415 865 570 650 548
300 610 520 650 479
747 1443 1130 1252 1075
862 1497 1206 1278 1118
738 1205 1069 1239 995
In this table we see that during the first period there was a slight
increase in strength (from an average "total" strength of 1076 to
1118), and during the second period a slight fall to 995, which is
about \^io from the mid-year's 1118, and about 8^ from the original
' But May 31 for E., Lw., R. and W., on account of earlier examinations than
the others, necessity to leave town, etc.
16 Fisher— The Bfect of Viet on Endurance.
1076. Tlius tlu- strengtli of the men remained nearly stationary
throujrhout the experiment. Tlie greatest losses were those of B., E.
and R., whose records fell respectively from 989 to 846, 1250 to
1090, and 1443 to 1205.
The loss of strength, like the loss of weight, seems most probably
exi)lainabk' by the overstudy of the men. This cause was certainly act-
ively lit work, and would apply in the case of all of the club with possi-
bly two exceptions. Overstudy applied conspicuously to B. and R,,
l)Oth of whom not only overworked during the entire period of the
experiment, but had, just before coming to the last test, been through
the most exhausting and sleep-robbing week of all. There seems,
therefore, little reason to ascribe any part of the slight losses of
strength to the dietetic experiment itself.
This opinion is confirmed by two facts : One is that the man who
was least affected dietetically by the experiment was E., one of
the three largest losers of strength, while the men who were most
affected dietetically were P. and W., neither of whom lost strength
perceptibly, in spite of P.'s severe overwork and loss of weight. The
other fact is that in Professor Chittenden's experiment, which dietet-
ically was very similar, the subjects, who w'ere soldiers and athletes
and not subject to pressure of work of any kind, showed large gains
in strength. From these two facts we may infer that, so far as the
diet is concerned, the effect would be to increase rather than to
decrease strength.
Changes in Physical Endurance.
It is fortunate that the strength of the men remained so nearl}^
stationary ; for it demonstrates the more clearly that the inci'ease
in endurance which will be shown below was an increase in endur-
ance per se, and not in any degree due to an increase in strength.
Strength and endurance are entirely distinct and should be separately
measured. The strength of a muscle is measured by the utmost force
which it can exert 07ice ; its endurance, by the number of times it
can repeat a given exertion well within its strength.
After much consideration and consultation it was decided not to.
place reliance on the ordinary ergographs as a means of measuring
endurance.' Instead, seven simple gymnastic tests of physical endur-
^ The reasons, in brief, were (1) because these ergographs are adapted to testing
only a few unimportant, and for the most part unused, muscles ; (3) because, in
operating these devices, the subjects do not simulate real work, since the mus-
Fisher — The Effect of Diet on Endurance. lY
ance were employed, and one of mental endurance. The seven phys-
ical tests were :
(1) Rising on the toes as many times as possible.
(2) Deep knee-bending,- or squatting as far as possible and rising to
the standing posture, repeating as often as possible.
(3) While lying on the back, raising the legs fi'om the floor to a
vertical position and lowering them again, repeating to the
point of physical exhaustion.
(4) Raising a 5-lb. dumb-bell (with the triceps) in each hand from
the shoulder up to the highest point above the head, repeating
to the point of physical exhaustion.
(5) Holding the arms from the sides horizontally for as long a time
as possible.
(0) Raising a dumb-bell (with the biceps) in one hand from a position
in which the arm hangs down, up to the shoulder and lower-
ing it again, repeating the motion to the point of physical
exhaustion. This test was taken with four successive dumb-
bells of decreasing weight, viz., 50, 25, 10 and 5 lbs. respectively.
(T) Running on the gymnasium track at a speed to suit the subject,
to as great a distance as possible.
The mental test consisted of adding specified columns of figures
as rapidly as possible, the object being to find out whether the
rapidity of performing such work tended to improve during the
experiment.
From the Avisdom born of experience it may be stated that the
•phj^sical tests were too numerous and too severe. But after they
cles are placed in an awkward and unnatural position in which " no purchase "
is felt ; (3) because experience has shown that subjects waste their effort by
expending it not only while raising but while lowering the weight, and that this
waste during the period of relaxation varies greatly with different subjects ; (4)
because a fixed weight is used instead of a weight proportionate to the different
strengths of the various subjects. One might as well attempt to test the walk-
ing powers of a woman weighing 100 lbs., as compared with those of a man weigh-
ing 200 lbs., by compelling the woman to carry a 100-lb. weight so that she
might walk with the same weight as the man. Some of these objections have
been met in special instruments, such as that of Prof. W. S. Hall of Northwe.st-
ern University.
After the experiment was half over, and too late to make use of it, the writer
devised an ergograph which, it is believed, meets all of the above objections.
He was led to do so by the fact that the tests employed were so frightfully
exhausting to the men. A description of the new ergograph will be published
later. It is to be employed in further tests.
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 2 Mat, 1907.
18 JFisher — llie Effect of B let on Endurance.
were once adopted in January, it was necessary in subsequent tests
to adhere to them, so far at least as always to begin Avith the same
test and follow the same sequence of tests as far as the series was
repeated. It is clear that one's ability to succeed in an individual
test would dej)end greatly on what and how many tests had immedi-
ately preceded ; consequently the only modifications in the January
tests which could legitimately be adopted in ]March consisted in omit-
ting all tests after the first two or three. These first two or three,
being taken under the same conditions as before, reflected correctly
any change in endurance so far as those particular tests were con-
cerned.
At the final series of tests in June, no omissions from the January
l^rogram were made ; to save time, however, the last two parts of
test 6, together with test 7 (which came at the end for all the men),
wers repeated only up to the point at which they had been carried in
January, although the men were able in June to carry them much
further, and in raanj^ cases did so of their own accord. One man, for
instance (W.), who in the run in January was glad to stop at 10
laps, went on in June to 34, running at the same speed until near
the end ; and this was done after having more than doubled his
former records in almost all of the other tests. The unlooked-for
inci'ease in endurance made the June tests much more time-consuming
than the tests in January and March. Had the men in June taken
test 7, and the two last parts of test 6 up to the same fatigue limit
as in January, some of them would have had to remain in the gym-
nasium (supperless) until bed time. One of the men, who in January
in the last two parts of test 6 raised the 10-lb. dumb-bells 318 times
and the 5-lb. dnuib-bells 1,863 times, Avithout doubt could have raised
them in June double and probably treble these numbers, but to have
done so would have consumed of itself an hour and a half of extra
time.
In view, therefore, of the only partial repetition of test V and the
last two parts of test 6, these records are omitted from Table XI.
The first part of test 6 (liftuig the 50-lb. dumb-bell) is also omitted,
being given separately below.
The following table (XI) shows the results of the three sets of tests
in January, March and June.' This table will repay careful study.
^ The order in which the tests were taken was not the same for all of the nine
men, owing to the lack of a sufficient number of gymnasium assistants in taking
the tests. But care was taken that each man should himself i^reserve the same
order in all three series of tests. Thus, for the March series he took the first two
Fisher — The Effect of Diet on Endurance. 19
From it we see that with one exception (E.) all of the men had im-
proved in the March and June tests as compared Avith the January
tests, and the eight men who did improve showed improvement in
ever}^ test, except Lq., Lw. and T., who showed slight falling off in
individual cases.
As inspection will show, some of the increases are remarkable.
The recorded increases in the 60 odd cases were, with a few excep-
tions noted below, all true increases and not due to increased effort
to break a previous record. In anticipation of such possible effect
of ambition, the men were urged in the January tests to the utmost
limit they could or would stand. The original intention had been to
work each muscle tested until it was physically unable to repeat the
motion, but thi§ was not usually found practicable, except in tests 3, 4
and 6, and in some cases 2. In the other tests the will gave out before
the muscles. The March and June tests were so managed that when
a man had surpassed his January record he was not allowed to pro-
ceed beyond the degree of fatigue which he had reached in the first
test. This was usually not a difficult matter, as the fatigue in
January had been excessive and the men had no desire to suffer
again the painful after-effects. Hence, with the exceptions to be
noted, the March and June records not only exceeded those of Jan-
uary, but were accomplished with much less fatigue. The actual
improvement was therefore greater than the recorded improvement.
or three tests which he had taken in January. This explains why, in the Mai'ch
series, the tests as shown in the tables ai*e not the same for all the men. The
order of the January and June tests for the different men is given below. The
tests which were taken in March are in italics.
B
1
2
3
4
5
E
1
2
3
4
5
Lq
1
2
4
3
5
Lw
1
2
3
4
5
M
1
5
2
3
4
P
3
1
5
2
4
R
1
2
3
4
5
T
1
2
3
4
5
W
3
5
1
2
4
20 Fisher — Th<; Efect of Diet on Endurance.
TABLE XI.
TESTS OF PHYSICAL ENDURANCE.
B E Lq Lw M P R T W
( Rising Jan. 300 1007 333' 69 • 127 1482 702 900 1263
(1)- on Mar. 400'^ 1265' 2620^ 65' 400' .... 831= 1500* ....
/ Toes June 500- 1061' 3000" 85^ 1500"' 1800= 1263^ ISOO* 3350^
( Deep Jan. 82 142 70 48 132 208 374 129 404
(2)- Knee Mar. ... ... 191' 47'
( Bending June 200^ 81' 202= 58' loo^ 230= 453' 250* 508*
( T Jan. 25« 52« 9^ 22* 30« 27« 50« 23« 30"
(3)-^ 15 ^^' Mar. ... 336 _ 346 406
( i*ai«i"g Jxane 33" 38 « 20" 35" 31" 37« 103 « 19" 53 «
( 5-lb. Jan. 75 « 138 « 78 « 38 « 51" 44 « 100 « 83 « 185 «
(4) -^ Dumb-bell Mar. ... ... 106« ._. ... ...
( (triceps) June 127" 59 « 80" 51" 75" 56" 104" 101" 501"
MS MS M S M S MS MS MS MS MS
f Holding Jan. 5- 0 1-33 4- 7 3-37 3-30 5-39 2- 5 3-22 11- 0
(5)^ Arms Mar 5-49 15-35
[-Horizontal Ji;ne 9-36" 2-56' 3-50' 3- 0' 6- 5 10-1* 3-16' 3-24' 23-45'
,«, i T. "'V^ 11 Jan. 50" 18" 16" 6" 20" 11" 10" 25" 54"
] (bice s) ^"""^ 105" 10" 26" 33" 30" 29" 27 » 75 ^ 108 ^
Criticism of Mecords of Physical Endurance.
That the fatigue after the March and June tests was in general
much less than after the January test was made evident by three
substantial proofs. The first was the feelings of the men themselves
as recorded in the foot-notes to Table XI. After the March and J une
tests, every man of the eight who showed improvement felt " not
tired," or " less tired than in January test," which is the same as
saying "not exhausted"; or else he had gone " to limit" as in Jan-
uary, which means that the muscle itself refused to continue work.
The last was usually true of the "leg-raising," "raising 5-lb. dumb-
bell (triceps)" and "raising 25-lb. dumb-bell (biceps)". The o\\]y tests
in which there was the possibility of being mistaken as to the degree
of fatigue were the "rising on toes" and "holding arms horizontal."
In the former fatigue comes so slowly, and in the latter the pain is
so intense that they prove to be tests of will power or "grit " quite as
^ Cramped.
= Not as" tired as in January test.
^ Not to limit.
* Not nearly as tired as in January test.
* Not tired.
" To limit of muscle's eapacity.
' About same fatigue as in January,
Fisher — The Fffect of Diet on Endurance. 21
much as of muscle power. In these cases the men had some difficulty
in remembering the original degree of fatigue. But the increases
were so great and the men were so positive as to their feelings that
there remains little room to doubt the substantial correctness of the
results. In a few other individual cases, as of Lw. and Lq., whose
records in test 1 were sometimes stopped by cramps, there is some
room for doubt as to the correctness of the recorded improvement.
The second proof that tlie fatigue of the men in the June tests was
less than that in the January tests was found in the fact that the
stiffness and soreness which followed in June were markedly less
than in January and of much shorter duration. This Avas true of all
the eight men who showed improvement, except R.
The third proof of less fatigue in June than in January for the
eight men is that in June the men finished the ordeal of the endurance
tests with more strength left than in January, although, as we saw
from Table X, they began the two tests with slightly less strength.
The fact that they had more strength left after the June test is made
evident by the first part of test 6, given below, which in each case
came after the endurance tests were nearly or quite finished. This
consisted in lifting a 50-lb. dumb-bell. The weight being so great,
this was practically a test of strength rather than of endurance.
Now all of the eight men who showed improvement in the endurance
tests of Table XI, showed improvement in this strength test also, as
the following table shows :
TABLE XII.
LIFTING (by biceps) 50-lb. DUMB-BELL. ^
B
E
Lq
Lw
M
p
R
T
W
Jan.
03
13
13
03
13
03
43
33
133
Jime
13
03
53
83
133
13
10 3
132
26 3
Bnt, as we have seen in Table X, the strength tests taken before
the endnrance tests showed a slight falling off in June as compared
with Januar}?^ for all but one (Lq.) of these eight men. In other words,
in June the men began their endurance tests weaker than in Jan-
uary, but finished them stronger. The larger residuum of strength
•^ This part of test 6, being one of strength rather than of endnrance, was not
included in the endurance Table XI. Had it been included it would have
increased even more the percentage of improvement shown, for it shows an
average increase from 2.4 to 8.4, or 250^.
2 Not to limit.
3 To limit of muscle's capacity.
22 FtsJier — I'lu Ejf'ect of Diet on Ev durance.
left after the June tests as compared with the Janiiar}' tests indicates
that the June tests, in si)ite of being far more severe, fatigued the
men less.
The 50-lb. dumb-bell test resolved the last doubts in my own mind
whether, for some of the men, the recorded results might not exag-
gerate the true improvement. The two men of whose records I
should have felt a little doubt were B. and R. Both of them came
to the June test after prolonged mental exertion, and their exhaustion
at the end was far more evident than that of any of the others. That it
was great is clear from their own statements given below, though
onh^ R. reported himself as having been about as stiff and sore after
the June as after the January tests. But both B. and R., whereas
they had less strength (Table X) before the June endurance tests
than before the January tests, had more strength left (Table XII)
after the June tests than after the January tests. At the close of
the January tests they were so exhausted that B. could not raise
the 50-lb. dumb-bell at all and R. could raise it onl}- 4 times. Had
their exhaustion after the June tests been as great, it seems certain
that B. would still have been unable to raise it, and R, would have
been unable to raise it more than 4 times ; but as it was, B. raised
it once and R. 10 times.
The value of such a positive proof that the June tests were more
easily endured than those of January was not perceived until the
figures were analj^zed. Had it occurred to me in time, all the strength
tests taken before the endurance tests would have been repeated after
them. It is true that the strength tests at the beginning were not
of the same muscles as those (the biceps) used in the strength test by
dumb-bells at the end, but, as Table X shows, the strengths of different
muscles for the most part vary in unison wnth each other.'
It is significant that the ox^y ^ii^^i whose. strength, as shown by the
above table, was less at the close of the June experiuient than at the
close of the January experiment was E., who was also the onl^^ man
whose endurance showed any reduction. The facts, therefore, in his
case are not discordant with those already stated ; for, as has been
stated, E.was the least assiduous in following the experiment. This was
' Out of the 108 comparisons of strength (i. e. , comparisons for each of nine
men in each of four tests for January vs. March, March vs. June, and January
vs. June), only 20 are discordant with the general trend as shown by the totals.
Thus, for B. the general trend between March and June as shown by the total
was downward, and this downward trend is found in all but one of his four tests
the discordant case being the "back lift."
.Fisher — 71ie Effect of Diet on Endurance. 23
often remarked, both to him and to me, by the other members of the
club, and it was suggested more than once that I should "nudge"
liim. But, as I had been desiring a "control," or a subject in wliich
all the conditions except mastication were the same as for the other
men, I decided to say nothing. The result was instructive, for E.'s
case stood out as exceptional in almost all respects. His reduction
in quantity of food (Table III), except for a spurt at the end, was
less than of most of the men ; his reduction in proteid (Table IV),
with the same exception, was the least of all ; his reduction in
<,uantity of flesh foods (Table V) was the least of all ; his nitrogen in
June (Table VI) was one of the highest ; his reduction in volume of
urine (Table VII) was one of the lowest two ; his improvement
in the fecal tests (Table VIII) was third to lowest ; his loss of
strength (Table X) was second greatest ; and as to endurance, he
was the only one who failed to show improvement.
There was only one other man, M., who was thought, though in a
smaller degree, to masticate less carefully than the experiment called
for ; and for him we find corresponding peculiarities, though in a
smaller degree. Thus, his reduction in total daily food (Table III)
was less than of most of the men ; his reduction in proteid (Table
IV) was less than the average reduction ; his reduction in flesh
foods (Table V) was the third smallest ; his June nitrogen was the
highest (Table VI) ; his reduction in quantity of urine (Table VIl)
was one of the lowest two ; his improvement in fecal test (Table VIII)
was second to lowest ; his loss of strength (Table X) was the third
greatest (or fourth, if measured in percentage) ; and his increase in
endurance, though great, was (except in test 1, which is subject to
some doubt) less than the average.
The shortcomings of these two men, E. and M., as to mastication
were not intentional, but due to carelessness and force of habit, as
well as, in the case of M., to the fact that he waited on table and felt
naturally more pressed for time. Their experience is valuable in
showing that, in a general way, the changes in diet and endurance
were proportionate to the thoroughness of mastication and the follow-
ing of natural appetite.
The men kept diaries in which are recorded their sufferings after
the various tests. These show a decided lessening in stiffness and sore-
ness in the later tests, though in the June tests the men had generally
done double the amount of work that they had done in January. It
would have been a physical impossibility to do as much in January
as was easily accomplished in June in tests 3, 4 and 6 ; and granted
24 Fisher — Tlie Ejfect of Diet on Endurance.
that it had been even possible in January to goad the men to do as
much in tests 1, 2 and 5 as they did without urging in June, they
must certainly have been ill.
The following are statements from the men themselves :
Personal Impressions at end of Experiment.
(B) I was -"e?7/ sore [after the June test, Saturday, June 16, 1906]'
However, 1 think the soreness was not so severe or lasting as it was
after the January test. The muscles of my right arm were swollen
considerably and I Avas unable to straighten it for two or three
days. But the swelling was not so severe as it was after the
earlier test and the arm was much more usable. The muscles of the
thighs were the sorest ; they were nearly worn out. During Sunday,
Monday and Tuesday after the test I had difficulty in walking ; and
going down stairs Avas quite a difficult and severe undertaking.
Wednesday morning the soreness had not left, though it had de-
creased considerably. I took a considerable tramp that day, and by
night I coidd scarcely feel the soreness at all. By Thursday I had
practically regained my normal endurance ; walked six or seven
miles that day. The calf-muscles too Avere quite sore, but much less
so than after the January test. There was another particular dis-
tinction. After the earlier test the calf-muscles were hard and
knotted for several days ; but this time, Avhile they were sore, they
Avere almost normally soft. Saturday evening Avhen I Avent to bed
they Avere quite hard, but Sunday morning they AA'ere normal and
practically remained so. . . .
I have no doubt that in my case there Avas great increase in
endurance, though I think that I lost in amount of energy that I
could exert at any given moment. This loss is due perhaps to two
things ; (1) I took, on the Avhole, less exercise than during the time
preceding the January test ; (2) I had been working quite hard for
three months steadily, Avhile the January test followed a three weeks'
vacation during which I did little or nothing. As to increase of
endurance there can be no doubt. ' For example, in the deep knee-
bending, I began to get tired at 50 and had no idea of going above
100. When I reached this I set my goal at 125, then 150, 160, and
was able to reach 200 before I was exhausted. In January', after I
Avas tired I Avas not able to go on very long before I became com-
pletely exhausted. This shows increased endurance. I had the
same experience in the other hard physical tests. In case of the run,
I Avas sure I could not go more than three laps after my iirst lap ;
Fisher — The Effect of Diet on Endurance. 25
but I made 11 or 12 and could have ifone several more. Considerinsr
everything, I have no doubt that I was able to hang on much longer,
after I began to get tired, ihan in January.
I am at a loss to ascribe the increased endurance to anything else
than to the diet. M}'- way of living otherwise continued about the
same after the Januar^^ test as it was before. . . . Personally I
am convinced that the increased endurance must be due to diet and
manner of eating ; all other factors that I can think of are unfavor-
able rather than favorable to. more endurance. I am convinced to
the extent that I shall certainlv continue " Fletcherizing" and usino-
a low-proteid diet.
(E) All effects of [June] test disappeared entirely Avithin four
days. [Effects of January test lasted six days.]
(Lq) The stiffness and soreness had entirely disappeared in four
days. It was not nearly so severe as the test in January. After I
was through in January I could hardly go down the stairs of the
Gymnasium, and three days after the test going up and down stairs
was accompanied with a great deal of pain. ... I was stupid
mentally for a whole week the first time, but in the last test I passed
that stage in a couple of days. . . . Had it not been for the late
hours and long stretches of work, I should have been able to make a
better comparison Avitli conditions in January, though as it was
results show improvement. . . .
I cannot say as to the help mentally I have derived, for I have,
always gone to my limit and I would be unwilling to make any posi-
tive statement. As for the physical, I know there is an improve-
ment there, for my stomach, which was never so very strong, has
been gi-eatly helped.
(Lw) There was no stiffness or soreness felt in the triceps or the
stomach muscles as the result of the last tests. The thieh muscles
were a little stiff on the second day only — about such stiffness as one
might expect from a long walk. The calves of my legs began to
stiffen on Friday [June 15, 1906, the day after the test] and continued
to do so on Saturda}', after which the stiffening began to lessen, and was
scarcely felt on Monday. The biceps of my right arm gave me the
most trouble. These were sore on Frida}' A. M. and continued to
increase in soreness till Sunday evening, feeling Avorst, however,
Sunday A. M. When I arose Mondav A. M. all the soreness and
stiffness had disappeared. A peculiarity about the latter whicli im-
pressed me was the fact that although my arm was very sore it did
not seem to be v^ry stiff. After the tests in January I could not
26 Fisher — The Ejfect of Diet on End urn nee.
straighten my arm, Imt I could after the last tests in spite of the
extreme soreness. I had entirel}' recovered by Monday from the
tests. At no time after the tests did I feel any pain in proceeding
up and down stairs, and if I remember rightly I couldn't sa}' the same
in January; neither did I feel particularly uncomfortable at any time.
After the half-mile run and the lifting tests which I took later, I felt
no soreness or stiffness afterward.
I think the credit must be given to the diet experiment. I have
worked harder from January to June than ever before, and have taken
less exercise. As my mental work was so different from that previous,'
I cannot form an estimate of an}- increase or decrease in efficiency,
but as I have said before, I always rested up more quickh\ During
tlie spring I have not felt that "all gone feeling" which usually has
ap])eared in the past. The diet which we have had has relieved me
of the sour stomach after meals, and I have felt better and worked
harder on less exercise than ever before. . . . After a moderate
amount of exercise, I have felt no such stiffness as used to come.
(M) The stift'ness and soreness were entirely worn off in two
days. I did not feel it nearly as much as I did last January. In fact,
I did not exert myself to the utmost this last time because I had sev-
eral examinations to take a dav or two later.
My general impression is that the experiment was an all around
benefit to me. I fully believe that during the tests, they reflected
the true state of the case in showing my efficiency in June compared
with that in January, I believe that there was a decided improve-
ment in efficienc}^ and could ascribe it partly to my exercise and the
other part to the new manner of eating, I believe, however, that my
exercise played a ver^' small part because I think what I gained in
exercise I lost in sickness [mumps],
^\x exercise this year was practically the same as years preceding.
After April 1st I had very little exercise, on account of the mumps.
This left me in a weak condition over a month, I had lots of woi"k
. to make up and studied harder from April to June than anv other
]»eriod of my course. My exercise was neglected these three months
and I studied almost constanth' every day and until 12 at night.
My experience has shown me that I was at my best in mind and
body when I ate meat four times a week. I have tried both more and
less and found the above to be the medium. I also found that I could
do more when I had the largest meal at noon. The greatest benefit
of the experiment to me ])ersonally is that last year I broke down in
the spring term and this spring I kept up my work and health in a
much better condition.
Fisher — The Effect of Diet on Endurance. 27
(1*) I went into the second test witli some trepidation, knowing
tliat I had lost considerable weight the preceding ten weeks.
Physicall}', I cannot say that I felt stronger before the second test
than before the first ; nor did I feel weaker. As the test developed,
however, I soon saw that my endurance, both mental and physical,
had increased.
Generally speaking, the soreness was less extensive, less trying or
acute, and (I think) shorter-lived than in Januar}'. ... It seems
to rae, as 1 finished the test much fresher than in January, a clear
gain in efficiency is proven. The test seemed certainly to make a
true report. . .
I can ascribe gain in endurance to nothing but the diet and thor-
ough mastication. Every other factor in the situation was against
this gain — exercise, of which T took certainly no more than usual
and in the latter weeks much less ; work, of which I had had a long,
hard pull as against the three weeks' rest preceding the January
test ; sleep, much decreased for most of May and June. You stated
last December that you wished ever}^ factor to be in favor of the
first test and against the second. This condition has been true in
high degree for my case. . . Whatever the efficacy of the two
tests in proving the superiority of low proteid and thorough masti-
cation for the other members of the club, I feel convinced that they
prove that superiority with considerable force in my own case.
I have tried meat and chicken a number of times in the last two
weeks, partly from curiosity and partly from necessity. But in every
case anticipation has been pleasanter than realization, and vlv^ low-
proteid tendencies bid fair to remain for some time to come. I may
say that I had no opinion on the diet question when the experiment
started, but am now a hearty low-proteid exponent.
I went into the test with considerable foreboding as to my endur-
ance showing ; for I have Avorked now without a break for twenty-
two weeks at hard mental labor, the last two weeks being especially
confining and involving large losses of sleep and exercise. I may
say that I have been unusually well for six or eight weeks, and
bowels have been running with greater ease and constancy than for
several years, . . The end iirance-tests, showing a good increase
in every test, consequently came as a complete surprise ; and my
self-confidence, largely absent at the start, returned in increasing
measure as the test went on. . ,
Thursday, June 21 [5 days after test]. Played golf this morning
and afternoon (9 holes each time) with perfect ease, no difficulty
28 Fisher — Jlie Effect of Diet on Endurance.
with walking or driving tlic l)all. Soreness wholly gone at present
writing, no touch of it noticeable anywhere.
(R) The outcome of the last endurance test was about the same
as the one held January 14, 1906. I was feai'fully sore for about one
week, reaching the climax at the middle of the week.
(T) '{''hroughout the test I passed from one event to another
with much shorter periods between than I did in January. With the
exception of lying on my back and raising my feet, I at no time ap-
proached as near exhaustion as I did in Januar3% In Januar}^, in rising
on my toes and in the deep knee-bending, I continued till I fell to
the floor. I was not exhausted at the close [of the June test], but
marked papers for 2^ hours before going to bed. Sunday I scarcely
felt anj^ the worse, though my muscles felt a little queer when I poked
my finger into them. Monday m^^ leg muscles were a little stiff
after a period of rest, but not painful in the least. My right shoulder
was a trifle lame, due wholly I think to hitting it once in a while in
the last test with the 10 and 5;lb. weights. My right arm at the
elbow was decidedly lame and would not admit of being completely
straightened, though it was undoubtedly better than in January.
By Tuesday all the other stiffness had practically left me except the
right elbow, which was, however, better. By Thursday I was unable
to detect any soreness whatever in any part.
(W) May 31. After the test I felt fairly tired and ready to quit
— however, not nearly so exhausted as before in January. Could
walk down stairs with more confidence and could raise my supper to
my mouth much more easily than after the first test. . . . The
results certainly far surpassed any expectation I had, especially as
in the morning I did not feel quite as spry and active as usual, due
to a little unusual over-exertion the previous day.
June 1. Sore in thighs and biceps, also felt my abdominal muscles.
June 2. Expected to be much worse on this the second daj^, as in
January, but not so. About same as yesterday. Later in the day
could run up-stairs two steps at a time as I could yesterday— a thing
undreamed of in January for over a week after the test.
June 3. Felt pretty well today, much improved over yesterday,
still felt my thighs in walking down hill or down stairs, but not
nearly as bad as yesterday.
June 4. Feel my thighs only very little, other muscles not felt at
all. Rode a bic^^cle 5^ miles ; did not feel it.
•Tune 5. Seem to be all well, haven't noticed a soreness all day.
Fisher — The Effect of Diet on Endurance. 29
The following table expresses the percentage of improvement in
the records of Table XI.
TABLE XIII.
IMPROVEMENT IN PHYSICAL ENDURANCE IN PERCENTAGES.
\
B
E
Lq
Lw
M
P
R
T
W
<i) \ \Z.-
-Mar.
-June
33 +
66 +
36 ±
686-
800-
-5±
23 +
315 +
1081 +
"21 +
18 +
79 +
66 +
100 +
165 +
..,s S Jan.
^^> ]Jau.
-Mar.
-June
144 +
-43 ±
172 ±
188 +
-2 +
21 +
"17 +
"16 +
'21 +
"94 +
"26 +
..T, S Jan.
-Mar.
-June
'33
-37
122-
50
59
"•"3
26
37
106
-17
33
77
iA\ i Jan.
^^^ ^Jau.
-Mar.
-June
"69
-57
36
2
"34
'47
"27
'"4
"33
170
.-, \ Jan.
'•'^ iJan.
-Mar.
-June
'92-
"89 ±
"-7±
-17 +
66 +
74 +
"77 +
"56 +
"'i±
43 +
115 +
(6) \ Jan.
-June
110
-44
62
450
50
163
170
200
100 +
A i Jan.
^^- ] Jan.
-Mar.
-June
33 +
85 ±
26 ±
-13±
298 +
194±
14 +
95 +
140 +
312 +
26
56 +
18 +
73 +
66 +
66 +
37 +
109 +
In the preceding table most of the figures are succeeded by a " + ",
which signifies that the true improvement was greater than the
figures indicate. Thus, the first entry in Table XIII, " 33 + ", means
that B.'s improvement between January and March in test (I)
(rising on toes) was more than 33^. Similai'ly, "686- "for Lq. in
same test means that improvement was less than 686,'^. Again,
"215+ "for M.'s same test signifies that his improvement in this
test may have been greater or less than 215^. Finally, when any
figure is not followed by a sign, as for instance, B.'s (3) (leg raising),
the meaning is that the figure given is, humanly speaking, correct.
This accuracy applies only to those tests in which the muscles were
worked till they were physicalh'" unable to repeat the movement.
The reasons for the various suflixes may be found by studying the
foot-notes of Table XI.'
^ For instance the " + " after 33 for B.'s (1) is explained by the fact (as indi-
cated in the foot-note to Table XI) that after his March test he was not as fatigued
as after his January test, although he had improved upon his January record
by 33^. The only cases in which the explanation of the suffixes will not be
found from the foot-notes to Table XI are the following: E.'s (1), 36 + , in
which case the " — " is inserted owing to the fact that E. had come to the March
test after the refreshment of a nap ; and M.'s (1), 1081 + , in which case the " — "
is inserted owing to the fact that this high figure is inconsistent with the other
results of the test, it being thought that M. may have been mistaken in his
30 Fisher — 7^7/6 Effect of Diet on Endurance.
The t:il)k' .shows enormous differences in the figures even of the
same man for the same period. Tlius, the June improvement of
\V. reads 165 +, 20 4- , 77, 17o, 11 5 ±, 100 + . Such wide differences
between the improvements in different tests seem puzzling at first,
but they are explained, partly if not wholly, by two reasons. The
first is the obvious one that many of the figures are not exact records,
but understatements, and naturally their margin within the truth
will vary widely. Thus, the records for deep knee-bending (2) for
W. show merely that the improvement is ooer 26^c ; the true figure
may well be 100^, which would be more consistent with the other
figures. But the deep knee-bending test had been found in January
very painful and inconvenient in its after-effects, and there was there-
fore less inclination in the June tests to approach closely to the limit
in this particular test.
The other reason is that in some tests a larger fraction of the total
strength of the muscle tested was called into play than in others.
Thus, "leg raising" requires a very large fraction of the strength of
the abdominal muscles, while "rising on toes" requires only a small
fraction of the strength of the calf muscles. This may explain why,
in general, the improvement in the test of the calf muscles seemed
so much greater than in that of the abdominal muscles. This expla-
nation is, however, purely hypothetical. It would be interesting to
find out experimentall}^ how much an improvement in the endurance
of a muscle shows itself when it is exerted in different degrees, sa}' to
Ibfc, oOfi and 25^ of its strength-capacity.'
Bearing in mind these two possible reasons for the variations in the
figures, and also the fact that there must have been more or less actual
differences in the improvement of different muscles, we need not be
surprised at the disparities which the table shows.
If we omit the cases in which the records are at all doubtful (with
suffix ±) or exaggerated (suffix — ), we have left the following table
for the eight men who showed improvement :
remembrance of his January test. The " — " has been inserted whenever there
was the slightest groimd of any kind for thinking the figures might be overstate-
ments. With these figures weeded out, the remaining ones certainly understate
the actual improvement.
' The original object of using the graded dnmb-bells, oO-lb., 25-lb., 10-lb.,
and 5-lb. , for testing the biceps, was to throw light on this problem ; bnt for
reasons previously stated, these tests were not fully carried ont.
Fisher — The Effect of Diet on Endurance. 31
TABLE XIV.
PERCENTAGE OF IMPEOVEMENT (exact or understated)
OF EIGHT MEN.
B
Lq
Lw
M
P
R
T
W
(1)
Jan. -Mar.
Jan. -June
;53 +
66 +
..-
..-
...
'21 +
18 +
79 +
66 +
100 +
165 +
(2)
/ Jan. -Mar.
t Jan. -June
144 +
188 +
---
"17 +
"10 +
...
'94 +
'26 +
(3)
\ Jan. -Mar.
( Jan. -June
':'52
---
50
59
"3
26
37
106
-17
33
77
(4)
\ Jan. -Mar.
( Jan. -June
'69
36
3
'34
'47
"27
""4
'22
170
(•5)
j Jan. -Mar.
/ Jan. -June
---
---
---
---
77 +
...
..-
...
(6)
-[ Jan. -June
no
62
450
50
163
170
200
100 +
Av.
j Jan. -Mar.
] Jan. -June
33 +
84 +
36
84 +
50
181
"29 +
26
56 +
18 +
89 +
66 +
80 +
33
107 +
The figures of Table XIV show an imdoubted increase in endur-
ance, both for the first half and more especially for the Avhole
period of the experiment.
But, for an accurate presentation, we ma^^ carr}^ our criticism one
stage further. The figures given hitherto represent a conglomerate
sort of endurance, made up of endurance of different muscles subject
to different degrees of strain. As pointed out before, the calf mus-
cles were called upon for only a small fraction of their strength-
capacit}^ whereas the abdominal muscles were called upon for a very
large fraction. Moreover, the fraction must have varied somewhat
in different tests, according lo the variation in strength and. weight.
An ideal test would be one in which the same fraction of strength,
was used. '
Fortunately, such an exact test is afforded by the 25-lb. dumb-
bell. It followed immediatelv after the 50-lb. dumb-bell had been
I'aised until the biceps was unable to repeat the motion. At the
moment the 50-lb. test ended, the 25-lb. test began. At this moment
the strength of the biceps was just at or barely below the fifty lbs.
required to raise the heavier dumb-bell. In other words, in raising the
25-lb. dumb-bell the muscle needed just fifty per cent, of its strength
at the time the test began. The use of the 25-lb. dumb-bell grad-
ually reduced this strength from 50 to 25 lbs. The test was there-
^ It is on this principle that the new ergograph, before referred to, is con-
structed.
32 J'lxlier — Tlie Effect of Diet on Endurance.
fore j)t'ifectly uniform for all the men ; it showed how many con-
tractions were necessary in each case to bring down the strength of
the biceps from 50 to 25 ; it showed how much the muscle could
endure before being robbed, by fatigue, of half its strength. Thus at
the beginning the strength is 50 lbs.; after the first contraction it is,
say, 49 ; after the second, 48, etc. But the contractions continue until
the strength sinks below 25 lbs. The loss of strength may be said to
measure fatigue. The sloioness of this loss may be said to measure
endurance and is well indicated by the number of contractions
necessary to tire a muscle from a strength of 50 lbs. to a strength of
25 lbs.
Four exceptions, however, need to be noted. Three men, B., Lw.
And P., wei'e unable in January to raise the 50-lb. dumb-bell at all
(see Table XII). Consequently their January test with the 25-lb,
dumb-bell did not begin at 50^ of the strength, but at a higher frac-
tion. This explains their high apparent improvement. Thus, Lw. is
credited Avith an im])rovement of 450fc, because in January he could
raise the 25-lb. dumb-bell only 6 times, and in June, 33 times.
But the 33 contractions in June began at just 50^^^ of the strength of
the muscle, owing to its pi"evious exhaustion to the 50-lb. level by
the 50-lb. dumb-bell, whereas the six contractions in January besfan
at a higher level; for at that time the biceps could not raise the
50-lb. dumb-bell at all. Its strength was at that time less than 50
lbs., say 40 lbs., in which case the lifting of the 25-lb. dumb-bell
required not 50^^^ but Q2^'fc of its strength. To compare a 50^ test of
June with a 62^^ test in January gives a record of improvement
which is not one of pure endurance, but which includes the element
of increased strength. This is " endurance " in the crude sense in
which we may say a man has more endurance for carrying trunks
than a boy ; but for a comparison of pure endurance, the boy should
be given smaller trunks to handle than the man.
The fourth case is E., to whom the reverse reasoning applies. In
June when he reached test 6, he was unable to raise the 50-lb. dumb-
bell at all, though in January he had raised it once. Hence, while
the 25-lb. dumb-bell was a 50^ test in January, it was a more
severe one in June, and the -44,^^ which records his falling off does
not represent a pure loss in endurance, but partly also a loss of
strength. To reckon /?w/-e endurance we need to bring -44 up toward
zero.
Making the four omissions just mentioned, we may use the remain-
ing records from the last line of Table XIII, as a barometer of 2>ure
endurance.
Fisher — The Effect of Diet on Endurance. 33
We therefore have three methods of estimating the increase of
endurance between January and June. These may be put tosfether
in the following table :
TABLE XV.
PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE OF ENDURANCE, JANUARY TO JUNE.
BY THREE METHODS.
B E Lq Lw M P R T W
Vtest? \ ^^± ~^'^± 1^^± ^^± ^l'^± ^^+ "^'^i 66 ± 109 ±
Omittins; )
doiibtful )■ 84+ -.. 84+181 29+ 56+89+ 80+ 107 +
cases " + " )
"Pure" )
endurance - --- --- 62 ... 50 ... 170 200 100 +
of biceps )
The first line of this table tells us the averao-e of the recorded im-
provement in endurance shown for each man. But as each such aver-
age is made up from the figures of Table XIII, some of which, as
indicated in that table, are possibly too high, some doubt necessai'ily
attaches to it, though practically the only real cases of doubt are
Lq. and M. The average of these averages is 101^ for the entire
club, and is probably within the truth ; for most of the individual
figures which go to make up this result are understatements, not
overstatements.
The second line shows the average improvement in tests in which
there is no doubt that the figure is at least not too high, though it
may be too low. The avei'age of these is 89^, and is therefore cer-
tainly too low an estimate of the average improvement for the eight
men who improved at all.
The third line shows the increase of pure endurance (that is, en-
durance considered apart from strength) for the five men for whom
the figures were available. The average of these is 11 Bf,?'.
We are quite safe in saying therefore that the average improvement
of the eight men who improved was 90^. As to the degree of retro-
gression of E., it is diflicult to say, though it is believed that the fig-
ures exaggerate it. This is certainly true of the 25-lb. dumb-bell test,
for reasons given. My own impression, and E.'s also, is that he actually
gained in endurance from the dietetic experiment, but that his gain
was not enough to offset the loss occasioned by (1) the hard term's
work, which, as in the case of the other men, was a decided handicap,
and (2) the omission of his customary exercises, which must have
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 3 May, 1907.
34 Fisher — The Effect of Diet on Endurance.
been a greater handicap in bis ease tlian in any other of tlie men ;
for lie liad been accustomed for six years to heavy gymnasium train-
ing, but during tlie year of the experiment this training was given
up, largely because of the difficulty in findiijg time for it. If this
interpretation is correct, we may liken the experiment to nine men try-
ing to swim against a current. The eight who exerted themselves
the most succeeded in forging ahead ; the one Avho tried the least
drifted backward, though the effect of the swimming (dieting) was to
propel him forward. Whether or not E. was actually propelled for-
ward by diet must remain a matter of conjecture or inference ; but
that the other eight men gained is an established fact.
Changes in Mental Eitlurance.
The mental test consisted in adding a specified number of figures.
The following tables show the time during which the addition was
performed and the number of errors committed :
TABLE XVI.
TIME OF PERFORMING A UNIFORM AMOUNT OF ADDITION.
B E Lq Lw M P R T W Average
M S M S M S M S M S MS M S M S M S M S
Time ( Jan. 14 5 40 4 49 6 15 4 54 6 46 3 1 7 6 6 41 4 6 5 29
of \ Mar. 28 5 16 4 27 4 35 4 15 5 47 2 43 6 32 7 18 4 34 5 3
adding ( i June 16 4 50 5 9 4 40 4 23 5 50 2 58 7 3 6 5 4 7 5 0
This shows that during the fii'st period seven had improved and
two had fallen off, and on an average there had been a decrease from
5m. 29s. to 5m, 3s., an average improvement of 26s. W. showed an
increase in time of adding, although he would naturally have been
expected to improve on account of having taken up clerical Avork
involving adding.
During the second period there was an average improvement of
only 3s. ; three retrogressed 15s. to 42s., three retrogressed 3s. to 8s.,
and three improved 26s. to 73s. The fact that the men held their
own in the June adding test is probabl}'^ indicative of actual improve-
ment, for they were fatigued mentall}^ by examinations, etc., on the
day when they entered the June test. During the entire experiment
there was an average improvement of 29s. ; seven had improved and
two had retrogressed (Is. and 20s.)
'E., Lw., R. and W. taken on May 31.
Fisher — The Effect of Diet on Endurance. 35
The following table shows that the number of errors committed
Avas remarkably constant for most of the men and for the average :
TABLE XVII.
NUMBER OF ERRORS OF ADDITION.
B E Lq Lw M P R T W Average
(Jan. 14 10 8 12 4 1 1 2 1 1 4.4
Errors \ Mar. 28 16 5 8 4 3 0 8 2 I 4. G
( June 16 8 13 5 4 2 16 0 2 4.5
The adding test Avas too short to be of great value. In future
tests a larger number of figures will be employed, and a diiferent
method. After the specified amount of adding has been done, it
will be at once repeated on another equivalent set of examples. The
excess of time required for the second set over that required for the
first may be called the " fatigue time," and this fatigue time, taken
as a percentage of the total time of adding, may be used as a criterion
of endurance— the less it is, the greater the endurance, and vice
versa. This j^Ian w^as developed too late to be put into operation at
the beginning of the experiment. It Avas, however, employed in the
March and June tests, and confirmed the conclusion reached above,
that there was little difference between the mental endurance in
March and June. Five of the men showed a less "fatigue time " in
June than in March, and four a greater.
The following statements of the men themselves will show that
their feelings as to working power were in harmony with the conclu-
sion that it had improved :
Subjective Impressions as to 3Iental Working Poioer.
B. (March) " Not decreased at any rate, seems to have increased."
(June) I did more work during the latter part of year than I
ever did before in an equal period of time. But, I had the
work to do and compelled myself to do it. However, I was
mentally tired at the close of the yeai*, particularly so at the
time of the test, for it came after the siege of exams for Avhich
I did m}'^ own work besides a couple of days of hard tutoring.
This much, at any rate, is positive : There was no decrease
of mental power resulting from the experiment. I was no
more tired at the close of last year than I was at the close of
the year before. After a week's rest I felt quite normal and
then did considerable mental Avork all summer.
36 Fisher — The Effect of Diet on Endarance.
E. (March) " Working power improved. Can concentrate atten-
tion for a lonsjer time."
(June) " I accomplished a greater amount of mental woi'k than
in previous years during the corresponding period of the col-
lege year. I do not think that my feeling of fitness for it
was any greater, however, and I cannot say that my experi-
ence of fatigue after the work was any less. I learned to eat
slower than liad been my custom dui'ing previous years.
Though not subject to indigestion, I experienced less stomach
disorders during the period of the experiment."
Lq. (March) " I have put in more long hours during this term
than any previous term, consequently have had a good deal
less sleep. I do not know that I can work any better, except
that I can work a longer period at one time without feeling so
tired from it."
(June) " Of course a great deal of the extra Avork was outside
work which was an extra tax. I, however, did a great deal
more work on papers that I i:)repared than I ever had before.
Although I spent longer hours than before I did not
feel the effect of the work so much as before."
Lw. (March) " Have been working harder during the past four
months and have taken less exercise than at any other equal
period during past 2|^ years. The character of the work has
been so different that I am unable to say whether there is an}""
increase in working power, but I find that I rest up very
quickly after becoming tired (mentally).
" When March tests were taken I did not feel as 'fit' for test
on that particular day as at time of January tests. Had been
' working hard and had been under nervous strain, which un-
doubtedly affected the tests."
(June) " I have Avorked harder from January to June than ever
'before, and have taken less exercise. As my mental work Avas
so different from that previous, I cannot form an estimate of
any increase or decrease in efficiency, but as I have said
before, I always rested up inore quickly."
M. (March) ''I think on the whole a slight improvement."
(June) " Do not notice any change."
P. (March) " I have never Avorked so steadily, or with so little
necessity to exercise the Avill to Avork, as in the central six
Aveeks of the test. The Avork I was doing was chieflA' research
in the Library, poring for three or four hours at a time over
old records — not labor of the most interesting kind."
Fisher — I'he Effect of Diet on Endurance. 37
(June) My work from March to June was of a more confining
sort than ever before in the spring. From March to tlie Easter
recess I was occupied Avith library research ; from Easter on I
was engaged on an essay and the marking of some 260 Social
Conditions theses. On these last I spent considerably more
time and effort than in the preceding year. Thus ray work
was harder and more time-filling than usual. I had much less
out-door exercise than in- previous springs, and missed that
relaxation from efi'ort which all prior springtimes have bred.
Yet there was no feeling of overwork, or even of work as a
burden, till the first of June. From then on I did feel tired,
and examination time found me with a mind very difficult to
keep in harness. Undoubtedly I had over-pushed myself, but
did not realize it till June. . .
R. (March) Felt an increase in efficienc3^
(June) My power for mental work was greater between the
March and June tests than between the January and March
tests and the latter was greater than before the experiment
began in January. I can state without hesitation that my
mental working power increased in consequence of " Fletcher-
izing."
T. (March) Felt that he had at least held his own, but " surprised
to find that everj^ one of my tests (physical) had improved."
For the first test came after the rest and recreation of the
winter holidays when he " Avas in splendid condition. Since
then I have- had to work extremely hard with little regular
exercise and rarely in bed before about midnight." Surprised
also that the mental test showed no improvement, probably
because " the confusion around me was considerably greater
than in the first test." Can do his ordinary mental work
faster than before, though not sure that he can work longer.
(June) " I consider I did more work last year during the period
of the expei'iment than any other year. During the whole
nine months of the college year I was practically working up
to my limit of endurance. I did not grow sleepy as early
evenings as jarevious years and my attention was not as easily
distracted from my work as previous years.
" The lack of improvement in the second mental test may
have been due largely to the fact that I was mentally fagged
out after the examinations and was feeling the need of ray
holidavs."
38 Fisher — The Effect of Diet on Endurance.
W. (]\Iarcli) No definite impression either of gain or loss.
(June) "On the whole I felt quite as Avorkish as ever I did in
the spring months and did not feel the hot days as much of
a drag as usual."
As to illness, in the course of the experiment there were the usual
winter colds, though apparently these were less common than before.
One man had grip for a few days, another the mumps, and several had
constipation. In general, the men expressed themselves as better
than usual and in some cases they were very enthusiastic. None of
the ailments suffered by the men were ascribable to the test itself,
unless it be a case of what appeared to be slight rheumatic sensations
of T,, who had alwaj^s been a heavy meat-eater, and who during the
experiment introduced at first much acid fruit. That the acid in
conjunction with the high proteid might occasion such symptoms is
at least consistent with some of the numerous theories of rheuma-
tism. On avoiding very acid fruits he soon lost all these symptoms.
The following extract from the diar}^ of B. is, I think, typical of
the facts in this respect to general health : " Have now, March 28,
slight sore throat. In regard to colds, I have been troubled less
this 3'^ear than at any time for years ; but this fact may be due to
great change in climate, Nebraska to Connecticut. Have usually had
colds more or less all winter ; therefore my freedom has been indeed
remarkable. From September last till the beginning o'f the experi-
ment I experienced frequent attacks of indigestion, 'heart-burn.'
Have been almost free from that, though two or three times I bad the
same experience after eating ba*nanas."
Sumtnary.
The phenomena observed during the experiment may be summar-
ized as a slight reduction of total food consumed, a large reduction
of the proteid element, especially for flesh foods, a lessened excretion
of nitrogen, a reduction in the odor, putrefaction, fermentation
and quantity of the feces, a slight loss of weight, a slight loss of
strength, an enormous increase of physical endurance, a slight
increase in mental quickness. These phenomena varied somewhat
with diff^erent individuals, the variations corresponding in general to
the varying degree in which the men adhered to the rules of the
experiment.
That we are correct in ascribing the results, especially in endur-
ance, to dietetic causes alone, cannot reasonably be doubted when it is
considered that no other factors of known significance were allowed
Fisher — The Effect of Diet on Endurance. 39
to aid in this result. On the contrary, so far as the operation of
other factors was concerned, these must have worked against ratlier
than for the results achieved. Exercise was in no case indulged in
to a greater extent than had previously been the custom, and in most
cases it Avas less. The men were warned not to take up exei'cise,
except so far as they had been accustomed to befoi'e the experiment
began, and if they varied their exercise at all, to lessen rather than
increase it. They were very conscientious on this point, as on others,
— so much so that some of them at first gave up exercising until they
began to feel "logy." This over-zeal was corrected ; but in no case,
have I reason to think that the exercise taken was more, or more sys-
tematic, than previously. M. was probably the most systematic in
taking exercise. His statement on this point, as previously given,
the reader may care to review. /
The men did not practice on the endurance tests between times.
This was expressly forbidden, and the men were too trustworthy to
admit of a doubt on this point. The tests themselves, needless to
say, were too far apart to have given any chance for repetition to
give " knack," and were too severe to count as beneficial exercise.
Nor were the men more regular in their hours of retiring or other
habits. On the contrary, they were rather more reckless in burning
the midnight oil. It developed that, with their increased freedom
from fatigue, they indulged more freely than ever their propensity
to Avork in the lines of their respective ambitions. At first they felt
justified in doing this, as it accorded with their instructions not to
remove any handicaps to their chance of improving their endurance,
but to increase rather than decrease such handicaps. But this liberty
became license, and I was forced to remonstrate with the men for
their late hours and overstud}^, which tended to rob them of their
surplus endurance almost as fast as it accrued. Long before the
experiment was finished the men had given every appearance of
improved working power, but I was not at all sure that they would
have any of it left to show in the final test, because of their tendency
to use it up in work. Had the extent of their working proclivities
been realized in advance, it is doubtful if the experiment would have
been undertaken at all. It should be stated that all except M. were
graduate students, and almost all of them, in addition to their uni-
versity work, were earning their own way.
The advance of warm weather must have tended, had not their
diet counteracted it, to tire the men, if, at least, Ave may trust com-
mon impressions as to " spring lassitude,"
40 Fisher — The Ejfeet of Diet on Endurance.
Again, the conditions immediately preceding the March and June
tests, as compared with those preceding the Januarj' test, were such
as to give the advantage to the January test. The latter came soon
after the Christmas holidays, when the men, as they themselves
stated, felt refreshed and at their best, whereas the March test came
just before the Easter recess, after a hard term's work, and the June
tests came after a like period of hard work, — in some cases, as of B.
and R., immediately after exhausting examinations.
Finally, the tests themselves were serious drains on vitalit3\ Each
.required a period of from several days to two weeks for recuperation,
and each robbed the men temporarily of several pounds of weight.
The cookless diet experiment for six days also cost something to
those who took part in it.
In addition to the tests mentioned in this report was one on Jan-
uary 23 of leg-raising, deep knee-bending and arm-stretching, taken
after a night from which two hours of sleep were purposely cut off.
After consideration, it was decided not to repeat this test as being
too fatiguing. It therefore has been omitted from this report ; but
it added one more burden for the men.
When, therefore, we observe the known handicaps, — the over-study,
the strain of the tests, the advance of warm weather, the fact that
the first test came after rest and the other tests after work, and
when we are unable to find any other cause than diet — such as exer-
cise, regularitj^ of bed-time or other habits — we are forced to
conclude that the only causes which produced the endurance were
dietetic.
Possibly some persons may be disposed to find a convenient escape
from this conclusion b}^ ascribing the improvement to suggestion.
[Jnder this theory'-, the men impl'oved because they expected to. It
is quite true that there may be more force in autosuggestion than
most of us realize. But, fortunately, for the present case we scarcely
need to argue the point ; for as a matter of fact it was not true that
all of the men expected to improve. This was certainly not true
before the March test. In fact, the men were about equally divided
in their predictions as to the outcome, and used to have animated
discussions. Yet, both the confident and the skeptic faction im-
}»roved in endurance in the March test ; and so far as I am acquainted
with their ])rognostioations and have noted their improvement, there
was little if any correlation between those prognostications and their
improvement.
It is of course still possible that some unobserved element has crept
Fisher — The Effect of Diet on Endurance. 41
into tlie case, to which, and not to the diet, the improvement in
endurance was due ; but in view of all the facts recited, this is
extremely improhable. What slight doubt i-emains should be resolved
by further studies. I earnestly hope that other and more careful
studies may be made by more competent investigators than I.
We conclude that the improvement in endurance was exclusively
due to dietetic causes. The only dietetic causes at work were (1)
thorough mastication, (2) implicit obedience to appetite, (3) (during
the second half of the experiment) when appetite did not clearly
determine the choice, the voluntary selection of the non-flesh and
low-proteid foods, and (4) an ample variety of good foods, well
cooked.
So far as cooking is concerned, this cause, as has been said, entered
iinintentionally. But there is no evidence that it was a prime factor
in the experiment, while there is some evidence to the contrarj^
Thus, E., who especially remarked the culinary virtues of the cook
and who missed her services more than any one else during the brief
period of her absence, was the one member of the club who failed to
improve in endurance.
If we allow oui'selves to speculate as to the changes in the' charac-
ter of diet which were produced by thorough mastication, we may
draw an inference from the fact that the carnivorous animals are fast-
eaters, whereas the grain-eating animals are slow-eaters. It would
seem, therefore, when man changes his habits from fast eating to
slow eating he naturally changes his food from the food of a fast-
eating to that of a slow-eating animal. The question, therefore,
which is the natural food for man, may possibly be associated with
the question, which of the two methods of eating is natural to man.
Was the slow eating of the nine men an artificial and unnatural prac-
tice, as would be indicated from the fact that the majority of men
eat far faster ? Or, are the ordinary habits of man in respect to the
manner of fast eating themselves unnatural ? I have not attempted
to gather the facts necessary to solve this problem, but it certainly
constitutes an interesting one for the physiologist and anthropologist.
The few facts upon which I have chanced to fall would seem to
indicate that man is naturally a slow eater, and that the huny-habit
to which most of us are prone is a consequence of the artificial high-
pressure to which modern civilization has subjected us. Certain it is
that the conditions which give rise to quick-lunch counters and to the
short stops of trains for refreshments, were produced, not in order to
meet any natural propensity to eat fast, but on the contrary, in the
42 M^shei — llie Efect of Diet on Endurance.
interest of the more rapid transaction of business, with wliich meal-
times are regarded as an interference.
We may therefore at least conclude that whatever the speed of
eating which is natural to the human animal, his actual speed under
civilized conditions is greater than natural. It is noteworthy also
that children are very deliberate in eating their cookies. It is only
after they are reproved for keeping their elders waiting that they
begin to imitate the latter and bolt their food. Dr. Higgins ' and
Dr. Hasse ° have pointed out also some physiological considerations,
based on the anatomy of the human throat compared with the
tliroats of the carnivores and of " poltophagic" animals, which would
indicate that man, to a large extent at least, is naturally a slow-eating
animal. Dr. Henrj^ Camj^bell ' has also given some evidence, based
on a study of the primitive tribes, to show that chewing is more
thorough among uncivilized races, and that the hurry habit to which
we are accustomed is largely promoted by the use of prej^ared and
' mushy " foods, — which, in fact, appear to have been devised ex-
pressly for the purpose of being quickly swalloAved.
The evidence, however, on the natural food-habits of man is as yet
very meager, and it is only provisionally that we may consider the
thorough mastication advocated by Mr. Fletcher as " natural." With
this reservation we may say that the experiment here described may
be called an experiment in natural eating, or an effort to restore a
blunted or lost food-instinct, so that it may serve as a safe guide to
the propei" quantities and kinds of foods. If it be asked in Avhat
way this natural eating tended to improve endurance, whether it was
because of the finer sub-division of food through mastication ; the
increased " insalivation " ; the increased flow of " appetite juice " ;
the better adaptation of foods to the particular needs of the individual
and the moment ; the lessened quantity of food ; the lessened proteid ;
or the lessened amount of flesh foods, no satisfactory answer can be
given, although, as the previous discussion shows, there is more or
less evidence on some of these points. There are certainly some very
fascinating problems for the physiologist to solve in regard to fatigue
as related to diet. Are the " fatigue poisons " due, for instance,
chiefly to the combustion of proteid in excess of the phj^siological
' See Humaniculture, N. Y. Stokes, 1904.
5 See A.rchiv fiar Anatomie (Waldeyer's) 1905, p. 321.
2 " Observations on Mastication," London Lancet, Ji;ly 11, 18, 25 and Aug. 8,
1903. Reprinted in Horace Fletcher's The A. B.-Z. of Our Orvn Nutrition,
Stokes, 1903. See pp. 126-135.
1
Fisher — The Effect of Diet on Endurance. 43
needs, as the theoiy of Chittenden would explain them ? Or, are they
largely'' due to the ingestion of these poisons with flesh foods, as the
vegetarians and Dr, Haig have maintained ? Or, do both explana-
tions have a share '?
The results of the experiment demonstrated so great an increase
of endurance as to seem at first incredible. It certainly was a sur-
prise, both to the men and to me. But statistics which I have been
collecting during the last two years have prepared me to find great
differences and changes in endurance. The special result of the
present experiment is to show that diet is an important factor in
producing such alterations. The fact that endurance, even among
persons free from disease, is one of the most variable of human fac-
ulties— far more variable than strength, for instance — is evident to
any one who has made even a superficial examination. Some persons
are tired by climbing a flight of stairs, whereas the Swiss guides,
throughout the summer season, day after day spend the entire time
in climbing the Matterhorn and other peaks ; some persons are
"winded" by running a block for a street car, whereas a Chinese
coolie will run for hours on end ; in mental work, some persons are
iinable to apply themselves more than an hour at a time, whereas
others, like Humboldt, can work almost continuously through eight-
een hours of the day. Among statistics gathered independently of
the present experiment, I have found measurable differences between
persons far greater than the change of endurance of the eight students
which we have seen.' Amon^r some 50 tests of different persons
holding their arms horizontally, many were found whose arms actually
dropped against their will inside of ten minutes, whereas several Avere
able to hold them up over an hour, and one man held them 3 hours
i and 20 minutes, or a round 200 minutes, and then dropped them
voluntarily. Similarly with deep knee-bending, some persons were
found physically unable to rise again from the stooping posture after
accomplishing less than 500 bendings, whereas several succeeded in
stooping 1,000 times, and in one case, 2,400, Again, in leg-raising,
the legs positively refused to rise to the vertical in some cases before
40 times were reached, whereas in two cases this motion was per-
formed 1,000 times or over. On the new ergograph previously
referred to, among the 16 j^reliminary tests there was a range in
endurance between different persons from 18 to 145 and in the same
person at different times from 29 to 110.
• For an account of some of these statistics see " The influence of flesh-eating on
endurance." Yale Medical Journal, March, 1907.
44 Fisher — The Effect of Diet on Endurance.
It is, to sa\' the least, remarkable that hitherto so little effort has
been directed toward discovering the factors which explain such
differences in endurance. That exercise is one of the most and per-
haps the most important factor has alone been recognized. A
correspondent assures rae that by means of moderate regular exercise
he succeeded in increasing his endurance between 100 and 200^ in
three Av^eeks as measured by leg-raising and "dipping." The
influence of diet has always been regarded as small or negligible, and
the opinion has been almost universal, until recently, that a diet rich
^n protcid promotes endurance. Even among those whose researches
have led them to the opposite conclusion, there is very little concep-
tion of the extent to which diet is correlated with endurance. Such
a person, a medical friend of the writer, stated, when the present
experiment was planned, that he did not think the dietetic factor strong
enough compared with others to produce any marked effect. We
have all heard, of course, of the enthusiastic reports of vegetarians
as to their increased endurance, but these we have discounted as
exaggerations. The result of the present experiment, however,
would seem to indicate that one's im|)roveraent in endurance is usually
not less, but greater, than he himself is aware of. Probably it is
also true that we may lose a large fraction of our working power
before we are distinctly conscious of the fact.
While the results of the present experiment lean toward " vegeta-
rianism," they are only incidentally related to that propaganda.
Meat was by no means excluded ; on the contrary, the subjects were
urged to eat it if their appetite distinctly preferred it to other foods.
The sudden and complete exclusion of meat is not always desir-
able, unless more skill and knowledge in food matters are employed
than most persons possess. On the contrary, disaster has repeatedly, ,
overtaken many who have made this attempt. Pawlovv has shown
that meat is one of the most and perhaps the most "peptogenic"
of foods. Whether the stimulus it gives to the stomach is natural, or
in the nature of an improper goad or whip, certain it is that stomachs
which are accustomed to this daily whip have failed, for a time at
least, to act when it was withdrawn.
Nor is it necessary that meat should be permanently abjured, even
when it ceases to become a daily necessity. The safer course, at leasts
is to indulge the cravinij whenever one is "meat hungrv," even if, as
in many casc'^, this be not oftener than once in several months. The
rule of selection employed in the experiment was merely to give the
benefit of the doubt to the non-flesh food ; but even a slight preference
for flesh foods was to be followed.
Fisher — Tlie Effect of Diet on Endurance. 45
Under flesh foods are included all meat- and " stock-" soups. It
has been shown that although these extracts of meat contain a large
amount of nitrogen, it is not in the form of proteid which can be
utilized, but only of waste nitrogen which must be excreted. Ap-
parently the sole virtue of such soups is that they supply the " pepto-
genic " stimulus above referred to.
The experiment will be seen to harmonize with and supplement the
experiment of Professor Chittenden, on which it was founded ; but
the objects of the two experiments were quite different. Professor
Chittenden's was aimed to ascertain the physiological requirements
as to proteid, and did not touch upon the question of endurance.
Moreover, Professor Chittenden, in order the better to measure the
proteid and nitrogen, artificially reduced the quantities ingested,
whereas in the present experiment, test was made of Mr. Fletcher's
claim, that thorough mastication leads naturally to the adoption of
the physiological amount of proteid. This we found to be true, espe-
cially after the introduction, at the middle of the test, of the sugges-
tion that when appetite was in doubt, the lower proteid foods should
be selected. But the tendency was quite marked during the first
pei'iod also, and might have been expected to lead to the same results
without the introduction of even the suggestion of voluntary choice,
had the experiment been long enough. This was the experience of
others, notably Mr. Fletcher himself, whose case, in fact, first called
Professor Chittenden's attention to the possible virtues of low
proteid.
The practical value of the experiment consists in the fact that any
layman can appl}- it, with or without a knowledge of food values,
though with more advantage if he possesses than if he lacks such
knowledge.
If the dietetic rules of the present experiment are followed, no self-
denial as to foods is required. It is, however, absoluteh" necessary
that there should be self-control enough to break up the habit of
hurried eating to which modern civilization has brought us, habitu-
ating us, as it does, to eat against time.
Experience indicates that appetite does not lead to a diet fixed in
amount or constituents, but moves in undulating waves or cycles.
The men who took part in the experiment were encouraged, after
any of the symptoms which seemed to be associated with high pro-
teid (such as heaviness, sleepiness, stiffness or soreness after exer-
cise, or catching cold), to cut down on their j^i'oteid and substitute
fat to restrain the gastric juice. This advice was intended to make
46 FlsJier — The Effect of Diet on Endurance.
api»lication of the theories of Folin' that we usually cany a reservoir
of proteid, enough to supply our needs for body-building for a fort-
night. If this reservoir is exhausted, proteid starvation occurs and
the body feeds on itself ; if it is filled too far it overflows and causes
the evils of excessive proteid. If this theory is correct, the art of
eating may consist largely in maintaining a golden mean such that
the proteid reservoir is neither empty nor overflowing, or at any rate,
not overflowing much. Many persons fear to reduce their proteid to
the Chittenden minimum for fear of proteid starvation ; but the
experience of those who have tried it would seem to show that this
fear is groundless, provided no violence is done to natural appetite.
This ma}^ be trusted, so it would appear, to raise a warning in the
form of " nitrogen hunger " before the danger point is reached.
'"A Theory of Protein Metabolism." American Journal of Physiology, March,
1905.
TRANSACTIONS OF THE
CONNECTICUT ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
Incorporated A. D. 1799
VOLUME XIIL- PP. 47-64
JULY, 1907
Publications of Yale University
RELATIONS BETWEEN BERMUDA AND THE AMERICAN
COLONIES DURING THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR
«Y
ADDISON E. VERRILL
J-
NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT
1907
THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR PRESS
II. — Relations between Bermuda and the American Colonies
DURING the Revolutionary War. By A. E. Verrill.
In this brief account the following subjects will be discussed :
1. Commercial and social relations before the war ; dependence of
Bermuda on the Colonies for foodstuffs, clothing, etc.
2. Seizure of the Bermuda gunpowder in 1775.
8. Bermuda privateers.
4. Plans for the- captui'e of Bermuda by the Americans and
French.
5. Biographical Sketches.
In order to appreciate the attitude and conduct of "the inhabitants
of the Bermudas during the Revolutionary war, it is necessary to
consider the peculiar conditions under which they had long lived
and their intimate relations with, and dependence upon, the Ameri-
can Colonies.
1. Commercial and social relations.
After the decline and final cessation of tobacco cultivation,* about
1700, the inhabitants of Bermuda became very much impoverished,
for they had few products to export and were unable to raise sufli-
cient foodstuffs to support themselves. This condition continued
down to and after the Revolutionary war.
During that period they were largely dependent upon their traffic
with the American Colonies for their food and clothing. Cessation
of that traffic meant destitution, if not famine, for them. The
islands were over-populatedf and they had a superabundance of
negro slaves, without adequate employment for them. Agriculture
was pursued on a small scale and in the most primitive manner.
The amount of arable land suitable for cei'eals Avas small. Culti-
vation of the soil by the whites was considered degrading. The
slaves were very ignorant and without proper tools, plows and har-
rows being then unknown there.]; Under such circumstances many
of the more enterprising men emigrated to America and went into com-
*See The Bermuda Islands, A. E. Verrill, vol. i, pp. 555-560.
f The population in 1787 was estimated at 10,381, of whom 4,919 were colored.
See The Bermuda Islands, vol. i, pp. 561-565, 570.
X Plows, yokes, and various other agricultural implements were first intro-
duced by Governor Reid, 1839-40. See The Bermuda Islands, i, pp. 557, 895.
Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XIII. 4 June, 1907.
48 ^4. J£. Verrill — Relations heticeen Bermuda and the
mcrce. Sonic utulertook the building of vessels, the Bermuda cedai*
being adTiiirably ada})ted for tliat use ; others erected salt works at
Turks Island, in the Bahamas,* and went there during the winter
season to manufacture salt, most of which they took to the American
Colonies to exchange for food and clothing, for salt was their princi-
pal export. Thus it came about that Bermudian vessels, for more
than sixty years, had monopolized a large part of the West Indian and
coastwise commerce of the American Colonies. Many native Ber-
mudians, from the best families, had gone to America for their educa-
tion, and many went ii^to business or the learned professions there.
These various intimate business relations and familv ties, as well as
their bwn cherished love of liberty, naturally led to friendliness and
s^^mpathy with the Americans during the war. Besides, they had
themselves suffered greatly, in previous yeai's, by oppressive English
laws. The Berniudians, however, like the Americans, were divided
into two parties. Those who were opposed to the British Govern-
ment, or at least to its treatment of the Colonies, seem to have been
largely in the majority. They were repeatedly denounced by the
Governors as rebels and traitors. On the other hand, even the mem-
bers of the Assembly did not hesitate to openly oppose and criticise
Governor Bruere in no measured terms, w^hile he in turn denounced
them and other local officials as traitors. This mutual enmity con-
tinued from 17 75 to 1782, under three successive governors. It cul-
minated in September, 1780, w^hen the Governor dissolved the legis-
lative Assembly for rebellious conduct.
It is certain that very many of the inhabitants of Bermuda were
willing and ready to aid the Americans in every way they safely
could. It is also a matter of official record that the Continental
Congress granted very unusual and highly important favors to the
Bermudians, by sending them large amounts of provisions ; allow-
ing them free importation of salt ; permitting them to enter the
harbors ; and exempting their vessels from capture by American
privateers. Such privileges were not granted to other English
colonies. If the American Colonies could have maintained a suita-
ble fleet to hold the islands, their capture would have been easy, a!id
no doubt welcomed by the majority of the people.
The first act of the Colonies that affected Bermuda was the reso-
lution adopted Friday, the 30th of September, 1774 :f "Resolved,
* The Bermndians erected salt works there as early as 1678. See The Ber-
muda Islands, i, p. 520.
f Secret Journals of the Continental Congress, vol. 1, p. 121 (Philad. ed,
1800).
American Colonies during the Mevolutionary War. 49
Tluatfrom and after the 10th of September, 1775, the exportation of
all merchandize and every commodity whatsoever, to Great Britain,
Ireland, and the West Indies, ought to cease, unless the grievances of
America are redressed before that time."
In a resolution ado'pted Aug. 1, 1775, defining the islands and
colonies with which commerce was prohibited, the "Summer Islands,"
or Bermudas, were specifically mentioned.*
Before the^ resolution went into effect, tlie Uerraudians had pre-
sented more than one petition stating their lack of provisions and
begging for relief. At the session July 11, 1775, an "Address from
the inhabitants of Bermuda " was presented. f This document is
not preserved, but was probably one of those referred to at the
session of Nov. 22, 1775.
On July 17, 1775, the following was recorded :J "The address
from the Deputies of the several parishes of the islands of Bermuda
being again read, ordered : That the President return them an
answer, acknowledging the receipt of the address and informing them
that it will be considered, and desiring them to send an account of
the provisions imported for some years past for the use of the
iidiabitants of that island ; and also enclose therein a copy of a
resolve entered into on Saturdaj^ last, respecting the importation of
gunpowder, etc."
This reference is to a resolution introduced by Benjamin Frank-
lin, and passed July 15, 1775,§ in Avhich it was provided that any
vessel importing gunpowder, saltpeter, sulphur, or firearms, should
be allowed to export products of any kind, of equal value, thus
assuring a profit at each end of the voyage. This was evidently a
great inducement to the people of Bermuda to engage in that kind
of traffic, to obtain the foodstuffs and clothing that they so badly
needed.
After the seizure of the gunpowder at Bermuda, in August, and
evidently, as will be shown later, as a reward for their aid in that
affair, the attitude of Congress suddenly changed.
Under date of Wednesday, Nov. 22, 1775, the following entry
occurs : || " The committee of the whole, to whom are referred the
several petitions from the islands of Bermuda, representing the dis-
* Journals of the Continental Congress, vol. ii, p. 239, Washington ed., 1905.
f Journal Continental Congress, i, p. 150.
I Secret Joni-n. of The Continental Congress, vol. i, p. 21, ed. of 1800.
§ Journal Continental Congress, ii, p. 184, ed. 1905.
II Journal of Continental Congress, i, p. 236, 237, Boston ed., 1821.
50 A. HJ. Verrill — Relations between Bermuda and the
tress to which they were exposed, by the non-export agreement, and
praying to be relieved in such manner as tlie Congress may deem
consistent with the safety of America, report that they have con-
sidered the same, and thereupon came to the following resolutions :
That the inhabitants of the Islands of Bermuda appear friendly to
the cause of America and ought to be supplied with such and so
great of the products of these colonies, as may be necessarj^ for
their subsistence and home consumption ; that in the opinion of this
committee they will annually require for the purposes aforesaid :
72000 bushels of Indian corn,
2000 barrels of bread or flour,
1000 barrels of beef or pork,
2100 bushels of peas or beans, and
300 tierces of rice,
and that they be permitted to export the same yearly. That the
said inhabitants ought to pay for the above annual allowance in salt,
but it is not the design of this resolution to exclude them from the
privilege of receiving American goods to any amount in exchange
for arms, ammunition, saltpeter, sulphur, and field pieces, agreeabl}^
to a resolution passed the 15th of July last. That to enable each
of the colonies, as can conveniently furnish the islands of Bermuda
with the above mentioned allowance, to divide whatever advantages
may result therefrom, in proportion to their respective shares of the
general expense, it is further the opinion of the committee that the
colony of South Carolina supply them with 300 tiei'ces of rice ;
that the colony of North Carolina supply them with 16000 bushels
of Indian corn, and 468 bushels of peas or beans ; Virginia with
36000 bush., of Indian corn, and 10500 bush, of peas or beans ;
Maryland with 20000 bush, of corn and 552 bush, peas ^or beans.
Pennsylvania Avith 1200 barrels of flour or bread, and 600 barrels
of beef or pork ; New York with 800 barrels of flour or bread and
400 barrels of beef or pork.
Also to inform the inhabitants of Bermuda that Congress would
also supply them with other necessaries, such as lumber, soap and
candles, whenever the quality and quantity of those articles used in
the islands be ascertained. That Edw. Stiles be permitted, under
the direction of the Committee of Safety of the Colony of Penn-
S3'lvania, to send the brig " Sea Nymph," Sam'l Stobel master,
with 4000 bushels of Indian corn, 800 barrels of flour, 100 barrels
of bread, 20 barrels of pork, 8 barrels of beef, 30 boxes of soap,
I
American Colonies during the Revolutionary War. 51
and 15 barrels of apples, to Bermuda for the immediate supply of
the inhabitants, and that the said cargo be considered as a part of
the annual allowance aforesaid, for the year ensuing."
Other cargoes of provisions are recorded as having been sent to
Bermuda. Among them are the dates : June 5, 1776 ; May 18,
177!i ; Aug. 30, 1880, etc. The Secret aiul Marine Committee,
' charged with fitting out vessels with cargoes to Bermuda," was
discharged Aug. 2, 1776. ]5ut an act had been previously passed,
July 24, 1776, making an exception in favor of Bermuda vessels, and
permitting them to enter American ports for commercial purposes.
But as the governors of Bermuda considered all such traffic treason-
able, it must have been carried on secretly and with considerable risk.
Thus more or less destitution continued in Bermuda di;ring the war,
as the records show. The receipt of a letter or petition is mentioned
on May 30th, 1776. It was taken up at the session of June 6th,
Avhen the committee reported upon it as follows : — *
" The committee to whom was refen-ed an extract of a letter from
a gentleman in Bermuda,f dated 26th April, and continued to May
1st, to a gentleman in Philadelphia, brought in their report, which
was read, and the same being taken into consideration : Resolved,
That the Secret Committee be instructed to fit out two fa^it sailing
vessels and load them with provisions, to be sent immediately to
supply the inhabitants of the islands of Bermuda, and that the com-
mittee of secret correspondence be directed to take such means as
they may think proper, by these vessels, to discover the state of those
islands and the disposition of the inhabitants ; and that the marine
committee be instructed to take such measures as they may think
proper, for purchasing, manning, arming, and fitting at the said
islands, of two sloops of war for the service of the United Colonies."
No report of the results of this exj)edition has been found on the
records.
In 1878-9 the islands were allowed to send from each parish one
licensed vessel to Savannah, New York, or other English ports, to
obtain provisions ; but they had very little to offer in exchange.
* Secret Journ. Continental Congress, i, pp. 45, 46, 47 (ed. 1800).
t The gentleman here referred to was, without much doubt, Mr. Silas Deane,
at that time in Bermuda, where he had stopped to purchase a '" fast sailing
vessel " while on his way to France, as instructed by Congress. See below, p. 60,
for an extract from one of his letters, probably the same one here referred to.
52 A. E. Verrill — Relations between Bermuda and the
1 1. Seizure of the Gxinpowder in 1775.
That the American army was at first in desperate need of gunpow-
der and other munitions of war, is well known. General Washington,
from the very first, used the most strenuous efi^orts to increase the sup-
ply and economize what he had. The manufacture of saltpeter and
the gathering of sulphur were encouraged by special acts of Congress
in th€ summer of 1775. It is well known that in August, 1775, the
gunpowder stored in a public ))owder magazine in Bermuda was
secretly seized by an American expedition and brought to the Colonies
to supply the armies in the field, who were then sorely in need of it.
The affair caused great excitement in Bermuda at the time, but none
of the inhabitants* were proved guilty of aiding in the enterprise,
although the governor and other officials made great efforts to do so.
The transaction has to tliis day remained very much of a mystery.
The lives of those engaged in it were at stake, both in tliis country and
Bermuda, for the result of the impending war was then very uncer-
tain. Various more or less I'oraantic and fictitious incidents have
been connected with the affair in Bermuda, but they seem to rest on
no basis whatever. The powder was certainly taken away in the
night, with no apparent disturbance. At that time Bermuda was
very poorly fortified and weakly garrisoned. It is said in Bermuda
that the barrels of powder were rolled through the governor's garden.
Even now, though several have written on the subject, the amount
of gunpowder taken, its destination, the persons concerned, and the
name of the vessel or vessels that took it away are not positive!}'
known. No direct mention of the act is found, to my knowledge,
in any American official record.
In the following pages I have reviewed all the official American
records known to me that have been supposed to refer to the affair,
and have collected all the other evidence available. Very likely
careful researches in the official records of that period in Bermuda
and London might bring out some additional evidence, but the secrets
of the persons concerned seem to have been well kept.
As many of the warlike undertakings of the Continental Congress
were at that time delegated to the " Secret Committee of Marine
and Commerce," very little is to be learned from the official records
in regard to this transaction. It was probably undertaken, like the
later expedition of Capt. Whipple, in accordance with the urgent
desire of General Washington, who, in his letters, refers to a Mr,
American Colonies during the Revolutionary War. 53
Harris, as one of the persons who had told him of the powder
there.
The only official record that has been supposed to refer to it, and
that very doubtfully, is in the Pennsylvania Committee of Safety
minutes, Sept. 20, 1775,* pp. 340, 341, where it is stated that 1800
pounds of powder had been imported from Bermuda by Capt. Ord
in "The Lucy"; of this, 700 lbs. were noted as damaged and " not
fit to use." Some Avriters have stated that 100 barrels of powder
and many other stores were taken from the Bermuda magazine.
But there is no official record of this. A few days after the expe-
dition under Captain Whipple had sailed (Sept. 12), it was pub-
licly announced, it was said, perhaps in the news])apers, that 100
barrels of gunpowder had arrived from Bermuda. I have not been
able to consult the newspapers of that date. Perhaps "The Phila-
delphia Packet," a semi-official organ, was the authority referred to.
The official records give Aug. 6, 1775, as the date when the
powder imported in the " Luc\' " was received in Philadelphia.
But Mr. DeLancey Clevelandf states that the powder was seized
Aug. 14, 1775. If the latter date be correct, the former record must
refer to a previous importation by Capt. Ord. This is not unlikely,
for Capt. Ord owned more than one vessel, and was then engaged in
commerce. Moreovei', a subsequent importation of gunpowder from
Bermuda is on record, and there may have been various others, for
considerable illicit traffic was continually carried on by the Bermu-
dians, according to the charges made by their governor at that time.
The Continental Congress had already offered special rewards for
the importation of gunpowder and firearms. The unusual favors
subsequently granted to the Bermudians (see especially the act of
Nov. 22, 1775, above, p. 49), indicate that much larger contribu-
tions than the 1800 lbs. of powder, about half of it " unfit for use,"
had been received from them.
I am, therefore, now led to believe that the importation in the
"Lucy" was entirely independent of the powder taken from the
large magazine. [j;
* Vol. X, pp. 377-784, Harrisburg ed., 1852. See The Bermuda Islands, i, p.
873 (461).
t See article " How Wasbington got his Powder," in New York Evening Post,
Feb. 24, 1904 ; reprinted in the Bermuda Eoyal Gazette, March 29. By DeLan-
cey Cleveland, a great-grandson of Capt. George Ord.
X According to tradition in Bermuda powder was taken from more than one
magazine for the Americans.
54 A. H] VerrlU — Tiehitions heticeen Bermuda and the
It seems quite probable that Captain Ord had previously been
informed of tlie gunpowder in Bermuda, and of the means of secur-
ijig it, and that when he heard of the rewards offered by Congress
for the importation of gunpowder, he hui'ried back to Bermuda and
secured it. The intervening time Avas sufficient for that purpose.
But whether the Americans took it from the magazine, or received
it from friend)}' Bermudians, who had taken it out to them in boats,
is uncertain. In Bermuda the latter view seems to have been held.
The voj^age from Bermuda in the sailing vessels of that period
usually took at least a week, and usually a longer time in summer.
So that if the seizure took place on Aug. 14th, the powder could not
have reached Philadelphia before the 22d to 28th, and probably
rather later than that, perhaps a week or more later. Possibly it
may have been taken directly to New York, Providence, or some
other port nearer to Washington's army than Philadelphia. But it
is certain that Washington had not heard of its ai-rival up to Sept.
6th, when he wrote the circular letter to the Bermudians, to be taken
there by Capt. Whipple, and probably he had not heard of it before
Capt, Whipple sailed, Sept. 12th. This would tend to make the
date of Aug. 14th, for the seizure, seem more probable. The powder
that was received by the " Lucy," Aug. 6, must have left Bermuda
about July 28th, or earlier. According to some traditions and pub-
lished accounts, there were two vessels concerned in the seizure :
one of them from South Carolina, and the other from Philadelphia.
If so, part of the gunpowder may have been taken directly to South
Carolina, where it was much needed at that time. It is probable
that, as a matter of safet}', no official record was made of the arrival
of this captured powder. Many of the warlike acts of the secret
committees of that period were never recorded, for good and suffi-
cient reasons, as affairs then stood.
Recently, Miss Caroline Clifford Newton, daughter of the late
Professor H. A. Newton, of Yale Universitj'", has called my atten-
tion to the fact that Captain Samuel Stiles, of Georgia, has been
reputed to have taken a part in the seizure of the gunpowder. He
was the great-great-grandfather of Miss Newton. He was an
adventurous ship captain, who owned his own vessels, and was
engaged in commerce at that time. Miss Newton states that accoi-d-
ing to famih"^ traditions he took a prominent part in that affair,
importing some of the powder in his own ship. He ma}-, indeed,
have commanded the second vessel, said, in the contemporary
accounts, to have hailed from South Carolina, as mentioned above.
American Colonies during the Revolutionary War. 55
In the "Historical (.Collections of Georgia," by the Rev. George
White, p. 276 (New York, 1855), the author mentions Capt. Samuel
Stiles,* and says : "It is said that the Bermudians being in a starv-
ing condition, stole the government powder from the magazines and
sold it for provisions, and that Mr. Stiles was the person who
arranged the trade and carried off the powder."
Mr. White also states that Capt. Stiles was engaged, during the
war, in importing powder from the West Indies, both for Congress
and for the colony of Georgia.
The gunpowder mentioned in the minutes, quoted above, was
recorded as having been imported by Capt. Ord in the " Lucy."
But one of Capt. Ord's descendants, Mr. DeLancey Cleveland, says
that according to family traditions the powder taken from the maga-
zine Avas brought away in the " Retaliation." Capt. Ord received a
commission from the Continental Congress, Dec. 4, 1776, as a priva-
teer in command of the brigantine " Retaliation," of 90 tons, armed
with 14 guns, and manned by 100 men. His commission, a copy of
which I have at hand, is now in the possession of Mr. Cleveland. It
Avas signed " By order of The Congress, John Hancock, President."
As no commissions to privateersf were granted by Congress or the
Colonies up to 1776, according to the best authorities, Capt. Ord was
not a privateer in 1775, though he doubtless had a commission and
official orders of some kind — perhaps from the Governor of Pennsyl-
vania. J There is no evidence that his vessel, the " Lucy," was armed
at that time, though it was then usual to arm even mercantile vessels
for defence. It is not improbable that the name of the vessel might
have been changed from " Lucy " to " Retaliation " when it was
put in commission as a privateer, but there is no evidence of this.
The latter indicates a name given after hostilities had begun, and
perhaps after the loss of a vessel by capture, but Capt. Ord is said
to have owned more than one vessel during the war.
* According to Mr. White, Capt. Stiles came to America aboiit 1769, and
owned a plantation in Bryan County, Ga. When the war broke ont his family
was in Bermuda, but he early joined the cause of the Colonies. He was present
at the siege of Savannah.
f The first resolution of Congress in regard to giving commissions to priva-
teers seems to have been on March 23, 1776.
ij: It is a tradition among his descendants that Capt. Ord fitted out this expe-
dition at his own expense. Mr. De Lancey Cleveland informs me that the fam-
ily tradition is not very positive as to the name of the vessel.
56 A. E. Verrill — Relations betioeen Bermuda and the
A little later* there is a record of the arrival of "eight half
barrels of powder" shipped from Bermuda by Henry Tucker,
" Chairman of the Deputies of several Parishes of Bermuda." It
is recorded as having belonged to Capt. John Cooper of North
Carolina, and was intended for the use of that colony. There is no
reason to suppose that this was not a private shipment.
It has often been said that the arrival of the gunpowder from
Bermuda enabled Washington to recapture Boston on March 17,
following. I have not been able to find any reliable evidence of
this. It appears that Congress supplied Washington's army at that ^
time with gunpowder from any and every available source. Proba-
bly the Bermuda gunpowder was put into the general supply.
Doubtless some of it, if not all^ reached Washington's army, at
Cambridge, as there was ample time, but I have found no record of
its arrival.
Just before the arrival of the small supply on the "Lucy," a
much larger quantity had been ordered sent to General Washington
from Philadelphia.
The Continental Congress on Aug. 1, iVTojf "Resolved, that out
of the powder belonging to the continent now in this city, five tons
be sent to General Washington in the speediest and safest manner
by the delegates of the colony of Pennsylvania," and that " out of
the next that arrives " 1,000 lbs. should be allotted to New Jersey,
and " out of the same parcel " one ton should be reserved for N.
Carolina, to be lodged in the " magazine of New York," if not
required by Gen. Washington or Gen. Schuyler. Perhaps this lot
that was soon expected was the Bermuda guni)0wder. If so, the
storing of part of it in the New York magazine would indicate that
it was taken directly to New York from Bermuda.
It is claimed by the descendants of St. George Tucker,J who came
to Virginia several years previously (1771) and took an active part
in the cause of the colonists, that he was active in securing the gun-
powder. But precisely what he actually did do seems to be
unknown. He may have helped to make the plans for the seizure.
* See New Eiig. Hist, and Gen. Records, vol. 1, No. 4, p. 441, Oct., 1896.
f Journals of the Continental Congress, ii, p. 238, ed. 1905.
t See the article by J. T. McLaughlin, .)r., his great-grandson, in The Rojah
Gazette, March 15, 1904, reprinted from The New York Evening Post, March 5,
1904. p. 8, in reply to an article by Mr. C. E. Hayward, Feb. 20, 1904, Supple-
ment, 13. ] . Mr. Hayward stated that the powder was put aboard of two Ber-
muda vessels ofif the North Rocks. This is a very doubtful tradition.
American Colonies during the ReDolutionary War. 57
It is a matter of record that he was sent to Bermuda (June, ll'lo),
just before the event, and that he did not return to Virginia till
Nov., 1776. So it would appear that he had other objects in charge
beyond the securing of the gunpowder, I do not find that he was
accused of having a hand in it at that time. While in Bermuda he
was admitted to the local bar.
It is probable that the American sailors did the actual work of
removing the gunpowder, and that some of the inhabitants of Ber-
muda may have acted as guides and as pilots for the boats, in that
night adventure.
Shortly after the Rhode Island expedition had sailed and the news
of the arrival of the powder had been received, a second vessel was
sent from Rhode Island to notify Capt, Whipple. Both vessels
reached Bermuda and their people were well received by the inhabi-
tants, who told them of the previous capture of the powder.
It is stated that Capt, Whi{)ple, while there, entertained on board
his vessel five members of the Council, who assured him that "the
people were hearty friends of the American Cause and heartily dis-
posed to serve it." He returned Oct, 20, 1775.
It appears, from documents, that these vessels anchored off the
southwestern end of the islands, and that there Avere British war
vessels at the other end. But the latter did not venture to attack
the Americans.
Capt. Whipple was also told that the Governor had notified Gen-
eral Gates of the seizure of the powder, and that he had sent from
Boston an armed sloop and a transport, which were then in St.
George's harbor.
In accordance with the promises of General Washington, the Con-
tinental Congress, in November, soon after the powder had been
received, ordered a cargo of provisions sent to Bermuda to relieve
the immediate distress of the inhabitants, and also allowed annual
shipments ; and later permitted private firms to send cargoes there
from several of the Colonies. (See above, p. 49.) It also allowed
salt to be brought back in payment for provisions. Moreover, a
law was passed, November, 1777, exempting Bermudian vessels from
capture by American privateers. This exception was contained in
all the letters of marque issued after Nov. 27, 1777.
Inasmuch as Congress had specifically named the "Summer Islands"
among the places with which trade was prohibited, in its act of Aug.
1st, the arrival of a large amount of gunpowder from thence through
58 A. E. T'eiTill — Relations hetifeen Bermuda a?id the
the friendh^ aid of the Bermudian people, is the only logical explan-
ation of the sudden chanare in its attitude.
Before Gen, Washington heard of the success of this first expe-
dition lie made an urgent appeal* to Gov. Cooke of Rhode Island
to send one of the armed vessels of that colony to Bermuda. This
plan was approved by the Governor and Committee of Rhode Island,
and the vessel was dispatched Sei)t, 12, 1775, in command of Capt.
Abraham Whipple, who carried with him a circular letter from
General Washington, dated Sept. G, 1775, to the inhabit-ants of Ber-
muda,f asking them to aid, so far as they safely could, in this enter-
prise, and promising in return to use his influence with Congress to
secure the sending of much needed provisions, and obtain other
favors for them. The following is an extract from General Wash-
ington's letter : —
" We are informed that there is a very large magazine in your island under a
very feeble guard. We would not wish to involve you in an opposition in which,
from your situation, we should be unable to support you ; we know not, therefore,
to what extent to solicit your assistance, in availing ourselves of this supply; but
if your favoiir and friendship to North Amei'ica and its liberties have not been
misrepresented, I persuade myself you may, consistently with your own safety,
promote and fiirther this scheme, so as to give it the fairest prospect of success.
Be assured that in this ease the whole power and exertion of my influence will be
made with the honorable Continental Congress, that your island may not only
be supplied with provisions, but experience every other mark of affection and
friendship which the grateful citizens of a free country can bestow on its
brethren and benefactors."
III. Bermuda Privaieers.
Notwithstanding the friendly relations, there were in Bermuda
plenty of people who held the same views as the loyalists in America.
Some fitted out privateers to prey upon American commerce and
enrich themselves, as the Governor, George J. Bruere, advised. A
privateer's commission was given, Jan. 10, 1778, to Capt. Bridger
Goodrich, in command of the "Hammond " of 100 tons, 8 guns, and
20 men, to "cruise against the American colonies." It was armed
* In his letter, dated " Camp at Cambridge, 4 Aug., 1775," General Wash-
ington mentioned the great and pressing need of gunpowder for the army and
the very precarious snpply. He also said: ""No quantity, however small, is
beneath notice, and, should any arrive, I beg it may be forwarded as soon as
jiossible."
\ This letter luis been ptiblished in full in several books. See J. Sparks,
"Writings of George Washington," iii, p. 77. Also Stark's Bermuda Guide,
pp. :55-37, 1898.
Americcm Colonies during the Revolutionary War. 59
by Robt. Shelden and Wm. Goodrich, merchants of Bermuda. Sev-
eral other privateers were fitted out there and commissioned by Gov.
George James Bruere,* in 1778 to 1780, "to cruise against the French,
Spanish, and Americans." Gov. George Bruere. in one of his earliest
addresses, Nov. 23, 1780, also referred to their great success and
urged the fitting out of more. Among those recorded were the
" Miraculous Pitcher,"' Capt. H. Middleton ; sloop " Whalebone,"
Capt. John Brice ; the "Spitfire"; the "Jolly Bacchus." Others
might be found recorded, very likely, by a more thorough search of
the Bermuda records.
In an address by Gov. George Bruere, June 19, 1781, he said that
" a noble ship " was being fitted out as a privateer by a private family,
and added: " I flatter myself her success, as well as the good fortune
the other armed vessels constantly meet with, will convince the rea-
sonable and dispassionate that interest as well as duty lay on the side
of equipments against our Confederate Enemies."
Some of the Bermuda privateers were also captured by the Amer-
icans. One which was captured and taken to Boston and condemned
there had 70 negro sailors on board.
I have not attempted to compile a list of American vessels cap-
tured by the Bermudian privateers and condemned there, but a con-
siderable number are recorded.
After the arrival of Governor Wm. Brown, in 1782, privateering
was discouraged f He said " the spirit of privateering will draw the
resentment of the enemy."
IV. Plans for the Capture of Bermuda hy the Americans and
French.
Although the various petitions and letters from the Bermudians,
referred to in the journals of the Continental Congress, have not
been preserved, the character of the wording of the resolutions is
sufficient to show the strong sympathy between the Bermudians and
Americans. It is well known that there were many in authority in
this country who advised the capture of Bermuda. Very likely the
* Gov. George James Briiere, appointed 1764, died in Aug., 1780. He was
succeeded by Lt.-Gov. Thos. Jones, Sept., 1780. He was replaced Oct., 1780, by
Gov. George Bruere. who was replaced by Governor Wm. Brown, Jan. 4, 1782.
f Governor Brown was a native of Salem, Mass. He was a very able and
much respected citizen, and an eminent jurist. He was, however, a devoted
loyalist, and was obliged to leave his country and sacrifice his property on that
account. His letter as to privateering is in " The Lansdowne MSS." vol. 78.
00 A. E. Verrill — Relations hetxrieen Bermuda and the
visit of Mr. St. George Tucker to Bermuda, from June, 1775, to
November, 1776, was only in part to secure gunpowder. It may
have been more particularly to promulgate the revolutionary ideas
of the American Colonists.
It is not improbable that he was also instructed to ascertain the
disposition of the people in regard to the plan for the capture of
Bermuda, and its practicability, and to enlist their aid and sympathy
in other wavs. He came back with a cargo of salt, which was then
much needed. After he returned to America he joined the Conti-
nental army. He became a Lieutenant Colonel in 1789, and M'as
wounded in the battle of Guilford Court House. He was appointed
Professor of Law in 1789, and Judge of U. S. District Court in
1815. (See biographical sketch below.)
It is certain that Bermuda was at that time very j)oorly fortified
and feebly garrisoned. St. George's was the only town and principal
harbor, for Hamilton was not made the capital till 1812. But the
irarrison was greatlv increased in 1778 and 1779. Gen. Sir Henry
Clinton, writing to Lord George Germain, Oct. 8, 1778, stated that
he had sent 300 men to garrison Bermuda; and in a later letter,
Nov., 1779, he says, "I have sent an additional force to Bermuda.
That place is of the greatest consequence."
Probably some of the old and more or less ruined forts, built long
before about St. George's harbor and on Castle Island, etc., were
repaired and garrisoned at that time.*
Mr. Silas Deane, a member of Congress, who was sent as a secret
agent to the Court of France in 1776, stopped, on his way, at Ber-
muda and there purchased a fast sloop in which he sailed to Bor-
deaux, arriving June, 1776. In a letter from Bermuda, April, 1776,
he described the destitute condition and distress of the inhabitants
and said that a famine was inevitable unless they could live entirely
on fish or get food from America. f He also described the harbors
and channels, and advised the Congress to take possession of the
islands and fortify them at both ends, and thus make a safe harbor
for the building and fitting out of vessels to destroy the British,
commerce with the AVest Indies. In another letter, dated Paris,
Aug. 18, 177C, he referred to the same subject and said that the;
English government intended to fortify the islands during the fol-j
* See The Bermuda Islands, vol. i, pp. 449-463.
f See above, p. 51. This letter was apjiarently the one there referred to, andj
acted upon by Congress.
American Colonies during the Revolutionary War. 61
lowing winter and spring and tliat France would take possession of
them "on the first rupture,"
He also- stated that the Bermudians had sent a petition to the
English government declaring the necessity of getting provisions
from America, and saying that if not permitted to do so, they must
ask the protection of the Congress,*
In consequence of Mr, Deane's letters and other information,
Congress immediatel}' ordered two " fast-sailing vessels " to be
loaded with provisions and sent to Bermuda, June, 1776. The officers
were instructed to ascertain " the disposition of the people," and
also whether two armed vessels could be purchased and fitted out
there, (See above, p, 51.) Their report does not appear to have been
recorded, f Doubtless it Avas deemed impracticable to take the
islands at that time, for the Americans then had no war vessels of
any importance and could not have held the islands against the
English fleet, even with the assistance of the French fleet.
But plans for the capture of Bermuda were not entirely abandoned
until long afterwards, for references are repeatedly' made to it in the
official letters pi-eserved in the archives, both in Europe and America.
In the letters of Mi-, Hopkins (Brigadier in the French Service) to
Compte de Vergennes, Sept, 9 and Sept, 14, 1776, he mentions the
capture of Bermuda as a part of his plans J
In the Treaties of Commerce .and Alliance between France and
America, signed Feb, 6, 1778, it was stipulated that all the West
Indies, if conquered, should belong to France, but that Bermuda
should be added to the United States,
In the letters of Marquis de Lafayette to Compte de Vergennes,
July 3, and July 18, 1779, and in other letters, he mentions the
capture of Bermuda for the Americans as a part of his plans.
Lafayette contemplated a visit to Bermuda, personally, to organize
a liberty part}^, as stated in a letter to Compte de Vergennes, Feb.
2, 1780. He said, "Nous pouvous en passant toucher a la Bermuda
et y etablir le parti de la liberte."
* See also New Eng. Historical and Geological Eeg., vol. 1, No. 4, Oct., 1896,
p. 441.
\ All such matters were at that time referred to a Secret Committee of Marine
and Commerce, and very little is on record as to its doings.
X See Stevens, Benj. Franklin (editor). Facsimiles of manuscripts in European
Archives relating to America, 17T3-1778, Nov., 1889-Fel3., 1898, folio. See
Abstracts in G. Watson Cole, Bermuda in Periodical Literature, Bulletin of
Bibliography, iii, Nos. 8, 9, Jan. -Feb.. 1904, of these and several other letters
regai'ding the capture of Bermuda by the French.
62 A. E. Verrill — lielations heticeen Bermuda and the
One of the means of communicating with friendly Bermudians is
shown in a letter of information communicated by Lieut. -Col.
Edward Smith, Oct. 22, 1777 : "AH American ships falling in with
Bermuda Islands must stand tor the West end, and by their hoisting
a jack at the maintoi)mast head, a Mr, Tucker would send off a boat,
and procuring them, as required, assistance, would give them orders
or satisfactory information."
Y, Biofjraphical Notes on some of the persons mentioned.
St. George Tucker.* He was born at Port Royal, Bermuda, July
10, 1752, and died near Warminster, Va., Nov. 10, 1827. His parents
were Henry and Anne (Butterfield) Tucker. He was a descendant
of George Tucker of Kent, England, who was a prominent member
of the Warwick party in the Virginia Company' of London, and of his
eldest son, George Tucker, who emigrated to Bermuda among the
earliest settlers and became a land owner and planter of tobacco
there. The latter was a nephew of Governor Daniel Tucker (1615-
1616), famous for his strenuous government of his unruly subjects.}
St. George Tucker came to Virginia in 1771, to complete his
education, and o^raduated at the Colleofe of William and Marv in
1772. He afterwards studied and practiced law. He went to Ber-
muda, June, 1775, and was admitted to the bar there, July, 1775.
In November, 1776, he returned to Virginia with a cargo of salt.
In 1777 he engaged, with his brother Thomas, in importing gun-
powder and other munitions of war from the W^est Indies. He soon
entered the army. He was Aide-de-camp to General Thos. Nelson in
1779 ; Major in 1781, He served with General Greene in the south,
and was wounded in the battle of Guilford Court House, March 15,
1781. He became Lieut. -Colonel, Sept. 12, 1781, and was sent as
a delegate with Edward Randolph and James Madison to the
Annapolis Convention in 1786. It is said that he was the person
who made the report of the famous speech of Patrick Henry.
After the war he resumed the practice of law, and became a judge
in 1787. He was appointed Professor of Law in the College of
William and Mary, 1789-90, and was judge of the II. S. District
Court of Virginia, 1813-25. He also held other important offices.
He wrote a number of important legal works, and had a good liter-
ary reputation, both as a writer of prose and poetry.
* The dates here given are mostly from Lamb's Biog. Diet. United StatesJ
190-5, vol. vii, p. 387. Other biographical works give some of them -differentlyJ
t See "The Bei-muda Islands," vol. i, pp. 447, 476, 551, 634, 630, 713, 719^
875.
American Colonies during the Mevolutionari/ War. 03
His sons and several of liis later descendants have also been
eminent in law and other professions.
His elder brother, Thomas Tudor Tucker, who was born in Ber-
muda, 1'745, and emigrated to South Carolina, was a surgeon in the
army, and was a delegate to the Continental Congress, 1787-8, and
representative in the United States Congress subsequently, 1789-
1793 ; from December, 1801, to his death. May, 1828, '27 years, he
was Treasurer of the United States.
Capt. George Okd was born in England, May 26, 1741, He
died Oct. 13, 1806. He came to America when 18 years old. He
carried on a ship chandlery, together with a rope-walk in Phila-
delphia, before the war, and had already acquired considerable
knowledge of naval affairs in England. These occupations and his
experience made him useful in the first formation of the Naval
Board, as shown by letters to him, still preserved, from Thomas
Wharton, " First President of Council."*
He was an uncle of George Ord, Esq., a well known naturalist
of Philadelphia, and for many years an active member of the
Academy of Natural Sciences and American Philosophical Society.
He was a friend and patron of Wilson, the ornithologist, and edited
his Ornithology, writing the last volfime himself. He was also
intimate with Audubon, Lesueur, and other notable naturalists of
that period. It was through him that the papers and relics of Capt.
Ord were transmitted to his nephew, DeLancey Cleveland, who wrote
the article on the capture of the gunpowder, referred to above.
The following is a copy of the commission of Capt. George Ord.
The original is preserved by Mr. DeLancey Cleveland :
IN CONGEESS.
The Delegates of the United States, of New Hampshire, Massachusettes Bay, Rhode
Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, the Counties of New
Castle, Kenf and Sussex on Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North-Carolina,
South-Carolina, and Georgia,
To all unto whom these Presents shall come, send Greeting : Know Ye,
THAT we have granted, and by these Presents do grant Licence and Author-
ity to George Ord Esq" Mariner, Commander of the Brig" called Retalia-
tion of the Burthen of 90-Tons, or thereabouts, moimting fourteen Carriage
Guns, and navigated by 100 Men, to fit out and set forth the said Brig" in a
* For these partictilars I am indebted to Mrs. DeLancey Cleveland, of New
York.
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 5 July, 1907.
64 A. I^. Verrill — lielationH hetween Bermuda, etc.
warlike Manner, and by and witb the said Brigantine and the crew thereof, by
force of Arms, to attack, seize and take the Ships and other Vessels belonging
to the Inhabitants of Great-Britain, or any of them, with the Tackle, Apparel,
Furniture and Liulings, on the High Seas, or between high-water and low-water
Marks, and to bring the same to some convenient Ports in the said Colonies, in
Order that the Courts, which are or shall be there appointed to hear and deter-
mine Causes civil and maritime, may proceed in due Form to condemn the said
Captures, if they be adjudged lawful Prize ; the said George Ord having given
Bond, with sufficient Sureties, that nothing be done by the said George Ord or
any of the Officers, Mariners or Company thereof contrary to, or inconsistant
with the Usages and Customs of Nations, and the Instructions, a Copy of which
is herewith delivered to him. And we will and require all our Officers whatso-
ever to give Succour and Assistance to the said George Ord in the Premises.
This Commission shall continue in force until the Congress shall issne Orders to
the Contrary.
By Order of the Congress.
JOHN HANCOCK, President
Dated at Philadelphia
the 4't' day of Decem*- 1776.
That the Assembly and people of Bevniii(la were fuH}^ justified in
their quarrels with Gov. Geo. James Bruere is obvious from the facts
that are recorded in histor3'^, showing plainly his tyrannical charac-
ter and merciless disposition. Doubtless there were multitudes of
other grievances well known to his contemporaries.* It was under
his regime that the disgraceful and fatal treatment of the American
prisoners of war. took place, and for which he was, no doubt, mainly
responsible.
The privateers took large numbers of prisoners. They were
crowded into the small unsanitary jail at, St. George's, till the con-
ditions became too horrible to relate. f Consequently a malignant
"jail fever" broke out in the jail, exentualh'^ spreading, in lVVO-80,
over all the islands, causing untold suffering and hundreds of deaths,
both among the natives and prisoners.
* Debates of the Assembly were not open to the public till 1784 ; the first
newspaper. The Bermuda Gazette, was started Jan., 1784, under Gov. Brown.
fSee "The Bermuda Is.," ed. I, p. 104.
4 ^^0
TRANSACTIONS OF I HE
CONNECTICUT ACADEMY Of ARTS Ar>fD SCIENCES
Incoui'Okatru a. D. ,17'J'J
VOLUME XIII. PP. 65-87 AUGUST, 1907
Publications of Yale University
MATURATION OF THE EGG OF THE
WHITE MOUSE
KY
WILLIAM B. KIRKHAM
NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT
1907
THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR PRESS
III. — Maturation of the Egg of the White Mouse.
By William B. Kirkham.
Table of Contents. ,
I. — Literature relating to the Mam- II. — The Egg, etc. — Continued.
malian Ovum. First Polar Body.
II. — The Egg of the Mouse. ^ Ovulation.
Material and Method. Fertilization.
Breeding Season. Second Polar Body.
Mature Ovum. III. — Summary.
First Polar Spindle. IV. — Bibliography.
I. — TAterature relating to the Mammalian Ovum.
So far as known, the first person to discover the cleavage stages
in any mammalian egg was R, de Graaf (i678), and subsequent to
his researches no further investigations in this line are met with
until 1797, when an Englishman, William Cruikshank, published
"Experiments in which," to quote the quaint title, "on the third
Day after Impregnation, the Ova of Rabbits were found in the fal-
lopian Tubes ; and on the fourth day after Impregnation, in the
uterus itself ; with the first Appearances of the Foetus." Cruik-
shank noted some rabbit's eggs before cleavage, a few at the two-
celled stage, and some very young embryos.
The discovery of the ovarian eggs of mammals was made by K-
E. von Baer ('27, '28), who also observed some cleavage stages in
eggs of the rabbit, dog, and pig. However, the study of mammalian
cytology, as such, maj^ be said to date from the work of an English
doctor, Martin Bany, who, in 1838-39, published two papers in the
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, the
first dealing with the ovarian eggs of rabbits, and the second with
the growth and discharge of these eggs from the ovar}^ Bany
figures ovarian eggs of various animals, including not only the
rabbit, but the hog, sheep, ox, dog, cat, and tiger, having been
presented with some ovaries of the last-named animal by the com-
parative anatomist, Richard Owen. He found that the time of ovu-
lation varied in the rabbit, but is commonly from 9 to 10 hours after
copulation.
Then follows a series of investigations on the eggs of the rabbit,
dog, guinea-pig, and deer, by Bischoff ('42, '45, '52, '54). This
worker was the first to announce that fertilization consists of a physi-
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 6 August. 1907.
66 TT''. B. K'h'khani — Maturation of the Egg of the While Mouse.
cal inHuence of the spermatozoon upon the egg, such influence being at
first limited to tlie germinal vesicle. In the rabbit he distinguished
a large number of cleavage stages, while in the dog he made the
fundamental observation that the Qo^'g at the time of heat lies in the
Fallopian tube, ovulation being here independent of copulation.
His studies on the ^gg of the guinea-pig established the fact that in
this animal the eggs mature just after parturition. Only a few
stages of the deer's ^gg were seen by Bischoff, but he found that
the eggs in the Fallopian tube have their development arrested dur-
ing the winter.
Reichert ('6l) also studied the ii<^g of the guinea-pig, and found,
as Bischoff ('52) had observed, that while these animals are in heat
immediately after parturition, ovulation takes place only after coitus,
Weil ('73) worked with rabbit's eggs, and found that these
animals, like guine9.-pigs, are in heat immediately after parturition.
This observer was probably the first to perceive both the male and
female pronucleus in a mammalian o.^^.
Van Beneden ('75) was the first investigator to undertake histo-
logical studies by systematically examining a large number of
mammalian eggs. In the %gg of the rabbit he noted the disap-
pearance of the germinal vesicle and the formation of two polar
bodies as essential maturation phenomena, and after an exhaustive
investigation of fertilization processes, in the course of which he
saw spermatozoa with their heads in the surface of the Q^g.^ he
came to the conclusion that fertilization consisted of the minolincr
of the substance of the spermatozoon with the outer layer of cyto-
plasm. This statement is surprising in view of the fact that van
Beneden observed both the male and the female pronucleus, their
conjugation, and the cleavage nucleus, as well as numerous cleavage
stages.
Hensen ('76) confirmed Bischoff's observation that in rabbits and
guinea-pigs the animals are in heat immediately after parturition,
but he found that ovulation does not always take place at this time.
He saw living spermatozoa, and witnessed their passage through
the zona pellucida.
In ISTO, three investigators, Benecke, Eimer and Fries, published
papers on the eggs of bats. They each found living spermatozoa
in the uterus, and in some cases also in the Fallopian tube, while
the animals were hibernating ; but Benecke claimed that ovulation
and fertiliziition take place in the S2)ring of the year. After study-
ing the eggs of certain bats, however, van Beneden and Julin ('80)
I
(
TV. B. Kirkham — Maturation of the Ecjg of the White Mouse. 67
stated that the eggs leave the ovary during the winter (Decem-
ber to February) and are at once fertilized, but onh^ begin to seg-
ment in March or April. These workers further found that each
Q^& commonly formed three polar bodies, and they saw both pro-
nuclei and a few early cleavage stages. Van Beneden ('99) has
since continued his study of the bat's ^^^^ and has noted all the
important cleavage stages.
Van Beneden ('80) described some late stages in the development
of the rabbit's Q^^., and also made the important observations that
the female pronucleus comes from the germinal vesicle and that the
chromatin of the polar bodies has the same origin.
Rein ('83), working with the eggs of rabbits and guinea-pigs,
observed in the latter the pronuclei in different stages of develop-
ment and conjugation, as van Beneden ('75) had previously described
for the rabbit. He also discovered that the formation of both polar
bodies takes place within the ovary, and mistakenly considered that
the female pronucleus, as well, was formed there.
Flemming ('85) found in the rabbit some ovarian eggs which had
extruded the first polar body, — an observation confirmed the same
year by Bellonci.
Selenka ('86) described some eggs of the opossum, ranging from
two- to eighteen-celled stages. They were found in the upper part
of the uterus.
Heape ('86) worked on the Qg& of the European mole. He was
unable to follow the formation of the polar bodies, but observed
the two pronuclei, two- and four-celled stages, and the later cleavages
up to the formation of the blastula.
Keibel ('88) has described a two-celled stage of the European
hedgehog's Q^Q,.
The investigations which have yielded the most conclusive and
extensive results, however, have been conducted upon the ^^^ of the
mouse, — an qq^^ more favorable for detailed cytological study than
that of almost any other mammal. The names connected with this
work are those of Bellonci ('85), Tafani ('88, '89), Sobotta ('93,
'94, '95, '99), and Gerlach (:o6).
Bellonci states that, in the mouse, the first polar spindle is similar
to that found in the eggs of invertebrates, and that it is formed
from the germinal vesicle. He also saw some ovarian eggs accom-
panied by the first polar body, the latter possessing a distinct mem-
brane and lying under the zona.
Tafani observed both the first and second maturation spindles,
found first polar bodies associated with degenerating ovarian eggs,
68 W. JS. Kirkham — Maturation of the E(j(j of the White Mouse.
and witnessed the formation of the second polar body (he found
two associated with only one-fifth of the eggs). He also saw sper-
matozoa entering the substance of the egg, the two pronuclei, the
first cleavage s]iindle, and tlie principal later cleavage stages.
Sobotta studied the egg of the mouse in great detail, from the end
of the spireme through the cleavage stages. He found two polar
bodies accompanying only one-tenth of the fertilized eggs, and
assumed the suppression of the first polar spindle in the oth9r nine-
tenths of the eggs matured. When the first polar body did occur,
he observed that it was extruded within the ovary. Further refer-
ences to Sobotta's valuable work will be given in connection with
the discussion of the results of the writer's personal investigations,
Gerlach has taken some preparations made at least as early as
1890, before the discovery of iron haematoxylin, and, after study-
ing them has revived Tafani's theory that the presence of the single
polar body, which he finds with three-quarters of the fertilized eggs,
is due to the suppression of the second polar body, the second polar
spindle degenerating within those eggs which are fertilized a com-
paratively long time after leaving the ovary.
Henneguy ('94) observed in the rat degenerating ovarian eggs
which had extruded the first. polar body, — an observation confirmed
by the writer,
Assheton ('94) has reinvestigated the early stages of development
of the rabbit, and seen stages extending from the union of the
pronuclei through cleavage.
Hubrecht ('96) succeeded in getting some eggs of an insectivore,
Tupaja javanica, and noted the two pronuclei, a two-celled stage,
and the ijrincipal later cleavage stages. He found two polar bodies.
This same investigator (:02) has the honor of being the only man
who obtained the mature eggs of any primate. He both describes
and figures from Tarsias spectrum an egg with first polar body and
second polar spindle, three eggs with male and female pronuclei,
two of which show two polar bodies, as well as two-, four-, eight-,
and sixteen-celled stages, besides the principal later cleavages.
Van der Stricht (:0l) finds in the eggs of a bat, Vexperugo noetula,
that the first polar body is extruded within the ovary, while the
second is formed only after the ovum has been discharged into the
Fallopian tube. In his later papers (:05, :o6) he notes a distinction
in the form of chromosomes in the first and second polar spindles,
and states that the first maturation spindle commonly appears in
February or JNIarch, sometimes not until April, depending upon the
temperature. Ovulation occurs some days or weeks later. Two
W. B. Kirkham — Maturation of the Egg of the White Mouse. - 69
polar bodies are always formerl, and the eggs leave the ovary with
the first polar body and the second polar spindle fully formed.
Marshall and Jolly (:05) have determined that in the bitch ovula-
tion occurs independent of copulation.
Rubaschkin (:05) finds that in the guinea-pig ovulation takes
place a short time after pai'turition (not immediately after, as stated
by both Bischoff ('52) and Reichert ('61) ), and is independent of
coitus. The first polar body and the second polar spindle are
formed within the ovary. The second polar body is always formed
after the egg is fertilized, the spermatozoon entering the egg in the
lower pavt of the Fallopian tube or in the upper end of the uterus.
Eggs which fail to be fertilized degenerate with the second polar
spindle.
Heape (:05) has worked with rabbits, and finds that ovulation
occurs about 10 hours after copulation, as stated by Barry ('39),
but the eggs degenerate within the ovary if there is an insufticient
supply of blood to that organ, or if the male is withheld during
oestrus. According to this observer, maturation takes place about
nine hours after copulation, two polar bodies being rapidly formed
within the ovary. In this respect, the rabbit's Qgg is different from
all other mammal qq-qs, thus far studied. If the buck is withheld
from the doe during several consecutive periods of oestrus, most, if
not all, of the older, and many of the younger, follicles undergo
degeneration, and this may result in more or less persistent sterility.
A survey of the literature therefore indicates that, while there
are many variations as to the details of the process, all mammalian
eggs which have beep carefully studied (with the exception of that
of the mouse alone) agree with those of practically all invertebrates
in the formation of two polar bodies. As a result of the foregoing
studies, the Qg^^ of the mouse, although subjected to more extensive
examination than that of any other mammal, seems to stand out
sharply as an aberrant type, in that it has been said to form but a
single polar body in from 75 to 90 per cent, of the eggs observed.
With a view of determining the cytological nature of these
apparenth^ abeiTant maturation processes, the writer has recently
made further investigations on the egg of the white mouse, the results
of which are described on the following jiages.
II. — The Egg of the Mouse.
Material and Method. — To obtain the material. for this series of
investigations, the method used was as follows : During the active
breeding season when the adult females, as a rule, are in heat every
70 W. B. Kirkham — Maturation of the Eg(/ of the White Mouse.
21 days, a large number of male and female white mice were placed
together in a suitable cage, and the females then examined at fre-
quent intervals for signs of pregnancy. As soon as such indications
appeared, those females were mated, and close watch was kept for
litters of young. The females were killed at various stages of
pregnancy, careful records being kept of the exact time of parturi-
tion. After being chloroformed the bodies were quickly opened,
and the ovaries with the Fallopian tubes were cut out ; while in
some instances these parts were used for the examination of living
eggs, in others they were at once placed in a killing fluid. The kill-
ing fluids used were strong and weak solutions of Flemniing, cor-
rosive acetic acid, picro-acetic acid, and Zenker's mixture.
For general work Zenker's mixture has given by far the best
results, owing largely to the great rapidity with which it penetrates,
and to its not blackening the tissues as do osmic mixtures. The
strong solution of Flemming, and picro-acetic acid, are excellent
for spindle fibers. Corrosive acetic acid gives fairly good results,
while the weak solution of Flemming is decidedly unsatisfactory,
owing to its poor penetration.
After being killed and dehydrated, the tissues were imbedded in
paraftine and sectioned •008"'"' thick. The sections were then aftixed
to slides with Ma^'cr's albumen, and stained, for preliminary study,
fifty slides at a time, with Delafield's haematoxylin and orange G.
This method of staining is a simple process, but is all that is
necessary to enable one to examine a series for karyokinetic figures ;
when such were found the sections were decolorized with acid
alcohol, and restained with Heidenhain's iron haematoxylin.
The technique of obtaining living eggs is very simple, and the^^
were seen and studied by Tafani ('8o), although he makes no mention
of the method used to obtain them. A female mouse is killed at
the time when ovulation is thought to have taken place, tiie ovary
and Fallopian tube are removed from the body, placed upon a glass
slide on the stage of a dissecting microscope, freed, as far as possi-
ble, from fat and connective tissue, and then gently teased up with
fine needles until the eggs are seen to drop out. When found, the
eggs can be transferred on the slide to the stage of a compound
microscope for more detailed examination and study. Karyokinetic
figures and nuclei can be brought out by the use of acetic-carmine.
The results obtained have been briefly stated in a preliminar}^ paper
(Kirkham '.0^), and a brief summary has appeared in Science (Coe
and Kirkham, :07)- The ovaries of every mouse examined during
W. B. Kirkliatn — Maturation of the Egg of the White Mouse. 71
the height of the breeding season contained some eggs in which the
first polar body had been ah'eady extruded and in which the spindle
for the second polar mitosis was fully formed. A majority of the
same ovaries revealed ovarian eggs at the end of the spireme or
with the first polar spindle. The eggs observed in the Fallopian
tube fall into two main groups: those which had not been fertilized,
and which therefore retained the second polar spindle, — some being
accompanied by the first polar body, but more without it — and those
which had been fertilized. The latter show the entering sperma-
tozoon and the cleavage stages.
Sreeding Season. — Most animals, including man, which live in an
artificial environment where there is an abundant supply of food the
year round, have lost the habit, so common among wild animals, of
being in heat only during limited periods of each year, and are
capable of coming into heat at any season. Among domesticated
animals, the white mouse is a good example of this characteristic,
and both Tafani ('89) and Sobotta ('95) have found that, if kept
warm during the cold months, it breeds more or less freely at all
times. Sobotta ('95), however, found that white mice breed most
actively from the beginning of March to the end of September, and
in most animals, wild as well as domesticated, the sexual season or
seasons occur during the warm luonths. Thus, Rubasclikin (:05)
has found guinea-pigs to be most active sexually during August,
September, and the beginning of October; Keibel ('99) states that
deer are in heat at the end of July and the beginning of August :
Rein ('83) finds that the period of heat for rabbits extends (at Strass-
burg) from the end of March to the middle of Jul}^, and Eimer,
Benecke, and Fries ('79) have determined that in bats the period of
heat is in the autumn.
The period of gestation in the white mouse was put down by
Tafani ('89) as about 20 days, while Sobotta ('95) has determined
that it is just 21 days.
During the active breeding season, adult female white mice, as
found by Sobotta ('95), are in heat a few hours after parturition,
and the same is true of the guinea-pig, according to Rubasclikin
(:o5)-
The ovary of the white mouse measures about 2""° in diameter, is
more or less spherical in shape, and is chiefly composed of large and
small follicles, a mature follicle measuring about .35"" in diameter,
A comparison of this oi'gan in the rat and the cat shows that the
ovaries of these animals are ovoid in shape, and measure 3x5"""
and 4x8"'", respectively.
72 W. B. Kirkham — Maturation of the Egg of the White Mouse.
The Mature Ovicm. — The e^^ of tlie mouse is as small as any
known mammalian egg. A living ovarian ovum,, before the forma-
tion of the first maturation spindle, measures .08"'"\, or a little less
in diameter, and it contains a germinal vesicle with a diameter of
.025"'"\ while this germinal vesicle may in turn possess one or two
nucleoli with diameters of .OOS'""". Living eggs in the Fallopian
tube, before cleavage, measure from .073 to 078""™ in diameter.
Sobotta's statement that the egg of the mouse measures .059™'" in
diameter is probably based upon his study of sections after the eggs
had become shrunken through the action of the reagents used. The
human egg, for comparison, is .165 to .170""" in diameter, that of
the cat measures .2"'™, or a little less, while the egg of the rabbit
is .116™"* in diameter.
Figure 1. — Camera drawing of a living egg soon after its discharge into the
Fallopian tube ; showing the zona pellucida made up of an inner, thinner,
and dense layer, and an outer, thicker, gelatinous layer. The cytoplasm of
the egg is coarsely gi'anular except at one spot, which indicates the position
of the second polar spindle. This egg has not retained the first polar body.
x880.
The zona pellucida. surrounding a tube Qgg in the mouse usually
has a thickness of about .016"'™, but it may stretch out to .036""".
It is made up of a denser inner layer, with a thickness of about
.007™™, which is all ihat appears around ovarian eggs, and an outer
layer of less dense but perfectly homogeneous substance (Text-figs.
1-3). After being killed and dehydrated, the zona appears ver}-
much shrunken (PI. YIII, fig. 16), which probably accounts for
Sobotta's statement that the Qgg of the mouse is envelo|)ed in the
thinnest known mammalian zona pellucida, which has a thickness of
.0019 to .0015™™. In the mouse this membrane lacks the radical
striations or canals which have given it the name of zona radiata.
W. B. KirkJiam — Maturation of the Egg of the White Mouse. 73
When the egg of the mouse has grown to full size, the chromatin
is scattered through the germinal vesicle, and from this stage to the
prophases of the first maturation spindle no observations have been
made on any mammalian egg ; hence it is not known whether there
is a pairing of paternal and maternal chromosomes, such as occurs
in the invertebrates.
First Polar Spindle (Pis. I-Il, fig^. 1-4, Text-fig. 4). — The observa-
tion of the prophases of the first maturation spindle is confined to
the egg of the mouse, a few such stages having been seen by the
writer (PI. I, fig. l). A small number of cases showed faint traces
of the nuclear membrane, but more often this had entirely disap-
Figiire 2. — Camera drawing of a living egg soon after its discharge into the
Fallopian tube ; showing the two layers of the zona pellucida. The position
of the second polar spindle within the egg is shown by the clearer area in
the cytoplasm near the polar body. This egg has retained the first polar
body, and a space filled with fluid appears around it. x ;j30.
peared. In this connection it is important to note that no asters
such as are seen in eggs of invertebrates are visible at this time.
The chromosomes at this stage vary greatly in size and shape, and
they number between 12 and 24, which is probably due to preco-
cious division. As shown in the figure, the germinal vesicle at the
end of the spireme is eccentrically placed.
At what time the asters and centrioles make their appearance in
the mammalian egg is not known, and their definite origin has not
become well established even in the eggs of invertebrates. There
is, therefore, a considerable gap between PI. I, fig. 1, where there is
no indication of any karyokinetic figure, and PI. I, fig. 2, where a
74 W. JB. Kirhham — Maturation of the Egg of the White 3fouse.
fully formed spindle with the chromosomes in the equatorial plate is
seen. Bellonci ('85) describes the first ])olar spindle in the eirgs of
mice and guinea-pigs as exactly like that found in the eggs of inver-
tebrates, and he occasionally saw faint traces of aster-fibers at the
ends of the spindle. The first polar spindle is formed from the
germinal vesicle, which, as mentioned above, is eccentrically placed
within the agg at the end of the spireme, and, as described by
Sobotta ('95) in the egg, of the mouse, and by Rubaschkin (105) in the
Qgg of the guinea-pig ; this spindle lies at first in a position at right
Figure ■■). — Camera drawing of a living egg in the Fallopian tube soon after fer-
tilization ; showing the two differentiated layers of the zona pellucida.
The finely granular portion of the egg indicates the position of the pro-
nuclei. Both polar bodies have been retained by the egg, the larger one at
the right being the first polar body : around them appears a space filled
with fiuid. X 3:^0.
Figure 4.— Ovarian egg ; showing first jDolar spindle in paratangential position.
The chromosomes are in most instances bivalent. Note centrioles at foci of
spindle, x 675.
angles to the radius of the egg, and near the surface. The chro-
mosomes still vary greatly in size and shape, but are never filiform
(Text-fig. 5), and generally lie with their long axes coincident with
that of the spindle. The number of chromosomes in the first jjolar
spindle agrees with that above noted at the end of the spireme,
being between 12 and 24. At the foci of the first maturation spindle,
centrioles consisting of one or more tinj' eccentrically placed granules
have often been observed, and similar bodies have been seen at this
stage by van der Stricht (:o6) in the eggs of Vesperugo noctula.
W. B. Kirkham — Maturation of the Egg of the White Mouse. 75
No radiations from these, however, such as have been described by
Bellonci ('85) for the mouse q^^ and b}'- van der Stricht (:o6) for
a bat's egg, have been seen by the writer. As might be expected
from its larger chromatin content, this spindle is usually longer and
broader than the second, a point noticed by Gerlach (:o6), but it
varies in size at different periods of development. The first matura-
tion spindle is also larger than the second spindle in the eggs of most
of the invertebrates.
After remaining for a time in the paratangential position, one pole
of the first maturation spindle moves toward the center of the qq^^
(PI. II, fig. 4), as seen by Sobotta ('95), while the other presses
against the outer surface of the Q^^. These movements are prepar-
atory to the extrusion of the first polar body.
4/
^Vf
Figure 5. — Diagram of chromosomes in first polar spindle of the ovarian egg
shown in PI. I, fig. 2. On the right two large quadrivalent chromosomes
are seen before splitting. To the left of these are three pairs of bivalent
chromosomes, which have completely separated, while near the middle of
the figure occurs another quadrivalent chromosome. At the left of the
diagram are seen eight additional chromosomes differing greatly in size,
while four more similar masses of chromatin appear in adjacent sections.
First Polar Body (PI. Ill, figs. 5-6).— The first polar body in
the %^g of the mouse, as far as observed by the writer, is always
formed within the ovary in every ^^^, which matures. A large num-
ber of eggs in different ovaries have been examined, and in every
instance where the size of the ^^^., its slightly denser protoplasm,
and the large follicle gave evidence of ripeness, the Q^'g was found
to be accompanied by the first polar body. This agrees with the
observations of Bellonci ('85), and with Sobotta's idea regarding
ten per cent, of the eggs, which he believed formed two polar bodies;
it is also in accord with the work of van der Stricht (:0I, :o6) on
the ^^^ of Vesperugo noctula, and that of Rubaschkin (:05) on the
egg of the guinea-pig.
In the mouse the first polar bod}' is oval in form when seen in
sections which have been killed and stained, but in life it is more apt
76 W. B. Klrkham — Maturation of the Eyg of the 'White Motise.
to be spherical (Text-figs. 2-3). It is larger than the second polar
body, and commonlj' measures from .022 to .028""° in diameter,
although the limits of variation are sometimes much greater than these.
Sobotta's statement that the first polar body in the mouse measures
only from .002 to .003""" in its larger diameter, is almost cei'tainly
based upon killed and stained material, while the figures here given
are the average of a large number of measurements of living eggs.
According to Rubaschkin (:o5), the guinea-pig has polar bodies
which measure from .012 to .01 7'""^ in diameter, and the egg of this
animal is practically of the same size as that of the mouse.
The chromatin content of the first polar body consists of a vary-
ing number of masses, most of which are undivided dyads, com-
monly scattered through the cytoplasm, but sometimes in a spindle
(PI. VII, fig. 15), as seen by Tafani ('89) and Sobotta ('95) in the
Figure 6. — Ovarian egg ; showing abnormal tri- polar spindle, x 675.
Q^^ of the mouse, by van der Stricht (104) in a bat's ^^^^ and by
Rubaschkin (:05) in the Q^g2, of the guinea pig. Some of those
polar bodies which possess fully formed spindles would probably
have divided mitotically, and this is presumably the explanation of
the three polar bodies commonly found by van Beneden and Julin
('80) accompanying bat's eggs. In PI. IV, fig. 8, an q^^ is shown
whose first polar body exhibits the telophase of mitosis; in PI. IV,
fig. 9, an example is given where the protoplasm of the jDolar body
is beginning to divide.
The first polar body varies considerably in size in different eggs,
and in one series of ovarian eggs there are two with first polar
bodies of about four times the average volume (PI. IV, fig. 7).
Two abnormal ovarian eggs have been seen (Text-figs. G-7) bear-
ing a striking resemblance to two observed by Rubaschkin (:05) in
W. B. Kirhham — Maturation of the Eg a of the White Mouse. 77
the guinea-pig (figs. 5 and 7 of his paper). In one there is a tri-
polar spindle, and in the other two separate spindles, lying at
opposite poles of the egg. The latter may be due to the fact that
this egg possessed two nuclei. Still another abnormality is an egg
(Text-fig. 8), Avhich, from its position near the center of the ovary,
is almost surely degenerating, whose first polar body has formed a
resting nucleus. In all probability resting nuclei occur normally in
the first polar body only in those very rare cases where the mitotic
division is complete, and each part gathers its chromatin into such
a form.
Figure 7. — Ovarian egg ; showing two spindles, — an abnormal condition. This
egg may have had two nuclei, x 675.
Figure 8. — Ovarian egg whose position in the interior of the ovary and the
presence of its sister eggs in the Fallopian tube indicate a degenerate condi-
tion. Within the egg appear the second polar spindle, and above it the
first polar body, with an abnormal resting nucleus, x 675.
Plate V, fig. 11, shows an ovarian egg which is unusual in that it
has no zona pellucida, the egg and first polar body lying free in the
liquor folliculi. This condition is probably due to the solvent action
of the killing fluid, as mentioned by Rubaschkin (:05), since all the
ovarian eggs in this series are likewise naked,
Second Polar Spindle (Pis. III-IV, figs. 5-9). — Immediately after
the constricting off of the first polar body, the 12 dj^ads left in
the egg are drawn into the equator of a new spindle, and split
longitudinally. The second polar spindle is formed in a position at
right angles to the radius of the egg, as described by Tafani ('89),
and usually lies near the first polar body. It is smaller than the first
> ir. /;. hukh>un—Matiir<nioti of the Eyg of the White Jlouse.
mat unit i..i. spiiiill.'. as observed by Rubnsclikin (:05) in the egg of
tilt" j;uiiu':i |>i£r, a.id by van der Striclit (-.06) in the egg of V. noctula,
but tlie di'tfrminini; ( luiracteiistic is its chromatin content. The
24 uiiivak'iit chromosomes (Text-tig. 9) resulting from the split-
ting Iciiglhcu (Mil int.) lilaments of various sizes, the form of which
furnishes a certain means of distinguishing this spindle from the
first i>olar spin<llf. These chromosomes sometimes lie with their
axes par.dh'l. but are generally ju'rjtendicular to that of the spindle,
as notrd by van der Stricht (:06) in the egg of V. noctula.
The achntmalic fibers comjtosing the second polar spindle usually
come to a more or less sharj) focus, where centrioles have commonly
l.ft-n oliscrvt il, niadi' up of one or more eccentrically placed granules,
ill a lew instances radiating fibers have been seen by the writer at
uiic. viiy rarely at both jioles of this s])indle (PI. V, fig. 10).
If
o
V CD
FiK'ire 9. — Diagram of the twenty-four univalent chromosomes in the second
polar spindle of the ovarian egg shown iu PI. IV, fig. 7.
Ilultrecht (:02) has observed centrioles in the second maturation
spindle of Tarsius npectrum, and van der Stricht (:o6) has described
both centrioles and aster fibers in both the maturation spindles of
V. noctula.
A few ovarian eggs of the mouse show the first polar body at the
opj)osite pole of egg from the second maturation spindle, as observed
by Gerlacli (:o6), who interprets such cases by assuming that the
spindle lias moved alxnit in the egg. This hypothesis, however,
seems loss probable than that the polar body has been moved around
by jiressure upon the zona, and an examination of a number of eggs
similar to those siiown by (ierlach (:o6) in his fig. 18, has failed to
reveal a single instance where the spindle does not lie at right angles
to the radius of the egg ; which fact hardly supports the migration
theorv.
W. B. Kirkhatn — Maluration of the Egg of the White Mouse. 79
When the egg of the mouse has extruded its first polar body and
formed the second polar spindle, it normally never develops further
unless it is fertilized, but degenerates either within the ovary or in
the Fallo})ian tube, as stated by Sobotta ('95). According to Ru-
baschkin (:05), this is also the case in the guinea-pig's Qgg. These
investigators further state that in the animals studied by them a
considerable number of eggs reaching this stage fail to be discharged,
owing to their position in the interior of the ovary. This condition
has been also frequently observed in the mouse, by the present
writer.
Ovulation. — It is an exceedingly rare thing to obtain a mamma-
lian egg just leaving the ovary, but such have been figured by
Barry ('39) for the rabbit ; by Sobotta ('95) for the mouse ; and by
van der Stricht (:0l) for V. noctnla. Little is known regarding the
factors concerned in ovulation, but the accumulation of fluid within
the follicle probably plays an inportant part and, judging from the
observations of lieape (:05) on rabbits, the presence of an abundant
blood supply to the ovary is essential. In the mouse, during the
active breeding period, the eggs leave both ovaries within an hour
or two after parturition, independent of copulation ; while* in the
rabbit, Barry ('39) and Heape (105) agree that ovulation occurs only
after coitus, and then after an interval of from 9 to 10 hours.
According to Reichert ('61), the guinea-pig, like the rabbit, ovulates
only after copulation, and the interval in this case is stated by Ru-
baschkin (:05) to be about 17 hours.
Fertilization. — According to Sobotta ('95) there is but a single
copulation in the mouse. Normally only a single spermatozoon
enters an egg. The tail of the spermatozoon usually enters the egg
at least in part, and may be entirely carried in (PI. VII, fig. 14),
as observed by van der Stricht (:04) in the egg of V. noctula, and
by Rubaschkin (:05) in that of the guinea-pig.
Second Polar Body (Pis. VI-VII, figs. 13-15 ; Text-fig. 3).—
In the mouse, the second polar body is formed only by those eggs
which are fertilized, as found by Sobotta ('95), and it appears very
soon after the entrance of the spermatozoon. A similar condition
has been observed in the guinea-pig by Rubaschkin (:05), except
that in this animal the second polar body is not extruded until the
sperm nucleus has penetrated deep into the egg. In Plate VII, fig,
14, is shown an egg in which the second polar body has been so
recently extruded that the 12 univalent chromosomes are still visible.
After a very short time these would have been collected into a moi'e
I
80 11 '. H. KirkhcDn — Maturation of the Egg of the White Mouse.
or less solid mass (PI. Nil. tiLC. 15), and would have finally formed
a resting nucleus (PI. VJII, tigs. 16-17, Text-fig. 10).
This second polar body is characterized by being generally spheri-
cal in form, with an average diameter of about ,007 to .012"'™, and
W\ containing 12 univalent chromosomes, which are usually seen
cither lumped together or as a resting nucleus. It is this polar
body, furthermore, which is commonly found associated with the
early cleavage stages (PI. VIII, figs. 16-17).
The important question concerning the fate of the first polar bodk-
in cases where it has disap])eared (PI. VI, fig 12 ; Text-fig. 1) will
now be considered. That this disappearance is not peculiar to the
j)reparations used by the writer is established by the fact that eggs
Figure 10. — Egg in the Fallopian tube soon after fertilization, with the second
jjolar body, the chromatin of which is forming a resting nucleus. The first
polar body has disajDpeared. At the right within the egg is seen the female
pronucleus ; at the left, the sperm head. The zona pelliicida has been
dissolved by the reagents used. (Somewhat diagrammatic.) x 675.
which ])ossessed only a (second) polar spindle, no ])olar bodj' accom-
]»anying them, were seen in the Fallopian tube by Tafani ('89),
while Sobotta ('95) saw similar eggs, but mistook the spindle they
contained for that of the first polar mitosis. Van der Stricht (:04),
furthermore, has described and figured an egg of F! noctula with
both polar bodies lying outside the zona. Finally, the writer has
seen several series of living eggs before fertilization, in one of which
only one egg in six possessed a first polar bod}^, while in another
series three out of the five eggs possessed this polar body.
The zona in the mou.se may persist undiminished through the
early cleavage stages of the egg, but in the guinea-pig Rubaschkin
(:05) has found that at the time of ovulation the zona is soft, and
W. B. Kirkham— Maturation of the Egg of the White Mouse. 81
varies considerably in thickness in different eggs. A similar con-
dition prevails in the mouse, so that at the time the eggs leave the
ovary most of the first })olar bodies are pressed through the zona.
In fact, in a living Qg^ possessing a first polar body, the writer has
seen this polar body, while the ^gg was being stained and dehydrated
on the stage of the microscope, forced through the zona by the con-
traction of the latter under the influence of changing osmotic con-
ditions.
Pronuclei. — Immediately after the extrusion of the second polar
body, the 12 univalent chromosomes remaining in the agg of the
mouse assemble to form the female pronucleus (PI. XIV), and the
sperm head increases in size and approaches it. The male and female
pronuclei now come to lie close together near the center of the egg,
but somewhat nearer the animal than the vegetal pole, where they
form the so-called cleavage nucleus.
Both the male and female pronucleus have been seen in the ^gg
of the mouse by Tafani ('89), Sobotta ('95) and Gerlach (:o6) ; in
the rabbit's Qgg by Weil ('73\ van Beneden ('75), and Rein ('83) ;
in the guinea-pig by Rein ('83) and Rubaschkin (105) ; in the %gg
of the bat by van Beneden and Julin ('80) and van Beneden ('99) ;
in the mole's Qgg by Heape ('86) ; in the ^gg of Tupaja javanica
by Hubrecht ('96), and in the Qgg of Tarsius spectrum by Hubrecht
(:02).
The later fertilization stages as well as the entire process of
cleavage and implantation have been described for the egg of the
mouse by Sobotta ('93, '94, '95) and Burckhard (:0l).
The writer welcomes this opportunity again to acknowledge his
gratitude and indebtedness to Prof. Wesley R. Coe, whose encourage-
ment and critical knowledge have been of the very greatest assistance
in carrying on this work.
Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University.
May, 1907.
Ill, — Summary.
1. Two polar bodies are apparently formed by every egg which is
capable of development, the first polar body appearing within the
ovary, the second after the entrance of the spermatozoon into the
2. At the breaking up of the spireme the number of chromatin
masses is between twelve and twenty-four.
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 7 August, 1907.
82 ir. ]>. Kirkhitm — J/dturation of the Egg of the White Mouse.
3. 'J'wclve masses of cliromatin are cast out willi the first ])olar
body, and a like iiiunber remain in the e^^g.
4. Tliere is a sharp distinction in form between tlie cliromosomes
of the first and those of the second polar spindle.
5. Before fertilization, every Qgg in the Fallopian tube possesses a
second polar spindle.
(i. The zona ])ellucida, which is (juite distinct, ma}' persist, undi-
minished, through tlie early cleavage stages. In most cases the first
])olar body escapes- from it during the process of ovulation, so that
tlie majority f>i eggs after fertilization possess the second jiolar
bod}' only.
7. During tlie sjtriiig months ovulation usuall}^ occurs every 21
days within a few hours after parturition, and independent of copu-
lation.
8. The numl)er of univalent chromosomes in the second polar
spindle is 24.
n. The second polar body is formed only after the ogg has been
fertilized.
10. The first and second polar bodies differ greatl}^ in chromatin
content, so that they are easily distinguishable. The}' also differ in
size, and usually in shape.
1 1. At least the greater part of the sperm tail, if not the whole,
enters the egg at the time of fertilization.
1 2. Since the egg of the mouse forms two polar bodies, its
maturation processes are in accord with those of the majority of
metazoon eggs.
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EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Figures 1, 3, 3, 5, 8, 11 and 13 represent single sections, while the others
have been reconstructed from two or more sections. All the figures have been
drawn with the aid of an Abbe-Zeiss camera lucida and a Zeiss apochromatic
2-Qmm apert 1"30 homog. immers. objective, using for the figures magnified
560 diam. a Zeiss Compeois. Ocular 4, and for those magnified 1450 diam. a
Zeiss Compens. Ocular 6.
Plate I.
Figure 1. — Ovarian egg before the formation of the first polar spindle. Note
difference in size and shape of the chromosomes. A portion of the nuclear
membrane is still visible, x 1450.
Figure 2. — Egg in Graafian follicle, somewhat shrunken away from the zona
pellucida, showing first polar spindle. Note difference in size and shape of
chromosomes, x 560.
8G If; B. Kirkhmn— Maturation of the Egg of the White 3fouse.
Plate II.
Figure 0. — Ovarian egg ; showing first polar sijindle in paratangential position.
A minute eentriole appears at the right-hand pole of the spindle, while
three similar bodies are visible at the opposite focus. The chromosomes
are t^^ijic.al tetrads. x 14o0.
Figiire 4. — (Ovarian egg ; showing a first polar spindle in a positiuu approach-
ing radial, x 1450.
Plate III.
Figure 5. —Egg in Graafian follicle ; showing first polar body and second polar
spindle. x 560.
Figure 0. — Same egg at greater magnification. Seventeen masses of chromatin,
some of which are iindivided dyads, are scattered through the first polar
body among traces of spindle fibers ; twenty-four univalent chromosomes
appear in the equatorial plate of the second polar spindle. Certain chro-
mosomes have been added from adjacent sections. Minute centrioles
appear at each pole of the second spindle, x 1450.
Plate IV.
Figure 7. — Ovarian egg ; showing second polar spindle and an abnormally large
first polar body. Note spindle in polar body, and twenty-four filiform,
imivalent chromosomes in the egg. x 1450.
Figure 8. — Ovarian egg ; showing first polar body and second polar spindle.
Two minute centrioles appear at each pole of the second sjjindle. The
chromatin in the polar body is at the telophase of mitotic division. x 1450.
Figure 9. — Portion of ovarian egg ; showing first polar body. Note constric-
tion in middle of polar body, the beginning of the final step in mitotic
division, x 1450.
Plate V.
Figure 10. — Ovarian egg ; showing second polar sjiindle. First polar body
omitted. Note radiating fibers at inner pole of spindle, and lateral fibers
at outer end. (The position of the spindle in the egg is slightly diagram-
matic.) X 1450.
Figure 11. — Egg in Graafian follicle, in which the zona has disappeared, proba-
bly through the solvent action of reagents. Egg and polar body have
separated from coronal cells, and lie free in liquor folliculi. Second polar
spindle is visible near the perijihery of the egg. x 560.
Plate VI.
Figure 13. — Egg in Fallopian tube ; showing second polar spindle. First polar
body has disappeared. Egg has not yet been fertilized, x 1450.
Figure 13. — Two eggs in Fallopian tube, surrounded by cells of the membrana
granulosa. Note the nearness of the eggs to each other. Upper egg shows
the female pronucleus. Lower egg shows two typical polar bodies. The
greater part of the chromatin of the first polar body is in adjacent sections.
But it all appears as separate chromosomes, while that in the second polar
body is collected into a fairly solid mass. Note the ragged and imperfect
zona pellucida, a condition due in part to the solvent action of reagents.
X 560.
W. B. Kirkham — Maturation of the Egg of the White Mouse. 8Y
Plate VII.
Figure 14. — Egg in Fallopian tube ; showing second polar body before its twelve
univalent chromosomes have been gathered into a solid mass. First polar
body has disappeared. At left, within the egg, is seen the sperm nucleus,
and above it the separated tail of the spermatozoon ; at I'ight appears tlie egg
nucleus, surrounded by delicate radiating fibers. The complete absence of
the zona pellucida is in part accounted for by tiie solvent action of the
reagents. x 1450.
Figure 15. — Egg in Fallopian tube ; showing both polar bodies, with their typical
differences. Note oval first polar body with its twenty-foiir vmivalent chro-
mosomes in a spindle, and the round second polar body with its compact
mass of chromatin. The sperm head appears at the left, the female pro-
nucleus at the right within the egg. The complete absence of the zona pel -
lucida is in part attributable to the solvent action of the reagents, x 1450.
Plate VIII.
Figure 16. — Egg in Fallopian tube ; showing first cleavage spindle and second
polar body with a resting nucleus. First polar body has disappeared. Note
length, and bent form of cleavage chromosomes •, also the distinct centriole
^t each pole of the cleavage spindle, x 1450,
Figure 17. — Egg in Fallopian tube ; showing two-celled stage. First polar
body has disappeared; the second appears above and between the two blas-
tomeres. x 1450.
^^\b
TRANSACTIONS OF THE
CONNECTICUT ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
Incorporated A. D. 1799
VOLUME XIII. PP. 89-U7
SEPT.. 1907
Publications of Yale University
POESIES DE " MAISTRE ELOY DU MONT,
DICT COSTENTIN."
BY
DAVID HOBART CARNAHAN, Ph.D.
11
^ NEW H
AVEN, CONNECTICUT.
1907
THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR' PRESS
IV. — Poesies de " Maistre Eloy du Mont, dict Oostentin."
By David Hobart Carnahax, Ph.D.
Table of Contents.
Page
Introduction 89
I. Dizain , envoye au Roy par Justice et Paix 97
II. Interpretation de ce present eiubleme (Huitain) 97
III. Champ Royal du champ royal de France (Chant royal) 98
IV. Dizain de I'interpretation des armes de France 100
V. Dizain sur ' ' sicut lilium inter spinas " 100
VI. Rondeau sur la louenge et memore des bons 100
VII. (A). Latin quatrain in description of miniature 101
(B). French quatrain, translation of Latin quatrain..^ 101
(C). Dialogue of " Le Roy, Charite, Foy, Le Hereticque, Le Dyable"' 101
VIII. Dizain de foy, nuiltipliee en ung seul homme plus qu'en toiis aultres 102
IX. Dizain au Roy sur Tabundance de I'or qui present est en France.. 102
X. (A). Aenigma de lilio (Latin) 102
(B). L'Enigme, cy devant escript, translate de latin en frangoys. 103
XI. ^ligii, Montani Coustantinatis, ad Franciam suo Francisco, foe-
licissimam hexastichon 105
XII. In Franciscum monarcham Gallorum, omnibus numeris virum
absolutissimum, Guilielmi Guernonii dodecastichon 106
XIII. In eundem ejusdem tetrastichon — 106
XIV. In eiindem Gado Fredi vallensis carmen Aelegiacum, Cvijus littere
capitaliores nomen f austissimum ostendunt — 106
XV. Au treschrestien Roy des Frangoys (142 lines). 107
XVI. Distichs of Faust Andrelin (105 Latin distichs, + 105 French dis-
tichs, +165 appendices) 111
XVII. Ballade du bon Roy Frangoys 142
XVIII. Fonde sur foy (Rondeau) ..- 143
XIX. Jacobi Galli, in eundem hexastichon 143
XX. Franciscus Bovillus Montismarianus in translationem disthicoinim
Faustinoram in linguam Franciscam, ad lectorem 143
XXI. Balade du Roy des Frangoys 144
XXII. Balade du concept virginal 145
XXIII. Rondeau joyeux a sa dame 146
XXIV. Oraison, convenable quand on se couche au soir 146
XXV. Dizain de France et Italie 147
INTRODUCTION.
The above-mentioned work, which is contained in manuscript
2237 f, fr., of the National Library at Paris, was called to my atten-
tion b}^ Monsieur Emile Picot in response to a request for informa-
tion concerning Eloy du Mont, the author of a short mystery of
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 8 Sept., 1907.
!i(i
1). 11. Cariuilinii — MiiiHtvi' Kloy du Moid, diet Costentin.
" La Rt'surrcetioii." The contents of the nianiiscrij)t seemed to
nijike it worthy of attention, as it contains not onl}' various forms of
poetrv common to tlie beginning of the sixteenth century but also
one hundred of the Latin distichs of Faust Andrelin, poet laureate
of Louis XIL Each of these Latin distichs is translated into a
French distich and is accompanied by from one to four French
maxims, or so-called "appendices," which are based on the Latin
distich.
The nianuscrii)t is described as follows in the catalogue of the
manuscripts of the National Library : "Manuscrit 2237, Poesies de
"maistre Eloy du Mont, diet Costentin" commen9ant- par,
" Le Redempteur, Franyo^'s, roy tres chrestien
" Vous a promis au ciel saturite "
et finissant par :
" Par mort cruelle, en attendant la fin,
" Que du bon roy nature soit contente."
Le recueil comprend dizains, chant royal, rondeau, cent distiques'
de " Faust Andrelin," traduits par " Costentin," avec dedicace,
ballades et quelques autres petites pieces fran5aises et latines ....
Jacobi Galli hexasticbon, (fol. 43) "carmen" in translationem dis-
tichorum faustinorum in linguam franciscara." Velin, miniatures,
lettres ornees, seizi^me siecle. (Anc. 8012.)"
The following facts should be added to this description : The
manuscript contains forty-nine leaves of parchment and five fly-
leaves of paper. On the first fly-leaf are found the words, " Z68
Costentin serf du R03'. Faust Andrelin." The first two leaves of
parchment are blank. The writing begins on the verse of the third
leaf of parchment. On the recto of this leaf has been written the
following date mcccclxxxviii. The leaves are 8fX64^ inches, the
lines in one column, with twenty -two lines to a page. Manuscript
in good condition, and handwriting clear. The rubrics are in red,
with two exceptions which are in blue. Capitals of each verse
black with gold shading except fol. iv, where they are entirely gold.
' Eloy du Mont gives this nwmber (fol. 10, recto) ; in reality, there are one
hundred and six. The author, in three places, counts two Latin distichs written
on the same subject as one distich. We find six pairs thus treated ; 18-19,
22-23, 28-29, 42-43, 60-61, 88-89. If we count each of these pairs as a single
distich, we have the one hundred distichs of which he speaks.
D. H. (Jarnahan — Malstre Eloy du Mont, diet Costentin. 91
Numerous large initials with flowered tracing. Three. miniatures in
colors. Manuscript written entirely in the same handwriting. The
manuscript of the National Library is the only one existing.
We have little exact information in regard to Eloy du Mont, the
author of the " Poesies." To his pen is also due the mystery of the
" Resurrection,'" which is an abridgment of the long mystery of
the same name attributed by M. Petit de Julleville to Jean Michel.^
M. Petit de Julleville gives the date of this abridged mystery as
towai'ds the year 1530, on account of the references in the dedica-
tory epistle to the rigors employed by the king against the heretics.^
It might well be dated any time from 1530 to 1536, as these severe
measures were practised against the Protestants continuously during
these 3'ears.^ The references, moreover, are quite vague in respect
to date, as one may see ; f ol. 2, recto, line 5, " Si de par vous remede
on n'y eust mys," and lines 10-11, "la bonne justice Qui faict en
est par vous, donne notice." A probable date for the representation
of this mystery would be 1532, when the king passed through Nor-
mand}^ on his way to the coronation of his son Francis, as Duke of
Brittany. In the dedicatory poem of his "Poesies," Eloy du Mont
speaks of a present made to him at Vasteville in the name of the
king ; there may be confusion in the manuscript between the name
of this town and Vatteville, where Francis passed the fourth and
fifth of March, 1538.''
The few details in the life of our author with which we are
acquainted are furnished by two of his works, which have come
down to us. In " La Resurrection," he styles himself, simply,
"Costentin, du Roy serf loyal (fol. 2, verso), Maistre Eloy du Mont,
diet Costentin (fol. 10, recto.), Aeligii Montani Constantinatis (fol.
10, recto.), Costentin, vostre humble vallet (fol. 11, verso)." The
term " valet du Roy " may imply nobility of rank but does not
necessarily do so, as there are instances of wiiters who are not of
noble birth being in attendance upon royalty. If of noble rank,
the name of Costentin would point to the house of Costentin-Tour-
ville in Normandy, but, unfortunately, a study of the genealogy of
this family reveals no one who may answer to his description. The
1 Manuscript B. N., 2238, f. fr.
- See " Note sur le Mystere de la Resurrection attribue k Jean Michel." G.
Macon. Paris, 1898.
^ Les Mysteres, vol. i, p. 336.
•• See '• Le Journal d'un Bourgeois de Paris," p. 169 et seq.
'" Catalogue des Actes de Frangois 1, tome II, mars, 1538.
92 IK IT. (''(Diiihdii — Maistre Eloy du 3fonl, diet Costeiitin.
cxpri'ssioii " liunible valet " wbicli is used above ma}' well be taken
ill tlie sense <>t' "liumble servant."
In searcbiiig in Normandy for writers who lived in the i>eriod
under discussion, one's attention is at once drawn to Eloy d'Amerval,
the author of " La Grande Deablerie." A comparison of the places
of residence and periods of activity, however, of this writer and of
Eloy du Mont shows the improbability of the two being identical.
"La (Ti-aiide Deablerie" was printed in 1.508, and contains a "priv-
ilege " which implies that the author, at that time, was advanced in
3'ears : " De Maitre Eloy d'Amerval, sans doubtance, Venerable
Prestre, plein de prudence." Both the known productions of our
author are in the third decade of the sixteenth century. We know,
from the authority of Du Verdier,' and from Parfaict' that Elo)'-
d'Amerval was a priest in the village church at Bethune ; Eloy du
Mont, from his own statement, lived in Caen, and he was not a priest,
because in the dedication of " La Resurrection " (fol. 2, verso, line
14), he mentions his wife.
Eloy du Mont was a teacher in Caen, where he speaks of teaching
his "petitz escoliers," and in his poems, announces the fact that the
"Poesies" are " Non composez de jacobins ou carmes Mais d'escol-
liers, domesticques arays." The term " petitz escoliers " leads one
to believe that he was not an instructor in the University of Caen
but in a school of lower grade. Furthermore, an examination of
the de))artmental archives of Calvados does not show his name on
the University roll.^
Our manuscript is not dated, but from evidence furnished by the
text we conclude that it was written towards the end of the third
decade of the sixteenth century. In the "Dizain de Fiance et
Italic" (fol. 47, recto), we find the following personal reference :
Italiens ont moult France eniioblie
De deux grandz biens, de la langue latine,
D'un aultre bien qui vault qu'on ne I'oublie,
C'est de la sage et tresnoble daulphine.
Catherine de Medicis married Henry II in 1533, but Henry did not
become "dauphin" until the death of his older brother P^rancis, in
1536. Three passages which we find imply that the "Poesies"
were written in times of peace ; fol. 1, verso (I):
1 Du Verdier Bibl. fr. II. p. 325.
- Parfaict Freres, Hist, du th. fr., II, p. 219.
•'* Archives d^partmentales, Calvados. S^rie D, University de Caen.
D. H. Carnnhan — Mahtre Eloy dn Mont, diet (Jonfe'iitin. 98
Pavfaict en France est l'escrii)t propheticque,
Justice et Paix se baisent au diet lieu.
(II) Justice, Iniquite corrompt,
Et Paix a Guerre le col romp,
fol. 10, recto (XI); " Franci, Francisco, felices pace fruuntur." The
third war between Francis I and Charles V lasted from 153G until
the truce of Nice in 15.38, after which ensued a peace of four years
duration. If we give weight to the above rather uncertain refer-
ences, the present work was written between the years 1538 and 1542.
By way of summary, and with the addition of a few facts obtained
from the text, we may say that the work under consideration was
written about 1538 by Eloy du Mont, a layman living in the city of
Caen. He was a teacher in a boys' school, and was assisted in the
production of his text by several of his pupils. The work was
dedicated to the king Francis I, in recognition of a gift made to the
author, possibly as a reward for the production of the mystery of
" La Resurrection," represented during one of the king's trips to
Normandy. The poet was skilled in Latin, but if we may judge
from his own statements, he preferred writing in Fi'ench, a language
in whose poetical forms he was well versed, and which was more
popular at court than the Latin.'
Much more accessible is information as to the life of Faust Andre-
lin, whose Latin distichs, together with their translations and appen-
dices, occupy twenty-seven folios of the manuscript. In the " Dic-
tionaire historique" of Moreri is found the following biography,
to which I have joined, in the form of notes, a few additional facts
obtained from the " Bibliotheque f ran9oise " of Du Yerdier : —
Andrelinus (Publius Faustus), natif de Forli en Italic, excella dans
la poesie des sa jeunesse, et merita a I'age de vingt-deux ans la
couronne de laurier, que I'academie de Rome donnoit a ceux qui
avoient reussi. Ce f ut sa piece poetique, intitulee " Livia " qui
remporta ce prix. II vint a Paris, oil il fut long-temps professeur en
poesie, en rhetorique, et en sphere dans I'universite, sous les
regnes de Charles VIII et de Louis XII." II y publia en 1490 son
' See "Les Poesies," fol. 12, verso, and "La Resurrection," folios 1, recto
and 2, verso).
- Du Verdier, I, p. 567 ; Le Roi. Louis XII, en consequence d'un voeu qu'il
fit h. la sainte Hostie de Dijon, pendant une lualadie qu'il eut, en 1505, ayant
recoixvre sa sante, envoya, en reconnoissance, k la Chapelle Royale, ou cette
Hostie est conservee, la propre Couronne, qu'il avoit portee a Reims, le jour de
son Sacre ; sur quoi Fauste ayant fait douze vers Elegiaques, le Roi lui donna,
pour recompense, un Canonicat k Bayeux. (M. de la Monnoye.)
ii 1 />. //. Carnahan — Maistre JEloy du Mont, diet Costent'nt.
poi'nif (livise en quatre livres, intitule Livia, clu iiom de sa maitresse,
et fiistiite trois livres d'elegies. Apres avoir pris la qualite de ))oete
coiiroiiiu', il prit celle de " po6ta regius et reginaeus," poete du roi
Louis XII, et de la reine Anne de Bretagne. II y a encore douze
eglognes de lui, imprimees en 1546. II ne s'est pas contente de faire
des vers, il :i iiussi ecrit en prose des lettres morales et proverbiales,
doiit on a fait line edition a Strasbourg en 1517 ; Beatus Rlienanus
y a joint une preface, dans laquelle il les loue excessivement. Ces
lettres ont ete augnientees par Jean Arboreus, theologien de Paris.
Quelques-unes des poesies d'Andrelinus ont ete traduites en fran-
9ois )>ar nn ]>oete de Paris, qui s'appelloit Estienne Prive. Cette
traduction (pii parut Tan 1004, n'est propre qu'a faire niepriser
I'original. Jean Paradin' avoit deju mis en fraM9ois une centaine
des distiques qu'Andrelinus avoit dedies h, Jean Ruze, tresorier des
finances de Charles VIII.° Les poesies d'Andrelinus ont ete inserees
dans le premier tome des " Delices des poetes Italiens." On a juge
assez diflFeremment. II faisoit des vers avec beaucoup de facilite ; les
termes en sont magnifiques, mais ils sont vuides de sens. II mourut
pendant I'liiver de 1519, avaut paque, c'est-a-dire 1519, suivant le
ealcul romain.
Eloy du ]Mont is a careful writer in comparison to the Dther poets
of his time ; his ballads, rondeaus and other poetical compositions
are all regular in construction and his versification is correct. The
examples of verse which are found in this collection are valuable in
the stud}' of the poetry of the sixteenth centur}^ on account of the
evident exactness of his views in regard to the rules of composition,
and the consistency with which he adheres to them. The following
kinds of French poetry are found in the manuscript :
1. Six dizains, 10-syll. Four have the rime-order (ababccdede),
and two (ababbccdcd).
2. Three ballads, S-sj'll., 8-8-8-4, (ababbcbc), (abab). In two of
the ballads, the initial letters of the lines form the words, " Fran5ois
de Valois."
' Du Yerdier, II, p. 487 ; Jean Paraditi, de Lonhans, a eci-it en rime, nn Livre
intitule Micropedie, contenant cent Quatrains, qui font les cent distiques de
Fauste ; Dialogues, etc. — le tout imprime k Lyon, in-8°, par .Jean de Tournes,
1546, et k Paris, in-16°, par Estienne Groulleau, 1547.
■ Du Verdier, I. p. 567 : — La tradiiction de Paradin, est plutot une Para-
phrase, qii'iine Traduction .... Ecienue Prive s'est assujetti a rendre les
Distiques vers pour vers, au lieu que Paradin les a rendus par Quatrains. La
Traduction d'Estienne Prive, qnoique plus precise, n'est pas plus estimee que
celle de Paradin. Voy. la Bibliotheque Franyoise de M. L'Abbe Goujet, tome
VIII, p. 15 et la Bibliotheque Curieuse de Climent, tome I, p. 3'^2.
D. II. Carnahan — Maistre Eloy dn Mont, diet Costentiu. 95
3. Three rondeaus, 10-syll., 5-3-5 (aabba), (aab), (aabba). The
words which begin line one are repeated after lines eight and
thirteen.
4. One huitain, 8-s)^ll. " Rimes plates."
5. One chant royal ("Champ Royal"), 10-syll. Five stanzas, of
eleven lines each, with an envoy of six lines (ababbccdede), (aababa).
Refrain, " Le Champ Royal en troys liz d'or plante."
6. One " oraison," 8-syll. Eight stanzas (abab), except stanza
IV (aabb).
7. Two quatrains, 8-syll. (aabb).
3Iiscellaneous French poetry :
1. Translation of the Latin poem, " Aenigma de lilio." Forty
lines, 10-syll. " Rimes plates."
2. Dedication to the king. One hundred and forty-two lines,
10-syll. " Rimes plates."
3. Dialogue, "Roy, Charite, Foy, Heretique, Dyable. Each
speaker has two lines. " Rimes plates," 8-syll.
4. Appendices to the Latin distichs. One hundred and sixty-five
French distichs, 10-syll.'
" Rime riche " is used almost entirely by the poet, and the
examples of leonine rime are very abundant. There are many cases
of overflow verse. From the large number of " rimes equivoques,"
lit is evident that the author endeavored to use them as frequently as
possible. Some of the most striking of these rimes are : (1, verso),
maintient : la main tietit, prophetic davidique : david diH que.,
corronipt : le colrompt ; (7, verso), je devaloys : Fran9ois de Valoys,
soubz France : sou f ranee, via part tient : xn!appartient ; (11, verso),
bumb/(? vallet : le valloit, aidx dieux : odieux, lesqueilz avez : scavez,
(14, vei'so), amys : a mys, avant age : dCavantacje, rondeaulx : rondz
d''eaulz ; (18, verso), amer : Vamer ; (-23, recto), (Venvie : en vie ; (36,
recto), le corbeaii : le corps beau ; (45, verso), parler -.par Vair.
The following rimes are of interest from the point of view of
pronunciation : (3, recto), ateste : texte, dextre : croistre ; (3, verso),
droicte : extraicte ; (3, recto), congnoistre : dextre; (5, verso), estre :
paroestre ; (7, verso), monde : habunde, regne : Royne ; (9, recto),
vouloir : voller ; (11, verso), memoire : encore, parler : vouloir ; (42,
verso), ce)>tre : dextre ; (45, verso), parler: par I'air, valletz : valoys.
(Syllabification.) Our author, the same as the other writers of
his time, employs various forms of hiatus which are forbidden by
modern rules. He differs from many of his contemporaries, however,
^ For the titles of the Latin selections, see the table of contents, p. 89.
96 JK II. Curnahan — Maistre Eloy du Mont, diet Costentin.
ill tlie fact that when lie accepts a ceitain syllable-value for a com-
bination of vowels, he does not change this value to meet the exi-
gencies of the verse. As a consequence of this exactness of usage,
the definite syllable-value of certain groups of vowels is clear. In
his lines of ten syllables, he uses the " cesure ordinaire,'" and in the
forty cases in which we find tlie feminine cesura, with the fourth
syllable of the line accented, the following word begins with a
vowel. No examples of lyi'ic cesura are found.
A few of the questions to be considered in a study of the manner
of counting syllables at this epoch, may be illustrated by examples
from tlie.se poems :
1. Hiatus. Frequent, with no cdses of sjMialepha : planta en (2,
verso), ordonne a (2, verso), clerge et (4, recto). Flora et (1), verso),
beaulte admirable (9, verso), macquereau est (19, verso), volupte
est (21, recto), volupte incline (25, verso), norame en (12, recto), a en
(10, verso), a on (18, recto).
2. Final mute e, followed by a word which begins with a vowel,
never counts as a s^dlable, although, in a few cases, the elision is not
indicated, as : Que a (11, verso), Je iinploreray (13, verso), que ung
(14, recto). Sometimes the elision is graphically represented by
raising the "e" above the line and closing the gap.
3. Final "es," followed by a word which begins with a vowel,
counts as a separate syllable ; estes en, 3-syll. (13, recto). Princes et,
3-syll. (14, recto), fleuves y, 3-syll. (18, recto), tumbes au, 3-s\-ll. (21,
recto), lignes et, 3-syll. (42, recto).
4. The verbal ending " oient " counts as one syllable ; auroient
(4, recto), croiroient (V, recto), excedoient (9, recto), soient (13, verso).
5. The ending " ier," in verbs, counts as two syllables ; other-
wise, as one syllable. Ex.: two syllables, attedier (12, verso),
dedier (12, verso), marier (29, recto); one syllable, ouvrier (3, recto),
familiers (12, recto), louvrier (13, verso), descolliers (14, verso),
entier (16, verso), mestier (16, verso).
6. Final " ieux " counts as one syllable in the stem of a Avord,
but as two syllables in the ending. Ex.: one syllable in inieulx
(1, verso), lieu (2, verso), Dieu (2, verso) ; two syllables in spacieux
(2, verso), gratieuse (9, verso), furieux (38, recto). In rime-words,
we find: trespreciei/a; (2-syll.) : cieulx (1-syll.); jyieu (1 syll.):
oA\eiix (2- 85^1.).
V. Final " ion " counts as two syllables ; nation (3, recto), dona-
tion (3, recto), region (44, verso).
' See A. Tobler, " Le Vers fran^ais, ancien et moderue," p. 112.
D. H. Carnahan — 3/aistre Eloy da Mont, diet Costentin. 97
8. The group " ien " counts. as one syllable in: treschretien (1,
verso), convjent (4, recto), conribien (9, recto), entretiendra (SY, verso),
tient (41, recto), souvienne (4*7, recto) ; as two syllables in chresti-
ente (3, verso), anciens (15, verso), Venitiens (25, recto), science (33,
verso), Italiens (47, verso),, terriens (38, verso), I'inipatient (24, verso).
9. The word " je," as enclitic, counts as a separate syllable unless
followed by a word beginning with a vowel, in which case it is
elided. Ex.: prendray je (13, verso), Dis je (13, verso), doy je
estre (5, verso), ay je encore (11, verso).
10. The group " ou " + "i" or "e" counts as two syllables;
"u" + "i" counts as one. Ex.: ouyr (33, verso), louenge (5, verso),
nuyr (9, recto), fu3n-ont (23, verso).
11. The following count as one syllable : cie\, dyable, requ/ert,
vi'ellesse, v^'eil, superfluite, amitie, paroestre, oesivete, lum^^ere, man-
s?<etude (4, recto), but mans«etude, 2-syll. (38, verso).
12. The following count as two s^Mlables : lil/«l, insat/able,
trouvee, obvmnt, hero/cques, poete, c\^ue, mari'age, pays.
(1, verso)
I.
DlZAIN^ ENVOYE AU RoY PAR JuSTIOE ET PaIX.
Le Redempteur, (Fran9oys, Roy treschretien),
Vous a proniis au ciel saturite.
beati qui Tousjours avez desire 1 entretien
esuriunt ^^^ -_ . , ,, . . ,
et sitiimt. ^'^ ™oy? Justice, et nors lobscunte
Mathei 5. De guerre, France est en securite.
cf quomam. Pource que VOUS estez Roy pacifique,
Proniis vous est, par loy evangelicque,
Que vous serez appelle filz de Dieu ;
Justicia et Pax Parfaict en France est I'escript pi'opheticque,
osculate sunt. ^ . _,. ,. ,.,.
ps. 84. Justice et Paix se baisent au diet lieu.
II.
Interpretation de ce present embleme.'
Avecques paix le Roy man tient
Justice, et es deux la main tient ;
La prophetic davidique
Est accomplie, ou david diet que
' This poem refers to the miniature on the following page, in which Francis
I is seen joining the hands of two female figures which represent Justice and
Peace. The three are standing within a columned portico which has for a back-
98 I). II. ('nrnahan — Maistre .Eloy du Mont, diet Costentin.
Justice et Paix ont fait accordz
Jnsticia et Pax En baisant, mieulx (jiu- corps a corps ;
osculfttf sunt. ^ . - . . ,
i)s. M4. Justice, Iniquitu corrompt,
Et Paix a Guerre le col romi)t.
iii. — costkntin, du roy serf loyal,
Ce Champ Royal du champ royal.'
(2, verso) De France presente a pRANgois,
MONARCQUE ILLUSTRE DES FRANgOIS.
Le maistre ouvrier, qui paradis terrestre
Fist et planta en fi-uictz clelicieux,
Elent en France un tresbeau lieu champestre,
Commode, assez fertile et spacieux,
Pour y dresser un champ solacieux ;
Ce qui fut faict et, par un don celeste,
Ce noble champ, divin, riche et honneste,.
Fut ordonne a roys de grand renom,
Par lesquelz Dieu vouloit que supplante
Fust maint payen ; le champ porte ce nora,
Le champ royal, en troys liz d'or plante.
Couleur d'azur au champ donna ce maistre,
Couleur semblable au saphir et aulx cieulx.
Troys fleurs de liz sur le champ voulut mettre,
Fleurs de liz d'or, metal tresprecieux.
Qui sont en champ comme astres specieux
Sont en liault ciel ; ce noble champ ateste,
Ainsi qu'on peult congnoistre par mainct texte
(D'hystoriens), combien la nation
Des roys est noble, ausquelz fut presente,
Divinement et par donation,
Le champ royal, en troys liz d'or plante.
ground the royal dais, with a light blue canopy, marked with fleurs-de-lis.
Justice holds the sword and scales in her left hand, while Peace is bearing
the olive branch. The two are about to kiss. Justice is trampling under foot
a woman with flowing yellow hair and of evil appearance (Iniquity). Peace is
likewise treading upon a man in armor who has a broken sword in his hand
(Guerre). Near this man is lying a diminutive cannon.
^ This so-called " Champ Royal " is the ordinary type of the " chant roj^al "
of the sixteenth century.
D. II. Camahan — Maistre Eloy du Mont, diet Costentin. 99
Ce maistre ouvrier les troj's fleurs de liz estre
D'or a voulu, du soleil lumineux
Ont la couleur, ([ui uous donne a congnoistre
Le Roy de France, en oeuvre fructueux,
Estre des roys le soleil vertneux
Dont la clarte deffend qu'obscure secte
Du faulx Luther son royaulme n'infecvte ;
Par sa splendeiir et illustration,
Tresaraplement, a la foy augraente,
De ses vertus nous faict ostension
Le champ Royal, en troys liz d'or plante.
1
Le liz est droict, non tendant a la dextre
Plus qu'a senestre, et en espinuz lieux
Hault eleve, souvent on le voit croistre,
Plus qu'aultres fleurs en beaulto gratieux,
Contre venin, fort et substantieux,
Cela figure haulteur, justice, droicte,
Toutes vertus, en la lignee extraicte
D'Hector, Troyen, et son filz, Francion ;'
Mieulx qu'aultres roys de la chrestiente,
Les Fran9oys out en leur possession
Le champ Royal, en troys liz d'or plante.
On ne sgavroit dire en |)rose ne metre
Les dignitez, graces, droictz copieux.
Que Dieu monstroit aux roys fran9o_ys promettre,
Quand a Clovis, par faict miraculeux,
Envoya dons, divins et merveilleux,
Signifiant que le Fran903's excede
Tout aultre ro}^, il n'a qui le precede.
Plus qu'empereur a de perfection,
Par son toucher est veu donner sante,
De luy nous est vray attestation
Le champ Royal, en troys liz d'or plante.
(4, recto) Envoy,
Prince Frangoys, d'or la propriete,
D'azur, du ciel, jjropre vous a este
' See "La Franciade," the unfinished poem of Ronsard. The legend is also
related by Fredegaire, Jean Le Maire, Jean Bouchet.
100 1>. //. ('arnahan — JLdstre Eloy da Jfont, diet Costentin.
YjI toii>sjours est ; vostre peuple oraison
Faict que soyez de tout nial exempte,
A vous, Roy, seul convient, selon raison,
Le cliamp royal, en troys liz d'or plante.
IV. — DizAix op: t/intekpretation des armes de France.
Des rieui's de liz, auz roys fran5oys donnez,
Le liault floron du melieu re])resente
La fo}', les deulx, es costez ordonnez,
Sont le clerge et noblesse, excellente,
Qu'ont' iceulx roj's j^our la foy soustenir,
Ce que tousjours ont voulu maintenir ;
Troys fleurs de liz nous donneut a congnoistre
Que verite, mansuetude et justice,
Auroient vigueur en France par la dextre
Du Roy Fran9oys, dont vraye avons notice.
V. — Dizain sue " sicut lilium inter spinas.'"
(4, verso)
Coinme le liz, entre espines croyssant
Hault eleve, les espines excede,
Ainsi le Roy lilial, accroyssant
Son bruyt et nom, les aultres roys precede.
L'asperite des espines iie blesse
En rien le liz ; tout ainsi la noblesse
Et vray vouloir du Roy (qui le liz porte),
Blessez ne sont de poingnantz hereticques,
Maiz contre iceulx la foy garde et supporte
En obviant a leurs fainctes practicques.'
VL — Rondeau sur la louenge et memore des bons,
(6, recto)
Avec louenge, en niemore doibt estre
Memoria jnsti Le juste et droict (ainsy qu'on peult congnoistre
cum landibus, t-, • ^ • ^\ • '• ^ ^ •
Plover X "^^' "i^i'it escript); si juste est mon seigneur,
Mon Prince ou Roy, avec plus grand honneur
De luy, par moy, la louenge doibt croistre.
^ The elision in this word as well as elsewhere in the manuscript, is indicated
by a small letter " e " raised just above the line.
• Canticum Canticorum Solomonis, Cantio I, Cap. II, 2 ; " Sicnt lilium inter
spinas, sic aniioa mea inter filias."
•' This dizain is illustrated, on the following page, by a miniature of a lily-
plant, with three full-blown lilies and two buds, interwoven sjTnmetrically with
a thorn-bush. Tlie plant and bush are framed in a gold-pillared arch, with a
light blue background, dotted with gold.
D. H. Carnahan — Maistre Eloy du Mont, diet Costentin. 101
Nomen impio- Le juste on doibt louer, le raaulvais mettre
rum putrescat, -, ' , , ■ • . ^ z
pruerbiorum ^'^■i ^^ oubly ; Si juste est done mon maistre
X. Plus I'aymer doy, desirant son hon heur,
Rectos decet
coUaiidatio,
psalmo,
XXXII.'
(6, verso)
(7, recto)
Avec louenge.
Si exhortez sommes par saincte lettre
Louer le juste, et justice a son estre
Prins en mon Roy, doy je estre diet flateur
Pour le louer? non, puys tout serviteur
Au maistre doibt loyal tousjours paroestre,
Avec louenge.
VII. (A).
Rex pins in fixo Franciscus cardine pistim
Sustinet : liuie vitam suppeditabit Eros.
Magni sub pedibus Regis cognosce Luterum
Stratum ; cui demon praeparat insidias.^
(B.)
Le Roy Fran9oys la foy soustient,
D'oeuvres charite I'entretient,
Le Roy marche sur I'heretieque,
Pour I'avoir, le dyable practique.
(c.)
Le Roy.
Au Luther le parler deffens
Et la foy crestienne defens.
Charite.
Je tiens le coeur du grand Frangoys
Avec les coeurs des bons Fran^oys.
Foy.
De mon estat je devaloys
Sans le bon Fran9oys de Valoys.
1 Psalms XXXn, 1, ''Exultate, justi, in Domino; rectos decet collaudatio."
- This quatrain refers to a half-page miniature of Francis I, scepter in hand,
trampling under foot a writhing figure which represents Luther. To the right
and left of the king are two female figures representing Faith and Charity.
Charity is holding out a platter on which is seen one large red heart and three
smaller ones ; she is pointing with her finger at the large heart. A small devil
is crouching at one side of the group, and is stretching out towards Luther an
iron rod with two hooks at the end. This miniature occupies the upper half of
folio 6, verso. .
102 />. jr. <'<irn<ihnu — M^fistrr Eloy du Mont^ diet (^^ostentin.
Le llereticque.
Maiiitz me croiroient vivaiitz soubz France,
Mais leur Roy me tieiit en souffrance.
Le Dyable.
Le Roy soul)s Ic jik' ma part tient,
C'est ung Luthei- (jui in'appartient.
vttl dlzaix de foy, multipliee en ung seul homme plus
qu'en tous aultres.
(7, verso)
Diivant ce regne, en France on peult congnoistre
Foy de cbrestien, foy de prince, et foy d'horame,
Foy de viay Roy, foy de trescrestien estre,
En ung suppost, et foy de gentilhomme,
C'est en Fran9oys, que treschrestien on nomme ;
Les roys fran9oys tiltre de treschrestien
Ont obtenu pour le constant soustien
Qu'ilz out donne a la foy Jesuscbrist ;
Sans vaciler ont tenu ce maintien
Depuys Clovis, comme on voit par escript.
IX. — DizAix Au Roy sur l'abundan<.'e de l'or qui present
EST EN France.
Vray or leans en France vous avez,
(Roy treschrestien), excellent et despreuve,
Les mines d'or sercber vous ne debvez
D'aultres paiz, si bon or on n'y treuve,
Vous mesme avez la vraye mine ouverte
Ou il fut prins, laquelle fut couverte,
II a long temps, au grand regret du nionde ;
Aultre richesse en France avez, l'or regne
En di(!t payz, aultre bien y habunde,
Liee en or est de France la Royne.
(8, recto)
X (a). — Aenigma de lilio.
Nupserat auspicio divum, et Junone socunda
Flora deeus niundi Zepbiro jucunda marito
Conjugibus pax alma fuit, concordia major •
Carmine, certatim pugnabat mutuus ardor
Jusque dies. Zephiri tandem de semine Flora
Lactea protulerat foelici lilia foetu.
I). H. Carnahan — Mai&tre Eloy du Mont, diet Costentin. ]03
C>.'everat hinc praedulcis amor, foelicia saecla
Ridebant, variis vernantes floribus borti
Liligeri, Ilesperiduin i)omaria conteranebant
Ecce autem stridens Aquilo foelicibus aiiiiis
Invidit, Florara que petens, quae libera dulci
Oscula praebebaL sponso, pernicibus alls
Advolat hostis atrox subito, cupidus que nocendi
Lilia que et florum genitricem tiatibus urget
Horrificis, ciet ille minas male percitus ira,
Eumenides que vocat. Sed enini constanlia Divae
Hac rabiem perpessa ten us, nil fracta furore est
Aeolio quanquam occultum -epirantia virus
(8, verso) Flarama concuterent pulclira cum prole parentem
Hinc stimulos odio pudor admovet acrius inde
Percitus invidia divara conjurat in ipsam
Lilia que insequitur clarissima pignora matri
At furit incassum, nam lilia perpetuum ver
Lactea semper alit blandoque Favonius ore
Aeternum aspirans florentes educat hortos.
(b). — L'Enigme, cy devant escript, translate de latin en
frangoys par le dict dlt mont, aultrement, costentin".
Flora la belle, (aspirans les haultz dieux,
Juno present), avec le gracieux
Et doulx Zephire, bonnestement ornee,
Conjoincte fut ; O I'beureuge journee !
Plusgrande paix que I'on ne pourrot dire
Fut entre eulx deux ; doulce amitie, sans ire,
Tousjours croissoit ; Flora, moult amoureuse,
Beaulx liz produict de la semence heureuse
Du doulx Zepbyre, et a ceste raison
Creut leur amour ; lors heureuse saison
(9, recto) S'esjouyssoit, les jardins tous couvertz
De belles fleui-s et de beaulx liz ouvertz,
Reraplis d'oudeur, et de puanteur vides ; *
Trop excedoient des riches Hesperides
Les beaulx jardins. A ceste doulce vie
Et temps heureux Aquilo porte envye,
Serchant Flora, qui franchement s'aisoit
En son espoux et souvent le baisoit.
1U4 ]J. II. ('(trnafuin — JMuistre Kloy du Mont, diet Costentin.
C'est ennyeux de miyre avant vouloir ;
Vers cMilx oil voyt horriblement A^oller
Par Koufttementz, poulsez de grand aspresse ;
Les liz, avec Flora leur mere, presse
En niennssant ; ])Our plus les esbausser
A convoquu les Furies d'enfer.
Mais de Flora la Constance et courage
Virilenient a soustenu la rage
De I'ennemy, sans quelque estonneraent
De sa fureur : conibien qu'occultement
Cest Aquilo, portant venin nuysible,
Moult s'effor9ast, par souffleraent hoiTible,
Aneantir la mere et les enffans,
(9, verso) C'estoit Flora et les liz triumphans ;
Pour ceste cause augmentee est la hainne,
Et I'ennemy, que triste envj^e raainne,
Contre Flora gratieuse, conjure,
Serchant les liz pour leur porter injure ;
Maiz il perd temps, car printemps pardurable
Contient les liz en beaulte admirable,
Le doulx Zephire, aspirant doulcement,
Aux beaulx jardins donne nourrissement.
D. H. Carnahan — Maistre Eloy du Mont, diet Costentin. 105
(10, recto)
Cent disticques' de Faust Andrelin, poete du Roy et de la
RoYNE/ TRADUICTZ EN DISTIQUES FRAN^OYS ; AvEOQUES UNG OU
PLUSIEURS APPENDICES, EXTRAIOTZ SUK UNG CHASCUN DISTICQUE,
PAR Maistre Eloy du Mont, diot Costentin/
XI. — Aeligii Montani Constantinatis ad Franciam suo Fran-
cisco FOELICISSIMAM HEXASTICHON.
Foelix Francorum Franciscum Francia regem
Tu colis, en vobis nomina conveniunt
Moribus ingennis Francisci Francia mores
Conformes teneas ; mutuus insit amor
Franci Francisco felices pace fruuntur
Franciscum Franci suspiciunt et amant.
^ See footnote, page 90.
- Faust Andrelin was poet laureate to Loviis XII and Anne de Bretagne.
^ We have the testimony of a contemporary of Faust Andrelin, Beatus Rhe-
nanus, as to the high esteem in which the productions of the poet were held.
This testimony is found in the preface to the following edition of Andrelin's
works : P. Fausti i^ndrelini, Foroliviensis Poetae atque Oratoris clarissimi
Epistolae proverbiales, et morales longe lepidissimae, nee minus sententiosae.
In Sylva ducis Brabantiae, anno incai-nationis verbi. M.D. XXXI. Mense
Aprili. Gerardus Hatart typis has epistolas emittebat.
The preface to this collection is as follows : Beatus Rhenanus, Hieronymo.
Gebuilero Selestati bonas literas profitenti S. — Morales P. Fausti epistolae, mi
Hieronynle iccirco ad Germanicae juventutis usum, impressioni mandandas
duxi, quod viderem eas minime protritam, trivialemque in se continere erudi-
tiouem. Nam habent eximiam in primis verbornm elegantiam, nee minorem
sententiarum (quibus affatim scatent) venustatem. Inveniet hie ingenuus adole-
scens, non pauca ad bene, beateque vivendum hortamenta. Discet hie amorem
mulierum esse fugiendum, et voluptatum fugam, ad sanctiorum vitam quern
maxime conducere, ut Graecanico quodem versiculo praecipitur : — raerrpos ixkv
irpd}Ti(TTd kclI inrvov Kal (piXdraTos, quem hunc in modum Hermolaus Barbaras
paraphrasi expressit, — Venter pluma, Venus, laudem fugienda sequenti. Discet
praeterea tempus (cujus siimptu nihil praeciosius est) per inertiam non esse
transmittendam. Ocium innumerorum malorum feminarium, impensissime
evitandum, et id genus plnrima, quae omnia Foroliviensis Faustus in his episto-
lis proverbialibus ac protrepticis, cum lepide, tum gravitem complexus est, qui
et si in nonnuUis opusculis genuino poetarum more lasciviusculus sit, hie tamen
integrum ac modestum oratorem agit. Gaeterum norit candidus lector adagia :
rds -rrapoi/jLias (ut Graecia diciint), quadrauter coudimentorum rationem subire.
His nempe immoderatius in concinnandis eduliis, popinatores utantur, gustu*
aut grata incundaque reddent. Illis simili pacto (si modus absit) non tarn splen-
dorem, ac ornatum quam obscuritatem sermoni tuo afferes. Mediocritas vero
omnia saluat, ubique optima, ut inquit Aristoteles, summus (Pliniano Eulogio)
in omni scientia vir. Bene vale, Selestadi pridie Caleudas Septembres. Anno,
MDVIII.
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 9 Sept., 1907.
lOfi D. n. Carnahan — 3Iaistre Eloy du Mont,. diet Costentin.
XII. — I.N l'"liA.\»lS(USI MONAKCIIAM (tALLOHUM OMN'IBUS NUMERIS
VIRUM ABSOLUTISSIMTM GuiLIELMI GUERNONII DODECASTICHON.
(10. verso) Classis it ad portiis diras sprctura procellas
Regis ad invidiam qui timet, auspicia
Nil Mecenatem nam secula nostra requirunt,
Rex niveis ilium preterit altus equis.
Quom noil obtundant toties monumenta dicata
Humanum summe quid superare queat
Adde, quod est author foeture temporis huju.s,
Galle, es quo Hebreus, Grecus et Ausonius
Quum peregrina fovet, parmi ipsa domestica pendit
Abnuit Eligius facta pericla citan.s
Primas quapropter Franciscus primus habeto,
Hunc unum observet Candida posteritas.
XIII. — In eundem ejusdem tetrastichon.
Si soplios est princeps, sophiam vel pectora docta
Diligit, est illi patria fausta soplio
Ter foelix igitur vocitetur Gallia jure
Franciscus sophos est, ac amat ipse sophos.
XIV. — In eundem Gado Fredo vallensis carmen Aelegiacum
CUJUS LITTERE CAPITA LIORES NOMEN FAUSTISSIMUM OSTENDUNT.
(11, recto) Funditus evertit summo de vertice Troiam
Rex Danaus, sato Teucria capta f uit
' Abstulit (heu miserum) Troiae vestigia Grecus
Nobilis, Ixe penitus mansit adusta focis.
Capta licet fuerint assurgunt moenia Troiae.
Illustrem Francum diruta Troia tulit.
Sic superi Teucris pensant incendia tanta,
Concipit huic Phrigium Martia Troia virum.
Ut nova progenies surgit monimenta decoris
Surguiit, et Galiis aurea secla vigent.
Vivit Priamides nunc regia Pergama restant,
Amplaque Dardanie nomina, Galle, tenes.
Lucida prefulgens Franciscus nomina Franci
Exhibit, hie primus stemmata clara refert.
Nunc quis Franciscum Troiano a sanguine ductum
Summum non referat ? quis nisi mentis Mops ? (sic)'
Ista igitur letus perpendas carmina que nunc
Seminat Eligii Gallica musa tui.
1 The word " Mops " is probably an abbreviated form of the name " Mopstis,"
and refers to the soothsayer Mopsns.
D. H. Carnahan — Maistre Eloy du Mont^ diet Costentin. 10
(11, verso)
XV. — Au TRESCHRESTIEN RoY DES FrAN^OYS,
Premier roy de ce nom FRANgoYS,
Costentin, vostre humble vallet,
Prest vous servir, s'il le valloit
Comme ainsi soit (Prince tresmagnaniiue),
Roy tveschrestien, en majeste sublime,
Qu'ingratitude aulx humains et aulx dieux
Soit ung peche grandement odieiix
Et desplaisant, pour sa grant turpitude,
Je ne vouldrois en rien d'ingratitude
Estre notte, mais je n'ay la puissance
Que, par etfect, face recongnoissance
Aulx biensfaicteurs, entre lesqueilz avez
Le premier lieu (Sire), car vous sgavez
Qu'a Vasteville il me fut ung present
Faict de par vous, leqnel sera present
Tant que vivray, en fons de ma memoire.
Je n'avoies pas (Sire), non ay je encore,
Mery qu'a moy vous voulissez parler ;
Tant soeullement, le liberal vouloir •
(13, recto) Estant en vous m'a faict ce benefice,
Estre n'en peult la cause mon service,
De rien servir ne vous peult mon s9avoir,
Mais, neantmoins, je doy monstrer avoir
Ung bon vouloir, soit par parole ou lectre ;
Quand aultrement ne le puis recongnoistre
Ung bon vouloir, qu'on veult mectre en effect,
Ille convient reputer pour le faict.
Depuis le temps que f uz a vasteville,
(Roy treschrestien), dedens Caen, vostre ville,
En instruisant mes petitz escoliers,
Cent elegans disticques familiers
Que composa le poete royal
Faust norame, en vray sens litteral
Traduictz avons, et d'un cliacun disticque
Prins et extraict (qui n'est pas grand praticque),
Ung ou plusieurs aultres disticques, dictz
Et appellez appendices, reduictz
Et appliquez en quelque sens moral ;
II ne convient au langaige rural
H
108 J). JI. Carnahan — Maistre Eloy du Mont, diet Costentiii.
Avoir refrard, niais an sens de la lectre,
(1~*. verso) Ce qui m'a duict icculx disticques mectre
En traii9oys, Sire, est que j'ay congnoissance
Que le fran^oys a plus grande puissance
(^iic le latin ;' le bon Fran9oys qui regne,
Nous a cause depuis le vostre regne
Le bon latin ; difficile est, de faict.
Que de maulvais fran903'^s puisse estre faict
TJng bon latin, mais aussi, du contraire,
De bon fran5oys bon latin fault extraire.
Si ne craingnoies de vous attedier
Je vouldiois bien mon oeuvre dedier
A vostre nom, qu'est ce que je vueil dire,
A vostre nom ? ce mot convient desdire,
L'oeuvre est petit, de rudesse ydropicque,
(Quaud de mon faict), et d'elegance ethicque,
Indigne d'estre offert au moindre prince.
Voire seigneur qui soit en la province ;
Et j'entreprens, par folle oultrecuidance,
Le presenter au monarque de France,
Des roys humains I'excellence et la fleur.
Qui vous vouldroit faire dons en valleur
(13, recto) Equipollens a la vostre noblesse,
II conviendroit visiter la richesse
Et grandz tresors de celeste cite, .
Plaine de joye et dc felicite ;
Vostre noblesse en dignite excede
Tons biens que Dieu en terre nous concede,
Tant habundant vous estes en tout bien
Qu'on ne pourroit vous augmenter en rien,
Mais nous voyons qu'en la mer, tant diffuse,
Habundent eauz, encore el ne refuse
^ The same idea is expressed by our author in his "Resurrection," fol. 1.
recto, line 14 — De composer la Resurrection.
De Jesus Christ, en langaige fraugoys
Non en latin, voyant que le frauQoys
Trop mieulx ayme est, pour le temps qui court
Que le latin ; ceulx qui hantent la court
Et aultres lieux, ont vraye congnoissance
Combien ayme est le frangoys en France. —
Likewise, we find on fol. 3, verso, line 11, the following statement : "Costentin,
Trop myeulx aymant fran§oys que le latin."
D. H. Camahan — Mcnstre Eloy du Mont, diet Costentin. 109
Petitz ruisseaiilx. En grands biens et syavoir
Vous habnndez, neantmoins recepvoir
Vous pourres bien mon petit opixscule
Et I'inipvimer dedens une cellule
De la nieniore. En I'evangile on treuve
Conime une povre et simple femme veufve
Pour avoir mis dens le ga'/.ophilace/
Ung seul quadrin remporta plus de grace
Du createur et fut son don tiH)uve
Plus aggreable et plus grand approuve
Qu'aultres plusieurs de plus grande importance ;
(13, verso) Dieu regardoit son coeur et sa puissance.
Oultre, je voy que petitz aymez bien,
Car des petitz comme des grandz le bien
Vous deffendez, voullant que de justice
Ait le petit comrae le grand, notice.
Pour cez raisons si I'ouvrier et I'ouvraige
Soient bien petitz, si prendray je couraige
De vous I'offrir ; ne regardez, Seigneur,
Le don du tout mais le coeur du donneur.
En recepvant de moy don si petit,
Enbraserez en moy ung appetit
De composer oeuvre de plus hault stille,
Dis je plushault ? selon qu'il soy distille
Par I'alembic de raon engin debile,
Mais pour le rendre aulcun peu plushabile
J'imploreray I'aide de quelque muse
Pour impetrer de sa science infuse,
C'est de Clio, doulce muse historicque,
Laquelle escript en belle rhetoricque
Des nobles coeurs heroicques effectz,
Comme par roys fran9oys conduictz et faictz.
(14, recto) De ce qu'ung roy a son vouloir estime
Tons ses subjectz, en voirrez faire estime ;
Princes et roys, les petitz font voler
En hault honneur, et les grandz devaler ;
Quand il leur plaist, des subjectz font autant
Comme ung jecteur d'un jecton en jectant,
' Mark 12, 41 : " Et sedens Jesus contra gazophylacium, aspiciebat quomodo
turba jactaret aes in gazophylacium," etc.
110 D. 11. Carnahan — Maistre Eloy du Mont, diet Costentin.
Car ung jecteur ung jecton faict valoir
Cent mille escus, ot puis a son vouloir
Le faict valoir une petite maillc,
Ce que ne vault I'oeuvre que je vous bailie.
Ce nonobstant tant petit qu'il puisse estre,
S'il est loue par le grand prince et maistre,
Le Roy Fran9oys, grand estime sera
De toutes gens, et son bruit haulsera,
Ce neantnioins eii ce cas ne calenge,
(Roy trescbrestien), du monde la louenge,
Mais me suffist que puisse trouver place
Dedens le cbamp de vostre bonne grace,
Et que prenez en grey mon petit oeuvre ;
Suppliant Dieu (O Prince), qu'il vous oeuvre
Ses beaulx tresors, lesqueilx il a promis
(14, verso) A ceulx qui sont ses bons Qt vrays amys,
Apprez qu'aures en ce monde vescu
Bien longuement, et le dyable vaincu
Vous trouverez dedens ce petit livre,
(Que de bon coeur humblement je vous livre),
Une elegie avecques aultres carmes,
Non composez de jacobins ou carmes,
Mais d'escolliers, domesticques amys,
Avecques nous ung cbascun d'eulx a mys.
Voire, et veult mectre en tout temps, pleuve ou vente,
Tout son esprit, non pas pour mectre en vente
Mais pour louer en latin le Fran9oys
Qui de present regne sur les Fran90vs,
Et ne mourra (aiudant Dieu), avant aage.
Vous trouverez balades davantage
Et cbamps Royaulx,' dizains avec rondeaulx,
Non cojnposez par poetes rondz d'eauz
Maiz par vostre Inunble et infime vallet,
Prest vous servir s'il povoit ou valoit.
' Although the plural form is .used here, we find bat one " chant royal " in
the collection.
D. H. Carnahan — Maistre Eloy du Mont, diet Costentm. Ill
XVI.
(15, recto)
1. — Certum Fausti 2)romissum.^
En promissa patent grati monuraenta poete,
Certum est Faustino quod semel ore fluit.
La certaine promesse de Fauste.
Voicy les vers du poete acceptable
Par luy promis, car Fauste est veritable.
Appendix.
Bien recongnoist, qui pour don transitoire
Rend aultre don d'eternelle memoire.
2. — Ad librum ne invidiam extimescat.
Jam liber invidie secure latrantis abito,
Baubantera est timidi pertimuisse canera.
Au livre qi;'il n'ayt crainte d'envj'^e.
Livre va t'en sans craindre envye en rien,
Trop est craintif, qui craint I'abay d'un chien.
Appendix.
Moins mordantz sont les chiens qui tant font bruit,
Triste enuyeux beaucoup parle et peu nuyst.
(composuit) 3. — Quod disticha casta morata que cotnposuerit.
Disticha composui matura digna senecta
Nam decet annosum pagina casta senem.
(15, verso) Qu'il a compose disticques, chastes et moraulx.
Mes carmes sont aulx anciens lecture,
A vieilles gens convient chaste escripture.
Appendix.
Paresseux jeune et vieil luxurieux,
Pource superbe, a tons sont odieux.
' I have collated the Latin distlchs, as reproduced by Eloy dii Mont, with an
edition printed in Lyons, in 1539. Tlie important variants found in the edition
of Lyons I have put in marginal references. Small diflferences, snch as punctu-
ation and the common use of " ae '' and " oe " for " e " in Latin words, etc., I
have not indicated. The following is the title of the edition of Lyons : —
Disticha Publii Fausti Andreliui Foroliviensis poetae laureati, cum Joannis Mauri
Constantiani enan-ationibns. Que ab Joanne Raenerio optima tide, parique
diligentia recognita sunt omnia. Theobaldiis Paganus excudebat, Lugduni.
1539.
112 T>. If. ('anidlidu — Mdistre Eloy dn Mont, diet Costentin.
(Disticha) 4. — J)icta salibus respersa.
Dislicha sepe leges, salilnis suffusa jocisque
Diet trahunt diilces ad graviora joci.
Distiches mesles de motz joyeux.
Souveiit liras vers plains d'urbaiiite,
De motz joyeiilx on vient a gravite.
Appendix.
Grave oraison, ung peu entrelardee
De motz joye\ilx, n'en est nioins commandee.
o. — Ad iiraestantem virum Joannem Rvseum, generalem quuestorum
meridssimiim.^
Quam fausta dedit missum priraordia nuraus
Faustior incepta sit quoque finis ope.
An general Ruse.
(16, recto) L'argent receu, bien conimencer m'a faict,
La fin prodnise encor meilleur effaict.
Appendix.
Ung bon lover, en livrant, proposer.
Rend les facteurs plus promptz a com2)oser.
6. — Pri?icipium.
Principium ex alto nascens ardore probatur
Justa sed in solo fine corona datur.
Le commencement.
INIoult approuve est bon commencement,
Mais le lover est a I'achevement.
Appendix.
Qui bien commence, et qui bien ne parfaict,
On diet qu'a rien n'est a compter son faict.
7. — Ad disticha.
Crescite cum largo mea disticha crescite censu,
De|)0scunt tute fertile carmen opes.
Aulx distiches.
Crescez mes vers, avec argent utile,
Ung argent seur requiert carme fertile.
Yel.
(16, verso) Quand a I'ouvrier on augmente les gaiges,
C'est la raison qu'il augmente d'ouvraiges.
^ See page 94 of the introduction.
D. H. Carnahan — Maistre Eloy du Mont, diet Costentin. 113
8. — Nulla dies sine tinea.
Nulla dies abeat quin linea ducta supersit
Non decet ignavura preteriisse diem.
Nulle journee sans traict.
Homme ne doit passer i;ng jour eiitier
Sans quelqne traict faire de son mestier.
Appendix.
Qui vcult parfaict estre en quelque artifice
Souvent s'exerce a en faire I'office.
9. — Ad lector em.
Quid me tarn miris sublimen laudibus effers
Divinum ingenium plena crumena facit.
Au lecleur.
Pourquoy prens tu de tant me louer painne,
L'engin divin vient de la bource plainne.
Appendix.
Povre poete et nourry d'eau sans vin,
D'engin languit en carme non divin. •
10. — ILnid bene cantatur exhausta crumena.
(17, recto) Legitimus tacto concentus manat ab aere
Non bene cum vacua est ulla crumena sonat.
On chante mal, la bourse vuyde.
L'argent touclie, son legitime donne,
Malilvaisement bourse vuyde resonne.
Appendix.
L'argent touche rend doulx son a merveilles,
La bourse vuide, aigre son aulx oreilles,
Vel.
La bourse vuyde ung son rend pytoyable,
Povre poete, ung carme miserable.
11. — CecKS cantat oh habitani stipem.'
Ipse habita sacram cecus stipe cantat ad aedem
Mutus abit nudam cum trahit ille manum.
L'aveugle chante quand on luy donne.
Apprez argent receu l'aveugle sonne,
Mais il s'en va muet, s'on ne luy donne.
Appendix.
Bien premie, poete bien compose,
Maiz sans loyer sa plume soy repose.
114 1). JI. Carndhdti — Maistre Eloy du Mont, diet Costentin.
1 2. — Pecunia rerum rer/ina.
(17, verso) (Pe- Unica cunctaniiii icgiiia i)e'ciinia reriini
cnnia) (Jove) t> • " • i i .
Frecipuum magno pro jove numen liabet.
Pecune, roj'ne des clioses.
De toule chose est pecune la royne,
An lion «le Dieu en ce monde a le resne.
Appendix.
Pour la })ecune on faict et mal et bien,
Mais quand an mal pour dieu on ne faict rien.
13. — Aiiritm sole sjilendidius.
Clara quidem profert pliebeus luraina fulgor
Purius est aurum splendidiusque naicat.
L'or )ilus cler que le soleil.
Le clair soleil grande clarte produict,
Plus pur est l'or et plus clairement luyt.
Appendix.
Argent, procez rend plus clair a mynuict
Que sans argent quand le soleil reluyst.
1 4. — Pimper.
Durius abjecto nihil est quod paupei'e vivat
Indignus est pauper nil nisi triste malum.
Le povre.
(18, recto) Pien n'est plus dur qu'estre povre indigent,
Ung triste mal, laisse de toute gent.
Api^endix.
S'ung foul est riche, il est sage estime,
Se sage est povre, il sera foul nomme.
(Pauperi) 15. — Dlviti omnin pauperis aut parnm aut nichil.
(nihil)
Quilibet equoreas semper fluit amnis in undas
Pauperiora culex tecta rotundus adit.
Au riche tout, au povre peu ou rien.
Dedens la mer tous fleuves y ai'rivent,
Chez povres gens, petitz bibetz y vivent.
Ap])endix.
En la maison du riche on porte tout,
Du povre rien, ce qu'il a on luy tonld.
Vel.
Combien profitte a ung fol grand richesse.
Quand par icelle avoir ne peult sagesse.
D. H. Carnahan — ■■3Iautre Eloy du Mont, diet Costentin. 115
' 10. — Assentator.
(gnatoni) Qui blando patulas parasito' commodat aures,
Insanmn ex stulto pectore pectus habet.
(18, verso) L'assentateur,
Si les flateurs escouter te conseiis
De levite, devieudras bors du sens.
Appendix.
L'assentateur est veu, doulx et bcnin.
Done la doulceur tourne en amer venin.
17. — Debitor.
Semper et infelix alieni debitor aeris
Duraque servili vincula mente gerit.
Debteur.
Malbeureux est du bien d'aultruy debteur
Et n'est pas sien, mais 11 est serviteur.
Appendix,
Soy obliger est chose voluntaire,
Mais le contract tenir est necessaire.
18. — Amor.
Non amor antiquo fuerat sed amaror ab aevo
Dicendus, quum sit semper amarus amor,
Amour.
En lieu d'aymer convenoit dire amer,
Car d'amertume va plus qu'en la mer.
Appendix.
(19, recto) Amour disoient estre ung dieu, mais ung dyable,
Dieu est tout bon, amour faulx et dampnable.
19. — Idem.
Cura placens, i^redulce malum, tristisque voluptas
Heu vesana furens pectora cecat amor.
Icelluj^ amour.
Folle amour est volupte, triste et brefve,
Et ung doulx mal qui du sens les yeulx creve.
Appendix.
D'ung pen de miel amour mondainne apispe,
Mais donne apprez de fiel plus d'une pipe.
' Maurus employs the word " gnatoni," taken in its general sense ; — Terence,
Eunuchus, 3, 2, 33.
110 D. IT. Carnahon — Malstre Eloy cln Mont, diet Costentin.
Vcl.
De volnpte amour doiinc une estrainne,
Qui de douleurs trop longue queue trainne.
20. — N'on amans sed amens.
Si sapis amentem dicas non lector amantem,
Nam nihil insanus mentis amator habet.
Non amans mais amens.
Amens c'est foul, dire on doit, non amans,
Car rien prudent n'est en ces foulz amans.
Appendix.
(19, verso) Le fol amant en peril se va metre
Que bien il voit, mais de soy n'est pas maistre.
2 1 . — Leno.
Communis stulte ])estis damnosa juvente,
Surripit incantas leno dolosus opes.
Le macquereau.
Le macquereau est peste de jeunesse,
D'imprudens foulz consomme la richesse.
Appendix.
La lille on voit par la mere, et la femrae
Par le maiy, vendus, c'est cas infame.
Vel.
On doibveroit, plustot que larrons, pendre
Houilliers qu'on voit la chair humaine veudre.
22. — Scortum.
Non scortum est aliud nisi blanda et subdola syren
Que trahit humanum sub vada ceca genus.
La paillarde.
Une paillarde, ainsi qu'une serainne.
Pour submerger, attraict jeunesse humainne.
Appendix.
(20, recto) Passer convient avec sourdes oreilles
Paillardes, qui de parler font merveilles.
23.— Idem.
Ad vivam scortum suggens ut hyrudo medullam
(Paphiam ex- Li paphiam exharuit pectora prona deam.
Une paillarde, ainsi qu'ung sansuc,
Tire le sang de jeunesse deceue.
D. H. CurNahan — Maistre Eloy da Moitt, diet Costentin. 117
Appendix.
En faict d'amonrs on ayme qui apporte,
S'il n'a plus rien on lay clorra la porte.
24. — Foemina.
Cuncta sub astrigero regnantia crimina celo,
Nutrit in eternos femina nata dolos.
La femme.
La femme nee, a fraude et a traison,
En ce raonde est de tons pechez poyson.
Apologie.
La femme aussi (c'est la Vierge benigne),
En ce monde est de tons biens origine.
Vel.
(20, verso) La femme nee a, bien sage et docile,
En ce monde est de tons biens domicile.
25. — Ccqnit focmineiim.
Non si femineum crebro caput igne refundas,
Ingenii mutes prima metalla sui.
La teste de femme.
De femme soit la teste refundue,
El ne sera pas plus molle rendue.
Apologie.
Teste de femme a bonte si parfaicte
Que pour refondre el n'est meilleure faicte.
20,.— Coitus.
Turpis et est morbi species liorrenda caduci,
(Venus) Cum jacet exanimis post sua furta venus.
Acte charnel.
Acte charnel de nial caducque espece,
Appres le faict I'homme rend en tristesse.
Appendix.
L'abbus est sot de volupte mondainne,
Qui I'homme rend en tristesse soudainne.
27. — Vinum.
(21, recto) Immodicus ledit seu dira cicuta lieus,'
Xon facit ad longam crapula multa diem.
Le vin.
' The reading " lyaeus," given by Maurus, is preferable here and is to be
taken in the sense of " wine."
118 D. IT. Carnahan — Maistre Eloy du Mont, diet Costentin.
Vin sujiertiu comme eigne blesso,
Moult iiiiyst exces a veiiir en viellesse.
Appendix.
Exces de vin de I'homnie corrompt I'aago,
Truble le sens, foul en devient le saige.
28. — Ad blbacem.
Aebria ne titubent dubio vestigia gressu,
Temperet apposituni linipha refusa raerum.
A I'ivroingne.
Yvroingne, affin que ne tumbes au vent,
Ton vin convient d'eau moderer souvent.
Appendix.
Exces de vin nostre esprit faict changer,
S'il est truble le corps est en danger.
29. — Ad eundem.
Non imos aepota pedes sed bacchica snmraum
(Parcius) Vis caput invadit parcius ergo bibe.
A icclluv vvroingne.
(21, verso) Le vin aux piedz ne va mais au cerveau,
Boy done petit ou le modere d'eau.
Appendix,
Le gouvei'nail nous est sobriete,
De gouvernail n'eut one ebriete.
30. — De venere et baccho.
Semper juncta venit bibulo cytherea lyeo,
Res est inflanians luxuriosa merum.
De paillardise et yvrongnise.
Avec le vin paillardise repose,
Car le viji est luxurieuse chose.
Appendix.
Luxure et vin rend riiorame en tel estat
Que le plus saige en devient apostat.
Sl.— Gula.
(Croesi) Sint ignota licet niagni patrimonia croesi,
Immensae absuniunt alta barathra gulae.
D'un glouton,
D'un ort ijlouton le ventre insatiable
Devoreroit ung bien inestimable.
D. H. Carnahan — Maistre JEloy da Mont, diet Costetitin. 119
Appendix.
(23, recto) Gulosite, excessive et infame,
Consomme biens et destruict corps et ame.
Vel.
Estre subject a gourmandise vile
Et volupte est chose trop servile.
Vel.
Superttiiite, de grand povrete mere,
Est en la lin aulx jioin'mans tresamere.
32. — Otium.
(forti celsas) Corrumpumt celsas forti cum pectore mentes
Otia plumoso desidiosa thoro.
Oesivette.
Oesivete et long dormir en lict
Le corps puissant et coeur noble amollist.
Appendix.
Oesivete nous engendre peche,
Les membres las et I'esprit empesche.
33. — Sommcs.
Quam vigil ignavo demit solertia somno,
Additur hec vite longior hora tue.
Dormir.
(22, verso) L'heure et le temps, de long dormir'ostez,
Seront pluslongz a la vie adjouxtez.
Appendix.
Par trop dormir chet I'homme en indigence,
Biens on acquiert par bonne diligence.
M.—Fama.
(cleonaeo) Alta cleoneo querenda est fama labore,
Non venit ex molli vivida fama thoro..
Renommee.
Par grand labeur fault acquerir bon nom,
De long dormir ne vient pas bon renom.
Appendix.
Sans batailler on n'a pas la victoire,
Et sans labeur n'auvons parfaicte gloire.
Vel.
Qui vault avoir bon nom et bonne grace,
Parle tresbien et chose utile face.
120 D. n. Carna/ian — JLdstrc Eloy du Mont, diet Costentin,
•'55. — Ai'iirns.
(se Tautalus) Semper eget sitiens mediis ceu tantalus uiulis
Inter anlielatas panper avarus o^^es.
L'avaricieux.
(23, recto) Tantalus est dedens I'eau, sitibunde,
L'avare est povre en bien qui luy habunde.
Appendix,
Si content est povre en biens, il est riche,
Le riche en biens est. povre s'il est siche.
36. — Iiiridus.
Invida perpetuis iirit praecordia ilammis
Incedens fausto sors aliena pede.
L'envieux.
Le bien d'aultruy, i)rosperenient croissant,
Brule le coeur d'enuyeux languissant.
Appendix.
Detraction vient du peche d'envie,
Qui la cause est que mainct n'est plus en vie.
(23, verso)
37. — Fortuna.
Vitrea dum splendet vultu fortuna sereno,
Protinus in vili fracta recumbit humo.
Fortune,
Fortune, apprez belle face exibee,
Incontinent diet aplat succumbee.
Appendix,
Souvent fortune extolle I'homme en hault,
C'est pour apprez lu}'^ donner plus grand sault.
(Fonmae) 38. — Amici fortune.
Agmina que nitido credis tidissinia caelo.
Nnbe sub obscura terga fugata dabunt,
Amys de fortune.
Aniys assez en ta felicite
Qui te fu\'ront en temps d'adversite.
Yel,
Si tu es riche auras assez d'amis ;
Si tu es povre ilz seront ennemys.
D. H. Carnahan — Maistre Eloy du Mont, diet Costentin, 121
Appendix.
Dedens le feu on faict de I'or espreuve,
All grand besoing son amy on espreuve.
39. — Servandus modusi in utraque fortuna.
(fractumve) Ne dextra elatum videat fractumque sinistra
Adsit fortune certus utrique modus.
Mesure est a avoir en bonne et maulvaise fortune.
Sans orgueil soys en fortune prospere,
En malle aussi pas ne te desespere,
Appendix.
(24, recto) C'est plus que tout, que tenir le moyen,
Estre constant et en mal et en bien.
40. — Adversa fortuna tolleranda.
(Ulisseo) Perfer ulisseo sortem de more sinistram,
Haec bene duranti sub pede victa jacet.
Fortune adverse porter convient.
Comme Ulisses pren la fortune triste,
Vaincre la peult celuy qui bien persists.
Appendix.
Prenons le temps ainsi comme il nous vient,
En maulvais temps bon coeur avoir convient.
Vel.
Pourvoir convient a fortune future,
II n'aura rien lequel ne s'adventure.
Vel.
Effeminez, de coeur lache et remys,
S'il vient fortune ilz sont tost au bas mys.
41. — Advei'sis succuynhens.
Casibus adversis fracta qui mente recumbit,
Fortuna ignorat dexteriore frui.
Qui succumbe en adversitez.
(24, verso) L'irapatient de raal et d'infortune
User ne peult de la bonne fortune.
Appendix.
Qui veult doulceur congnoistre, il fault qu'il hume
Et qu'il avail e ung petit d'amertume.
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 10 Sept., 1907.
122
D. II. Carnahan — Maiatre Eloy da Mont^ diet Costentin.
(Hypocrita) 42. — Ypocrita.
Ne pura explicite credas sub ymagine froiiti, .
Raptorem occultat pellis ovina lupum.
L'ypocrite.
Trop ne te tie aux faces tant affables,
Brebis a voir, dessoubz loupz ravissables.
Appendix.
N'aj'ons du tout aux vesteraens credit,
L'habit ne faict le moyne, ainsi qu'on diet.
43. — Idem.
Exteriora gerit qui simplicis ora columbae,
Interiora vafrae pectora vulpis habet,
Icelluy.
Tel est columbe en face exteriore,
Et faulx regnard en coeur interiore.
Appendix.
(25, recto) Dessoubz le miel est cache le venin,
Ung coeur cruel soub visaige benin.
44. — Sxiperhia.
Turgida ventosos imitata superbia folles
Pascitur aerio corpus inane noto
Orgueil.
Comment souffletz de leger vent grossissent,
De vent de gloire orguilleux soy nourrissent.
Appendix.
Hault edifice est fort subject au vent,
Des orgueilleux I'orgueil tumbe souvent.
Vel.
L'umbre est plus court quand le soleil hault court,
Par hault orgueil est faict I'honneur plus court.
45. — Venetxis.
Plumosa inspiceres nudatum corpora corvum,
(Veneto) Reddita si veneto preda latrone f oret.
Le venitien.
Venitiens aussi nudz que le ver
Voja-as, s'ilz font de rendre leur debvoir.
Appendix.
(25, verso) Mainct faict le pan se vantant de son bien,
S'il estoit quicLe il auroit moins que rien.
D. II. Carnahan — Maistre Eloy die Mont, diet Costentin. 123
(Caesarem 46. — Ad caescireni horgia'ni.^
Borgiam)
Ant nihil, ant caesar vexillo pingis inaiii
(Caesare) Pro magno fies caesare stulte nihil.
A Cesar Bourgias.
Estre Cesar on rien te paingnois bien,
Car pour Cesar tu es devenu rien.
Appendix.
Qui par orgueil plus hault que ne doibt raonte,
II doibt descendre en confusible honte.
47. — Jnventa.
Accensa exardens flaramata libidine pectus,
Labitur in cunctem prona juventa nephas.
Jeunesse.
Jeunesse ardante, a volupte incline,
Facillement en tous pechez decline.
Appendix.
Cheval trop aspre on arreste o la bride,
Jeunesse ardante en luy baillant bon guyde.
Vel.
(26, recto) A ung dure asne aguillon dur convient,
Par corriger le foul saige devient.
' Manrus, page 65, gives the following note upon this distich : Taxat arro-
gantiam ac stultitiam Caesaris Borgiae Hispani. Hie Alexandri sexti tilius erat
nihilo patri dissimilis, sive vitam, sive exitum utriusque ; aestimes. Relicto
cardinalitio galero uxorem duxit, et dux Valentinensis f actus est. Ilium Italiam
bello tentantem scommatis Itali lancinabant : iste (inquiunt) armis caelum ter-
ritat : Qnod admodum magniloquus, velet alter Thraso, praetei'ea minacissimus,
ac ferocissimus esset. Item iste (inquiunt) arrogantia gigantum laborat, quod
scilicet nuUis viribus, nullo concilio, sed temerarie stulteque ; rem tantam id
est, imperium orbis aperte moliretur. Et alius hoc distichon ejusdem sententiae
in eundem sci'ipsit :
Aut nihil, aut votis optabas omnia Caesar,
Omnia deficiunt, incipis esse nihil.
Ist3 igitur magnificiis Thraso, haec verba (aut nihil, aut Caesar) in sno vexillo
pingi jusserat, quorum sensus est, aut nihil ero scilicet : aut Caesar, id est,
orbis debellator, et monarcha. Verum tandem miserime vitam finivet.
Ordo. O. Borgia scilicet ''Pingis," id est : pingi facis "in vexillo" id est, in
signo militari, "inani" id est, frivolo et veri Caesaris nomen non habenti.
" Aut nihil aut Caesar'' id est, nihil memoria dignum gerens, aut ero Caesar, id
est, rebus gestis clarissimus. et imperator triumphantissimus "stulte" id est,
o demens ; "fies," id est, eris. "Nihil," id est, homo nuUius praetii, ac
gloriae ; " pro caesare," id est, pro imperatore ; "magno," id est claro.
124 J). II. Carnahan — Maistre Eloy dxi Mont^ diet Costentin.
48. — Senecta'.
(defertt) Prudentem exhausto mentem pro robore defe'rt,
JMatura et lone^a eocta senecta die.
Vicillesse.
En vieilles gens pour force corporelle
Sont bon conseil, sens, raison naturelle.
Appendix.
L'artillerye est rien sans bonne amorse,
Sans bon conseil ne sert beaucoup la force.
Vel.
Force de corps ne conduict, mais sagesse,
Les faictz arduz en quoy reluist vieillesse.
49. — Ficiis gallica ad Jo. Huseum.
(Gallia) Fertilis at rai*as gignit quas gallia ficus
Accipe, nam raros non nisi rara decent.
Figues gallicques a Jehan Rusey.
Fignes re9oy qui peu en France viennent,
A gens de prix precieux dons con viennent.
Appendix,
(26, verso) On ne doit pas extoller en honneur
Du tout le don, mais le coeur du donneur.
50. — Garrxdxis.
Extremum ad malum primo quae obtundit ab ovo
Vitanda est mense garrula pica tuae.
Le garrule.
Homme importun, a parler sans raison.
Ne i^ermectras menger en ta maison.
Appendix.
Langue est a craindre, en bouche d'envieux,
Plus que le glaive en main de furieux,
51. — Denies,
Natura omniparens dentes formavit acutos
Ne vaga sed claustris lingua sit arcta suis.
Les dentz.
Les dentz agus nous a forme nature
Pour contenir la langue en sa closture.
D. JL Carnahan — Maistre Eloy du Mont^ diet Costentin. 125
Appendix.
Huys et seiTeure a la bouche ordonnez,
Long et balance aux parolles donnez. •
Vel.
(27, recto) De la parolle ayns que parler suys maistre,
Quand el est hors servant m'en suis faictestre.
Vel.
Ayns que parler ayons le souvenir
Que parler va et ne peult revenir.
52.— Li7igiia.
Quid melius lingua? lingua quid pejus eadem ?
Tristis cum dulci toxica melle gerit.
La langue.
Qu'est il plus bon et plus maulvais que langue ?
Miel et venin el porte en sa harengue.
Appendix.
Le gouvernail la net" garde ou destruict,
La langue I'homme a bien ou mal instruict.
Vel.
Le gouvernail et la langue conduysent
Navire et bomme, ou du tout les destruysent.
oS.— Fides.
Aurea quam sancto coluerunt secula ritu
Aut nulla aut nostro est tempore rara fides.
La foy.
(27, verso) Des anciens la foy si bien gardee,
Au temps present n'est plus que foy fardee.
Appendix.
Qui pert sa foy a perdre n'a plus rien,
La foy en I'homme est ung excellent bien.
54. — Homo.
Quid genus aifectas vitam mortale perennem
(brevi) Cum sis momento bulla caduca ( )
L'homme.
Pourquoy tousjours veult vivre au monde I'homme,
C'est ung bouillon qui sur I'eau tost consomme.
126 D. II. f'arnahan — Maistre Eloy du Mont^ diet Costeniin.
■ , Appendix.
En nasquissant commen§ons a mourir,
Et vers la mort ne cessons de courir.
Vel.
Convient il tant ce povre corps nourrir
Lequel sera demain mis a pourrir.
55. — 3fors.
Clam venit orta metens aequa mors omnis falce
Hinc habet incertam nescia vita diem.
La mort.
(28, recto) En secret vient la mort tout devoraute,
Parquoy la vie est son terme ignorante.
Appendix.
Tous quand an naistre et mourir sont semblables.
En vivre sont sqeullement dissemblables.
Vel.
Le serviteur qui ne s9oit quand son maistre
Doibt revenir, tousjours veillant doit est re.
56. — Mors hand timenda.
Tensa quid horrescis missuram spicula mortem ?
(est) Non mors, sed passi ( ) nieta suprema mali.
Mort non a craindre.
Pourquoy de mort crains tu le gleve extreme ?
Mort n'est pas mort mais de mal fin supreme.
Appendix.
Qui parvenir veult a vie parfaicte,
Passer convient la mort palle et infaicte.
Vel.
Qui soeullement ton corps poui'roit occire
Ne crain, mais qui ton ame peult destruire.
57. — Servvs.
(28, verso) Quis non servili dominus fraudatur ab arte •
Prodigium servus grande fidelis erit.
Le serviteur.
Qui ji'est trompe des servans cautelleux ?
Servant XojdA est cas miraculeux.
D. H. Carnahan — Mcdstre Eloy du Mont, diet Costentin. 127
Appendix.
A tart on treuve amytie, si non faincte,
En cestuyla qui ne sert que j^ar crainte.
58. — Uxor dignitatis nomen non voluptatis.
Nomina seposita veneranda libidine gestat
Quam junxit casto copula sancta thoro.
Uxor nom de dignite non point de volupte.
Ce nom de femme est de grand dignite
En mariage, hors toute volupt6.
Appendix.
C'est I'orneraent de I'homme que la femme,
La concubine au contraire diffame.
Vel.
Par mariage ung enffant en bas aage
Est faict sage et estime plus saige.
Vel.
(39, recto) Diet paradis mariage peult estre,
Car dieu le fist en paradis terrestre.
Vel.
Priser sa femme, aymer et craindre, reste,
Et estimer, ainsi qu'un don celeste.
59. — Uxor oh soholem ducenda.
Uxor habenda venit, non ut saturata libido
(si) Sed sit in aeternos aucta propago dies.
La femme pour avoir lignie.
Pour volupte marie ne fault estre,
Mais pour lignee et gerre bumain acroistre.
Appendix.
Sans volupte de femme fault user,
De mariage on peult bien abusei",
" Vel.
Qui maintenir ne soy peult en honneur,
Soy marier fault, en nostre Seigneur.
60. — Curia.
Larga quidem magnos promittit curia montes
L'rita sed rapidis verba feruntur aquis.
La court.
(29, verso) Ce sont baultz montz, que promesses de court,
Mais aval I'eau bien tost cela s'en court.
128 JJ. II. Carnahan — JMaist^'e Eloy da Mont, diet Costentin.
Appendix.
Grand promecteur est souvent grand menteur,
De petit faict on voit nng grand vanteur.
Vel.
Nil! escondire au prince est moult louable,
Mais la requeste estre doit raisonnable.
01. — Eadem curia.
Quam bene conveniens sortita est curia nomen
A gravibus ciiris curia dicta venit.
Icelle court.
La court, on diet, en latin curia,
Car en la court grand soing et cure y a.
Appendix.
A voir, en court, niaistres et varletz faire.
On ne congnoist lesquelz out pludaffaire.
Q^.—Pax.
Securus placida mundus sub pace quiescit
(alta) Tranquillum est sumnii opus alma dei.
La paix.
(30, recto) Soubz paix on vit en repos pacificque,
Tranquille paix vient du hault dieu celicque.
Appendix.
Le petit bien est faict grand par concorde,
Le grand, petit, ou sont guerre et discorde.
63. — Bdlam.
Persurit, et totum miscet mars impius orbem
(est) (Jove) Heu diro inventa ( ) sub jove tanta lues.
La guerre.
Guerre et descord troublont toute la terre,
Soubz Jupiter trouvee f ut la guerre.
Appendix.
Guerre on ne doit en ce monde mouvoir.
Si non pour paix plus grande appres avoir.
64. — Incletnentia bellica.
Nulla est ardenti miserans dementia bello
Impetuosa pium dextera nescit opus.
Inclemence bellicqne.
D. H. Carnahan — Maistre Eloy da 3Iont, diet Costentin. 129
Fureur bellicqiie est sans raisericorde,
Bras furieux a mercy ne s'accorde.
Appendix.
(30, verso) Contendre a force est aux bestes cruelles,
L'homme en parler doit mener ses querelles.
65. — Ilaud esse post victoriani seviendam.
(triumpho) Bellica quaesito frenanda est ira thriurapho.
Hand sevit doraito nobilis hoste manus.
Cruel ne convient estre apres la victoire.
Ne soys cruel, I'ennemy desconffit,
A noble coeur d'avoir vaincu suffist.
Appendix.
Vaincre est assez sans faire cruaulte,
Le noble coeur de vaincre est contente.
Vel.
Le dl'oict garder, I'ennemy prins, conseille,
Si ce n'estoit en rendant la pareille.
Vel.
Par obayr, le lion on modere,
L'homme raison estre en soy considere.
Vel.
Celuy qui prins est en captivite,
Que peult il plus faire d'hostilite.
66.— Int. ^
(31, recto) Sanguine scintillans ferventi nascitur ira
Quae semper domina mente domanda venit.
Ire.
Du sang fervent embrasee ire vient,
Mais par raison refroyder la convient.
Appendix.
Par ire vient au vys deformite,
Et meet I'esprit hors de tranquillite.
Vel.
Qui ne modere ire par patience,
II pert raison et si n'a pas science.
67. — Bomharda .
Si celsum quateret moles bombardica caelum.
Tota foret capto machina strata jove.
La bombarde.
180 T). II. (%iniahan — Maistre Eloy da Mont, diet Costentin.
Si la bombarde au ciel pouvoit toucher,
(Jupiter prins), feroit tout trebucher.
Appendix.
L'artillerie est argument fecunde,
Que bien pres est, par feu, la fin du monde.
Vel.
(31, verso) L'artillerie erapesche en bataillant
Que congneu soit lequel est plus vaillaiit.
(Justitia) 08. — Jiisticia.
(librataque) Aequa gerit rectam librat quae pondera lancem
(Justitia) Justicia immota firma tenaxque manu.
Justice.
Juste ballance en sa main tient justice,
Done justeraent de peser faict I'ofiice.
Appendix.
Ung prince avoir doit I'espee ou la lance
En une main, en I'autre la ballance.
69. — Prudens.
Quisquis es o prudens janum' sectare bifrontem
(videnda) Sunt ora atque oculis terga vidend tuis.
Le prudent.
Toy qui prudent veulx estre en la maniere
Du bon Janus, voy devant et desriere.
Appendix.
Nostre esprit soit a troys temps dispence,
Au temps present, preterit, et passe.
Vel.
(32, recto) H est brutal et de prudence exempt,
Qui seullement regarde au temps present.
Vel.
En tons lieux est le present estime.
Pour le present on en est myeulx ayme.
"■^O.—Fortis.
Instanti veniunt subeunda pericula casu,
(angustis) Rebus in adversis fortia corda patent.
Le fort.
^ The old Italian deilj'. represented with a face on the front and another on
the back of his head.
D. H. Carnahan — Maistre Eloy du 3Iont, diet Costentin. 131
Contre fortune il convient qu'on resiste,
En faictz ardus, coeur vertueux consiste.
Appendix.
Force' et vertn sont Lien raanifestc'Z
En ceulx qui sont de fortune infestez.
'71. — Modestus.
Servanda in rebus praefixa est meta gerendis,
Non excessa pudens facta modestus amat.
Le modeste.
Mesure on doit garder en tout eifect,
L'lionime attrenipe rien excessif ne faict.
Appendix.
(32, verso) Ne fay rien trop, ta puissance mesure,
Toute vertu pert son nom sans mesure,
72. — Lex.
Lex sancta humanae ducta est qua regula vite
Deraissum aetliereo munus ab orbe venit.
La loy.
La saincte loy, qui regist vie humaine.
Est don venant de celeste dommainne.
Appendix.
Ou loy n'est pas, aussi non est justice,
Sans ce, n'avons de bien vivre notice.
Vel.
D'administrer les loix n'est suffisant,
Lequel veult estre aulx loix contredisant.
73. — Juris decreta.
Si sublata forent Juris decreta verenda,
Vinceret immanes barbara vita feras.
Les decretz de droict.
Si droictz estoient cassez et abbatus,
Humains vivroient brutaulx et sans vertus.
Appendix.
(33, recto) Craincte des droictz, de mal faire retarde,
Et le pais bien vivant en paix garde.
(voluminum) 74. — Comburenda in leges volumina massa.
Emissa in sacras numerosa volumina leges
(Phetontea) Sunt phaetontea tedia digna face.
La masse des volumes sur les loix est bonne a brusler.
132 D. II. Carnahan — Maistre Kloy du Mont, did Costentin.
Tant sur Ics loix, comnientz accumulez,
Sont longs ennuys dignes d'estre brulez.
Appendix.
Texte de droict est trop plus nianifeste
Que vieulx commentz faictz sus icelluy texte.
Vel.
Deesus le texte est chose trop confuse,
Que tant commentz (jui les espritz abuse.
I T.
(33, verso)
Imperitus legum doctor.
Icturus nullam centeno verbere legem
Non legem es doctor (vane) quid ergo '? dolor,
Le non expert docteur de loix.
Qui d'alleguer une loy n'a pas I'heur,
En loix docteur, il n'est quoy done ? douleur.
Appendix.
Maint grassement de la science vit,
Qui le dedens du livre onques ne vit.
76. — Sorhoniciis.
Sorbonica invictus lucta quicunque redisti,
(Herculeas) Tu potes herculeas spernere tutus opes.
Le Sorbonicque.
Qui peult sortir de Serbonne vainqueur
Craindre ne doibt Heurcules belliqueur.
Appendix.
D'icelluy est la victoire louable.
Qui vaincre peult Sathan, monde et le dyable.
Vel.
Quiconque est roy de soy mesmes et maistre,
C'est plus grand cas que roy des aultres estre.
H. — ISopJiista.
Caprinae nugas lanae' si poscis inanes
Steutorea exclamans voce sojjbista dabit.
Le sophiste.
Si disputer veulz de lainne caprine,
Ou}^' convient sophisticque doctrine.
' Horace, Ep., 1, 18, 15; — " Alter rixatiir de lana saepe caprina, propiignat
nugisarmatus."
D. H. Carnahan — Maistre Eloy du Mont, diet Costentin, 133
Appendix.
(34, recto) Mainct par crier s'esforce d'apparoistre
Estre s§avant quand S9avant ne peult estre.
78. — Medicus illustris.
(Apolinea) Clarus apolinea medicus qui fulgeat arte
Extat adoranda ceu deus alter ope.
Medecin illustre.
Bon medecin de s9avoir decore,
Ainsi que Dieu il doit estre adore.
Appendix.
De I'ame et corps, la sante Dieu nous donne,
Le medecin de nostre corps ordonne.
79. — Medicus indoctus.
(ducam) Cum dicam culo merdam egrotantem cacatam,
Non ementito merdicus ore vocor.
Medecin mdocte.
Si tirer puis raerde du cul de I'homme,
Sans en mentir merdecin on me nomme.
Appendix.
Mainct abuseur entreprent faire bien
line besoingne ou il ne congnoist rien.
Vel.
(34, verso) Mainct imprudent entreprent faire tout,
Lequel jamais de rien ne vient a bout.
80. — Philosojihus naturalis.
Foelix cui nota est naturae caussa latentis,
At sua qui noscat pectora rarus adest.
Le philosophe naturel.
Qui bien congnoist les causes heureux est,
Mais rare il est lequel bien se congnoist.
Appendix.
Faulte de sens et de bien se congnoistre,
L'bomme couard et sujjerbe faict estre.
81. — Socrates.
(Olympo) Morigeram ex alto sophiam qui traxit olimpo,
(Actaeum) Sustulit acteuni sorpta cicuta senem.
Socrate.
134 D. H. Carnahan — Maistre Eloy du Mont^ diet Coslentin.
Par Socrate viut morale science,
Boyre on luy list cicue en recompense.
Appendix.
Ingratitude en vers hommes et dieux
Siir tons pechez est le plus odieux.
Sfi. — Astrologus.
(35, recto) Mirum quum toto noscat stata sidera celo,
(an) Nesciat in patria mecha sit uxor humo.
L'astrologue.
Au ciel congnoist l'astrologue et regarde,
Et ne congnoist si sa femme est paillarde.
Appendix.
Pas n'est certain cestuy la qui devine,
Car deviner n'est science divine.
83, — Furor poeticus.
Vatibus aeternis caelo descendit ab alto,
Ad nova divinus tacta canenda furor,
Fureur poeticque.
Fureur divin aulx poetes descend
Pour composer nouveaulx gestes decent.
Appendix.
Nominer I'en peult divins et sainctz poetes,
Ceulx qui de dieu ont este vray's prophettes.
84, — Orator.
(fulmen) Intonat aetherea ceu missum mimem ab arce,
Concita fulgurei lingua diserta viri.
L'orateur.
(35, verso) De l'orateur la langue est vehemente,
Ainsi qu'en I'air la fouldre qui tourmente.
Appendix.
Ung orateur acoraplit mainct Taff'aire
Qu'on ne s9auroit par force d'armes faire.
Vel,
Ung orateur rompt la fureur des princes,
Amys les faict au grand bien des provinces.
Vel.
D. H. (kirnahau — MaUtre Eloy da Mont, diet Costentin. 135
Doulce parolle, ire et couroux supprirae,
Rude parolle, ire et couroux aniine.
Vel.
Le doulx parler, diet on^ n'escorche langue,
Et beaucoup peult une doulce harangue.
85. — Poete presentis seculi.
Delphica non redolens aftiantia numina carmen,
Secula sed faetens nostra cacamen habent.
Les poetes du temps present.
Dire ne fault le carme redolent,
Du temps present, mais le carme dolent.
Appendix.
(36, recto) Humains sont linx a voir d'aultruy le faict,
Mais taulpes sont en I'oevre qu'ilz ont faict.
Vel.
Sur tous oyseaulx bien pense le corbeau
Avoir ung chant fort doulx et le coi'ps beau.
86. — Oratores ejusdem aetatis.
Creditur orator nostrum quicumque per evura.
Si verum excutias nomen arator erit.
Les orateurs de ce temps.
Celuy qu'on croit en ce temps orateur,
S'on cherche bien son nom est arateur.
Appendix.
Qui bien syait Part de bien dire, il congnoist
Quand de parler le temps oportun est.
87. — Pontifex maximus.
Praeficitur pastor baculo munitus adunco,
Ut vigili errantes lumine servet oves.
Le tresgrand pontife.
Pasteur avons de houlette muny
Pour son troupeau garder ensemble uny.
Appendix.
(36, verso) Dieu pour pasteur le pape a mis au monde
Pour conserver I'ouaille pure et munde.
Vel.
Le bon pasteur doit corps et ame mectre
En deffendant I'ouaille, done est maistre.
136 D. H. Carnahan — 3Iaistre Eloy du Mont, diet Costentin.
88. — Cardinalis.
Hie habet a fixo deductum cardine nonien,
Debeat ut firniam sustinuisse fidem.
Le cardinal.
De cardo, gout, cardinal peult venir,
Car gout doit estre a la foy soustenir.
Appendix,
Ainsi que I'huys au gond ferme soy tient,
Ung cardinal la foy ferme soustient.
89. — Ad eundem.
(purpura) Monstrat sanguineam fundes tua purpurea vitam,
Clavigerum invadunt cum fera bella thronum.
A icelluy.
Aulx cardinaulx le rouge donne entendre
Que jusqu' au sang la foy doibvent deffendre.
Appendix.
(37, recto) Pas u'est crestien qui refuse raourir,
Quand besoing est, pour la foy secourir,
Vel.
. Tous roys fran9oys pour leur ferme soustien
Envers la foy, ont nom de treschrestien.
n 0 . — Ep iscop us.
Caetera quo superet meditanti pectora sensu,
Imposita ex ipsis nomina rebus habet.
L'evesque.
Des siens a soing l'evesque en diligence,
Si du nom suyt la vraye intelligence.
Appendix,
Evesque est nom digne d'homme prudent,
Qui vault autant que superintendent.
Vel.
Pasteurs rendront de leurs brebis le compte,
S'ilz perdent rien le rendront a grand lioute.
9-1.— Lis.
(misero fiet) Hie brevi fiet misero mendicior iro,'
Tristia qui litis bella forensis amat.
Proces.
' The name of the beggar in the house of Ulysses at Ithaca. Maurus writes
this word with a capital letter.
D. 11. Carnahan — Maistre Eloy (hi Mont, diet Costentin. 137
(37, verso) Povre et meschant, plus qu'Irus, cleviendra
Qui de procez la guei-re enti'etiendra.
Appendix.
Proces ingrat servez et aymez bien,
II vous fera perdre tout vostre bien.
Vel.
Proces est lac et gouffre si pi'ofund
Que tout le bien qu'on peult avoir y fond.
Vel.
Tant plus aymez faulx et traistre procez,
Et d'autant plus vous fei-a de I'excez.
Vel.
A faulx procez tant plus on bailie et tend,
Tant plus en veult, jamais il n'est content.
92. — Poeta alienus a lite.
Litigiosa fugit studiosus jurgia vates,
Non amat insanum musa quieta forum.
Le poete doibt estre aliene de proces.
Triste proces soingneux poete fuyt,
Muse transquille hayt de plaider le bruit.
(38, recto) Appendix.
Qui veult latin ou fran9oys composer,
Toute aultre affaire il convien deposer.
93. — Mercator perficlus.
Perjurata suo postponit numina luci'o,
(Stygiis) Mercator stigiis non nisi dignus aquis.
Le marchant desloyal.
Marchant prepose an bault Dieu qu'il blaspheme,
Son gaing mondain digne d'enfer extreme.
Appendix.
Quel proffict estre a I'homme ou a la femme
De gaingner tout le monde et perdre I'ame.
94. — Re:e, aculeo carens.
Quid metuis princeps diro caret inclitus oestro,
Non facit ad magnos ultio seva duces.
Le roy est sans aguillon.
Crains tu le roy sans aguillon de hayne,
Aulx grandz seigneurs est vengeance inhumainne.
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 11 Sept., 1907.
138 D. H. Carnahtin — 3Iaistre Eloy du Mont, diet Costentin.
Ap})ondix.
En graiulz seigneurs, coleres et credules,
Ne A^ous tiez ])lus qu'en derriere de mules,
Vel.
(38, verso) Mansietude en prince avec justice
Joincte doit estre, aultrement seroit vice.
Vel.
Ung prince user de benevole face
Aulx humbles doibt, aux superbss d'audace.
95. — Promissum regium.
(stent) Stant fixa aeternum regalia sponsa per aevum,
Servanda exposcunt regia verba fidem.
Promesse de roy.
Ferme a jamais soit promesse de roy,
II est requis aux roys garder leur foy.
Appendix.
Dieux terriens, sont dictz princes et roys,.
Tout U'ur parler sont oracles ou loix.
Vel.
Quiconque accorde une requeste injuste
Rien ne promect quand la chose n'est juste.
Vel.
Qui promect cas que I'on doibt escondire
Ne promect rien, il ne faict que le dire
96. — l^oluj^tas et virtus.
(39, recto) It male praestanti dispar virtute voluptas,
Hinc dolor aeternus inde perennis honor.
Volupte et vertu.
Volupte vile a vertu moult differe,
L'une doulleur et I'autre honneur confere.
Appendix.
Volupte gist en plaisir transitore,
Vertu en bien d'eternelle memoii'e.
Vel.
A nobles coeurs le vivre en liberte
Est trop plus doulx que vivre en volupte.
Vel.
Volupte mainne apres so}' villennie,
Noble vertu, honneur, glore infinie,
Vel.
D. II. (Jarnahan — Maistre Eloy da Mont., diet (Jostentin. 139
Ainsi qu'a lain on voit le poisson prins,
En volupte on voit niondains surprins.
, 97. — 2\irpis et formosiis.
Turpis ut est pulchra facies virtuie nitenda,
Sic nitida labes fronte linenda venit.
Le laid et le bean.
(39, verso) De corps deforme estainct vertu I'injure,
D'elegant viz convient purger I'ordiire.
Appendix.
Deformite par vertu est couverte,
Et par vertu beaulte est plus apperte.
98. — Puer fiiigendus ah optimo artifice.
Cerens est docto fingendus pollice vultus,
(Prometheum) Ora prometheura pulchra venustat opus.
L'eufant doibt estre instruict d'un bon ouvrier.
Le jeune enfant ait maistre docte et saige,
Le bon ouvrier decore bien I'ouvraige.
Appendix.
Mainct precepteur parle bien de vertu,
Duquel le coeur est de vice vestu.
Vel.
C'est rien qu'avoir vertu en son langaige,
S'el n'est au coeur et en prendre I'usaige.
Vel. •
En donnant maistre a ton iilz, le langaige
Ne voy du tout mais vegarde I'ouvraige.
Vel.
(40, recto) Du pere on voit enfans I'engin avoir,
Les escolliers du maistre le sijavoir,
Vel.
Le pere et mere aulx enfans donnent vivre,
Le precepteur bien vivre leur delivre.
99. — 3Iens.
(diffusa) Divina humanos mens est infusa per artus,
Cogitet ut spreto facta superna solo.
L'ame.
L'ame est au corps pour contempler les cieulx
En contempnant terrestres et bas lyeux.
140 D. H. Carnahan — Maistre Eloy du Mont, diet Costentin.
Appendix,
Charnelz ont soing de I'homme exteriore
Bien preparer, I'effans I'interiore.
Vel.
Pourceau I'ordure anx belles fleurs prepose,
L'homme cbarnel I'atne a son corps postpose.
100. — A)incus reconciliatus.
Gratia que coeat ficti male sarta sodalis,
(yeluti) (Siculo Est velut in siculo scylla cavenda mari.
L'amy reconcilie.
Fuy cestuyla comme peril en raer,
Qui t'a deceu soubz urabre de t'aymer.
Appendix.
Plus a craindre est I'enneray familier
Seul, que ne sont aultres plus d'un millier.
Scylla)
(40, verso)
101. — Generosus.
Acceptum duplici munus cum foenore reddit,
Vincitur baud larga mens generosa manu.
Le noble.
Au double rend I'homme, arme de noblesse,
Vaincre on ne peult noble coeur par largesse.
Appendix.
Dieu et le monde ingratitude en hainne
Ont grandement, car I'offence est villainne.
(41, recto)
(Croese)
102. — Metiende vires.
Ardua ne subeas ignota pondera molis,
Ni bene sint tergi robora mensa tui.
On doibt congnoistre sa puissance.
N'entrepren fais trop ardu ne pesant,
Si lu ne S9ais ton povoir suffisant.
Appendix.
Qui trop embrasse, on diet, que pen estrainct,
L'oeuvre imparfaict foul laisser est contrainct.
103. — Nemo foelix ante ohitum.
Ne quisquam extrema foelix nisi morte vocetur,
Instruis accenso Craese ligate rogo.
Nul homme eureux avant sa mort.
D. H. Carnahan- — Maistre Eloy dit Mont^ diet Costentin. 141
Cresus instruict par ung cas douloureux,
Qu'aulcun ne soit ains la mort diet heureux.
Appendix.
Mainct pensant boire, a la main tient sa tasse
Plainne de vin qui malgre soy s'en passe.
104. — Gallic senatores.
(Jiistitiae) Justicia e summo terras jove missa per omnes,
Gallorum elegit tecta verenda patrum.
Les senateurs de France.
Justice en terre envoyee de Dieu,
Chieux senateurs de France a prins son lieu.
Appendix.
Quand bien aymee est justice d'un prince,
Elle ^ura regne en toute sa province.
(Dares) 105. — Ne dhares cum entello^
(41, verso) (Si- Ne siculo phrigius cano decertet ephebus,
^ Fortius a lasso stant sola fixa bove.
Que Dares ne combate avec Entellus.
Arrogamment le jeune ne bataille
Contre le vieil trop ruse en bataille.
Vel.
Le jeune au vieil ne se vueille debattre,
Le vieil est ferrae et ruse a combatre.
Appendix.
Pour la victoire avoir, plus faiet prudence
Que ne faict force ou grande violence.
106. — Soli christo qui est Alpha et fl, honor et gloria.
(litera) Prima rudimenti supremaque littera graii,
(Christe) Danda uni est dexter gloria cbriste tibi.
A seul Christ commencement et tin, honneur et glore.
Eternal Christ, fin, et commencement,
Glore et honneur soit a toy seullement.
Appendix.
Commencement et fin du tresparfaict.
Prent toute chose et sans luy n'est rien faict.
Fin des disthicques, lexers traductions et appendices.
» See the Aenead, Lib. V, 363-484.
142 D. H. Carnnhan — 3faistre JEloy du Mont, diet Costentin
XVII.
Ballade du bon Roy Fran^oys
Laquklle s'adresse aulx Frax^ots
Les premieres lectres prexdres
Des lignes, ex vous apprendrez
nom, surnom, du roy exalte
Plus qu'aultre de la chrestiente.
Fran9oys, uiig franc Fran903's en France
Regne sur vous, sans mner lettre
Avez ung nora ; vivre en souffrance
N'est veu les siens Frangoys permectre ;
Changer juges, aultres comraectre,
On justice voit variable,
II veult les bons en biens acroistre,
Semblable aymer veult son semblable,
De nom, de lignee et naissance
Est Fran§oys, vostre roy et maistre,
Vous estez Fran9oys, Convenance
Aa'cz grande, done, debvez estre
(42, verso) Loyaulx vers luy et en tout estre
Ou serez de coeur amiable :
If fault ses amis ap])aroistre
Semblable aymer veult son semblable.
France, qui vis en ta plaisance,
Rend graces a Dieu qui fist naistre
Aulx Fran9oys, Fran9oys, qui nuysance
Ne te faict, ainsi que congnoistre
Chacun peult, mais soingneux faict mettre
Ordre partout, aulx bons affable,
Jeete les maulvais a fenestre,
Semblable aymer veult son semblable.
Prince Fran9oys, tenant le ceptre
Des Fran9oys en paix delectable,
Les bons aymez a vostre dextre,
Semblable aymer veult son semblable.
D. H. (^arnahan — Maistre Eloy du Maori., diet Costentin. 1 43
XVIII.
Les premieres lectres prendres,
Et franc FRANgOYS vous apprendrks.
(43, recto) Fonde siir foy le bienfaict acquiert grace,
Rien ou bien pen vault le bien que Pen brasse,
(Aiusi qu'on diet), sans foy et sans credence ;
Nourrir pourtant de charite immense
Convient la foj'^, aidtrement seroit crasse.
Fo}' de marchant est de grand efficace
Regnante foy, de gentilhomme passe
Auquel on donne ung tiltre d'excellence,
Fonde sur foy.
Nom de chrestien, et de treschrestien, place
Chez le Frango^'s a prins, sans qu'en desplace ;
Ou la foy est en grande reverence
Justice y est gavdee en diligence,
Si le Fran9oys S9a3^t cas qui mal se face,
Fonde sur foy.
XIX.
(43, verso) Jacobi Galli in eundem iiexastichox.
Torvum formidant animalia queque leonem,
Exiraito gallum, quo tremit ilia fera.
Pervigil est gallus, vel noctis tempora prodens,
Pro regno gallus diraicat usque ferox
Gallo cuique quadrant, quae dixi, pluraque multo,
Adficias regera proin quibus euloguis.
XX.
Franciscus BovaLus Montismarianus in tralationem disti-
CHORDM FaUSTINORUM IN LINGUAM FrANCISCAM, AD LECTOREM.
En patrio Faustus raisso sermone poeta,
Francigenas Francis vocibus adloquitur
Miretur quanquam, si quis modo sensus in illo est
Dedignaturam non tamon esse puto,
Disthica nam scripsit solis noscenda Latinis,
Disthica moratis inclita carminibus.
144 D. II. Carnahan — Maistre Eloy du Mont, diet Costentin.
Nunc ea, vel vilis })as.sim plcbecula discit,
Hinc format mores rustica turba suos.
Optimus hoc Fausto tribuit Montanus ab ipso,
Sunt lej)ide in Francos disthica versa raodos.
Sed regi hoc debet Faustus, nam precipue illi •
Montaiii eximium scriptitat ingenium.
(44, recto) Montaniun et doctos quoscumque araat, et foyet hie rex,
Huic debet musas Francia tota suas.
Debet ei pacein, debet foelicia secla,
Quid debet dicam ? debet et ipsa animam.
XXI.
B'^LADB DU Roy des Francoys,
Le PKEMIER DE CE NOM FRANgOYS ;
Les premieres lettres prendrez,
Son NOM et suenom apprendrez,
France a Fran9ois, Fran9oys a France,
Roy, Fran§oys est, c'est ung bon heur
Auquel debvons toute obeyssance ;
Nous avons Fran§ois pour seigneur,
C'est ung nom franc, doulx, sans rigueur,
Oultre, selon la saincte lettre,
II convient aymer de bon coeur
Son Roy, son seigneur et son maistre.
De franc, Fran9ois, nom de clemence
Est derive pour sa doulceur,
(44, verso) Valoys est ung nom d'excelence,
Ainsi diet, Valoys, de valeur ;
Le bon Roy Fran9oys, franc donneur,
On ayme, et dedens son coeur mettre
II convient en crainte et honneur,
Son Roy, son seigneur et son maistre.
France, nom de grande importance.
Region des aultres la fleur.
A prins de Francion nayssance.
Nay d'Hector des Troyens tuteur ;
Chacun Fran9oys, s'il n'est fauteur
Ou par trop meschant, recongnoistre,
II doibt comme bon serviteur.
Son Roy, son seigneur et son maistre.
D. H. Carnahan — Maistre Eloy dn Mont, diet Coslentin. 145
Prince, des coeurs vray pocesseur,
Tout le pays, sans tictif estre,
Ayme de coeur, soyez en seur,
Son Roy, son seigneur et son maistre.
(45, recto) XXII.
Balade du concept virginal, allusion prinse sur ce mot de
Valots, en la personne de Marie.
Le Roy peult faire a son vouloir
Grace a I'un, I'autre faire pendre,
L'un ennoblist et faict valoir
En honneur, I'autre faict descendre :
Dieu, (que plus puyssant faulte entendre
Qu'ung roy lequel est sur les loix).
Pure en concept me voulut rendre
Puys qu'a Dieu pleut, je le valoys.
Pas n'estoys a equipoller
A Dieu pour en moy le comprendre,
Mais il luy pleut tant m'extoller
Que pour mere me voulut prendre,
Voulant qu'en moy n'eust que reprendre :
Raison ont done Normans, Gaulois,
De mon concept pur entreprendre,
Puys qu'a Dieu pleut, je le valoys.
(45, verso) II n'est pas besoing, soit en parler
Ou en escript, du faict contendre
Lequel Dieu veult, qui peult par I'air
Et tons lieux sa puyssance estendre ;,
Contre envieux, done, voulans tendre
Me blasmer, soit maistre ou valletz,
Aultre raison ne veuil pretendre,
Puys qu'a Dieu pleut, je le valoys.
Envoy.
Prince, faictes resouldre en cendre
Mes raaldisans, soient clerz ou laiz.
Pour ceste raison leur apprendre,
Puys qu'a Dieu pleut, je le valoys.
140 D. 11. {Jarnahan — Maistre IlIixj da Mont, diet Costentin.
(46, recto) XXJII.
Rondeau Joyeux a sa dame.
Les premieres lettres prendras
Et franc Fean^oys tu apprendras.
Faictes ainsy (Dame), comrae j'entens
Rien envers vous qu'amitie ne pretens,
A vostre amy ce qii'il vous admonneste
Ne denyez, ce n'est cas deshonneste,
C'est quf d'amours ayons le passetemps.
Femme entendu en amoureux contendz
Rend son amy dii niunbre des contentz,
A luy jamaiz n'escondit la requeste ;
Faictes ainsy.
Ne retardez (Dame), ce que j'attens,
Cest fruict d'amours a aultre cas ne tens,
Ou le servant de bien servir s'appreste
II est de droict que sa dame lu}' preste
Son domicile et houstilz competens ;
Faictes ainsy.
(46, verso) XXIV.
" Christe qui lux es et dtes.'" (Traduict jouxte la lettre
DE LA MESURE ET QUANTITE d'iCELLE, QUI EST ORAISON CONVENABLE
quand on SE COUCHE AU SOIR.)
O Christ, lumiere ei jour nomme,
Christe qui lux es et dies j)g ^^^j^^ j^g tenebres chassant,
noctis tenebi'as detegis
lucisque lumen crederis Splendeur de lumiere estime,
lumen beatuinpredicaus. Heureuse lumiere annun9ant.
Seigneur, sainct priaires faisons
Precamur sancte domine q^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^-^^ ^^^^ aydant,
deftende nos m hac nocte ^ j j ^ _
sit nobis in te requies Et tousjours en toy reposons
quietam noctem tribue. Tranquille nuict nous concedant.
Noz yeulz en repos soient rendus,
Oculi somnum capiant j^^g ^^^^^j.^ toug^ours en toy veiUans,
cor ad te semper vigilet •'. ''
dextera tua protegat Par ta dextre soient deffendus
famulos qui te diligunt. ^erviteurs ton amour voulans.
' The Latin "oraison," which is given by the aiithor in the margin, is taken
directly from two Ambrosian hymns; the ''Hymuus ad completorium " and
the '• Hymnus Vespertinus."
D. H. Carnahan — Maistre Eloy du 3font, diet Costentin. 147
JMe gravis somnus irrnat
De gref dormir iie soyons prins
TVT 1 X- . . , Et du faulx ennemy surprins,
jNec nostis nos surnpiat -^ ^ _ '
nee caro illi conseutieiis Qu'a luy lie conseilte la chair
nos tibi reos statuat. q^^j ^g^.^ ^^^ j^^^^^ ^^^^ peclier.
Regarde nous, vray deffenseur,
SiTesTepriSr"' Noz ennemis soient reprimfe,
guberna tuos famulos Regi tes servantz soubz toy seur
qnossangninemercatuse8.Q^^g ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ redimez,
Memento nostri domine
in gravi isto corpora
qui es defensor anime
adesto nobis domine.
Souvienne toy de nous, Seigneur.
Tant qu'en ce gref corps avons cours.
Qui de nostre ame es gouverneur ;
Soys present nous feisant secours.
Soit glore au pere createur,
Deo patri sit gloria ^ g^^^ ^1^ gemblablement,
ejiisqne son nlio
cum spiritu paraclito Avec I'esprit consolateur,
et nunc et in perpetuum. Pj-esent et eternellement.
Maria mater gratia
mater misercoi'die
tu nos ab hoste protege
et bora mortis suscipe.
O Marie, mere de grace,
De misericorde aussi mere,
De nous le faulx ennemy cliasse,
Pren nous I'heure de mort amere.
XXV.
Dizain de France et Italie.
Italiens ont moult France ennoblie
De deux grandz biens, de la langue latine,
D'un aultre bien qui vault qu'on ne I'oublie,
C'est de la sage et tresnoble daulphine.'
() France, France, a Dieu tu rendras grace,
Le suppliant que de temps longue espace
Soit la daulphine avecques le daulpbin,
Et qu'ilz ne soient frustrez de leur attente
Par mort crnelle, en attendant la fin
Que du bon Roy nature soit contente.
1 See page 92 of the Introduction.
H^l
b
TRANSACTIONS OF IfKE
CONNECTICUT ACADEMY Oi^ ARTS AI'JD SCIENCES
Incorporateu a. D. l<ytl
VOLUME XIII. PF. 149-297
NOV.. 1907
Publications of Yale University
THE STATE WORKS OF PENNSYLVANIA
I'.V
AVARD LONGLEY BISHOP, Ph.D.
Instructor in Commercial Geography in Yale University
NEV^ HAVEN, CONNECTICUT
■^■-•^ 1907
THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR PRESS
V. — The State Works of Pennsylvania. By Avard Longley
Bishop, Ph.D.
Introduction.
What is kiiowu technically in the history of Pennsylvania as
the "state works" comprised a system of transportation which was
huilt, owned and operated by the commonwealth. "Public works"
and "internal improvements" are other names commonly applied to
the system. The writer has, therefore, used these three terms
interchangeably.
The popular movement for the state itself to provide an adequate
means of transportation to the growing West may be said to have
commenced in Pennsylvania in 1823. The work of construction
was undertaken in 1826 and within a few years an extensive sys-
tem of canals and railways was built and in operation. By 1859,
however, there was not a single mile of public-owned canal or
raihvay in the commonwealth. It is thus seen that the present
study is limited to a definite field which furnishes an historical
example of public ownership and control of a transportation system.
The material upon which this studj^ is based was obtained prin-
cipally from the state library of Pennsylvania at Harrisburg.
The writer was given free access to the acts of legislature, journals
of the house and senate, legislative and executive documents,
reports and journals of the canal boards, pamphlets, news-
papers, etc., — in a word to all of the published and unpublished
papers and documents which have any bearing upon the subject
under consideration. The information gained from these sources
was supplemented by other of a more general character, by visits
to several sections of the abandoned works, and by conversation
with a number of old residents of the state.
The above does not apply, however, to the material obtained for
Chapter 1. This was taken largely from Hazard's "Register of
Pennsylvania," especially Volumes I and II; from Carey's "Brief
View of the System of Internal Improvements of the State of
Pennsylvania" (1831) ; and from "The Canals of Pennsylvania and
the System of Internal Improvements of the Commonwealth," by
Theodore B. Klein, published in Part IV of the Annual Report
of the Secretary of Internal Affairs of Pennsylvania for 1900. As
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIIT. 12 Nov., 1907.
150 A. L. Bishop — The State Worhs of Pennsylvania.
these sources have been freely drawn upon in the first chapter,
which is introductory to the main thesis, specific references have
not been given in all cases. Furthermore, in preparing the chap-
ter on "Finance," many suggestions were obtained from Worth-
ington's "Historical Sketch of the Finances of Pennsylvania"
and from Nead's "Brief Review of the Financial History of
Pennsylvania."
In making this study valuable assistance has been received from
many persons. Although individual acknowledgments are not made
in all cases, the writer by no means overlooks the obligation. My
special gratitude is due to Professor G. S. Callender, who, in
directing the Avork, has given invaluable counsel and criticism. I
am also indebted to Professor W. G. Sumner for advice and sug-
gestion concerning the matter and form of the present study. For
many courtesies extended and for assistance rendered in locating
material, I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to Hon. Thomas
L. Montgomery, State Librarian of Pennsylvania, and to his
assistants.
Acknowledgment is hereby made of the assistance received from
the Carnegie Institution of Washington in the collection of material
for this monograph.
A. L. B.
New Haven, Conn., May 1st, 1906.
Chapter I. — Improvements in TRANSPORTATioisr Before 1823.
For many years after the first settlements in the American colo-
nies, the population was confined to a narrow strip of country along
the Atlantic coast. The first census in 1790 showed that settlers from
Maine to Georgia had spread themselves over a large part of the
Atlantic plain and were climbing the mountains. The southeast-
ern part of ]^ew York, eastern and southern Pennsylvania, and the
eastern part of Virginia were the only sections of these states as yet
settled. The average breadth of the populated area was 255 miles
from the coast. Westward the lines of immigration were reaching
out at four points, — up the Mohawk valley in central New York,
along the Potomac through western Maryland, southwestwardly
down the east Tennessee valley, and around the southern end of the
Appalachian system in Georgia. Beyond the mountains the settle-
ments were few. The most vigorous was around Pittsburg in western
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 151
Pennsylvania. Another existed in the northern part of Ken-
tucky, and small ones along the Cumberland river in Tennessee
and at the junction of the Kanawha with the Ohio river in what is
now West Virginia. Excepting a few garrisoned posts, these were
the principal western points yet reached east of the Mississippi.*
The beginning of the nineteenth century showed' a marked change.
The settled areas along the Atlantic coast had now become con-
siderably broader, while the frontier in ISTew York and Pennsyl-
vania had been pushed back until about three-fourths of each state
had been populated. Ohio had been occupied on both its eastern
and southwestern borders, and the settlements in Kentucky and
Tennessee had reached out toM^ards each other until they now
formed one large and flourishing community. A continuous chain
of immigration extended also from the forks of the Ohio in Penn-
sylvania along its western border to Lake Erie.
By 1810 still greater movements were in progress, especially in
the west. More than half of Ohio and large parts of Kentucky and
Tennessee had been reclaimed from the wilderness. At the close
of the second decade of the century, most of Ohio was settled and
population was working its way rapidly into southern Indiana and
Illinois,' and southeastern Missouri. f
The westward movement, as yet inconsiderable compared with its
later history, was now sufficiently important to attract the atten-
tion of the East, whose far-seeing citizens had early looked forward
to the future economic importance of the vast region beyond the
mountains. To secure for their own state a predominating influ-
ence in the trade of the West became at once the ambition of leading
* Tliese and the following facts concerning the distribution of population
until 1820 have been gathered from Scribner's Statistical Atlas of the
United States, the Census Reports, and the Statistical Atlas of the United
States (1903) published by the United States Government.
t The Statistical Atlas of the United States (1903), p. 26, states that in
1790 not more than 5 per cent, of the population of the United States was
west of the Appalachian mountains. Hence not more than 196,460 people
were there at this time.
The census reports show that in 1800 the western states and territories con-
tained 387,183 inhabitants; in 1810 the number was 1,075,398; and ten
years later it had increased to 2,207,476. If we include the population of
western Pennsylvania and Virginia in 1820, the total population of the West
at this time was a little more than 2,600,000.
Tlie total population of the United States was — in 1790, 3,929,214; in
1800, 5,308,483; in 1810, 7,239,881; in 1820, 9,633,822.
152 .1. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
men on tbe Atlantic seaboard, particularly in jNTew York, Pennsyl-
vania, Maryland and Virginia. The peculiar topography of the
country afforded but one natural outlet to tidewater, viz. — by
the long route of the Ohio and the Mississippi to the Gulf.* The
Allegheny mountains, separating the East from the West, were
regarded as a formidable barrier to trade and communication.
How to link those two sections of the country by an adequate
transportation system was the problem.
In the early history of the colonies, before the movement west-
ward had become of any importance, and when most of the popu-
lation was confined to the coast and the immediate interior, the
improvements in transportation were inextensive and of a local
character. Roads had to be constructed through the forests,
marshes made passable by causeways, and rude bridges thrown
across the smaller streams. Later, appropriations were made to
improve the navigation of the rivers. For a long time the only
communications to the small western settlements were Indian trails
along which no bulky goods could be carried. These in due course
gave way to roads which for a time were considered adequate for
trade and travel. But even before the West had come into prom-
inence sufficient to present new problems in the field of trans-
portation, the adaptability of canals to the needs of commerce,
and their superiority over other known means of transportation,
had been satisfactorily demonstrated. In the latter part of the
eighteenth century, a few of the far-seeing men in Virginia, Mary-
land, Pennsylvania and JSTew York conceived the idea of using
them to supplement the natural water courses in reaching the Ohio
valley and Lake Erie.f When the growth of the West had attracted
public attention the rivalry of the adjacent eastern states for its
trade was keen. Every one of the Atlantic seaboard cities had an
* The St. Lawrence route should not be overlooked, but less attention was
given to it than to the one mentioned above.
■}■ As early as 1754 George Washington in person explored a route to con-
nect the east and west by the waters of the Potomac and Yonghiojieny rivers.
He also made a report to the colonial legislature of Virginia describing the
obstacles to be overcome from Cumberland at the mouth of Wills' Creek to
Georgetown. On the 20th of July, 1770, he made another report to the
Governor of Maryland upon another route to the west at Pittsburg, and
spoke of its importance, to use his own words, as "the channel of conveyance
of the extensive and ^•aluable trade of a rising empire." Later, he wrote of
the political importance of opening a communication to the West, in that it
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 153
expert who could demonstrate beyond doubt that that particular
port was in closest touch with Pittsburg and the West.* Agitators
were ever ready with schemes for improvements that would posi-
tively ensure the state in question a predominating influence in the
trade of the West.
Of this movement the building of the Erie canal was the climax.
Its successful operation, and the consequent rapid fall in freight
rates, necessitated the commencement of similar works in other
states for the sake of their own self-preservation. The peculiar
physical features of l^ew York, making is unnecessary to over-top
the mountains to reach the West, gave that state a decided
advantage over all her competitors. It made defeat inevitable to
Pennsylvania from the beginning, in spite of her advantage over
New York in distance from the Ohio valley.
The later success of the Erie canal eclipsed all similar trans-
portation achievements of other states. Their magnitude in Penn-
sylvania, though greater than in ]^ew York, failed to make an
equal impression upon the imagination. The building of the
state works not taking place until after the opening of the Erie
canal also led many to infer that little attention was given by
Pennsylvania to internal improvements until ISTew York led the
way. The error of such an inference will appear from the follow-
ing summary of the activities of the state and of private companies
in improvements in transportation before 1823, the date which
marks the commencement of the popular agitation resulting in the
building of the state works.
The history of the movement for internal improvements in Penn-
sylvania reaches back into the early records of the colony. William
Penn, in 1690, recorded the practicability of artificially joining the
Susquehanna and the Schuylkill rivers by means of their branches.
This suggestion is found in a document entitled "Some proposals
would be the best if not the only means of keeping the eastern and western
countries together. — Pickell, A Xevv Chapter in the Early Life of Washington,
p. 172.
Many of the Washington documents regarding canals and internal
improvement projects are found in Reports of Committees, House of Rep.,
Congress United States, 1st Session, 19th Congress; subject, "The Chesa-
peake and Ohio Canal," Xo. 228.
* Hulbert, Historic Highways, xiii, p. 173.
154 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
for a second settlement in the Province of Pennsylvania."* It
is difficult to draw any satisfactory conclusions as to how Penn
proposed to bring about the communication, but the fact is that
a canal was commenced between these rivers exactly a century after
the document referred to was written. If it was his idea to join
the Schuylkill and the Susquehanna by a canal, Penn was far in
advance of the age in devising means of internal transportation,
for at this time canals were unknown even in Great Britain.
ISTearly three-quarters of a century had yet to elapse before any
movement for the improvement of the means of inland navigation
of Pennsylvania crystallized into an act of legislature authorizing
the same. The first activity was directed to the improvement of
the rivers. Large sums of money were thus expended with little
results before this device was supplemented by building artificial
waterways.
The Schuylkill river was the first to receive attention. By Act
of March 14th, 1761, f fifteen commissioners were appointed to
make this waterAvay "navigable and passable for boats, floats, rafts,
canoes and other small vessels from the ridge of mountains com-
monly called the Blue Mountains to the river Delaware." Power
was also vested in them to receive and appropriate all moneys
donated for this purpose. Supplementary acts| were passed from
time to time appointing new commissioners. IN'o general plan of
improvement was carried through, however, until the formation of
the Schuylkill l^avigation Company, a private enterprise incor-
porated in 1815.
* "It is now my purpose to make another settlement, upon the river of
Susquehannagh, that runs into the Bay of Chesapeake, and bears about fifty
miles west from the river Delaware, as appears by the Common Maps of the
English Dominion in America. Tliere I design to lay out a Flan for the
building of another City, in the most convenient place for communicating
with the former plantations on the East; which by llind, is as good as done
already, a way being laid out between the two rivers very exactly arid con-
veniently, at least three years ago; and which will not be hard to do by
water, by the l)enefit of the river Scotilhill ; for a Branch of that river lies
near a Brunch that rims into the Susquehannagh River, and is the Common
Course of the Indians with their Skins and Furrs into our Parts." See Haz.
Reg., I, p. 400.
f Smith's Laws of Pennsylvania, T, p. 2.35.
t February 2Gth, 1773; March 24th, 1781; March 15th, 1784.
A. L. £^ishop — TJie State Wo7'l:s of Pennsylvania. 155
The works of this company extended 108 miles up the Schuylkill
from Philadelphia. Connection was made with the Union canal at
Eeading. This improvement was effected by converting the channel
into slackwater by building thirty-one dams. Tolls were first taken
in 1818, amounting to $233. By 1825 they had increased to
$15,776, of which $9,700 were received from coal. The Schuylkill
coal industry now had a rapid expansion. By 1823, only eight
years after its commencement, the company's tolls amounted to
$325,468, of which the sum of $228,000 was derived from coal
alone. Much of the balance came from return freights from Phila-
delphia on supplies for the mining districts. The report of the com-
pany for 1865 showed that 1,000 boats with an average capacity of
170 tons passed to and fro through the canal, carrying 1,500,000
tons of coal, lumber, iron ore, etc. The cost of the line had been
$12,500,000 and a dividend of six per cent, was being, paid. Time,
however, brought great changes in the method of transportation,
and eventually a rival, the Philadelphia and Reading Railroad,
obtained control over it through a long lease. The Schuylkill
ISTavigation Company remains as one of only four canal and navi-
gation companies that now report to the Secretary of Internal
Affairs.
The present condition of the works has been described as
follows : —
"The canal itself has become a memory, the corpus being valu-
able only as a possible asset in case a sale should be made for water-
works purposes. For the last few years not more than two or
three canal boats have passed daily through the lock at the head
of Fairmount pool. The wooden locks are but rotting timbers ; the
pools are shallow basins, filled with the debris of coal mines; the
skeletons of its boats lie bleaching on the shores of the beautiful
Schuylkill, the few that are left floating being but sad reminders
of the first great transportation enterprise of the Keystone State."*
Many efforts were made to improve the navigation of the
Susquehanna river previous to the commencement of the state
works. Large sums of money were expended in removing rocks,
deepening channels, and building wing walls, yet the benefit
derived from such labor was scarcely perceptible. In the year
1793 a company was incorporated to make a canal around the Cone-
wago Falls on the west side of the river in the county of York.
* Scott, Memoir of Charles E. Smith, p. 39.
ISP) A. L. Bishop — The State Worl:s of Pennsylvania.
Tliis work extended a iiiile and a quarter, overcoming a fall of
21 feet, and was executed at an expense of $100,000. In the year
1813 an act "was passed authorizing James Hopkins of Lancaster
county to make a canal for the same purpose on the east side of the
river; accoi-dingly, in 1814, two dams, one of 800, the other of
500 feet, were built. The canal was one mile in length and was
excavated out of rock. The ascent of 21 feet was overcome by one
guard and three lift locks, each 110 feet long and 18 feet wide.
The cost of the work was $120,000. The water power obtained
from these two canals was the chief inducement which prompted
their construction.
The river Lehigh also received considerable attention from the
advocates of internal improvements. Its importance as a highway
for internal navigation was not overlooked either by the state or by
private individuals. It was declared a public thoroughfare in 1771.
Private subscriptions were made at an early date to improve its
navigation, and commissioners were appointed to appropriate and
expend the money. What amount was raised is unknown but it
was j)robably inconsiderable. By Act of April 13th, 1791,* the
legislature appropriated 1,000 pounds to be expended on the Lehigh
"from its junction with the Delaware ■ as far up the same as the
sum would admit." On February 27th, 1798, a company was incor-
porated to better its navigation and a lottery authorized to help
obtain the desired funds. ]^o improvements appear to have been
made at this time. A few years later Messrs. Josiah White, George
F. A. Hauto and Erskine Hazard became interested in transporta-
tion schemes and secured the passage of a law on March 20th, 1818,
granting them certain rights and privileges concerning the improve-
ment of the Lehigh. These were later confirmed to them and their
successors by the incorporation of the "Lehigh Coal and ISTavigation
Company"t on February 13th, 1822.
, In the early history of the company, the river was used only for
a descending navigation. The coal and lumber of the country
drained by the Lehigh w^ere brought to market in arks which were
broken up and sold upon their arrival in Philadelphia. Later it
was decided to increase the navigability of the river by building
*Laws (Ms.), No. 4, p. 188.
f The privilege of both mining and transporting coal was granted to this
company, whereas the Schuylkill Navigation Company had no mining
privileges.
A. L. Bishop — The State Worl-s of Pennsylvania. 157
a series of locks. The amount expended for this purpose and in
improvements of every description, including opening the Mauch
Chunk coal fields, dwellings, mills, railroads and turnpikes, up to
January 1st, 1828, was $875,718.79.* The act of incorporation of
1822 contained a proviso that the total sum at any one time invested
in land should not exceed $60,000. The maximum capitalization
was also fixed at $1,000,000. In later years, when increasing busi-
ness came to require it, these restrictions were removed. The com-
pany is still in existence with a capitalization of $15,801,300. It
owns various properties, including coal fields and a main line of
canal 48 miles in length extending from Coal Port to Easton.f
A successful enterprise looking towards the improvement of
navigation on the western waters of the state was incorporated by
the legislature on the 24th of March, 1817, under the name of "The
President, Managers, and Company of the Monongahela Navigation
Company." This act appointed commissioners to receive subscrip-
tions to 1,600 shares of stock at $30 each, as a capital for improve-
ments in navigation on the Monongahela river. It was proposed
and authorized in the act of incorporation to construct sixteen
dams across the river from the state line to its mouth, a distance of
ninety miles. This would form a slack water navigation, and locks
connected the pools. The sum of $30,000 was subscribed by the
state and $18,360 by individuals. The work was commenced in
1821, but little progress was made before operations were, for the
time being, suspended. Several years later, however, work was
resumed, and in 1890 the official report showed that the capital
had reached the sum of $1,630,000, upon which a handsome divi-
dend of 9 per cent, was paid. The work, however, is maintained
now free of expense to the shippers of the various products of the
Monongahela valley, for in 1897 the government of the United
States, by proceedings in condemnation, acquired possession and
control of the company.
During the few years immediately preceding, and closely fol-
lowing the American Revolution, many plans were brought forward
in Pennsylvania for improvements in transportation. These were
not only of a local character but provided also for the development
* Haz. Reg., I, p. 414. This figvire does not include the money expended
in buying real estate.
tHeport Pennsylvania Department Internal Affairs, 1903-04, iv, p. 712.
158 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
of outlying territory. It was even proposed to unite the waters of
the Atlantic with those of the Ohio and Lake Erie by a chain of
interior navigation.* In his message to the legislature in 1790,
Governor Thomas Mifflin said : —
"The very laudable attention paid to the survey of roads and
rivers is conclusive proof of the importance of the object, while it
furnishes an example highly deserving of your imitation. Every day,
indeed, produoos an additional incentive to persevere in improve-
ments of this kind. The commercial policy of insuring the trans-
portation of our produce from the interior counties to the capital
is dependent upon the ease and facility of the communications that
are established throughout the state; and when we consider Penn-
sylvania not only as the route that actually connects the extreme
members of the Union, but as a natural avenue from the shores
of the Atlantic to the vast regions of the western territory, imagina-
tion can hardly paint the magnitude of the scene which demands
our industry, nor hope exaggerate the richness of the reward which
solicits our enjoyment."
In harmony with the trend of popular feeling, there was formed
at Philadelphia in 1789 "The Society for promoting the improve-
ment of Road and Inland ISTavigation," composed of enlightened
citizens from various parts of the state. Within two years it had
a hundred members. The meetings were held Monday evenings
during the sessions of the legislature to suggest schemes and pro-
posals for promoting trade and communication between the different
parts of the state and of the Union. On February 7th, 1791, this
society, of which Robert Morris was president, presented a memo-
rialf to the legislature containing a detailed and comprehensive
view of the various routes suitable for roads and canals from the
seaboard to the interior of the state, the West and Lake Erie, and
the adjoining states. Maps and estimates of expenses necessary to
build the proposed lines of communication were also furnished.
This memorial is an important landmark in the early history of
transportation in Pennsylvania, showing clearly the elaborate
scheme of internal improvements contemplated by its originators.
In the light of later developments, that part proposing to connect
the eastern waters with those of the Ohio and Lake Erie is pecu-
liarly interesting, in that it shows conclusively that, long before
connection had been made with the West by the Erie canal, public-
* Haz. Reg., I, p. 409.
•j- Full text of this memorial in Haz. Reg., II, pp. 119-122.
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 15!J
spirited citizens in Pennsylvania had conceived this idea as prac-
ticable,* and had surveyed routes, and estimated their expenses.
Moreover the course followed later in building the main line of
the state works was, roughly speaking, the one recommended by
the memorialists. The care with which the route had been deter-
mined at this early date, the exact survey, and the distances
between the various connecting points are shown by the following
tablet :—
Miles. Chains.
"[From Pliiladclpliia] up Schuylkill to the mouth of the
Tulpehookcn 61 00
Thence up Tulpehocken to the end of the proposed canal, 37 09
Length of the canal, 4 15
Do^\^l Quitipahilla to Swatara, 15 20
Down Swatara to Susquehanna, 23 00
Up Susquehanna to Juniata, 23 28
Up Juniata to Huntington, 86 12
From Hinitington, on Juniata, to the mouth of Popular
Run 42 00
Portage to the Canoe Place on tlie Conemaugh, 18 00
Down Conemaugh to Old Town at tlie mouth of Stony
Creek, . . . T 18 00
Down Conemaugh and Kiskeminetas to Allegheny River, . . 69 00
Down Alleghenj' River to Pittsburg on the Ohio, 29 00
426 04 "
The estimated expense of putting through the entire work from
Philadelphia to Pittsburg was a little less than $2,000,000. When
Pittsburg had once been reached, it was regarded as a compara-
tively easy matter to tap Lake Erie through Allegheny river and
French creek.
In recommending the opening of a commercial channel by this
route the memorialists pointed out to the legislators that they would
thus execute a work of the first rank for the honor and advantage
of their state. It would, in their opinion, combine the interests
of all its parts and cement them into a perpetual commercial and
political union. Moreover the future importance of the trade of
the territory beyond the mountains was a further motive that
weighed heavily with them, impelling them to exert all possible
pressure upon the legislature to provide means for its outlet. That
the rivalry between the eastern cities for its control would be keen,
* Tlie idea of the memorialists regarding the western connection was to
put through a main line of water communication between Philadelphia
and Pittsburg excepting a portage of eighteen miles over the Allegheny
mountains. — Haz. Reg., II, p. 122.
fHaz. Reg., II, pp. 119-120.
IGO A. L. Bishop — The State Worl's of Pennsylvania.
was not overlooked ; but tliat Philadelphia might secure the major
])art of this trade if adequate transportation facilities were pro-
vided, was hardly questioned. We shall see later how wide of the
mark this prediction proved to be. Their opinions in this matter
were based upon the advantage in distance (considering Pitts-
burg as the point of entrance to the Ohio valley) possessed by
Philadelphia over other ports on the Atlantic. With this advan-
tage, they believed there could be no doubt that the transportation
of all kinds of commodities from Philadelphia to Pittsburg might
be effected "at a much cheaper rate than from any other seaport
on the Atlantic coast." The time was not yet ripe, however, for
the government to undertake at once so extensive a programme of
improvements as here proposed. However, as we shall soon see,
some provisions were immediately made to better several local
lines of transportation.
Stimulated now by the recommendations of Governor Mifflin in
his message of 1790 and by the efforts of the improvement society,
the legislature appointed a board of commissioners to explore the
western waters, the Susquehanna, the Delaware, etc. On January
5th, 1791, the same body appointed a committee to examine their
reports,* and, wath the information contained therein as a basis,
to recommend jilans for improving the roads and navigation of
the state. The report of this committeef was presented to the
legislature on February 19 th of the same year. It was unanimously
recommended that some action should be taken by the government
to improve at once the navigation of the most important rivers
of the state, and to build roads and portages for the purpose of
facilitating transportation between them. Estimates also of the
expense anticipated in making each of the improvements were sub-
mitted. The importance of providing a direct line of water
communication, except at the Allegheny portage, to connect
Philadelphia with the western waters and the great lakes was not
overlooked. In short, the programme submitted as timely for
the adoption of the government was such as would provide the
various parts of the state with easy and cheap transportation for
local traffic, and improved facilities for reaching the West. The
* Full reports of those coiiiinissioners arc published in an appendix to the
Journal of the House of Representatives for 1815-16.
t Full report in Haz. Reg., II, pp. 129-132.
A. L. Bishop — The State Worls of Pennsylvania. 161
entire expense of effecting the improvements as submitted by the
committee was 60,870 pounds.
In accordance with this report and in harmony with the popular
sentiment, an Act* was passed on the 13th of April, 1791, appro-
priating 23,320 pounds for local improvements. The work author-
ized to be done consisted principally in removing obstacles from
the rivers and otherwise making them more navigable, and in
building roads to connect the links along the natural lines of water
communication. The money appropriated for these purposes was
required to be expended by the Governor contracting "with individ-
uals or with companies."
Another important transportation enterprise originating early
in the history of Pennsylvania was the Union canal between the
Schuylkill and the Susquehanna. The advantages to be derived
from opening such a communication had attracted the attention of
enlightened men by the middle of the eighteenth century. In
1762, David Rittenhouse and Dr. William Smith surveyed and
levelled a route for a canalf between these rivers via the Swatara
and Tulpehocken creeks, and the practicability of building it was
satisfactorily demonstrated. This was probably the first scheme
of its kind to be seriously discussed in the colonies,:|: and it was
to a similar route that William Penn had referred in 1690. In
1769 and 1770, a committee of the American Philosophical Society
re-examined the original surveys and three years later the legisla-
ture appointed a committee to do like wise. § All agreed upon the
one' route for the canal. The formidable nature of the proposed
works under colonial economic conditions, their novelty in this
country, and still more the outbreak of the Kevolutionary war, pre-
vented their immediate construction.
At length by Act of September 29th, 1791,|| a company was
incorporated to open a canal and lock navigation between the
Schuylkill and the Susquehanna by the route already determined.
The intention of later extending the work to the western and
*La.ws (Ms.), No. 4, p. 188.
f Haz. Reg., I, pp. 409-10. Tanner, Canals and Railroads of the United
States, p. 95.
X Haz. Reg., I, p. 409. Hiilbert, Historic Highways, xiii, p. 22.
§ Breck, Sketch of Internal Improvements already made by Pennsylvania,
p. 57. Carey, Brief View of Internal Improvements, p. 2.
||LaA\'^ (Ms.), No. 4, p. 234.
162 A. L. Bishop — The State Worhs of Pennsylvania.
nortliAvcstern counties of the state was expressed in the act. On
April 10th, 1792, another act* was passed creating a company
to open a water communication between the Schuylkill and the
Delaware. The idea of its promoters was to build a canal seventeen
miles long from Norristown to Philadelphia. It was also their
intention to make a temporary improvement of the Schuylkill
between Norristown and Eeading, and thus form an uninterrupted
water communication with the interior of the state and the West.
It soon became clear to the two companies that, in consequence
of the difficulties encountered in improving the channels of the
rivers, the canals should be longer than they had anticipated.
Hence the Susquehanna and Schuylkill Company, at the sugges-
tion of a British engineer named Weston whom they had imported
for their service, determined to extend their canal from river to
river, a distance of about seventy miles. The two companies united
their forces and completed about fifteen miles of the most difficult
parts of the two Avorks, but, on account of financial difficulties, both
were compelled to suspend operations after the expenditure of
$440,000. f These magnificent projects, worthy of the influential
citizens by whom they were conceived, were defeated partly by the
want of public spirit among capitalists, but largely in consequence
of the spirit of ruinous speculation. For they were ushered before
the public not long after the historic speculations following upon
the organization of the federal government, in public securities, in
the stock of the Bank of the United States, and in public lands.
Fortunes were realized from the first two of these schemes by most of
those who engaged in them ; equally large ones were anticipated by
those who speculated in public lands. It was believed that canal
stock would at this time rise in the same manner as other stocks had
risen, and that they would thus aiford a good chance to make money.
The result was that there was a struggle for an opportunity to sub-
scribe. Accordingly, a large proportion of the shares were taken
by persons who were wholly unable to pay up the remaining instal-
ments and who never contemplated doing so. Their object was to
sell out at once whenever an advance took place. In this they were
sorely disappointed. There were no purchasers, and instead of
making money, the original subscribers forfeited their first pay-
*Laws (Ms.), No. 4, p. 510.
fHaz. Reg., I, p. 410.
A. L. Bishop — The State Worhs of Pennsylvania. 163
nients. Partial success attended the attempt to enforce the payment
of the remaining instalments from those who were solvent.*
The project, however, as we have already seen, had to be aban-
doned. The suspension of these works exercised a most disastrous
effect upon every similar work projected for many years after-
wards.
These two companies were kept alive by Charles Palaski, who
called meetings of the members and had officers and managers
appointed, until, by Act of April 2d, 1811, the original companies,
composed largely of • the same individuals, were reorganized and
united under the name of "The Union Canal Company." For
several years following the act of amalgamation, it lingered in a
state of comparative inactivity. At length, however, after encoun-
tering various difficulties and discouragements, the canal was
completed and a communication opened in May, 1827, between
Reading and Middletown.
In the act of 1811 forming the Union Canal Company, the
president and managers were specially authorized to extend their
canal from Philadelphia to Lake Erie, with the privilege of making
such further extensions in any other part of the state as they deemed
expedien-t.f
In order to resume operations with the prospect of success large
sums of money were needed. The work lingered on for several
years after 1811, until helped by the state. By an Act passed March
29th, 1819, the latter granted an interest of 6 per cent, to sub-
scribers of the stock that might be sold to recommence the work.
This was to be taken from the proceeds of a lottery. By an addi-
tional Act of March 26th, 1821, the state guaranteed this interest
by a pledge to supply any deficiency in it which the lottery could
not produce. The new subscriptions which were obtained by this
legislative encouragement enabled the managers to resume opera-
tions in 1821 and to complete the whole work in 1827.
"-' See Carey : Brief View of the System of Internal Improvements of the
State of Pennsylvania, pp. 4, 5, 6, et seq.
f Section XXX. "And be it further enacted by the authority aforesaid,
That it shall be lawful for the President and Managers of the 'Union Canal
Company of Pennsylvania' as soon as they may think proper, to extend
this route to communicate with Lake Erie or other waters of any neighboring
state by canal and lock navigation, . . . ." — Laws of Pennsylvania,
1810-11, Chapter dxxxvi, p. 238.
164 A. L. Bishop — TJie State Works of Pennsylvania.
The Union canal was seventy-seven miles long, exclusive of
various pools and navigable feeders. It extended from Middletown
on the Susquehanna to a point on the Schuylkill a short distance
below Reading. At Middletown it connected with the Pennsyl-
vania canal leading to Pittsburg and Erie, to Tioga in the north,
and to Bald Eagle creek on the Avest branch of the Susquehanna.
At Reading it connected with the Avorks of the Schuylkill Xaviga-
tion Company leading to Philadelphia.
■ "Large quantities of iron ore from the Cornw^all banks of Lebanon
county were shipped to Danville and other points via the Union
canal, and coal Avas returned from the Wyoming region for use
in the furnaces at Lebanon and vicinity as back-loading." After its
enlargement, lumber from the west branch region of the Susque-
hanna came through it for a time in order to aA^oid towage charges
on Chesapeake Bay. "But the delays incident to the frequent lack
of sufficient Avater and the great amount of lockage were detrimental
to the shippers and carriers. At last, in 1885, the officials of the
company reported : 'The Union canal is non est, it having been
sold out, property and franchise, by the sheriff of Philadelphia.'
It had borne the brunt of flood and financial panic for almost
three-quarters of a century, having been in operation before the
canals of the commonwealth. The work Avas abandoned and sold
for a song, including the masonry of one hundred lift locks, three
guard locks, Avith buildings, machinery and pumps, all of which
had cost more than $6,000,000, which melted away from the
estates of Avidows, orphans and capitalists all OA^er the common-
wealth."*
We haA^e now given a summary of AA^hat was done in Pennsyl-
vania in the line of internal improvements by canal and naA^gation
companies and by the state in improving water-ways previous to
the beginning of the popular movement resulting in the execution
of the state Avorks. In'' addition to the numerous improA^ements
made by canal and navigation companies, there remains yet to
mention what was done during this period in building turnpike
roads and bridges. Here the best information is furnished by a
report of the Committee of Roads, Bridges, and Inland Naviga-
tiont submitted to and read in the senate of Pennsylvania on
* Klein, Canals of Pennsylvania, p. Ixxiv.
f Report on Roads, Bridges and Canala, 1822.
A. L. BisJiop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 165
March 23d, 1822. This report, was prepared in response to the
following resolutions passed by that body on January 4th, 1822 : —
"Resolved, That the committee on roads, bridges and inland
navigation be insti-ucted to ascertain, as far as is practicable, and
report to the senate, a list of the turnpike road companies, incor-
porated by the legislature of Pennsylvania, the amount of the
state's subscription to each, the number of miles of each already
completed, the counties in which located, the expenses of construct-
ing the same, the nature, width, and depth of the materials of
which they are composed, together with such information, relative
to the improvements Avhich have been made in the mode and
economy of constructing turnpike roads as will, in their opinion,
be useful to the legislature."
"Resolved, That the same committee also be instructed to ascer-
tain, as far as is practicable, and report to the senate, a list of the
bridge, canal, and lock navigation companies, incorporated by the
legislature, the amount of the state's subscription to each, the cost
of and progress made in constructing the same, together with such
other information relative to the subject of roads, bridges and
inland navigation, as may present a complete view of the actual
extent of inteimal improvement."
As no official document giving an entire view of the extent of
the state's internal improvements existed anywhere at this time
(1822), it was impossible to collect the information called for by
the preceding resolutions without the aid of the officers of the
respective companies concerned. Accordingly, after having com-
pleted their lists, the committee addressed a circular letter to the
president and managers of each corporation with a request that
they should furnish the desired information by answering a series
of questions enclosed. Satisfactory answers were returned in nearly
all cases. A large amount of information respecting the companies
was consolidated into tables accompanying the report.
From an inspection of these tables, it is found that the number
of turnpike roads contemplated by the various charters of the
companies which had received letters patent was 2,521%, of which
1,807 were completed. About 1,250 miles of these roads were of
solid stone. The amount of capital subscribed towards these
improvements by individuals '(including the subscriptions of a few
banks) which had been paid or was expected to be paid was
$4,158,347. The amount subscribed by the commonwealth was
$1,861,542. The report of the committee stated that if there were
added to these sUms one-half the amount of the existing debt of
Traxs. Conn. Acad.. Vol. XIII. i;3 Nov., 1907.
160 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
the companies, say, $381,585, Avliich it is probable the roads had
cost more than the amount subscribed by the state and solvent
individuals, it would appear that to turnpike roads there had been
subscribed and appropriated up to 1822 in the State of Pennsyl-
vania the sum of $6,401,474.
The works completed or in progress at that time provided for two
stone roads between Pliiladelphia and Pittsburg, one of which had
already been finished; one continuous road from Philadelphia to
the town of Erie on the lake of the same name, passing throvigh
Sunbury, Belief onte, Franklin and Meadville; two roads, with a
deficiency of but a few miles of turnpike, from Philadelphia, one
to Xew York state line in Bradford county, passing through Ber-
wick, the other to the northern part of the state in Susquehanna
county passing through Bethlehem; and a continuous road from
Pittsburg to Erie via Butler, Mercer, Meadville and Waterford.
The completion of these lines insured the northern, northwestern
and western sections of the state connection with the metropolis,
and, in the opinion of th6 framers of the report, would ^'afford facil-
ities for traveling and transportation unequalled, as to extent, in
the United States."
With reference to bridges, also, a large appropriation had been
made. Private individuals had subscribed to $1,629,200 worth of
stock, and the commonwealth to the amount of $382,000. If to
these sums one-half of the amount of the debts be added, as in the
former case, the amount contributed to the construction of bridges
totalled $2,051,795.
So far as navigation companies were concerned, the common-
wealth had subscribed $130,000 out of a total of $1,916,510
appropriated for constructional purposes.
If all these subscriptions and appropriations be added together,
the amount shown to have been applied towards all kinds of
•improvements in transportation in Pennsylvania before the begin-
ning of the popular movement in 1823 was nearly $10,500,000.
This amount was expended by the state and by corporations
(largely the latter) exclusive of various sums large and small spent
by the counties on roads, bridges, and other improvements; an
amount which, though liberal, it is impossible to determine, owifig
to the loss of many county documents and to the confusion of
counts.*
* Haz. lleg., I, p. 408.
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 167
The foregoing review warrants the conclusion that in matters
of improvements in transportation facilities the policy pursued
was liberal and progressive. Actuated by an enlightened public
spirit, numerous charters for turnpike roads, bridges and naviga-
tion companies had been granted, many of which were subsidized
with public funds amounting to a total of $2,373,542. By pur-
suing this policy, the state had strongly stimulated the activities
of numerous liberal-minded citizens in their efforts to keep abreast
of the times. We have seen further that the early champions of
internal improvements, long before the Erie canal was projected,
not only had conceived the idea of connecting the eastern and west-
ern waters by a navigable route of communication, but also had
carefully surveyed the proposed line and made estimates of the
expenses incident to its construction. While Pennsylvania and her
southern neighbors thought seriously about this scheme, the enter-
prising citizens of their sister state, !N"ew York, were actually con-
structing a similar work with all consistent speed. Their example
in this connection was a powerful factor- in precipitating the move-
ment in Pennsylvania. Accordingly, before the completion of the
Erie canal, there arose in that state a widespread and vigorous
popular agitation for a through waterway to the West. It is to an
examination of this movement that we next turn our attention.
Chapter II. — The Popular Movement for Internal
Improvements.
The close of the first quarter of the nineteenth century was
marked by vigorous efforts on the part of many states of the Union
to improve their transportation facilities. The commercial cities
on the Atlantic seaboard had watched with interest the growth
of the West and the rapid expansion of its trade soon after 1815.
Yet, apart from local sporadic movements, no very serious atten-
tion had been paid to the matter of a better western communica-
tion. To this end, however, these cities now became the leaders of
popular movements in their respective states. In the West, the
transportation enterprises proposed, and later carried through,
were scarcely less numerous or important.* The principal works
* "It is reported that, from an actual examination of the subject, no less
than 102 canals are made, making, and projected in the United States."
Niles' Reg., XXX (July 1, 1826), p. 317.
168 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
built Avere designed to connect the Great Lakes with the Ohio and the
Mississippi rivers. The minor works were either branches of the
main lines, or short ones to provide outlets for the trade of the
interior of the states. Before entering upon a discussion of the
movement in Pennsylvania, an examination of the causes giving
rise at this particular time to the general activity of the eastern and
western states in transportation improvements demands attention.
In spite of the large immigration into the West before 1815, its
economic importance until then was comparatively inconsiderable.
This was due largely to the fact that the conditions governing the
prosperity of newly-settled regions were absent.* Isolated from the
markets of the eastern seaboard, the western farmers were obliged
to send most of their surplus produce down the Mississippi. The
route was long and dangerous, and there was indeed little demand
for their commodities in the sparsely settled districts along the
loAver course of the river. Hence most of their exports had to be
sent to market around by sea to the Atlantic cities or to* foreign
countries. The value of these shipments was small.f Local manu-
factories existed turning out such articles as were necessary for
the simple economy of the western settlements. Yet even under
these conditions, here and there in the Atlantic states, especially in
the cities along the coast, groups of far-seeing citizens could be
found who believed that the West had a -bright future. Many had
abundant faith in its possibilities. But its trade was relatively too
unimportant, as yet, to attract the attention of the greater propor-
tion of the population.
Soon after the war of 1812, however, two events occurred Avhich
profoundly affected the development of the West. The introduction
of the steamboat and, by 1817, its common use upon the Mississippi
and its tributaries, brought the West into easy communication with
the seaboard. The result was an immediate increase of trade. $
* An excellent discussion of these influences, their absence in the West
before 1815, and the circumstances giving rise t6 the economic importance
of the West after that date is given by Prof. G. S. Callender in the Q. J. Ec,
xvii (1902-03), pp. 116-137.
f Roads, of course, led over the mountains to the eastern seaboard, but
very few articles would pay for their conveyance there by land. Live stock,
however, was frequently driven to the eastern market.
± "This commerce is already [1818] very great and fast augmenting. As
an example of the constant and increasing movement on the Mississippi and
A. L. Bishop — Tlie State Worhs of Pennsylvania. 169
But what was even more significant was the fact that the spread
of cotton culture into the southwest had now given to the states
of the northwest their first important market. These two events
happening about the same time furnished the necessary conditions
for a speedy development. A lively trade now sprang up between
the farmers of the northwest and the southern cotton planters.
The absence of complete aud reliable statistics makes it impossible
accurately to determine its extent, but they are sufficient to estab-
lish the belief that it was large, and also that it grew up almost
entirely after 1815.*
The states on the Atlantic seaboard were soon engaged in a keen
rivalry for the trade of the West. Since commercial expansion or
obliteration depended upon success or failure in this contest, their
capital cities entered upon the struggle with tenacity of purpose. It
is scarcely necessary to mention the fact that the outcome must
depend upon the question as to which one of these states could
provide the quickest and cheapest route of transportation. Hence
those who had long advocated such improvements soon found them-
selves in the midst of a popular movement for better transporta-
tion facilities to the "West. New York took the lead and on July
4th, 1817, the first excavations were made for a canal between
Eome and Utica. In October, 1825, the through line was com-
pleted and the city of 'New York was united with the Great
Lakes by a stretch of navigable waters via the Hudson river and
the Erie canal. f
its tributaiy waters, and of the immediate advantages to be derived to us by
connecting those waters with the Susquehanna, by means of the Allegheny
river, I will state that there will be thirty steamboats this year [1818] on
the Mississippi and its tributary streams: 594 flat-bottomed boats and
300 barges arrived at New Orleans from the upper country in the year end-
ing October 1st, 1816; 1500 flat-bottomed boats and 500 barges, ditto, in the
year to October 1, 1817. A large proportion of this came from the waters
which could be miited with the Susquehanna, and of course would come to
the Philadelphia market." — Breck, Sketch of Internal Improvements already
made by Pennsylvania, p. 76.
* Callender, State Enterprise and Corporations, in Q. J. Ec, xvii, 1902-03,
p. 128.
f Soon after the completion of the Erie canal the state supplemented it
with an extensive system of canals reaching many parts of the state. Note
that in New York the through line to the West was built first.
170 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
The worthy example of Xew York, as has been said, was a strong
factor in arousing Pennsylvania to action. Scarcely had the Erie
canal been commenced before signs of the approaching popular
movement appeared, l^umerous articles were published in the
newspapers or were circulated in pamphlet form for the purpose of
impressing upon the public the need of a canal to compete with
New York. A pamphlet written by a state senator* from Phila-
delphia deserves notice. The writer set forth in the strongest
language, "the superior situation of Philadelphia, geographically
considered, for the attraction of the great and increasing trade of
the countries bordering on the Susquehanna, the lakes and the
western rivers." He compared the distances from Pittsburg to
ISTew York and Philadelphia, and showed a handsome margin in
favor of the latter. f The resources of the two states were con-
trasted to the advantage of Pennsylvania. The ISTew York canal
commissioners were quoted to the effect that they expected from
the Erie canal a revenue from which "the whole expense of this
magnificent operation would be defrayed in a few years, and an
immense revenue would be secured to the state. This would enable
it to patronize literature and science, to promote education, morality
and religion; to encourage agriculture, manufactures and com-
merce; and to establish the interest of human improvement upon
an imperishable basis and to an incalculable extent." If these
results were confidently expected in ISTew York,' the outlook in Penn-
sylvania was certainly more promising. Unless immediate action
were taken, however, the natural advantages of the latter state
were bound to be outweighed by the promptitude of N'ew York.
With reference to Baltimore as a rival, the situation was also
alarming. Via the new national road, that city Avas ninety miles
nearer the Ohio valley than was Philadelphia. Moreover the road
was over a part of its length free from tolls, "| while heavy fees
had to be paid upon the whole distance from Philadelphia to
Pittsburg. To protect the commerce of Philadelphia, in the face
of competition from both the north and the south, the need of a
* Breek, Sketch of Internal Improvements already made by Pennsylvania
(1818).
f He estimated the distance from Pittsburg to New York at 76GJ miles;
from Pittsburg to Philadelpliia, 423 miles.
$ It was toll free between Fort Cumberland and Brownsville, a distance of
72 miles.
A. L. Bishop — The State Worlds of Pennsylvania. 171
navigable water communication to the West was so urgent* that,
if necessary, she ought to build it alone. The views thus set forth,
and the arguments used, were indicative of a feeling shared by
many, especially in Philadelphia.
The movement spread gradually, and soon it began to be reflected
in speeches and resolutions in the legislature. On January 3d,
1823, Dr. William Lehmanf proposed the following resolution in
the house, which was adopted : —
"Resolved, That the Committee on Roads and Inland N'aviga-
tion be instructed to consider the expediency of appointing commis-
sioners, whose duty it shall be to furnish annually to the Legislature
in the early part of the sessions a properly digested view of the
state of the roads, bridges and watercourses of the state ; and also
to cause to be explored the route between the Schuylkill and Sus-
quehanna through the great valley of Chester and Lancaster
counties and also the most suitable routes between the waters of the
Susquehanna, the Allegheny, and Lake Erie, for the purpose of
ascertaining the practicability and the j^robable expense of connect-
ing these streams by a water communication.''^
On February 24th, the committee reported a bill entitled "An
Act providing for the appointment of a board of commissioners for
the purpose of promoting the internal improvement of the state."
]^o immediate action was taken. On the 5th of December of the
same year, however, it was referred to a special committee§ and
two weeks later this committee reported || that examinations and
surveys ought to be made at once for a main route of water com-
munication between the Susquehanna and the Allegheny rivers.
This opinion was formed only after a careful consideration of the
favorable geographical and material endowments possessed by Penn-
. * The movement even in its commencement was first to build a main line
of communication to the West. — "To counter-act these threatened evils, we
must furnish a, cheaper water intercourse by some of the routes hinted
at. . . . We must work our way to the Susqiiehanna, and thence to the
Allegheny first and Ave must go about it soon too." — <Breck, Sketch of Inter-
nal Improvements already made by Peimsylvania, p. 70.
f Dr. Lehman was one of the most earnest advocates that could be found
in the state for the adoption of a system of internal improvement. At this
time he was chairman of the committee of roads and inland navigation.
$J. H. Eep., 1822-23, p. 186.
§ Messrs. Lehman, E. Lewis, Reynolds, Hummell, Diven, Maclay, Ogle,
Clarke and Everhart.— J. H. Rep., 1823-24, p. 82.
II Full text of Report in J. H. Rep., 1823-24, pp. 163-170.
172 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
sylvania; and of tlie urgent necessity of keeping pace with the
states to the north and to the south to prevent commercial extinc-
tion.* As a preliminary step to the system of transportation
improvements which they felt to be impending, the committee
urged the legislature to consider favorably the bill providing for
the appointment of a board of commissioners. After numerous
discussions, it passed both housesf and received the approval of
Governor Shultze on March 27th, 1824.$
This act authorized the governor to appoint three commissioners
to explore routes for a canal from the East to Pittsburg. Three
possible routes were to be examined,^ — one via the waters of the
Juniata and Conemaugh rivers ; a second through the west branch of
the Susquehanna, the Sinnemahoning and the Allegheny; the third,
via the upper waters of the Schuylkill, Mahony creek, the Susque-
hanna, the Moshannon or Clearfield and Black Lick creeks, the
Conemaugh and Allegheny rivers, xilso the country between Phila-
delphia and the Susquehanna was to be explored.
* "They are sensible that the period has arrived when Pennsylvania is
called upon by every consideration of interest, duty, and honor, to bring into
active exertion those financial and geographical means with which she is
endowed by a bountiful Creator.
On the north side of Pennsylvania, before the lapse of many months, New
York will have united by a canal of more than 400 miles in length the
Hudson River with Lakes Champlain and Erie. On the south side of the
state, Maryland and Virginia have projected a noble scheme of uniting the
Potowmac with the Ohio. These improvements, so honorable to the enter-
prise of the respective states, and so useful to our common coimtry, as per-
manent sources of national riches and aggrandisement, should excite a spirit
of emulation, and induce Pennsylvania to create improvements of a similar
character, and endeavor to fix within her own limits, and direct to her own
seaport, at least a portion of that trade and wealth which awaits the enter-
prise of those states who establish easy and cheap communications with the
vast populations rising in the West. . . . Noiseless and modest she may
continue to move, but unless she awakes to a true sense of her situation,
and ascends to times and circumstances, she will be deprived of the sources
of piddic prosperity, her career of wealth will be less progressive than that
of other states, and instead of regaining the high commercial rank she once
held, she will be driven even from her present station in the system of the
Confederacy."— From Report of Committee, in J. H. Rep., 1823-24, p. 164.
f At the third reading in the legislature the vote stood 53 yeas, 34 nays. —
J. H. Rep., 1823-24, p. 915.
XJ. H. Rep., 1823-24, p. 1101.
A. L. Bishop — The State Worhs of Pennsylvania. 173
The appointments* were made within four days of the passage
of the act. Since a report, containing all the necessary informa-
tion concerning the ahove routes, was required to be made to the
governor of the state before the next session of the legislature, the
task laid out for the commissioners was no mean one. Examination
and surveys were immediately commenced, and on February 2d,
1825, the reportf was ready. It bears evidence of extensive work.
Much difficulty was experienced in securing the services of a com-
petent engineer, and the work had to be commenced without one.
Their labors convinced the commissioners of the "perfect practica-
bility of making a canal" throughout the whole distance from
Philadelphia to Pittsburg. The route recommended comprised four
sections, as follows: —
1. From Philadelphia to the Susquehanna, a few miles above
Harrisburg.
2.' From the east bank of the Susquehanna to the upper forks
of the Frankstown branch of the Juniata near Hollidaysburg.
3. From this point over the Allegheny mountain, by a tunnel
four miles long, to the forks of the little Conemaugh river.
■1. From this point to Pittsburg.
The arguments brought forward in favor of the improvement
were very much the same as those already mentioned.^ In spite
of the efforts of Philadelphia's enterprising neighbors, it was
confidentlv asserted that with a canal to the "West, she would become
the metropolis of the Union. Moreover, both the impetus it would
give to the economic development of the state, and its financial
success, were urged. The computed cost of the three sections from
* The commissioners appointed were Jacob Holgate, of the city of Philadel-
phia; James Clarke, of ^Vestmorehind county; and Charles Trcziyulney, of
Centre county, all supporters of tlie political party in power. See J. H. Rep.,
1824-25, II, pp. 285-87, and Harrisburg Chronicle of April 12th, 1824.
t Full text of report in J. H. Rep., 1824-25, II, 239-285.
% Tlie report was signed by only two of the commissioners. The reasons
for ]\Ir. Trcziyulney not signing it were set forth by him in a letter to Gov-
ernor Shultze, on February 9th, 1825, and published in the Journal of the
House of R.epresentatives, 1824-25, II, page 287. Mr. Trcziyulney made
a report, however, to the legislature in the same manner as the other com-
missioners. His report differed from those associated with Mm mainly with
regard to passing judgment upon the most suitable route for connecting the
eastern and western waters without an examination of all the routes.
174 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
Middletown to Pittsburg, built with American locks,* was $3,000,000.
Money could be borrowed at 4% per cent., and the canal completed
in six years. It was predicted that the tolls would "support the
government and educate every child in the commonwealth." ^o
immediate action was taken by the government to execute the work
proposed. However, the report of the committee was the subject
of a good deal of discussion both within the legislature and
throughout the country, and it Avas not without effect in hastening
the commencement of the Pennsylvania canal.
Enough has already been said to suggest that Philadelphia had
much at stake in the struggle for the trade of the "West. As a
rival of 'New York and Baltimore, it was now a serious matter to
her whether the flames of the popular movement were fanned or
extinguished. It was Avell knowai by many of her citizens that the
scheme was by no means popular in some parts of the state. Appre-
hensions of the expense involved and fear of failure made many
public-spirited citizens hesitate to endorse a movement for com-
mencing a canal to the West. Besides, its promoters had no con-
certed and well-formulated plans, and little opportunity to exchange
opinions. Hence it was only natural to expect that some fruitful
minds should devise a means by which the popular agitation might
be directed, and by which thousands in the remote parts of the state
might be educated in the matter of transportation improvements.
This was furnished by the formation of "The Pennsylvania Society
for the promotion of Internal Improvements in the Common-
wealth."t
The preliminary meeting was held on ISTovember 26th, 1824, and
on the 14th of the following month the formal organization took
place and the constitution was adopted. $ Its object was clearly
* The European plan of buildinj? locks of cut stone, and counter arches of
brick turned in the bottom, was very expensive. On the New York canals
and the Union canal of Pennsylvania wooden foiuidations were used, and the
commissioners recommended these for the proposed canal.
f This organization, when referred to later, will be called the Improve-
ment Society.
I The full list of officers was: President, John Sergeant; Vice Presidents,
John Connelly, ]\Iat])ew Carey, and Paul Beck, Jr.; Treasurer, John White;
Recording Secretary, John Y. Clarke; Corresponding Secretary, Gerard
Ralston; Acting Committee, iiathew Carey, Joseph Memphill, Richard
Peters, Jr., Stephen Duncan, and Thomas Biddle. The full text of the Con-
stitution ni;iy lie fduiid in r;un]>hl(>l<. Xo. 143, State Library of Pennsylvania.
A. L. Bishop — The State Worls of Pennsylvania. 175
indicated in its name. Forty-eight of tlie leading citizens of
Philadelphia were the charter members, while the honorary list
contained the names of some of the most active friends of internal
improvements in the United States. Within a year a fund of $5,540
was accumulated by the members paying $100 each and by sub-
scriptions from interested citizens and corporations.* The edu-
cational work was placed in the hands of an "Acting Committee."
Broadly speaking, it was twofold, — first, to disseminate knowledge
throughout the state regarding the present transportation situation
and the urgent need of improvements; second, to collect informa-
tion possessed by other states and foreign countries concerning trans-
portation. The former was designed to strengthen the ranks of the
progressive party until a united effort .would force the legislature
to action. The latter would put them in possession of the technical
knowledge required for the work of construction as soon as it
should be authorized.
Several movements w^ere soon started to effect the first of these
objects. To these attention will be given later. As a preliminary
measure, however, a circular letter was sent to leading men in all
parts of the state, outlining the plans and purposes of the society
and inviting their co-operation. A variety of pamphlets on turn-
pike roads, canals and railroads was published and widely circu-
lated. In these and similar efforts to mould public opinion, many
of the city and country newspapers gave their support.
To attain the second object, the recent experience of !N^ew York
in building the Erie canal was studied. In addition to this, Wil-
liam Strickland, an architect and engineer of Philadelphia, was
employed at a liberal salary to make an investigation of European
railroads and canals. He left Philadelphia in March, 1825, and
returned the following December. Most of his time was spent in
England and Scotland. He procured for the society a working
* These were principally coal companies. See Carey, Brief View of the
System of Internal Improvements of the State of Pennsylvania, p. 7.
"At a meeting of the 'Pennsylvania Societj'' for the promotion of Internal
Improvements in the Commonwealth' held at Heiskell's Hotel, February 25,
1825, . . . two letters were read, one from the Lehigh Coal Navigation
Company, highly ajiprobatory of the objects and efTorts of the society, and
tendering a donation of $200 as their contribution towards the effectuation
of those objects — the other of similar import, with a donation of $100 from
the Schuylkill NaA-igation Company." — United States Gazette, March
1st, 1825.
176 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
model of a locomotive engine of the best type tlien kno-mi, having
a two-man power. His report,* which was soon published, con-
tained a collection of useful information concerning the various
purposes of his mission. He described conditions as he found them,
and made numerous drawings of various parts of railways, canals,
etc. He did not apply the information received to American con-
ditions, nor did he recommend the adoption of either railways or
canals in Pennsylvania. In all points of public policy he was
entirely non-committal.
Meanwhile vigorous efforts were being put forth to spread the
popular movement. At a meeting of the Improvement Society held
in February, 1825, a committee was appointedf to prepare an
address^ to the citizens of the state concerning the urgent need of
a direct line of communication to the West. Within a week it was
ready and soon it was widely circulated.§ Its framers disclaimed at
the outset any prejudice for or against any particular route. The
same attitude was announced regarding the adoption of a railway
or a canal. Not until accurate explorations and surveys had been
made, and fuller information obtained by disinterested parties,
could these questions be properly determined. Waiving these minor
considerations for the time being, it was earnestly hoped that there
would be a united effort on the part of all the people of the state
to bring about a transportation line to the West. Three principal
arguments were brought forward to justify the present appeal to
the people — the financial benefit ; the need of the proposed work
to preserve the commercial life of Philadelphia; and the effect it
* Reports on canals, railways, roads, etc., made to "The Pennsylvania
Society for the Promotion of Internal Improvement," by William Strickland,
Architect and Engineer. Philadelphia, 1826.
f The committee consisted of Messrs. Samuel Archer, Stephen Girard,
Nicholas Biddle, John Connelly, Paul Beck, John Moss, E. S. Burd, Nathan
Sellers, Samuel Wetherill, Thomas Leiper, John Sergeant, Nathaniel Chap-
man, Samuel D. Ingham, Thomas Cadvvallader, and Mathew Carey. — United
States Gazette, March 1st, 182.5.
$A brief address had been published in the United States Gazette, etc., on
January 25th, 1825. It occupied one column and was concerned mainly with
showing the relative decline of Philadelphia's trade as compared with New
York and Baltimore.
§ "An address to the Citizens of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania by a
Committee of the Permsylvania Society for the Promotion of Internal
. Improvements in the Commonwealth." It was issued in the form of a pam-
phlet of ten pages. '.Fhe newspapers of the state were requested to copy it.
A. L. Bishop — The State WorJcs of Pennsylvania. 177
would have upon tlie economic activity of tlie state. Let us briefly
examine the case* as presented.
The financial success of a trunk line to the West was assured.
The tolls of the Erie canal had increased from $20,224 in 1821 to
$340,642 in 1824. .The yearly interest on the capital invested in
the canal was $375,823 ; and even before its completion the tolls
were almost equal to this sum. ISTew York expected to liquidate the
entire debt in ten years, and then the canal fund would defray
all the expenses of government, and leave an annual surplus to
extend internal improveonents within the state. If this could be
done, surely Pennsylvania, a richer state, and one better situated
for controlling the trade of the West, had ensured to her, from the
start, the ultimate success of a similar work.*
Philadelphia's peculiar interest in the proposed improvement was
explained by the fact that the exertions of her neighbors on the
north and on the south threatened her commercial extinction. The
present efforts were calculated not merely to regain what was lost.
The struggle was of a more serious nature. For without a more
rapid and less expensive route than then existed, not even the trade
with the western part of Pennsylvania could be retained.
To illustrate the general economic effect of internal improve-
ments, the advantages England had derived from her canal system
were outlined. Reference also was made to the stimulating effect
of the Middlesex canalf upon the dormant energies of JSTew Hamp-
shire. A "more recent and still more impressive" instance was
found in N'ew York. Land contiguous to the Erie canal had risen
in value from three to five dollars per acre. Towns Avere spring-
ing up along its banks in places where, a few years previously,
there were no settlements at all. Small villages, within three or
* "Though it may at first appear doubtful, we feel confident, that immense
as are the benefits secured to New York by her Erie canal, the Pennsylvania
canal (or railway as the case may be) to connect the settlements on the
Allegheny with those on the Susquehanna, the Schuylkill, and the Delaware,
will insure to this state more solid advantages." — Extract from the address.
f Tlie company was incorporated in 1789, although the canal was not
completed till 1808. It extended from Clielmsford on the Merrimac, two
miles above Lowell, to one of the inlets of Charles river, in Charlestown.
This canal, like the Boston and Lowell railroad, was designed to facilitate
intercourse between the Merrimac valley, in New Hampshire, and Boston. — •
Tanner, Canals and Railroads of the United States, p. 43.
178 A. L. Bishop — The State Worhs of Pennsylvania.
four years, had doubled their population and were now thriving
towns.
The advantages that would accrue to all classes from improved
transportation methods were carefully detailed. The farmer would
find increased demand, brisker sales and higher prices for his
produce; the merchant, a wider field for his business; the manu-
facturer and mechanic, more certain employment and better pay
for their industry; the capitalist, a better interest on his money;
and the owner of lands and houses, a rise in rents of 25 or 30 per
cent. Since every class participated in general prosperity, and
suffered in general depression, the movement for internal improve-
ments deserved the support of all.
While the attention of the public was being directed repeatedly to
the subject of transportation, the Improvement Society was occu-
pied in promoting another movement. Its purpose was to impress
the legislature with the strength of the popular movement. At the
suggestion of the society, a public convention* of the citizens of the
city and county of Philadelphia was held in the county court house
on January 24th, 1825. f The attendance was large and the whole
subject of internal improvements was discussed at length.:]:
A -resolution was passed to the effect that a "water, communica-
tion ought to be opened with all practical expedition between the
Susquehanna and Allegheny rivers, and between the Allegheny
river and Lake Erie, at such points as the wisdom of a suitable
board of skilful and experienced engineers may select" ; also that
the work ought to be built and paid for by the state. A committee
of twenty-four§ was appointed to prepare a memorial to the legis-
lature embodying the opinions of the convention. The "Acting
* A full account of the proceedings of this convention is given in the
United States Gazette, January 28th, 1825.
t The meeting adjourned after some preliminary discussion and reassem-
bled three days later.
$ Chief Justice William Tilghman was president of tlie meeting, and Nicho-
las Biddle, President of the United States Bank, was secretary.
§ The following gentlemen composed the committee: — Chief Justice Tilgh-
man, Judge Duncan, John Sergeant, N. Biddle, M. Carey, R. Peters, Jr., C. J.
Ingersoll, W. T. Duane, J. Randall, B. Chew, Jr., Manuel Eyre, Samuel Weth-
erill, C. Evans, Samuel Arohei-, Daniel W. Coxe, Thomas Biddle, Paul Beck,
Jr., George Vaux, Charles Penrose, T. ^^■. Morris, Samuel Mifflin, James
Eonaldson, Daniel Groves and -lolm Nagle. This committee contained a
number of members of the Improvement Society.
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 179
Committee" of the Improvement Society rendered valuable assist-
ance in this matter.
The memorial* was duly prepared and the organization for its
extensive circulation was carried out even to the minutest details.
Ward and district committees in every county in the state were
engaged to secure signatures. An examination of the county
newspapers of this date shows that the memorial aroused much
interest. Public meetings were held in the halls or schoolhouses in
many communities to discuss the various phases of the question at
issue. It took but a few days to complete the canvass in some dis-
tricts, while in others the matter required more time. By the
middle of February, the memorials began to be presented to the
legislature, and, for some weeks afterwards, they continued to pour
in.f Their effect was reflected in a billlj: reported in the senate on
the last day of February, 1825, entitled, "An Act to appoint a Board
of Canal Commissioners." It passed the third reading on the
eighth of the following month and thenext day the clerk of the
senate presented it to the legislature for concurrence. With vari-
ous changes and amendments it passed the third reading in the
house on April 6th by a vote of 63 to 15. A compromise on the
points of difference was easily adjusted and on April 11th it was
duly approved§ by Governor Shultze.
This act repealed the one of March 27th, 1824, and now empow-
ered the governor to appoint five canal commissioners. Their duty
was to take all necessary steps in preparation for "the establish-
ment of a navigable communication between the eastern and western
waters of the state, and Lake Erie." The board was to choose one
of their number for a president. Also the appointment of a suit-
able secretary with an adequate remuneration rested in their hands.
* For the full text of this' niemoiial see Appendix I, p. 261.
f See J. H. Rep., 1824-25, Vol. I. The following pages contain notices of
petitions, as above, being presented: 341, 344, 352, 358, 359, 364, 371 (eight
different ones, Febrnary 16th, 1825), 376, 384 (five, February 18th, 1825),
391, 392 (ten, February lOth. 1825), 397 (fourteen, Februaiy 21st, 1825),
401, 416, 417, 424, 430, 435, 443, 454, 461, 467, 477, 482, 493, 499, 500,
507, 515, 518, 523, .529, 536, 547, 557. 574, .586, 598, 619, 686. 716, 741 (April
7t.h, 1825). See also Senate Journal, 1824-25.
$ Senate Journal, 1824-25, p. 519.
§ J. H. Rep., 1824-25, I, p. 816. Full text of act in Pamphlet Laws, 1824.
25, p. 238.
180 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
1^0 compensation was to be allowed for their services, but they
were to be reimbursed for all reasonable expenses incurred in the
execution of tlieir duties. Power Avas given to them to employ, at
reasonable salaries, engineers, surveyors and draftsmen to assist in
making examination and surveys. After this work had been done,
the commissioners were instructed to make detailed estimates of
the sum of money necessary to complete the canals, feeders, and
reservoirs, according to the plan they should recommend. They,
were also directed to inquire how a canal fund to build the works
could best be created; to ascertain the terms upon which loans
could be obtained; and to devise means for providing for the
payment of the interest, and for the ultimate liquidation of the
principal.
Before the end of April Governor Shultze had appointed as
members of the canal board. Dr. Robert M. Patterson and John
Sergeant of Philadelphia, Dr. William Darlington of Chester
county, David ' Scott of Luzerne county and Albert Gallatin of
Fayette county.* The latter, however, declined the appointment
and his place was taken by General Abner Laycock. In conse-
quence of the delay thus incurred, the board Avas not formally
organized until July 4th, when John Sergeant was elected president
and Joseph Mcllwaine secretary, and the notes, papers, etc., of the
late commissioners were handed over to the new board. Vigorous
efforts were at once undertaken to carry into execution the tasks
set for them. William Wilson was selected as chief engineer, and
at a meeting held on October 26th, reports were made by him and
also by John Mitchell on surveys made during the preceding months.
In December, closely following his arrival from England, William
Strickland was retained as consulting engineer, and engaged to
prepare maps and estimates of the several routes already surveyed.
By the appointment of a board of canal* commissioners, the aims
of the numerous friends of internal improvements had been only
partly realized. Some more impressive influence than numerous
petitions must be brought to bear upon the government urging it to
provide for the immediate commencement of the canal. This was
provided for in the movement which culminated in the Harrisburg
convention held from August 4th to 6th, 1825.
* Nilcs' Reg., XXVIII (April :^ntli,, 1825), p. 144. This journal in remark-
ing upon the appointment pronounced it "an admirable selection."
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 181
At a public meeting of tlie citizens of the city and county of
Philadelpliia on May 3d, called by the committee of twenty-four,
the preliminary arrangements were made for this gathering. The
"Acting Committee" of the Improvement Society was directed to
second the movement. A large number of influential citizens was
present and after a good deal of discussion it was decided to call
a convention at Harrisburg, on August 4th, to discuss the whole
subject of internal improvements.* It was believed that if delegates
from all quarters of the state could thus be assembled, and if a
majority of them endorsed the popular movement for a canal to
the West, the government then would have no reason to further
delay the commencement of the work. Six delegates from the city
and seven from the county of Philadelphia were appointed. f
The duties of the committee of twenty-four were renewed, and
arrangements were made for a systematic canvass so that every part
of the state should be represented. Within two weeks several
counties had appointed^ or were preparing to appoint delegates.
From this time on the county newspapers contained reports of
numerous meetings held for the discussion of transportation
improvements, and to consider the advisability of sending repre-
sentatives to the proposed convention.
It is not to be understood that there was no opposition — far
from it. Even in the town meeting held at Philadelphia, serious
objection s§ were raised to the resolution to call a convention. It
was urged that such a gathering might retard the movement for
putting through at once the main line of works; that it might
excite angry feelings ; or that discord in the convention might
produce hostility in the legislature. As would naturally be expected,
the ai'guments used in other parts of the state were of a diiferent
■' A full account of the proceedings of the meeting is given in the United
States Gazette of May 10th, 1825.
■j- For the City. For the County.
J. Sergeant, • J. Holgate,
W. T. Duane, Daniel Groves,
M. Carey, Alex. McCaraher,
W. Lehman, Geo. W. Riter,
M. Eyre, Samuel Breck,
C. T. Ingersoll. Jam^s Ronaldson,
Samuel Humphreys.
J United States Gazette, May 24th, 1825.
§ See United States Gazette, May 24th, 1825.
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 14 Nov., 1907.
182 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
character. The Miners' Journal* of Pottsville, Schuylkill county,
was perhaps the most pronounced and hitter in its criticisms. It
■was urged that a portion of the state would he injured by the
improvements that were in contemplation, and that superabundant
advantages would accrue to Philadelphia at the expense of the
country districts. These and other objections were due largely
to sectional jealousies and local interests prevailing to a greater
or less degree in various parts of the state. Among the criticisms
offered at this time, however, were some that proved to be nothing
short of sound judgment. Moreover they showed, at least to
unprejudiced minds, that there were really two sides to the canal
project. The following article from the Erie Gazette, written
when the popular movement was nearly at its height, is typical of
a feeling shared by a conservative element in various parts of the
state : —
"The advocates of a grand canal in this state have, in taking the
N'ew York canal as the basis of their calculations, entirely over-
looked its peculiar advantages. The Clinton canal (it may with
propriety be so named) traverses a country so level that the amount
of its lockage does not much exceed the height of Lake Erie above
tide water — passes at right angles to the course of numerous rivers
that flow from the south, is consequently easily and abundantly
supplied with water — possesses along its whole extent a fine wheat
country — terminates in Lake Erie, and thus connects an immense
inland navigation with the ocean at the city of N'ew York, the
commercial depot of America. A canal through Pennsylvania
would have nothing in common with this, excepting its termina-
tion in Lake Erie. How far it might compete with others for the
* "If the proposed improvement be m.ade at the expense of the state, each
and every county must and will bear their equal proportion of the expense,
the benefit of which will be received entirely by the city and county of Phila-
delphia, and those counties through which the improvement will pass. Hence
the counties removed from the line of communication ^^^ll be paying for an
-improvement from which they will not only receive no benefit whatever, but
by which they will be very materially injured, unless measures are taken to
prevent it."
"All that the city cares for, is to get the proposed improvements made,
and that at the expense of the State; when these are accomplished the
counties may get Avhat they can . . . The country has nothing to expect
from the liberality of the city; the latter will get all they can and then be
the first to oppose every measure calculated to promote the interests of the
former." — See letter signed "T'rindley" in the United States Gazette of Jime
3d, 1825, which contains quotations from the Miners' Journal. See also same
paper for June 7th, 1825.
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 183
trade of that lake, may iu some measure be estimated by the fact
that before it could advance fifteen miles from the lake, it would
require a lockage almost equal to the whole of that of the JSTew
York canal. The amount of the whole lockage required can only
be known when surveys are completed, probably four to five tinies
that of ]^ew York. The expense of constructing such a canal
ought to be estimated, not from the average of the other, but the
most expensive part of it. . . .
It is not intended by these obser/vations to discourage the forma-
tion of canals where they may be of advantage. No objections
occur to exploring and surveying the State with a view to improve-
ments. Information will be gained, and if it is found to be imprac-
ticable or unadvisable to canal its whole extent, still it may be done
partially with advantage and profit. Our State possesses many
natural advantages — let us improve them. We will certainly fail
to compete with the State of New York for the trade of the West.
Nature has given her advantages in such a competition which we
cannot overcome."*
In spite of opposition and objections that were urged against
both the proposed canal and the convention, the movement pro-
ceeded apace. Whether on account of interest in promoting the
cause or to check any eifort made by the friends of the movement,
delegatesf were appointed by all the counties of the state except
two. At ten o'clock Thursday morning, August 4th, they assembled
in the hall| of the house of representatives at Harrisburg. A com-
mittee was appointed to frame a set of resolutions which would
bring the matters for consideration properly before the meeting.
The following day, when they reported in favor of the state build-
ing a canal to connect the Susquehanna with the Ohio and Lake
Erie, a storm of opposition arose. It was confidently asserted that
the measure was impracticable ; that the movement was premature ;
that the canal would injure the turnpikes; that the resources of
the state were inadequate for building the works; that it would
require oppressive taxation to which the people would not submit;
■"" This article, copied from the Erie Gazette, appeared in the Harrisburg
Chronicle on March 10th, 1825.
f The United States Gazette of August 19th, 1825, in commenting upon
this convention said: "Tlie convention at Harrisburg for internal improve-
ments was, whether in reference to the majority or minority, superior to any
body of the same number which has assembled in this state for many years."
:j; Provision had been made for the meetings of the delegates to be held in
this place, by Mr. Lehman, the representative for Philadelphia, submitting
in the house a resolution to that effect on April 11th, which passed by a vote
of 41 to 26.— See J. H. Rep., 182-4-25, I, p. 791.
184 .4. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
that i'liiladelpliia Avas llie prime mover in the agitation and that
she would receive the greatest advantage from the improvements;
that those parts of the state through which the canal passed would
receive undue benefits at the common expense. Among those
opposed* to the scheme were all the delegates from Bedford, Frank-
lin, Cumberland, York, Lancaster, Northampton, Pike, Wayne,
Bradford mid Tioga counties.
The cause for this opposition is apparent. An examination of
the accompanying map of Pennsylvania shows that the first five of
these counties are situated in the southern part of the state. Their
exports, consisting of grain, flour and other farm produce, were
marketed principally in Baltimore and the neigliboring counties
of Maryland and Virginia. The turnpike through Lancaster gave
a direct communication to Philadelphia satisfactory to the inhabi-
tants of that county. The other district whose delegates unani-
mously opposed the resolutions was in the northeastern part of the
state. These counties had no chance of sharing the benefits of the
proposed improvements. Moreover, those on the northern border
of the state carried on their limited trade with Wew York. With
little or no chance of participating in the proposed canal to the
West, except to help pay for it, it is no wonder that the representa-
tives of the opposition states took the stand they did.
The friends of the movement were in the majority, however,
and ably refuted the arguments of those attempting to block the
passage of the resolutions. The whole case for the proposed
improvements was presented in a way that could not fail to con-
vince the doubtful. The discussion was prolonged until the third
day; and, finally, after numerous amendments were proposed by
the minority to no avail, the resolutionsf as framed by the com-
mittee were adopted by a large majority.^
* A full list of the delegates from eacli oomity, showino- the way they voted,
is found in A]>|)en(li\' II. p. 264.
•{• For the full text of the resolutions see Appendix III, p. 26G.
The woi'ds "within her borders" in the first resohition were struck out,
however, since it was urged tliat tliey might he considered as aiming a blow
at the proposed canal to comiect the Potomac and the Ohio. — ^Niles' Reg.,
XXIX, p. 62.
Another unimportant resolution was added to those reported by the com-
mittee, for which see Niles' Reg., XXIX, p. 62.
+ The vote on the liist three resolutions was approximately 87 ayes and
26 nays. The references we have seen differ somewhat, being probably
written from memory. The vote on the fourth resolution, which really had
no bearing on the important objects of the convention, was 107 ayes and
6 nays.
• • • Ma? or ?ENNJYLVAtTIA • • •
vShowin^ population by covuxti&s an. l&ZO^
Total population of the ,3tate at this date ; 1,043,4^56.
(7/bi!e : In 1620 /n/F/m Qounty included t£e terjvtorjr ^Jiown on tAe
map a^ (Junzccta Country.
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 185
The Plarrisburg convention was a decided victory for the pro-
gressive party. It was now felt that the legislature had, in the pro-
ceedings of this body, the fullest evidence of the wishes of the
people. To its action, the public mind was now directed with con-
fidence and pleasing anticipation.
On the 6th of December the legislature convened. With refer-
ence to internal improvements, Governor Shultze's message* was
conservative ; but it was regarded as "susceptible of no misappre-
hension."f Referring to the much agitated canal, he stated : —
'^Desirable as it is to facilitate intercourse between all parts of our
Commonwealth, and to do it speedily, still this desire will not
induce the representatives of a prudent people to engage in such
great enterprises without having before them all the information
and the knowledge which are essential to entering upon and com-
pleting the work in the best, most durable, and most economical
manner." No time was lost in bringing to the attention of the
legislature the wishes of the populace. The day after the opening
of the session a resolutionlj: was introduced in the house looking
towards the commencement of the long-desired canal. The manner
was afterwards referred to from time to time. On the 16th of
January, 1826, the "Committee on Inland Navigation and Internal
Improvement" introduced a bill§ entitled, "An Act to Provide for
the Commencement of a Canal, to be constructed at the Expense
of the State, and to be styled, 'The Pennsylvania Canal.' " It
passed the third reading on the 2d of February by a vote of 61 to
32||. The bill passed the senate|[ on the 22d of the same month
-
* See. J. H. Rep., 1825-26, II, No. 1.
f From Editorial in United States Gazette of December 13th, 1825.
t See J. H. Rep., 1825-26, I, p. 11.
§ See J. H. Rep., 1825-26, I, p. 192.
II See J. H. Rep., 1825-26, I, pp. 310-311. Tlie vote shows that the oppo-
sition included all the members from those counties that voted "nay" at
the Harrisburg convention, also the representatives of several counties
between the Delaware and the Susquehanna, already provided with adequate
means of transportation. All the members from Adams, Bedford, Cimiber-
land, Franklin, Lancaster ('vitli one exception), Lehigh, Lebanon, Northamp-
ton, Perry, Pike, Union, Wayne, and York counties A'oted against the bill.
Berks, JNIontgomery, Schuylkill. Westmoreland, and Philadelphia counties
were divided. Mr. Heston, one of the members for Philadelphia county,
voted in the negative, in opposition to his colleagues, and to the sentiments
of his constituency. — Caiey, BriJ'f View of the System of Internal Improve-
ments of the State of Pennsylvania, p. xv.
^ See Senate Journal, 1825, p. 363. Ilie vote was nineteen ayes — fourteen
navs.
186 A. L. Bishop — The State Worhs of Pennsylvania.
with minor amendments, which were approved of by the house
the following day; and two days later by the approval of the
Governor, the commencement of the canal to connect the eastern and
western waters was provided for by an Act of Assembly. The
indomitable perseverance of the advocates of the scheme in Phila-
delphia and elsewhere had at last borne fruit.
The Act of February 25th provided for the commencement of
the canal at both extremities simultaneously. The parts authorized
to be put under contract at this time together constituted but a
small fraction of the total length.* They were as follows : — From
the western end of the Union canal to a point on the Susquehanna
opposite the mouth of the Juniata; and from Pittsburg to the
mouth of the Kiskeminetas. The combined length of these sec-
tions was fifty-four miles. Since they were common to all the routes
proposed, it was considered safe to commence them before it was
finally decided what line the canal should follow through the
center of the state.
This view was the result of three reports recently made to the
legislature. The recommendations made by the first board of
commissioners appointed on March 27th, 1824, have already been
examined. Two reportsf made by the board of canal commissioners
previous to the passage of the Act of February 25th, 1826, demon-
strated equally well the practicability of building a canal to connect
the eastern and western waters. But the question of route for all
the sections, excepting limited portions at either end, was still some-
what in dispute. Accordingly, more accurate and detailed sur-
veys were necessary to warrant the legislature in deciding upon
the best location for the canal.
In view of the policy adopted later, it is important at this point
to note that the popular movement was for but one improved line
of transportation. The various reports of the canal commissioners,
and of the committee on roads and inland navigation, show that
their efforts had been directed to the problem of discovering which
one of the three possible routes was preferable. Moreover, the Act
* This act also provided for tlie construction of a navigable feeder of
a canal from French creek to the summit level at Conneaut lake as soon as
the canal commissioners should deem it expedient and practicable; also for
the surveying and locating of a canal from Conneaut lake to Lake Erie.
fl^ecembor 30th, 1825, and February 3rtl, 1826,— formd in J. H. Rep.,
1825-26, II, pp. 159-163 and 222-233.
A. L. Bishop — The State Worlxs of Pennsylvania. 187
of February 25th made no reference to the building or even to the
surveying of lateral lines. The title of the act (p. 185) shows that
it was to provide for a canal to be called ''The Pennsylvania Canal" ;
and further evidence is furnished by its preamble that public opin-
ion called for the construction of a single work to connect the
eastern and western waters. In a word, the whole movement for
improvements in transportation facilities from the very beginning
until legislation was secured authorizing the commencement of
construction had been for a direct avenue of commerce to the
"West. That it should be pushed through at once with all consistent
speed was the programme agitated; for in no other way might
Philadelphia have a fair chance with New York and Baltimore in
the struggle for the western trade. Lateral lines were mentioned
as being necessary as feeders to the main canal; but all references
to them indicated that the intention was to postpone their construc-
tion at least until the main line should be built.
In conclusion, a word is necessary as to why the state itself
undertook to build the work rather than entrust its construction to
a private company. It does not appear that the adoption of that
policy was due to any fear of corporate power. On the contrary,
the incorporation of companies to construct and operate works
of public utility in many cases was considered necessary.* The
creation in the past of numerous turnpike, bridge and navigation
* "Tlie incorporation of companies to carry on works of great public utility,
such as canals and turnpike roads, which necessarily require large associa-
tions to furnish the capital, which the finances of the state may not be in
a situation to meet, have ever been found useful and efficient means of
accomplishing these important public ends; and banking and insurance com-
panies have also been classed with these objects which render corporate
power necessary to conduct their operation with advantage to the public.
But the incorporation of associations to carry on a business within the reach
of individual capital, by conferring on them extraordinary privileges and
exempting them from the ordinary personal liabilities, is not only incon-
sistent with the dictates of sound political economy, but at open war with
the principles of a free government. This sound distinction in the incoi*-
porating of companies to accomplish works of great public utility, and those
for the mere purpose of promoting objects within the sphere of individual
enterprise, has happily been adopted and pursued by the legislature of this
state with few exceptions, and the instances of departure from this whole-
some discrimination, furnish the strongest evidence in favor of the wisdom
of the general course of policy." — Report of Committee of the Senate of
Pennsylvania, regarding corporations, read February 4th, 1825.
188 .4. L. Bisliop — The State Worhs of Pennsylvania.
companies furnishes conclusive evidence on this point. Moreover,
as we have already seen, the state from time to time had made lib-
eral subscrijitions to the stocks of these concerns. Having pursued
a policy of assistance in the past, it was no radical change, at this
time, for the energies of the government to be applied directly to
matters of internal improvement.
But there seem to have been definite reasons why the Avork was
constructed by the state itself. In the first place, the era of large
corporations had not been reached by 1826, and there was not the
large quantity of floating capital, such as exists nowadays, ready
to be applied to the purchase of stocks. Moreover individual capital
and energy were not considered commensurate with such an exten-
sive enterprise as that proposed.* Again, even though sufficient
private capital could have been commanded to build the canal, the
advantages to be derived from it after its construction were regarded
as too numerous and important to be surrendered to a corporation.
It was believed that both the maximum of impartiality and the
minimum of cost of operation would be insured by state control;
and, since the canal was essentially a state object, these needed to
be guaranteed to every one of its citizens. Moreover, the work was
looked upon as a source of large income in the future. This point
seems to have been hardly doubted by the majority. Hence the
opportunity to fill the public treasury by such a legitimate source
of income as canal tolls should be seized and not be forfeited to a
few individuals. In view of the general acceptance of these ideas,
throughout the whole popular movement the question as to who
should build the contemplated improvement was discussed but
incidentally, it being taken for granted that if the work were built
at all, it should be executed and operated l>y the state.
* "Tlio ])iil)lie are now firmly eonviiieod tliat. in the United States, where
the fortunes of private individuals are limited in amount, great public works
can only be accomplished by the expenditure of the public treasury." — Facts
and arguments in favor of adopling Railways in preference to Canals in the
State of Pennsylvania, p. 10.
A. L. Bishop — The State Woi^ls of Pennsylvania. 189
Chapter III. — The Construction of the Public Works.
In response to tiieir new duties detailed in the Act of February
25tli, 1826, the canal commissioners* immediately prepared for the
work of construction. On April 5th, ISTathan S. Roberts, an efficient
engineer formerly employed on the Erie canal, was sent to locate
the line between Pittsburg and the Kiskeminetas river. The deter-
mination of the other section between the Swatara and the Juniata
was entrusted to William Strickland, and on the 19th of June Gov-
ernor Shultze approved his location. Accordingly, on July 4th,
1826, near the Capitol at Harrisburg, the ground was first brokenf
in the construction of the Pennsylvania canal.
In their reports of December 11th, 1826, and of February 6th,
1827, the commissioners stated that they had put under contract
22 1/^ miles of work along the Susquehanna river, and 24 along the
Allegheny. A large force of laborers^ had been engaged for both
sections, and construction was being pushed along rapidly. The
surveys made during the preceding year had convinced the board
* The first acting commissioners appointed in accordance with section 2 of
the Act of February 25th, 1826, were General Abner Laycock and Charles
Mowry, for the eastern and western sections respectively.
By Act of April 10th, 1826, the board of canal ccmmissioners was aug-
mented by the apjjointment of four new members, making a total of nine,
five of whom constituted a qiiorum. By Act of April 16th, 1829, the power
to appoint them was transferred from the governor to the legislature. Their
period of service was one year. By Act of April 6th, 1830, the number of the
commissioners was reduced to three, and the go\ernor was again authorized
to appoint them. Another change was made in the canal board in 1841 by
which each branch of the legislature appointed one member and the governor
the third. The appointments to this office were largely political. See Niles'
Reg., XXXVI, p. 268, and LIX, p. .359.
t J. H. Rep., 1834-5, III, p. 3.
X Tlie writer made a careful examination of the reports of the canal com-
missioners covering the whole period of construction of the public works, to
discover whether or not any 'delay was caused by a scarcity of laborers. The
conclusion reached was that at no time was there any serious interruption
of work due to this cause. The delays were most often due to the appro-
priations becoming exhausted, or to timber and other construction materials
running out. The workmen were frequently discharged at these times, and
made engagements elsewhere, so that wlien work was ready to be resumed it
required some time to get laborers. — See J. H. Rep., 1827-28, II, pp. 99, 138 and
216; 1828-29, II, p. 68; 1829-30 II, p. 239; 1830-31, II, p. 222; 1833-34, III,
pp. 16, 45, 46 and 63. Xumerous references in Canal Commissioners' Report
in J. H. Rep., 1831-32, II.
190 A. L. Bishop — The State Worhs of Pennsylvania.
that of the three possible routes to the West, the one via the Juniata
was, by far, the most practicable. In recommending its adoption
the commissioners stated that a portage wagon road* over the moun-
tain should connect the canal sections on either side.
Since the Act of February 25th provided for the construction
of only two short sections of the canal, in order to avoid delay, it
was now necessary that additional legislation should be passed.
The most advantageous route having been determined by those best
calculated to pass judgment thereon, there was no further need of
deferring action. Accordingly, on the 9th of April, 1827, "An Act
to provide for the further extension of the Pennsylvania canal"t
received the governor's approval. It required the commissioners to
locate and contract for making a canal along the valley of the
Juniata from the Susquehanna to Lewistown; to build a canal,
locks and other necessary works from the western section to Blairs-
ville via the Kiskeminetas and Conemaugh; to commence work on
the feeder from French Creek to Conneaut lake ; to contract for all
sections common to both of the proposed routes^ between Pittsburg
and Lake Erie; to build the works necessary for a canal naviga-
tion up the Susquehanna from the Juniata to iSTorthumberland;
and to expend not more than $100,000 for the construction of a
canal along the Delaware river between Bristol and Easton.§ The
same act of legislature required the commissioners to undertake at
once numerous surveys extending to almost every stream of the
commonwealth and to nearly every section of the state.
An analysis of the above shows that, of the six different parts of
the improvement system whose commencement was now provided
for, only two were on the main line.|| These were along the Juniata
* At this time the prevailing opinion was that the link between the canals
on either side of the mountain should be a macadamized road.
fLaws of PennsylA'ania, 1826-27, p. 192. See also J. H. Rep., 1830-31,
II, pp. 600-601.
I These were, first, via the Allegheny river and French creek to Presque
Isle; second, through the Ohio river to Beaver, thence by way of Beaver
liver and French creek to the same point on Lake Erie.
§ See sections 6 and 7 of the act on page 273.
II The main line when referred to later is not intended to include the sec-
tions of the public works between Pittsburg and Lake Erie. Tliesc were
never completed by the state, and once the work of construction had been
undertaken, contemporary writers rarely spoke of them as being a part of
the main line.
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 191
and the Kiskeminetas. ' Moreover, of the surveys authorized,* those
for determining the remainder of the Juniata route werfs only a
small fr/iction of the elaborate list. A general extension of the
* Surveys were required to be made from Frankstown on the Juniata, to
Johnstown on the Conemaugh, across the Allegheny mountain, such as might
enable them to determine in what manner and by what kind of works,
whether by a smooth and permanent road of easy gradation, or by a rail-
road with locomotive or stationary engines, or otherwise, the portage or
space between the above mentioned points might be passed so as to ensure
the greatest public advantage. The board was also to cause further examina-
tions, surveys, and levels to ascertain the practicability and cost of a naviga-
ble communication between the west branch of the Susquehanna and the
Allegheny rivers; also a similar examination on the route from Northumber-
land up the north branch of the Susquehanna to the state line; from the
western section of the Pennsylvania canal near the mouth of the Kiskemine-
tas to a point on Lake Erie, via the Allegheny river and French creek, at or
near the borough of Erie; and from the city of Pittsburg to the said point
on Lake Erie, by the route of Beaver and Shenango; also an examination,
survey, and estimate of the route for a canal and also for a railway with
locomotive or stationary engines from Philadelphia, through Chester and
Lancaster counties, so as to connect by the nearest and most practicable route
with the eastern section of the Pennsylvania canal; also surveys, examina-
tions, and estimates for a canal dowTi the Brandywine river to a point north
of the Delaware state line, thence across tlie dividing ridge between that river
and Chester creek, thence dowTi the same to the river Delaware. The com-
missioners were alf?o required to make an examination to ascertain the
practicability and cost of forming a connection of the north branch of the
Susquelianna and the river Lehigh by means of a canal or railway, also
surveys and estimates from the termination of the Pennsylvania canal at the
mouth of the Swatara down the east and west sides of the Susquehanna to
the Maryland line, and to make report to the next legislature of the expense
and practicability of extending the Pennsylvania canal to the intersection of
the Mai-yland line and the said river. Examinations were also to be made
from the mouth of French creek, by way of Waterford, to the bay of Presque
Isle, and from Conneaut lake to Lake Erie; also examinations along the
valley of the Delaware from Philadelphia, or from Bristol or any intermedi-
ate point between Bristol and the head of tide water to Carpenter's point,
to effect a navigable canal communication; also surveys and estimates
through the valleys of the Conodogwinet, Yellow Breeches, and Conococheague
creeks, for the connection of the rivers Susquehanna and Potomac by a
canal ; also from the west end of the Harrisburg bridge to Chambersburg,
and from the west end of the Columbia bridge through York and Gettysburg
to Chambersburg; also the proposed route for a canal between the Schuylkill
and the Delaware. — See sections 1, 3 and 11 of the act in Appendix V.
193 A. L. Bishop — The State Worls of Pennsylvania.
public improvements was thus foreshadoAved. We have already seen,
however, that the original plan was to build the main line first. If
lateral branches were to supplement it, they were, at least, for the
time being, minor considerations. But noAv, scarcely more than a
year after this scheme had been launched, it was supplemented by
another which, when developed, provided the state with an extensive
and unconnected system of transportation.* Hence it is clear that
the Act of April 9th marks the commencement of a complete change
of policy; and later developments showed plainly that the course
to which the state was then committed was consistently pursued
until 1834, when the main line and most of the lateral works were
completed. Let us now see how the work of construction progressed
under the new policy-.
The first report of the canal boardf after the passage of the Act
of April 9th, 1827, was made the following December. It shoAved
that during the year they had placed under contract 18 miles of
canal on the Delaware division from Bristol upwards; 40 miles on
the Susquehanna between the Juniata and Northumberland ; 9 miles
of the French Creek feeder; 44yo miles along the Juniata between
its mouth and Lewistown; and 51 miles between Blairsville and
Pittsburg. This made a total of 1621/2 miles of canal contracted
for in 1827. Of this, 95% miles were on the main line, leaving a
balance of 67 miles for local works. Numerous surveys had been
made although the most strenuous eiforts had failed of accomplish-
ing all of this work required by the Act of April 9th.
In March of the following year another act of legislature:!: was
passed relative to the extension of the public improvements. It
■authorized the construction of not more than 45 miles of canal along
each of the following rivers — the Delaware, Conemaugh, Juniata
and the north branch of the Susquehanna. Along the west branch of
the last-mentioned waterway, 25 miles of canal were provided
for, as also 10 miles along its course between Middletown and
Columbia. Recent surveys had convinced the canal board that
* "I have been tlnis particular in referring to the several works directed
to be j)ut under contract hy the Act of 1827, because it was the commence-
ment of a scheme of difVusive and unconnected works of improvement." —
Exti-act from Gov. Wolfs message, December 7th, 1831, in J. H. Hep., 1831-2,
II, p. 17.
fSee J. IJ. Rep., 1827-28. II, p. 93, and 1831-32. p. 132.
$Act of March 24th, 1828, in Laws of Pennsylvania, 1827-28, p. 221.
A. L. Bishop — The State Worls of Pennsylvania. 193
the topography of the country between Philadelphia and the eastern
section of the Pennsylvania canal was better adapted to railroad
than to canal construction. In accordance with this suggestion, the
legislature now provided for the commencement of a railroad
between Philadelphia and Columbia. By the same act, many local
surveys omitted from the elaborate list of the previous year were
now required to be made.
The report of the commissioners for 1828* furnished a good
illustration of the working out of the new policy. Contracts had
been let for 40yo miles of the roadbed of the Philadelphia and
Columbia raih'oad, and for 1951/4; miles of canal. The following is
a classified statementf of the latter : — •
23 miles along the west branch of the Susquehanna.
45 miles along the north branch of the Susquehanna.
351/2 miles along the Delaware.
101/2 miles of the French Creek feeder.
26I/2 miles from Blairsville up the Conemaugh.
45 miles along the Juniata.
10 miles between Middleto^vn and Columbia.
I95I/2 miles in all.
By referring to the map (p. 196) it is seen that only the last three
items refer to contracts along the trunk line. They represent a
total of but 8II/2 miles, against 114 for purely lateral works.
On the 22d of April, 1829, "An Act relative to the Pennsylvania
canal and railroad"^ was passed. It gave the canal board the power
to enter into contracts for those sections of the improvements along
the Delaware and the north branch division not yet commenced.
They were also directed to complete during the ensuing year, if
possible, all the works then in progress. The following December
they were able to report§ that 195 miles of canal were finished.
Only 151/2 miles of new work had been arranged for, but all of it
was for extending local lines. During this year, rates of tolls were
established and a code of rules to govern the operation of the public
works was drawn up and adopted. The first revenue was collected
in 1830 upon portions of the trunk line near Pittsburg and Middle-
town.
* J. H. Eep., 182S-9, II, p. 07, and 1831-2, II, p. 133.
t J. H. Rep., 1831-2, II, p. 133.
J Laws of Pennsylvania, 1829, p. 251.
§ J. H. Rep., 1829-30, II, p. 225.
194 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
Although the Avork of construction had now been in progress for
more than three years, and although many surveys had been made
previous to the commencement of operations, yet neither the route
nor the method of crossing the Allegheny mountain had been
definitely determined. The dissipation of the energies of the state
upon so many works caused serious delay in the settlement of these
problems. By 1830, however, the negligence of the canal board
in this respect was the subject of a good deal of discussion both
within and without the legislature. It was urged that all other
parts of the trunk line were now nearing completion. Until the
links of canal on either side of the mountain were joined, however,
the maximum advantage could not be obtained. For, as yet, they
could be used only for local traffic, whereas the chief purpose in
constructing the works was to provide a through route to command
western trade. Accordingly, on the 27th of March, 1830, legisla-
tive provisions* were made for a thorough survey of the passes of
the mountain by three competent engineers.
"When the commissioners sent in their reportf in December, 1830,
their recommendation, based upon the recent surveys, was for a
railroad rather than for a macadamized road to make the necessary
connection. This matter was finally arranged for by an Act| of
March 21st, 1831, — over five years after the first work on the main
line tad been authorized. Sylvester Welch, one of the most com-
petent engineers in the service of the state, was given full charge,
and under his direction the route was determined, and the road
finally constructed.
In their report§ of December 15th, 1831, it appeared that,, during
the year, the conmiissioners had arranged for the construction of
155% miles of canal and feeder. An analysis of the "lettings"
reveals the significant fact that only 5OI4 miles were on the main
line. The remainder, 105^ miles, or more than two-thirds of the
total length contracted for, represented extensions of lateral works.
In the meantime, arrangements had been made for the formation of
the road-bed of a part of both the Allegheny portage and the Phila-
*Laws of Pennsylvania, 1829-30, p. 129.
f J. H. llep., 18.30-31, II, p. 139. Tliis report showed that water had been
admitted into 406 miles of canal. Also 40^ miles of the bod of the Philadel-
phia and Columbia railroad were graded and ready for the rails.
JLaws of Pennsylvajiia, 1830-31, p. 194.
§ J. H. Rep., 1831-32, II, p. 107, and 1833-.34, III, pp. 4-5.
A. L. Bishop — The State Worhs of Pennsylvania. 195
delphia and Columbia railroads, also for laying the rails along
about 40 miles of the latter line.
During the next two years 75 miles of new canal and railroad
work were commenced. All of the canal work was on local lines.
The railroad contracts were necessarily connected with the trunk
line. Vigorous efforts were made to complete all the improvements
in progress; and^ when the canal commissioners made their report
in December, 1834, they proudly announced that all the lines of
canal and railway authorized by law were so far completed as to
admit of transportation throughout their whole length.* The main
line between Philadelphia and Pittsburg, though hampered in its
construction by the dissipation of the energies of the state upon so
many lateral and local works, had been completed in March, 1834.
On account of the lack of facilities for handling traffic, very little
business was done, however, until the following spring.
The total length of the through line was 394.54 miles. When it
was ready for use, the state had undertaken and completed 637
miles of public improvements.
But the work did not end here. The faith of the state had
already been pledged to several of its districts as yet not provided
with their quota of improvements. Within two years, a renewed
expansion of the system began. Liberal appropriations were made
from time to time for the extensionf of the north and west branch
divisions along the Susquehanna, the line between Pittsburg and
Erie, the Wiconisco canal, and the Gettysburg railroad. The new
movement continued with occasional interruptions until 1842. Dur-
ing this time, 135 miles of work were completed and 162 more
undertaken. This made the total length of the public improve-
ments 934 miles. After 1842, the only important activity of the
state in the matter of transportation improvements was directed to
the furtherance of the north branch extension, and to avoiding the
inclined planes on the railways of the main line.:]:
In order to form any correct estimate of the location and extent
of the state works, it is necessary at this point to consider the sev-
eral divisions separately. Turning our attention to the trunk line,
■^ J. H. Rep., 1834-35, II (Appendix), p. 3.
t J. H. Rep., 1840, II, p. 8.
X J. H. Rep., 1842, III, p. 4.
196 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
let us begin at its eastern terminus and examine the various sec-
tions in order.*
llie Philadelphia avd Columbia railroad was the first link in the
western chain. It commenced at the intersection of Vine and Broad
streets, Philadelphia, and terminated at Columbia on the Susque-
hanna, a distance of 81.6 miles, opening a direct communication
between the valleys of the Delaware and the Susquehanna, and
intersecting those of the Schuylkill, Brandywine and Conestoga.
As originally built, the road had two inclined planes. At a dis-
tance of about two miles from its point of commencement it crossed
the Schuylkill by a viaduct 984 feet in length, and immediately
ascended an inclined plane of 2,805 feet in length and 187 in height.
Another inclined plane 1,800 feet in length and 90 in height was
descended immediately before joining the canal basin at Columbia.
The planes were never satisfactory, being slow and expensive in
their operation,! and they were scarcely finished before efforts were
made to avoid them. On the 30th of N^ovember, 1836, a contract
was entered into for the construction of a road six and one-half
miles long to avoid the one at Columbia. At its completion in
March, 1840, the plane was abandoned. One track of the Schuylkill
plane was avoided in October, 1850, and the other the following
December, by the construction of the West Philadelphia railroad
from a point near the present Ardmore station to the Avest end
of the Market Street bridge. Various lateral extensions of this
road were made, the two most important of which were those to
York and Gettysburg. The legislature authorized the construction
of this section of the main line of works on the 24th of March, 1828,
and in March, 1834, a single track along the entire route from
* Most of the facts found in the following description of the public
improvements were taken directly from the reports of the canal commis-
sioners, and from Tanner's Canals and Railways of the United States.
f Tliey were operate<l by stationary engines located at the head of the
planes. When open for use the prevailing opinion regarding its method
of operation Avas that the farmers and other citizens along the line should use
the railroad the same as they used the turnpikes, i. e., purchase suitable
wagons to be hauled by animal power and pay a certain toll to the state
foi- tlu' use of tlie roadway. This method of operation was put into practice
for a time. The demonstration of the practical)ility of steam-enginos for
motive power resulted in the ado])tion of locomotive engines in a short time.
The state supplied the motive power for the transportation of goods and
passengers, while the cars were owned by individuals or companies.
~y
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A. L. Bishop — The State WorJcs of Pennsylvania. 197
Philadelpliia to Columbia* was opened for travel. In October of
the same year, the second track was completed and the road opened
for public use.
The Eastern and Juniata divisions of the Pennsylvania canal
extended from Columbia to Hollidaysburg, at the base of the Alle-
gheny mountains, a distance of 172 miles. From the western
terminus of the Philadelphia and Columbia railroad, the canal
followed the east bank of the Susquehanna, passed through the vil-
lages of Maytown, Bainbridge, and Falmouth, and intersected the
Union canal at Middietown. After uniting with the Susquehanna
at this point by a series of locks, it continued along the east bank
of that river, through Highspiretown and Harrisburg to Duncan's
Island, where it was intersected by the Susquehanna and entered the
valley of the Juniata river. It then followed along its north or left
bank, and passing Millerstown, Mexico, Mifflintown, Lewistown and
Huntingdon, terminated at Hollidaysburg. Here it met the Portage
railroad across the Allegheny mountains. At the mouth of the
Raystown branch of the Juniata was the Raystown feeder, one
mile in length. ISTearly 16 miles of these divisions consisted of
slack water navigation.
The Allegheny Portage railroad^ commenced at the termination
of the Juniata division at Hollidaysburg and, pursuing a north-
westerly course to Blair's Gap summit,^ descended the valley of
the mountain branch of the Conemaugh to Johnstown. There it
joined the western division of the canal. The rise from Hollidays-
burg to the summit was 1,398.71 feet in a distance of 10.1 miles.
* The Susquehanna or "Tide water canal" extended, from Wrightsville,
opposite Columbia, to Havre de Grace in Maryland, thus affording an
additional outlet to the main line of the state works. It was a private
entei-prise.
f The report of tlie commissioners who made the original survey for the
canal connecting the eastern and western water proposed a continuous water
route, by continuing the canals by means of numerous locks and dams as far
as possible on both sides of the mountain, then piercing it by a tunnel rather
less than four miles in length.
J This point is almost due east from Pittsburg. The cut made to reduce
the summit was only about twelve feet, the natural summit being rather
flat and wet. As ascertained by later railroad surveys, it was 2,322 feet
above mean tide, or 161 feet higher than Gallitzen station on the Penn-
sylvania railroad. — Eoberts, Pi,eminiscences of the First Railroad over the
Allegheny mountains, in Pennsylvania Hist. Mag., II, p. 386.
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 15 Nov., 1907.
198 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
From there to Johnstown, the fall was 1,171.58 feet in a distance of
26.59 miles.* The principal part of the elevation was overcome by
ten straight inclined planes, operated by stationary engines. There
were five of them on either side of the mountain with a total length
of about 4^/2 miles. Their angles of inclination ranged from four
degrees and nine minutes to five degrees and fifty-one minutes. A
tunnel at the Staple Bend of the Conemaugh, 4 miles east of Johns-
town, attracted great attention. It was 901 feet long, 20 feet wide,
and 19 feet high within the arch. It was the first tunnel built in
America. f The first track was ready for use in 1834, although it
was then in a very imperfect condition. It Avas not until late in
the spring of the following year that the second track was com-
pleted. At first the state furnished the motive power only on the
inclined planes and the road was used as a public highway. The
dissatisfaction accompanying this method of operation soon resulted
in the state also furnishing locomotive power on the grade lines
between the planes.
As on the Philadelphia and Columbia railroad, the operating of
the planes on the first portage line was not satisfactory, neither
were they considered safe. Consequently suggestions for avoiding
them were made immediately after the opening of the road. It was
not until the construction of the Pennsylvania system began in
1847, however, that the state authorities gave serious attention to
this matter. After encountering many difficulties, and the expendi-
ture of several times the amount of money estimated as necessary
for building it, a new Portage railroad was completed on July 1st,
1855. Although in an imperfect condition, it was then put into
operation, and the old line, though somewhat shorter than the new
one, ceased to be used.
The Western division of the Pennsylvania canal extended from
Johnstown to Pittsburg, a distance of 104 miles, traversing the
valleys of the Conemaugh, Kiskeminetas, and Allegheny rivers.
After leaving Johnstown it passed the towns of Fairfield, Lock-
port, Blairsville and Warren, crossed the Allegheny above the mouth
of the Kiskeminetas, and followed it for some distance. Again
recrossing that river, the canal entered and passed through the city
* Tanner, Canals and Railroads of the United States, p. 126.
t Wilson, The Allegheny Portage Railroad, in Annual Report of Secretary
of Internal Aflfairs, Part IV, 1898-99, p. Ixiii. This is doubtless the best and
fullest history of the Portage road ever written.
A. L. Bishop — The State Wor-lcs of Pennsylvania. 199
of Pittsburg and terminated at the Monongahela river. In connec-
tion witli this division two feeders may be mentioned; the Johns-
town feeder, at the eastern terminus, having a length of one and
one-half miles, and the Allegheny feeder from Alleghenytown to
the western division, three-quarters of a mile long.
The entire distance between Philadelphia and Pittsburg by the
main line was, it will be recalled, 394.54 miles. The canals were
four feet deep, twenty-eight feet wide at the bottom, and forty at
the water line. The locks were ninety feet long and from fifteen
to seventeen feet wide. ,
A summary of the lateral works undertaken by the state is next
in order.
The Susquehanna division, thirty-nine miles in length, com-
menced at the outlet lock on Duncan's Island, where it joined the
eastern division of the Pennsylvania canal, crossed the northern
outlet of the Juniata, and entered Buffalo township, in Perry
county. It then pursued a course almost due north, along the right
bank of the Susquehanna to the town of Northumberland. Here
it intersected the canals that extended along the north and west
branches of that river.
The West Branch division connected with the above canal at
JSTorthmnberland, and passed along the left bank of the west branch
of the Susquehanna, through Northumberland and Lycoming
counties to Farrandsville creek. Its length, including several sec-
tions of pool navigation, was 72 miles. An extension of. this divi-
sion to the mouth of the Sinnemahoning creek, a distance of about
33 miles, was undertaken and abandoned in 1841.
The Bald Eagle side cut extended from the pool at Dunnstown
dam, on the above division, to Bald Eagle creek, a distance of
3.62 miles.
The Lewishurg side cut extended from Lewisburg in Union
county to the West Branch division, a distance of slightly more
than half a mile.
The North Branch division commenced at the basin which united
the Susquehanna and the West Branch division at Northumberland.
This canal pursued a northeasterly course through the towns of
Danville, Bloomsburg and Berwick and terminated at Lackawanna
creek, a distance of 72% miles.
. In connection with this division was tHe North Branch Extension,
upon which a large amount of money was expended, although it was
202 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
the direct interests of their constituency.* The following extract
from a contemporary writer,! who observed the change of policy
we have spoken of, sheds light upon the situation : —
"When provision was to be made for the further extension of
the canal from the mouths of the Juniata and the Kiskeminetas, the
Juniata route being. found the shortest and most eligible, public
attention was dii-ected to it. To establish this route and provide for
its execution was the great object for which the friends of internal
improvement in the east and west had to contend. Those who were
opposed to the entire project as premature, hazardous, extravagant,
and partial, conceived that to successfully resist the adoption of this
most popular route was the defeat or the delay of the whole, and,
accordingly, directed their united force to oppose the passage of a
law in favor of the Juniata route. The strength of the opposition,
with the aid of those dissatisfied on the other explored routes, pre-
sented a vote that could not be overcome by the friends of the
Juniata route. To break and divide the vote of the opposition
became the object of the friends of a canal, and it would seem that
at once the legislative hall became a market-place, wherein canals
were to be bartered for a few years. A few members were to be con-
ciliated and brought into the measure by appropriations to their
district of country, and by such management or 'log-rolling,' as it
is called, millions of dollars were disposed of in projects not then
required for public accommodation, and the Commonwealth, in
place of one canal, was, by the log-rolling, rolled into three or more,
at an expense we think, now (1829) alarming to many of those
friends who in their zeal were carried along with the general
current."
Another writer, in commenting upon the legislative provisions
made, from time to time, for commencing works contrary to every
dictate of sound policy, summarized the case as follows: —
"This course was the more imperative because there was a minor-
ity, respectable in point of zeal and numbers, and formidable by
talents, who were "hostile to the measures in toto, either from nar-
* "Your committee regard the plan of the original improvement system of
the state as founded in wisdom; and the only subject of regret is that its
friends, from time to time, in the legislative councils of the state have been
obliged to vote for other purposes, and for local canals and railways till it
has become involved in a heavy and oppressive debt. This fact cannot be
explained away or denied." — From proceedings of an Improvement Conven-
tion of delegates from Lu/.erne, Susquehanna and Bradford counties held at
Tunkhannock, May 5th, 18-10.
f Inland Navigation and Internal Improvements as now prosecuted in
Pennsylvania (1829), by a freeholder of Franklin county, p. 4.
A. L. Bishop — The State WorJcs of Pennsylvania. 203
row, contracted views, from doubts of the practicability of the
measure on the large scale contemplated, or from dread of the
enormous expense with which it must be attended. If to this minor-
ity, any, even a small number, of the friends of internal improve-
ments were to be added, who might oppose the system, if their
interests were not properly and promptly provided for, the measure,
which at best was far from being quite certain of success, would
have been inevitably prostrated. It was therefore imperiously
necessary to conciliate these members as the sine qua non of suc-
cess. This is what is vulgarly called 'log-rolling,' the result of a
spirit of compromise."*
Again, the evidence of Governor Ritner is to the point. Refer-
ring to the public works in his messagef to the legislature of Decem-
ber 6th, 1836, he said :—
"Pennsylvania has 600 miles of completed canal and 120 of fin-
ished railroad. Yet such has been the ruinous and detached system
pursued in their construction, that only 455 miles of this whole
length are now to any useful extent in operation. The Susque-
hanna division from Duncan's Island to IN^orthumberland, 39 miles,
the whole of the North Branch, 73% miles, the "West Branch, 72
miles, the Beaver division, 24% miles, the Prench Creek division,
221/4 miles, and the French Creek Feeder, 23 miles, forming a
length of canal 2541/4 miles, as will appear by the report of the
canal commissioners, scarcely pay their lock-keepers, though a great
portion of them have been completed for years."$ Reference was
then made by contrast to the main line, whose revenue was more
promising. The conclusion is : — -"The difference arises from the
fact that the one class of improvements are not only complete in
themselves, but have completed the object of their construction;
while the others are mere disjointed beginnings of an immense
whole, whose plan was never perfected, and whose present con-
dition is a sad proof of the selfishness of sectional jealousy and
log-rolling legislation."
It seems hardly necessary to supplement these quotations by
others that are available§ in order to arrive at the correct reason
* Ca-rey, Brief View of the System of Internal Improvements of the State
of Pennsylvania (1831), p. 13.
t J. H. Rep., 1836-7, II, pp. 28-29.
J The canal commissioners in their report for 1836 stated that the revenue
from the public works was derived almost entirely from the main line.
§Niles' Eeg., XXXVII, p. 212; Publius, The State Debt, p. 11; Report on
Inland Xa^igation and Internal Improvement read in the House of Represen-
tatives, Feb. 2(jth, 1820, p. 5; Report of House Committee relative to the
Gettysburg Railroad, in J. H. Rep., 1838-9, II, Part II, p. 16.
204 A. L. Bishop — The State Worhs of Pennsylvania.
for the adoption of the improvement policy of 1827. The shape of
the State of Pennsylvania and the wide distribution of its inhabi-
tants were such that no one leading line, sufficiently far reaching in
its benefits, could be selected upon which the concentration of the
energies of the commonwealth might be exclusively directed to
the entire satisfaction of all the districts. The natural outcome of
this was exactly what took place, viz. — the adoption of a policy of
mutual accommodation. The case is clear that this programme was
forced upon the party in favor of first building the main line. Once
adopted, however, its continuance was regarded as essential to the
preservation of the public faith; and the inevitable outcome was
the chain of log-rolling legislation which marked the progress of the
public works until their completion.
In conclusion, a work is necessary regarding the causes for the
renewed expansion commencing in 1836. At this time, the fever
of internal improvements was raging throughout many states in the
Union,* and Pennsylvania was no exception. Moreover, as will
be seen later, as extensive patronage had now grown up under the
past 'expenditure of nearly $23,000,000 upon the public works.
Again, in addition to the fact that the faith of the state had been
pledged already to those districts in which new works now were
undertaken, two other events occurred about this time profoundly
influencing the situation. These were the distribution of the
surplus revenuef and the chartering of the Bank of the United
States. By these events, between five and six million dollars were
thrown into the public treasury.t All these conditions combined
* Bounio, ^History of the Surplus Revenue of 1837, p. 126. Xiles' Reg.,
XLVllI (Juno 6th, 18.35), p. 2.SS, says: — "Canals and railways are multiply-
ing with such rapidity over the country that it is next to impossible to keep
pace with them."
f The bill for the distribution of the surplus revenue of the United States
wiis signed by the President on the 2.3d of June, 1830. In accordance with
this law, Pennsylvania received .$2,807,514.78. Some of this money was used
for educational pui-poses. The )-est was placed in the public treasury and
used largely for paying the interest on the public debt and for the extension
of the transportation improvements.
T "Unfortunately for Pennsylvania, two circumstances occurred about this
time [1836] which in their consequences have been more disastrous to her
best interests than all the other evils which she has been subjected to. It
will easily be perceived that the circumstances alluded to were the distribu-
tion of the surplus revenue, and the chartering of the Bank of the United
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 205
to extend the improvement system, and the most extravagant
schemes were at once undertaken. When, in the face of impending
bankruptcy, a halt had to be called, no revenue could be expected
from the new ventures without a further expenditure of many
millions of dollars. The influence of the chartering of the Bank of
the United States will be more fully considered in connection with
the financing of the public works, and it is to this aspect of our
subject that attention will now be given.
Chapter IV. — Finance.
The Act of April lltli, 1825, which created the first board of
canal commissioners, was the first also to provide for the prelimin-
ary arrangements in the financing of the public works. By it, the
new board Avas directed to inquire into the means most suitable for
establishing a canal fund; to ascertain the terms upon which loans
could be obtained ; and to devise means for meeting the interest and
for the final payment of the principal.
Their report of February 3d, 1826,* upon these various matters,
contained numerous recommendations which were embodied in an
Act of legislature of April 1st, 1826.t This date, it will be recalled,
was about a month after the construction of the first sections of
the trunk line had been authorized. This initial financial legisla-
tion provided for the establishment of an "internal improvement
States. By these two ti'ansactions, between five and six million dollars were
thrown into her coffers. Intoxicated by the sudden acquisition of so large an
amount of money, instead of husbanding it Avith proper care, as she should
have done, the most extravagant schemes of improvement were undertaken,
which now involve us in the difficulties with which we find ourselves sur-
rounded, and which yet require the expenditure of millions upon millions to
ensure completion." — Minority Report of Committee on Inland Navigation
and Internal Improvements, in J. H. Rep., 1840, II (Part II), p. 255.
"These habits of lavish and ill-judged appropriations, engendered by the
sudden and unexpected acquisition of public money, through means which can
seldom if ever happen again, must be promptly corrected. It is frequently
observed in the case of private individuals, that the sudden acquisition of
wealth is fatally injurious to the prudent habits and sound morals of the
possessor. It is more emphatically true in the case of governments. . . .
The enormous and imprecedented deficit in the trea.suiy now to be supplied is
an instructive commentaiy on its practical results." — Extract from Governor
Porter's Message, in J. H. Rep., 1838-39, II (Part I), p. 521.
* See J. H. Rep., 1825-26, II, p. 232.
fLaws of Pennsylvania, 1825-26, p. 168.
206 A. L. Bishop — The State Works, of Pennsylvania.
fund" of which the secretary of the commonwealth, the auditor
general, and the state treasurer were made commissioners. All
sums vested in them were to be used to pay the interest on loans*
contracted for building the canal, to purchase the principal of such
debts, and to defray all expenses incident to tlie management of
the fund. The sources of the latter were as follows: "All appro-
priations, grants, and donations" made by the state legislature, by
the Congress of the United States, by corporations or individuals;
an annual appropriationf of $30,000 from the auction duties ;:j:
«
* The practice of borrowing on the credit of the state had commenced pre-
vious to the perio<l under discussion, although to a very limited extent. In
the year 1826, when the commonwealth commenced the sjstem of internal
impix>vements, the debt was $1,840,000.^ The report of the committee on
ways and means' made to the legislature in 1823 expressed the regret that
Pennsylvania has adopted a system of borrowing. The time was anxiously
anticipated when the state should be free from debt. If the policy of spend-
ing more than the legitimate revenues supplied were continued, the result
must be taxation or a state-debt- They believed "that neither our form of
government nor the habits or disposition of our citizens is calculated for
either debt or taxation; but if one or the other must be adopted they would
prefer taxes rather tlian debt."' This preference, however, was not embodied
in their recommendations of ways and means since they advised "the passage
of a law authorizing the governor to obtain on loan from the Philadelphia
Bank the sum of $100,000 ... to renew the loans with the Pennsylvania
Bank as they shall fall due, and to make such other loans as the exigencies
of the state may require . . . for any time not exceeding four years." The
reason for recommending the continuance of a policy adverse to their con-
victions was: — "The great scarcity of a circulating mediimi in the interior
of the state woTild make it very diflleult if not impracticable to raise money
by any general system of ta.vation."'
f During the year 1826, however, the state treasurer was authorized to
pay the coimmissioners of tlie fund, out of the receipts from duties on
auctions, such sums as might be necessary to meet the interest on loans
autliorized duiing that year . for canal construction. After December 1st,
1826, $30,000 annually were to be paid into the improvement fund out of
the auction duties.
J Auctioneers were required to be licensed. They were allowed a fixed
percentage on their sales, and along with this commission they had to collect
for the use of the state, an additional one per cent. The bonds given by the
auctioneers were security for the payment of the collections made for the
state. Four times a year the duties thus collected were paid intx) the
treasury. — See General Index to the Laws of Pennsylvania, 1700-1812, p. 47.
^ Report of Joint Committee on Pennsylvania's finances from 1838-43, read
ill the House, May 15th, 1878.
== See J. H. Rep., 1822-23, p. 820.
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 207
the net proceeds of escheats; the dividends accruing on the canal,
road, and bridge stock owned by the state; also the tolls to be
taken on the public works when built. Let us now endeavor to
make a fair estimate of the yearly revenue thus diverted into the
improvement fund.
In any safe system of finance, the "appropriations, grants and
donations" could scarcely be regarded as sources of any sure revenue.
Hence it seems fair to say that such contingent contributions should
have little or no weight in computing the strength of the fund in
question. The second item, viz., $30,000 from the auction duties,
could be depended upon as always forthcoming, since this was only
a small fraction of the yearly revenue derived from that tax.*
The net proceeds of escheats was but a minor fund, also uncertain.
In 1827, it amounted to $2,040.35, but for the next three years it
averages only $485. One thousand dollars per year was certainly
as much as could reasonably be expected from this source. f Tor
a number of years following 1826, the dividends on the state stock
diverted to the improvement fund averaged $29,000, and as the
yearly income from this source had usually approximated this
figure it could quite safely be depended upon as forthcoming.
Finally, the revenue to be derived from tolls depended wholly upon
the future. The fund could not be augmented from this source for
several years, however great might be its contribution in time to
come. Consequently we find that the sums that might reasonably
be collected yearly to constitute an interest fund were approximately
as follows: —
Auction duties $30,000
Escheats 1,000
Dividends on canal, road and bridge stock 29,000
Total $60,000
Computing interest at five per cent., the market rate when pre-
vailing, this sum was sufficient to pay the interest upon loans of
$1,200,000. The estimated cost of constructing the through line
* In 1826, the auction duties amounted to $108,820.06 and for several years
afterwards they were never less than this sum. See Hammond, Tabular
View of the Financial Affairs of Pennsylvania, p. 14.
I The average yearly income from this source for the twelve years follow-
ing 1827 was $1,061. — Hammond, Tabular View of the Financial Affairs
of Pennsylvania, p. 17.
208 A. L. Bishop — The State Worhs of Pennsylvania.
from Middleto-\vn to Pittsburg as originally designed was, as has
been shown, $3,000,000. Moreover, the time to construct the works
was put down as six years. Hence it is clear that the provisions
made, at this time, for financing the Pennsylvania canal were
entirely inadequate and unsafe, even though the original plan of
construction had been adhered to, and the estimated cost had been
correct.
Since j^cav York's canal had been completed before Pennsyl-
vania's works were commenced, and since both states depended upon
loans to pay the cost of construction, the question, naturally arises
at this point as to whether the latter state modelled its system for
financing the public works iipon that of the former. In order to
answer this question it may be well before entering upon a con-
sideration of the actual working out of Pennsylvania's financial
arrangements to compare the "internal improvement fund" with
the "canal fund" of New York.
In 1817, when the construction of the Erie and Champlain canals
was about to be commenced, a sound policy for financing the works
was adopted.* It appears that no reliance whatever was placed
upon prospective tolls. But a fund was constituted which, without
possibility of failure, should meet the interest on the loans con-
tracted to construct the public works. To this end, the taxes on
steamboats, on salt, on goods sold at auction, and some other minor
dues were diverted from the "general fund" to a special "canal
fund." The latter was placed under the charge of the canal com-
missioners, who were expressly required to limit their loans so that
the total annual interest should, in no case, exceed the income of that
fund. Again, after the canals were constructed, and when tolls were
coming in freely, the latter^ along with the salt and auction duties,
were put into a sinking fund, for the extinguishing of the debt of
$7,737,771 incurred in building the canals. Moreover, it was
definitely provided that no use should be made of these revenues for
any other purpose whatsoever. In making these arrangements it
was generally understood that the object was to discharge the debt,
to restore to. the "general fund" the moneys diverted from it, and
to remove forever all danger of a resort to taxation. Thus it
* The facts given here regarding the provisions made for finajicing the
Erie and Champlain canals are found in Hunt's Merchants' Magazine, Vol.
XVIII, 1848, p. 245, and in a Report of the Ways and Means Committee of
the Assembly of New York, March, 1838.
A. L. Bishop — The State Woi-ks of Pennsylvania. 209
is evident that a clear, safe and well-defined policy was laid out
and pursued, viz. — to contract no debts without arranging before-
hand, beyond the possibility of doubt, the ways and means of
paying the interest and later the principal itself.
In accordance with these plans, the funds for meeting interest
payments were always ample, and the part of the improvement
debt falling due in 1836 was easily paid.. The balance remaining
in the sinking fund, at this time, was $3,931,132, and the remainder
of the debt which did not mature until 1845 was only $3,762,256.
The latter would have been discharged at once, had it been possible
to get the state's creditors to surrender their certificates at a reason-
able figure. There being no longer any need of augmenting the
sinking fund, legislation was passed in 1836 providing for the res-
toration to the "general fund" of the salt and auction duties, also
for diverting $200,000 annually from the canal revenues to the
same fund.
It thus seems clear that the meagre provisions made by Pennsyl-
vania for financing the trunk line were not copied from J^ew York.
On the contrary, the sound policy of the latter state affords a
striking contrast to that of the . former. The inevitable result of
such negligence of duty on the part of Pennsylvania was that,
within a short time, the interest fund was exhausted. An acknowledg-
ment of this fact by the commissioners* resulted, as we shall soon see,
in a temporary decline of the credit of the state.
The first loanf negotiated to secure funds to commence the con-
struction of the public works was for the sum of $300,000, author-
ized by an Act of April 1st, 1826.| From this time until 1842, the
period of the active " prosecution of the state improvements,
$53,352,648.72 were expended by the commissioners of the internal
improvement fund. Indeed, within two years from the date when
the first ground was broken, permanent loans had been floated
amounting to $3,300,000 and the work of construction was only
fairly under way. As early as 1829, the confidence of "capitalists
and moneyed institutions" had become shaken respecting the suffi-
ciency of the fund pledged for the payment of interest. So great
*■ See Report of the Commissioners of the Internal Improvement Fund for
February 19th, 1829, in J. H. Rep., 1828-29, II, p. 589.
f The rate of interest was 5 per cent., and the stock sold at a premium
of 31 per cent. •
J Laws of Pennsylvania, 1825-26, p. 168.
210 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
was the alarm at this time, that not a single bid was made for a
permanent loan for $2,200,000 authorized by an Act of April 22d,
1829.* This was not due to any tightness in the money market, for,
in the words of Governor Shultze, "the canal stock of a neighboring
state commands a premium abroad, while that of this no less worthy
commonwealth is in no demand and will not sell at all."t More-
over, it was only with great difficulty that money could be obtained
on temporary loan to meet the urgent demands on the improvement
fund.J The suspicions of the "capitalists and moneyed institutions"
concerning the sufficiency of the fund for interest payments were
not without foundation. The commissioners, in their report of
February 19th, 1829, made no attempt to conceal the actual con-
ditions when they predicted a "deficiency of money belonging to
the fund on the 1st of February, 1830, to meet the semi-annual
payment of interest on loans due on that day, of $53,880." On
the date mentioned, the amount of interest to be paid was $157,500,
and had not $100,000 then been transferred§ from the state treas-
ury to the internal improvement fund, there would have been a
deficit of $70,338.81. Again, on the 1st of August of the same
year the deficit was $77,838.81, although in the meantime a similar
transfer of $25,000 had been made. Furthermore, in the face of
these difficulties a temporary loan was authorized on November
17th, 1829, to provide, among other things, for the payment of matur-
ing interest. This one act of emergency legislation would not be
considered unfavorably had not this make-shift policy for a number
of years afterwards been frequently repeated. ||
The failure to negotiate the loan of April 22d, 1829, and the
increasing deficit in the interest fund were the cause of serious
thought on the part of the executive and the legislative officers of
the state. Moreover, at the close of 1829, the sum of $1,398,790.67
was due to various contractors, many of whom, on account of delay
* See Gov. Wolf's message in J. H. Rep., 1831-32, II, p. 19.
t Message of November 4th, 1829, in J. H. Rep., 1829-30, II, p. 5.
$See Gov. Wolf's message in J. H. Rep., 1831-32, II, p. 19.
§.By an Act of April 22n(i, 1829, the state treasurer was authorized to pay
to the commissioners of the internal improvement fund to be applied to the
interest account any money not othermse appropriated, which, in the opinion
of the commissioners, could l>e done without embarrassing the ordinary
operations of the treasury.
|] See J. H. Rep., 1836-37, II, p. 22.
A. L. Bishop — The State Woyhs of Pennsylvania. 211
in obtaining their pay, were in distressing conditions.* In his mes-
sage of January 14th, 1830, Governor Wolf discussed at length the
whole situation. He pointed out the complete inefficiency of the
improvement fund to meet the interest on the existing loans of
$8,300,000, and on the additional sums that, sooner or later, must
be borrowed to complete the works. In order to create an interest
fund Avhich should be both ample and permanent, he strongly
advised taxation. Again, in their report of February 22d, 1830, the
house committee on ways and means stated that it was "the imper-
ative duty of the present legislature to adopt effective measures to
guard against any possible deficiency to meet the engagements of
the state. "t Furthermore, they mentioned that, in view of the
rapidly increasing interest charges on the loans, which then aggre-
gated nearly $10,000,000,$ they would recommend, later, a system
of taxation to supplement the present sources for interest payment.
The effect of these and other expressions of determination to
strengthen the interest fund was shown, even before any action was
taken in this direction, in the rise of the credit of the state. For
between March, 1830, and December, 1831, $386,989.71 were paid
into the treasury as premiums on stock loans, § and diverted to the
fund for interest payment. During this time, to use the words of
Governor Wolf, "capitalists and moneyed institutions vied with
each other as to which of them should obtain the state loans,
in the entire confidence that an adequate fund for the punctual
semi-annual payment of the interest would be established." ||
In this matter, however, they were over-sanguine. For the taxa-
tion bills reported by the committee on ways and means were by no
means as extensive as had been assured, nor were they adequate to
the ever-increasing demands for interest money. They were as fol-
lows : — First, a tax of one mill on the dollar upon personal property
not subject to county rates and levies ; second, an* increase of one
* See J. H. Rep., 1829-30, II, p. 574.
t J. H. Rep., 1829-30, II, p. 663.
I The whole amount of money appropriated for the stale works up to
December 10th, 1830, was $10,288,309.69. See Haz. Reg.,, VII, p. 12.
§ The permanent loans upon which this amount of premiums was paid
aggregated $6,783,101.88. They were placed at 5 per cent, and all sold at a
' premium. See Hammond, Tabular View of the Financial Affairs of Penn-
sylvania, p. 9.
II J. H. Rep., 1831-32, II, p. 19.
212 .1. L. Bishop — T]ic State Worli.s of Pennsylvania.
mill on the dollar on all county rates and levies; third, a tax on
inns and taverns, expected to add $40,000 yearly revenue; fourth,
a tax on judicial proceedings such as recording deeds and mortgages,
estimated as capable of swelling the annual revenue by $50,000;
fifth, an alteration of the law concerning the retailing of mer-
chandise, so as to give an increase of $40,000 annually.
By the time the above recommendations had been fully discussed
in both houses of the legislature, items three, four, and five were
cancelled, and only the first two were included in the tax laws of
March 25th, 1831. These were to be kept in force for five years,
and would therefore have expired by limitation in March, 1836, had
they not been repealed previously.* They were designed to help
replenish the interest fund, only until the revenue expected from the
public works should be ample to meet this and many other purposes. f
It is hardly necessary to say that the above tax laws were unim-
portant and entirely insufficient. In fact they may have been
designed by the legislature rather to raise credit than actual rev-
enue. During the period of almost five years in which they were
in force, the total amount of revenue collected was only
$1,052, 650. 78. 1 By 1835, the last year these laws were in force,
the yearly interest on the improvement loans slightly exceeded this
figure. § Certainly no further facts are necessary to demonstrate
the futility of the taxation policy of 1831.
In spite of the failure of the legislature to create an interest
fund Avhich should be "both ample and permanent," no further
trouble was experienced for some time in securing, upon easy terms,
the money necessary to carry on the public works. In fact, all the
loans floated for the purpose of bringing the improvements to com-
pletion in 1834 bore a substantial premium. || Por instance, the 5
per cent, stocks of 1832-33, to the amount of $2,500,000, redeemable
in 1860, sold at almost, 15 per cent, above par.|f The reasons for
this are apparent. In the first place, the expressions of determina-
tion to preserve the credit of the state, at the time of its temporary
decline in 1829, tended to make the money lenders confident regard-
* They were repealed on Febriiaiy 18th, 1836.
fSee J. H. Rep., 1831-32, II, pp. 20-21.
:|: Hammond, Talnilnr View of the Financial Afl'airs of Pennsylvania, p. 14.
§lbid., p. 11.
11 Ibid., p. 9.
U Hunt's Mer. Mag., XX, 1849, p. 260.
.4. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 213
iug the security of their loans. But of no less importance than this
was the influence of the general financial condition of the country.
Both at home and abroad, money was abundant and the expansion
of state and individual credits was exceedingly popular.* The
spirit of speculation was by no means confined to this state, but it
was raging all over the country. Banks were created in great num-
bersf and became the instruments of the expanding credit mania.
Under these conditions, Pennsylvania had no trouble to sell her
stock profusely to provide means for completing her extensive
system of public improvements. Moreover, the funds thus secured
were from time to time freely drawn upon to pay the interest on
previous loans.
As a result of this policy, when the main line and lateral works
had been completed and were coming into general use in 1835,
the state debt was $24,589,743.32.$ The greater part of this
($22, 420,003. 32)§ had been incurred in the construction of canals
and railways. The whole of this sum had been borrowed at 5 per
cent, and had yielded to the treasury in premiums on the respective
loans the sum of $1,356,653. 36. || Moreover in this year, the ordi-
* "States, banks, corporations and individuals all moved forward in har-
monious unison, borrowing all they eould and wherever they could, without
reference to their future ability and means of repayment." — Extract from
Governor Porter's Message, in J. H. Rep., 1840, 11, p. 19.
"During the ten years following 1820, public stocks were authorized in
the various states to the amount of $26,000,000, of which nearly $18,000,000
were held against the three states, Xew York, Pennsylvania and Ohio.
Between the years 1830 and 1835, $40,000,000 were added to the obligations
of the states, while the three years previous to 1838 witnessed an increase
of local indebtedness to the amount of $107,000." — Adams, Public Debts,
p. 318.
f Banks in the United States.
Loans and
Number Capital Discounts Circulation Specie
1820 303 $137,110,611 $189,2.52,422 $ 44,863.344 19,820,240
1830 330 145,192,268 200,451,214 61,323,896 22,144,917
1837 634 290,772,091 525,115,702 149,185,890 37,915,340
— See Governor Porter's message of January 8th, 1840, in J. H. Rep., 1840,
II, p. 15.
I See Governor Shmik's message in Exec. Docs., 1845, p. 6.
§ See Governor Wolf's aimual message of Dec. 2d, 1835, in J'. H. Rep.,
1835-36, II, p. 11.
]|Ibid., p. 11.
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 16 Nov., 1907.
214 A. L. Bishop — The State WorJcs of Pennsylvania.
nary revenue, exclush'e of loans, was $1,643,923.21, of which
$562,690 was from taxes, and $684,357.77 from canal and railroad
tolls. The interest payments, in 1835, totalled $1,169,455.69, a sum,
as will be seen, nearly equal to the entire revenue. In the face of
such unsound financial conditions, economy in all matters of public
policy and a reinforcement of the tax laws of 1831 would naturally
have been expected. On the contrary, however, a wide extension
of the internal improvement system was commenced, and the above-
mentioned laws were repealed. Let us now examine the circum-
stances giving rise to such action.
The charter of the Bank of the United States was to expire
March 3d, 1836. As early as ISTovember preceding this date, proj-
ects began to be discussed for getting from Pennsylvania a state
charter. This scheme soon became popular, for it appeared that
there would be obtained in this way by the state a large sum of
ready money, as well as the means for placing loans upon easy
terms. Furthermore, the extensive patronage which had already
grown up under the past expenditvire of nearly $23,000,000 among
jobbers and contractors, as well as under the appointment of
numerous operators on the public works, naturally produced a
strong party in favor of any movement which would provide for
their extension. Besides, many could be found anxious to endorse
any reasonable plan to avoid paying taxes. Accordingly, on Feb-
ruary 18th, 1836, a bill was passed entitled "An act to repeal the
state tax on real and personal property, to continue and extend
the improvements of the state by railroads and canals, and to
charter a state bank to be called the United States Bank."* This
act, then considered the means for effecting the financial redemp-
tionf of the state, has been justly characterized as follows : —
"The act of the Pennsylvania Legislature, by which the United
States Bank of Pennsylvania was chartered, is, on its face, a piece |
* Laws of Poimsylvania, 183ri-36, p. .3G.
f Governor Rilner, in his annual message for 1836, in speaking of this
act said: "Tlie increase of the state debt is arrested. Tlie state tax has been ■
permanently repealed. Loans for the payment of interest, that infallible
precursor of private as well as public bankruptcy, liave, I trust, forever I
ceased. . . . . The whole of this healthful and cheering change was j
produced by one well-time, wise and truly Pennsylvanian act of legislation.
The Bank of the United States became, as a State institution,
the means of .producing for Pennsylvania that financial redemption which it
had formerly effected for the Union."— J. H. Rep., 1836-37, II, p. 22.
A. L. Bisliop—The State Worhs of Pennsylvania. 215
of corrupt legislation. Its corruption was addressed to the people
of the state, not to private individuals. It comprised three projects
in an obvious log-rolling combination, — remission of taxes, public
improvements, and bank charter."*
The first section, as before mentioned, repealed the tax laws
of 1831, and thus left the state almost taxless. By other sections,
more than two millions of dollars were appropriated at once, for
the extension of the transportation improvements. Furthermore,
in consideration of the privileges conferred upon the bank by this
act, and in lieu of all taxes on dividends, it was to pay into the
treasury of the commonwealth the sum of $2,500,000, and a further
annual sum of $100,000 for twenty yearsf for common school pur-
poses. It was also pledged to advance on permanent loan any sum
or sums not exceeding in the whole $6,000,000, in return for which
the state was to issue negotiable certificates of stock, reimbursable
in 1868, bearing interest at 4 or 5 per cent, per annum payable half
yearly. It was provided that, if the interest should be at 4 per
cent., the loan was to be taken at par; but if at 5 per cent.; the
bank must pay a premium of 10 per cent. Again, the bank was
obliged to advance to the commonwealth, as a temporary loan, at
4 per cent, any sum, not exceeding $1,000,000 a year, reimbursable
at the pleasure of the commonwealth, within twelve months from
the date of the loan; also it was to subscribe $675,0,00 to the stock
of certain railroad and turnpike companies. Such were the con-
siderations deemed equivalent to the privileges granted to the
bank by its new charter.
The rechartered bank, which, at best, was a most unstable insti-
tution, now entered upon a period of intimate relationship with
the state's finances. It attended to the transfer of state stocks, was
by law the depository of the state's funds and was the agency
through which the semi-annual interest payments were made.J The
rapid extension of the public improvements which now followed
made it necessary that the state, in accordance with the conditions of
the charter, should draw heavily from the bank. But, soon after
the latter undertook to make these large payments, the money mar-
ket throughout the country began to tighten, and increasing strin-
" Siimner, Andrew Jackson as a Public Man, p. 338.
f The charter was granted for a period of thirty years.
$See J. H. Rep., 1836-37, II, p. 22, and 1837-38, II, pp. 33 and 82; also
Hunt's Mer. Mag., XX, p. 261.
210 A. L. Bishop — The State Woi-ls of Pennsylvania.
gency was followed by the universal suspension of 1837. This was
not without eifect upon the state's credit abroad. For a large pro-
portion of the state's stock was held by foreign stockholders,* and,
oAving to the generally deranged state of credit in 1837, the August
interest payment was delayed. This was inevitable since the
United States Bank of Pennsylvania, which Avas now the state's
banker, had failed on the 18th of May. Most of the foreign credi-
tors usually authorized the bank to transmit the amounts due to
them semi-annually to Baring Brothers and Company,"}* who
credited these sums to their respective accounts in London. Remit-
tances Avere made customarily in bills of exchange, but at this time
no satisfactory bills could be procured. | Accordingly, it was not
until the 16th of December that the August interest Avas for-
AA^arded.§
This delay occurring at the very time AA'hen financial embarrass-
ment was becoming general, and when the stocks of numerous states
were flooding the foreign markets, || was soon followed by a decline
of the state's credit abroad. By 1839, Pennsylvania's 5 per cent,
stocks, which, in 1833, had sold in Europe for 115, would not sell
at all.|[ Before the close of the year 1838, the extraordinary rcA'-
* In July, 1842, according to a letuni submitted to the Senate of Penn-
sylvania by the Auditor General, the distribution of the state debt Avas as
follows: — -Held by citizens of Pennsylvania, $9,635,613.47; by citizens of
other states of the United States, $1,080,537; by subjects of Great Britain,
$20,026,458; by subjects of other foreign states, $3,711,748; total,
$34,454,356.47.
f Tliis firm Avas the agent for a large pereent.age of the foreign holders of
Pennsylvania's stocks.
$ See J. H. Rep., 1837-38, II, pp. 33 and 82.
§ Tlie bank allowed interest at 4 per cent, for four months on the delayed
interest payment and 12* per cent, premium Avas paid for the bill of exchange
on London. See J. H. Rep., 1840, II, p. 45.
II The amomit of the state stocks authorized to be created by eighteen
states, in each period of five years, from 1820 to 1838, was as follows: —
From 1820 to 182.5, $12,790,728; 1825 to 1830, $13,679,689; 1830 to 1835,
$40,002,769; 1835 to 1838 (say 3^ yrs.), $108,223,808; total $174,696,994.
The above is taken from Governor Porter's message of January 8th, 1840,
in J. H. Rep., 1840, II, p. 17, and agrees substantially Avith footnote (*),
on page 213. Note that the greater proportion of the stocks A\'as created
after 1835., Nearly two-thirds of Pennsylvania's stocks were held abroad
and large quantities of those of other "states were similarly held.
^ See Govei-nor Porter's message for Jan. 8th, 1840, in J. H. Rep., 1840, II,
p. 19. See also Governor Ritner's message for December 27th, 1838, and
Hunt's Mer. Mag., XX, 1849, p. 261.
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 217
enue, including the bonus received from rechartering the Bank of
the United States, and the surplus revenue, had all been spent.*
Moreover, in his report of December 8th, 1838, the state treasurer
estimated that on October 31st, 1839, there would be a deficit of
over $3,000,000. To meet this emergency new loans were offered
in 1839, but no bids were received. So, in accordance with the
conditions of the charter, the United States bank was forced tq
take them. With no market at home or abroad for these stocks
received in exchange for its own notes, the bank, in October, 1839,
was obliged again to fail.f With $1,800,000 interest to be paid per
year, with large sums due the contractors on the works, with little
or no credit abroad, and with its own financial institution bank-
rupt, the legisl9,ture at last was forced to take action. This was
not, however, until'it was too late to avert a crisis. Consequently,
for nearly three years following the date of the second failure of
the bank, the state was engaged in a desperate struggle to avoid
defaulting its interest. Let us now see what efforts were made to
preserve its credit.
As early as December, 1838, the state treasurer, in discussing
various financial matters, :|: recommended as desirable, in accord-
ance with the soundest principles of public policy, the adoption of
an adequate system of taxation. This plan, however, was not
endorsed by Governor Eitner in his message§ three weeks later.
The following January, Governor Porter, in drawing the atten-
tion of the legislature to the big deficit inevitable in 1839, stated
that two alternatives were open to them to secure the necessary
funds, viz. — taxation and loans. "Of the two," he said, "the latter
appears least objectionable because productive of least hardship to
the people, is less expensive, and can be carried into effect with
greater facilitj."- In January, 1840, the state treasurer again
pointed out the necessity of checking the ruinous policy of finance,
and resorting to taxation. || By this time Governor Porter's views
* See J. H. Rep., 1S38-39, II, Part II,— Report of the State Treasurer.
t This was on the 9th day of the month. On Feb. 4t.h, 1841, it failed for
the third time.
X See Report of State Treasurer for Dec. 8th, 1838, in J. H. Rep., 1838-39,
II, Part I.
§ J. H. Rep., 1838-39, II, Part I, pp. 6-18.
II See Report of State Treasurer for Jaji. 9th, 1840, in J. H. Rep., 1840, II.
218 A. L. Bishop — The State WorJcs of Pennsylvania.
had completely changed, for now he sounded aloud the cry for finan-
cial reform.*
He seems to have been the first public man of prominence to
call attention to the fact that, financially, the state works had been
a failure; accordingly, he now felt it his duty to exhibit their
actual productivity in a manner somewhat less flattering than that
usually represented. Hitherto it had been the custom to state the
gross amount of the tolls as if the works had yielded that amount
clear of all expenses. The fact was that the yearly revenues for the
last five years had exceeded the expenditures, on the average, only
$139,697.43. During the same period, however, the average yearly
interest on the sums borrowed to construct the works had exceeded
$1,200,000. Governors, legislators and the people had all deceived
themselves concerning the public works, yet they had embarked in
them too deeply to turn back. Their speedy completion was urged
in the hope that soon the brilliant anticipations of the early friends
of the system might be realized.
With reference to the general financial aifairs of the common-
wealth, the governor did not hesitate to reveal the exact conditions.
The public debt had reached the enormous sum of $34,141,663.80,
while the ordinary expenditures for the past year had exceeded
the ordinary revenues from all sources to the amount of
$1,087,743.63. He said:—
"The affairs of the commonwealth have been, for several years,
gradually verging towards deeper and deeper embarrassment, until
we have at length reached this unexpected deficiency of funds in the
treasury to meet the demands upon it. The people have been
told again and again that our fiscal condition was flourishing and
prosperous, while, in fact, our prosperity was all based on paper
calculations and loans, which loans, we are just now beginning to
perceive, bear interest, and are some day to be paid. We are now
compelled to forego all temporary expedients, and to look the true
state of things in the face. We must resort to taxes, the sale of the
public improvements, or to further loans. The public improvements
cannot be sold but at a most ruinous sacrifice ; and, as to loans, it is
doubtful whether we can procure them at all unless at an unwar-
ranted rate of interest. ISTotwithstanding all these difliculties, the
sum duo by the state must be paid. To obtain the means, we have
at best a choice of evils, and we ought to select that which will
* See his message of Jan. 8tli, 1840, in J. H. Rep., 1840, II, pp. 19, 20, 21,
et seq.
A. L. Bishop — The State Worlds of Pennsylvania. 219
impose on the people of the commonwealth the least inconvenience
and detriment. . . .
Until with the last year we have been able, not only to borrow
money without difficulty on state stock in Europe, but to pay the
interest arising on former loans by new ones. We felt little of the
inconvenience of this bloated system of credits, and seldom reflected
that a day of reckoning would come, when we could thus pay our
debts no longer. The delusion is at last over. . . The time for
sober reflection has arrived. . . The question is presented to the
consideration of the legislature, how is the money to be procured
to pay the interest on the state debt, to meet the loans falling due,
and to defray the other necessary expenditures of the common-
wealth? The sum of $2,000,000 must be obtained for the ensuing
year, . . . My own deliberate opinion is that, resort to taxa-
tion, provided that it shall be so regulated as to bear with as little
hardship as possible on the people, is the only possible remedy to
extricate the commonwealth from the embarrassments by which we
find her surrounded. The state has actually been compounding,, for
years past, from a million to a million and a half of interest annu-
ally ; and the question is now submitted whether we are thus to
continue adding half-yearly this enormous amount of interest to
the principal of our state debt, and continue in this course of
policy, from year to year, of shuffling off the evil day, and entailing
this frightful legacy on posterity. . . Taxation would pay the
interest, it would eventually constitute a sinking fund to pay off
the principal of the state debt and should be continued until the
income of the public improvements would render longer taxation
unnecessary."
The committee on ways and means, to whom was referred the
above sections of the message, recommended an immediate resort
to taxation. Accordingly, on the 11th of June, 1840, a law* was
passed, to continue in force for five years, imposing a tax of one
mill on the stock of banks or other institutions making or declar-
ing dividends; half a mill on certain personal property; a small
tax on household furniture, pleasure carriages and watches; and
a tax on the salaries of state employees.
It was computed that the revenues to be collected according to
the provisions of this act would amount to $600,000 annually.f It
was found very difficult, however, to put the taxing machinery at
once into operation, so that the law of 1840 failed to become really
effective until the state had defaulted its interest. Thus, for the
fiscal year ending November 30th, 1841, although the amount of
* Laws of Pennsylvania, 1840, p. 612.
t See J. H. Rep., 1841, II, p. 7.
220 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
tax assessed was $416,794.85, only $33,292.77 were collected. Again,
in 1842, but $486,635.85, including arrears, were received, while
for the fiscal year 1844 out of $751,210.11 paid into the treasury
only $143,099.06 Avere collected from the assessments of that year.
But, Imd the full $600,000 been collected annually, this amount
would have been entirely inadequate to preserve the state's credit.
The Act of May 4th, 1841,* entitled "An Act to provide revenue
to meet the demands of the treasury, and for other purposes" was
a new device to help meet the pressing needs of the time. By it
provisions were made for borrowing not more than .$3,100,000 under
the following prescribed conditions : — Certain banks in the state
were authorized to subscribe to the stocks issued. The amount of
these subscriptions, in notes of the respective banks of the denomina-
tions, one, two and five dollars, was to be placed in the state
treasury. The paper thus authorized to be issued was to be with-
drawn from circulation on or before May 4th, 1844. These notes
were exchangeable, upon presentation to the bank of issue in amounts
of not less than $100, for an order on the auditor general for a
certificate of an equal amount of stock created for their redemp-
tion. The banks got one per cent, interest on the notes until they
were redeemed. Moreover, they were to be received in payment
of debts due to the commonwealth, they could be re-issued, and
each bank issuing them was required to receive its own notes at par
in payments due to it. It was thought that, by making the redemp-
tion of the new issue depend upon the good faith of the state as
well as upon that of the banks, a safe and reliable currency would
be constituted. t The amount of this paper, popularly known as
"relief notes," that was issued originally was $2,220,265. As might
be expected, it rapidly depreciated^ and soon became the only
medium in which the state received its revenue. Consequently,
instead of helping the state out of its financial embarrassment, the
. relief notes made matters worse.
And now came the climax to the steady progress towards state
bankruptcy. By resorting to the various expedients already men-
* See Laws of Pennsylvania, 1841, p. 307. This act was passed over the
governor's veto.
t Hunt's Mcr. IMag., XX, 1849, p. 261.
fin 1842 the notes were at a discount of from 10 to 20 per cent. For
ilieii- later history see Worthington, Hist. Sketch of tlie Finances of Penn-
sylvania, p. 56.
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 221
tioned, the semi-annual interest payments had been met until
August 1st, 1842.* At that date, however, the treasury was without
funds, and witli no means of securing them! Accordingly interest
certificatesf were authorized to be issued to the amount due each
holder of state stocks. They bore 6 per cent, interest, and were
redeemable one year from date of issue. At the same time provi-
sions Avere made for the payment of a percentage of the debts
owing to contractors, employees, etc., on the public works. The lat-
ter were known as the "domestic creditors." On November 30th,
1842, the books of the auditor general showed that the various
amounts due them totalled $1,191,710, and, of this sum, $597,-
461.74 was for work done prior to May 4th of the previous
year. Again, on the 1st of February, 1843, more interest certifi-
cates had to be issued, as also for the payments that fell due the
folloAving August, and for the whole of the next year.|
In the meantime, such serious financial embarrassment had
started an agitation for the sale of certain stocks held by the
state. § To this end, by an Act of April 8th, 1843, the necessary
legislation was secured, and at once stocks having a par value as
follows were disposed of: — 1|
Bank stocks $2,108,700.00
Bridge stocks 524,350.00
Turnpike stocks 803,833.00
Canal, Railroad and Navigation stocks 755,500.00
Total $4,192,388.00
* The interest due on February 1st of this year was delayed somewhat.
f See J. H. Rep., 1843, II, p. 8, and Laws of Pennsylvania, 1842, p. 441.
$See Exec. Docs., 1854, p. 96.
§ At this time the state held stock in incorporated companies as follows :
86 Turnpike companies $2,313,275.00
3 Banking companies ^ 2,108,700.00
9 Canal and Navigation companies 852,778.66
4 Railroad companies 395,276.90
21 Bridge companies 524,350.00
Total (par value) $6,194,3S0..56
Ij Other stocks in canal, railway, turnpike and navigation companies to the
amount of $1,986,797.56 Avere \mi up for sale, but as the offers were small
they were not disposed of. For some holdings no offers were received. See
Report of Commissioners for Sale of State Stocks in J. H. Rep., II, 1844,
p. 28.
222 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
The sales were made at a low figure, for all of the ahove realized
but $1,319,730.65. Notwithstanding this fact, however, the bank
stock, at least, had been a good investment, since between 1821 and
1844 it had yielded on an average 5.7 per cent. On the other hand,
the rest of the holdings had returned less than one per cent.*
On November 30th, 1843, the close of the last fiscal year before
financial reform was commenced, the total amount expended by
the commissioners of the internal improvement fund for the various
purposes of the state works was $53,352,648.72. The cost of the
latter to this date had been $28,616,375, and they had yielded
$9,286,644.26 revenue. The interest payments on loans pertaining
solely to the improvements totalled $16,230,597.15. The balance in
the treasury was only $115,466.91, while the debt still outstanding
for loans was $39,240,461.40.t
As already intimated, the year 1844 saw the commencement of
radical measures of financial reform. Rigid economy was now
introduced in all lines of public expenditure. On the 29th of April,
Governor Porter sanctioned an Actt providing among other things
for an extensive system of taxation. This policy, hitherto adopted
always as a temporary makeshift, now that the financial failure
of the public works was recognized, was viewed in an entirely
different manner. The provisions for taxation applied to all real
estate not exempt by law; all personal estate; mortgages; money
owing by solvent debtors, whether by promissory note or otherwise ;
with minor exceptions, all articles of agreement and accounts bear-
ing interest; all shares or stock, in any bank, institution or com-
pany; all shares of stock in unincorporated saving fimd institutions ;
all salaries from professions,- trades, and occupations excepting
farming. The same act also made adequate provisions for equal-
izing the assessments and taxes in the different counties, and created
the machinery for imposing the provisions of the act and for making
.collections.§ Anyone holding interest certificates or claims for
* Worthingtoii, Hist. Sketch of the Finanees of Pennsylvania, p. 57.
f Tlie debt contracted solely for public works and for paying interest
amounted on Jan. 6th, 1S42, to $33,350,313. See J. 11. Rep., 1S42, II,
p. 4.
$ Laws of Pennsylvania, 1844, p. 497.
§ Governor Porter estimated that the new assessments authorized by the
Act of April 29th, 1844, would yield $1,500,000 yearly. "This sum," he said,
"with the other resources of the commonwealth, will be entirely adequate to
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 223
certain unpaid appropriations issued during tlie years of financial
embarrassment, miglit surrender them and receive in their stead
stock certificates bearing 5 per cent, interest. By the concluding
clause it was enacted, — "That the whole amount of revenue to be
raised under the provisions of this act shall be irrevocably appro-
priated to the payment. of the interest on the public debt; and the
said appropriation shall not be withdrawn or repealed by any
general words or repealing clauses, in any appropriation bill or
other act."*
The tax-payers were quick to respond to the provisions of this
bill, and, in some instances, the assessments apportioned to certain
counties were paid into the treasury several months before they
were due.f Accordingly, it was possible in February, 1845, to
resume the interest payments, and, at no period since that date has
the treasury department been without means to meet every obliga-
tion.
Having now examined the manner in which the public works were
financed, the embarrassments experienced from time to time, and
the struggle made to preserve the credit of the state, let us consider
the reasons for adopting this policy as well as the causes for the
serious financial embarrassment during the years 1839-44. The
latter of these two points will be discussed first.
In general, it may be said that the spirit of wild speculation was
common to many of the states during a large part of the time the
furnish the necessary amount to discharge the interest upon the public debt,
and thus ensure the fidelity of the state to her engagements." — Extract from
message of Jan. 8, 1845, in Exec. Docs., 184.5, p. 5.
* The amount of the state debt on April 1st, 1844, was .$40,051,794.18, dis-
tributed as follows: — •
6 per cent. Stocks .$ 4,331,013.99
5 " " " 32,934,763.73
4i " " " 200,000.00 $37,465,777.72
Relief notes in circulation bearing
one per cent, interest 1,292,449.68
Relief notes in circulation bearing
six per cent, interest 171,636.00 1,464,085.68
Domestic creditors, script outstanding 166,504.65
Interest on loans due 1st Feb., 1844 955,426.13
Total $40,051,794;i8
f See Gov. Shunk's Message in Exec. Docs., 1845, p. 3.
224 .1. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
public works were being constructed; luid that the uccomi)unying
bloated system of credil;s had considerable influence in bringing
about the subsequent general collapse affecting alike govejnments
and private concerns. Moreover, the disturbed condition of the
money market in Great Britain,* Avhei-e large blocks of the state
stocks Avere held, helped to make the situation in America all the
more strained. jSTot to underestimate the influence of any or all
of the foregoing and other factors, it seems fair to say that Penn-
sylvania's financial embarrassment at this time was, at least to a
large extent, the resiilt of three circumstances all of which w^ere
more or less related to one another. These were, — first, too exten-
sive a system of internal improvements; second, alliance with an
unsound banking system, especially with the United States Bank of
Pennsylvania ; third, unsound financial legislation.
The way in which the wholesale building of public w^orks con-
tributed to state bankruptcy is apparent. The more works under-
taken, the faster the loans had to be floated, with the result that the
public debt soon became a serious burden, and the semi-annual
interest payment constituted an enormous drain upon the treasury.
Had it been possible to limit the improvenient system to the main
line and one or t^vo of the more important branches, it seems
highly probable that the interest payments, during the years of
financial embarrassment, could have been met. On the other hand,
had all or even the larger part of the various divisions been as
productive as the works in the original system were expected to be,
the more widely the system was extended, the greater would have
been the income therefrom. But, as has alread}^ been indicated,
even the divisions that earned the largest revenues fell far short
of the expectations of the friends of the public works. Conse-
quently, during the years of financial embarrassment, when the great
problem was to secure sufficient funds to pay the enormous interest
on the loans contracted for constructional purposes, the receipts
from canal tolls helped but little to ward off bankruptcy.
With regard to the part played by the banks in causing state
insolvency, it seems fair to say that it was not inconsiderable. They
were intimately connected with the whole subject of finance, and
their influence in bringing about an inflated system of credits was
* See Dewey, Financial History U. S., p. 230; and Governor Porter'3
message in Exec. Docs., 1844, p. 4.
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 225
far-reaching. Hence, tlie banks indirectly helped on the embar-
rassment, by making it easy to secure funds to expand the public
works. But it was more particularly by the alliance with the
United States Bank of Pennsylvania that the way was opened for
numerous unwise practices which, in due course, tended to make
more intense the troubled monetary conditions. In this connection,
the repeal of the tax laws of 1831, the immediate appropriation, for
an unwarranted extension of the public works, of over two millions
of dollai's from the bonus received for the charter; the handing
over to the bank of the management of interest payments on the
state loans ; the forcing upon the bank of heavy loans when no
bids whatsoever could be obtained for them in the open market;
and the repeated failure of the institution at critical times, — all
these factors combined either to make the already intricate finan-
cial affairs of the state more complex, or they offered the means for
extending still further obligations which had already become too
great.
But more closely connected with the financial embarrassment dur-
ing the period 1839-44 than either of the factors already discussed,
was the unsound financial legislation which not only covered these
years but also reached back to the very inauguration of the public
works. It will be remembered that the Act of April 1st, 1826, in
endorsing a resort to loans to secure funds for building public
works, left the payment of interest on the estimated sum for trunk
line construction inadequately provided for. Again, somewhat
later, when, in order to secure the completion of the main line,
a general expansion of the improvement system was found neces-
sary, the interest fund, contrary to every dictate of prudence or
sound policy, was not reinforced.* Moreover, beginning as early
as 1829, loans were floated for the purpose of meeting the interest
paymentSjf and, from this time until the commencement of finan-
cial reconstruction in 1844, the general improvement fund was
dra'ttTi upon freely for the same purpose. In fact, almost every
possible expedient, excepting adequate taxation, was brought into
play to secure revenue to meet the ever-increasing demands upon
the treasury,
* It should be said, however, that the Act of April 9th, 1827, made pro-
\asions (sec. 17) for paying the interest on a. loan of $1,000,000 authorized
by tlie same act (sec. 15). TTie interest was to be paid out of the auction
duties.
t Authorized by Act of November 17th, 1820.
220
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
In view of what lias been said, tlie unsoundness of tlie policy
adopted and perpetuated by Pennsylvania iu the financing of the
public works is now apparent. For the above contains numerous
instances of lines of policy pursued which were contrary to the
principles of any safe system of finance such as was adopted in
New York. As a natural result of almost a complete dependence
upon loans to build the works, and to pay the interest on the
ever-increasing debt, serious complications arose. So long as the
money market was easy, and the credit of the state was unques-
tioned, there Avas no need of any apprehension concerning the
prompt payment of the interest. But Avhen these conditions no
longer existed, there could be no doubt as to what must be the out-
come. With a constituency almost wholly unaccustomed to pay-
ing taxes, with no well-organized system of taxation ready to be
put into operation in case of emergency, bankruptcy was thus
inevitable.
It now remains to examine the influences which determined the
adoption and persistent carrying out of this financial policy. While
•not overlooking in this connection the influence of the easy money
market, it seems fair to say that this course was due to two princi-
pal causes, viz. — the reluctance of the people to pay taxes, and a
general overestimation of the potential productivity of the public
works. The evidence presented by contemporary writers indicates
that taxation on general principles was peculiarly odious to the
people of Pennsylvania, and that the legislators, from the dread
of unpopularity, hesitated to resoi't to this method of raising
revenue.* Moreover, it was confidently believed that if, in one
way or another, sufiicient money could be raised to defray interest
charges until the works were completed, then the treasury certainly
would be filled to overflowing with the revenue from canal and
railroad tolls. In referring to the tax laws of March 25th, 1831,
Governor Wolf shed much light upon the question under considera-
* "No adequate funds were provided for tlie payment of tlie interest on the
loans. In some cases new loans were negotiated for that purpose. Hence,
the credit of the state suflfered severely, and money was sometimes borrowed
on disadvantageous terms. This unmanly and discreditable conduct arose
from a paltry dread of unpopularity, the imposition of taxes being at all
times and in all countries viiipopular; and thus the public interest was
sacrificed to this unworthy motive. — Carey, Brief View of the System of
Internal Improvements in Pennsylvania, pp. 15-16.
A. L. BisJiop—The State Works of Pennsylvania. 227
tion. He urged tlie people calmly to submit for a short time to
taxation; cited such tax laws as provided interest money in other
states, especially in Ohio ; and stated with all assurance possible
that, on account of the prospectively abundant revenue from the
improvements, taxation could be done away with entirely in five
years.* In fact, in all cases where taxes were imposed previous to
1844, this was the reason why five years was . the limit set for
their collection. Again, we find the commissioners of the internal
improvement fund stating: — "In looking for relief from taxation,
and ultimately of furnishing an ample fund for education and for
the extinction of the public debt, the committee mainly rely upon
the productiveness of the canals and railroads."! Even as late as
1839, it would appear that this confidence was still unshaken. Por
Governor Porter, in his message of January 26th, stated: — "It
cannot be long before the ordinary revenue arising from the tolls
of the canals and railways of the commonwealth will defray all
the expenses necessary to keep them in repair, and pay the inter-
est on the money expended in their construction."^ Also, a month
later the house committee of ways and means, in discussing the
subject of taxation, voiced the same sentiment when they said: —
"A well-founded hope is entertained that, in a few years, the
increased value of the improvements of the state, now rapidly devel-
oping, will add sufficiently to the permanent revenue to meet the
demands upon the treasury."
The above expressions of confidence in the future earning power
of the public works are but samples of the numerous cases that
could be cited. The sentiment contained therein, originating even
before the improvements had been undertaken, seems scarcely to
have been questioned until Governor Porter's message in 1840.
Even then it took the friends of the improvement system some time
to become convinced of its financial failure. The brilliant success
of the ]^ew York works in yielding revenue doubtless was the main
and visible cause of such unshaken confidence. This delusion, how-
ever, and the people's aversion to paying taxes were, it is believed,
the chief influences causing the adoption and persistent continua-
tion of that unsound financial policy which was a strong factor in
bringing the state to bankruptcy.
* See J. H. Rep., 1831-32, II, p. 20.
t Niles' Reg., XXXIV, 1828, p. 39.
i J. H. Rep., 1838-39, II, Part I, p. 518.
228 .1. L. Bishop — The State Worls of Pennsylvania.
As frequent reference has been made above to the financial failure
of the public works, it seems necessary, in conclusion, to give a
detailed statement of their financial operations. The latter is
shown in full in Appendix VI. The results there set forth in
tabular form were compiled* from the successive reports of the
auditor general and the state treasurer. From these have been
determined the cost, revenue, and expenditures of the several fin-
ished lines of canals and railroads included in the public improve-
ments of Pennsylvania for each financial year, from their opening
until their disposal to incoi'porated companies. Owing to the
absence of sufficient and accurate data, it did not seem possible,
without completing this statistical work, to arrive at any satisfac-
tory conclusion respecting the financial operations of the works
throughout their whole history. The amount of money spent on
unfinished improvements was determined as above instanced, like-
wise all the expenditures for the board of canal commissioners,
appraisers, collectors, weighmasters, and lock-keepers and the
various other items shown on page 284 which do not appear
in the cost, revenue or expenditures of the works. In order to
render all the above results applicable to the calculation of profit or
loss resulting from public ownership of the works, they have been
consolidated into a single table found on page 286. From this it
appears that the cost of the finished and unfinished improvements
during the whole period of state OAvnership was $33,464,975. If
from this figure we deduct the amount added to their original cost
by improper charges made to construction, viz. : $5,270,397 (of
which $4,365,928 was on the main line, and $904,469 on lateral
lines), we get $28,194,578 as the actual cost. The gross revenue
amounted to $32,505,553. If there be added to this sum the total
amount received from the sale of the works, viz. — $11,281,000, we
find that $43,786,553 represents the gross amount of income to
the treasury on their account during the whole period of ownership.
The expenditures amounted to $24,471,225, and by adding
* A similar tabular compilation, although more extensive, since it extended
to all the financial affairs of the state, was made, in 1843, by J. W. Ham-
iihiikI, at one time chief cloi k in the auditor' general's office. The tables
found therein applicable to the present purpose have been extended from
1843 to 1858, and they, together Avlth other results incident to the finan-
cial operations of the works, have been consolidated, as shown on page 286, to
determine the results there set forth, and to furnish the data for determining
other questions that might arise.
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 229
$5,270,397, the deduction made from cost on account of improper
charges to construction as mentioned above, we get $29,741,622 as
representing the total expenditures incident to the operations of
the works. The interest payments on account of loans contracted
between 1826 and 1858 solely for the construction of the wbrks
amounted to $43,675,034. The latter, it will be seen, exceeded the
gross revenue, apart from the sum received for the sale of the
Avorks, by over $10,000,000. Moreover the figure for revenue,
including the receipts of sales, exceeded the total interest payments
by only $111,519.
The total outgo to the state on account of the internal improve-
ments, including cost, expenditures, and interest, up to the time of
their sale was $101,611,234. Deducting the gross income to the
treasury during the same period plus the amount received from
their sale, viz. — $43,786,553, it appears that the total financial loss
to the state on account of the public works was $57,824,681, to say
nothing of a debt of $40,000,000* which remained unpaid at the
time of the sale, and which was incurred largely for the construc-
tion of transi^ortation improvements.f
Chapter V*. — Cokrupt Practises connected with the Building
AND Operation of the Public Works.
It has already been shown that the Act of April 9th, 1827, marks
the commencement of the policy of expanding the state works ; also
that this legislation was the dii-ect result of log-rolling. This form
of corruption thus imprinted upon the improvement system early
in its iiistory was not easily removed. It continued to be prac-
ticed from time to time until, owing to financial embarrassment,
the building of more works was made impossible. JSTor was this the
only corrupt influence to pervade the public works. Others soon
appeared in connection with their building and operation and
extended into nearly every field it was possible to reach. Before
entering upon a consideration of the latter, however, it seems neces-
sary to mention a particular instance of corrupt, legislation which
differed materially from the ordinary. The case in question is
* At the end of the fiscal year 1843, the state debt was $.39,240,461.40 (see
p. 222). Between 1844 and 18.58 it remained at approximately $40,000,000.
•j- See Report of the Auditor General in Exec. Does., 1844, p. 40. As
already indicated in a footnote, p. 222, the debt contracted solely for the
public works on January 6th, 1842, amounted to $33,359,313.
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 17 " Nov., 1907.
230 A. L. Bishop — The State Worl:s of Pennsylvania.
that of the Gettysburg Extension railroad, a work undertaken
ahnost exclusively for the advantage of a single individual, whereas
other works of doubtful utility were provided for in order to
satisfy sectional interests.*
A very prominent and influential friend and political supporter
of the governor of the state, who also at one time was a member
of the lower house of the legislature, owned valuable iron mines
in Franklin and Adams counties. To facilitate their development,
he conceived the idea of having a branch of the public works
extended through his property to connect with the Baltimore and
Ohio railroad. Having been appointed to the office of canal com-
missioner early in 1838, he was made president of the canal board
on May 17th, of the same year. In this influential position, he
was able to secure legislative sanction to employ the funds of the
state to commence the Gettysburg Extension railroad. f Fortunately
a change of administration occurred before nauch work had been
done, but not, however, until $682,846 had been squandered.
The circumstances in the above case were, on their face, so ques-
tionable that a committee of the house of representatives was
appointed to make an investigation of the matter. After making
a thorough examination of all the facts the committee reported: —
"Of all the works of doubtful expediency constructed by the state,
in the opinion of your committee, thei'e is none so useless, so expen-
sive, or of so little value as the Gettysburg railroad. It was com-
menced by fraud and intrigue, and will end in disgrace and loss
to the commonwealth. The means of the commonwealth are inade-
* Deception seems to have been employed in submitting the cost of certain
contemplated improvementp, to the legislature. A "Grand Committee"
appointed by the house to investigate tlie internal improvement system
reported, in part, as follows: "From the deception that was practiced upon
the people at the commencement of the system, the great excess of the actual
expenditures over the original estimates, from undertaking at the sa^me time
several distant and unconnected improvements of great magnitude, the com-
mittee have reason to believe that our system of internal improvement has
sufTered in public estimation. It has been proved to the committee, that the!
estimate of the cost of at least one branch of our canal improvement, made
by the engineer, was by liim reduced to one-half the amount ascertained by
his calculations, because, as was alleged, the work never would be authorized,
if the true estimate was made known to the legislature." — J. H. Rep., 1832-
33, II, p. 749.
t See Wilson, Hist, of the Pennsylvania Railroad Co., I, pp. 385-389, for a
full account of the case.
A. L. Bishop — The State WorTcs of Pennsylvania. 231
quate to its completion, and if completed it could never be pro-
ductive of general benefit. , . . The committee express their
belief that a total abandonment of this work involves the least
sacrifice of public funds the state can make upon it."*
The following year the canal commissioners endorsed the above
report. They regarded the money already expended upon the
branch in question as literally thrown away. Further they con-
curred in the general belief that the work ought not to have been
undertaken, also that, if it were completed, the road would be a
source of continual expense and entirely worthless to the state.
Accordingly, by an Act of Legislature approved on February 19th,
1839, provision was made for its abandonment. f
Proceeding now with the consideration of corrupt practices
other than those connected with the procuring of legislation, atten-
tion will be given first to the matter of "letting" contracts for
building the works. Here the canal commissioners found a wide
field for partisan- favoritism and political corruption. Some inter-
esting information in these particulars is given in the report of a
committee appointed to look into these matters, and submitted to
the legislature on June 15th, 1839. | A state election campaign had
been in progress during the period investigated by the committee.
The two candidates for governor were Joseph Kitner, a repre-
sentative of the political party then in power, and David R.
Porter. A court of inquiry was held by the committee and some
startling disclosures were made. Although the main facts brought
to light at this time were confirmed by several witnesses, the most
important one was James Bradley. The latter had been the prin-
cipal assistant engineer on the Wiconisco division, and, for refus-
ing to assist in the corrupt practices of his colleagues, he was
discharged. "While yet in the service of the state, he had attended
a letting of contracts at Halifax on the 8th of August, 1838. All
the canal commissioners were present. Before the court of inquiry,
Mr. Bradley testified that at the above letting one of the com-
missioners said that the bids of the "Porter men" should be "sent
endways"; that certain bids to be considered later were laid on
the table, while others were thrown on the floor. Furthermore, he
* J. H. Rep., 1838-39, II, Part II, pp. 16-18.
fj. H. Rep., 1840, II (Appendix), p. 43; and Wilson, History of the
Pennsylvania Railroad Co., I, p. 389.
t See J. H. Rep., 1838-39, II, Part II, pp. 4, 5, et seq.
233 A. L. Bishop — The State Worls of Pennsylvania.
learned at this time, from the conversation of the members of the
canal board, that the rejected bids were those of "Porter men," and
that they were thrown out on that account. Other evidence taken
by the court revealed practices equally as culpable. For example,
when a person unknown to the canal board had made a bid for
a certain section of work at a fair price, the superintendent was
instructed to inquire into liis ''moral character or religious prin-
ciples." This meant nothing more nor less than the determination
of his politics. If the person in question were found to be a sup-
porter of the political party in power, his bid would be considered
favorably, otherwise it was likely to be rejected. Moreover, it hap-
pened sometimes that, in case the commissioners desired to award
certain contracts to their political friends who had bid too high,
their papers were sent back for alteration. In one instance, it
was proved beyond question that the commissioners themselves
altered the figures in a certain bid without consulting the party
who made it.
As a result of all the evidence taken by the court of inquiry,
the committee reported : — *
"From this inquiry into the religious principles or political char-
acter of bidders, and declaration that their own friends alone were
to have work, it would be fair to infer that some improper purpose
Avas to be accomplished. But it is not left to inference, — Mr.
Bradley and other witnesses clearly proved the object. The former
testified that about two weeks previous to the inspector's election,
Mr. Rutherford, the superintendent, received a letter from Mr.
Stevens ;t that Mr. Rutherford after having read the letter him-
self handed it to him [Mr. Bradley] to read; that it contained
instructions in regard to conducting the election at Halifax; that
it stated five hundred men ought to be on the works by the time
of the election; and that he must be careful to have 'no Porter
bosses' on the line; that the contractors must bring their men up
to the polls and see that they deposited their ballots ; and that he
well recollected this expression in the letter — tal^e care of the
missionary fund.
"On the 28tli of September, the day of the inspector's election,
Mr. Bradley testified that Mr. Rutherford, the superintendent,
brought to him the subscription to the missionary fund, signed by
eighteen contractors, and the sum subscribed was $1,240. The writ-
ing to which the contractors subscribed was of the. following import :
'We the undersigned agree to pay John P. Rutherford the sums set
opposite our names for the purpose of diffusing useful knowledge
* See J. H. Rep., 1838-39, II, Part II, p. 5.
•j- Mr. Stevens was a canal eonimissioner.
J
A. L. Bishop — The State Worl's of Pennsylvania. 233
among the people.' Mr. Rutherford stated to Mr. Bradley that this
was the missionary fund; that it was to pay for handbills, circu-
lars, etc. ; that each contractor Avas to subscribe a sum equal
to one per cent, upon the amount of his contract; and that he [the
engineer] was to allow it in the estimate, i.e., allow so much more
than the amount of their work, and that this was the only way they
could get at the state treasury. Mr. Bradley refused to add this
amount to the estimates and was discharged.
''Mr. !N^. F. Jones, who was a.rodman on the canal, confirmed the
statement of Mr. Bradley in relation to the receipt of the letter
from Mr. Stevens to Mr. Rutherford; saw the subscription to the
'missionary fund' in the hands of Rutherford; heard him say that
that was the only way they could get at the big purse ; and that a
larger sum than was then subscribed to the paper had already gone
into Berks county. James M. Foster was present at a meeting of
the contractors, which Rutherford attended. The object of the
meeting was to obtain more men on the canal, and to raise money.
The men were to be obtained in the county of Philadelphia, — Porter
men ; they were to be brought up and then made to vote for Ritner."
In the matter of "re-letting" contracts, also, the canal commission-
ers from time to time were found guilty of illegal and fraudulent
practices. The law required: — "In all cases where a contract on
the canal or railroad shall be abandoned, it shall be the duty of the
superintendent or acting canal commissioner to give at least two
weeks public notice of re-letting the same,"* This law was violated
at times, however, when the canal board in the re-letting desired
to favor their political friends. How this was done is shown in
the following extractf from the minutes of the board of canal
commissioners. May 21st, 1839, who were investigating the conduct
of their predecessors: —
"It conclusively appears to the board, that, on the 24th day of
October last, a notice was published in the bqrough of Wilkes-Barre,
of which the following is a copy : —
Canal Office, Tunkhannock,
October 16, 1838.
Canal Letting
Section 132, on the Tunkhannock line of the Pennsylvania Canal, and all
other abandoned sections on said line, will be re-let at Tunkhannock, on
Wednesday, the 7th day of November next. Specifications of the work may
be seen at the canal office in Tunkhannock, on the day of letting.
E. Harding, Jr., Sup't.
*Laws of Pennsylvania, 1828-29, p. 255.
fSee J. H. Rep., 1838-39, III, pp. 607-8. This is also confirmed by the
report of a committee appointed to investigate the conduct of that same
board of canal commissioners read in the House of Representatives on June
15th, 1838, and found in J. H. Rep., 1838-39, II, Part II, pp. 7-9.
234 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
That on the said 7th day of November, sections 65, 67, 98, 108, 110,
111, 112, 113, 114, 132, 133, 147, 149, 155, 159, and 174 on the said
Tunkhannock line, were re-let under the foregoing notice. That
none of the said sections were specified in the notice published
except K"o. 132, and that no notice of their abandonment, or that
the.y were to be re-let, was ever published in any form whatever,
until late in the day on which they were to be allotted. That all
of the said sections were re-let to the very identical persons Avho had
abandoned them, and who had upon the same, large forces of
hands employed, who were neither discharged nor stopped in
their operations for a single day, insomuch, that from ought that
appeared, either from the operations on the jobs themselves, or
from any public notice which had been given, the citizens of this
commonwealth had no reason to suppose that said contracts either
had been, or would be abandoned and re-let, until the very hour
when bids for them were to be received. * . . . From the above
statements it conclusively appears that the foregoing sixteen sec-
tions were re-let at the enormous advance of $103,336.18f above
the price at which they were bid for by men equally, if not more
responsible, than those to whom the work was re-allotted."
This gross violation of the law governing the re-letting of con-
tracts becomes all the more culpable since the contracts were
re-assigned at a considerable advance in price to the very persons
who had not abandoned the work of construction under the original
arrangements. As to whether the contractors alone were to profit
by the deal, or whether a part of the differences between the old
and the new prices was to be refunded to the higher officials or be
used for campaign funds, does not appear in the evidence. The
fact remains, however, that by such practices the state was robbed
and the debt correspondingly increased.
It is of course impossible to make any estimate of the extent to
which the state debt was augmented on account of political favorit-
ism. The inference is, however, that the increase was considerable.
A committee appointed on the 18th of January, 1841,| to investi-
gate the expenditures upon the canals and railroads belonging to
* Here follows a tabular statement of the names of the contractors who
abandoned and retook the same contracts; the prices under the former con-
tracts; the prices under the new contracts; the names of the competent and
responsible bidders; and the amounts which they bid.
f The combined prices of the first letting on these sections was $339,535.62.
Tlie advance in price at the ro-letting was .$03,770.63 above this figure, or
$103,336.18 above the price of the rejected bids.
i See J. H. Rep., 1841, II, p. 591.
A. L. Bishop — The State WorJcs of Pennsylvania. 235
the state brought to light some interesting information concerning
this point. The period examined extended from the middle of the
year 1839 to the end of 1840. The evidence taken, which, in the
opinion of the committee, unearthed only a small proportion of the
abuses actually existing, revealed, in the few cases examined, the
following : — *
That the state lost through the superintendent of motive
power on the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad not -
less than $ 6,000
That the construction of a certain division of railway
track cost the public more than it would have cost, had
the contracts been given out fairly to the lowest good
bidders, not less than 18,000
Tliat through favoritism the supervisors of the Juniata
di%'1sion of the canal had exceeded the necessiary expendi-
tures not less than .' ■ 6,000
That the allotment of the contract for the Eastern reservoir
was at a price above those tendered by good bidders, not
less than 20,000
That the allotment of the contract for the Western reservoir
was at a price above those submitted by good contractors,
not less than 30,000
That the price allowed for clearing 400 acres of land for
the latter was more than the work was worth, not less
than 10,000
Tliat in the allotment of lock 13 on the Western division of
the canal there was allowed more than was necessary,
not less than 1,200
Tliat in the case of two other locks specified there was
allowed more than was bid by good contractors, not less
than 10,000
That in the allotmeiit of nine sections of canal on the Con-
neaut line of the Erie Extension there was more allowed
than the average bids of good contractoTS, not less than 35,000
That in the allotment of contracts for 16 locks in 1839 a
loss was entailed to the state from failure to consider the
bids of political opponents, not less than 33,000
Total $169,200
Commenting upon their findings, of which the above is merely an
abstract, the committee stated: — "Our inquiries have been confined
to a small portion, when compared with the whole of the public
improvements of the state, and the result of those inquiries cannot
fail to startle and astonish. We find that within the period of a
single year, by the policy and practices which have prevailed, the
public money, to a large amount, has been squandered and improp-
erly paid away. We leave for further inquiry and development
many transactions of a character as suspicious as any that have been
examined, and it is not surprising that under such management,
* See Report of Committee in J. H. Rep., 1841, II, p. 588.
236
1. 7/. Bishop — The State Woi-ls of Pennsylvania.
the revenue arising from the finished lines of the public works
should fall short, as it did last year, about $350,000 of the sum
expended in their repairs and superintendence, and that their fur-
ther prosecution should be viewed wjth alarm by the warmest
advocates of internal improvements by the commonwealth."*
The report of another committee appointed by the legislature to
investigate the conduct of the canal commissioners and their agents
and read in the house of representatives, April 7th, 1834,f contains
evidence of corruption different from any yet mentioned. It was
proved to the committee during their inquiry that there was "an
utter destitution of moral principles in the supervision of the Sus-
quehanna division, and that the most fraudulent and criminal
practices against the commonwealth were carried on by one who, at
the very time of his disregard of every suggestion of honesty and
prompting of duty, was a judge of l^orthumberland county." The
person in question was a supervisor on the above-mentioned divi-
sion. According to the evidence which was taken during the
investigation, he gave script to a certain laborer for the amount of
his wages. The workman was told that this paper would be dis-
counted at the Middletown bank. To cover the amount of the dis-
count, the supervisor directed the laborer to add eight or nine days
to the check roll which was presented to the auditor general. This
was done and the state was defrauded to this amount. Moreover,
there were brought forward and- sworn to books containing accounts
of the number of days each laborer had worked on the canal. From
these and other records it appeared that one sum was paid to the
workmen and another charged to the state. This was proved by
an examination of the auditor general's report. In this way the
supervisor padded the accounts of a single foreman to the amount
of $381.
On the Delaware division, the abuses were somewhat different.
It was shown to be the practice of a certain supervisor to take state
laborers and set them to work on his private property. The time
they were thus occupied was included in the pay roll handed in to
the auditor general. In a single month the amount of money paid
out by a contractor guilty of this practice was $857.88 for work
actually done on the public works. During the same period the
* J. H. Rep., 1841, II, p. 589.
fSee J. H. Rep., 1833-34, II, pp. 887, 888, et seq.
A. L. Bishop — The State Worls of Perinsi/lvania. 237
extra amount charged- to the state for work done by state laborers
upon his own property was $137,071/^.*
Investigations made at the same time concerning the building
of other sections of the transportation system unearthed abuses of
still another kind. Thus, on the Wyoming division, where work had
recently been suspended for lack of funds, it was proved that a
claim was allowed for 400 rods of stone at ninety cents per rod,
whereas the actual measurement was found to be 81 rods. In other
cases allowances were made for 460 and 936 rods, although the
respective measurements were only 183 and 301 rods.
It also seems clear that, in many cases, the work executed by con-
tractors was badly done. This is shown by the fact that no sooner
had the public improvements come into operation than liberal appro-
priations had to be made at almost every session of the legislature to
keep them in a condition suitable for use. Doubtless it is true that
a considerable amount of the imperfect construction should be attri-
buted to the lack of experience in building canals and railways ; also
to other causes beyond the control of the contractors. Nevertheless
the evidence is conclusive that the anxiety of the contractors to swell
the amount of their profits at the public expense often was the
direct cause of defective work. The canal commissioners them-
selves occasionally made admissions to this effect,t and to this the
testimonies of various contemporary writers could be added. IvTot-
withstanding liberal yearly expenditures for repairs, the canal
board, in 1839, asked for the sura of $1,125,760 for this purpose.
The request was made in accordance with the estimate furnished
by their engineer, who pointed out the dilapidated condition of cer-
tain sections on almost every division of the public works.
In filling positions in connection with the operation of the canals
and railroads much political favoritism was shown. In 1837 and
again in 1838 "select committees" were appointed by the house of
representatives to see if there was any ground for the numerous
■' See J. H. Rep., 18.33.34, II, p. 899.
fSee J. H. Rep., 1830-31, II, p. 160; 1833-34, III, p. 8; 1840, II, pp, 4-5,
and III, p. 17.
Solomon W. Roberts, who was employed on the state works as a civil
engineer while they were being built, said regarding the canals: "Much of the
work was badly done, and was not strong enough to withstand the occasional
floods to which it was exposed." — Pennsylvania Hist. Mag., II, p. 371.
338 A. L. Bishop — The State Worlcs of Pennsylvania.
complaints. As a result of the inquiry it was found* that frequently
engineers on locomotives and stationary engines of the Phila-
delphia and Columbia railroad were discharged to make way for
others. The latter, it was found, often knew little or nothing about
the practical operation of the engines placed under their charge. f
"In some cases the engineers were so totally ignorant of the duties
of their offices as to be obliged to learn them from their firemen and
subordinates." The committee endeavored to seek out the cause
for such 'practices on the part of the canal commissioners. The
evidence prompted them to report that such removals and appoint-
ments had been made in many instances on political grounds alone.
Keferring to the main line of canal, the committee stated: "In-
stances of extravagance, neglect, and incompetency on the part of
those to whom this important line was entrusted have been proved,
as well as a disposition to favor certain individuals, altogether
incompatible with the public interest. Amongst other evidence
of the incapacity of agents proved to the satisfaction of the
committee, they would name that a supervisor was sent to the Juni-
ata division who knew so little about a canal that he could not tell
the difference between an aqueduct and a culvert."
The method of accounting practiced by the canal commissioners
is, in some respects, open to adverse criticism. Whether or not the
system used was devised for the purpose of misleading the public,
the fact is that it did. Before continuing the discussion of those
corrupt practices, which more properly fall within the scope of this
chapter, an examination will be made of some of the questionable
features in the accounting system of the canal boards.
The cost of the several portions of the main line of works when
completed, equipped and brought into use was as follows : —
Philadelphia and Columbia railroad (report of 1836) $3,330,127.55
Eastern division of canal (report of 1836) 1,347,014.40
Juniata division (report of 1830) 3,036,290.13^
Portage railroad (report of 1836) ..." 1,634,357.69
Western division (report of 1830, which included extensive
repairs) 2,758,917.71
Total $12,106,707.48^
*
Se« J. H. Rep., 1836-37, II, pp. 801, 802, et seq. for the report of a select
committee relative to tlie management of the canals and railways of the
commonwealth.
fin the report of the canal commissioners for 1839 it was stated that out
of twenty-seven engines on the Philadelphia and Oohunbia railroad, the new
administration found only five that were fit for use. Tliis was due, to a large
extent, to the drivers not knowing how to keep the engines in repair.
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 239
The cost of tlie same sections at the time of their sale, as shown
by the reports of the auditor general and. state treasurer, was as
follows : —
Philadelpliia and Columbia railroad $5,277,278.00
Eastern division of canal 1,737,285.00
Juniata division 3,575,966.00
Portage railroad 2,708,672.00
Western division 3,173,434.00
Total $16,472,6351.00
From the above it appears that there was added to the cost of the
main line after its completion the sum of $4,365,927,511/2. Simi-
larly, a detailed statement of the original and final cost of the lat-
eral works (see page 284) shows an increase of the latter over the
former of $904,468.66. In both cases, this increase admits of expla-
nation. The expenditures were divided into two classes, ordinary
and extraordinary. The former included only such items as were
clearly chargeable to the current yearly expenses- and represent the
"expenditures" shown in the tabular statement in Appendix VI.
The appropriations for repairing breaches, damages by floods,
renewals of locks and dams, and numerous other items were placed
in the extraordinary list and added to the original cost of the works.
By this means the cost of the main line and lateral branches by the
time of their sale had increased, as we have seen, $4,365,927,511/^
and $904,468.66 respectively.
Another feature of the accounting system of the canal commis-
sioners resulted in suppressing the whole truth regarding the cost
of, and expenditures upon, the various section^ of the works. Their
own expenses, those of the boards of appraisers, the salaries of
collectors, weighmasters, and lock-keepers, and the cost of the var-
ious exploratory surveys did not appear in their financial reports.
Consequently all such statements which showed the yearly profits
obtained in operating any section were made just as if no expense
had been incurred for any or all of the above items. Yet,
from 1826 to 1858, they amounted to about two and one quarter
millions of dollars.
In order to illustrate the way in which the accounting of the
canal commissioners misrepresented the actual financial conditions
of the public works, a comparison will now be made of their
240 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
accounts and those of the auditor general of the state for the year
1856.* The latter reported the expenses of all the public works
as follows : —
Expenses $1,943,890.82
Damages paid 52,281.21
Old debts paid 130,512.09
Total $2,126,690.12
The canal commissioners retui-nc<i the total expenses at 1,076,685.14
Difference between the two statements $1,050,004.98
During the same year, the expenses of the main line alone,
excluding the amount charged to construction account, were, accord-
ing to the auditor general, $1,212,536.80. The canal commissioners
reported them to have been $840,377.03, a difference of $372,159.77.
Again, the canal board represented that, in 1856, the net profits
of the main line were $382,596.42. If, howeverj, we take into con-
sideration all the ordinary disbursements including those referred
to on page 239, the net profits are reduced to $10,436.75. But in
order to leave as a balance even this amount, it is necessary to omit
the following expenses connected with the main line in 1856 : —
$268,396.76 for a new track for the Philadelphia and Columbia rail-
road; $181,496.74 on the ISTew Portage railroad; and the interest on
$16,472,634.15, which was the cost of the main line to this date.
The results shown in 1856 by the canal commissioners in their
system of accounting were, doubtless, no more misleading than
they were in any other year that might have been chosen. Conse-
quently it seems but fair to say that the continued practice of this
method of accounting, which so effectively concealed the unsound
financial conditions of the public works, lays the various boards of
canal commissioners open to adverse criticism of no mild nature.
It would extend this chapter much beyond its appropriate
iDounds to detail all of the ways in which unscrupulous employees
on the public works betrayed the trusts of their offices. However,
a summary of abuses other than those already mentioned, some of
which seem to have been perpetrated time and time again, will
suffice to show that no possible chance to defraud the public seems
to have been overlooked. Positive proof was obtained to substan-
See Letters on the Sale of tlie Main Line, pp. 10 12.
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 241
tiate the following cliarges of attempts to defraud the common-
wealth : — *
1. That time was charged for work that was not performed.
2. That teams were charged in the name of persons who had no
teams on the work, and, in some instances, the amount of the charge
was receipted for without the knowledge or consent of the person
in whose name the account was kept.
3. That teams were charged at full or high prices, although
the driver's time was charged in a separate account.
4. That public teams were freely donated for the use of private
individuals and political partisans, and that their time on such
occasions was charged on the check-roll.
5. That at certain times a large amount of money was expended
for getting hands on the works to replace those who had been dis-
charged "for opinion's sake."
6. That extra time was added to the check-rolls, at the will
of those having charge, to cover the expense of bringing hands from
a distance, although large amounts were returned by bill for the
same service.
7. That time was continued for hands and teams after they had
left the works.
8. That articles never purchased for the works, nor used on
them, were charged up to the state.
9. That many persons were induced to receipt for money which
they never received, and to which they had no claims.
10. That bribery was attempted for the purpose of procuring
the public funds, and actually took place to secure favorable
legislation.
11. That lumber and other articles were purchased to be deliv-
ered on the line of works at a given place and at a fixed price. The
contractor, however, charged the commonwealth with the daily
pay of the teams employed to deliver the goods. Furthermore in
one case, at least, the charge for a teamster was $2 per day more
than the teamster received, notwithstanding the fact that the bill
therefor was paid largely out of the contractor's store.
12. That officers and workmen received pay and travelling
expenses while in other parts of the state attending elections.
13. That many persons were hired at high salaries who were
neither foremen nor skilled mechanics.
14. That foremen and others, while engaged in the public ser-
vice, bought and slaughtered cattle, using the state teams "and
laborers when they so desired, and supplied the line with meat
at a high price.
* See J. H. Hep.. 1840, II, pp. 2.34-5, which contains a report of fraudulent
accounts submitted to the auditor general. See also J. H. Rep., 1841, II, p.
547. .
242 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
15. That provisions were charged to the commonwealth at a
figure much in advance of the prices current in the markets,
16. That for months one of the supervisors charged the state
for the services of three yoke of oxen at $12 per day, exclusive
of the driver, although it was shown that he had but two yoke;
that for weeks in succession hut one yoke of oxen was engaged on the
works; that $6.25 a day was charged by the same person for a
two-horse team and driver, which were employed for the greater
part of the time in his private use,
17. That a large amount of whiskey was charged to the common-
wealth.
18. That blank check-rolls furnished by the state for the
keeping of accounts were often mutilated. Headings and cer-
tificates were cut off and others attached by wafers leaving it
uncertain in what condition the papers were when sworn to, and, in
the words of the auditor general, "whether teams at $6 or $8 were
not substituted for hands at 95 cents per day, or whether one individ-
ual may not have signed for others."
19. That allowances were made by the canal commissioners for
damages, the claims for which had already been settled in full
and releases executed therefor and filed in the auditor general's
ofiice.*
20. That the expenditures for wood alone in the engines on
the state railways rose from $19,217.50 and $26,174.78 in 1850 and
1851 respectively to $107,255.28 and $108,643.17 during the two
following years, with no explanation for the increased expenditure.!
Before concluding, it seems in order briefly to quote the opinions
of certain persons intimately acquainted with the management of
the public works regarding some general aspects of the questions
discussed in this chapter. A select 'committee of the senate, in
reporting upon various matters concerning the state improvements
in 1854, summarized the case regarding corruption as follows: —
"The officials and agents of the system, whose name is legion,
extend to all parts of the commonwealth, — a vast engine of polit-
* See J. H. Hep., 1838-39, II, part II, pp. 11-14. Here is recorded the case
of J. Andrew Sluilze, who on January 2d, 1835, received $700 as damages
and on September 17th, 1838, he was again allowed $1,500 for practically the
same damages for which the $700 was "a full indemnification." This was
brought out in an investigation made by a committee appointed by the Hotise
of Representatives to inquire into the conduct of the canal commissioners.
f The conclusion arrived at by a commission appointed to examine the
affairs of the main line was that the frauds practiced in 1852 and 1853 were
excessive, although the investigation failed to bring to light the perpetrators
of the acts.
A. L. Bishop — The State Worhs of Pennsylvania. 243
ical power, unknown to the constitution, moved by common
impulse, and operating upon the public mind at any time they are
so disposed, in state conventions and at the ballot box, in solid
column, and with almost irresistible sway. But it is not as a
dangerous political machine that it is viewed in its worst aspects,
nor as an exhausting drain upon the public purse; its malign
influences upon the morals of the community are even more to be
dreaded than all other evils, and powerfully cooperate to make it a
festering disease upon the public. At every stage, complaints have
been made of the extravagance, fraud, and speculation in the con-
duct of the works, and the most honorable agents have been stig-
matized with odium by an indignant public, smarting under the
known abuses and heavy burthens they have generated. Attempts
to reform, however loudly professed and honestly made, have
been unavailing to eradicate evils inherent in the system. . . .
That practices at war with the established systems of political
economy have resulted in debt, taxation, extravagance, mortifica-
tion and disappointment is a misfortune. Had the object of this
anomalous system been to destroy and not to build up the revenues
and the morals of the state, it could not have been more ingeniously
devised."*
Again, William Bender AVilson, in his "History of the Pennsyl-
vania Eailroad Company," in speaking of the public works, said :• — f
"Millions of wealth were squandered in construction, the
public were punished or rewarded as they denounced or sided with
those in position, employees were plundered by so-called assess-
ments, and the ballot-box polluted for the purpose of perpetuating
power. All the avenues of government were completely corrupted,
* Eeport upon the Public Works of a Select Committee — read in the Senate,'
February 4th, 1854, aiid found in L^slative Documents, 1854, p. 329.
A pamphlet published at Philadelphia in 1857 consisting of a series of
letters oi'iginally published in the Philadelphia Evening Bulletin advocating
the sale of the main line contained, page 47, the following: "A well managed
commonwealth never corrupts her children. Yet on Pennsylvania's public
improvements thousands of employees have wrecked their characters, and
hundreds of her most promising sons have had sad and real reason to curse
the day they ever learned that Pennsylvania had a line of railroad or canal
on which to seduce to crime. Under the necessarily loose and irresponsible
mode of transacting business upon these works, this evil has been, and is
being done. While the works remain in her hands, they will be the home of
partisans and swindlers who ^^•ill ruin themselves, disgrace the state, and
spread a moral desolation among the people. Change of administration does
not cure the evil. It is inherent in the thing, and will be manifested while
human nature remains as prone to evil as at present."
t Vol. I, p. 40.
244 A. L. Bishop — The State Woi-ks of Pennsylvania.
state credit collapsed, and the public improvements of Pennsylvania
became public scandal. ... It was not an infrequent occur-
rence on election day to see the gravel train loaded down with men
moving from toAvn to town vnth the scarcely disguised intention of
polluting the ballot-box — repeating at the polls became the rule
along the line, and waiting in expectation for the gravel train to
come in was the occupation on election day of the local adherent
of the railroad boss. Personally, I have seen the paymaster, after
requiring the employee to sign the pay-roll for the full amount
of his pay, count out the amount, less ten per cent., and without a
word of comment unblushingly take the latter and put it in a bag
made for the purpose, and labelled 'Political Assessments.' The
public service became gorged with the friends and adherents of
those in power, whose principal duty seemed to be to sign the pay-
rolls, submit to assessments and vote the ticket handed to them."
In spite of the Avidespread operation of fraudulent and corrupt
practices, as shown above, it should be added that these charges,
by no means, applied to the employees on the state works in toto.
On the contrary, there is every reason to believe that scores of
honest and efficient officials discharged their duties in a manner
highly creditable both to themselves and to their country. In
fact, the findings of committees appointed to investigate charges of
corruption on the part of certain state officials exonerated beyond
question various employees who had been placed under the ban of
suspicion by disappointed office-seekers. Again it may be said
that, granting the widespread operation of corruption that existed
under state ownership and control, we have no assurance that there
would have been any greater purity under corporate management.
However this might have been, the case seems perfectly clear that,
throughout the greater part of their history, the public works were
used by the political party in power as an invaluable instrument
of political corruption, destroying the morals of citizens and squan-
dering the resources of the state. Consequently, those who are
abashed by the present-day disclosures of corruption in the manage-
ment of cities and powerful corporations, and who therefore sigh
for the "good old days" of political purity, have to face the fact
that these did not exist in Pennsylvania at least during the period
of state ownership and control of the public works. jN^or can the
advocates of the extension of state enjterprise into various fields of
activity at present considered dangerously corruptible find much
to substantiate their views by an examination of the same period.
A. L. Bishop — The State Worhs of Pennsylvania. 245
Chapter VI. — The Disposal of the Public Works.
The movement for the withdrawal of the state from the owner-
ship and operation of the public works originated during the years
of financial embarrassment between 1&39 and 1844. At this time
numerous arguments were brought forward in the press, in pam-
phlets and in petitions showing why the divorce of the state from the
transportation system was desirable. In attempting to arrive at
the causes for such a complete change of public sentiment one finds
a variety of influences appearing. The utter financial failure of
the improvements has already been fully discussed. This was
one of the strongest contributing factors to the movement under
consideration; for at this time the financial difficulties were
attributed largely to the squandering of money upon works which
were neither yielding nor could be expected to yield a respectable
revenue. Again, bad management and corruption combined to
make the improvement system unpopular. Moreover, there was now
a gradual awakening to the fact that the only means of preserving
the state's honor was heavy taxation. A sale of the public Avorks
would not only lighten this burden but also diminish the debt and
assure the public that the latter would not be further increased.
These considerations, detrimental to the popularity of the trans-
portation system even in times of , commercial expansion, became
increasingly so as the public mind became depressed. Pennsylvania,
in common with the rest of the country, was laboring under one of
those financial convulsions which sometimes overtake communities
and prostrate the energies of the strongest. Under such conditions
it seems natural that, for the reasons already mentioned, a large
party should be desirous of relinquishing the improvement "system.
But still another factor which considerably influenced the movement
should not be overlooked. This was the growing consciousness
that the main line in particular had failed to accomplish its pur-
pose— that it could not compete successfully with the Erie canal
for the trade of the West. This point now requires some attention
before the movement itself is discussed.
The trunk line of Pennsylvania's public works was opened in
1834 to compete for a trade which for nine years had been prac-
tically monopolized by the Erie canal. Again, a large proportion
of the most important public improvements of the northwest were
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 18 Nov., 1907
246 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
built so as to connect with this line.* It should be mentioned, how-
ever, that not long after the main line of Pennsylvania's public
works Avas completed it Avas connected with the Ohio and Erie
canal.f Thus two routes to the tide-waters of the East were available
for the shippers along the Ohio and Erie canal and its branches.
Although the route to Philadelphia \aa Pittsburg and Pennsyl-
vania's public Avorks was from 200 to 300 miles shorter than to K^cav
York via Lake Erie and the Erie canal, yet most of the traffic
going East took the latter route, Avhich was much easier and cheaper
than the former. J The advantage in distance gained by going
through Pennsylvania was more than offset by the broken character
of the transportation line.§ For through freight had to be trans-
shipped to overtop the Allegheny mountain, again at Hollidaysburg,
* In 1832 the State of Ohio opened through her own territory two lines of
canals, — one from Portsmouth on the Ohio river to Cleveland, the other
from Cincinnati to Toledo. Of the products of the country adjacent to these
canals it may be said, in geiiieral, that breadstufTs sought their outlet through
the Erie canal, while provisions of all kinds went to market through New
Orleans. — See Poor, Manual of the Railroads of the United States, 1881, p.
xvii ; and Andrews, Report on Colonial and Lake Trade, p. 234.
•j-The Sandy and Beaver canal connected the Ohio and Erie canal with the
Ohio river and the state works of Pennsylvania at Pittsburg. The Mahoning
canal also united the Pennsyh'ania and Ohio canals. It extended from
Akron to the confluence of the Mahoning and Beaver rivers, where it met
the Beaver division of the Pennsylvania canal.
ij: See Andrews, Report on Colonial and Lake Trade, pp. 240 and 262 ;
Report of Canal Commissioners, Jan. 15t.h, 1842, in J. H. Rep., 1842, III, p.
42; and Hunt's Mer. Mag., XXIII, November, 1850, pp. 481) and 500.
Until 1830 or 1840 the tonnage and value of the exports from the north-
west were small, the surplus products being largely consumed hy the growing
population. After this time the j-esources of the west were rapidly developed.
The total number of tons of commodities arriving at tide-water from the
western states via the Erie canal iiicrc.ised from 83,233 in 1838 to 1,213,690
in 1853.
§ "The chain which was to bind Philadelphia with the west was not con-
tinuous and unbroken, composed of intermingling and welded links, but
severed, disjointed, fragmentary. It was an amphibious connection of land
and water, consisting of two railways separated by canal, and of two canals
separated by railway, — happily elucidating the defects peculiar to both modes
of transit, with the advantages of neither. This improvement being useless
as a competitor of tbe Erie canal, disappointed private hope in the benefits
promised, and pul)lic hope in the unprofitable burden imposed. The com-
monwealth, oppressed by her debt, and the citizens impoverished by their
losses, the western trade alienated and the foreign trade neglected and dimin-
ishing, Pennsylvania presented the reverse side of her early picture — one not
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 247
and finally from the canal boats to the cars at Columbia. The
freight was handled by transportation companies which fixed the
freight rates. N^o matter how small the business of the individual
concerns might be, each had to have available both cars and boats.
Moreovei", five sets of depots and agents were necessary, located at
Philadelphia, Columbia, Hollidaysburg, Johnstown and Pittsburg.
Hence it can readily be seen that the fixed expenses of these carriers
were necessarily heavy. This fact was strongly reflected in the
freight rates. These were placed at such a high figure that, for
through traffic, the Erie canal had a decided advantage; for,
owing to the unbroken and even character of its route as compared
with the main line through Pennsylvania, the transportation
companies on the former line could make a fair profit at lower
freight rates than those which prevailed on the latter.* Moreover,
the transportation companies operating between Pittsburg and Phil-
pleasing to contemplate, bnt, I pre.sume, less painful and humiliating in the
remembrance and retrospect, than in the experience and reality." — Tyson,
Letters on the Resources and Commerce of Philadelphia, p. 14.
* The following statement was made by a gentleman who for a number
of years was engaged extensively in transportation, both in Pennsylvania and
in New York: — "The chaige for transporting merchandise from New York
to Albany, 160 miles on the river, by the use of steam tow boats, is about
the same as for 2() miles of canal.
"Tlie distance from Philadelphia to Pittsburg (399 miles by main line) is
equal to 600 miles of canal. To keep up a daily line of freight boats, there
is a dead loss of about .$15,000 when compared witli the Erie canal of New
York. The agency and storeroom at Philadelphia, Columbia, Hollidays-
burg, Johnstown and Pittsburg cost about $20,000, while these expenses on
the New York canal do not exceed $5,000."— J. H. Rep., 1838.39, III, p. 514.
Another transporter who owned one of the important lines stated: — "At a
living profit we find that v/e can carry 100 pounds 100 miles for 25 cents on
the canal, for 50 cents on the railroad, and for $1.00 on the turnpike roads.
Tliis is the result of fi^'e years heavy business in the three modes of convey-
ance. The three trans-shipments, viz. — at Columbia, Hollidaysburg, and
Johnstown, equal the expenses of 50 miles of canal. Our line averaging
one and one-half boats per day, say 4,000 tons westward and 3,500 eastward,
costs for agency and storeroom at Philadelphia, $8,000; at Columbia, Holli-
daysl)urg and Johnstown, $3,000 each; and at Pittsburg, $7,000; total
$24,000. Equivalent distance from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, 562 miles." —
J. H. Rep., 1838-39, III, p. 518.
"The question is not whether the Juniata or the West Branch shall carry
the trade, but whether we shall secure the transportation by furnishing a
cheaper and a better route, or whether the extra expense and difficulties of
the present line shall be allowed to drive the trade ovit of the state.
248 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
adelphia frequently entered into agreements to charge excessively
high rates during the first few weeks of the season before the Erie
canal was open. This policy resulted in a somewhat general
avoidance of this route for through traffic when other lines became
accessible.
Hence the main line of Pennsylvania's transportation system
failed to secure the trade of the West. This fact was freely admitted
by the canal commissioners, legislators and others.* It would be an
interesting matter, however, to compare in tonnage and value the
movement of commodities upon the Erie and Pennsylvania canals
from the West to tide-water and vice versa. Unfortunately this can-
not be done with any degree of accuracy; for the returns of the
latter line as contained in the reports of the canal commissioners do
not furnish the necessary data. Owing to the lack of classification,
it is not possible to distinguish the local from the through tonnage or
the quantity or value of the commodities received from and going
to other states as shown by the reports of traffic on the Erie canal.
The returns show only a small movement eastward over the Portage
railroad. Probably this indicates fairly correctly the through
movement. The westbound traffic passing over the same railroad
was larger both in tonnage and valuef — the opposite of what was
anticipated when the main line was being built.
The principal causes which gave rise to the popular movement for
the disposal of the state Avorks having noAv been considered, attention
By the present interniptcd communication there is great irregularity as to
time. Tlie machinery is loo complicated for an extensive trade. Articles
that belong to the same individual become divided, sometimes damaged by
the frequent changes, sometimes lost. There is a rigidity in the system that
does not admit of changing according to the changes of trade with the
season." — From report of B. Aycrigg, Civil Engineer, made to the legislature,
in J. H. Rep., 18.38-9, III, p. 523.
* See Baker, Relative Commercial Progress of New York and Philadelphia,
p. 23; Tyson, Letters on the Resources and Commerce of Philadelphia, p. 14;
Hunt's Mer. Mag., XXV, 1856, p. 140; J. H. Rep., 1842, III, p. 42.
f About 30,000 tons of various kinds of commercial commodities were taken
over the Allegheny mountains in wagons annually from 1818 to 1824.
Though it is not definitely stated in the reference it suggests that this figure
represented the tonnage going westwa.rd. — See J. H. Rep., 1824-25, II, p. 280.
In 1836 the westbound freight carried over the Portage railroad was 29,740
tons, while passing eastward the amoimt was 15,439 tons. The total freight
going east and west, weighed at Hollidaysburg, was, in 1844, 65,870 tons: in
1845, 83,072 tons; in 1854, 73,000 tons. The movement from the western
states to tide-water by the Erie canal during the same years was in 1836,
A. L. Bishop — The State WorJcs of Pennsylvania. 249
will be directed to the movement itself. Tlie actual result of the
public sentiment was that the legislature at once undertook to dis-
pose of the state works. The Erie extension soon passed into pri-
vate hands, and that too without any monetary consideration. The
transfer Avas provided for by "An Act to incorporate the Erie
Canal Company," approved on the 7th of March, 1843. It was
authorized that, upon the granting of letters patent to this com-
pany,* the uncompleted canal from Erie to the mouth of Beaver
river on the Ohio, also the French Creek feeder, should be vested
in the new corporation. It was further provided among other
things that the Beaver division, which extended from ISTewcastle to
the Ohio river, should not be surrendered until the line from New-
castle to Erie was completed and in actual use throughout its
whole length. ^Accordingly the company undertook immediately the
work of completion. Upwards of $575,000 were expended in
repairs, renewals and extensions. f. On December 2d, 1844, a boat
was passed through the outlet lock into the basin at Erie after
traversing the entire length of the canal from the Ohio river. The
terms of the act of incorporation having thus been fully complied
with, the Beaver division was officially surrendered to the com-
pany on January 1st, 1845. :|: Apparently the transfer was not
opposed by any persons excepting the canal commissioners. §
54,219 tons; in 1844, 308,025 tons; in 1845, 304,551 tons; in 1854, 1,100,526
tons. The amount of mereliandise which went to the western states over the
Erie canal was in 1837, 38,893 tons; in 1844, 37,335 tons; in 1845, 42,415
tons; in 1854, 261,752 tons.
For a complete classified movement of east and west tonnage on the Erie
Canal see Poor, Manual of the Railroads of the United States, 1881, p. xv.
"The Erie Canal C''ompany was capitalized at $500,000. Tliere were to
be 10,000 shares having a par value of $50 each. It was provided that 1,000
shares should be subscribed and paid for before letters patent should be
issued 'by the governor to the company.
f See the compan;^''s reports in J. H. Rep., 1844 and 1845, II, pp. 119 and
231 respectively.
X When the rest of the public works were disposed of the Erie Canal Com-
pany had paid no dividends to the stockholders. Bonds were issued in 1845.'
The interest payments were very irregular. In 1859, $556,715 interest was
overdue. See Poor, Railroads of the United States, I, p. 555.
§ By Act of March 13th, 1845, the Wiconisco Canal Company was incor-
porated to take over the unfinished works of the Wiconisco section of the
state works. No monetary consideration seems to have been paid. The state
had expended upon this work before the transfer was made the sum of
$393,441.
250 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
Before tliis gratuitous disposal had been arranged, the governor
of the state, by Act of July 27th, 1842, was authorized to receive
bids for any or all of the various sections of the canals and rail-
ways.* An offer of $3,000,000 for the Philadelphia and Columbia
railroad Avith all its fixtures, and of $10,000 for the outlet lock at
Portsmouth were the only ones received. Neither of these bids
was considered.
When the legislature met in 1844, it was clear that public senti-
ment regarding the works was still unchanged. Accordingly on
April 29, an Act was passedf embodying a plan to dispose of the
trunk line from Philadelphia to Pittsburg for $20,000,000. A
company capitalized at this amount was to be incorporated to take
over the works. It was to be called ''The Pennsylvania Canal and
Railroad Company." There were to be 200,000 shares having the
par value of $100 each. Commissioners were named to sell
the stocks at pviblic auction at the Merchants' Exchange in Phil-
adelphia. Purchasers might pay the amounts of their subscriptions
either in lawful money or in state stocks.
The thirtieth section of the act provided that, at the next general
election, an opportunity should be given to the qualified voters of
the state to register their wishes regarding the proposition to sell
the main line on the conditions mentioned above. On the 8th
of October, 1844, the election was held and a majority of 25,150$
was given for the sale. Accordingly the commissioners advertised a
sale of the stock of the proposed company to commence on January
20th, 1845. 'No subscriptions were received at that time, however,
and a continuation of the sale at subsequent dates resulted in no
better success. Doubtless the high price fixed for the main line was
the cause. § That the people appreciated this fact is shown by
the numerous petitions at once forwarded to the legislature, which
was then in session, praying that the price be reduced to a more
inviting figure. These were referred to the house committee on
ways and means. The latter reported against any further legisla-
tive action at that time. 1 1 It was felt bv the committee that the
* LaAvs of Pennsylvania, 1842, p. 447.
fLaws of Pennsylvania, 1844, p. 486. — "An Act to reduce the state debt
and to incorporate The Pennsylvania Canal and Railroad Company."
I The votes stood as follows: — 149,748 for the sale and 124,598 against it.
See J. H. Rep., 1847, II, p. 266.
§ See J. H. Rep., 1845, II, p. 545.
II The report is contained in J. H. Rep., 1845, II, pp. 544-47.
A. L. Bishop— The State Worhs of Pennsylvania. 251
price as fixed by the Act of April 29th was not too high and that
to place the works in the hands of a corporation would be an exceed-
ingly dangerous move. Accordingly the legislature, for the time
being, made no further attempt to effect a sale. It is difficult to
say to what extent the fear of corporate power influenced the sub-
sidence of the popular agitation. Certainly in 1844, when a large
majority was given in favor of selling the works, it was known
that, in case of a sale, they must pass into the hands of a corpor-
ation. Yet it should be remembered that, on account of the recent
financial embarrassment, the public mind was temporarily in a
most depressed condition ; and that any means by which the debt
could be diminished and expenses reduced would be anxiously
sought. But by the time the committee on ways and means had
reported in 1845 general prosperity was returning. Moreover,
the dismissal of a large number of superfluous employees on the
works; the adoption of a policy of non-extension; the general
practice of economy wherever possible ; and a diminished amount of
corruption,* all combined to allay, for the time being, the agitation
for the sale. Consequently, during the next few years, this matter
seems to have received but little attention.
Meanwhile another movement began to manifest itself. As a
medium for competing for the trade of the West, the state works
Avere, as has been seen, a complete failure. Various improvements,
however, had now developed a method of transportation to which the
Allegheny mountain should be a less formidable barrier than it had
been twenty years earlier when the public works were about to be
built. It seemed necessary for Pennsylvania to take advantage of
these improvements and build an all-rail line to the West. For, on
the north, the Erie canal, as has been seen, had secured to J^ew
York a large proportion of the commerce passing to and fro between
the seaboard and the West. Also, in the south, the Baltimore and
Ohio Railroad Company was threatening to divert the rest to
Baltimore. In the face of these conditions, the commercial classes
of Philadelphia threw themselves into the movement for the con-
struction of a railroad to the Ohio valley.
When the legislature met at Harrisburg in January, 1846, many
influential citizens of both Philadelphia and Baltimore were on
hand to secure legislation favoring their respective cities. Those
* See Exec. Does., 1846, p. 9. of Governor's message.
252 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
from Philadelphia asked for authority to build a railroad from
"Harrisburg to Pittsburg. The representatives from Baltimore
sought to secure a renewal of the lapsed privileges to extend the
Baltimore and Ohio from Cumberland, Maryland, through Penn-
sylvania to Pittsburg.* The outcome was the passage of two bills —
one incorporating the Pennsylvania Railroad Company by Act
of April 13th, 1846 ;f the other, approved eight days later, granting
the above-mentioned concession to the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad
Company.^ The latter, however, was subject to the folloAving
proviso : —
"That if the legislature, during its present session, should pass an
act incorporating a company with authority to construct a railroad
from Harrisburg to Pittsburg within the limits of this state, and
$3,000,000 should be bona fide subscribed to the stock of the said
sompany, and ten per cent, on each share be actually paid in, and
letters patent be issued by the governor, in conformity to the pro-
visions of said act, within one year from the passage thereof; and
if thirty miles or more of said railroad should be put under contract
for construction, and satisfactory evidence thereof be furnished to
the governor *on or before the said thirtieth day of July, 1847, then,
in that case, the governor shall issue his proclamation setting forth
that fact, and thereupon this act granting the right of way to the
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company to extend their road through
this state to the Ohio river at Pittsburg shall be null and void."§
The "pride and commercial necessities" of the citizens of Phila-
delphia were now appealed to and after some difficulty the require-
ments of the law were met. The Pennsylvania Railroad Company
was chartered on the 25th of February, 1847, and thus the con-
ditional privileges granted to the Baltimore and Ohio became void.
When the question of incorporating the Pennsylvania Railroad
Company was under consideration, one of the strongest objections
raised was that a railway line would divert business from the public
works. In order to furnish the latter with adequate protection, the
act of incorporation provided that a tax of five mills per ton-mile
should be imposed upon all freight received at Harrisburg, Pittsburg
* For a full discussion of the facts relating to the origin of the Pennsylva-
nia Railroad Company see Wilson, Hist, of the Pennsylvania Railroad Com-
pany, I, pp. 1-G.
f Laws of Pennsylvania, 1846, p. 312.
% Laws of Pennsylvania, 1846, p. 448.
§ Laws of Pennsylvania, 1846, p. 449.
A. L. Bishop — The State Worhs of Pennsylvania. 253
or intermediate points and carried more tlian twenty miles.*
According to the original enactment, this tonnage tax was to be
collected only during the months when the canal was being navi-
gated, viz. — from March 10th to December 1st. By Act of March
27th, 1848, the rate was changed to three mills, to be collected
throughout the whole year.f When the Pennsylvania railroad
was opened for traffic, it was soon found that no injury was done
to the business of the public works. Accordingly, the plea that the
tonnage tax was necessary for their protection ceased to be urged,
but its continuance was defended on the ground that the state needed
the revenue. $ The real competition for the trade of the West was
beyond the sphere of the canal, and the Pennsylvania railroad was
the only means by which the fraction of the western trade not
yet diverted into other channels could be retained for Philadelphia.
The evils connected with the management of the public works
which, as has been mentioned, were partially eliminated in 1844-45,
soon began to reappear. This fact was brought to the attention
of the legislature by Governor Johnson through his message in 1850.
Moreover, investigating committees brought to light many suspected
abuses. Soon the popular agitation for the sale of the improvement
system was revived. In this connection the principal arguments
now advanced were — the necessity of reducing the state debt so that
there might be relief from high taxation; the greater efficiency'
and economy of management under private ownership ; the excessive
frauds practised upon the commonwealth; and the oft-repeated
fact that, even before improvements in the methods of transporta-
tion had placed the state works out of the race, the main line, at
least, had failed of its purpose.
* A tax had been levied iipcn the traffic of the central line of railway in
New York state extending from Bufl'alo to Albany. The object of its imposi- ,
tion was to protect the Erie canal and prevent the diversion of trade from
this improvement. This act on the part of New York no doubt influenced
the legislature of Pennsylvania in imposing a similar tax on the tonnage
of the Pennsylvania railroad. An act to abolish state tolls on railroads in
New York was passed on July 10th, 1851. See the Fifth Annual Report of
the Directors of the Pennsylvania Railroad, February 2d, 1852.
f See Exec. Docs., ISolJ, Governor's message, p. 6. It should be mentioned
that by Act of May 7th, 1855, lumber and coal were exempted from the tax.
% See Exec. Docs., 1854, p. 10, of Governor's message.
254 A. L. Bishop — TJip State Worls of Pennsylvania.
The movement continued apace and successive governors, in their
annual messages, discussed the various phases of the question in
a manner which was largely non-committal. At length a select
committee of the senate was appointed early in 1854 to review the
whole matter. Their report of February 4th strongly insisted that
public opinion, correct policy and sound morals justified and
demanded a sale. "A total and complete emancipation from all
the works" was urged.*
In accordance with the above suggestion, an Act of April 27th,
1854, provided for the sale of the trunk line from Philadelphia to
Pittsburg.f To this end sealed tenders were asked for. ISTo bid
less than $10,000,000 would be considered. This figure, it will be
remembered, was just one-half of the minimum price that was fixed
for the same works ten years earlier. Although the advertisement
for tenders was continued for several months, no bids were received.
The canal commissioners in their report for 1854 did not discuss at
all the quesfion of making the sale, but they merely suggested that
some decisive action should be taken so as to put an end to the sus-
pense which was impairing the revenue derived from the works. ij:
A persistent determination on the part of the legislature to effect
a sale was shown by an Act of May 8th, of the following year.§ It
was now provided that the main line should be offered at public
auction in Philadelphia for not less than $7,500,000. It was also
arranged that, in case no sale should then be made, "the governor
should invite proposals for the pui'chase or lease of said works."
However, w^hen the auction was held in July, 1855, they were not
sold because "the logical purchaser, the Pennsylvania Railroad
Company, would not bid under the terms and conditions of the
sale." 1 1 A few months later, however, the president of that com-
* See Leg. Docs., 1854, p. 328.
•j- Laws of Pennsylvania, 1854, p. 520.
J Exec. Docs., 1855, R,eport of Canal Commissioners, p. 22.
§ Laws of Pennsylvania, 1855, p. 521.
II Wilson, History of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, I, p. 46.
'I'ho Act of May 8th, 1855, provided that the purchise money should be paid
in yearly instalments of $1,000,000 each. It seems reasonable to believe that
the sale miglit have been made at this time had the conditions governing pay-
ment been more liberal. See Exec. Docs., 1855, p. 8 of Governor's message.
A. L. Bishop — The State TForAvs of Pennsylvania. 255
pany forwarded to the Secretary of State of the Commonwealth of
Pennsylvania the following letter : — *
Office of the Pennsylvania Railroad Co.,
Philadelphia, December 20, 1855.
To the Hon. Andrew G. Curtin, Secretary of State :
Sir : — I respectfully subnait on behalf of the Pennsylvania Rail-
road Company the following proposal for the purchase of the mair[
line of state improvements ; also, a proposal for the Columbia rail-
road only. .
For the main line from Philadelphia to the Monongahela and
Allegheny rivers including the real estate, shops, tools, engine-
houses, depots, locomotives, cars, toll-houses, lock-houses, water-
power and other property connected therewith, the sum of seven
million five hundred thousand dollars.
Payments to be made as follows: Five hundred thousand dollars
on the delivery of the works to the company, in cash or certificates
of state loan ; ten per cent, of the remainder on the thirtieth day of
July, one thousand eight hundred and seventy-five ; and ten per
cent, annually thereafter until the whole amount is paid. The
instalments unpaid to bear interest at the rate of five per cent, per
annum, payable semi-annually on the thirtieth days of January and
July of each year ; the company to have the right at any time to pay
off the whole or any portion of the purchase money, by the delivery
to the State Treasurer of an equal amount in certificates of state
loan ; the state to relinquish her right to purchase the Pennsylvania
railroad, and to repeal all laws imposing a tax on tonnage passing
over said road.
The Pennsylvania Railroad Company will further agree to keep
up the canal portion of the line east of the Allegheny mountain ;
also, that portion of the line between Blairsville and Pittsburg,
until the Northwestern railroad shall be open for business from
Blairsville to the Allegheny river.
The company will also agree to purchase the Philadelphia and
Columbia Railroad at its cost of construction, to be determined by
three eminent civil engineers, to be appointed by the state with
the concurrence of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company; upon
which sum so ascertained, they will pay forever semi-annually to
the State Treasurer an amount equivalent to the dividends paid to
the stockholders of said company on an equal portion of its capital
stock.
Very respectfully.
Your obedient servant,
J. Edgar Thompson, President.
* See Leg. Docs., 1856, p. 47.
256 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
Within a month from the time of the receipt of the above letter,
Governor Pollock submitted it to the consideration of the legislature
vi^hich was then in session. ]^o defiaite action was taken in 1856.
Again, in referring to the proposal made in 1855 by the Pennsyl-
vania Railroad Company the governor, in his message of 1857,
said: — "In relation to the propriety and policy of the sale of the
main line of our public improvements my opinion has not changed.
Every consideration of public policy, of present and future interest,
requires the separation of the state from the management and
control of these works. The expenditures on that portion of the
line between the Juniata and Pittsburg largely exceed the revenues,
the excess averaging annually not less than $150,000; and causes
are in constant operation that will still more increase this deficiency.
The continual drain on the treasury to sustain a work so unpro-
ductive should at once be checked. A sale of the main line for a
fair consideration and upon terms just and liberal to our purchasers
is the proper remedy. In connection with the payment of the
public debt, this question becomes deeply important. The sale
would constitute a new era in the financial history of the state."
The legislature forthwith proceeded to deal with the offer of the
Pennsylvania Railroad Company and again on May 16th, 1857,
an Act authorizing the sale of the main line at public auction was
passed.* A minimum price of $7,500,000 was retained. Provision
was made that, in case the above-mentioned company should buy the
line, the whole amount of the sale should be paid in its bonds bear-
ing interest at 5 per cent, per annum, payable half-yearly. These
were to be redeemed as follows : — $100,000 worth on July 31st, 1858 ;
a similar amount annually until 1890, when $1,000,000 of the bal-
ance should fall due, and the same sum each year thereafter until the
whole debt should be discharged.
The auction was held at the Merchants' Exchange, Philadelphia,
on June 25th, 1857, when the property was sold to J. Edgar Thomp-
son, acting in behalf of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company.f
Accordingly this corporation took possession of the main line of
state works on August 1st. Bonds of the company to the amount of
the purchase money were deposited with the state treasurer and
held by him for the commissioners of the sinking fund. For, by
* Laws of Pennsylvania, 1857, p. 519.
t Wilson, History of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, I, p. 48.
A. L. Bishop — The State Worlcs of Pennsylvania. 257
the twelfth section of the Act of May 16th, the entire proceeds of
the sale were required to be paid into this fund and applied to
the payment of the state debt.
The later history of what had been the main line of public works
confirms the belief that it had outgrown its usefulness when sold.
The Pennsylvania Railroad Company operated the Portage railroad
during the months of August, September and October, 1857. It
was then closed owing to the excess of expenditures over receipts,
and the traffic was transferred to the company's own line which
crossed the mountain. The loss incurred during these three months
w^as $7,220.14. The following year the new owners began dis-
mantling the Portage road and removing the materials. Most of
the rails were used in extending the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne and
Chicago railroad from Plymouth to Chicago. Many of the stone
blocks which had served as a support or foundation for the rails
were removed to Altoona and used in the masonry of the railway
shops.*
On the other hand, the Philadelphia and Columbia railroad was
still kept in use. Indeed the Pennsylvania Railroad Company had
had running privileges over it for several years previous to the date
of purchase. A large part of this work was known later as the
Philadelphia division of the Pennsylvania system.
The canals of the main line were operated as a canal department
of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company for the period of ten years.
They were found to be unprofitable, however, and were then trans-
ferred to the Pennsylvania Canal Company. They continued to
be used for a number of years but the various sections were grad-
ually abandoned. The division between Johnstown and Pittsburg
ceased to be used in 1864, the one along the Juniata in 1898, and
finally the eastern division in 1900.
In the meantime the sale of the main line had been quickly
followed by a movement for the disposal of the lateral works. In
general the arguments used in the former agitation applied equally
as well in the latter. Moreover, it was at this very time that there
was a serious depression in the business affairs of the country"}"
* Wilson. History of the Pennsylvania Eailroad Company, I, p. lo'i.
f "A sudden and severe financial revulsion has occurred. . . . Every
department of industry has felt and been disastrously affected by the shock.
Trade and commerce have been paralyzed. Many of our furnaces, rolling
mills and factories have been closed. Extensive and valuable coal operations
258 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
which crippled many individuals and firms engaged in manufactur-
ing and other industi'ial pursuits. Hence the demand for those
commodities which constituted the bulk of the traffic on the lateral
canals, viz. — coal, iron, and lumber, was now materially dimin-
ished.* While the public mind was in a morose state due to the
above conditions, the time seemed ripe for the party wliich was
anxious to sell the remainder of the improvements to precipitate
the movement already in progress. Naturally enough, the advan-
tages that would thus accrue to the state from the financial stand-
point were emphasized. Governor Pollock, in pointing out the
desirability of a sale from every point of view, stated: "In connec-
tion with the payment of the public debt and the reduction of state
taxation the question is one of more than ordinary interest." Con-
sequently, he urged the legislature to eifect a sale "at the earliest
practicable period, for a fair consideration, upon terms just and
liberal to the purchasers, and at the same time amply protective
of the rights and interests of the people."
On the 25th of February, 1858, the house committee on ways and
means reported a bill which provided for the sale of all the trans-
portation improvements still owned by the state ; also for the com-
pletion of the Sunbury and Erie railroad. Though stoutly opposed
by a respectable minority, the bill was finally passed and received
the governor's approval on April 21st, 1858."{" It authorized the
Sunbury and Erie Railroad Company to purchase all of the lateral
works for $3,500,000. Furthermore, this company was to issue
bonds to the amount of $7,000,000, bearing interest at 5 per cent,
per annum and secured by mortgage upon the whole line between
Sunbury and Erie. These to the amount of the purchase money
were to be given to the state. The rest were to be deposited with
the state treasurer and ultimately were to be surrendered to the
company under certain specified conditions which, as already
intimated, had in view the speedy completion of the road.$
have been suspended or abandoned and thousands of workmen are out of
emphjyment." — Extract from Governor Pollock's special message to the extra
session of the legislature, Oct. 6th, 1857, in Exec. Docs., 1857.
* See paore 3 of -Report of the State Engineer in Exec. Docs., 1857.
f Laws of Pennsylvania, 1858, p. 414.
i Sunbury, situated at the conduonce of the north and west branches of
the Susquehanna, was conaiectcd with Philadelphia by the state improve-
ments. With a view to regain the trade and commercial position lost by
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 259
It was provided also tliat tlie Sunbuiy and Erie Railroad Com-
pany might sell any or all of the lateral canals should it seem desir-
able to do so at a future date. This privilege was subject to the
condition that, if the works should be sold for more than $3,500,000,
thre6-fourths of the excess above this amount should be paid into
the state treasury. Subsequently all of the canals were disposed
of for the aggregate sum of $3,875,000.* Accordingly, $281,250 of
this amount were handed over to the state.
The com])lete withdrawal of the state from the ownership and
control of the transportation improvements was the cause appar-
ently of little or no regret either at the time of the sale or after-
wards. As nearly as can be estimated, the words of Governor
Packer in his message to the legislature in January, 1859, repre-
sented the prevailing feeling regarding this matter. He said: —
"I have an abiding confidence that the result will abundantly prove
the wisdom of the measure which, while it guaranteed the com-
pletion of one of the greatest improvements ever projected in the
commonAvealth, it at the same time divorced the state from the
unprofitable and demoralizing management of her canals and rail-
roads. Whatever differences of opinion may at any time have been
entertained in regard to the propriety of the details of the legis-
lation authorizing the sale of the main line or branches, it can
scarcely be doubted that the public welfare will, in every respect,
be vastly promoted by the transfer of the management of the public
works from the state to individual owners. The short experience
that we have already had proves conclusively that the commonwealth
Philadelphia on account of the Erie canal, a railroad was commeneed between
Sunbury and Lake Erie by authority of an Act of April .3d, 1837, which
chartered the Sunbury and Erie Railroad Company. Very little was done
toward building the road, however, up until the time of the sale of the public
works. It was believed that by the terms of the bill reported on February
25th, 1858, the railway would be completed. By Act of March 7th, 1861, the
name was changed to "The Philadelphia and Erie Railroad Company," and
on January 6th, 1862, it leased its property to the Pennsylvania Railroad
Company for 999 years.
* Sales were made as follows: — ^The upper and lower North Branch divi-
sions were sold to the North Branch Canal Company for .$1,600,000; the
West Branch and Susquehanna divisions to the West Branch a,nd Susque-
hanna Canal Company for .$500,000; the Delaware division to the Delaware
Canal Company for $1,775,000; total, .$.3,875,000. — See Exec. Docs., 1858,
Governor's Message, p. 6.
200 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
is greatly the gainer in a financial point of view, and it has been
equally demonstrated that the people at large have been as well if
not better accommodated by the change. It would in my judgment
be a public calamity if, by the happening of any contingency, the
commonwealth should be constrained to again become the owner
and resume the management of any portion of the public improve-
ments."* Again, the following year, the governor in referring to
the same subject commented upon the gratifying results already
shown after two years of separation from the management and
control of the canals and railways, and the consequent simplification
of governmental action. From these and other contemporary com-
ments it seems clear that the majority of the leading men of the
state united in commending the government for selling the public
works.
There being no longer any cause for the existence of the board
of canal commissioners, it was formally abolished by an Act of Jan-
uary 25th, 1859. In accordance with the provisions of this act, the
books, papers, records and all other property belonging to the canal
board were handed over to the auditor general of the state. In
his custody they remained until, by authority of an Act of February
26th, 1885, they were transferred to the Department of Internal
Affairs, where they still remain.
To-day the traveller, in going between Philadelphia and Pittsburg
via the Pennsylvania railroad, may see portions of the abandoned
state works. From the windows of the coaches gliding ■ along at
almost lightning speed, one may catch glimpses, here and there, of
the old canals and Portage railroad, which, at one time, were the
pride of the commonwealth. In the present age of wonderful mate-
rial advancement, rapid progress is made in the evolution of trans-
portation systems. Of these, one that is entirely adequate for its
purpose in any particular decade may be totally deficient in the
next. The public works of Pennsylvania, which at one time were
believed to be the highest development possible in the field of inland
transportation, had their day and. were practically abandoned in
scarcely more than twenty-five years.. These works now are rapidly
falling into decay. The Portage railroad is gradually becoming
overgrown with grasses and trees. Its wooden structures and
masonry are nothing but ruins. Along the canals the old boats may
* Exec. Docs., 1858, p. 7.
A. L. Bishop — The State WorTcs of Pennsylvania. 261
be seen at the landings where they were last used. These as well
as the timbers in the locks, are being broken up and used for fuel.
Moreover, stretches of the canals which are in evidence to-day,
tomorrow may be filled up in order to meet the ever-increasing
demands for the expansion of the Pennsylvania railway system.
At present only four canals are being operated in Pennsylvania.*
Their combined length is 240.88 miles — a small fraction of the total
mileage of the public- and private-owned works which existed
within the limits of the state during the second quiarter of the nine-
teenth century, when the principal avenues of inland transportation
were natural and artificial waterways.
APPENDICES.
Appendix I. — Memorial to the Legislature.
The following is a copy of the memorial to the Legislature of
Pennsylvania prepared and issued by the "Committee of Twenty-
four," for general circulation throughout the state. This committee
was appointed at a public convention of the citizens of the city
and county of Philadelphia held on January 24th, 1825. A full
text of this memorial is contained in the United States Gazette
of February 11th, 1825.
"To the Honorable the Senate and House of Representatives
of the ConimonAvealth of Pennsylvania, in General Assembly met,
the Memorial of the Subscribers, Citizens of
County of respectfully sheweth: —
That your Memorialists are deeply impressed with a sense of the
importance of a Canal ISTavigation in Pennsylvania, from the
Susquehanna to the Allegheny Rivers, and from the Allegheny
River to Lake Erie, and they think the work ought to be undertaken
by the State, and executed at the expense of the State, with the
least possible delay.
Your Memorialists are fully convincedthat the present is a favor-
able moment for the commencement of the work. The skill and
experience which have been developed and acquired in the prosecu-
tion of similar enterprises in the State of Pennsylvania and other
States of the Union, will ensure its efficient and economical execu-
tion; and there is no doubt that it can be better done, and upon
* DelaAvare di\-ision canal from Bristol to Easton, 60 miles: Lehigh Coal
and Xavigation from Coal Port to Easton, 48 miles; Pennsylvania canal from
^lontoursville to Selinsgrove, 43 miles; Schuylkill Xavigation from Port
Clinton to Philadelphia, 89.88 miles.
Trans. Conn. Acad.. Vol. XIII. 19 Nov., 1907.
262 .1. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
better terms, than any work of the kind heretofore undertaken in
the United States.
The abundance of capital now seeking employment, and the liigh
credit of the State, render it almost certain that the requisite
funds can be had upon very moderate terms; and, in connection
with this part of the subject, your Memorialists would beg leave to
remark, that as the money will be wanted only in proportion to the
progress of the work, the debt, which it may be necessary at any
one time to contract, will not be large ; and no very long time will
elapse before the income of the navigation will itself relieve the
State from the burden of i)roviding for the payment of interest.
They feel themselves warranted, indeed, by experience, in saying
that it will do much more; that it will soon afford the means of
gradually extinguishing the debt which may be contracted, and
make a large permanent addition to the fiscal means of the State,
and thus be highly advantageous as a mere measure of finance.
The Schuylkill ISTavigation being now happily completed, and
the Union -Canal in a state of forwardness, which leaves no doubt
that, with suitable public support and encouragement, it will soon
be finished, we may almost regard the communication between the
Delaware and the Susquehanna as already opened. From the Sus-
quehanna to the Allegheny and, Lake Erie, we are led to believe
that greater difficulties will not be found than have been encountered
and overcome in the works just mentioned ; and we are confident
there are none which the united forces of the Commonwealth, and
the means at her command, will not be sufficient easily to surmount.
The line of communication being thus extended, there will be a
continued navigation through the State of Pennsylvania, connecting
Lake Erie with the Delaware and the Ocean !
On the immense advantages to be derived from such a communica-
tion, it must be wholly superfluous to dwell. They have long
engaged the attention of many of our best and wisest citizens.
Thirty years ago the country was explored and the routes examined,
by which it Avas supposed the Eastern and Western waters might
most easily be connected, and efforts were made to commence the
work. They failed it is true, for they were perhaps .premature.
But if, with the spirit that dared at that early day to conceive so
great a design, there had been united the means which are iiow
possessed by the State there can be no doubt that their exertions
would have been cro^vned with success, and that Pennsylvania
would, at this moment, be enjoying the fruits of their patriotic
labors even far beyond what their most sanguine calculations
could have anticipated.
Without adverting to the great increase of wealth and population
which has since taken place, and the consequent increase of capacity
for great undertakings, one single fact may suffice to show the differ-
ence in our favor. At tlie period referred to, there was not a
canal in the United States. There was not, it is believed, in our
Country at that time sufficient skill in civil engineering even to
A. L. Bishop— The State Works of Pennsylvania. 263
make the necessary preliminary arrangements for cutting a canal;
or if it existed, it was entirely unknown. But now we have exam-
ples before us of canals in active and profitable operation, and in
almost every stage of progress towards completion. The mode of
constructing them, and their uses and profits when constructed,
are no longer matters of speculation, but of actual and satisfactory
experiment. At the same time, the requisite skill has been supplied
from the talents of our countrymen, who with their usual ingenuity
have invented improved methods of working, adapted to our circum-
stances, so that the State would have no difficulty at this time in
obtaining immediately, within the United States, the aid of an
adequate number of skilful and experienced engineers, to survey and
lay out a route, and direct the execution of the work, whose well-
established reputation would secure the public confidence in what-
ever plan they might adopt and recommend, and be a sufficient
guarantee to the State for its unquestionable title to preference.
To these considerations your Memorialists would add, that, since
the period referred to, the invention of steamboats by Fulton, a
native of Pennsyh^ania, has served more fully to disclose an inland
navigation towards the northwest of many hundreds of miles beyond
the town of Erie, the benefits of which would be opened to the State
of Pennsylvania by the woi-k now proposed.
But there is one consideration of such paramount importance as
to deserve, in the opinion of your Memorialists, the most serious
attention of the Legislature, and of every citizen of Pennsylvania.
It is this, — that henceforward the intercourse between the East and
West is to be carried on by means of inland navigation. This is
decided by what is already done. ISTo State, therefore, can expect
to participate largely or beneficially in this interesting intercourse,
unless she offer such a channel of communication. The cheapness
and expedition of transportation by water are so far beyond those
of any other mode of conveyance within our reach, as to put com-
petition entirely out of the question. This single fact your Memo-
rialists believe to be of sufficient weight to render all argument
superfluous, unless we are disposed to give up the well-earned
reputation of Pennsylvania, and to suffer her to fall back from her
established character and standing.
Your Memorialists would not be understood to make any invidious
comparisons, nor to indulge in unworthy jealousies, nor to endeavor
to excite unreasonable State feeling. They rejoice in the successful
efforts of our brethren in other states in the cause of internal
improvement, as a valuable contribution to the honor and strength
of the whole, and would note them only as examples to be imitated.
But they would at the same time remark, that whoever considers
with due attention the structure of the Federal Government, and
the foundation upon which it rests, must be fully and feelingly con-
vinced of this great truth, that no State performs her duty well to
the Union, that does not well perform her duty to herself.
With all the advantages possessed by Pennsylvania, in her institu-
tions, her climate, her soil, her mineral resources, her moral and
264 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
intelligent population, with the inducements offered by the interest-
ing position she occupies in the Union, and by the high social and
political obligations which she owes no less to herself than to the
Union, and to her Sister States, and which plainly require that she
should at all times endeavor to maintain her relative standing and
character, your Memorialists are confident that the public sentiments
will sustain them in urging with earnestness upon the representa-
tives of the freemen of Pennsylvania, the immediate adoption of
decisive measures for commencing the work, and prosecuting it to
completion with all the energy of the State.
And your Memorialists would fain hope that local wishes or
views will not be allowed to interfere with or retard the undertak-
ing; but that it will proceed upon enlarged principles, by the most
direct practicable route. They admit that whatever may be its
locality, the benefit will in the first instance be most felt by the
immediate neighborhood. This is unavoidable. But it is also true,
that whatever its locality, every part of the State will in some
degree feel its happy influence ; and in a little time other works will
be contrived -and executed for extending its use by lateral connec-
tions, through every quarter of the State from which it is accessible.
Your Memorialists need not insist upon the influence which the
work will have in multiplying and strengthening our connections
with the States in the West ; nor upon its happy influence in uniting
more closely the citizens of Pennsylvania and diffusing more equally
the advantages of access to markets for every sort of commodity.
As to its beneficial effects, all agree; of its practicability, no one,
we believe, now entertains a doubt; of the power of the State to
command the necessary means for its execution, we think there can
be no question. Your Memorialists, therefore, again most earnestly
request your Honourable Bodies to take the subject into your con-
sideration, and adopt the necessary measures for giving effect to
their wishes."
Appendix II. — Delegates to the Canal Convention at Harrishurg.
The following list contains the names of the delegates appointed
to represent the various counties of the State of Pennsylvania at
the Canal Convention held at Harrishurg from August 4th to 6th,
1825. Those whose names are in italics represented the opposi-
tion. This list was taken from the United States Gazette of
August 12th, 1825.
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 265
County. Delegates.
Adams — John Dickson, Samuel Sloan.
Allegheny — Ephraim Penlland, Joseph Patterson, Matthew E. Lowrie,
Haimer Deiiney.
Armstrong — Tliomas Blair.
Bedford — Jvlw. Todd, James M. Russel.
Berks — Lewis Reese, Nathaniel Hobart, Isaac Hiester, Henry S. Kline, Peter
Eckhart.
Bradford — Edward HerricJc.
Bucks^ — Samuel D. Ingluun, William Carr, John W. Wynkoop, Mathias
Morris, Henry Chapman.
Butler — John Gilmore.
Cambria — Moses Canan, John Bredin.
Centre and Clear lield — -Thomas Biimside, Francis W. Raule.
Chester — -David Townsend, Joseph Sharpe, Joshua Evans, Joshua Hunt.
Columbia — Daniel Montgomery, Christian Brobst, John McReynolds.
Crawford — John B. Wallace, Artliur Cullum.
Cunilx'rhuid — Robert McCoy. Jaeob Alter, Henry Vetliake.
Dauphin — John Forster, William Lauma,n, Silas Marsh.
Delaware — Greorge G. Lieper, Thomas Smith.
Erie^Thomas H. Sill, Giles Sanford.
Fayette — James Todd, Samuel Evans, Thomas Erwin, John Kennedy.
Franklin — Robert ^mith, Thos. H. Crairford, Geo. Chambers.
Greene— William S. Harvey, Robert Whitehill.
Huntingdon — John Scott, John Blair.
Indiana and Jeflferson — None.
Lancaster — Robert W. Houston, Thomas Neill, Hugh McCullough, James
Buchanan, Geo. B. Porter, Jaeob Peelor.
Lebanon — Nathaniel H. Loving, Joseph Barnett.
Lehigh — Henry King, Stephen Balliet, James Rodrock.
Luzerne — Jaeob Cist, Nathan Beach.
Lycoming — Robeit McClure, Andrew D. Hepburn.
Mercer — Thomas S. Cumiingham.
Mifflin— David W. Huling, Mr. Crawford.
Montgomery — Levi Pawling, Philip S. Markley, Thos. Baird, Jacob Ikwees.
Northampton — Jas. M. Porter, Wm. Broadhead, M. R. Butz.
Northumberland — Le\\is Dewart, William Tweed.
Perry — Abraham Addams.
Philadelphia — ■
City — ]Mathew Carey, John Sergeant, Manuel Eyre, Chas. J. Ingersoll, Wm.
Lehman, W^m. J. Duane.
County — George W. Ritter, Samuel Breck, Jas. Ronaldson, Samuel Hum-
])hrefys, Jacoh Holgate, Jas. A. Mahany, Joel B.
Sutherland.
Potter and Mcl^^an — Jonathan Colgrove.
Schuylkill — Thomas S. Ridgeway.
Somerset — John Gebhart, Abraham Morrison.
Susquehanna — Jabez Hyde, Jr., Frederick Baily.
Tioga — Uriah Silencer.
Union — Mr. Middleswarth, James Merril, Geo. Kremer.
Vanango — Alex. McCalmont.
Warren — -Archibald S. Tanner.
Washington — Joseph La\^'Tence, Joseph Ritner, Alex. Reed, Thomas H. Baird,
Thos. McGiffin.
Wayne and Pike — John Coalbaugh.
Westmoreland — John Yoimg, James Clarke, Andrew Boggs.
York — Chas. A. Barnitz, Samuel Martin, William Diven, George Nace, John
Gardner. Mr. Smitzer.
2G6 A. L. Bishop — The State Worls of Pennsylvania.
Appendix III. — Resolutions Passed at the Canal Convention at
Harrishurg, August 4:th to 6th, 1825.
The following resolutions were framed by a committee appointed
by the Harrisburg Convention on Internal Improvements. They
were presented to that body for consideration and after much
discussion they were adopted.*
Whereas, The great interests of the State of Pennsylvania
require that there should be a steady perseverance in improving the
resources of wealth and strength, and social comfort which abound
within her limits; and
Whereas, The time has arrived when she is called upon by
every consideration of regard for her character and standing, as
well as for her permanent prosperity and happiness, to make a
vigorous and united exertion for accomplishing, without delay, the
connection of the eastern and the western waters by a line of com-
munication within her borders ; and
Whereas, A distinct and solemn expression of the deliberate
opinion of the people is always of powerful efficacy, and is especially
fit and requisite upon an occasion like the present, where an extraor-
dinary effort is necessary for the common advantage of the whole,
the public will being the only sure authority for the undertaking
and the best pledge for its energetic and zealous prosecution ; there-
fore,
Resolved, That the improvement of the Commonwealth Avill
be best promoted, and the foundations of her prosperity and happi-
ness most securely established, by opening an entire and complete
communication within her borders, from the Susquehanna to the
Allegheny and Ohio, and from the Allegheny to Lake Erie, by the
nearest and best practicable route, and that such work is indispen-
sably necessary to maintain the character and standing of the State,
and to preserve her strength and resources.
Resolved, That the application of the resources of the State to
this undertaking ought not to be regarded as an expenditure, but
as a most beneficial investment; for its successful execution will
increase the public wealth, improve the public revenue, and greatly
enlarge the ability of the State to extend her aid to every quarter
where it may be wanted, and, at the same time, will encourage
industry, create circulation, extend trade and commerce, enhance
the value of land, and of agricultural and mineral products, and
thereby augment the means of the citizens to promote his own and
the public welfare by contributions to similar works.
* See page 184; also the footnote concerning the words struck out of the
first resolution; and the reference to an additional resolution that was
passed.
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 267
Resolved, That all local objects, tending to a diffusive and uncon-
nected application of the public means, ought, for the present, to
yield so as to allow an undivided exertion of the public strength in
this great undertaking, which is essential to its speedy and success-
ful prosecution; for, though it be certain, that, whatever may be
its location, the benefit will be most sensibly felt, in the first instance
in the immediate neighborhood, yet it is also true that its invigorat-
ing influence will pervade every part of the Commonwealth, and, in
a short time, its branches will spread in all directions, wherever
the bounty of Providence has furnished the means of access to the
great channel thus provided, and, encouraged by this example, new
channels will be successfully opened as occasion may offer, or the
public exigencies and the demands of the country may require.
Resolved, That, in our opinion, the people of Pennsylvania will
fully sustain the Legislature in all such measures as may be
necessary for effectuating this highly important and interesting
object, as we believe* them to be fully sensible to its political and
social value, and they have never refused to support, to the utmost
of their ability, what their enlightened and patriotic judgment
approved as fit to be done for the common good.
Resolved, That we regard, with satisfaction, the efforts of our
sister states to make extended improvements, and that, in our
opinion, a wise and liberal policy requires of Pennsylvania to grant
to them every just and legal facility, whenever her concurrence
may be necessary to their successful prosecution, and that we have
witnessed, with pleasure, the progress made towards laying out a
canal from the Potomac to the Ohio, as well as the steps taken by
the State of ISTew York for forming a connection with the north
branch of the Susquehanna.
Resolved, That a general committee of correspondence be ap-
pointed, and that they be requested to prepare an address to the
people of Pennsylvania upon the subject of internal improvements.
Appendix lY.—Act of 25th February, 1826 — Pamphlet Laws,
Page 55.
An Act: To provide for the commencement of a Canal, to he
constructed at the expense of the State, and to he styled "The
Pennsylvania Canal."
Whereas, The construction of a canal within our own limits for
the purpose of connecting the eastern and western waters, is believed
to be practicable, and within the means of the state, and its speedy
completion will advance the prosperity and elevate the character
of Pennsylvania; and by facilitating intercourse and promoting
social interests will strengthen the bands of the Union : And
whereas. There are important sections of the w^ork which may
be immediateh^ begun, without the danger of error; therefore.
Resolved:
268 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
Section 1. That the commissioners appointed by the act entitled
"An act to appoint a board of canal commissioners," passed the
eleventh day of April, eighteen hundred and twenty-five, are
hereby authorized and empowered, in behalf of this state, imme-
diately to locate and contract for making a canal and locks, and
other works necessary thereto, from the river Swatara, at or near
Middk'town, to or near a point on the east side of the river Sus-
quehanna, op])Osite the mouth of the river 'Juniata; and from Pitts-
burg to the mouth of the Kiskeminetas ; and also as soon as they
shall deem it expedient and practicable, to construct a navigable
feeder of a canal, from Prench Creek to the summit level at
Conneaut lake, sufficient to convey at least two hundred and twenty-
one cubic feet of water per second, and to survey and locate the
route of a canal from thence to Lake Erie: provided, That if it
shall be found necessary, in order to construct the said canals, to.
obstruct the navigation of either of the rivers Susquehanna and
Allegheny, by dams or other means, that befere such obstructions
shall be authorized to be made, that the said commissioners shall
cause to be made a means of navigation, in either or both of said
rivers, equally safe and practicable as now exist in the said rivers.
Section 2. That the said commissioners shall be authorized to
appoint one or two of the board, as occasion may require, as acting
commissioner or commissioners, who shall receive four dollars per
day, each, while actually engaged in the superintendence of the
works contemplated by this act, and which sum shall be in full of all
compensation for services and expenses.
Section 3. That the state treasurer for the time being shall, in
addition to his official duties, act as treasurer to the board of canal
commissioners ; and that said board shall have the power to appoint
engineers, clerks, and other officers, toll gatherers and such other
agents as they may judge requisite; and to agree for and settle
their respective wages, and to establish reasonable toll.
Section 4. That it shall be the duty of each and every acting
canal commissioner; appointed in pursuance of this act, to super-
intend ilie making and constructing of said canal, before entering
upon the duties of his office, to enter into bond to the commonwealth,
with at least two substantial freeholders as sureties, in the penal sum
of fifty thousand dollars, conditioned for the faithful accounting
of all moneys entrusted to him as canal commissioner, whenever and
as often as he may be required to do so by law, or by concurrent
resolution of the senate and house of representatives, or by the
accounting officers of the treasury department; and the said bond
shall be approved by tlie governor, and filed in the office of the secre-
tary of the commonwealth.
Section 5. That whenever the sum or sums of money paid to
any canal commissioner, shall amount to fifty thousand dollars, it
shall not be lawful for the treasurer of the board to advance or
pay to such canal commissioners, any further sum or sums of
money, until he shall first have produced an account and vouchers,
A. L. Bishop — The State Woi-ls of Pennsylvania. 2G9
to tlie accounting officers of the treasury department, showing the
payment and expenditures of the money received by him.
Section 6. That in order the better to guai-d against mistakes
and losses, it shall be the duty of the acting canal commissioners
respectively to take duplicate receipts for all sums of money which
they may advance and pay to their engineers, contractors and
agents, one whereof, in each and every case, shall be filed with
the accounting officers of the treasury department ; and all contracts
for the construction of any part of the improvements contemplated
by this act, shall be made in writing, one copy of which shall be
forthwith deposited with the state treasurer, and one copy shall be
given to and retained by the contractor; and at least thirty days
notice shall be given in one or more of the newspapers printed in
Philadelphia, Harrisburg and Pittsburg, respectively, and in such
other newspapers as may be deemed expedient by the canal com-
missioners, or a majority of them, of the time and place at which
proposals will be received for entering into such contracts ; and no
extra alloAvance shall in any case be made, for the performance of
any such contract, beyond the sum stipulated therein.
Section 7. That the location and dimensions of the said canals
and locks shall be determined by a majority of the board, with the
approbation of a skilful engineer, and with the consent of the
governor.
Section 8. That it shall and may be lawful for the said board,
or a majority of them, to agree with the owner or owners of any
land through which the said canal is intended to pass, for the
purchase, use, and occupation thereof, on behalf of the state; and
in case of disagreement, or in case the owiier or owners thereof
shall be a feme coA^erte, under age, non compos, out of the state or
county, on application to a justice of the county in which such land
shall be, the said justice of the peace shall issue his warrant, under
his hand, to the sheriff of the county, to summon a jury of eighteen
inhabitants of his county, not related to the parties, nor in any
manner interested, to meet on the land to be valued, at a day to be
expressed in the warrant, not less than ten nor more than twenty
days thereafter; and the sheriff, upon receiving the said warrant,
shall forthwith summon the said jury, and when met, shall adminis-
ter an oath or affirmation to every juryman who shall appear, being
not less than twelve in number, that he will faithfully, justly and
impartially value the land, and all damages the owner or owners
shall sustain, by cutting the canal through such land, or the
partial or temporary appropriation, use or occupation of such land,
according to the best of his skill and judgment; and that in such
valuation, he will not spare any person or persons, for favor or
affection, or any person or persons grieve, for malice, hatred or
ill-will; and in every such valuation and assessment of damages,
the jury shall be, and they are hereby instructed to consider, in
determining and fixing the amount thereof, the actual benefit which
will accrue to 'the owner or owners from conducting the said canal
L
'270 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
through, or erecting auy of the said works upon his laud, and to
regulate their verdict thereby, except that no assessment shall
require any such owner or owners to pay or contribute anything,
where such benefit shall exceed, in the estimate of the jury, the
value and damages ascertained as aforesaid; and the inquisition
thereupon taken, shall be signed by the sheriff and some twelve or
more of the jury, and returned by the sheriff to the clerk or pro-
thonotary of his county; and unless good cause be shown against
the said inquisition, it shall be affirmed by the court and recorded;
but if the said inquisition should be set aside, or if, from any cause,
no inquisition shall be returned to such court within a reasonable
time, the said court may, at its discretion, as often as may be
necessary, direct another inquisition to be taken, in the manner
above prescribed ; and upon every such valuation, the jury is hereby
directed to describe and ascertain the bounds of tlie land by them
valued, and the quality and duration of the interest and estate in
the same, required by the said board, for the use of the state, and
their valuation shall be conclusive on all persons, and shall be paid
for by the said board, to the owner or owners of the land, or his,
her, or their legal representatives; and on payment thereof, the
state shall be seized of such lands as of an absolute estate in per-
petuity, or with such less quantity and duration of interest or estate
in the same, or subject to such partial or temporary appropriation,
use or occupation, as shall be required and described as aforesaid,
as if conveyed by the owner or owners ; and whenever, in the con-
struction of the said canal, or any of the works thereof, locks, dams,
ponds, feeders, tunnels, aqueducts, culverts, bridges, or works of
any other description whatsoever, appurtenant thereto, it shall be
necessary to use earth, timber, stone or gravel, or any other mate-
rial, to be found on any of the lands adjacent or near thereto, and
the said board or their agent cannot procure the same for the works
aforesaid, by private contract of the proprietor or proprietors,
owner or owners ; or in case the owner or owners should be a feme
eoverte, non compos, or under age or out of the state or county, the
same proceedings, in all respects shall be had, as in the case afore-
mentioned, of the assessment and condemnation of the lands
required for the said canal, or the works appurtenant thereto.
Section 9. That every person actually engaged in laboring on
any canal authorized by law, shall be exempt from doing militia
duty in this state except in cases of insurrection or invasion, during
the time when he is so actually engaged; and the certificates of
the contractor, who shall employ such men, so liable to perform
militia duty, in the performance of their contracts, shall be prima
facie evidence of such engagement.
Section 10. That the sum of three hundred thousand dollars
be, and the same is hereby appropriated, to be paid by the state
treasurer, in such sums as shall be required for the execution of
the work, which sums shall from time to time be paid into the hands
of the acting canal commissioner or commissioners, by direction of
-b
A. L. Bishop — The State Wor^ks of Pennsylvania. 271
a majority of the board, and by warrant of tbe governor, subject to
the provisions of the fifth section of this act.
Section 11. That the commissioners aforesaid be, and they are
hereby authorized, if they shall deem it proper and expedient, to
agree with the president and managers of the Harrisburg canal,
fire insurance and water company, for taking water from the canal
herein provided to be made, from such point on the same, as shall
be deemed by said commissioners least injurious to the said canal,
and least likely to impede the navigation thereof, for supplying the
borough of Harrisburg with water, and for propelling machinery.
Section 12. That it shall be the duty of the canal commissioners,
on or before the first Monday of February, in each and every year,
to settle and account with the accounting officers of the treasury
department, for all moneys by them received from the treasurer of
the board; and it shall be the duty of the auditor general to report
the settlement so made, to the legislature, as soon thereafter as
may be, detailing the sums allowed by them to the engineers and
agents respectively employed in the superintendence and construc-
tion of said canal, and the Avorks connected therewith.
Appendix V. — Act of Qtli April, 1827 — Pamphlet Laws, Page 192.
An Act: To provide for the further extension of the Pennsyl-
vania Canal.
Section 1. That the board of canal commissioners are hereby
authorized and required, in behalf of this commonwealth, as speed-
ily as may be, to locate and contract for making a canal, locks, and
other works necessary thereto, up the valley of the Juniata, from
the eastern section of the Pennsylvania canal, to a point at or near
Lewistown; also a canal, locks and other works necessary thereto,
up the valley of the Kiskeminetas and the Conemaugh, from the
western section of the Pennsylvania canal, to a point at or near
Blairsville; and also a canal, locks and other works necessary
thereto, up the valley of the Susquehanna, from the said eastern
section of the Pennsylvania canal, to a point at or near the town
of Northumberland, to be selected with due regard to the accommo-
dation of the trade of both branches of said river. And the said
board shall also proceed to make or cause to be made, such examina-
tions and surveys from Frankstown on the Juniafa, to Johnstown on
the Conemaugh, across the Allegheny mountain, as may enable them
to determine in what manner, and by what kind of works, whether
by the construction of a smooth and permanent road of easy grada-
tion, or by a railway with locomotive or stationary engines or other-
wise, the i^ortage or space between the said two points may be passed
so as to ensure the greatest public advantage. And the said board
shall also cause further examinations, surveys and levels to be made,
with a view of ascertaining the practicability and cost of an entire
navigable communication between the West Branch of the Susque-
i
272 A. L. Bishop — The State WorJt;s of Pennsylvania.
hanna and the Alleghen3^ river. And such further examinations,
surveys and levels as may be necessary to ascertain the location
and costs of canals, locks and other works necessary thereto, on the
respective routes following, to-wit : From jSTorthumberland up
the JSTorth Branch of the Susquehanna, to the state line; from
the western section of the Pennsylvania canal, near the mouth of
the Kiskcminetas to a point on Lake Erie, by the Allegheny river
and French Creek, at or near the borough of Erie; and from the
city of Pittsburg to the said point on Lake Erie, by the route of
Beaver and Shenango, and shall make to the legislature, as soon as
practicable, detailed reports accompanied with maps, plans and
estimates of cost of the several routes to be examined and surveyed
as aforesaid.
Section 2. That before the commissioners shall determine on
the location of the canal from the mouth of the Juniata river to
Mifflin or Lewistowu, they shall cause further examinations to be
made on each .side of the Juniata, by at least two of the most experi-
enced engineers in the service of the board, in order to ascertain
which side of the river is most favorable and most proper to be.
adopted for the construction of the canal; and a majority of the
whole number of canal commissioners are hereby required to concur
in the manner and place at which the said canal shall cross the
Susquehanna, and if a majority of the said commissioners should
decide in favor of crossing the Susquehanna by an aqueduct or a
towing path bridge, they are hereby authorized to connect a
bridge wnth it, should they believe the same practicable, and advan-
tageous to the state.
Section 3. That it shall be the duty of the board of canal com-
missioners, to cause examination, survey, and estimate of the route
for canal, and also for a railway, with locomotive or stationary
engines, from Philadelphia, through Chester and Lancaster coun-
ties, so as to connect by the nearest and most eligible route with the
eastern section of the Pennsylvania canal; and in addition thereto,
to cause the necessary surveys, examinations and estimates to be
made down the Brandyr^nne river, to a point north of the Delaware
state line; thence across the dividing ridge between said river and
Chester creek, thence down the same to the river Delaware. And
if it should be ascertained that the waters of the Brandyw'ine cannot
be diverted from their natural channel, then to make all the neces-
sary examinations for a portage or railway across said ridge. And
they shall also cause an examination or survey to be made, to ascer-
tain the practicability and cost of forming a connection of the North
Branch of the Susquehanna and the Lehigh rivers, by means of
canal or railway. And the canal commissioners shall also cause
surveys and estimates to be made as soon as convenient, from the
termination of the Pennsylvania canal at the mouth of the Swatara,
down the east and west sides of the Susquelianna river to the Mary-
land line, and make report to the next legislature, of the expense
and practicability of extending the Pennsylvania canal to the inter-
section of the Maryland line and the said river.
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 273
Section 4. That the board of canal commissioners are author-
ized and required to commence operations on the feeder from
French Creek, to the summit level at Conneaut lake; and to con-
tract for so much as may be adapted to either of the routes in con-
templation/ for the purpose of connecting the Pennsylvania canal
with Lake Erie. And the further sum of one hundred thousand
dollars is hereby appropriated to carry into effect the provisions
of this section, to be paid in like manner as is prescribed in the
eighteenth section of this act; and the said commissioners shall
cause an examination to be made, from the mouth of French Creek,
by way of Waterford, to the bay of Presque Isle, and from Conneaut
lake to Lake Erie.
Section 5. That if it shall be found necessary in order to con-
struct the said canals and works, to obstruct the navigation of the
Susquehanna, the Juniata, the Kiskeminetas, or any of their navi-
gable branches, by dams or other means, that before such obstruc-
tions shall be made, the said commissioners shall cause to be made
a means of navigation equally safe and practicable as now exists,
at such place or places so to be obstructed.
Section 6. That it shall be the duty of the board of canal com-
missioners, during the ensuing summer, to cause examinations,
surveys and estimates to be made along the valley of the Delaware,
from Philadelphia, or from Bristol or any intermediate point
between Bristol and the head of tide water to Carpenter's Point,
with the view of ascertaining the most eligible mode' of effecting a
navigable canal communication, and the said commissioners shall
report in like manner as is directed by law in relation to other
canal routes.
Section 7. That if after suitable examination as aforesaid, by
competent engineers, it should appear to the board of canal com-
missioners that a navigable canal can be constructed between a
point at or near Philadelphia, or at Bristol, or any intermediate
point between Bristol and the head of tide water, and a point at or
near the borough of Easton, then, with the consent of the govern-
ment, the board of canal commissioners are hereby authorized and
required, in behalf of this commonwealth, during the ensuing
season, to locate and contract for making a portion of said navigable
communication, the expense of which shall not exceed one hundred
thousand dollars, and such locks and other works as may be neces-
sary thereto : provided, The average expense thereof shall not
exceed twelve thousand dollars per mile; and the further sum of
one hundred thousand dollars is hereby appropriated towards the
accomplishment of the aforesaid object, to be paid in like manner
as is provided for by the eighteenth section of this act: provided,
That the existing natural navigation of the river Delaware shall
not be obstructed or injured by the construction of said canal.
Section 8. That if any person shall consider himself aggrieved,
by reason of the canal passing through the lands of which he is
owner, or by interfering in any manner with his rights of property,
he may at the completion of the work thereupon, or within one
274 .1. L. Bishop— The State ^Yor'ks of Pennsylvania.
year thereafter, petition the court of quarter sessions of the county
in which the damage has been committed, and the said court shall
appoint five reputable citizens Avithin the judicial district of which
the said county is a part, and not residing in or inhabitants of the
said county, whose duty it shall be, after being severally sworn or
affirmed, to view the premises, and taking into consideration the
advantages of said canal to the petitioner, report such damage, if
any, as they or any three of them shall think the OAvner has sus-
tained by reason of said canal ; and in case the said viewers are of
opinion that the petitioner has received no damage, or that the
advantages derived from the canal are sufficient compensation to
the petitioner for any injury sustained by him, they will also report
the same to the said court; for all which services the said viewers
shall receive two dollars for every day employed, and three cents
for every mile they shall necessarily travel in the performance of
such service, the costs of such proceedings, wherever the viewers
report no damage, shall be paid by the petitioner: and upon the
approbation of the said court to the report of the said viewers, and
the certificate of the prothonotary to the amount, the acting canal
commissioner shall and he is hereby required to pay to the said
petitioner the full amount of damages and costs assessed as afore-
said : provided, That the petitioner shall be required to give
reasonable notice to the nearest acting canal commissioner, of the
time and place when and where the said viewers are to meet for the
purpose aforesaid: and provided also, That the right to except to
the report of said viewers, by either party, shall be and remain the
same as is extended to reports of viewers for road damages, under
the existing laws of this commonwealth: provided further, That in
cases where small portions of private property are or may be in a
great measure destroyed by the public works, and where, in the
opinion of the commissioners, it would be more advantageous to
purchase the land, than pay the probable amount of an assessment
of damages, said commissioners are hereby authorized to purchase
said lands on behalf of the state, and to sell the remainder not
occupied by the canal, and convey to the purchasers respectively the
estate and title thus acquired. And in cases where fences may be
thrown down, fields laid open, or crops and gardens destroyed by the
temporary occupancy of the ground in constructing the canal, the
acting commissioner shall have power to settle with and pay the
owner such damages as may be reasonable and just; not exceeding
in any one case the sum of twenty dollars, without the approbation
of the board. And said board is hereby authorized to make an
amicable adjustment of any damages, whatever, sustained by the
owner or owners of any land through which any canal or railroad
to be made at the expense of the state, passes or is intended to pass ;
and nothing herein contained shall be construed to prevent said
board, or a majority of them, from agreeing with the owner or
owners of any land, (through which any canal to be made at the
expense of the state, passes or is intended to pass) for the purchase,
use and occupation thereof, on behalf of the state.
A. L. Bishop — The State Worlcs of Pennsylvania. 275
Section 9. That the acting canal commissioners on each section
of the canal respectively, be, and are hereby authorized to make
such alterations as may appear to be expedient, in the route and
location of any state, county, or township road, along which, or in
the immediate vicinity whereof, the canal or any part thereof does
or shall pass, and to lay out and open to such width as shall be
necessary, so much of any of the said roads as shall be re-located ;
and such new route of any of the said roads shall be considered as
a public highway, be supported and kept in repair as other high-
ways in this commonwealth are supported and kept in repair ;
and, so much of the route of any road as may be altered, shall be
thereby vacated; and the said acting canal commissioners respec-
tively, are hereby required to make a report of the alterations made
in the route of any road, under the provisions of this section, to the
clerk of the quarter sessions of the county wherein the said road is
located; provided, That any person interested who may be dis-
satisfied with the determination of said commissioners, shall have
the right of appealing by petition, to the board of canal commission-
ers, whose determination thereon shall be final.
Section 10. That the canal commissioners be and they are
hereby required, during the ensuing year, to call upon and receive,
or cause to be called upon and received, from all and every person
or persons, as far as conveniently can be done, who are the owners
of land, along or near the several proposed lines of canals, as pro-
vided for in this act, acquittances or releases from any claim to
damages, in case the said lines of communication shall pass through
their lands, and for materials that may be taken to carry on the
work.
Section 11. That the commissioners are hereby required, as
soon as may be convenient, to cause surveys and estimates to be
made through the valleys of the Conodoguinnet, Yellow Breeches
and Conocheague creeks, with a view to the connection of the rivers
Susquehanna and Potomac, by a canal, and make report of the
practicability and probable expense thereof; and also to view and
examine the ground from the west end of the Harrisburg bridge
to the borough of Chambersburg, in the county of Franklin, and
from the west end of Columbia bridge, through York and Gettys-
burg, to Chambersburg, for the purpose of constructing a railroad,
and make an estimate of the probable expense for constructing
said railroad, and make report thereof to the governor, who is
hereby required to lay the same before the legislature, on or before
the first day of January, eighteen hundred and twenty-eight.
Section 12. That the board of canal commissioners are hereby
authorized and required, if they deem it necessary, previous to the
location of that part of the canal from the eastern section to a
point at or near Northumberland, on the West Branch, to cause a
survey and exploration on the east sid6 of the Susquehanna, from
the end of the said eastern section, to a point opposite the town of
Northumberland. And the said board, after taking into view the
relative advantages, facilities, costs of construction, and interest
276 A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
of the commonwealth, shall decide whether the said canal shall be
located on the eastern or western side of the said Susquehanna
river; or if said coiuiuissioners should be of opinion that any part
of said canal could be carried along the eastern shore of the afore-
said river, to any point between the end of the eastern section and
a point opposite the town of Northumberland, they may so locate
and contract for said canal and locks, and arc authorized to pass to
the other side of the river at any point they may deem proper, in
the manner now contemplated of passing the river at or near the
mouth of the Juniata.
Section 13. That the canal commissioners be, and they are
hereby authorized and required to examine the proposed route of
the Schuylkill and Delaware canal, commencing in the vicinity
of the United States Arsenal, upon the east bank of the Schuylkill,
and terminating at the river DelaAvare, at the south of the Xavy
Yard, in the district of Soutliwark, in the county of Philadelphia,
and make report to the legislature at its next session, whether the
said route will form a necessary link in the line of the Pennsylvania
canal, connecting the western waters with the river Delaware ; and
if so, to furnish an estimate of the probable cost of constructing
said canal.
Section 14. That the provisions of the act entitled "An Act to
provide for the commencement of a Canal, to be constructed at the
expense of the State, and to be styled The Pennsylvania canal,"
shall be in force so far as they are applicable to this act; and so
much of the laws relating to the Pennsylvania canal, as is incon-
sistent with this act, is hereby repealed.
Section 15. That the governor be and he is hereby authorized
to borrow on the credit of the commonwealth, a sum or sums in the
whole not exceeding one million of dollars ; and the said sum or
sums so borrowed shall be paid to and vested in the commissioners
of the internal improvement fund, to be applied by them in the
manner and for the purposes hereinafter directed: provided, That
no engagement or contract shall be entered into which shall preclude
the commonwealth from reimbursing any sum or sums thus bor-
rowed, at any time after the expiration of twenty-three years from
the first of December next.
Section 16. That the governor be and is hereby authorized to
cause to be instituted, certificates of stock, signed by the auditor
general, and countersigned by the state treasurer, settiiig forth that
they pertain to the canal loan, for the sum so borrowed by virtue
of this act, or for any part thereof, bearing an interest not exceed-
ing five per cent, per annum, and reimbursable as aforesaid, which
stock thus created, shall be transferable on the books of the auditor
general, or at the Bank of Pennsylvania, by the owner or owners
of the same, his, her or their attorney, and new certificates of the
same shall be issued by the auditor general and state treasurer, to
the new holder or holders ; and it is hereby further declared, that
it shall be deemed to be a good execution of the said power to
borrow, for the governor of this commonwealth to cause the said
certificates of stock, or any part thereof, to be sold.
A. L. Bishop — llie State WorJcs of Fennsylvania. 277
Section 17. That tliero shall be paid by the state treasurer, to the
commissioners of the internal improvement fnnd, during the current
year, and during each and every year from and after the first day of
December next, out of the receipts of duties on auctions, such sum Or
sums as may be necessary to pay the interest on the loans authorized
by this act. And the faith of the state is hereby pledged to estab-
lish a sufHcient revenue for making up any deficiency that may
hereafter take place in the funds appropriated for paying the said
interest.
Section 18. That it shall be the duty of the commissioners of
the internal imi)rovement fund, to cause to be paid out of the
moneys borrowed in pursuance of the fifteenth section of this act,
such sum or sums as shall be necessary for the completion of the
two divisions of the Pennsvlvania canal already located, as well as
such other sum or sums as may be necessary for the prosecution of
the canals and public works authorized to be constructed by this act.
AwA all such sums shall be draAvn and accounted for according to
the provisions of an act entitled "An act to provide for the com-
mencement of a canal, to be constructed at the expense of the state,
and to be styled the Pennsylvania canal," passed the twenty-fifth
day of February, one thousand eight hundred and twenty-six; and
also an act entitled "An act authorizing a loan for the commence-
ment of the construction of the Pennsylvania canal and for other
purposes," passed the first day of April, one thousand eight hun-
dred and twenty-six.
Section 19. That the state treasurer for the time being shall
be the treasurer of the internal improvement fund, and shall per-
form all the duties pertaining thereto, and all such moneys belong-
ing to the said fund, as the commissioners of said fund may deem
proper, shall be deposited in the Bank of Pennsylvania, subject to
their drafts.
Section 20. That in case any contract for work on the canals
authorized by this act, shall be forfeited or abandoned by the con-
tractor or contractors, the acting canal commissioners may re-let
the same, without giving notice in the newspapers, as required by
the sixth section of the act passed the twenty-fifth day of February,
eighteen hundred and twenty-six, entitled "An act to provide for the
commencement of a canal, to be constructed at the expense of the
state, and to be styled the Pennsylvania canal."
Appendix YI. — Financial Statement of the Public Worls.
Statement of the cost, revenues and expenditures of the several
finished lines of Canals and Railroads of the State Works of Penn-
sylvania for each financial year, from their opening until disposed
of to an Incorporated Company.*
* As to just what is meant in the following tables by '"Original Cost," "Cost"
and "Expenditures" refer to pages 228 and. 238-9.
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. Xlll. 20 Nov., 1907.
278 .4. L. Bishop — TJie Slate Works of Pennsylvania.
\y A A^ XI LUX
^^yjaijf Kp*jf^rj\jj
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
1833
$ 5,003
None
1834
40,240
it
1835
183,610
$163,691
1836
260,658
288,389
1837
353,566
403,997
1838
390,636
197,201
1839
389,974
264,287
1840
445,552
550,238
1841
411,537
339,170
1842
345,082
340,208
1843
369,496
288,503
1844
416,318
261,382
1845
418,502
209,596
]\Iaix Line.
1. Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad.
.55. Cost, $5,277,278.00.
Vear
Revenue
Expenditure
1846
$488,243
$219,752
1847
564,356
246,377
1848
554,191
261,409
1849
571,589
322,904
1S50
621,576
340,804
1851
653,268
338,959
1852
820,640
320,887
1853
716,242
422,631
1854
821,525
390,761
1855
857,059
442,138
1856
953,034
448,557 •
1857'
648,655
368,101
79,906*
$12,300,552
$7,509,846
7,509,840
Excess of Revenue $ 4,790,706
2. Eastern Division of Canal.
Original cost, $1,347,014.40- Cost, $1,737,285.00.
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
1830
$ 10,350
$ 7,761
1831
17,685
10,895
1832
20,599
8,688
1833
49,737
19,633
1834
79,260
18,657
1835
142,854
19,274
1836
158,971
16,472
1837
130.379
49,300
1838
122,746
94,938
1839
166,564
32,142
1840
165,383
63,403
1841
140,188
3.-),188
1842
117,189
27,884
1843
108,748
30,693
1844
152,969
27,485
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
1845
$117,363
$25,593
1846
126,725
69,983
1847
160,653
46,844
1848
161,856
21,953
1849
196,456
43,616
1850
190,596
31,941
1851
117,723
60,626
1852
129,708
46,773
1853
141,854
53,183
1854
133,726
51,294
1855
132,048
59,448
1856
151,664
54,577
1857
55,632
43,351
$3,405,632
$1,071,595
1,071,595
Excess of Revenue $2,334,037
*Damages by sparks from locomotives.
J
A. L. BL
"ihop — The State W
orks of
Pennsylvania. 279
3. Juniata Division of Canal.
Original cost, $3,036,290.1 3^
Cost
, $3,575,966.
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
1830
None
$ 17,323
1844
$88,649
$ 53,210
1831
$ 4,492
53,172
1845
70,379
63,773
1832
7,205
31,645
1840
78,007
52,755
1833
15,331
34,303
1847
67,312
.59,957
1834
56,139
35,298
1848
61,164
224,439
1835
70,078
41,722
1849
68,793
94,544
1836
56,862
33,971
1850
68,000
93,246
1837
79,486
46,865
1851
63,484
93,940
1838
71,327
38,874
1852
6.5,002
89,186
1839
75,140
41,818 .
1853
59,478
100,3.56
1840
106,327
111,772
1854
49,327
90,112
1841
88,178
53,660
18.55
48,383
85,493
1842
87,838
88,385
18.56
45,487
85,115
L 1843
1
87,768
58,363
1857
21,552
94,535
338,108*
$1,661,218
$2,305,942
1
Excess
of Expenditure
1,661,218
1
.$ 644,724
1
^. Allegheny Portage Railroad.
■
Original cost, $1,634,357.69.
Cost,
$2,708,672.
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
1834
None
$ 5,482
1846
$200,343
$130,321
1835
$ 97,740
98,744
1847
232,587
160,290
1836
153,171
132,538
1848
219,143
220,181
1837
148,-523
158,038
1849
218,470
205,702
1838
153,069
148,648
18.50
242,521
329,025
1839
15L330
141,857
1851
234,532
341,325
1840
167,266
267,333
1852
210,011
336,007
1841
145,435
133,799
1853
224,627
507,508
1842
116,349
120,175
1854
78,025
338,391
1843
175,476
150,920
1855
18,150
256,458
1844
169,603
208,137
1856
20,047
193,804
1845
160,212
189,757
1857
11,982
82,850
23,951 f
$3,648,611
$4,890,241
Excess
of ExDenditure
3,648,611
$1,241,630
*Cost of repairing the Huntingdon breach of 1838.
•{•Damages by spai-ks from locomotives.
280 A. L. Bishop — The State Worls of Pennsylvania.
5. WesLern Division of Canal.
Original cost, $2,758,917.71. Cost, $3,173,434.
Year Revenue Expenditure Year Revenue Expenditure
1830 $ 15,3!)3 $ 55,642 1844 $115,322 $43,625
1831 12,990 ()0,901 1845 144,580 18,839
1832 9,313 ' 144,323' 1846 141,497 27,100
1833 25,437 59,631 1847 205,514 25,258
1834 60,740 83,508 1848 188,296 66,325
1835 103,390 59,754 1849 183,412 63,762
1836 123,228 30,163 1850 219,908 44,403
1837 132,523 75,769 1851 160,055 59,611
1838 108.700 03,838 1852 127,054 64,376
1839 146,480 2-3,941 1853 161,278 78,975
1840 123,350 92.937 3 8.54 96,407 75,309
1841 117,049 43,743 1855 62,577 72,294
1842 87,21« 25,952 1856 52,741 58,322
1843 99,603 22,098 J 857 24,442 50,913
$3,048,578 $1,597,372
1,-597,372
Excess of Revenue $1,451,206
6. Suniiiiarj/ of M<iii\ Line.
Original cost $12,106,707.48*
Cost 16,472,635.00
Revenue 24,064,591.00
Expenditure 17,374,996.00
Excess of Revenue $6,089,595.00
A. L. Bislwp—Tlie State Worhs of Pennsylvania. 281
Year
1830
1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
1841
1842
1843
1844
Year
1830
1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
1841
1842
1843
1844
$
Original
Revenue
None
899
8.043
44,825
57,135
56,281
57,175
90,155
72,133
98,240
111,735
64,975
73,228
109,845
114,556
Lateral Canals.
1. Delaware Division of Canal.
cost, $1,238,027.69. Cost, $1,543,763.00.
Expenditure
$ 9,365
76,525
51,715 .
78,354
46,049
27,493
40,630
28,096
39,782
82,410
85,759
109,339
145,493
17,505
49,044
Year
1845
1846
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
1852
1 853
1854
1855
1856
1857
1858
Revenue
$111,452
164,203
164,153
180,223
202,505
200,719
256,213
260,037
247,919
377,663
392,673
349,922
224,329
32,141
$4,123,377
1,573,560
Expenditure
$39,951
44,019
16,187
19,539
28,053
43,265
49,357
40,697
86,847
75,979
71,091
83,159
60,730
26,117
$1,573,560
Excess of Revenue $2,549,817
2. Susquehanna Division of Canal.
Original cost, $1,039,257.00. Cost, $1,039,257.00.*
Revenue Expenditure
Xone $ 8,379
$ 2,215 16,322
5,748 65.050
7,671 77,094
16,431 43,278
16,083 12,967
13,029 2,155
16,296 10,321
20,791 17,702
22,269 4,201
30,129 32,886
26,692 17,084
17,460 42,435
10,775 22,001
19,652 32,704
Excess of Expenditure $ 82,548
*See Rep. Canal CommissionerSj in J. H. Rep., 1830-1, II, p. 164.
i'ear
Revenue
Expenditure
1845
$21,214
$26,514
1846
23,632
43,513
1847
25,909
18,944
1848
26,262
15,230
1849
27,264
11,646
1850
26,073
14,406
1851
32,422
23,368
1852
33,549
32,077
1853
38,928
25,620
1854
42,236
27,747
1855
75,623
39,664
1856
64,662
45,234
1857
59,368
52,978
1858
6,712
25,114
$724,092
$806,640
724.092
282 A. L. Bishop — The State TFor/cs of Penih^j/li-ania.
3. North Branch Division of Ca/nal.
Cost, $1,623,117.00.
Year Revenue Expenditure
1845 $ 80,219 $35,060
1846 89,209 30,347
1847 124,184 36,279
1848 120,842 11,505
1849 116,552 22,182
IS.IO 102,026 26,233
1851 149,683 " 26,497
1852 130,621 28,962
1853 234,590 26,889
1854 225,972 45,245
1855 251,992 47,699
1856 270,355 53,293
1857 162,081 57,377
1858 17,321 26,573
Original
cost, $1,398,412.77
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
1830
None
$ 15,277
1831
tc
49,067
1832
«
27,654
1833
$ 3,416
23,217
1834
3,915
48,083
1835
5,721
24,662
1836
9,824
9,528
1837
10,850
13,412
1838
8,816
15,903
1839
10,181
11,810
1840
14,165
110,079
1841
29,669
79.425
1842
39,590 •
84,075
1843
33,094
28,814
1844
51,031
29.234
$2,301,979 $1,044,381
1,044,381
Excess of Revenue $1,257,598
West Branch Division.
51.84. Cost, $1,833,183.00.
^. We.
Original cost, $1,58
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
1830
None
$ 2,166
1831
is
21,270
1832
a
25,866
1833
(C
28,116
1834
ie
30,158
1835
$ 5,496
26,000
1836
3,992
36,116
1837
4,708
32,443
1838
9,300
39,199
1839
12,852
19,834
1840
28,003
72,926
1841
24,952
57,782
1842
16,043
38,663
1843
18,518
33,148
1844
20,689
30,768
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
1845
$29,477
$15,802
1846
45,156
22,762
1847
43,329
18,989
1848
38,578
58,827
1849
43,820
70,247
1850
42,500
31,672
1851
52,642
30,398
1852
55,951
33,844
1853
68,329
54,206
1854
62,816
29,798
1855
86,961
36,109
1856
91,688
29,249
1857
64,035
87,068
1858
14,160
30,269
$892,995
$1,043,695
892,095
Excess of Expenditure $ 150,700
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania.
283
5.
Beaver Div
ision.
inal cost,
$481,282.98.
Cost, $519,364.
Vear
Revenue
Expenditure
1834
$ 555
None
1835
2,221
$ 3,194
183G
504
32.265
1837
1,784
28,199
1838
1,202
11,139
1839
2,032
7,140
1840
3,192
49,740
1841
6,379
24,873
1842
6,580
12,084
1843
6,076
10,369
1844
6,536
27,385
1845
1,251
3,972
$38,312
$210,360
88. :^12
6.
Ft
ench Creek Division.
Original cost,
$734,662.06.
Cost,
$817,779.00
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
1830
None
$ 2,060
1831
a
None
1832 .
a
cc
1833
if
7,913
1834
$ 336
17,539
1835
884
19,100
1836
388
30,229
1837
1,079
19,065
1838
555
10,107
1839
981
4,060
1840
645
16.263
1841
340
8,383
1842
516
4,585
1843
None
2,592
1844
i(
796
1845
97
1,219
$5;820
$143,012
5,820
Excess of Expenditure $138,092
i=
284 A. L. Bishop — The State Woiis of Pennstilvania.
7. Summary of Lateral Canals.
Original cost $6,471,994.34
Cost 7,376,463.00
Revenue 8,086,575.00
Expenditure 4,822,548.00
Excess of Revenue $3,264,027.00
Here follow statements of certain costs or expenditures on account
of the public works not included in the foregoing tables. (See p. 239.)
UxFixisHED Improvements.
Xorth Branch Extension of Canal $4,681,542
West '•' " '• 353,575
Erie Extension of Canal 3,196,149
Wioonisco Canal 393,441
Allegheny Feeder 31,592
Gettysburg Extension of Railroad 682,846
Total $9,339,145
Board of Canal Commissioners.
1830
$ 3,590
1831
4,974
1832
6,001
1833
5,740
1834
6,077
1835
6,148
1836
4,075
1837
10,343
1838
6.363
1839
2,036
1840
8.623
1841
17,276
1842
10.747
1843
4.145
1S44
10.560
1845
$5,163
1846
5,042
1847
5,056
1848
5,467
1849
4,930
1850
5,397
1851
8,911
1852
8,569
1853
7,790
1854
5,818
1855
7,230
1856
8,036
1857
8,240
1858
9,963
Total $202,620
A. L. Bishop — The State Works of Pennsylvania. 285
Board- of Appraisers of Damages.
1830 $ 192
IS.'Jl 663
1832 ., 495
1833 1,837
1834 90
1835 3,786
1830 1,014
1837 1,286
1S3S 885
1839 1,265
1840 3,650 ■
1841 828
1842 960
1843 034
Total $17,585
Collectors, Weighmasters and Lockkeepers.
1830 $ 9,880 1845 $ 68,844
1831 9,032 1846 68,127
1832 22,232 1847 67,426
1833 30,661 1848 73,177
1834 41.722 1849 78,886
1835 54,996 1850 83,305
1836 54,674 1851 90,226
1837 68,632 1852 95,539
1838 65.506 1853 96,870
1839 78,078 1854 ■ 95,897
1840 79,571 1855 89,974
1841 ■ 89,112 1856 119,239
1842 80,796 1857 70,393
1843 69,557 1858 13.224
1844 63,882
Total $2,109,518
Exploratory Surveys.
1825 $ 6,351
1826 6,576
1827 15,033
1828 29,881
1829 19.638
1836 500
1837 16,745
1838 2,288
1839 15,826
1840 44.999
Total $157,83
i
286
A. L. Bishop — The State Worlrs of Pennsylvania.
Eecapitut.ation.
Condensed tabular A'iew of tlie financial operations of the state works of
Pennsylvania covering the whole period of state ownership.
LINES.
Cost.
Reyenue.
Exyjendi-
ture.
Columbia and Philadelphia Railroad $ 5,277,278 .«;12,300,552 $ 7,509,846
Eastern Division of Canal .J 1,737,285' 3,405,632 L071,5!)5
Jniiiata Division of Canal ! 3,575,!»66 1,661,318 2,305,1)42
Allefj;heny Portage Railroad , 2,708,672 3,648,611 4,8!)0,241
Western Division of Canal | 3,173,434| 3,048,578
Main Line $16,472,635 .$24,064,591 .$17,374,996
1,597,372
Delaware Division of Canal... 1,543,763 4,123,377
Suseiuehanua Division of Canal 1,039,257 724,092
North Branch Division of Canal ; 1,623,117 2,301,979,
West Branch Division of Canal ' 1,833,183 892,995
Beaver Division of Canal
French Creek Division of Canal.
Lateral Lines..
Finished Lines.
519,364i
817,779
38,312
5,820
$ 7,376,463
$ 8,086,575
$23,849,098 .f32,151, 166
Unfinished Improvements. .'
Board of Canal Commissioners
Board of Apjj raisers of Damages
Collectors, Weighmasters and Lockkeepers.
Exploratory Surveys. . _.
Old Claims on Public Works (1859)
Amount received at State Treasury for sale
of public property belonging to the State
Works previous to the sale of the main
line, together with amount received from
canal fines, and not included in the fore-
going tables of revenues.
Bills clearlj' chargeable to the public im-
provements but included in accounts for
State printing, at least
9,339,145
101.310
17,585
157,837
2,432
Paid for use of patent rights.
Amount paid for engraving plates and print-
ing bonds, advertising loans, counsel fees,
and other incidental items regarding the
internal improvements (approximately)
Amount received for works sold,
(a) Main Line
(b) Lateral Lines
Amount paid for interest on loans pertaining
to the improvements including premiums
on specie funds and interest to domestic
creditors
Totals. $33,464,975 $43,786,558
351,955
$33,464,975 $32,505,553
7,500,000
3,781,000
806,640
1,044,381
1,043,695
210,360
143,912
% 4,822,548
.$22,197,544
101,310
2,109,518
10,650
33,803
6,400
12,000
.$24,471,225
43,675,034
$68,146,259
A. L. Bishop — The State Worhs of Pennsylvania.
287
Appendix YII. — Tables of Loans.
Table 'A' shows the loans of Pennsylvania and under what laws
negotiated from the commencement of the internal improvement
system in 1826 until June, 1844; the rate of interest at which each
was taken ; and the premiums received.
Table 'B' shows the loans made by Pennsylvania from 1844
until the sale of the public works.
' ^4 ' — Loans hetween 1826 and ISJ^Jf.
Loans.
and
Stock Loan, per act, April 1, 1826 —
Stock Loan, April 9, 1837
Stock Loan. March 24, 1828
Temporary Loan, April 14, 1828
Stock Loan, Dec. 18, 1828
Temporary Loan, Dec. 18, 1828
Temporary Loan, April 22. 1829
Stock Loan. April 22, 1829
Temporarj- Loan, Nov. 17, 1829
Stock Loan, per acts, Dec. 7, 1829
Jan. 4, 1831 _
Stock Loan, March 13, 1880
Temporary Loan, Jan. 12, 1831
Temporary Loan, anticipating next loan.
Stock Loan, March 21, 1831
Stock Loan. March 30, 1831
Temporary Loan, March 9, 1832
Stock Loan, March 30, 1832
Stock Loan, April 5, 1832
Stock Loan. Feb. 16, 1833
Stock Loan . March 27, 1833 .
Temporary Loan. Jan. 27,1834
Stock Loan. April 5, 1834
Temporary Loan, Jan. 17, 1835
Temporary Loan. Feb. 27. 1835
Stock Loan, April 13, 1835
Temporarj' Loan, Jan. 22, 1836
Temporary Loan, April 1. 1836
Temporary Loan, June 10, 1836
Temporary Loan, June 16, 1836
Temporary Loan, April 14. 1838
Temporary Loan, April 14, 1838
Stock Loan. Jan. 26, 1839
Temporary Loan, Jan. 30, 1839
Stock Loan, Feb. 9. 1839
Temporary Loan, Mar. 14,
Stock Loan. Mar. 16. 1839
Stock Loan, Mar. 27, 1839
Stock Loan, June 7. 1889.
Stock Loan. June 27, 1839
Amount.
1839
Temporary Loan, June 27, 1839
Stock Loan, July 19, 1839
Stock Loan, Jan. 23, 1840
Stock Loan, April 3, 1840
Stock Loan, June 11, 1840
Stock Loan, Jan. 16, 1841
Stock Loan, for insane asylum, Mar. 4,
1841
}, 300
1,000
2,000
490
800
22;
1,518
2,200
1,000
000.00
.000.00
.000.00
.000.00
,000. ooi
,000.001
,838.92
,000.00
,000.00
487,034.46
4,000.000.00
250,000.00
230,000.00
3,483,161.88'
300,000.00
75,000.00
2,348.680.00
300.000.00
2,540,661.44
530,000.00
300,000.00
2.265,400.00
250,000 00'
144.900. ooi
959,600.001
350,000.00i
55,000.00
20,000.00
200,000.00
200,000.00
600,000.00
1,200,000.00
602.250.00
1,280,000.00
75,000.00
100,000.00
470.000.00
50,000.00
1,135,000.00
220.000.00
2,054,000.00
870.000.00
870.076.66
1.946.215.65
800,000.00
Rate
of Int.
5^
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
Premiums.
22,335.06i 6
% 10,875.00
47,500.00
220,000.00
148,989.71
18,000.00
330.694.14
45.270.00
246,530.97
74,200.00
99,249.62
115,343.92
1,500.00
587.50
37.50
Amount carried forward ! $40, 118, 154. 07'
$1,358,778.36
288 A. L. Bishop — The State Worls of Pennsylvania.
'A'' — Loans between 1826 and ISJ^J^. — Continued.
Loans.
" 1
Amount.
Rate
of Int.
Premlum.s.
Amount brought forward.
$40,118,154.07
2,220.264.6S
569,503.50
$1,358,778.36
Loan (Relief), Mav 4. \M\
1
5
Stock Loan (Bank Charter), Mav 5, 1841.
Stock Loan (Bank Charter), May 6, 1841.
874,077.40
6
Stock Loan for the Eastern Penitentiary
per acts of Mar. 28, 1881 and AnvW 9,
1833 :
120,000.00
5
Stock Loan for the Union Canal Company
per acts of Mar. 1, 1833 and Dee. 16,
1833
200,000.00
4i
Certificates of Stock for interest due Aug.
1, 1842, per act, July 27, 1842
866,625.53
6
Certificates of Stock fur guaranty of inter-
est due Bald Eagle and Spring Creek
Navigation Company, per act of July
27, 1842
5,000.00
6
Certificates of Stock for interest due Dan-
ville and Pottsville Railroad Company,
per act of July 27, 1842
15,000.00
6
Certificates of Stock for interest due Feb.
1 and Aug. 1, 1843, per act, Mar. 7. 1843
1,747.976.00
6
Stock Loan for funding of interest certifi-
cates and other purposes, April 29, 1844
60,643.72
6
Certificates of Stock for interest, May 31,
1844
288,506.04
6
Total
$47,085,750.94
$1,358,778.36
All of the above temporary loans were promptly reimbursed so
that none were outstanding in 1844. Usually they had been con-
tracted in anticipation of long time loans.
On January 6th, 1842, the amount of the state debt contracted
solely for public works was $33,359,313. After this date the
cause for the increase of debt is stated in each case.
' B ' — Loans between 18Jf.j^ and 1858.
Loans.
.\ mount.
Rate
of Int.
Stock Loan for funding interest certificates, April 16,
1845 .. .__.
Stock Loan, to renew charter loan, Jan. 22, 1847
Stock Loan, for refunding relief notes, April 11, 1S4S
Stock Loan, to avoid Schuvlkill inclined plane, April
10. 1S49 '
Stock Loan to complete North Branch Extension, April
2,1852
Stock Loan, to redeem State stocks, interest certificates,
domestic creditor certificates, etc.. May 4. 1852..
Stock Loan to redeem maturing bonds, April 19, 1853.
$5,000,000.00
62,500.00
149,838.45
400,000.00
850,000.00
5,000.000.00
500,000.00
5
5
6
6
4i &5
4&5
5
Total
$11,962,338.45
A. L. Bishop — Tlie State Works'of Pennsylvania. 289
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Cornell, W. M., History of Pennsylvania. Pliiladclphia, 1876.
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Letters on the Subject of the Sale of the Main Line of the Public Improve-
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A. L. Bishop — The State Worhs of Pennsyh-ania.
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1
CONTENTS.
Page
Introduction 149
Chapter I. ImprO'vements in Transportation before 1823 150
II. The Popular Movement for Internal Improvements.... 167
III. The Construction of the Public Works 189
IV. Finance 205
V. Corrupt Practices connected with tlie Building and
Operation of the Public Works 220
VI. The Disposal of the Public Works 245
Appendix I. Memorial to the Legislature 261
II. Delegates to the Canal Convention at Harrisburg 264
III. Resolutions Passed at the Canal Convention at Harris-
burg, August 4th to 6th, 1825 260
■ IV.' Act of February 25th, 1826 267
V. Act of April 9th, 1827 271
VI. Financial Statement of the Public Works 277
Bibliography 289
Index 293
I
INDEX.
Page
Accounting, method of 238, 239, 240
Act of March 14th, 1761 154:
April 13th, 1791 156, 161
September 29th, 1791 161
April 10th, 1792 162
April 2d, 1811 163
March 24th, 1817 157
March 20th, 1818 156
March 26th, 1821 163
February 13th, 1822 156
March 27th, 1824 : 172
April 11th, 1825 179, 205
February 25th, 1826 : . . .185, 186, 187, 189, 190, 201, 267-71
April 1st, 1826 205, 209, 225
April 9th, 1827 190, 191, 192, 201, 204, 229, 271-77
March 24th, 1828 192, 193, 196
April 22d, 1829 193, 210
November 17th, 1829 210, 225
March 25th, 1831 212, 214, 215, 225, 228
February 18th, 1836 212, 214
^, February 19th, 1839 231
June nth, 1840 219
May 4th, 1841 220
July 27th, 1842 221, 250, 28S
March 7th, 1843 249
April 8th, 1843 221
April 29th, 1844 222, 223, 250, 251
March 13th, 1845 249
April 13th, 1846 252
April 21st, 1846 252
February 25th, 1847 252
March 27th, 1848 253
April 27th, 1854 254
May 8th, 1855 254
May 16th, 1857 256
April 21st, 1858 258
January 25th, 1859 260
February 26th, 1885 260
Acts (See Tables of Loans, 287-88).
Allegheny feeder 199
31-
I
294 ixDKx.
Page
AUeghenj- mountain 151, 190, 194, 197, 246, 251
Allegheny portage railroad 194, 197, 238, 248, 257, 260
Allegheny river 159, 171, 178, 200
Auction duties 206
Bald Eagle side cut 199
Bank, ]\liddleto\vn 236
Bank of the United States 204, 205, 214, 215, 217
Banks 213, 224
Baring Brothers and Company 216
Blair's Gap 197
Bridges 166
Canal, Beaver division of 200
Chenango, of Xew York 200
Delaware division of 200, 23G
Eastern division of 197, 238
Erie Extension of 200, 201, 235, 249
Franlvliu branch of 200
Juniata division of 197, 235, 238
Mahoning 200
IVIiddlesex 177
North Branch division of 199
North Branch Extension 199
Ohio and Erie 246
Susquehanna division of 199, 236
West Branch di\asion of 199
Western division of 197, 198, 235, 238
Wiconisco 200, 231
Canal commissioners, board of, abolislied 260
board of, changed in organization 189
board of, created 179
duties of board of 180
reports of boards of 186, 189, 192, 193, 194, 209,
• 231, 238, 240, 248, 249, 254.
Canal convention at Harrisburg 180, 181, 184, 264, 206
Canal loans 162, 209, 211, 219, 224, 225, 287, 288
premiimis on 211, 212, 213, 287, 2SS
rates of interest on 287-89
Canal, revenues of 203, 277-84
Canal tolls 201, 218, 224, 226
Canals, contracts for building 189, 192, 193, 195
dimensions of 199
operated in Pennsylvania now 261
surveys for 159, 161, 191, 192, 193
Chenango canal of New York 200
Commissioners, board of 172
Commissioners of Internal Improvement Fund 206, 209, 222, 227
I
INDEX. 295
Page
Committee of Roads, Bridges, and Inland NaAigation, Report
of ; 164, 171, 186
Committee of twenty- four 178, 181, 261
Con^mittee to investigate conduct of canal commissioners 236
Committee to investigate expenditures 234, 235
Cone^vago falls 155
Conneaut lake 200, 201
Contractors, payments to, delayed 210, 211
Contracts, law governing the re-letting of 233
letting of 231
re-letting of 233, 234
Corporations 166, 187, 188, 251
Domestic creditors 221
Erie o^nal...l53, 158, 167, 169, 170, 175, 177, 182, 200, 208, 227, 245, 246,
247, 248, 251.
Erie canal company of Pennsylvania 200, 249
Erie canal, cost of 208
policy adopted for financing 208
tolls on 177
Erie, Lake 151, 152, 158, 163, 171, 178, 179, 182, 200
Expenditures, ordinary and extraordinary 239
Financial embarrassment, 1839-44^ causes of 224
failure of State works recognized 222
reform commenced. 222
statement of State works 228, 277-86
French creek feeder 200, 249
Improvement society 174, 176, 178, 181
acting committee of 175, 181
address of, to the citizens of the State 176
Interest certificates • 221, 222, 223
defaulted 221
fund 207, 209, 210, 211, 212, 214, 218, 222, 225, 226
payment delayed 216, 221
resumed ' 223
struggle to avoid defaulting 217
Internal Improvement Fund 205, 208, 210, 211
sources of 206
Johnstown feeder 199
Laborers .' 189
Lateral works, summary of divisions of 199-201
Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company 156, 157, 200
Lehigh river 150
Lehman, William 171
Lewisburg side cut 199
29G INDEX.
Page
Locks, dimensions of 199
Loans, see tables of • 287-88
Log-rolling 202, 203, 204, 215, 229
Mahoning canal 200
Main line, summary of divisions of . . : 195-99
Memorials to legislature 158, 178, 179, 261
Middlesex canal 177
]\Iifflin, Governor Thomas 158, 160
[Miners' Journal 182
Mississippi river 151, 152, 168
Monongahela ]Sra%'igation Company 157
National road 170
New York, canal coigimissioners of 170
canal fund of 208
Ohio and Erie canal 246
Packer, Governor 259
Panic of 1837 216
Penn, William 153, 160
Pennsylvania canal company 257
Pennsylvania, canals in, operated now 201
Pennsylvania canal, first ground broken for 189
Pennsylvania Railroad Company chartered 252
incorporated 252
Philadelphia, public convention of citizens of 178, 181
Pollock, Governor 256, 258
Porter, Governor 217, 218, 222, 227
Railroad, Allegheny Portage 194, 197, 238, 248, 257, 260
Baltimore and Ohio 230, 251, 252
Gettysburg 195, 196, 230
New Portage 198, 240
Pennsylvania 253, 254, 256, 257, 260, 201
Philadelphia and Columbia 193, 195, 196, 235, 238, 240, 257
Philadelphia and Reading 155
Sunbury and Erie 285, 250
West Philadelphia 196
Railroads, inclined planes on 195, 196, 198
motive power on 198
Raystown feeder 197
Relief notes 220
Ritner, Governor 203, 217, 231
Rittenhouse, Da%nd 161
Schuylkill Navigation Company 154, 155
Sectional jealousies 201, 202, 230
Shultze, Governor 172, 179, 185, 210
INDEX. 297
Page
Society for improvement of roads and inland navigation 158, 160
State debt 213, 218, 229
State works abandoned 257
cost of 174, 208, 222, 228, 229, 238, 240, 280, 286
expenditures on 228, 229
gross revenue of 228, 229, 286
main line of, completed 195
main line of, sold 256
sale of 218, 228, 245, 248, 250, 253, 254, 256, 257, 258, 259
vote on sale of main line 250
Stocks held by State, sale of 221, 222
Strickland, William 175, 180, 189
report of 176
Surplus revenue, distribution of 204, 217
Susquehanna river 160, 170, 171, 172, 178
Taxation 211, 212, 214, 217, 218, 219, 222, 225, 226, 227, 245, 253
Tax laws of 1831 212, 219, 220, 225, 226
Tax laws repealed 212, 215, 225
Tolls, rates of established, and first collected 193
Tonnage on Erie and Pennsylvania canals compared 248
Tonnage, tax on 252, 253
Transportation companies 247
Timnel, Staple Bend 198
Turnpikes ' 165, 166, 184
Union canal 155, 160, 163, 164
United States Bank of Pennsylvania 214, 215, 216, 217, 224, 225
failures of 217
Ways and Means, committee on 211, 219, 227, 250, 251, 258
West, canals of 167, 245
canal routes to the 159, 173, 190
growth of 167, 168
Western trade, rivalry for ..159, 169, 174, 177, 183, 187, 245, 248, 251, 253
Westward movement 150, 151
Wiconisco canal 200, 231
company 249
Wilson, William Bender 243
Wolf, Gk>vernor 211, 226
I
5
«:
vJv-^-^o
TRANSACTIONS Of THE
CONNECTICUT ACADEMY OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
Incorporated A. D. 1799
VOLUME XIII. PP. 299-474. PLATES ix-xxviii.
APRIL, 1908
Publications of Yale University
DECAPOD CRUSTACEA OF BERMUDA; I— BRACHYURA
AND ANOMURA. THEIR DISTRIBUTION,
VARIATIONS, AND HABITS
I5Y
A. E. VERRILL
Professor of Zoology, emeritus, in Yale University
NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT
1908
THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR PRESS
VI. — Decai'od Crustacea, of Bermuda ; I, — Braciiyura and
Anomura. Their Distribution, Variations, and Habits.
B}^ A. E. Verrill.
The following catalogue is intended to include all the species
hitherto known to occur at Bermuda. It is based mainly on the
collections made by myself and the small parties of students and
others who went with me to Bermuda in 1898 and 1901 to make col-
lections for the Museum of Yale Univei'sity. But I have also used
several earlier collections already in the Yale Museum, especially that
of Mr. G. Brown Goode, made in 1876-1877, of which the species
were mostly determined by Prof. S. I. Smith, soon afterwards ; and
the still earlier collections sent to the Museum by Mr. J. M. Jones,
about 1866 to 1877 ; also small collections made about the same
period by Dr. C. Hartt Merriam, Dr. F. V. Hamlin, and others.
Recently, Professor Trevor Kincaid, of the Washins^ton State
University of Seattle, has sent me, for examination, his entire col-
lection, made while at the Bermuda Biological Station, in 1903.
The Field Natural History Museum of Chicago sent to Bermuda,
in 1905, an expedition under Dr. Tarleton H. Bean, especially to
collect the fishes, but a good collection of Crustacea was also
obtained, including a number of species dredged on the Challenger
and Argus Banks. This collection has been sent to me for study by
the director, Mr. F. J. Skiff, to whom I am much indebted for
the privilege of studying it. The collection contained several inter-
esting additions to the Bermuda crustacean fauna.*
Prof. E. L. Mark, of Harvard University, has also kindly sent me,
for study, a collection of Crustacea made by the members of the
Bermuda Biological Station, under his direction. It is of special
interest because some of the species were dredged on the Argus and
Challenger Banks, and a few are new to the fauna. Several partial
and nominal lists of Bermuda Decapod Crustacea, mostly without
descriptions or figures, have already been published, increasing,
from time to time, the number of known species, but none are com-
plete. No doubt many additions will also be made hereafter to the
present list, though it is probably nearly complete for the shore
and shallow water species.
* Among these are Dromia eri/thrajjun, a small Munida, and a small red
AJpheus, apparently new, from the Banks; Charybrli'lla tumidula, Long Bird
I., and Ghjptvrus Branneri Rath., from St. Davids Island.
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 22 Jan., 1908.
300 ^1. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
The earlier lists, worthy of notice, are those of Mr. J. M. Jones.*
The species enumerated by him, merely b}' names, were identified
for him by others, and were not all reliably named. A good
series of his Bermuda Crustacea still remains in the Yale Museum,
and has been used in preparing this list, as stated above.
Prof. Sidney I. Smith, in a memoir on the Crustacea of Brazil, f in
1869, recorded five species from Bermuda (coll. J. M. Jones)
studied by him in the Yale Museum, and others in his later papers.
Prof. Angelo Heilprin, in his general work on the Bermudas,!
gave a brief list of the Crustacea obtained. They were identified
by Mr. Witmer Stone, who was a member of Prof. Heilprin's party.
One of his species ( Cyclogrcqysus integer) has not been taken by
later collectors. A list of nine species was given by Professor
Ortmann in the reports of the Plankton Expedition. §
In a general illustrated work on the West Indian Decapod Crus-
tacea,|| Ml". Young has enumerated and described 23 species pre-
* The Naturalist in Bermuda, LoncTon, 1859, 212 pp., 8vo ; The Visitor's Guide
to Bermuda, Halifax, New York, and London, 1876, 12mo, 159 pp. For a list of
his other writings, see these Trans., vol. xii, p. 201 ; The Bermuda Is., ii, p.
157.
Mr. Jones was a lawyer, resident in Halifax, N. S., biit he resided a number
of winters in Bermuda, also doing business there. He was much interested in
zoologj-, botany, and geology, and did much useful pioneer work there, in
those subjects. His books were very iiseful at the time he wrote, for little had
then been published on the natural history of the Bermudas. He devoted more
attention to the Mollusca than to any other subject, and made a large collection
of shells there, but no complete list of them has been published. He was a
personal friend of Governor Lefroy, as shown by their correspondence which
I have seen, and they were often associated in making collections. I made his
personal acquaintance, while at Halifax, in 1S77. Soon after that he sent to
the Yale Museum a large part of his collections of corals, echinoderms,
bryozoa, etc. At about the same period he sent his collection of Crustacea to
be studied by Prof. S. I. Smith of Yale, who was then intending to write a
general report on the Bermuda Crustacea for Bulletin 25 of the U. S. National
Museum. Other more imperative duties prevented the completion of that
work, as well as my own report on the corals and echinoderms, undertaken at
the request of Mr. Goode, for that Bulletin.
f Notice of the Crustacea collected by Prof. C F. Hartt, on the Coast of
Brazil in 1867. These Trans., vol. ii. pp. 1-42, 1869.
JHeilijrin, Angelo. — The Bermuda Islands. Crustacea on pp. 146-149. Phila-
delphia, 1889.
§ Ortmann, Arnold. — Decapoden und Schizopoden der Plankton Exped. . Bd.
ii, 1893.
II Young, Chas. G. — The Stalk-Eyed Crustacea of British Guiana, West Indies,
and Bermuda, London, 1900, xix + 514 pp., 7 colored plates.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 301
viously recorded from Bermuda. In the Reports of the Voyage of
the Challenger there are lists* of the 25 shallow-water species
obtained at Bermuda. Dr. W. M. Rankin, of Princeton University,
published in 1900 a much more comj)U^te list, including all the
species known up to that date.f He recorded 33 species of Bra-
chyura and 6 of Anomura. He utilized the collections made by
the parties from the University of New York. He also had, for his
use, a list of the species obtained by Mr. G. Brown Good e, J in 1876
* Miers, Edw. J. — Report on the Brachj'ura, vol. xvii, 1886. Henderson, J. E. —
Report on the Anomura, vol. xxvii, 1888.
f The Crustacea of the Bermuda Islands, with notes on the Collection made
by the New York University Expeditions of 1897 and 1898. Annals New York
Acad. Science, vol. xii, No. 12, pp. 521-548.
J Mr. G. Brown Goode, who was for many years Assistant on the U. S. Fish
Commission ; later, Assistant Secretary of theSmithsonian Institution and Director
of the National Museum ; and at one time Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries;
was a prominent ichthyologist. He piiblished a number of important works on
fishes. One of his earlier ones was a Catalogue of the Fishes of Bermuda with
notes on their colors and habits. (Bulletin of the U. S. National Museum, No.
5, 1876.) He published a more complete catalogue in Bulletin 25, 1884.
He visited Bermuda in the winters of 1876 and 1877, partly for the benefit
of his health. While there he made extensive collections, especially of fishes,
Crustacea, sponges, corals, and echinoderms. His collections were much
larger than any previously obtained there. They contained about 35 species of
Brachyura and Anomura ; also many Macrura. Amphipods, etc. His corals,
actinife, echinoderms, bryozoa. etc., were identified by me, before 1880, and
studied with reference to the preparation of a faunal report on those groups,
for Bulletin 25 of the U. S. National Museum. But this work and several
others were laid aside in order to undertake the more important investigation
of the deep-sea invertebrate fauna off the American coast, by the U. S. Fish
Commission, which was begun in 1880, and placed under my charge by the
Commissioner, Professor S. F. Baird. As that work continued annually from
1880 to 1888, and the vast collections obtained were put in my care for study,
many of them even to the present time, with scarcely any funds to employ
assistants, I have never been able to resume the publication of those Bermuda
reports, in the foi'ui intended, but the results liave, in large part, been included
in the papers recently published by me in these Transactions. Although Mr.
Goode's collection of Crustacea was the best made up to that date, it was by
no means complete.
The following extract from one of Mr. Goode's letters to Pi'ofessor S. I. Smith
will serve to illustrate his interest in collecting the Crustacea :
Bermuda, March 19, 1877.
My Dear Professor Smith :
" I am making fine hauls among the crustaceans, especially among the minute
forms, and have already filled about 125 phials and bottles. Have not yet found
303 A. E. Y err ill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
and 1877, which had been identified by Professor S. I. Smith, many
years before. A series of the same collection, which was sent to
the U. S. National Museum, was studied by Miss Rathbun, who
furnished the list for Dr. Rankin. Anotiier series is in the Museum
of Wcsleyan University. Professor Smith has published measure-
ments and other information in regard to a number of the species
in Goode's collection, in several of his papers.
Two papers by me* gave the many additional species obtained
by the parties that went with me to Bermuda from Yale Universit}^
in 1898 and 1901, to study the zoology and make more complete
collections.
A recent and very important work on the Decapod Crustacea of
Porto Ricof has been published by Miss M. J. Rathbun. She has
indicated in her report all the species that had been previously
recorded from Bermuda, with their general distribution. In that
report, brief but clear descriptions are given of all the genera and
species, as well as analytical tables of the genera and species. It is,
therefore, almost a manual for the Bermuda species, for most of
them were also in the Porto Rico collections. For students of these
Crustacea it is the most useful of the works readily available. It
contains only few figures of the Bermuda species, however.
In the present article I have endeavored to figure as many as
possible of the species, even wIkmi well known, for such figui'es
greatly facilitate their identification and may largely take the place
of descriptions. From this point of view this article may be
regarded as a complement to that of Miss Rathbun, to which
reference should be made for technical descriptions.
I have, however, included brief descriptions of some of the more
difticult species, and also most of the notes that I have on the
colors of the living specimens, with such observations on habits as
seemed to be of interest. I have also indicated the general distribu-
the larval stages of any species whatever, — perhaps because I have not had time
to use a towing net." * * * *
" Am having excellent success, particularly with fishes and sponges. I have
added about 40 species of fishes to my published list. You will be pleased to
know that I find Amj^hioxus quite abundantly."
* Additions to the Crustacea and Pycuogonida of the Bei-niiadas, Trans. Conn.
Acad. Sci., vol. x, part ii, pp. 573-582, plates Ixvii-lxix, 1900.
Additions to the Fauna of the Bermudas from the Yale Expedition of 1901,
with Notes on Other Siiecies. Op. cit., vol. xi, pji. 15-63, i)lates i-ix, 1901.
f Eathbun, Miss Mary J. — The Brachyura and Macrura of Porto Rico. From
the U. S. Fish Comm. Bulletin, for 1900, vol. ii, pp. 1-137*, pi. i, ii, 1901.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 303
tion and range of the species. In 1898, one of my sons, Clarence
S. Verrill, who was of the Yale party, made notes on the habits and
colors of the Crustacea. 1 am indebted to him for such notes, many
of which are here utilized, and have his initials appended.
Another son, A. Hyatt Verrill, made a large collection of Crusta-
cea in March, 1901, before my arrival at Bermuda. He found a
number of interesting additions to the fauna. I am also indebted
to him for the photographs and drawings used in this paper, and
also for a number of colored figures and various notes made on the
colors and habits of a number of species. To Miss M. J. Rathbun,
whose nomenclature I have generally followed, I am indebted for the
identification of many of the smaller and more critical specimens,
and for the loan of others. From her papers I have also borrowed,
Avith a few alterations, some of the analytical tables of species,
genera, and higher groups.
I am also indebted to Professor S. I. Smith for numerous com-
parative measurements of a number of species, made by him several
years ago for another purpose.
Many of the crabs have colors that are highly protective by day ;
others have colors that ai-e not protective by daylight, but are
highly so at night, in moonlight, or twiliglit. They afford an excel-
lent field for studies of this kind. Although these Crustacea are
numerous in Bermuda, there are many species that are seldom taken
by inexperienced collectors, because of their peculiar habits. Many
are found concealed beneath large rocks or masses of dead corals,
which must be turned over to obtain them. This is particularly true
of most of the Piluranidae, and of MUhr ax f orceins, Percnon jjlanis-
simiim, etc. Some live regularly in eroded holes in masses of coral
or limestone, like many species of Alpheus and the common Gono-
dactylns (Erstedi. The rare crab, Epialtus bituberculatus, was
found only by breaking up such rocks. Several species are peculiar
to the mangrove swamps, and live chiefly among the tangled roots
of the mangroves, where it is hard to capture them. The hand-
somely colored Goniopsis cruentatus has this habit, as well as some
species of iSesarmft, Pachygrapsus, Eupanopeiis, etc. The land-
crabs, Gecarclnus and Cardisoma, burrow deeply in the earth, and
the same is true of Ocypode arenarius, Ilippa cvbensis, etc., which
inhabit sandy beaches. These and many others are mainly nocturnal
in their habits and can sometimes be caught out of their burrows in
the night by means of torches or lanterns, especially in summer.
The great Cardisoma guanhumi is seldom taken here in any other
304 A. E. V err 11 1 — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
way. Tlie various species of Portunida3 are active swimmers in
shallow water and must be taken by means of nets. Many species
are partial to the outlying reefs, living in holes and crevices, or
under broken blocks of stone. A few species have been obtained
only by dredging, but so little dredging has hitherto been done,
except in very shallow water, that we reall}^ know very little about
the extensive fauna that undoubtedly inhabits the zone between 10
and 150 fathoms. A few hauls of the dredge were made by the
" Challenger " outside the reefs. The expedition sent out by the
Field Museum of Chicago, under Dr, Bean, did a small amount of
dredging on the Argus and Challenger J^anks, and obtained there
some interesting additions to the Crustacean fauna, which have been
sent to me for study. A few successful hauls were also made there
by a party from the Bermuda Biological Station.
Dredging outside the reefs, in 10 to 30 fathoms, where the fauna
should be richest, is difficult, not only because of the rough seas
that prevail there at the seasons wiien most collectors visit the
islands, but also because the bottom itself is very broken and rough,
being covered in inost places by large masses of broken rocks and
dead corals, and in many localities by" living branched corals ( Oc«-
lina) and gorgonians, so that the dredges are apt to be lost or the
nets speedily torn. Even tangles are liable to be caught among
the rough rocks and lost. The larger Crustacea, living in such
places, can only be obtained by means of baited fish-traps or lobster
pots. In this way three large species of Sci/llarides or " Spanish-
lobsters " have been obtaiiied, as well as several large crabs. The
collections of Crustacea made by my own parties are very much
larger than those made by any of the other expeditions, both in the
number of species and in the number of specimens, but they were
all obtained in the spring, from March Ist to June 4th, and very
few were dredged. The same is true of sevex'al other collections.
Mr. Jones and Mr. Goode collected both in the winter and spring,
but the dates are seldom indicated on their labels. The collection
from the University of New York, worked out by Dr. Kankin, was
made in midsummer, and therefore affords some additional seasonal
information. Probably considerable differences would be found
between large collections made in midsummer or autumn and those
made in winter or spring.
In this respect the collection made by the expedition from the
Field Museum of Natural History is of special interest. That
party Avorked from Aug. 18 to Nov. 10, 1905. The collection of
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 305
Crustacea obtained is not large, for the fishes were the special
objects sought, but it contains many interesting species, some of
them not previously found.
Whenever possible I have given the season when females carrying
eggs were taken.
Since many species may have been formerly introduced by adher-
ing to the bottoms of vessels, and others may be introduced here-
after in the same way, I have thought it advisable to mention
particularly the earlier occurrences of all the species, so far as I
know. But very few dates can now be given earlier than those of
the collection of J. M. Jones, which was fortunately quite large.
Much of his collection was made as early as 1859 to 1866, but his
specimens had no labels giving precise dates. Abundant opportunity
for the introduction of West Indian species have prevailed for nearly
;iOO years, but they have much increased in modern times, especially
since the establishment of the great naval dry dock. Vast numbers
of living marine animals are always scraped from the bottoms of
foul vessels, besides barnacles.
BRACHYURA.
Key to the Superfaniilies or Tribes of Brachyura*
A. — Buccal frame quadrate ; efferent branchial channels opening at the sides of
the endostome.
B. — Carapace usually quadrilateral, frontal region curved downward. Verges
inserted either in tlie sternal plastron or in the basal joints of the fifth pair
of legs of the male, thence passing through channels in the sternum, beneath
the abdomen _ _. Catometopa
B\ — Carapace not quadrilateral. Verges inserted in basal joints of the fifth
pair of legs.
C. — Carapace short and broad, rounded in front, without a projecting frontal
rostrum Ci/clometopa
C. — Carapace usually more or less triangular or ovate, with a projecting, pointed,
forked, or spined rostrum .. Oxyrhyncha
A' . — Buccal frame usually triangular, naiTowed forward ; efferent canals open-
ing at middle of the endostome. Verges inserted in the basal joint of the
fifth pair of legs Oxystomata
* Taken with slight alterations from Brachyura and Macrura of Porto Rico,
by Miss M. J. Rathbun.
306 .i. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
CATOMETOPA.
Family OCYPODIDiE Leach.
TIlis family is I'epresented in Bermuda only by the genus Ocypodt.
The "fiddler-crabs" (genus Uca or Gelasinius), so abundant on
most coasts of warm countries, are entirely lacking, so far as known.
Ocypode arenarius (G. Edw.) Say. Ghost-Crab ; Sprite ; Beach Crab.
Cancer arenarius Edwards in Catesby, Nat. Hist. Carolina, ii, pi. 35, 1771.
Cancer quadratus J. C. Fabricius, Entomologia Systematica, ii, p. 439, 1793.
(" Habitat in Jamaica Mus. Dom. Banlis.")
Ocypode quadrata J. C. Fabricius, Suppl. Entomol. System., p. 347, 1798.
S. I. Smith, Trans. Conn. Acad. Sci., iv, p. 257, 1880. (Synonymy and
distr. )
Ocypoda albicans Bosc, Hist. nat. Crust., i, p. 196 (not the fig.) (Carolina
coast).
Oc]/pode arenarius Saj', Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, i, p. G9, 1817.
M. -Edwards, Hist. nat. Crust., ii, p. 44, pi. 19, tigs. 13, 14, 1837 {Ocypoda are-
naria) ;
Coues, Proc. Acad. Nat, Sci. Philadelphia, 1871, p. 122 {arenaria ; North
Carolina, habits).
Smith, Amer. Jour. Sci. (3), vi, p. 67, 1873 (ilfoiio/e^jis inennis=megalops-
stage) ; Inverteb. Vineyard Sd., Report U. S. Fish Comm., 1, p. 545 (251),
534 (240), 1874 {Ocypoda arenaria).
Kingsley, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1878, p. 322 (7), {Ocypoda
arenaria); op. cit., for 1879, p. 400; op. cit., 1880, p. 184.* Rankin.
Crust. Bermuda Is., p. 525, 1900.
Ocypoda rhombea M. -Edwards, Hist. nat. Crust., ii, p. 46, 1837 ("Antilles et
Bresil"); Ann. Sci. nat.. Ill, xviii, p. 143 (107), 1852 {Ocypode).
Dana, U. S. Expl. Exped., Crust., p. 322, pi. 19, fig. 8, 1852 (Brazil).
Monolepis inermis Say, Joiir. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, i, p. 157, 1817
(megalops-stage).
Ocypode albicans M. J. Rathbun, Results Branner-Agassiz Exp. Brazil, Proc.
Wash. Acad. Sci., ii, p. 134, 1900 ; Brachy. and Macr. Porto Rico, p. 6, 1901
(descr.); Amer. Naturalist, xxxiv, p. 585, figs. 1, 2, 1900.
Figure 1. Plate IX, Figures 2, 3.
This crab is easily distinguished by its thick, quadrate carapace,
coarsely granulated on the sides, with finer granules on the middle
and posterior parts ; the acute anterior angles ; and the very large eyes
and eye-stalks. The eyes are abruptly rounded distally, but pro-
longed proximally on the stalks beneath. The chelipeds of the males
* Kingsley, op. cit., p. 184, used the specific name arenaria, as from Catesby,
1731 and 1771, dating it from the later edition. That edition was edited by
George Edwards, who gave binomial names to the species of Catesby. There
is no valid reason for not adoiJting them when they have priority, as in this case.
The name Cancer arenarius is given in the text and is also engraved on the plate.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
307
have a stridulatiiig organ, consisting of a vertical series of short
raised lines of tubercles on a narrow rid^e. It is doubtless used for
a sexual call. The ambulatory legs are fringed with long yellow
hairs.
The color of the adults at Bermuda, in life, is mostly pale yellow,
straw-color, or yellowish white, imitating closely the color of the
beaches of yellowish white shell-sand on which it lives. Those
Figure 1. — Ocypode -arenarius, about 73 nat. size, after photo, by A. H. Verrill.
young specimens that we found, living on the coast of New Jersey,
in spring, were "pepper-and-salt color," imitating closely the colors
of the silicious (granitic) sand of the beaches. When pursued they
would run very rapidly, often suddenly stopping and squatting so
closely in the sand that they could be easily overlooked.
Its common name, "ghost-crab," alludes both to its pale color and
nocturnal habits. It can run very swiftly on the sandy beaches. It
lives in deep burrows near or above high tide.
Measurements
in millimt
iters.
amber
Sex
Cara-
pace
length
Cara-
pace
breadth
Front
breadth
Chelfe
length
Chela;
height
Eye-
stalks
length
Locality
3060
?
39
45
5.5
j r. 31
U- 36
jl4
/21
16
Bermuda
3154
<5
38
45
5.5
j r. 36
I I. 45
jl7
<30
16
((
1719
9
40
50
6.
i r. 42
} 1. 34
j22
114
16
Ft. Macon
4063
S
35
43
5.
1. 38
22
15.5
Bermuda
Its range, in the adult state, is from Virginia to Brazil, but the
free-swimming young {mec/alops) are carried much farther north in
the Gulf Stream and often arrive alive on the southern coasts of New
Eno-land.
Prof. S. I. Smith* has recorded the frequent occurrence of the
full grown raegalops of this species in Long Island Sound and on the
*Amer. Journ. Science (3), vol vi, p. 67, 1875; and Trans. Conn. Acad. Sci.,
iv,. p. 255, 1880.
308 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
southern coast of New England, and of the early stages of the adult
form, ill abundance, on Fire Island Beach, on the south side of Long
Island, in Sei)tember, 1870. Probably it rarely if ever survives the
winter so far north. In April, 1872, in company with Professor
Smith, I found the young of the previous year abundant and very
agile on the outer beaches at Great Egg Harbor, N. J. These had
the carapace about 18 to 24™'" broad.
At Bermuda we found this crab common on the shell-sand beaches
of the south shore, near Tuckers Town and elsewhere, and also on
the north shore at Shelly Bay, Lorig Bird Island and Bailey Bay.
One specimen was caught and ]>rought in by a dog, at night. Sev-
eral large Bermuda specimens in the Yale Museum were collected
by Dr. C. Ilartt Merriam, April, 1881. Two examples were in Mr.
Goode's collection. It has been obtained by several other collectors.
Tiie largest that I have seen were obtained at Coopei''s Island, by
the Field Nat. Hist. Museum Expedition. None of the females that
I have seen carried egirs, though they have been taken in spring,
midsummer, and autumn. Perhaps the number examined was not
lar<j-e enousfh to made this negative evidence of much value.
Family GECARCINID^ I\r.-Edw. Land Crabs.
These land crabs can readily be recognized by their very convex
surface, with the margins rounded and dilated over and in front of
the branchial regions. The front is strongly bent downward and
moderately wide ; orbits and eye-stalks not very large. Chelipeds
of the adult males large and powerful, more or less unequal. Distal
joints of the legs granulated and fringed.
Gecarcinus lateralis (Frein.) Guerin. Common Land Crab.
Ocypoda lateralis Freminville. Aun. Sci. nat., iii, p. 234, 1835.
Gecarcinus lateralis Guerin, Icon. Regne Anim., pi. v, fig. 1. Rankin, Crust.
Bermuda, p. 525, 190(1.
M. J. Rathbnn, Bracli. and Macrnra Porto Rico, p. 14, 1901.
Verrill, these Trans., vol. xi, p. 70(5, fig. 57 ; The Bermuda Is., i, p. 294,
fig. 57.
Gecarcinus lauostoma fpar.s) Miers, Voy. Challenger, vol. xvii, p. 218. 1886.
Young, Stalk-eyed Crustacea, p. 241, 1900.
Figure 2.
Commonly the carapace, in life, is mostly of a deep reddish brown
or plum-color ; often this color is replaced posteriorly by a wide
transverse band of lighter color spotted with yellow ; this band
extends forward, along each side, becoming narrower and darker, dis-
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
309
appearing near the eye-sockets ; a pair of small white spots close
behind the eye-sockets and another pair in the cardiac region. Legs
light grayish brown ; clielipeds darker and more red ; last joint
bright orange. Under side white. — C. S. V.
The color is often more reddish than above described, especially
when immature. The youngest individuals were much paler. The
dark purple and red colors are protective at night.
Figure 2. — Land Crab, Gecarcinus lalerafis, front view, nat. size.
A. H. V.
Drawing by
It is very common in sandy waste places on many of the smaller
islands, especially on those that are uninhabited, or nearly so. It
makes its deep burrows both near the shore and on the low hills,
20 to 30 feet high, at some distance from the shore and where the
shell-sand was nearly or quite dry. We found them both in open
land and among cedar bushes. Its burrows are often very long and
deep ; some that we dug out descended obliquely to the depth of
3 to 4 feet or more, and then ran off horizontally 4 to 5 feet, ending
in a small chamber. Others, equally large, were quite shallow.
Some of the young were exposed by turning over large flat stones,
under which they had burrowed. Many burrows were among the
tangled roots of cedars, etc., where they could not be dug out.
The largest Bermuda specimen that I have seen was obtained at
St. Davids Island by the expedition of the Field Nat. Hist. Museum.
They also collected it at Cooper's I. and Castle I. None of the
specimens seen carried eggs,* though some were taken in midsummer
(Bermuda Biol. Station, Prof. Kincaid).
Measureynents in millimeters.
Sf umber
Sex
Carapace
length breadth
Front
bread ih
Chelae
length
height
Locality
3048.
6
39
48
10
r. j 33
1. ] 45
r. 15
1. 20
Bermuda
1901a.
6
36
44
9
30
16
Bermuda
Young
$
26
35
8
r. j 19
1. ) 19
r. 9
1. 9
Bermuda
Young
489 F. M
S
14
46
24
59
6
12.5
r. \ 12.5
1. '( 12.5
49
r. 6
1. 6
24
Bermuda
Davids I.
* Young, with carapace 7-9"'" long, were taken April 24, 1901.
Ir
310 .1. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Among the particular localities where we found it abundant were
Castle Island, Charles or Goat Island, Bailey Bay Island, etc. It is
mainly no('tiiiiial in its habits. During the spring, while we were at
Bermuda, it was very rarely seen out of its burrows in the daytime.
Perhaps it partially hibernates in its burrows, at that season, like C.
guanhunii, and becomes more active in summer.
In the early settlement of the islands it seems to have been much
more abundant, at least in the cultivated lands, where it was said to
be injurious. It was the subject of a law in early times, by which
persons were forbidden to dig crabs on lands of other perfions, thus
causing damage to crops.* They were mentioned as then used for
fish bait.
This species ranges from Bermuda and the Florida Keys through
the West Indies to Venezuela and Ascension Island.
Cardisoma guanhumi (Latr.) Great Land-Crah ; '^Juey."
Cardisoma guanhumi Latreille, Encycl. Meth., Hist. Nat. Insectes, x, p. 685,
1825. M.-Edw., Illust. Edit. Cavier, pi. xx, figs. 1— li.
S. I. Smith. Trans. Conn. Acad. Sci., ii, pp. 86, 143, pi. v, fig. 3, 1870
(descr. and syn.) Miers, op. cit., p. 220, 1886.
M. J. Rathbim, Amer. Naturalist, xxxiv, p. 587, fig. 6, 1900.
Rankin, Crust. Berm. Is., p. 525, 1900. M. J. Rathbun, Brach. and Macr.
Porto Rico, p. 15, 1901.
Verrill, these Trans., vol. xi, p. 17 ; The Bermuda Is., i, pp. 37, 264, 295.
1903. Young, op. cit., p. 246, 1900. Stimpson, Rep. Crust. N. Pacific
Expl. Exped., p. Ill, 1907.
Figure 3. Plate IX, Figure 1.
The color of adults in life is pale livid gray, on the carapace, becom-
insf bluish srav on the margins and on the legs ; ends of the clieli-
peds yellow. The young are brownish yellow or dusky brown, like
the sand and mud. (A. H. Verrill.)
When well grown the male is about 18-20 inches across the ex-
tended legs ; carapace about 4 to 5 inches broad. Claws very un-
equal in size, and variable in form, often widely gaping in the male.
Some specimens are even larger. One from Dominica I. (coll. A. H.
Verrill) was 21 inches in extent ; 5 inches across the carapace ; the
larger claw (right) 6 inches long and about 3 broad. Right-handed
specimens are more numerous in our collection than left-handed ones.
This lai'ge crab is found in a few localities in Bermuda, especially
at Cooper's Island and around the shores of Hungry Bay. In the
latter place its large and deep holes were observed by us 4 to 12 feet
* See The Bermuda Islands, i, p. 706 [294].
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
311
above liigh tide, and mostly among the matted roots of cedars, where
they could not be dug out.
It is mainly nocturnal in its liabits and can be taken at night, in
summer, by the use of lanterns or torches. It was thus obtained by
Moseley, at Hungry Bay (Voy. Challenger). Prof. W. R. Coe has
given to the Yale Museum a large specimen taken in this same way
in 1903. Mr. J. M. Jones sent a large Bermuda specimen to the Yale
Figure 3. — C«rdt.so)»o guanhumi , large cliela of male ; i nat. size. Phot. A. H.
Yerrill.
Museum in 1877, without a statement of the exact locality. It is
also in the collection made by Dr. C. Hartt Merriam (April, 1881,
Yale Mus.), and in that of the Field Museum of Natural History,
1905.
Very little seems to be known in respect to its breeding habits and
young stages.
Measurements*
Length Breadth Length Height Length
Nat. Mus.
of
of
oi
of
of
number
Sex
carapace
carapace
chelae
chelae
dactylus
L
ocality
7507t
S
91
114
jr. 75
/ 1. 155
j 28
} 60
j 53
( 108
Jamaica
7669ot
S
64
76
j r.- 87
1 1. 45
(40
]19
j 58
i 31
li
7669?>g
?
63
75
U-. 57
■( 1. 47
j26
)19
j 37
t 30
t .
7675§
2
72
91
J r. 79
/ 1. 51
41
19
j 52
/ 36
*The first ten series were made by Prof. S. I. Smith from specimens collected
by the " Albatross'" in 1884. The others are bj- the writer.
f Digits of chelae slender and gaping.
X Digits stout. ,^ Digits broad.
'612 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Nat. Mus.
number
Sex
Length
of
carapace
Breadth
of
carapace
Length
of
chelae
Height
of
chelae
Length
of
dactylus
7.533(t||
S
71
84
\ r. 61
■/ 1. .59
j28
]26
j 41
( 40
7533/*t
$
72
86
\ r. 53
'/ 1. 11(1
22
48
35
79
753211
s
74
93
< r. 124
n. 98
'( 23
87
39
7535t
6
68
85
\ r. 113
/ 1. 55
j48
/22
75
37
75341T
6
78
88
jr. 98
/ 1. 55
U7
]23
j 69
( 37
7551^
2
74
91
r. 78
1. .54
38
20
j 53
( 37
3146^
S
90
105
jr. 75
i 1. 142
26
56
j 48
1 108
4061 Y.
M. 3
92
108
\ r. 72
M. -
r. 27
50
31471
$
51
61
j r. 65
( 1. 39
32
15
6
—
125
r. 1.50
Locality
Old Providence
(I ((
(I ((
(( i(
a (I
Curasao
Bermuda
Bermuda
Bermuda
Dominica
f Digits of chelag slender and gaping.
§ Digits broad.
II Digits broad and only slightly gaping.
H Digits not very slender, compressed, gaping.
Nos. 7533a, 7534, and 7551 had hairy legs. (S. I. Smith.)
According to Mr. A. H. Verrill, who found it very abundant in
many localities in San Domingo, in 1907, especially at Samana and
San Lorenzo, it constructs its burrows there almost eveiywhere in
open grassy land or savannas, or even in yards and gardens, but only
where there is clay soil beneath the surface. It brings up the soil iu
the form of hard pellets or ovoid balls, and deposits them around the
mouth of the burrows. Some of the balls are often over an inch in
diameter. The holes are sometimes 6 to 8 inches in diameter. They
abound both on dry land and near the water, sometimes burrowing
in the banks of streams. He did not find them particularly pugna-
cious and th»' natives handle them freely. They are slow and rather
sluggish in their motions. About B^ebruary they retire into their
holes and close them up Avith small piles of earth made of pellets,
remaining there for some time. During this time they are said to be
fat and are esteemed as food, especially about Easter, by the natives.
At that season tliey are sold in the markets. Later in the season, in
summer and fall, they freely leave their burrows and run about, both
at nischt and in sunlight. At such times they are "lean " and are not
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 313
considei'ed fit to eat. They are veiy fond of meat and greedily
devoured the bodies of birds that had been skinned. They are also
fond of the cocoa-nuts and other fruits. The larofe rainfall at San
Domingo may account for their living in comparatively dry locali-
ties there. Their hibernation is probably connected with their breed-
ing season. When pursued it often takes to the water, if near the
shore, but it is not a good swimmer. On Dominica Island he found
it much less common. There it was more confined to low lands, near
streams.
Saussure, who collected this crab in Cuba, Hayti, and Jamaica,
states that it lives in large, deep holes near water, so that the lower
part of the hole is filled with water, but where the surface is dry
It dies in a short time if kept entirely dry. He also states that it is
very pugnacious and defends itself energetically when its retreat
is cut off, seizing a stick so firmly that it can be lifted from the
ground before letting go. He found its holes mostly in places
shaded by bushes, etc.
It is used as food in most of the West Indian Islands, Avherever
abundant. Sold in Porto Rico markets under the name of " Juey."
(Miss Rathbun.)
It h.as a wide distribution, being found on both coasts of tropical
America, and on the West Coast of Africa. Common on most of
the West Indian Islands. Range, Florida Keys to Brazil. Dominica
Island (A. H. Verrill, Yale Mus.) ; San Domingo, abundant (A. H.
V.) ; Cape de Verdes (Stimpson) ; Florida Keys (Smith) ; Brazil
(White) ; Texas (Rathbun).
Family GRAPSID^ Milne-Edwards, 1837.
Carapace depressed or moderately convex, more or less quadrilat-
eral, with the lateral margins straight or slightly arcuate. Front
never very narrow, in general decidedly broad. Orbits and eye-
stalks of moderate size. Third maxillipeds with the paljjus articu-
lated at the apex or at the front outer angle of the nierus.
Chelipeds in adult males usually subequal, moderately developed.
In the walking legs the seventh joint is styliform, compressed, and
either smooth or spiniferous. The pleon at the base usually covers
the whole width of the sternum between the last pair of legs. (M.
J. Rathbun.)
i
314 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Key to the Bermuda genera of the family Grapsidce*
A. Antennfe covered by the front.
B. External maxilliperls withoiit a piliferous ridge.
C. Antennt¥ excluded from the orbit Goniopsis
C. Antennae entering the orbit.
D. Carapace decidedly broader than long.
E. Merus of maxillii^eds longer than broad.
F. Fingers spoon-shaped at tips Grajjsus
F'. Fingers acute Geograjjsus
E'. Merus of maxillipeds as broad as long Pachygrapsus
D'. Carapace about as long as broad, legs strongly fringed with hairs. .P/anes
B'. External maxillipeds with a piliferous ridge.
C. Lateral margins straight. Carapace transverse, usually
quadi'ate Sesarma
C . Lateral margins arcuate and entire Cyclograpsus
A'. Antennae visible from above ; two deep frontal notches.
B. Merus of maxillipeds large, as broad as ischium Plagusia
B'. Merus of maxillipeds small, much narrower than ischium Percnon
Goniopsis cruentatus (Latr.) DeHaan. Mangrove Crab.
Cancer ruricola DeGeer, Memoires, Insectes, vii, p. 417, pi. xxv, 1778 (non
Linne).
Grajjsus cruentatus Latreille, Histoire Crust, et Insects, vi, p. 70, 1803. Des-
marest, Consid., p. 132. M. -Edwards, Hist. nat. des Crust., ii. p. 85.
Gibbes, op. cit., p. 181.
Goniopais cruentatus DeHaan, F. Jap., p. 33, 1835; M.-Edw., Ann. Sciences
nat. 3, XX, p. 164, pi. 7, fig. 2, 1853. Stimpson, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.,
Philad., 1858, p. 101. Smith, Crust. Brazil, these Trans., ii, p. 11, 1869
(syn., no descr.). Miers, Voy. Challenger, xvii, p. 267. (Bermuda.)
M. J. Rathbun, Brachyura and Macrura of Porto Rico, p. 15, pi. i, fig. 2
(colored), 1901. Verrill, The Bermuda Is., vol. i, p. 547, fig. 250, 1903.
Rankin, Crust. Berm. I., p. 527.
Grapsus longipes Randall, Journal Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad., viii, p. 125, 1839.
Goniojjsis ruricola White, List of Crust, in the British Museum, p. 40, 1847.
Saussure, op. cit., p. 30, pi. 2, fig. 18, 1858.
Grapsus pelli Herklots, Addit. Faunam Carcin., Afr. Occid., 8, pi. 1, figs.
6, 7, 1851 (t. Kingsley).
Goniograpsus cruentatus Dana, Amer. Jour. Sci. (2), xii, p. 285, 1851 ; U. S.
Expl. Exped., Crust., p. 342, pi. 21, fig, 7, 1852,
Goniograpsus cruentatus Kingsley, Synopsis Grapsidte, Proc, Acad, Nat. Sci.
Philad., 1880, p. 190 (syn. and descr.). Young, op. cit., p, 278, 1900.
Figure 4, Plate XI, Figure 1. Plate XII, Figure Aa.
In life a large female had the carapace veiy dark brown or black,
witli small, squarish, greenish markings, becoming more numerous
* This Key is taken from that of Miss M, J. Rathbun, Porto Rico Brachyura
and Macrura, p. 15, with slight alterations.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
315
posteriorly ; along the lateral margins and across the posterior
border there is a series of small -white blotches, about 2 to 3™"" in
diameter, the posterior ones smaller. The legs and chelipeds abova
are red, variegated with black and white spots, the black markings
being most abundant on the posterior legs ; the anterior ones and
the chelipeds being more red ; the first joint of the chelipeds is
mostly red, with the black and white marks only at the edges ; the
second and third joints on all the legs are red with black edges,
without spots. The chelae are mostly yellowish, becoming white at
the tips and reddish at the joints ; the last joint of the other legs is
yellow. All the legs are white beneath, except on the last three
joints. Abdomen dark purplish brown below, whitish above ante-
riorly. Eye-stalks colored like carapace above, light red below. —
C. S. V.
Figure 4. — Mangrove Crab, Go7iiopsis cruentatus. Carapace, about nat. size.
Phot. A. H. V.
Most of the specimens are much brighter colored than the above,
especially when the adherent dirt is removed. The larger males
usually have a large amount of red on the back of the carapace and
chelae.
The variations in this species seem to be less than in many others
of this family,
Measurements.*
Breadth
Length
Breadth
at
Breadth
N. Mus.
* of
of
anterior
of
number
Sex
carapace
carapace
angles
front
Locality
7542
9
31.0
38.2
35.5
20.0
Old Providence
u
2
34.7
42.5
39.0
22.0
a li
((
S
44.5
55.0
48.0
28.0
li n
* The first ten series of measurements were made by Professor S. I. Smith
from specimens collected by the " Albatross," in 1884. The others are by the
writer.
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 33 Jan., 1908.
316
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
N. Mu8.
number
7542
Sex
6
Length
of
carapace
34.0
Breadth
of
carapace
39.5
Breadth
at
anterior
angles
37.0
Breadth
of
front
20.4
Locality
Old Providence
<>
6
48.3
58.0
50.3
27.8
i( 11
<<
6
42.0
48.0
44.2
25.0
(( i(
K
S
41.3
48.0
45.0
24.0
(( (<
7677
6
41.6
48.2
45.8
24.6
Jamaica
7537
2
35.8
43.3
40.8
23.3
Old Providence
<(
5
33.0
39.0
36.9
20.7
(< <<
3047 Y.
M $
33
40
38
22
Bermuda
3047a
S
27
31
30
17
I'JOlo
$
40
45
43
26
IQOlb
?
26
29
29
16
1901c
2
24
30
29
16
1901d
6
18
23
23
13.5
The chelae, whicli are nearly equal, measure in No. 3047 (see pi. xi,
fig. 1) 27"^'" long, 14.5 wide ; in 3047a, they are 19"^" by 10"""" ; in
1901a, SS""" by 20°"".
It has been taken at Bermuda by most collectors. It was in the
collections of G. Brown Goode, A. Heilprin, Prof. T. Kincaid, Dr.
T, H. Bean, Prof. E. L, Mark, Bermuda Biol. Sta., and others.
It was taken by us in several localities, especially at Coney
Island, Hungry Bay, and at Somerset I., near the shore of " The
Scaui'." It is common among mangroves, living among the tangled
roots in burrows, where it is not easily captured, owing to its shy-
ness and agility. It sometimes actively climbs up the aerial roots
and trunks of the mangroves, when disturbed.* We also sometimes
found it in heaps of stones, at high-water mark, where it was more
easily captured. Its colors, though showy, seem to be protective in
many places where it lives, for the}^ match the colors of the dead
leaves and other objects in the swamps. Perhaps they are more
particularly nocturnally protective, for it is most active at night.
It has a ver}^ extensive distribution, being found on nearly all
tropical American shores. It ranges from Florida to Rio Janeiro,
Brazil (Dana), and throughout the West Indies. West Coast of
Africa at Asliantee (J. E. Benedict) ; Liberia ; Guinea ; Gabun ;
Angola, etc. West Coast of Central America (Kingsley). Florida
Keys and Abrolhos Reefs, Brazil (Smith).
* In such cases it can easily be caught by shaking them ofP from the branches
of the trees into hand-nets held below them.
J
\
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 317
Grapsus grapsus (Linn.). Cliff Crab. Red Shore-Crab.
Cancer grapsus Linn^, Systema Naturae, eel. xii, i, p. 1048, 1767; Amoenit.
Acad., 2d ed., iv, p. 252, pi. 3, fig. 10, 1788.
Grapsxis 2}ietus Lamarck, Systeme Animaux sans Verteb., p. 150, 1801.
Desmarest, Consider. General. Crust., p. 130, pi. 16, fig. 1, 1825.
M. -Edwards, Hist. Nat. Crust., ii, p. 86, 1837 (Antilles) ; Eegne animal de
Cuvier, 3'"'' edit., pi. 22, fig. 1.
Gibbes, Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 3d meeting, p. 181 (17), 1850 (Florida).
Dana, U. S. Expl. Expd., Criist., p. 336, 1852 (Maderia, Cape Verdes, Peru,
Paumotu Archipelago, Sandwich Is.). S. I. Smith, Trans. Conn. Acad.
Sci., iv, p. 257, 1880 (synonymy and table of measurements).
Miers, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1877, p. 73 (Galapagos Is. ; ]>(G. altifrons
Stimp.).
Hilgendorf, Monatsb. Akad. Wissensch. Berlin, 1878, p. 807 (Mozambique).
Grapsus maeulatus M.-Edwards, Ann. Sci. nat.. Ill, xx, p. 167 (133), pi. 6
(= pi. 22, Eegne animal de Cuvier, Criist.), 1853 (Antilles).*
Stimpson, Ann. Lyceum Nat. Hist. New York, vii, p. 229 (101), 1860
(Florida).
Kingsley, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1879, p. 401 (Santa Cruz,
Tahiti). Miers, Voy. Challenger, vol. xvii, p. 255, 1886. Young, op.
cit., p. 280, 1900. J. E. Benedict, Crust. West Africa, Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus., xvi, p. 538, 1893.
Grapsus ornatus M.-Edwards, Ann. Sci. nat., Ill, xx, p. 168 (134), 1853
(Chili).
Grapsus Webbi M.-Edwards, Ann. Sci. nat.. Ill, xx, p. 167 (133), 1853.
Stimpson, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1858, p. 102 (48).
Graiisus altifrons Stimpson, Ann. Lyceum Nat. Hist. New York, vii, p. 230
(102), 1860 (Cape St. Lucas).
Grapsus grapsus M. J. Rathbuu, Brachyura and Macr. Porto Rico, p. 16, 1901
(descr. and distr.). Rankin, Crust. Berm., p. 537, 1900. Verrill, The Ber-
muda Is., i, p. 94.
Plate X, Figure 6. Plate XI, Figure 2.
This is a large and conspicuous species, remarkable for its agility
and swiftness. It runs and climbs over the rough and eroded rocks
and cliffs between tides, and even to some distance above high-water
mark, often ascending the nearly perpendicular cliffs with great
agility. When pursued by man it usually escapes by rapid running,
often hiding in some deep crevice or cavernous place. If hard
pressed it will take to the water, where it can usually be caught with
a landing net, for it cannot swim very rapidly. Sometimes several
* The name C. maeulatus in the binomial system dates from Edwards' edition
of Catesby, Nat. Hist. Carolinas, 1771, vol. ii, pi. xxxvi, where it is well figured
in colors.
318 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
can be seen, at a distance, clustered together on the exposed cliffs,
for their bright red chehv and large size render them very conspicu-
ous, but they usually run away rapidl}^ or plunge into the water
when approached.
It is not easy to explain how it could have acquired such bright
colors by natural selection, for in Bermuda and most other regions
where it abounds the colors appear not at all protective, unless at
night, but quite the reverse. Possibly the colors were originally
developed in some region where its surroundings were different,
and red colors prevailed among the rocks ; but its colors may be noc-
turnally protective. At present the species has spread all around the
world in tropical seas, and it does not much need color protection,
owing to its watchfulness and agility, yet it is often killed by sea-fowl,
and also by the Octopus.
The colors are somewhat variable. Some are much redder than
others. A large one, in life, had the carapace very dark brown,
thickh^ and irregularly mottled and spotted with bluish and grayish
white ; the lighter color predominating in the radial grooves.
Chelipeds with the chelfe and car|)al joints bright dark red, white
at tips of claws ; basal joint pale blue, red at the ends. Legs dark
reddish brown above, thickly blotched with bluish white, and
bright red at each joint. The posterior pair of legs are tinged with
orange on the lighter parts. Beneath, orange red and light blue ;
branchial areas, oral organs, and area in front of mouth mostly light
l)lue ; sternum and under side of legs, orange and blue.
The sexes differ very little in size or color. The larger males are
often brighter red than the females, but not constantlv so. The
ground-color is often blood-red with most of the small yellow spots
round and about 1 to 2""^ in diameter. The chelae of the males are
usually a little larger than those of the females. The right and left
differ but little in the male. Some females taken by us in April,
1901, carried eggs.
This species also varies considerably in its form and the propor-
tions of length to breadth of the carapace, as shown by the following
table of measurements. The front is often nearly or quite perpen-
dicular, but in other cases more or less oblique.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
319
Measurementf
. *
Breadth
Length
Breadth
aci'oss
N. Mns.
of
of
ant.
Br. of
Height
number
Sex
carapace
carapac
3 angles
front
of front
Localities
7647ot
5
44.0
48.3
35.3
18.5
8.0
St. Thomas
7647&t
?
37.5
40.5
30.4
15.0
7.2
" '• Yale
7647cf
$
38.0
42.3
31.7
15.8
7.5
(i ii
7647rft
2
27.5
30.4
23.8
11.7
4.6
it u
7647e§
$
20.0
22.9
18.4
8.5
3.5
a a
7647/11
$
33.5
37.7
28.6
14 0
6.0
n a
7647gt
$
37.7
41.6
30.8
15.2
6.5
Yale
764 7/i*
t
50.0
53.0
38.2
20.0
9.0
a ii
7647i*
6
54.3
60.0
41.5
21.5
10.0
a a
7543f4
6
37.0
42.0
30.2
15.0
6.4
Old ProA'idence
75iSbt
2
37.6
42.0
30.4
15.2
6.5
(1 u
7564at
S
38.6
43.2
31.5
15.5
6.9
Sabonilla
7564611
S
35.1
38.0
29.0
14.4
6.1
a
7564c^
$
24.0
27.0
21.2
9.8
3.8
a
7564t<^T
9
24.2
27.1
21.6
10.0
4.0
Yale
7564<?TT
S
" 27.0
30.0
23.1
11.0
4.3
i i
7564/1T
S
21.0
23.5
19.0
8.9
3.5
i i
7840TT
$
25.0
21.8
21.8
10.1
4.2
Cui-agao
Yale Mus.
S
37.2
40.5
29.5
14.7
—
Bermuda
4064 Y. M
. S
67.0
73.8
47.7
26.8
—
Bermuda
4066 YM** 5
60.0
72.5
46.0
26.0
—
La Paz., L. Cal.
4062 Y. M
i
65.0
73.0
58
30.0
12
Bermuda
1901Y.M.a5
50
58
42
21
—
1901b
2
54
61
42
22
—
1901c
2
58
62
34
27
—
1901d
2
51
57
40
23
—
1898a
$
66
72
49
30
—
( i
18986
2
55
60
41
Chelce.
24
—
Rig
ht
Left
length
height
ength
height
1901a
6
30
18
26
15
19016
2
24
14
24
14
1901c
2
25
17
23
13
1898o
■S
45
27
44
20
*The first 19 series are by S. I. Smith from specimens collected by "the Alba-
tross " in 1884, mostly now in the U. S. Nat. Museum.
f The front is perpendicular. l The front Is slightly oblique.
§ The front is considerably oblique. || The front is very slightly oblique.
^ The front is nearly perpendicular. ** The front is decidedfy oblique.
In nearly all the Bermuda specimens measured the front is neai'ly per-
pendicular and very concave.
Nos. 7564rf, coll. Jan. 17-24, and 7840, coll. Feb. 10-18, carried eggs.
** The right chela in this was 43"""' long, 27™"' broad ; the left was 44'"'" long,
27mm broad.'
320 A. E. V err ill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
It has been taken at Bermuda by nearly all collectors.
We found it very common on most of the precipitous and rocky
shores of Bermuda in 1898, but it was far less common in March and
April, 1901. Probably the cold period earlier in the winter and
spring of 1901, which was so fatal to the fishes,* also killed off many
of the crabs of this and allied species.
This species is found on all tropical coasts. On the Atlantic coast
it extends from Florida to Brazil. On the Pacific side it ranges from
Peru to Lower California. West Africa, at many localities. Cape
Verde Islands (Dana, Stimpson). Ascension I. and Fayal (Bene-
dict). Young individuals were taken by us on the reefs and
serpentine atolls at Bermuda. Miss Rathbun has recorded an
instance of a young one taken on the Pacific far from land. Small
specimens often occur among barnacles, etc., on the bottoms of vessels.
Pernambuco, Brazil, New Zealand, Tahiti, Natal, Mauritius (Kings-
ley). Hawaiian Is. (Dana).
Four specimens were taken from the bottom of a vessel recently
arrived from Swan Island, W. Indies, at Woods Hole, Mass., July
14, 1887, (t. S. I. Smith in MSS.).
Geograpsus lividus (Edw.) Stimp.
Grapsus lividus A. Milne-Edw., Hist. Nat. des Crust., ii. p. 85, 1837; Melang.
Carcinol., p. 135.
Geograpsus lividus Stimpson, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad., 1858, p. 101 ;
Notes on North Amer. Crust., Annals Lye. Nat. Hist., N. York, vii, p. 230;
1860. Kingsley, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad., p. 195, 1880 (description).
M. J. Rathbun, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xxi, p. 601, 1898; Brach. and Macr.
Porto Rico, p. 16, 1901 ; Verrill, these Trans., xi, p. 574, 1900.
Geograpsus occidentalis Stimpson, Annals Lye. Nat. Hist. N. Y., vii, p. 230,
1860 (West Coast).
Figure 5. Plate XXVI, Figure 1.
In life, the carapace in our specimens was light yellowish brown,
marbled or irregularly reticulated with very dark brown streaks, or
umber-colored markings, most numerous anteriorl}^ ; legs olive-brown
above, paler beneath ; abdomen pale bluish gray. (C. S, V.)
*See The Bermuda Islands, i, p. 91 ; these Trans., vol. xi, p. 503.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
321
Nat. Mus.
number
7;344a
Sex
S
Length
carapace
20.0
Breadth
carapace
24.0
Br. at
ant. angles
20.6
Br. of
front
10.4
Locality
Sabonilla
73446
S
17.0
30.9
17.6
8.8
7344c
$
11.9
15.0
13.0
6.4
7344d
2
lo.O
19.0
16.1
8.0
7344e
2
17.5
21.6
18.4
9.0
7344/
?
19.0
33.5
20.0
10.0
ISUg
$
19.9
24.5
20.3
10.1
7344/1
2
22
27.0
22.0
11.0
7344t
S
22.5
28.0
23.4
11.3
36
2
18.3
23.8
19.2
10.0
Bermuda (Go
Nos. 7344a — i were measured by Prof. S. I. Smith.
Nos. 7344e and / were carrying eggs. Taken by the -'Albatross," March, 1884.
A single Bermuda specimen (No. 36) was in the collection of G.
Brown Goode, The Yale party took two adult specimens in 1898.
A larger broken 5 specimen is in the collection of the Bermuda
Biol. Station, 1903, taken at Hungry Bay. Breadth between outside
of orbits, 23"""; length of chela, 21; height, 10.5"^"'. It occurs under
stones on rocky shores and sometimes on coral reefs.
Figure 5. — Geocjrapsus lividus, from Bermuda, x about 1^. Phot. A. H. V.
Its known range is extensive ; from Florida to the Antilles and
Columbia. On the West Coast, from Cape St. Lucas to Chili ( G.
occidentalls Stimp.). James I., Galapagos (M. J. Rathbun).
Pachygrapsus transversus Stimpson. Mottled Shore-Crab.
Grapsus transversus Gibbes, Proc. Araer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 3d meeting, p.
181 (17), 1850 (Florida).
Pachygrapsus transversus Stimpson, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. New York, vii, p.
64 (18), 1859 ; Amer. Jour. Sci. (2), xxvii, p. 446, 1859.
322
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Smith, Report Peabody Acad. Sci. Salem, 1869, p. 91, 1871 {Pacific coast Cen-
tral America); Trans. Conn. Acad., iv, 259, 1880 (synon. and measure-
ments).
M. J. Rathbun, Branner-Agassiz Exp. Brazil, p. 1:^7 ; Brach. and Macr. of
Porto Rico, p. 17, 1901 (descr.).
Kingsley, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xx, p. 158, 1879 (descr.) ; Proc. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1879, p. 400; op. cit., p. 199, 1880 (syn. and
descr.).
Goniograpsus innotatus Dana, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1851, p. 249
(3), 1851 (South America) ; Crust. U. S. Expl. Exped., p. 345, pi. 21, fig. 9,
1852.
Metepograpsus miniatus Saussure, Crust. Mexique et Antilles (Mem. Soc. Phys.
Hist. nat. Genfeve, xiv), p. 28, pi. 2, fig. 17, 1858. (Parasited, t. Rathbun.)
Metopograpsus dubius Saussure, op. cit., p. 29, jjI. 2, fig. 16, 1858.
Pachygrapsiis intermedius Heller, Zool. Bot. Verein Verhandl., Wien, xii, 1862,
p. 521 (Bi-azil) ; Reise der No vara. Crust., p. 44, 1865. Smith, Trans,
Conn. Acad., ii, p. 37.
Pachygrapsus socius Stimpson, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. New York, x, p. 114
1871 (Cape St. Lucas, Panama, Peru).
Plate XII, Figures 3— 3&.
This species is very variable in colors, but the tints are evidently
decidedly protective. The mottlings of yellow, olive, and brown
closely resemble the colors of the stained and weather-beaten rocks
and dead algae among which it usually lives.
In life, the ground-color of the carapace is most frequently dull
olive-green, yellowish, or yellowish-brown, sometimes dull gray, more
or less covered by irregular mottlings of darker brown, reddish, or
dark olive, usually darkest anteriorly, where the transverse ridges
are often edged with reddish or dark brown, making them more con-
spicuous ; large chelje are often plain light brown or reddish brown,
usually with pale tips, but in some cases they are blotched with
darker brown, or tinged with bright red on some parts, especially at
the jomts. The pereiopods are usually banded with darker and
lighter brown.
Measurements. *
Sex
Length
Breadth
Front
Locality
2
lO.l-nm
13.2
7.2
Provincetown
li
11.0
15.0
8.3
Florida
i .
11.4
15-9
8.8
( (
li
11.5
15.(5
8.6
Brazil
n
13.7
18.2
9.8
Acajutla
n
14.2
19.0
10.8
Bermuda
s
10.0
12.8
7.0
Paita, Peru
* Many of the measurements are by Prof. S. I. Smith,
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 323
Sex
Length Breadth
Front
Locality
10.5
13.7
7.6
Beriuiida
10.5
13.9
7.6
Panama
10.7
14.1
7.8
Bermuda
10.7
14.2
7.7
Panama
11.0
14.3
7.6
Brazil
12.4
16.4
9.0
Bermuda
12.5
16.3
8.9
Florida
13.1
17.2
9.6
Bermuda
13.8
17.4
9.8
Panama
14,5
18.2
10.0
Brazil
15.2
19.4
10.6
Panama
15.3
19.7
10.6
Brazil
9.2
13.0
7.0
Bermuda
13.0
17.0
10.0
Bermudaf
15.5
21.0
15.0
Bermuda:]:
f Length
of largest chela,
13"""; height, 6
mm
:j: Length
of largest chela,
11.5"""; height.
5.5™"'.
The proportion of length to breadth of the carapace varies from
1:1.25 to 1:1.41, but is usually about 1:1.30 to 1:1.35.
A parasitic isopod crustacean sometimes infests its branchial
cavities and in some cases causes an enlargement or distortion, due to
the swelling of the cai'apace on one side. The parasite, which is allied
to Bopyrus and Cepon, is relatively large.* It occurred in about 25 per
cent, of the adult specimens examined from some localities. Some
of the specimens collected in April carried eggs. Some were then
soft-shelled. Specimens collected in June and July (Berm. Biol. Sta.)
also carried eggs.
This appears to be the most abundant shore crab at Bermuda. It
is to be found everywhere between tides where there are loose stones
or masses of dead alg© under which it can conceal itself. It is also
to be seen running actively about in such localities, where it is often
associated with /Sesarma JRlcordi and Planes minutus.
It is sometimes found, also, on the coral reefs. Also among the
roots of mangroves.
It has been taken in Bermuda by nearly ever3^ collector of Crus-
tacea.
It has a very wide distribution in all tropical and subtropical seas.
It has been found among the barnacles, etc., scraped from the bot-
* These parasites have recently been sent to Miss Harriet RichardsoTi, who
identifies them as Leiclija distorla {Cepon distorta Leidy). It was originally
found in the gill-cavity of a " fiddler-crab " (Gelasinius pugilator) by Leidy on
the coast of New Jersey. It has seldom been found by later collectors.
32-4
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
toms of vessels far from its usual habitats. In this way its range
may have been greatly extended by commerce in modern times.
Adult living specimens were taken at Provincetown, Mass., in 1879.
They occurred among barnacles, etc., on the bottom of a whaling
vessel returned from a cruise in the Gulf Stream reo^ion and were
associated with other southern species. (See S. I. Smith, 1884.)
It ranges from Florida and Bermuda to southern Brazil ; from
Peru to the Gulf of California ; West Africa at Loanda, etc. Cape
Yerde Islands and Madeira ; East Indies ; Australia ; New Zealand ;
Tahiti ; Galapagos Is.; Pernambuco, etc. ; Brazil, on stone reefs, and
Maceio on coral reefs (M. J. llathbun); Rio (Heller); Australia
(Miers).
Pachygrapsvis gracilis (Saussure) Stiinp.
Metopograpsus gracilis Saussure, Meiu. Soc. Phys. Hist> Nat. Geneva, xiv, p.
443, pi. II, f. 15, 15a, 1858.
Paehygrapsus gracilis Stimpson. Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. York, x, p. 113. 1871.
King.sley, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xx, p. 159, 1870 (descr.). Synop.
Grapsidae, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad. for 1880, p. 200 (syn. and descr.)
M. J. Rathbun, Branuer-Agassiz Exp., p. 137, 1900; Brach. and Macr. of
Porto Rico, p. 17, 1901.
Figures 6, Qa. Plate XII, Figure 2.
This is usually smaller than the preceding, and is much less com-
mon. Its colors are similar, but the reticulations and mottlings are
darker brown. It can best be distinguished by the more prominent,
thin, and nearly straight, front ; the straighter sides of the carapace,
Figure 6. — Paclnjgiajjsus gracilis, carapace enlarged; 6rt, one of the chelae.
After Saussure.
which is not plicated over the cardiac region ; and by the chehe,
which have small denticles on the upper side of the carinate manus,
and on the dactylus. The manus has fine oblique ridges above, and
the carpus is covered with fine oblique and irregular ridges.
It aj)i)ears to be rare at Bermuda, or at least is seldom taken there.
A few good specimens were found at Bermuda by us in 1898 and
April, 1901 ; one of the latter carried eggs. A specimen was also
obtained by Mr. Goode, 187G. It has been found at the Florida
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
825
Keys, Yucatan, and in the West Indies. Brazil, on mangroves
(Rathbun.) It is most frequently found among the roots of man-
groves.
Measuretnents.
No.
4018a
Sex
Car
length
11
apace
bi-eadth
14
Between
orbits
10
Chelse
length height
9 4
Looality
Bermuda
4018^
4018c
?eggs
10.5
15.5
13
20.5
9
14
7.5
11
3.5
5.2
4018d
2
13
16.5
10
8.5
4
a
Planes m.inutus (Linn.) Dana. Gulf-weed Crab.
Cancer minutus Linne, Syst. Naturae, ed. 12, i, p. 1040, 1767. Fabricius, Syst.
Ent., p. 402, 1775.
Grapsus minutus Latreille, Hist. nat. Crust, et Insectes, vi, p. 68, 1803.
Grajjsus cine reus Say, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., i, p. 99, 1817 {nonGrap-
sus cinereus Bosc, nee Grajisus (Sesarma) cinereus Say, 1818).
Grapsus pelagicus Say, op. cit., p. 442, 1818.
Nautilograpsus minutus H. Milne-Edwards, Hist. nat. Crust., ii, p. 99, 1837.
Smith and Harger, these Trans., iii, p. 26, 1874. Smith, op. cit., i^T, p.
263 ; V, p. 120. Stimpson, Crust. N. Pacific Expl. Exped., p. 121, 1907.
Ptoses Z/(')mcpana Bell, British Stalk-eyed Crust., p. 135 (cut), 1844. White,
List of Crust. British Mus., p. 41, 1847.
Planes minutus Dana, United States Expl. Exped., Crust., p. 346, 1852.
Kingsley, Synopsis Grapsidte, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., for 1880, p. 202
(descr. and syn.).
Figure 7. Plate XIII, Figures a—f. Plate XXVII, Figure 6.
In life, this small crab varies greatly in form and color. Usually
it is irregularly mottled or blotched with light greenish yellow or
pale yellow on a darker olive-green ground-color, usually with a large
blotch or spot of pale yellow or whitish on the back of the carapace,
thus imitating the olive-green colors of the gulf-weed [Sargass^cm)
and the whitish patches of Bryozoa {Biflastra) with which the Sar-
gassum is commonly covered. Thus its colors are eminently protec-
tive, for it naturally lives in the open sea among Sargassmn.
Sex
6
?
S
?
S
Measui
ements of Be>
•muda speci
nens.
Carapace
length
Carapace
breadth
Front
breadth
Chela,
larger,
length
Chela,
larger,
height
16
17
9
16
8
13
13
8
9
5
15
15
8
12
6.5
15
15
8
13
7.5
19.5
20
10.5
14
7.5
18
19
10
16
10
820
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
The last two are from the region of the Gulf Stream.
Some of the specimens taken in April, 1901, were carrying eggs-
Several of tliose collected bj^ the Bermuda Biological Station in June
and July, 1903, also carried eggs.
Wherever fresh masses of Stirgassum are cast up by the waves this
crab can almost always be found beneath them, often in considerable
numbers. It is usually associated with small specimens of Portunus
Sayi and two species of shrimp [Latreiites ensiferus and Leander
tenuicoi'iiis). It is contained in all the Bermuda collections that I
have examined.
The 36 specimens illustrated on my plate V, to show their varia-
tions in form and color, were all taken, with many more, under a sin-
gle mass of Sargassnm in March, 1901, by A. H. Verrill.
It is a good swimmer, however,' having long legs bordered by a
dense fringe of hairs, so that it is not entirely dependent on the Sar-
gassum.
Figure 7. — Gulf-weed crab, Planes minutus. enlarged IJ. The hairs of the legs
are mostly omitted. J. H. Emerton del.
It is widely distributed, occurring in all tropical and subtropical
seas in floating Sargassum.
In the Atlantic it occurs along the course of the Gulf Stream as
far north, at least, as George's Bank and off Nova Scotia. It is
sometimes cast ashore on the coasts of New England and Great Brit-
ain. Prof. Smith has recorded a large specimen found at Woods
Hole, Mass., by V. N. Edwards, Sept. 11, 1877. Southward it extends
to Brazil and Falkland Is. (Kingsley) ; on the Pacific coast from
Peru to the Gulf of California. Also found in the central Pacific
and Indian Oceans ; Mediterranean (Heller). West Coast of Africa,
Cape St. Lucas (Stimpson); Indian Ocean (M.-Edw.) ; New Zealand
and Natal (Kingsley).
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 327
Sesarma Ricordi M.-Edw.
Sesarma Ricordi H. M.-Edw., Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 3, vol. xx, p. 183, 1853.
Kingsley, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.. Philad., for 1880. p. 217. M. J. Rathbun,
Synopsis Sesarmae, Proc. Biolog. Soc. Washington, xi, p. 91, 1897 (descr.
and synon.).
Brachy. and Macr. Porto Rico, p. 18, 1901 (descr.). Verrill, these Trans.,
X, p. 574, 1899.
Seaavma anr/xistijjes Stimpson (jjars) Smith, these Trans., ii, p, 159, 1869
{non Dana, t. M. J. Rathbnn).
Sesarma cinerea Stone, in Heilprin, op. cit., 1898. Rankin, op. cit. , p. 526,
1900 {non Say, sp.).
Sesarma Sfimpsonii Miers, 1881, not of 1886 (t. Rath bun).
Plate X, Figure 2. Plate XI, Figure 3, var.
This common species is very variable in colors in life. The cara-
pace is usually irregularly and variously mottled with olive-brown,
olive-green, or reddish brown on a yellowish green or light olive
ground color, in most cases pretty closely imitating the varied colors
of the dead algae and stained stones among which it most commonly
lives.
Miss Rathbun, who has examined many of the original types,
unites several nominal species with this. It seems to be distinct
from the true cinerea and angnstlpes, with both of which it has
often been confused. Probably the real cinerea does not occur at
Bermuda.*
The carapace of the typical variety appears neai'ly smooth to the
eve over most of the surface, but under a lens shows minute
sparse granules and hairs, which become more evident anteriorly and
on the front, while on the sides, posteriorly, there are faint oblique
plicae. The lateral margins ai"e nearly straight or only slightly
sinuous ; the front is a little sinuous on the edge with a slight
median notch. The carapace is only slightly broader than long.
Measurements of Bermuda specimens.
Num-
ber
Sex
Carapace
length
Carapace
breadth
Front
breadth
ChelsB
length
Chelfe
height
a
2
17
18
10
7
4
b
5
16
17
9
12
7.5
c
S
14
15
8
10
6
d
6
13
13.5
7
9
5.5
e
3
14.5
15
7.5
10
6
* Dr. Rankin has kindly sent me for examination the specimens that he
recorded (1900) as S. cinerea. They prove to be S. Ricordi.
328 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
This is one of the most common species, taken by nearl}' all col-
lectors in Bermuda. It is often seen running actively about among
the stones and dead seaweeds, from low tide nearly to hitrh-water
mark, usually associated with Pachi/grapsus transversus. It may
almost always be found under masses of Sargassuni cast up on the
shores as well as under stones.
Its range extends from Florida through the West Indies to
Trinidad.
Sesarma Ricordi, var. terrestris, subspecies or var. nov.
Plate XI, Figure 3.
This form first attracted my attention on account of its peculiar
habits. Unlike most Sesarmce, it lives away from the water, often
in very dry, barren, sandy fields or pastures, under stones, though it
was also found not far from the shore but where the soil was dry.
It runs very rapidly when disturbed, and hides in holes or under
other stones, but does not seek the water. Its color was darker than
in the ordinary form, and the carapace was usually more or less cov-
ered by short hairs and adherent dirt, obscuring the colors, and giving
it a gray appearance. Although so different in appearance and
habits, it agrees so closely in form and structure that it seems to be
only a variety that has acquired terrestrial habits, with trivial
changes adapting it better for this mode of life.* But no really
intermediate specimens were found. Thus it seems to be a form or
subspecies of some considerable antiquity and constancy.
The carapace appears more rough and uneven than in the ordinaiy
form, for it is more strongly areolated and the branchial areas are
more swollen, so that the vertical thickness is greater and the reticu-
lated areas of the sides are broader, giving a larger surface for
aeration of the water, and indicating larger gill cavities and gills.
The dorsal surface of the carapace is covered with more numerous
and larger granules, bearing numerous short dark hairs, very evident
under a lens of low power, and capable of holding adherent dirt :
the plicae on the postero-lateral sides are stronger and more granu-
lous ; the lateral marginal edge is more sinuous anteriorly, owing to
the more swollen branchial chamber. The anterior frontal margin
is less sinuous, the median indentation often being obsolete or faint.
* The specimens have also been studied by Miss M. J. Eathbun, who agrees
with me in its relations.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 329
The ambulatory legs are distinctly larger and longer than in the
common form. When the legs are folded the tooth on the distal
angle of the merus joint of the legs of the 3d and 4th pairs reaches
considerably (2-3™'") beyond the outer orbital angle, while in Hicordi
it just reaches it, or only slightly exceeds it (.5™°' or less). The
proportion of the merus joints of these legs to the breadth of the
carapace is 1 : 1.36. In Ricordl, 1: 1.5. Ratio of same to length of
carapace, 1: 1.2. In JRicordi, 1: 1.4.
The colors, when living, appear dull or sordid yellowish bi'own, or
mud-color, due to adherent dirt, often mottled with reddish brown.
Fresh specimens cleaned in alcohol w^ere variegated with pale bluish
gray, dark brownish gray, and blackish, with some yellowish white ;
an irregular jjale band, speckled witli dark gray, extends from eye to
eye. Legs above variegated with similar colors, but paler, the dark
brown color mostly in irregular transverse bands. Chelae w4iitisli or
pale yellow ; legs bluish white beneath. Some specimens have the
carapace finely' specked with red.
Measuretnents
of Bermuda
specimens.
Num-
ber
Sex
Carapace
length
Carapace
breadth
Front
breadth
Chela3
length
Chelee
breadth
3148«
$
18.0
20.0
11.0
15
8.5
31486
S
16.0
17.0
9.0
12
7.0
3148c
s
17.5
18.5
9.7
10
5.5
d
?•
17.0
19.0
11.0
10
5.5
e
s
13.5
15.5
8.0
10
7.0
This subspecies is, perhaps, in process of gradual differentation,
and destined to eventually become a valid species with true terres-
trial habits should it not be prematurely exterminated. At present
it has few enemies. It lives in waste uninhabited places. It is not
uncommon in several localities. We found it not far from Hungr}"-
Baj-; on the low barren hills of some of the smaller islands in places
partly covered with sparse grass ; and in other localities.
Several good specimens in the Yale Museum were collected by
J. M. Jones, before 1867. They have no special labels as to seasons
or stations.
This variety approaches S. cbterea Say in some characters more
nearly than does the common form. In respect to the granulation
of the front and frontal lobes, the specimens of S. cinerea in the
Yale Museum, from Indian River and St. Augustine, Fla., labelled
as S. ciyierea by Miss Rathbun, and which I have compared with this
330
.1. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
form, are even less granulated.* Indeed, the latter are scarcely more
granulated than the ordinary form of liicordi.
However, the front of S. clnerea is narrower and more arched than
in S. liicordi ; its lower margin is less sinuous, narrows more toward
the ends, and is less turned up at the edge, so that it is less concave
above. The orbital notch is not so deep. Still these differences are
but slight. The carapace seems to be slightly less convex. The
chelae are essentially the same in both, and the carpal joint is
roughened in the same way. The merus joints of the pereiopods
are about equally flattened in both; the brush of hairs on the under
Figure 8. — Sesarma cinerea (from Florida), slightly enlarged. Phot. A. H. V.
side of the last two joints is nearly the same in both, though per-
haps a little smaller, and with shorter hairs in aS. cinerea. The
differences are so slight that it seems not improbable that S. cinerea
is another semiterrestrial race or subspecies that has been derived
from S. liicordi, under a somewhat different environment. In fact,
all those species that live more or less on the dry land or in trees
(e. g., S. Moberti, an arboreal West Indian species) must have been
originally derived from amphibious or aquatic species, but the dif-
ferentiation has gone farther in some than in others. Doubtless they
all go into the sea to breed, and probably they all have similar zoea
and megalops larval stages.
But in the case of the Bermuda forms, it is easy to believe that
they have acquired different breeding habits or different breeding
* In Miss Rathbun's analytical table of Sesarmce (Synopsis American Sesarmae,
Proc. Biolog. Soc. Washington, xi, pp. 90, 91, 1897), the smoothness of the
snprafrontal lobes, " smooth or nearly so," is made a diagnostic character for S.
liicordi, while S. cinerea. is pnt in a group having the suprafrontal lobes
" tuberculate or granulate, "and in a subgroup having them " faintly granulate."
The degree of granulation seems to be variable.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 331
seasons, so that they may no longer interbreed. It is also probable
that the young crabs of var. terrestrls, when they quit the megalops
stage at the shore, have inherited the instinct to seek the uplands.
A careful study of these species in summer might settle these points.
Sesarma Miersii Eathbiin.
Sesanna (Holometopus) Miersii M. J. Rathbun, Synopsis American Sesarmae,
Proc. Biolog. Soc. Wash., xi, p. 91, 1897 (descr. and synon.); Branner-
Agassiz Exp. to Brazil, p. 138, 1900. Verrill, these Trans., vol. x, p. 574,
1900.
SesctDua Stimpsoni Miers, Rep. Voy. Challenger, Zool., xvii, p. 270, 1886 (not
of 1881).
Plate XII, Figure 5.
This species can be distinguished from the preceding by the tuber-
culated or distinctly granulated protogastric region of the carapace,
which in the latter is nearly smooth.
Ordinary mature specimens have the carapace about 19""" long
and 21™"' wide.
Miss Rathbun refers a young specimen, collected by us in 1898, to
this species. It appears to be very rare in Bermuda,
It ranges from Bermudas and the Bahamas to Rio Janeiro, Brazil,
Rio Parahyba do Norte (Rathbun), It lives mostly among the roots
of mangroves,
Cyclograpsus integer Edw.
Cijclograpsus integer Milne-Ed w.. Hist. Nat. des Crnst., ii, p. 79, 1837.
' Kingsley, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad., Carcinol. Notes, iv, p. 221, 1880,
Rankin, Crust. Bermuda, p. 526, 1900. M. J. Rathbun, Brach. and Macr. of
Porto Rico, p. 18, 1901.
Plate XII, Figure 1.
This species is easily recognized by its smooth carapace, with
convex sides. It is very rare in Bermuda,
It was not found by us, nor has it been taken by any recent
collector. A single specimen in the collection of Mr, Goode was
identified as this species by Pi"of, S, I. Smith, The same one was
recorded by Rankin. The only other record is that of Heilprin,
also a single specimen. It sometimes occurs on coral reefs.
It ranges from Florida to Brazil, and throughout the West Indies,
Florida (Kingsley) ; Porto Rico (Rathbun) ; Brazil (M.-Edw.).
Trans, Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII, 34 Jan., 1908,
li
332 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Plagusia depressa (Fabr.) Say.
Cancer depressus Fabr., Eiit. Syst., Supl.. p. 406, 1775.
Plagusia Sayi DeKay, N. York Fauna, p. Ifi. Stimpson, Notes on N. Amer.
Crnst., i, p. 18 [64]; ii, p. 104 1:^32].
Plagusia depressa Say, Jouiii. Acad. Nat. Sei. Philad., i, p. 100, 1817.
Eathbun. Dec. Crust. W. Africa, p. 281 (distribution). Results of Branner-
Agassiz Exped. to Brazil, Biolof^. Soc. Wash., ii, p. 1:}8, 1900; Brach. and
Macr. Porto Rico, p. 1!», 11)01. Verrill, these Trans., vol. x, p. 575, 1000.
Benedict, Notice Crust. W. Africa, p. 5:58, 18!»:1
Plagusia squamosa Dana [non Edw.). Stimpson. Crust. N. Pacific Expl.
Exp., Smithsonian Misc. Coll., xliv, p. 122, 1007.
Figure 0. Plate X, Figure 1.
When full grown this is a large and handsomely colored crab,
remarkable for its shyness and agilit3^ Its colors, which are variable,
are evidently protective, and by no means conspicuous when resting
Figure 9. — Plagusia depressa, carapace and chelas of adult male, about nat. size.
Phot. A. H. Verrill.
anions: the rouffh and stained shore ledsres where it usually lives.
It is much less conspicuous than Grapstcs (/rc(psus, which lives in
similar situations.
Some large specimens had a grayish or yellowish ground color,
mottled and spotted with brown and red ; the spots are often bright.
A. E. Verrill—Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 333
Measui'ements of Bermuda specimens.
No.
Sex
Carajjace
length breadth
Front
width
length
ChelEe
height
31
i.
51
49.5
34
28
13
3158
?
45
48
, 21
r. 18
6
879 F. M.
^
47
50
17
1. 22
11
Sometimes it may be seen running with great rapidity over the
rougli ledges and" cliffs, often above high-tide mark, in the same
manner as Grcq^sus grapsus, but it is even more alert, and swifter in
its motions, so that its capture is difficult. It readily takes to water
when pursued and swims very well.
Although not rare, it has occurred in but few Bermuda collections,
and usually singh', owing probably to the difficulty of capturing it.
In 1898, April to June, we found it common oh the rough shore
ledges between tides and above high-water mark at Castle Island,
Baile}^ Bay, and other localities, where also its recently cast-off shells
were often found considerably above high tide, as they had been left
by the crabs. In 1901, at the same season, we could not find a single
specimen, even of the cast-off shells, at the same localities, or else-
where. Probably the species had been greatly reduced in numbers
by the unusually cold period in the preceding February, when great
quantities of the native fishes also perished.*
It was represented by a single specimen in Mr. Goode's collection.
It was also taken by the Field Nat. Hist. Museum expedition in
1905, and by Prof. T. Kincaid, 1903. A small specimen is also in
the collection of the Bermuda Biological Station, 1903.
It has an extensive geographical range. On the Atlantic coast it
ranges from South Carolina to Brazil, and throughout the West
Indies. Pernambuco, Brazil (M. J. Rathbun). On the eastern side
of the Atlantic it extends from the Mediterranean to South Africa.
St. Helena, Ashantee (Benedict). Hong Kong, Benin Is., Hawaiian
Is., Loo Choo Is , and Madeira (Stimpson).
At Woods Hole, Mass., a single specimen was taken among barna-
cles from the bottom of a vessel that had just arrived from Swan
Island, West Indies, Jl. 14, 1887. (t. S. 1. Smith in MSS.)
* See p. 320 above, and the Bermuda Islands, i, p. 94 [506], 1901.
834 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Percnon planissimum (Herbst), M. J. Rathbnn. Flat Crab.
Cancer planissimus Herbst, Natiirh. Krabb., p. 3, pi. lix, fig. 3, 1804.
Acanthopus 2)Ianissimus Stimpson, op. eit , p. 104 [242], 1860; Crust. N.
Pacific Expl. Exp., Smithsonian Misc. Coll., xlix, p. 123, 1870 (1907). (descr.
colors) Bonin Is.
Acantho2ms Gibhesii Milne-Edw., Mel. Carcin , p. 146.
Leiolophus planissimus Miers, Catal. Crust. N. Zealand, p. 46, 1876.
Percnon planisnimum Rathbnn, Dec. Crust. W. Africa, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mns.,
xxii, p. 281, 1000 ; Brach. and Macr. Porto Rico, p. 19, 1901. Verrill,
these Trans., vol x, p. 575, 1900.
Plate X, Figure 8. Plate XII. Figure 4.
Easily recognizable on account of its very flat, smooth body, and
the slits in the front and in the eye-sockets. Its structure is admira-
bly adapted to its habit of living in the confined spaces under stones.
In life the carapace is usually variegated or mottled with brown,
pinkish flesh-color and salmon ; there is generally a median longitu-
dinal stripe of bright pale blue ; the legs are banded with reddish
brown and light ])ink. Ventral side of body pale blue ; of legs
pale pink (C. S. V.).
One female taken in April, 1901, carried eggs ; also one taken in
midsummer, by Prof. Kincaid.
Measurements of Bermuda specimens.
Number
Sex
Carapace
length breadth
Front
width
Ch
length
elae
height
80
3
25.5
23.0
12.5
8.4
3005
?
25.0
24.0
10
9.0
5.0
3005a
5
20.0
18.0
8
7.5r.
■ 5.0
3
20.0
17.0
6
7
4.0
Figured
?
19.0
16.5
6
5
3.5
The chelae are feeble in the females but large in the males. In the
males the two are unequal; the large chela has a large and long tuft
of soft hairs on inside of nierus.
It was found very commonly by us in 1898 and 1901, on many
rocky shores under stones at about low-tide level. It was in the
collections of J. M. Jones ; G. Brown Goode ; Prof. Kincaid, 1903 ;
Field Museum E.vped., 1905 ; Bermuda Biological Station, 1903, and
others.
It is widely distributed throughout the West Indies to Brazil.
Azores : Spain ; Madeira ; West Africa and South Africa ; Mauri-
tius to Japan, and Hawaiian Is., Bonin Is. Cape St. Lucas to Chili
(Rathbun). Colon (Yale Mus.).
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 335
Superfamily or tribe CYCLOMETOPA^CANCROIDEA (see p. 14).
Family Pilumnid^.
Key to the Bermuda gener^a of the family PilumnidcB*
A. The ridges that define the efferent branchial channels, if present, are usually
low and are confined to the posterior part of endostome, never
reaching to anterior boundary of buccal cavern.
B. Fronto-orbital border less than half the greatest width of carapace.
C. Antero-lateral borders of carapace sharp, crest-like ; upper border at least
of arms, and of fourth, fifth, and sixth segments of legs sharp and
crest-like -.. Platypodia
C. Antero-lateral borders of carapace and upper borders of legs not crest -
like
D. Antero-lateral borders divided into lobes or teeth.
E. Carapace usually conspicuously lobulate, graniilate, and hairy, che-
lipeds and legs also granulate and hairy Acto&a
E'. Carapace, chelipeds, and legs not sharply granulate and hairy.
F. Fingers sharp-pointed, not hollowed Cycloxanthops
F'. Fingers blunt-pointed, hollowed at tip. Xanthodius
B'. Fronto-orbital border half or more than half the greatest width of the
carapace. (True of American species of Liomeva.)
C. Carapace transversely oval.
D. Ambulatory legs Avith upper margins of the carpal joint bearing a
horned or lunate crest . Heteractcea
D'. Ambulatory legs with upper margins smooth or nearly so.
E. Antero-lateral teeth strong, greatly projecting. Carapace deeply
areolated Leptodius
E'. Antero-lateral teeth small, little projecting. Carajjace slightly or
not at all areolated. Carapace without transverse granulated lines.
Fingers somewhat hollowed at tip Liomera
C. Carapace more or less hexagonal, or subquadrate.
D. Ambulatory legs spinulose.
D'. Ambulatory legs not spinulose.
F. Front of moderate width. Postero-lateral margins not strongly
converging Eupanopeus
A'. The ridges that define the efferent branchial channels extend to anterior
boundary of buccal cavern and are often very strong.
B'. Fronto-orbital border just about half or less than half greatest breadth of
carapace, which is broad and transversely oval.
C. The basal antennal joint does not nearly reach the front.
C. The basal antennal joint reaches the front.
D. Anterior margin of merus of outer maxillipeds not notched. ^wrj/fmm
* This table is taken from that of Miss M. J. Eathbun (Brachyura and Mac-
rura of Porto Rico), with some alterations and omissions. It includes two addi-
tional genera {Heteractcea and Lobopilumnus).
336 A. E. Terr ill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
B'. Fronto-orbital border much more than half greatest breadth of carapace.
C. Carapace nodose .. Lahopilumnus
C. Carapace not nodose.
D. Meiiis of external maxillipeds as long as or longer than broad.
E. Frouto-()rl)ital border about two-thirds greatest breadth of cara-
pace - Pihimnus
E'. Fronto-orbital border much more than two-thirds greatest breadth
of carapace ; arm scarcely projecting beyond lateral border of
carapace Eviphia
D'. Merus of external maxillipeds about twice as broad as long. .Domecia
Platypodia spectabilis (Herbst) Rathbun. Calico Crab; Bandana Crab.
Cancer sjjectabilis Herbst, Natur. Krabb., ii, 15:5, pi. xxxvii, f. 5, 1794.
Cancer lobafa M.-Edw., Hist. Nat. Crust., i, p. 375, 18o4.
Attergatis lobatus Stimpson, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. York, vol. vii, p. 202
[74], 1860.
Lophactaia lobata A. M.-Edw., N. Arch. Mus., Mem., i, p. 249, pi. xvi, fig.
3, 8a; Miss. Sci. Max., p. 242, 1879. Raukin, op. cit., p. 529, 1889.
Cancer vemistus Desb. & Scramm., Crust. Guadeloupe, p. 23 {t. A. M.-Edw.).
Platypodia spectabilis M. J. Rathbiin, Amer. Inst. Jamaica, i, p. 13, 1897 ;
Brachyura and Macrura Porto Rico, p. 26, 1901. Verrill, Trans. Conn.
Acad., xi, p. 17, pi. i, fig. 2, 1901 (deser. colors).
Figure 10. Plate XIV, Figure 6.
This is a small and rather rare species, easily distingiiisliable by the
form of its carapace and its remarkable coloration, which appears to
be highly protective when the crab lives among the common bright
Figure 10.— Calico Crab, Flatupodia spectabilis, enlarged about 1| times. After
A. M.-Edw.
rod and orange-colored sponges ( Tedau'Ki i</nls), actinijc, etc., with
which it agrees well in colors, while their irregular arrangement
serves to break up the outline of the carapace.
. A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 337
A specimen taken in Castle Harbor, near VValsinghani Bay, May
5, 1901, had the colors as follows : Carapace deep orange red, vary-
ing to scarlet, with irregular paired spots of pale orange, concen-
trically bordered with white and pnrplish brown. The spots are
of various sizes and shapes on the carapace, the larger ones often
centered with smaller spots of purplish brown. On the chelipeds
and legs the spots become transverse, and are mostly at the joints,
and larger above than below. Dactylus and thumb black. Sternum
orange with margined spots at the bases of the legs. Abdomen
with two large spots of the same kind beneath, and smaller ones on
the basal segments. Eye-stalks pale orange, with a purplish brown
spot on the upper side.
Our largest specimens had the following coloration in life : The
carapace was bright orange-red, with pale, particolored, broad, irreg-
ular streaks, blotches, and angular or rounded, often ocellated spots
of variable sizes. The larger patches of color are frequently quite
unsymmetrically developed. The ocellated spots have a small bright
yellow center, surrounded by a broad circle of white, which is
bordered externally with bright blue and enclosed by a narrow
black line. Sometimes similar but smaller ocellated spots occur on
the larger pale blotches, in lines and groups, or singly, while others
are scattered on the ground-color. The chelipeds and legs are simi-
larly colored, but on them the spots mostly take the form of half
bands, with angular patches at the joints. Claws tipped with black.
Small specimens are paler. (A. H. V.) These colors soon fade in
alcohol.
Measurements of Bermuda specimens.
No.
Sex
Cai
length
apace
breadth
Front
width
length
Chelae
height
4007
6
16
24
6
(r. 13
} 1. 14
r. 8
1. 8
4008
6
13
18
5
1. 11
6
4008a
?
9.5
13
4
1. 6
4
This handsome species is rare at the Bermudas. It occurs among
rocks and cavernous corals, sponges, etc. Sometimes found on the
reefs. We found it only in April, 1901 (five specimens), on serpuline
atolls, near Hungry Bay; Castle Harbor, etc. (coll. A. H. Verrill).
A single specimen occurred in the collection of Mr. Goode. It
was taken at Hungry Bay by the Bermuda Biol. Station, July, 1903.
Several specimens were also taken in 1906 by A. H. Verrill at
Dominica Island, where thej^ occurred in the cavities in and beneath
338
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
large reef corals. It has been recorded from Florida and through
the West Indies to Brazil. Fernando de Noronba (Pocock). Colon
(Stimpson). Porto Rico (Ratlibiiii).
Actsea setigera (M.-Edw.) A. M.-Edw.
Xantho Si-tiger M.-Edw., Hist. Crust., i, p. 390, 1834.
Actcea sefigera A. M.-Edw., Nouv. Arch. Mus., i, p. 271, pi. xviii, fig. 2,
1865 ; Miss. Sci. Mex., v, p. 244, 1879. Rantin, op. cit., p. 529, 1900. M. J.
Rathbun, Brach. and Macr. Porto Rico, p. 34, 1901.
Figure 11.
While living this small crab is densely covered with short hairs to
which fine white shell-mud adheres, often effectually concealing it
when resting on the bottom. When cleaned the color is reddish
brown to purplish red, with paler legs. The carapace and legs are
closely granulated beneath the hairs ; the dactylus of the chelae is
deeply grooved and hairy.
Figure 11. — Hairy Crab, Actoea setigera, nat. size. Phot. A. H. V
Measurements of Bermuda specimens.
No.
Sex
Carapace
length breadth
Front
width
812a
$
19
30
6
8126
S
12
18
4
29a
?i
20
29
5
Ob
s
21
31
5.7
length
16
16
r. 10
r
jl. 17
jr. 15
15
16
Chelae
height
9
9
5
9.5
8
8
It occurs in shallow water bays and on the reefs. Taken by nearly
all Bermuda collectors. Good specimens were in the collection of
J. M. Jones (812, a, b). We found it common on rocky shores,
usually under stones or in crevices. A small specimen was taken on
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 339
the Challenger Bank in 28 fathoms, by the party from the Field
Museum Nat, Hist., Oct. 1905.
It ranges from Florida to the Lesser Antilles. It is common in
the West Indies, Colon (Yale Mus.),
Cycloxanthops denticulatus (White) Eathbun.
Xantho denticulata White, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 2d s., ii, p. 285, 1848
(iron Stimpson). Smith, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xii, p. 274, 1869
(descr.); these Trans., ii, pp. 3 and 33, 1869 (Bermuda, Colon, and Brazil).
A. M.-Ed\v., Miss. Sci. Mexico, Crust., p. 252, pi. xlv, figs. 2-26, 1879.
Rankin, op. cit., p. 529, 1900.
Cycloxanthops denticulatus M. J. Eathbun, Ann. Inst. Jamaica, i, p. 14, 1897;
Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xxi, p. 590, 1898 ; Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., ii, p. 138,
1900 ; Brach. and Macr. Porto Eico, p. 27, 1901.
Plate XIV, Figure 8. Plate XXVII, Figure 7.
In life this species is generally some shade of red, purplish red
or salmon, " Our specimens are usually reddish salmon, or pink;
on the front part of the carapace there is often a red spot. Under
surfaces whitish, with some pale brown spots on the abdomen. Chelae
pinkish broAvn, their tips dark brown or nearly black." (C. S. V.)
The carapace of an unusually large specimen from Brazil, was
16.6'^"" long, by 26. S-"-" broad ; ratio, 1 : 1.6. (Smith.)
Measurements of Bermuda sjieciinens.
No. ■
Sex
Carap
length
ace
breadth
Front
width
ChelEe
length
height
3137o
S
16
25
6
jr. 17
( 1. 16.5
9
7.3
31376
S
14.5
22
5
jr. 15
( 1. 14.5
8
6
4014
s
15
24
6
r. 18.5
9.5
4013
2
14
22
5
jr. 13
(1. 12
7
6.5
In all our specimens the right chela is the larger. It is easily dis-
tinguished by the small, sharp marginal denticles.
We found this species rather rare at Bermuda, It lives under
stones at low tide and among dead corals on the reefs. It was also
in the earh^ collections of J. M, Jones and G. B, Goode (Yale Mus.),
and in the collection made by the Bermuda Biological Station, 1903.
Its range extends from South Carolina and Florida through the
West Indies to Colon (Smith), and Rio Janeiro (Dana), Abrolhos Is.,
Brazil (Smith) ; Maceio (Rathbun) ; Cumana (Stimpson). Near Vera
340
A. E. V err ill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Cruz (Edwards). According to Stimpson it makes a nest of mud
among the roots of mangroves.
Xanthodius parvulus (Fabr.) M. J. Eathbun.
Cancer parvulus Fabr., Entomol. Syst., ii, p. 451, 1798 (t. Rathbun). (Not
Xantho parvulus M.-Edw. , nor Panopeus parvulus Ben. and Rath.)
Chlorodius nmericanus Saussure, Mem. de la Soc. Phys. et d'Hist. Nat.
Genfeve, vol. xiv, p. 430, pi. i, fig. 3, 1857.
Xanthodius americanus Stimp., Notes on N. Amer. Crust., Ann. Lye. Nat.
Hist., N. York, vii, p. 209 [81], 1860.
Lejitorliiis (impvicunus A. Milne- Edw., Miss. Sci. Mex., v, i, p. 269, 1880. M-
J. Rathbun, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xvi, p. 5:36, 1893.
Xanthodius pai^ulus M. J. Rathbun, Brach. and Macr. of Porto Rico, p, 27,
1901. Verrill, Trans. Conn. Acad., xi, p. 576, 1901.
Figure 12. Plate XIV, Figure 4.
Average size of adults: carapace aboui lo'""^' Jong ; 24.5'""' wide ;
front 6'"''' wide. .
The single adult specimen in the Museum of Yale University, from
the collection of Dr. F. V. Hamlin, 1877, has been determined by-
Miss Rathbun by direct comparison with a photograph of the orig-
inal type of Fabricius. It is evidently a rare species at the Bermu-
das, for it Avas not found in any of the later collections. Probably^
it lives under stones or in burrows.
Figure 12. — Xanthodiuf< parvuhix from Bermuda. x abont 2. Phot. A. H. V.
It ranges from the Florida Keys and West Indies to Brazil, Florida
and Barbados (Stimpson) ; Ilayti (Saussure) ; Bahamas, Porto Rico,
Curacao, etc. (Rathbun) ; Fernando Noronha (Pocock).
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
341
Heteractaea ceratopus (Stimp.) A. M.-Edw.
Pilumnus ceratojms Stimpson, Annals Lye. Nat. Hist., New York, vii, p. 315
[87], 1860; and vol. x, p. 109, 1871.
Heteractcea ceraiopus A. Milne-Ed w., Sci. Miss. Mexico, part v, i, p. 300, pi.
Hi, figs. 3-3rf, 1880. Kingsley, op. cit., 1879, p. 396. Rankin, Crust.
Bahamas, Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., xi, p. 232, 1898. Verrill, Trans. Conn.
Acad., X, p. 575, 1900 (Bermuda).
Figure 13.
This is easily recognized by the very spinose character of the
marginal teeth of the carapace and the spiniforni tubercles of the
chelipeds. The dactylus and thumb are black ; the distal part of
the manus lii^ht red.
Measurements.
Front
Ca:
L'apace
between
ChelsE
No.
Sex
length
width
oi-bits
length height Locality
3145
5
17
28
10.5
S r. 20 12 -D 1
- J j» g Bermuda
4067
5
9
13
5.0
1. 8.5 5 Dominica
Figure 13. — Heteractcea ceratopus, $ from Bermuda, about nat. size. Phot, by
A. H. V.
This species is apparently very rare at the Bermudas. It is not
contained in any of the recent collections examined, nor was it in
the earl}' collections of Jones and Goode. One adult specimen was
taken by our party in 1898.
It ranges from Florida to Antilles. Florida (Stimpson). Baha-
mas (S. I. Smith, coll. Bryant). Guadeloupe (Stimpson). Dominica
I. (A. H. Verrill, 1906.)
3-42 .4. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Leptodivis floridanus (Gibbes) A. M.-Edw.
Chlorodius ftoridanus Gibbes, Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv, Sci., iii, p. 175, 1850.
Stimpson, Notes on N. Amer. Crust., Annals Lye. Nat. Hist. N. York, vii,
p. 209. S. I. Smith, Crust. Brazil, these Trans., ii, p. 3, 1869 (measurements).
Kingsley, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad., for 1879, p. 395. Rankin, Ann.
N. York Acad., xi, p. 231, 1898.
LejJtodius floridanus A. M.-Edw., Miss. Sci. Me.K., v. vol. i, p. 268, pi. xlix,
tigs. 2, 2a, 1880. M. J. Rathbun, Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., ii, p. 139, 1900
(Brazil) ; Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xvi, p. 536 ; Brachyura and Macr. Porto
Rico, p. 27, 1901. Verrill, these Trans, x, p. 575, 1900 (Bermuda).
Chlorodius limosusDesh. and Schramm, Crust. Guadeloupe, j). 30 (t. A. M.-
Edw.).
Plate XIV, Figure 7.
This is easily distinguished from most of the allied species by the
strong!}^ areolated carapace, large lateral teeth, and prominent
bilobed front. The upper side of the chelae is rough Avith irregular
elevations and small rounded tubercles. The smaller specimens often
closely resemble Eapanopeus bermudensis of similar size, and the
young of -E! serratus, but the areolations of the carapace are stronger
and the frontal lobes are more prominent, with a deep notch between
them, while the tubercles appear on the chelae in very young individ-
uals. The tips of the chelae are excavate or spoon-like even when
very young. It is variable in color, but is usually mottled or varied
with dull red or reddish brown.
Measurements of Bermuda specimens.
No.
Sex
Carapace
length breadth
Front
width
length
Chelie
height
4000a
$
20
28.5
8
i r. 19
"( 1. 17
i 10
'( 8
4001
2
20
29.5
8
il. 18
"( r. 17
i 9.5
} 8
4002«
5
18
27
7
1. 19
10
4004
c5
18
27
7
i r. 18
■| 1. 20
ir. 9
"/ 1. 11
4019
i
18
26
9
\T.17
'( 1. 16
( 6
( 8
3030
6
17
25
6.5
1. 17
9
No. 4001 was carrying eggs April, 1901.
This species is common on rocky shores under stones and on the
reefs in the crevices and beneath dead corals. Many specimens were
taken by the Yale parties in 1898 and 1901. Several taken in April
were carrying eggs. Others taken in midsummer by the Bermuda
Biol. Station also had eggs. It has been obtained by nearly every
collector in Bermuda (J. M. Jones, Mr. Goode, Professor Kincaid,
Dr. T. H. Bean, etc.).
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 343
Its range is from Florida to Colon and through the West Indies to
Brazil, New Providence in pools and under stones on the shore
(Rankin) ; Florida, Colon, and Abrolhos Is. (Smith) ; Maceio, Brazil
(Rathbun) ; Barbados (Benedict).
Liomera dispar (Stimjo.) Rathbun.
Chlorodius dispar Stimp., Prelim. Rep. on Crasfc. Gulf Stream, Bull. Mus.
Comp. Zool., ii, p. 140, 1870. Kingsley, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad., for
1879, p. 395 (descr.).
Leptodius dispar A. M..Edw., Miss. Sci., Mex., v, i, p. 271, 1880.
Liomera dispar M. J. Rathbun, Ann. Inst. Jamaica, i, p. 13, 1897 ; Brach-
yura and Macr. of Porto Rico, p. 25, 1901. Verrill, Trans. Conn. Acad.,
X, p. 577, 1900 (Bermuda).
Plate XIV, Figure 5.
A small and very rare species. Easily recognizable by its trans-
versely elliptical and smooth carapace. The tips of the chelae are
jet black. The carapace in our specimens, preserved in alcohol
for many years, is plain dull yellowish brown. Doubtless it has
changed very much. Length of carapace about 8'"'", breadth 13. 5"^"".
This has not been found in any recent collection. Two specimens
in the Yale Museum were collected before 1877, by J. M. Jones (No.
3176). One has been given to the IT. S. Nat. Museum. They were
identified by Miss M. J. Rathbun,
Key West (Kingsley) ; Cuba (Stimpson) ; Bahamas ; Porto Rico
and Jamaica (Rathbun).
Eupanopeus M. J. Rathbun, 1898.
Panojjeus {pars) H. M.-Edw., Hist. nat. Crust., 1834, and most subsequent
writers. Benedict and Rathbun, The Genus Panopeus, 1891.
Eupanopeus M. J. Rathbun, Bull. Labr. Nat. Hist. State Univ., Iowa, iv, p.
273, 1898.
Artificial key to the Bermuda species of Eupanopeus.
A. No well-defined transverse groove near the distal margin of the carpus of
the chelipeds.
B. Marginal teeth with front edge inclined forward ; ratio of length to breadth
of carapace about 1:1.35 to 1:1.50 ..Herbstii
c. Last three marginal teeth acute, subequal in size, cusps of first two, or
coalesced tooth, nearly equal in height. Flanks of carapace not con-
vex Var. Herbstii
c'. Last three marginal teeth unequal in breadth, not all divergent ; cusps of
first and second unequal in height. Flanks usually convex.
d. Third tooth notably large, and broadly rounded outwardly. Flanks
convex, in a dorsal view. Front 4-lobed, Legs elongated.. Var. mi^iax
d' . Third tooth not greatly enlarged ; tip incurved or obtuse. Flanks
usually somewhat convex. Legs not so elongated Var. obesus
^
*
344 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
B'. Marginal teeth thickened, with front edge not much inclined forward; 4th
and oth squarrose. Ratio of length to breadth of carapace about 1:1.30.
Edge of front thickened, distinctly four-lobed americanuS
A'. A distinct transverse groove near distal end of carpus of chelipeds.
C. Third segment of male abdomen reaches coxal joint of 5th pair of legs;
fi'ont not grooved. Fingers dark. Size rather large.
D. Third marginal tooth broadest, arcuate posteriorly ; carpus of chelipeds
smooth with deep groove occidentalis
D'. Third marginal tooth dentiform, acute ; carpus of chelipeds roughened.
serratus
C. Third segment of male abdomen does not reach the coxal joint of 5th
pair of legs. Front pi'ominent, 4-lobed, grooved. Fingers pale ; size
small - bennudensis
Eupanopeus Herbstii (Milne-Edwards), M. J. Rathbnn.
Cidicet- panojie Say, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., i, pjj. 58. 447, pi. 4, fig. 3,
1817.
Panopeus Herbstii H. M. -Edwards, Hist. Nat. Crust., i. p. 403, 1834. DeKay,
Crust, of N. Y., p. 5, pi. ix, fig. 26 (poor), 1844. Gibbes, Proc. Boston Soc.
Nat. Hist., ii, pp. 63, 69, 1845. Stimpson, Amer. Jour. Sci. (2), xxix, p.
444, 1860. Smith, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xii, p. 276, 1869; these
Trans., ii, p. 34, 1869; Rept. U. S. Comm. Fisheries for 1871-72 (1874), p.
547. Verrill, op. cit., p. 472 [178J, 1874. A. M. -Edwards, Miss. Sci.
Mexique, pt. 5, i, p. 308, pi. Ivii, fig. 2, 1880. R. Rathbnn, Fishery Indus-
tries of U. S., section i, p. 772, 1884. Benedict and M. J. Rathbun, The
Genus Panopeus, Proc. U. S. Nat. Museum, xiv, p. 358, pi. xix, figs. 1, 2 ;
pi. xxili, figs. 10-12. 1891.
EupanojJeus herbstii M. J. Rathbun, Bull. Labr. Nat. Hist. State Univ. of
Iowa, iv, p. 273,1898; Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., ii, p. 140, 1900; Amer.
Naturalist, xxxiv, p. 138, 1900; Brach. and Macr. Porto Rico, p. 28, 1901.
Figures 14, 6, 15. Plate XV, Figures 1, 2, 3 ; Varieties.
The common and more typical form of this species, which is gen-
erally distributed along the eastern coast of the United States, south
of Cape Cod, especially on oyster beds, seems to be rather common
in Bermuda. Most of the specimens that I have seen belong to this
variety. This form, or variety, regarded as typical (var. Herbstii)
usually has the postero-lateral margins or flanks of the carapace
either straight or slight concave, and convergent, while in the other
varieties they are usually distinctly convex, giving the posterior half
of the outline a more elliptical form. The legs are rather short.
The marginal teeth are inclined forward and acute, the third tooth
being only a little broader and less acute than the rest, with the
* Not positively known from Bermuda, but perhaps confused with Herbstii,
from which it differs l)Tit slightly.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
345
posterior edge more convex ; the coalesced first and second teeth
have the two cusps prominent and nearly equal in height ; the second
is obtuse and broader. The front is somewhat produced and is
distinctly 4-lobed or sinuous ; the edge is often upturned and granu-
lated in the adults.
Figure 14. — Male abdomens of EupanoiJeus : a, E. occidentalism b, E. HerbsHi;
c. E. bermudensis ; c', its larger chela ; d, E. serratus. All enlarged, after
Benedict and Eathbun.
The carpus of the chelipeds is granulated, but nearly smooth to
the naked eye, usually with a slight undulation or depression in
place of the distal groove, bht in some this is entirely obsolete.
The carapace is somewhat uneven, with the areolation not much
raised but well marked ; slight transverse rugse are usually pres-
ent ; the surface is usually finely punctate and granulate, but in
some examples it is transversely rugose and more granulose. The
color is variable, but usually is yellowish or olive-yellow, mottled
more or less thickly with red or red-brown. The fingers are blackish,
varying to dark liver-brown, and below, the dark color is apt to
extend backward on the raanus, a little beyond the base of the
dactyl us.
A specimen (No. 4016) taken at Long Bird Island, April 19, 1901,
in life had the carapace curiously variegated with gray, white, and
blackish brown, and with patches of orange in the middle, near the
front edge. Chelipeds thickly spotted and specked with bluish gray,
and with a patch of orange on the back of the carpus and chela.
The ratio of length to breadth of the carapace, accprding to the
measurements of Prof. S. I. Smith,* varies from 1:1.33 to 1:1.48.
Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. History, xli, p. 377.
34:6 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Our No. 470, which was labelled as jE! Herbstii by Miss Rathbun,
has the ratios 1:1.33. Therefore it has nearly the same proportions
as E. americanus, in which they are usually about 1 :1.3. The differ-
ence in form is, therefore, not very relial)le. The largest example
mentioned b}"- Benedict and Rathbun had the carapace 40™'" long
and 62'"'" wide, ratio 1:1,55. It was about the same size as the type
of our var. minax.
No.
470
Figd.*
4042
4043
4018
4016
Sex
6
S
Carajjace
length breadth
21
26
20
17
16
15.5
34.8
28
35.5
28
22.5
22
20.5
50.5
Measuremen ts.
Front
between
oibits
10
12.5
11
9
9
8.5
ChelfB
length height
i 1. 21 14
( r. 19
< r. 29
■( 1. 21
( r. 17
( 1. 18
i r. 15
■( 1. 16
r. 14
( r. 35
'I 1. 39
10
18
12
7.5 )
10 S
10 I
10 )
8.5
12 /
22 \
Locality
Colon
Egmont Key
Bermvida
* This belongs to the var. obesKS. It is the figured specimen, pi. xv, fig. 1.
This is much more active than most species of Eupanopeus. In
some cases it may be seen actively running about on the stony
beaches, as at Spanish Point, in March, 1901, where it was found in
considerable numbers and "very lively" by A. H. Verrill. It was
not found at any other place in such numbers. These were of
medium size and rather bright colors (Nos. 4042, 4043). They
were purplish, varied with yellow and yellowish white; on the under
side, pale yellow mottled with bright lavender. (A. H. V.)
In the Bermudas it occurs mostly under stones and dead corals on
rock}^ shores and on the reefs. It was obtained by Jones, Goode,
Kincaid, and by the Yale parties of 1898 and 1901, but usually in
small numbers or singly. This species, as a whole, ranges from
Southern New England to Florida, Texas, Colon, and through the
West Indies to Brazil (coll. Yale Mus.). It is abundant from Cape
Hatteras southward. The typical variety seems to occur, as well as
the var, obesus, throughout its entire range.
b
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 347
Eupanopeus Herbstii, var. obesus (Smith).
Panopeus herbstii, var. obesus S. I. Smith, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xii,
p. 278, 1869. Coues, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad. (3), i, p. 120, 1871.
Kingsley, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., p. 318,1878. A. M.-Edwards, Miss.
Sci. Mexique, pt. 5, i, p. 309, 1880, pi. Ivii, figs. 3, 2a. Benedict and Rath-
bun, The Genus Panopeus, op. cit. , p. 359, 1891, pi. xix, fig. 2; pi. xxiii,
fig. 11.
Figure 14, b. Plate XV, Figure 1.
This is an unusual form in collections from Bermuda. It differs
from the preceding chiefly in its more elliptical form, due to the
convexity of the flanks or posterior branchial areas, a character
indicating, perhaps, enlarged gill-chambers and gills. Benedict and
Rathbun (op. cit., 1891) state that this variety was found commonly
on the Carolina coasts in holes above high tide, and not extending
into the water, while the common form was found in the same
vicinity on the oyster beds and below tide. This difference in haUit
may well be associated with a change in the capacity of the branchial
chambers. Other characters are found mainly in the marginal teeth.
In this form the teeth are broader, blunter, and less prominent ; the
coalesced first two are more unequal in size and prominence ; the
third tooth is broader and more arcuate posteriorly.
Measurements of Eupanopeus Herbstii, var. obesus, from Bermuda.
Front
Carapace between Chelae
No. Sex length breadth orbits length height
1903a $ 28 39 14 1. 28 15
19036 $ 23.5 33 13 r. 25 12.5
4023 30 42 14
Prof. Smith's original description was as follows :
" Carapax strongly convex. Front broad, deflexed, not prominent,
the edges as seen from above nearly straight, and not at all four-
lobed. Post-orbital tooth not prominent, slightly separated from the
second normal tooth of the antero-lateral margin by a very shallow
sinus ; remaining teeth of the margin not very prominent ; the third
broad, and its outer edge truncate ; fourth broad, the anterior edge
very short, but slightly hooked forward at the apex, and the outer
edge slightly arcuate ; last tooth very short, but acute, and its apex
slightly cui-ved forward. Inferior regions, chelipeds, etc., very
nearly as in Herbstii. Color of alcoholic specimens, brownish olive,
clouded and spotted with dull red on the anterior part of the cara-
pax, and on the upper side of the chelipeds ; fingers black or dark
brown, lighter at the tip.«!. In all the sj^ecimens the hands are
spotted externally with red "
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 25 Jan., 1908.
348 .1. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
"Lengthofcarapax in a male, 23.6"""; breadth, 33.4"'"; ratio, 1:1.41."
"Egmont Kej^ Fla.; Col. E. Jewett. Aspinwall ; F. H. Bradley.
Specimens from Egmont Key aj)pear quite distinct from specimens
of Jlerbstii from the same locality, having the carapax broader and
much more convex, the teeth of the antero-lateral margin less promi-
nent and somewhat different in form, and the coloration quite
different; but specimens of IIerbstU,m the Society's collection, from
Bahaina and Florida, approach quite closely to the variety, in the
breadth and convexity of the carapax, the form of the teeth of the
antero-lateral margin of the carapax, and even slightly in coloration."
The following measurements of three specimens from Maranhao,
Brazil (coll. C. F. Hartt, 18V0), occur in Prof. Smith's MSS. notes:
No.
Sex
length
Carajiace
breadth
Ratio
236&
6
23.7
35.1
1:1.48
232a
2
22.0
33.3
1:1.51
232&
9
18.5
26.9
1:1.45
I have personally examined the original specimens described by
Professor Smith (Yale Mus. coll.) and numerous others from various
localities, which were also studied by Benedict and Rathbun.
Its range is essentially the same as that of var. Ilerbstil.
Eupanopeus Herbstii, var. or subspecies, minax, nov.
Plate XV, Figure 2. •
A single large male was taken by us in 1901. This is a lai'ge, stout
crab, for one of this group. Its legs appear to be relatively longer than
in var. olxaois and other allied forms. Its carapace is convex and
more swollen on the flanks, with the postero-marginal outlines
decidedly convex, when seen from above. Its antero-marginal teeth
are relatively large and more prominent than in the related forms.
The coalesced first and second teeth are not very unequal ; the first
is smaller, short, acute, triangular ; the second, which is separated
half way to base by a broad, regularly curved notch, is rather larger
and broader, concave in front and convex posteriorly. On the left
side these teeth are much more unequal^, apparently due to some
injury to the first. The notch between the second and third is
narrow at bottom. The third tooth is especially large, wide, and
broadh" rounded, or arcuate outwardly ; the fourth and fifth teeth
have acute tips, directed obliquely outward and upward ; the
fourth has the anterior edge subtrnncate and but little inclined
forward, with the posterior edge arcuate ; the fifth is a little shorter
and narrower, thickened and triquetral at base, with a sharp tip
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 349
directed slightly forward. All the teeth have the outer edge thick-
ened and granulous, curved upward. The front is distinctly four-
lobed, the outer lobes much the smaller, separated from the inner by
a sinuous curve ; inner lobes broadly arcuate, separated by a narrow
deep notch ; the edges are thickened and rather coarsely granulous.
The areolation of the carapace is well marked with the areas
convex. The surface is rather finely granulose. The chelipeds are
very large and strong, with massive unequal chelae, appearing nearly
smooth to the naked eye, but closely and rather finely granulous
under a lens, with numerous small shallow unequal pits on the chelae,
which, on the carpus, become shallow transverse or wavy furrows,
separated by very slightly elevated finely granulous rugae. The
distal transverse groove is indicated only by a very shallow, ill-
defined wave-like de])ression. The carpal tooth is large and conical.
No perceptible dorsal carina on the mauus.
The male abdomen differs somewhat from that of var. Herbstii, as
figured. The penultimate segment is relatively shorter ; it is wider
than long, so that the suture between it and the last segment is
behind the sternal suture, instead of coincident with it. Its sides
and the sides of the distal portion of the preceding segment are
nearly parallel ; last segment broad ovate, rounded at the end, about
as broad as long.
Fingers dark horn-color, the dark color of the pi'opodus termina-
ting in a regular curve, convex proximally, a little back of the artic-
ulation of the dactylus.
The general color of the upper surface of the dry specimen is
dull red, becoming brownish red on the chelae, and brighter orange-
red on the carapace ; under surface dull yellow.
Measurements of type.
Length of carapace 41
Breadth of carapace - 62
Frout, between orbits ._ 18
Length of right chela 53
Height of right chela 30
Length of merns, right chela 26
Length of left chela 51
Heightof left chela 24
Length of merus, left chela 23
Total length of 1st pereiopods .- 76
Length of merus, 1st pereiopods 25
Length of carpus, extreme 13
Length of propodite, extreme 14
Length of dactylus 17
350
A. E. Verr'dl — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
The type, which is the only specimen known, was caught in a
baited fish trap in Harrington Sound, in shallow water, April, 1901.
The specimen which approaches most nearly to the type of this
variety is a cast shell, found on the shore (fig. lo) and of which only
the carapace was preserved. 1 have included its measurement with
variety ohesKS, however, as a matter of convenience, tliough it differs
from that in having larger and more squarrose marginal teeth, of which
the second and third are obtusely rounded ; and in having a prom-
inent and distinctly 4-lobed front, as in mincix, from which it differs,
therefore, chiefly in the shorter second and third teeth, and the nar-
rower and more rounded carai)ace. The flanks were convex and the
Figure 15. — Eupanopeus Herbstii variety minax. Carapace of No. 4023, x \\.
Phot. A. H. V.
granulation pretty fine, except on the front. Ratio of length to
breadth, 1 :1.4 ; length of carapace 30"^" ; breadth 42"'"' ; front 14""°.
E. americanns (Saus.)=:^. areolatus Kath., figure 16, differs very
little from some of the forms of this species. Although it averages
slightly narrower, there are specimens of Herbstii (No. 470 in
our collection, see table) as narrow as some of those from Brazil,
referred to this species by Miss Rathbun (in Coll. Yale Mus.). The
lateral marginal teeth are a little less oblique and less concave in
front, but in some specimens this distinction fails ; indeed, the teeth
of opposite sides of one specimen may sometimes differ considerablj^
in outline, or about as much as the species differ in this particular.
But in this form the teeth are more thickened at base above, and are
rather more granulous at the edges. The fourth and fifth teeth are
more squarrose, and the tips are turned upward. The third tooth
often differs but little from the others in size, but its tip bends for-
ward and the outer margin is convex ; it is not always as large as
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
351
the fourth ; the fifth is often smaller than the fourth. The front is
a little more produced in the middle and is more evidently 4-lobed,
the outer small lobe being more distinct. The distal groove on the
carpus is sometimes distinct, but ill-defined ; in other cases it is lack-
ing ; this variation may occur on the two chelfe of an individual.
A Brazilian specimen (No. 236, Yale Mus.), studied both by Prof.
Smith and by Miss Rathbuu, has the carapace 21™°^ long ; 28"°'
wide ; ratio 1:1.33.
I
Figure 16. — Eupanopeus americanus, nat. size. After Benedict and Rathbun
(as P. areolatus).
Some of our Bermuda specimens may belong to this species, if it
be reall}' distinct.
Eupanopeus occidentalis (Saus.) Rathbun.
Panopeus occidentalis H. de. Saussure, Rev. et Mag. de Zool. (2), 9, p. 502,
1857 ; Mem. Soc. Phys. Geneve, xiv, p. 431, pi. i, fig. 6, 1857. Stimpson,
Amer. Jour. Sci. (2), 27, p. 446, 1859. S. I. Smith, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat.
Hist., xii, p. 279, 1869. E. v. Martens, Arch, fur Natur., xxxviii, p. 90,
1872. A. M.-Edw., Miss. Sci. au Mexique, pt. 5, i, p. 310, 1880 ; Bull. Mns.
Comp. Zool., viii, p. 13, 1880. Benedict and Rathbun, Proc. Nat. Mus., xiv,
p. 360, pi, XX, fig. 3 ; pi. xxiii, fig. 14, 1891.
Eupanopeus occidentalis Rathbun, Bull. Labr. Nat. Hist. Univ. Iowa, iv, p.
273, 1898; Proc. Wash. Acad., ii, p. 140, 1900; Crust. Porto Rico, p. 29,
1901.
Figure 17. Plate XVI, Figure 2.
Antero-lateral teeth slightly elevated ; their anterior margins trun-
cate ; the three posterior teeth are pointed ; first tooth separated
from the post-ocular tooth by a rather deep sinus, which, however,
does not divide the coalesced tooth to its base. Front produced,
thin, slightly depressed, with a median fissure, each lobe slightly
352
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
emarjT^inate, p;iving the front a somewhat four-lobed appearance.
JNIedian lobes more produced ; lateral lobes faint. Space between
the two fissures of the upper orbital margin slightly rounded, inter-
rui)ting the regular curve of the orbit ; external hiatus widely
V-shaped and deep. The inner suborbital angle forms a prominent
tooth; a rather deep sinus divides this from the lobe which reaches
to the external fissure ; lower orbital margin i^roduced.
Abdomen of the male wider than in herbstii, outline concave,
penultimate segment Avidest at its distal end. Coxte of fifth pair of
feet in broad contact with third abdominal segment. Seventh seg-
ment of sternum shows but little.
The marginal depression on the carpus near the articulation with
the hand is wide and deep. In some specimens the carjjus is finely
Figure 17. — Eupanopeus occidentalis, nat. size. After Benedict and Rathbun.
granulate ; in others the granules are thrown up in slight rugae.
The hand varies in much the same way ; in some specimens finel}^
granulate ; in others, thrown up in rugje as on the carpus. In the
latter case the hand is always much smoother than the carpus in the
same specimen. Fingers brown or horn-color, shading to clear w^hite
at the tips. There is a large tooth at the base of the dactjd of the
large hand.
The color on the immovable finger does not extend beyond the
line of color on the movable finger ; while in Herbstii it usually
extends considerably beyond.
This species closely resembles JS. Herbstii, as shown by the above
description, and is easily confounded with it. The most important
distinctive character seems to be the much more distinct distal
groove on the carpus, but this varies. In Herbstii it is sometimes
J
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 353
evident on one cheliped and entirely lackini? on the other, but it is
always, when present, ill-defined. The marginal teeth have nearly
the same outlines ; -the front edge is a little less concave, and conse-
quently the tips are not so much incurved, but this character is also
variable in both species. The marginal teeth are, however, thicker
vertically. The front is a little more prominent in the middle, and
the median notch is less distinct. The specimen figured (No. 3021)
was identified and labelled as this species by Miss Rathbun, several
years ago. It was collected at Hamilton by Dr. C. Hartt Men-iam,
April, 1881, and carried eggs. The ratio of length to breadth is
1:1.3.
Measurements.
Front
No.
Sex
Carapace
length breadth
between
orbits
Chel
length
as
height
Locality
3021
S
17.5 23.5
9
r. 18
10
Bermuda
3264
S
16 23
8
(r. 16
■( 1. 14
9.5
7.5
Florida
Keys
This species is not common in Bermuda, and is not contained in
most of the collections. It was first obtained by Dr. Merriam, in
1881 (see above).
Its range extends from S. Carolina throngh the West Indies to
Pernambuco, Brazil.
Eupanopeus serratus (Saussure).
Panopeus serratus Saussure, Eev. et Mag. de ZooL, (2), ix, p. 502, 1857 : Mem.
Sec. Phys. Genfeve, xiv, p. 432, pi. i, fig. 7, 1857. Stimpson, Amer. Jour.
Sci. (2), xxvii, p. 446, 1859. Smith, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xii, p.
280, 1869. E. V. Martens. Arch, fiir Natur., xxxviii, 90, 1872. A. Milne-
Edw., Miss. Sci. Mexique, pt. 5, i, p. 311, 1880 ; Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.,
viii, p. 13, 1880. Benedict and Eathbiin, The Genus Panopeus, Proc. IT. S.
Nat. Mus., xiv, p. 371, pi. xxiv, figs. 3, 4, 1891.
Panopeus Herhstii, var. serratus Miers, Rep. Voy. Chall., Zool., xvii, p. 129,
1886.
Eupanopeus serratus Rathbun, Bull. Labr. Nat. Hist. Univ. of Iowa, iv, p.
273, 1898.
Figures 14, d, 18. Plate XVI, Figures 1, 5.
The followiug description is that of a young specimen :
Carapace convex, with rather well-marked areolets. Front very
little produced, nearly straight, thin, with a line of granules on the
edge, giving it a minutely denticulate appearance. Antero-lateral
teeth sharp, the posterior three hooked forward. Sinus between the
external angle of the orbit and the first tooth deep. External hiatus
of orbit a large V-shaped opening. Subhepatic tubercle small but
354 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. ■
well defined. Abdomen much like that of occidentalis. Seventh
segment of sternum exposed. Coxae of fifth pair of feet in contact
with third abdominal segment. Length of carapace of a young
specimen, 7""° ; width, 8"'"\
Carpus and hand coarsely and densely granulated, rugose above.
Carpal spine sharp, ))ointing forward ; fingers not gaping, a large
tooth at the base of the dact}^! on the large hand, and a tooth on the
hand at the base of the dactyl. (Benedict and Rathbun, abridged.)
Figure 18. — Eupanojjeus serratus, carapace and chelipeds of No. 3019, Yale
Mus., X about 1.10. Phot. A. H. V.
An unusually large male (No. 3019, pi. 16, fig. 5), which was col-
lected by our Yale Exped. of 1898, has been studied by Miss M. J.
Rathbun, who furnished the following notes :
"Length IG.S'"", width 27°^™, exorbital width 15.9°"". Color in
formaline, light red and white mottled ; upper part of chelipeds a
darker red ; fingers a light horny brown, terminal third white.
Third segment of abdomen reaching the coxae of the last pair of
legs.
This specimen demonstrates conclusively the distinctness of this
species from M occidei i talis / all the lateral teeth are narrower and
sharper ; the areolations strongly marked ; the surface rougher, the
short transverse granulated lines more prominent and more numer-
ous. The chelipeds, also, are rougher, especially the carpus."
A somewhat larger and still better male specimen was taken in
1901. (No. 4008, see i^l, xvi, fig. 1.) This, after preservation for a
few years in formol, and doubtless much faded, is pale fiesh-color
and yellowish white, with patches of brighter yellow on the carapace
and chelipeds ; the upper parts of the manus and carpus are pale
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 355
purple and yellow ; hairs on the legs and carapace yellow ; under
parts and front of chelae white ; dactyl and thumb dark horn-color
with pale tips.
The areolations of the carapace and the transverse granulated
rugje are even stronger than in the specimen just described, but
otherwise the same ; the marginal teeth are nearly the same, but a
trifle larger and more acute. Thej^ are much thickened vertically
at base and the posterior ones bend upward ; their edges and bases
are thickly covered with strong granulations which bear long hairs ;
the posterior tooth has a dorsal carina, granulated on its edge. The
transverse ridges of the carapace and especially of the front are
strongly granulated and bear long hairs in life. The frontal edge is
convex, prominent, granulated, and divided by a narrow median
notch ; each lobe is slightly sinuous, with the smallei', faint, outer
lobe rounded at the external angle. The outer orbital tooth is prom-
inent and acute, but smaller than the next and well separated from
it by a wide concave notch.
An excellent ? specimen in the collection of Prof. Kincaid (1903),
preserved with glycerine, is pale lemon-yellow with minute specks of
red-brown on the carapace and chelae ; larger blotches of the same
on the legs ; two brown hepatic patches ; a distal band of paler
yellow on the manus ; fingers smoky brown, pale at tips. The cai-a-
pace in life was covered with rather sparse hairs and small tufts of
longer ones ; the legs are hairy and with longer hairs on the front
edge. The areolation of the carapace is rather strong, with rather
numerous transverse rugae. The carpus has a deep distal groove
and also a series of irregular oblique grooves and granulated broken
ridges. The chelae have a slight dorsal longitudinal groove and very
minute granules. (See fig. 5, h^ pi. xvi.)
Measuremen
t.s of Bermuda specimens
Front
Carapace
between
Chelas
No.
Sex
length
breadth
orbits
length
height
3019
6
19.3
27
9.5
j r. 19.5
] 1. 18.5
11
8
1903a
2
13
19
8
14
7.5
4068
$
21
30
10.5
\ r. 24
] 1. 22
15
10
This appears to be a rather rare species at the Bermudas, or else
it has been generally overlooked by collectors. Nor is it common in
other regions.
Its known range is not extensive. Florida Keys (Benedict and
Rathbuu) ; St. Thomas (Smith).
356 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Eupanopeus bermudensis (Ben. and Rath.) Rathbun.
Panopeus bermudensis Benedict and Rathbun, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xiv,
p. 376, pi. XX, fig. 2; pi. xxiv, figs. 14, 15, 1891. Rankin, Crust. Berm., p.
528.
Eupanopeus bcDimdensis Rathbun, Bull. Labr. Nat. Hist. Univ. Iowa, iv,
p. 273, 1898; Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., ii, p. 140, 1900 ; Brachy. and Macr.
Porto Rico, p. 29, 1901.
Panopeus ivurdemannii Ben. and Rathbun, The Genus Panopeus, op. cit.,
p. 372, pi. xxiv, figs. 6, 7, 1891 (non Gibbes t. M. J. Rathbun, 1900).
Figures 14, c, c'. Plate XIV, Figure 9 ; Plate XVI, Figures 3, 4.
Til is is a very common species, but small and easiW overlooked.
In life it is quite variable in colors. Many specimens were varie-
gated with lighter and darker gray ; others are olive-green or olive-
brown, mottled with paler ; some have red-brown patches, other
were finely mottled with brown and gray on a whitish ground-color,
so as to very closelj'^ imitate the color of the sand, etc. of its environ-
ment. A few w^ere plain bright red-brow^n. The colors appear to
be highly protective in most cases. The fingers are somewhat vari-
able in color, but are usually pale, sometimes with a smoky brown
tinge, especially on the proximal half.
The following is condensed from the detailed original description:
Carapace distinctly areolated, posteriorly as well as anteriorly ;
areolations with transverse lines and occasional small clusters of
granules. Front much produced, rather deeply cleft in the center,
the cleft rounding out into the median lobes which are produced at
this point ; outer angles of the front not produced in some speci-
mens, and slightly in others ; edge of front oblique, thickened,
densely granulate, and showing a slight marginal groove; two fis-
sures on the upper orbital margin.
First and second [post-orbital] teeth of the antero-lateral margin
flat and thin ; third and fourth thickened, with anterior margins
concave and hollowed. The sulcus of the coalesced tooth varies
greatly wath the specimen. Second [post-orbital] tooth the largest,
separated from the first by a wide and deep notch ; its margin
straight, pointing slightly forward and not at all hooked. The third
tooth is much narrower than the second, and its posterior margin
curves gradually backward to the bottom of the notch; fourth tooth
much the smallest, sharp pointed, and directed nearly perpendicular
to the median line.
Outline of male abdomen slightly concave. First and third seg-
ments comparativelj^ narrow and of about equal wudth. Second
A. B. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 357
segment much narrower, showing the sternal plates. Coxae of fifth
pair of feet not in contact with anchylosed segment.
Carpi, chelipeds, and bases of the dactyls finely granulate; carpal
depression well defined along the margin, and extending around to
the tooth on the inner angle. Large cheliped very deep and rather
thick ; fingers light brown ; in some specimens white. Ambulatory
feet slender; dactyls very slender and hairy. (Bened. and Rathbun,
abridged.)
The larger specimens and many of the smaller ones have the areo-
lations of the carapace veiy conspicuous, and the transverse ridges
are high and sharply cut or nearly perpendicular on the anterior side,
with the crest granulated ; but in some specimens the ridges are
obtuse with the front side sloping. The dorsal side of the carpus of
the chelse, especially of the smaller one, is grooved and roughened
and often bears two or three rounded tubercles. The dactylus is
strangely grooved above, or slightly bicarinate.
Measurements of Bermuda specimens.
No.
Sex
Carapace
length breadth
Front
between
orbits
CheliB
length
height
4017a
6
9
13
5.5
r. 10.5
5.5
46176
?
8
10.5
5
r. 7.5
4.5
S
8
11
4.5
2
6.5
8.5
4
6.5
3.5
Variety sculptus, nov. Plate xvi, figure 3.
The strongly sculptured specimens differ so much in appearance
from the smoother ones that they might easil^^ be mistaken for a
distinct species, especially as they usually have also stronger mar-
ginal teeth, and the carpi of the chelipeds are rougher with about
three small rounded tubercles, which are lacking in the smoother
form.
The coalesced post-orbital tooth is often distinctly divided into
two subeqiial denticles by a rounded notch ; in others the notch is
very shallow, while in some it is lacking so that the whole forms a
rounded or subtruncate lobe. I have, however, found these extreme
variations on the opposite sides of a single individual.
This little species is very common at Bermuda, under stones at
low-tide and in shallow water dredgings. It is often associated Avith
the young of Leptodius floridanus, of the same sizes, which it
often closelv resembles, in form, in the areolations, and in the mar-
358 ^i. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
ginal denticles. But the latter, even when not over 8 to 10"™ across
the carapace, has the tips of the chelae concave or spoon-like ; the
post-orbital tooth is not coalescent witli tlie next, and the front is a
little more evidently bilobed.
The original types of this species were from Bermuda (coll. Goode,
1877). It was in the collection of J. M. Jones, and has been
obtained by nearl}^ all later collectors. We found it abundant in
1898 and 1901, at low-tide, associater' with the young of several
other species. Some specimens taken in April carried eggs, although
less than 8""" long (see No. 3280^, fig. 4, pi. xvi).
Its range extends from Florida to Maceio, Brazil. (Porto Rico
and Maceio, Kathbun.)
Eurytium limosum (Say) Stimpson.
Cancer limosa Say, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., i, p. 446, 1817.
Panopeus limosus Milne-Edw., Hist. Nat. des Crust., i, p. 404, 1834. De Kay,
Crust, of N. Y., p. 5, 1844. Gibbes, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., v, p.
23, 1850. Lucas, Hist. nat. des Crust., p. 90, 1851. Benedict and Ratlibun,
op. cit., p. 379, 1891.
Eurytium, limosum Stimpson, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist., vii, p. 56, 1859, Kingsley,
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., p. 319, 1878; xxxi, p. 394, 1879. A. Milne-
Edw., Miss. Sci. Mexique, pt. 5, i, p. 332, pi. Ix, fig. 2, 2a, 1880. Miers,
Voy. Challenger, Zool., xvii, p. 141, 1886 (Bermuda). M. J. Rathbun, Amer.
Naturalist, xxxiv, p. 128, 1900. Brach. and Macr. Porto Rico, p. 41, 1901.
Figure 19. Plate XIV, Figure 10.
Carapace very convex longitudinally, nearly straight transversely.
Front much deflexed, composed of two lobes, the inner and outer
angles alike and evenly rounded. A slight emargination in the
coalesced tooth. Second tooth semi-lobate; third and fourth short,
pointed, triangular. Carpal groove wanting. Fingers evenly den-
tate. In the larger cheliped there is a slight tooth on the dactyl,
and also one on the manus. Appendages of male abdomen very
much like those of herbstii.
In the fresh state this species is readily recognized and separated
from all other crabs by the color. Carapace, a brilliant purplish
blue ; carpus and hand, bluish; proximal upper half of the dact^'ls
of chelipeds, pink ; remainder of fingens, porcelain white ; lower
portion of chelipeds and carpal tooth, orange-yellow. (Benedict and
Rathbun, abridged.)
Length of carapace of a large specimen, 28™™ ; width, 42.5°"".
The S specimen from Bahia (pi. xiv, fig. 9, No. 4028) has the cara-
pace 9°"" long, 14""" wide; front 5"'™; larger chela 10""" long, 5"'""
high.
A. E. y err ill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
359
This interesting species appears to be rare at Bermuda, but this
may be due to its living in places seldom visited by collectors. It
usually inhabits holes excavated in the muddy or marshy banks of
inlets, about high-tide level. It was recorded from Bermuda by
Miers, in Voyage "Challenger"; taken in the mangrove swamp at
Hungry Bay. It was not in the earlier collections of Jones and
Goode, nor was it taken by us, in 1898 and 1901. It is not in the
later collections that I have examined.
Its range extends from New Jersey to Florida, and through the
West Indies to Bahia, Brazil. S. Carolina (Stimpson) ; Sarasota
Bay, Fla., (Kingsley); Bahia (R. Rathbun). New York to Brazil
(Rankin; M. J. Rathbun). St. Augustine and Cedar Key, Fla.
(Yale Mus.).
Figure 19. — Eurytium limosam, nat. size. After A. M.-Edw.
Lobopilumnus Agassizii (Stimp.) A. M.-Edw.
Pilumnus Agassizii Stimpson, Bull. Mns. Comp. Zool., ii, j). 142, 1870.
Lobopilumnus pulehelliis A. M.-Edw., Exped. Miss. Sci. Mex., p. 299, pi. lii,
fig. 5, 1880 (t. M. J. E.).
Lobopilumnus Agassizii M. J. Eathbun, Bull. Labr. Nat. Hist. Univ. Iowa,
iv, 13. 269, 1898 ; Amer. Naturalist, xxxiv, p. 139, 1900. Eankin, Crust.
Bermuda I., p. 529.
Plate XIV, Figures 1, 2 (Variety).
The typical form of this species is not common at the Bermudas.
Some of our specimens, taken in 1898 and 1901, appear to belong to it.
According to Miss Rathbun (op. cit., p. 269), the form described
and figured by A. M.-Edw., in 1880, as L. pidcheUus is the typical
form of Z. Agassizii, while his L. Agassizii is the peculiar variety
[hermuclensis). The latter is the prevailing form at the Bei'mudas.
360 . A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
The types of Stinipson were from off the Tortugas, in 5 to 13
fathoms.
Lobopilumnus Agassizii (Stimji.), var. bermudensis Rathbun.
Lobopilumniis Aijussizii A. M.-Edw., Miss. Sci. Mex., v, p. 298, pi. lii, figs.
4-4c, 1880 (t. Miss Rathbun). Rankin, op. cit., p. 529, 1900
Lobopilumnus Agassizii, var. bermudensis M. J. Rathbun, Bull. Labr. Nat.
Hist. Univ. Iowa, iv, p. 268, 1898.
Plate XIV, Figures 1, 2.
This crab is easily recognized by its rough liair}^ carapace, sharp,
divergent, marginal teeth, denticulated frontal lobes, and the thickly
tuberculated chelae. The larger granules, which occur in clusters
on the dorsal eminences, around the bases of the marginal spines,
and on the front, bear long hairs, while a thick close coating of short
hairs covers the intervening spaces. When cleaned, the general
color of fresh specimens is j^ellowish or salmon; tlie fingers are black.
When living the carapace and legs are often rather thickly
covered, and sometimes almost concealed, by a coating of Avhitish
calcareous mud and sand that adheres to the hairs that cover the
back. This is evidently a good protection against its enemies.
Some of our specimens, taken in April and May, carried eggs (Nos.
3123, 401U, 4011).
Measurements of Bermuda specim.ens.
Front
Carapace
between
Chelce
No.
Sex
length
breadth
orbits
length
height
4010
Seggs
15
21
9.5
^r. 14
] 1. 12
9
7
4011
5 eggs
18
24
10
1. 15
9
3123*
2 eggs
18.5
26
11
r. 17
11
3167
5 dry
23
33
13
j r. 26
i 1. 23
17
13
3136
$ dry
16
22
9
15.5
9
3031 1
$ dry, fig.
20
37
11
1. 19
11
4088
6
35
34
--
j r. 27
]1. 24
18
14
1903
S
23
29
12
20
11.5
* This is the specimen figured on pi. xiv, fig. 2.
f This is the original of pi. xiv, fig. 1.
It is most frequently found under stones and dead corals. One
specimen was taken from the base of a gorgonian ( Verrucella
grandis), brought up from over 100 feet of water, outside the reefs
(No. 4012). Common, both on the reefs and rocky shores, at loAV-tide.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 361
It was in the early collections of J. M. Jones and G. B. Goode, in
the Yale Museum, Florida and Bermuda (A. M.-Edw., from coll.
Yale Mus.), Bermuda (Miss Rathbun). It is also in the 1905 col-
lection of the Field Mus. Nat. History, and in that of Prof. T.
Kincaid, 1903.
■Piluninus spinipes (A. M.-Edw.) Rathbun.
Micropanope spinipes A. M.-Edw., Miss. Sci., Mexico, v, i, p. 326, pi. liv, figs.
3-3c, 1880. (Abrollios Is., Brazil, 30 fath.).
Pilummis spinijjes Rathbun, Bull. Labr. Nat. Hist. Univ. Iowa, iv, p. 264,
1898. Verrill, these Trans., vol. v, p. 577 (Bermuda).
Figure 20. Plate XXVI, Figure 1.
A male (No. 3119, Yale Mus., pi. xxvi, fig. 1) and a female of this
rare species were taken by our party in 1898. They have been studied
by Miss M. J. Rathbun, who furnished the following notes on them:
"The $ is 7.2™"' long and 10.2"'° wide. The outer face of the hands
in the male is almost entirely smooth, as in the 9 , only the upper
and proximal portion being spinulous; the outer and upper surface
of the wrists is entirely covered with spinules or sharp granules.
The upper surface of the carapace is rough with scaly granules,
which, on the hepatic region, are developed into sharper and higher
projections. The lobes of the front slope backward a little from the
middle, Avhere they are separated by a V-shaped notch; the margins
of the lobes are nearly straight, and the little tooth next the orbit is
scarcely separated from the rest of the margin. The outer orbital
tooth and the next antero-lateral tooth are very small, but ))lainly
marked and acute ; below and between them there is a sharp sub-
hepatic tubercle ; the last three antero-lateral projections are sharp
subequal spines. The ambulatory legs are very slender."
To these characters it may be added that the front is strongly
bent downward, and there is a narrow transverse ridge at the bend,
nearly parallel with the edge ; the upper margins of the orbits are
minutely denticulate ; the sharp granules of the carapace and chelae
bear hairs, while many much finer hairs arise between them ; the
legs are covered above with long slender hairs; their merus joints
have a row of small sharp spines along the front edge ; the carpal
joint of the chelipeds has a distal transverse groove, and two sharp
spines on the anterior edge ; the manus of the smaller chela has a
slight dorsal groove bordered by rows of sharp granules; the dactylus
has two distinct dorsal grooves, and the thumb one on each side,
below. On the larger chela, which is much stouter, the grooves are
362
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
less evident. The large chela, in the specimen described (No. 3119),
is 9.5™" long; 4""" high.
The color of the male, after being a short time in formalin, was
pale buff on the upper side of the carapace and legs ; chelae yellow-
ish or salmon on the palm, with a white pati-h preceded by a yellow
one at the base of the claws, which were umber-brown.
The figure given by M. -Edwards, from which our fig. 20 was
copied, is not very exact. The lateral teeth are too large and the
two small post-ocular ones are omitted. The carapace, also, is more
swollen laterally and Avider posteriorly than in our specimens, so
that the proportions are different.
Our two specimens are the only ones known from Bermuda. It
occurs in the West Indies and as far south as the Abrolhos Reefs,
Brazil (Edwards).
Figm-e ^20. — Pilumnus sjyinipes, $ , x 2^ times. After A. M.-Edw.
Eriphia g-onagra Edwards.
Cancer gonagra Fabricius, Siippl. Ent. syst., p. 337, 1798.
EriiMa gonagra M. -Edwards, Hist. nat. Crust., i, p. 426, pi. xvi, tigs. 16,
17, 1834; Ann. Sci. nat., 3, xvi, pi. 8, fig. 10, 1851. Gibbes, op. cit., p.
177. Dana, U. S. Expl. Exped. Crust., p. 250. Stimpson, Annals Lye.
Nat. Hist., New York, vol. vii, p. 217. Heller, Eeise Fregatte Novara, p.
24, 1865. Smith, Crustacea of Brazil, these Trans., ii, p. 7, 1869 (measure-
ments). Kingsley, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., for 1878, p. 397. A.
M.-Edw., Miss. Sci. Mex., v. p. 238, pi. Ivi, figs. 4-46. Miers, Voy. Chall.,
xvii, p. 163. Rankin, op. cit., p. 527. M. J. Rathbr.n, Proc. Wash. Acad.
Sci., ii, p. 141, 1900 (descr, colors); Brach. and Macr. Porto Rico, p. 42,
1901 (descr.).
Plate XIV, Figure 3.
This species is easily recognized by the regularly and strongly
tuberculated chelae, while the central part of the back of the cara-
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 363
pace is nearly smooth, and in life is gaj^ly colored, but the colors are
variable. Some of our specimens were colored as follows : " Cara-
pace mottled with green and pink on a gray ground color. Chelae
nearly white, with the round tubercles of the upper side dark green,
becoming yellow; dactyl and end of thumb chocolate-brown; ambu-
latory legs yellow, consj^icuously banded with reddish brown, each
band formed by numerous minute, red-brown spots. Under surfaces
white (C. S. v.). These gay colors appear to be protective Avhen in
its natural environment, among bright colored sponges, algae, etc.,
on the reefs.
The ratio of length to breadth of the carapace varies from 1 : 4
to 1:5.
Measui
ements of
Bermuda
Front
specimens.
Carapace
between
CheliB
No.
Sex
length
breadth
orbits
length height
89a
S
25
85
18
( r. 28 r. 15
'( 1. 12.5 1. 11
896
6
24.5
34
18
28 15
89c
Seggs
23
32
17
24 14
4009
sfig.
14
21
10.5
i r. 19 9
] 1. 12 7
1903
$
18.5
26
14
r. 20 5 11.5
Nos. 89a-89c were collected in the autumn of 1905, at Nonesuch
I., by the Field N. H. Mus. expedition. No. 89c caiTied a large
mass of eggs. No. 4009 is the figured specimen.
It lives mostly under large loose stones and dead masses of corals,
both on the reefs and on the rocky shores. Several good specimens
were taken by our Yale parties, both in 1898 and 1901, It had
previously been taken by Mr. Goode, Mr. J. M. Jones, and others. It
was also in the 1908 collections of the Biological Station and of Prof.
Kincaid.
Rankin reported two specimens with ova taken in the summer of
1897.
It has a wide range, from S. Carolina and the Florida Keys to
Rio, Brazil (Smith); Abrolhos Reefs, Brazil (Smith). Bahamas (Ran-
kin); Poito Rico (Rathbun); S. Cai'olina (Rankin); Indian Key, Fla.
(Yale Mus.). Pernambuco and Maceio, Brazil (Rathbun) ; Rio
Janeiro (Dana; Heller); Colon (Yale Mus,).
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 26 Feb., 1908.
364 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Domecia hispida Eyd. and Soul.
JJomecia hispida Ej^doux and Soiileyet, Vo3^ Bonite, i, Crust., p. 325, 1843,
Atlas, pi. ii, figs. 5-10. Dana, U. S. Expl. Exped., Crust., p. 251, 1852.
Stimpson, Annals Lye. Nat. Hist. N. York, vii, p. 218 [90], 1860; Bull. Mus.
Comp. Zool., ii, p. 145. A. M.-Edw., Miss. Sci. Mexico, Crust., p. 345, pi.
Iviii, figs. 2-2c/, 1880. M. J. Ratlibim, Bull. Labr. Nat. Hist. Univ. Iowa,
iv, p. 276, 1898; Branner-Agassiz Exped. Brazil, p. 141, 1900; Braoli. and
Anomura, Porto Rico, p. 43, 1901.
Eupilumnus Wcbstefi Kingsley, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., for 1879, p. 383
(descr. of young, Florida, t. M. J. R.). Generic name was preoccupied.
Figure 21.
This is a very small species, covered above with pale hairs.
Length of carapace about e.G""'" ; breadth, 9.50. The color in life
IS light yellowish red, with the s})ines blackish; front darker.
It appears to be very rare in Bermuda. It lives between branches
of corals and in holes in dead corals and stones. One small speci-
men, taken at Bermuda, was identified by Miss Kathbun.
Figure 21. — Domecia hispida, male, enlarged ; b, abdomen of male ; c, front
and antennal area ; b', outer maxilliped. After A. M. -Edwards.
It is very widely distributed in all tropical seas. Florida to Brazil;
Hawaiian Is.; East Indies; Indian Ocean; Senegal; Cape Verde Is.;
Maceio and Pernambuco, Brazil (Rathbun) ; Florida and Cuba
(Stimpson). Gulf of California and Panama, between branches of
Pocillopora (Yale Mus.).
Family, PORTUNIDJE Leacb, 1819. Swimming Crabs.
Of this extensive family, only twelve species have been collected
hitherto at the Bermudas, and of these four* have not been previ-
* Namely: Callinectes marginatus, C. Dance, Acheloiis Smithii, and Charybdella
tumid ula.
I
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 365
ously recorded. No doubt others can be obtained by using small-
meshed seines in the shallow ba^^s, and by the use of trawl-nets in
deeper water.
We should naturally expect to find there Charybdella rubra,
Arencetis cribrarhis, Achelous spinicarpus, and Achelous sulcatus,
all of which are found at least as far north as the Georgia and
Carolina coasts, and part of them as far north as Cape Hatteras.
Analytical Table of the Bermuda Genera.
A. — Abdomen of male T-shaped ; carapace wide, thick, and strong ; marginal
teeth 8, besides onter orbital, all except last siibequal ; 8th stout and
sharp -. Callinectes
A'. — Abdomen of male not T-shaped ; carapace weaker, less thick ; chelte slen-
der, prismatic.
B. — Marginal teeth 8, snbequal, excejit last, which is generally longer or stouter;
flagellum of antennae included in the orbit, the antennal notch wide.
C. — Carapace convex, nearly smooth, glossy ; ambulatory legs remiform and
fringed ; swimming legs without longitiidinal ribs and grooves on merus
and carpus ; merus of maxillipeds not prolonged Portunus
C. — Carapace more depressed, usually with granulated transverse ridges, and
covered with short scale-like hairs ; ambulatory legs tapered, not evidently
remiform ; swimming legs flat, strengthened with longitudinal ribs and
hairy grooves on most or all the segments except basal, which is trans-
versely grooved ; merus fiat ; merus of maxillipeds prolonged beyond
insertion of flagellum .... Achelous
B' . — Marginal teeth 8, alternately larger and smaller; last one not much elon-
gated; flagellum of antennae wholl.y or partly excluded from orbit; anten-
nal notch of orbit narrow Charybdella
Callinectes Ordway, 1863.
This genus embraces a considerable number of species of large,
very active, predaceous swimming crabs, most of which are American,
but a few occur on the West coast of Africa. They occur on both
coasts of America, in the temperate and tropical zones. Nearly all
the species are valued as food.
The common "blue crab" or "edible crab" of the eastern coast
of the United States ( C. sapidas, formerly C. diacanthiis) is the
type. The species resemble each other pretty closely, and can best
be distinguished, in doubtful cases, by the form and length of the
male generative appendages, as was first pointed out by Ordway, in
his monograph of the genus.
Four species have been taken at the Bermudas, but only one ( C.
ornatus) is common. Other species, especially C. tuniidus, may be
expected to occur, when the fauna becomes more fully known.
^
3(i6 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Analytical Tabla of the Bermuda species of Callinectes.
A. — Frontal teeth four, not counting inner orbitals.
B. — Intramedial gastric area broad and short: ratio of length to breadth about
1:3; male appendages not very short ; tips crossed. ontatus
B'. — Intramedial area longer and less broad ; length to breadth about 1:2.
C— Male appendages very short, scarcely exceeding 3d abdominal segment.
marginatus
C. — Male appendages much exceeding 3d abdominal segment ; tips straight,
not crossed .-. - Dance
A'. — Frontal teeth two, not counting the inner orbitals ; male appendages very
long, about reaching end of abdomen, tips divergent sapidus
Figure 22. — Male generative appendages (verges) of Callinectes : a, of E. sapi-
dus ; b, of C. margin atus ; c, of C o)'natus ; d, of C Dance; e, of C.
tumidus. All these are West Indian species. After M. J. Rathbun.
Callinectes ornatus Ordway. Edible Crab.
Callinectus ornatus Ordway, Boston Jour n. Nat. Hist., vol. vii, p. 571, 1863.
Smith, Crust. Brazil, these Trans., ii, p. 8, 1869 (descr.). A. M.-Edw., Miss.
Sci. Mex., V, p. 225, 1879 (as var. of cliacanthus). Smith, Annual Rep. U. S.
Fish Comm., for 1885, p. 29, 1886. Rankin, Annals N. York Acad. Sci.,
xii, p. 529. Rathbun, The Genus Callinectes, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xviii,
p. 356, -pi. XV (general) ; pi. xxiv, fig. 3, pi. xxv, fig. 2, pi. xxvi, fig. 2. pi.
xxvii, fig. 2 (details), 1896 ; vol. xxi, p. 596 ; Brach. and Macr. Porto Rico,
p. 48, 1901 (descr.) ; Amer. Naturalist, xxxiv, p. 140.
Figures 22c, 23b. Plate XVII, Figure 1. Plate XXI, Figure 2.
This species can easily be di.stinguished from most of the others
of this genus by the four prominent, frontal teeth ; those of the
antero-lateral margins are rather long, nearly straight and acute.
The ambulatory legs are long and slender. The carapace is convex.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 367
The colors of the adults, especially of the males, are often hand-
some, but are variable. Frequently the carapace is dull olive or
olive-brown, usually with a large, ill-defined, roundish spot of orange
or orange-red on each side posteriorly ; the lateral spines and denti-
cles light blue or whitish; eye-stalks purple. Chelipeds i)roximally
similar to carapace, with the spines pale blue and joints red, with
blue spots ; inner surface of palm of chela with a large bright blue
patch, bordered with purple ; digits mostly purple, tipped with red.
Ambulatory legs bright blue above, with a band of scarlet at each
joint and a patch of paler blue or green on the posterior and lower
side of each segment ; tarsi red. Swimming legs similar in color,
but with the red articular bands wider; a patch of yellow or orange
on each segment; terminal segment bright scarlet on the distal half,
separated from the blue proximal portion by a band of orange.
Abdomen posteriorly light blue.
23 24
Figure 23. — Abdomens of tema,\e CaUinectes ; a, of C. scqndus ; b, of C. ovnatus.
Figure 24. — Abdomen of a male CaUinectes sapidus, f nat. size.
Many specimens are much less brilliantly colored. Some are
mottled with lighter and darker olive on the carapace. The young
are usuall}^ rather dull or plain olive-yellow; some are light olive or
greenish above. Albino specimens often occur in which the entii-e
carapace and legs are pale gray or nearly white, or in which white
is the prevailing color.
One large dark male had the carapace, above, dull dark brown,
the long postero-lateral spines, as Avell as the others, with white tips.
Chelae purplish brown, above; inner lateral and lower surfaces white,
except inner surfaces of finger and thumb, which were deep purple.
Ambulatory legs dark blue and browni both above and below, with
whitish bands at the joints beneath. Swimming legs dark bluish
brown, with a central yellowish white patch on outside of each seg-
ment, except the last, which is bright brownish red.
368 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
MeasurementH nf Bermuda speeimens.
No. Sex
4041 2
I'gth
39
-Carapace-
br'dth
total
73
br'dth
spines
63
Front
bet.
orbits
13
Cheli
I'gth
r. 39
h'ght
14
Central
gastric area
I'gth br'dth
4039a S
50
101
85
17
\ r. 59
'( 1. 52
18)
7.5
21
4039b <5
47
99
83
17
r. 59
16
7
21
4039o 6
42
92
75
15
{ r. 53
( 1. 55
13.5 )
15 )
6
18.5
4039d $
35
75
59
13
r. 38.5
13
5
15
158 F $
14
31.5
23.5
6
13
4
We found this species very common at Bermuda in the shallow
water of inlets and bays, especially at Hungry Bay, in March and
April, 1901. Also at Castle Harbor, Long Bird I., etc. It Avas con-
tained in the earlier collections of J. M. Jones, G. B. Goode, and
others. In the 1905 collection of the Field Nat. Hist. Museum,
there are man}^ fine specimens from St. Davids I., Hermit Bay, etc.
One of the latter, only 13.5""" long, carried eggs.
Its range extends from Cape Hatteras to Brazil. Off C. Hatteras,
14 fath. Abrolhos Reefs and Caravellas, Brazil (Smith); S. Caro-
lina (Ordway); St. Catharine, Brazil (M.-Edw.). Florida (Stimpson).
Victoria, Brazil (Rathbun).
Callinectes marginatus (M.-Edw.), var. larvatus (Ord.). Edible Crab.
Neptunus marginatus A. Milne-Edw., Nouv Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. Pai'is, x,
p. 318, pi. XXX, fig. 2, 1861* if. M. J. Rathbun)..
Callinectes larvatus Ordway, Jour. Boston Nat. Hist. Soc, vii, p. 573, 1863.
Smith, these Trans., ii, p. 9, 1869 (Brazil). M. J. Eathbun, The Genus Cal-
linectes, Proc. Nat. Mus., xviii, p. 358, pi. xvii, xxiv, f. 5, xxv, f. 4, xxvi,
f. 4, xxvli, f. 4, 1895. Rankin, Crust, from Bahamas, Annals N. Y. Acad.
Sol., xi, p. 232, 1898.
Callinectes marginatus M. J. Rathbun, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., xi, p. 149,
1897; Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., ii, p. 142, 1900. Brach. and Macr. Porto
Rico, p. 48, 1901.
Figure 22&. Plate XVIII, Figure 1.
This is closely allied to C. Dance, of the West Indies and Brazil.
The latter has straighter and more equilateral marginal teeth and
the male generative appendages are longer and different in form.
It also closely resembles C. or7iatus in most respects. It can best
be distinguished by the longer and narrower intramedial gastric area
of the carapace, which is only about twice as broad as long. The
* This species was based on a small sterile female (figured as a male) from W.
Africa. Prof. S. I. Smith first referred it to Callinectes, with some doubt, in
1869.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
369
marginal teeth and frontal lobes are very similar to those of C.
ornatus, but in this the two middle frontal lobes are a little more
prominent. The basal appendages of the male abdomen are
unusually short and small, and quite unlike those of the other spe-
cies. (See
fig. 22,
b.) Its
colors in life were not nc
»ted.
Measurements.
-Carapace ,
breadth
Front
bet.
Chelie
No. Sex
I'gtli
total
—spines
orbits
length
height Locality
1735 c?
42
90
77
16
{ r. 58
'( 1. 55
r. 20 Key West,
1. 16 Fla.
19036 fig. i
20
41
34
7
r. 21
6.5 Bermuda
1427 5
47
99
84
28
(r. 66
1l. 64
^g Florida
On No. 1735, the intramedial gastric area is 7.5™"" long in
middle ; 16'°"' broad anteriorly, In 19036, it is 3.75"^" by 8""° ; in
1427, it is 8"^"" long, by 20 broad at widest part anteriorly.
A rather large specimen was in the collection of Mr. Goode (1876).
Several young were obtained in the summer of 1903 by the Bermuda
Biological Station. It ranges from Florida to Bahia, Brazil (Smith).
It is common and used as food in some of the West Indies. Dominica
I., common (A. H. Verrill, 1906). On the west coast of Africa,
from Cape Verde Islands to St. Paul de Loanda (Rathbun). Per-
nambuco, Maceio, etc., Brazil (Rathbun). Ordway's types of C.
larvatiis were from Florida, Bahamas, and Hayti.
The type of N. niargmatns (Edvv^) was from West Africa.
It was a barren or immature female with no very evident charac-
ters, as figured, to identify it Avith this species. This determination
was made by Miss Rathbun.*
* I am not convinced of the correctness of this determination. The latter,
as described and figiii'ed, has a broader carapace ; ratio, as described, 1: 2.17, as
figured, 1:2.33, while in our C lavvatus, of similar size, it is 1:2.05; the merus
of the maxillipeds has a decided notch at the insertion of the palpus, to which
Edwards particularly refers ; in hirvatus the notch is not evident. The trans-
verse granulated ridge of the carapace, from the anterior base of the lateral
spines, curves much farther forward than in C. larvatus. It seems to me more
probable that marginatus is a distinct but closely allied African species.
However Miss Rathbun has recorded additional specimens of C. marginatus
from several localities on the W. African coast and Cape Verde Islands (op.
cit., p. 291, 1900), but she has neither figured nor described the African speci-
mens. Meantime, I prefer to retain larvatus as a name for the American form.
370 A. E. VerriU — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Callinectes Danae Smith.
Lupa diacantha Dana, Crust. U. S. Expl. Exped. i, p. 272, 1852, Atlas, pi.
xvi, fig. 7, 1855.
Callinectes diaeanthus Ordway, op. cit. , p. 575, 1863 (7io)i Latr. sp.).
Callinectes Dance Smith, these Trans., ii, p. 7, 1869 (measurements). M. J.
Rathbun, Tlie Genus Callinectes, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xviii, p. 357, pi.
xvi, pi. xxiv, fig. 4, XXV, fig. 3, xxvi, fig. 3, xxvii, fig-. 3, 1895 (descr.);
Brach. and Macrura, Porto Eico, p. 4, 1901 (descr).
Figure 22, d.
The carapace of this species closely resembles that of C. mar-
ginatiis, but the male is easily distinguished by the form of the
male verges (see fig. 22, d). The female abdomen is narrower than
in the other species. The carapace is i-ather strongly granulated.
The five antero-marginal teeth, following the orbital, are all similar,
broad at base, with sharp acuminate tips, their two edges nearly
equal, and scarcely bent forward, granulated and hairy on the bases ;
the two succeeding teeth are still more acute and more squarrose ; the
last tooth is more than three times the length of the preceding. The
front has four lobes, the two inner much smaller than the others,
obtuse ; the outer ones prominent, subacute ; preorbital tooth about
equal in size and more acute.
The length to breadth of the carapace varies from 1 :2.08 to 1 :2.26,
Our Bermuda specimen has the carapace 32™™ long ; 66™"" wide
(total) ; 53""° wide without spines.
The only Bermuda specimen examined was a male collected long
ago by J. M. Jones (coll. Yale Mus.). Its range is from Florida to
Rio, Brazil. Pernambuco and Bahia, Brazil (Smith) ; Rio Janeiro
(Dana). Porto Rico (Rathbun).
Callinectes sapidus Rathbun. Blue Crab ; Edible Crab of the northern United
States.
Portunus hastatus (pars) Fabr. , Supl. Ent. Syst., p. 367.
Portunus diaeanthus (pars) Latr., Encycl. Meth., x, p. 190, 1825.
Lupa hastata Say, Journ. Acad, Nat. Sci. Phila., i. p. 65, 1818. Desm.
Consid. Gen. Crust., p. 98.
Lupa diacantha (pars) H. M.-Edw., Hist. nat. Crust, i, p. 451, 1835; Dekay
Zool. N. York, Crust., p. 10, pi. iii, fig. 2 (non Dana).
Neptunus diaeanthus {pars) A. M.-Edw., Nouv. Arch. Mus. N. Hist., x, p.
316, pi. XXX, fig. 1-lc, 1861.
Callinectes diaeanthus {pars), var. hastatus A. M.-Edw., Miss. Sci. Mex., v,
pp. 223, 224, 1879.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 371
Callineetes sapidus M. J. Rathbun, The Genus Calliiiectes, Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mils., xviii, p. 353, pi. xii, pi. xxiv, fig. 1, pi. xxv, fig. 1, pi. xxvi, fig. 1,
pi. xvii, fig. 1 (details), pp. 368-373 (habits), 1896 ; Amer. Naturalist,
xxxiv, p. 140, fig. 3, 1900.
W. P-. Hay, The Life History of the Blue Crab (Callineetes saindxis). Appen-
dix to Annual Report of the Com. of Fisheries for 1904, pp. 397-413, 4
plates, 1905 (habits : moulting, breeding, etc.).
Callineetes hastatus Ovdway, op. cit., p. 568. S. I. Smith, these Trans., vol.
V, p. 33: Report Invert. Vineyard Sound, etc., p. 548. Verrill, Rep.
Invert. Vineyard Sound, pp. 367, 468, 1873 (habits). R. Rathbun, Fisheries
and Fishery Industries of the U. States, Crustacea, Part V, sec. i, pp. 775-
778, pi. 267 (habits and statistics), 1884; sect, v, vol. ii, pp. 639-648, 1887.
Paulmier, F. C, Higher Crustacea of New York City, New York State Muse-
um, Bulletin 91, Zoology 12, p. 143, fig. 11, 1905.
Figures 22a, 23«, 24. Plate XVII, Figure 2.
In this specit-s the adult males are handsomely marked by bright
blue on the chelipeds, legs, and margins of the carapace, the greater
part of the dorsal surface of the carapace being green. In the adult
female a dull red usually takes the place of the blue of the male.
According to obseivations first made on this crab by Professor
Louis Agassiz, about 1860, it has interesting courting habits.*
Probably the bright blue ornamentation of the male is due to sexual
selection, for the male, during his conrtship, stands on the tips of his
legs, and "dances" or struts in front of the female, with his claws
outspread to display his charms. The rival males, also, are belliger-
ent at such times.
An account of the courting and pairing habits was quoted by
Miss Rathbun (The Genus Callineetes, p, 369) from a long letter on
the habits of this crab by Hon. John D. Mitchell, of Victoria, Texas,
which agrees closely with the account by Agassiz.
He states that the sexually mature females are in their third sum-
mer. Meeting one of these, the adult male " will elevate himself on
the tips of his legs, getting as high from the ground as possible,
extend his claws to their widest extent, supporting himself with his
paddles, and in this position he wnll strut slowly and pompously in
front of her. Should another male appear, a battle ensues. The
sexual act lasts from three to six hours."
* Professor Agassiz then described in detail these phenomena and other habits
of this crab to me and several of my classmates, his special students. He
stated that they were new observations that he had just made on the south
coast of New England, and in which he was then very miich interested. I
wrote out his observations in a diary that I kept at that time and preserved for
many years. I am not aware that he ever published these observations.
372 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
According to Prof. W. P. Hay (op. cit., p. 405) the male takes
possession of the young female, shortly before she is to moult
into the adult condition, and carries her around with him until she
is ready to moult, when lie places lier in a safe retreat and stands
guard over her during the moulting. As soon as this is accomplished
he immediately copulates with her and carries her away, remaining
with her for " a day or two " or until her shell hardens.
That large numbers of males are taken in spring, each carrying a
female with him (called " doublers " by the fishermen), is well
known. But it is probable that only a part pair in this way, and
that both accounts are correct.
Professor Hay thinks the females neither pair nor produce eggs
but once, dying soon afterwards. This belief rests on very insuffi-
cient evidence. Most of the larger species of crabs are found carry-
ing eggs at various stages of growth, and females of this crab, of
at least two different sizes, are often found with eggs. In dissecting
large numbers, during many years of instruction of students in my
zoological laboratory, we have found large numbers of large size,
and apparentl}^ more than three years old, containing fully developed
ova, in early spring, indicating that the females breed at least twice,
like the males. Perhaps these older females are the ones before
whom the males perform their courtship dances. This matter needs
much more careful investigation, under very favorable conditions,
before it can be considered as settled.
This species and probably other allied crabs, can readih?^ be put
into a limp and helpless condition, a])parently like the hypnotic state
of man, by gently and continuously rubbing the carapace, over the
region of the heart, in a particular way. I have often made the
most pugnacious and active adult males perfectly docile in this way
in a few minutes, and if the treatment be carried further, they soon
become limp and helpless, as if dead, remaining where placed for
some time. They soon spontaneously recover their activity, if left
to themselves. I have often done this, as long ago as 1870.
This performance is genei'ally a great surprise even to the fisher-
men who have handled crabs all their lives, for it does not seem to
be generally known.
Our largest specimen (No. 1712, var, acutidens S ) is from Nassau,
N. P. Length of carapace, 185™™ ; total breadth, 204'"™; less spines,
152™™ ; between orbits, 25™™ ; length of larger (left) chela, 116™™ ;
its height, 32™™. The lateral teeth are very acute.
This species appears to be very rare, if not accidental, at Ber-
muda. It has been recorded by Miss Rathbun as in the Mus. Comp.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 373
Zoology, from the collection of A. S, Bickmore, made about 1862.
We were unable to find it or learn of its presence there, nor has it
occurred in any of the other Bermuda collections that I have seen.*
It is the common edible crab of the Atlantic coast, abundant from
Southern New England to Florida, Louisiana and Texas.
It ranges to Brazil. f Rio Grande (Miss Rathbun ; also in Yale
Mus.). It often ascends estuaries to points where the water is very
brackish. Very abundant in Chesapeake Bay, where it is fished on
a great scale.
Portunus Fabr. and Achelous De Haan, 1833.
Some of the distinctions between Portunus (Fabr., 1798, as now
restricted) and Achelous (type A. spinimayius) are neither very
definite nor constant. The species intergrade in soma of the charac-
ters. In respect to the form of the carapace, which in typical
Portunus is more broadly arched, " the center of the arc near the
posterior end," the proportions change greatly with the growth.
Young specimens of some species would thus fall in one group
[Achelous) and the broader adults in the other. A. anceps, of the
sizes usuall}' taken, is nearly intermediate in form, if the long lateral
spines be not reckoned in the measurements, but it lacks the flat
remiform front legs of ISayi.
In P. Sayi, however, we see a distinctly remiform character of the
anterior two pairs of ambulatory legs. They have the basal joint
and merus smooth and nearly terete, while the three terminal seg-
ments are much flattened and strongly fringed with hairs on the
edge, thus adapting them specially for swimming. This would seem
to be a true generic character, for in the species of typical Acheloils
the distal segments of the legs are tapered and gi'ooved, with the
dactylus slender and sharp, and therefore adapted for walking.
To this may be added the character of the merus of the outer
maxillipeds, which in Achelous is prolonged beyond the insei'tion of
the palpus and is angular outwardly, while in P. Sai/i it is not pro-
* Mr. Witmer Stone, in Heilprin's " Bermuda Is.," p. 147, recorded two small
males of " Ne2)tu}U(.s hastatxis." They may have been Portunus Say i or Calli-
nectes ornatus, but probably not this species.
Hurdis, Rough Notes and Mem., 1897, p. 361, gives Lupa diacantha as a
Bermuda species in his brief list of Crustacea, but his names of the Crustacea
are very unreliable. (See Bibliography, below.)
f Miss Rathbun (1896) established a variety or subspecies acutidens for a
South American form, having sharper lateral teeth. This variety extends from
the Bahamas to Rio Janeiro.
374 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
longed and is rounded distally. Hence I am disposed to consider
the grou}) including P. Sayi a distinct genus.
In these characters this species agrees with P. pelagicus, the type
of the genus. I have compared it with a number of characteristic
specimens of the latter from Japan. (Yale Mus., coll. E. S. Morse.)
Charybdella JI. J. Eathbim, 1897=Cronms Stimpson, 1860 (name preoccupied).
This genus was established for C. rubra, as the only species. The
latter, which is a common West Indian and Florida species, differs
from our species of Acheloils in several important characters. Its
outer maxillipeds have the merus short ; the manus of the chelipeds
bears three distal s}>ines ; the antero-marginal teeth are alternately
larger and smaller ; the antennal sinus of the orbit is much con-
tracted ; the inner orbital tooth is deeply bilobed. But the 67m-
ryhdella tuniidula, referred later to the same genus by Miss Rathbun,
would seem to go about as well in Acheloils, where it had previously
been placed, for its characters are partly intermediate between the
two genera. In most respects it is very closely related to A. Gibbesii,
which it closely resembles in the strong areolation of the carapace ;
the frontal denticles; and bilobed interorbitals ; the distal denticula-
tion of the merus of the swimming feet, etc. But owing mainly to
the alternation of large and small marginal teeth, I have left it in
Charybdella. The characters of the antennal sinus and antennae
are intermediate.
Some special diagnostic characters of the Bermuda s2Jecies (and some others
nearly allied) of Portunus, Acheloils, and Charvbdelta.
1. — Carapace convex, nearly smooth, glossy, with feeble areolations and few
hairs - - - Sayi
2. — Lateral marginal teeth alternately distinctly larger and smaller.
tumidula ; rubra
3. — Posterior corners of carapace distinctly angular spinicarpus
4. — Posterior lateral marginal spine scarcely longer than the rest, .dejjressifrons
5. — Inner orbital tooth bilobed, so that the front has eight teeth or lobes
between the orbits, counting the inner orbitals.
tumidula; rubra; Smithii ; Gi56esi't (bilobing feeble) ; spinimanus
6. — Carapace when fresh having a pair of well defined, round, ocellated, red
spots on the flanks Sebre
1. — Carapace having a pair of ill defined red or brownish spots on the flanks.
tumidula
8. — One or two round silvery spots on each side of carapace, near bases of
marginal spines Gibbesii
9. — Merus of chelipeds having five or six spines on the inner margin.
Gibbesii ; rubra (not always); Sebce ; depressifrons ; spinwnanus (sometimes).
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 375
10. — Posterior distal spiue of merus of chelipeds obsolete or reduced to a
tubercle tumidula ; depressifrons ; Sayi
11. — Manus of chelipeds with two distal spines, one behind the other.
anceps ; (ventralis) ; sulcatus ; Sebce
13. — Manus with three distal spines, each on a different rib rubra
13. — Manus with a brilliant silvery or iridescent area on the superior outer
surface - Ordwayi
14. — Inner spine of cai'pus more than half as long as manus spinicarpus
15. — Ambulatory legs long, oar-like, with the three distal segments wider,
much flattened, and strongly fringed on the under margin Sayi
16. — Swimming (posterior) leg with an erect acute spine on the basal joint.
Sebce
17. — Swimming legs having the posterior distal end of merus angular and armed
with a sharp spine spinimanus (spine small) ; rubra; Sebce
18. — The same, armed with a row of small, often unequal denticles.
spinimanus; Smithii ; tumidula ; Gibbesii ; Ordwayi
Analytical table of the Bermuda species of Porfunus, Acheloiis, and Charybdella.
A. Frontal teeth six, counting the inner orbitals, which are not bilobed.
B. Anterior ambulatory legs remiform with the distal segments flat and strongly
fringed ; merus not flat nor fringed. Carapace wide, with margin broadly
arched in front Genus Portunus
b. Carapace nearly smooth, glossy, not pubescent Sayi
B'. Anterior legs adapted for walking, not distinctly remiform, nor much
flattened distally ; dactylus slender. Carapace margin more narrowly
arched anteriorly ; dorsal surface strongly areolated or sculptured, usually
closely covered with short hairs Genus Acheloiis
C. Posterior lateral tooth distinctly longer than those in front of it.
D. Basal joint of posterior legs with a sharp erect spine ; also a straight spine
on outer distal angle of its merus. Four inner frontal spines prominent.
A pair of round red spots on the flanks Sebce
D . Basal joint of posterior legs without a spine ; no large spine on its merus.
E. Cheli¥ with a smooth, iridescent area on upper outer surface of manus ; a
single distal spine on manus ; four inner frontal teeth prominent.. Ordit;a(/i
E'. Chelse without an iridescent area.
F. Chelfe with two distal spines on manus, one before the other ; posterior
lateral tooth elongated, spiniform .anceps
C. Posterior lateral tooth little or not at all larger than the others. Chelae with
a single distal spine on manus. Frontal teeth very short, middle two much
smaller depressifrons
A'. Frontal teeth eight, counting the inner orbitals, which are bilobed, each as
two. Carapace sculptured, closely pubescent ; posterior lateral tooth mod-
erately elongated Genera Acheloiis {pars) and Charybdella
F. Antero-marginal teeth, except last, equal or nearly so.
G. Two interior frontal teeth decidedly more prominent than the others.
spinimanus
G . Two interior frontal teeth scarcely more prominent than the oVaevs, . .Smithii
F'. Antero-marginal teeth unequal, alternately larger and smaller C. tumidula
I
376 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Portunus Sayi (Gibbes) Eathbun.
Portunus pelagicus Bosc, Hist. iiat. des Crust., p. 319, pi. v, fig. 3, 1805.
Lupa pehujica Say, Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Pliilad., i, p. 97, 1817. DeKay,
Nat. Hist. New York, Crust., p. 11, pi. vi, fig. 8, 1844 («on Linn, spec, nee
Fabr.).
Lujm Sayi Gibbes, Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 8d meeting, p. 178, 1850.
Dana, U. S. Expl. Exped. Crust., p. 278, pi. xvi, fig. 8, 1852. Stimpson,
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Pliilad., 1858, p. 38.
Nej^tunus Sayi Stimpson, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. New York, vii, p. 220 (92),
1860; Bulletin Mus. Comp. Zool., i, p. 147, 1870. A. Milne-Edw., Nouv.
Arch, du Mus. d'Hist. Nat., x, p. 317, pi. xxix, figs. 2, 2a, 26, 1861. Smith
and Harger, Trans. Conn. Acad., iii, p. 26, 1874. Kingsley, Proc. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Philad., 1878, p. 3i9, 1878; op. cit., for 1879, p. 398. A. M.-Edw.,
Miss. Sci. Mex., v, p. 210, 1879. Smith, these Trans., v, p. 121, 1879.
Portunns Sayi M. J. Ratlibun, Bull. Labr. Nat. Hist. Univ. Iowa, p. 276,
1898 ; A.mer. Nat., xxxiv, p. 140, 1900.
? Neptunus Juisfatus W. Stone, in Heilpriu's Berm. I., p. 147 {non Linne sp.).
Figure 25. Plate XVIII, Figure 1. Plate XXI, Figure 1.
This has the anterior ambulatory legs longer, and decidedly more
flattened and fringed more strongly with long h.airs on the distal
Figure 25. — Portunus Sayi, }., ^^^t. size. Drawing by J. H. Emerton, from
nature.
joints than any other of our allied species, and its swimming legs
are long and thick, in accordance with its more strictly oceanic
habits. The merus and carpal joints of the swimming legs, also, are
smooth, ovate, and thickened, and the basal joints are longer than
usual. It is an active swimmer. The carapace is smoother than in
the other Bermuda species. In addition to these characters, it has,
as other diagnostic characters, four small, but nearly equally promi-
nent and regular frontal teeth; the inner ones rather smaller and
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
377
narrower; the posterior lateral tooth is stout, thickened, excavate on
the front edge; the other lateral teeth are regular, triangular, nearly
equilateral, not much inclined forward.
The ratio of length to breadth of carapace, not including lateral
spines, is about 1: 1.60.
The inner oi-bital tooth is usually simple, but in one case (4036i)
it was bilobed on one side, entire on the other.
Measurements.
No.
11074a
Sex
2 eggs
I'gth
30
-Carapace
brdth
total -
61
br'dth
- spines
48
Front
bet.
orbits
11
Cha
length
i r. 35.5
'1 1. 34.0
liB
height
— spines Locality
I'l |- Off Hatteras
11074?.
$
31
63
53
10
r. 46
10 Off Hatteras
4036 fig
S
22.5
44
36
9
31
7.0 Off N. Jersey
4036?>
1903a
$eggs
5 eggs
23
17
46
34
38
21
10
8
27
r. 19
7.5 Off N. Jersey
5.5 Bermuda
1903?^
6 juv.
14
26
21.5
5.5
17
4.0 Bermuda
No. 1903«, with few eggs, was taken by the Biological Station party in July,
1900. The specimen (No. 40366), carrying eggs, was taken in July, 1883, by the
" Albatross." No. 11074^ was taken Sept. 21.
This is one of the numerous species of invertebrates that have
acquired the habit of living normally among the masses of floating
" gulf-weed" or Sargassuui, etc., iti mid-ocean, and especially along
the course of the Gulf Stream. Like most of the other animals
associated with it, this crab has colors imitative of the gulf-weed
and the whitish patches of encrusting bryozoa {Bijiusta), so common
on the gulf-weed. The whitish patches of bryozoa look much like
the pale patches on the back of the crab, while the olive-green and
brown mottled colors of the latter are like those of the plants. It
is, however, able to leave the gulf-weed and swim rapidly for some
distance. Perhaps it does not come ashore at the Bermudas except
when cast on the shores in masses of gulf- weed, etc. Most of those
collected, if not all, have thus occurred. It is usually associated,
in such cases, with Planes ininutus, Leander tenuicornis, and other
species having the same mode of life.
It was in the collection of Mr. Goode, 1876. We took it, in the
same way, in 1898 and 1901. Young specimens were contained in
the collections of the Bermuda Biological Station, obtained in the
summer of 1903, associated with Planes.
It is often carried northward in the Gulf Stream to Cape Cod, St.
Georges Bank, and even off Nova Scotia. Prof. Smith took it in
378
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
N. lat. 41° 30', in Sargassum, 1872. Soutliward it is abundant along
the Gulf Stream to Florida, Cuba, and the Gulf of Mexico. Few
of the Bermuda specimens carried eggs; most are quite young.
Achelous anceps (Sans.) Stimpson.
Lupea anceps Saussure, Crust. Antilles, Mex., Mem. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat..
Geneve, -xiv, p. 484 [18], pi. ii, fig. 11-116, 1858 (Cuba).
Npiitunns anceps A. M.-Edw., Arch. Mi;s. Nat. Hist., x, p. 328, 1861 ; Miss.
Sci. Max., V, p. 313, 1879. Eankin, Ann. N. York Acad. Sci., xii, p. 530,
1900. S. I. Smith, Annual Rep. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1895, p. [30J, 1886
(Cape Hatteras).
Lupa Duchassagni Desb. and Schramm, Crust. Guadeloupe, p. 39, pi. iv,
fig. 25 (t. Stimpson).
Fortuniis (Achelous) anceps {piars) M. J. Rathbun,* Anier. Naturalist, vol.
xxxiv, p. 140.
Neptunus veniralis A. M.-Edw., Exp. Sci. Mex., v, pi. xi, fig. 3, 1879.
Rathbun, Brach. and Macr. Porto Rico, p. 45.
Achelous anceps Stimpson, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. York, p. 113, 1871.
Figure 26. Plate XX, Figures 1, 2. Plate XXVII, Figure 4.
This species is easily recognizable by the long, shai']), posterior
lateral spines; the four very short, obtuse, unequal frontal teeth; and
Figure 26. — Achelous anceps, female, enlarged II2 times; a, chela.
Saussure.
After
the two distal spines, one behind the othei', on the chelfe, besides
other obvious characters. The two middle frontal teeth are much
smaller than the others. The lateral teeth are acute and curve
* Miss Rathbun (loc. cit.), in her analytical table, placed anceps in a group with
short posterior lateral spines. She informs me that she then had another species
in mind.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 379
forward. This appears to be a small species. .The Bermuda speci-
mens taken in Castle Harbor, March and April, 1901, were all small;
in life the carapace was usually mottled with gray and yellowish
white, so as to imitate the color of the sand pretty closely. The
first pair of ambulatory legs in some were yellowy in others red; the
chelipeds and other legs had, in part, the same colors. Perhaps the
difference was sexual; both sexes were in the lot noted.
The colors soon fade in alcohol or formol to uniform yellowish or
salmon, with a tinge of red on the tips of the chela3. The ratio of
length to breadth, less spines, is from 1:1.5 to 1 : 1.60. All our speci-
mens are small, but apparently about adult, as several cai'ry eggs.
Jfeasureineriis of specimens.
>—
-Carapace
breadth
br'dth
Front
bet.
Chelte
No.
Sex
length
total -
-spines
orbits
length
height Locality
4038, fig.
13
24
18
5.5
17
3.5 Bermuda
4044
$
13
26
20
5.5
19
3.5 Bermuda
4045a
?eggs
13
25
19
5
17.5
3.5 Off Hatteras
40456
See
rcrs
12.5
25
19
5
16
4.25 Off Hatteras
Our largest male has the carapace 16™™ long and 32™'" wide, includ-
ing the lateral spines, or 24"'™ without the spines.
One Bermuda specimen, taken in April (No. 4060) cjirried eggs.
Similar specimens were taken in a seine at Nonesuch I., Sept. 4, 1905,
by the party from the Field Mus. Nat. History (No. 158), one of
which carried a large mass of eggs, indicating sexual maturity, but
probably not full size.
Specimens taken in 7 fathoms, off Cape Hatteras, by the "Alba-
tross," station 2288, Oct. 20, 1884, average a little larger. Three of
them (No. 4045, «, h, c) carried large clusters of eggs ; these were
all 12 to 14™™ in length of carapace.
It is not uncommon at Bermuda, in the shallow waters of sheltered
sandy bays. Our specimens were taken in March and April, mostly
in Hungry Bay and at " Waterloo," near Walsingham Bay, Castle
Harbor.
Its known range is from the Antilles to Cape Hatteras. Off C.
Hatteras, 7-16 fathoms (Smith).
It seems to me probable that N. ventralis A. M.-Edw. (op. cit.,
fig. 3) is identical with this species, with which it agrees in nearly
all details. Miss Rathbun gives measui-ements of ventralis from
Porto Rico as follows: length of carapace, 15™™; total breadth, 30™™;
breadth less spines, 23.7™™. The proportions, therefore, are the same
as some of those in my table.
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 27 Feb., 1908.
380
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Achelous Seb8B (H. M.-Etlw.) Smith.
Portunus sanfjidnolentus (pars) Latreille, Encyc. Method., pi. 272. fig. 6.
{non Herbst sp. nee Stimjison) .
Liqm Sehce H. M.-Edw., Hist. Nat. Crust., i, p. 455. 1834.
N'eptuniis Sebce A. M.-Edw., Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat., x, p. 32!), pi. xxviii, figs.
2, 2a, 1861 ; Miss. Sci. Mex., v, p. 217, 1879.
Achelous Sehce S. I. Smith. Crnst. Brazil, these Trans., ii, p. 34, 180'J (Brazil).
Portiimis (Achelous) Sebce Rathbun, Brach. and Macr. Porto Rico, p. 46, 1901.
Figure 27.
This fine species grows to large size. It is easily recognized b}'
an upright, acute spine on the basal joint of the posterior legs, and
a small spinule on the outer distal angle of the merus joint of the
same legs ; and when recent by a pair of large round red spots on
the flanks of the carapace. But these spots are liable to fade in
alcohol, and in dry specimens exposed to light, becoming pale yellow.
Figure 27.— Achelous Sebce, about )^ iiat. size ; 6, abdomen of male. After
A. M. -Edwards.
It is said to be the only species having an upright spine on the
basal joint of the swimming legs.
The chehe have two distal dorsal spines, one behind the other.
The middle two frontal teeth are a little more prominent than the
outer ones, which are more acute. The inner orbital tooth is acute.
The posterior lateral tooth is sharp, rather long, somewhat curved
forward, and bears the small preceding tooth on the inner basal
portion.
Ill life the carapace and legs are closely pubescent and the legs
and chelipeds are fringed with longer red hairs. The merus of the
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 381
cbelipeds has six sharp spines on its anterior edge with a close fringe
of long red hairs above, and a smaller one below them ; it has also
a sharp distal spine on the posterior side. There are three sharp
dorsal spines on the nianus : tlie proximal at the joint, one sharp
and curved toward the distal end, and a smaller one at the extreme
end. Carpal spines two, very sharp. Nearly all the spines are red
at base with a pale middle band and darker tip. The dactyl us has a
dorsal fringe of red hairs. The general color of preserved speci-
mens is pale orange yellow ; three faint reddish bands on the legs
and chelae ; fingers red.
Measurements.
Carapace ^ Front
breadth breadth between Chelae
total — spines orbits length height Locality
89 — — ■] 1 60 Bermuda
91 69 20 "1 1 08 / 1 14 I^oniii^ica
* No. 47 was measured by Prof. S. I. Smith (Goode's coll.).
This species has rarely been taken in the Bermudas. An adult
female was obtained by Mr. G. B. Goode in 1876 (coll. Wesleyan
Univ.). It probably lives in rather deep water. Large specimens
collected at Dominica I., Antilles, in 1906, were taken in fish-nets, in
shallow water (A. H. Verrill, Yale Mus.).
Its range extends from North Carolina through the West Indies
to Brazil. Martinique and Brazil (Edw.) ; Porto Rico (Rathbun).
'
No. Sex
length
47* ?
45.2
4084rt 6
45
Achelous Ordwayi Stimp. Silvery -clau-ed Crab.
Achelous Ordwayi Stimpson, Notes on N. Amer. Crust., ii, p. 96 |224], 1860
(Florida and St. Thomas) : Bulletin Mus. Comp. ZooL, ii, p. 148. S. I.
Smith, Brazilian Crustacea, these Trans., ii, p. 9, 1869 (descr.).
Ne2Jtuniis Ordwayi A. M.-Edw., Arch. Mus., p. 450, 1861, Addenda ; Miss.
Sci. Mex., p. 217, pi. xl, fig. 2-36, 1879.
Portunus (Achelous) Ordwayi M. J. Rathbun, Bulletin Labr. Nat. Hist. Univ.
Iowa, 1898, p. 276; Brach. and Macr. Porto Rico, p. 46, 1901.
Figures 28, 29. Plate XVIII, Figure 3.
This species is easily recognized by the smooth silvery or iridescent
area on the outer surface of the chelae. The four frontal teeth are
narrow, prominent, and subacute ; the inner orbital tooth is simple,
triangular and acute. The posterior lateral tooth is larger than the
others, but not very long ; it is sharp and curves forward ; all the
other teeth curve forward. The carapace and legs are pubescent
Ii
382
A. E. VcrriJI — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
in life, and the legs are fringed with longer hairs ; the hairs on the
front edge of the merus of the chelipeds are red and long, forming
a close fringe concealing the four large spines ; there is another
fringe of long hairs near the lower edge. The manus has but one
distal spine, and a long proximal spine at the carpal articulation.
The manus lacks the sidnlorsal ridge present in the other species, its
place being covered by the iridescent patch ; the dorsal ridge is
subcarinate; its edge is obtuse and fringed with a row of red hairs
on each side ; it terminates in a strong sharp spine, slightly booked
inward, situated at about the distal fourth of the edge.
The areolations of the middle of the carapace, on perfect dry speci-
mens, from which the pubescence has not been rubbed, form a rather
conspicuous and curious face-like or mask-like figure, more notice-
able than in the allied si)ecies.
Figure 28. — Achelous Ordwayi, under side of cai'apace of male, uat. size.
Phot. A. H. V.
Specimens, with the carapace 32 to .38""" long, taken April, 1901,
in Castle Harbor, were in life more highly colored than the smaller
ones. The carapace and legs were finely and elaborately variegated
and mottled with red, yellowish brown and gray, producing the gen-
eral effect of reddish brown. A small whitish spot, bordered with
brown, appeared behind the bases of the posterior lateral spines.
The under side was pale orange, pinkish around the mouth, deeper
orange on the chelipeds and legs ; and with some S])ots of orange-
brown on the l)asal segments of the abdomen. The chela% above,
were deep red-brown, the fingers crossed b}^ two light orange-red
bands ; the iridescent area on the outer surface refiected prismatic
colors, but especially green, red, and silvery tints. 'I'lie iridescent
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
383
areas may be of use in attracting the sexes in the pairing season,
but perha])S ihe}' may also serve for a lure to attract small fishes, or
other prey. We had no opportunity to study this matter. One
Avould naturally suppose that they might also attract enemies in the
shape of larger ])redacious fishes, many of which are well known to
be attracted by a white or bright metallic bait. But it must hap-
pen that the advantage gained is more than the disadvantage, or else
the species would have become extinct.
Younger specimens, noted by my son, C. S. Verrill, in April, 1898,
had the following colors in life : Carapace light gray, with darker
shades over the cardiac region, and around the edges of the carapace.
Ventral surfaces white. Chelipeds light gray, purple at the joints.
Figure 29.—^. Orclwayi, a, one of the chelae, showing the iridescent area,
X 1}^ ; b, c, parts of swimming leg ; e', cleuticulated angle of menis ; cl,
verges and abdomen of male, enlarged. Phot. A. H. V.
Ambulatory legs light gray, except the posterior legs, which have a
red blotch on the last joint. E3'e-stalks light gra}^, the eyes black.
Chelte with a brilliant iridescent area.
In alcohol the colors soon fade and the general color becomes yel-
lowish or salmon, often showing some red mottlings ; two bands of
pale red often cross the chelae, and the tips of the digits may be pale
red ; the frinije of Ions: hairs on the merus often long retains its
red color in alcohol.
b
384 A. E. Vcrrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
MeasurementH.
Sex
3
length
24
-Carapace-
breadth
total
36
Front
between
orbits
10
Chelae
height
length — spine
27 7
No.
4037
breadth
— spines
30.5
Bermuda
3162
$
25.5
39
34
10.5
28
7
Bermuda
4087
$
22
35
28
9.5
25
6
OfE Hatteras
4083
6
33
52
45
18.5
r. 37
10
Dominica
4083<»
t
33
51
43
11
r. 37
9.5
Dominica
This interesting species is not uncommon at Bermuda, in suitable
localities. It lives in shallow baj^s, with whitish shell-sand bottoms.
We found it near and at Walsingham Bay on Castle Harbor ; Hun-
gry Bay ; the north side of Long Bird Island, at " The Reach,"
etc. It can rarely be caught except by the use of nets. It was also
in the collections of J. M. Jones, G. Brown Goode, and the Field
Museum of Natural History.
'I'he type localities were Florida and St. Thomas.
It was taken off Cape Hatteras, in shallow water, by the U. S.
Steamer " Albatross." It ranges from North Carolina through the
W. Indies to Brazil. Off Florida Keys, 5-7 fathoms (Stimpson).
Bahia, Brazil (Smith).
This species was dedicated to Albert Ordway, a classmate of the
author, while a student of Professor Louis Agassiz, 1858 to 1861.*
* Mr. Ordway was, at that time, an enthusiastic student of Crustacea, and a
young man of much ability. His best known work on Crustacea, written at
that time, but i:)ublished later, is that on the genus Callinectes (see Bibliog-
raphy), in whicli he first demonstrated the great systematic importance of the
form and structure of the male apjoendages in this family, and applied his
discovery to the correct elucidation of the numerous species of this group, to
which he also added six new species.
During the winter and spring of 1860 and 1861, the writer spent several
months in Washington closely associated with Mr. Ordway and several other
young zoologists, among whom were Dr. Wm. Stimpson, E. D. Cope, Theodore
Gill, Elliott Coues, F. W. Putnam. We were engaged in working upon the
collections of the Smithsonian Institution, by the requests of the Secretary,
Prof. Joseph Henry, and Assistant Secretary, Prof. S. F. Baird.
At that time the writer remembers seeing Dr. Stimpson, who was at fii'st
skeptical, give Mr. Ordway a severe test, as to his ability to distinguish the
various forms of Callinccfcs by his new method. He put before him all the
specimens in the large Smithsonian collection with no labels except catalogue
numbers. Mr. Ordway very rapidly and correctly separated them, not only into
their species, but assigned each to its proper geographical area, greatly to the
surprise of Dr. StimiDson and others.
At the time when we were in Washington, political and sectional excitement
was at fever heat, and the presentment of impending war was almost universal,
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 385
Achelous spinimanus {pars, Latr.) DeHaan.
P Portunus spinimanus (pars) Latreille, Encyc, t. x, p. 188 (teste A. M. -Ed-
wards); Nouv. Diet. Hist. Nat., xxviii, p. 47, 1819.
/ Lupa spinimana Leach, Desmarest, Consid. g^n. sur la classe des Crust., p.
98,1825. m. M. -Edwards, Hist. nat. Crust., i, p. 452, 1834. Gibbes, op.
cit., p. 178. Dana, United States Expl. Exped., Crust., p. 273. Stimpson,
Annals Lye. Nat. Hist., New York, vol. vii, p. 57.
.■"Achelous spinimanus DeHaan, Fauna Japonica, Crust., p. 8, 1833. White,
List Crust. Brit. Mus. , p. 28, 1847. Stimpson, Annals Lye. Nat. Hist., New
York, vol. vii, p. 221, 1860. A. M. -Edwards (pors), Arch. Mus. d'Hist. nat.,
Ix, p. 341 (no?ipl. xxxii, fig. 1, 16), 1861;* Miss. Sci. Mex., v, p. 230, pi.
xxxix, figs. 2, 2a, 1879. Sroith, Crust. Brazil, these Trans., ii, p. 9 (measure-
ments, p. 34). S. I. Smith, Annual Eeport U. S. FishComm., for 1885, p.
30, 1886. Eankin, Trans. N. York Acad. Sci., xi, p. 233, 1898 (Bermuda).
Achelous spinimana Kingsley, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., J*hilad., 1878, p. 5.
Portunus (Achelous) spinimanus M. J. Eathbun, Bull. Lab. Nat. Hist. Univ.
Iowa, 1899, p. 276 ; Brach. and Macr. Porto Eico, p. 45, 1901 (descr.).
Figures 30, 31.
The front is rather prominent. Tlie inner orbital tooth is bilobed,
its outer lobe with the four median teeth making six unequal frontal
teeth, not including the inner lobe of the bilobed orbitals, of which
Mr. Ordway was very patriotic and took great interest in the exciting events of
the time. Probably the unusual excitement of that time and place had much
to do with his entering the army a little later.
When the war broke out he immediately enlisted and remained in the Army
of the Potomac through the entire war. He distinguished himself for bravery
and efliciency on various occasions and was rapidly promoted. At the close of
the war he had attained the rank of Brevet Brigadier General, Aug. 13, 1865.
After Eichmond was captured he was aj^pointed Provost Marshal of the city. ■
He eventually married there and continued to live there some years, engaged in
business, but he never resumed his zoological studies after the war.
He afterwards resided in Washington, D. C, and was Commander of the
National Guard of the District of Columbia, and at one time Commander of
the Loyal Legion. He was also president of the American Ordnance Company.
General Ordway was born in Boston, 1843. He died in New York, Nov. 21,
1897.
* The figure given by A. M. -Edwards, in this work, represents a species from
the coast of Chili. It is evidently distinct from the one figured in his subse-
quent work from the West Indies. Which of the two is the true spinimanus
of Latreille seems doubtful, but the name is now commonly applied to the West
Indian species, or to both.
Probably all the early writers, cited above, confounded two or more species
under this name. Their descriptions are too brief and indefinite to determine
species of this genus. Probably the figure of the Chilian species given by
A. M.-Edw. affords the earliest means for the accurate determination of any of
those included under this specific name. If so, the name ought to be restricted
386
A. E. Vcrrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
the middle two are distinctly larger than the others. The middle
four are all rather elongated, and subacute. The posterior lateral
tooth is stout, rather curved forward. The others are all nearly
equal in size, acute. The merus of the chelipeds has five stout,
rather close anterior teeth* and a large posterior distal one, accord-
ing to Edwards' figure. The manus has a single distal tooth on a
strong carina, at the distal fourth. This species, in respect to its
areolation, lateral teeth, and six frontal teeth, is similar to A. Smithli,
but in the latter the frontal teeth are blunt and the middle ones are
less prominent; it also differs in having the merus of outer maxil-
lipeds more prolonged. The chelipeds are shorter and stouter, the
merus i)articularh' so; its large posterior distal tooth seems to be dis-
tinctive. Personally I have seen no specimens agreeing well with
Edwards' figure and description of ISVO.
Figure 30.— ^c/ifZoHS spiniinunu>i, about ^o nat. size; .'51, maxilliped. enlarged.
After A. M.-Edw.
Measurements for ratio of length to total In-eadth. (Part, A. Smithii.)
Locality
Brazil (Smith)
Brazil (Smith, 829 5 )
Brazil (Smitli)
Porto Eico (Rath.)
Length of cara-
Breadth of cara-
Ratio of
I)aee inchiding
pace including
length to
frontal (eeth
spines
breadth
37.0™'"
61.5"""
1:1.66
44.4
77.4
1:1.74
o6.0
95.0
1:1.70
54.2
90.0
1:1.65
to the Chilian species. In that case the Atlantic species shoiild take the name,
A. Smithii. nnless there be an earlier one. None of the early writers, before
A. M.-Edw. have given a figure of either form, so far as I know.
* Miss Rathbun, 1901, gives, in her description, only four, as in aibbesii. In
our No. 829, there are four on one side and five on the other.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
387
In No. 829 the larger chela is 54""" long ; IS""-^ high ; breadth of
carapace, less spines, 66°^*". This appears to be the adult of A.
Smithii.
This species appears to be very rare in Bermuda. It has been
reported only by Dr. Rankin. Its recorded range is from off Cape
Hatteras, 1.3 fathoms (Smith),* to Rio Janeiro, Brazil.
Florida (Stimpson). Bahia, Brazil, and Egmont Key, W. Florida
(Smith). Bahamas in Sargassimi (Rathbnn).
Achelous spinimanus, var. or subspecies Smithii, nov.
Achelous spiiiimanus (pans) Smith, Rep. Decapod Crustacea, Ann. Report
U. S. Coram. Fish and Fisheries for 1884, p. [30], 1886.
Figures 32, 83. Plate XIX, Figures 2, 2a. Plate XXI, Figure 2.
Carapace strongly areolated, and with unusuall}" prominent,
arched, transverse ridges, which are coarsely granulated on the
front edge ; elsewhere the surface is closely covered witli minute
hairs and granules; a fringe of long marginal hairs between and on
the lateral teeth.
Figure 32. — Achelous Smithii; ventral side of young female, about 1_^ nat.
size.. Phot. A. H. V.
The inner orbital tooth is bilobed, so that there are six frontal
teeth, not counting the inner lobe of the orbital, which is rather
shorter than the outer lobe. The four true frontal or rostral teeth
are a little prominent, subacute, the two middle ones a little smaller
and scarcely more prominent than the others.
* The smaller specimens from this locality, which I have examined, proved to
be a distinct form (A. Smithii nov.), but there were larger ones that I have
not seen, now in the U.,S. Nat. Museum, which may be the sjnnimanus of
Edw., 1870.
-
388
A. E. V err ill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Of the lateral teeth, the first eight are subequal, all acute and
curved forward; the third is a trifle wider; posterior lateral tooth
not very large, about twice as long as the preceding, acute, curved
a little forward. Merus of chelipeds with four strong anterior spines
directed forward, and sometimes a small or subobsolete distal pos-
terior one, which may be wholly lacking ; two carpal spines rather
short. Manus with a strong dorsal carina, ending in a sharp diver-
gent tooth at about the distal fourth. Merus of swimming feet
broader dislally, its posterior distal angle armed with a very small
sharp spine and several more minute, acute denticles.
Figure 83. — Achelous Srnithii.
first ambulatory leg ; b, swimming leg ;
d, denticulated angle of mertis, enlarged. Phot. A. H. V.
This form is very closely allied to A. spbiiinamis, from which
it is best distinguished by the less prominent front ; the smaller and
nearl}^ equally prominent frontal teeth; the shorter and weaker pos-
terior lateral spines ; and by the small or nearly obsolete posterior
distal spine of the merus of the chelipeds. The chelipeds are also
longer. Some of our sy^ecimens (No. 4035) were catalogued as A.
spinimamis by Prof. S. I. Smith, who depended on the figure of
A. M. -Edwards. The type specimens, here described and figured,
are from that lot.
Measvrements of Types and Cotypes.
No, Sex
, Carap ac e >
br'dth br'dth
Tgth total -spines
Front
bet.
orbits
Chelipeds
height
length —spines Locality
4035a fig. 3
26 42 36
9.5
r. 29 7.5 Off Hatteras
4035& S
29 48 42
10
33 8 Off Hatteras
4049 $
26 44 37
11
1. 28 7 Ft. Macon
The ratio of length to breadth,
not incl
iding large lateral spines.
is 1: 1.40 to
1: 1.45.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
389
Young specimens of this form were not uncommon at Bermuda,
in masses of Sargassiim, associated with Portunns Sayi and Planes
miuvtvs. It was also taken by the Bermuda Biological Station in
July, 1905, in Sargassum.
The larger specimens are from Fort Macon (Yale Mus., coll. Dr.
Yarrow, 1871) ; off Hatteras, in 13 fathoms (U. S. Fish Comra.
Steamer "Albatross," Oct., 1881, sta. 2285); West Florida (Coons
coll., Yale Mus.); and Brazil.
Achelous Gibbesii (Stimp.).
Lupa Gibbesii Stimpson, Notes on N. Amer. Crust., i, Annals Lye. Nat.
Hist. N. York, vii p. 57 [11].
Achelous Gibbesii Stimpson, Notes, I, op. cit., vii, p. 22 [94], 1860 (Beau-
fort, N. C).
Neptunus Gibbesii A. M.-Edw., Nouv. Arch. Mus. Nat. Hist. Paris, x, p. 326,
pi. xxxi, figs. 1, la, 16, 1861 ; Miss. Sci. Mex., p. 213, 1879.
Achelous Gibbesii Smith, Ann. Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish and Fisheries, for
1882, p. 349, 1884 (off Hatteras); op. cit., for 1885 [p. 30], 1886 (off Hatteras),
Kingsley, Proc. Philad. Acad., for 1879, p. 398.
Portumis (Achelous) Gibbesii M. J. Eathbun, Amer. Naturalist, xxxiv, p. 140,
1900.
Figures 34, 35.
34
V
^.ItA^
iiin^u.»i<iiiiinm.i-H<\
Figure 34. — Achelous Gibbesii, young, x 1^. After A. M.-Edw.
Figure 35. — The same, abdomen of $ . enlarged. After A. M.-Edw.
This species, which is introduced here mainly for convenient com-
parison, is not yet definitely recognized as native of Bermuda. The
few specimens most resembling it are too young for positive deter-
mination.
It has four small, nearly equal rostral teeth, besides the obitals,
which are slightly bilobed (scarcely at all in the young) ; the merus
390 .i. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
of the cbelipeds has five sharp teeth on the front margin ; tlie lateral
spines are long and sharp, curved forward a little ; there are usually
one or two round silvery spots near the bases of the anterior mar-
ginal teeth, on each side. It is a rather small species. A female
with the adult form of the abdomen, from Egmont Key, Fla., has
the carapace only 20™'" long, 40""" wide, including sjiines.
A female from Ft. Macon, N. C. (coll. Dr. Yarrow, 1.^71, No.
4087), has the adult form of the abdomen, but no eggs. Its carapace
is 25"'"' long; .51'""' broad with s))incs; without spines, 40™'" wide;
length of chehT, 31°""; height, 7.5""".
The four inner frontal teeth are about equal in length, but the
two inner are narrower. The merus of the swimming legs has a
row of 5 or 0 small acute spinules on its posterior distal edge, the
outer ones longer. The anterior two pairs of legs are flattened, with
the merus as well as the distal segments fringed. The distal end of
the dorsal carina of the chelae is sub-spiniform, so that in profile it
looks a little like a second spine, in front of the principal one, which
is sharp and divergent. The manus.has five strong granulated ribs
on the superior and outer surfaces, with deep hairy grooves between
them. The dactylus has four ribs, besides an inner one. The sur-
face of the ribs, when the hairs are removed, is shining or silverv.
The carapace is strongly granulated and hairy ; the small silvery
spots* are very distinct. The merus of the right cheliped has six
inner marginal spines, that of the left cheliped only five. They are
sharp and directed forward, but not so near together as in the figure;
usuall}^ there are but five.
The chelipeds are very long, being longer than in the figure. The
length of the merus exceeds half the total breadth of the carapace.
The chelje and carpi ai'e also elongated. When extended, the
expanse of the chelipeds is seven times the length of the carapace.
In a male (981a) the carapace is 24"'"Mong; expanse of chelipeds,
168'"™ ; when folded the end of the merus projects 15'"™ bej'ond tip
of the lateral spine. The ambulatory legs are also long and much
flattened.
Off C. Hatteras, Str. "Albatross," Nov. 9, 188.3, sta. 2107, in IG
fathoms, three, one with eggs (Smith) ; off C. Hatteras, 5 stations,
13-48 fath., 1884, 16 specimens, 1886 (Smith).
* These spots are variable in form and number and are often lacking on one
side. Thej' look as if they might have been made by the tips of the claws of
the opposite sex during the mating season. The surface of the canqjace becomes
silvei'y whenever the hairs are nibbed off by friction.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
391
Beaufort, N. C, and West Florida (Kingsley). Egmont Key,
Fla., No. 981, and Fort Macon (Y;ile Mus.).
Achelous depressifrons Stimp.
Aiiqiltityite (h'2irefisifrons Stimpsoii, Notes, No. I, Annals Lye. Nat. Hist. N
York, vii, p. 58 [12], 1859.
Achelous depressifrons Stimp., op. cit., p. 223 [95], 1860. A. Milne-Edw., Arch.
Mus. Nat. Hist., x, p. 342, 1861 ; Miss. Sci. Mex., v, p. 280, pi. xl, fig. 4, 4a,
1879. Cones, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., for 1872, p. 121 (Fort Macon).
Kingsley, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad., for 1878, p. 5. Rankin, N. York
Acad. Sci., p. 233, 1898.
Neptunws depressifrons Miers, op. cit., p, 181, 1886. Rankin, Annals N. Y.
Acad. Sci., xii, p. 531, 1900.(Bermnda).
Portunus (Achelous) depressifrons M. J. Rathbun, Bull. Lab. Nat. Hist. Univ.
Iowa, 1878, p. 27 ; Brach. and Macr. Porto Rico, p. 45, 1901.
Figure 36. Plate XX, Figure 3.
This is easily distinguished from most of the other Bermuda
sj)ecies by the shorter posterior lateral sjjine, which is scarcely
longer than those in front of it. The front is not at all prominent;
Figure 36. — Achelous depressifrons, resting on shell-sand, to show protective
coloration. Nat. size. Phot. A. H. V.
its four rostral or true frontal teeth are very short, blunt, subequal,
and close together ; most frequentlj" the middle two are a little
smaller than the others; in other cases they equal or a little exceed
them in length.
The inner orbital tooth is broad, with the frontal angle dentiform
and the middle of the margin a little concave, but not bilubed.
302 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
The carapace is strongly areolated and lias ))rominent, but thin,
curved transverse ridges or crests, sharply granulated on their edges.
The areolations of the gastric region form a conspicuous mask-like
figure, Avhen drj-. The depressed areas are mostly covered with
minute, sharp, but not very clo«e granules, which bear minute ruugh
hairs to which dirt often adheres ; the legs are simihirly clothed, *
except the small glossj"^ areas. The edges of the carapace and mar-
ginal teeth are fringed with longer hairs.
The chelipeds are unusually long. The ambulator}^ legs are nota-
bly long and slender, the first pair rather longer than the others;
the three distal segments of the front legs are somewhat flattened
and well fringed with long hairs below, thus somewhat approaching
the form seen in those of Portumis Sagi, but less flattened and less
remiform. The legs of the second and third pairs are only slightly
flattened and lightl}^ fringed. The basal and merus segments of the
swimming feet are unarmed; the distal end of the merus is rounded.
The marginal teeth are all similar in form and size, very acute,
curved forward and upward.
The merus of the chelipeds has an anterior row, usually of six,
slender, sharp spines, unequally spaced, the first very small, increas-
ing in size distally, the last at the distal angle; posterior distal spine
reduced to a tubercle or obsolete; carpal spines two, the inner longer,
of moderate length, banded with red. The manus has a prominent
dorsal carina, curved over to the inside, leaving a fringed groove
beside it; it bears, at the extreme distal end, a single, acute, nearly
straight tooth, directed forward. The dactylus is strongly grooved;
the dorsal side is fringed with long hairs; the thumb has two fringes.
The hand has five ribs on the outer, under, and upper sides ; the
middle outer one is much the stronger, so that the form of the
hand is rather triquetral in an end view. There are small smooth
areas between the ribs and on the carpus and fingers, which are
glossy or lustrous when dry.
In life the carapace is irregularly mottled with light and dark
irrav, closelv imitating the colors of the sand ; the chelipeds and .
posterior legs are similar, though paler; but the first pair of ambula-
tory legs, which are longer than the others, are bright purple or
deep blue in the larger specimens, while some portion of the same
color is usually seen on the next two pairs, but the color of the first
pair is in striking contrast with that of the rest of the crab. This
has, no doubt, some useful purpose, but as it ai)pears in specimens
apparently too young to mate, it is probably not a sexual attraction.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 393
Perhaps these long sletider legs ma}^ be spread out on tlie surface of
the sand to imitate annelids and so serve as a lure for small fishes.
We had no opportunity to test this proposition. The very young
specimens did not show this distinction in the color of the legs, so
far as observed.
Measurements of Bermuda specimens.
, Carapace ^, Front
breadth breadth bet. Chelae
No. Sex length total —spines orbits length height
4048 2 20 28 27 7 21 7
4055a 5 17 25 24 6 25 6.5
40o5;> 3 16 23 22 5 22 5
4055c s 15 22 21 4
3038 3 fig. 17 25 24 5.5 24 6
The total expanse of the extended chelae in 4055« was 104™"^ ;
total length of cheliped, 47™™; extent beyond the edge of the cara-
pace, 40'"™.
When recently dried there are small smooth areas on the carapace
and legs, especiallj^ the last pair, that are lustrous and somewhat
iridescent; most of the under side of body and legs is smooth and
shining.
At Bermuda it is a very common species. We found it abundant
in shallow water in April, 1898 and 1901, on the sandy bottoms of
sheltered coves and inlets, as near Walsingham Bay, Coney Island,
Hungry Bay, etc.
It was also contained in the early collections of J. M. Jones, Dr.
F. V. Hamlin, G. B. Goode and others. Most of the more recent
collectors have also taken it, but all the specimens that I have seen
are small and probably immature, for none bear eggs. It was origi-
nally described by Dr. Stimpson from Charleston, S. C. and Beaufort,
N. C Its range extends from Cape Hatteras to the Antilles. Fort
Macon, N, C. (Dr. Yarrow) ; Bahamas (Rankin) ; Culebra (Miss
Rathbun).
Charybdella tumidula (Stimp.) Rathbun.
Achelous tiimidulus Stimpson, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., ii, p. 149, 1871.
Neptunus tumidulus A. M.-Edw., Miss. Sci. Mex., Crust., p. 218, 1879. Rankin,
Annals N. York Acad. Sci., xi, p. 233, 1898 (Nassau).
Cronius bisjjinosus Miers, Voy. Chall., Zool., vol. xvii, p. 188, pi. xv, fig. 2,
1879.
Charybdella tumidula M. J. Rathbun, Brach. and Macr. Porto Rico, p. 51,
1901.
Plate XIX, Figure 1.
Our single Bermuda specimen is considerably larger than those
from Porto Rico, described by Miss Rathbun, and very much larger
394 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
than Stimpson's X,y\>c. On this account, probably, it does not fully
agree with either description.
The carapace is relatively wider than stated by Stimpson ; the
ratio of length to breadth, minus lateral spines, is 1:1.:33. The
carapace is strongly areolated, and has conspicuous, curved trans-
verse ridges with sharp, granulated anterior edges. Its surface is
well covered with fine and rather short hairs, arisinir from fine
granulations, and with a fringe of longer hairs on the lateral and
frontal margins. The legs are also })ubescent and fringed with
slender hairs.
The four true frontal teeth are conspicuous ; a little prominent ;
and all are of nearly the same form and breadth; they are obtusely
rounded at the end ; the two middle ones are a little longer and a
trifle narrower than the others, with the middle notch a little nar-
rower ; the notch between the outer of these and the next tooth
(bilobed orbital) is deeper and narrow. The orbital is distinctly
bilobed, the outer lobe being a little larger and longer than the
other, but not so long or large as the true frontal teeth.
The nine marginal teeth are alternately large and small ; the small
ones, which are the 2d, 4th, 6th and 8th, lack the naked sharp tips
seen on the 3d, 5th, Ttli and 9th. '^Vhe 8th is the smallest. The
first, or outer orbital, is broader than the others, with the outer side
broadly arched. The others are all strongly curved forward and
acute, fringed with hairs on the edges. The last, or 9th, is not much
longer than the Vth, but twice as long as the 8th ; it is less curved
forward than the others and bends a little upward.
The chelipeds are long and large ; about two-thirds of the merus
projects beyond the edge of the carapace ; it has four stout, naked-
tipped, sharp granulated spines on its front edge, of which the prox-
imal is smallest ; the distal posterior spine, usually present in this
group, is lacking.
The carpus has a very small outer spine, and a much larger inner
one, which is slightly curved forward and ver3^ sharp, but it reaches
less than one-third the length of the upper side of the manus, being,
therefore, much shorter than in Stimpson's and Miss Rathbun's
specimens. The proximal or articular spine of the manus is of
moderate size; the distal dorsal one is rather larger, strong at base,
very sharp, divergent ; its front edge is situated at about the distal
third of the dorsal edge. The surface of the chelfe is covered with
short hairs and is granulated ; there are four strongly granulated
ribs besides the dorsal one on the outer surface, but no additional
spine.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 395
The dactylus has two sharply denticulated dorsal cariiife and two
strong granulated lateral ribs on the outside, with deep grooves
between them.
The left cheliped is considerably smaller, but otherwise is much
like the right, though the dorsal carina of the manus, in this, ends in a
prominent angle distally, but not forming a true spine.
Ambulatory legs are of moderate length, not much flattened, finely
fringed. The merus of the swimming feet has the distal posterior
end rounded and very finely denticulated, but without a spine.
The segments of the male abdomen are crossed by depressed areas,
covered with fine scale-like hairs. The male generative organs are
thick at base, strongly convergent, then divergent, with slender
flexuous tips, which reach a little beyond the middle of the penulti-
mate segment.
The color of the alcoholic specimen is pale orange yellow, with a
pair of ill-defined rounded spots of light red on the flanks, and pale
red bands on the legs and chelae. The fingers have blackish tips and
inner edges ; the dactylus is crossed by a pale band ; the proximal
half is red above.
Measurements.
Cbelffi
height
length — spine Locality
r. 35 r. 12.5 Bermuda
1. 33.5 1. 10 Porto Eico
The type described by Stimpson* was only .20 of an inch in length;
total breadth, .31 ; breadth minus spines, .25 ; ratio of length to
latter breadth, 1:1.25.
The second, given in the above table, is that measured by Miss
Ralhbun, from Porto Rico. The ratio of length to breadth decreases
with growth.
Our specimen, as stated above, differs from the smaller ones.
According to Stimpson his had the front more prominent and the
two middle teeth were " smaller and more prominent, and separated
from the lateral ones by a rather broad and shallow sinus." This
inequality is not so evident in ours. He says there is no notch in
the inner orbital tooth. It was present in Miss Rathbun's specimens,
and she considers its absence due to immaturity. In Stimpson's
type "the inner spine of the carpus is long, reaching to the middle
of the palm of the hand." It is much shorter in the Bermuda
specimen. Probably this is a character only of the very young.
* Dr. Stimpson's types of Crustacea were all bui-ned in the great Chicago fire.
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 28 March, 1908.
No.
Sex
, Carapace v
br'dth br'dth
length total — spines
Front
bet'wn
orbits
692 F. M.
6
27 41 36
12
S
21 31.2 —
—
306 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Stinipson did not notice the alternation of smaller and larger mar-
ginal teeth, but that condition was described by Miss Rathbnn.
Notwithstanding these and other differences I do not doubt the
identity of the Bermuda example.
The only Bermuda specimen known to me was taken Sept. 30,
1905, at Long Bird Island (probably in a fish seine), by the expedi-
tion from the Field Natural History ^Museum.
Stimpson's types were from off the Florida Keefs in 37 to 40
fathoms (Pourtal6s coll.). Porto IJico, four stations (Rathbun).
Bahia, Brazil (Miers).
Donhtfal Species.
According to M. Walter Faxon there is in the Museum of Com-
parative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass., a specimen of Cancer borealis
Stimpson, labelled as from Bermuda.
My belief is that its label is erroneous, or has been accidentally
transposed. It is a large northern species, common at low tide on
some of the rocky shores of Casco Bay, Me., and ranging southward
in the deeper water of the arctic current as far as off Cape Hatteras.
Boscia ?, sp.
Willem.-Suhm states that he collected a species in Bermuda
"allied to Boscia.'''' No such species was mentioned in the final
report by Miers. To what he refers is problematical. lioscia is a
fresh-water genus [^^ Pseudothelphusa). See Bibliography, below.
Libinia emarginata Leach = L. canaliculata.
This species is recorded by Hurdis (Rough Notes, p. 361), without
any notes. It has not been found by anyone else. Probably his
identification was erroneous. It is common from Cape Cod to
Florida.
Figure 37. — Deformed claw of an niuletenuined cancroid crab, from the collec-
tion of J. M. Jones, biit without a special label. Supposed to be from
Bermuda, x If.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 397
OXYRHYNCHA = MAIOIDEA. (See p. 305.)
Family INACHIDiE. Spider Crabs.
Basal joint of antenna? narrow. Orbits incomplete, sometimes
absent; eyes not completely retractile. Chelipeds feeble; legs often
long; rostrum well developed.
Stenorhynchus Sagittarius (Fabr.). Rathbun.
Cancer sagittai-iiis Fabr., Ent. Syst., ii, 442, 1793.
Maia sagittaria Bosc, Hist. Crust., ii, p. 253, 1801. Latreille, Gen. Crust.,
i, p. 88, 1806.
Lejjtopodia sagittaria Leach, Zool. Miscell., ii, p. 16, pi. Ixvii, 1815. Latreille,
Encycl. Meth., Insects, pi. 399, fig. 1, 1818. Desm., Consid. Crust., p. 155,
pi. xvi, fig. 3, 1825. Latr. in R. Anim., Cuvier, ed. ii, p. 64, 1839. Guerin,
Iconog. Reg. Anim., pi. ii, fig. 4. Von Martens, Cuban Crust., Arch.
Naturg., p. 79, 1872. Smith, Ann. Rep. U. S. Fish Com. for 1885, p. 16.
H. Milne-Edw. , Hist. uat. Crust., i, p. 376, 1874; Atlas, reg. anim., Cuv.,
Crust., pi. xxxvi, fig. 1. A. M.-Edw., Mission Sci. Max., part v, vol. i, p.
173, 1878; Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., viii, p. 6, 1880. M. J. Rathbim, Proc.
U. S. Nat. Mus., xvii, p. 44, 1895 (distr.).
Leptopodia ornata Guilding, W. Ind. Crust., Trans. Linn. Soc, p. 835, 1835
{t. Edw.).
Leptopodia lanceolata Bralle, Hist. Nat. Canaries, Crust., fig. 1, 1844 {t. Edw.).
Stenorhynchus Sagittarius M. J. Rathbun, Ann. Inst. Jamaica, i, p. 4, 1897 ;
Decapod Crust. West Africa, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xxii, p. 293, 1900 ;
Brach. and Macr. Porto Rico, p. 53, 1901. Verrill, these Trans., vol. x, p.
577, 1900 (Bermuda).
Plate XXII, Figures 1-ld.
A specimen of this species was contained in the local collection of
the late J. T. Bartram, of St. Georges. While Mr. Goode was in
Bermuda, 1877, he made a drawing of Mr. Bartram's specimen and
sent it to Professor S. I. Smith for identification. There is no other
Bermuda record. Probably the sjjecimen referred to was obtained
through the deep-water fisheries or in lobster-pots.
Its range is from Cape Hatteras to Florida and throughout the
West Indies, to Rio Janeiro, Brazil ; Madeira ; Cape Verde ; and
Canary Is.; Mediterranean and West Africa.
Off Cape Hatteras, 11-27 fathoms, Albatross dredgings, 1885
(Smith). West Indies, Blake Exp., dredged in 27-115 fathoms.
West Indies, Albatross dredgings, 9-130 fath. (Rathbun). Dominica
Island, 100-140 fathoms (A. H. Verrill, 1906, Yale Univ. Mus.).
Porto Rico, 6-76 fathoms (Rathbun). It has been recorded from 2
to 814 fathoms.
398 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Podochela Riisei Stimp.
Podochela (Podonema) Riisei Stimp., Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. York, vii, pp.
196, 197, pi. ii, fig. 6, 1860 (descr.) ; Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., ii, p. 126, 1870.
Podochela Reisei A. Milne-Edw., Ciiist. Miss. Sci. Mex., v, p. 193, pi. xxxiv,
fig. 1, 1879.
Podochela Riisei Miers, Voy. Challenger, Zool., xvii, p. 11, 1886. Smith, Ann.
Eep. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1885, p. 16, 1886. M. J. Rathbun, Proc. U. S.
Nat. Mus., xvii, p. 48, 1895 (distr.); Amer. Naturalist^ xxxiv, p. 508, fig.
1, 1900; Brach. and Macr. Porto Rico, p. 54 (descr.).
Coryrhyuchus Riisei Kings., Amer. Nat., xiii, p. 585, 1879; Proc. Acad. Nat.
Sci. Philad., xxxi, p. 384, 1879.
Plate XXII, Figure 2.
This species has been taken at Bermuda only by the Challenger
Expedition, by which it was dredged in shallow water. It is rarefy
obtained except by dredging.
Bermuda (Miers, Cball. Exped.). Off Cape Hatteras, 13-49
fath. (Smith, 1886). West Indies to Pernambuco, Brazil. St. Thomas
and Tortngas (Stimpson). Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea, 3-30
fath. (Rathbun). Bahia Honda, Cuba, on wharf (Rathbun). Key
West and Sarasota Bay, Fla. (Kingsley). Off Pernambuco, 30 +
fathoms (Miers).
Chorinus heros (Herbst) Latr.
Cancer heros Herbst, Krabben und Krebse, ii, p. 165, pi. xlii, fig. 1 ; pi. xviii,
fig. 102, 1796.
Chorinus heros Leach, Mss., in Lati-eille, Encyc. Meth., x, p. 139, 1825.
M.-Edw., in Cuvier, Illust. ed., Crust., p. 85, pi. xxix, fig. 2. A. M.-Edw.,
Miss. Sci. Mex., part v, vol. i, p. 86, 1873. Von Martens, Arch, fiir
Naturg., xxxviii, p. 80, pi. iv, fig. 2 (Cuba). Kingsley, Proc. Acad. Nat.
Sci. Philad. for 1879, p. 385 (measurements, Florida specimens). M. J.
Rathbun, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xvii, p. 65, 1894 ; Brach. and Macr. Porto
Rico, p. 61, 1901 (descr.).
Plate XXIV, Figure 3.
This appears to be a very rare species at the Bermudas, at least in
shallow water. It probably inhabits the rough bottoms off the reefs.
The only Bermuda sjiecimen known is a carapace, found on the
beach (coll. J. M. Jones, Yale Mus., No. 3126).
Its range extends from Florida \o Bahia, Brazil. Off Florida, 12
fath. (Stimpson). Key West (Gibbes). Barbados and Martinique
(M.-Edw.). Bahia (Rathbun). Porto Rico, 9^ to 16 fath. (Rathbun).
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 399
Epialtus bituberculatus (M.-Edw.) var. bermudensis Ver.
Epialtus bituberculatus H. M.-Edw., Hist. iiat. Crust., i, p. 345, pi. xv, fig. 11,
1834. A. M.-Edw., Miss. Sci. Mex., Crust., p. 139, pi. xxvii, figs. 1-3, 1878.
M. J. Rathbun, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xvii, p. 67, 1895 (distrib.); Brach. and
Macr. Porto Rico, p. 60, 1901.
Epialtus sulcirostris and E. longirosiris Stimpson, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist., vii,
pp. 198, 199, 1860; A. M.-Edw., op. cit., p. 141, pi. xxvii, figs. 5, 6.
Epialtus dilatatus A. M.-Edw., op. cit., p. 140, pi. xxvii, fig. 4, 1878 {t. M. J.
Rathbun).
Epialtus bituberculatus, var. bermudensis Verrill, these Trans., xi, p. 16, pi.
i, fig. 1, 1907 (descr.).
Plate XXIV, Figure 1.
A single specimen (see figure) taken by A. H. Verrill, March,
1901, is the only one known from Bermuda. It was found in a small
cavity in a ledge, between tides. The entrance to the cavity was so
small that the stone had to be cut away with a chisel before the
crab could be extracted. That specimen is fully described in the
place quoted above. The species has a wide range, with several
local varieties or races. It extends from Indian River, Fla., to Rio
Janeiro, Brazil. Egmont Key, West Florida (Yale Mus.). The
West Coast form ranges from Southern California to Chili (var.
minimus Lockington).
Family Periceridae ( = Maiidee,* some authors). Spider Crabs.
Basal joint of the antennte well developed, inserted beneath the
eyes, and usually forming a large part of the inferior boundary of
the orbits. Chelipeds not of unusual size, often not much larger
than the other legs. Orbits complete; eyes retractile.
This family, as here understood, includes several groups that have
been regarded as subfamilies, or even families : Pericerince, Mithra-
cince, Orthonince, Paramayince, etc.
Probably many more species of this family than are here recorded
inhabit the rough bottoms at moderate depths around the outer
reefs.
* The generic name Maia, as shown by Miss Rathbun, cannot be used for a
genus of this group. Therefore this family name should also be changed.
More recently (1905) Miss Rathbun has stated that Paramaya de Haan, 1837,
is identical and should have priority.
Mamaiidce Stebbing (S.African Crust., Part iii, p. 22, 1905) has been pro-
posed for the group here regarded as a subfamily, Paramayince.
400 .4. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Mithrax (including Mithraculus).
Analytical Key to the Bermuda Species of Mithrax and some allied species
(Modified from that of Miss Eathbun).
A. Carapace without oblique, parallel, branchial grooves.
B. Manus of chelipeds spinulose. Carapace with conical spines ; not setose.
a, Two distal segments of ambulatory legs stout, very setose ; spines of
manus in one dorsal row spinosissimus
a'. Two distal segments of ambulatory legs long and slender, sparsely hairy.
Spines of manus in two dorsal rows eonuitus
B'. Manus smooth, without spinules.
C. Rostral hoins short, blunt or tubereuliform.
D. Spines or tubercles of anterolateral margin four, behind orbitals, simple or
bifid : basal joint of antennae with inner tooth longest.
E. Carapace not multi-tuberculate; carpus often nearly smooth ; merus of cheli-
peds multispinose; basal joint of antenn;? narrow, with two denticles. ^ispj'dies
E'. Carapace and carpus of chelipeds tuberciilate ; merus spinose ; rostral horns
about as long as broad, obtuse ; basal joint of antennje wider, with two
acute spines {depressas)
C Rostral horns long and slender acuticornis
A'. Carapace with oblique, parallel, branchial grooves ; antero- lateral margins
with four acute spines; carapace broader than long in adults ./orceps (hirtijies)
Mithrax cornutus Saussure. Coral Crab, Bed Spider Crab.
Mithrax cornutus Saussure, Mem. Crust, nouv. Mex. et Antilles, p. 7, 1858.
A. M.-Edw., Miss. Sci. Mex., v, i, p. 97, pi. xxii, 1875.
FiGUBE 38.
This species grows to rather large size in tlie West Indies. The
only Bermuda specimen known is j'oung.
It closely resembles 31. spinosissimus of the West Indies* in the
form and spinulation of the carapace and chelae, hut it can easily be
distinguished by the longer and more slender chelipeds and legs, and
especially by the far more slender distal two segments of the ambu-
latory legs, which are nearly destitute of spines and have only
short, sparse hairs, while in the latter these segments are stout, not
abruptly attenuated, and are thickly covered with strong dark
colored hairs.
In both species the merus and carpus of the chelipeds are covered
with numerous strong and acute curved spines ; in this species the
merus is longer and has about eight or nine very acute spines on the
posterior border, and near them another irregular row of nearly the
* This species is likely to occur on the rough grounds outside the Bermuda
reefs. Hence I have given the most obvious distinctions here.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
401
same number and size on the upper surface ; numerous smaller
unequal conical spines are scattered on the upper surface or form
broken rows, while the anterior margin bears a row of about five or
six obtuse spines, much smaller than those of the other margin ;
there is also a row of three or four still smaller ones on the under
side.
In J/, spinosissirniis the spines of the merus are not so numerous,
but larger, longer, more equal, more curved and very acute and bear
rough, divergent stiff hairs ; about ten to twelve large, nearly equal
spines stand on the posterior border ; two or three large and some
small ones on the anterior border ; the upper surface bears about
six large spines and a few very small ones ; the largest are distally
situated and some of them are larger than the marginal ones ; there
Figure 38. — Mithrax cornutus, from Bermuda ; young with eggs, about ,% uat.
size. Phot. A. H. V.
is a row of about three short spines on the under side ; the carpus is
also covered with numerous (about twenty-five to thirty) very
unequal, very acute, divergent spines, some on the inner edge as
large as those of the merus.
In 31. cornutus the carpus bears rather more numerous spines, but
they are mostly smaller and less acute, more than half of them
being mere conical tubercles.
The manus in this species bears two distinct rows of eight to ten
spines on the upper edge, which is not much compressed ; these
spines are short and obtuse.
In M. spinosissiynas the dorsal spines of the manus, of which
there are about eight to ten, form a single zigzag row ; they are also
longer and usually more acute, but in large specimens often become
blunt. The dorsal part of the manus is strongly compressed.
402 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
The frontal lionis in corniitus are rather larger and straighter
than in the other, and the subrostral process, between the antennulae,
is narrow and directed strongly backward, while in the other it is
wider, thick, and nearly perpendicular, with an acute, excurved lip.
The buccal area has the anterior, lateral sinuses more strongly
arched in M. comiilus, and the corresponding parts of the outer
maxillipeds are, therefore, more convex.
There are other distinctions that might be noticed, but the wide
difference in the tips of the legs is the most convenient diagnostic
character.
In 31. cornutus the ratio of the proximal vertical diameter of the
propodus of first pair of ambulatory legs to its length is 1 : 4.5 to 1:5;
of the dactylus, 1:6. In 31. spinosissimus the corresponding ratios
are 1 : 3 and 1 : 4.
The propodus in the latter is strongly compressed and decidedly
tapered, but in 3f. cornutus it is scarcely compressed, and not
tapered, the distal end being larger than the middle and about equal
to the proximal end ; its dactylus is also less curved and the tip
very slender.
The color of 31. cornutus in life is bright red above, lighter below;
when recently dried it soon changes to pale red, yellowish red, or
terra-cotta color, by exposure to light.
Measurements.
, Carapace ^
total length breadth Chelfe
length — rostum total — spines length height
64 58 62 53 46 13 Dominica
29 26 25.5 22 14 4 Bermuda
68 59 60 52 33 8 Dominica
In No. 4069 the merus of chelipeds is 35"'™ long ; greatest thick-
ness, without spines, 9""™ ; merus of first amb. leg, 28'""' ; thickness
in middle, 6""" ; its propodus, length, 21""' ; thickness, 4.5 ; dac-
tylus, 18"'™ ; proximal diameter, 3™"\
M.-Edwards gives for his largest ( $ ) specimen : length of cara-
pace, 92"'™; breadth, 90"'™ ; length of chela, 82™™.
The only specimen known from Bermuda (453 F. M.) was taken
October 12, 1905, in 30 fathoms on the Challenger Bank, by the
expedition from the Field Museum of Natural History-. It is a
small and evidently young female, but it carried a considerable mass
of eggs.
Sex
4069
i
453 F.M.
Seggs
4070
2 eggs
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
403
At Dominica Island, in 1906, Mr. A. H. Verrill obtained a number
of much larger perfect specimens, taken in fish-pots, in rather deep
Avater (40-150 fathoms) where it was associated with M. spinosissi-
mus, of very large size, and other large spider crabs.
It is a comparatively rare species, recoi'ded by few authors. A.
M.-Edwards knew only two specimens, from Martinique, in the .
Paris Museum. It was not mentioned by Stimpson, nor was it in
the Porto Rico collection, studied by Miss Rathbun. It was not
represented in the large collections of the National Museum enumer-
ated by her in 1892.
Mithrax (Nemausa) acuticornis (Stimpson).
Mithrax acuticornis Stimpson, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., ii, p. 116, 1870. A.
M.-Edw., Miss. Sci. Mex., v, p. 98, 187o. M. J. Rathbun, Amer. Naturalist,
xxiv, p. 513,. fig. 8, 1900.
Nemausa rostrata A. M.-Edw., Miss. Sci. Mex., Part v, i, p. 81, pi. xvii, figs.
4-4d, 1875. Miers, Voy. Challenger, Zool., p. 85, 1886 (Bermuda).
Mithrax (Nemausa) acuticornis M. J. Rathbun, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xv, p.
360, pi. xxxvii, fig. 1, 1893; Bull. Labr. Nat. Hist. Univ. Iowa, iv, p. 359,
1898. Brach. and Macr. Porto Rico, p. 66, 1901.
Figure 39.
This species is characterized bj'' its elongated and narrow carapace,
the sharp lateral spines, and especially the unusually long and acute
rostral horns.
Figure 39. — Mithrax acuticornis ; c, the same, the carapace of a j'ounger speci-
men, X about three times. After A. M.-Edwards.
Recorded from Bermuda by Miers (Voy. Chall.), but not obtained
by later collectors. Florida, West Indies and Gulf of Mexico,
shore to 164 fathoms. Off Key West, 60 fathoms (Rathbun).
404
.1. E. Yrrrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Mithrax hispidus (Herbst) Edwards. Large Red Spider-crab ; Coral Crab.
Cancer hisjjidus Herbst, op. cit., Band i, p. 247, tab. xviii, fig. 100, 1790.
Mithrax hispidus H. Milne-Edwards, Mag. de Zoologie, 3e an., 1832; Hist.
nat. des Crust., i, p. 322, 1834. DeKay, Zoology of New York, Crust., p.
4, 1844. Gibbes, op. cit., p. 172. Stiinpson, Amer. Jour. Sci., 2dser., x.\ix,
1860, p. 132; Annals Lye. Nat. Hisi., New York, vol. vii, p. 18, 1860.
Smith, these Trans., ii, pp. 2, 32, 1869 (descr. and measurements, Brazil).
A. M.-Edw., Miss. Sci. Mex., v, i, p. 98, 1873, pi. xxi, fig. 1, 1875. M. J.
Rathbim, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xv, p. 26.'), 1892 (synon. and distribution);
Brach. and Macr. Porto Eico, p. 67, 1901.
Maia spinicincta Lam., Hist., v, p. 241, 1818.
Figure 40. Platk XXIII, Figures 3, 4. Plate XXIV, Figure 1.
This species grows to large size. In life the larger specimens are
nearly uniform deep brownish red or terra-cotta color above, brighter
on the chelipeds and darker on the legs (due to brow^n haii-s). The
legs often have brighter red bands at the joints. Under parts of body
mostly white or bluish white ; legs red, specked with pale j'ellow.
Figure 40. — Mithrax hisjjidus, young ?, from Bermuda, about f nat. size.
Phot. A. H. V.
A 3'oung specimen (No. 4058, fig. 40) in life had bright colors:
the carapace was bright reddish brown, varied with paler patches ;
the 'spines and tubercles were light brown ; chelte pink with fine
black spots ; legs red, banded with pale yellow ; ventral parts pale
blue and bluish white. (C. S. V.)
In large individuals the gastric area is prominent, wide, with
convex sides and defined by a wide and deej) groove ; the groove
bounding the cardiac area is wide, but shallower.
Our larger Bermuda specimen has mau}^ unequal conical spines
and tubercles on the surface, but between them the surface is smooth
.^
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 405
and finely punctate, without granules. The arrangement of the
spines is sufficiently well shown by the figures. The posterior lateral
spine is simple, very acute, hooked, with the point turned upward
and forward ; the next, which is the largest and least curved, has
three to five small spinules on its base ; the next, which is nearly as
large and more strongly hooked forward, is very acute and has one
or two small basal sjiinules ; the next (or second behind the orbitals)
is larger and swollen at base, strongly hooked forward and acute at
tip, and bears an acute spinule on its anterior base, and a cluster of
about three small tubercles on the swollen upper side of its base ;
sometimes it appears bifid at base. The next spine in front is usu-
ally blunt and tuberculiform, with one or two smaller rounded tuber-
cles on its swollen base, or the two larger tubercles may be subequal.
Below the latter, on the subhepatic region, there are two large prom-
inent, unequal spines near together. An irregular row of smaller
spines is situated lower down.
The orbit is surrounded by six unequal spines, besides the antennal;
of these the inner (pieorbital) and outer are about equal, tuberculi-
form and obtuse ; the two superior are small rounded tubercles.
The larger antennal spine, which exceeds the rostrals in length, is
acute, with tips curved mediad; the smaller antennal is also acute
and about equals the inner orbitals in size and length, and it has a
small rounded tubercle or tooth at its outer base.
The subrostral process is rather broad, a little concave in front,
obtuse, and descends nearly perpendicularly from the rostrum. The
buccal area has an angular sinus on each side of the front edge.
The ambulatory legs are covered above with sharp spines, except
on the dactylus ; the spines are in two or three rows. There is also
a row of five or six acute spines on the lower anterior border of the
nierus of the two anterior legs ; two or three spines on the third,
and none on the last leg, below\ The ambulatory legs are covered
above, between the spines, with unequal sharp hairs which are most
abundant on the dactyls, which have naked horn -colored tips.
The chelipeds, especially of the larger males, are unequal, large
and strong. In the female they are equal. The merus bears two
large, unequal, stout, subacute spines on the front margin, the distal
one the longer and more curved ; the upper surface has about ten
unequal conical spines irregularly arranged (four or five in younger
specimens); the posterior border has a row of about five to seven
longer conical, subacute spines, sometimes with a few small ones
interpolated. The carpus is large and swollen, punctate, nearly
406 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
smooth, but faint indications of three to five nearly obsolete tuber-
cles can usually be seen, and in some cases two or three small proxi-
mal ones are fairly distinct. Tlio manus is strongly compressed
above, proximalh', with a large round articular tubercle, but smooth,
with IK) indication of spines or granules.
Measure^nents of M. hispidus and M. ? depressus.
No.
3019
Sex
S
• V-
length,
total
8.5
breadth,
total -
9
—spines
8.5
Bet.
orbits
4
Chel
length
5,5
ae
height
2
Manus
above
3.5
3265
2
20
23.5
12
14
4
1810
S
23
27
24
8.5
17.5
5
10
4054
$
29
34
31
9
22
6
13
1753
S
29.5
35
31
23
7
13
4058
2
69
87
73 '
- - _
60
17
33.5
868 F.
34
*
67
87
86
115
74
100
16
j r. 57
(1. 61
60
17 }t.
18 [ 1.
36
32 }
35 f
Nos, 3019, 4054, 4058, 868 F, Mus., and 34 are from Bermuda ;
No, 3265, from St. Thomas ; No, 1810, East Mexico ; No. 1753,
Key West, Fla.
Nos, 34 and 1753 were measured by Prof. S. I. Smith. No, 34,
from Goode's Bermuda collection, I have not examined.
Nos. 3019, 2265, 1810 are those referred, more or less doubtfully,
to 31. depi'essus.
Proportions of M. hispidus and M. ? depressus.
Catalogue number 3019 3365 1810 4054 1753 4058 868F.M. 34
Sex 3 $ 2 5 S $ 6 S
Length carapace .8.5 20 23 29 29.5 69 76 87
Length to breadth 1:1.06 1:1.13 1:1.17 1:1.17 1:1.18 1:1.36 1:1.38 1:1.33
Length to breadth
miniTS spines .. 1:1.0 .... 1:1.04 1:1.07 1:1.05 1:1.07 1:1.10 1:1.15
Locality Berm. St. Th. Mex. Berm. Key W. Berm. Berm. Berm.
The two first in this series (No. 3265 and 4054, Yale Mus ) were
labelled as 31. depressus by Miss Rathbun. Nos, 3019, 3265, 4054,
aud 4058 are figured on plate xxiii.
This fine species is rare at Bermuda, at least in shallow water. It
has not been found in many of the collections made there. The
largest Bermuda specimen known to me was obtained by Mr. Goode
(No. 34) in 1887. It was probably taken outside the reefs in fish -
traps. My Yale party took a small one in 1898, and a larger one
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 407
(No. 4058) 1901, both in shallow water. The ])arty from the Field
Nat. Hist. Mus., 1905, obtained a larger and perfect specimen from
off Tuckerstown point. Probably it was taken in a fish seine.
Very likely it is common in deeper water, on rougli bottoms,
among and outside the outer reefs, where it can be taken only in
baited fish-traps. It appears to be one of the species that the fisher-
men call " coral crabs," probably on account of its red color.
It is commonly taken, of large size, in the West Indies, on similar
rough bottoms, in five to thirty fathoms, in fish-traps. It is sluggish
in its motions.
It ranges from S. Carolina to the Abrolhos Islands, Brazil (Smith).
S. Carolina (Gibbes); Florida (Stimpson); Abrolhos Is., 30 fath.,
and off Cape St. Roque, 20 fath. (M. J. Rathbun).
Mithrax depressus A. M.-Edw. Spider Crab.
^i Mifhrax depressus A. Milne-Edw., Mission Sci., Mexico, part v, i, p. 96, pi.
XX, figs. 4-4d, 1875. (Guadeloupe.) Verrill, these Trans., vol. x, p. 577,
1900 (Bermuda). M. J. Eathbun, Bracli. and Macr. Porto Eico, p. 68, 1901.
Figure 41. Plate XXIII, Figures 1 ?, 2.
The only Bermuda record of this species is based on a very
young S specimen (No. 3019, see pi. xxiii, fig. 1) taken in April,
1898.* It has the carapace only 8.5™™ long by 9"'" broad.
It agrees closely in spinulation with the larger specimens of 31.
his2)idus, but the dorsal spinules appear sharper. All the marginal
spinules are simple and acute, with the points turned forward. The
basal joint of the antennae has a long, acute, central tooth, with the
tips slightly incurved, as in the larger ones, and also a smaller outer
acute tooth. The carpus of the chelipeds bears several small tuber-
cles ; the merus has one small spine on the inner edge ; others above.
The carapace is yellowish white, with blotches of bright red ; the
two largest spots of red are over the branchial areas ; a median is
on the cardiac ai'ea ; a pair is situated farther back ; another small
pair is behind the orbits ; and another underneath the orbits ; legs
yellowish white, blotched or barred with red ; chelae light red with
pale tips.
Although this young specimen differs from the larger ones of
31. hispichis in proportions and general appearance, the details of the
spinulation, etc., are the same. It does not agree well with the
figures of 31. depressus given by A. M. -Edwards. There are, how-
* This is the specimen recorded by me in 1900, as M. depressus, on the
authority of Miss Eathbun, who had examined it.
4
408
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
ever, specimens of interrnediate sizes, that seem to unite the two
supposed species together in one series.
Although tliis sj)ecimen api)ears to me to be the young of M. his-
pidus, I have kept it under M. dejjressns out of deference to the
opinion of Miss Rathbun, who has examined it, for she has had
ojiportunilies to study a far larger series of both forms than I have
had.
It differs from the original figure of M. depressus (see our fig. 34),
not only in its proportions, but especially in having all the four
antero-lateral marginal teeth acute and curved forward, while in the
latter the anterior three are tuberculiform and obtuse. Its front is
narrower between the orbits. The basal antennal joint has the
Figure 41. — Mithrax depressus; a, dorsal view, x 2% times; b, under side of
front, more enlarged. After A. M. -Edwards' original figures. According
to the natural size diagram of Edwards, his specimen was 13'""' long and
jomm wide.
inner tooth narrower and sharper, and the outer one more prom-
inent and acute. The merus of the chelipeds has a different form,
the proximal end being concave instead of convex, etc. It is rather
smaller than Edwards' type, which was also young, but longer than
wide, while ours is wider than long.
On plate xxiii, fig. 2, I have figured a St. Thomas specimen of
larger size, also labelled as 31. depressus by Mi.?s Rathbun, for com-
parison. This is rather larger than Edwards' type and agrees more
nearly with his figure in respect to the form of the marginal teeth,
but is otherwise very similar to the undoubted young of M. hispidus.
Tlie carpus of the young of the latter is also spinulous.
The larger antennal tooth is shorter and more obtuse than in any
of the others figured.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 409
From the east coast of Mexico, near Vera Cruz, we liave a
specimen (No. ISIO $ Yale Mas.) which agrees very closel}^ with
Edwards' figure of M. depressus as to tlie tubercles of the carapace
and the marginal spines, and also as to the teeth of the basal
antennal joint. But the merus of the maxillipeds is concave prox-
imally, as in our other specimens. In this, the most posterior (4th)
marginal tooth is very acute and hooked forward, but the other
three are short-tuberculiform or broad obtuse-conical, with coarse
granules on their bases ; the more anterior are the larger, as in
Edwards' figure. The tubercles of the carapace are broadly rounded
or flattened, which is the case in depressus.
The merus of the chelipeds has a single obtuse spine on the inner
edge ; five on the outer, and two on the upper surface. The carpus
is angular and uneven, with a distal transverse fossa and about nine
unequal rounded tubercles.
This approaches the type of M. depressus more nearly than any
other that I have seen. It has the adult form of the female abdomen,
while number 4558 [M. hlspidus), which is considerably larger, has
the immature form of the abdomen. It is, however, very unlike the
small Bermuda specimen, described above.
The range of M. depressus is from Florida to the Abi'olhos Islands,
Brazil (t. M. J. Rathbun). East coast of Mexico (Yale Mus.).
Mithrax forceps (M.-Edw.) snbsp. hirsutipes Kings. Common Spicier Crab.
^: Mithrac.ulus forceps A. M.-Edw., Exp. Sci. Mex. Crust., i, p. 109, pi. xxiii,
fig. 1, Dec, 1875 (t. Miers).
Mithrax hirsutipes Kingsley, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xx, p. 147, 1879
. (descr.); Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad., p. 389, pi. xiv, figs. 1, la, 1879
(measiir.) Eankin, Crust. Perm., p. 532, 1900.
Mithrax force2)s Miers, Rep. Voy. Chall., xvii, pjj. 87, 88, 1886. Rathbun,
Bull. Labr. Nat. Hist., Univ. Iowa, 1898, p. 260 (Bahamas and Florida).
Mithrax forceps Rathbun, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xv. p. 269, 1892 (descr.,
synon. , and distribution) ; Brach. and Macrura Porto Rico, p. 70, 1901.
Figure 42. Plate XXIII, Figures 4, 5, 6.
This species is easily distinguishable, from the others found at
Bermuda, by the three strongly marked oblique ridges and interven-
ing wide grooves on the branchial areas of the carapace. The last
of these is more or less broken up and nodular; the two anterior are
stronger and smoother, but often bear small tubercles. Two pairs of
small tubercles are situated behind the rostral teeth, but there are
no tubercles on the median line, and no transverse row on the gastric
410 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
area. Tl}e four antero-lateral spines are usually all similar in size,
simple, and mostl}^ acute and curved forward, but the anterior one
is often a little shorter than the 2d and rather obtuse; the 2d and 3d
are always acute, with the tips bent forward; the 4th is often smaller
and more conical and less acute. The surface of the carapace and
chelipeds is polished and shining, with no indications of hairs or
granulus.
The chelipeds of the adult males are relatively large and strong,
subequal, with the claws gaping. The dactyl is curved, denticulate
only distally, with a strongly excavate tip, and it bears a strong tooth
about the middle; the thumb has a broader denticulate tooth toward
the base. In the young these teeth are absent.
Figure 42. — Mithrax forceps, hirsutipes, adult male from Bermuda, under
side, about nat. size. Phot. A. H. Verrill.
The carpus and chelae are smooth, with no tubercles except a small
denticle on the inside edge of the carpus ; the merus bears two
large acute spines on the inner niargin, and about 4 or 5 much
smaller, obtuse ones on the outer margin ; the upper surface may
have a few minute ones, or in adults a row of two or three obtuse
ones. The ambulatory legs are rough with small short spines and
long unequal stiff hairs; the dactyls are strong, incurved, with sharp
tips; there is a prominent articular plate at the superior distal end
of the propodus.
The basal antennal i)late is wide and thick, tridentate; the outer
tooth, Avliich is much the largest, is broad and obtuse, its base
occupying about half the width of the plate; the next is not more
than half as large and subacute; it is separated from the still smaller
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. -ill
inner one by the notch for the base of the flagellum ; the inner one
is inconspicuous and often abortive. The notch between the two
larger teeth is broadly concave. The outer tooth is just about the
same length and size as the preocular tooth, but is more obtuse. The
rostral teeth are short and obtuse, with thickened and slightly
upturned edges in the adults. The subrostral process is large, con-
cave, and obtuse.
Young specimens differ much from the adults in appearance. The
oblique ridges of the carapace are all more broken up into nodules
and tubercles, and the whole surface of the carapace is more nodose,
so that it resembles that of 31. sculptus in this respect, but the
latter can easily be distinguished by the tuberculiforni lateral teeth,
roughened carpus, and other characters. The carapace of the young
is also longer in ))roportion to the breadth (1: 1.12 to 1: 1.15).
Specimens recently preserved in alcohol and not much altered are
mostly light yellowish brown or chestnut-color, varying in the same
lot to orange and to purplish brown.
In life the carapace is usually uniform yellowish broAvn, varying
to dull yellow and to greenish brown, without mottliugs. Often
there is a wide, pale yellow, medial dorsal stripe, especially in the
young. Large males are sometimes plain chestnut or terra-cotta
color. In the young the legs are often banded with lighter colors.
Females carrying abundant eggs were often taken iu April and
May, 1898 and 1901. A large female, taken in midsummer by Prof.
Kincaid, also carried eggs. This crab is often captured by the large
Oct02)us.
Measurements of Bermuda specimens.
No.
Sex
length
total
-Carapace-
breadth
total
breadth
— spines
Front
bet.
orbits
f
length
total
-Chelae—
manus
above
height
3169
5
23
36
24.5
9
25
13
10
3169rt
S
25
31
28
10
38
14
13
3169?>
s
19
31.5
20
8
19
11
9
718
$
38
38
36
9
27
14
10.5
The ratios of length to total breadth in the above are 1:1.18,
1:1.24, 1:1.13, 1:1.22 respectively.
The egg-bearing females, taken in April and May, can be grouped
in three pretty distinct sizes, though some intermediate ones occurred.
The larger ones averaged in length of carapace, about 16"'™; breadth,
18'"'"; those in the next smaller series average about 13'^'"' long;
isnim wide; the smallest group, about 11'""" long; 12.5'"'" wide. The
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 39 March, 1908.
A.
412 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
smallest individual with eggs is 10""" long, 11.5""" wide. Some of
the eggs contain well developed young, about ready to hatch.
Dr. Stimpson failed to recognize this common sjiecies among the
large W. Indian collections that he studied. He probably confused
it with 31. sciilpttis, which is closely allied.
Although several recent writers identify this species with M.
forceps M.-Edw. (from S. America), it must be admitted that it does
not agree wnth his figure and description. However, I have exam-
ined Brazilian specimens agreeing well with those from Bermuda.
But two similar species may occur there.
Edwards does not describe his species as having strong, oblique
branchial ridges and grooves, though they are, perhaps, faintly indi-
cated in his figure. He says that the surface of the carapace is
scarcely nodular, some tuberculiform elevations showing only near
the branchial regions.
The carapace, as stated by him, is proportionately the same as
ours (length, 30"""; breadth, 35"'™; ratio 1: 1.17; in our larger males
it is from 1:1.18 to 1:1,24. The form of the merus of the maxil-
lipeds is quite unlike our species, and the same is true of the basal
joint of the antennte. Unless his figures and description were very
incorrect, in all these and other respects, it would be unreasonable
to consider them identical, for the allied species do not vary to any
such extent in these important characters. Of the present species I
have had more than a hundi'ed specimens, of all sizes, for comparison.
Although the young differ considei'ably from the adults, as to areo-
lations, they have essentially the same forms of the basal antennal
plate and maxiliipeds and do not approach those figured by Edwards.
The chelae of the male, according to his description and figure,
are rather long and slender, length to breadth as 3:1; while in ours,
of similar size or smaller, they are much stouter, ratios about as
2: 1. Moreover specimens of the present species, formerly sent to
M.Edwards by Prof. Smith, were not identified as his species by him.
Therefore I have preferred to retain hirsutipes (Kings.) as the
name for the Bermuda and West Indian form, at least as a variety
or geographical race, until Edwards' type can be reexamined.
We found this one of the most common crabs at the Bermudas.
It occurred on almost every rocky shore and reef in crevices and liv-
ing under stones and dead corals, and also often exposed, between
tides and in shallow water; 1-1 V fathoms (Challenger coll.).
It was in the collections of Jones; Goode; the Challenger; and
nearly every other later collector.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
413
It ranges from Beaufort, N, C. to the Abrollios Islands and Bahia,
Brazil. Off Cape Fear, N. C, 15-17 fathoms. West Indies, 6-16
fathoms, Florida, and many other localities (Rathbun). Bermuda
and Bahia, Brazil (Miers; Rathbun); Abrolhos (Smith, Yale Mus.).
Microphrys bicornutus (Latr.) A. M.-Edw. Spider Crab.
Pisa bicornufa Latreille, Encyc. Meth., Nat. Hist., x, p. 141, 1825.
Pericera bieorna H. Milne-Edwards, Hist. nat. Crust., i, p. 337, 1834.
Pisa bieorna Gibbes, Proc. Amev. Assoc, 3d meeting, p. 170, 1850.
Pericera bicornis Saussure, Crust. Antilles et du Mexique, p. 12, pi. 1, figs.
3, 3c, 1858.
Milnia bicormita Stimpson, Notes on North Amer. Crust., Annals Lye. Nat.
Hist., New York, vol. vii, pp. 51, 180, 1860. Smith, Brazil Crust., these
Trans., ii, p. 1, 1869.
Microphrys bicornutus A. Milne-Ed w., Nouv. Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat., viii, p.
247, 1872; Miss. Sci. Mex., v, p. 61, pi. xiv, figs. 2-4, 1873; Bull. Mus.
Comp. Zool., viii, p. 1, 1880. Miers, Voy. Chall., Zool., viii, p. 83, 1886
(Bermuda).
Microphrys bicornutus M. J. Eathbun, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xv, p. 253, 1892
(synon.) ; Brach. and Macrura Porto Eico, p. 72, 1901.
Pisa galibica and Pisa purinirea Schramm and Desb., Crust. Guadeloupe, p,
18, 1867 {t. A. M.-Edw.).
FiGUEE 43.
In life, this species nearly always has its carapace covered with
closely adherent algae, bryozoa, sponges, etc. which pretty effectually
Figure 43. — Microphrys bicornutus, nat. size, with foreign growths on the cara-
pace. Phot. A. H. V.
conceal it. When cleaned, it is dull yellowish brown; its chelipeds
are always covered with small, round, purplish spots. This is diag-
nostic for the species.
Many of the females collected April 20, 1901, carried eggs.
414
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
It is everywhere common <>\\ the rocky shores at low tide and on
the reefs, living in crevices aii<l imdcr stones, or often more or less
exposed. It is contained in nearly every Bermuda collection, includ-
ing those of Jones, Goode, and others of early date.
Its range extends frojn Florida to Bahia, Brazil. Common on
coral reefs throughout the West Indies. Abrolhos Reefs, Brazil,
Colon, Florida, and Bermuda (Smith); Pernambuco (Rathbun).
Macroccelonia trispinosum (Latr.) Miers. Spider Crab.
Pisa trispinosa Latr., Ency. Meth., Nat. Hist., x, p. 142, 1825.
Perieera trispinosa H. Milue-Edw., Hist. nat. Crust., i, p. 336, 1834. A.
M.-Edw., Miss. Sci. Mex., v, p. 52. pi. xv, fig. 2, 1873.
Macroca'loma trispinosa Miers, Jouvn. Limi. Soc. London, xiv, p. 665, 1879;
Voy. Chall., Zo51., xvii, p. 80, 1886. M. J. Eathbnn, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.,
XV, p, 249, 1892 (syn. and distribution) ; Brachy. and Macr. Porto Rico, p.
74, 1901.
Figure 44.
This is one of the more common crabs at the Bermudas. It occurs
from low water to 10 fathoms and more. It is very slow in its
Figure iL —Macroca'loma trisjnnosum, with the hairs, etc., removed from the
left side of the carapace; about nat. size. Phot, A. H. V.
motions and for its protection depends largely on the growth of
sponges, algae, etc. which usually entirely covers the nodulose cara-
pace, causing it to resemble a stone or a mass of sponges. When
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 415
cleaned, it is reddish brown. Some taken in April, 1898, and April
20, 1901, carried eggs; also one taken in midsummer by Prof.
Kincaid. Its range extends from North Carolina to Bahia, Brazil.
Dominica I. (Yale Mus., coll., A. H. Verrill).
Off N. Carolina, 17 fathoms (U. S. Fish Com.).
Macrocoeloina subparallelum (Stimp.) Miers.
Pericera subjiarallela Stimjison, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. York, vii, p. 182
[54], 1860 (St. Thomas) ; A. M.-Eclw., Crust. Miss. Sci. Mex., p. 54, pi. xiii,
figs. 3-3d, 1873. Verrill, these Trans., vol. xi, p. 17, 1901 (Bermuda).
Macrocceloma subparallela Miers, Voy. Chall., Zool. , xvii, p. 79, 1886; Rath-
bun, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xv, p. 250, 1892.
Macrocoeloma subparallelum M. J. Rathbun, Brach. and Macnira Porto Rico,
p. 74, 1901.
Plate XXIII, Figures 3, a, c, d.
The first Bermuda specimen known was a small one, taken by the
Yale party, in 1898. A much larger specimen (No. 640) was taken
in a seine at Nonesuch I., Sept. 3, 1905, by the party from the Field
Mus. Nat. History, It is a female carrying eggs. Its carapace is
34mm \on^^ less rostrum 27.5""" ; 29°^'" broad, less spines 23'""' ;
length of rostral horns 6,5™™ ; length of cheloe, 10.5; height, 3.5™™.
The horns are rather long and sharp, nearly parallel, wnth a large
U-shaped space between them. There is a row of seven stout spini-
form or conical tubercles across the posterior pai't of the carapace;
the central and two lateral are the larger. It is covered with algae,
beneath which it is provided with a coating of stiff, rough hairs,
with hooked tips.
The species ranges from Florida to Brazil.
Stenocionops furcata (Olivier) Rathbun.
Cancer furcafus Olivier, Encyc. Meth., Hist. Nat., Insectes, vi, p. 174, 1791
(t. Rathbun).
Cancer cornudo Herbst, Natur. Krabben u. Krebse, iii, part 4, p. 6, pi. lix,
f. 6, 1804.
Pericera cornudo Latreille, Cuvier's Regne Anim., ed. 2, iv, p. 59, 1829
(t. M.-Edw.).
Maia taurus Lamarck, Hist., v, p. 242, 1818.
Pericera cornuta Latr., Cuvier, R. Anim., 2d ed., iv, p. 58, 1831. H.
M.-Edw., Hist. nat. Crust., i, p. 335, pi. xiv, 6, figs. 4, 5, 1834. Atlas Illust.
ed. Cuvier, R. Anim., Criist., pi. xxx, fig. 1. Gibbes, op. cit., p. 172, 1850.
Stimpson, Notes, i, op. cit. p. 183 [55] ; Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., ii, p. 113,
1870. A. M.-Edw., Miss. Sci. Max., v, p. 51, 1875. Hurdis, Rough Notes, p.
361 (Bermuda). Miers, Voy. Challenger, Zool., xvii, p. 76, 1886. M. J. Rath-
bun, Family Periceridce, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mas., xv, p. 244, 1892 (descr.,
syn., and bathymetrical distrib.).
416 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Stenocionops furcata M. J. Rathbuii, Ann. Inst. Jamaica, i, p. 6, 1897 ;
Biachynra and Macruia of Porto Rico, p. 73, 1901.
Choriuns (ivmatua Randall, Joiirn. Acad. Nat. Sci. Pliilad., viii, p. 108, 1839
{t. M. J. R.).
Plate XXV, Figure 2.
In life the back of the carapace is closely covered with dark brown,
stout hairs, many of them with hooked tips, and in most cases it is
more or less concealed b}'' foreign growths, especially sponges (see
fig.). Most of the specimens taken in deep water at Dominica I.
had the back, and sometimes the legs, covered with an elegantly
colored sea anemone ( Calliactis tricolor), so numerous that the edges
of their bases were in close contact, but others had sponges attached
to the carapace.
A good male specimen from Egmont Key, W. Florida (No. 971,
Yale Mus.), has very little foreign growths on the carapace, except
a few small red algte. But there is considerable fine sand adhering
between the hairs. It comes from a sandy region, and had, perhaps,
recently moulted. The long hooked hairs are partly in clusters or
large groups.
Chelae
spines length height Dactyl Locality
88 16 30 W.Florida
62 10.5 21 Dominica
Measurements
No. Sex
length
total
length bd'th bd'th
— horns total —spines h
971 $
115
88 84 63
4061 $
100
76 63 49
The total length of a cheliped, of No. 971, is 186'""'; merus,.74"'™;
carpus, 25'"'"; chela, SS""™; rostral horns, SO""'".
The old males sometimes become very large, having the body
nearly six inches long and four wide, including the horns and spines,
but most of our specimens from Dominica are about two-thirds that
size.
The only Bermuda record is that given by Hurdis, but he could
hardl}^ have mistaken such a peculiar and conspicuous species. His
specimen was taken in a lobster-pot.
It ranges from off Georgia to Bahia, Brazil. Gulf of Mexico and
off Yucatan, seventeen stations, 21-30 fathoms (Rathbun). Bahia,
Brazir(A. M.-Edw.); Dominica I., 10-150 fathoms in fish-traps (A.
H. Verrill, 1906, Yale Mus.). Egmont Key, W. Florida, Santa Cruz,
and east coast of Mexico (Yale Mus.).
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 417
Family PARTHENOPIDiE.
Chelipeds usually much stouter and often very much longer than
the legs. Basal joint of the antennfe narrow and small, situated
between the front and the bottom of the orbits.
Parthenope* (Platylambriis) crenulata (Sans.).
Lambrus crenulatus Saussure, op. cit., -p. 429, pi. i, figs. 4, 4^, 1S55. Stimp-
son, Notes, No. ii, p. 201 [73]; Bulletin Mus. Cornp. Zool. ii, p. 129 {PlaUi-
lambrus) 1870.
Platylambrus serratus (pars) A. M.-Edw., op. cit., p. 156, pi. xxx, figs. 1-lc,
1875.
Plate XXVII, Figure 5.
Our Bermuda specimen agrees well with Saussure's description
and figure, though it is much smaller. The carapace, as in his type,
has an elongated, acute, lateral spineon each side. It also has the
same form of rostrum, and agrees well in the tubercles and areola-
tion of the carapace and armature of the chelipeds.
The carapace is much cut away and slightly concave behind the
large lateral spine, and has no posterior lateral spines or teeth, while
there are in front of the large, lateral spine six or seven small,
obtuse, nearly even antero-latei'al teeth or creniilalions, on the evenly
convex margin. Its rostrum is wide, and not constricted near the
base; the tubercles of the carapace are relatively large and obtuse;
five of the largest size stand in the median row, and three or four
in a curved row on each side on a ridge nearly parallel with the
convex, antero-lateral margin. The cervical constriction is very
marked. The under edge of the chelae has a row of minute granule-
like denticles. The only remaining ambulatory leg (3d) is small,
slender, and smooth. Most of the other characters are shown in the
figure.
There is, on each side, a wide channel on the under side of the
carapace,. as in Platylambrus (Stimp.). Stimpson himself proposed
that genus for Saussure's species and another one, similar in respect
to the channels. This genus was adopted by A. M. -Edwards. He
considered crenulatus a synonym of P. serratus, but his figure of
the latter does not agree with our SDecimen.
Saussure's type was 18""" in length of cai'apace ; breadth, with
spines, 24"""; without spines, 19'""". The Bermuda specimen is S'""
* Miss R-ritlibiin has shown (Proc. Biolog. Soc. Wash., xvii, p. 170, 1904) that
the genus Parthenope (Weber, 1795) was restricted by Lamarck, 1801, to the
type P. lunghncma (L.), and, therefoi'e, that Parthenope should replace Lambrus
(Leach, 1814), as usually understood.
418 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
long ; 9""" wide with spines ; V.o™'" without spines ; length of chela,
S'""'; height, 3.5™™.
Saussure's specimens were from the Antilles. Off Tortugas
(Stimi)son).
Tlie single small specimen, which I refer to Saussure's species,
without much doubt, Avas dredged on the Challenger Bank by the
party from the Biological Station, in 1903.
In proportions and general appearance it resembles P. Ponrtalesii,
with which it was at first thought to be identical by me and others.
The latter is not a Plati/lambriis.
It differs considerably from Stimpson's original description* of
P. Ponrtalesii in the form of the rostrum, areolation, tubercles, and
form of the carapace, number and character of the marginal teeth
and of those on the chelipeds, etc.
The principal references to P. Pourtalesii are as follows:
Parthenope Pourtalesii (Stimp.).
Lambrus Pourtalesii Stimpson, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., ii, p. 129, 1870.
? A. M. -Edwards, Miss. Sci. Mex., v, p. 149, pi. xxx, figs. 2-2d. In part, M.
J. Eathbun, Amer. Naturalist, xxxiv, p. 514 (fig. 11 copied from S. I. Smith's
L. Verrillii).
1 Lambrus Verrillii Smith, Proe. Nat. Mus., iii, p. 415, 1881; op. cit. , vol. vi,
p. 14, 1883 ; Annual Eep. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1885, p. [24J, pi. ii, fig. 2,
1886.
It should be noted that the figures given by A. M.-Edwards do
not agree very well with Stimpson's description.! M.-Edwards'
figures show a decidedly larger number of tubercles on the carapace;
more numerous lateral teeth; two, instead of one, large posterior
spines; more denticles on the chelipeds; a broader rostrum. It ma}'
well be doubled whether he really had the same species, unless his
figures are very incorrect or the species remarkably variable. Our
specimen comes nearer to Stimpson's type, in some respects, than to
M.-Edwards' figures. But it agrees much better with Saussure's
figure.
Prof. S. I. Smith, in 1881, described and figured J a ver\' similar
form from deep water off the eastern coast of the United States,
under the name of X. Verrillii.
* Stimpson's types of Crustacea were destroyed in the great Chicago Fire.
f The description in Edwards' work is a mere translation of Stimpson's and
does not agree with the figui'es.
X This same figure has been used by Mi.ss Rathbun, without credit, to illustrate
L. Pourtalesii (Amer. Natur., xxxiv, p. 515, fig. 11). She considers the two
identical.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
419
Professor Smith later (1886) noted rather wide variations in the
species that he described (see Ann. Rep. U. S. Fish Comm. for
1885), and suggested that it might prove to be the same as i. Poiir-
talesu.
His figure, however, differs much from that of M. -Ed wards', espe-
cially in the much more spinulose lateral and postero-lateral margins;
the much less prominent tubercles on the medial line ; different
areolations; and narrower front and rostrum. But the chelipeds are
much more alike in both figures, than either is like those of the
Bermuda form.
Stimpson's specimens were from off Florida, in 40-107 fathoms.
Straits of Florida, in 95-116 fath. (M.-Edwards). Off east coast
of United States {L. Verrillii), in 59-67 fathoms.
Figure 44a. — Cycloes Bairdii, atlantica ; xX^. Phot. A. H. V.
420 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
OXYSTOMATA -m LEUCOSOIDEA.
Family CALAPPIDJE. Box Crabs.
Calappa flammea (Herbst) Bosc. Box Crab.
Cancer flammea Herbst, op. cit., vol. ii, p. 161, pi. xl, fig. 2, 1794.
Calapim flammea Bosc, Hist. nat. Crust., i, p. 185, 1803. Miers, Voy. Chal-
lenger, xvii, p. 284, pi. xxiii, figs. 1-16, 1886 (synonymy). Eankin, op. cit.,
p. 532.
Cahippa marmorata Latr. , Hist. nat. Crust., v, jj. 392, 1803 (non Fabr.).
Desmarest, Consid. Crust., jj. 109, 1825. H. Milne-Edw. , Hist. nat. Crust.,
ii, p. 104, 1837. Smith, these Trans., iv, p. 263, 1880 (young at Woods
Hole; descr. of megalops); Ann. Eep. U. S. Com. Fish and Fisheries for
1885, p. 31, 1886.
Calappa flammea M. J. Rathbun, Brach. and Macr. Porto Rico, p. 84, pi. ii
(colored).
Plate XXV, Figure 1.
This large and curious species is easily distinguished from all
others b}^ its form and colors.
The most common color variety, taken in Castle Harbor, had the
ground-color of the carapace dull olive-brown, in life, streaked
irregularly with many flame-shaped blotches of bright red ; edges
of carapace bright yellow. Distal part of chelipeds yellow, with
large broad patches of dark red; digits pale red or pink. Ambula-
tory legs pink above; the anterior edges bright red; the posterior
edges and tarsi bright yellow.
Other specimens had the carapace covered with pretty regular,
round, ocellated spots, the center white, surrounded by a ring of
dark red or reddish brown. Chelipeds pink, spotted with roundish
spots of deep red; spines red; tips of digits yellow. Ambulator}^
legs purple, with the articulations and posterior edges red ; tarsi
yellow. Its colors appear to be nocturnally protective.
The j^oung of this species are narrower than the older ones, as
shown b}' the following table. The ratios of the length to breadth
of the carapace increases pretty regularly from 1: 1.22, up to 1 : 1.59
in the largest. In still younger specimens examined the ratio is
even smaller than the smallest in this table.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
421
Measurements for proportions of Carapace.
Carapace
No.
Sex
length
breadth
Eatios
Locality-
7670
. ?
60
85
1:1.42
Jamaica
7567
S
58
86
1:1.48
Sabanilla
6
73.5
111
1:1.5!)
Brazil
$
69
106.3
1:1.54
Key West
S
58
85
1:1.46
Egmont Key
2
34.3
46.5
1:1.35
Bermnda
6
22
27
1:1.23
Vineyard Sound
3166
6
32
42
. 1:1.31
Bermuda
3165
S
65
90
1:1.38
Bermuda
The first seven series of tlie above are by Prof. S. 1. Smith.
Measurements.
No.
3165
Sex
2
length
65
-Carapace-
breadth
total
90
breadth
— spines
84
lengl
51
Chelffi
h height
46.5
Locality
Bermuda
3166
S
32
42
38
23
21.5
Bermuda
7567
s
58
86
72.6
..
..
Sabanilla
7676
2
60
85
73
..
Jamaica
2
34
46.5
40
_ _
Bermuda
2
54
78
70.5
Egmont Key
This species has large and curiously shaped larval stages (see S. I.
Smith, these Trans., iv, p. 263). It evident]}^ lives a long time in
the free-swimming zoea and megalops forms. This, no doubt,
accounts in part, at least, for its wide distribution. At Bermuda it
is common in sheltered sandy bays and lagoons in shallow water,
but is probably more abundant at greater depths. It was taken by
us in Castle Harbor and Hungry Bay. It was in the early collec-
tions of J. M. Jones, Mr. Goode, C. Hartt Merriam, and others.
Its normal range extends from off Cape Hatteras to Brazil and
S. Africa. Taken by the Albatross in 1884, off N. Carolina, in 13-27
fathoms (Smith). Beaufort, N. C. (Stimpson, Kingsley) ; Charles-
ton, S. C. (Gibbes); Egmont Key, W. Fla. (Yale Mus.); Dominica
I., taken in fish-pots in 5-10 fathoms (A. H. Verrill, 1906, Yale Mus.);
Brazil (Smith); Simons Bay, Cape G. Hope (Miers).
The megalops stages are frequently carried northward by the
Gulf Stream to southern New England at Woods Hole, Newport,
etc., in large numbers. In mild winters a few survive. Specimens
1 to 2 inches across have been taken at Woods Hole by Mr. Vinal
Edwards and others. (See S. I. Smith, these Trans., iv, p. 263.)
422
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Calappa gallus (Herbst) Latr., var. galloides (Stimp.). Yellow Box Crab.
Cancer (/alius (jjars) Herbst. op. cit., iii, pt. 3, pp. 18, 46, pi. Iviii, tig. 1, 1803.
Cancel- {Cakqjpa) galhis (pars) Latr., Reg. Anim., iii, p. 24. 1817.
Calappa galhis H. M.-Edw., Hist. nat. Crust., ii, p. 105, 1837. Dana, Crust.
U. S. Expl. Exp., p. 393, 1852. Capello, Journ. Sci. Math., Phys. Nat.
Lisboa, iii, p. 133, pi. ii, fig. 4. 1871 (W. Africa).
Miers, Voy. Challenger, xvii, p. 286, 1886 (Bermuda). Eankin, op. cit., p. 533.
M. J. "Rathbun, Decapod Crust. W. Africa, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xxii, p.
297, 1900 ; Brach. and Macr. Porto Rico, p. 85, 1901.
Cancer galloides Stimpson, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. York, vii, p. 71, 1859.
Figure 45. Plate XXVI, Figures 3.
Color of ujjper parts generally orange to orange-brown, becoming
brighter on the front of the chehe; under parts dull yellow. Cara-
pace, above, and front of chelte, covered with irregular spots of dark
red or reddish brown, variable in size and form; many of the larger
Figure 45. — Calappa gallus, galloides, front view, about nat. size.
A. H. V.
Phot.
granules and tubercles of the carapace are white, especially those
that lie in rows on the posterior transverse ridges and those on the
scattered elevations. This causes the elevations to appear higher
than they really are. The digits of the chelfe are smoky horn-color,
becoming blackish on the upper side of the dactyl. Ambulatory
legs yellow, tinely reticulated with red lines.
Measu
re^nents
No.
Sex
Carapace
breadth
length total
Front
bet.
orbits
1903/c
3
51 66
8
Chela;
length height Locality
)l38 si ^--"'^'^
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
423
This was first recorded from Bermuda by Miers. We took good
specimens in March, 1901, in shallow sandy places in Castle Harbor.
The Bermuda Biological Station had it from Hungry Bay. It was
also in Prof. Kincaid's collection (190.:5/i:). It was not in the ea.r\y
collections of Jones, Goode, etc.
The Atlantic form (var. galloides) ranges from Florida to Bahia,
Brazil, and West Africa. Cape Verde Islands and Fernando Noronha
(Miers). Common ^n the West Indies ; Dominica I., in fish-trapsj
20-30 fathoms (A. H. Verrill, 1906, Yale Mus.). Bahia (Kathbun).
The typical Pacific form (var. gallus) has a wide range through
the Indian and Pacific Oceans; Red Sea; Persian Gulf, etc. Philip-
pines (Miers).
Cycloes Bairdii Stimp., var. atlantica nov.
Cyclois Bairdii Stimpson, Annals Lye. Nat. Hist. N. York, vii, p. 337 [109]
1860 (Cape St. Lucas). Verrill, these Trans, xi, p. 18, pi. ii, figs. 1, 2, 1901
(Bermrida).
Cycloes Bairdii M. J. Eathbun, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xxi, p. 610, 1898;
Brach. and Macr. Porto Rico, p. 85, 1901.
Figures 46, 47. Plate XXYII, Figure 2.
The carapace is evenly rounded in front of the lateral teeth ; sur-
face strongly areolated and rough with unequal granules and low^
Figure 46. — Cycloes Bairdii, var. atlantica, No. 4050, -^^ nat. size.
A. H. V.
Phot.
roimded tubercles ; a median row and two or three irregular series
on each side most prominent ; antero-lateral margins with many
small unequal denticles and granules ; posterior lateral tooth larger,
triangular, with the tip bent forward and acute. Front with two
424 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Berynuda.
subacute denticles. Chelipeds strongly granulated, and with a few
irregularly arranged small tubercles on the outer surface of the
manus ; lower margin double, with two rows of large granules ;
crest high and convexly rounded, with seven acute angular teeth, of
which the third is highest ; dactylus of one chela (the right in our
specimens) with a large, stout, downward bent tooth near the base,
when closed fitting into a socket between a tooth on the thumb and
a large obtuse tooth on the manus ; a large, flat, rounded distal tooth
near the lower edge.
Its colors are bright in life. The carapace is pale yellow or
whitish with lemon-yellow spots in irregular rows, and many small
bright red or crimson spots, especially lateralh^ Chelipeds and legs
bright yellow, spotted and banded with bright scarlet red ; chelae
with a crescent of red at the articulation of the dactylus on the
inside ; tips of digits and teeth of the dorsal crest of manus red ;
carpus with two red spots. Legs bright yellow, with bands of red
and purple, and purplish red margins on the raerus ; eye stalks
orange.
There is a close fringe of slender yellowish hairs on the dorsal
ci'est of the carpus, manus, and dactylus of the chelipeds, and trans-
verse fringes at the joints ; the merus has two hairy lines forming a
V-shaped figure on its upper surface ; on the inner surface of the
manus there is a Y-shaped arrangement of long hairs, and a dense
distal tuft on the thumb ; the ambulatory legs have a dorsal fringe
of hairs and also transverse ones at the joints. The under side of
the carapace and the outer maxillipeds are also covered with long
yellow Lairs.
Measurements.
No.
Sex
Carapace
length breadth
Eatio
Chelae
length height Locality
4050
$
33 33
1:1.03
16.5
13.5 Bermuda
1434a
i
35 36.5
1:1.04
26
31 C. St. Lucas (typical)
1424b
?
36 37.5
1:1.04
36.5
31.5 "
Our form is so very similar to C. Bairdii of the Pacific coast that
it can hardly be separated as a species. I have been able to compare
it carefully with specimens from Panama and with two si)ecimens,*
male and female, from Stimpson's type-locality (Cape St. Lucas, coll.
Xantus, Yale Mus.). The latter are, however, larger than our best
Bermuda specimen, which is an immature female. The Bermuda
* See plate xxvii, figure 2, photo, from one of these.
J
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
425
form has the carapace more strongly areolated and appears rougher,
owing to the relatively larger granules and more elevated tuber-
cles. The two frontal teeth are more acute and have a small lobe or
shoulder on the outer edge, while those of C Bairdil are obtuse at
tips and have no lobe. The carapace has the posterior lateral spines
sharper, longer, and farther back, in the Atlantic form, and the sides
are more rapidly contracted behind the spines ; the crests of the
chelae are higher and the edge more convex, the third tooth from
the front being longest, while in typical C. Bairdii the second is
longest. These teeth in the former are angular or carinate on the
front side, while in the latter they are evenly convex ; they are
granulated in both. The outer surface of the chelae has fewer but
larger tubercules in the Atlantic form, and the lower edge is bevelled
Figure 47. — Cycloes Bairdii, var. atlantica, from Bermada, under side, x
about l}i. Phot. A. H. V.
and has two rows of small rounded granule-like denticles, while in
O. Bairdii it is flatter, with two rows of larger obtuse denticles.
The large tooth, near the lower proximal end, is acute-triangular in
O. Bairdii; broadly rounded and obtuse in the Atlantic form.
There are various other minor differences, but whether they are
constant or not is uncertain, on account of the small number of
Atlantic specimens available for comparison. I have not been able
to compare the male appendages.
There is much difference in the abdomen, but this is evidently
largely due to the immaturity of the smaller specimen.
426 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Two specimens of this species were taken in shallow water, in a
sandy cove of Castle Harbor, near Walsingham Bay, in March, 1001
(coll. A. II. Verrill, Yale Mus.). Cast-off shells were found else-
where, of larger size. Jjahanias, six fathoms, and Porto Rico
(Rathl))iii).
The Pacific form ranges from the Gulf of California to Panama.
Cape St. Lucas (Stim])son, coll. Xantus, Yale Mus.). Panama (Capi.
V. Dow, Yale Mus.).
HAPALOCARCINIDEA, nov.
The position of the famil}^ Ilcq^alocarciniclcB in the sj'^stera seems
to be decidedly doubtful. Stimpson thought his genus was most
nearly related to the Grapsoids.
Heller placed his genus, Cryptochirus, next to the Pinnotherldm.
Miss Kathbun (Crust. Haw. Is., 1906) placed the family at the end
of the Oaystornata, in proximity to the Dorijypidcie {Ethusa, etc.),
to some of which there is considerable resemblance.
On the whole, it seems to me best to consider it as constituting a
peculiar superfamily group, in which the genera are highly spec-
ialized, so as to adapt them to the peculiar habit of living in cavities,
dens, or galls in the living parts of corals.
Each species hitherto discovered appears to represent a distinct
genus, the genera differing among themselves widely in structure.
In general form and habits they superficially resemble some of the
Anomiira, especially the females, which have a large, elongated abdo-
men, in the form of a pouch, with all the sutures distinct, but not
capable of curling up closely beneath the thorax, but there are no
appendages on the sixth segment. The abdomen of the males is
narrow and is applied closely to the sternum, as in ordinar^^ Brachyura.
The epistome is feebly developed ; the buccal area is large and •
arched anteriorly. The lower border of the orbit is little developed.
The outer antennae are small and extraorbital. The antennules have
a large, prominent basal joint. The carapace is narrow and more or
less oblong, or semicylindrical, not much narrowed anteriorly. The
front is usually subtruncate or emarginate without a central tooth.
The outer maxillipeds are separated at base by a sternal lobe ;
they have the ischium broad, often with a convex inner lobe ; the
merus is small, seated well back, with the palpus articulated in a
notch of the inner edge ; the exognath is small.
The chelipeds are feeble, often little if any larger than the next
legs ; the chehe are simple, with acute tips. The ambulatory legs
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 427
are all similar, short, with short, sharp, hooked claws, for strong
adhesion. The posterior ones are not articulated much higher up
than the others.
Family HAPALOCARCINIDiE.
Troglocarcinus, gen. nov.
This generic name is proposed for a curious crustacean that
inhabits holes and dens in the growing surface of living corals.
It is evidently closely related to the Ilapalocarcinus marsiqnalis
Stimpson of the Hawaiian Islands, which occupies gall-like nests
between the living branches of PociUopora. As in the latter, the
abdomen of the female forms a capacious egg-pouch.
It differs in having the front of the carapace abruptly bent down-
Avard and operculum-like ; in having the antero-lateral margin and
front denticulate; in the form of the maxillipeds; and in several
other characters. The eyes are not retractile ; orbits feebly devel-
oped ; a spine on the outer margin.
Troglocarcinus corallicola, sp. nov.
Figures 48, 49, a, b, c. Plate XXVIII, Figure 8.
Carapace oblong, transversely convex ; the sides nearly parallel
posteriorly ; front abruptly bent downward and covered with small,
une^]ual, sharp spinules and hairs to which dirt, etc., firmly adheres;
front edge minutely notched in the middle and finely spinulated ;
antero-lateral margin with a row of fine sharp spinules ; upper
surface, back of the frontal bend, hairy and granulated, the granules
larger anteriorly and toward the sides ; minute posteriorly. The
sloping anterior part of the carapace has a concave area, each side
of the median line. The antero-marginal spines decrease in size
backward ; the one at the exterior edge of the orbit is largest. The
carapace is much higher or thicker in front, especially at the bend,
than posteriorly. Sternum smooth, concave in the middle ; genital
openings of $ lunate, near together on the sternum.
Chelipeds small, in the female smaller than the first ambulatory
legs ; in the male about as stout, but not longer, hairy ; chelse small,
with simple, acute digits. Ambulatory legs hairy, short, incurved,
with simple, sharp, incurved claws ; posterior legs becoming shorter,
but similar to the others, articulated slightly higher up.
Eyes small on thick, short stalks; orbits looking forward. Pedicels
of antennula? large, longer than the eye-stalks, rather stout, near
together, spinulose distally, with about three longer terminal spinules.
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 30 March, 1908.
428
J.. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
The antennules are small, folding vertically, the tips reaching but
little beyond the eyes. Antennse small, about as long as the eye-
stalks. Outer maxillipeds have the merus short and broad, with a
decided notch on the inner distal edge, at the articulation of palpus.
The ischium is broader than long, with a rounded or semicircular
lobe on its inner margin; exognath is small and short. The large
pal])i occupy about all the space to the bases of the antennules.
The anterior lobe of the sternum separates the bases of the max-
illipeds. Legs and maxillipeds very hairy.
The abdomen is convex and has the rings thin, but somewhat
indurated above. In the female the edges are expanded and form a
well developed egg-pouch below, containing eggs in two specimens.
Figure 48. — Trorjlocarcinus corallicola, ? , anterior parts, from below ; diagram-
matic sketch, mucli enlarged, from a Dominica specimen.
This curious species lives in oven-shaped cavities or dens formed
in the upper surface of living corals, especially of 3Iussa, Mceandra,
Dichocmnia, etc.; as many as 8-12 such cavities are sometimes found
in a coral six inches in diameter. The opening of the den is usually
semicircular or lunate, commonly oblique to the surface of the coral;
the opening being preserved, no doubt, by the friction due to the
constant motions of the crab. The downturned, rough, and dirt-
covered front of the crab serves as a lid or o])erculum, closing the
apertui'e very nicely. The crabs can leave their dens, at least when
young, as they often do so when the fresh corals are put aside to dry.
The full grown crabs are probably unable to leave their dens.*
Length of carapace in one of the larger females, 7™"^ ; breadth,
4mm This one carries eo^gs.
It does not appear to be common at Bermuda. Abundant at
Dominica I., in Mussa and McPAindra cUvosa, from o-o fathoms
(A. II. v., 1906, Yale Mus.).
* In the figure pi. xxviii, fig. 8, the crab was intentionally placed in a den too
large for it, in order to show its form.
i
^4. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
429
It appears to be nearly allied to Hapalocarcinus marsupialis Stimp-
son,* which forms curious " houses " among the branches of Pocillo-
pora co'spitosa. The branches of the coral, in the latter case, grow
up around the crab and enclose it, leaving several small apertures
for the entrance of water and food, but from which the crab cannot
emerge.
In the latter, however, the front of the carapace is flat, not bent
downward, and it does not serve for an operculum, which is not
needed in its case.
4!)
Figure 49. — Troglocarcinus corallicola ; a, dorsal view, x about 4 times, of a 2
removed from its den in a coral (Mussa), from Dominical.; b, a smaller S
specimen, x about 4 times, ventral view ; the abdomen, legs, outer max-
illipeds, and antennules are removed, except one basal antennular segment ;
c, the same, another ? example ; dorsal view, x 4. Phot. A. H. V.
It is, j^erhaps, more closely allied to Cryptochirus coralliodytes
Heller,f from the Red Sea and Maldives, which lives in the same
manner, in dens in Leptoria ( = 3fceandra).
The latter, however, has a differently formed carapace, smooth,
convex in front, without marginal spines ; orbits simple, without
spines ; and very different maxillipeds.
* Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. vi, p. 412, 1859. Caiman, Trans. Linn,
Sec. London, ser. 2, vol. viii, p. 43, pi. iii, figs. 29-40, 1900. M. J. Eathbun,
Cnist. Hawaiian Is., U. S. Fish Com. Bulletin, for 1903, part iii, p. 892, 1906.
f Heller, Cam., Sitzungsb. Math.-Naturwiss. Classe. Akad. Wissenschaften,
Wien, xliii, i, 1861, p. 366, pi. iv, figs. 33-39.
430 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
DROMIACEA de Haau. 1«:{9, Dromides.
Dromiarefr. Boas, ISSO. A. M.-Edw. and Bouvier, 1899 and 1900.
Dromiacea or Dromides Alcock, 1901.
Brachyura anomala Stebbing, 1900, 1903.
Anomura {pars) Dana and many other authors.
Dromidea Ortmann, 1896.
The relations of this rather anomalous group are recognized by
nearl^r all modern writei"S to be rather with the Braclnnira than with
the remainder of the old group Anomura. It includes, according
to Alcock and Stebbing, two superfamih^ groups : Dromildea (re-
stricted) and Ilomolidea.
Family DROMIDiE. Sponge-car ryhuj Crabs.
This small and curious family is represented in the Bermudas by
the two more common West Indian species, but both have been dis-
covered only recently, in rather deep water. Both were dredged on
the "Challenger" and "Argus" Banks. Both species carry a living
sponge over the back, for concealment and protection. They use
various species of sponges for this purpose, holding the sponge in
position by means of the two posterior pairs of legs, which bend
upward for this j^urpose.
Dromia erythropus (Geo. Edw.) Rathbuu.
Cancer erythropus Geo. Edwards, in Catesby, Nat. Hist. Carolina, etc., ed. of
1771, ii, p. 37, pi. xxxvii.
Dromia lator H. M.-Edw., Hist. nat. Crust., ii, p. 174, 1837.
Dromia erythropus M. J. Eathbuu, Annals Inst. Jamaica, i, p. 39, 1897 ;
Results of Branner-Agassiz Exped. to Brazil, Proc. Wash. Acad. Science,
ii, p. 143, 1900. Benedict, Anomura Porto Rico, p. 172, 1901 (descr.).
Figure 50.
In life this species is densely covered with dark brown or blackish
stiff hairs, only the tips of the dactylus being naked ; these are
light red. Beneath the hairs the surface is whitish. It grows to
considerable size; the carapace is often 70 to 75°"° broad. It always
covers its back with a concave fragment of some living sponge, but
numerous species of sponges are used for this purpose. Very often
it is some light silicious sponge of the family Chalinidm, as Spino-
selld sororla ; in other cases it is a tough comjjact species belonging
to the Saheritidm ; in several cases it was a keratose sponge of the
genus Hircina ; one from Dominica carried a large concave mass of
a silicious sponge of the genus Agelas, several times its own bulk.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 431
The only Bermuda specimen known to me was obtained by the
party from the Field Mus. Nat. Hist, on the Argus Bank, 30-40
fathoms, Oct. 13, 1905. It was taken from the stomach of a Hamlet
Grouper, and was, consequently, badly damaged. It was a large
specimen.
Its range is from Florida to Pernambuco, Brazil (Rathbun).
A number of large specimens, in the Yale Mus., were collected at
Dominica, 1906, by A. H. Verrill. They were caught in fish-traps
set in 50-150 fathoms.
Figure 50. — Dromia erythroptis from Dominica, with a flat Chalinid sponge
held over its back, about }.2 nat. size. Phot. A. H. V.
Dromidia antillensis Stimpson.
Dromidia antillensis Stimpson, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad., for 1858, p. 225;
Annals Lye. Nat. Hist. N. York, vii, p. 71, 1859. Smith, these Trans., ii,
p. 17, 1869 (meas.). Benedict, Anom. Coll. Porto Rico, p. 132, 1901.
Figure 51. Plate XXVIII, Figures 2, 3.
The carapace, which is about as long as broad, is convex in both
directions, high in the middle, and pretty evenly rounded, covered
with fine, close, yellowish hairs, beneath which it is white, nearly
smooth, minutely punctate. Similar hairs cover the chelipeds;
those of the other legs are longer. The narrow front is abruptly
bent downward at tip ; it bears three small obtuse teeth standing
equally spaced, forming a triangle, in a front view ; the inner orbital
tooth is small and acute; the superior orbital is nearly as large and
acute; the inferior orbital is similar to the frontal spines in size and
form. There are four small, acute lateral S2)ines, of which the first
two are stouter, and divergent, the first a little larger; the 3d and
4th are strongly hooked forward at the tip and very acute. The
carpus of the chelipeds has three distal, subspiuiforra angles, the
433
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
u])per one smaller, obtuse; the two outer ones prominent, subacute.
The manus is carinate above, with 4 or 5 small granule-like denticles
on the edge; the thumb and dactylus are strongly excavated at tip
and bear 5 or 0 serrate teeth, on the outer edge, the distal ones
largest. The last two legs are sliarjily subchelate at tips, the last
most perfectly so.
Figure 5t. — Dromidia antillensis, under side, x about l}y£. Phot. A. H. V.
Color, in alcohol, white under the yellowish pubescence; chelae
with light red or flesh-colored, partly naked fingers, white at the tips.
It always protects itself by means of a living sponge (sometimes
a compound ascidian) held over its back by the posterior two pairs
of legs. The carapace is about as long as broad.
No.
831a
831&, fig.
831c
831d
703, fig.
Measuremeyits of Carapace for variations of Ratios.
Carapace
Sex
i,
?
length
15.5
18.2
16.0
18.0
12.5
breadth
15.6
18.5
16.0
18.2
13.5
Ratios
1:1.01
1:1.02
1:1.00
1:1.01
1:1.08
Locality
Brazil
Bermuda
The first four series of measurements are by Prof. S. I. Smith.
In No. 831^, the chelae are relatively much larger than in the
Bermuda example, probably owing to its maturity ; length of chela,
12. S""""; height, 6.5"""; the manus has a row of four conspicuous
denticles on upper edge, proximally ; the edges of the digits are
strongly and coarsely toothed. The carpus has three conspicuous
distal tuberculiform teeth. The lateral teeth of the carapace are
conspicuous, the two anterior ones the larger and less acute; on the
left side the 2d tooth is double. The preorbital and suborbital teeth
are about as large as the lateral.
X
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 433
A single specimen was dredged by the party from the Bermuda
Biological Station on the Challenger Bank in 1903.
It agrees pretty closely with Stinipson's original description, except
as to the form and relative size of the latei-al spines. But it does
not agree so well with Mr. Benedict's later description, in several
characters. The differences may be due to age, or there may be
distinct local races or varieties. More specimens are needed to
determine this.
The range of the species is from Mexico and west coast of Florida
to the Abrolhos, Brazil. Florida and St. Thomas (Stimpson). Santa
Cruz (Yale Mus., 1018, coll. Dr. Bishop) ; Abrolhos Is., Brazil,
No. 831 (Smith); Porto Rico (Rathbun) ; Bahamas (Rankin); east
coast of Mexico (Yale Mus.).
HETEROMACRURA, nom. nov. = ANOMURA (in part).
Anonuira or Anomoura M.-Edw. (2Jars); Dana (pars); Henderson (pars); and
many other authors.
Macrura anomala Alcock, 1901 ; Stebbing, 1903.
This group seems to lack a suitable name. At least there is great
diversity in the use of former names.
Anomura is still used, as it has been for the past fifty years or
more, in very diverse senses. Therefore it will save confusion to
abandon it, unless as a loosel}^ applied general term.
"Anomala" (de Haan), being an adjective term, has been used
in many diverse senses, not only in Crustacea, but in other groups
also. Hence I now propose to give this group the above name.
It includes the superfamily groups : Galatheiclea, Hlppidea^
Paguridea.
GALATHEIDEA Henderson.
Porcellanoidea + Galatheoidea Stimpson, 1860.
This group as defined by Henderson, Ortmann, Alcock, and other
recent writers, includes the families Porcellanidoe, Galatheidce, and
some others.
Family PORCELLANIDiE.
It is remarkable that only one species of this large family has
hitherto been found at the Bermudas, for numerous other species
occur on the reefs of the ^Vest Indies and Florida.
434 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Petrolisthes armatus (Gibbes) Stimp.
Porcellana armata Gibbes, op. cit., p. 190, 1850.
Petrolisthes armatus Stimpson, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad., 1858, p. 227;
Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. York, vii, p. 73, 1860. Kingsley, Proc. Acad. Nat.
Sci., Philad., 1879, p. 406. Ortmaim. Zool. Jahr., x, p. 280, 1897. Bene-
dict, Anomura Porto Rico, p. 133, 1901.
Plate XXVII, Figure 3. Plate XXVIII, Figure 4.
Color variable; carapace, in life, often yellowish green, -with
minute white spots, legs similar, except on the last two joints, which
have white transverse bands ; under surfaces pale yellow or white,
e'xcept the large chelte, which are pale blue (C. S. V.).
Some specimens are dark gray above, finely spotted Avith white
and light gray. Others are red or reddish brown, thickly specked
and spotted with white or yellowish white.
The colors are imitative of the sand, gravel, stones, algae, etc.
The median tooth of the front is obtuse. There is a very distinct,
transverse, granulated ridge across the front. The merus of the
chelipeds usually has three (rarely 4) sharp teeth on the inner mar-
gin; the outer margin is finely serrulate.
The chelse are large, flat, angular; the manus has a distinct, granu-
lated, raised line on the outside.
One of our larger male specimens has the carapace 11.5""" long;
9.5™°^ broad ; between orbits, S""™ j merus of chelipeds, 10'""' long ;
larger chela, 18™"Mong; 7. S™"* high. The larger chela is stouter than
the other, with shorter and stouter digits, which are laterally
incurved and slightly crossed at the tips.
Variety pallidus, nov.
Many Bermuda specimens differ from the ordinary form in having
the carapace nearly smooth, with scarcely any traces of the trans-
verse rugae and granules, so conspicuous in the typical form, and
in lacking the coarse granules on the outer surface of the chel?e.
The color is usually white or pale yellow. The chelae are the same
in form and. carinie, and the merus of the chelipeds has three sharp,
spaced teeth on the front edge, as in armatus. In most other
respects there are no differences between them. Whether it has the
same habits was not noted. Length of carapace, 8-10™"'.
This species is very common at Bermuda. It lives under stones
and in the interstices and crevices of dead corals, etc. It was in the
early collections of J. M. Jones, and has been taken by nearly all
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
435
later collectors. Its range is very extensive; from off Cape Hatteras
to Maceio, Brazil ; from Panama to southern California ; Pacific
Islands; Indian Ocean, etc. Common on the Florida reefs and Keys,
and in the West Indies. Colon, Key West, and Egmont Key, W.
Florida (Yale Mus.). Gulf of Calif. (Lockington).
Family GALATHEID-ffi Dana.
Munida Beanii, sp. nov.
Figure 53. Plate XXVII, Figures 8, 9.
A small species, with an ovate carapace, widest opposite the third
pair of legs. Transverse, elevated, ciliated ridges are well separated;
about sixteen on the carapace, of which four or five are incomplete.
Marginal spines about eight, small, acute, the most anterior largest ;
Figure 52 — Mtmida Beanii ; a, dorsal view of specimen with shorter ocular
spines ; b, specimen with longer ocular spines, x about 3 times. Phot.
A. H. V.
dorsal spines ten, very small ; of these there are three on each side,
anteriorly, in an obliquely transverse line, nearly parallel with the
post-orbital border ; the inner one is largest ; a single spine on each
side, behind the second ciliated ridge ; a single one, on each side,
behind the cervical groove.
Rostrum moderately long, tapered, nearly smooth, acute, tri-
quetral, or with a slight dorsal carina. Orbital spines lanceolate,
with sharply acuminate tips, in some cases nearly half as long as the
rostrum and reaching the cornea of the ej'cs ; in others not over one-
third as long as the rostrum and shorter than the eye-stalk.
436 A. E. V err ill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Eyes large on rather long, stout stalks ; in several specimens the
right eye is distinctly larger than the left (see figures). Chelipeds
slender ; the merus is nearly as long as the chela ; the fingers gape
at base, at least in the male, the thumb being curved downwai'd at
base rather abruptly ; outer edge of thumb finely denticulate
beyond the curve, edge and tips of finger fringed vrith short hairs.
Entire surface of chelipeds finely spinulose, with minute flat trans-
verse rugje between the spinules, having ciliated edges. Ambulatory
legs also spinulose. The largest specimen has the carapace 7.5™"'
long ; 4.5 wide ; length of merus of cheliped, 8"'"' ; of chela, 9 ;
of dactylus, 4™™, Another specimen had the carapace 7""" long,
4mm -^yi(Je^ This species is closel}^ allied to 3f. simjjlex Benedict,
but Mr, Benedict, who has examined the specimens, considers them
distinct. In the latter there are two pairs of spines behind the cer-
vical suture ; the rostrum is longer and more slender ; the chelipeds
are longer, and the chelae longer in proportion to merus. Possibl}^
these differences may be due in part or wholly to immaturity.
Seven specimens, No, 893, were dredged in 50 fathoms, on the
Argus Bank, Oct, 13, 1905, by the expedition from the Field Museum
of Natural History, under Dr. T, H, Bean, to whom it is dedicated.
HIPPIDEA, DE Haan.
Hijjpidea Stimpson, 1859. Hippoidea Stimpson, 1860. Hippidea Ortraann,
1896.
Family HIPPID-Sl Stimpson.
Hippa Fabricitis (restr.).
Hippa (pars) Fabr., Mant. Insect., pp. 329, 330, 1787; (restr.) 1798, type H.
adactyla.
Eemipes Latreille, 1806, and most later authors.
Hippa M. J. Rathbun, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xxii, p. 301, 1900 {non M.-Edw.).
Miss Rathbun has restricted this generic name to the group typi-
fied by adactyla. the only species left in the genus by its author, in
- 1798.
Hippa cubensis (Sanssure) Rathbun. Sandbug.
Remipes cuhensis Saussure, Rev. Mag. Zool., (2), ix, p. 503, 1857; Crust.
Antilles and Mex., Mem. Soc. Phys. Nat. Hist. Genfeve, xiv, p. 452, pi. ii,
figs. 19, 20, 1858. Rankin, Ann. N. Y. Acad., xi, p. 237 ; op. cit., xii, p.
533 (Bermuda).
Remijjes scutellatus Miers, Jour. Linn. Soc. London, xiv, 1879, p. 319. Hen
derson, A^oy. Challenger, Zool., xxvii, p. 138, 1888. (?Not Hippa scutellata
Fabricius. Ent. Syst., ii, p. 474, 1793.)
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
437
Remipes Barbadensis Stimpson, Proe. Pbilad. Acad., 1858, p. 229 [67] ; Ann.
Lye. Nat. Hist. N. York, x, p. 120, 1871.
Hippa ciihensis Eathbun, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xxii, p. 300, 1900 (W. Africa).
Figures 53, 54.
The carapace is somewhat depressed. The autennfe are much
smaller than in the related species of the eastern U. S. coast.
{Emerita talpoidea.)
The females are much larger than the males and usually more
numerous in collections.
Our sjjecimens, taken in spring and October, are without eggs.
Henderson records a number of specimens taken at Bermuda by the
Challenger, in May, several of which carried eggs.
Figure 53. — Hippa cubensis ; 1, dorsal ; la, ventral view ; x about 1|^. Phot.
A. H. V.
Figure 54. — The same ; carapace, enlarged, after Saussure.
Adult female specimens are about 20 to 23""" long, by 17 to IG™'"
wide; the males are about 12™™ long. One of the largest females is
22™™ long ; 18.5 wide.
It lives in the shifting sands at and below low-tide level. When
laid bare by the waves it can quickly retreat backward into the sand
for some depth.
It is not uncommon at Bermuda, on sandy shores, but requires
special search. It was in the early collections of Jones, Goode, and
Merriam. Also obtained by the Challenger Expedition. Rankin
records it from Cooper's Island.
438 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Its range is from the Florida Keys to Brazil and to West Africa
and the adjacent islands. Common in most of the West Indies.
Abundant on the shores of Cuba (Saussure) ; Old Providence, April,
9, 1884, with eggs (Str. Albatross, Smith).
Cape Verde Islands (Studer, Miers, etc.) ; Dahomey (Osorio);
Quinchoxo (Studer); Ascension Island (Miers, Benedict); Bahamas
(Rankin); Dominica I. (A. II. Verrill, 190G). Brazil (coll. Ilartt,
Yale Mus.).
Family ALBXJNEIDiE Stimpson.
Albunea oxyophtlialina Miers.
Miers, Jour. Linn. Soc. London, xiv, p. 329, pi. v, figs. 14, 15, 1879. Bene-
dict, Anom. Crust. Porto Rico, p. 139, 1901. Verrill, these Trans., xi, pp.
18, 63, pi. viii, fig. 1, 1901 (Bermuda, oocycephala on p. 18 by error).
? Albunea Paretii Guerin, Rev. et Mag. de Zool., ser. ii, vol. v, p. 48, pi. i,
fig. 10. Kingsley, Proc. Philad. Acad. Sci. for 1879, p. 409 (W. Florida).
Plate XXVIII, Figure 1.
This species is peculiar in having eleven or twelve spines each side
of the central rostral tooth, and unusually long eye-stalks. In the
closely related species (^1. Gibbesil) of the U. S. coast, there are
only nine or ten teeth on each side.
The onl}' Bermuda specimen known to me is the one recorded in
1901. It was found buried in the beach sand by Mr. T. G. Gosling.
It is, no doubt, nocturnal in its habits.
Its range is from West Florida to Brazil. St. Christophers, Cay-
enne, and Brazil (Miers). Sarasota Bay, W. Florida (Kingsley).
PAGURIDEA, Stimpson, 1859.
Family CENOBITIDiE. Land Hermit Crabs.
Cenobita Diogenes (Latr.) Edw. L(i)hI Hermit Crab.
Pagurus Dioijenes Latr., Encyc, pi. 284, figs. 2, 3 (after Catesby).
Cenobita Diogenes H. M.-Edw., Hist. nat. Crust., ii, p. 240, pi. ii, figs. 11-14,
1837. Smith, these Trans., ii, p. 38 (Brazil). Rankin, op; cit., p. 533, 1900
(Bermuda). Benedict, Anomura Porto Rico, p. 139, 1901 (descr.). Verrill,
Geology of Bernuida, Amer. Journ. Science, ix, p. 338, 1899, tig. 12 ; these
Trans., vol. xi, pp. 464, 708, fig. 22a ; The Bermuda Islands, pp. 52, 296, fig.
22a (habits); these Trans., vol. xii, pp. 158, 179, 196, 197, fig. 60, 1906 (fossil).
Figure 55.
This is the only land hermit crab of this faunal region. Easily
recognized by the large, massive, purplish left chela ; stout ambula-
tory legs ; the wide compressed propodus of the left leg of the
second pair ; and the compressed eye-stalks.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
439
Not uncommon at Bermuda and often found on the high sand hills,
far away from the shore, and in gardens. Large specimens usually
occupy fossil shells of Livona pica, which have weathered out from
the soft feolian limestones. These fossil shells were doubtless carried
from the shore to the ancient sand dunes by the remote ancestors of
these same crabs.
Figure 55. — Land Hermit Crab in shell of Livona pica, about % nat. size. From
living specimen by A. H. V.
Its range is from Florida Keys to Brazil. Key West, Santa Cruz,
Dominica I. (Yale Mus.). Andros I. and Nassau (Rankin). Found
on nearly all West India Islands.
A fossil Bermuda specimen, in a shell of Livona pica, is in the
Yale Mus. (coll. Jones).
Family PAGTJRID-ffi. Hermit Crabs.
Calcinus sulcatus (M.-Edw.). Stimp. Red Hermit Crab.
Pagurus sulcatus M.-Edw., Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 2, vi, p. 279, 1836 ; Hist. nat.
Crust., ii, p. 230, 1837.
Calcinus sulcatus Stimpson, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad., 1858, p. 234.
S. I. Smith, these Trans., ii, p. 17, 1869 (Brazil). Hilgendorf, Monats.
Preiiss. Akad. Wiss., Berlin, 1878, p. 823. Henderson, Rep. Challenger,
Zool., vol. xxvii, Anomura, p. 61. Verrill, these Trans., x, p. 578, 1900.
Benedict, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xvi, p. 939, 1893 ; Anom. Porto Eico, p.
141, pi. V, figs. 3, 3«, 1901 (descr.).
Pafjurus tibicen White {variety), List of Crust, in the British Museum, p. 61.
Calcinus tibicen Eankin, Ann. N. York Acad., xii, p. 533, pi. xvii, fig. 1,
1900 (descr. colors, etc.).
Calcinus obscurus Stone, in Heilprin, op. cit., p. 149 {non Stimpson).
Figures 56, 57. Plate XXVIII, Figure 7.
The colors appear to be pretty constant, in the Bermuda examples,
and last very well in formalin or alcohol. The legs and chelse in
440 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
one of the fresher specimens are mostly dark red, becoming brighter
red on the margins and at the joints ; the chelae have a patch of
dark olive brown on the middle of both sides of the palm; the tips
of the dactylus and thumb are white or pale yellow; the whole
surface of the chelipeds and ambulatory legs, except on the white
Figure 56. — Calcinus sulcatus, about natural size. Phot. A. H. V.
tips, is covered with ver}'' small round spots of blue ; these are also
present on the carapace anteriorly. The ambulatory legs are
brownish red or bright red, with a band of white or pale yellow on
the distal end of the carpus and proximal end of the dactylus, and
a narrower one at the base of the nail, which is black. The basal
joints of the ambulatory legs are white and pale reddish underneath.
Figure 57. — Culcinus sulcatus removed from shell ; o, second left leg of same,
more enlarged to show sulcus ; after Benedict.
The outer maxillipeds and the basal joints of the antennae beneath
are dark olive green or yellowish green ; flagellum of antennae
orange-yellow. The eye-stalks are light orange-red, with a pale
yellow or white band close to the e^^e. The anterior part of the
carapace is red or brown, like the chelae, and has a median patch of
dark olive-green; posterior part bluish white or purplish Avhite,
irregularly spotted Avith red or brown ; in some there is a large ill-
defined patch of white about the suture or on the sides. The varia-
tions are mainly in the darker or lighter shades of color. The j^oung
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 441
and some adults are pale red, instead of brownish red. In some
there is but little white on the tips of the chelae ; this is often pre-
ceded by an orange tint ; in some the white bands of the legs are
bordered bj' pale purple.
Some of the females taken by the members of the Biological
Station, in June and July, 1903, carried eggs.
"It is closely allied to C. tiblcen Dana and C. obscurus Stimpson,
but differs remarkably from both of them in the deep and rugose
sulcus on the outer side of the propodus of the left leg of the second
ambulatory pair. This sulcus is very marked, extends the whole
length of the segment, and is limited on the upper side by a sharp
carina. From the obscurus it differs moreover in having the carapax
broader in front, and the antero-lateral angle more prominent, and
not rounded as it is in that species."
"Length of body from front of carapax to tip of abdomen, 23.5™" ;
length of left hand, 7.6 ; breadth of left hand 4.5." (S. I. Smith.)
This is a common species in shallow water at the Bermudas, We
obtained numerous specimens in 1898 and 1901. It is in the early
collections made by Jones, Goode, and Merriam. Dr. Rankin
records females carrying eggs, taken in midsummer. It was also
obtained by the Bermuda Biological Station, 1903, and the Field
Nat. Hist. Museum, October, 1905.
Its range is from Florida to the Abrolhos Islands, Brazil (Smith).
Pernambuco and Maceio, Brazil, on reefs (Rathbun).
Dardanus venosus (Edw.) Red-veined Hermit Crab.
Pagurus venosus H. M.-Edw., Ann. des. Sci. Nat., ser. 3, vol. x, p. 61, 1848.
Stimpson, Notes, No. i, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. N. York, vii, p. 82 [36], 1859.
Pefrocheirus insignis M. J. Eathbnn, Branner-Agassiz Exp. to Brazil, p. 144,
1900 (iioji Sans. sp.*). Verrill, these Trans., x, p. 578, 1900 (non Satis.).
Pagurias insignis Benedict, Anomura Porto Rico, p. 141, 1901 (descr., non
Saus. sp.).
FiGXJRKs 58, 59.
This species sometimes grows to large size. It is handsomely
colored in life.
It has been repeatedly confused with D. insignis, as indicated in
the synonymy,! but is very distinct from that species, as the accom-
panying figures show.
* Pagurus insignis Saussnre, Crust. Antilles, Mex., Mem. Sec. Phys. Hist. Nat.
Geneve, xiv, p. 453, pi. iii, figs. 20, 20a, 1858.
f Stimjison's description was very brief, but characteristic. Mr. Benedict,
op. cit., 1901, has given a much better description of it, under the name of
insigyiis.
i
442
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
The following description is from large Dominica specimens.
The carapace is broad posteriorly, and much narrower in front of
the deep transverse groove ; the harder anterior portion is longer
than broad, with the posterior margin truncate medially, in front of
which there is an incised V-shaped groove, and some lateral oblique
ones ; front edge with three rounded lobes, the middle one more
obtuse and less prominent than the others and obscured by hairs ;
a strong submarginal bent-bow-shapod groove ; sides of carapace
hairy ; middle part nearly smooth. Posterior part of carapace Avith
swollen, broadl}^ expanded flanks, covered with oblique and divergent
grooves ; posterior margin deeply emarginate.
Figure 58. — Dardanus venosus ; a, 2d ambulatory leg of left side, inner sur-
face ; b, the same, inner surface ; c, left cheliped, outer surface ; x about
13^. Phot. A. H. V.
The cheli])eds are unequal, the left being decidedly larger, with
the chela shoiter, much more robust, and differently ornamented.
The left cheliped has the merus triquetral, the two lower angles
spinulose ; the upper one serrate with flat teeth ; the outer surface
has sliirht ruo^je and small tufts of hairs, otherwise the surface is
smooth and glossy. The carpus is sharply spinulose above, five large
acute spines stand on the upper edge ; near the distal outer margin
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 443
the spinules are crowded in transverse rows, with close fan-shaped
groups of yellowish plumose hairs arising from their outer bases.
The manus is elegantly ornamented on the outer side with small,
rounded, single and clustered tubercles, surrounded by regular
stellate and fan-shaped groups of even plumose hairs that radiate
horizontally from their bases, except on the proximal side, the tips
of the adjacent groups of hairs mostly overlapping, so as to nearh^
cover the whole surface between the tubercles ; toward the upper
margin the tubercles become higher and more pointed or spiniform ;
those along the margin are acute spines, bent forward ; on the thumb
and dactyl the tubercles of each cluster blend together and form
larger rounded tubercles, usually paler in color, but carrying plumose
basal hairs ; the thumb and dactyl each have, along the cutting
edge, a row of five or six strong, rounded, paler teeth and are tipped
with a narrow, subacute, but strong black nail or claw, excavate
within.
The inner surface of the manus is rather smooth, with some
scattered, unequal, rounded tubercles, especially on the lower half,
and a regular row of larger ones along the lower margin. Many of
these tubercles bear terminal clusters or pencils of slender hairs,
especially those along the inner edges of the digits, where the pencils
of hairs are larger and arise from pits. The dactyl is so articulated
that it moves up and down in a nearly vertical plane.
The right chela is scarcely half as thick and more tapered. The
tubercles of the outer surface are low or flattened, and bear com-
paratively few longer slender hairs, but those along the upper margin
become acute spinules ; on the inner surface the tubercles are flat or
scarcely raised above the smooth surface, but have a central hair-
bearing pit, and are marked out by the narrow red lines that sur-
round most of the tubercles.
The left leg of the second ambulatory pair is very characteristic
in its armature and ornamentation. The two distal segments are
triquetral, owing to a strong carina that runs along the middle of the
outer side, above which there is a wide and deep sulcus. This
carina, on the propodus, carries, on its upper and onter surfaces,
about ten or eleven oblique transverse lows of small appressed
tubercles, arising from ridges, and decreasing in size downward ;
the proximal rows have six to eight, but the distal ones have only
one or two tubercles ; from the basal ridges arise crowded rows of
short, appressed, plumose hairs, which cover the intervening spaces.
On the dactylus the transverse ridges are shorter but more prominent
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 31 March, 1908.
444 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
and tlie rows of tubercles decrease from about three, proximallv, to
one or two distal ly ; the ridges bear on the distal side plumose hairs,
as on the propodus. The lower marginal carina bears one or two
upper rows of subacute or conical tubercles, and an under row of
larger, white, obtuse tubercles, with a ]iit bearing a pencil of long
hairs, while the upper ones bear basal, phuuoso, appressed hairs.
The distal articular margin is also fringed with long hairs. The
upper outer surface also bears transverse rows of conical tubercles
on raised ridges, carrying short plumose hairs on the distal side, as
below ; on the propodus there may be three or four tubercles in a
row, but on the dactyl there are but two or three, or only one dis-
talh", and the hairs are longer.
On the upper surface of the propodus there are two or three rows
of large, mostly acute, often double, hair-bearing tubercles, with
pencils of hairs arising from pits ; on the dactyl these tubercles
become broader, truncate, or even concave, with clusters of numerous
pits from which pencils of longer and stouter hairs arise. The
terminal claw is short and black.
The second ambulatory leg of the right side, as mentioned by
Stimpson, is also flattened, though less so than the left, and has near
the margins of the propodus, above and below, flattened, transverse
tubercles, which bear rows of small appressed hairs on the distal
edge, becoming longer at the margins ; similar, but smaller flat
tubercles are scattered on the middle portion, but there is no median
carina.
The other ambulatory legs are more slender, and covered with
appressed tubercles, bearing pencils of long hairs. The legs of the
third pair have rather stout chelae, and are very hairy.
The eye-stalks are stout, somewhat enlarged distally, with large
black eyes ; they are shorter than the width of the anterior part of
the carapace ; they bear scattered pencils of slender hairs.
The ocular scales are about as broad as long, well separated, with
the outer end three-toothed, the inner tooth longest, minutely den-
ticulate and fringed with hairs.
The aciculum of the antenna^ is long, slender, acute, and very
hairy. The antennulje are much longer than the eye-stalks, which
reach to about the middle of the last joint of the peduncle.
Specimens of large size, when recently dried, have the legs and
chelipeds light orange, varying to red on the exposed surfaces, with
the tubercles of the chelae crimson or purple; those surfaces less ex-
posed in life are paler orange or yellowish; under a lens the surfaces
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 445
of the chelipeds and legs ai*e seen to be covered with a reticulation
of narrow, bright red lines, which generally, also, surround and mark
out the paler colored tubercles and spinules, but they may also forma
network of small polygons on the smooth surfaces. When the chelae
and tubercles are red, as in some of the larger specimens, these lines
become dark red, but are less conspicuous, especially on the outer
surface, where the appressed hairs between the tubercles conceal
them.
The ambulatory legs are usually crossed by three or four wide,
rather conspicuous bands of red, one on each segment, or the red
color may sometimes predominate, and then the bands are yellow
or orange, on a red ground-color.
A specimen of medium size, from Dominica, has the carapace 31™""
long; anterior portion, 13™™; breadth of anterior part, 12.5"""; of
posterior part, 26""" ; length of eye-stalks, S""™ ; length of larger
chela 22™™; height, 13™™; length of right chela, 13™™; height, 8™™;
propodus of 2d left ambulatory leg, 13™™ long; 7.5™™ wide; dactylus,
20"'™ long; 5™™ wide at base.
A larger specimen has the left chela, 25™™ long; 15™™ high; 10™™
thick; palm above, 13"'™; dactylus, 13™"'.
Figure 59. — Dardanus venosus. Young, from Bermuda, about f nat. size.
The carapace of a small specimen preserved for a short time in
formol is pale yellow, with a bright purple median area anteriorly,
and a branchial patch of the same on each side, and bands of the
same color at the bases of the legs and on the middle of the eye-
stalks. The chelipeds are orange, finely reticulated with bright red
lines, the reticulations enclosing the Avhitish tubercles. The second
leg on the left side is larger and has on its outer side a median row
of bright purple rounded tubercles on the two distal segments, and
an outer sublateral row of smaller ones of the same color; the four
distal segments of the legs have each a wide band of dark red.
446
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
The left chelipeds and second ambulatory leg are covered with fan-
shaped groups of plumose hairs, mostly dark red, but some are
whitish. Tips of the digits black and spoon-shapo<l. The U'fi chela
is the larger, compressed, and covered with coarse granules. This
is from Bermuda, fig, 50.
This species appears to be rare in Bermuda. We obtained one
specimen in 1898; another in the Yale Museum was collected by
Dr. F. V. Hamlin about ISVV. Its range is from Florida to Brazil.
Porto Rico (Benedict as insignis)', ?Maceio and Rio Goj'anna, Brazil,
on reefs (Rathbun as insignis).
About a dozen good specimens of this conspicuously colored spe-
cies were obtained at Dominica Island by A. II. Verrill, in IDOG
(Yale Mus.). They were taken in baited fish-traps in 10 to 25
fathoms. They occupied shells of Triton nariegatus, 3Iurex, and
half-grown Stromhns gigns.
Figure 60. — Dardanus insignis; a, anterior part of carapace and appendages
enlarged ; b, distal part of 2d ambulatory leg of left side, more enlarged.
After Saussure. See also pi. xxvi.
This species is pretty closely allied to D. insignis, but is easil}'
distinguished by the armature of the chelse and second left ambulatory
leg. The eye-stalks of the latter are also shorter (see fig. 59), not
reaching to the end of the antennal aciculum, and the ocular scales
are different in form. In D. insignis the second left ambulatory leg
has no median carina on the outer surface (see fig. 59, and Plate xxvi,
4, 5), the oblique ridges and long rows of small tubercles curve back-
ward and meet in " herring-bone " fashion along the convex middle
line, on the propodus, but are interrupted by a groove on the dactylus;
they are armed with appressed plumose hairs, as in D. venosus.
d
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
447
Bat, unlike the latter, this has also many short, curved, or convex
ridges on the carpus and distal part of the merus externally, similarly
furnished with appressed hairs; other similar, curved ridges are on
the inner surface of the propodus and dactylus, above and below.
It is also more yellow in color and more uniform, without conspic-
uous bands of red on the legs, and without the red reticulated lines.
Two large specimens of D. insignis obtained at Dominica I., in
1906, by A. II, Verrill, are in the Yale Museum. They occupy
shells of Trito)i variegat.us.
They were taken in fish-traps, in 10 to 25 fathoms, associated
with D. venosKS. The latter was much more common. Saussure's
type was from Guadeloupe.
Clibanarius tricolor (Gibbes) Stimp. Tricolored Eermit-Crab. Blue Hermit-
Crab.
Pagurus tricolor Gibbes, Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., iii, p. 189, 1850.
Clibanarixis tricolor Stimpson, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philad. , p. 234 [72],
1858. Rankin, op. cit.. p. 239, 1900 (Bahamas) ; vol. xli, p. 535 (Bermuda).
Benedict, Anom. Crust. Porto Rico, p. 142, pi. vi, fig. 2, 1901 (descr.).
Figures 61, 62, 63.
This is a small and very abundant species easily distinguished from
all others by its remarkable coloration, in which blue predominates.
61
62
Figure 61. — Clibanarius tricolor in a shell ol Modulus, x about 4 times. Phot.
A. H. V.
Figure 62. — The same, much enlarged, after Benedict.
The carapace and eye-stalks are generally bright blue; the antenna?
are annulated with bright orange ; chelipeds dark olive-green and
brown, irregularly spotted with blue, orange, and white; the chelae
us
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
are lighter olive with more numerous spots on the palm, becoming
paler or yellowish green distally and on the digits, with the granules
white. The ambulatory legs are bright blue, with about four orange
or bright yellow bands, at the articulations on the proximal end of
the segments, each yellow band preceded by a dark blue band;
Figure 63. — CUbanarius tricolor, x 2. Phot. A. H. V.
dactyls bright orange at base, followed b}' pale orange or whitish,
and covered by small bright orange spots ; tips of digits black,
excavate within. Several variations were noticed. One differed
from all others in having no blue color, except the blue ring that
precedes the orange band on the legs, but the legs had the usual
round orange spots. The chelae were orange red with white granules
and black tips.
Figure 64. — Slegias clibanarii, female, much enlarged; a, veutral; h, dorsal view.
After Richardson.
It is very abundant at Bermuda, among rocks and in tide pools at
low-tide. It occupies many kinds of small gastropod shells, such as
Cerithium, Modulus, Littorina, Neritina, Aiiochis, Columbella,
Natica. Frequently it takes possession of various land shells, com-
monly washed ashore. It is sometimes infested bj* a parasitic isopod
crustacean [iSter/ias clibanarii Richardson).*
* Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vpl. xxvii, p. 59, 1904 ; Monograph of Isopods of N.
America, p. 586. figs. 580, a, h, 1905.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 449
Some of the specimens taken in June and July, 1903, by the
members of the Biological Station, carried eggs.
Its range is from Florida (o the Antilles. Porto Rico (Benedict);
J3aharaas (Rankin).
Clibanarius Verrillii Eathbun. Spotted Hermit-Crah.
Clilxoiarius Verrillii M. J. Eathbun, Amer. Journ. Science, ser. iv. vol. xi,
p. 328, 1901. Verrill, these Trans., xi. p. 18, pi. viii, figs. 2, 3, 1901.
Plate XXVII, Figure 5. Plate XXVIII, Figure 6.
The following description was furnished by Miss Rathbun several
years ago:
" The anterior or hard part of the carapace is a little longer than
wide. The median projection of the front is moderately prominent,
greater than a right angle; the lateral projections of the front are
slightly marked and are broadly rounded. The sides of the carapace
diverge posteriorly. The eye-scales are narrow-triangular and are
tipped with a short spine. The eye-stalks are very slender and nearly
as long as the anterior part of the carapace; they reach to the middle
of the antennular flagella. The antennal acicle is slender and reaches
to the middle of the last joint of the peduncle ; the joint ends a
little bej'ond the middle of the eye-stalk ; the flagellum is about
twice as long as the eye-stalk."
" The chelipeds are similar in shape l:)ut noticeably unequal, the
propodus of the right being |^ the length of the left. The distal
margin of the carpus of both chelipeds is in line with the end of the
eyes. The merus of the larger cheliped is two-thirds as high as
long; its outer surface is marked by a few short, faint rugose lines;
the upper margin is siiiularly rugose. The carpus is furnished with
rough granules above and along the distal margin; there is a large
tubercle on the outer sui'face. The palm is subrectangular, about
equally long and high ; upper margin convex. The margins are
rough wnth granules ; the outer surface is nearly smooth. Both
fingers are stout and deflexed, and gape widely; the inner margins
are very unevenly toothed ; the upper margin of the dactylus is
bordered by two rows of sharp granules. The fingers are excavated
at the tips, which are white.
The smaller cheliped differs not on!}' in being shorter and nar-
rower, but in having the upper margin of the carpus and propodus
cut into stout spines, increasing in size distally. A similar large
spine is on the upper margin of the dactylus at the proximal third.
The right cheliped is more hairy than the left, with long light hairs.
450 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
The propodus of the second pair of feet reaches the extremity of
the large cheliped; the third i)air reaches about to the middle of the
dactylus of the second pair. Both these legs have a small spine at
the lower outer distal angle of the raerus, and a longer spine at the
upper distal angle of the carpus. The dactyl i are a little shorter
than the propodi. These legs are furnished sparingly with hairs."
Colors. — In formalin a ])inkish-white or yellowish-white ground"
color with small roundish spots of bright yellowish-red or orange
which are most numerous along the upper and distal margins of the
segments of the legs, where they tend to form irregular transverse
bands. There are four bands on each of the propodal and terminal
joints of the second and third pairs of legs; chelai and eye-stalks
spotted with red." (M. J. Rathbun.)
Total length about 40^"™. It becomes much larger.
Bermudas, 4 large and 1 small specimen (coll. Dr. F. V. Hamlin);
Yale Mus. and U. S. Nat. Mus."
" This species is nearer Cllbanarius than it is to any other
described genus, and Avhile it perhaps possesses all the essential
characters of that genus, it differs notably from the usual form of
Clibanarins in the inequality of the chelipeds."
No locality, except Bermuda, has been recorded for this rather
conspicuous species.
Clibanarius hebes Verrill, sp. nov.
Figures 65, 66.
Carapace constricted at the cervical suture ; front part shield-
shai)ed, longer than broad ; anterior edge five-angled ; central tooth
small, acute, a little more prominent than those at the base of the
antennie, with the intervening margin a little concave ; lateral angles
very obtuse and farther back ; surface glossy, with small scattered
punctfe over the middle, becoming larger and raised on slight rough
elevations laterally, each bearing one or several hairs ; the one next
the cervical suture, on each side, is larger in the form of a small low
rounded tubercle. Posterior part with marked longitudinal sunken
lines and scattered punct?e ; the sides hairy. Eye-stalks slender,
about as long as the width of the front of the carapace, shorter than
its length ; eye-scales small, oblique-ovate, pointed, close together.
Peduncle of antennulre nearly as long as eye-stalks. Antennje
longer than ambulatory legs ; the aciculum is narrow, tapered, acute
at tip, reaching slightly beyond the penultimate joint of the peduncle,
fringed on the inner edge and lip with long hairs.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
451
Chelipeds granulated and bairy, nearly equal in size and form; the
distal end of the carpus is aVjout even with the ends of the eyes ;
merus strongly compressed above proximally, and punctate ; carpus
covered with sharp granules, bearing one or several slender, pale
hairs ; on upper side they form two rows of larger acute granules ;
each row ends distally in a small acute denticle. Chelae not angular,
nor tapered, covered all around with rather small, sharp, nearly equal,
hair-bearing granules, which tend to form irregular lougitudinal
rows ; their hairs are pale and slender and too few to conceal the
granules; the digits, which are blunt and thick, end in broad, evenly
rounded, strong, black nails ; lateral edges of digits with sharp
white denticles. Ambulatory legs rather long, all about equal.
Figure 65. — Clibanarius hebes. Type, dorsal view; x about If. Phot. A. H. V.
glossy when drj^, covered M'ith small, rather sparce punctse, which
bear few slender, pale hairs ; the merus joint of all the legs is com-
pressed.
Color of chelipeds and legs, in alcohol, nearly iiniform bright
orange ; eye-stalks, antennae and front of carapace a lighter tint
of the same. There are no traces of bands, vittae, nor spots of
other colors.
The largest specimen (see figure 65) has the anterior part of the
carapace 7"™ long ; 6™™ wide ; posterior part's™"" long ; 9""" wide ;
length of eye-stalks, 9™™ ; length of chelae, 7"°^ ; diameter, 3™™ ;
length of first ambulatory legs, 26'""\
itSi A. E. Vcrrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Two small spocimons wore collected about 1877, by Dr, F. V.
Hamlin (Yale Mus., 3'294); a much larger specimen, which is the
one tigureil, was takiMi in tlie summer of 1903, by the party of the
Bermmla Biological Station, at Conev Island.
Figure l)l». — Clilnjnarius hebcs. anterior parts, x about 4. Phot. A. H. V.
Geo<fiuip/ifC((/ T>i\^tribtifion ; Ornyhi o/ (/w Bermudian Decapod
Jututia.
In the preceding article 7^= species, subspecies, or named varieties,
have been discussed, of which 10 have not been previously recorded
from Bermuda. Among these, 9 are described as new.
Of the total number. ~-2. equal to 93 per cent., have been recorded
also from the Florida Keys or the West Indies, or from both, demon-
strating the close faunal relations of the two regions. The macruran
Decajioda and other groups show similar relations.*
About o:> of the forms (about 08 per cent.) range from Florida to
Pernambuco, Brazil, or farther south.
A considerable number, about 25 species, or 31 per cent., extend
their range north of Florida to the coa.st of South Carolina or tarther
north, the greater portion of these reaching Cape Hatteras. Six or
seven reach southern New Jei"sev.
* The true Macruia of Bermuda (not included in this article) consist of 35
species. Of these 31 species (or 88 per cent.) belong also to the West Indian
fanua. a large part of them ranging south to Brazil. Eight of the species are
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 453
Two species, CaUinectes sapidns, Enpanopeus HerlMli and its
var. obesus, range northward to southern New England, as per-
manent residents.
Several others occur occasionally or sporadically on this coast,
being cari-ied nortiiward by the Gulf Stream, or by ship{)ing, but
fail to become natui'alized so far north, owing to the cold of winter.
It is evident, therefore, that the Bermuda Decapod Crustacean
fauna is an offshoot or colony from the West Indian fauna, with
only a slight admixture of species from other regions. In this
respect the Crustacea agree with the Anthozoa, Mollusca, Echino-
derms. Fishes, etc.
Of the total number, only seven species and subspecies are, so far
as now known, })eculiar to the Bermudas. These are all recently
described forms and no doubt most of them will soon be discovered,
also, in the West Indies. They are as follows: —
)Sesarmif. Ricordi, var. terrestris, Petrollsthes armatus, vai-. ixtlU-
nov. dus, nov.
Eupanopeus IIerhstii,\diV.minax, Mimida JBeanii, sp. nov.
nov. Ciihanarius VerrilUi Rathbun.
E. bermiidensis, var. sculptus, nov. Clibanarius hebes, sp. nov.
widely distributed free-swimming fdrms which extend their range even to the
Indian and Pacific Oceans ; 3 have been found on the west coast of Africa; 2 on
the southern coasts of Europe ; 9 species reach the Carolina coasts ; 1 ranges to
New England ; 3 to the Pacific eoas.t of North America.
Of the total number, 4 have not yet been found in the W. Indies, but one of
these is a new species, recently discovered, and another is, perhaps, not cor-
rectly named.
The marine Isopods, which have been well worked up by Miss Richardson,
afford a much larger proportion of species peculiar to Bermuda, so far as now
known, but that is largely due to the fact that the West Indian Isopods have
not been very thoroughly collected and studied.
Dr. B. W. Kunkel has found, among the 45 species of Bermuda Amjahipods,
a considerable proportion, 20-21, of Mediterranean species, but the West Indian
Amphipods are little known. Twenty species, so far as now known, are peculiar
to Bermuda, (Science, vol. xxvii, p. 489, 1908.)
The Bermuda Entomostraca have not been much stiidied. Among the para-
sitic species Mr. Chas. P. Wilson has recently identified the following : Nesipus
cu rf icaiidis Jiana, ; Pandarus Crayichii Leach (from shark) ; Lrpeophtheirus dis-
f^imiilafus Wilson (stomach of hamlet grouper).
In the spring of 1898 we found an undetermined Ostracode Crustacean abun-
dant in the rain-water tanks at Bailey Bay.
The three species of Stomatopoda are all West Indian forms.
i
454: .1. E. Ven'ill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
The following 24 species range northward on the American coast
to or beyond South Carolina, as permanent residents: —
Ocypode arenarius, (to N. Jer- Portunus Sayi.
sey.) Acheloiis anceps.
Planes minutus, (to N. Jersey.) A. Gibbesii.
Pliigvsia depressa. A. spinimanus, Sniithii.
(Jt/cloxantfiojys dentio/latus. A. Sebce.
Eupcaiopeus Herbstii, [to CCo^.) A. Ord%oayi.
E. Herbstii obesus, (to C. Cod.) A. depress! frons.
E. occidentalis. Stenorhynchus Sagittarius.
Euryfiuni limosmn, (to N. Jer- Podochela Riisei.
sey.) Mithrax forceps.
Eriphia gonagra. Macrocceloma trispinosum.
Callinectes ornatus. Calappa flammea.
C. sapidus, (to C. Cod.) Petrolisthes armatus.
Several of the species, mostly grapsoids, are found in most, or all,
tropical seas, as well as in the West Indies. They are as follows: —
Grapsus grapsus. Plagusia depressa.
Geograpsus lividus. Percnon planissimum.
Pachygrapsus transversus. Domecia hispida.
Planes tninutus. Petrolisthes armatus.
Of these the most widely distributed is probably Planes minutus,
which, in the Atlantic, ranges from Nova Scotia to the Straits of
Magellan, and in the Pacific from California to New Zealand, etc.
Nearly all the widely distributed species, included in the last list,
are found on the West Coast of Africa. But some additional
species, common to Bermuda and the W. Indies, are also found on
the West African coast. Namely :
Goniopsis cruentatus Calappa flammea
Callinectes marginatns, larvatus C. gcdlus, galloides
Stenorhynchus Sagittarius Hippa cubensis
On page 313, Cardisoma guanhumi is also given as occurring in
West Africa. Stimpson, Ortmanu and other writers have recorded
it from there, but Miss Rathbun (1900) places all such records under
C. armatum Herkl. The Pacific Coast record is also probably
erroneous.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 455
Probably the locality, Ascension I., given for Gecarciiais lateralis,
on p. 310, is erroneous, the species found there being G. lagostoma
M.-Edw.
Aside from the widely distributed grai)soid crabs, found in all
tropical seas, very few of the Bermuda species are found on the
Pacific coasts of Central and North America. But many others are
represented there by closely allied species or subspecies.* The species
that have been considered identical or distinguishable only as varie-
ties by recent good authorities are as follows :
Goniopsis cruentatiis * Percnon planissimton
* Grapsus grapsus *jDomecla hispida
"^ Geogrupsus lividns JEpialtusbituherculatus (varieties)
*Pachygrapsxis transversus * Calappa gcdliis (varieties)
* Planes mhiutiis Cycloes Bairdil (varieties)
* Plagusia depressa *Petrolisthes armatas
Those preceded by an asterisk are circumtropical.
It is well known that a considerable number of species of MoUusca,
Echinoderms, Anthozoa, etc., as well as Crustacea, are common to
West Africa, Brazil, and the West Indies. Such species may have
orio'inated on the African coast and from thence miajrated across the
Atlantic to South America, and thence northward to the W. Indies.
Florida, and Bermuda, during recent geological times. All the
species of Decapod Crustacea having this wide range exist for a
considerable length of time as free-swimming larval forms, in the
zoea and megalops stages. These larval forms may be carried long
distances by the prevailing oceanic currents, especially in the regions
of the trade winds.
It is scarcely admissible to suppose that they could have traveled
in the opposite directions, against the currents, unless by human
agency, in recent times.
Many Crustacea, including the higher and more active forms,
especially the grapsoid and cancroid crabs, are in the habit of hiding
among the clusters of bai'nacles, etc., attached to the bottoms of
vessels, and in this way they may be carried across the oceans in any
direction, so long as the temperature of the water is suitable for
their existence. In this way many tropical species reach the New^
England coast in summer, but die out during the winter.
* Mr. Walter Faxon has given, in parallel columns, comparative lists of the
closely related species occurring on the two coasts. See Mem. Mns. Comp.
Zoology, vol. xviii, pp. 235-337, 1895.
450 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Several species of crabs and shrimps habitually live among float-
ing sargassuiii, or attached to floating driftwood. This is the case
especially Avitli Planes minutus, Portimus Sayi, and some others.
That they have migrated to Bermuda in this way is very evident,
for they do so constantly, day by day, at the present time.
But the majority of the species common to Bermuda and the
West Indies do not have such habits, and must have migrated north-
ward in the free-swimming larval stages. The direction of the Gulf
Stream and prevailing wind currents are favorable for the transpor-
tation of free-swimming animals from the Bahamas, Cuba, etc., to
the Bermudas.
On the other hand, very few if any strictly East American species
have established themselves in the Bermudas, notwithstanding the
constant passage of vessels in (hat direction for nearly three hundred
years. Perhaps the temperature of the Gulf Stream is too high to
allow such species to be carried across it, or they may not be able to
endure the summer temperature of the Bermuda waters.
There are, likewise, no Decapod species of European or Mediter-
ranean origin known in the Bermuda fauna, though such are known
to occur in other orders, especially in those groups that habitually
cling- to the foul bottoms of vessels.
The chances of many species being introduced into Bermuda
waters by this means have been unusually good, for the great dry
dock has existed at the naval station for many years. And long
before that, even from the first settlement, the sheltered harbors and
beaches of Bermuda have been favorite places for the beaching of
vessels to clean their bottoms.
It would be of great scientific interest, as well as evident eco-
nomical benefit, to experiment with the introduction of edible East
American and West Indian Crustacea that do not now exist at the
Bermudas. Among those that might succeed are the large Southern
Rock Crab {Menippe rnercenaria) ; the West Indian Rock Crab
( Carpilius corallinus) ; the southern variety of the Edible Blue Crab
(Callinectes sapidus), and many others. Probably their fertilized
eggs could be transported far more easily than the adults, and in
vastlv greater numbers. With suitable arrangements at the new
Bermuda Biological Station, such eggs could easily be hatched and
the young liberated in great numbers, in suitable places.
It would probably be useless to attempt to introduce those species
that are restricted to our coast north of Cape Ilatteras, such as the
common lobster, but there seems to be no rtason why any species
i
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
457
from the Carolina coasts or the Florida Keys should not flourish in
Bermuda if once introduced there in considerable numbers and
protected from their enemies at first.
Probably hundreds of species have been accidentally carried there,
singly or in small numbers, in past times, which have failed to estab-
lish themselves, either because they became too far separated to find
their mates at the breeding season, or because they were too soon
eaten up by voi-acious fishes. Yet a single female crab, carrying
fertilized eggs, might succeed in introducing the species, for their
eggs often amount to 5,000, or even 10,000 at one time. Aside
from edible species, the introduction of the smaller kinds would
afford a large additional supply of food for useful fishes, and thus
benefit the fisheries.
Probably there is no locality in the world so well adapted by
nature for experiments in the naturalization of marine animals as
Bermuda. There are here numerous deep basins and ponds, of pure
sea water, due to fallen caverns, which have subterranean connec-
tions with the sea through pores and crevices in the porous lime-
stone, by which the sea water is constantly renewed. In such places
large numbers of marine creatures could be protected and allowed
to breed till well naturalized, and numerous enough to be safely
liberated. The equable temperature of the climate is also particu-
larly favorable for such experiments. That any given sjiecies of the
West Indian marine fauna is not now found in Bermuda does not
prove that it is not able to live there, but rather that it has lacked
the opportunity or means of arriving there.
There is a large field open here for enterprising naturalists and
biologists.
Figure 67. — Sesaruia Ricordi, var. terrestris, uov. Bermuda; x 154.
A. H. Veiril].
Phot.
458 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
BIBLIOG-RAPHY.
The following list is intended to include only the later works that
relate to the Bermuda species, especially' those in which special men-
tion is made, of specimens from Bermuda. But as the West Indian
species are largely the same as the Bermudian, works relating exclu-
sively to West Indian localities have also been included.
The earlier w^orks and those of a general character are sufficiently
indicated in the synonymy of the species.
Benedict, James E. — Notice of the Crustaceans collected by
the U. S. Scientific Expedition to West Africa, Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus., xvi, pp. 535-541, 1893, No. 949.
This article includes species taken at Barbados, Cape Verde Is., and Azores,
as well as those from W. Africa. A niTmber of the species named are found
also in Bermuda.
Benedict, James E. — The Anomuran Collections made by the
Fish Hawk p]xpedition to Porto Rico. Bulletin U. S. Fish Commis-
sion for 1900, vol. ii, pp. 129-148, pis. iii-vi, 1901.
Contains descriptions of all the Porto Eico genera and species, several of which
are found also in Bermuda.
Benedict, James E. and Rathbun, Mary J.— The Genus
Panopeus, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. xiv, No. 858, pp. 355-385,
pis. xix-xxiv, 1891.
A monographic revision of all the species of this group, with distribution.
Cole, George Watson. — Bermuda in Periodical Literature, Avith
occasional reference to Other Works. A Bibliography ; pp. 275,
with portrait of the author and 8 fac-simile reproductions of the
title-pages of ancient w^orks on Bermuda, 1907. Published by the
author. Riverside, Conn.
Includes notices of all works relating to Bermuda collections of Crustacea,
usiially with lists of the new species and new additions to the Bermuda fauna.
(Total number of titles given is 1382.)
Edwards. — See Milne-Edwards.
Gibbes, Levris R. — On the Carcinological Collections of the
United States, Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol. iii, pp. 1G7-201,
1850.
Godet, Theod. L. — See Verrill, Bermuda Is., i, p. 456, for review.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 459
Henderson, R. J. — Reports of the Voyage of tbe Challenger;
Zoology. iJeport on the Anomura, vol, xxvii, 1888.
Records only two shallow-water species from Bermuda. Also two deep water
species : ParajKigurus abi/ssorum Edw. and Munidopsis serratifrons Edw., both
from 1075 fatli.
Hurdis, John L. — Rougli Notes and Memoranda relating to the
Natural History of the Bermudas (edited by his daughter, H. J,
Hurdis). London: R. H. Porter, 1897, Svo, 408 pp.
This work relates mainly to the birds. The observations and notes were
mostly made from 1841 to 18.53. On p. 361 is a brief list of Crustacea (10
species) with their common names, and partly with Latin names, many of which
are incorrect. The species are as follows : — Land Crab {Gecarcinus ruricola) —
G. Idfcralis; "Edible Crab (Lupa cJiacanf.ha) of the United States," i3robably=
Callinectes ornatus ; Spider Crab (Libinia canaUcuIata), probably = iHi7/iraa?
sp. '.: Long-tailed Crab, Stump, or French Lobster {Scyllarus equinocfialis)
probably correct, now Scyllarides ; Soldier or Hermit Crab {Pacjurus ),
probably CfiJioMto diogrenes was referred to ; Cray Fish called "Lobster" (Pali-
nurus ), = ^. aryus. "It is of large size and fairly abundant. " Sand
Bug {Hippa ) — Hippa cubensis ; Common Prawn (Pahemon seyratus) prob-
ably =Pt>Ha'tts braziliensis, body 5.3 inches long ; Common Shrimp {Pahemon
vulgaris), = Palcemon affinis probably; Coral Crab = ? Mithrax cornutus ;
(" Pericera cornuta "),=Stenocionops furcatus. " Taken in a lobster pot."
His notes on the size, colors, and spines of the " Coral-crab" indicate a large
red spiny Mithrax, probably M. cornutus (possibly M. sjyinosissimus). He gives
some descriptive notes in regard to the large Prawn, stating that it has 6 chelate
legs, but none for the " Shrimp." The presence of six chelate legs and long
rostrum shows that his prawn was a Penceus. P. braziliensis is the only Ber-
muda species that grows to the size he gives. The "shrimp" is described as
abundant in tide pools. This would still apply to Palcemon affinis.
It is possible that the Callinectes sapidus, or " Edible Crab of the U. S," did
occur commonly at that time, but at that date the abundant C ornatus had not
been separated from it even by naturalists. His Libinia is, of course, very
doubtful (see above, p. 396). No species much resembling it is now known from
Bermiida.
Jones, J. Matthe'W. — The Visitors Guide to Bermuda. 12mo,
150 pp. Halifax, London, and New York, 1859.
A correct list of three species of Crustacea on page 145.
Kingsley, J. S. — List of Decapod Crustacea of the Atlantic
Coast, whose range embraces Fort Macon, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Philadelphia for 1878, pp. 316-328 (1878); 329-330 (1879)"; 1878-79.
Includes a number of Bermuda species with notes on their distribution, etc.
Kingsley, J. S. — Notes on North American Crustacea, Proc.
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xx, pp. 145-160, 1879.
Contains description of Mithrax Mrsutipes, nov. sp.
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 32 April, 1908.
i.
460 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Kingsley, J. S. — On a Colleetion of Crustacea from Virginia,
North Carolina, and Florida, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadeliiliia for
1879, vol. xxi, pp. 383-427, 1880.
A very useful paper, including many of the Bermuda sjiecies.
Kingsley, J. S. — Carcinological Notes, No. iii. Revision of the
•Genus Ocypoda, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia for 1880, pp.
179-186, 1880.
Kingsley, J. S. — Carcinological Notes, No. iv. Synopsis of the
Grapsidae, IVoc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia for 1880, pp. 187-224.
Martens, E. Von. — Ueber Cubanische Crustaceen, Arch, fur
Naturg., ii, p. 147, 1872.
Miers, Ed^ward J. — On the ClassiHcation of the Maioid Crustacea
or Oxyrhyncha, with a synopsis of the families, subfamilies, and genera,
Journ. Linn. Soc. London, vol. xiv, pp. 634-673, pis. xii, xiii, 1879.
Miers, Ed^ward. J. — Reports of the Voyage of the Challenger.
Zoology. Report on the Brachyura, vol. xvii, 1886.
Includes a amall number of common species collected at Bermuda, with descrip-
tions (see above, p. 301). Also a new deep water species : Geryon ? incertus,
435 fathoms.
Milne-Edwards, Alphonse. — Etudes zoologiques sur les Crus-
taces recentes de la famille des Portuniens, Arch. Mus, Hist. Nat.,
Paris, vol. x,pp. 309-428 + 2 pp. addenda, plates xxviii-xxxviii, 1861.
A monograph of the Poi'tunidse.
Milne-Edwards, Alphonse. — Etudes zoologiques sur les Crus-
taces recentes de la famille des Canceriens, Nouv. Arch. Mus. Hist.
Nat. Paris, vol. i, pp. 177-308, pis. xi-xix, 1865,
Milne-Edwards, Alphonse.— Mission Scientifique au Mexique
et dans TAmcrique Centrale, Recherches Zoologiques publ. sur la
Directi6n de M. H. Milne-Edwards. Part V. E:tudes sur les
Xiphosures et les Crustaces Podothalmaires par M. Alphonse Milne-
Edwards. Paris, 1873-1880. Large 4to, 368 pages, with 61 plates.
This very extensive work on the Brachyura includes all the West Indian
species of the families treated, known uj) to the time of publication. Most of the
species are well figured, with many details of structure.
It was published in numbers. The 2d, which begins the systematic part, is
dated, on the original cover, 1873 ; the 3d is 1875; 4th, 1878 ; 5th, 1879 ; 6th,
1879 ; 7th, 1880 ; 8th, 1880.
It is the most important and useful work relating to the Brachyura of the West
Indian region, both on account of the large number of figures and the very good
descriptions. The Pacific coast species are also included. This book is now
rare and expensive.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 461
Ord^way, Albert. — Monograph of the Genus Callinectes, Jouni.
Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. vii, pp. 567-583.
For a biographical sketch of the author, see above, p. 384.
Ortmann, Arnold. — Decapoden inid Schizopoden der Plankton
Exped., Ed. ii, 1893.
Eecords nine Bermuda species.
Rankin, W. M. — The Northrop Collections of Crustacea from
the Bahamas, Annals N. York Acad. Sci., xi, pp. 225-254, pi. xxix,
XXX, 1898.
Rankin, W. M. — The Crustacea of the Bermuda Islands, with
notes on the Collection made by the New York University Expedi-
tions of 1897 and 1898. Annals New York Acad. Science, vol. xii.
No. 12, pp. 521-548.
For a notice of this useful i^aper, see above, p. 301. It includes the species
collected by Mr. G. Brown Goode.
Rathbun, Mary J. — Catalogue of the Crabs of the Family
Maiida' in the U. S. National Museum, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol.
xiv. No. 927, pp. 63-103, pis. iii-viii, 1891.
Rathbun, Mary J. — Catalogue of the Crabs of the Family
Periceridaj in the U. S. National Museum, Proc. U. S. Nat, Mus.,
vol. XV, No. 901, pp. 231-277, pis. xxviii-xl, 1892.
Rathbun, Mary J. — Notes on the Crabs of the Family Ina-
cliidiL' in the U, S. National Museum, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol.
xvii, No. 984, pp. 4.3-75, 1894.
Rathbun, Mary J. — The Genus Callinectes, Proc. U. S. Nat.
Mus., vol. xviii, No. 1070, pp. 349-375, pis. xii-xxviii, 1896,
A monographic treatment of the genus, v^^ith full descriptions and synonymy.
Rathbun, Mary J. — Synopsis of the American Sesarmae, with
description of a new species, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. xi,
pp. 89-92, 1897,
Descriptions of previously known species, except S. Miersii a Bermuda species,
are given only in the form of an analytical table.
Rathbun, Mary J. — The Brachyura of the Biological Expedi-
tion to the Florida Keys and the Bahamas in 1893. Bulletin from
the Laboratories of Natural History of the State Universit}^ of Iowa,
vol. iv. No. 3, pp. 250-294, pis. i-ix, 1898.
In this work 127 species ai'e enumei'ated ; many new species are descilbed,
and various genera and species are revised or renamed. Many of the species
are foimd also at Bermuda. The general distribution is not given, and but few
descriptions of previously known species.
i
462 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Rathbun, Mary J. — Synopses of North American Invertebrates.
VII. Tlie Cvcloinetopous or Cancroid Crabs of North America,
Amer. Naturalist, xxxiv, No. 398, pp. 131-143, Feb., 190U. X. The
Oxj-rhynchous and Oxystomatous Crabs of North America, op. cit.,
No. 402, pp. 503-520, June, 1000. XI. The Catemetopous or Grap-
soid Crabs of North America, op. cit., No. 403, pp. 58-3-592, .luly,
1900.
A few Bermuda species are inchided. The analytical tables are very usefnl.
Rathbun, Mary J. — The Decapod Crustaceans of West Africa,
Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., xxii, pp. 271-316, 1900.
Some of the species described are recorded as found also at Bermuda.
Rathbun, Mary J. — Results of the Bi-anner-Agassiz Exp. to
Brazil, Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., ii, pp. 133-136, pi. viii, 1900.
Many of the species are found also in Bei'umda.
Rathbun, Mary J. — The Brachyura and Macrura of Porto
Rico. From the U. S. Fish Conim. Bulletin, for 1900, vol. ii, ])p.
1-13V, pi. i, ii, 1901.
In this excellent report, brief but clear descriptions are given of all the genera
and species, as well as analytical tables of the genera and higher groups. (See
also p. 802, above.) Very few species are figured. All the siiecies are named
that had been previously recorded from Bermuda, with their general distribu-
tion.
Rathbun, Mary J.— Some Changes in Crustacean Nomencla-
ture, Proc. Biological Soc. Washington, xvii, pp. 169-172, 1904,
Proposes a number of radical changes in crustacean nomenclature based on
suggestions of Fredericus Weber, 1795, in a rare and obscure work, in which
the generic names are only given by name, with no definitions, but with a state-
ment that they would be published later by Fabricius.
Stebbing, Rev. T. R. R., in Linn. Soc. Journ., xxix, p. 325, has criticised her
conclusions, on the ground that the generic names were only mere suggestions
of what was to be published later by Fabricius, and on that account had no
claims to recognition until actually published and defined by him. This seems
to be a common sense view of the case, for this advance and erroneous pub-
lication of his MSS. names appeal's not to have been authorized by Fabricius.
Rathbun, Richard. — The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of
the United States, Crustaceans, pt. v, pp. 763-830, pis. cclx-cclxxv,
in separate volume, 1884.
Saussure, Henrie dR. — Memoire sur divers Crustaces nouveaux
des Antilles, et du Mexique, Memoirs Phys. et Hist, nat., Geneva,
vol. xiv, pp. 419-494, -f index, \}h. i-iv, 1858.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 463
Smith, Sidney Irving. — Notes on New or Little-known Spe-
cies of American Cancroid Crustacea, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.,
vol. xii, pp. 274-289, .1869.
One species from Bermuda is recorded; several are fully described.
Smith, Sidney I. — Notice of the Crustacea collected by Prof.
C. F. Hartt, on the Coast of Brazil in 1867. These Trans., vol. ii,
pp. 1-42, pi. i, 1869.
Five species from Bermuda (coll. J. M. Jones) are recorded. A general list of
Brazilian Crustacea, with their distribution, is given. Many of the species are
well described.
Smith, Sidney I.— Notes on American Crustacea, No. 1, Ocy-
podoidea. Trans. Conn. Acad. Sci., vol. ii, pp. 113-176, pis. ii-v, 1870.
Smith, Sidney I. — The Megalops stage of Ocypoda, Amer.
Jouni. Science, vi, p. 67, Jnl}^, 1873.
Smith, Sidney I. — Occasional occurrence of tropical and sub-
tropical species of Decapod Crustacea on the Coast of New England,
Trans. Conn. Acad. Sci., vol. iv, pp. 254-267, 1880.
Gives details of occurrence of 7 Bermuda species of crabs on the New Eng-
land coast, due to influence of Gulf Stream, with full synonymy of some of the
species, measurements, and notes on variation, etc.
Smith, Sidney I. — Preliminary notice of the Crustacea dredged
in 64-325 fathoms, off the South Coast of New England by the
IT. S. Fish Commission in 1880, Proc. Nat. Museum, Washington,
vol. iii, pp. 413-452, for 1880, Jan., 1881.
Smith, Sidney I. — Report on the Decapod Crustacea of the
Albatross Dredgings off the East Coast of the United States during
the Summer and Autumn of 1884. Rept. U. S. Commissioner of
Fish and Fisheries for 1885, pp. 605-705, 1886.
Includes several species that are found in Bermuda.
Stone, Witmer, in Heilprin, Angelo. — The Bermuda Islands,
Crustacea on pp. 146-149. Philadelphia, 1889.
Enumerates 36 species of Crustacea, of which 7 are Macrura. A few are incor-
rectly named ; none are described. (See also p. 300, above.)
Stimpson, William. — Notes on North American Crustacea,
No. I, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. New York, vol, vii, pp. 49-93, pi. i, 1859.
Stimpson, William. — Notes on North American Crustacea,
No. II, Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. New York, vol. vii, pp. 176-246, pis. ii, v.
yT
464 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Stimpson, William. — Notes on Nortli Aiiarican Crustacea in
the Museum of the Smithsonian Institution, No. Ill, Ann. Lye. Nat.
Hist. New York, vol. x, jip. 92-136, 1871.
In this and the two preceding works, large numbers of new species and genera
are described from Florida and the West Indies. No Bermuda localities are given.
Stimpson, "William. — Preliminary Report on the Crustacea
Dredged in tne Gulf Stream in the Straits of Florida, by L. F. de
Pourtales, Assist. U. S. Coast Survey, ])t. i, Brachj'ura, Bull. Mus.
Comp. Zool., vol. ii, pp. 109-160, 1871.
Includes descriptions of large niimbers of new West Indian genera and species,
mostlj- from deep water.
Verrill, Addison E. — Additions to the Crustacea and Pvcno-
gonida of the Bermudas, Trans. Conn. Acad. Sci., vol. x, pt. ii, pp.
573-582, pis. Ixvii-lxix, 1900.
Verrill, Addison E.— Additions to the Fauna of the Bermudas
from the Yale Expedition of 1901, with Notes on Other Species.
Op. cit., vol. xi, pp. 15-62, pi. i-ix, 1901.
Verrill, Addison E. — The Bermuda Islands, vol. i, pp. 37, 53,
289, 293-296, figs. 22a, 56, 57, 250, pi. xciv, fig. 1, 1903. A repaged
reprint (with additions) from Trans. Conn. Acad. Science, vol. xi.
See pp. 449, 464, 701, 705-708, figs. 22a, 56, 57, 250, pi. xciv, 1903.
A second edition, with a supplement, seven additional plates, and
a map, 1907. Published by the author. New Haven, Conn.
Observations on the early history and habits of Panulirus argiis, Cenohita
diogenes, Gecarcinus lateralis, etc.
Verrill, Addison E. — Geology and Paleontology of Bermuda,
Trans. Conn. Acad., vol. xii, pp. 158, 179, 196, 197, fig. 60, 1906.
Discusses occurrence of Cenohita diogenes as a fossil.
Von Martens, see Martens.
Willemoes-Suhm, R. Von. — On some Atlantic Crustacea from
the Challenger Expedition, Trans. Linn. Soc, London, ser. 2, vol. i,
pp. 23-29, Sept., 1875.
Refers to the land crabs and to the Mangrove Crab, Goniojjsis crueutatus
(habits); mentions taking personally several crabs " allied to Boscia " { = Psetido-
thelphusa). Describes Nebalia longipes, p. 26.
Young, Chas. G. — Thb Stalk-eyed Crustacea of British Guiana
West Indies, and Bermuda, London, 1900, xix + 514 i)p., 7 colored pis'
Contains brief description of many Bermuda .species. Twenty-three species
previously recorded by others, are attribiited to Bermuda.
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 465
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
All the figures, unless otherwise stated, have been made from
photographs of the subjects by Mr. A. Hyatt Yerrill. In nearly all
cases Bermuda specimens Avere used for this purpose. Unless the
locality is otherwise given, it is to be understood as Bermuda.
Plate IX.
Figure 1. — Cardisoma guanhumi : dorsal view of a lialf -grown male from Ber-
muda ; ^3 iiat. size.
Figure^ 2, 3. — Ocypode arenarius, male and female ; about ^ nat. size, resting
on Bermuda shell-sand.
Plate X.
Figure 1. — Plagusia depressa, dorsal view of female, about % nat. size.
Figure 2. — Sesarma Ricordi, 2 ; typical, about IJ^ nat. size.
Figure 3. — Percnon planissimum , S ; about 1}^ nat. size.
Figure 6. — Grajjsus grapsus. Large chela of male ; f^ nat. size.
Plate XI.
Figure 1. — Goniopsis crueniatus ; about 5^^ nat. size.
Figure 2. — Grapsus grapsiis ; about 73 nat. size.
Figure 3. — Sesarma Ricordi, var. terrestris, nov. Co-type ; x about 2.
Plate XII.
Figure 1. — Cyclograpsus integer, dorsal view of a West Indian specimen, about
nat. size.
Figure 2. — Pachygrapsus gracilis, 2 , dorsal view of a Bermuda specimen, x 13^.
Figure 3. — Pachygrapsus transversus, S , x about 132-
Figure 3«. — The same 2 , x about IJ^ ; 36, large chela, somewhat enlarged.
Figure 4. — Percnon x>lanissimum, large chela of male, slightly enlarged ; h, the
tuft of hair on inner side of merus.
Figure 4a. — Goniopsis cruentatus ; large chela of male, IJ^ nat. size.
Figure 5. — Sesarma Miersii, dorsal view of carapace, x about 2.
Plate XIIT.
Figures a-j' . — Planes minutus, dorsal view of 36 specimens selected from a
large lot taken at one time and place at Bermuda, to show variations in
form and color, about ^^ nat. size.
466 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Plate XIV.
Figure 1. — Lobopilumnus Agassizii, var. bermudensis, 6 ; No. 3031, from Ber-
miida ; x about 1,'..
Figure 2. — The same, No. 3123 ; female with eggs ; central view ; enlarged
about n^;.
Figure 3. — Eripliiu yunayra, $ ; about Jl nat. size.
Figure 4. — Xanthodius parviilus, 5; dorsal view ; x 1%.
Figure 5. — Liomera dispar, $ ; No. 3176, dorsal view of a Bermuda specimen ;
X about 11 2.
Figure 0. — Platypodia spectahilis, i ; dorsal vijw of a fresh specimen from
Bermuda ; about nat. size.
Figure 7. — Leptodius floi'idanus, $ , dorsal view ; about nat. size.
Figure S. — Cycloxantliops denticulatus, dorsal view ; about nat. size.
Figure 9. — Eupan<>p)eus bermudensis, var. scxiljjtus ; nat. size.
Figure 10. — Eurytium limosum, dorsal view of a small specimen from Bahia,
Brazil, nat. size.
Plate XV.
Figure 1. — Eupanopeus Herhstii, var. obesus, $. ; dorsal view, about nat. size.
Figure 2. — E. Herbstii, minax, nov., 3 ; dorsal view of the type from Bermuda:
y'ij nat. size.
Figure 3. — E. Herbstii, $ , typical ; from a Bermuda specimen ; x about 1}^.
Plate XVI.
Figure 1. — Eujjanopeus serratus, $ ; from Bermuda ; about nat. size.
Figure 2. — E. occidentalis, female with eggs. No. 3021, from Bermuda ; x about
Figure 3. — E. bermudensis, var. sciiJptus, nov., 2 ; x about 23>2.
Figure 4. — E. bermudensis, $ ; No. 3280; a, carapace: b, large chela, x about
Figure 5. — E. serratus, S , No. 3019, carapace ; x about It^ ; b, large chela of
the same.
Plate XVII.
Figure 1. — Callinectes ornatus, S ; dorsal view of a fresh Bermuda specimen,
about 7:3 nat. size.
Figure 2. — C sapidus, $ ; dorsal view of a fresh New Haven specimen ; about
3^ nat. size.
Plate XVIII.
Figure 1. — Callinectes marginatus, larvatus, $ ; dorsal view of a young Ber-
muda specimen. No. 19036; x about l-^j.
Figure 2. — Fortumis Sayi, $ ; from oii New Jersey, No. 4036; x about 1}-^.
Figure 3. — Achelous Ordwayi, young ; about nat. size.
J
A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda. 467
Plate XIX.
Figure l.— CharyhdeUa tumidula, dorsal view of a Benjauda specimen, No. 673,
F. M.; X about Ifr.
Figure 2.—Achelous Smithii, No. 40356 ; cotype, dorsal view ; x about ly^ ;
25, chela of the same, front view. Cotype from off Cape Hatteras.
Plate XX.
Figures 1, 3. — Achelous anceps. dorsal view of fresh Bermuda specimens; x
about H.
Figure 3. — A. depressifrons, dorsal view of a fresh Bermuda specimen ; x
about 1^.
Plate XXI.
Figure 1. — Portunus Sayl, 6 , view of ventral side of No. 4036, from off New
Jersey ; x about 1|.
Figure 8. — Achelous Smithii, ventral view of immature female. Cotype No.
4035, from off Cape Hatteras ; x about 1^.
Figure 3. — Callinectus marginatus, larvatus, ventral view of young male. No.
19036, from Bermuda ; x about 1|.
Plate XXII.
Figure 1. — Stenovhynchus Sagittarius, about i nat. size; a, frontal area; 6,
outer luaxilliped ; c, sternum ; d, male abdomen. After A. M. -Edwards.
Figure 3. — Podochela Riisei, about 1^ nat. size. After A. M. -Edwards.
Figure 3. — Macrocoeloma siibparallelum, $ ; a, dorsal view, about nat. size ; c,
left chela; d, ventral surface of male. After A. M. -Edwards.
Plate XXIII.
Figure 1. — Mithrax depressus ? or M. hispidus ; young t, , No. 3019 ; from Ber-
muda ; X about 2*.
Figure 2. — Mithrax depressus, 9 , No. 3265, from Saint Thomas ; x about IJ.
Figure 3. — Mithrax hispidus, ? , No. 4058, from Bermuda ; x about 14.
Figure 4. — Mithrax hispidus, S, No. 4054, immature, from Bermuda; x Ij^-
Plate XXIV.
Figure 1. — Epialtus bituberculatus, bennudensis, type; x 1|.
Figure 3. — Mithrax hispidus, 2 . Under side of No. 4058. See pi. xxiii, fig. 3.
Figure 3. — Chorinus heros, 6 ; dorsal view ; x about IJ. After Cuvier.
Figure 4. — Mithrax forceps, hirsutipes ; adult male ; nat. size.
Figures 5, 6. — The same ; young ; about nat. size.
Plate XXV.
Figure 1. — Calappa flammea ; about f nat. size.
Figure 2. — Stenocionops furcatus, S , f nat. size, with hairs removed from left
side, but with an attached chalinid spojige, which is infested with parasitic
polyps of Parazoanthus 2Kf>~clsitic^^s. From Dominica ; about i nat. size.
468 A. E. Verrill — Decapod Crustacea of Bermuda.
Plate XXVI.
Figure 1. — Oeograpsus Hvidus, 5 , larger chela, x li^.
Figure 3. — Calappa gallus, galloides ; dorsal view ; about nat. size.
Figure 4. — Dardanus venosus ; a, 2d ambulatory leg of left side; enlarged
about If; mm, merus; ca, carpus ; p, propodite; d, dactyl ; b, c, parts of the
corresponding leg of D. insignis, lettered as before. Photo, from Domin-
ica specimens by A. H. V.
Figure 5. — Portions of the propodite of the rame legs as those in fig. 4, more
enlarged ; a, Dardanus venosus ; b, D. msignis.
Plate XXVII.
Figure 1. — Pilumnus sjnnijies, dorsal view of male from Bermuda, No. 3119;
Figure 2. — Cycloes Bairdii, typical .form, front view of a cotype from Cape
St. Lucas, Gulf of California: x aboiit li.
Figure 3. — PetroUsthes armatus ; about nat. size.
Figure 4. — Achelovs anceps ; dorsal view; x about 1^ ; a, cheliped ; b, swim-
ming leg.
Figure 5. — Clibanarius Verrillii, cotypes ; a, side view ; b, dorsal view ; about
nat. size.
Figure 6. — Planes minutus ; dorsal view of a fresh specimen ; x 1^.
Figure 7. — Cycloxanthops denticulatus, dorsal view ; natural size.
Figures 8, 9. — Munida Beanii, types. Dorsal view of carapace, etc., x about 5.
Plate XXVIII.
Figure 1. — Albunea oxyophthalnia, side view of a Bermuda specimen; | nat.
size.
Figure 2. — Drom,idia antillensis ; about nat. size.
Figure 3. — The same. Cheliped of a Brazilian specimen ; x about 4.
Figure 4. — PetroUsthes armatus; cheliped; x about 4.
Figure o.^Parthenope crenulatus ; x about 3.
Figure 6. — Calcinus sulcatus; slightly enlarged.
Figure 7. — Clibanarius Verrillii, cotype ; slightly enlarged.
Figure 8. — Troglocarcinus corallicola, 2 , partially out of its den in a coral
(3ftisso) from Dominica I. ; x about thi-ee times. The crab was intentionally
placed in a den belonging to an older individual, otherwise but little of it
could be seen. Phot. A. H. V. .
Index to Scientific and Common Names.
Aeantho])us Gibbesii, 334.
planissimiis, 834.
Achelous, geims, 365, 373.
key to species, 375.
auceps, 375, 378, 454.
depressifrons, 374, 375, 391, 454.
Gibbesii, 374, 375, 386. 389, 454.
Ordwayi, 375, 381, 382, 383, 454.
Seb», 374, 875, 380, 454.
Smithii, 864, 374, 375, 386, 387, 888.
spinicarpns, 365, 374, 375.
spinimaiia, 385.
spinimanus, 373, 374, 375, 385, 886,
387, 388, 454.
spinimanus, Smithii, 387.
sulcatns, 365, 375.
tumidulus, 393.
Actaea, genns, 835.
setigera, 388.
Additional species fi'om deep water, 459,
460.
Albunea oxyophthalma, 488.
Gibbesii, 438.
Paretii, 488.
Albuneidfe. 438.
Alpliens, 303.
Amphioxus, 303.
Amphipods, distribution of, 453.
Amphitrite depressifrons, 891.
Anomnra, 430, 438.
Arenaens cribrariixs, 365.
Attergatis lobatus, 836.
Beach crab. 306.
Biographical notes, L. Agassiz, 371.-
G. Brown Goode, 301.
J. M. Jones, 300.
Albert Ordway, 384.
Blue crab, 365, 370.
Boscia, 396.
Box crab, 420.
Brachyura, key to tribes, 305.
distribution of, 452.
Brachyura anomala, 430.
Calappa flammea, 420, 454.
gallus, 422.
gallus, galloides, 422, 454.
marmorata, 420, 454.
Calappidfe, 420.
Calcinus obscurus, 439, 441.
sulcatus, 439, 44u.
tibicen, 439, 441.
Calliactis tricolor, 416.
Calico crab, 386.
Callinectes, 365. ^
Callinectes, key to species of, 366.
DansB, 864, 366, 370.
diacanthus, 365, 370.
hastatus, 371.
larvalus, 368.
marginatus, 364, 866, 368, 870.
marginatus larvatus, 368, 454.
ornatus, 365, 866, 369, 878, 454.
sapidus, 365, 866, 370, 371, 453,
454. 456.
tumidus, 365.
Cancer arenarius, 306.
borealis, 396.
cornudo, 415.
depressus, 332.
erythropus, 430.
flammea, 420.
furcatiis, 415.
gallus, 422.
gouagra, 362.
grapsus, 317.
heros, 398.
hispidus, 404.
limosa, 358.
lobatus. 336.
maculatus, 317.
minutus, 325.
panope, 844.
Ijarvukis, 340.
planissimus. 334.
quadratus, 306.
ruricola, 314.
Sagittarius, 397.
spectabilis, 836.
venustus. 336.
Cancroidea, 335.
Cardisoma armatiim, 454.
guanhumi. 303, 310. 811, 454.
Carpilius corallinus, 456.
Catometopa, 806.
Cenobita Diogenes, 438.
Cenobitidae, 438.
Cepon distorta, 323.
Chary bdella. 866, 374.
rubra, 365, 374, 375, 393.
tumidula, 299, 364, 374, 375.
Chloi'odius americanus, 340.
dispar, 343.
floridanus, 342.
limosus, 842.
Choriniis armatus, 416.
heros, 898.
Clibanarius hebes, 450, 451, 452, 453.
tricolor, 447, 448.
Verrillii, 449, 453.
Coryrhynchus Riisei, 398.
L
470
INDEX.
Cyclometopa, 335.
Crab, bandana, 3:56.
beach, 300.
box, 420.
box, yellow, 422.
calico, 336.
coral. 400, 404.
fiddler, 323.
cliff. 317.
edible, 360, 370.
flat, 334.
ghost, 306.
Gulf stream, 325, 326.
hairy, 338.
hermit, 430.
hermit blue, 447.
hermit land, 306, 439.
hermit red-veiued, 441.
hermit spotted, 449.
hermit tricolored, 447.
land, 308, 310.
land, great, 310, 438, 439.
mangrove, 314.
mottled shore, 321.
Tock, 456.
red shore, 317.
silvery clawed, 381.
spider, 399, 407, 413, 414.
spider, large, 404.
spider, red, 400, 413, 414,
sponge-carr^dng, 430.
swimming, 364.
Cronius bispinosus, 393.
Cryptochirus coralliodytes, 429.
Cycloes Bairdii, 423, 424, 425.
Bairdii, atlantica, 419, 423, 425.
Cyclograpsus integer, 300, 331.
Cyclois Bairdii. 423.
Cyclometopa, 305.
Cycloxanthops denticulatus, 389, 454.
Dardanus insignis, 441, 446.
venosus. 441 , 442. 445.
Deformed claw. 396.
Deep-water species, 459, 460.
Distribution of Amphipods, 453.
Anomura, 452.
Brachyura. 452.
Macrura. 452.
Domecia, 33().
hispida, 364, 454,
Doi'ippicbe, 436.
Doubtful species, 396.
Dromiacea, 430.
Dromidt's, 430.
Droniiida', 4;>0.
Dromiidea, 430.
Dromia ervthropus, 299, 430.
lator, 430.
Dromidia antillensis, 431, 432.
Edible crab. 306, 370, 456.
Emerita taliiuidea, 437.
Entomostraca, 453.
Epialtus bituberculatns, 303, 399.
l)ituberculatus, bermudensis, 399.
dilatatus, 399.
longirostris, 399.
sulcirostris, 399.
Eriphia, genus, 336.
gonagra, 362, 454.
Et'iusa, 426.
Eupanojieus, key to species of, 343.
americanus. 346, 350, 351.
areolatus, 350.
Eupanopeus bermudensis, 372, 356.
bermudensis, sculptus, 357.
Herbstii, 344, 351, 453, 454.
Herbstii, minax, 348, 350, 453.
Herbstii obesus, 347, 453, 454.
occidentalis, 351, 352, 354, 454.
serratus, 342, 353, 354.
Eurytium, 335.
limosum, ,358, 359, 454.
Eupilumniis Websteri, 364.
Fiddler-crabs, 323.
Galatheida>, 433, 435,
Galatheidea, 433.
Galatheoidea, 433.
Gecarcinidje, 308, 459.
Gecarcinus lateralis, 308, 309.
lagostoma, 308.
ruricola, 459.
Gelasimus, 306.
pugilator. 323.
Geographical distribution. 452.
Geograpsus lividus, 320. 321, 454.
occidentalis, 320, 321.
Geryon ? incertus, 460.
Ghost-crab. 306.
Glypturus Branneri, 299.
Goniograpsus cruentatus, 314.
innotatus, 322.
Gohioi^sis, 314.
cruentatus, 303, 314, 315.
ruricola, 314.
Gonodactylus CErstedi, 303.
Grapsidop. key to genera, 313, 314.
Grapsns, 314.
altifrons, 317.
cinereus, 325.
cruentatus, 314.
grapsus, 317, 332, 333, 454.
lividus, 320.
longipes, 314.
macnlatus. 317.
minutus, 325.
ornatus, 317.
pelagicus, 325.
pelli, 314.
pictus, 317.
transversus, 321.
Webbi, 317.
Gulf-weed crab, 325, 326.
INDEX.
471
Hapalocarcinidas, 426, 427.
Hapalocarcinidea, 42(5.
Hapalocarciniis marsnpialis, 429.
Hermit crab, 439.
blue, 447
land, 438. 439.
red spotted, 439, 449.
red-veined, 441.
tricolored. 447.
Heteractaea, 333.
Heteractrea ceratopns, 341.
Heteromacrnra, 433.
Hippa. geniis, 436.
adactyla, 436.
cnbeiisis, 303, 436, 437, 454.
scntellata, 436.
HippidiTs, 436.
Hippidea, 433, 436.
Hippoidea, 436.
Houiolidea, 430.
Inachidfe, 397.
Isopods, 453.
Juey, 310.
Key to genera of Grapsidse, 318, 814.
Pilnmnidte, 335.
Portixnidfe, 365.
species of Achelous and Portuniis,
375.
Eupanopetis, 343, 344.
Mithrax, 400.
Tribes of Bracbynra, 305.
Lambrus creniilatns, 417.
Pourtalesii, 418, 419.
Verrillii, 418, 419.
Land crabs, 308, 309.
bermit crabs, 438, 439.
Latreiites ensiferus, 326.
Leander tenuicornis, 326, 377.
Leidya distorta, 323.
Leiolophus planissimus, 334.
Lepeopbtlieirus dissimulatus, 453.
Leptodins, 335.
americanns, 340.
dispar, 343.
floridanus, 342, 357.
Leptopodia lanceolata, 397.
ornata, 397.
sagittaria, 397.
Lencosoidea, 420.
Libinia canaliculata, 396, 459.
emarginata, 396.
Liomera, 335.
dispar, 343.
Livona pica, 439.
Lobopilnmnns Agassizii. 359, 360.
Agassizii, berrandensis, 360.
pulcbellns, 359.
Lopbactpea lobata, 336.
Lupa diacantba, 370, 373.
Lnpa Ducliassagni, 378.
Gibbesii, 389.
hastata, 370.
pelagica, 376.
Sayi, 376.
Sebae, 3H0.
spiuimana, 385.
Liipea anceps, 378.
Macrocoeloma trispinosum, 414, 454.
trispinosa, 414.
snbparallehim, 415.
Macrnra aiiomala, 433.
distribution of, 452.
Maeandra clivosa, parasitt; of. 428.
Maia, 399.
sagittaria, 397.
spiuicincta, 404.
taurus. 415.
Maiida?, 399.
Maioidea, 397.
Mamaiidae, 399.
Mangrove crab, 314.
Menippe mercenaria. 456.
Metopograpsns dubius, 322.
gi'acilis, 324.
miniatus, 322.
Micropanope spinipes, 361.
Microphrys bicornutiis, 413.
Milnia bicornnta, 413.
Mitbracina?, 399.
Mithraculns, 400.
forceps, 303, 409.
Mitbrax, key to species of, 400, 403.
cornntvis, 400, 401. 402.
depressus, 400, 406, 407, 408, 409.
forceps, 400, 409, 412, 454.
forcejis, liirsutipes, 400, 409, 410.
birsuiipes, 400, 412.
bispidus, 400, 404, 406, 407, 408,
409.
sculptns, 411. 412.
spinosissimus, 400. 401, 402, 403".
Monolepis inermis. 306.
Munida Beanii, 435, 453.
simplex, 436.
Mnnnidopsis serratifrons, 459.
Mussa, parasite of, 428.
Nantilograpsus minntus, 325.
Nebalia longipes, 464.
Nemansa acnticornis, 403.
rostrata, 403.
Neptunus anceps, 378.
depressifrons, 391.
diacanthiis, 370.
Gibbesii, 389.
bastatus, 373, 376.
marginatus, 368, 369.
Ordwayi. 381.
Sayi, 376.
Sebfe, 380.
tumidulus, 393.
472
INDEX.
Neptanns ventralis, 378, 379,
Nesipns curticaudis, 453.
Ocypoda albicans, 306.
areuaria, 3()(;.
lateralis, 308,
rhombea, 30G.
Ocyi^ode albicans, 306.
arenaritis. 303, 306, 307, 454.
quadrata, 306.
Ocypodidse, 306
Origin of the Berinudian Decapod
Fauna, 452.
Orthonin;p, 399.
Ostracode, 453.
Oxvi'byncha, 305, 397.
Oxystoniata, 305, 420, 426.
Pachygrapsus. 303, 314.
gracilis, 324.
intermedins, 322.
socius, 322.
transversns, 321, 328, 454.
Pagurias insignis, 441.
Pagiiridae, 439.
Pagnridea. 433, 438.
Pagiirus Diogenes, 438.
insignis, 441.
sulcatns, 439.
tibicen, 439.
tricolor, 447.
venosns, 441.
Palsemon affinis, 459.
serratus, 459.
■ vulgaris, 459.
Pandarus Cranchii, 453.
Panopeus bermndensis, 356.
Herbstii, 344.
Herbstii, var. serratus, 353.
Herbstii, var. obesus, 347.
limosus. 358.
occidentalis, 351.
parvulus. 340.
serratus, 353.
wurdemannii, 356.
Panuliriis argus, 459, 464.
Paramaya, 399.
Paramayinfe, 399.
Parapagurus abyssornm, 459.
Parasite of Clibanarius, 448.
Pachygrapsus, 323.
Parthenope, genus, 417.
(Platylambrus) ci-enulata, 417.
longiaiana, 417.
Pourtalesii, 418.
Parthenopida^, 417.
Pena3us braziliensis, 459.
Percnon, 314.
Ijlanissimuni. 303, 334, 454.
Pericera bicorna, 413.
bicornis, 413.
cornndo, 415.
cornuta, 415.
Pericera subparallela, 415.
trispinosa, 414.
Pericerid;^, 399.
Pericerinae, 399.
Petrocheinis insignis, 441.
Petrolisthes armatns, 434, 454.
armatus pallidus. 453.
Pilnmnidae, key to genera of, 335.
Pilumnus, 336.
Agassizii, 359.
ceratopus, 341.
spinipes, 361. 362.
Pinn(jtheridae, 426.
Pisa bicorna, 413.
bicornuta, 413.
galibica, 413.
purpurea, 413.
trispinosa, 414.
Plagusia, 3 14.
depressa, 332, 454.
Sayi, 332.
squamosa, 332.
Planes, 325.
LinniBana, 325.
minntus, 323, 325, 326, 377, 389,
454, 456.
Platylambnis, genus, 417.
crenulatus. 417.
serratus, 417.
Platypodia si^ectabilis, 336, 473.
Pocillopora c»spitosa, parasite of, 427,
429.
Podochela Riisei, 398, 454.
Podonema Riisei, 398.
Porcellana armata, 434.
Porcellanida:>, 433.
Porcellanoidea, 423.
Portunidte, 364.
key to genera of, 365.
Portunus, genus, 365, 373.
(Achelous) anceps, 378.
(Achelous) depressifrons, 391.
diacanthus. 370.
(Achelousi Gibbesii, 389.
hastatus, 370
(Achelous) Ordwayi, 381.
pelagicus, 374, 376.
sanguinolentus, 380.
Savi. 326. 373, 374, 375, 376. 389,
392. 454, 456.
(Achelous) Sebae, 380.
spinimanus, 385.
Pseudothelphnsa, 396, 464.
Remipes, 436.
Barbadensis. 437.
cubensis, 436.
scutellatus, 436.
Sand-bug. 436.
Scyllarides. 459.
Scyllarus equinoctialis, 459.
Sesarma, 303.
INDEX.
473
Sesarma angustipes, 337.
ciuerea, 327, 330.
Miersi, 331.
Eicordi, 323, 327, 330.
Eicordi, terrestris, 328, 453, 457.
Eobertii, 330.
Stimpsonii, 327, 331.
Spider crab, 397-399, 400-415.
crab, couimoii, 400.
crab, red, 400, 404.
Spinosella sororia, 430.
Sprite, 306.
Stegias Clibanarii, 448.
Stenocionops fnrcata, 415, 416.-
Steuorhyncbus Sagittarius, 397, 454.
Stomatopoda, distribution of, 453.
Strombus gigas, 446.
Swimming crabs, 364.
Tedaiiia ignis, 336.
Triton variegatus, 446, 447.
Troglocarcinus, gen. nov., 427.
corallicola, 427, 428, 429.
Uca, 396.
Xantho denticnlata, 339.
parvulus, 340.
setiger, 338.
Xanthodiiis americanus, 340.
parvulus, 340.
Figure 68. — Platypodia spectabilis (see p. 336) ; enlarged. Phot. A. H. Vei'rill.
J
474 KKKATA.
ERRATA.
Page 310, line 14, omit Ascension I.
Page 313, line 21, omit West Coast of Africa.
Page 335, line 1, for p. 14, read p. 305.
Page 330, line 13, for lobata, read lobatus.
Page 362, line 1 from bottom, for p. 238, read p. 338.
Page 408, line 8, for fig. 34, read fig. 41.
Page 422, line 10, for Cancer, read Calappa.
i
■^%
H^^O
TRANSACTIONS lOFl THE
CONNECTICUT ACADEMY 'CF'iiitlTS .LVD SCIENCES
Incorporated
rL ^A:\j}iU'
VOLUME XIII. PP. 475-548.
MAY. 1908
Publications of Yale University
STUDIES IN CERVANTES-PERSILES Y
SIGISMUNDA III
BY
RUDOLPH SCHEVILL
- NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT
1908'
THE TUTTLE, MOREHOUSE & TAYLOR VKESS
iUN 2 1908
YIL— STUDIES IN CERVANTES
BY RUDOLPH SCHEVILL
PERSILES Y SIGISMUNDA
III VIRGIL'S AENEID.
a. In Spanish literature before Cervantes.
Having seen that a comparatively small portion of the Persiles
is patterned after the romance of Heliodorus/ we can now proceed
to the question, as to what other work of fiction could have influenced
Cervantes in his last production. We need not search long among
current books of his day, before coming upon another classic, one
of unexampled vogue and far-reaching influence in every succeeding
age, the Aeneid of Yirgil. A student of Kenaissance literature and
of the general culture of the sixteenth century might at once take
for granted that Cervantes was acquainted with the main features,
at least, of the Latin poem ; that he must have turned to it directly
and naturally, as to a kind of contemporary roman d'aventure may,
perhaps, be clearer from what will be set forth in this article.-
The influence of the Aeneid on Spanish literature is of importance
in any study of fiction preceding the Persiles, because the Latin epic
was not only maintaining its traditional position as a standard
classic among the learned, but had become a part of popular litera-
ture somewhat after the fashion of the romance of Heliodorus.
While university students mastered the syntax of the foremost of
Latin poets, lay readers were enjoying in the vernacular the story
^Modern Philology, Vol. IV, Xo. 4 (1907); the present article is the
third of a series of studies in the sources of Persiles y Sigismunda, the first
being an introduction, in the nature of a resume of what has been written
on the subject, and the second dealing with the indebtedness of Cervantes
to Heliodorus. For the first see Modern Philology, Vol. IV, No.- 1 (1906).
- The frequency with which famous couples of legend and story were
mentioned together may have led Ceiwantes from Theagenes and Chariklea
to Aeneas and Dido. Moreover, the various editions of Mena's translation
of Heliodorus have marginal references to both Homer and Virgil, there
being more than a score to tne Aeneid. The direct influence of the latter,
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. ■• 33 April, 1908.
i
476 Sclievill — Studies in Cervantes.
of Aeiieas's adventurous Avanderings ; tliey could read an Aeneid
done into Spanish in the true spirit of the Renaissance, and their
ignorance of real antiquity would readily allow theiu to see in its
characters and episodes many of the elements peculiar to a con-
temporary roman d'aventure. It contained long and striking voy-
ages over unknown seas, shipivrecks and strange encounters, fierce
and bloody combats, timely escapes, projects and schemes subject at
every turn to ill fortune, but crowned at last by a successful issue;
it had, above all, an episode of love and passion in the tragic story
of Dido, which has awakened interest in all ages. So the excellence
of Virgil's romance was bound to be recognized at a time when its
peculiar sentiments must have been widely intelligible; when its
martial passages would appeal to those fond of the romances of
chivalry, and its pathos to those w^ho favored the sentimental love-
story.
Virgil had come down through the centuries Avith undiminished
fame; in the schools of the Roman Empire he had been considered
the foremost Latin classic, a rank which his perfection of diction and
his charm of genuine and deep sentiment had assured him from the
outset. During the dreary stretch of the Middle Ages, grammarians,
scholastics and rhetoricians found in him a fruitful source for their
numerous but dissimilar teachings; even at the very ebb-tide of
learning, during the dark ages, he continued to be a large factor in
whatever culture was left in the schools, all of which was no doubt
due to the fact that his name and fame had been handed down as
a tradition among all the peoples who had inherited Roman civiliza-
notably of the fourth book, on the Greek romances would be difficult to
trace and Rohde does not consider it in his great work, Der grierhische
Roman (Leipzig, 1900). But there can be no doubt that Aeneas and Dido
were generally included in the list of loving couples, and as such may
have become known through the scenic presentations of tragedy, or through
wall or vase paintings; cf. Rohde, op. cit., pp. 39-40, 42. It is, therefore,
very likely that Heliodorus knew Virgil's version of the Dido legend.
The following similar features in Virgil and Heliodorus deserve attention:
the heroine falls in love with the hero at first sight; his physical beauty
is very striking, cf. Rohde, op. cit., pp. 158, 162, n. 1 ; the description
of the hero, p. 164, n. 3; description of heroine's beauty, p. 165; lie is
like a god, pp. 165 IT.; love-sickness, p. 167 ff. ; the love-sick heroine has
no repose at night; ll)c victims' passion is proclaimed in the dark of night
or when wandering alone, and their thoughts are visualized in dreams.
Schevill — Studies in Cervantes. 477
tion.^ And when Christianity began to spread through the Empire,
it was natural that Virgil's prestige as a poet and sage should be
readily accepted and transmitted by the teachers of the new religion,
who had been educated in Latin schools. They even went farther.
In their eagerness to turn an authority among the ancients into a
luminary that would serve the Church, theologians interpreted the
poet as a semi-Christian prophet, and pronounced his fourth eclogue
an inspired prediction of the coming of Christ. Finally, with his
prestige as a poet, sage and prophet so great among the learned, it
was inevitable that a Virgil of a different type should grow inde-
pendently among the masses who were not in touch with the little
learning of the darker Middle Ages. This was the Virgil of folk-
lore, a man of superhuman powers, an enchanter and magician,
whose mythical history has been treated in a masterly fashion by
Comparetti- and touches the subject in hand but little. The present
article will therefore be devoted only to the Virgil of literature,
whose influence as a romancer concerns us most.
It is worth considering at this point to what extent Virgil's repu-
tation as a poet would have been curtailed, if his name had not issued
from the Middle Ages linked inseparably with that of Dante. In
^ Cf. D. Comparetti, Virgil im Mittelalter aus dem Italienischen iibersetzt
von Hans Diitschke (Leipzig, 1875), pp. 69, 91; M. Landau, Die Quellen des
Dekamcroii (Stuttgart, 1884), 2te Auflage, p. 290: "Der fronime Aeneas
liatte so viel Aehnlichkeit mit den Helden der Ritterromane, die Aeneis und
die Eklogen haben im Verhiiltniss zur Ilias und Odyssee so viel Christ-
liches in sich, dass Virgil und nicht Homer der Lieblingsdicliter des Mittel-
alters werden musste." Cf. Bartsch, Albrecht von Halberstadt und Ovid
ini Mittelalter (Quedlinburg u. Leipzig, 1861), p. xxi; p. cxxii. Virgil
was also prized more than Homer by the humanists in the loth century;
cf. W. Creizenach, GescMchte des neueren Dramas, Vol. II (Halle, 1901),
p. 370.
^ Cf . op. cit., with the original title, Virr/ilio nel Medio Evo (Liverno,
1872). There is also an English translation, Virgil in the Middle Ages,
translated by E. F. M. Beneeke (London, 1895) ; other references to Virgil
the magician are: Eneas Silvio Piccolomini, Eistoria de dos amantes,
reprinted by E.. Foulche-Delbosc (Barcelona, 1907), p. 13: Virgilio suhido
]>or un cordel, etc.; Juan Rodriguez del Padron also implies that the poet
and the magician are the same person (cf. below, p. 482, n. 4) ; in the
Arcipreste de Talavera, {Corvacho 6 reprobacion del amor mundano) by
Alfonso Martinez de Toledo (1438), reprinted by the "Sociedad de Bibliofilos
EspaQoles," Vol. XXXV, Virgil, the enchanter, is several times mentioned
as a victim of earthly love, pp. 20, 40, 54; Comedia de Calisto y Melibea
(1499), reprinted by R. Foulche-Delbosc in the "Bibliotheca hispanica,"
478 Schevill — Studies in Cervantes.
the latter fact can be foi-nd tlie bond whicb joins the Yirgil of the
Renaissance to the Latin poet of antiquity, and so preserves the
continuity of his remarkable prestige. Dante's appreciation of his
Latin master was to become thenceforward the standard opinion of
him;^ and, consequently, after the dreary ages of scholasticism and
ephemeral church doctrine, Virgil and his poems survived as an
abiding literary inlluence, destined to endure through any move-
ment or change in religion and philosophy. By means of the fourth
eclogue, and notably the sixth book of the Aeneid, which had not only
contributed to expounding obscure theological doctrine, but had
inspired the most comprehensive expression of medisevalism, the
Divina Commedia, Virgil had survived the Middle Ages ; by means
of the fourth book of the xieneid, through which he could claim the
distinction of romancer as well as poet, he took root in the whole
body of Kenaissance literature, and left an indelible trace in the
history of fiction. For the much admired delineation of Dido's pas-
sion has always made her tragedy appear modern from the stand-
point of any age," and its contents began to furnish romantic mate-
act 7, p. 88; Pedro Manuel de Urrea, Penitencia de amor (1514), p. 55
of reprint in the "Bibliotheca hispanica" edited by Foulche-Delbosc, 1902;
Menendez y Pelayo, "Antologia de poetas Uricos castellanos," Tratado de los
romances viejos, Vol. XII (Madrid, 190G), p. 486: "mando el Rey prender
Virgilius, etc." where Virgil is merely a kind of mediaeval knight in love;
cf. also "Antologia etc.," Vol. VIII, p. 226; Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo,
Eistoria del gran Tamorlan (Sevilla, 1582), p. 2; Lope de Vega, Mas pueden
celos que amor. Vol. II of "Comedias Escogidas" (Rivadeneyra) , p. 186,
col. 1; Dunlop-Liebrecht, Geschichte der Prosadichtungcn, etc. (Berlin,
1851), p. 185 ff.; F. Liebrecht, Ziir VolJcskunde (Heilbroim, 1879), pp. 86,
88; Reinhold Kiihler, Kleinerc Schriften, etc. (Weimar, 1898-1900), Vol. I,
pp. 140, 417, 585, Vol. II, p. 575; there is much unpublished material in the
Mertziana of the royal library in Munich, in a box "Antike Sagen" No. 2,
under "Virgilius," collected by the late poet and scholar Wilhelm Hertz;
Menendez y Pelayo, Origenes de la novela, p. cxix ff. Boccaccio was also
acquainted with the magic power of Virgil ; cf. M. Landau, G. Boccaccio,
sein Lehen und seine Werke (Stuttgart, 1877), p. , 235. In Timoneda's
Patrahuelo, the fourth tale belongs to the history of Virgil, the magician;
the sors Homeriques et Virgilianes, Rabelais, "Pantagruel," book III,
chapters 10, 12 are interesting in this connection.
^ Inferno I, 79 ff.
^ Cf. Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du Litndi, II, sixi^me edition, p 123; R.
Hein/.e, Virgils Epische Technik (Leipzig, 1903), chapter 3, on the art
displayed in the drawing of Dido's character: "das Bewusstsein, dass sie
Schevill — Studies in Cervantes. 479
rial to writers of poetry and fiction as early as the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries. Thus a typically Renascent conception of Vir-
gil came into existence, which made of him not the author of a pure
classic of unintelligible past ages, but the writer of a deeply human
roman d'aventure, whose ancient character, wherever copied or
interpreted, was remoulded in the spirit of the new era.^
The assimilation of the story of Dido into literature was, however,
assisted by various factors. The romance itself has always found
favor with Christian and pagan alike; great Churchmen from St.
Augustine to Luis' de Leon or Bossuet- had been among Virgil's
most fervent admirers. Again, the incorporation of all kinds of
material from Virgil into letters of the Renaissance merely coin-
cided with the absorption of the most important classic works ; their
influence on popular literature, especially in Spain and Italy, cannot
be overestimated. This was due not only to the general spread of
the legends,^ the mythology and poetry of the ancients through the
great centers of learning; it was furthered by the large number of
translations which, printed in many cases with bulky annotations,
served to popularize the foremost Latin and some of the Greek
authors.^ Einally, the more specific reason why Virgil's poetry
(i. e., Virgil's account) poetiselie Fiktion war, hat sicli nicht verloren,"
p. 114.
^ Cf. Landau's Boccaccio, seln Lehen, op. cit., p. 87, where he speaks of
tlie attitude of the Middle Ages toward the classics.
^ Cf. Sainte-Beuve, Etude sur Viryile (Paris, 1891), p. 101; Causeries
du Lundi, X, troisieme edition, p. 18.5, on Bossuet.
' Cf . Schack, Gcschichte der dramatischen Litteratur und Kunst in
Spanien (Frankfurt, 1854), Vol. II, p. 29, for an illuminating discussion
of the absorption of classical literature by that of Spain.
* Some of the translations from the classics and the dates of editions
(not always the first) are: 1. Homer, La Vlyxea (13 books) 1550, (24
books) 1556; on Spanish versions of the Iliad cf. La Iliada, "Biblioteca
clasica," Vol. Ill (Madrid, 1905) ; there is, however, an Iliad in Italian, 1564.
2. Thucydides, Historia, 1564. 3. Euripides, Hecuba, 1585?, Medea, 1599. 4.
Sophocles, an imitation of the Electra in Perez de Oliva's La Venganza de
Agamemnon, 1531. 5. Plato, Tutte V Opere (Italian) 1601. 6. Aristotle, La
Philosofia moral, etc., 1509; Compendia de toda Philosofia Natural, 1547;
Los ocho lihros de republica, 1584, etc., besides many in Italian. 7. Lucian,
Dialogos, 1550. 8. Heliodorus, 1554. From the Latin: 1. Plautus,
Menechmos, 1555; Amphitrion, undated edition in Gothic type in the
]\Iunieh library, about 1530? Graesse, Tresor, etc., gives an edition of
1574. 2. Terence, Las seys Comedias, 1577. 3. Virgil, Eneida, treated else-
where; Georgicas, 1586. 4. Horace, cf. Menendez y Pelayo, Horacio en Espaiia,
J
480 Schevill — Studies in Cervantes.
became an important source of inspiration to Renaissance fiction,
lias been touched upon at the outset, and must be kept in mind.
Owing to the great vogue of the romances of chivalry, whether in
prose as in Spain or in verse as in Italy, a story of adventure, such
as the Aeneid, quite naturally fell in with the current taste. On
the other hand, the inclination of some readers toward a gentler
kind of narrative, a kind of counterpart to the literature of combat
and adventure, had given rise to the more idyllic pastoral novel, a
type which is most deeply indebted to the Eclogues^ and the
Georgics. It was, therefore, by appealing to various tastes that
Virgil easily acquired a new kind of supremacy. In his excellent
work, Origines de la novela, Menendez y Pelayo asks apropos of
epic poetry:
i Que es la Odisea sino una gran novela de aventuras, en la mayor
parte de su contenido? Pero los naufragios y trabajos del prota-
gonista, los detalles domesticos mas menudos, estan envueltos en
una atmosfera luminosa y divina que los ennoblece y realza, bauan-
dolos de pura y serene idealidad. La categoria estetica a que tal
obra corresponde es sin duda superior a la de la ficcion novelesca,
que mas 6 menos se caracteriza siempre por el predominio de la
fantasia individual, por el libre juego de la imaginacion creadora
(p. iv).
Precisely the same thing could have been said of the Aeneid;
for its novelistic qualities would come home convincingly to six-
2a edicion. Vol. I (Madrid, 1885). 5. Ovid, various translations of the
Metamorphoses, 1580, 1589, etc.; Heroides, 1G08; Italian version, De
Remedi contra V aniore, 1576. 6. Aiilns Persiiis Flaccus, Satyras, 1609.
7. Cicero, De los Officios, de la Amicicia, de la Senectud, etc., 1549.
8. Pliny, Historia natural, books VII, VIII, 1599, IX, 1603, complete, 1624-
29. 9. Seneca, the philosoi^her, Los siete lihros de Seneca, etc., 1601 ; Las
epistolas, 1555; Los Proverhios, 1550; Flores de Seneca, 1550. 10. Lucan,
Historia, etc. {la Farsalia) , 1541. 11. Apuleius, del Asno de Oro, 1513.
12. Statius, La Tehaide, in Italian, 1570. 13. Musaeus, Boscan wrote a
Leandro based on Hero and Leonder. The examples could be greatly
increased. Cf. also, Dieze, Geschichte der Spanisclien Dichtknnst, p. 454
flf. ; Graesse, Tresor des livres rares, etc., op. cit.; SalvA, Catalogo de la
biblioteca de Salvd; Gallardo, Ensayo etc., op. cit.; the British Museum;
the Biblioteca nacional, [Madrid; the royal libraries of Vienna, Berlin,
Munich, etc., contain most of the Renaissance classics.
^ Dunlop-Liebrccht, op. cit., p. 350; Menendez y Pelayo, Origcnes, etc.,
p. cdxix; H. Korting, Geschichte des franzosischen Fomans im XTII
Jahrhundert, 2te Ausgabe (Oppeln und Leipzig, 1891), Vol. I, p. 61, 120.
Schevill — Studies in Cervantes. 481
teentli eentiiiy readers, and the story of Aeneas's hardships would
be readily looked upon as a real novelet cle aventuras, in spite of any
absence of intimite, that is, of those bourgeois qualities which
chiefly distinguish a Renaissance story of adventure — such, for
instance, as the Persiles — from the heroic epic of antiquity.
Let us see noAv how widespread acquaintance with the works of
Virgil was, and consequently how common the imitation of some
features of his epic or the borrowing of some of its sentiments. The
testimony here adduced, though far from complete, ought to show
that among Spanish poets, dramatists and novelists alike, from the
middle of the fifteenth century through the age of Cervantes, the
Aeneid was especially well known ; allusions to it in some form or
other can be found wherever the reader may turn.
During the fourth decade of the fifteenth century the Marques
de Santillana^ wrote to his son, Don Pero Gonzalez de Mendoza,
then studying at the university of Salamanca :
A ruego e instangia mia (about 1417), primero que de otro
alguno, se han vulgaricado en este reyno algunos poemas, asy como
la Eneycla de Virgilio . . . e muchas otras cosas, en que yo me
he deleytado, fasta este tiempo e me deleyto, e son asy como un
singular reposo a las vexagiones e trabajos que el mundo continua-
niente trahe, etc.
For the purposes of the present study, this testimony may be
considered the earliest landmark of Virgil's influence on Spanish
literature. In the Marques de Santillana, however, the foremost
poet of a courtly school of verse, Virgil is reflected but indirectly;
the Aeneid, like other works of the ancients whom the Marques had
read only in translation, was to him largely a bookish love inspired
perhaps at the outset by the eulogy of the Divina Commediar But
the part of the Latin Epic which attracted the Spanish poet seems to
have been the romance of Dido and Aeneas.'^
Another work by a member of the Court of John II, the
Trezientas del famoso poeta Juan de Mena, with glosses by Fernan
^ Cf. Amador de los Rios, Oiras de Don Inigo Lopez de Mendoza, Marques
de Santillana, etc. (Midi id 1852), pp Ixxxiii of vida and 482; Mario
Schiff, La Bibliotheque dii Marquis de Santillane (Paris, 1905), p. 89 ff.
- Cf. Ohras, op. cit.. p. 5 ; p. 394, Dido in Hell as in Dante's Inferno,
V, 61-2.
= Cf. op. cit., pp. 195, 279, 333, 364, 371, 394, wliile 433 seems to refer
to Ovid's Heroides.
482 Sc^i^evill — Studies in Cervantes.
jKTuiiez de Toledo, was frequently printed in tlie early sixteenth cen-
tury.^ Some of the stanzas have obscure references to the Aeneid,
which are generally elucidated at length by !N^unez in glosses giving
partial resumes of the story of Aeneas, as for example stanzas
xxviii and xxxi, in which some of his voyages and the descent into
the lower world are described; or Ixxxviii with its allusion to the
contest at archery of the fifth book of the Aeneid; or clxvi, which
speaks of Aeneas's departure from Carthage and of some of his
subsequent wanderings. In the Coronacion of the same poet Mena,
also printed frequently with glosses, there are similar references,
as in stanza xlviii, where the romance of Aeneas and Dido is told.
In fact, in the fifteenth century, when Yirgil was not yet known
so widely as in the following age, the fourth book of the Aeneid
left the most apparent trace. A volume of Opusculos literarios-
contains, among other productions of the fifteenth century, a poem
by Juan Rodriguez del Padron, also a poet of the reign of John II.
Its title is Decir contra el amor del mundo (probably written about
1464), and one of its stanzas tells of Dido's tragic end.^ But Rod-
riguez del Padron was probably not a student of Virgil, or he was
not acquainted with his epic outside of this story, for the poem,
short as it is, has a reference to Virgil the Magician,* which may
imply that he did not know the difference between the latter per-
sonage and the author of the romance of Dido.^
With the spread of humanism, however, a deeper appreciation
followed, and the influence of classic literature on the Spanish poets
of the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries is everywhere
apparent. Virgil is still in the lead, but with Ovid almost as
prominent. Fray Luis de Leon's love for the former is well known :
how he translated with characteristic charm the Eclogues and one
^I have before me an edition of Sevilla, 1517 (No. 3008 of Gallard. s
Ensayo de una Bihlioteca espafiola), first rdition Sevilla, 1499.
''Printed in Vol. XXIX of the "Sociedad de Bibliufilos EspaSoles";
on the poet, of. Rennert, in the Zeitschrift fiir Romanische Pliilologie, Vol.
XVII, "Lieder des Juan Rodriguez del Padrun"; and Men^ndez y Pelayo,
Origenes, op. cit., p. cccv on el Siervo libre de amor.
' Cf. Opusculos, etc., op. cit., p. 369.
*Cf. op. cit., p. 3G8.
■^This confusion is manifest in many writers and may be an explanation
of that peculiar i)opular attitude toward the Aeneid, which held it to
be a magic book capable of deciding one's fate. On the "sors Virgilianes"
cf. p. 477, n. 2, above.
Schevill — Studies in Cervantes. 483
of the Georgics/ and liow, when imprisoned by the Inquisition, he
called for his favorite poets, among them Yirgil, of whom he pos-
sessed numerous copies.- D. Diego Hurtado de Mendoza has left an
Eleg'ia a la muerte de Dido,^ which is a free rendering of the close of
the fourth book of the Aeneid. The latter's influence is also apparent
in Herrera, Elegia xv, 'To love.'* Even Gongora makes use of Dido
in a characteristic way while speaking of the bee.^ Juan de Arguijo
has two sonnets, one A Dido y Eneas, and one A Dido.''' Quevedo
also indulged in a humorous parody of Dido's lament when forsaken
by Aeneas, siquis 7nihi parvulus aula luderet Aeneas (IV, v. 328)."
^ Tickiior says "two of the Georgics of Virgil," History of Spanish Litera-
ture (London, 1863), Vol. II, p. 86; cf. Vol. II of "Escritores del siglo XVI"
( Rivadeneyra ) , Ohras del maestro Fray de Leon, which contain but one,
and p. xiv of the introduction.
- Cf. Ticknor, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 87 n.
^ Cf . Ohras poeticas dc D. Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, printed for the
first time in Vol. XI of "Libros espaiioles raros 6 curiosos" (Madrid, 1877),
p. 95. There is also, if authentic, an epigrama a Dido, p. 432.
* Cf . Poetas liricos de los siglos XVI y XVII (Rivadeneyra), Elegia xv,
p. 288: where
Si no eres en las rocas engendrado
Del alto yerto Caucaso espantoso,
Y de la Armenia tigre alimentado,
SerSs & mis tormentos piadoso, etc. (p. 289)
recalls vs. 366-7 of Aeneid IV; the Armenia for Hircania as applied to
tigers has its source in the Eclogues, V, v. 29.
'^ Cf. Poetas liricos, etc., op. cit., p. 472, col. 2 ; w^hat could be more
characteristic of Gongora than:
". . . frondoso alcazar, no de aquella
Que sin corona vuela y sin espada,
Susurrante amazona. Dido alada,
De ejercito mas casto, de mas bella
RepUblica, ceuida en vez de muros,
De .cortezas; en esta pues Cartago
Eeina la abeja, oro brillando vago, etc."
^ Cf. Poetas liricos, etc., op. cit., p. 392: "De la fenisa reina importunado" ;
p. 398: "La tirana codicia del hermano"; see also his sonnet pre axed
to Lope de Vega's Peregrine en su patria (1604), in which Lope's wanderer
is compared with both Ulysses and Aeneas, and Lope himself with Homer
and Virgil.
' Cf. Ohras de Quevedo (Rivadeneyra), Vol. Ill, p. 137: "Si un Eneillas
viera, si un pimpollo, etc."
484 Schevill — Studies in Cervantes.
Nor have tlie later poets forgotten the possibilities of the old
theme/
How early the matter of Virgil's epic got into ballads, the most
popular form of Spanish verse, is hard to determine, but the
romance of Aeneas and Dido was made the subject of a ballad, if
Durjin's conjecture is correct, in the beginning of the sixteenth
century.- The time of composition is, however, of little import-
ance, because, as Menendez y Pelayo has already remarked,^ the
poem was probably written by some one acquainted with the original,
and is, therefore, only a semi-popular production in ballad form.
The treatment shows nothing of the mediseval manner which turned
ancient heroes into contemporary knights with no traces of ancient
civilization about them.* In his Romancero general Duran prints
several other ballads"^ upon the same subject, but all were mani-
^D. Juan Maria Maury wrote a poem of considerable length (Canto
epieo) on Dido's story: cf. Poetas Uricos del sUjlo XV III (Rivadeneyra),
p. 175 ff.
= It begins: "Por los bosqvies de Cartago | saltan a monteria | La
reina Dido y Eneas | con muy gran Caballerfa"; cf. Romancero general 6
Coleccion dc romances CasteUanos anteriores al siglo XVIII, recogidos,
etc., por D. Agustin Duran (Madrid, 1859), Vol. I, p. 325; "Antologia,
etc." op. cit., Vols. VIII and IX, "Romances viejos castellanos, etc." 2a
edicion corregida j adicionada por D. Marcelino Menendez y Pelayo (Madrid,
1899), Vol. VIII, p. 223, Vol. IX, p. 308; see also Appendix I, below. One
ballad is aptly cited by Clemencin: "La desesperada Dido, | De pechos sobre
una almena, | Dice viendo por el mar | Huir la flota de Eneas, etc."; cf.
his edition of Don Quixote (Madrid, 1894), Vol. VIII, p. 234 ff.; it is no.
489 in Duran's Romancero.
^ "Antologia, etc." op. cit., Vol. XII, p. 484.
^On the other hand, such a version of the Dido story as is given in
the old French Roman d'Eneas, ^^hile reasonably close to the original, has
nevertheless the stamp of the age which produced it; cf. Eneas, texte
critique public par Jacques Salverda de Grave (Halle, 1891), p. xxx ff.
It omits the games because, perhaps, they could not be adapted to the
medieval spirit; cf. also Comparetti, op. cit., p. 212 if., German version.
°Cf. op. cit., p. 323, numbers 483-91; in this connection the famous
English ballpd, Queen Dido, is of interest; cf. Reliqiies of ancient English
Poetry, etc., by Bishop Percy (Philadelphia, 1890), Vol. Ill, p. 191. As
a general rule, however, legends which are inherited from a dim past
imderjjo fantastic transformations in folk-lore and ballad literature;
Aeneas and Dido were no exceptions; cf. Du Meril, Etudes sur quelques
points d'archcologie, etc. (Paris, 1862), p. 429; "En Italic . . . le
valeureux Enee n'est plus qu'une pauvre reine qui soupire pour I'ingrat
Didon."
Schevill — Studies in Cervantes. 485
festlj written when tlie Aeneid liad become more widely known,
possibly after a Spanish version had been published, and so belong
to the last third of the sixteenth century. While these ballads are
more or less true to the subject-matter of the Aeneid, they show
also by their manner that the story appealed to writers much after
the fashion of contemporary romances of adventure; they are a
further evidence of the general popularity of the Latin epic.
The dramatic situations in the story of Aeneas and Dido were
recognized early by writers for the stage, but owing to the difficulty
of constructing a well-made play out of any one, or several of them,
none is of the highest order. Mere imitations, however, of the
pathos of Dido's situation as well as simple references to her sad
fate begin early in the history of the Spanish drama, and grow very
numerous toward the end of the sixteenth and the beginning of the
seventeenth centuries. Dido, according to the two views of her char-
acter, treated at the end of this article,^ was either a chaste matron,
true to her dead husband, and as such was held up as an example, or
she was a yielding female, betrayed and forsaken, and so a warn-
ing to misguided women who might love, not wisely, but too well.
All these allusions have the qualities of romance, but their rather
stereotyped character implies that the story of Dido was known to
all, whether they had an academical education or not. There are
also other episodes of the Aeneid which receive frequent mention,
notably when an author desires to compare them with similar inci-
dents of his own work. Troy in flames, kindled by the fire of love,
the chastity of Camilla, the friendship of Euryalus and Nisus, the
loyalty of Achates, the filial piety of Aeneas, these are among the
more common reminiscences.- But all are overshadowed by the
episode of the fourth book of the Aeneid, a fact to be explained, per-
haps, by the influence of that romance on prose fiction.^
In the theater, it begins as early as Juan del Encina's Egloga
de Pldcida y Victoriano. After being forsaken by Victoriano,
' Cf. Appendix I, p. 517.
* The fact that Dante treats some of the Virgilian episodes as real
events and introduces some of the chL.racters of the Aeneid into the Divine
Comedy may be considered a significant beginning of their frequent mention
in subsequent literature; cf. Inferno, I, 73-4; I, 107-8; IV, 122, 124; V, 64;
XXVI, 90-3.
^ The theme of sentimental death or suicide in the Aeneid was svipported
by the tone of some of the Eclogues; cf. II, 7; V, 20; VIII, 17 ff. ; 59, etc.
L,
480
Schevill — Studies in Cervantes.
Placida utters two long laments, both of which recall the words of
Dido/ and as the Queen of Carthage kills herself with the sword
of Aeneas, so Placida commits suicide with the dagger left behind
by Victoriano. But Encina's indebtedness to Virgil is best shown
by his paraphrases of the Eclogues, and his admiration of the poet
in the dedication prefixed to them.- After his day references to
^ Cf. Teatro Completo de Juan del Encina, edicion de la Real Academia
EspaSola (Madrid, 1893). The first is in part :
Lastimado corazou,
Mancilla tengo de ti.
i O grail mal, cruel presioii !
No teraia compasion
Vitoi'iano de mi
Si se va.
Triste, } de mi que ser^ ?
i Ay, que por mi mal le vi !
Conhortase con morir
La que pena como yo ;
Mas s61o por le servir
Querria, triste. vivir.
i 0 traidor ! j Si se partid ?
i No lo creo !
Mas si creo, que mi deseo
Tarde 6 nunca se cumplid.
p. 26-^.
'6. Di, mi dulce enaniorado,
i No me escuclias ni me sientes?
i Donde est^s, desamorado '.
i No te duele mi cuidado
Ni me traes a tus mientes ?
i D6 la fe ?
Di, Vitoriano, j por que
Me dejas y te arrepientes ?
I
4. Por las dsperas montaiias
Y los bosques m^s sombrios
Mostrar quiero mis entrafias
A las fieras alimanas
Y d las fuentes y d los rios ;
Que aunque crudos,
Aunque sin raz6n y mudos,
Sentirto los males mios.
265.
p. 266.
The second, beginning "soledad peuosa, triste," has these noteworthy stanzas;
A sabiendas olvidaste
; 0 traidor ! este punal.
Cierto muy bien lo miraste,
Y aparejo me dejaste
Para dar fin d mi mal.
i O cruel !
Recibe la paga del
Y este despojo final.
No fue mds cruel Neron
Que tri eres, y esto creas :
Yo Fills, til Demofon ;
Yo Medea, tii Jason ;
Yo Dido, til otro Eneas.
En el, tigre,
Aunque causas que peligre,
Nunca en ttoto mal te veas.
315.
Cf. also p. 310, for a mention of Dido among noted women.
= Cf. Ticknor, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 247; W. Creizenach, Geschichte des
neueren Dramas, Vol. I (Halle, 1893), p. 348; Gallardo, Ensayo, etc.,
Vol. II, col. 812: "Acorde dedicaros las Bucolicas de Virgilio que
es la primera de sus obras . . . E despues siguiose la agricultura.
E andando mas el tienipo siguieron batallas. Y en esta manera
el estilo del grand Homero mantuano procedio. De las cuales por agora
(intentaria quiz:! traducir tambicn la Eneida 6 las Georgicas ? ) "
Schevill — Studies in Cervantes. 487
the Aeueid occur frequently in the sixteenth century drama/ while
the desire to imitate the classics in form as well as in the use of
standai'd episodes prompted the choice of Dido's story for the
stage." On account of the meagerness of the material for an entire
^ Some examples are: Torres Naharro, Comedia Jacinta: "Segunda Dido
Afrieana" (near beginning) ; Jeronimo Bermlidez, Nise Lastimosa: "la
sabiduria [ de Salomon, ;;, contra el amor que vale? | 0 Troya, Troya,
I quien te puso fucgo, | y no dejo de tl ni aim las cenizas?" (Act I) ;
L. Leonardo de Argensola, Isabela, Prologo : "No soy aquella Fama que
Virgilio | dijo, y malgrado del gran Marun, tu, Dido, | entre las viudas
castas te colocas"'; cf. also II, sc. 4, a reference to wooden horse of Troy;
Dr. Fr. Tarrega, La enemiga favorable ; loa en alabanza de las mugeres
feas (near beginning) : "[la fea] no es la Cava para Espafia | ni para
Troj'a otra Elena | ni Dido para Cartago"; Gaspar de Aguilar, El mercader
amante, (Act II) : "Caballo de Troya hiciste | De im pensamiento seguro, |
Y para que entrase, el muro | De tu vergiienza rompiste, etc."; Alfonso
Velazquez de Volasco, El Zeloso, Act I, sc. 2: "i Quien puso a Troya en
tanta ruina y desventura, que de ella no dejo casi cenizas?" In Rojas,
El Viaje entretenido, two volumes (Madrid, 1793), first edition, 1604,
there are also numerous references to Virgil and his Aeneid, similar to
those so common in the literary vocabulary of the times; Virgil is used for
comparison after the current fashion : "muestras ser en este tu viage, |
Virgilio en verso, etc.," Vol. I, p. 31, also pp. 20, 28, 32; II, p. 145,
while in tlie exposicio de los nomhres, etc., p. 2G3, he says: "Virgilio,
Principe de los Poetas, que en los seis de la Eneida, cuenta las peregrina-
ciones de Eneas," as though the poem were a kind of adventure stoiy in
six books; reminiscences of the Aeneid may perhaps be seen in the storm
I, p. GO, also in pp. 78, 97; "la honestidad . . . de la reyna Dido,"
201; 207.
- In Spanish the following plays are based on the story of Dido, with
or without Aeneas : Gabriel Lobo Laso de la Vega, La lionra de Dido
restaurada. cf. Barrera, Catdlogo del teatro antigiio espailol, p. 219;
Cristobal de Virues, Tragedia de Elisa Dido, cf. Barrera, op. cit., p. 499;
both are mentioned in Moratin, Origenes del teatro espailol (Rivadeneyra) ,
pp. 217, 22.5; cf. also Wolf, Studien zur GeschicJite der ^panischen und Por-
tugiesischen 'Nationallitteratur (Berlin, 1859), p. 61G-7; Guillen de Castro,
Los amores de Dido y Eneas, cf. Barrera, op. cit., p. 83; Cristobal de Morales
is credited with a play, Los amores de Dido y Eneas which I have not seen,
cf. Barrera, op. cit., jj. 274; Alvaro Cubillo de Aragon, La honestidad
defendida, 6 Elisa Dido, Rcina de Cartago, cf. Barrera, op. cit., p. 115. Of
more recent times there is the Eneas y Dido, Comedia famosa, etc., de
un ingenio Cathalan (Barcelona, 1733) ; and the Dido by Juan C. Varela,
cf. a recent rendering of Virgil, Eneida, etc., traduccion de Care (Madrid,
1905), p. xii. There have been Dido tragedies in Latin from 1550 on, cf.
Creizenach, op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 164, 378, n. 1; in Italy the subject of Dido
4
488 Schevill — Studies in Cervantes.
play, the results, however, are of a purely historical interest to a
student of the Spanish stage, and, with the possible exception of
Virues's Elisa Dido,^ an attempt to imitate the ancient style, and
Oastro's Los Amores de Dido y Eneas ^- an excellent specimen of
that poet's power of dramatic expression, they are now dull reading.
As is natural, the prolific Lope de Yega is our most important
criterion in this matter. His plays are throughout a mine of infor-
mation for those who are searching for classical reminiscences in
that popular form of literature, the drama. Since Lope must
have introduced all his learning in the heat of composition and
frequently without deliberation, the copious classical material which
he controlled is certainly astounding. However much we may believe
lias been treated frequently, there being a play by Alessandro de' Pazzi
(1524), Didone, one by Giovanni Geraldi (Cinthio), (1543), of the same
title, and one by Lodovico Dolce (1547) ; cf. Klein, Geschichte des Dramas,
Vol. V, pp. 350 flf., 399 ff. (Leipzig, 1867) ; and Creizenach, op. cit., Vol. II,
pp. 391 fif., 397, 412; there is also a Didone ahliandonata by Metastasio;
in France, Jodelle wrote Didon se sacrifiant, Creizenach, op. cit., Vol. II,
p. 446, and Petit de JullevillCj Histoire de la Langue et de la Litteratttre
frangaises, Vol. Ill, seizi&me si&cle (Paris, 1897), p. 269.
^ Cf. Ticknor, op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 65-6 and note.
- "Wlien Lojie de Vega dedicated Las Almcnas de Tore to D. Guillen de
Castro he took the occasion to praise the excellent tragic style of the hitter's
Dido: "Entre las tragedias que vuestra merced tan ingeniosamente ha
escrito, para lo que tiene genio particular (como estilo superior y digno de
mayo res sentencias y pensamientos), es la Dido celebradisima, & quien el
dia que yo la ol en esa ilustrisima ciudad hice este epigrama :
Fenisa Dido, que en el mar Sidonio
Las rocas excediste conquistada,
Y en limpia castidad, jamas violada,
Conservaste la fe del matrimonio:
Perdona el atrevido testimonio,
No por ser de Virgilio celebrada,
Mas porque ya de don Guillen honrada,
Rompe su enojo, y su epigrama Ausonio.
La diosa que en la mar nacio de espuma
Adore por sus versos tu belleza,
Pues te levantan A grandeza suma;
Rinde a su dulce ingenio tu aspereza :
Que mSs gana tu fama con su pluma.
Que pierde en sor Ijurlada tu firmeza."
Cf. Obras de Lope de Vega publicadas por la Real Academia espaiiola,
Tomo VIII, p. 79; and Schack, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 445.
Schevill — Studies in Cervantes. 489
that allusions to the works of ancient writers, to mythology or
liistory, had in his day become a part of current culture and so lay
in the atmosphere ; however frequently one writer took from another
the manner of parading bookish learning and pedantry, in the case
of Lope we are bound to conclude that his genuine fund of informa-
tion in classical matters was inexhaustible. Nothing pertaining to
ancient literature or history escapes mention. But, we are impelled
' to ask, what percentage of his audience understood this array of
learned allusions ? It is certain that to-day practically no one would
catch the force of a reference to something in Plutarch or in Livy.
There can be no doubt, therefore, that owiug to the popularization of
the best of the ancients; chiefly through translations, a large part
of the theater-goers appreciated most of the stage use of classical
material. In all this Virgil and his Aeneid play a significant part,
and we may infer as a consequence that the epic had not only
become widely popularized, but that the mention of certain episodes
in it descended to the commonplace. Chief among them^ are the
burning of Troy, Aeneas's escape with his father upon his shoulders,
his wanderings, the episode in which Dido figures, the descent into
Hades, the friendship of Euryalus and ISTisus, and the story of
Camilla, the chaste maiden. Most of these had no doubt become
traditional through various channels, so that to refer to them was
like alluding to a well-known current romance. After Lope, the
manner of introducing classical allusions became less frequent, for,
with the exception of Calderon, the writers who followed his methods
did not have at their beck and call an equally comprehensive
acquaintance with the ancients.
The influence of the Aeneid on prose fiction of the Renaissance
Avill now be of peculiar interest in connection with the study of
Cervantes. Here was a medium which could most readily absorb
its material; the various types of prose story attempted during
this epoch could find in Yirgil some source of inspiration ; whether
the themes were martial or sentimental, some portions of his work
would prove suggestive. Moreover, the Aeneid was strengthened
in matters of sentiment by the Eclogues; in the lamentations of
love, thoughts of suicide, grief over separation, the fourth book was
not unlike the eighth Eclogue, and their influence was no doubt
fused early in the Renaissance. -
^ Cf. Appendix II, p. 520.
^Cf. Creizenach, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 3G7: above, p. 485, n. 3.
i'->0 Schevill — Studies in Cervantes.
In Menendez j Pelayo's discussion of the novela sentimental,^
the first story of impoi'tance discussed at some length is Boccaccio's
Fiammetta. Since no better starting-point could be taken for the
present study, the words of the Spanish critic are of interest :
Los defectos que la Fiammetta tiene para el gusto de ahora . . .
no lo eran para los contemporaneos y parecian otros tantos primores.
Nuestros prosistas del siglo XY la tuvieron en gran estima, procuron
imitarla, y . . . se ven las liuellas de este modelo de tan dudosa
belleza.
Accepting, then, the influence of this work at the earliest stages in
the history of the novel, it is noteworthy that the little romance is
dominated throughout by the story of Dido.- The heroine's passion,
her lamentation when forsaken, her remorse, these among others
are but so many parallels to situations or sentiments of the fourth
book of the Aeneid.
Another of the early love stories, and the next in importance in
the growth of the novel in Spain, is Eneas Silvio Piccolomini's curi-
ous Historia de dos amantes, translated from the original Latin into
Spanish late in the fifteenth century.^ Xo one can fail to see in it
the influence of Virgil's romance.* The plot is singularly bare and
^ Origenes, op. cit., p. ccc.
-A summary of the chapters of the Fiameta [cf. Libro Uamado Fiameta,
etc. (Lixboa, 1541), in the Bibliot&que Xationale, Paris] will suffice: 1.
Beginnings of Fiameta's love. 2. Panfilo's departure and her grief. 3. Her
thoughts during his absence. 4. Preparations for his promised return.
5. Rumors of his marriage and her despair. 6. She hears that he is not
married but in love with another ducFM; she desires to kill herself. 7.
False rumor of his return, and her consequent disappointment. 8. Com-
parison of her situation with that of other forsaken women: "Vieneme
delante con mucha mas fuerga que ningun otro, el dolor de la desemparada
Dido, porque mas al mio semejante le conozco quasi que otro alguno."
9. Moral, and parting reflections. For the mention of Dido's story in
Boccaccio's Lahcrinio de amor, op. cit., cf. Appendix I, p. 518.
^ Cf. Menendez y Pelayo, Origenes, etc., oj). cit., pp. ccciii and ccexx;
the Spanish version has been reprinted by Foulche-Delbosc (Barcelona,
1907) ; the editor (dedication) calls the story "la mtis hondamente
humana de cuantas nos han dojado los albores del Renacimiento."
* Dido's illness through love was of influence on the following passage;
Eurialo (whose name is probably taken from Virgil) is rbsent, p. 26: "en
tanto queda Lucrecia bien sin abrigo : cierra las ventanas, vistese de
tristeza, nunca fue vista salir de casa. Todos se marauillan, no saben la
.1
Schevill — Studies in Cervantes. 491
simple ; the love of Lucrecia for Eurialus, her gradual yielding, his
departure and her death, these are the chief features, and the genu-
ine tone in which the tale is told amply accounts for the popularity
which it had long after its day.
A work which also originated in Italy, but which deserves a place^
in Spanish fiction, is the Libro de los honestos amoves de Peregrino y
causa. Quasi viuda en todos sus autos se mostraua; y como si el sol
eclipsara, parecia a los de casa estar en tinieblas; siempre como enferma
esta en la en ma, ininea la veen alegie: buscanle remedios para el cuerpo,
y la enfeiniedad mora en el anima, etc." Lucrecia writes to Eurialo, p. 20:
"Tu aqui no puedes muclio tiempo estar, ni yo despues de entrada en el
juego podria sin ti biuir. Tu no me querras lleuar, ni yo quedar tu
partiendo. Temor grande me ponen los enxemplos de muchas que de
aniantes estrangeros fueron desamparadas, para que no siga tu amor. Jason
engaiio a JMedea, . . . (^ue dire de Dido malaventurada, que al fuydo
Eneas rescibio? por auentura no la mato amor estrangero? Se quanto
es incierto y dudoso para no me auenturar a tantos peligros." Eurialo is
obliged by bis duty to bis Emperor to depart, p. 53: "sintiolo Lucrecia.
Que no siente el amor? o quien podra al amante engaiiar?" Slie writes to
bim: "si mi animo se pudiesse contra ti ayrar, ya con razon me ensafiaria,
porque tu partida dissimulas . . . Ay, mi coragon, que es la razon
que la jjartida del Cesar me encubres? El se apareja al caniino; tu no
quedaras, bien lo se. Que se liara de mi, que sin ti biuir no podre? Que
bare malauenturada? donde bolgare? Que descanso me quedara? Si me
dexas, no creas dos dias biuire. Por estas letras de mis lagrimas mojadas,
por tu mano derecba y fe dadas, si algun merecimiento tengo o algo de
mi te fue agradable, te suplico desta malauenturada amante ayas com-
l)assion. No que quedes te demando, mas que me lleues contigo, etc." And
tben tbe autbor cites otber cases of deatb tbrougb love, p. 57 : "Dido
plienisa, despues la fadal partida de Eneas, a si mesma mato . . . Esta
nuestra, como vido a Eurialo partir de su vista, cayda en tierra, la lleuaron
a la cama sus sieruas, etc."
' Menendez y Pelayo, Origines, etc., op. cit., p. cccxl, eliminates tbis
story, but it seems to me tbat a history of Spanish fiction ought to include
a work wliicb was of influence in its day in Spain as well as Italy. Six
or more editions in Spanish speak for themselves. I am obliged to quote
from tbe Italian version. The following are among the allusions to tbe
Aeneid ; cf. Libro del Peregrino nuovamente ristampato, e con somma dili-
genza corretto et alia sua pristina integrita ridotto (Vinegia, 1538) : "O
sola conscia del mio secreto affanno, littera mia, Dio ti presti quella felicita,
che '1 fece al jirofugo Troiano, quando nel gremio di Elisa fece sedere il
fratel cupido, etc.," p. 8; "Et se la Regina Carthaginese de udienza fusse
stata parca haueria con laude eterna dall' amato vSichco 1' ombra seguita,"
p. 15; there are also direct imitations of the Aeneid, as in a description
of daw n, p. 3!)., ; or allusions in "Come per attestare il Mantuano" and the
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 34 April, 1908.
■i'J'Z Schevill — tStudies in Cervantes.
Ginehra. As a romance it is important not only because it is a
mixture of the sentimental type with that of adventure, but because
many a page is more or less reminiscent of the Aeneid. In fact, the
general testimony justifies the conclusion that the author, Caviceo,
looked upon the epics of Homer and Virgil as types of adventure
stories with whose episodes and sentiments those of his OAvn pro-
duction could well bear comparison.
The little work of Juan de Segura entitled: Epistolario o processo
de cartas de amores, followed by Una quexa y aviso contra amor, is
also full of classic references, some of which are sufficiently reminis-
cent of VirgiP to strengthen the conviction that hardly a love and
like; Aeneas and Dido, p. 440; Acliates, p. 542? Dido's eager attention to
the narrative of Aeneas, p. 8L; Geneuera's lainentation, pp. 108 and 141, :
Peregrino is consoled in his hardships by his fido Achate: "le fatiche, et li
errori hanno comraendato Vlisse: li pericoli, et naufragii celebrato Enea,
etc.," as though all of these works belonged to Peregrino's class of novela,
namely de avcntiiras, p. IIK; Dido's death, p. 1120; Camilla and Turnus,
p. 138; a descent into the lower world modeled on the classics, p. 150;
p. 176 fl'. with a partial influence of Dante's inferno; Dido and Aeneas,
p. 247, etc.
' Cf. Epistolario, o 2^>''^ccsso dc Cartas de Anwrcs: con vna. carta para
vn amigo suyo: y una quexa y auiso contra amor. Traduzido del estilo Griego
en nuestro politico Castellano: por Joan de Segura. Asse auadido en esta
impression vna egloga: en que por subtil estilo el poeta Castellano Luis
Hurtado tracta del g-ualardon y premio de amor. [Alcala de Henares]
MDLIII; tlie grief of the heroine recalls that of Dido, in the following:
*'A mi cargo toda la culpa como por quien todo el mal se ha causado: que
si yo no os vuiera tan a vanderas desplegadas dado mi libertad: mostrando
OS la voluntad que os tenia; no vuierades menospreciado assi mis desuen-
turadas cartas . . . Mal haya la muger que por liombre alguno su
vida y honrra auentura como yo por vos he hecho: . . . que vistes
en mi para assi oluidarme? Quando fue hombre tan bien querido . . .?
O falso, cruel matador: dime si pensauas viendome aqui metida oluidarme:
porque me ordiste tan gran lazo : donde toda mi vida a tu causa encubierta
y con dolor estare . . . Pluguiesse a Dios aun que fuesse luego mi
muerte: que vn momento solo contigo me viesse, etc.," p. .31o; "qua! Dido
. . . a mis males & infortunios ygualara? . . . Ay de mi sin remedio
alguno pues otro no tengo saluo morir." And in the quexa y auiso contra
amor, cf. a complaint to Love: "Pues dime, que pago diste [a] aquelhi tan
nombrada & miserrima Dido?" p. 49; an obscure leference to the Aeneid
VI: "introduciendo Palinuro a Acaron, etc.," p. 60o; "parose tan triste
que no se Ic comparo aquel famoso rey Priamo quando a su gran Troya arder
veya etc.," p. 82o.
Schevill — Studies in Cervantes. 493
adventure story could well be written at this epocli without some
indebtedness to situations or sentiments in tbe Aeneid.^
A work in prose fiction of peculiar interest in- the study of
Cervantes is, as has been indicated in previous articles, Nunez de
Reinoso's Clareo y Florisea. Menendez y Pelayo speaks of one
episode, the descent into the inferno, ch. xxxi, as "llena de reminis-
cencias del libro sexto de la Eneida"- to which can be added Isea's
dream, ch. xxi, since she herself compares it with that of Aeneas,
who in his dream converses with Hector's ghost (II, v. 268 i¥.).^
Thus it is evident, that after exhausting his chief source, the amorosi
ragionamenti of Dolce, JSTiiiiez de Keinoso had recourse to the
^ In another early novela, Diego de San Pedro's Cat-eel de Amor (Sevilla,
1492), there is a chapter which proves "por enxemplos la bondad de las
mugeres (p. 78, of "Bibliotheca liispanica," Vol. XV, Madrid, 1904).
Virgil's Camilla gets an honorable mention, p. 82, while Dido, known perhaps
to Diego de San Pedro only as the heroine of the Aenoid, and not as the
chaste matron so frequently defended against calumny, is left out; cf. also
the later version of the Gelestina, act xvi : "Venus, Madre de Eneas." Other
works of fiction of the type of the Gelestina refer familiarly to the Aeneid.
Thus in the Thehayda (1521), cf. "Coleccion de Libros espaQoles raros, etc.,"
Vol. XXII (Madrid, 1894), p. 274, Berintho says to Menedemo : "Veote estar,
Menedemo, vacilando y envolviendo en tu anima tantas cosas, como el
piadoso Eneas, etc."; in the Comedia Seraphina (1521), Coleccion de
Libros espailoles, etc.," Vol. V (Madrid, 1873), p. 373 fF. ; '"en verdad tan
atordido estoy de lo que me dices, como el piadoso Eneas oyendo la respuesta
de Apolo quando tentO de abaxar a la ribera donde hallo vagando al buen
Palinuro, etc;" reference to "el gran Mantuano," p. 396; in the Comedia
Selvagia (1554), cf. same volume, p. 8, the author says of Love: "Tambien
;Mar6n, entre los latinos poetas fenix tinieo, todo el quarto libro de su
Eneida en decir sus inicuos hechos ocupo;" and p. 136 there is a reference
to the sixth book of the Aeneid: " i quien es esta fantasma? Por ventura
el fuerte Eneas, . . . con la anciana Sibilla, quieren en los infiernos
. . . entrar la segunda vez? etc."
- Origenes, etc., op. cit., p. cccxlvi; cf. also, Rohde, op. cit., on descents
into Hades as episodes in mediaeval literature, p. 279; Hertziana (Munich
library), op. cit., box 22, "Sagen," under "Unterirdische Wanderungen" ;
(Juevedo, Ohras, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 307: "las Zahurdas de Pluton, (Sueuo del
Infierno ) " reads in part like a travesty on the sixth book of the Aeneid
and of Dante's Inferno; "doy fe de que en todo el infierno no hay arbol
ninguno, etc." In the Galatea, Ohras, op. cit., there is mention made of
Aeneas and his descent into the inferno, p. 57, col. 1.
^ Cf. also the dream of Chapter xxi.x, p. 464, "Novelistas anteriores a
Cervantes" ( Rivadeneyra ) .
"--"
494 Schevill — Studies in Cervantes.
classics, making use of Homer/ perhaps, and of the Dido episode.
For the mere creating of situations into which expressions of the
regret and grief of a forsaken woman were introduced justified any
slight borrowing from the sentiments of Virgil. The phraseology
of the fourth book of the Acneid, at least, is unmistakable in
chapter xxviii. Other more trifling similarities could be pointed
ont.-
With regard to the descent of Aeneas into the lower world, Dante
had already created the prototype for imitations, and in the Renais-
sance the journey was copied as an episode of adventure by poets
and novelists alike.'' I have already noted its influence upon the
story of Peregrino y Ginehra;* there is probably a similar
indebtedness to be found in Jeronimo de Contrera's Selva de
Aventuras, the hero of which arrives at Naples and enters the cave
of the Cumaean Sibyl. '"^ After passing through a dark passage into
^ Cf. p. 438, col. 2 : where Isea undoes at night the work of the day.
* Cf . p. 438, coL 2: "sintiendo yo abrirse la puerta, temblaba pensando
que seria algun recaudo de Clareo; y eomo ine hallase engailada tornaba
a mi pena llorando . . ., y algunas veces me subia i\ unas altas ventanas,
de las C'uales se veia la mar, y comenzaba de mirar aquellas bravas ondas,
y quejabame porque me habian dejado con la vida, etc." ; p. 457, col. 2,
Estrellinda's lament j p. 461, col. 2: "Oh duro y sin fe ninguna, Felesindos!
y es posible que te baste el Animo a partirte de mi, que tanto te quiero,
y a peregrinar por ajenas tierras, podiendo hallar comigo ciudades y
castillos, reposo y descanso? Y i es posible . . ' . que estas lagrinias
mias no te detengan y la fe y palabra que me diste? . . . Pues pidote,
por el amor que te tengo, y por cualquier servicio que de mi hayas recebido,
y por la palabra que me diste^ que tengas piedad di mi y que no te
partas ... A las cuales razones Felesindos respondio : las grandes
mereedes y beneficios que de vos, seuora Estrellinda, yo he recebido, jamas
negare . . . Y pluguiera a Dios que yo pudiera quedar en esta tierra
y serviros: pero por los dioses inmortales, que yo no puedo, porque los
hados ordenaron traerme asi desasosegado hasta llevarme. dcspues de muchos
trabajos, adonde tenga descanso . . ." And Estrellinda replies angrily:
"Yo creo verdaderamente, que hombre tan sin piedad no puede ser nacido
sino de algunos tigres de Hircania, 6 criado entre algunos duros saxes,
etc."; the grief of Dido is also reflected in El Caballero Cifar, cf. Menendez
y Pelayo, Origenes, etc., op. cit., p. cxcvii.
' Cf . Ariosto's imitation of the prophecy of Anehises in Orlando (arioso,
Canto III.
^Cf. p. 491, n. 1.
'^ Cf. sixth book; '"Xovclistas anteriores a Cervantes" (Rivadoneyra),
p. 497 IT.
Schevill — Studies in Cervantes. 495
a beautiful meadow lie meets the Sibyl in lier palace (at the same
time a cave), where she prophesies to him regarding his own future
and that of Spain. All this is a kind of variation of Virgil and
very characteristic of the romances which mingled the old type of
chivalry with the newer story of adventure.
The influence of Virgil's epic upon Spanish fiction, exerted
indirectly as well as directly, was also reinforced by Italian romances
in verse and prose; they, in their turn, show to what extent his
extraordinary prestige had maintained itself from Dante through
Petrarch and Boccaccio, and how prominent it is among the influ-
ences which are dominant in the literature of the Italian Renais-
sance. This is not the time to dwell on the indebtedness of Boiardo,
Ariosto, or Tasso^ to Homer and Virgil, but the fact that the works
of both were imitated in their writings may have prompted others
to borrow more extensively from the classics. This seems to be
especially true in regard to Sannazaro's Arcadia.- As there are
few works in Italian literature which show a freer imitation of
Virgil, so there is scarcely another which forms a more important
link between Italian and Spanish literature. The Spanish pastoral
novel, at least, cannot be understood without it. While Sannazaro
imitated the classics directly,^ later authors copied his methods and
either followed his manner or went to the same sources. Not
infrequently, where the loan was from Virgil, j)astoral writers
adapted both the episode and the spirit which they had borrowed
to the fashion of their own times.
Among contemporaries the most important work of fiction
which demands attention in connection with the Persiles is Lope de
Vega's Peregrino en su patria, since it too shows clearly that the
Aeneid was looked upon, in all its essentials, as a romance. Lope
defends* the nature of his hero's experiences and wanderings thus :
^ The Aeneid frequently occurs to Ariosto; cf. Orlando, Canto XIX, 35;
XXXV, 25, etc.; Pio Rajna, Le Fonti cleW Orlando Furioso, (Firenze, 1876)
and A. Romizi, Le Fonti Latine dell' Orlando Furioso, (Torino, 1896) ;
Tasso, Gerusalemme liberaia, Canto XVI, 40 ft'.
"On the Spanish version of the Arcadia, cf. Menendez y Pelayo, Origenes,
etc., op. cit., p. cdxxvii.
' Cf. Arcadia di Jacobo Sannazaro secondo i manoscritti e le prime
stampe con note ed introduzione di Michele Scherillo (Torino, 1888) ; La
Materia delV Arcadia del Sannazaro, studio di Francesco Torraca (Citta di
Castello, 1888).
* Cf. "Coleccion de las obras sueltas de Lope de Vega," Vol. V., edition
Sancha (Madrid, 1776), p. 299 of El Peregrino en su patria.
d.
■i9G Schevill — Studies in Cervantes.
. . . pucs a ningimo parezca nuestro Peregrine fabuloso, pues
en esta pintura no hay caballo con alas, Chimera de Belerophonte,
dragones de Medea, manzanas de oro, ni palacios encantados : que
desdichas de nn peregrino, no solo son verisimiles, pero forzosa-
mente verdaderas. Y si el poeta de Venusia, que Justo Lipso llama
hijo de las Musas, pinto en los naufragios de Ulysses las transforma-
eiones de Circe en los soldados Griegos que le acompaiiaban, y la
espantosa estatura del gigante, que mato [sic] con el tizon ardiendo :
y el Principe de los Poetas Latinos en la peregrinacion de Eneas
pone tantas cosas fabulosas, hasta bajarle a los Campos Elysios,
aunque esto hablando como Gentil, bien pudo ser que lo tuviesse
por verdadero : pero en fin tranf ormo las naves, y levanto aquel
testimonio a Dido con otros mil impossibles para exornacion de su
Poema : de donde por ventura tomaron ocasion muchos para decir,
que el argumento del havia de ser de cosas f alsas, ^ por que lo ban de
parecer, que una muger con dolor perdiesse el seso?^ etc.
This practically means that taking Homer and Virgil as standards
a novelist may introduce any episodes he sees fit to present, pro-
vided they seem probable and embellish the whole. Moreover, this
and other references to the Aeneid are valuable testimony as to
the general popularity of Virgil.-
^ Another important passage may be found in "Obras no dramaticas,"
p. 14, col. 1, El desdichado por la lionra, in the nature of a justification
of this type of story: "es muy proprio a los mayores alios referir ejemplos,
.y de las cosas que han visto contar algunas; verdad que se hallarit en
Homero griego, y en Virgilio, latino, bastantes a mi credito, por ser
los principes de las dos mejores lenguas."
•El Percqrino, op. cit., p. 335: "peregrinando en una pequefia parte de
su patria Espaiia, con mSs diversidad de sueesos, que Eneas hasta Italia
etc."; pp. 53, 64, 430, mere mention of Aeneas and Dido; p. 339, Aeneas
and his son; p. 404: the escape from Troy, Aeneas cariying his father
upon his shoulders; p. 306: a citation from Virgil (lo que Virgilio cuenta
en aquellos Aersos), "Juntos Eneas y la triste Dido | van d cazar ii un
bosque," may be a modification of the already mentioned ballad beginning,
"por los bosques de Cartago." Cf., however, bk. IV, v. 117, of the Aeneid;
Lope's quotations generally render the Latin directly, tliough somewhat
freely to suit his purpose; p. 31: "Ante sus ojos Hector triste en suefios,"
where sus should be mis, II, 270; further renderings of the kind are those in
La mds prudente venganza, "Obras no dramflticas" (Rivadeneyra) p. 24:
"asl despues hablo, etc.," from the Aeneid VII, 135; and Gnzman el bravo,
p. 34: "si el cielo il los piadosos galardona," from the Aeneid 1, 603-5.
Reference to Virgil, the poet; El Peregrino, p. 341: "Maron y Homero en
Schevill — Studies in Cervantes. 497
At tlie outset mention was made of the importance of translations
from tlie classics because of the assistance they rendered in the
introduction of material from the Aeneid into later Renaissance
literature. With regard to Cervantes, while there is no evidence
that he could read Latin to any extent, there is no doubt that he
knew Virgil in the translation of Gregorio Hernandez Yelasco, the
one most widely current in his day.^ Moreover, in view of the fact
hi poesia principes," which is a common phrase ; cf . also prologue to
la Circe; in the dedication of the Arcadia, Virgil is the author of "sagrados
versos . . . estupendo prognostico de la venida de nuestra salud al
niimdo" (Fourth Eclogue) ; ef. also p. 129 of Ai-cadia, "obras no
dramatieas."
Cf. Antonio de Eslava, Noches de Invierno (Barcelona, 1609), p.
40: "por buen termino me tratays de mentiroso, etc.," but the author's
manner is justified, "que assi lo [mostraron] los celebres Poetas Homero y
Virgilio, etc.," as though they were standards in fiction; p. 152: Dido's
story; cf. also p. 176 for both versions of her story. Alonso J. de Salas
Barbadillo, "Bibliofilos espaiioles" vol. XXXI, El Necio hien afortunado, p.
298, has an interesting passage: "Estaba diciendo k voces estos desatinos
no sin causa: ; Oh grande hijo de Venus, heroe generoso, etc. (here follow
some of the deeds of Aeneas), en todos esos hechos tenia competidores ;
. . . pero huir de una muger blanda y amorosa . . . nadie lo ha
heeho sine tvi, valiente Eneas. Tu solo . . . mereces el sonoro monu-
mento . . . del gran Virgilio! i Oh, si yo te imitara! etc." In Alonso
mozo de miichos amos, by Jer6nimo de Alcala, there are two humorous
references; bk. II, chap. 2, to Aeneas bearing Anchises upon his shoulders,
II, chap. 5 to Dido. Montalban, Para Todos (7th day, "discurso iiltimo,
que se llama lo mejor de lo mejor," par. 32) mentions among famous
loving couples Dido and Aeneas, and Persiles and Sigismunda.
'Menendez y Pelayo's article on Traductores espanoles de la Eneida (2d
vol. of Caro's translation, "Biblioteca cliisica," Vols. IX and X) is so
complete that little need be added. The doubt expressed about the existence
of Natas's translation, i. e., of bk. II of the Aeneid (p. xiii), may be
dispelled by Gallardo, Ensayo, etc., Vol. Ill, col. 951 ; cf. also p. 486, n. 2.
The long career of a Spanish Aeneid and its extensive popularity, notably
during the greater part of the 16th and 17th centuries, can be inferred
from the many editions mentioned by Menendez y Pelayo, and, therefore,
remain incontrovertible. Only the translation made by Gregorio Hernandez
concerns us here. In El Peregrino curioso y grandezas de Espana (16th
century) por Bartholome de Villalba y Estaiia, "Bibliofilos espaiioles,"
Vol. XXIII (Madrid, 1886), the author first asserts "quan mas eastigados
son los poetas que los otros auctores," and then adds, p. 28 : "tanbien sobre
Virgilio y el Homero traducidos dan votos insipientes; mas consentir en
esto nada quiero, pues los dos vertidores son prudentes." Here the reference
is manifestly to Hernandez Velasco's version of the Aeneid, since he is
498 Schevill — Studies in Cervantes.
tliat Cervantes's general knowledge was chiefly of the world and of
men and in no sense bookish, he cannot have looked upon the classics
and purely academic learning with unmixed favor. We know that
he deprecated the pedantic manner frequently enough indulged in
by contemporaries, of parading a mass of irrelevant learning, of
dragging into the text or scattering along the margin of the pages
references to the ancients, to the Church fathers and the like. The
prologue to Don Quixote leaves no room for doubt as to his opinion
of such vanity.^ And his distrust of the real learning of these
pedants was justifiable, for the veriest numskull could quote Latin.-
But Cervantes was so wholly a master of the vernacular, so com-
pletely absorbed by the natural medium which his unschooled genius
had chosen, that any effort to appear at home in Greek or Latin
would have been forced.- Hence the sincerity of his defense of the
poet in Don Quixote, who without artificial means, and unaided by
the stimulus of learning, creates as a inero romancista; indeed the
praised in the next stanza as a poet and translator on the ground of his
rendering (15G9) of Sannazaro's de partu Virginis. Lojje de Vega, on
various occasions, praises Hernandez's poetic gift; cf. El Laurel de Apolo,
"acudiendo el primero, etc.," vs. .395 ff. ; Dorotea, Vol. II of Comedias escog-
idas, p. ,51, col. 2; Virtud, pohrezo y muger, Vol. IV, p. 214, col. 3; cf.
Gallardo, Ensayo, etc., Vol. I, col. 648; Clemencin in his edition of Don
Quixote, op. cit., II, chap. 62, note 61, quotes a severe passage from Cristobal
Suarez de Figueroa's Plaza universal, discourso 46: "testigos de esta
verdad (of the wretchedness of various translations) pueden ser los
desflguiados Ariosto, Taso y Virgilio, etc." It must be remembered, too,
that the Aeneid in the original was a much edited work; cf. Ticknor, Vol.
I, p. 451 and Sellar, The lioinaii poets of lite Augustan Age (Oxford, 1877),
p. 66.
^ Cf. Cervantes, el Coloquio de los perros, where Berganza says : "hay
algunos romancistas que en las conversaciones disparan de cuando en
cuando con algun latin breve y compendioso, etc.," p. 232, col. 1, Oiras
de Cervantes, "Biblioteca de autores espauoles."
^ Navarrete, Vida de Cervantes, gives the latter credit for more, classic
learning that he had: "ni por esto perdio de vista a los exeelentes maestros
de la antigaiedad, a quienes contemplo siempre conio el tipo 6 deciiado del
mejor gusto en la literatura, segun se ve en ];is ivnitaeiones que hizo de
Apuleyo, de Heliodoro, de Iloracio y de Virgilio." In his Vida de Cervantes
y analysis del Quixote, prefixed to the Academy's edition of Don Quixote,
tlie author, D. Vicente de los Rios, made a curious attempt to show that
the latter contains parallels to the Aeneid; of vol. I, pp. xcv-vi, edition of '
1782: "en las bodas del rico Camacho tienen los lectores un equivalente &
los juegos y certainenes de las fabulas epicas; la morada de Don Quixote •!
en casa de los Duques, corresponde perfcctamente A la. detenciun de Eneas
en Cartago, etc." which no one believes to-day. Bowie, II, 120 of his
r
i
Schevill — Studies in Cervantes. 499
passage has tlie tone of a plea in behalf of his own work, which is
so free from the dead wood of academic display.^ His admiration
of Homer and Virgil has, therefore, merely the traditional stamp of
the Renaissance, while his praise of the ancients in general is per-
Anotaciones al Quixote sees a similarity between Don Quixote II, chapter
49, torofs y canas and Virgil, V, vs. 580, etc., of the Aneid; cf. also Ariosto,
Orhtiido, 13, 37.
Cortejon's view, (of. his edition of Don Quixote (Madrid, 1905), Vol. II,
pp. xix If. ) that the bits of Latin quoted by Don Quixote are a proof of his,
and so of Corvantes's knowledge of Latin, has no foundation; he gives among
his examples such as more turquesco, nulla est retentio (redemptio) , quando
caput dolct, bene quidon, pane lucrando, est Deiis in nohis, per signum
crticis, mare magnum and the like. He even includes the well-known post
tenehras spero lucem to be found on title jjages before Cervantes's day, and
the very common deum de deo (cf. Gaspar Ijucas Hidalgo, Dialogos, II, chap-
ter 3, and Cervantes, the Coloquio de los perros, p. 229, col. 1 ) . Spanish
children heard many Latin phrases from the mouths of the priests (on habet
borem in lingua, cf. Coloquio de los perros, p. 233, col. 2), and not only
in the schoolroom, but from the pulpit; Latin proverbs, such as quando eaput
dolet, eie., were used no doubt in conversation, while our author could
easily copy the phrases used by others with an equal display of learning.
A few may be added to show how valueless tlieir testimony as to Cervantes's
learning is: aliquando (sic) bonus dormitat Honierus {Don Quixote, II, 3),
stultorum infinitus est numerus (II, 3), operibus credite, et non verbis
(II, 50), sicut erat in principio (I, 46), etc.; cf. also El Rufian dichoso
for the gloria patri; these simply reflect the teaching of the priests; Los
Habladores : "el proverbio latino no dice sino que necessitas caret lege, etc.;"
Persiles: Maria optiniani partem elegit; vade retro, exi foras; La guarda
cuidadosa: tu dlxisti; these fragments of Latin do not make a latin ist.
The verse of Virgil "quis talia fando . . . temperet a lacrimis," II,
vs. 6-8, in Don Quixote, II, chap. 39, could have been taken from some other
writer, and was always known well enough to have reached Cervantes by
word of mouth.
^ Don Quixote, II, 16: "Y a lo que decis, seuor, que vuestro hijo no
estima mucho la poesia de romance, doime a entender que no anda muy
acertado en ello, y la razon es esta : el grande Homero no escribio en latin,
poiqne era griego; ni Virgilio no escribio en griego, etc. . . . del
vientre de su madre el poeta natural sale poeta; y con aquella inclinacion
jque le dio el cielo, sin mas estudio ni artificio compone cosas que hace
verdadero al que dijo: est Dens in nobis." Cf. also Lope de Vega, El
Verdadero Amante, prologue; Dorotea, Vol. II, of "Comedias Escogidas,"
p. 33 ; Bowie, Don Quixote, part II, 42 cites Morales, Sobre la lengua
castellana, p. 3, all containing the idea that, just as the Greeks wrote in
Greek and the Romans in Latin, modem peoples should respect and use their
own tongues.
500 Schevill — Studies in Cervantes.
functory and varies little from an inherited phraseology^ in the
manner in Avhich it is expressed.
With regard to Virgil himself, Cervantes was probably impressed
by the oft-repeated story which tells how the Aeneid had been in
danger of being consigned to the flames after the poet's death, and
how it Avas saved by his august patron, the Emperor ;- but there is
never a word on the poem which leads one to suspect that he knew
it in the original. In general his allusions to Virgil and other
classics, in which any display of learning may have been intended,
are no clue to his classic education; they are merely a concession
to his times. Moreover, it seems certain that Cervantes was to his
immediate contemporaries, his neighbors and friends, an unimport-
ant personage who did not shine by any erudition or social savoir
faire, whose academic training was not great, and whose rank in
society could not have been raised to any very high level during his
checkered career as wanderer, slave, soldier and clerk. Like his
great English contemporary, Shakespeare, he could claim no promi-
nent social station, and as an inferior scholar he too had ''small
Latin and less Greek." Finally, as* we shall see, all that Cervantes
borrowed from the Aeneid could have been taken from Gregorio
Hernandez de Velasco's translation, and that he knew it well is fairly
certain from quotations^ and from similarities of phrase which will
speak for themselves.
'Cf. Galatea, "Obras de Cervantes" (Rivadeneyra) , p. 85, col. 2: "la
[fama] que hara vivir el Marituano Titiro por todos los siglos venideros,
etc." ; Pellicer and Clemenin saw in the position ' of Don Quixote at the
end of 1, chapter 43, an imitation of the situation of the enchanter Virgil,
who was suspended in a basket. It is more likely patterned after some
event in the romances of chivalry.
^ Cf . Don Quixote, I, chapter 13; also an introductory poem of the
Spanish version of the Aeneid: "El Emperador Augusto Cesar, sabiendo
como Virgil io avia niandado en su testamento quemar la Eneyda, porque
no la dejava tan limada como quisiera, hizo ciertos versos Latinos cuya
sentencia es 6sta"; then follows the poem.
^"Callaron todos, Tirios y Troyanos" (opening of book II of the Spanish
version of the Aeneid) is supposed to represent the eagerness of the
spectators gathered before the puppet theatre (Don Quixote, II, 26) to
hear the story of Caiferos and Melisendra, just as it did the interest of the
Tyrians and Trojans who listened to the story of Aeneas. Clemencin, Don
Quixote, op. cit.. Vol. VI, p. 158, calls the rest of the phrase, "pendientes
estaban todos, etc.," a translation from the original. But the phrase is
a common one, and Cervantes had used it before, I, chap. 51: "nos tenia
Schevill — Studies in Cervantes. 501
1). The Indebtedness of Cervantes.
After this rather lengthy excursion, let us examine the Persiles
and investigate the extent of its indebtedness to Virgil. What has
been stated was necessary to show that while Cervantes may have
gone on his own initiative to the Aeneid for suggestions, still, imi-
tations of well-known episodes or mere references to them were suffi-
ciently traditional and common to prompt his taking the Aeneid as a
kind of Renaissance roman d'aventure and using it, as he had done
Heliodorus's Theagenes and ChariMea, wherever he saw fit to do so.
The story of the Aeneid may he divided into five main groups of
episodes; the first three hooks are of the adventure type, with the
flight of Aeneas, his wanderings and hardships; the fourth is a
romance, the fifth is unique in its celebration of the games in honor
of Anchises, the sixth relates the descent into the lower world, and
finally, the last six books, which concern us little, consist chiefly
of warfare attendant on the conquest of Italy by the Trojans. The
most direct imitations in the Persiles are taken from the fourth and
fifth books. The borrowing from the former may have been sug-
gested by the popularity of that kind of love story, but there was a
serious obstacle to incorporating successfully the tragedy of Dido.
Owing to the high moral tone which Cervantes was bound to main-
tain in his romance because of the unimpeachable chastity of his
hero and heroine — patterned, as we have seen, after Heliodorus —
the opportunity to depict a real, living passion had to be eliminated
throughout. It is moreover questionable whether Cervantes or any
other Spanish writer of fiction of those days could have portrayed
one. As a result, the mere skeleton of the Dido episode remains.
Periandro, the hero, reaches the Kingdom of Policarpo in the course
of his wanderings, in time to participate in some games. The prin-
cess Sinforosa — with a sister Policarpa, whose raison d'etre seems to
be Dido's having a sister Anna^ — falls in love Avith the handsome
guest. There is, to be sure, no chance of any requital of her love
and a parvulus Aeneas would be wholly out of keeping with the kind
of unions celebrated in this story. ]^ot long after the meeting of
(i todos la boca abierta pendientes de las hazauas que nos iba contando,"
p. 397, col. 1; cf. p. .503, n. 1; the line: "Que a osados favorece la Fortuna,"
Eneida, Vol. II, p. 115, is in Don Quixote, first poem with unfinished verse
ends, line 19. Cf. also Appendix III, p. 522.
' In giving Dido a sister Anna, Virgil may have been influenced by the
Argonautica, in which Medea has a sister, cf. Benoist, Virgile, Eneide, p. 191.
L
503 S'chevill — Studies in Cervantes.
these two, the heroine Auristela and her party are wrecked on the
island and the plot is duplicated inversely. Policarpo, the King,
who is a widower, falls in love with the beautiful stranger, Auristela,
and with the sexes changed we have an exact counterpart of the
widow Dido and her love for Aeneas. In accordance with the
curious taste of the day, the sentimental utterances of Dido on her
situation are put into Policarpo's mouth. ^ As widower he has
remained faithful to the memory of his dead spouse, but the coming
of these "new guests" has disconcerted his equanimity. This is the
counterpart of the effect produced on Sinforosa by Periandro, both
incidents being copied from Dido's attitude toward her Trojan
guest. Sinforosa in the meantime confesses her love for Periandro
to his putative "sister" Auristela, who promptly becomes jealous.
There is also in this the admixture of an episode from Heliodorus,
where the victorious Theagenes first impresses Chariklea by his
prowess in some games. While Periandro is on the island he is
asked to tell the history of his experiences and wanderings, which
'AH my quotations will be from Hei'iiandez de Velasco's Eneida (Valencia,
1776), 2 vols., which is a reprint of the editions revised by the translator
himself (cf. the licencia in the edition of Toledo, 1577, and the introduction
by the printer in the edition of 1776) ; and from the Obras de Cervantes,
"Biblioteca de autores espanoles" (Rivadeneyra) ; Eneida, Vol. I, p. 1.39:
"la mal sana Reyna | Habla con su concorde y cara hermana. | Ana, mi
dulce hermana. que visiones | Turban mi sueno, y crecen mi cuidado? | Que
7iitcvo hncspcd vino a mis regiones? | Quien puede ser aqueste que he
hospedado? | Que rostro? que persona? que facciones? | Quan fuerte,
ilustre, grave, y respetado? etc. | Solo este ha hecho fuerza al casto intento |
Y mi animo hasta aora lirme y fuerte | Vacilar hace en gran desasosiego. |
Siento en mi un rastro del pasado fuego" (the italics are my own and
indicate some of the similarities).
Persiles, p. 596, col. 1: "he guardado como has visto las leyes de la
viudez con toda puntualidad y recato . . . pero despues que han venido
estos niirras Jnu'spcdcs a niu'stra ciudad, se ha desconcertado el reloj de
mi entendimiento . . . nuiero por Auristela, etc." Sinforosa's love for
Periandro grows like Dido's: "dijole tambien como las gracias de
[su licrmano] Periandro habiaii despertado en ella un modo de deseo,
qiu' no llegaba a sor amor . . .; pero que despues con la soledad y
ociosidad, yendo y viniendo el pensamiento a contemplar sus gracias, el
amor se le fue pintando, no como honibre particular, sino cojno il un principe
. . . esta i)inlura uie la gralin cu c! alma, y yo iiiadvertida doje iiue
me la grabase, etc.," p. 594, col. 1. Eneida, Vol. 1, p. 144: "despues de;
divididos, en las horas | Que suele toniar vez la muda nochc | . . . Sola
ella en su espaciosa y viuda casa, | se consume, etc."
Schevill — Studies in Cervantes. 503
he does to a listening audience just as does Aeneas (Aeneid, bks. II
and III) ; Sinforosa especially hangs on his lips during his narra-
tive.^ Following the main thread of the story through a maze of
complicated love affairs, we learn that the foreigners (huespedes)
plan a secret escape.- But Policarpo has in the meantime set fire
to his palace ; the city is in an uproar and the whole scene recalls
in a general way the departure of the Trojans from Troy (Aeneid,
bk. II) and from Carthage (Aeneid, bk. IV). The flames light up
the city, din and confusion reign, mingled with shouts "to arms,"
while the fugitives gather in a small body ready to flee over the
seas.^ Sinforosa, however, in the midst of the uproar mounts with
her sister to a tower of the palace and sees the fleeing strangers
^Eneida, Vol. I, p. 49; "La desdichada Dido en laigas platifas | Dejava
sin sentir pa.sar la noche, etc. | Mil cosas a menudo preguntanKlo, etc. |
Huesped ; sera a mi ver mas acertado | Que del principio el Griego engauo
digas: I Lo que has per tieria y mar peregvinado." p. 144: "otra vez hace |
Contar la liistoria del Troyano dnelo. | Y csta olra vez la nusera colgada |
Del dulce razoiiar del nuevo huesped."
Persiles, p. G04. col. 1 : "p]stando pues juntos . . . iin dia Sinforosa
rogo encarecidamente a Periandro les contase algunos sucesos de su vida,
especialmente se holgaria de saber de donde venia la primera vez que
llego a aqnella isla ... A lo que Periandro respondio, que si haria,
si se le permitiese comenzar el cuento de su historia, no del mismo principio,
etc." He then begins his story in the middle; also p. 608, col. 1: "La que
eon mas gusto escuchaba a Periandro era la bella Sinforosa, estando
pendiente de sus palabras . . . tal era la gracia y donaire con que
Periandro contaba sus sucesos." And p. Gil, col. 2: "era tanto el deseo
que Sinforosa tenia de oir el fin de la historia de Periandro, que solicito
el volverse a juntar otro dia, etc." Li the Viaje del I'arnaso, II, v. 1,
resembles the Eneida : "Colgado estaba de mi antigua boca | El dios
hablante"; cf. also p. 500, n. .3.
^Eneida, Vol. I, p. 157: "mandates que luego | Las naos con gran secreto
le adereeen, | Y a los Troyanos compaiieros manden | Que al puerto al
punto apriesa salgan todos, etc."; Persiles, p. (302, col. 1: "En resolucion,
quedaron los tres de acuerdo que Mauricio buscase un bajel de muchos que
en el puerto estaban, que los llevase a Inglaterra secretamente, que para
emharcarse no faltaria modo convenible, etc."
^Eneida, Vol. I, p. 08: "En tanto la ciudad en toda parte | Con vario
lamentar se confundia." | p. 09: "Ya cerca y lejos la agua cristalina | Del
pielago Sigeo arder parece. | Los gritos y el llorar de la mezquina | Gente,
y el son de horrendas trompas crece."; p. 90: "Al arma, al arma, o mios,
ii la pelea."; p. 90: "La noche en fin lugar a Apolo dando, | Torneme a ver
mi gente, etc." ] "Gran suraa de mancebos me esperavan | etc., que tristes
504 Schevill — Studies in Cervantes.
make their escape.^ Her grief is voiced, as was Dido's, to her sister,
in terms not so close to the original as was the lament in Clareo y
Florisea, hut in a way which more or less faithfully imitates its
sentiments." The fugitives make off in the meantime, while the
en monton confuso estaban, etc. ( Con sus haciendas y animos mostravan I
Que estavan a seguirme apercebidos."'
Persiles, p. GIG, col. 1: "Llegose la iioche, y a las tres horas della
comenzo cl aima, que puso en confusion y alboroto a toda la gente de
la ciudad: comenzo a resplandecer el fuego, etc. Oyendo lo cual . . .
se hicieron todos tin monton, y puestos delante los varones . . . hallaron,
paso desembarazado hasta el puerto, etc. Entie la confusa griterfa y con-
tinuo vocear al arnia, al arma, entre los estallidos del fuego abrasador
que . . . liacia el mayor estiago, andaba encubierto Policarpo, etc."
^Eneida, Vol. I, p. 165: "0 triste Dido, . • • | Que tal dolor sentias
. . . quando | De tu alto alcazar la ribera toda | Vias hervir de perlidos
Troyanos? | . . . o crudo amor, a que no fuerza | Tu gran yiolencia &
los mortales tristesV" p. 17G: "Ya la purpurea Aurora, . . . de luz
nueva | Las tierras cerca y lejos esparcia: | Quando la miserable RejTia
vido I Desde una alta atalaya, . . . ] que la armada con hinchadas
velas I Se iba alejando, etc."
Persiles, p. GIG, col. 1 : "En esto la enamorada Sinforosa, ignorante del
caso, puso el remedio en sus pies y su esperanza en su inocencia, y con pasos
desconcertados y temerosos se' subio Ti una alta torre de palacio, d su
parecer parte segura del fuego: . . . acerto a encerrarse con ella su
hermana Policarpa, que le conto ... la huida de sus huespedes, cuyas
nuevas quitaron el sentido a Sinforosa, etc."
' Eneida, Vol. I, p. 159: "Huesped niio, porque, 6 a do te alejas? I En
cuyos brazos a morir me dejas? etc."j p. 1G2: "Tu del horrido Caucaso
naciste, |E1 te dio esa alma dura y peiiascosa: | Y si esto no es, las Tigres
te engendraron | De Hircania, etc.;" p. 165: "Ves, Ana mia, qual van todos
bolando, | De toda parte al puerto se ban juntado: | Las velas ya al buen
viento estan llamando, etc."; p. 166: "Que espere ya para huir buen
viento, | Por su interese ha esto de otorgarme, | Que la quebrada fe del
casamiento | ya no le rogare quiera guardarme, etc. | Un breve tiempo
pido, si es posible, | En que se haga mi furor sufrible, etc. | Esto te pido
(to her sister) por merced crecida; | Ten lastima fi mi duelo acerbo y
fuerte : | No serSs ya de oy mas de mi afligida, | No te cansare mas hasta
la muerte, etc."; p. 171: "fugitivo Eneas."
Persiles, p. GIG, col. 2: "sola Sinforosa se estaba aun en su dcsmayo,
y sola su hermana lloraba su desgracia . . . ; volvio on fin,
tendio la vista jior cl mar, vio volar la saetia donde iba la niitad de su
alma . . , , y como si fuera otra enganada y nueva Dido, que de otro
fugitivo Eneas se que j aba, enviando suspires al cielo . . . dijo estas
6 otras semejantes razones: Oli hcrmoso huesped venido por mi mal fi
estas riberas, no engauador por cierto, que aun no he sido yo tan dichosa,
que me dijescs palabras amorosas para enganarnie, amaina esas velas, 6
t ScheviU — Studies in Cervantes. 505
palace is consumed by the fire. This episode of the Persiles, how-
ever, verges on the ludicrous on account of the absurd duplication
of the incident. Policarpo also appears in the tower and beholds
his love disappear over the waters, but fortunately there is no lamen-
tation.^
Further indebtedness to the story of Dido can no doubt be exag-
gerated," and while there are in the Persiles certain very insignifi-
cant sentiments or situations which may have been slightly affected
by the fovirth book of the Aeneid, it is more probable that they are
independent similarities. When, for instance, Arnaldo, a prince in
love with Auristela, is detained by her charms instead of going home
to his kingdom, he is advised by the busybody Clodio to be mindful
of his duties and proceed on his journey to his own country. Just
so Aeneas had been reminded of his duty in regard to the future
of his race in Italy by a messenger from the gods, who urges him to
leave Carthage.'^ Clodio is a kind of personified rumor (fama in
the Aeneid), who gossips about the possible, secret relations between
the hero and heroine and the scandal of Arnaldo's continuous hover-
ing about Auristela. Again, the attractions which keep Aeneas at
t6mplalas algun tanto, para que se dilate el tiempo de que mis ojos vean
ese navio . . . mira, seuor, que liuyes de quien te sigue . . . :
hija soy de un rev, y me contento con ser esclava tuya; y si no tengo
lermosura que pueda satisfacer a tus ojos, tengo deseos que puedan llenar
OS vacfos de los mejores que el amor tiene . . . viquezas tengo,
acelerado fugitive mio ... A esta sazon volviu a hablar con su
lermana, y le dijo: No te parece, hermana mla, que ha amainado algun
;anto las velas? No te parece que no camina tanto? Ay Dies, si se liabra
*arrepentido ! . . . Ay hermana, respondiu Policarpa, no te engaiies
. el navio vuela, etc." Cf. also (p. G02, col. 1) "habiendote criado
. entre riscos y peiias, de las cuales . . . has sacado tambien la
(dureza en las entraiias."
^Persiles, p. 616, col. 2: "Salteolas en esto el Rey su padre, que quiso
•ver de la alta torre, tambien como su hija, no la mitad, sino toda su alma,
ique se le ausentaba, etc."
Certain resemblances to features of Theagenes and Chariklea would be
4iard to distinguish from a possible indebtedness to the Aeneid, where the
nature of the episode or the sentiment is the same.
'Eneida, Vol. 1, p. 156: "Que estas tti' agora, Eneas, muy marido, etc. |
iPundas (o gran vergiienza) ageno nido, | Tu Reyno, tu valor, y a ti olvidando?
etc. I Que haces, di, en la Libia tierra ocioso? etc." Persiles, p. 595, col. 1:
"quiero que tal vez consideres quien eres, la soledad de tu padre, la falta
haces a tus vasallos, la contingencia en que te pones de perder tu reino.
506
Schevill — Studies in Cervantes.
the side of Dido, the opportunity for a desirable match, for gaining
the power over a fine kingdom resemble those held up before Perian-
dro by Auristela to urge him to stay and marry Sinforosa/ At
other times there is a possible fusion of the spirit of Heliodorus with
that of Virgil; as Theageues and Chariklea pursue a certain goal,
as Aeneas flies from Carthage that he may fulfil the purpose of his
wanderings, so Periandro and Auristela are determined to carry
out their journey to Rome. All escape from the snares of love. In
their striking appearance, their beauty and noble bearing, the pro-
tagonists of these romances are of course alike, and Aeneas and Dido,
Theagenes and Chariklea, Periandro and Auristela quite naturally
came to be mentioned together in lists of loving couples.- Finally,
the incantations of the Massylian enchantress by whose aid Dido
seeks to regain the lost love of Aeneas must be considered^ together
^ Persilcs, p. 595, col. 2 : "digo que Sinfoiosa te adora y te qiiiere por
esposo: dice que tiene riquezas increibles, y yo digo que tiene crcihle
hermosura."
" Cf . p. 49G, n. 2, end: in ^Jontal1)an's raia Todos. Tlie appearance of
Aeneas, Eneida, Vol. I, p. 'M) : "Quedo patente el bello y fueite Eneas. | y
semejante a Dios en i-ostro y cuerpo. | Resplandecio, etc."; p. 148: "Eneas,
sobre todos hevmosisimo | . . . Qual va el hermoso Apolo, quando deja |
A la templada Licia, etc." The appearance of Dido, p. 34: "Qual suele en
las riberas del Eurota, | . . . Salir Diana a recrearse en corros, |
tal era Dido, etc." For the Persiles, cf. previous article, op. cit.,
Appendix, par. 7: Periandro's beauty is described, p. 588, col. 2; Auristela
is like a goddess, p. G04, col. 2.
^Eneida, Vol. I, p. 1G9-70: "Hallado lie, herniuna uiia, ya manera. etc., |
(^on que mi Eneas mas que a si me quiera, etc. | Ay un lugar do el Sol
de nos se parte, | Al fin de Etiopia. . . . | De alli yo he visto aqui una
religiosa | Masila, que ha por largos dias guardado | De las hijas de .Atlante
la faniosa | Casa, etc. Esta con sus encantos se profiere | A atar y a liljertar
los corazones : | Sana el insano amor a los que quiere, etc.;" p. 257: "la
('umca Sibihi | Dcrramn (hilccs y oloiosos vinos: | Y de en niitad de los
noveles ciu-rnos | ("ortoles ciertas cerdas, y entregolas | Al sacro fuego por
primeia ofrcnda, Llaniando con voz alta a la grande Hecate, etc.": cf. also
bk. VII, p. -i'lO i\.. "la furia Alecto . . . arrebatando una culebra | Que
arranco del cabello serpentino, | Con furia la arrojo a la Reyna Amata, etc.,"
and the sulisc(|ii('iit actions of the queen : cf. also Iv-logue viii.
I'cr.silcs, ]). G()2, col. 2: "Ifas de saber ansiniisjno que en aquella ciudad
de Alhaina siempre ha liabido alguna niujer de mi nombre, la cual con el
apeliido de ("enotia liereda esta ciencia, que no nos ensefia A ser hechiceras,
como algunos nos Daman, sino :'i ser encantadoras y magas," with
the distinction between the two given at length. She tries her charms
on Antonio, j). G0.'5 IT.
Schevill — Studies in Cervantes. 507
with the love philtres, enchantments and the like, which serve simi-
lar purposes in sixteenth century romances. In the Persiles the cor-
responding part in the above mentioned love affairs is taken by the
old hag Zenotia.
Having examined the age of Cervantes we see, therefore, that the
great passion of Dido with its splendid exposition and vividness
exerted influence on the sentimental fiction of the entire sixteenth
century; nowhere is there a more forceful description of the "love-
sickness" which characterizes so many Renaissance heroines thai?
in the fourth book of the Aeneid.^
Sinforosa falls in love with the handsome stranger at the cele-
bration of festal games. The idea of using such an opportunity to
bring together hero and heroine goes back, as we have seen, to
Heliodorus and the Greek romances ;- but nowhere among the latter
would Cervantes have found any festivities as fully described as
those which he gives. He felt, no doubt, that in order to present
his hero in the most advantageous light, with strength and beauty,
he must dwell more extensively than his predecessors on his athletic
superiority and skill. To this end he may have cast about for sug-
gestions and so have come upon the Aeneid.^ The fifth book with
its funeral games had already been frequently imitated, and a similar
contest in which the hero outstripped all competitors and gained all
prizes, must have seemed appropriate for his novel also. Their
adoption was therefore no more an innovation than the use of
Dido's story; they had already been taken out of their original
setting in Homer* and Virgil by writers of fiction to serve as enter-
^ Encida, Vol. I, p. 144: "Quando los astros que del cielo bajan | Embian
al niundo el sueuo y el silencio, | Sola ella en sii espaciosa y viuda casa, | Se
aflige, se consume, y se desliace, | Sobre su viudo estrado se reclina, etc."
Persiles, p. 593, col. I ff., illness of Auristela.
" Cf. Rohde, op. cit., p. 155 ff.
^ Mena's Heliodorus has a marginal reference to the games in the Aeneid;
cf. p. 475, n. 2.
* In Homer, Iliad, XXIII, the contests are : ( 1 ) chariot, with five prizes ;
(2) boxing (or pugilaio in a recent Spanish version), with two competitors;
(3) wrestling or lucha, with two competitors; (4) foot race, with three
competitors; (5) duel with spears, with two competitors; (6) hurling of
great weights of metal, with four competitors ; ( 7 ) shooting, with two
competitors; in the Odyssey, VIII, there is a reference to games, foot race,
wrestling, leaping, throwing of weights and boxing; Theocritus, Idyl 22,
describes a boxing-match which influenced Virgil's contest, bk. V; for
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 35 Apeil, 1908.
508 Schevill — Studies in Cervantes.
tainment at various kinds of festivals. From tlie earlier days of
the Renaissance in Italy, story and romance "vvkich followed in the
footsteps of the classics had contented themselves as regards these
games with a mere mention of a celebration of sports, or had actually
incorporated the events of the fifth book quite fully.^ The best
example of the latter is Sannazaro's Arcadia. But the episode in
which Ergasto celebrates his mother's funeral,- though closely pat-
the same contest cf. Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica, II; Statius, Thebaid,
VI, describes ftuK-ral games including a chariot race, a foot race, throwing
the discus, a combat Avith the cestus, wrestling and sliooting; Valerius
Flaceus, Art/onautica, IV, 252 flf. has a boxing matcli; (^uintus of Smyrna,
roslhomcrica, bk. IV, follows Homer in introducing funeral games, contain-
ing a foot race, boxing, hurling a mass of iron, leaping and throwing the
spear, a chariot race and a race on horseback; Apollonius of Tyre wins
popular favor by his skill in the game of ball, cf. Historia Apollonii Regis
Tyri, edit. Ring, Posonii, et Lipsiae, 1887, par. 13 If.; Rohde, op. cit., p. 437;
also Timoneda, Patranuelo, XI for same story, p. 145 of "Novelistas
anteriores a Cervantes" ( Rivadeneyra ) .
Nothing more unlike tlie usual Spanish festivities than these games
could be found in Peninsular literature^ though pictures of entertainments
are frequent enough. Tlie Spaniard has always been fond of pageantry,
of picturesque processions, of animated fiestas, while his games or amuse-
ments were correspondingly stirring, from the bull-fight down through
skill in correr canas, correr sortijas, justas, torneos and even correr gansos
(Lope de Vega, MS. of la dama hoha, act I). Cf. Alcocer, Tratado del
juego (Salamanca, 1559) ; Don Quixote, II, 17 and notes 28 and 30 of
Clemencln's edition; II, 49 with a mention of correr toros, jugar canas, y
representar comedias; Bowie, in Comments on Don Quixote II, p. 120,
compares the correr toros, etc. of this passage with Virgil, Aeneid, V, 580,
but without suflicient reason: "olli diseurrere pares, etc." Clemencin has
an interesting note on the fondness shoAvn in la Mancha for wrestling, Don
Quixote, II, 60, note 10; cf. also II, 62 correr sortija; Alarcon, las Paredes
oyen, II, scene 1, mention of a kind of pelota; common amusements were
the fiestas by the bank of the river, cf. Guzman de Alfarache, II, 3, 5:
"lleviibanos a todos a holguras, d cenar al rio, a comer en quintas y jardines,
las tardes a comedias, etc." Quevedo, Vida del Buscdn, II, chapters 6 and 7;
Alarcun, la Vcrdad sospechosa, I, scene 7; J. R. Chorley, "Notes on the
national drama of Spain, "Fraser's Magazine, Vol. 60, p. 70; typical
ejercicios cahallerescos are mentioned in the Caballero Cifar, "el tiro de
la lanza, la cetrerfa, los juegos de tablas y ajedrez"; cf. Men6ndez y Pelayo,
Origenes, etc., op. cit., p. cxc; for jousts cf. Question de amor (1513), also
for picturesque costumes and a hunting scene.
1 Cf. Appendix IV, p. 523.
^ Prose sections X-XI; cf. Scherillo, op. cit., Torraca, op. cit., and
Men6ndez Pelayo, Origenes, etc., pp. cdxxiv ff.
Schevill — Studies in Cervantes. 509
terned after Virgil, probably had no influence upon Cervantes.
Whether Sannazaro suggested Virgil to him or not, is a gratuitous
question which we have no means of answering. Moreover, those
novels of the sixteenth century which occasionally mention sports
without describing them at length, may have suificed to induce
Cervantes to borrow Virgil's games.
Sports are spoken of especially often in the pastoral novel, and
since occasional parts of the Persiles have the tone of the Galatea,
the introduction into the former of long descriptions of games
which were merely mentioned in the latter and other pastorals, may
have seemed like a commendable venture. Cervantes, however, does
not seem to have felt perfectly sure that irrelevant description of
races and the like would be of interest to his readers, for on one or
two occasions he criticizes their detailed rehearsal in a way which
sounds something like a humorous self-reproach.^
The games in the fifth book of the Aeneid have been used in two
distinct places. In the first (bk. I, ch. 22 of the Persiles), Peri-
andro arrives at the island of Policarpo with twelve companions,
"todos nobles y deseosos de ganar honra." He competes in various
contests, first, the foot race, second, in fencing, third, in wrestling,
fourth, in hurling a heavy bar, and lastly, shooting with cross-bow
and arrow. In each he is victorious. The corresponding passages,
grouped together, will show with what variations from the Aeneid
these matches are introduced in the Persiles.- Cervantes leads up to
the episode, which he supposes to be perfectly in keeping with the
customs of the unknown northern islanders of whom he speaks, by
telling of their excellent system of government, their superior laws,
their splendid kings. The latter devise public festivals to keep their
vassals in a good temper :
Los reyes, por parecerles que la melancolia en los vasallos suele
despertar malos pensamientos, procuran tener alegre el pueblo y
entretenido con fiestas publicas, y a veces con ordinarias comedias;
principalmente solemnizaban el dia que fueron asumptos al reino,
'^ Persiles, p. 607, col. 1: "hubieran perdido [la paciencia] escuchando
su larga platica, de quien juzgaron Mauricio y Ladislao que habia sido
algo larga y traida no niuy d proposito, etc."; and p. 611, col. 2:
"Pareceme, Transila, que con menos palabras y mas sucintos discursos
pudiera Periandro contar los de su vida, porque no habia para que detenerse
en decirnos tan por extenso las fiestas de las barcas."
- Cf . Appendix V, p. 525.
510 Schevill — Studies in Cervantes.
con liucer que se reuuvaseii los juegos, que los gentiles llamaban
olimpicos, en el mejor modo que podian : sefialaban premio a los co-
rredores, honraban a los diestros, coronaban a los tiradores, j subian
al cielo de la alabanza a los que derribaban a otros en la tierra.
At this point a possible fusion of the influence of both Virgil and
Heliodorus takes place. In Heliodorus the festivities are given
over to Pythian games; Cervantes may have taken a suggestion
from this fact, and while looking for the most classical material
that could be turned into "Olympian" games, he had recourse to the
Aeneid.
The first event in Virgil's games, the boat-race, fills a single
episode in the Persiles quite independent of the other above. It is
put into a purely pastoral setting upon an island in the northern
seas, among some fisher folk who differ in no respect from the
characters of the pastoral novels. At the marriage festival of two
young couples a race is rowed by four boats just as iii the Aeneid,^
though the naming of the boats el Amor, el Interes, la Diligencia,
and la huena Fortuna is not in keeping with their classic origin. It
recalls rather the pageant at the marriage feast of Comacho in Don
Quixote,- where two competing groups of dancers are led by Amor
and by Interes. A comparison of this scene in the Persiles with its
source will show the extent of Cervantes's indebtedness and how he
took the salient ideas.
"When Aeneas lands on the coast of Africa, he comes upon the
Carthaginians engaged in building their city; he wanders into a
great temple and sees within it a pictorial history of the events
connected with the Trojan war. Here are recorded the battles
before the city'"' and the fate or career of the chief participants
1 Cf. Appendix VI, p. 530.
^ Cf. Don Quixote, II, chapter 20 and Clemenein's edition, op. cit., Vol.
VI, p. 32.
^ Eneida, Vol. I, p. 31: "Mientras que ontre si alaba el artificio | De los
ingeniosisimos avtifiees, ] Y las laliorcs y obras de sus manos: | Vide a desora
entre ellas las batallas | Troyanas, dibujadas por su orden, | Y la j)i()lija
guerra, etc." "A Prianio miia, a quien del justo zelo | Le da, aim aqui,
su premio la pintura: | ]\Iiia los llantos del Troyano duelo, etc." "Via
pinlados los recuentros | Que en torno a la gran Troya se travaron: | En
un lugar los Griegos ir hnyendo, | Y la Troyana juventud segnirlos, etc."
"No lejos conocio los blancos lienzos | De la curiosa tienda del Rey Reso,
. . . E)i oira pni-fc, el infelice niozo | Troylo, con gran desigualdad
Schevill — Studies in Cervantes. 511
separately portrayed. Again, in tlie sixth book of the Aeneid we are
told of a temple of Phoebus on whose doors Daedalus had painted
various famous mythological episodes.^ Now when Periandro and
his fellow wanderers have ended the first half of their long and
wearisome peregrination among the islands of the northern seas,
they disembark at Lisbon. One of the first things which the hero
does is to order a painting which shall reproduce the hardships just
endured, "los mas principales casos de su historia." Then follows a
description of events which recalls the pictorial history of the
Aeneid.- In another passage one of the characters suggests that
further incidents of their journey overland be added to the others
on the canvas ; but the pilgrims are of the opinion that such strange
experiences ought rather to be engraven on bronze.''' This refer-
ence seems to recall the classics which occasionally recount like
representations* in metal or stone. In addition, Cervantes had in
travado | En duro asalto con el fuerte Achiles, etc." "Alii tambien se
co)ioci6 a si niesmo | Entre los Griegos principes mezclado." Cf. also Eneida,
libro quinto, p. 201, the "tela de oro" with its picture inwoven.
^ Eneida, Vol. I, p. 243 : "Pinto en las puertas del, la aeerba muerte de
Androgeo, etc." Cf. also Torraca, La Materia deW Arcadia del Sannazaro,
p. 102.
- Persiles, p. 625, col. 1 : "a un lado pinto la isla barbara ardiendo en
llamas, y alli junto a la isla de la prision y un poco mas desviado la balsa
6 enmaderamiento donde le hallo Arnaldo, cuando le llevo a su navi6; en
otra parte estaba la isla nevada, donde el enamorado portugues perdio
la vida; luego la nave que los soldados de Anialdo taladrai'on ; . . .
alli se moatraba el desaflo de los amantes de Taurisa y su muerte, aca
estaban serrando por la quilla la nave que liabia servido de sepultura a
Auristela y a los que con ella venian; aculla estaba la agradable isla donde
viu en sueiios Periandro los dos escuadrones de virtudes y vicios, etc. ;
pinto como en rasguuo y en estrecho espacio las fiestas de Policarpo, co7-o-
nandose d si mismo por vencedor en ellas: resolutamente no quedo paso
principal en que no hiciese labor en su historia, que alli no pintase, hasta
poner la ciudad de Lisboa y su desembarcacion en el mismo traje en que
habian venido : tambien se vio en el mismo lienzo arder la isla de Policarpo,
a Clodio traspasado con la saeta de Antonio, y a Cenotia colgada de una
entena, etc."
^Persiles, p. 641, col. 2: "Bien qiiisiera el anciano Villaseuor, que todo
esto se aiiadiera al lienzo; pero todos fueron de parecer que no solamente
no se anadiese, sino que aun lo pintado se borrase, porque tan grandes y
tan no vistas cosas no eran para andar en lienzos debiles, sino en Idminas
de bronce escritas y en las memorias de las geutes grabadas."
"Cf. the shield of Achilles, made by Vulcan (Iliad, XVIII) ; the shield
of Aeneas {Aeneid, VIII), which may also have influenced Cervantes, Eneida,
512 Schevill — Studies in Cervantes.
mind a contemporary custom whicli he describes at length ; namely,
that pilgrims who returned from foreign parts/ presumably after
great hardships, would display pictorially on canvas the experiences
which they may or may not have had, but which would attract
idlers on the public square. The canvas was exhibited in the chief
thoroughfares where the many travelers' tales of the age were
retailed to the gaping multitude. Cervantes devotes a humorous
page to such an episode, which has, however, a wholly Spanish, popu-
lar tone,^ while he treats Periandro's pictorial history with so much
Vol. II, p. 40; Ovid (Met. II), has a description of the palace of the
sun; Statins {Thciaid, VII) of the temple of Mars with carved represen-
tations. Not only Cervantes, but Ariosto (Orlando furioso, XXVI, 30 ff.)
in a marble basin and (XL VI, 80 ff.) a pavilion, Tasso (Gerusalemme
liberata, XVII, 64 ff.) in a shield, and Spenser (Fairie Qiieene, II, xii, 43
ff. ) in a carved ivory gate show the influence of the classics.
^ Persiles, p. 597, col. 1 : "y este nuestro barbaro espaiiol, . . . yo
pondr6 que si el cielo le lleva a su patria, que ha de hacer corrillos de
gente, mostrando a su mujer y d sus hijos envueltos en sus pellejos, pin-
tando la isla baibara en un lienzo, y seiialando con una vara el lugar do
estuvo encerrado quince auos, la mazmorra de los prisioneros . . . bien
asl como hacen los que libres de la esclavitud turquesca . . . cuentan sus
desventuras, etc." ; p. 625, col. 1 : "este lienzo se hacia de una recopilaeion
que les excusaba de contar su historia por menudo, porque Antonio el
mozo declaraba las pinturas y los sucesos, cuando le apretaban a que los
dijese." An interesting parallel to this custom can be found in the follow-
ing : Aulo Persia Flacco, traduzido en lengua castellana por Diego Lopez,
etc.. Con declaracion magistral, etc. En Burgos, 1609. In commenting
on a passage in the first satire, "mene moueat quippe et si naufragus cantat
pretulerim assem?" Diego Lopez says, p. 42: "Para entender esto, auemos
de saber, que quando entre los antiguos alguno se via perdido, y desbaratado
en alguna tormenta, si escapaua de ella, buscaua un pintor que le pintasse
en un pedago de tabla la tormenta y tempestad que aula passado, y como
el mar le auia destruydo, y echandole al cuello, andaua pidiendo por las
calles. Pues, dize Persio, si el que pide leuando la tormenta pintada, la
qual passo un el mar, canta, y va contento, es impossible que me mueua
a compassion y dolor, para que yo le de limosna, etc."
^ Persiles, p. 642, col. 1 : "vieron mucha gente junta, todos atentos
mirando y escuchando a dos mancebos, que en traje de recien rescatados
de cautivos estaban declarando las figuras de un pintado lienzo que tenian
tendido en el suelo . . . ; y imo de ellos, que debia de ser de hasta veinti-
euatro auos, con voz clara y en todo extremo experta lengua, crujiendo
de cuando en cuando un corbacho, 6 por mejor decir, azote, que en la mano
tenia, le sacudia de manera que penetraba los oidos y ponia los estallidos
en el cielo . . . fu6 diciendo: Esta, seuores, que aqui veis pintada,
es la ciudad de Argel, gomia y tarasca de todas las riberas del Mar Medi-
terraneo, etc."
Schevill — Studies in Cervantes. 513
seriousness and dignity, that it seems certain that he had the Aeneid
in mind when he described it.
As was indicated above, another of the traditionally popular
experiences of Aeneas was his descent into the lower world; and
we have seen that it was a feature quite common with the type of
romance to which the Persiles belongs, to represent the hero as meet-
ing some one who prophesies to him of coming events. There is, to
be sure, no descent into Hades in Cervantes, but the hero and his
fellow wanderers are conducted by an old man through a dark cave
into a beautiful, secluded field. ^ Here the venerable man, a hermit,
resides in peace and plenty, with his mind wholly set on lofty
things ; the talk and the ways of the world are to him things of the
past, while his thoughts are devoted to the contemplation of the
heavens and future events. Among those who figure in his prophesy
is a young prince who dies an untimely death ; and this recalls the
well-known passage of Virgil which tells so pathetically of the death
^ Eneida, Vol. I, p. 281: "Siguiendo su camino, en fin llegaron ] A los
lugares dulces, j vergeles | Amenos, de los bosques gloriosos, | Albergos j
moradas de los biienos. | Aqui el risueno y rutilante Cielo, \ Viste con hiz
purpurea el campo alegre." p. 284: "Ellos dejando la alta cumbre, bajan |
A un verde valle, donde el padre Anchises | Avia juntado en cierto aparta-
miento | Las almas de sus claros descendientes, etc." He explains, "Porque
parece claro desvarlo | Trocar en descontento j cierto duelo | De que abunda
el impuro y vil terreno, | La gloria eterna deste sitio ameno," and prophesies
to his son: "Contarte he extensamente | El gran linage y descension
Troyana."
Persiles, p. 656, col. 1 : "Soldino con todo aquel escuadron de damas
y caballeros bajo por las gradas de la escura cueva, y 6. menos de ochenta
gradas se descubriO el cielo luciente y claro, y se vieron unos amenos y
tendidos prados que entretenian la vista y alegraban las almas; y haciendo
Soldino rueda de los que con el habian bajado, les dijo: . . . esta cueva
. . . no sirve sino de atajo para llegar desde alia arriba a este
valle . . .; aqui huyendo de la guerra, halle la paz; la hambre que en ese
mundo de alia arriba . . . tenia, hallo aqui a la hartura; aqui en lugar
de los principes y monarcas que mandaban en el mundo, & quien yo servia,
he hallado a estos arboles mudos, que aunque altos y pomposos son humildes;
. aqui tengo mi alma en mi palma, y aqui por via recta eneamino
mis pensamientos y mis deseos al cielo; aqui ... he contemplado el
curso de las estrellas y el movimiento del sol y de la luna; . . . agora
como presente veo quitar la cabeza fi im valiente pirata un valeroso mancebo
de la casa de Austria nacido, etc.," with other prophesies. For further
examples of this kind of prediction see Persiles, p. 645, col. 1 ; p. 669, col.
1 : for a description of "unos floridos campos" more beautiful than the
Elysian fields, cf. Don Quixote, T, chapter 50, p. 394, col. 2.
514: Schevill — Studies in Cervantes.
of young Marcellus.^ Those lines were no doubt much liked in the
days of Cervantes. Other prophesies concerning the personages of
the story follow. Here, too, Cervantes is inclined to ridicule himself
for introducing this kind of episode Avith its forecasts and clair-
voyance.^
Among the minor episodes of the Persiles which do not neces-
sarily imply indebtedness to Virgil, but which might, after all, be
considered by some as reminiscent of the Aeneid, is the death and
burial of Auristela's nurse (ama), a circumstance which recalls the
fate of Aeneas's nurse,^ as Avell as other episodes of burial in the
^ Eneida, Vol. I, p. 295: "Padre, quien es aquel, que en compania | Va
del varon que dices excelente? | . . . Es hijo o nieto nuestro, etc.? Ay,
liijo, no escudriiies el lamento | De tu linaje y casos lastimosos: | A aqueste
mostraran solo un momento | A las tierras los hados rigurosos, | etc. 0
quanto llanto (o misero destino) | Hard por 6ste la Romana gente, | etc.
Ay miserable mozo, o suerte fiera, | Si el disponer de la Fortuna avara, |
Del hado adverso, y riguroso Cielo | Romper pudieses, tu serias Marcelo."
Persiles, p. 650, col. 2 : "Pero, ay de mi, que me hace entristecer otro
coronado joven, tendido en la seca arena, de mil moras lanzas atravesado,
el uno nieto y el otro hijo del rayo espantoso de la guerra, jamas como se
debe alabado Carlos Quinto, etc." There is possibly an indirect connection
between the descent of Don Quixote into the cave of Montesinos and the
numerous descents into the cave of the Cumaean Sibyl or into the lower
world to be found in Renaissance literature; cf. Clemencin, edition of Don
Quixote, op. cit., II, chapter 23, Vol. VI, p. 76.
^ Persiles, p. 657, col. 1 : "pareclales que andaban rodeados de adivinanzas
y metidos hasta el alma en la judiciaria astrologia, que a no ser acreditada
con la experiencia, con dificultad le dieran credito."
^ Eneida, Vol. I, p. 299: "Tfi tambien, o Cayeta, ama de Eneas, \ Diste
perpetuo nombre y fama eterna, | Muriendo, a nuestras Italas riberas. | Y
tu gloria y honor hasta oy aun dura | En tu sepulcro, etc." "El pio Eneas,
hechas las exequias | De su nutriz, y su Mausoleo puesto, | . . . Las
velas tiende al viento, etc." p. 102: "La deuda funeral pues ya pagada, |
Todos la voz en alto grito alzamos, | Diciendo una vez y otra y la tercera |
El Vale, despedida postrimera." p. 255: "En tan to en la ribera los Troy- .
anos I Ilacian su llanto por el buen Miseno, | Honrando con exequias postri-
nieras | El cucrpo muerto . . . Lustru con agua pura por tres veces |
Sus companeros todos, . . . y dijo al muerto aniigo | El postrimero
Vale para siempre. | Fundule el pio Eneas un sepulcro, etc."
Persiles, p. 568, col. 2: "Llegose a olla AnristeUi, y a voces compasivas
y dolorosas le dijo: j Qud es esto, ama mia? ^ C6mo, y es posible que
me qucrois dojar en esta soledad, etc?" p. 569, col. 1: "enterraron d
Cloelia en lo nueco de una pena . . . Auristela (le) rogo que le pusiese
una cruz encima ... El espafiol respondio que 61 traeria una gran
cruz que on su estancia tenia, y la pondria encima de aquella sepultura:
Schevill — Studies in Cervantes. 515
Aeneid. The incident is dragged into tlie narrative of the Persiles
quite irrelevantly, but a pathetic note is added thereby to suit the
sentimental taste of contemporary readers. Then there is the poetic
figure of Palinurus, the pilot of Aeneas's fleet, the star-gazer and
weather prophet, who is mentioned in Don Quixote and whose part
might seem to be faintly reflected in similar situations in the Per-
siles.^ Periandro watches the heavens at sea while the others sleep ;
Mauricio, too, is a star-gazer, though he is more of an astrologer
than pilot."
Finally, some of the very general features of Virgil's epic romance
of adventure are recalled by the manner of the Persiles; their
occasional resemblance to the machinery of Heliodorus will also be
apparent at once, and though the latter's influence may have been
dominant, the Aeneid played no insignificant part in affecting the
general character of the novel of Cervantes. The parallels to illus-
trate this are grouped together at the close of the article." By
comparing them in turn with those from Heliodorus in the previous
article, students of fiction may possibly feel inclined to believe with
me that the influence of Virgil upon Heliodorus also is worthy of
more consideration than has hitherto been accorded it.
The marked influence which was exerted upon the mind of Cer-
vantes by one of the important elements in the literary culture of
dieronle todos el ultimo vale, etc." p. 570, col. 2: "quiso Auristela ir a
despedirse de los liuesos de su querida Cloelia, acompauaronla todos, lloro
sobre la sepultura, etc." Cf. also el Viaje del Parnaso, cap, iii, vs. 145-7 :
''Vimonos en un punto en el paraje | Do la nutriz de Eneas piadoso | Hizo
el forzoso y ultimo pasaje."
^ Eneida, Vol. I, p. 110: "las naos . . . van ciegas do los vientos las
llevavan | Ni el mesmo Paliniiro determina | Si es de dia o noche o para
do camina; and p. 127: "Al medio Cielo se iva ya acercando | La
presurosa noche, quando vimos | A Palinuro apriesa en pie ponerse, | Y
a un lado y otio a tierra y mar bolverse. | Azia todos los vientos se bolvia, |
. . . Notava la estrellada compauia, etc." Persiles, p. 613, col. 1:
"Llego en esto la noche clara y serena, y . . . me sente en el eastillo
de popa, y con ojos atentos me puse a mirar el cielo." Don Quixote, I,
43 : "Siguiendo voy a una estrella j que desde lejos descubro, | mSs bella
y resi^landeciente | que cuantas vio Palinuro."
-Persiles, p. 583, col. 1: "Puso los ojos en el cielo Mauricio, etc."; p. 585,
col. 2 : "miraba las estrellas, y aunque no parecian de todo en todo, algiuias
que por entre la eseuridad se mostiaban le daban indicio de venidera
serenidad, etc."
Cf. Appendix VII, p. 534.
3 I
/
ol<; Schevill — Studies in Cervantes.
the Renaissance, namely, by the poetry of Virgil, is now quite
evident. The more vre try to fathom the depths of the Spanish
romancer's genius, the more we shall find how comprehensively his
work reflects all the elements which constitute the culture of his age ;
and, therefore, we shall become convinced that the classics which
had been more or less incorporated into the literature of his day
merit the most careful consideration.
Yale University.
Appendices. 517
APPENDIX I.
The two versions of the story of Dido.
Ticknor saw in the manner in which Dido is represented in this
hallad (p. 484 above, Duran, ^omance?'0, no. 487) a peculiarly Span-
ish view (cf. his History, op. cit.. Vol. I, p. 145, n.). It represents
Aeneas as the aggressor, she desiring to remain faithful to the mem-
ory of her first husband. Menendez y Pelayo (Antologia, op. cit..
Vol. XII, p. 485) thinks this form is prompted by "la natural sim-
patia que en todo lector del poema virgiliano despierta la apasionada
reina de Cartago, y que de ningun modo puede inspirar su insulso y
egoista amante." There was, however, a traditional defense of Dido
as well as a widely current condemnation of the "traitor" Aeneas,
which was neither peculiarly Spanish, nor the individual and
independent conception of the author of this ballad (cf. A. Chas-
sang, Histoire du roman, etc., Paris, 1862, p. 364; Hertziana,
Munich library, "An tike Sagen," I, no. 27). As Landau has
already remarked {Die Quellen cles Dehameron, p. 290), by the
Chroniclers of the Middle Ages the founding of Rome was held to
be an incontrovertible fact, and so they readily discovered an
anachronism in Aeneas's visit to Dido, a view which possibly had its
starting point in Justin's Universal History, bk. xviii, chapters 6-8,
Cf., however, Paulys Real-Encyclopddie der Classischen Alter-
thumswissenschaft, neue Bearbeitung (Stuttgart, 1905), under
"Dido." Por an account of the early form of the legend see Fried-
rich Cauer, Die Romische Aeneassage von Naevius his Vergilius,
15ter Supplementband der Jahrbiicher fiir Classische Philologie;
Abdruck (Leipzig, 1886) ; for the story of Aeneas both independent
of Dido and connected with her history, see Dr. E. Worner, "Pro-
grammarbeit des Koniglichen Gymnasiums," (Leipzig, 1882), p. 16
ff. : Die Sage von den Wanderungen des Aeneas his Dionysios von
Halilcarnasos und Vergilius.
Dido was therefore championed at an early date as a much-
wronged woman ; Virgil's fourth book was considered a poet's crea-
tion and took the place of romance. In Italy Petrarch gave voice
to this view in his Trionfi, TV, Triumphus pudicitiae; cf. Die
Triumphe Francesco Petrarcas, in kritischem Texte herausgegeben
von Carl Appel (Halle a/S., 1901), p. 224, 234:
518 Appendices.
E [s'io] A^eggio :i(l iiii huciuol Giunone e Dido
Ch' amor pio del suo sposo a niorte spinse,
Xon quel d' Enea, com' S '1 publico grido,
Xnn mi doljb 'io doler, etc. v.s. 10-13.
and again :
Pol vidi, fra le donne pcllogrino
Quella que per lo suo diletto e lido
Sposo, non per Enea, volsi ire al fine:
Taecia il vulgo ignorante! io dico Dido,
Cui studio d' onestate a morte spinse,
Non vano amor, come 6 il publico grido. vs. lo-l-O.
Dante, as we saw, had put Dido into the inferno. (Cf. also Lettere
di Fr. Petrarca, note da G. Fracassetti, Firenze, 1864, Vol. II, p. 172,
n.) Boccaccio in his De darts mulierihus (chapter xl) has told
the story of Dido's fidelity to her dead husband as an example of
womanly chastity, while he dismisses Aeneas with bare mention.
See also II Comento di Giovanni Boccaccio sopra la Commedia con
le annotazioni di A. M. Salvini ; preceduto dalla vita di Dante Alli-
ghieri scritta dal medesimo : per cura di Gaetano Milanesi, Yol. I
(Firenze, 1863), comment to verse 61, canto v of Inferno, p. 451 ff.,
the gist of which is : "Vuole I'autore per questa circonscrizione che
noi sentiamo, costei essere Didone figliuola che fu del re Belo de
Tiro : la istoria della quale si racconta in due maniere." Then
follows her history with the discrepancy in time between her epoch
and that of Aeneas, with this conclusion : "fu adunque Dido onesta
donna," p. 457. This, however, is Boccaccio's view when he writes
as a commentator ; as a romancer he repeats the story of Virgil ; cf .
Laberinto de Amor, que hizo en toscano el famoso Juan Bocacio:
agora nuevamente traduzido en nuestra lengua castellana, alio de
1546 [Sevilla], cap. ii : "la reyna Dido . , . vencida del amor
de Eneas despues de auerle fecho muehos presentes y fiestas tuuo
atreuimiento ella misma de pedirle su amor, etc." ; also cap. xxxvi.
In Spain, as early as the Cronica general, printed in the 16th
century, a full account may be found of both versions. Cf . "Nueva
Biblioteca de Autores Espanoles," Primera Cronica general de
Espana (Tomo I), publicada por Eamon Menendez Pidal (Madrid,
1906), p. 33, col. 1, chapters 51-60. This is the medifeva! version
of Dido's history with the usual defense of her character. It is
just possible that the very common Spanish sympathy for her was
due to her putative share in colonizing Spain (chapter 55), for the
Appendices. 510
founding of Cartagena was ascribed to lier. Cartilage and Carta-
gena were tliiis fused in the later liostility to Rome, and the Penin-
sula was naturally leagued with the Carthaginians. In the Cronica
Dido's story is first given without any reference to Aeneas; then
follows the version from the Aeneid closing, just before Dido's
death, Avith a long letter to Aeneas in which she reproaches him
for his flight. The letter may be from some old poem based on
Ovid's Heroides. How great the influence of the Cronica was in
making the Dido story known is difficult to say. After Boccaccio's
De Claris niulieribus, frequently translated into various European
languages (the first Spanish version is Johan bocacio de las mujeres
iUiistres, en romance, Qaragoca, 1494; cf. Gallardo, Ensayo de una
Bihlioteca, etc., Madrid, 1866, Vol. II, col. 97), the lack of connec-
tion between her history and that of Aeneas was frequently upheld.
In the Lihro de las virtuosas e claras mujeres, el qual fizo e compuso
el condestable Don Alvaro de Luna (first third of the 15th century;
cf. Vol. XXVIII of the "Sociedad de Bibliofilos espanoles," Madrid,
1891), the author again holds Dido up merely as an example of loy-
alty and chastity, there being no mention of Aeneas (chapter 35, pp.
229-30) ; cf. also Juan Rodriguez de la Camara (6 del Padron)
''Sociedad de Bibliofilos esj^anoles" Vol. XXII : Triunfo de las
donas, pp. 117, 359. For another defense of Dido see Curial y
Guelfa, novela catalana del quinzen segle, publicada a despeses y per
encarrech de la Real Academia de buenas letras per Antoni Rubio y
Lluch (Barcelona, 1901), bk. 3, section 38, p. 394. Jacopo Caviceo,
in his Lihro del Peregrino, etc. (Parma, 1508), uses Dido inconsist-
ently, as his story demanded; she is either a chaste matron: "piu
eommendata e Didone che Lucretia ; I'una per seruar pudicitia con
fuoco la uita fini, etc." (edition Vinegia, 1538) p. 522, and "I'ammir-
anda costantia de Dido," p. 191; or she yields to love: "Enea a
guisa di trasfuga , . . adimando il refugio del porto . . .
tfe ella humanissima del porto & del corpo gratia gli fece, etc.," p. 71.
These and other citations from the story may imply a rather general
acquaintance among readers with the versions of Dido's life.
In the 16tli century the epic poet Ercilla thought it worth while
to reestablish Dido's reputation injured by Virgil, infamandola
inJKsta y falsamente (Araucana, Madrid, 1589, 3d part, canto xxxii,
Vol. II, p. 394). So he digressed from his subject to the extent of
ninety-eight stanzas, canto xxxii, stanza 45 to canto xxxiii, stanza
55. In the voluminous annotations to his translation of Ovid,
520 Appendices.
Transformaciones de Ovidio (Valladolid, 1589), el Licenciado
Pedro Sanchez Viana treats tlie subject of Dido's reputation like
one much discussed (pp. 2400, 250,, if.) ; he defends the queen,
"una tan casta matrona, como del glorioso sant Hieronymo consta
hauer sido Dido." Another translation, Los quinze libros de
los Metamorplioseos, etc., by Antonio Perez [Sigler], printed
earlier at Salamanca, 1580, was reprinted at Burgos, 1609, '^j
anadido por el mismo autor un Diccionario Poetico copiosissimo."
JSTow, although Ovid treats Dido and Aeneas after the manner
of Virgil (bk, XIV), the writer of the dictionary gives Dido's
history independent of Aeneas as the true version, not bestowing
on Virgil's hero a single word, p. 468o. Another defense of
Dido and praise of her chastity can be found in the Tratado en
loor de las mugeres y de la castidad, onestidad, etc., por Christoval
Acosta Affricano (In Venetia, 1592), p. 47. Antonio de Eslava,
Noches de Invierno (Barcelona, 1609), also speaks of the two dif-
ferent views of Dido's character, p. 176. Agustin de Eojas, Viaje
entretenido, 1604, in the "exposicion de los nombres historicos y
poeticos," appended to the work, gives under Dido, "su verdadera
historia, porque la que cuenta Virgilio . . . es falsa y fabu-
losa"; and Diego Agreda in his Lugares comunes de letras
kumanas, etc., traduzido de Toscano (Madrid, 1616) under Dido
(p. 89) says nothing of Aeneas; cf. also p. 96 on Aeneas. iSTot to
continue indefinitely these references to books of unequal importance
and interest — chosen from every field to show the widespread
acquaintance with the Dido legend — I shall close with Lope de
Vega's censure of Virgil in the prologue to La Circe (1624) ; cf.
Kennert, Life of Lope de Vega, p. 304, and Lope's Ohras no dramd-
ticas (Rivadeueyra) "Biblioteca de Autores Espanoles," p. 497.
Here too Lope blames Virgil for defaming a chaste woman. Thus
it becomes evident to what extent Dido's story in the Aeneid Avas
considered romance, and as such proper material to be imitated by
novelists.
APPENDIX II.
The comedias of Lope de Vega.
Cf. Comedias escogidas de Lope de Vega (Rivadeneyra), 4 vols.;
the following are some of the references to Dido, Vol. I : "Matarse
quiere. — No hara. — Lo mismo cuentan de Dido, | Matose encen-
I
Appendices. 521
diendo el fuego, | En que se deshizo luego | Por honra de su
marido," in La corona merecida, p. 245 ; Los Tclles de Meneses, I,
p. 514 ; Vol. II : "Fuese a su tierra, i que milagro ! Tambien se
fue Eneas de la reina Dido," in La Borotea, p. 4 ; reminiscences of
Dido's lamentation in Dorotea's: "Los antiguos que escribieron
ingratitudes de hombres, j, que memoria dejaran de tu crueldad, si
fueras de aquel tiempo ? . . . (^ Que bubieras perdido de quien
eres por saber de un cuerpo a quien llevaste el alma, dejandome en
estado aquella nocbe, como no tuve espada para matarme, la bice
de una sortija, etc.," p. 37; tbis indebtedness is strengtbened by
Dorotea's : "^ Como pienso en esto ? Por ventura ^ imagina que
su retrato sera la espada de Eneas para la reina Dido?" p. 64;
Servir a huenos: "'No bayas miedo que me queje | De no tener
prenda tuya, | Como se quejaba ausente | Elisa Dido de Eneas; |
Y cuando no le tuviese, | Espada no ba de f altarme, etc.," p. 433 ;
La hoha para los otros y discreta para si: "El Duque, por cubrir,
no la flaqueza, | Sino la culpa, sin dejarle espada, | Como
Eneas a Dido, fue mas necio, etc.," p. 539 ; Vol. Ill : i De
cuando acd nos vino? p. 202; La fuerza lastimosa: "viendose
enganada | Del duque Vireno, Olimpia, ] A voces dice en la playa
I A la nave fugitiva : | j Plegue a Dios que te anegues, | N^ave
enemiga ! | Pero no, que me llevas | Dentro la vida," p. 265 ; but
in tbis tbere may be some influence of Tasso, Gerusalemme liherata,
XVI, 40 ; El testimonio vengado, p. 418 ; La vengadora de las
mug eres: "Si Dido quiso matarse | Por guardar su castidad | Que
no la gozase nadie, | Luego bay un bombre que diga | Que se mato
por vengarse | De los agravios de Eneas, | Con quien fue buespeda
facil," p. 508; Vol. IV: Adonis y Venus, p. 426, Dido's loss of ber
good name.
Miscellaneous references to tbe Aeneid are very common in
Lope, Vol. I; examples are: Los emhustes de Gelauro, tbe wooden
borse, tbe treacbery of Sinon and tbe destruction of Troy, pp. 91,
108; La corona merecida: tbe conquest of Troy, p. 241; La Nina
de plata: Helen and tbe fall of Troy, p. 275; El perro del
hortelano: tbe wooden borse, p. 344; El castigo sin venganza:
Sinon and tbe wooden borse, p. 576, tbe conquest of Troy, p. 577;
La noche toledana: tbe wanderings of Aeneas, "la sangre de
Anquises," p. 206 ; Vol. II : La Dorotea, "buye abrasadas Troyas,
etc," p. 29; tbe birtb of Cacus (Aeneid VIII, 193 ff.) p. 38;
Msus and Euryalus, p. 49 ; beginning of tbe Aeneid, tbe wanderings
522 Appendices.
of Aeneas, p. 49 ; El hijo cle los hones: lliglit of Aeneas from Troy,
p. 223; Vol. Ill: La Arcadia: "Caballo de Troja fui.— Y ella,
Elena; Anfriso, Troya," p. 174; Peribdnez y el Comendador de
Ocana: "Calla, | que mas fuerte era Troya, y la conquista | Derribo
sus murallas por el suelo," p. 293; La vengadora de las mugeres:
capture of Troy, p. 514; Vol. IV: Roimt tthmsadd: "; Que de
Anquises, que de Eneas | Desda iniiii habemos mirado!" p. 299;
El amigo hasta la muerte: "El que cs niitad de mi alma, | . . .
El Eurialo de ISTiso | ... El Acates deste Eneas," p. 330;
Mirad a quien alahdis: Camilla, p. 4G2 ; La iiwrenfr Laura : Sinon
and Ulysses, p. 496.
Quotations from Virgil, and praise of his works are common;
Vol. I: El hobo del colegio, p. 198; La dama boba, Virgil among
the favorite books of the bachilleras, p. 310; Vol. II, La Dorotea:
Virgil as a standard, p. 45; same: "Virgilio llamo a los cisnes
roncos, etc., p. 51, Eneida, Vol. II, p. 183; p. 52; Santiago el
verde: not all poets are indigent, "Virgilio tuvo un millon," p.
202; Vol. Ill: El guante de Dona Blanca: Virgil and Octavius,
p.. 25; La Vengadora de las mugeres: "quisiera ser Virgilio, etc.,"
p. 518. Other testimony as to Lope's acquaintance with the classics
can be found in the Latin quotations in his dedications and
prologues.
APPEN^DIX III.
Some reminiscences of Virgil in "Don Quixote."
Not only in the Persiles are there definite reminiscences of the
Aeneid. Conventional allusions after the manner of contempora-
ries, as well as references which indicate Cervantes's particular
interest in the story of Aeneas, are quite frequent in his other works.
Mention of Aeneas is rather commonplace for those times which
dwelt so often on his filial piety; cf. Don Quixote, I, 25: "como
tambien nos mostro Virgilio en persona de Eneas el valor de un hijo
piadoso" ; I, 47 : "la piedad de Eneas, la valentia de Aquiles, las
desgracias de Hector, las traiciones de Sinon, la amistad de
Eurialo" ; II, 3 : "no fue tan piadoso Eneas como Virgilio le
pinta" ; the phrase "todas estas demandas y respuestas revolvi en
un instante en la imaginacion," I, 28, may recall the Eneida, Vol.
I, p. 139 : "Mas la Eenisa Eeyna . . . | Eevuelve en la turbada
fantasia | La gran virtud, y el gran valor de Eneas, etc." (cf. Cor-
Appendices. 533
tejou's Don Quixote, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 308, n.), but the phrase is
not unique with Cervantes. It can be duplicated in the same chap-
ter, and in a form somewhat more like the expression in the Aeneid :
*'Todas estas cosas revolvia en mi fantasia." The romance of
Aeneas and Dido is frequently alluded to. In II, 44 of Don
Quixote, ''en vano seria mi canto si duerme y no despierta para
oirle este nuevo Eneas, que ha llegado a mis regiones para dejarme
escarnida" (cf. Clemencin's Don Quixote, op. cit., Yol. VII, p. 121,
n. 45) recalls in the Eneida, Vol. I, p. 177 : "O Jupiter, que ha de
irse este malvado? | Mi Reyno ha de escarnir un estrangero?"
Altisidora's song, II, 44, parodies Dido's passion: ''Dime, valeroso
joven, I . . . si te criaste en la Libia | 6 en las montanas de
Jaca? I Si sierpes te dieron leche?" Cf. Eneida, Vol. I, p. 162:
"Tii. del horrido Caucaso naciste, etc." ; Don Quixote's amorous
difficulties with the Senora Rodriguez, II, 48 : "una estancia mas
cerrada y secreta que lo que debio de ser la cueva donde el traidor
y atrevido Eneas gozo a la hermosa y piadosa Dido," refer to
Eneida, Vol. I, p. 150: "La Reyna Dido, y el Troyano Eneas, |
Entran huyendo en una mesma cueva, etc." In Altisidora's lament,
II, 57, the "fugitive Eneas" recalls the same phrase in the Eneida,
Vol. I, p. 171. In II, 71, the allusion to Dido's story is more
detailed: "en otra [sarga] estaba la historia de Dido y de Eneas,
ella sobre una alta torre, etc." Cf. also Las dos doncellas: "este
segundo engaiiador Eneas"; Rinconete y Cortadillo: "tigre de
Ocana" (Hircania) ; Epistola a Mateo Vazquez: "Y al reino tan
antiguo y celebrado, | Ado la hermosa Dido fue vendida | Al querer
del troyano desterrado | etc.," edition Hartzenbusch, Yol. YIII, p.
454; Navarrete, (cited also by Cortejon, op cit.. Vol. II, p. 79, n.)
in speaking of Don Quixote's description of the two great armies,
part I, chapter 18, considers it a parallel to Virgil's enumeration
of the forces of Turnus, and "not less original" ; in II, chapter 41,
there is a reference to the wooden horse of Troy.
APPENDIX IV.
Games iisr the pastokal novels.
It is noteworthy that games or references to sports are especially
common in the pastoral novels or in episodes patterned after them.
The original suggestion may have come from Virgil's Georgics,
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 36 April, 1908.
524 Appendices.
II, 527 ff. : "ipse dies agitat festos fususque per herbam, | ignis
ubi i;i medio et socii cratera coronant, | te, libans, Lenaee, vocat,
pecorisque magistris | veloeis iaculi certamina ponit in nlmo, |
corporaque agresti nudant praedura palaestrae" ; and III, 19 :
"cnncta mibi, Alpheum linquens lucosque Molorchi, | cursibus et
criido decernet Graecia eaestu." Tbere is also in tbe Eclogues a
spirit of merry-making, where, however, the chief entertainment
appears to have been the dance. The enlarged description of
sports in Renaissance literature may thus be due to a fusion of
the bare spirit of the Eclogues with the episode of book V of the
Aeneid. In Montemayor's Diana, bk. I, p. 33, "Biblioteca clasica
espanola," we read: "comenzando un dia antes de la celebre fiesta
a solemnizarla las pastoras y ninfas con cantos e himnos muy
suaves, y los pastores con desafios de correr, saltar, luchar y tirar
la barra, poniendo por premio para el que victorioso saliere cuales
una guirnalda, etc." In Gil Polo's continuation, bk. V, p. 365 ff.,
the festivities in which the boats take part may have been influ-
enced by Virgil's boat-race; even more likely is some slight rela-
tion between the festival of the boats in the Persiles and the
episode in Gil Polo : "Vueltos todos hacia alia, y llegandose a la
ribera, vieron venir rio abajo doce barcas en dos escuadras, pintadas
de muchos colores, y muy ricamente aderezadas, etc." Of. La
Comedia Tibalda (1553) edited by Bonilla y San Martin, "Bib-
liotheca hispanica," p. 21 : "Pues eres, Tibaldo, dispuesto garzon, |
con otros zagales devries procurar | tirar a la barra, correr y
saltar | . . . a vezes luchar con otros pastores, etc." In
Antonio de lo Frasso's Diez libros de Fortuna y de' Amor (1573)
similar games occur ; cf . edit. Londres, 1740, Vol. I, p. 79 : "de
lexos [Prexano] sintio el ruydo de los regozijados zagales y juegos
que entre los pastores hazian, llego a tiempo de poder ver la
corrida de muchos pastores (three prizes) . . . y hecho esto,
empezaron mil maneras de juegos, luchar, tirar el canto, tauer
varies instrumentos, etc." In the Galatea the traditional mention
of sports is continued, Ohras de Cervantes (Eivadeneyra), p. 15:
"haciendose todos un corro, dieron lugar a que los zagales vecinos
y forasteros se ejercitasen por honra de la fiesta en algunos pas-
toriles ejercicios . . . dieron principio a mil graciosos juegos,
ora tirando la pesada barra, ora mostrando la ligereza de sus
sueltos miembros en los desusados saltos, ora descubriendo su crecida
fuerza e industriosa mafia en las intricadas luchas, ora ensefiando
Appendices. 535
la velocidad de sus pies en las largas carreras, procurando cada uno
ser tal en todo, que el primero premio alcauzase ; . . , ninguno
de cuantos alli estaban . . . llego al punto que mi Artidoro,
etc." The situation of a victorious athlete captivating a maiden
resembles the one in the Persiles. A more extended description can
be found in Tragedias de amor de gustoso y apacihle entreteni-
miento, etc., por el Licenciado Juan Arce Solorzeno (Madrid,
1607), of importance in connection with Cervantes on account of
the time of publication ; cf . p. 722 : Y assi [Ergasto] puso premios
para los que en los juegos Pancracios se senalassen, que alli eran
luchar, correr, saltar, tirar j nadar (with some influence of the
Aeneid, bk. V, in the distribution of prizes, and an original varia-
tion in the different competitions) ; 1. luchar, 2. correr, 3. saltar
por sobre una cuerda, 4. tirar la ballesta (a pigeon is set free and
three shoot simultaneously, the bird being killed by one), 5. tirar
una barra, 6. nadar; there are also decorated boats. I^o influence
on Cervantes is apparent. Cf. also Lope de Vega's Los Pastores
de Belen (1612), in Vol. XVI of "Obras sueltas," edit. Sancha
(Madrid, 1778), p. 95: "oiras maravillas . . . de las fiestas,
versos, luchas, apuestas, premios y regocijos"; p. 151: "si qui-
sieredes saltar, correr, luchar, y otros iguales ejercicios, a la dis-
posicion de vuestros votos . . . me remito." Cervantes was
manifestly fond of painting a hero with athletic skill; cf. Ohras, op.
cit., p. Ill of la Gitanilla: "A do quiera que llegaban, el se llevaba
el precio y las apuestas de corredor, y de saltar mas que ninguno :
jugaba a los bolos y a la pelota extremadamente, tiraba la barra
con mucha fuerza y singular destreza, etc."; and p. 114; "en todas
las aldeas y lugares que pasaban habia desafios de pelota, de
esgrima, de correr, de saltar, de tirar la barra, y de otros ejercicios
de fuerza, maha y ligereza, etc." In Italy the funeral games of
Virgil were imitated as early as Boccaccio, La Teseide, book XI.
APPEXDIX V.
The ViKGiLiAisr games in the Peksiles.
A preliminary reference to games in the Eneida, Vol. I, p. 114:
"Solemnizamos de Accio la ribera | Con los juegos que en Troya
ya se usaron: | Y desnudos y ungidos, a manera | Troyana, en
lucha algunos se cansaron, | Gozosos de tan prospera carrera, etc."
The games of book V follow, p. 189 : "Verse ha primero, qual es
53() Appendices.
mas ligera | De las galeras de la Teucra gente : | Luego, qui en vale
mas en la carrera : Despues, quien es en lucha mas valiente : |
Y cuyo dardo o flecha es mas certera : | Qual con el duro cesto es
preminente: | Yo os pondre premios, etc." 1. The place in Avhich
the games are held ; Eneida, I, p. 203 : "un hiervoso campo, |
(near the sea) Cercado en torno de collados corvos, | Llenos de
espesas selvas y arholedas. \ Estava en medio de un hermoso valle |
Un cerco hecho a modo de teatro, \ Al qual el heroe ilustre, acom-
paiiado | De inumerable niultitud de gente, | Se vino a proseguir
la bella fiesta, | Y en su Real sitial torno a sentarse."
Persiles, p. 588, col. 1 : "Haciase este espectaculo junto a la
marina en una espaciosa playa, a quien quitaban el sol infinita
cantidad de rarnos entretejidos, que la dejaban a la sombra :
ponian en la mitad un suntuoso teatro, en el cual seutado el Rey y la
real familia, miraban los apacibles juegos, etc."
2. Foot-race; Eneida, I, p. 203: "Combida luego con preciosas
joyas I Los aninios de quantos alli estavan | A la carrera, y pide
si ay acaso | Quien quiera competir en ligereza, | Y corriendo a la
par, mostrar su esfuerzo : | Y poneles delante ricos premios. \ A la
hora, de una parte y otra, acuden | Confusamente Teucros y
Sicanos. | Eurialo y jSTiso acuden los primeros : | Eurialo, de
belleza estrana y rara, | Gallardo joven, en edad florida. (He wins
the prize) . . . Acuden, demas destos, otros muchos." Aeneas
then describes the prizes. The race follows, p. 205 : "JSTo bien uvo
dicho esto, quando todos | Vienen al puesto, y toman sus lugares
j La sena oida, subito dejando \ La cuerda, huelan por el ancho
campo, I Ligeros, qual el viento ligerisimo, | Y echan los ojos
juntamente al cabo | De la carrera" : . . . p. 206 : "Entonce
salta Eurialo, y pasa a todos, | Merced del caro y fiel aniigo Niso : |
Y cierto de victoria y palma, huela \ Con grande aplauso, grita
y voceria | De los que le miravan, y el primero, | Al rojo palio
llega victorioso." Aeneas then distributes the prizes.
Persiles, p. 588, col. 2 : "cuando ya el teatro estaba ocupado,
. y cuando ya cuatro corredores, mancebos agiles y sueltos
tenian los pies izquierdos delante y los derechos alzados (strange
manner of beginning a race ! Cervantes may have had some vase
paintings of runners in mind) que no les impedia otra cosa el
soltarse a la carrera, sino soltar una cuerda que les servia de raya
y de sciial, que en soltandola huhiau de volar a un termino
senalado, donde liabian de dar fin a su carrera : digo que en este
Appendices. 527
tiempo vieron venir por la mar nii barco;" . . . it is pro-
pelled "de doce, al parecer, gallardos mancehos, de dilatadas
espaldas y pechos, y de nervudos hrazos." Their leader and the
prospective winner is described : "luego la hermosa presencia del
mozo arrebato la vista, etc." Policarpo invites the newcomers to
take part in the sports : "honrad mis fiestas en lo que quisieredes,
dejadme a mi el cargo de premiaroslo, que segun vuestra gallarda
presencia muestra, poca esperanza dejais a ninguno de alcanzar
los primeros premios. Doblo la rodilla el hermoso mancebo, y
inclino la cabeza en seiial de crianza j agradecimiento, j en dos
brincos se puso ante la cuerda que detenia a los cuatro lijeros
corredores : sus doce companeros se pusieron a un lado a ser
espectadores de la carrera: sono una trotnpeta (cf. Appendix VI),
soltaron la cuerda, y arrojaronse al vuelo los cinco; pero aun no
habrian dado veinte pasos, cuando con mas de seis se les aventajo
el recien venido, y a los treinta ya los llevaba de ventaja mas de
quince : finalmente, se los dejo a poco mas de la mitad del
caniino como si fueran estatuas inmovibles, etc."
3. Esgrima (boxing and fencing) : Eneida, I, p. 208 : "Despues
de puesto fin a la corrida, | Dados ya a todos sus preciosos dones, |
El padre Eneas dice estas palabras; | Si ay aqui alguno de animo
dispuesto | Para mostrar su corazon valiente, | Saiga, y a cada
mano ate su cesto. ] Y esgrima con los brazos diestramente |
. . . Tal pues como he pintado, el fuerte Dares | La cabeza
alta, sale a la batalla. | Muestra, sus anchos y vaUentes omhros, \
Y a veces ambos brazos esgrimiendo, etc." Entellus is described
as "haciendo muestra de sus grandes miembros, | Eornidos huesos,
y nervosos hrazos, etc.," p. 211; when Entellus slips and falls,
the spectators "alzan grita y clamor que hiere el Cielo," p. 213 ;
the mighty Entellus, however, "con espesos golpes, | Con priesa
y con vehemencia a todas manos | Toca, y retoca, bate, y hiere
a Dares | Y por el ancho campo le rebuelve," p. 214.
Persiles, p. 589, col. 1 : "Fue el segundo certamen el de la
esgrima: tomo el ganancioso la espada negra, con la cual a seis que
le salieron, cada uno de por si, les cerro las bocas, mosqueo las
narices, les sello los ojos, y les santiguo las cabezas, sin que a el
le tocasen, como decirse suele, un pelo de la ropa. Alzo la voz
el pueblo, y de comun consentimiento le dieron el premio primero."
Here Cervantes substituted the sword for the less known cestus;
the anchos y valientes omhros, and the nervosos hrazos of 3
528 Appendices.
(Eneida) probably suggested tbe dilatadas espaldas y pechos y [cZe]
nervudos hrazos in 2 (Persiles) above; of. also a similar phrase
in the next game.
4. In the next two, la lucha and el tiro de una pesada harra,
Cervantes merely enlarges on sports so frequently mentioned in
the pastoral novels, cf . n. 1, p. 508 ; Persiles, p. 589, col. 1 : ^'luego
se acomodaron otros seis a la lucha, donde con mayor gallardia
dio de SI muestra el mozo; descuhrio sus dilatadas espaldas, sus
anchos y fortisimos pechos, y las nervios y musculos de sus fuertes
hrazos, con los cuales, y con destreza y mana increible, hizo que
las espaldas de los seis luchadores a despecho y pesar suyo quedasen
impresas en la tierra; asio luego de una pesada barra . . .
la impelio con tanta fuerza, que pasando los limites de la marina,
fue menester que el mar se los diese, en el cual bien adentro quedo
sepultada la barra." Homer, Iliad, XXIII, (cf. p. 507, n. 4) has
games of a similar nature, and while Cervantes may have known
an Italian version of the Iliad (there was none in Spanish avail-
able, cf . p. 479, n. 4) there is no indebtedness to that book of the Iliad
apparent. But he probably knew Gonzalo Perez's Ulyxea, of which
book YIII has some games vnth incidents not unlike those of the
Persiles; such as Ulysses's outthrowing all others "que passo las
senales de los tiros, | Que antes hauian tirado los Pheaces." But
they constitute a parallel rather than an indebtedness and will be
treated with the rest of the Ulyxea elsewhere. The imitation of
Virgil, on the other hand, is most apparent in the next episode.
5. La contienda de hallesta y flecha; Eneida, I, p. 216 : "luego
el padre Eneas | Combidar manda al industrioso juego | De la ligera
flecha : y pone premios | A los que en el quisieren competencia. |
Manda a una esquadra de soldados que alcen | El mastil de la
nave de Sergesto, | Y en lo mas alto del manda que cuelguen |
Atada, de una cuerda, una paloma, | Por bianco de los
diestros ballesteros" ; p. 217 : "Puestos ya en sus lugares
por sus suertes | Cada qual tienta con gran fuerza su
arco, I Y para el tiro le apercibe y flecha : | Y saca de su aljava
su saeta. | La flecha de Hippocoon, con grande estruendo | De la
cuerda fortisima impelida, | Hiende las claros ayres la primera, |
Y al mastil arribando, en el se fija. | Estremeciose del gran golpe
el mastil, | Y rebolo la misera paloma, | Medrosa y espantada de
la flecha. | El gran clamor y aplauso de la gente | Atrono el mar
en torno de la ribera. | Ponese luego a punto el gran Mnesteo, |
Appendices. 539
Flechaiido el arco, j hacia la alta sena | Saeta j ojos eudereza
ii una. I i^o pudo el desgraciado de aquel tiro | Tocar con la
saeta a la paloma, | Pero rompio la cuerda j atadura | De lino, en
que del alto y grueso mastil, | Estava por los pies atada y presa. |
Ella ya libre, hiende apriesa el viento, | Y huye por el ayre y negras
nubes. | Al punto Euricion, que ya rato avia | Tenia su flecha y
arco apercebido, | Viendo la ave bolar ya alegre y libre, j Y el
alto ayre azotar, con prestas alas, | Llamando en su favor al buen
bermano, | Flecha con diestra ligereza su arco, | Y alia en una
niuy alta y negra nube | Traspasa y clava la infeliz paloma. | Cayo
al instante muerta : y juntamente | Dio a las estrellas la alma,
el cuerpo al suelo : | El qual bajo en la flecba atravesado." The
final shot of Virgil, the flaming arrow of strange portent, is
naturally omitted in Cervantes.
Persiles, p. 589, col. 1 : "pusieronle luego la ballesta en las
manos y algunas flechas, y mostraronle un arbol muy alto y muy
liso, al cabo del cual estaba hincada una media lanza, y en ella de
un hilo estaba asida una paloma, a la cual habian de tirar no
mas de uu tiro los que en aquel certamen quisiesen probarse: uno
que presumia de certero, se adelanto y tomo la mano, creo yo, pen-
sando derribar la paloma antes que otro : tiro, y clavo la flecha
casi en el fin de la lanza, del cual golpe azorada la paloma se levanto
en el aire; y luego otro, no menos presumido que el primero, tiro
con tan gentil certeria, que rompio el hilo donde estaba asida la
paloma, que suelta y libre del lazo que la detenia, entrego su liber-
tad al viento, y batio las alas con priesa : pero el ya acostumbrado
a ganar los primeros premios disparo su flecha, y como si mandara
lo que habia de hacer, y ella tuviera entendimiento para obedecerle,
asi lo hizo, pues dividiendo el aire con un rasgado y tendido silbo,
llego a la paloma, y le paso el corazon de parte a parte, quitandole
a un mismo punto el vuelo y la vida. Renovaronse con esto las
voces de los presentes y las alabanzas del extranjero, el cual en
la carrera, en la esgrima, en la lucha, en la barra y en el tirar de la
ballesta . . . se Uevo los primeros premios." The similarity
in the language as well as in the sequence of these events will
be apparent at once.
530 Appendices.
APPENDIX VI.
The Boat Kace.
Eneas. Vol. I, p. 192 : ''la troinpeta al pimto | Sono, daudo
seiial de un liigar alto | Que a las fiestas se dava ya liceucia : [Diose
por suerte la primer conquista | A qiiatro naos, en todas escogidas, |
Todas iguales en valientes remos." Then the boats and their
captains are mentioned: "Mnesteo govierna a la veloce Pistris, |
. . . Iva el buen Gias en la gran Chimera, | ... la qual
impelen . . . los Dardanos mancebos, | Por tres ordenes
puestos en los bancos, | Con otras tantas ordenes de remos. | Sergesto
, . . Govierna j rige la gran nao Centauro. | Cloantho . . .
toma el governalle | De la ligera y verdinegra Scila." The course
is described: "Lejos dentro en el mar esta un peiiasco | A la
espumosa orilla puesto en f rente; | De las hinchadas olas muy
batido, etc." "En esta roca puso el padre Eneas | Un verde pie
de una hojosa encina, | Seiial desde la qual los marineros |
Bolviesen al lugar de do salian. | Luego los Capitanes, por sus
suertes, | Toman los puestos. Ya en sus naos por orden | De lejos
resplandecen llenos de oro, | Y con sobervia purpura adornados. |
Ya toda la otra juventud Troyana ] De alamo bianco, alegre, se
corona, ] Ya todos muestran los desnudos omhros \ Eesplandecientes
con el blando aceyte. | Toma su banco cada qual por orden, | Y
asido de su remo, atentamente \ Espera la serial con alhorozo. | Un
pavoroso sobresalto, junto ] Con un vivo deseo de honra y gloria, [
Hiere y hace temblar sus corazones. | En el instante mesmo que la
clara \ Trompeta did seiial (as in the foot race in Persiles), todos
a una | Saltan arrebatados de sus puestos. | Los vivos gritos y
clamor sonoro | De los remeros, hiere las estrellas. j Tornase blanca
espuma toda la agua, etc." Tlie use of a simile: "Jamas cavallos
tanto arrebatados | Se arrojaron del puesto a la carrera, | Quando
aporfia en el Olimpo campo | Sacan en buelo los ligeros carros," is
kept up in the Persiles; the race follows: "Alzase en esto nn
gran clamor de genie, \ Una alta voceria, un sordo aplauso, | De
los que al espectaculo asistian | A los competidores animando. |
Resuena todo el bosque, las riberas, | Los huecos montes, y cerrados
valles, I Heridos con los gritos y altas voces, | Buelven las mesmas
voces y altos gritos. | Salta del puesto Gias el primero, | Entre la
mayor grita y alboroto, | Y hiende ligerisimo las ondas; ] Salta
Appendices. 531
' empos del al puiito el biien Cloanto, | En diestros remadores
mejorado, \ Sino que la pesada y tarde nave | Contrastava a su
fuerza j a su industria. | Tras destos, Pistris y la gran Centauro |
Yan en igual distancia conipitiendo, | Y entre si procurando de
vencerse." Then follows the humorous event in which the enraged
Gias flings his pilot overboard, all of which Cervantes omitted so
as not to draw out the race unduly; p. 196: "Este suceso puso
en los postreros \ Mnesteo j Sergesto alegre confianza \ De pasar
y veneer al tardo Gias. | Comienza pues Sergesto a adelantarse |
De Mnesteo, y a llegarse apriesa al termino | Bien que por mas
que liace, aun no le gana | El largo todo de su nao, mas parte | Ya
adelantada, y otra parte queda | Igual y en par con la nariz de
Pistris. I Pero Mnesteo andando diligente j Por medio de su nao
entre sus hombres | Asi los solicita y los anima | . . . Batid,
batid los remos presurosos, etc." Then comes the struggle between
Mnesteo and Sergesto, p. 198 : "Un subito suceso, un caso estraiio |
Dio del combate la victoria y honra | A aquestos, y a Sergesto la
vergiienza. | Fue que Sergesto, loco, y impaciente, | Remetiendo su
nao con furia y priesa | Al lado interior azia la Isla | Juntandose
con ella demasiado, | Dio con su nao al traste el miserable, | En
la secreta falda de la roca. | Temblo todo el peiion, lo^ remos
fragiles \ De la aspereza dura contrastados, | Hicieronse en tocando
mil pedazos : | Quedo colgada la cascada proa | En la ladera de la
dura pena." His competitor flies forward like a dove ; p. 199 :
"Tal va Mnesteo, y tal su nave Pistris | Ya dividiendo el mar cer-
cano a tierra, | Como la impelen su impetu y los remos, |Y dejase
primero al buen Sergesto, etc." "Alcanza al punto a Gias, y a
la nave | Chimera . . . y atras la deja . . . Solo a
Cloanto tiene ya delante, | Del qual tambien pretende aver vic-
toria : I Siguele con vehemencia y con aliento, | Y ya, ya se le
acerca, ya le alcanza. | Tornase a alzar aqui la voceria j Y alto
clamor. Los circunstantes todos | Incitan y dan animo al que
sigue, I Resuena el ayre con los vivos gritos. | Los delanteros con
vigor vogando, | Muriendo van por conservar la honra | Que liasta
alii han ganado, y con la vida | Comprar pretenden la victoria
y gloria. | A los que siguen, el suceso prospero | De aver vencido
las dos naos, da aliento, \ Para triunfar tambien de la tercera. |
Y ya llevan certeza de poderlo | Solo por parecerles que lo pueden. |
Y por Ventura con iguales proas \ Llegaran ambas a tomar los
premios, | Si el buen Cloanto, puestas ambas manos | Devoto hacia
"^
532 Appendices.
el mar, con tal plegaria | Los Dioses no inclinara a sii deseo."
Cloanto thus wins only by divine intervention.
Persiles, p. 606, col. 1 : ^'CVlebrose la fiesta (wliicli is first
mentioned p. 604, col. 2), y luego salieron de entre las harcas del rio
cuatro despalmadas, vistosas por las diversas colores con que
venian pintadas, y los remos que eran seis de cada banda . . .
luego conoci que querian las barcas correr el palio, que se mostraba
puesto en el arbol de otra barca desviada de las cuatro como tres
carreras de caballo : ... El rumor de la gente y el son de
los instrumentos era tan grande, que no se dejaba entender lo que
mandaba el capitan del mar, que en otra pintada barca venia :
apartaronse las enramadas barcas a una y otra parte del rio,
dejando un espacio llano en medio, por donde las cuatro com-
petidoras harcas volasen sin estorbar la vista a la infinita gente
que desde el talamo y desde ambas riberas estaba atenta a mirarlas :
y estando ya los bogadores asidos de las manillas de los remos,
descubiertos los hrazos, donde se parecian los gruesos nervios, las
ancbas venas y los torcidos musculos, atendian la serial de la
partida, impacienies por la tardanza, y fogosos, bien ansi como
lo suele estar el generoso can de Irlanda, cuando su dueno ntf
le quiere soltar de la trailla a bacer la presa que a la vista se le
muestra (note simile). Llego en fin la serial esperada, y a un
mismo tiempo arrancaron todas cuatro barcas, que no por el agua,
sino por el viento parecia que volahan: una dellas, que llevaba
por insignia un vendado Cupido, se adelanto de las demas casi
tres cuerpos de la misma barca, cuya ventaja dio esperanza a
todos cuantos la miraban de que ella seria la primera que Uegase
a ganar el deseado premio : otra que venia tras ella iba alentando
sus esperanzas, confiada en el teson durisimo de sus remeros: pero
viendo que la primera en ningun modo desmayaba, estuvieron por
soltar los remos sus bogadores : pero son diferentes los fines y
acontecimientos de las cosas de aquello que se imagina, porque
aunque es ley de los combates y contiendas, que ninguno de los que
miran favorezca a ninguna de las partes con senales, con voces
6 con otro algun genero que parezca que pueda servir de aviso
al combatiente, viendo la gente de la ribera que la barca de la
insignia de Cupido se aventajaba tanto a las demas, sin mirar
a leyes, creyendo que ya la victoria era suya, dijeron a voces
mucbos : Cupido vence, el Amor es invencible. A cuyas voces,
por escucballas parece que aflojaron un tanto los remeros del Amor.
Appendices. 533
Aprovecliose desta oeasion la segunda barca, que detras de la del
Amor venia, la cual traia por insignia al Interes en figura de
un gigante peqiieiio, pero niiiy ricamente aderezado, j impelio
los remos con tante fuerza, que llego a igualarse el Interes con
el Amor y arrimandosele a un costado, le hizo pedazos todos los
remos de la diestra banda, habiendo primero la del Interes recogido
los suyos y pasado adelante, dejando burladas las esperanzas de
los que primero habian eantado la victoria por el Amor, y volvieron
a decir : El Interes vence, el Interes vence. La barca tercera
traia por insignia a la Diligencia, en figura de una muger desnuda,
llena de alas por todo el cuerpo, que a traer trompeta en las manos,
antes pareciera Tama que Diligencia : viendo el hue7i suceso del
Interes, alento su confianza, y sus remeros se esforzaron de modo
que llegaron a igualar con el Interes ; pero por el mal gohierno del
timonero se embarazo con las dos barcas primeras de modo que
los unos ni los otros remos fueron de provecho. Viendo lo cual la
postrera, que traia por insignia a la buena Fortuna, cuando estaba
desmayada y casi para dejar la empresa, viendo el intricado enredo
de las demas barcas, desviandose algun tanto dellas por no caer
en el mismo embarazo, apreto, como decirse suele, los puiios, y
deslizandose jDor un lado paso delante de todas. Cambiaronse los
gritos de los que miraban, cuyas voces sirvieron de aliento a sus
bogadores, que embebidos en el gusto de verse mejorados les parecia
que si los que quedaban atras entonces, les llevaran la misma
ventaja no dudaran de alcanzarlos ni de ganar el premio, como
lo ganaron, mas por ventura que por lijereza. En fin, la buena
Fortuna fue la que la tuvo buena entonces, etc."
The account of this race in the majority of its details, at least,
sounds sufficiently factitious to justify the belief that Cervantes,
far from knowing anything of such races at first hand, merely
rewrote Virgil with judicious changes and omissions. In both
events the boat which starts off most promisingly is defeated;
in each a boat is put out of the race by the same kind of misfortune
(broken oars), and in each case the victory comes as a surprise
to the spectators. The introduction of a simile is due to Virgil's
manner (cf. el can de Irlanda), while phrases like (Eneida, p. 198) :
"Y pidiendo favor al diestro viento, | Pasa volando por el mar,"
and (p. 200) : "Ella mas presta que el veloce jS'oto, | . . .
huye a tierra," may have suggested, (Persiles, p. 606) : "por el
viento parecia que volaban;" just so {Eneida, p. 192) : "govierna
534 Appendices.
con I'ucrza de briosisiiiios rcineros'' is not unlike (Persiles. 606) :
"iba . . . confiada en el teson durisimo de sus remeros." Tlie
mal gobierno del timonero of the Persiles also recalls the indiscreto
y tardo de Menetes, the bad pilot who spoiled the chances of Gias.
It is also possible that a phrase at the beginning of this same book
of the Aeneid: "Y pues Fortuna vence, es bieh seguillos (vientos)"
Eneida, p. 186, may have suggested the name of the victorious boat
in the Persiles. The four boats of Virgil are called Pistris,
Chimera, Centauro and Scila; in book X the decorations or
emblems of some of Aeneas's boats are described: one (Vol. II,
p. 108) has "los Leones de Troya" painted on the prow; another
"un rutilante Apolo; the Centauro ''lleva un centauro altisimo
pintado" on the prow; another a Triton with a shell, half man
(honibre velloso) and half monster. Cervantes also decorates his
boats in the Persiles; one of them bears the figure of a little
giant, one has a little Cupid, and another a nude woman with many
wings (alas) all over her body. Cf. p. 548.
APPEI^DIX VII.
The machinery of adventure in the Aeneid and the Persiles.
The following parallels are to show how the epic manner as
well as the machinery of adventure, peregrinaciones, in the Aeneid
resembles that of the Persiles, though there may be no indebted-
ness to the former on the part of the latter.
1. The first books of the xleneid are filled Avith the spirit of the
wanderings which characterize the earlier half of the Persiles.
Eneida, I, p. 2 : "por que causa | La Eeyna de los Dioses enojada, |
Porzo al varon asi en piedad insigne | A sufrir tantos y tan duros
casos, I Y a padecer trahajos tan immensos?" p. 6: "Esparcelos
a partes diferentes, | A varias tierras, a diversas gentes.'' p. 15:
"la memoria de aquestos duros trances" and "Por varios casos,
por fragoso y duro | Camino, a la famosa Italia vamos"; p. 23:
''Por gentes y lugares ignorados, | Por tierra y mar, peregrinando
andamos"; p. 96: "Sabe que has de ir mil tierras peregrino, \ Gran
trecho has de pasar del mar insane. | Llevarte ha en fin a Italia tu
destino"; p. 106: "Mil estrechuras do agua navogamos | Entre
Isla y Isla con furor niovidas" ; p. 109 : "do no podia verse tierra
entramos, | Mas solo a todas partes mar y Cielo" ; p. 113: "Xo
penseis que aveis antes de veros | En la Ciudad que dada os tiene
Appendices. 535
el lutdo; and: "gaiardadlos de casos lamentables" ; p. 119:
"Suplieote me seas iiorte j guia | Para escapanue de peligros
tales : I . . . Para evitar trabajos tan moi-tales" ; and "Tu has
de ir por niuclios mares peregrine, | Que Jupiter lo ordena j tu
destino." For similar ideas see pp. 26, 35, 98, 117, 225, 285.
Persiles, p. 565, col. 2 : "este en que nos liallamos lia de ser
el iiltimo trance que de nuestras desventuras pueden temerse";
p. 568, col. 1 : ''lialleme solo en la niitad de la inmensidad de
aquellas aguas, sin tomar otro camino que aquel que le concedia el no
contrastar contra las olas ni contra el viento" ; and : "no se a
cabo de cuantos dias y noclies que anduve vagabundo por el mar,
. me vine a liallar junto a una isla despoblada" ; and col. 2 ;
p. 576, col. 1 : "Estan todos aquellos mares casi cubiertos de islas
. y . . . deseaban topar alguna que los acogiese" ; p.
581, col. 2 : "vanios llevados del destino y de la eleccion a la santa
ciudad de Roma" ; p. 585, col. 2 : "vieronse en mar no conocida,
amenazados de todas las inclemencias del cielo"; and: "con el
[dia] descubrieron por todas partes el mar cerca y lejos" ; p. 588,
col. 1 : "Desta manera anduvieron casi tres meses por el mar de
Unas partes a otras; ya tocaban en una isla, ya en otra; y ya
se salian al mar descubierto" ; ]). 598, col. 2: "andante peregrino,"
the latter word being very common ; p. 613, col. 2 : "nos liallamos
en la ribera de una isla no conocida." Mention of a single island is
very common ; cf . p. 588, col. 1, 604, col. 1, "las riberas de una
isla," 621, col. 2, "aquella isla . . . Escinta," which recall
such passages in the Eneida, I, p. 12 : "Ay un lugar ... en el
qual una isla, etc."; p. 137: "Esta en el mar Sicanio una isla";
p. 614, col. 1 : "trabajos y peregrinaciones." The fact that Italy
and Rome are the goal of both wanderings is presumably a
coincidence.
In the Galatea there is a similar passage: p. 68, col. 1: "dis-
currimos por todas las islas de aquel derecho;" even the "antiguas
ruinas de Cartage" are seen.
2. Night and storm are the common experiences; Eneida, I, p.
7 : "Comienza en esto un gran clamor de gente | Y un espantoso
rechinar de cuerdas : | En un instante las escuras nuhes \ Cubren
la luz y el Cielo a los Troyanos. ] Utm cerrada y tenehrosa noche \
Tiende sobre el turbado mar sus alas : | Rebrama el Cielo del un
Polo al otro ] Con gran frequencia de espantosos true nos: \ Mos-
trando con relampagos espesos \ Su resplandor fogoso y luz
536 Appendices.
ardiente. | Mar, Cielo, j viento, j todo el Uuiverso, | A7nenaza con
cierta y presta muerte \ A los Troyanos tristes j afligidos"; ''una
gran horrasca \ Que vino retronando de azia el Xorte | Hiere la vela
con veliemencia horrible, | Y sube al Cielo las bravosas olas : |
Jlacese cada remo mil pedazos. | Trastornase la proa, y pone el
lado I De la nao a la furia de las ondas ; | Alzase en esto de agua un
alto monte, | Y enviste en ella con fiirioso golpe. | Penden algunos
en las alias olas, | Y en el binchado mar andan subidos. | A otros
la agua del mar bondo abierta | Les muestra por entre ola j ola
el suelo. I Hierve la arena y la agua, etc."
Persiles, p. 590, col. 2 : "enmaraiiandose las nuhes, cerro la noche
escura y tenehrosa, j los iruenos dando por mcnsajeros a los
reldmpagos, tras quien se siguen, comenzaron a turbar los
marineros, y a deslumbrar la vista de todos los de la nave, y
comenzo la horrasca con tanta furia, que no pudo ser prevenida,
etc."; "se excusaron de no verse unas veces tocar el cielo con
las manos, levantandose el navio sobre las mismas nubes, y otras
veces barrer la gavia las arenas del mar profundo : esperahan la
muerte cerrados los ojos, etc." ; "Atreviose el mar insolente a
pasearse por cima de la cubierta del navio, y aun a visitar las
mas altas gavias, etc."
3. Episodes of landing or embarking, a. Eneida, I, p. 13 : "Dejan
las naos con ligereza presta, | Y gozan de la arena deseada: |
. . . Hiere el fogoso pedernal Acates, | Y bace saltar del cen-
tellas vivas: | . . . xlsio en la yesca el fuego, etc."; p. 103:
"Aquesta isla amenisima dio aliento | A los que el mar traia que-
brantados" ; p. 242 : Another landing and striking fire from flint.
h. They come upon a little town; p. 114: "En este puerto entra-
mos fatigados, | Y la ancora de proa al suelo echada, | Alii
quedaron los navios clavados : | Y una ciudad pequeiia nos dio
entrada." c. The ruler himself comes out to meet the wanderers;
p. 187: "El Rey Acestes, que de la alta cumbre | De un alto monte
avia de lejos visto | Llegar alii las naos de sus amigos, | Maravillado,
sale a recibirlos ; and p. 309 : "Corre delante un mensajero al
punto, I Espoleando un corredor cavallo, | A dar aviso al grave
Rey Latino | De como a su Ciudad avian llegado | Ciertos varones
de valientes cuerpos, | En habito estrangero y peregrino. | El
Rey manda llamarlos a su casa, etc." d. The Trojans come upon
a lost wanderer (a Greek) ; p. 132: "pidoos, nos venia diciendo, |
Appendices. 537
Por los a qiiien da el Cielo eteriio estrado, | Por las esti-ellas
. . . I Que me saqueis de aqui, etc."
Persiles, a. p. 574, col. 1 : '' llegaron a una isla . . . saltaron
todos en tierra, en la cual vararon las barcas, j con gran priesa
se dieron a desgajar arboles, j liacer una gruesa barraca . . . :
hicieron asimismo fuego, ludiendo dos secos palos, el uno con
el otro, etc." Cervantes uses a different method of creating fire,
possibly to conform with what he considered northern customs.
h. They are carried into a harbor with a town; p. 591, col. 2: "los
piadosos cielos . . . ordenaron que la nave fuese llevada poco
a poco ... a la orilla del mar en una playa, ... y no
lejos cstaba un puerto ... en cuyas aguas, como en espejos
claros, se estaba mirando una ciudad populosa, etc." c. The King
comes out to meet the strangers; p. 591, col. 2: "salio infinita
gente a verlo (the ship), y certificandose ser navio lo dijeron al
rey Policarpo, que era el seiior de aquella ciudad, el cual acom-
pahado de niuchos . . . salio tambien, etc." ; p. 618, col. 1. :
"vimos [la ribera] coronada de infinito numero de gente . . .
Venia entre ellos sobre un hermoso caballo el rey Cratilo, etc."
d. The pilgrims find an Italian wrecked among the man-eating
savages of the north as the Greek had been among the Cyclopes;
p. 571, col. 1 : "llego a la orilla del mar un barbaro gallardo, que
a grandes voces en lengua toscana dijo : Si por ventura sois
cristianos los que vais en esas barcas, recoged a este que lo es, y
por el verdadero Dios lo suplica." In this connection the phrases
"luego alzaron | Con alborozo alegre voceria" {Eneida, I, p. 104,
said of the Trojans who are told of the promised land for which
they are about to set out) and "alzando una alegre voceria"
{Persiles, p. 618, col. 1, said of some northern natives who draw
the wanderers ashore) are of interest. Cervantes was fond of
using it ; p. 571, col. 1 : "alzaron las voces con alegres acentos"
on reembarking.
4. After the wanderers have landed, they generally hasten to
prepare a meal, and repose from their hardships ; or they may be
invited to eat with their hosts; Eneida, Yol. I, p. 15 : "Ponen otros
las ollas y calderas | En la ribera, y danles fuego apriesa. | Tien-
dense por la fresca y verde yerva, | Y recobran las fuerzas con
manjares, etc."; Dido has invited the Trojans to a feast, where-
upon the narrative continues, p. 47 : "Luego que se acabo el real
vanquete, | Y alzaron los manteles de las mesas, | Ponen en ellas
538 Appendices.
tazas, etc." Then Dido ]miirs a libation to the gods, which is
followed by Aeiieas's narrative; again, p. oO') : ''Aderezan al pimto
la fomida | . . . Ponen las t-arnes y silvestres frutas." Vol.
II, p. 13 : "Ya que a la hambre uvieron satisfecho, | Y el guloso
apetito repriniido, | Comienza asi a dccir el Key Evandro."
Persiles, p. 574, col. 1 : "llegaron j'l una isla tambien despoblada,
auiique no de arboles, porque tenia niuchos y llenos de fruto, que
auiique pasado de sazon y seco, se dejaba comer." They go ashore,
gather wood for a hut and for fire : "Satisfacieron la hambre,"
whereupon a story follows; p. 577, col. 1: "acudieron a sus naves
algunos, y con tanta priesa conio buena voluntad, trajeron della
los regalos que tenian; hizose lumbre, pusieronse las mesas, y
. satisfacieron todos la hambre, etc.," Mauricio then tells
his story; p. 617, col. 1: ''mando echar el esquife al agua, y que
saliesen todos a tierra a pasar la noche en sosiego, libres de los
vaivenes del mar . ... A la sombra de una peiia los de la
tierra se repararon del viento, y a la claridad de mucha lumbre
. se defendieron del frio" ; and p. 618, col. 2, the wanderers
receive food and shelter from the inhabitants of the island.
5. Episodes of departure, leave-taking, separation and the like,
which are characteristic of stories of adventure; Eneida, Vol. I,
p. 124 : "En tanto Anchises caminar queriendo, | Las velas al buen
viento alzar mandava, etc."; p. 126: "En esto yo con ojos
lacrimosos | Partiendo de los huespedes amados, | Quedaos, les dige,
a Dios, vivid dichosos | Los que estais de f ortuna descuidados ; |
Nosotros por los hados rigurosos [ Somos de un mal en otro nial
llevados ; | Vosotros ya teneis quieto asiento, | Ni temeis bravo mar,
ni adverso viento." p. 234 : "En tanto ya los agradables vientos |
El mar avian compuesto y allanado, | Ya el Austro con continue
y cierto soplo | Las naves otra vez llamava a la agua. | Llegada la
sazon ya de partirse, | Levantase un confuso y triste llanto | Por
la hueca ribera, y abrazados | Los unos de los otros, sin poderse |
Partir, se estan un dia y una noche."
Persiles, p. 623, col. 2 : "Dos dias tardaron en disponerse y
acomodarse para seguir cada uno su viaje, . . . andaba
Rutilio de unos en otros, . . . despidiendose destos y de
aquellos, mezclando sollozos y Itigrimas todo a un ticnipo; final-
mente, convidandoles el sosegado tiempo y un viento que podia
servir a diferentes viajes, se embarcaron y le dieron las velas,
etc."; p. 641, col. 2: "Algunos dias se pasarou poniendo en orden
Appendices. 539
su partida para Roma . . . : llegose el dia de la partida, donde
hubo tiernas lagrimas j apretados abrazos j dolientes suspires,
etc."
A common incident is that of tlie chance separation of hero
and heroine, or of the wanderers in general. In the classic epics,
however, there was a genuine tragic note in such episodes, as for
example in the separation of Hector and Andromache, or of Aeneas
and Creusa. The pathos of these events was of influence on the
earliest romances, but in the story ' of adventure not only the
protagonists, but groups of wanderers are sure to meet again, no
matter how often they are separated. This was a part of the
machinery of adventure to which the Aeneid contributed. Eneida,
Vol. I, p. 93 : "A Creusa perdi, mi dulce abrigo : | Oque el hado cruel
le echase mano, | O que el camino errase, o que cansada | Quedase,
ay triste, a descansar sentada; ] JSTo la vi mas, etc." Aeneas
searches for her everywhere : "Llevava firme intento de bolvernie |
A renovar mi acerba y dura suerte, | Y en los peligros otra vez
meterme, etc." ''Mil voces a Creusa llame en vano." Aeneas is
also separated from some of his companions during his peregrina-
tions (bk. I).
Persiles, p. 562, col. 2 : "Andando mi Senora Auristela por la
ribera del mar, solazandose, . . . llegaron unos bajeles de
cosarios, y la robaron, etc."; p. 585, col. 1: "Llegose en esto la
noche, sin que la barca pudiese alcanzar al esquife, desde el cual
daba voces Auristela, llamando a su hermano Periandro, que la
respondia . . . Transila y Ladislao hacian lo mismo, y
encontrabanse en los aires las voces de dulcisimo esposo mio y
amada esposa mia, etc." On p. 608, Auristela is again carried off
and Periandro sets out in pursuit.
Chance meetings and reunions are characteristic. At the close
of book I of the Aeneid, Aeneas again meets some of his stranded
companions whom a storm had carried off. In book III he finds
compatriots, Helenus, Andromache and others, in the course of his
peregrinations. In the Persiles these incidents are of frequent
occurrence. On p. 577, col. 1, Mauricio finds his daughter,
Transila; on p. 580, col. 2, Periandro and his group again meet
Arnaldo and his party; hero and heroine are separated and meet
again quite often ; p. 565, col. 2 : "suerte dichosa ha sido el hallarte,
etc."; also 592, col. 1.
Trans. Conn. Acad., Vol. XIII. 37 April, 1908.
540 Appendices.
6. Lamentations, longing for death, complaints of hardships,
cruel fate, slavery and the like occur often in the story of adven-
ture. Cf. Eneida, I, p. 54: "Que tierra avra que ya tragarme
pueda? I Que mar que quiera, ay triste, ya sorverme? \ Ya que
refugio, ay misero, me queda, | Do pueda en mis desastres
acogerme?" p. 116: "Confusa, y encogida, responde esto. | O
sola mas que todas fortunada, ] Polixena, que de una ya acabaste, |
. . . Y no fue sobre ti la suerte echada, | De captividad dura
te escapaste. | . . . Yo sin ventura, . . . por mil mares y
tierras me llevaron : etc." Heroines show their grief in the same
way; p. 177: "[Dido] Hirio su tierno y muy hermoso pecho |
Con mano ayrada tres y quatro veces, | Apedazo el cabello de
oro puro, etc."; p. 180: "Oy es mi triste postrimero dia, | Ya
el curso de mi vida es acabado, etc."
Persiles, p. 561, col. 1 : "Gracias os hago, o inmensos y piadosos
cielos, de que me habeis traido a niorir adonde vuestra luz vea mi
muerte, . . . bien querria yo no morir desesperado . . . pero
mis desdichas son tales, que me llaman, y casi fuerzan a desearlo";
p. 562, col. 1 : "En triste y menguado signo mis padres me engen-
draron, y en no benigna estrella mi madre me arrojo a la luz
del mundo ; . . . libre pense yo que gozara de la luz del sol en
esta vida ; pero engaiiome mi pensamiento, pues me veo a pique
de ser vendida por esclava"; p. 565, col. 2: "conio creo que este
en que nos hallamos, ha de ser el ultimo trance que de nuestras
desventuras puede temerse, suerte dichosa ha sido el hallartp, etc.";
p. 574, col. 1 : "Al cielo y a vosotros . . . agradezco esta
mudanza y esta mejora de navio : aunque creo que con mucha
brevedad le dejare libre de la carga de mi cuerpo, porque las penas
que siento en el alma me van dando senales de que tengo la vida
en sus ultimos terminos" ; p. 587, col. 1 : "Ay, dijo a esta sazon,
con que prodigiosas senales me va mostrando el cielo mi desventura,
que si se rematara con acabarse mi vida, pudiera llamarla dichosa,
etc."; p. 651, col. 1: "Ay de mi, otra vez sola y en tierra ajena,
etc." Elsewhere Cervantes's heroines tear their hair; cf. Obras,
op. cit., p. 201, col. 1, p. 204, col. 2 ; also previous article, appendix,
p. 24.
7. In these strange peregrinations the wanderers are generally
ignorant of their whereabouts; they ask for information; Eneida,
Vol. I, p. 23 : Aeneas addresses his mother, "Suplicote nos sean
por ti aliviados | Estos duros trabajos que pasamos : | Dauos
Appendices. 541
noticia, y liaznos avisados | De eii qual region, provincia, o clima
estamos. | Por gentes j lugares ignorados, ] Por tierra y mar,
peregrinando andamos, etc." ''Responde Venus . . , Los
Reynos Africanos vees en freute, etc." In the Persiles the travelers
generally have a very vague idea of where they are ; p. 572, col. 2 :
"of que venia hablando por junto de donde estaha, alguna gente,
y asi fue verdad, y saliendoles al encuentro, les pregunte en mi
lengua toscana, que me dijesen que tierra era aquella ; y uno
dellos asimismo en italiano me respondio : Esta tierra es
Noruega, pero, quien eres tii? etc."
As in Heliodorus, a stranger excites general curiosity; Eneida,
Vol. I, p. 25 : "os pido | Que me sea de alguno declarado, | Quien
sois? a que venis? de que regiones | Salistes? etc."; p. 41, Dido
asks : "Hijo de Venus, qual destine triste ] Te ha por tantos
peligros perseguido? | Por que violencia o caso ser pudiste | A
aquesta region barbara traido?"; p. 117, Andromache has told
Aeneas her misfortune : "Mas dime ya, qual Dios, qual hado, o
viento, | Tan sin pensar aqui te ha oy traido ? | De Ascanio, que es ?
etc."; p. 132, the lost Greek is questioned: "De su linaje y tierra
fue rogado | Que, sin nos engaiiar, nos informase, | Por que
suceso uviese alii arribado." Vol. II, p. 8 : "Decid, hombres,
que causa os ha forzado | A tentar los caminos no sabidos? | Do
xa. vuestro viaje enderezado? | De que linaje sois? y do nacidos? |
De do salistes ? etc."
Persiles, p. 562, col. 1 : "luego le comenzo [a Arnaldo] a fatigar
el deseo de saber del [de Periandro] lo mas presto que pudiese,
quien era, como se llamaba, y de que causas habia nacido el
efecto que en tanta estrecheza le habia puesto" ; or p. 574, col. 1 :
"acomodaranse a dormir luego, si el deseo que Periandro tenia
de saber el suceso del musico no lo estorbara, porque le rogo si
era posible les hiciese sabidores de sus desgracias, pues no podian
ser Venturas las que en aquellas partes le habian traido"; cf. also
preceding article, p. 23.
In the answers to such questioning, the manner of the classical
epic is much like that of the romance of adventure. 'I can-
not recount my hardships to you from the very beginning.'
Eneida, Vol. I, p. 26 : "Si del principio, o Diosa, te contase | La
triste y desastrada suerte mia : | Y si escuchar la historia te vagase |
Del trabajo sufrido hasta oy dia | Se cierto que primero que
acabase, | La tenebrosa sombra cubriria | El cielo a todas partes,
542 Appendices.
etc." Ill the Fersdcs, tlie iiero is urged to tell his experiences,
p. 604, col. 1 : "A lo que Periaiidro respondio, que si haria, si
se le permitiese conienzar el cuento de su historia, no del mismo
principio, porque este no le podia decir iii descubrir Ji iiadie, etc."
The hero though urged to begin at the beginning, really launches
himself in medias res. Eneida, Vol. I, p. 49 : ''Huesped, sera
a mi ver mas acertado | Que del i)rincipio el Griego engafio digas : |
Lo que has por tierra y mar peregrinado, etc." Aeneas begins
with the tenth year of the Trojan war. In the Persiles, p. 604,
col. 1, Periandro says : ''El principio y preambulo de mi historia
. . . quiero que sea este : que iios contempleis a mi hermana
y a mi, con una anciana ama suya embarcados en una nave, etc."
8. From the pictorial history of the Trojan war which Aeneas
sees at Carthage, he learns how widely known his story is; Eneida,
Vol. I, p. 31 : "Que tierra o que region del ancho suelo | JSTo ha
ya entendido nuestra desventura, etc." The appearance and the
experiences of the protagonists of the Persiles are known in Portu-
gal, Spain, France and Italy, p. 672, col. 1, and a playwright even
plans a comedia "de los sucesos de Periandro y Auristela, que
los sabia de memoria por un lienzo que habia visto en Portugal,"
namely their pictorial history treated above.
9. a. The use of certain words and phrases in both the Eneida and
the Persiles is worth noting. The number three in connection
with events or actions is common in the classic epics (cf. Homer's
Iliad, bks. XXII, v. 165, XXIII, v. 817) ; Eneida, Vol. I, p. 33:
"Tres veces parecia el fiero Achiles, etc."; p. 96: "Por tres veces
los brazos alargando | De le enlazar el cuello tuve intento, etc.";
p. 130: "Tres veces resono un horrible estruendo" ; p. 134: "Por
tres veces ha ya la Luna nueva | A redondez sus cuernos reducido" ;
p. 183 : "Tres veces, con las vascas de la muerte, | Sobre el codo
estrivando, provo a alzarse, \ Mas otras tantas torno a dar consigo \
Sobre la cama un lastimoso golpe" ; also pp. 256, 285, 307, Vol.
II, pp. 37, 141, 167. Cf. the Persiles, p. 562, col. 1 : "Y en esto
probo a levantarse para ir a besarle los pies, mas la flaqueza no
se lo perinitio, porque tres veces lo probo, y otras tantas volvio a
dar consigo en el suelo." Galatea, p. 83, col. 1 : "Tres veces
rodeo Telesio la sepultura, y tres veces dijo las piadosas plegarias,
etc."; in this connection cf. Sannazaro, Arcadia, edition of
Scherillo, op. cit., p. 213 and note; Don Quixote, I, chapter 26,
p. 318, col. 2: "Tornola a decir otras tres veces, y otras tantas
Appendices. 543
volvio a decir otros tres mil disparates." Cf. also, I, chapter 20,
Cleraencin's edition, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 148, n. 56, where Clemencin
sees some connection between "cuatro veces sosego, etc.," and
Virgil's "bis conatiis erat, etc.," Aeneid, VI, 32 ; the connection
is more probable in Don Quixote, II, chapter 58 : "dos veces
re])iti6 estas mismas razones, etc.," Ohras, p. 527, col. 2 ; cf. also
Eclogne V, vs. 65 ff. Torraca, Materia dell' Arcadia, etc., p. 63
speaks of this mannerism. The nmnber seven has also a peculiar
use: Aeneid, V, 85, VI, 21.
The phrase, Eneida, Vol. I, 162: "Tii del horrido Caucaso
naciste, | El te dio esa alma dura y peiiascosa," has been touched
upon, p. 504, n. 2, and in Appendix III. Compare in the Persiles, p.
602, col. 1 : ''habiendote criado . . . entre riscos j penas de las
cuales has sacado tambien la dureza de las entrahas" ; p. 578, col. 2 :
''la codicia humana que reina y tiene su senorio aun entre las penas
y riscos del mar y en los corazones duros y campestres, se entro
aquella noche en los pechos de aquellos rusticos pescadores, etc." ;
and p. 587, col. 2 : "que quiere este que llaman amor por estas
montanas, por estas soledades y riscos, etc." These sentiments
are more common in the pastoral novels and so recall Eclogue VIII
of Virgil, vs. 43 if., which Luis de Leon translates : "Ya te
conozco. Amor; entre las brehas, | En fiero punto, en dia
temeroso, | Ni nuestro en sangre, ni con nuestras senas, | De duras
Garamantas, del fragoso | Rodope procediste, y de las peiias | Del
Ismaro, que bate el mar furioso."
In the Eneida, Vol. I, p. 180, the "dulces exuviae dum fata
deusque sinebat" (bk. IV, v. 651), is rendered: "O dulces prendas,
quando Dios queria, | Y me era amigo mi infelice hado" ; Gregorio
Hernandez may have had Garcilaso in mind, whose well-known
sonnet was frequently quoted: "O dulces prendas por mi mal
halladas, | Dulces y alegres cuando Dios queria !" Cervantes uses
the phrase twice in the Persiles ; p. 565, col. 2 : "oh prenda, que
no se si diga por mi bien 6 por mi mal hallada, etc." ; p. 614,
col. 2 : "oh ricas prendas por mi bien halladas, dulces y alegres
en este y en otro cualquier tienipo !" Cf. also Don Quixote, II,
chapter 18, in which the verses by Garcilaso' are quoted, and I,
chapter 25, p. 314, col. 2: "[al rucio] no le tocaban las generales
de enamorado ni de desesperado ; pues no lo estaba su amo, que era
yo cuando Dios queria,'' (noted by Clemencin), but already in the
comedia de Calisto y Melihea, XII, near the end, may be found:
544 Appendices.
"j aun assi me trataba ella quando Dios queria." In La guarda
cuidadosa by Cervantes, edition of Hartzenbuscb, Vol. XII, p.
216, the phrase "tan dulces prendas, por mi mal halladas," occurs;
also in Lope's El Bastardo Mudarra, act II, toward the close, the '
verse is used as a kind of refrain.
"Vox faucibus haesit," Aeneid, III, 48, IV, 280, XII, 868,
is rendered in Eneida, Vol. I, p. 101 : "La voz a la garganta quedo
asida"; p. 157: "Pegosele la voz a la garganta"; Vol. II, p. 262,
the same ; cf . in the Persiles, p. 563, col. 1 : "se le atraveso un
nudo en la garganta" ; p. 574, col. 2 : "aiiudoseme la voz a la
garganta y pegoseme al paladar la lengua"; p. 595, col. 2: "se
le aiiudo la garganta y se le trabo la lengua"; Don Quixote, I,
chapter 27: "un nudo se le atraveso en la garganta" (Clemencin,
Vol. Ill, p. 21) ; II, chapter 39 : "pegoseme la voz a la garganta,"
is identical with the Eneida.
The manner of the Eneida, Vol. I, p. 94 : "renovar mi acerba
y dura suerte" and p. 109 : "Renovome fortuna el viejo duelo" is
recalled by the Persiles, p. 621, col. 1 : "reuovaronse mis trabajos."
In the lihro tredecimo de Mapheo Veggio, supplemento de la
Eneida, Vol. II, p. 279, these lines occur: "Todo lo que al pasar
les fue enojoso, | Al recordarlo es dulce y agradable." This exists
in the editions as early as 1577. Cf. in the Persiles, p. 617, col. 1 :
"Si es verdad, como lo es, ser dulcisima cosa contar en tranquilidad
la tormenta, y en paz presente los peligros de la pasada guerra,
y en la salud la enfermedad padecida, dulce me ha de ser a mi
agora contar mis trabajos en este sosiego." And p. 619, col. 1 :
"Cuando los trabajos pasados se cuentan en prosperidades presentes,
suele ser mayor el gusto que se recibe en contarlos, que fue el pesar
que se recibio en sufrirlos." The contrary fortune is expressed
in Dante's: "Xessun maggior dolore, | Che ricordarsi del tempo
felice I Xella miseria."
Compare also the following descriptions of a shooting episode;
Eneida, Vol. II, p. 207, (bk. XI) : "Y puesta [la saeta] en el
corvo arco, con gran furia | Comienza a le flechar, y flecho tanto |
Que se juntavan ya las empulgueras : | Y por igual las manos
apartadas, | La siniestra toco el casquillo agudo : | La diestra
con la cuerda toco el pecho. | Subito Arunte . . . della se
hallo pasado el pecho." In bk. X, Eneida, Vol. II, p. 118, Pharo
is shot in the mouth and killed.
Appendices. 545
Persiles, J). 565, col. 2: "el barbaro . . . puso una grande
J aguda fleclia en el arco, j desviandole de si cuanto pudo extenderse
el brazo izquierdo, puso la empulguera con el derecbo junto al
diestro oido, j disparo la fleclia con tan buen tino j con tanta
furia, que en un instante llego A la boca de Bradamiro y se la
cerro, etc."
In tlie Eneida, Yol. II, p. 230, a death is described: "cierrale
luego al triste . . . un reposo mortal los frios ojos : | Y en
una eterna nocbe los sepulta." Persiles, p. 566, col. 1 : "Cerro
el capitan en sempiterna nocbe los ojos."
h. In Don Quixote an occasional phrase recalls Yirgil and may
have grown out of the classical manner, though indirectly. The
Eneida, for example, has, Yol. I, p. 64: "Con gran clamor y
horrisono gemido | Heria el ayre y Cielo" ; p. 71 : "do suena el
clamor que el Cielo hiere" ; p. 194 : "Los huecos montes, y cerrados
valles, I Heridos con los gritos y altas voces, etc." ; p. 213 : "grita
y clamor que hiere el Cielo." This represents the original
"clamores simul horrendos ad sidera tollit," II, 222 ; "sublatus
ad aethera clamor," II, 338; "ferit aethera clamor," Y, 140;
"tollitur in caelum clamor," XI, 745. Cervantes has : "hirio el
aire con semejantes palabras," p. 527, col. 2, of II, chapter 58,
which in no case is like the original Latin, but like the Eneida.
Clemencin (n. 75 to I, chapter 27 of Don Quixote) compares:
"a los cuales [desdichados] suele ser consuelo la imposibilidad de
tenerle," and "que en los males sin remedio, el mejor era no
esperarles ninguno," Galatea, I, with "una salus victis nullam
sperare salutem" II, 354 of the Aeneid; cf. Eneida, Yol. I, p. 72:
"Solo les queda a los vencidos una | Salud, que es no esperar salud
alguna." With regard to another phrase in Don Quixote: "si ya
le oistes nombrar en algun tiempo," I, chapter 47, Clemencin
compares Aeneid, I, 375-6 : " si vestras forte per aures | Troiae
nomen iit"; Eneida, Yol. I, p. 26: "si Troya acaso aveis jamas
oido"; cf. also Don Quixote, II, chapter 58; "si es que ha llegado
a vuestros oidos este nombre." And "la alta Mancha" of I,
chapter 52, in the second last sonnet, is compared with the Aeneid,
I, 7 : "altae moenia Romae" ; cf . also Eneida, Yol. I, p. 2 : "los
muros I De la alta, invicta, y generosa Roma." Two passages
in Don Quixote, II, chapter 18 : "ensenarle como se ban de perdonar
los sujetos, y supeditar y acocear los soberbios," and II, chapter
52: "mi profesion es perdonar a los humildes y castigar a los
546 Appendices.
soberbios," and perhaps the iiuiuorous inversion of I, chapter 52 :
"Oh humilde con los soberbios y arrogante con los huniildes" are
aptly compared by Clemencin with the Aeneid, VI, v. 853 : "parcere
subiectis et debellare superbos." But in a note, Vol. V, p. 375,
Clemencin objects to Cervantes's use of sujetos for the Latin
subiectis ("sujetos en castellano tiuu])oeo significa exactamente lo
mismo que en latin") ; Cervantes probably took it from the Spanish
Eneida, Vol. I, p. 294: "A sohervios bajar eon cruda guerra, | Y
jjerdonar a humildes y sujetos." Sancho's lamentation over his
ass : "miserables de nosotros ! que no ha querido nuestra corta
suerte que muriesemos en nuestra patria y entre los nuestros, etc.,"
II, chapter 55, was perhaps suggested by the Eneida, Vol. I, p. 8 :
"O tres y quatro veces fortunados | Los que tan gran merced del
Cielo uvieron, | Que a vista de sus padres degollados, | Junto
al Troyano muro perecieron." Clemencin quotes the original, I,
vs. 94 if. With regard to the phrase : "aqui fue Troya," Don
Quixote, II, chapter 66, and El Rufian Viudo, rather common
in Spanish literature, it is possible that it owes its origin to
the translation of II, v. 325 of the Aeneid, "fuimus Troes, fuit
Ilium, etc."; cf. Eneida, Vol. I, p. 70: "Troyanos fuimos. ] Ya
Troya fue, etc.," and p. 99 : "A la hora la ribera y puerto dejo |
Y canipos donde Troya fue, etc.," which is the ''litora cum
patriae lacrimans portusque relinquo | et campos ubi Troia fuit,"
III, vs. 10-11. In the Cancion de Grisostomo, Don Quixote, I,
chapter 14, ''el agorero | Graznar de la corneja, etc." has its
indirect source in Virgil, Eclogues, IX, 15 : "ante sinistra cava
monuisset ab ilice cornix" (falsely introduced by some into Eclogue
I also, after verse 17), and Georgics, I, v. 388: "tum cornix plena
pluviam vocat improba voce, etc."; Garcilaso (Egloga I) has:
"Bien claro con su voz me lo decia | La siniestra corneja, pre-
diciendo | La desventura mia, etc."; and Luis de Leon, Ohras,
op. cit., p. 18, col. 1, translates thus : "lo decia | La siniestra corneja
desde luego," and p. 26, col. 2, "y si ya la corneja con su
canto ... no me inclinara, etc." While Cervantes knew
Garcilaso well, he could have known Luis de Leon only in manu-
script. The verse "que a osados favorece la Fortuna," Eneida,
Vol. II, p. 115, and Aeneid X, y. 284: "audentis Fortuna iuvat"
seems to have been taken directly from Gregorio Hernandez into
Don Quixote; cf. the first poem Avith unfinished verse-ends, line
19, "que a osa [dos] | Favorece la fortu [na]." It represents
Appendices. 547
a common Latin proverb with variations; ef. Terence, Phor. I,
4, 26; Cicero, Tusc. disp. 2, 4, 11; Tibullns, I, 2, 16; Ovid,
Met. X, 586, etc. ; cf . p. 500, n. 3.
10. The handsome appeai'ance of the chief personages has already
been noted, p. 506, n. 2 ; they are of lofty descent also. Aeneas
is "de linaje de inmortales," Vol. I, p. 37; Dido is a queen,
Creusa and Lavinia are princesses. Periandro and Auristela are
of royal blood; "de nobilisimos padres nacido," the former says,
while most of the other characters of the Persiles are of an aristo-
cratic lineage. This is the case with most of the romances of
this character.
11. The early editions of Mena's Theagenes y Chariclea have a
marginal reference to the Aeneid apropos of Chariklea (cf. Vol. I, p.
214, edition 1787) suggesting a comparison between the Greek
maiden and Camilla, Virgil's martial maid. It is possible that
Cervantes's warlike female character, Sulpicia, owes something to
Camilla; cf. Persiles, p. 612, col. 1: "su eapitana, armada de
un coselete bianco, . . . y traia puesta la gola, pero no las
escarcelas ni los brazaletes, el morrion si, que era de hechura de
una enroscada sierpe . . . tenia un venablo en las manos,
. . . con una gran cuchilla de agudo y luciente acero forjada,
con que se mostraba tan briosa y tan gallarda, que basto a detener
su vista la furia de mis soldados, etc."
12. In the typical romance of adventure, dreams and portents
of various kinds are of frequent occurrence. We saw that it was
so in the case of Theagenes and Chariklea ; in the Aeneid wonders
and omens are just as common, and it must have contributed in
those features, also, to the make-up of the travel-yarn. To give
a few examples, cf. Eneida. Vol. I, p. 24, Dido sees the image of
her dead husband in her dreams; p. 67, Aeneas sees Hector; p.
140, Dido is disturbed by visions in her dreams; p. 91, a flame
plays about the hair and temples of Ascanius ; p. 100, the miracle
of Polydorus ; p. 104, an ominous earthquake; p. 118, Helenus
prophesies to the Trojans; p. 175, Aeneas is urged to flee by
a divine messenger; p. 286 if., Anchises prophesies to Aeneas.
For a detailed discussion of all the miraculous elements in the
Aeneid, cf. Professor Franz Kunz, Realien in Virgils Aeneis,
"Programmarbeit" . (K. K. Staats-Ober-Gymnasium zu Wiener-
N'eustadt) Wiener-JSTeustadt, 1895, and Heinze, op. cit., p. 306 if.
Persiles, p. 613, col. 2, Periandro's dream, and the vision of
548 Appendices.
Auristela ; p. 645, prophesy concerning the banishment of the
moriscos; p. 656, col. 2, Soldino foretells events; p. 669, col. 1, the
painting of "personajes ilustres que estaban \Hn- vcuir"; cf. also
article II, p. 26, for further exanii)l('s in the Fersiles.
13. Finally the use of the word fortuna, the spirit of which was
explained in article II, p. 27 as dominating the career of the chief
personages of a romance of adventure, ninst be considered. Though
it was used frequently in Heliodorus, it is even more common in
Virgil and thus helps to lend the Aeneid an atmosphere which
differs little in its features of adventure, at least, from the
Theagenes and Charihlea and the Persiles. Eneida, Vol. I, p. 42:
"que por trabajos varios y tormentos | De igual fortuna he sido
yo arrojada ;" p. 55 : "Yo triste, a quien fortuna ha asi abatido" ;
p. 74: '^Siendo fortuna al buen principio pia," and "vamos por
do muestra | Camino de salud fortuna diestra" ; p. 89 : "que
contento | Podia Fortuna darme que bastase ?" ; p. 92 : "O bajo,
o alto la Fortuna ruede | ]^unca de ti jamas podra apartarme."
Dozens of examples could be added. Fortuna in the sense of storm
also occurs, p. 37 : "al mar volvamos Siciliano | De do nos arrojo
fortuna insana."
In the Persiles Fortuna with her wheel is personified on p. 567,
col. 1, and p. 629, col. 1 ; other examples of a common usage
are, p. 576, col. 1 : "la nuestra hasta hoy contraria fortuna ; p.
577, col. 1 : "si ... la fortuna no me desf avorece" ; p. 582,
col. 1: "para que viese si la fortuna te habia llevado a su poder";
p. 594, col. 1 : "el punto en que le ha levantado la fortuna" ; cf .
also, p. 585, col. 2 : "miserables son y temerosas las fortunas del
mar." The use of the word is very common in the rest of Cer-
vantes's works as well as in Spanish literature before his time.
One is therefore led to the conclusion that fortuna is probably
an inheritance from those classics which became known during the
Renaissance, for it is especially common from the end of the
fifteenth century on.
Virgil's Fama (bk. IV), Eneida, Vol. I, p. 150 ff., with many
tongues, is mentioned in the Persiles, p. 618, col. 2 : "los verdaderos
. . . amantes en quien la fama ocupa sus lenguas." On p.
606, col. 2, the figure of Diligencia which "antes pareciera Fama"
is described as having alas all over her body. Virgil distinctly
says plumae, but the Spanish Eneida, Vol. I, p. 151, has "quantas
plumas tiene en cuerpo y alas, and Cervantes may have recalled
only the latter.
Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XIII
1
PLATE
^ii^m.£.
Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XIII.
PLATE II.
Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XIII.
PLATE III.
C),^ ^
.^
^%fe
Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XIII
9
PLATE IV.
Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XIII
10
PLATE V.
11
©-^©O
Ox®
Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XIII.
12
PLATE VI.
13
:.V
i''
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V «
^^•L^l* \ ^
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f*%
'<sy^/-
Trans. Conn. Aoad. Vol. XIII.
PLATE VII.
Trans. Conn. Aead. Vol. XIII.
16
PLATE VIII.
Trans. Conn. Aead. Vol. XIII.
PLATE IX.
A. H. Venill, Pliot.
Stoddard & Brown, eng.
BERMUDA CRUSTACEA.
1. Land Crab, Cardisoma guanhumi ; 2, 3. Beach Crab, Ocypode arenarius.
Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XIII.
PLATE X.
A. H. Verrill, phot.
Stoddard & Brown, eng.
1. Cliff Crab, Plagusia depreasa ; 2. Sesarma Ricordi ; 3. Percnon planissimum ;
6. Grapsus grapsua.
Trans. Conn. Aoad. Vol. Xlti.
PLATE XI.
M
r-;.-:^
ijSKiianwft^^.L/^;' •■ < * J '• "
'^*
H f
?4 ■
-^^y.
1. Goniopsis cruentatus ; 2. Gi-apsus grapsus ; 3. Sesarma Eicorch, var.
terrestris, nov.
Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XIII.
1. Cyclograpsus integer ; 2. Pachygrapsus gracilis ; 3, 3a, 36. P. transvcrsm ; 4. Percnon
4a. Goniopsis ; 5. Sesarina Miersii.
Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XIII.
PLATE XIII.
A. H. Verrill, phot.
BERMUDA CRUSTACEA.
Gulf-weed Crab, Planes minutus, showiug variations
Stoddard & Brown, eng.
Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XIII.
PLATE XIV.
■-■■ <»^^j»^H
!
^ '
■■■"- - "- - ■ t **•*
Ir ^rT^PSBB
t J^n
^^^^—^.j • ,''■*'' ' '-^a
^)mMf
'7^^^ it
^
Vb^^HSVr
BERMUDA CRUSTACEA.
Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XIII.
PLATE XV.
^lrtr
ST.
^s^^i
^-^^^_ ^
ito"
^^^^w
A. H. Verrill, phot.
Stoddard & Brown, eng.
BERMUDA CRUSTACEA.
1. Eupanopeiis Herbstii, var. obesiif; ; 2. E. Herbstii, var. ininax ; 3. E. Herhstii.
Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XIII.
PLATE XVI.
BERMUDA CRUSTACEA. ,
1, 5. Eupanopeus serratus ; 2. E. occidentalis ; 3, 4. E. bermudensis.
Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XIII.
PLATE XVII.
A. H. Verrill, phot.
Stoddard & Brown, eng.
BERMUDA CRUSTACEA.
1. Callineetes oi^natus ; 2. Blue or Edible Crab, Callinectes sapidus.
Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XIH.
PLATE XVIII.
1. Callinect.es marginatus, larvatus ; 2. Gulf-weed Swimming Crab, Po/-
tunus Sayi ; 3. Achelous Ordwayi.
Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XIII.
PLATE XIX.
A. H. Verrill, phot.
BERMUDA CRUSTACEA.
1. Charybdella tumidula ; 2. Achelous Smithii.
Stoddard & Brown, eng.
Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XIII.
PLATE XX.
^^^^^^^^ ^^^P*,' * Jl^^Siw^** .i^nlt^
..M:.^^m»^-^^-^
■•iB ^^^^^^. ^^^^B^^^^^^^^^—
taJjL
1, 3. Achelous anceps ; 3. Achelous depress! frons.
Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XIII.
PLATE XXI.
1. Gulf -weed Crab, Portunus Sayi ; 2. Achelous Smithii $ ;
3. Callinectes maryinatus, larvatus.
Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XIII.
PLATE XXII.
1. StenorhyncJms Sagittarius ; 2. Podochela Riisei ; S. Macroeoeloma
subparaUellnin. After A. M.-Edw.
Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XIII.
1
PLATE XXIII.
1. Mithrax depressus? ; 2. M. depressxisf ; 3. M. hispidus ? ; 4. M. hispidus 2
Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XI II.
PLATE XXIV.
c,
^*^
^
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^^r
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3^i
W^
1. Epialtus biluberculatus ; 2. Mithrax hispidus ; 8. Chorinus heros; 4, 5, 6. Mithrax
forceps, hirsutipes.
Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XIII.
PLATE XXV.
1. Box Crab, Calappa flammea ; 3. Stenocionops fxircatus, with spouge attached.
Trans. Conn. Aead. Vol. XIII.
PLATE XXVI.
iMl
1^-^ mm
WL\ '^.
^ '^ Jek--
mM-< t>:;^
^^^ka^^^^^^^B^^^^^^B^ '^^^^^Bb ■^H^^Hf^^ei!^
BERMUDA CRUSTACEA.
Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XIII.
PLATE XXVir.
^K*f'^
W^
M
^Kiirnl^^lH-
fl^'0^%^
i j|B
^^^f&H
H
m^
Bi
A. H. Verrill, phot.
V ' . jjJ.i'.ijiiSM^g^ .
"—* — in- /
BERMUDA CRUSTACEA.
Trans. Conn. Acad. Vol. XIII.
f LATE XXVIII.
[
1
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BERMUDA CRUSTACEA.
Stoddard & Brown, eng.
Date Due
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