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Transactions of the
Institution of Civil Engineers
Institution of Civil Engineers (Great Britain)
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TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
INSTITUTION
OF
CIVIL ENGINEERS, Uc^J^ /
VOLUME I.
SECOND EDITION.
LONDON :
JOHN WEALE,
ARCHITECTURAL LIBRARY, HIGH HOLBORN.
1842.
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INTRODUCTION.
Though operations of engineering, in common with all the
useful arts, are practised by men in the rudest state, and become
of greater and more frequent application as society improves, it is
only among a people very considerably advanced in civilization and
wealth that its works can be prosecuted on an extensive scale, or
with any degree of success. The only exceptions to this observation
are to be found during the few and short periods in the history of
the world, when it has fallen to the lot of nations to be governed by
such men as Louis XIV., guided by the wisdom of Colbert and
having the aid of Riquet's enterprise and Andreossy's skill ; some of
the kings of Sweden, who, turning their troops into excavators of
canals, have in person directed their labour; Peter the Great,
Frederick of Prussia, and in our own day, Mehemet Ali ; princes
who, whether from a singular appreciation of the true means of
greatness, or with a view to facilitating their warlike measures,
or as it may be in some cases, prompted by mere love of the
glory to be gained, have forced works of public utility before their
time in the countries under their sway. The great Languedoc canal ;
often repeated attempts to open a communication between the
North and Baltic seas, independent of the passage through the
Sound or the Belt ; an inland navigation from the Neva to the Volga,
the junction of the Elbe with the Oder and Vistula, and the rail-
way now forming from Cairo to Suez, are among the peaceful
trophies of these monarchs. But such desultory efforts, even when
a2
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IV INTRODUCTION.
most successful, as in the foregoing instances, stand like oases in
the otherwise desert field of improvement, refreshing to meet with,
but no sign of fertility in the surrounding waste ; and proceeding
from power in the ruler rather than will in his subjects, their
effects are not of that permanent and expansive character which
belongs to the voluntary undertakings of a free community.
Of such undertakings it may probably be said, without any
imputation of national vanity, England offers the most splen-
did examples, though even among us they are of recent growth.
During a long period of our history, men's minds were either wholly
turned away from pursuits of this kind, or at best their activity in
them was paralyzed by the excitement and uncertainty that could
not but prevail, when a throne was the object of struggle, and the
shock of the contests so engendered was too deeply felt by the
industry of the country to be recovered from in the short intervals
that sometimes happened between the outbreakings of intestine war.
But better times came round ; —domestic quiet was established, and
as the passions that had raged so fiercely gradually subsided, the
people's energies, no longer spending themselves in civil strife, took
another and more useful direction, and the genius of commercial
enterprise was called into new life.
The passing of the act of parliaijient for the formation of the
Sankey-Brook navigation (the earliest canal in England) in 1755,
was the beginning of a new era in the annals of internal improve-
ment Works of engineering, it is true, had previously been exe-
cuted, some of them of considerable magnitude. Rivers had been
deepened and rendered navigable, the metropolis was already sup-
plied with water by the completion of Sir Hugh Myddleton's
scheme of the New River, fens had been drained and embank-
ments made to protect them from the inroads of the sea; —
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INTRODUCTION.
some of these works belong to our early history. More recently,
the means of at least military communication had been extended
to the most remote parts of the kingdom, by the roads formed
through the north of England into the Highlands of Scotland
under the direction of General Wade and M. Labelye had led
the way in bridge-building on a large scale and with new me-
thods by the construction of Westminster bridge, which was begun
in 1739 ; while, about the same time, under the unassuming cha-
racter of a country mason, William Edwards had, in the bridge of
Pont-y-Pridd over the river Taaf *, set an example of intrepidity
and determination that has never been surpassed. But all these
undertakings, important though they certainly were, must, when
viewed in connexion with what has been effected since, be con-
sidered rather as the results of detached efforts, arising generally
from the necessities of the individual case, and too oflen involving
the injury or even ruin of their promoters, than as the offspring of
an enlarged spirit of improvement, stimulated by the hope of gain
from investment, and a well founded prospect of its undisturbed
enjoyment.
Many facts may be cited in proof of the distinction here made.
The very name of adventurers formerly given to those who under-
took such hazardous enterprises evinces the feeling with which they
were generally regarded, and they were of so unusual occurrence as
not to furnish sufficient employment to support in the country a
race of artists trained to works of the kind. If an Englishman fol-
lowed such avocations, he had, from lack of work enough at home,
to look for it abroad, as in the case of Perry, who so distinguished
himself by the stoppage of thfe alarming breach in the Thames
« This remarkable bridge is 140 feet span with a rise of 35 feet, and being only 11
feet wide, has a singularly bold appearance,— stretching Uke a rainbow across the romantic
glen below.
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VI INTBODUCTION.
embankment at Dagenham in the beginning of last century, but
who had had in his best days to seek in the then infant Russia the
constant occupation Britain could not at that time afford him ; while,
on the other hand, in the drainage of the Great Fens, and many
other like instances, it was necessary, in the dearth of natives
competent to the duties, to bring men of skill from other coun-
tries to direct the operations, as the occasion required. By such
means, however, the way was no doubt paved for the marked
change that now took place in the system of public works; —
the mineral productions of the country became every day more
necessary for its manufacturing processes, extending on every
side ; — capitalists began to embark their wealth in speculations that
promised a pecuniary return only, without regard to their own
neighbourhood being the scene of the projected improvement, or
facilities being afforded by it to their peculiar business. The change
was a type of increased national means, and by the enlarged field of
employment it opened up, gave rise to a new order of professional
men.
James Brindley and John Smeaton were the first of this class.
Bom of humble parentage in an obscure village of Derbyshire,
and obliged by his situation in life to devote himself to the labours
of agriculture from his earliest youth almost unto manhood, Brindley*
was altogether without education, in the common meaning of
the word, a want which the unceasing duties of his active life never
gave an opportunity of supplying, even if the inclination existed.
Guided by natural bias, he afterwards became a millwright, and in
this capacity soon acquired by his mechanical skill a high provin-
* Bom at Thomsett, near Chapel-en-le-Frith, in 1716 — died in 1772.
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INTRODUCTION. Vll
cial celebrity. This, however, great though it was, might not have
survived him long, or extended far beyond his immediate district,
but for the fortunate occurrence which, when he had reached the
age of forty, gave a new developement to his genius, and turned his
pursuits into a stream destined to bear his name to future ages, in
proud union with one whose high rank is eclipsed by the benefits
his enterprise and liberality bestowed on his country. This incident
in Brindley's history was his being called by the Duke of Bridge-
water to advise on his project of a canal from Worsley to Manchester.
The result of the application requires not to be stated ; — Cleaving the
beaten track behind, Brindley, strong in his own powers, struck
away at once into a new path, and sustained by the unflinching sup-
port of his generous patron, placed inland navigation, by one gigantic
stride, so far in advance of the age, that even in the present day the
works of that time may almost afford to dispense with their date, as
an element in the appreciation of their merit.
Brindley's reputation was now achieved; his practice as an
engineer henceforth increased steadily, and though almost wholly
confined to the construction of canals, few of his profession, how-
ever varied their avocations, can boast works of equal extent or
importance. Besides the Bridgewater canals, with their many miles
of under-ground communications in the Worsley coal mines, their
then unprecedented aqueduct of Barton, and an extent of level
surface even now unparalleled ; the Grand Trunk navigation, boldly
penetrating through the great central ridge of England by the Hare-
castle tunnel, the Staffordshire and Worcestershire, the Coventry,
the Oxford, the old Birmingham, and the Chesterfield canals, were
all designed, and with one exception executed by Brindley ; — and
thus, though he had watched over the cradle of inland navigation,
a communication by means of it was established by his labours be-
tween places so distant and divided by natural barriers as London,
Liverpool, Bristol and Hull; while, by his success, the far more
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rm INTEODUCTION.
important object of awakening public attention to the advantages of
canals was also fully attained.
Smeaton's * happier lot exempted him from the struggle with
adverse circumstances in early life, which his great contemporary
had to encounter. Springing from the middle ranks, he had the
advantage of a fair education, and, save the sacrifice of a short time
to legal studies, in compliance with a parent's wish, fortunately
there was nothing to thwart the bent of his genius, which soon
showed itself decidedly. Established in the metropolis as a philo-
sophical instrument maker, he gained the notice of the scientific
world by his ingenuity, and by several communications to the
Royal Society on mechanical subjects, and so high had he raised
himself in estimation, even when engaged in such pursuits, that
though untried and unknown as a practical engineer, he was se-
lected as the fittest person to be entrusted with the rebuilding of
the Eddystone lighthouse when it was destroyed by fire. This,
Smeaton's first work, was also his greatest; — probably, the time
and all things considered, it was the most arduous undertaking that
has fallen to any engineer, and none was ever more successfully exe-
cuted, — and now, having been buffeted by the storms of nearly eighty
years, the Eddystone stands unmoved as the rock it is built on, a proud
monument to its great author. Buildings of the same kind have
been executed ^ince, but it should always be borae in mind who
taught the first great lesson, and recorded the progressive steps of
his work with a modesty and simplicity that may well be held up as
models for similar writings. His reports are entitled to equal praise,
— they are a mine of wealth for the sound principles they unfold,
and the able practice they exemplify, both alike based on close ob-
servation of the operations of Nature, and affording many fine exam-
* Bom at Austhoipe near Leeds, in 1724— died in 1792.
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INTRODUCTION. IX
pies of cautious sagacity in applying the instructions she gives to
the means within the reach of art.
Strange though it may now seem, Smeaton's rise in the profession
for which he had so signally proved his qualifications, was not at first
rapid, but amid the rage of public works that then grew up, the man
who had built the Eddystone lighthouse could not be long passed by,
and once fairly launched in general practice, he soon became con-
nected more or less with almost all the great improvements then in
progress, contributing largely to the advancement of engineering in
every branch. The bridges of Coldstream, Perth, and Banff, the
Forth and Clyde ship canal, the Aire and Calder, the Fosdyke, and
other navigations and drainages in the fens as well as elsewhere, and
the harbours of Rye, Ramsgate, (the grand pattern of artificial har-
bours,) and Portpatrick, with important though not so extensive
operations in many other ports, rank among his leading works, but
give no idea of the extent and variety of a business altogether with-
out equal in that day, and rarely surpassed since ; for besides being
as it were the great standing counsel of his profession, to whose
judgment all doubtful questions were submitted, he was constantly
employed in carrying his own measures into effect, and his exe-
cution was attended with such success that, on the occasion of the
solitary failure by which it was marred, we find him lamenting it
can no longer be said, that " in the course of thirty years' practice,
and engaged in some of the most difficult enterprises, not one of
Smeaton's works had failed ! '' But his genius and resources were
not wanting to him even in Hexham bridge ; it was in the opera-
tions designed to avert the dreaded catastrophe, when the found-
ations of that structure began to give way, that the diving-bell was
first brought into the service of the engineer.
Such were the fathers of British engineering. Among their
worthy associates were Grundy, who, in addition to many works of
VOL.1. b
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INTRODUCTION.
navigation and drainage, particularly in the fens of Lincolnshire and
in Yorkshire, introduced docks in the Humber by the construction
of the Old dock at Hull ; Henshall, Brindley's brother-in-law and
fellow-labourer in most of his undertakings ; — Semple, who built
Essex bridge over the LifTey in Dublin ; — Mylne *, for many years
engineer to the New River Company, who began his professional
life as the architect of Blackfriars bridge in London, and was also
the original engineer of the Eau Brink cut and the Gloucester and
Berkeley canal ; Golborne, an authority in his day in the treatment
of rivers, of his success in which the Clyde is a favourable specimen ;
and Whitworth, engineer of several important canals, of which the
Thames and Severn may be named as one, and who has the merit
of having designed and executed the Kelvin aqueduct on the Forth
and Clyde canal, a great work at that time : — all these names de-
serve honourable mention, though in this brief retrospect a passing
notice only can be bestowed on them.
William Jessop f claims to be more particularly alluded to.
This excellent man held an intermediate place in time between
what may be considered the first and second generations of civil
engineers, and he was the first of his profession that can be said to
have been regularly bred to it. The pupil, and afterwards for several
years the confidential assistant of Smeaton, he was reared in the best
* Bom in Edinburgh, in 1734 — died in 1811. — Robert Mylne may be looked on as
the last practitioner of note, who combined in a considerable degree the avocations of
the engineer and the architect. The professions have since become almost entirely
disjoined, but the study of architecture ought still to form a branch of the engineer's
early discipline, for though utility and strength are no doubt the main objects of his
practice, the works are few that may not be benefited by the application of taste, with-
out sacrificing those essential characteristics.
t Bom at Plymouth in 1745— died in 1814.
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INTRODUCTION. XI
school, and it is not paying any niggardly tribute to his abilities and
character, to say, that his subsequent career shed no discredit on his
great master. His extensive practice consisted chiefly, though by no
means exclusively, in works connected with navigation and drainage.
The magnitude of his labours in these is attested by the improvements
on the rivers Aire and Calder and the Trent during the time he held
the appointments of engineer to those undertakings, by many of the
numerous navigations intersecting the midland counties, by the great
work of the Grand Junction canal connecting the central districts
of England with the metropolis, by the inland navigations of Ireland
on which he was the principal adviser, and by the City ship canal
across the Isle of Dogs ; — while in the Surrey iron rail or rather
tramway^ which, though not successful as a speculation, deserves
notice as one of the earliest applications of this mode of conveyance
to the purposes of public traffic, and in the conversion of the part of
the river Avon through the city of Bristol into an immense floating
dock, with the bridges and other structures accessary to it, he ap-
pears equally at home in other walks. These are the principal works
which were more directly Jessop's ; — he was besides consulting
engineer of the West India Dock Company in London, and of the
Ellesmere Canal Company, and indeed, from standing at the head
of his profession for several years after the retirement of Smeatoh, he
was called in on most of the great schemes then in agitation, and
also engaged in their execution, but they will be mentioned in con-
nexion with the men more immediately concerned in them, and to
whom they are more usually ascribed, if not in a greater degree due.
Any other course would evidently be quite out of place in a
paper of the nature of the present, the object of which can with
propriety only be to indicate generally the works on which different
engineers have been employed, not to pronounce on the individual
share in them falling to each.
b i
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XU INTRODUCTION.
The second race of engineers now began to take their part more
conspicuously on the stage. By the exertions of their predecessors,
Britain had already gained a high reputation for her public works ; —
the support of the national fame in this respect was now to pass into
other and younger hands, among whom Rennie and Telford were
early distinguished. A wide field of labour lay before them. Works
which had been begun but a very few years before were now yield-
ing their profits, in many instances to the individuals who had
originally embarked in them, and their success allured others to like
adventures ; — the operation of this cause alone would have much
enlarged the bounds of professional employment, — ^the public rela-
tions of the country extended the opportunity further. What had
been done hitherto was chiefly the result of private enterprise ; — this
great moving force was still left free to act, and indeed was strength-
ened by men in authority more than before, while another power of
only inferior intensity was superadded to it : — works of unparalleled
magnitude were now undertaken by government, both for the in-
ternal improvement of the country and as contributory means to its
external defence, and in such works some of the engineer's proudest
triumphs are to be found.
John Rennie * occupied a foremost place in maturing and exe-
cuting these mighty projects, public and private, and his previous
training had admirably qualified him for the duties they required.
He displayed almost in childhood the mechanical bias that marked his
future diaracter, and whether as the apprentice of the ingenious Meikle,
the inventor of the threshing machine, or as an occasional student
under some of the most celebrated of the men by whose labours
the university of Edinburgh acquired fame throughout Europe, all
his suhsequnfit pursuits tended in the direction that was to lead him
^ Born at Phantassie in Haddingtonshire, in 1761 — died in IMi.
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INTRODUCTION. Xlll
to eminence. He began business as a millwright in his native
county, but was soon after led to change the scene of his busy life, in
consequence of an introduction to James Watt *, who invited him to
the capital to superintend the erection of the Albion flour-mills,
by which and other works in the same line, undertaken on his own
account in quick succession, he soon acquired reputation as a very
superior mechanist, and in the year 1791 or 2, he was appointed to
direct the execution of the Lancaster canal. This and the Crinan
ship canal (insulating the isthmus of Cantire in Argyleshire) with
which he was entrusted about the same time, were his first essays in
civil engineering, and by the greatness and difficulty of some of their
works, (as the fine aqueduct over the river Lune in the former, and
the massive rock excavations of the latter,) they afforded an excellent
opportunity of testing his skill.
Rennie soon became firmly established, — the government of the
land afterwards ranked among his clients, — the three kingdoms
bear witness to the extent of his subsequent labours. The naviga-
tions already mentioned, to which the Kennet and Avon and the
Portsmouth canals fall to be added ; the completion of the Eau Brink
cut and the project of the new Nene outfall for the improvement
of drainage in the immense fens of Norfolk, Lincoln and Cambridge-
shire ; a participation in a greater or less degree in the formation of
three of the large dock establishments in the port of London, with
Leith docks and extensive additions to those of Liverpool and Hull,
for commercial purposes ; the still more stupendous undertakings in
aid of war at His Majesty's dock-yards, especially Sheerness, raised by
him out of a quicksand five-and-twenty feet deep and ten feet under
low water, and Pembroke, which he hardly lived to see com-
* Bom at Greenock, in 1736 — died in 1819. — In early life Watt himself practised
as a surveyor and engineer, and had he continued in the profession, would in all pro-
bability have taken the lead ; — a more glorious immortality awaited him, but no one
has contributed more essentially to the progress of engineering than that illustrious
man, from the facilities, before unknown, given by his steam-engine to its operations.
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XIV INTEODUCnOW.
pleted ; the breakwater in Plymouth Sound, the artificial harbours
of Kingstown, Howth, Holyhead and Donaghadee, and two great
bridges over the Thames, in the heart of the metropolis, with
the design for a still nobler third, built since his death, and other
bridges in the country, of which that over the Tweed at Kelso and
Wellington bridge in Leeds particularly challenge notice, — all these
were wholly or in chief part produced by Rennie, and they by no
means exhaust the list of his works, of which the variety, magnitude
and importance need not be expatiated on after such an enumeration.
The name of Rennie naturally suggests that of his compeer,
Telford, though in the few short years that elapsed between their
deaths, the grave also closed over more than one other that cannot
be passed unnoticed even in the most cursory review of this kind.
In the person of Thomas Telford * another striking instance is
added to those on record of men who have, by the force of natural
talent, unaided save by uprightness and persevering industry, raised
themselves from the low estate in which they were born, to take their
stand among the master spirits of their age. A native of the pastoral
district of Eskdale, he received the education commonly given to
the peasantry of that country, and was at an early age apprenticed to
a stone-mason in the neighbouring village of Langholm, with whom
he remained until his twenty-third year. The New Town of Edin-
burgh was then in progress, and thither Telford bent his steps, led
probably by the prospect of employment in the works of that im-
provement Returning to his native border at the end of two years,
he found there too bare and narrow a sphere of action for his
already aspiring mind, for while plying his trade he had not
neglected to cultivate his understanding, and he now felt conscious
of powers fitting him for a higher destiny. He came to London,
* Bom at W^stetldtk in Dnmfriessbirey in 1757— died in 1834.
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INTBODUCTiON. XV
where after working for a time as a mason in the quadrangle of
Somerset House, then building, his superior intelligence attracted
notice, and he was appointed to superintend the erection of a new
official residence in Portsmouth dock-yard, which occupied him
until 1787. He then, on the invitation of Sir William Pulteney,
himself a borderer*, undertook the direction of some alterations in
Shrewsbury Castle, and was soon after elected county surveyor of
Salop, a situation he held to the day of his death. In this official ca-
pacity bridge-building chiefly claimed attention, — a short time added
another important branch to his avocations : — in 1793 he was nomi-
nated acting engineer of the EUesmere canal, and thus was Telford
fully introduced to the practice of a profession he was in a few years
to take so distinguished a lead in. The road to fame was now open
before him, and he never lost sight of the goal.
There is hardly a comer of Great Britain that does not contain
some record of Telford ; — his services were required by the Crown,
and foreign powers also availed themselves of his skill, at least in
one memorable instance, the great ship canal of Gota in Sweden,
the last connecting link in the navigation from the Baltic sea to
the German ocean through the Swedish lakes. The Caledonian
canal (originally proposed, along with the Crinan canal, by Watt
to the Commissioners of Forfeited Estates, and also advised on
by Jessop, though its execution was under Telford's charge) is
a work of similar character in our own country, and with it
may be named the Gloucester and Berkeley canal, before men-
tioned in connexion with Mylne, which, though not of equal
magnitude or difficulty, is also adapted for sea-borne vessels of
large tonnage, and has made the inland city of Gloucester a port
for foreign trade; while the EUesmere canal, already alluded to,
with its bold aqueducts of Chirk and Pontcysylte, in which also he
was associated with Jessop, the Shrewsbury canal, the Birmingham
* Of the &inily of Johnstone of Westerhall.
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XVI INTRODUCTION.
and Liverpool Junction canal, with extensive improvements of the
old Birmingham canal, and also of the navigations through the
district of the Fens, are among the other important additions made
by Telford to internal water communication. The improvement
of the river Clyde to an extent little contemplated in the days
of Golborne, the numerous harbours for fisheries in the northern
coasts of Scotland, Aberdeen and Ardrossan harbours, the harbour
and docks of Dundee, Saint Katharine's docks in London, the
Glasgow waterworks, several bridges over the Severn, especially
those of Tewkesbury and Over at Gloucester, Broomielaw bridge
over the Clyde, and Dean bridge in Edinburgh, swell the catalogue
of only his principal undertakings. But the works which will
perhaps appear of most moment to a mind looking at the conse-
quences to civilisation, are the gi'eat systems of roads, — the High-
land, the Holyhead, and the Glasgow and Carlisle, by which, but
especially the first mentioned, whole regions were brought as it
were within the pale of society ; while their thousands of bridges,
including among them such structures as those of the Menai and
the Conway, Dunkeld, Craig-Ellachie and Cartland-Craigs, with the
enormous cuttings in the sea-cliffs of North Wales, attests their
greatness in an engineering point of view.
The foregoing sketch, though slight, may enable some judgment
to be formed of the services rendered to their country by Telford
and Rennie respectively. In looking back upon their professional
achievements, it is pleasing also to reflect on the high respect
with which they were regarded in their lifetime, — both employed
by the king's government in its various departments, alike enjoying
the almost unlimited confidence of the public for a long series of
years, and in going down to the grave, meeting with equal honour :
— while Rennie's remains lie " tombed beneath" the magnificent
canopy of Saint Paul's Cathedral, Telford's " ashes found their
latest home" within the venerable walls of Westminster Abbey.
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INTBODUCTION.
Contemporary with these eminent men flourished Ralj
who, having been a sailor for twenty years, and a West I
for fifteen more, became an engineer at the age of fif
engaged with • Jessop in the formation of the West Ind
London, the design of which he had originally propoj
that of the East India docks, which too, in conjunction \
as consulting engineer, he carried into effect, and aftei
structed the East London waterworks, displaying throu|
and other similar undertakings he was employed on,
happiness in mechanical contrivance, of which his intr
the double swing bridge may be mentioned as an i
William Chapman f , whose works are to be found in
bridge and several harbours and canals, particularly tt
of Leith and Seaham, the Sheffield canal^ and in
with Jessop, the Grand canal from the Liffey to th(
and who, besides bringing the skew principle of brid
into practice in this country, if indeed he did not (
contributed largely to the diffusion of professional
by a series of valuable papers on engineering subjec
Baird, the engineer of the Edinburgh and Glasgow U
with the three large aqueducts of Avon, Linlithgow
ford, works of admitted merit, and who, not knowing
after even that such an idea had occurred to that al
engineer, M. Perronet, changed the old draw-bridge wi
hanging levers and chains into the modern lifting br
of the originals of which still exist in the Forth
canal ; — Joseph Whidbey, the original projector of
Breakwater, and Rennie's coadjutor in the construction
Alexander Nimmo, the civil engineer principally em
* Bom at Tullibody in Clackmannanshire, in 1749 — died in 18
t A native of Whitby— died in 1830.
VOL. I.
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XVUl INTRODUCTION.
government in Ireland, where he conducted works of considerable
extent undertaken for the internal improvement of that country,
and similar in character to those executed by Telford in the High-
lands of Scotland, Dun more harbour near Waterford, and Wel-
lesley bridge at Limerick being the chief of them. And to this
list may justly be added Captain Huddart*, who, though not a pro-
fessional engineer, evinced a rare mechanical genius, and having
most deservedly a high repute for nautical knowledge, was much
consulted respecting harbours and navigable rivers, his skill in the
treatment of which no one appreciated more fully than the dis-
tinguished practitioners with whom he was joined in many such
questions.
The leaders under whom engineering gained the honourable
standing it has held for years have now been reviewed. To
continue the enumeration so as to include living practitioners is
no part of the present design ; though by following this rule the
opportunity is lost of glancing at the progress of the great revolu-
tion which the locomotive engine is so rapidly effecting in the in-
ternal communications of the country. Neither does it fall within
its scope to go into any detail of those, now numbered with the
dead, who have been distinguished in the collateral branches of
mechanism ; — the merits of their labours are fully recognised, as
how can they be otherwise, when a Watt, a Maudsley, and a
Bramah are at their head ? — but the present limits confine attention
to those, strictly civil engineers^ and to their works in that capacity,
works which will continue to excite admiration while any taste
is left for what is noble in object, fitting in design, and grand in
execution.
* Bom at Allonby in Cumberland, in 1741 — died in 1816.
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INTRODUCTION. XIX
It remains to say a few words of the associations that have
been formed for promoting intercourse and knowledge among
engineers, and especially of the Institution from which this work
emanates.
When the Royal Society was established, its views embraced
the whole range of mathematical and physical knowledge, and
it continued for more than a century to be the only public body
in England devoted to such pursuits, but as the objects of philoso-
phical research multiplied and their cultivation became more widely
diffused, the tastes and avocations of individuals inclined them
to different studies, and the division of employment so requisite
for the perfection of the arts was found equally to apply to science.
The Astronomical Society was the eldest branch from the parent
stem ; associations for the specific promotion of Geology, Botany,
Zoology, Geography, Statistics, and indeed almost every department
of scientfic and literary enquiry have followed in quick succession,
and these bodies confining themselves to the definite objects of
their institution, are enabled to follow them out with a detail
that scarcely falls within the more general scheme of the Royal
Society. But such a subdivision is not limited to pursuits of
what may be considered an abstract character, — it is equally advan-
tageous in the applications of science to purposes more immediately
practical, and becomes daily more so from the growing intelligence
c2
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XX INTEODUCTION.
and number of those engaged in them. Associations of professional
men have accordingly sprung up, Medicine and Surgery taking
the lead, as from their paramount importance they were entitled
to do, and now presenting many flourishing societies.
The Institution of Civil Engineers is of more recent origin
than most of the societies above alluded to ; but the profession
itself is not of ancient date, and while it was still young its
members adopted the principle of union. Their first society,
or rather club, was established under the auspices of one of the
earliest and greatest of them, the illustrious Smeaton, in 1771,
and reorganised in 1793 ; — its history is given in the preface to
Smeaton's Reports, which were published by a sub-committee
of its members. The body still exists, under the name of the
" Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers," meeting monthly during
the session of Parliament at the Freemasons' tavern, and includes, as
it has done from its foundation, some of the most eminent men in
the profession, with associates from the ranks of general science.
But though this society had so far answered a good end, its
constitution was of too exclusive a nature to meet the wants
of so large and mixed a body as soon became engaged in engineer-
ing, and a feeling began to be generally entertained that in addition
fo It. an institution on a larger scale, having for its object the
ze of professional knowledge, might be made eminently
id was indeed due to the profession from those engaged
opinion was held by the late Thomas Telford (himself
>nian) among others, and an opportunity ere long occurred
it practical effect.
s towards the end of the year 1817 that a few gentle-
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INTRODUCTION. XXI
men*, then beginning life, impressed by what they themselves felt
with the difficulties young men had to contend with in gaining the
knowledge requisite for tJie diversified practice of engineering,
resolved to form themselves into a society for promoting a regular
intercourse between persons engaged in its various branches, and
thereby mutually benefiting by the interchange of individual ob-
servation and experience. The first meeting of the embryo society
was held at the King's Head tavern in Cheapside on the 2d of
January following, when a series of rules was adopted for its govern-
ment, and these rules were, and with some modifications and addi-
tions continue to this day to be the basis of the fundamental laws
of the Institution of Civil Engineers, which indeed dates its birth
from this meeting.
The society continued to assemble in like manner during the
period allotted to its session for two years, without however any
considerable increase of members or change of circumstances.
But a resolution passed on the 23d of January, 1820, led to more
important consequences ;— it was as follows :
" That in order to give effect to the principle of the
" Institution, and to render its advantages more general both
" to members and the country, it is expedient to extend
" its provisions to the election of a President whose exten-
" sive practice as a Civil Engineer has gained him the
" first-rate celebrity ; and that a respectful communication
" be made to Thomas Telford, esquire, civil engineer, to
*' patronize the Institution by taking upon himself the office
'' of President."
* Messrs. William Maudsley, Henry R. Palmer, Joshua Field, James Jones, Charles
CoUinge and James Ashwell.
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XXU INTRODUCTION.
So little was the society known up to this time, that Telford
had never heard of its existence when the foregoing resolution
was announced to him, but appreciating with characteristic judg-
ment the value of such an institution and the useful results it
was capable of yielding, he accepted the proffered chair without
hesitation, and was formally installed on the 2 1st of March fol-
lowing. His observations on that occasion were marked by the
strong sense he always brought to bear on any subject he applied
his mind to, and as they evince in clear and simple language the
view he took of the principles essential to the prosperity of the
association, — principles which it is the earnest desire of those now
entrusted with the management of the Institution to follow out
in their fullest extent, — it may not be altogether irrelevant, even
at this distance of time, to quote here a portion of his inaugural
address.
" It is my duty as President," he said after a few words
of preface, " to offer some remarks on the nature of the
" Institution and its probable results. They shall only be
"few and short, it being I trust sufficiently apparent that
" the principles of the Institution rest more upon practical
" efforts and unceasing perseverance, than upon any ill-judged
" attempts at eloquence.
" Having had no share in or even knowledge of the
" original formation of this Institution, I can speak with more
" freedom of its merits. It has in truth, like other valuable
" establishments of our happy country, arisen from the wants
" of its society, and being the result of its present state pro-
" mises to be both useful and lasting."
« « « » « 4f «
" From a view of the topography and statistics of this
" country, it is quite evident that civil engineering has in-
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• ••
INTRODUCTION. XXIU
*^ creased to an extent and importance which urgently demand
^^ such a separate establishment as you, its earliest members,
*^ have so judiciously planned, and by meritorious persever-
** ance brought to its present state.
" I have carefully perused the rules and orders, which have
*^ been prepared with much attention, and I think they are
^' now sufficiently matured to be a guide and guard for the
^' conduct and welfare of the Institution. Judicious regulations
** are absolutely necessary in all societies, but I trust that in
** this the good sense of the members wiU always prove
*^ that manners and moral feeling are superior to written
^^ laws, and will render my duty as President both easy and
^' pleasant.
" In foreign countries similar establishments are insti-
** tuted by government, and their members and proceedings
*' are under its control, but here a different course being
*^ adopted, it becomes incumbent on each individual member
" to feel that the very existence and prosperity of the Insti-
*^ tution depend in no small degree on his personal conduct
^^ and exertions ; and the merely mentioning the circumstance
*^ will, I am convinced, be sufficient to command the best
** efforts of the present and future members, always keeping in
" mind that talents and respectability are preferable to num-
** bers, and that from too easy and promiscuous admission,
** unavoidable and not unfrequently incurable inconveniences
" perplex most societies."
Telford's name gave a new impulse to the progress of the
Institution, which grew rapidly in importance under his fostering
hand, until on the third of June, 1828, it received a Charter of In-
corporation under the Great Seal, by the title of the " Institution of
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XXIV INTRODUCTION.
Civil Engineers." By that act of royal grace its standing was con-
firmed, and its prosperity has since been uninterrupted by any
untoward event, save the lamented death of its great President.
The circumstances under which he became connected with the
Institution have been detailed. A few years after, he began to con-
tract his engagements, and as he gradually withdrew from the toils
of business, his attention became more and more concentrated on
this, as it were, his only child and the last object of his solicitude ;
the care of which gave employment to his mind in the evening of
his days, free from the too violent excitement apt to be produced
by the active duties of professional life. The rising society then
occupied much of his time and more of his thoughts, — its collections
were enriched by his bounty, — and when, full of years and honours,
he felt the close of life approaching, he endowed the Institution
with a munificent bequest.
Considering the debt of gratitude the Institution owes to
Telford, a memorial of his life and works in some detail would not
be inappropriate, and may indeed be expected in this place, but as
the valuable account written by himself is now on the eve of pub-
lication, it has been thought better not to attempt in an imperfect
manner what that interesting work will supply so amply ; especially
as in the preceding short review of the leading engineers who have
flourished in England, he is shewn in due relation to his professional
brethren, and there is neither wish nor, for one standing so high,
necessity that he should be more. The feeling towards him of the
body he so worthily presided over is better shown by the readiness
with which its members (along with others, some of them of exalted
rank, who properly value his public services) have come forward
individually as subscribers to the monument on which the classic
chisel of Baily is now engaged.
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INTEODUCnON. XXV
The Charter of Incorporation and the Regulations of the
Institution enacted under it, with the official lists in the appendix
annexed to this volume, exhibit the objects, constitution and present
strength of the body. A statement of the means such a society
must possess of advancing professional knowledge, can hardly be
necessary. An important one is the depository it maintains fpr the
reception and preservation of documents which, on the demise of their
original owners, either become the property of private individuals of
widely different pursuits, to whom they are of comparatively little
value, or are too often altogether lost Among the contributions
which have thus been made to the archives of the Institution, the
original papers and drawings accumulated during his long practice,
and his professional and scientific library as bequeathed by the late
President, deserve to be particularly named ; — also a complete set
of the reports of William Chapman, civil engineer, handsomely pre-
sented by his surviving brother ; and the very valuable and extensive
collection of works and manuscripts relating chiefly to inland navi-
gation, which belonged to Colonel Page, of Speenham-land in
Berkshire, and for which the widow of that regretted gentleman, who
ranked among the honorary members of the Institution, is entitled
to the warmest thanks.
The several departments of the Government have likewise shown
their willingness to do what they properly can to promote the inter-
ests of the Institution, and the Council have peculiar pleasure in
making this public acknowledgment to his Excellency the Lord
Lieutenant and the Chief Secretary of Ireland, and to the Master
General and Board of Ordnance in England, for their liberality in
directing sets of the invaluable ordnance maps of the United King-
dom to be presented so far as published, and to be continued as
subsequent sheets appear.
VOL. I. d
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3LXV1 INTI^DUCnON.
The Telford legacy of <£2000, with a residuary interest which it
is understood wiU enhance the amount very materially, has placed
in the hands of the Institution another powerful means of forwarding
its objects. The interest of the fund is directed " to be expended
in annual premiums under the direction of the Council ;" — some of
these have been already awarded, and it is to be hoped that the
inducement they hold out may lead those, particularly young
engineers, who have time and opportunity, to keep accurate draw-
ings, models and descriptions of works and machinery erected in
different parts of the kingdom, with a view to their being presented
to the Institution. The Council will mark in an especial manner
all efforts of this kind, for by such only can the reproach be removed,
and reproach it must be considered, that in a country possessing so
many interesting works in the department of the civil engineer, it
is almost vain to look for any record of them as actually performed.
The present volume contains a selection from original com-
munications that have been made from time to time. The choice
of the papers has been regulated entirely by the practical useful-
ness and interest of the subjects treated of, without the least
regard to merit of composition, to which it is plain no claim
can or need be laid by a work dealing with matters in their nature
hardly susceptible of the embellishments of style, and proceeding
from men engrossed with pursuits little conducive to the cultivation
of literary habits. It will also be understood that the publication
of an article does not imply any guarantee of the accuracy of the
facts stated, or any approval of the arguments and theories brought
forward ; — all these must of course rest on the credit of the respect-
ive authors, the Council's responsibility being limited to the circum-
stance of the papers inserted being calculated to promote the general
purposes of the Institution. With the same view, in one instance in
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INTRODUCTION. XXVll
which there was no communication in a form fit for publication, it
being thought proper from the interest of the work* not to postpone
a notice of it, as perfect an account as possible has been compiled; and
this, it may be observed, is the only case in which recourse has been
had to the conversational discussions, in which a great part of the
proceedings at the ordinary meetings consists, and of which copious
reports are recorded in the minutes, supplying a mine yet to be
worked, and open to every class of members.
With these observations, the Council beg to present the first
volume of the Institution's Transactions. To go into the causes
that have prevented an earlier appearance would be to occupy the
public with circumstances now of little importance, — some of them,
to be found in the nature of the engineer's occupations and habits,
have been already alluded to. A beginning has, however, at length
been made, and surely it is not indulging in too sanguine a hope to
anticipate that it will be energetically followed up, in a country
depending so much as this does for the continuance of its power on
the progress of the mechanical knowledge which it is the truly
national object of this Institution to promote.
* Grosvenor Bridge at Chester.
d 2
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^ Digitized by dOOglC
CONTENTS.
PAOB
Introduction iii
I. An Account of the Harbour and Docks at Kingston-v/pon'HvM. By
Mr. TiMPSBLETf Resident Engineer to the Hull Dock Compam/.
Commumcaied by the President, James Waukee, Esa., F.B.S.
L.^E. 1
II. On the Locks commonly usedjm River and Canal Navigation. By
W. A. PRoriSf Esq.j M.Inst. C.E. 53
III. Improved Canal Lock, by J. Field, Esq., F.R.S., V.P.Inst. C.E. 61
IV. On the Strain to which Lock Oates are subjected. By Peter W.
Barlow, Esq., Civil Engineer 6?
V. On the Hot Air Blast. By J. B. Neilsoit, Esq., Cor. M.Inst. C.E.
Communicated in a Letter to the late President, Thomas Telford,
Esq. 81
VI. On the Relation between the Temperature and Elastic Force of
Steam, when confined in a Boiler containing Water. By John
Faret, Esq., M.Inst. C.E. 85
VII. On Ventilating and Lighting Tunnels, particularly in reference
to the one on the Leeds and Selby Railway. By J. Walker,
Esq., F.R.S. L. Sf E., Pres.Inst.C.E. 95
VIII. Particviarsofthe ConstructionqftheLary Bridge, near Plymouth.
By J. M. Rendel, Esq., Cor.M.Ir^st.C.E. . . . .99
IX. An Abstract Account of Coals used in Coke Ovens and Retorts, and
Coke produced from One Yeojr's Work at the Ipst/sich Oas Works.
. Communicated by Wm. CuBiTT,E9qvyF.R.S»rSf:e^V.P.Inst. C.E. 109
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XXX CONTENTS.
PAOl
X. An Approximative Rvlejbr calculating the Velocity with which a
Steam Vesselwillbe impelled through still Water y bythe Exertion of a
given Ammtnt of Mechanical Powers or Forcible Motion^ by Marine
Steam Engines. CommunicatedbyJoHNFAREY^Esq.^M.In^tC.E. Ill
XI. On the Effective Powerqfthe High- Pressure Expansive Condensing
Steam Engines commonly in use in Cornish Mines. By T.
WicKSTEEDf Esq.j Civil Engineer. Communicated in a Letter to
the President. II7
XII. Description of the plan of restoring the Archstones of Blackfriars
Bridge. By James Cooper^ Esq., A.Inst. C.E. Communicated
in a Letter to the Secretary 131
XIII. On the Force excited by Hydraulic Pressure in a Bramah Press;
the resisting Power of the Cylinder y and rules for computing the
Thickness of Metal for Presses of various Powers and Dimensions.
By Peter BARLOWy Esq.y F.R.S.y Sfc.^ of the Royal Military
Academy. 133
XIV. An Account of some Experiments on the Expansion of Water
by Heat. By the late T. Tredgold^ Esq., M.Inst. C.E. . . 141
XV. On procuring supplies of Water for Cities and Towns^ by boring.
Communicated by John Seaward^ Esq.y M.Inst. C.E. . . 145
XVI. Some Account of several Sections through the Plastic Clay for-
m^ation in the vicinity of London. By William Gravatt^ Esq.,
F.R.S. M.Inst.C.E. 151
XVII. Some Accounts of Borings fyr Water in London and its vicinity.
By John DonkiNj Esq., M.Inst. C.E. 155
XVIII. Descriptionofthe Method of Roof ng in use in the Southern Concan
in the East Indies, In/ Lieutenant Fras. OuTRAUf Bombay Engineers.
Communicated in a Letter to the late President, T. Telford, Esq., by
Major- Oen. Sir. John Malcolm^ O. C.B. Sfc.^ Governor of Bombay. 157
XIX. Experiments of the Resistance of Barges m,oving on Canals^ by
Henry R. Palmer^ Esq.y V.P.InstC.E. Addressed to the late
President, Thomas Telford, Esq. ..... 165
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CONTENTS. XXXI
PAOB
XX. An Elementary Illustration of the Principles of Tension and of
the Resistance of Bodies to being torn asunder in the Direction
of their Length. By the late T. Tredgold^ Esq.y M.Inst. C.E. . 175
XX I. Details of the Construction of a Stone Bridge erected over the Dora
Riparia^ near Turin^ by Chevalier Mosca^ Engineer and Architect
to the King of Sardinia^ Sfc.^ Sfc. Drawn up and communicated
by B. AlbanOj Esq.^ A.Inst. C.E. 183
XXII. Memoir on the use of Cast Iron in Pilings particularly at
Brunswick Whaif Blackwall. By Michael A. Borthwick^
Esq., A.Inst.C.E. 195
XXIII. An Account of the new or Orosvenor Bridge over the River
Dee at Chester ' . .207
XXIV. An Account of some Experiments made in 1823 and 1824,^r
determining the quantity of Water flowing through different shaped
Orifices. By Bryan DoNxiNy Esq., F.R.A.S., V.P.Inst.C.E. 215
XXV. On the Changes of Temperatv/re consequent on any Change in
the Density of Elastic Fluids^ considered especially with reference
to Steam. By Thomas Webster^ Esq.^ M.A. of Trinity College^
Cambridge. Communicated hy James Simpson^ Esq.y M.Inst. C.E. 219
XXVI. A Method of representing by Diagram and estimating the
Earthwork in Excavations and Embankments. By John James
WaterstoNj Esq.y A.Inst.C.E. 227
<<
XXVII. Remarks on Herm Oranite, by Frederick C. LuKiSy Esq.^ of
Guernsey y in reply to Enquiries from the President ; with some Ex-
periments made by the latter on the wear of different Granites.
Communicated by the President.
AlsOy Experiments on the Force required to fracture and crush Stones;
made under the direction of Messrs. Bramah and Sons, for B.
fVrATTf Esq.f Architect. Communicated by William Freeman^
Esq., A.Inst. C.E. 231
XXVIII. New Canal Boat Experiments. By John Macneill, Esq.,
M.Inst.C.E., F.R.A.S., M.R.I.A 237
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XXXll CONTENTS.
PAGK
Appendix 285
Office-bearers 287
Members 289
Regviations 297
Charter 319
LIST OF PLATES.
L PORTRAIT OF THE LATE THOMAS TELFORD, ESQ^ P.Ivst.C.E.
IL AUT00RAPH8 OF EMINENT CIVIL ENGINEERS.
_ Platm Nvmbbabd
IIL HULL DOCKS 1
IV. Ditto 2
V. Ditto ; 3
VI. Ditto 4
VIL Ditto 5
VIII. Ditto 6
IX. Ditto 7
X. Ditto 8
XI. Ditto 9
XII. Ditto 10
XIII. Ditto 11
XIV. IMPROVED CANAL LOCK 12
XV. CURVES OF LOCK GATES IS
XVI. CAST IRON BRIDGE^OVER THE LARY 14
XVn. Ditto 16
XVIIL BOILERS OF STEAM ENGINES 16
XIX. BRIDGE OVER THE DORA 17
XX. Ditto 18
XXL Ditto 19
XXIL mON WHARFING AT EAST INDIA DOCKS 20
XXIIL CHESTER BRIDGE 21
XXIV. Ditto 22
XXV. EXPERIMENTS ON THE FLOWING OF WATER 23
XXVL DIAGRAMS, ETC., FOR EARTH- WORK, ETC 24
XXVIL SECTIONS OF CANALS 26
XXVni. CANAL BOATS 26
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^i4i-IJ^iiipjL'JU.^
TRANSACTIONS.
I. An Account of the Harbowr and Docks at Kingston-upon-HiUL By Mr.
TiMPSRLEYf Resident Engineer to the Hull Dock Company. Com-
municated by the President^ James JVALKERt EsQ.y F.R.S. L. 4" E.
THE OLD HARBOUR.
The river Hull, according to Mr. Tickell, the historian of the town, formerly
discharged itself into the Humher hetween Drjrpool and Marfleet, and that
part of the present river usually called the Old Harbour, was originally no
more than an open drain cut by Lord Sayer of Sallon, for the purpose of
draining the country.
This harbour, from the north bridge to its junction with the Humber, was
the original and, previously to the construction of the docks, the only port for
the town ; its direction is nearly north and south, its length from the bridge
to the end of the Garrison Jetty, 2940 feet, and the average width within the
staiths, at high water of spring tides, l65 feet ; the area is therefore about
eleven acres, and the depth is 22 feet.
As trade and commerce increased, the harbour became insufficient to contain
all the vessels that frequented the port, many of which were therefore obliged
to receive and deliver their cargoes whilst lying in the roads, by means of craft,
and so crowded was it at times, that even up to the period of the Junction
Dock being made, ships have been known to be twenty tides or more in
passing from the Humber to the Old dock. But the crowded state of the
harbour, and the consequent delay in getting to and from the quays, were not
the only inconveniences ; for, from its being an open tideway, all vessels draw-
VOL. I. B
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2 MB. timperley's account of the
ing more than four or five feet water grounded every tide ; so that damage
was frequently sustained, particularly hy such as were sharply built and deeply
laden. Complaints were also made by the officers of the Customs, from time
to time, of the great risk and difficulty in collecting the duties, whereby, it was
stated, the revenue sufiered very materially, and this ultimately led to the
formation of the Old dock.
It should also be observed, that for some hours before low water, the
current is so strong as to be unnavigable for vessels against the tide, and those
passing with the stream are frequently injured ; the fall or declivity from the
outer end of the Old dock basin to the harboiu: mouth, at low water spring
tides, being in general from four to five feet, and sometimes more, and the
velocity of the ebb at such times from three to four miles an hoiu:.
Before the Old dock was begim, transverse sections were taken of the harbour
by Smeaton and Gnmdy, from which we find that the depth of water is now
about the same as it was at that time, but the river is much narrower near
its jimction with the Humber ; this diminution in the width has taken place
since the Humber dock was made, from the free course of the tide obstructed
and retarded by the projection into the river of the quays and piers of the
basiu, causing a great accumulation of mud upon the shore for a considerable
distance, both above and below the entrance to the Humber dock : and the
mouth of the harbour has not only been narrowed by these works, but has
been extended further into the Humber, and a new direction considerably to
the westward given to it.
The harbour is scoured entirely by its back waters, of which the principal
supply in summer is from the river Hull, which extends into the East Riding
about twenty miles, and is navigable for vessels of fifty tons' burden ; but in
winter, the drainage from the extensive level of the Holdemess and the low
land on the west side of the river, has been, for a long time, a very powerful
auxiliary in maintaining the depth.
For the convenience of vessels entering, two dolphins have been erected
upon the Humber, to the east of the harbour mouth, the last in consequence
of this part of the beach sanding up, as before noticed ; and there is a jetty or
small pier with the necessary mooring posts, and two transport buoys a little
to the south of the dolphins. In former times a chain was stretched across the
entrance of the harbour, and a small charge made for all vessels passing in or
out, but this restriction and impost have been discontinued for many years.
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HAKBOUB AND DOCKS AT KINOSTON-UPON-HULL. 3
On each side of the harbour, for nearly its whole length, there are
staiths or platforms, fifteen feet wide, for loading and delivering vessels ; they
are private property, and in order not to obstruct the free course of the tide,
are (in pursuance of an act of parliament) formed of large piles driven firmly
into the ground, upon which are laid transverse beams, covered with close
planking. Cranes are fixed on these staiths, and on the town side there is an
extensive range of private warehouses for sufferance goods.
Tidefc The time of high water at Hull, at the full and change of the
moon, is six o'clock, but the highest tides are generally two or three days after-
wards ; the flow or rise of an average spring tide is about 21 feet at the
harbour mouth, and I7 feet at the entrance to the Old dock ; that of an
average neap tide, 12 feet at the harbour mouth, and 9 feet opposite the Old
dock entrance : but it may be observed, that the tides occasionally rise three to
four feet higher, and sometimes, though rarely, a little more, and ebb sometimes
two feet or more, lower than stated above. It may be proper to notice also,
that when there are many vessels m the harbour, the ebb is not so low by
nearly a foot, as when it is clear of shipping. The tide flows about five hours
at the harbour mouth, and four hours and a half at the entrance of the Old dock.
THE OLD DOCK.
In consequence of the confined state of the old harbour and other inconve-
niences already briefly noticed, application had been made to government, a few
years before obtaining the Act for making the Old dock, for a grant of part of
the King's works near the Garrison, for the purpose of enlarging the harbour ;
but, as a legal quay formed no part of the scheme, it was opposed by the board
of Customs, and nothing further was done. Some time after, however, it was
intimated to the Collector and Comptroller of Customs at the port, that if a
dock and legal quay were not made at Hull, the business would be removed to
some other port connected with the Humber disposed to conform to these
regulations ; and a memorial was in consequence presented by the merchants of
Gainsborough, praying that a legal quay might be established at that place.
It was now evident that something must be done to preserve the trade of
the port, and it was at length resolved that the wishes of government as to
a dock and legal quay should be complied with ; but there appears to have
B 2
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MB. TIMPERLBY'S ACCOUNT OF THE
at difficulty in obtaining an adequate subscription, and it was some
ore this desirable object could be accomplished. The shareholders
1 Mr. Grundy, the engineer, to furnish designs and an estimate for
If which being approved of, and the necessary arrangements com-
pplication was made to parliament and an Act obtained in April, 177^
jr which the work was begun.
bat period works of this kind were in their infancy, and we must not
5 look for the degree of perfection, either in design or execution, which
nguished those of more recent times.
Old dock, which appears to have been judiciously planned and laid out,
dock, is 1703 feet long, by 254 feet wide, so that the superficial content
ten acres, and therefore capable of containing a hundred square rigged
it was the largest dock in the kingdom at the time.
». According to the sections the excavation averaged about 15
bottom of the dock being 15 inches above the bed of the old harbour
the entrance. The soil, which was altogether alluvial, was deposited
d chiefly on the north side, and partly purchased for the purpose,
jing raised thereby about five feet, and afterwards sold by the Dock
y, is now the site of several principal streets.
p^^ The walls are founded upon piling of a novel description, but
very inadequate to the purpose : the piles, which are 12 inches wide
hes thick at the top tapering regularly to 3 inches at the bottom, are
mder the walls and counterforts, longitudinal sleepers, 12 inches
6 inches deep, trenailed on the pile heads, and 3 inch transverse
r laid and spiked down on them : the whole is of fir timber, and laid
level.
walls are whoUy of bricks, many of them made upon the spot, coped
imley-fall stone, 12 inches thick, and 3 feet wide. They were built and
with mortar made of Warmsworth lime and sand, part of which was
.ter sand, and the rest selected from the excavation ; the brickwork,
iches in depth, is at right angles to the face, the rest of the wall hori-
-a mode of laying by no means to be recommended, as the front is
completely separated from the other part of the wall, and the bond, a
ential part of all building, thus entirely destroyed,
•ont of the wall, at intervals of ten feet, oak fenders 9 inches wide
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HABBOUB AND DOCKS AT KINGSTON-UPOK-HULL. 5
and projecting 7^ inches, are tenoned into three oak sills, 12 inches hy 6 inches,
built in the brickwork, and bolted and further secured to them by oak brackets
spiked on each side.
From the insufficiency of the piling and the foundation, which was only level
with the bottom of the dock, not being low enough, the walls have subsided,
and been forced forward in several places by the pressure of the earth behind :
the greatest derangement is on the north side near the east end, noticed by
Smeaton in his Reports as being at that time 2 feet 8^ inches out of a straight
line in a length of 187 yards, and foimd by recent measurement to be now 3
feet 10 inches out in 202 yards, or about a foot more than when examined by
Smeaton. shortly before the opening of the dock : the wall on the south side
nearly opposite the above, for 103 yards in length, is also forced forward
about 20 inches in the worst place : the rest of the dock walls are nearly as
straight as when first built. This wall has given way at different times, (pro-
bably from the quays being overloaded,) and in several places eleven or twelve
feet at top have been taken down and rebuilt ; piles have also been driven
down in front of the wall, and a cap sill with transverse planking laid thereon,
upon which the new wall has been erected ; this has answered the purpose,
and as a further security a mass of well rammed clay has been lately deposited
at the foot of the weakest parts of the wall.
Lock and bMin. Thc oHgiual lock was 200 feet in extreme length, and 36 feet 6
inches wide, by 24 feet 6 inches deep ; there were six rows of grooved sheet
piling 14 feet long across the lock, which was founded on 1245 bearing piles
12 feet long, of a similar description to those for the dock walls, and on these
longitudinal and transverse beams were laid, and covered with 4 inch planking,
so as to form a wooden floor, which was the customary mode of building at
that time.
The lock walls* were built with bricks, faced with Mexborough stone,
from 10 inches to 3 feet, or, on an average, 18 inches deep in the bed, with
occasional through stones to bind the work together ; the hollow quoins and
coping were of Bramley-fall stone, the faces of which were set in pozzuolana
mortar, as also the front masonry ; the gates were made of English oak, in an
arched form, and but 12 inches thick, including the planking. There was
only one clough or sluice, 3 feet by 18 inches, in each gate, which did not give
sufficient power to cleanse the lock and basin, without having recourse to a
small lighter and drag to loosen and remove the mud whilst scouring.
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b MR. TIMPERLEY S ACCOUNT OF THE
There was a common wooden drawbridge on the Dutch plan, over the
end of the lock.
The basin to this dock was originally 212 feet long, and 80 feet wide,
with brick walls like the dock, but the wall on the north side, from some
defect in the foundation, gave way before it was finished, and was in conse-
quence never raised to its full height, a sort of timber platform being erected
on it, which remained till the basin was rebuilt in 1815.
The foundations of the lock walls were also insufficiently piled, as appears
from Smeaton's Report, in which it is stated that, " respecting the walls of the
lock, they have the appearance of being well built ; we, however, observe some
small sets therein which we impute to the want of strength in the foundation
timbers.'* He further says, " that the floor of the chamber had risen about
three inches in the middle, and that of the platform to the gates from two to
four inches/*
In the course of seven or eight years after the lock was built, the walls
had yielded so much as to require to be taken down about 12 feet from the
top : one side was rebuilt in 1785, and the other the following year.
Quays. The quays are spacious and paved with pebbles from Spurn
Point. A legal quay extends on the south side of this dock from the river Hull
to Whitefriar-Gate Lock, a length of 1558 feet, and contains an area of 18,1 60
square yards ; the superficial content of the whole quayage being about 29,000
square yards.
Moorings. Thc mooriug posts to this dock were originally of oak, 15
to 18 inches diameter at the top, 2 or 3 feet above the quay, and 8
or 9 feet in the ground, with two oak land ties, each 20 feet long, the ends
of which were secured by cross timbers, and two piles to each : the posts
are 12 feet from the side of the dock, and 14 or 15 yards asunder. A very
high wind arising one night, soon after the dock was made, the ships moored
in the evening on one side were found next morning on the other, having
dragged several of the mooring posts along with them, a plain indication that
these posts had not been very securely fixed. I understand that several of the
posts were renewed about twenty years ago, but there are a great many of the
original ones still standing, though the parts above ground are generally in a
very dilapidated state, and much worn by the mooring ropes and chains. In
taking up several of these we found them, excepting the sap and about an inch
of the heart on the outside, very sound and good, to within two or three feet
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HABBOUB AND DOCKS AT KINGSTON-UPON-HULL. 7
of the ground ; but the land ties, though also of oak, being within two or three
feet of the surface, were generally a good deal decayed ; some few which were
of elm were completely rotten. In most cases the decayed wooden moorings
have been replaced by stone ones, either of Peterhead granite, or a sort of free
stone from near Rotherham, about 2 feet 6 inches above ground, 18 to 20 inches
diameter at top, and 15 to 17 inches at the surface : by being thus tapered
downwards, they have been so weakened, as to be occasionally broken off by
the shipping in very windy weather. The part of the stone in the ground is
about 2 feet square, and 6 to 8 feet long, set upon oak plank, and secured by
land ties similar to the wood posts.
Sheds, warehoiuet, Thcrc orc two shcds upon the legal quay 13 feet from the
•ndcnnes. ^Qct, 23 fcct widc, and together 635 feet long, with doors at
regular intervals on the south side, and small openings or shutters for the
admission of light ; the north side is quite open. The long shed was erected
immediately after the opening of the dock ; the other, several years later.
A little to the south of the sheds, on the extremity of the Company's land,
stands a range of warehouses, 345 feet long, of irregular breadths, consisting
of three floors besides the cellars, and comprising a space of about 2250 square
yards. The cellars are all arched with brick, and there are six cranes to these
warehouses, which being the only ones belonging to the Company, are now used
indiscriminately for all the docks, a railroad being laid down nearly their
whole length, for the conveyance of goods between the warehouses and the
shipping in the different docks.
There are six wooden cranes to this dock, four on the south side, and two
on the north ; the latter are well cranes, very lofty, fixed about six feet from the
side of the quay, and calculated to lift four or five tons: the others are of a lighter
description, the jibs close to the dock, and supported by frame- work in the old-
fashioned way ; one of these is worked by a tread-wheeL
Mud in dock. Various schemes had been suggested for cleansing the dock
of the mud brought in by the tide ; one was by making reservoirs in the
fortifications or old town ditches, with the requisite sluices, by means of which
the mud was to be scoured out at low water ; another by cutting a canal to
the Humber, from the west end of the dock, where sluices had been pro-
vided, and put down for the purpose, when it was proposed to divert the ebb
tide from the river Hull along the dock, and through the sluices and canal into
the Humber, and so produce a current sufficient, with a little manual assistance.
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8 MB. tdcpebley's account of the
«
to carry away the mucL Both of these schemes were however abandoned, and
the plan of a horse dredging machine adopted ; this work began about four
years after the Old dock was completed, and continued until after the opening
of the Junction dock. The machine was contained in a square and flat
bottomed vessel 61 feet 6 inches long, 22 feet 6 inches wide, and drawing
4 feet water : it at first had only eleven buckets, calculated to work in 14 feet
water, in which state it remained till 1814, when two buckets were added so as
to work in 17 feet water, and in 18^ a further addition of four buckets was
made, giving seventeen altogether, which enabled it to work in the highest
spring tides. The machine was attended by three men, and worked by two
horses, which did it at first with ease, but since the addition of the last four
buckets, the work has been exceedingly hard.
There were generally six mud boats employed in this dock before the
Humber dock was made ; since which there have been only four, containing,
when fully laden, about 180 tons, and usually filled in about six or seven
hours; they are then taken down the old harbour and discharged in the
Humber at about a hundred fathoms beyond low water mark, c^er which
they are brought back into the dock, sometimes in three or four hours, but ge-
nerally more. The mud engine has been usually employed seven or eight
months in the year, commencing work in April or May.
The quantity of mud raised prior to the opening of the Junction dock,
varied from 12,000 to 29,000 tons, and averaged 19,000 tons per annum ;
except for a few years before the rebuilding of the Old lock, when, from the
bad and leaky state of the gates, a greater supply of water was required for
the dock, and the average yearly quantity was about 25,000 tons. As the
Junction dock, and in part also the Humber dock, are now supplied from this
source, a greater quantity of water flows through the Old dock, and the mud
removed has of late been about 23,000 tons a year.
It may be observed, that the greatest quantity of mud is brought into the
dock during spring tides, and particularly in dry seasons, when there is not
much fresh water in the Hull ; in neap tides, and during freshes in the river, C ^
very little mud comes in.
Townwwen. Thcrc arc two sluices in this dock, for scouring the town
sewers ; both on the south side, one being opposite the end of Low-Gate,
the other near the Whitefriar-Gate lock : they consist of a cast iron clough,
3 feet 2 inches wide by 2 feet 11 inches high, worked in a groove by means
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1
HARBOUR AND DOCKS AT KINGSTON-UPON-HULL.
of a screw, with a conduit, also of cast iron, 3 feet wide by 2 feet 6 i
high, the bottom being about 9 feet below the dock coping.
Dock opened. Bj thc Act of Parliament seven years were allowed for fini
this dock, but by great exertions the work was completed in four years
the dock was opened on the 22d of September, 1778*
Rrfmidtoir of in<*k ^hc ncxt improvcment in the order of time, was the Hu
dock ; but as an important part of the work connected wit
Old dock, namely, the entrance lock and basin, has since been comp
rebuilt on an improved plan, it may be advisable to give a brief descri
thereof before proceeding to the Humber dock.
state of oM work. This recoustruction became necessary in the early part of
from the ruinous state in which the lock then was. The water being drai^
of the dock to within four or five feet of the bottom, a coffer dam formed
outer end of the basin adjoining the harbour, and a teniporary dam o
three or four feet above the surface of the water, on the side next the docl
lock and basin walls were taken down, and it was found that the stone i
was much decayed, the mortar almost entirely washed out of the joints,
cularly above high water of neap tides, and the walls greatly deface
the coal hooks and stowers used in passing vessels through the lock : belo
level of neap tides the stone was in a better state of preservation, but frc
softness was a little worn away by the shipping ; the hollow quoins y
had been forced forward were in a bad state, and caused a great quant
water to be wasted. The piles, sleepers, and planking, in the bottom c
lock and foundations, were all perfectly sound ; the nails and small s
were much wasted, but a gteat many of the large spikes and bolts we
little corroded, that they were used again in the construction of the new
the foundations had however sunk, by which the upper part of the wal
brought forward, and the timbers of the floor were several inches higher i
middle than at the sides.
The gates, which, when new, were much too slight, had become acl
dangerous, although there had been new head posts to them all : and
they were taken up, the mortices, tenons, and iron fastenings were so bad
they literally dropped to pieces.
The basin walls and foundations were in much the same state as the
but the front piles were pressed down by the superincumbent weight, in
VOL. I. c
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10 ME. Tim>BRLEY'S ACCOUNT OF THE
places 18 inches lower than the back ones, and the top of the wall bulged
out in consequence. The ground in this part appears to have been particularly
soft.
New lock. The ground having been cleared, the rebuilding of the lock
was begun in May, 1814, from the design and under the direction of the late
Mr. Rennie, Mr. George Miller being the company's resident engineer. This
lock is 120 fe.et 9 inches long within the gates, 24 feet 6 inches high above
the pointing sills, and 38 feet wide at the top, being 18 inches wider than
the original lock : the foundations and walls are nearly the same as in the
Humber dock lock, which will be more particularly described hereafter ; but
it should be observed that all the old piles remained to strengthen the found-
ation. The inverted arch is built with bricks set in pozzuolana mortar, as
also the side walls, which are faced with Bramley-fall stone, the first or lowest
course being all headers 4 feet in the bed by 18 inches thick ; the hollow
quoins came from near Rotherham, and are set in the same mortar; the
backing or body of the wall is brickwork, with one entire through course and
occasional through stones besides, set and grouted in conmion mortar ; and the
coping is of Bramley-fall stone, 4 feet wide by 15 inches thick, joined together
with stone dowels. This lock appears substantial and well built.
o»t««. The gates, except the planking which is 9.\ inch fir, are all of
English oak, and are each 23 feet wide, 24 feet 3 inches high above the pointing
sill, 16 inches thick at the heel, and 14| inches at the head, including the close
planking : there are ten bars or ribs of a curved form, the versed sine of which
is 12 inches in the inside, tenoned into the head and heel posts, and further se-
cured by wrought iron straps and screw bolts in the usual way : the two gate
sluices of cast iron are 2 feet 6 inches square in the clear, and are worked by a
wrought iron screw and brass nut, with bevel gear at top. The gates are moved
by machinery on the sides of the lock, turning a cast iron roller, round which
the chain revolves ; these chains are all of ^ inch iron, and are fixed from 2
to 4 feet above the bottom sill for shutting, and 7 feet for opening the gates, the
latter operation being assisted by a counterbalance weight to prevent the chains
from running off the roller. There are one horizontalandtwo vertical rollers fixed
in the front of the lock walls about ten feet above the sill, with another large
horizontal one at the foot of each wall, round which the chains turn in working
the gates. A cast iron socket in the bottom of the heel post, 3^ inches diameter
by If inch deep, turns upon a cast iron pivot fixed on the platform ; and
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HARBOUR AND DOCKS AT
a friction roller of brass (by which the
the bottom) 10 inches diameter by 4 in
frame near the meeting post^ with a wrc
near the top of the gate, for adjusting t
gate is secured at top by means of a ca£
in the common way.
From the frequent working of the
they turn at the bottom wear away, i
ally lifted up a little by screws, and a p:
nicely fitted into the socket, to restore 1
Batance bridge. Thc bridge ovcr the loci
and 15 feet wide, the carriage way beu
3 feet 6 inches each ; the whole length
ribs, 1^ inch thick in the plain part, ai ^^ ^_ , „
inches deep at the meeting or middle, increasing, though not regularly, towards
the sides, and it turns on a cast iron shaft or main axis 8 inches square, with
four round bearings working in plummer blocks, fixed in cast iron carriages, bolted
to the masonry of the lock. When the bridge is to be opened, a cast iron flap,
turning on an axis 4^ inches square, is lifted by a lever, in order to give room
for it to rise : this flap forms at the same time a guard or barrier against
passengers, and after the bridge is lowered into its place it is let down and
forms part of the roadway. The bridge is covered with 3 inch oak plank
laid across and bolted to the ribs ; in the carriage way the planks are, for pre-
servation, overlaid with 1^ inch fir or elm boards, which are renewed from
time to time, and the foot paths are covered with similar boards on oak joists,
elevated about 5 inches above the carriage way, with a cast iron curb on
each side, and wrought iron stanchions and chains as a fence on the outside.
In lowering the bridge, when first erected, one of the outside ribs was broken
by striking against the under side of the fixed planking at the outer end; this
was repaired by bolting a cast iron plate to one side, and for greater security all
the ribs were afterwards strengthened in the same manner. It will be under-
stood, from the principle of this bridge, that as it is raised, the outer end descends
into a quadrantal pit or cavity, which, to ensure proper working, it is essential
should be kept clear of water. The machinery is similar to that of the Junction
Dock bridges, which will be more particularly described afterwards ; one man
c 2
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12 MB. TIMPERLEY*S ACCOUNT OF THE
can raise or lower each leaf in half a minute, but two men with the greatest
ease.
From a small yielding of the walls, the bridge was forced from its bearings
on both sides, by which the weight of the carriages passing over it was thrown
upon the main shaft ; this has lately been remedied by cramping wrought iron
plates, f inch thick, to the bearings of each rib. This bridge, the first of the
kind erected in Hull, was cast and put up by Messrs. Ayden and Etwell, of
the Shelf Iron Works near Bradford, and weighs, exclusive of the wood work,
about eighty tons.
Barin. The entrance basin is 213 feet long by 80 feet 6 inches wide at
the top, 71 foot at the bottom, and the same depth as the dock. The walls are
of brick with a Bramley-fall stone coping, a through course 14 feet from the
bottom, and oak fenders on the same plan as the Humber dock ; the walls are
supported at foot by means of brick inverted arches across the bottom 6 feet
wide by 18 inches deep, with spaces ten feet wide between, and the whole is
covered with earth to nearly the level of the lock sills.
R«n?«6d. This lock and basin were finished and re-opened on the ISth of
November, 1815.
Lockage. With a risiDg tide, it is usual to begin locking when there
is a depth of 6 to 7 f^t on the sill, and when required, five pens can be
made before the water is level inside and out ; the gates are then all opened,
and large ships passed at the top of the tide, after which they are again closed ;
but the penning is frequently resumed, until the water has fallen to about 7 feet
on the sill, by which time five pens more have been made. Seven or eight
hours a tide are thiis occupied in locking ; and when business presses, this is
done during both tides. If there are many large vessels to pass, it is sometimes
found necessary to draw oflF the water one or two feet, so that the surface on
the two sides may become level sooner, and the gates continue longer open, of
which advantage is also taken to pass craft without the labour and delay of
lockage ; but this practice is never resorted to, except in cases of necessity, as
the deposit of mud in the dock is much increased by it, the water abstracted,
which is comparatively pure from time having been allowed for subsidence,
being replaced by the very muddy water of the tide. In busy times,
the gates have also sometimes to be kept open for a short time after high
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HARBOUR AND DOCKS AT KINGSTON-UPON-HULL. 13
water, and in neap tides doing so is unobjectionable ; but in springs it ought to
be avoided, as from there being then a considerable current through the lock,
when the tide has begun to ebb, there is some difficulty and risk in shutting
them.
state of dock waiii. Before concluding this brief account of the Old dock, it may
not be deemed irrelevant to point out the state of the walls and foundations, as
found in executing the Junction Dock, when they were taken down, at the
western extremity, as far as the north gates of the Whitefriar-Gate Lock.
The timber and planking of the foundations were perfectly sound, and
the spikes also generally in a good state ; but the oak fenders were decayed
and a good deal bruised and worn away at the upper part by the vessels ;
new tops had been scarved to many, but the part of the fenders below an
average tide, say eight or nine feet under the coping, as well as the sills and
brackets for securing them, were generally sound, the sap and a little of the
outside excepted.
The front of the wall for about the same depth had but an indifferent ap-
pearance, the bricks being in places much decayed and rubbed away by the
vessels, and the mortar washed out of the joints, but below this the bricks
were generally in a much better state, and the pointing nearly entire. It
has been before observed that the mortar for this wall was made partly from
sand dug out of the dock, which was far from being of the best quality ; the
interior of the wall was grouted, and not very sparingly, as in some places the
mortar was found nearly as thick as the bricks. The mortar in the inside of
the wall varied very much in quality according to circumstances ; where the
wall was solid and undisturbed, it was very hard, requiring picks, and in many
places sledges and wedges, to take it down ; but where the wall had given
way or been otheiSvise disturbed, and cracks and cavities thus caused in the
inside, the mortar was in general very soft. This was observed in a variety of
places, and it was not uncommon to see the mortar in one part of the wall
exceedingly hard and good, and within a few inches from it, where the wall was
open and the water had found its way, quite soft and bad, or but little harder
than when first built. From this we see how essential it is, that building in
water should have a substantial and immoveable foundation, and that the walls
should be completely solid and impervious, particularly where a good water
lime cannot easily be obtained.
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14 ME. TIMPEBLBY^S ACCOUNT OP THE
From the front of the wall not being properly bonded to the back, the parts
are not only unconnected, but in many places entirely separate, so that a rod
may be thrust down many feet between them. It was observed also, that
where the wall had given way, it was completely separated from the counter-
forts, to the extent, I understand, of one \o two feet or more in the worst
places, whereby the strength of the wall has been greatly reduced.
THE HUMBER DOCK.
Before the Act was obtained for making the Humber dock, the Old dock
and harbour were found insufficient for the shipping and increased business
of the port. This want of accommodation had been felt and complained of
for some time, and various plans and schemes were proposed for the improve-
ment of the port, all having in view increased dock and quay room. One
proposal was to make another dock on the east side of the old harbour, and
connected therewith by a suitable lock : another was to convert the harbour
itself into a floating dock, by an entrance lock near the Humber, and another
lock near the north bridge ; and to excavate a new channel for the river Hull
from above the proposed dock, to the Humber, eastward of the Garrison : but
fortunately for the port, neither of these plans was adopted.
The Dock Company, in order to obtain the best advice on a matter of so
much importance, called in the able assistance of the late Mr. Rennie, who
was afterwards joined with Mr. William Chapman of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, on
behalf of the Corporation of Hull. These gentlemen furnished the plans for
this dock, and the work was carried on and completed under their joint di-
rection : Mr. John Harrop, an old servant of the .company, (who had done the
carpenter^s work of the Old dock,) was the resident engineer, and was assisted
by Mr. George Miller, afterwards his successor.
The Act of Parliament was passed in 1802, and the work was begun early
in the following year.
Am of dock. The area of this dock is seven acres and a half, and will contain
seventy square-rigged vessels, with ample room for moving them ; but there
have been a hundred sea-going vessels, besides thirty or forty smaller craft, in
it at one time.
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HABBOUB AND DOCKS AT KINGSTON-UPON-HULL. 15
coflfer^uun. The coffer-dam at the south end of the lock, fer keeping out
the tidal water during the execution of the works, was 280 feet span, and the
versed sine 140 feet; it consisted of two concentric rows of close Danzig
piling, 13 to 14 inches square, and 7 feet 6 inches apart, well bolted and braced
together, with a trunk and shuttle in the middle at the bottom, the internal
space being filled up with bricks laid in sand to above the level of high water.
This dam was firmly and judiciously constructed, but having sometimes a per-
pendicular head of water of nearly thirty feet against it, shewed signs of great
weakness during an extraordinary high tide a little before the work was com-
pleted; being however promptly secured by shores and braces, no further
damage ensued.
A steam-engine of six horse power was fixed upon the east side of the
lock, and worked two 11 inch pumps, for keeping the works clear of water,
and also at the same time, two 7 cwt. rams for driving the piles of the
coffer dam.
BxcaTttkm. The excavation of the dock was 24 feet deep on an average,
all in alluvial soil ; the upper part for about five feet in depth was good clay,
of which a great many bricks were made for the use of the works ; and the
rest of the soil was used to raise the ground and form the quay and road
on the west side of the dock, and also the beach or shore of the Humber from
the mouth of the old harbour to some distance above the dock ; on part of this
ground, several good streets have since been built. Notwithstanding the imme-
diate contiguity of the dock to the Humber, a fine fresh water spring was found
in the excavation of the lock pit, which was so powerful, that the stopping of it
was attended with considerable difficulty and expense. The bottom of this dock,
for reasons not very obvious, is not so low by ten inches as the lock sills.
The site of the basin, being outside the coffer-dam, and overflowed by the
Humber every tide, was excavated by tide work. Part of the soil was removed
by horse runs, to raise the ground near the lock, and the remainder conveyed
away in ballast lighters, and discharged in the Humber.
Do<*-wBito, '^^^ foundations are all piled, with a row of 6 inch grooved
piMiNo.3. greeting piles in front; the bearing piles are 9 inches, the coun-
terfort piles 8 inches diameter. They were all driven with a ringing engine
and a ram of nearly 4 cwt., worked by fifteen or sixteen men ; these piles
proved to be too short for so lofty a wall, where the ground in general is so
soft and compressible. Longitudinal sleepers of half timber were bolted down
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16 MR. timperley's account of the
upon the heads of the hearing piles, the sheeting piles spiked to an inner waling
of the same scantling, and the whole covered with 4 inch transverse close
planking, on which the wall was raised. The timber used was Memel or
Danzig, excepting the piles, which are chiefly of Norway fir.
The dock walls are all of brick, with the exception of a stone through
course at the bottom of the fenders, three courses of stone on the level of an
average tide, and the coping. The mortar was made of Warmsworth blue
lime, and sharp fresh water sand only ; the lime, having been ground in its
dry state in a mill worked by a steam-engine, was mixed with two parts of
sand, for the front work, and water having been added, the whole was ground
again, and the mortar used immediately afterwards, whilst hot and fresh.
The backing mortar was composed of one part of unslaked lime to three parts
of sand, mixed and tempered in the usual way. The brickwork of the front
and back was laid in mortar, the rest grouted every course ; part of these walls
being built a little before winter, the front mortar was affected by the frost,
but the joints were afterwards raked out and pointed with pozzuolana mortar.
The through course at the foot of the fenders is of Bamsley stone, \5 inches
thick, those in which the fenders are fixed projecting a little from the face,
and having a dove-tailed groove to receive each fender; the three courses
above are also of Bamsley stone, the lowest being a through course : these
stones are all properly squared and dressed and the front hosted. The coping is
of Bramley-fall stone, 4 feet wide and 15 inches thick, squared and dressed, the
front and top well hosted, the arris rounded off, and the joints secured by stone
dowels.
Before the walls were raised to their full height, it was found that they
had been forced forward on the east and west sides, near the middle, two feet
from a straight line, carrying the foundation piling along with them. As a
security, a quantity of earth, about ten feet high in the centre, diminishing
gradually to six feet at each end, was immediately laid in front, where it still
remains ; a length of the upper part of each wall was also taken down and
rebuilt in a straight line. Some time after the dock was finished, the water
having been drawn down to within thirteen feet of the bottom, for the purpose
of making a level bed for the counterbalance weight of the gate chains, the
east wall again gave way a little, but the movement ceased on the rising of the
tide. The circumstance operated as a warning not to draw the water so low
in future.
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HARBOUR AND DOCKS AT KINGSTON-UPON-HULL. 17
All round the dock, to protect the waUs, there are oak fenders 12 inches
square, let 4 inches into the brick work, and projecting 8 inches before the face,
dovetailed into stone corbels at foot, as before mentioned, and secured by oak
ties with wrought iron fastenings near the top, which is covered with a cast
iron cap. There are also two rows of horizontal fir fenders, 7 inches square,
let into the upright ones by short tenons, with angle pieces to prevent vessels
catching underneath or riding upon them, as the tide rises and falls.
Lock. The entrance lock is 158 feet long within the gates, 42 feet
wide at the top, and 31 feet high above the pointing sills, on which the average
depth is 26 feet at high water of spring, and 20 feet at that of neap tides.
The foundation consists of four rows of bearing piles, 16 to 19 feet long,
for each wall of the chamber, and two rows for the counterforts ; on the heads
of these, longitudinal sleepers of half timber are bolted, transverse sleepers of
the same scantling placed on edge securely fixed to them, and the whole is
covered with 4 inch close planking, the interstices being filled in solid with
brickwork, on which the inverted arch and side walls are built. There are
five rows of 6 inch grooved sheeting piles, 16 to 20 feet long, driven across each
platform, the bearing piles for which are 3 to 4 feet apart each way, and carry
longitudinal sleepers, 12 inches square, with two courses of close transverse
sleepers bolted thereon for 13 feet in length from the main sills, on which the
pointing sills are fixed. The remainder of the platform is covered with 6 inch
elm close planking, on which cast iron segments are laid for the gates to traverse
upon. There is an apron or platform at the tail of this lock, about 50 feet in
length, covered with 4 inch planking spiked to transverse sills, which are bolted
down upon the heads of the bearing piles, with a row of 6 inch grooved
sheeting piles at the outer end. The piles are of Norway timber, the sleepers
and planking, except for the platforms, principally of Danzig fir, and the pointing
and main sills of English oak.
The side walls are 6 feet 9 inches wide at top, and there are six counterforts
on a side, each 6 feet square; besides the foimdations for the bridge, which stand
9 feet higher than the rest. These walls and the invert are of brickwork, faced
with Bramley-fall stone. The front was set in mortar composed of three parts
of ground Warmsworth blue lime, two parts of ground pozzuolana, and five parts
of sharp fresh water sand, properly mixed and screened, and well tempered ;
this work was done by men with beaters, till the erection of the mill, in which
the mortar was afterwards ground wholly, and used immediately ; the rest of
VOL. I. D
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18 MR. timperley's account of the
the work was set and grouted in common mortar, composed of one part of
unslaked Warmsworth lime to three parts of sharp fresh water sand, mixed
and screened, and tempered in the usual way. The hollow quoins are of
Dundee stone, well squared and dressed, set in pozzuolana mortar, with close
heds and joints, the parts in which the gates turn heing well ruhbed to a
smooth surface, so as to be Water-tight ; this very hard durable stone, being
of a fine grit, does but little injury to the heel posts, and is therefore very
proper for hollow quoins. The south wing walls are also faced with Dundee
stone for a short length. The coping is of Bramley-fall stone, 4 feet wide, by
15 inches thick, joggled together in the same manner as that of the dock walls.
caiMon. In the masonry at each end of the lock, there is a chase or
groove 12 inches deep, 21 inches wide in the front, and 15 inches at the back,
for receiving a caisson or floating gate, which was originally built as a pre-
venter dam at the south end during the execution of the work, and was
afterwards used to keep the tidal water out of the lock in repairing one of
the gate chains ; but having gone to decay, it has since been broken up. The
keel was made to fit the stone groove so as to be water-tight, and about ten
feet above the bottom, there was a cast iron cross cylinder, 2 feet diameter,
communicating with the water on either side, by means of four apertures, 9
inches diameter, fitted with brass plugs worked by screws and rods, reaching
to the deck, by which the water was admitted to sink the caisson in its place,
and let out at low water when no longer wanted, so that, the plugs being
inserted, the vessel rose by its own buoyancy the succeeding tide. This gate
or vessel being very deep, and only 22 feet 6 inches in beam, was kept in a
vertical position by about thirty tons of ballast.
otrtei. The lock gates are all of English oak, except the planking, which
is of fir ; they are 31 feet 4 inches high above the pointing sills, and 25
feet 6 inches broad, measured in the curve line, the camber being 14f inches;
the thickness is 16^ inches at the heel, and 14^ inches at the head, the 3
inch close planking included. Each gate originally consisted of twelve bars
framed into the head and heel, and further secured by wrought iron straps
and bolts ; but a few years after they were put up, several of the lower bars
being broken by the great pressure of the water and the heavy stroke of the
sea in stormy weather, they were replaced by new ones, and several additional
bars inserted, so that the gates are now a solid mass of timber (excepting the
doughs) for ten feet from the bottom. There are two cast iron sluices to every
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HARBOUR AND DOCKS AT KINGSTON-UPON-HULL.
gate, each 3 feet square in the clear, worked hy a wrought in
a sluice rod reaching to the top. The machinery for opening
consists of a 6 inch pinion, working into a cog-wheel 4 feet di£
axis of which is a cast iron roller 2 feet 9 inches long by 10^ in
for the gate chain to wind on. The other parts of the gates anc
ages are so much like those of the Old dock lock, that it is de<
sary to repeat the description.
Before the piers of the entrance basin were erected, the w
Humber sometimes forced open the outer gates a little, notwi
great pressure of water behind ; and the violent concussion in
tured the lower bars, as already mentioned, and would in all p
have destroyed the gates, had they remained much longer expos<
erection of the piers the swell is much diminished ; but even no
gales from the south, it is dangerous to attempt to open or shut t
machinery, and at such times recourse is had to blocks and ts
for the purpose. When the gates are left open after high w
current out of this lock, in particular, is so strong as to require gi
shutting them ; this used to be done at such times by what i
handling, that is, the gate-men standing at the machinery for o]
tight hand upon it, to prevent the gates from closing too forcibly
a safer and more simple plan has been adopted, namely, by a i
each gate head, and taking a turn round the mooring posts c
the lock, by which the gates can be eased to with the greatest s
Bridge. Over the centre of this lock there is a swivel I
3 inches wide; it is 81 feet 9 inches long, and composed
which, meeting in the middle, form a segment of a circle,
consists of six cast iron ribs, about S inches thick in the p]
%\ inches at the lower edge, connected together by cast iroi
planked with S^ inch oak, which is protected by a covering <
The foot-paths, each 2 feet 8 inches wide, are slightly raL
carriage way on oak joists, covered with fir boards, and have ci
next the road way ; a wrought iron railing, 3 feet 7 inches big
each side. On each side of the lock, in the stone coping of
pier, there is firmly embedded a cast iron circular plate, 11
diameter by 6 inches wide, with a cross and pivot in the
securely let into the masonry, and working in a socket ui
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20 MR. timperley's account of the
bridge, with twenty conical rollers, 6 inches wide, by lOf inches diameter at
one end and 9f inches at the other, fitted in a frame, and revolving between
the circular plate above mentioned ynd a similar plate in the under side of
the bridge. The ends or meeting parts of the bridge are not described from
the centre pivot or axis of motion, but from a point a little on one side
thereof, whereby these parts, in shutting into a tongue and grooved joint, do
not come into actual contact till the bridge is shut ; it is then completely fast,
being closely wedged to the abutments on each side and kept in place by two
keys at the meeting, thus making the whole firm and secure. The machinery
for opening and shutting the bridge, consists of two 8 inch bevel pinions, to one
of which the handle is applied, and at the bottom of the vertical shaft of the
other is fixed a 9 inch piqion, working into a spur wheel, 4 feet diameter, on
the axis of which is another pinion, 12 inches diameter, which turns the bridge
by means of a toothed segment at the outer end. One man can open or shut
either part of the bridge with ease in half a minute. Messrs. Ayden and
Etwell, already named in the account of the Old dock, constructed this bridge
also.
BadnwaUf. Thc walls of thc eutrauce basin are so much like those of the
dock, that a very brief description may suffice. They are 10 feet wide at
the bottom, by 6 feet at the top, fronted entirely with Bramley-fall stone, and
having two through courses, and a stone coping, similar to the dock ; the rest
of the wall and counterforts is of brickwork ; the front masonry, and also the
back of the walls, are set in pozzuolana mortar, the remainder in common mortar,
of the same proportions and mixed as for the lock. There are three rows of
stout piling, 16 to 18 feet long, under the walls, and a row of 6 inch grooved
sheeting piles, 16 feet long, in front, with transverse sleepers, and close planking
over all ; the counterforts are piled and planked in the same way. There was
also a quantity of Hessle-cliff stone rammed between the foundation timbers,
and about two feet in width behind the walls. This wall, on the outside of
the coflfer-dam, was wholly executed in tide- work.
Quays. The quays are paved with spurn pebbles ; the east side, and the
south up to the lock, form a legal quay, upwards of 1000 feet long : the drain-
age is into the sewers by gratings every 25 yards.
Mooring.. Thc mooriug posts are about 10 yards apart, and 4 yards
from the side of the dock ; they are of wood, iron, and stone. The wooden
ones are simply round oak trees, 18 inches in diameter at the top, driven
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HARBOUR AND DOCKS AT KINGSTON-UPON-HULL. 21
firmly into the ground by pile-engines, and having two shores, a little below
the surface of the ground, abutting on the back of the wall, by which the
strain of the shipping upon the posts is transferred to the wall ; a plan that
cannot be recommended. The iron posts (twelve pounder cannon) are 9
or 10 feet long, the breech or lower end being let into a stone block, and
secured thereto by wrought iron straps and bolts, and also built round with
brickwork up to near the surface of the ground. I understand that some
of these posts are secured by land ties, but in general there is only a large
stone laid to the back of the coping, thus throwing the strain upon the wall, as
noticed above, in the case of the wooden moorings. The stone posts are of
Peterhead granite and Dundee sandstone, of similar dimensions, and secured
in like manner to those at the Old dock : but from their being too much
tapered near the ground, several have been broken by the heavy strain in windy
weather.
Doifdifait. There are four dolphins in this dock, each consisting of five
piles, the centre one perpendicular and standing above the others, which are
battering, and the whole secured 1;ogether by two tiers of cross braces, and
planked over on top and sides, for 11 feet down. These dolphins were
erected at the time the Junction dock was made, for the purpose of warping
vessels in their passage to and from that dock, as well as for the more con-
venient mooring of ships on the west side of the Old dock.
Sheds and cnnet. A raugc of shcds, 7^0 fcct loug, 25 fcct widc, and 15 feet from
the side, extends along the legal quay on the east side of the dock : they
are principally of fir timber, covered with weather boarding and enclosed with
large doors on the east, but open on the west, except the bale shed at the south
end, which is all enclosed, with large doors on each side. The roof is covered
with blue slate, and the floor formed with 6 inch flags for a width of 15 feet,
the rest being paved with spurn pebbles.
There are seven cast iron cranes to this dock, four on the east and three
on the west side ; the large one near the north-west comer is a well crane,
calculated to lift 10 tons ; the vertical shaft is 5 feet 3 inches from the side
of the dock, and its foot 15 feet below the coping ; the jib is 19 feet 3 inches
high to the under side of the pulley, and projects 22 feet The other six
cranes are all of the pillar kind, and calculated to lift three tons. The pillar
is 6 feet high, and fixed at a distance of 5 feet from the dock, in a socket in
the centre of a cast iron cross, securely bolted to the coping. The jib is 16
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22 MB- timperley's account of the
feet 6 inches high, projects 15 feet, and is moveable on the pillar by a pivot and
socket at the top, and a cast iron collar faced with brass at the bottom.
There are four wooden cranes to the basin, three of them well cranes calcu-
lated to lift 3 or 4 tons, and the other, which has been recently put up, a
pillar crane for two tons ; the jibs of all project about 20 feet, or 13 feet beyond
the basin wall. These cranes are principally used for steam-packets.
cieuuingdock. This dock was not cleansed for three years and a half after it
was opened, the dredging machine and mud boats not being completed until
then ; and such is the impurity of the water in the Humber, that during this
time the mud had accumulated to the height of twelve feet at the south end
of the dock, and three feet at the north, so that deeply laden vessels were
prevented, at neap tides, from entering or going out
DndgiiigmadiiiM. Thc drcdgiug machine is worked by a steam-engine fixed on
board a square flat-bottomed vessel, 80 feet long, 20 feet wide, and drawing
5 feet water. The engine is 6 horse power, and works a 2 feet stroke forty
strokes per minute, giving motion, by means of a bell crank, to four cog wheels,
on the axis of the upper of which is a square tumbler, with one corre-
sponding at the lower end of the bucket frame. Round these the wrought iron
buckets, twenty-nine in number, revolve by an endless chain, and the mud is
discharged over the upper tumbler into a spout leading into lighters lying
alongside ; the ladder turns on an axis at the upper end, and the lower end
is raised or lowered through an opening in the middle of the boat, by a crab
and tackling fixed directly over it, by which the buckets are adapted to the
proper level for taking up the mud. The vessel is drawn- to its work by
means of a cable revolving round a roller attached to the engine, and from it
by two men at a crab in the stem ; there is also a contrivance for moving it
sidewise when required. It is usual in inland navigations and canals, where
the dredging machine has to pass through locks and bridges, to have the
buckets in the middle of the vessel, as in the present instance ; but in docks,
harbours, &c., where there is no want of room, they are much better on the
outside, as there is less waste in discharging the mud into the lighters, and
there may be a double set of buckets, one on each side, if necessary.
Four men, including the engine-keeper, are required to work this machine,
and two more to attend the lighters. The work has for a short time been
upwards of 2 tons per minute, (or twelve buckets of 4 cwt. each,) and where
the mud is in plenty and there is no impediment, 60 tons per hour may easily
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HARBOUR AND DOCKS AT KINGSTON-UPON-HULL. 23
be raised ; but the ordinary work is about 45 tons an hour, or twelve boats
containing from 500 to 550 tons per day of twelve to fifteen hours.
Mud boats, ptan. '^^ ™^^ boats aro flat-bottomed and sharp at each end, and
^""'^ draw, when fully laden, about 4 feet water. Six of them,
which were formerly used exclusively for the Old dock, are 48 feet long at top,
17 feet 6 inches wide in midships, by 5 feet 6 inches deep, and carry 40 tons
on an average ; the six Humber dock boats are rather larger, carrying 48 tons
each. They are ceiled inside in a sloping direction like a hopper, with two trap
doors in the bottom, through which the mud is discharged, the water rising in
the boat to the same level as on the outside, but the cavity between the
ceiling and the bottom preserving the buoyancy.
When laden, these boats are linked together in pairs, six usually forming
a set, which require ten or twelve men to work them ; they generally go out
of dock when the gates are all opened, a little before high water, and are
warped 100 or 150 fathoms from the pier-head, where the mud is discharged ;
the empty boats then return to the dock, the time occupied being usually from
two to three hours, according to the rapidity of the tide, and as the passage is
more or less clear of shipping.
QuMtity of mud. Thc quantity of mud taken out of this dock, was about 36,000
tons a year before the Junction dock was made ; since then it has been about
30,000 tons, the diminution arising from the water being now in part supplied
from the river Hull, which is much purer than the Humber*, and having also
to flow through the Old and Junction docks, where a great part of the mud is
deposited.
soouiingofbMiii. The tide basin being connected with a river highly charged
with mud, it was necessary to make provision for cleansing it The head, or
north end of the basin, is partly scoured by water from the lock, conveyed
130 feet in two cast iron pipes laid close behind the wall, and 4 feet diameter
next the lock, diminishing to Q feet 6 inches at the outer end j these pipes
are in 9 feet lengths, each 30 to 35 cwt., with flanches at the ends bolted
together, and resting on a cap-sill, supported by two piles at each joint. To
these mains, at equal distances, are connected ten 18 inch pipes on each side
of the lock, which discharge themselves through the basin wall, about 5 feet
* The respective quantities of deposit of the two riyers are found, by experience, to be nearly
as one to three.
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24 MR. timperley's account of the
above the level of the sills, on ^ wooden apron 40 feet wide, laid in front to
prevent the foundations from being undermined. Two other mains, also 4
feet diameter, are connected with the dock, one at the south-east, the other at
the south-west comer, terminating at the south-east and south-west comers of
the basin respectively ; their bottom being about two feet above the level of
the lock sills, and aprons placed at the ends, similar to those at the head of
the basin. These pipes were intended to scour away the mud along the inner
sides of the piers, and also to assist in preserving a deep channel between the
heads. There is a vertical cylinder, 4 feet 6 inches diameter, to each of the
latter pipes, near the comer of the dock, with a cast iron sluice at bottom for
opening and shutting ; the sluices for the scouring pipes at the head of the basin
are in the face of the lock wall, in the gate recesses ; they are all worked by
wrought iron screws with handles at the upper end of the sluice-rod. Several
of the pipes from the dock to the basin, from being too slight, failed before
the dock was opened, and were replaced, at great labour and expense, by new
ones ; others, which were less fractured, were repaired and strengthened by
ribs in the inside.
To shew the effect of these sluices, I would state that the four from the
lock, and the small ones at the head of the basin only, when all open, lower
the water in the Humber dock a foot in four minutes : the latter, with the two
from the dock, are generally worked at low water, twice every spring tide,
and notwithstanding their great power, only scour out a narrow channel at
each place, sufficient for the steam-packets and small craft to lie in ; but
being assisted by the sluices of the gates, the main channel from the lock into
the Humber is effectually scoured, and maintained to nearly the depth of the
sills. Over the rest of the basin the sluicing has no power whatever, and the
mud deposited there has been removed by manual labour at great expense ;
two mud lighters having been, till within the last two years, almost constantly
employed upon it since the dock was opened.
It having occurred to the writer of this, that the water wasted in locking
might be beneficially used in cleansing the basin, he recommended a new
scouring pipe to be laid at the north-east comer, on a much higher level than
the other pipes for the purpose. A new 4 feet pipe was accordingly put down
in the spring of 1831 ; from its junction with the old pipe to the outlet in front
of the basin wall is 18 feet, and the bottom at the outer end is 10 feet 6 inches
above the lock sill. There is a sluice, worked by a rack and pinion at the
r
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HARBOUR AND DOCKS AT KINGSTON-UPON-HULL. 25
top of a brick shaft or well, to stop the old pipe and divert the water through
the new one, when in use ; at other times, this sluice being drawn up, the
water is discharged as before. At the outer end of the new pipe is a wooden
spout, 18 feet long, turning on hinges in the wall, so as to be reared up against
it when not in use, and to the end of this another spout, 85 feet long, is con-
nected, which can be turned so as to scour in almost any direction. It should be
observed, that the largest quantity of mud is deposited on this side of the basin,
and that, before the making of this sluice, it had accumulated to a great height,
and become so exceedingly hard and tenacious, that it was found necessary to
remove it into the stream by workmen with spaddles. In this manner about
12,000 tons of mud were removed in eight weeks after the sluice was set to
work. Since that time there has been only one man to attend the sluice about
three or four days every spring tide, except when clearing away the mud along-
side the east wall and near the east pier, which cannot be done by the scouring
power alone. The new sluice, when in full operation, lowers the water in the
three docks about 6 inches an hour, and usually runs about three or four hours
each tide.
sewm. The sewers are all of brick, and are 3 feet wide by 4 feet
high ; that on the east side commences at the end of Myton-gate, at a depth
of 8 feet 6 inches below the dock coping, and terminates at the north end of
the basin 4 feet lower, the extremity being closed by a flap, opening out wjtrds, to
discharge the drainage water and shut out the tide. This sewer was formerly
cleansed by manual labour, but is now scoured by a sluice constructed for the
purpose on the east side of the Junction dock. The sewer on the west side
discharges itself into one in Kingston street, which leads to the general outfaU
into the Humber, at Limekiln Creek.
There is an iron sluice at the north-east comer of the dock, 7 feet 6 inches
below the coping, protected by a wooden door, worked by a screw, and
having an iron conduit, 2 feet 6 inches wide by 2 feet high, leading from it
to scour the town sewers.
Dock opened. Thc watcr was let in on the 3d of December, 1808, and the
dock publicly opened for business, with due honours, on the 30th of June,
1809. The expense was defrayed by the Dock Company, and the Corpo-
ration and Trinity House jointly, the two latter contributing one moiety of
the expense, and the Company the other, for which purpose sixty new shares
were created, under the authority of an Act of Parliament.
VOL. I. E
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26 MR. timpebley's account of the
Pierheads. Plans. The piers of the entrance hasin were begun soon after the dock
*** * was opened : their construction will be better understood from
the drawings than by description. They are wholly of fir, of the scantlings
stated on the plan No. 7> and the filling up or hearting is of Hessle-cliff stone ;
the sheet piling on both sides was grooved. The passage between the heads
is 105 feet at the top.
Slip-way. In the summer of 1829, a slip, for repairing the mud boats
and the lock gates, was built on the west side of the entrance basin, abutting
upon the Humber. The length is 66 feet, the width 28 feet 6 inches, and
the depth 1 1 feet at the lower end, diminishing upwards in the proportion
of six horizontal to one vertical ; the side walls are of brickwork, with stone
coping ; the bottom floor is covered with 3 inch fir plank, spiked to transverse
sleepers, supported upon piles. The coping and front brickwork were set with
Parker's cement and sharp fresh water sand, in equal proportions, and although
exposed to the waves and swell of the Humber, have stood hitherto with
scarcely a failing joint.
Lockage. What has been said on this head respecting the Old dock, ap-
plies also in a great measure here. Locking is begun when there is about the
same depth of water, but the sill being 6 feet lower than in that dock, the work
can be carried on longer, and fourteen or fifteen pens made at one time. As many
as 25 sea-going vessels have passed this lock in a tide, thirteen of the largest
when the gates were open for about an hour at high water, and the rest by penning.
There are usually three men to open or shut each gate, which they do in
two minutes to two minutes and a half; but frequently two men do the work.
With 6 or 7 feet of water on the sill, in average tides, the lock can be emptied
or filled in about eight minutes, with all the sluices ; but this is seldom done,
no more than two sluices being generally opened, for fear of damage to the
shipping or the works from the great agitation of the water : with two sluices,
the time is about 14 minutes. It may be observed, that two men can easily
raise or lower one of these sluices, with a fiill head of water, in five minutes.
suteofwaus. In concludiug this account of the Humber dock, I would,
as before, briefly advert to the state of the walls and foundations, as found
when taken down in executing the Junction dock.
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HARBOUR AND DOCKS AT KINGSTON-UPON-HULL. 27
The timber in the foundations, wliich was all fir, was, with the exception
of the sap, invariably as sound and good as when first put down ; the oak
fenders, constantly under water, were also in a good state, but the upper part
of many of them beginning to decay, and a few actually rotten ; as were the
horizontal fir fenders, and the oak ties near the top of the walL The wrought
iron varied considerably : in some places the spikes in the foundations were
quite fresh and good, in others a little corroded, and in others almost rusted
away.
The mortar was generally very soft, but at the wide parts, and espe-
cially the foundations of the old communication at Myton-gate, so much so,
that it might have been beat up without a drop of water, and used again.
In the parts near the top of the wall not so much exposed to damps, the
mortar was tolerably hard ; but I saw none, except in the inverted arch of
Myton-gate old communication, that would bear any comparison with that of
the Old dock ; the mortar in that invert, which was made from ground lime,
mixed with a proper proportion of sand, and then ground again in the mill,
was, however, so hard, and adhered so firmly to the bricks, that it required a
sledge and wedges to separate them. The mortar in the front of the wall had
much the same appearance as that of the Old dock, being soft and very much
out of the joints for nine or ten feet from the top; below this the joints
were not wasted, but had thrown out a sort of stalactite or calcareous incrust-
ation that entirely covered the face of the walL Notwithstanding the soft
state of the mortar.in these walls, I am of opinion, from their being in general
so well flushed or grouted as to be impervious to water, that it will ultimately
acquire considerable hardness, although perhaps not for many years. This
I infer fi^m the state of the mortar in the Old dock and several other walls
that I have had an opportunity of observing, built with nearly the same kind
of lime.
The pozzuolana mortar,' where always wet, or where wet and dry alter-
nately, and also where constantly dry, was found in general exceedingly hard,
being both in hardness and colour very much like a well burnt red brick.
This mortar usually adheres very well to the bricks, but sometimes not so
well to the stone, partly perhaps from the stone being set too dry, which is
commonly the case in summer, and partly from a property peculiar to mortar
made from magnesian stone, of expelling or throwing the lime to the outside,
either in a dry state, like jUyar^ or where the walls are wet or damp, like
E 2
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28 MR. timperley's account of the
paste ; but whether arising from these causes or not, this want of adhesion
detracts very much from its other excellent qualities as a valuable mortar for
aquatic buildings.
The stone was found in a very good state, particularly the Dundee and
Bramley-fall ; the Bamsley stone, a little above and below high water, was
in places somewhat wasted and decayed, but in all other parts sound and
good.
Repair of lock gatafc Thc gatcs aud hollow quoins of the entrance lock, having
lately imdergone some alterations and repairs, it may be proper in this place
to notice their state and mode of reparation.
From a defect not uncommon in artificial foundations, the lock walls had
subsided a little, and come over about three inches on each side at the top,
thereby contracting the lock six inches, which caused the gates to open and
shut badly ; one of the gates in particular required four men to work it.
Mr. Walker, who was then engaged in the construction of the Junction
dock, was called to advise on the subject, and recommended, that these gates
should be taken up, the hollow quoins brought to a vertical line, and after-
wards secured by land ties. The gates were accordingly lifted in the spring
of 1830, by means of two powerful crabs, and two sets of stout treble blocks
and pulleys, with a 5 inch fall, one pair being applied at the head, the other
at the heel of the gate, and the whole suspended from the butt ends of two
large oak trees, raised five feet above the coping, with tl^e inner end resting
on the ground, and kept down by two large stones, near four tons each ; the
chains to which the lower blocks were lashed, were fastened round the sixth
bar from the top, blocking being placed between each bar upwards, the better
to sustain the weight of the gate. Being thus prepared, the gate, weighing
thirty tons, was lifted about eight feet, by a set of men at each crab, when,
to take the strain off the blocks and tackling, a chain being passed several
times round the gate-bar and the tree on the wall, the blocks were eased till
the chains bore the principal part of the weight.
The hollow quoins were then dressed to a true perpendicular, and after-
wards firmly secured by land ties, nearly similar to those of the Junction dock,
which will be hereafter more particularly described. The quoins of the north
gates could not be dressed down, on account of the water in the dock, but
were securely land-tied in the same manner as the others.
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HARBOUR AND DOCKS AT KINOSTON-UPON-HULL. 29
The timber in the gates was all sound ; but the bottom bar, from the
great pressure against the sill, was worn away upwards of an inch in depth,
and the heads and heels were also rubbed a little ; the hoops at the foot of the
meeting-posts were cut away an inch or more by dragging upon the traverse
rails. The wrought iron straps and bolts were much corroded, and came off
by a tap with a hammer in thick flakes ; the cast iron sluices and frames were
particularly soft for about an eighth of an inch on the outside, and might be
cut with a knife, like lead ; the cast iron plates of the pointing sills were very
rough, or in holes and furrows, as if eaten away.
After the repairs were all completed, the gates were lowered into their
places. The time occupied in performing the whole was about eight weeks,
during which there was very little interruption to the shipping.
THE JUNCTION DOCK.
It appears that a short time after the Humber dock was made, so desirable
was a junction of the two docks considered, that a temporary canal was pro-
posed to effect it ; this would no doubt have been of great service, as at that
time dock room was not so much wanted as a safe and expeditious passage
between the docks, which such a canal would have given. This scheme, as
well as the more effectual one of a new junction dock, was, however,, from
one cause or other, deferred till further delay would have been highly injurious
to the commerce and trade of the town as well as to the interests of the Dock
Company.
By a clause in the Humber Dock Act, the Company were required to make
a third dock whenever the shipping frequenting the port attained a certain
amount of tonnage therein specified, provided a moiety of the expense was
furnished them for the purpose. Some difficulties having, however, taken place
in raising the stipulated supplies, the Company, impressed with the urgent ne-
cessity of making another dock, resolved, much to their honour, to execute it
solely at their own expense, and the necessary arrangements having been
completed, the work was begun in October, 1826, according to the designs and
under the direction of Mr. James Walker, Civil Engineer, assisted by Mr.
Thomas Thornton, the then resident engineer of the Company, as superin-
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30 MR. timpeeley's account of the
tendent of the works, in which office he was succeeded, in the month of July
following, by the writer of this account.
It is proper in this place to state, that in the early part of the year 1826,
Mr. Telford was employed by the Exchequer Bill Loan Commissioners to survey
and report upon the proposed works ; and the Dock Company being desirous of
having the best advice, availed themselves of the opportunity of taking the
opinion of that distinguished engineer. His report in general confirmed the
plans of Mr. Walker ; the principal alteration recommended was the substi-
tuting of a lock at each end of the dock, for an entrance with tidal gates only,
and it was adopted.
AiM. This dock is six acres in area, and is capable of containing
sixty square-rigged vessels, with room for passing to and from the other
docks.
TemponuyworkB. Thc first preparatory works were the two coflfer-dams, which
were constructed principally of Memel timber ; the south dam, or that next
the Humber dock, was the largest, being 220 feet span, with a versed sine of
61 feet. The space between the two concentric rows of close piling, which
were 6 feet apart in the clear, was filled to the level of the dock coping with
clay puddle, the mud in the bottom having been previously well cleansed out ;
these piles were about 40 feet long, and 13 to 14 inches square. The gauge
piles in front, forty-two in number on each side, were about the same dimen-
sions, and had two rows of wale pieces, 13 by 8 inches, between them and the
close piling on each side of the dam, all properly framed and bolted together.
The close piling was connected together by an inner wale and cross braces near
the top, and wrought iron tie rods lower down, and was further strengthened
by a mass of loamy earth and loose bricks thrown in at foot.
On the concave side of this dam, and connected with it, was the tempo-
rary bridge. The road way, 24 feet wide, was supported by three rows of
whole timber piles, braced together, and connected with the coffer-dam ; and
on their heads were transverse cap sills, carrying the bearing joists, which were
covered with 3 inch planking and paved ; a close boarded fence, six or seven
feet high, was fixed on each side. From the great height of the dam, and there
being at times a pressure of 28 feet of water against it, some of the piles were
a little bent, and in very high tides the water found its way through rather
freely near the top, particularly along the upper cross braces, but attention
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HARBOUR AND DOCKS AT KINGSTON-UPON-HULL. SI
being given in time, no detriment to the works ensued. It was fomid in the
repairs, that the puddle had settled from six inches to a foot below the cross
braces, and that this was the principal cause of the leakage, as the earth for
the puddle was good, and the work appeared well done*
In order to guard against accidents, a preventer dam was afterwards made
across the centre of Myton-gate lock, in the form of a segment of a circle, the
convex side being next the Humber dock. This dam was chiefly composed of
tenacious earth well rammed, with a dry brick wall on each side, 6 feet thick
at bottom, diminishing to 2 feet 6 inches at top, and including the walls, was
30 feet wide at the bottom, and 8 feet at the top ; it was carried to the height
of the coping of the lock.
The gates also to both locks, after being hung in their places and finished,
were well shored and braced, which turned out afterwards to be of the most
essential service.
The north coffer-dam, at the west end of the Old dock, was 115 feet span,
and the versed sine 14 feet The plan of this dam and temporary bridge,
and the scantlings of the timber, were similar to those of the other dam,
except the piles, which were five feet shorter, the depth not being so great as
in the Humber dock. This dam stood remarkably well, though there was some-
times a small leakage during very high tides near the walls and upper part
There were two cast iron pipes laid along this dam for supplying the town
with water while the works were in progress.
Two steam engines, six horse power each, were used for clearing the works
of water ; that at the south end of the dock was erected about the same time
as the coffer-dams, and was also occasionally employed for grinding the poz-
zuolana ; the other was put up in the end of 18S7i ^t the east end of St John's
church, and was principally employed in pumping the water out of the White-
friar-gate lock and the north end of the dock ; it was also sometimes used for
pugging mortar. This engine was taken down some time before the works
were completed ; the other remained until they were finished, a nine-inch pipe
for conveying away the water having previously been laid through the west
wall of the dock, and securely plugged after the engine had done working.
Water in the works. Thc watcr that aTosc iu the excavation was not considerable;
it was nearly pure, its slightly saline taste being caused, it is imagined, by its
passing through the alluvial soil, which no doubt had been formerly deposited
by the tide.
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32 MB. timpeeley's account of the
BxcavatioQ. The excavatioD of the dock aad lock pits commenced soon after
the coffer-dams ; the principal part of the material, over and above what was
necessary for backing the walls and forming the quays and roads to the bridges,
was used to raise the adjoining low ground and as ballast for shipping. The
sides of the dock were cut to a slope of about one horizontal to one vertical,
and the lock pits about one and a half horizontal to one vertical, and formed in
steps, 3 feet wide, to receive the backing. The top, for 4 or 5 feet below the
surface, was a stiffish clay, of which a great many bricks were made for the
use of the works ; below this, to the bottom of the dock, was silt, or a mixture
of mud and sand, evidently left by the tide, from the small shells and other
extraneous matter interspersed in it ; this soil becomes exceedingly firm and
solid very soon after removal Several slips occurred both in the dock and
lock pits ; one on the east side of the dock, near the south end, (probably
caused by the old fortifications or town ditches,) was about 90 yards long, and
extended back to the buildings, several of which gave way, and had to be
rebuilt ; some of the foundation piles near the south-east comer of the dock
were also forced forward. The ground was a good deal cracked in other places
on this side, but further damage was prevented by shoring with timber ; and
the smaller slips that took place, particularly in the lock pits, were attended
with no further inconvenience than the expense of their removal. The average
depth of the excavation of the dock was 19 feet, that of the lock pits 6 to 7
feet more ; the quantity of excavation was about 300,000 cubic yards,
poing of foundations. Thc bearing piles were chiefly of American red pine, 10 inches
square; the sheeting piles of Memelfir, 6 inches thick, with tongue and groove
2 inches square ; all were driven without shoes, but the heads were in general
hooped, to prevent splitting. The piling commenced in the dock wall on the
east side, the fiirst pile being driven near the south-east comer.
Pile driving. In all buildings resting on piling, it is important that the piles
should be well driven, so as to carry the weight of the superstructure, and also
to resist the lateral pressure, which in dock walls like the present is very consi-
derable, and in alluvial soils of a loose and yielding nature, more than ordinary
strength is necessary in this direction. Such being the case, and having before
him the example of the other two docks, the walls of which had both given
way, Mr. Walker was particularly desirous that the piling of the Junction dock
should be efiectually done ; and for this end, requested to have an account
of the driving from time to time, and where the ground proved softer than
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HARBOUR AND DOCKS AT KINGSTON-UPON-HULL. 33
ordinary, longer piles were used : indeed, the length and size of the piles
were adapted as much as possible to the nature of the soil, varying in length
from 10 to 18 feet in the dock walls, and in the locks some of them were 24>
feet long.
Much irregularity prevails in pile-driving ; sometimes a pile will go down
at the last stroke more than it did at the third or fourth, though the fall of the
ram and the density of the ground may be nearly the same, and the friction of
course greater. Hence we perceive how uncertain all theories must be which
profess to ascertain the actual weight a pile will bear, by having given the
weight of the ram, the fall, and the depth driven at a stroke. There can be no
doubt that a great deal depends upon the state of the head and point, for when
these are sound and perfect, the pile will penetrate much deeper by a given
stroke, than when soft and bruised ; this is well known to pile-drivers, for
frequently, when the pile moves but little or none, by sawing or even paring
off a little of the head, it will go down again freely : also, if the weight falls
exactly in the direction of the pile, and strikes the head fairly, so that the
two bodies come into actual contact in every part, the pile will go further at a
blow than when the stroke is oblique and the head only partially struck by
the ram.
The sheeting piles under the front of the dock walls, driven by a crab
engine, with a 10^ cwt. iron ram, the fall varying from 8 to 18 feet, or 12 feet
on an average, went down, at the end, about an inch at a stroke ; the bearing
piles, with a 20 feet average fall, about If inch, except in particularly hard
ground, where they did not go down more than half the above at a stroke.
The piles of the dock walls all battered about 2^ inches to a foot.
The bearing piles in the foundations of the locks were driven with a ram
of 13^ cwt, and the average depth per stroke, when fully driven, was about 2
inches, with a 24 feet fall. The sheet piles, driven with a ram weighing 11^
cwt, went down 1^ inch with a 17 feet average stroke.
There is greater regularity in the driving of piles by the ringing than the
crab engine, which is attributed principally to the head and point being much
less injured, in consequence of the shorter fall of the ram, and its being of wood ;
but as the crab has the advantage in point of economy of working, the ringing
engine was but little used, and that only for the dock piling. The bearing
piles driven by it went down, on an average, 1^ inch in thirty strokes, with
a six feet fall, when fully driven ; and the sheeting piles, 1 to 1^ inch with
VOL. I. F
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34 MR. timperley's account of the
the same fall and number of strokes. The points of all the bearing piles
were very obtuse, tapering not more than 12 inches, the better to support the
weight of the walls.
It is well known that in piling, the ground, particularly if soft, becomes
much consolidated, the first piles driving more easily than those after ; on
this account it was found advisable to drive the sheeting piles first, as they then
went easier and were truer than when driven after the bearing piles ; and this
was more particularly the case in the lock pits, in some parts of which, espe-
cially under the platforms, where a great number of piles are inserted in a
small space, the ground with the piles, after they were driven, rose together
several inches.
Under the dock walls there are 2,41 1 bearing piles, containing 18,500 cubic
feet of timber, and 2,140 lineal feet of sheet piling, 12 feet long, containing
12,840 cubic feet. In the Myton-gate lock there are 923 bearing piles, con-
taining 10,126 cubic feet, and 540 lineal feet of sheeting piles, 16 feet long,
(except the row next the Humber dock, which is 20 feet long,) containing
together 4,440 cubic feet. In the Whitefiiar-gate lock there are 956 bearing
piles, containing 9,862 cubic feet, and 600 lineal feet of sheeting piles 14 feet
6 inches long, amounting to 4,350 cubic feet.
It may be useful to know the actual weight sustained by some of these
piles. The bridges are each supported by about twenty-eight 16 feet piles,
and the superincumbent mass of masonry and iron being about 600 tons, there
is a load of upwards of 20 tons on each pile ; this is borne without settlement.
In variable ground it is not to be expected that all the piles can be equally
well driven ; but it may be stated, that the only yielding observed in the whole
of this work, was at the projecting comers of the locks adjoining the dock
wall, where a small crack, about the thickness of a knife blade, or little more,
appeared for a few courses below the coping, caused, as it is believed, not by
the sinking of the piles, but by the lateral pressure of the earth behind, on a
part which from its construction is necessarily weak.
Dock wall.. Plan. ^® procccd uow to thc dock walls, in the foundations of which
an arrangement of the piling somewhat different from that in
previous use was adopted. A row of bearing piles having been driven outside,
a wale, 12 by 6 inches, was bolted to it, and the sheet piling driven behind and
spiked to this wale. The back piles having also been driven, transverse
sleepers of half timber are fixed on the pile heads, and over them were laid three
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HARBOUR AND DOCKS AT KINGSTON-UPON-HULL. 35
longitudinal planks, 12 by 4 inches. Except the main piles, the whole is of
Memel timber, and well spiked together.
The space for 18 inches below the sleepers is filled up with brick rubbish,
or Hessle-cliff stone, puddled in with hot lime and sand, and a similar concrete
is laid at the foot of the wall, and covered with earth as an additional protection
to the foundation.
The wall is of brickwork, faced in part with stone, and built in mortar
consisting, for the backing, of one part of imslaked blue Warmsworth or Weldon
lime to three parts and a half of sharp, clean, fresh water sand, and, for the
front, two parts and a half of sand ; but a great part of the outside, or facing,
was set in the mortar hereafter described for the stonework.
The stone facing, which extends for a height of 1 1 feet 9 inches from the
top of the wall, is of Bramley-fall stone, in 12 inch courses, except the lowest
two courses, which are of Bamsley and Whitby stone, 15 inches thick ; the
coping is also 15 inches thick. The work is laid with one header to two
stretchers, the headers being 1 foot 9 inches to 2 feet 3 inches on face, by 2 feet
9 inches to 3 feet 3 inches in bed, and the stretchers 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet 6
inches long by 18 inches in bed, except at the comers of the dock, where they
are 2 feet deep. The joints are champhered in front, the four lower courses
are hammer dressed on face, and the rest neatly hosted. The coping, which
is 4 feet wide, is secured by a 4 inch square dowel at each joint.
All the masonry, except the hollow quoins, is set in mortar, composed of two
parts of unslaked blue Warmsworth or Weldon lime, one part of finely ground
pozzuolana, and four parts of clean, sharp, fresh water sand, tempered in a pug-
mill ; the mortar for the hollow quoins was composed of one part of lime from
Haling, near Rochester, one part of ground pozzuolana, and two parts of sand.
The whole of the mortar and grout was used in the hot or caustic state.
The walls, except near the church, are curved horizontally, (7 feet on
the east and west sides,) a mode of construction which, giving great additional
strength, is advantageous in all situations, but more particularly in soils like
those of the Hull docks.
Lock^ Plant. No.. 9 ^^® locks arc 120feet long within the gates, 36 feet 6 inches
"**^^ wide at top, and 25 feet high above the pointing sills ; the con-
struction of the two being, with some trivial exceptions, alike, a description of
one will suffice ; we take the fiirst begun, viz. that at Myton-gate.
The construction of the timber work of the foundations is believed to be
F 2
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36 MR. timpebley's account of the
in some degree new, and appears to connect the different portions together
more effectually than the ordinary mode. The piling is in rows driven
at the intervals shewn hy the sections, with additional piles under the hol-
low quoins and traverse rails, the better to support the weight of the gates.
Longitudinal sleepers of whole timber are laid upon the pile heads, and
over them transverse sills, 12 by 6 inches, and a foot apart in the chamber,
and 12 inches die square, close together, with water-tight joints, in the
platform ; in laying the sills of the platform, the last, which was about the
middle, was made tapering, and driven down by a pile engine, whereby
the joints were wedged up. These sills and sleepers are all of Memel timber,
but could elm of the requisite lengths and scantlings have been procured in
sufficient quantities, it would have been preferable, as spikes hold much better
in it, and drive without splitting the timber. The platforms are covered
with 6 inch elm planking, laid upon a bed of tarred felt, firmly spiked with
close water-tight joints. The platforms of the reversed gates were done nearly
in the same manner, but without felt, and the transverse sills are laid about
nine inches apart, the interstices being filled up with brickwork. For economy,
the foundations of the bridges were not laid so low as the rest of the lock, but
particular care was bestowed on the driving of the piles, which are 22 feet
long, by 11 inches square. The sills generally are spiked down, but in the
platforms they are secured by two dogs to each pile.
The pointing sills were not fixed till the lock was nearly completed. The
principal ones are of African oak, 18 inches die square ; they were sunk 1^
inch into the planking of the platform, strengthened by oak cleats abutting on
the back sill, and the whole secured by jagged bolts, straps, &c. A cast
iron plate, about 12 feet long by 5 inches wide, was secured to the top
of each sill near the middle of the lock, to prevent injury from deeply laden
vessels, and as a further security, there is a strong sill at each end of the
lock, laid level with the pointing sills. The reversed pointing sills are 14
inches square, and are secured nearly in the same manner as the principal
ones.
The ground was taken out to a foot below the heads of the piles, and the
space filled with Hessle-cliff stone, flushed with soft mortar up to the top of
the longitudinal sleepers ; the intervals between the transverse sills are made up
with bricks as a flooring for the inverted arch, which in the chamber of the
lock is entirely of brickwork, except the stone quoins at the ends. The invert
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HARBOUR AND DOCKS AT KINGSTON-UPON-HULL. 37
consists of three separate rings of headers set in pozzuolana mortar, the work
behind being laid in level courses with common mortar and well grouted : the
short inverted arches between the direct and reversed hollow quoins, are chiefly
of Mexborough stone, hosted on face and radiated in the joints ; the facing over
them is likewise of stone, as also that of the wings beyond. The work of the
side walls of the lock is generally of the same character as of those of the dock,
except that the stones of the facing are of somewhat larger dimensions and
greater depth of bed.
The hollow quoins are of Dundee stone, 5 feet 6 inches long by 3 feet 6
inches wide, and in 12 inch courses to correspond with the ashlar facing, laid
header and stretcher alternately, with two cast iron hollow dowels let into the
beds of each joint to unite all firmly together, and the part in which the heel-post
of the gate turns well rubbed to a smooth water-tight surface. The reversed
hollow quoins, so called from being intended to receive the gates in a reversed
position, are of Bramley-fall stone, dressed and set in like manner, but without
dowels.
The foundations of the bridge are brought solid to the proper level, and then
divided by partition walls of stonework into four pits, each about 4 feet wide,
to receive the ends or tails of the bridge when up.
Lock Ptan '^^ ^^^ gates are partly of English, partly of African oak,
** from the difficulty of procuring the former timber of the requisite
curve and size. They are framed and secured together in the usual way, with
3 inch fir planking closely jointed and caulked on one side, and 2^ inch fender
planks on the other. The gates were completely fitted on shore, and having
been taken apart, were reframed in the bottom.
Each gate is hung at top with a wrought iron collar in a cast iron anchor
let into the stonework ; and fitted to the lower extremity of the heel-post is an
iron socket, which turns on a brass pivot fixed in the platform, the outer end of
the gate being supported by a brass roller, 12 inches diameter by 4 inches wide,
fitted with an adjusting screw, revolving on a brass segment let into a cast iron
one screwed down to the platform ; the socket and shoe at the foot of the heel-
post being of cast iron, a brass circular plate, 1^ inch thick, is let into the
bottom quoin, to protect the stone from injury and prevent leakage. The
gangway or footpath is supported on cast iron brackets, and has a chain and
stanchion fence on each side.
The machinery for working the gates, which is fixed in a cast iron box on
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38 MR. timperley's account of the
the side of the lock, consists of a 7 inch pinion working into a spur wheel
4 feet diameter, on the axis of which is a cast iron roller, 3 feet long, and
varying from 12 to 9 inches in diameter ; romid this a f inch chain winds, and
passing mider a roller at the hottom of the well, and over another similar roller
in the face of the wall, is secured to the gate. There is also a counterbalance
weight and chain, as in the other locks.
There are two sets of sluices to each gate, with three doors in each set,
working on brass facings, in iron grooves, and so constructed that one set is
raised whilst the other is lowered ; which is done by the sluice-rod connected
with the screw at top having a rack upon it that turns a spur wheel working
into another rack attached to the other sluice-rod. By the disposition and
mode of adapting the sluices to the spaces between the bars, a capacious
opening is obtained without weakening the gates, and one man can perform
the work of two in the ordinary way, in less than half the time, — an important
consideration where economy and despatch are required. The machinery ought
to be completely enclosed, to prevent chips or other floating matter getting
inside, for want of which, one of these racks was broken soon after the dock
was opened ; and there should also be a slop to keep the sluices from falling
into the bottom of the lock in case of accident.
Each gate complete, it is calculated, weighs upwards of 20 tons, or each pair
40 tons ; the whole weight resting on the platform, which has not, however,
settled in the least, but is now as level and perfect as when first completed.
This, it need hardly be observed, is a most essential point in the working of
large gates that move on friction rollers at the bottom, as is also the perpendi-
cularity of the hollow quoins. To effectually ensure the latter point, Mr. Walker
judged it expedient to have all the hollow quoins securely land-tied ; this was
done by putting a 6 inch landing, or flag, about 12 feet long by 8 or 10 feet
deep, vertically behind the walls at the hollow quoins, with three 2 inch tie
rods, let through and secured to the flag by means of nuts and screws and
a wrought iron plate extending its whole length, the other ends of the
rods taking hold of the anchor and being cramped into the stonework. Three
similar tie rods are secured in like manner to the landing on the reverse side,
having a connecting ring at the outer end by which they are united to a
single tie extending to a row of piling about fifty feet from the side of the
lock, like that for securing the mooring rings in the dock walls, but with
shorter piles.
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HARBOUR AND DCKJKS AT KINGSTON-UPON-HULL. 39
Revminffgites. The rcverse hollow quoins and pointing sills, alluded to above,
are for facilitating the repairing of the lock when necessary ; in which case the
gates will be removed into these quoins, so that the water may be pumped out
of the lock for the repairs, without interrupting the business of the docks. This
plan was first adopted by Mr. Walker at the Commercial Docks in London,
where the gates were lifted by barges, and removed in a vertical position into
the reverse quoins, and were ready for emptying the lock in one tide. The
arrangement is simple, and attended with but little extra expense, — ^points that
cannot fail to recommend its adoption.
Bridges. The bridges over the locks are on the balance or lifting prin-
ciple, and consist of eight cast iron ribs, 9 inches deep at the centre or meeting
by 1^ inch thick in the plain part, and 2 to 3 inches at the edges, connected
together by two sets of cast iron crosses to each half or leaf, the lowest being
close to the abutment, by hollow pipes and bolts nearer the middle, and by the
meeting plates, which fit together with a tongue and groove. When the bridge
is down, the under side or soflBt of the ribs forms an arch of 36 feet 6 inches
span, and 3 feet 6 inches rise, resting on cast iron abutment plates fixed in the
masonry at the sides. From near the axis, the ribs curve down below the fixed
part of the bridge, and terminate in boxes filled with kentlidge, by way of coun-
terbalance, each box being attached to two ribs. The axis on which the bridge
turns is 9 inches square, with five turned bearings working in plummer blocks
bedded on the stonework, the centre being 5 feet 3 inches from the side of the
lock. The fixed part of the bridge is supported by iron joists resting on the
division walls of the pits above described. The roadway is formed very much
as in the bridge over the Old dock lock.
The bridge is lifted by means of four crabs, two on each side ; the handle
is applied to a 6 inch pinion, which works into a spur wheel, 4 feet diameter,
having on its axis a 12 inch pinion, which works into a toothed segment, 5 feet
9 inches radius, fixed to the outer rib of the bridge.
When the bridge was nearly finished, it was found that a variable coimter-
balance weight was necessary in addition to the kentlidge, to render it nearly
on an equipoise in all positions ; this is eflfected by hooking to the tail two
chains, which passing over pulleys fixed in the stonework at the back, and
from thence over two other pulleys on the dock wall, are attached to a chain,
composed of heavy flexible links, hanging into the bridge pit ; when the bridge
is up, the chain is just clear of the bottom, and assists by its gravity to draw
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40 MK. timpeeley's account of the
it down, and as the bridge descends and less balance is required, the weight
of the chain, by falling on the bottom is reduced accordingly, till the kentlidge
alone acts. In raising the bridge, exactly the reverse of this takes place.
The weight of each bridge is about 100 tons ; one half or leaf is usually
opened or shut by three men in half a minute, but in an emergency two can
do the work.
In comparing the balance with the swivel bridge, it may be observed that
the former wiU work longer without adjustment, and is also stronger, from
bearing more firmly upon its abutments ; but it is more affected by the wind,
the original cost is greater, and double the number of men are required to
work it.
The bridges and lock gates were constructed by Messrs. Himter and English,
Millwrights, of Bow, London, who deserve credit for the complete and work-
manlike manner in which they executed their contract ; the ironwork was cast
at Alfreton, Derbyshire.
Quay*. The part of the backing for a width of a yard next the dock
and lock walls is composed of the best clay or loamy earth well rammed, so
as to be water-tight, and the top of the quay afterwards levelled and trimmed,
with a declination of | inch in a yard from the side of the dock, covered for a
foot in thickness with Hessle-cliff stone and shingle gravel, and having a paved
channel towards the outside, with proper grates for the rain water. The
quay is nearly level with the streets, on the east side of the dock, but six or
seven feet above them on the west side, where it is supported for a considerable
distance by a retaining wall.
There is a post and chain fence round the dock, about 15 feet from the side,
and a railway is laid outside the east quay, within 5 feet of the footpath, to
connect the railways of the Old and H umber dock, as already noticed.
Moorings. Plan. ^^ ^^^ ^^* ^^^® ^^ ^^ dock, at intcrvals of about twenty
yards, there are wrought iron mooring rings, fixed in front of the
wall underneath the coping, and coupled to a wrought iron tie rod, the outer
end of which is secured to a waling, behind a row of piling driven at some
distance back. The ring is prevented from being lifted, by a wrought iron
vertical plate sunk in and secured to the stonework by means of three dove-
tailed screw bolts, let into the wall. This plate being convex, and projecting
a little from the wall, at the same time answers in some measure the purpose of
a fender. The rings make very durable and excellent moorings, and have
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HARBOUR AND DOCKS AT KINGSTON-UPON-HULL. 41
besides the advantage of keeping the quajrs clear of ropes and chains, which
are always an annoyance to business.
The moorings for the other parts of this dock, in consequence of the Com-
pany having had timber on hand, are oak posts, about 18 feet long, and 15 to
18 inches diameter near the top, fixed about 12 feet from the side of the dock,
and secured by two Memel land ties, 9 by 6 inches, about 30 feet long, and
diverging outwards, like the letter V, so as to be about 10 yards apart at the
outer end, where they are bolted to a sill behind piling, nearly in the same
manner as the ring moorings. The timber underground is all charred^ for
preservation. The moorings to the locks are either of small cannon or of
Bramley-faU stone, 2 feet diameter, and are 3 feet 6 inches high.
Buoy.. There are six buoys for warping and mooring vessels in the
dock ; they are 6 feet 6 inches square, by 4 feet 6 inches deep, made solid of
Memel logs, with a casing of 3 inch fir planking spiked on tarred woollen felt,
and the joints caulked. The ring is secured to a wrought iron bolt driven
through the centre of the buoy ; underneath hang a shackle and chain 9 yards
long, the lower end of which is fastened to a strong timber framing bolted to
four piles, 20 feet long, driven below the bottom of the dock.
8«wen. There are two main sewers for draining the quays and some
parts of the town adjacent ; that on the east side of the dock is 9 feet below
the coping, and extends from Whitefriar-gate to Myton-gate, where it joins the
Humber dock sewer. The other commences at the west side of Whitefriar-gate
bridge, and joins the town sewers near the Dock Company's workshops on the
west side of this dock ; its bottom is 12 to 13 feet below the dock coping.
The sewers for draining the bridge pits are 2 feet wide by 3 feet high in
the middle ; the pits on the east side being 2 or 3 feet below the bottom of the
sewer, the water has to be pumped out occasionally ; but on the west side, the
drainage by the new sewer is effectual
A scouring sluice near Postern gate cleanses the sewer on the east side of
the dock, and another near St John's Church, that on the west These sluices
are both alike, and of cast iron, 3 feet 3 inches wide by 3 feet high inside,
sliding in a cast iron groove in the face of the dock wall, and worked by a
screw : their bottoms are 9 feet below the coping, and there is an oak fr*ame
with folding doors on the outside to protect the sluices, which communicate
with the main sewers by a culvert, 3 feet square. The sewer at Postern gate
VOL. I. o
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42 ME. timperley's account of the
is provided with two of these sluices, by opening one and shutting the other
of which, the scour is to the north or south as may be required.
The sluice at the east end of St. John's Church was built at the expense of
the commissioners under the Myton Improvement Act ; the water, after passing
along part of the Company's sewer, cleanses several others in Myton, and pro-
ceeding still further westward, discharges itself into the Humber at the general
outfall in Lime-kiln Creek.
Water pipefc Thc plpcs for Supplying the town with water, which formerly
were across the site of Whitefriar-gate lock, were removed while the works
were in progress, and laid across the coffer-dam, as noticed before. In building
the lock, a cavity, 2 feet 9 inches wide by 15 inches deep, was formed in the
face of the stonework, across the bottom and up the sides to the level of high
water of neap tides, and in this cavity two 8 inch cast iron pipes were laid,
and secured to the stonework by a flanch cramped down at each joint ; the
space round was then fiUed in solid with brickwork, and covered with cast
iron plates, bolted to the masonry. There are two bonnet pipes at the
middle of the invert, made a little deeper than the rest, to contain any sedi-
ment that may remain, and so formed that the top can be taken off and the
pipe cleansed by means of the diving bell ; but to prevent any great accumu-
lation, there is a small chain inside the pipes, by drawing which backwards
and forwards it is supposed the sediment will be disturbed, and carried away
by the force of the water. From the level of high water of neap tides, the
pipes are built inside the wall, and carried up in a slanting direction to the
height of the under side of the coping, near which they are joined by the
regidar mains leading from the water works into the town. Before these pipes
were used, they were proved by means of the force-pump of a fire engine, to a
pressure of upwards of 200 feet of water.
ofttptpet. About the end of 1828, the Hull Oil Gas Company requested
permission to lay a gas pipe under each of the Junction dock locks ; this was
granted them on certain conditions, and the Dock Company also resolved to
lay two pipes in each place at their own expense, in order to prevent the
possibility of a monopoly, and so at all times secure to the town and its environs
a supply of gas at a reasonable rate: as the locks were at this time nearly com-
pleted, the work was attended with some diflBculty, and much greater expense
than if it had been done at an earlier period.
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HARBOUR AND DOCKS AT KING8T0N-UP0N-HULL. 43
The provisioD made at the two locks was nearly the same; we shall
describe that at Whitefiriar-gate, In the first place, there was sunk, on each
side at the north end of the lock, a shaft or well 30 feet deep, steined with
brickwork, at the bottom of which an aperture was made under the foundation
of the walls to receive the pipes \ a trench was then cut across the bottom,
and two rows of piles, 9 feet asunder, driven down 4 feet below the dock
sills ; transverse cap sil^ were next bolted on the pile heads, and blocking sills
firmly spiked to them, on which 10 inch pipes in 9 feet lengths, with spigot
and faucit joints, were, after being proved, laid with a declivity of 12 inches
from side to side, to allow the sediment from the gas to run to tar cisterns
provided at the bottom of the wells ; the cisterns that belong to the Dock
Company being on one side, and the Gas Company's on the other. In order
to guard the pipes from injury, two longitudinal sills, 9 inches wide by I7
inches deep, and extending from wall to waD, were fixed, one on each side, on
the transverse sills, and brickwork laid in the foundations as high as the under
side of the pipes, which were then surrounded with a 4^ inch brick ring set in
Parker's cement, and the rest built up with brickwork to the under side of the
longitudinal sleepers, which were connected together at top by cross ties. The
whole was afterwards covered with earth to the level of the dock bottom, the
openings imder the walls closely bricked up, and the wells coped and covered
with oak planking. The tar cisterns were laid on large 6 inch flags, and had
short pipes at the side and top to unite with the horizontal and vertical gas
pipes ; these pipes not having yet been wanted, are still unconnected with the
street pipes, but this can soon be done when required.
Breach in coflto^iam. It has becu bcforc observed, that a preventer dam was made
across the Myton-gate lock-pit ; for further security, as soon as the south gates
were hung, they were ordered to be securely braced, to prevent any irrup-
tion of water from the Humber into the new dock. The cofier-dam at the
Whitefriar-gate lock being less extensive, was considered safer, and it was at
first thought the bracing of the gates might be dispensed with, but the con-
tractor having prematurely begun to remove the temporary bridge, with a view
no doubt to expedite the completion of the work, the coflter-dam being connected
therewith was placed in jeopardy, and it became necessary that these gates
should also be securely braced. This precaution was soon found to be of the
utmost advantage both to the work and for the safety of the shipping.
The following spring tides, in the morning of 2 1st M£u*ch, 18S9> there
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44 MR. timperley's account of the
appeared a small leakage under the east end of the coffer-dam, which it was
attempted to stop by treading in a quantity of tempered clay, but without
success, as the leak still continued, and in three hours there were several feet of
water between the dam and the lock gates ; the leakage then increased very
rapidly, and filled the above space so fast, that for the safety of the gates, it
was thought advisable to draw the sluices and let the water flow into the dock:
about the same time the sluices of the Old dock gates were also opened, to
lower the water in that dock, then about 19 feet deep on the lock sills, in order
to reduce the pressure upon the Junction dock gates ; but the breach under
the dam soon after became so extensive as to undermine the Old dock wall,
and in the course of the forenoon a length of about 60 feet of it fell down.
This in some measure stopped the leak, and the water rose more slowly after-
wards ; but the succeeding tide it was nearly on the same level in the Old and
Junction docks.
Happening as it did, near the conclusion of a great work that had been so far
successfully carried on, this accident is to be regretted, and the more, as it might
certamly have been avoided by deferring the removal of the temporary bridge
a week or two longer, when the works would have been in such a state as to
have allowed the dock to be filled with water in the regular way ; yet the
damage might have been infinitely greater, had not the Junction dock gates
been closed and secured previously to the accident ; it was this, indeed, that
prevented the dam from being blown up altogether, in which case, from the
tremendous rush of water through the lock, the consequences to this part of
the work would in all probability have been most disastrous, while the shipping
in the Old dock near the dam must inevitably have been swept with violence
into the lock, and most serious damage been the result.
On being apprised of this accident, Mr. Walker repaired to Hull without
loss of time, and finding the works so far advanced that they might be com-
pleted with the diving bell, advised the immediate removal of both coffer-dams
and temporary bridges, and that the materials left in the bottom of the dock
and locks should be taken out by the bell at the same time. He also recom-
mended that the Old dock wall should be rebuilt upon piles, about 1 1 feet below
the top of the wall, having a row of close piling with a substantial wale in
the front, well land tied, with cross sleepers and planks over all ; this was
accordingly done, and a stone string course laid on the front piling, upon which
the brick wall was erected in the course of three or four weeks.
by^
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HARBOUR AND DOCKS AT KINGSTON-UPON-HULL. 45
Removal of tempo- ^^ removiiig the temporary bridges and coffer-dams, the piles
~y*°'*^ were principally drawn by the engine crabs, with double blocks
and chains, and so firmly did they hold, that some of them required sixteen
men with four crabs to move them, but in general half this power was suffi-
cient ; after the piles were started, one crab with four men (assisted by the
buoyancy of the water) accomplished the business. The power applied to some
of these piles was not less than from fifteen to twenty tons. There being
occasion in the course of the work to draw several of the sheeting piles in the
Whitefiiar-gate lock pit, a 4 inch screw was used, and one of the piles, 14 feet
long by 12 inches wide, required, on the most moderate calculation, a power of
18 tons to draw it, the soil being nearly a pure sand ; another pile could not
be drawn by even a greater force, until a hole was dug round it, but the others,
being in softer ground, moved more easily. In examining the sheeting piles
when drawn we found the points (none of which were shod) generally in a
good state ; a few, which were driven into a sheer black sand, bruised a little
and some of the grooves, originally 2 inches wide, increased to 3 inches, from
having been forced outwards by the tongue in the hard soil.
After the dam and bridge piles were all drawn, and the part of the puddle
above water removed, the remainder of the puddle and the earth at the foot of
the dams were taken up by the dredging machines.
Dock opened. Thc dock was pubUcly opened on the 1st June, 1829, being
little more than two years and a half from the commencement of the work.
Mortar and lime. Thc Wanusworth haviug been represented as a good water
lime, the work was begun with mortar made from it and sand only; but
from the bad state of similar mortar in the Humber dock walls, when taken
down, and from some experiments, the lime appeared not to answer the
description given of it, and Mr. Walker recommended the front of the dock and
lock walls to be set in pozzuolana mortar, which was accordingly done. At this
time the greater part of the east wall of the dock, and a part on the south side
of St. John's Church, were as high as the under side of the stonework, and it
was observed that, notwithstanding the thickness and solidity of the walls,
the water in very wet weather found its way through, so that they were
exceedingly damp even in front, and in several places the water literally ran
down the face of them ; this was ascribed to the mortar and grout not harden-
ing sufficiently, as in all cases where the front was set in pozzuolana mortar^
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46 MR. timperley's account of the
although the walls were a little damp in places, the water never penetrated
through.
It may be proper in this place to state very briefly the result of some
experiments on various kinds of mortar, which were made by the writer at
Mr. Walker^s request. The specimens were in small flat cakes, dried for a few
days before being put into water. With respect to the quality of the lime,
but little difference was foimd between the Warmsworth, the Weldon, and
Fairbume ; none of them mixed only with sand ever hardening in water,
but on the contrary dissolving quite in the course of a few weeks. Experi-
ments were also made with these limes mixed with sand and pounded bricks
or brick dust ; with sand and minion^ or pounded iron scales ; and with sand,
pounded scales, and bricks, in various proportions ; but none of these different
compositions shewed any tendency to become hard in water, and were indeed
little better than lime and sand only. Several specimens made with the same
kinds of lime mixed with sand and pozzuolana in various proportions, were then
tried, and it was found that one of lime, one of pozzuolana, and two of sand,
made an excellent mortar, either in or out of water ; but, for economy, a
mortar composed of two of lime, one of pozzuolana, and four of sand, was after-
wards adopted, which, although it did not indurate quite so soon, retained its
hardness in the water, and was but very little inferior to the former. Some
experiments were also made with mortar of Haling lime and sand only,
which, though superior to that made with the Warmsworth or Weldon lime,
was by no means to be compared with the pozzuolana mortar, and as the
expense was nearly the same, there was no hesitation in giving the latter the
preference.
stone. A few words descriptive of the stone used may not be improper.
The Bramley-fall, got from an extensive quarry on the side of the Leeds and
Liverpool canal, about four miles west of Leeds, is a coarse sand-stone, or mill-
stone grit, of an excellent quality, and in durability as a building stone in all
situations, perhaps inferior to none in this country except granite. Kirkstall
Abbey, which is near seven centuries old, is built of it, and although the
building is now a ruin, the stone generally is very perfect and entire. The Old
bridge of Leeds is built of a similar stone ; this structure has been twice
widened, but the original part is very ancient, and still in a good state of pre-
servation ; as are also some of the locks on the Aire and Calder Navigation,
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HARBOUR AND DOCKS AT KINGSTON-UPON-HULL. 47
which have heen erected more than fifty years. The Bamsley and Whithy
are hoth fine sand-stones ; the former, a sharp grit, much in use for grind*
stones : they are generally used in their immediate neighbourhoods for building
in water and otherwise, and some beds of each are very durable ; but they are
both much inferior in this respect to Bramley-fall. The Dundee stone used in
the hollow quoms is a fine grained close stone, very hard and durable, though on
account of its laminated structure, improper for coping, and if quarried a little
before or dming winter time, liable to be rent by the frost. There were several
other kinds of stone brought on the ground, particularly the Mexborough, but
being of inferior quality, they were only used in the inverted arches of the locks,
and other parts constantly under water. Whilst upon this subject, it may be
proper to observe, that by fronting the walls with stone above high water
of neap tides, they have been rendered exceedingly durable as compared with
a brick facing, without materially adding to the expense.
Lockage. Thc passsgc of a ship through the lock, including the opening
and shutting of the bridge, usually occupies about five minutes, but frequently
little more than half that time ; six to eight heavy laden ships, besides small
craft, have passed through Whitefriar-gate lock in an hour, proper time being
also allowed for the passengers and traffic over the bridge, which is here very
great.
In stating the waste of water, or leakage, it should be noticed that there
are seven scouring sluices besides the eight sluices of the entrance lock gates.
From a series of observations made on Sundays, when there is no waste by
locking, the leakage of the three docks is about three quarters of an inch per
hour in spring tides, and half an inch in neaps.
Mud. The accumulation of mud in the Junction Dock has hitherto
been very little, certainly not more than at the rate of an inch a year ; so that
the total quantity of mud in the three docks now, is not so great as in the two
docks heretofore ; and as the steam dredger has now a ready communication
with the diflPerent docks, it performs the whole work, the horse machine having
been altogether dispensed with since 1829.
state of waus. Haviug bcforc described the state of the mortar in the Old and
Humber dock walls, I shall here give a very brief description of that in the
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48 MR. timpeeley's account of the
Junction dock. The common front mortar, especially that used late in autumn,
all suffered more or less injury from frost ; and no part of it, so far as there has
been opportunity of examining, has hitherto, where damp, acquired any consi-
derable degree of hardness ; nevertheless, as the walls are aU substantially
founded and solidly built, it is confidently expected that the mortar will continue
to indurate till the whole becomes one compact body. The pozzuolana mortar
in the front of the walls, even before the water was let in, was in general
hard and good, the only defective part being in the west end of the dock,
where the wall was damp in consequence of being backed with wet soft earth j
some part of this mortar, being used late in the year, was a little perished by
the frost, and required fresh pointing, but the front of the walls has been fi^
quently examined since the dock was opened, and the joints foimd every-
where as perfect and entire bs at first In some parts of the work, accidentally
injured by the shipping, and taken down and rebuilt, the pozzuolana mortar
was foimd in a good state, although not so hard in the interior as in the front ;
the mortar in the beds of the stonework, also, was more indurated than in the
vertical joints, and for the most part adhered much firmer.
Town-waiisorforti. ^^ ^^^ coursc of thc works of thc Junction Dock, a part of the
'*****°°*' old fortifications on the east side was cut through and taken
down ; from their antiquity they may be deemed not unworthy of notice.
The walls are said to have been originally built of stone in the time of Edward
the Second, but repaired and strengthened with bricks in Richard the Second's
reign, when the art of brick-making was revived in this country. The bricks
were about 1 1 inches long by 5^ inches wide, and 2^ inches thick. The mortar
was of two kinds, one composed of lime and sand only, the other of lime and
powdered bricks or tiles, with very little sand ; both were, with a very few
exceptions, extremely hard, the latter being the more so. The mortar appeared
to have been used in a very soft state, or as grout, but by no means well
tempered, small lumps of pure lime, resembling hard tallow, being interspersed
in great abundance. In three or four of the bottom courses, and nine to eighteen
inches in width at the back of the wall, where it was in a damp state, it
had not set in the least, and at the bottom in particular, appeared like pure
sand, while the neighbouring parts, being dry, were particularly hard, and
united together like a rock. It is a generally received opinion, that the extreme
hardness of the mortar in old buildings is owing entirely to its having been
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HAEBOUB AND DOCKS AT KINGSTON-UPON-HULL. 49
much better tempered in aiicient than in modem times ; although there is no
doubt that this is a most essential point in all kinds of mortar, it is conceived
that the superiority is caused chiefly if not wholly by time^ and that mortar
continues to harden in certain situations probably for centuries. The founda-
tions were eight or ten feet under high water, and in some parts were on small
piles, the rest being on the natural ground. The piles were 5 or 6 feet long,
and 6 or 7 inches diameter, some of oak, some of fir, and the hearts of both
kinds quite sound and of a blackish colour, but the sap much decayed.
Tkittnideiimnts '* ^^ cxpectcd whcu tho Juuctiou dock was opened, that it
iDdockt. ^ouid^ on account of its situation, be in a great measure supplied
with water from the Humber, but the contrary has been the case, the prin-
cipal supply being certainly from the river Hull, as is proved by the altered
quantities of mud deposited in the Old and Humber docks already noticed ;
there being an annual increase of mud in the Old dock of about 4,000 tons, and
a decrease in the Humber dock of about 6,000 tons, since the Jimction dock
was opened, as compared with former years. This also shews, that even the
Humber dock is in part supplied from the purer source of the Hull.
As a further elucidation of the nature and course of the tides since the
Junction dock was opened, the following observations are submitted. During
the night tides and on Sundays, when no business is done in the docks, the
Humber dock gates are secured fast together, in order to shut out the muddy
waters of the Humber. On one of these occasions, very soon after this con-
trivance was adopted, I noticed that, the water being level on the two sides
when the gates were thus shut, the flow was faster on the side next the Himi-
ber for the first quarter of an hour, at the end of which the difference was at
its maximum of about three inches ; the water on the opposite sides then began
to approximate again, and at the end of fifteen minutes more it was again
exactly level throughout. This observation has been since repeated with nearly
the same result, though varying a little, according to the state of the tides, and
as there may be freshes in the river Hull ; in one instance the difference of level
was as much as four inches. It appears, then, that the principal supply from
the Humber is in the first half hour after the tidal water arrives at the level of
the water in the docks, and this agrees with the current or course of the tide
through the different locks. I have frequently set off from the Old dock lock
at the time the tidal water opened the gates and began to flow into the dock,
and have walked slowly on to the Whitefriar-gate lock, where the water had
VOL. I. H
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MB. TIMPEKLEY S ACCOUNT OF THE
imenced running very gently into the Junction dock; proceeding
to the Myton-gate lock, I have generally found the water stagnant, but
mrse of a few minutes there appeared a very slow motion towards the
dock, and by the time I have arrived at the Humber lock, or about
hour after leaving the Old dock lock, the water was running gently
the Humber. It should be observed, that in neap tides the above
through the locks are always slow, but in spring tides, and when there
les in the HuU, the velocity is often as much as three quarters of a mile
% and sometimes even more. The current into the Old dock through
•ance lock is also considerably increased since the Junction dock
ie ; from observations soon after the opening of the latter, as to
3t level of the tide at the entrances to the Old and Humber docks, it
nd that, on an average of several tides, the gates of the former were
by the rising tide about three minutes before those of the Humber
re leaving the subject of the tides, I may notice a curious fact, founded
peated observation ; viz., that about three hours before and after high
here is sixteen feet water on the Humber, and only ten feet on the
k siU.
Ml. Having thus endeavoured to give a concise account of the
r and Docks at Kingston-upon-Hull, with reference to that department
unediately connected with the object of the Institution for which this
as been drawn up, I cannot conclude without again briefly adverting to
it and important advantage the town and port have derived from the
ments described.
but little more than half a century since the first dock was completed ;
hat time, the river Hidl below the bridge was the only safe harbour in
t, and in this narrow confined space the shipping and small craft were
ded tqgether, that it was often with great diflBculty they could have
;o the quays to take in or deliver their cargoes, and damage was sus-
►y the larger vessels from grounding every tide. It also sometimes hap-
hat the harbour was incapable of containing all the shipping that
:ed the port, in which case they were laden and delivered in the Humber
LS of craft, at the expense of much delay and considerable additional
These inconveniences, and the want of a legal quay, with the com-
hey gave rise to on the part of the revenue officers, at length led to the
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HARBOUR AND DOCKS AT KING8T0N-UP0N-HULL.
51
formation of a dock, which in time was followed by another. But, extensive
and commodious as were the Old and Humber docks, for want of a ready pas-
sage between them they were still incomplete, — ^the Junction dock has perfected
the communication ; and instead of being surrounded, as of old, by fortified walls
and deep ditches, which (their occupation being gone) had latterly become
stagnant pools, the common receptacles for filth aud nuisance, the town is now
encircled by the rivers Humber aud Hull, aud three spacious and commodious
docks ; improving the public health by the assistance afforded to drainage
through the liberality of the Dock Company, and rivalling, in convenience for
mercantile men and facilities for the despatch of business, those of any port in
the kingdom. These, and the means of inland communication, enjoyed or in
prospect, with a district peculiarly rich in minerals and manufactures, added
to its situation on so noble an estuary, and its contiguity to the continent,
cannot fail to maintain the eminent rank Hidl has hitherto held among British
ports.
DOCKS.
Old Dock
Humber Dock
Junctioii Dock .
Length.
Breadth.
Area.
Number of
Ship*.
FMt.
1703
914
645
FMt.
254
342
407
Aenf.Roodi.FDlM.
9 3 29
7 24
6 5
100 '
70
60 ;
23 18
230
BASINS.
Old Dock . . .
Humber Dock
Length.
BiMdth.
Are*.
FMt.
213
267
FMt.
80)
435
Acni. Roodi.PolM.
1 23
2 2 27
3 10
h2
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52
MB, TIMPEBLEY'S ACCOUNT, ETC.
ENTRANCE LOCKS.
Old Dock . . .
Length.
Breidth.
Depth of Water on Sill* at
Neap Tidet. Spring Tidet.
FMt. In.
120 9
Feet. b.
38
Feet. In.
14
F«et. b.
20
Humber Dock
158
42
20
26
Junction Dock
120
36 6
14
20
BRIDGES.
Old Dock . . .
Humber Dock
Junction Dock
Each
Footway.
Carriage.
way*.
Widdi inside
RaUing.
Total widdi
outaide.
Feet. In.
3 6
2 8
4
FeM. In.
7 6
6 11
15 3
FmC In.
14 6
12 3
23 3
FMt. In.
15
12 6
24
WAREHOUSES AND SHEDS.
Warehouses, Old Dock
Sheds, Ditto . . .
Sheds, Humber Dock
Length.
Breadth.
Area.
Ftet
345
C 143
( 492
754
Feet
23^
23j
25
SupertctolYuiti.
2,251
1,623
2,095
QUAYS.
Old Dock . .
Humber Dock
Junction Dock
Humber Dock Basin
Legd Qni^
Square Yardi.
18,160
8,830
26,990
Totib.
Square Yards.
29,000
17,639
15,643
8,419
70,701
I
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53
II. On the Locks commonly used for River and Caned Namgation. By
Mr. W. A. Provis, M.Inst. C.E.
\st. Simple dam locks.
The earliest approximation to what is now known by the name of lock, con-
sisted of a simple dam formed across the bed of a river, so as to raise the water
to such a height as to allow vessels to float along it Where the river had a
considerable fall with a strong current, it was necessary to have these dams at
short distances from each other, otherwise the requisite depth of water could not
be obtained. As the whole space between two of these dams was in fact the lock,
it was necessary in passing from one level to another, to run down the water
for the whole of that distance, thereby causing considerable delay, and a waste of
water that would now be considered a serious eviL In China these dams are
very common ; they have also been used on the continent of Europe, and what
is not a little extraordinary, are at this very day in use in our own country.
My brother having given me a description of one of these which he saw on
the river Ouse, near Tempsford, in Bedfordshire, I here insert it The river is
somewhat contracted in its breadth by a wall on each bank, between these
two a third, or middle wall, is built, with cutwater ends. At the middle of
each of the passages formed by these walls a sill is extended across the bottom
of the channel, and pile planks are driven along its upper side, with the
necessary sheeting to prevent the water getting under it On one of the side
walls a beam similar to the balance of a common canal lock gate is placed, which
turning horizontally upon an axis, one end is made to abut against a projecting
piece of timber which is fixed in the middle wall \ this beam and the before
mentioned sill form the top and bottom of a frame, on the upper side of which
a row of vertical planks is placed, one at a time, so as to form the working
dam ; the other space has a piece of timber fixed at the top of its two side
walls, corresponding with the sill below, and vertical planks are placed between
these in the same manner as at the other opening, but as vessels are not in-
tended to pass through more than one of the openings, the upper beam in the
other is fixed. The use of this second space or opening is to allow the water
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54 MR. PROVIS ON THE LOCKS USED FOR
to be run off more expeditiously, particularly during floods. In going up the
stream, a vessel passes the place where the temporary dam is to be formed,
and then the moveable or balance beam is swung round, the vertical planks
put down, and the water thereby completely stopped till it rises to such a
height as to run over the top of the dam ; before this takes place, the vessel
has sufficient water, and she proceeds on her voyage to the next dam above ;
these dams are kept open when there is no vessel near, and at all other times
when there is sufficient water for navigation without penning it up. It may
appear, at first, that it would be more advisable to have a complete gate similar
to those now generally used on canal locks, but a gate would be attended
with these inconveniences, that the water could not be run out in so short a
time by its paddles as it can when the whole space which the gate would
occupy is available, and also the difficulty of opening against a rapid stream a
gate of the required size. Though this principle of damming up the water was
a valuable improvement in our river navigation at the time it was introduced,
yet as it is only applicable when water is abundant, and must at this time be
considered a very rude mode of passing from one level to another, it requires
no argument to shew that it must soon give way to the adoption of our modem
locks.
2rf. Lock with a double set of gates^ but no chamber watts.
The evils attendant on the dams just described were in a great measure
removed by the introduction of double sets of gates or sluices ; the upper set
being constructed so near to the lower, as only to leave room enough for the
vessel or vessels to float between them. Framed gates were also used instead
arate beams and planks, because the space to be emptied or filled was so
that a very short time was required to pass the water ; and there was
earn of sufficient strength to prevent their being easily opened. Where
locks are intended for rivers, it is usual to make a side cut or artificial
for the purposes of the navigation, and to leave the river course for the
re of the surplus water. A quick bend of the river is generally chosen
e of these cuts, and to keep the water in the upper part of the river to a
ent height for navigation, a dam or weir is made across the old river
\ at or below the point where the artificial cut quits it. The lock is then
it the most convenient part of the cut, and its fall made equal to the dif«
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RIVER AND CANAL NAVIGATION. 55
ference in the levels of the water at the top and at the bottom of the dam or
weir. When a vessel is going up the river, she floats along the cut, and passes
between the lower gates into the lock, the lower gates are then closed, and the
valves or paddles of the upper gates being opened, the water flows into the
lock, and rises to the level of the upper part of the river ; the upper gates are
then opened, and the vessel floats out of the lock. Of course the reverse of
this operation would conduct a vessel down the river.
It will be obvious to every one, that the sides of these locks must rise above
the level of the higher part of the river, otherwise the water would flow over
and injure them. The gates should also rise above the highest water's surface,
or the water would flow over their tops and probably into the passing vessel,
so as to endanger its safety or damage its cargo. It has been common to make
the gates no higher than the water's surface, but the before mentioned incon-
veniences shew the necessity of making them higher, and of constructing the
dam or weir of sufficient breadth to take off with facility all the surplus water.
The abutments for the gates have been made of timber, brickwork and
masonry, but when the double set of gates was first introduced, it was usual to
leave the space between the upper and lower gates unprotected by either timber
or any kind of building. Of course the agitation of the water in the lock was
constantly washing away the earthen banks, thereby causing a risk of their
being broken down by such continued weakening ; and by enlarging the space
between the two sets of gat«s, it occasioned a loss of time in emptying and
filling, as well as a waste of water.
3d. Lock with a double set of gates, and the sides of the chamber secured
by timber.
To check the mischievous tendency of leaving the chamber improtected, the
side banks of many old locks have been in part secured by driving a row of
piles along the base of each slope, and fixing planks at the back of them, so as
to form a wooden wall for about half the height of the lock ; but there is some-
times a risk in trying this experiment, for the space between the two sets of
gates being frequently lined or covered with puddle, resting on a porous sub-
stratum, the water often escapes by the sides of the piles, and causes not only
leakage but a danger of blowing up the lock. Examples of this sort of lock
may be seen on the river Lea navigation.
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56 MR. PROVIS ON THE LOCKS USED FOR
4fth. Common m^xlern canal lock.
It was not until the construction of artificial canals became very general
that locks were brought to any thing like perfection, for the difficulty of pro-
curing sufficient supplies of water had been but partially felt when our inland
navigation was confined to a few of the principal rivers.
When canals had spread themselves in various directions over the country,
and water became so scarce and valuable as to be the cause of much litigation
and expense, it was necessary to be careful of every resource, and to use it
with the strictest economy. For this purpose, the space between the upper and
lower gates was contracted to such a breadth as only to leave room enough for
the vessel, and the bottom and sides were constructed of brickwork or masonry,
instead of sloping banks of earth. By these means the superficial area of the
lock was reduced to very little more than that of the vessel, and consequently
was as small as it could be made.
The difference of altitude between the upper and lower levels, where the
locks are constructed, varies according to local circumstances. Where the
ground is longitudinally steep and water plentiful, the locks are generally made
of greater lift or fall than where the ground is comparatively flat and water
scarce. It is evident that, where the superficial area of locks is the same, one
having a rise of 12 feet would require twice the quantity of water to fill it
that would be requisite for one of 6 feet. Having many locks, however, of
small lifts instead of a few of greater, increases the expense as well as the time
for passing them.
For narrow canals these locks are generally made about 80 feet long,
and 7i to 8 feet wide in the chamber. On the Caledonian canal they are 180
feet long, 40 feet wide, and 30 feet deep. Locks are also constructed of every
intermediate size.
Lock gates have till lately been made of timber ; but in consequence of
the difficulty of procuring it of sufficient size for those on the Caledonian canal,
cast iron was partially adopted for the heads, heels, and ribs. Iron gates, cast
in one piece, have been used on the Ellesmere canal, as well as others with
cast-iron framing and timber planking.
Whether constructed in a smgle leaf, or a pair of leaves, the gates of
locks are usually made to turn horizontally upon a pivot at the bottom of the
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RIVER AND CANAL NAVIGATION.
57
heel ; but there is a singular exception at the locks on the Shrewsbury canal,
where, at each end of the lock, a single gate is made to rise and fall vertically,
in grooves in the side walls. A pulley is fixed on its axis about 12 feet above
the lock, over this a chain is passed, one end of wnich is fixed to the top of
the gate, and the other to a weight, by which the gate is so nearly balanced
as to allow of its being worked up and down by one man. On entering or
quitting the lock, the boats pass imder these gates.
I am not aware of any lock in England of greater rise than 18 feet, but
Tatham in his work on canals, (p. 164,) mentions one of 20 feet rise, built
in 1643, by Dubie, between Ypres and Fumes, to connect the canals which
bear those names. There are two pairs of upper gates to this lock to guard
against accidents.
On the Languedoc canal there is a celebrated circular lock, which has had
more credit bestowed upon it than it deserves. The fact is, it is nothing more
than a circular basin, into which three canals of different levels descend by
common locks.
Various modifications of this principle have from time to time been adopted,
either to save water, time, or expense.
5th. Locks with side ponds.
When water is scarce, it is common to construct side ponds, by which a
considerable portion (in general one half) is saved. The usual number of these
ponds is two, for it has been determined by experience, that when a greater
number have been made use of, the loss occasioned by leakage and evaporation
has sometimes been more than equal to the additional quantity of water retained.
In the accompanying sketch, a is a common lock, b and c two side ponds,
(eaxjh equal to the area of the lock,) dd two culverts with paddles, each commu-
VOL. I.
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58 MR. PROVIS ON THE LOCKS USED FOR
nicating with the lock and one of the side ponds. Supposing the lock to fall
8 feet, the hottom of the pond b will be 4 feet, and that of c 6 feet below the
surface of the lock when full. If a vessel is to descend, it enters the lock
when full, and the gates being closed, the paddles of the side pond b are
opened, and the water flows into it till the level of the water in the lock is
lowered, and that in the side pond raised, till they are the same, which will
be when the water in the lock has sunk 2 feet ; the paddles of the side pond
b are then closed, and those of c opened ; a similar operation then goes on till
the water in the lock has sunk two feet more, when the paddles of c are also
closed, and the remaining 4 feet of water in the lock is run into the lower
level of the canal, through the paddles in the lock gates. When the lock is
to be filled, the water in c is first run into the lock, which raises its surface 2
feet, the water in b is next run into it, which raises the surface another 2 feet,
making together half a lock fiill, the upper half is then run down from the
higher level of the canal.
6th. Locks ^r the transit of vessels of different sizes.
Where vessels of diflferent sizes have to pass the same locks, three pairs of
gates are sometimes placed instead of two, — ^the distance between the upper
and lower pairs being sufficient to admit the largest vessels, and that between
the upper and middle pairs being adapted to the smaller class. By this con-
trivance, when a small vessel is to be passed through, the lowest pair of gates
is not used, and when a large vessel goes through, the middle pair of gates is
not worked. Thus, it is evident, that the quantity of water contained between
the middle and lower pair of gates is saved when a small vessel passes, com-
pared with what would be required were the middle set of gates omitted.
7<A. Parallel double transit locks.
But where the transit is great, much time and water may be saved by a
double transit lock, which is, two locks placed close to and parallel with each
other, with a communication between them, which can be opened or cut off at
pleasure by valves or paddles.
As one of these locks is kept full and the other empty, a vessel in descend-
ing floats into the full one, the upper gates are then closed, and the water is
^1^^
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RIVER AND CANAL NAVIGATION. 59
run, by means of the connecting culvert, into the empty lock, (the gates of which
were previously closed,) till the water in the two locks is on the same level,
which will be when each is half full *, the connecting paddles are then closed,
and the remaining half of the water in the descending lock is run into the
lower canaL The next descending vessel has to be floated into the lock which
remains half filled, and which consequently requires only half a lock of water
to be run from the upper pond to raise it to the prope]^ level, and then that
half is transferred to the lock previously used, to serve the next descending
vessel ; but supposing a vessel to be ascending after the first descent, it will
enter the empty lock, and receive a quarter lock of water from that which
remained half filled : of course three-quarters of a lock of water is now required
from the upper canal to complete the filling. If a descending vessel next follows,
it enters the fuU lock, and its water is run into the lock which was previously
left a quarter fuU, and when both have arrived at the same level, it is evident
they will be each five-eighths full ; and the succeeding descending vessel will
require only three-eighths of a lock of water from the upper pond or canal.
From these observations it will be seen that the double transit lock saves nearly
one-half the water which a common single lock would require.
Sometimes the two parallel locks are made of di£Ferent sizes, to suit the
various description of vessels that may have to pass.
8th. Locks connected longitudinalh/y commonly called a chain of locks.
When loss of water is of no consequence, a considerable expense is some-
times saved, by placing the locks close together without any intermediate
pond, for by passing from one immediately into the other, there is only re-
quired one pair of gates more than the number of locks so connected, besides a
proportionate saving of masonry. — ^Thus, 8 connected locks would only re-
quire 9 pairs of gates, whilst, if they were detached, they would require 16
pairs ; but to show that these cannot be adopted with propriety, excepting
when water is abundant, it is necessary to observe that every two alternate
ascending and descending vessels will require as many locks fiill of water as
there are locks ; for instance, if a vessel hieis just ascended, it has left all the
locks full, a descending vessel then enters the upper lock, and when its gates
are closed, the water is run down, but all the locks below being previously
fiUed, they cannot contain it, and it consequently passes over the gates or weirs
I 2
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60 MB. PR0VI8 ON LOCKS USED FOR RIVER AND CANAL NAVIGATION.
of all of them into the lower canal : the vessel has hy this means descended
to the level of the second lock, the water in which must also he run into the
lower canal, for the same reason as already stated. When the water of aU
the locks has thus been run down, an ascending vessel will require all these
locks to be fiUed from the upper canal, which, however, will be retained in the
locks ready for the succeeding vessel to pass down. From this it will be evi-
dent that where 8 locks are connected, a descending vessel draws no water
from the upper canal, because the locks are previously all filled, but it empties
8 locks of water into the lower canal j an ascending vessel on the contrary
empties no water into the lower canal, because all the locks were previously
emptied, but it draws 8 locks fiill from the upper canal in order to fill them;
consequently the passing of one ascending vessel, and one descending, requires
8 locks fiill of water.
9th. Other modes for passing vessels from one level to another,
By substituting machinery, either wholly or in part, have been adopted ;
but these have either failed entirely, or not been brought into general use.
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61
III. Improved Canal Lock^ hy Joshua Field^ Esq.y F.R.S.^ V.P.Inst. C.E.
The numerous and extensive navigable canals by which this kingdom is inter-
sectedy have tended in a great degree to exhaust every natural source from
which water for their supply can be obtained j this renders the further exten-
sion of these important channels of commerce difficult, and in many cases im-
practicable. Some canals are altogether supplied by artificial means at an
enormous expense, others only in part, whilst the greater number, depending
upon natural sources alone, are more or less in want of water, and consequently
the navigation is interrupted during the driest season of the year.
To lessen the great loss of water by the common canal locks has long been
a standing desideratum amongst engineers, and perhaps no subject has engaged
more talent and ingenuity than the solution of this hydrostatic problem. Nu-
merous contrivances have been resorted to, some to save the whole and others
part of the lockage water ; many of these are beautiful in theory, and per-
fectly successful upon a small scale, but when they have been tried upon the
full magnitude they have uniformly failed, chiefly from the circumstance of the
scheme involving some prodigious moving plunger or caisson, floated or sus-
pended ; and in most cases this vessel has been required to be perfectly water
or air tight, and poised with the utmost precision, — conditions hardly to be
obtained in practice, and if attained, the expense alone would defeat the ob-
ject.
When the rough usage to which canal locks are subject is considered, and
the ignorance of the persons necessarily employed in the management of them,
it does not seem probable that any conservative lock will succeed until the
whole apparatus shall be reduced to fixed masonry, and no other machinery
employed than common gates and paddles, or sluices j for of all that have been
invented, and for which upwards of twenty patents have been granted, none
have been brought into practice for any length of time, except those of the
side-pond class, which save half the water, and which, though less simple
than the common lock, consist of the same parts, and are found completely
manageable by the persons usually employed on canals. Having been engaged
in the execution of the largest conservative lock that has been constructed, my
mind has been long engaged in the pursuit of some more simple means of
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62 MB. field's canal look.
effecting the same object, for very little reasoning on the subject will be suf-
ficient to shew that every common lock full of water, let down from the upper
to the lower level, possesses in itself a physical power or force sufficient to raise
an equal quantity of water from the lower level to the height from which it
has descended, — action and reaction, cause and effect, being equal
The method by which I propose to render the descending lock of water
available for raising an equal quantity is, in its simplest form, as follows : at a
suitable distance from any common lock, in any direction, I have a side pond or
basin, of an area and depth equal to the lock and communicating with it by a
large and long culvert, rather under the lower level ; the diameter and length
of this culvert must be such that it will contain as much water as the lock,
each end of the culvert is to be provided with a sluice, shewn in the diagram.
Fig. 1, at A and B. (Plate XII.)
The lock being fiill or equal to the upper level, and the side pond empty,
or equal to the lower level, the operation will be as follows : — when the sluice
or valve at A is opened, the head of water in the lock will very gradually put
the water contained in the culvert in motion, the velocity accelerating by the
laws which govern the motion of fluids, until the levels of the water in the
lock and side pond coincide ; at this time the column of water in the culvert
will have acquired a velocity due to the height fallen, it will then continue to
move forward with a momentum that will not be destroyed, until the water
has risen in the side pond to the height from which it descended in the lock,
abating somewhat for the loss of effect from the friction of the water against
the sides of the tunnel, &c., the water gradually coming to rest, when the
sluice B in the side pond must be shut to retain it, — the converse operation is
performed by opening the sluice By when the lock will fill and the side pond
become empty.
The principle of this lock may be well illustrated by the vibrations of a
penduliun, which in like manner, actuated by the force of gravity, falls to the
lowest point with an accelerating velocity, when it acquires a momentum suf-
ficient to raise it up the other side of the arc, nearly to the height from which
it feU, the loss being only that arising from the friction of the suspending point
and the resistance offered by the air.
It is from the close analogy it bears to the pendulum that I judge the
culvert should contain as much weight of water as the lock, that it may ac-
quite sufficient momentum ; it may contain more, but I think it should not con-
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MR. field's canal LOCK. 63
tain less ; thus the quantity of water raised will he equal to the quantity
fallen, less the loss hy friction in its transit ; — the Mction against the sides of a
tube or culvert is simply as the diameter of the tube, while the area is as the
square of the diameter, therefore the larger the tube the less in proportion will
be the friction, hence the larger the lock the more complete will be the effect,
and the operation of a model cannot be, like most other models of conservatiye
locks, so perfect as a full-sized lock.
Although a lock upon this principle has not been executed upon the full
scale, I have tried it in a model of sufficient magnitude to justify the greatest
confidence of its perfect success.
The model consisted of two cisterns five feet long by twenty inches wide,
having a communicating pipe of eight inches in diameter and forty-five feet
long ; a door valve, having a lever to open it, was fitted to each end of the pipe
opening into the cisterns ; a graduated scale was accurately placed in each cis-
tern, and a ready means provided of adding to or taking from the water of
either cistern as occasion might require — experiments were then made with
various differences of levels, from twelve inches downwards, the results of
which are here stated.
Difference of level 12 inches — the water rose in the opposite cistern 10^.
8 Do. 7f.
6 Do. 5|.
4 Do. 3x5.
When tried at less differences it apparently rose to the same height, and when
both the doors or valves were left open, it continued vibrating nearly an hour
before it came quite to rest ; and it is remarkable that the vibrations, whether
twelve inches or one-eighth of an inch, were performed in equal times, namely
10 seconds. This experiment was tried in 1816, and I have annexed a sketch
of the apparatus used for the purpose. Fig. 2.
Having described the principle in its simplest form, and given the results of
the experiments made with the model, I shall now point out several modifica-
tions that have occurred to me in applying it to the purpose proposed.
The column of commimication in the model, and so far as spoken of hi-
therto, is straight ; but this would remove the side pond to an inconvenient dis-
tance from the lock, and occupy much ground. This objection is removed
by the plan proposed in Fig. 3, wherein the column forms a volute round the
side pond or basin, by which means very little groimd is required, and the
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64 MB. field's canal lock.
sluices or paddles at each extremity of the culvert are brought very near to-
gether.
Fig. 4 shews its application to a double lock ; — ^here the culvert is carried
in a large circle, under the bed of the upper level, — one lock forming the side
pond for the other.
The next and last modification 1 shall notice is described in Fig. 5. The
object here is to dispense with the side pond altogether. As this is not so ob-
vious as the former methods, it may be necessary to refer to the letters in the
sketch. Let -4 be a long culvert, leading from the lock up into the upper level
at 5, having a sluice at each end, as before ; there is a branch near Pleading
into C which is an open cut from the lower leveL Now when a lock full of
water is to be discharged, the sluice at D is to be opened, the water will then
run along .4, and out at C, into the open cut; when half the water has run out,
a swinging valve, situated at E^ must be moved so as to shut the passage into C,
and open it into the upper level, B j the water having acquired its greatest
momentum, will continue to run up into the upper level imtil the lock is empty,
when B must be shut. The converse operation is thus performed : — open 5,
and the water will flow freely into the lock ; when that is half full shut 5,
and the swinging valve E will open, and the column in motion will draw up
water from the open cut, until the lock is full. This modification, I admit, is
open to many objections, and is one I should certainly not adopt; — the methods
described in Figs. 3 and 4, are I conceive best adapted for practice.
The principle upon which this lock depends is the same as that of the by-
draulic ram of Montgolfier, much used in France for raising water a consider-
able height by a smaU fall. The experiments made by him, and those who
have followed him, show that the loss by friction is not great, even in his pipes,
which seldom exceeded two inches in diameter ; this, with the results of my
experiments with much larger pipes, leads me to expect the loss in a culvert of
four or five feet diameter will be very inconsiderable. A calculation made also
from the table given by Smeaton, of the head of water necessary to overcome
the friction of pipes up to twelve inches' bore, at various altitudes, leads to the
same result.
The time it would take to pass a barge, or to change the level of a lock
upon this principle, would certainly not be longer than is required at present,
and perhaps not so long.
I should imagine that a lock, well constructed upon this principle, having
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MB. field's canal LOCK. 65
the culvert very smooth, would save nine-tenths of the water, and that the
change would he effected in less than one minute. On an attentive consider-
ation of this suhject, several methods have occurred to me of making the large
sluices, or paddles, so as to he quickly and easily opened and shut, and of
various securities in the management of so large a column in motion, with some
necessary compensations, &c., which would he ohvious to any one ahout to
adopt it
I heg to present the foregoing remarks to the Institution of Civil Engineers,
in the hope that the idea therein suggested heing generally known may lead to
the practical adoption of the plan.
VOL. I.
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r
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67
IV. On the Strain to which Lock Gates are subjected. By Psteb W.
BARLoWy Civil Engineer.
Having of late been engaged in estimating the dimensions of timber re-
quired for Lock Gates, I have been led tO' the consideration of the different
strains to which they are liable, and the results of my investigations having, in
some instances, been rather unexpected and interesting, I beg to lay them
before the Institution of Civil Engineers, in the hope that they wiU prove of
utility.
In England, of late years, lock gates of large dimensions have been con-
structed of an arched figure, with a view to increasing their strength ; how
far an advantage is gained by this construction, it is chiefly the object of the
present paper to investigate. Previously, however, to entering into these en-
quiries, it will be necessary to explain the nature of the strains to which the
common straight gate is exposed.
The best angle for the saUy of lock gates made of straight timber is a
subject which has already engaged the attention of some mathematical men^
but I must observe, with respect to those investigations which I have had
the means of examining, that they seem to be founded on data evidently
incorrect. A common straight gate is exposed to two strains ; one a transverse
strain, produced by the weight of water at right angles to its surface, which
is equal to half the weight applied in the middle ; the other a strain in the
direction of its length, produced by the pressure of the opposite gate upon its
extremity. This latter strain, if the salient angle was of 45^ or the gates stood
at right angles to each other, would of course amoimt to half the weight on the
opposite gate, so that at this angle a lock gate has, in addition to the transverse
strain, an equal strain in the direction of its length.
Before we can arrive at the angle at which, with given dimensions of tim-
ber, the greatest strength will be given to a pair of gates, it becomes necessary
to know the amount of transverse strain produced by the end pressure of the *
other gate ; or in a beam loaded in the middle, the additional transverse^strain
produced by a given degree of pressure applied at the ends. In order to ascer-
tain this point precisely, it would be necessary to have a distinct set of
experiments, which would not only be difficult to execute, but very uncertain
K 2
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68 MB. p. W. BARLOW ON LOCK GATES.
in their results ; and as precision in this point is not necessary to the present
question, I think, by the examination of M. Girard*s experiments, we may
arrive at it sufficiently near for our purpose.
These experiments were made upon a large scale by order of the French
government, and although there appears to be some irregularity in the results,
I have no doubt they are as correct as the uncertain nature of such inquiries
will permit.
The following is an abstract of his experiments on the strength of oak
baulks loaded at the end, and with the weight the same timbers would bear
loaded in the middle, calculated by the rules given in Barlow's work on
timber ; by which a comparison can be made of the relative strength when
subjected to a direct and transverse strain.
The timbers experimented upon by Girard were not in every case com-
pletely broken, but there is no doubt the weight they were subjected to was
very little short of that which would have completed the fracture.
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MR. P. W. BARLOW ON LOCK GATES.
69
TABLE I.— Abstract of GIRARD'S EXPERIMENTS on the Strength of
Timber loaded on the End.
No. of
DimiNsioNS or th« Timbbr.
Weight In
pounds the
beam bore ap-
plied to thr
extremity.
Weight in
pounds the same
beam would
bear loaded
transTersely.
Ratio.
RCMABKS.
experi-
menU.
Length.
Breadth.
Thicknen.
WEET.
IMCHB8.
IlfCHXg.
1
8
6.21
5.03
93616
8598
.092
2
8
6.39
4.17
94018
6078
.064
Broken.
3
8
6.21
3.99
69165
5390
.078
4
8
5.23
3.89
50526
4325
.085
Broken.
5
8.628
5.15
4.17
50608
4900
.097
Broken.
6
7.549
6.02
5.15
115359
9980
.087
7
7.549
6.21
5.05
103799
9909
.095
8
7.549
6.12
4.085
73095
6396
.087
Broken.
9
7.549
6.21
3.99
63177
6336
.100
Broken.
10
7.549
4.96
3.99
44857
4924
.109
11
6.471
6.12
5.24
87494
12366
.141
12
6.471
6.21
5.15
87481
12013
.136
13
6.471
6.21
3.99
87079
7392
.085
14
6.471
6.30
3.99
72823
7313
.100
Broken.
16
6.471
5.24
4.17
103622
6525
.063
16
6.471
5.05
4.25
82261
6674
.081
17
7.549
6.21
4.25
87443
7022
.080
18
8.628
6.21
5.32
82332
9607
.116
Broken.
19
8.628
6.21
5.15
103863
8993
.087
20
8.628
7.37
6.21
137966
15584
.113
21
8.628
7.45
6.21
137866
15764
Mean . . .
.114
.996
It thus appears that the force required to break a timber in the direction
of its length, is about ten times that which would break it if applied trans-
versely at the middle ; from which I infer that the strain in the direction of
the gate produced by the pressure of the opposite one, is equal to aa ad-
ditional strain of one-tenth applied transversely.
A diflference exists in the comparison made in the preceding Table and
in the case of lock gates, which it is necessary to make some remarks upon ;
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70
MR- P. W. BARLOW ON LOCK GATES.
viz., that a lock gate has a tranaverse pressure actmg in addition to Uiat pro-
duced by the other gate, so that the end pressure is exerted upon it after it is
already deflected by a transverse strain, which is of course not the case in the
comparison made in the Table. How fax this may affisct the question, or how
much greater eflect the compressive force may have in consequence of the
beam being already deflected, it is very difficult to determine, but from an
examination of the subject, I am induced to think that the deflection is so
small as very slightly to increase the effect of the end pressure.
The amount of the effect will of course depend upon the degree of de-
flection the beam has sustained from the transverse pressure, and if it
amounted to a quantity exceeding one-twentieth of the length, (which would
make the lever by which the end pressure acted exceed one-tenth of that by
which the transverse strain acted,) a greater effect than one-tenth would be
produced ; but as the ordinary load which timber is expected to sustain, does
not produce at the utmost a deflection exceeding one-hundredth part of the
length, I cannot conceive the transverse strain above named materially to
alter the comparison, and I have accordingly, in the following investigation,
assumed one-tenth as the amount of additional strain produced by the end
pressure of the opposite gate.
It now becomes necessary to get an expression for the amount of the
strains above mentioned at any angle of salience, which is arrived at in the
following manner : —
Let AB, AC, represent the two gates, meeting at the point A ; draw the
line AD from the point A perpendicular to BC, and let BD, which repre-
sents half the breadth of the lock, = /, also
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MR. P. W. BABLOl^ ON LOCK GATES. 71
let the pressure of water upon the length / of the gate be indicated by w
and the angle ABD = 0.
Then the length of the AB and any angle ^ will be expressed by . / sec^
and the pressure upon it by w sec0
The transverse strain produced by this pressure on the centre of the beam at
the same angle, will be \w sec0
It now remains to find the amount of compression in the direction of the
gate, produced by the opposite gate.
Let AF represent the force or tendency of the gate AC to turn upon the
point C, which is of course equal to half the weight upon the gate AC,
or = \w sec
The force may be resolved into AG, FG, the one GF is supported by an
equal and opposite force in the gate AB, and the other will represent the
force in the direction of the gate, the expression for which may be found as
follows ;
as sine z AGF : AF :: sine l AFG : AG
or sine^ : \w sec^ : : cos^ : \w sec^ . ^ = ^osec^
sme if>
The whole amount of transverse strain at any angle will therefore be repre-
sented by the expression,
\w sec0 + -^w cosec0
from which we may readily obtain the angle at which the strain is a minimum
as follows ; —
8ec0 + iV cosec^ = min
or tan^ sec0 d^ — ^ cot^ cosec<^ d^ =
whence tan*^ = ^^ cotan^
and tan'^ = ^
tan0 = V iV = iVV 100 = -46^1 = tan z 24^54'
The salient angle of a pair of oak gates, when the strain is a minimum, is
therefore 24^ 54/.
In the question of the best angle for lock gates, it becomes necessary to
consider that the length of the gate also varies as the secant of the angle ^. The
angle 24"* 54! is therefore not that at which, with a given section of timber, the
greatest strength will be obtained ; for although the strain is the least at this
angle, yet the gates, by their greater length, are less able to resist it than at some
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MB. P. W. BARLOW ON LOCK GATES.
ermediate angle, when the strain is slightly increased. The expression now
^omes
sec*0 + iV 8CC0 cosec0 = min
2 sec*0 tan0 dif> '\- -^ (taiiil> sec<f> cosec^ — cot^ cosec^ sec0) =
2 sec0 tan0 +^5^ tan0 cosec0 = jV^otan^ cosec^
2 sec0 tan*0 + ^ tan*^ cosec^ =^ cosec^
m which the cubic equation,
ten'0+-5Vtan*0=^.
This, being reduced, makes the tan = .25701, or the angle 19"* 25', at which
)air of lock gates should be situated, so as to have the greatest strength with
fiven section of timber.
Having obtained, in a manner I hope satisfactory, the angle of greatest
ength for gates of straight timber, I conclude this part of my paper with a
ible of the necessary dimensions of oak timber for lock gates, varying from 6
20 feet in length, and from 8 to 20 feet in depth, which I believe are the
lits of the dimensions of gates of this construction.
The first column in each division of the Table gives the amount of trans-
rse strain produced by the pressure of water upon three feet depth of surface,
an angle of IQ"" 25'; and the second column the dimensions of square oak
iber necessary to bear three times that strain.
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MB. P. W. BARLOW ON LOCK GATES.
73
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7t
MR. P. W. BARLOW ON LOCK GATES.
Curved Lock Gates.
In locks of large dimensions in this country, a curved figure is given to
the gates, so that when united they resemble a Gothic arch j this figure, by
giving greater strength, permits a reduction to be made in the dimensions of
the timber, and the gates are thereby rendered lighter, and more readily
moveable. The degree of curvature which will give the greatest strength, and
the necessary dimensions of the timber in difierent sized locks, are of course
points of considerable importance, not only on the score of economy, but from
the greater degree of lightness that may be thus obtained ; the opening and
shutting can be performed with greater ease, and consequently a greater num-
ber of ships can be permitted to pass in a given time.
In order to estimate the degree of curvature which will give the greatest
strength, it is first necessary to consider the nature and amount of the strains
to which the Gothic shape gives rise, we may then perceive what variations,
with respect to the degree of curvature and amount of salience, will tend to
increase the strength, or vice versd.
Let AB, BC represent two gates meeting in the point B, and let the angle
of salience, B AC, be equal to 0, also the angle DBE of a tangent to the curve
of the gate, with the cord B A = d, and the pressure of water upon each gate = w.
The gate AB, being loaded equally all over, will exert a pressure in the direc-
tion of the tangent, to the extremity of the gate, which will be represented by
the line DB, (the perpendicular DE being equal to \Wj) or equal \wcosec6.
This force is partly resisted by the compressive force of the opposite gate,
which now, instead of adding to the transverse strain, as in the straight gates,
is the means of diminishing it in proportion as it counteracts or destroys the
M
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\
MR, P. W, BARLOW ON LOCK GATES. 75
tangentisJ force DB. In order therefore to estimate the amount of strain, it
becomes necessary to get an expression for this force, which may be done as
follows. Let BF represent the force acting at right angles to the extremity of
the gate BC, tending to turn it upon the point C, which is of course equal to
half the pressure of water. Resolving this into the direction of the tangent of
the curve AB, by drawing FG parallel to BC, and producing 1)B, we obtain
the line BG, which represents the compressive force of the gate BC in the
direction of the tangent DB, and which is equal ^w cosec (2^ — ^).
As the diminution of strain owing to this force is, in proportion it destroys
the tangential force D B, the amount of the transverse strain at any angle, and
$ may be found by the following proportion :
i^w cosecd : i^w {cosecd— cosec(20 — d)} ::^ : or
Qj. ^, it^{cosecg-co8ec(20-g)} _ . ( ^ _ cosec(2^^g) \
cosec ^ 1 cosec ^ j
1 ( - sin^ \
which is the true expression of the transverse strain or weight applied trans-
versely in the middle of the length, which would have equal effect in breaking
the timber.
It will at once be seen that when the gates united form a complete arch,
that is, Vhen the angles and become equal, the expression vanishes, the
tangential force being then resisted by an equal compressive force in the op-
posite gate.
In this position, therefore, if the curve was mathematically true, the strain
perfectly equal and regular, and the material also of an uniform density, the
loading the arch would have no other effect than that of direct compression in
the direction of the fibres, a description of strain which timber possesses great
power to resist, as appears from the experiments of Girard. In practice this
cannot, however, take place ; the curve can neither be perfectly true nor the
density of the material uniform, either of which defects would lead to a trans-
verse strain, which, if sufficient weight was put on, would ultimately destroy
the gate. In the former case, the flatter parts of the curve would naturally
have a transverse strain upon the bottom fibres, from the abutments or ter-
minations of it not being resisted with an equal degree of compressive force ;
the fibres would in consequence in some measure yield, and the relative position
of the gates at the point of meeting would be changed, so as not to touch equally
L ^2
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76 MR. p. W. BARLOW ON LOCK GATES.
throughout ; an increased compression would be brought upon particular fibres
which must of course yield, and the evil would continue to increase until fracture
ultimately took place. In a similar manner, an irregular density of the ma-
terial, by causing a yielding in some parts more than others, would bring on a
change of shape which would ultimately produce the same results.
It therefore appears that in either case the cause which ultimately leads to
fracture is the transverse strain produced from the irregularity of the curve,
brought on by circumstances which cannot be controlled. Hence the nearer
the curve can be preserved in the true figure of an arc of a circle, the greater
the strength of the gates.
It has however to be considered that the arch is not composed of one
complete timber, but that the fibres are disunited at the point of meeting, and
consequently if that part from any cause should become flattened there are no
fibres to resist the transverse strain thus produced ; and as the flattening of this
part of the arch is an eflect which might probably arise from any yielding of the
abutments, or wear of the heel posts in the hollow quoin, this would evidently
be the weakest part of the curve. It therefore becomes necessary to deviate
in a small degree from the true curve of the arch, by giving the gates greater
length, and causing them to meet at a point a short distance from the curve, or
in fact rendering them slightly gothic ; but as the security to the point is ob-
tained at the expense of a constant transverse strain upon each of the gates, the
deviation from the true arched figure should be as little as possible, consistently
with the object in view, and by no means so great as is commonly employed
in lock ^tes : I should think a deviation of one foot or eighteen inches quite
sufficient for the purpose of locks of from forty to fifty feet wide.
General Remarks.
It was my intention to have concluded the preceding part of the article
with a Table of the requisite dimensions of timber for gates of diflferent sizes,
both of the curves conunonly employed, and of those which I should recommend;
I find, however, that these calculations would require a greater length of time
than I can at present devote to the subject, and I therefore conclude with a few
general remarks on the results arrived at.
In the first place, with respect to the proper angle of straight gates, this
being a subject naturally calculated to excite the propensities of the mathema-
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MR. P. W. BARLOW ON LOCK GATES.
tician to set his maxima and minima to work, a great number oi
the problem have been given ; but I must remark, with every res
useful class of men, that they are frequently too anxious to comm<
gations without sufficient data, and consequently arrive at result
correct, which has certainly been the case in those investigations I
opportunity of examining on the subject.
It seems to me perfectly impossible to arrive at correct resi
first ascertaining the amount of transverse strain produced by the e
which does not seem to have been done before ; but having obtaii
Girard's experiments to be one-tenth of the effect of an equal w«
middle of the length, I have little doubt that the angle 19"* 2
found, by experiments, to be very nearly that in which the grea
would be obtained with a given quantity of timber.
The angle commonly adopted in this country, is considerabl
19"* 25', amounting generally to between 30 and 40 degrees, whicl
preferred from the direction of the thrust being met by a larger quan
work. I cannot, however, conceive this to be a matter of much
particularly as there are locks on the continent, of large dimensioi
angle is considerably less, which have stood perfectly well. The
celebrated sea-lock of Muyden is only 16*^ SO', and the ancient loc
dam, which was built in 1568, and has stood many storms withou
a sally of not more than one-sixteenth : — the angle ought certainly
measure guided by the circumstances in which the gate is placed ;
time, I consider the angle commonly made use of in England, to 1
larger than necessary, and a useless weight of material employe^
creases one of the evils of canal navigation, — the time consumed ii
locks.
The employment of curved timber is undoubtedly advant
its application is evidently made upon no fixed principles, as i
from the differences of the curves which have been adopted ; soi
great as to very nearly approach the figure I have pointed out
while others are so exceedingly flat that they possess little ads
the straight gate.
To illustrate these differences in wooden gates, I have represent
companying drawing, the curves employed in the gates of the St.
London, and West India Docks. The dimensions are as follows
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78
ME, P. W. BARLOW ON LOCK GATES.
ST. Katharine's docks.
Wid&ofthelock 45 feet.
Projection 11
Radios of the gate 117
Consequendy the angle f = 29* 16', and 6 = 6* 8\
LONDON DOCKS.
Width of the lock 40 feet.
Projection 9
Radius of the gate 50
Angle (p = 23» 35', and = 13« 54'.
WEST INDIA DOCKS.
Width of the lock 45 feet.
Projection 10
Radios of the gate 120
Angle <p = 26' 24', and 9 = 5« 53'.
With the aid of the preceding formulse I have calculated the amount of
transverse strain in each case, (half the pressure of water upon one gate being
unity,) and the same, if they were of straight timber, having an equal salient
angle. These formulae are arranged in the following Table.
In order to make the comparison of the straight and curved gate more
direct, there is also added a column of the amount of transverse strain on the
latter, that on the straight gate being unity.
The fourth column illustrates the reduction of the dimensions of square
timber which may be permitted owing to the diminished strain.
TABLE III.
Gat».
Transvene
strain,
1 w being unity.
Transverse strain
of straight tim-
ber having the
same salient
angle, 1 u; being
unity.
Transverw
strain,
that on the
straight gate
being unity.
Dimensions of
timber having
equal strength,
that on ^e
straight gate
being unity.
At St. Katharine's Docks .
London Docks . . .
West India Docks . .
.86
.56
.86
1.178
1.229
1.201
.73
.45
.72
.900
.766
.896
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MB. P. W. BABLOW ON LOCK GATES. 79
It thus appears that a considerable advantage is gained in each case from
the curyature, but that in the London Docks, from the radius being less, and the
two gates in consequence approaching nearer the curve of a complete arch, the
advantage is much greater, and the transverse strain in consequence reduced to
less than half that of straight gates having the same salient angle.
The difficulty of obtaining timber of sufficient curvature has been urged as
a reason for the flatness of the curves employed in wooden gates ^ this is
certainly a consideration which must be attended to, but as similar curves are
employed when the material made use of is cast iron, I cannot conceive this to
be a point which has materially influenced the choice of the figure.
In the accompanying drawing (Plate XIII.) are given the curves of the
gates of the Caledonian Canal, Dundee Docks, and Sheemess Basin, which are
of cast iron : they will be found to differ very materially from each other, being
in one instance nearly as flat as in the West India and St. Katharine's Docks.
The following are the dimensions : —
CALEDONIAN CANAL.
Width of the lock 40 feet
Amount of projection 10
Radius of cnrrsture 75
Angle of sally 9 zz 30% and :;^ 8<» d'.
DUNDEE DRY DOCKS.
Width of entrance 40 feet
Amount of projection 7 feet 6 inches.
Radius of currature 67 feet
Angle of saUy (p = 22« 2\ and = 9« 12'.
SHEERNESS BASIN.
Width of entrance 58 feet
Amount of projection 12 feet 6 inches.
Radius of curvature . . . . 55 feet.
Angle (p = 24« 5', and = 16« 55'.
To make a comparison of these curves, I have calculated a Table, as in the
case of the wooden gates, containing the amount of the transverse strain which
straight gates would have under similar circumstances.
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80
MR. P. W. BARLOW ON LOCK GATES.
The same formula is employed for this purpose as for the wooden gates,
which may not he strictly true with cast iron ; but I should not conceive the
diflference to be sufficient to affect materially the comparison.
TABLE IV.
Oatb.
Tnuuvene ■tnin,
of water being
unity.
TnuurerM strain
of a itiaii^t gate,
wIththemneM.
llent angle.
Transvene strain,
that of the straight
gate being uniqr*
Dimension of iron
with the straight
gate, that ofUie
latter being unity.
At Caledonian Canal . .
Dundee Docks . . .
Sheemess Basm . . .
.82
.72
.44
1.178
1.247
1.215
.700
.58
.35
.887
.834
.704
It thus appears that in the gates of the Caledonian Canal the transverse
strain is nearly as great as in the West India and St. Katharine's Docks. In
those of the Dundee Docks and Sheemess Basin, a considerable improvement
is made, particularly in the latter, where the strain amounts to little more than
one-third of that which straight gates would have in the same situation, but I
conceive that by slightly diminishing the salient angle, and increasing the
curvature of the gates, the advantage might be carried still further, — the same
strength produced by less weight of material, and a lightness given which
would greatly facilitate the passing and repassing of vessels.
^
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81
V. On the Hot Air Blast. By Mr. J. B. Nsjlson, Cor.Mem.Inst.C.E.
Communicated in a Letter to the late President^ Thomas Telford^ Esq.*
I FEEL much pleasure in being able to comply with your request in mentioning
to you what I conceive to be the nature of the advantages likely to be derived
by the Iron Trade, and the country generally, from my invention of the Hot
Blast, and at the same time, I shall very willingly state the circumstances,
agreeably to your request, which, in the first instance, led me to direct my
attention to the improvement of the process of iron-making.
About seven years ago, an iron-maker, well known in this neighbourhood,
asked me if I thought it possible to purify the air blown into blast furnaces, in
a manner similar to that in which carburetted hydrogen gas is purified ; and
from this gentleman's conversation, I perceived that he imagined the presence of
sulphur in the air to be the cause of blast furnaces working irregularly, and
making bad iron in the summer months. Subsequently to this conversation,
which had in some measure directed my thoughts to the subject of blast furnaces,
I received information that one of the Muirkirk iron furnaces, situated at a con-
siderable distance from the engine, did not work so well as the others ; which
led me to conjecture that the friction of the air, in passing along the pipe, pre-
vented an equal volume of the air getting to the distant furnace, as to the one
which was situated close by the engine. I at once came to the conclusion that
by heating the air at the distant furnace, I should increase its volume in the
ratio of the known law, that air and gases expand as 448 + temperature.
Example. — If 1000 cubic feet, say at 5(f of Fahrenheit, were pressed by
the engine in a given time, and heated to 600° of Fahrenheit, it would then be
increased in volume to 2104.4, and so on for every thousand feet that would
be blown into the furnace. In prosecuting the experiments which this idea sug-
gested, circumstances however became apparent to me, which induced the be-
lief on my part, that heating the air introduced for supporting combustion into
* Although the application of heated air has heen extended, and the subject treated more at large
since this paper was written, the detail of the discovery from Mr. Neilson to the late President, can-
not fail to be interesting. In a future volume, the Council trust to be able to add a further commu-
nication from that gentleman on the subject.
VOL. I. M
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82 MR. NEIL80N ON THE HOT AIR BLAST.
air furnaces, materially increased its efficiency in this respect ; and with the
view of putting my suspicions on this point to the test, I instituted the following
experiments.
To the nozzle of a pair of common smith's hollows, I attached a cast iron
vessel heated from heneath, in the manner of a retort for generating gas, and to
this vessel, the hlow-pipe hy which the forge or furnace was hlown, was also
attached. The air from the hollows having thus to pass through the heated
vessel ahove mentioned, was consequently heated to a high temperature before
it entered the forge fire, and the result produced, in increasing the intensity of
the heat in the furnace, was far beyond my expectation, and so evident as to
make apparent to me the fallacy of the generally received opinion, that the cold-
ness of the air of the atmosphere in the winter months, was the cause of the
best iron being then produced.
In overthrowing the old theory, I had however established new principles
and facts in the process of iron-making, and by the advice and assistance of
Charles Mcintosh, Esq., of Crossbasket, I applied for and obtained a patent as
the reward of my discovery and improvements.
Experiments on the large scale to reduce iron ore in a founder's cupola, were
forthwith commenced at the Clyde Iron Works, belonging to Colin Dunlop, Esq.,
which experiments were completely successful, and in consequence, the invention
was immediately adopted at the Calder Iron Works, the property of William
Dixon, Esq. j where the blast being made to pass through two retorts placed on
each side of one of the large furnaces, before entering the furnace effected an in-
stantaneous change, both in the quantity and quality of iron produced, and a
considerable saving of fuel.
The whole of the furnaces at Calder and Clyde Iron Works were in conse-
quence immediately filled up on the principle of the Hot Blast, and its use at
these works continues to be attended with the utmost success ; it has also been
adopted at Wilsontown and Gartshirrie Iron Works in Scotland, and at several
works in England and France, in which latter country I have also obtained a
patent.
The air as at first raised to Q5(f of Fahrenheit, produced a saving of three-
sevenths in every ton of pig-iron made, and the heating apparatus having since
been enlarged, so as to increase the temperature of the blast to 600"* Fahrenheit
and upwards, a proportional saving of fuel is effected j and an immense addi-
tional saving is also acquired by the use of raw coal instead of coke, which may
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MB. NEILSON ON THE HOT AIB BLAST. 83
now be adopted. By thus increasing the heat of the blast, the whole waste in-
curred in burning the coal into coke is avoided in the process of iron-making.
By the use of this invention, with three-sevenths of the fuel which he for-
merly employed in the cold air process, the iron-maker is now enabled to make
one-third more iron of a superior quality.
Were the Hot Blast generally adopted, the saving to the country in the ar-
ticle of coal, would be immense. In Britain, about 700,000 tons of iron are
made annually, of which 50,000 tons only are produced in Scotland ; on these
50,000 tons, my invention woidd save, ill the process of manufacture, 200,000
tons of coal annually. In England, the saving would be in proportion to the
strength and quality of the coal, and cannot be computed at less than 1,520,000
tons annually ; and taking the price of coals at the low rate of four shillings
per ton, a yearly saving of £296,000 sterling would be effected.
Nor are the advantages of this invention solely confined to iron-making: by
its use the founder can cast into roods an equal quantity of iron, in much less
time, and with a saving of nearly half the fuel employed in the cold air process ;
and the blacksmith can produce in the same time one-third more work, with
much less fiiel than he formerly required.
In all the processes of metallurgical science, it will be of the utmost import-
ance in reducing the ores to a metallic state.
M 2
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85
VI. On the Relation between the Temperature and Elastic Force of Steam, when
confined in a Boiler containing Water. By Mr. Fareyj M.Inst. C.E.
This subject has occupied the attention of many able experimenters, and the
coincidence of the residts which they have attained separately, leaves no doubt
of the facts hereinafter stated.
Mr. Watt made experiments in 1764, and repeated them in 1774. Mr.
Southern went over them again in 1797 with great accuracy, and formed a
theorem for^ calculating the results ; Dr. Robinson and M. Bettancourt also
made similar experiments ; likewise Mr. Dalton, Mr. Woolf, and Mr. Philip
Taylor ; also Dr. Ure.
The writer of this communication undertook, several years ago, to compare
all the different experiments which had then been made, in order to obtain a
standard, and was induced, after a careful examination*, to adopt Mr. Southern's
theorem as the most authentic, being found very consistent with itself, and being
confirmed, at several points of the scale, by the actual experiments of others,
although the complet^ scales promulgated by some of those others were very
discordant, from having been interpolated between the actual experiments by
incorrect theorems ; and particularly some scales which had been extended by
such theorems beyond the range of their actual experiments, were found to be
very far from the truth. In consequence, Mr. Southern's scale was made the
foundation of all the Writer's computations and statements respecting steam ;
many of which have since been published.
The principal object of the present communication is, to shew the coincidence
between Mr. Southern's scale, and that of a new series of experiments made in
Paris, in 1829, by a Committee of the Academy of Sciences, which confirms
the standard so completely, as to leave no doubt of its truth.
Another object of the communication is to put on record, in the papers of the
Institution, a memorial of the fair claim of our countryman, Mr. Southern, to
the merit of priority in accurate determination of this law, in opposition to the
* The mode of examination was that which Mr. Smeaton and Mr. Watt pursued in similar
cases, viz., to form curves for representing each scale, the temperature, in degrees of the ther-
mometer, heing the ordinates, and the elasticities, in atmospheres, being the abscissae of the
curves.
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86 MB, FAREY ON THE TEMPERATURE
unfounded assertion of the French author, who has published the new experi-
ments, that the academicians had first established the truth in ISSQj and that
the previous determinations m England were erroneous*. Mr. Southern's deter-
mination is not mentioned in this sweeping condemnation, although it had been
republished by Mr. Watt, Dr. Brewster, Dr. Thomson, and in the Writer's
Treatise on the Steam Engine, also in that of Mr. Tredgold, and is well known,
and very generally adopted, in fact, by the French academicians themselves.
The French experiments were continued up to twenty-four atmospheres ; Mr.
Southern's went only as far as eight atmospheres ; he found the corresponding
temperature to be 343.8 degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer, and the academi-
cians found it to be 341.8 degrees, or just two degrees less. At four atmo-
spheres, Mr. Southern found the temperature S93.9 degrees, and the academi-
cians 293.7- This last is not an accidental coincidence, but an adoption of
Mr. Southern's scale, through Mr. Tredgold, though not acknowledged as such.
The French academicians have formed a theorem for calculating the tempe-
ratures corresponding to the elasticities, and by means thereof have extended
their scale from twenty-four atmospheres upwards ; nevertheless, they did not
use their own theorem for the most useful part of the scale below four atmo-
spheres, but they adopted a theorem from Mr. Tredgold in lieu of their own.
That theorem was made by Mr. Tredgold, from Mr. Southern's experiments,
in lieu of Mr. Southern's own theorem, merely because Mr. Tredgold did not
think that a power with a fr'actional index, viz. 5.13, is likely to represent the
law of nature. This induced him to employ a higher power, with 6 for an index ;
and in consequence, his formulse did not correspond at all with Mr. Southern's
experiment at eight atmospheres, although it did correspond at four atmospheres.
The academicians use an index of 5 in their theorem, rendering it very nearly
the same in effect as Mr. Southern's.
* The French account of the occasion of making their experiments on (he temperatures cor-
responding to different elasticities of steam, in 1829, contains the following passage : — *^ Science
'< did not then possess this knowledge, and engineers appointed to superintend the construction
^< of steam engines, had no other guidance than some discordant measures upon ihe temperatures
'^ which correspond to the elasticities hetween one and eight atmospheres ; for higher pressures there
" was no result of direct experiments, nor any theory which could supply Uie deficiency."
It is afterwards stated that only one experiment hy Mr, Perkins was ohtained in England, and
that is shewn to he altogether erroneous; and then, that ^^ Germany was more advanced than
England, for the results in question, Mr. Arzherger, at Vienna, having made experiments," hut they
are also shewn to he inexact.
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AND ELASTIC FORCE OF STEAM. 87
In adopting this formula from Mr. Tredgold, (who quotes Mr. Southern's
experiments, and takes them as his basis,) the French academicians could not
have been ignorant of Mr. Southern's determinations, nor of their accuracy ;
for at eight atmospheres, his experiments and theorem, is nearer to their own
experiments than Mr. Tredgold's theorem, which they have adopted for that
part of their scale which is below four atmospheres, and which theorem gives
a result identical with Mr. Southern's theorem and experiments, at two and a
half atmospheres, although Mr. Tredgold's becomes very incorrect below boiling,
and also above four atmospheres.
Under these circumstances, it was not candid that all mention of Mr.
Southern's determinations should have been suppressed, when in fact they are
adopted at second hand, and through a less correct version than his own ; and
when it was found requisite to amend that version, and put it back very near
to its original value, the author of that original should have been cited.
In a former report by the Academy in 1825, a Table was given, which is
exactly Mr. Southern's numbers, and it would have been only fair, that his
standard should have been acknowledged when adopted*. The merit of
extending it, by further experiments, up to twenty-four atmospheres, in 1829,
and thereby proving Mr. Southern's exactitude, is willingly acknowledged by
the Writer of this communication, to be due to the French academicians.
When the temperature due to an elasticity of twenty-four atmospheres is
calculated by Mr. Southern's theorem, it gives 438.2 degrees of Fahrenheit's
thermometer, whilst the French experiment is 435.6, or only 2.6 degrees
less ; of this difference, some part is occasioned by the difference in the French
and English mode of reckoning what an atmosphere ist. Agam, for sixteen
atmospheres, Mr. Southern's theorem gives 401.0 degrees, and the French
experiment 398.5, or 2^ degrees less. At eight atmospheres, 2 degrees less, as
before stated.
* In the account of the experiments of 1829, the former Tahle of 1825, is mentioned as
^' having heen only presented temporarily, and as having heen only dednced from interpolation of
" all the experiments which seemed to merit the most confidence, from the ahility of the observers,
*' and from the nature of the methods of observation ;" but no mention is made of Mr. Southern,
although the numbers are his.
t The French reckon an atmosphere to be equal to a column of mercury -^ of a metre
in height, which is only 29.92 inches, and the boiling point of their thermometer is adapted
thereto, whereas, since about the conmiencement of the present century, the English have
reckoned it to be 80 inches. This circumstance accounts in some degree for their scale of tem-
peratures differing from Mr. Southern's.
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88 MB. FAREY ON THE TEMPERATURE
These small differences are less than the mevitahle uncertainties of observ-
ation in such experiments, and it is to be remarked, that the elasticities were
measured by the French academicians by the compression of air included in a
manometer, and not by a direct measure of a column of mercury, or a loaded
safety valve ; whereas Mr. Southern used both those means, and employed very
correct thermometers, and therefore his scale is of as much authenticity as that
of the French J and the Writer of this communication does not think it requisite
to make any alteration in the standard which he adopted long ago for all his
calculations on this subject, and of which many are published in his Treatise on
the Steam Engine, where the subject is fully explained ; and it is only necessary
to give an extract therefrom, in order to state Mr. Southern's determination of
a correct scale.
" From the comparison of a great number of his experiments, Mr. Southern
invented a method of calculating the elasticity of steam at different temperatures,
when saturated with water; his method is embodied in the following rule,
which will give residts very nearly corresponding with the experiments.
"To find the elasticity of steam of any given temperature, that temperature
being expressed in degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer, and the elasticity being
expressed by the height, in inches, of the column of mercury that the steam will
support.
"Rule. — To the given temperature in degrees of Fahrenheit, add the constant
temperature 51.3 degrees, and take out the logarithm of the augmented tem-
perature from a table of logarithms ; multiply that logarithm by the constant
number 5.13, and from the product (which is a logarithm) deduct the constant
Ic^arithm 10.94123 ; then by the table of logarithms find the number correspond-
ing to the remainder, (which is also a logarithm,) and that number is one tenth
of an inch less than the height required ; therefore by adding one tenth of an
mch to the said number, we have the proper height, in inches, of the column of
mercury that the steam will support*.
" Example. — What is the elasticity of steam at 212 degrees of temperature?
212deg -h51.3 deg=263.3 deg; the logarithmof that number is 2.42045, which
* '^ The effect of multiplying the logarithm hy 5.13, is to raise the 5.1dth power of the tempera-
ture, when augmented as ahove, and then the effect of deducting the constant logarithm 10.94123,
is to divide the high power previously raised, hy a very large numher, viz. (87 344 000 000)
eighty-seven thousand three hundred and forty-four millions. The quotient resulting from this
division of the high power, with the constant addition of one tenth of an inch, is the required
elasticity in inches of mercury."
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AND ELASTIC FORCE OP STEAM. 89
X 5.13 = 12.4169 ; from this logarithm deduct the constant logarithm 10.94123,
and the remainder is 1.47567 } the numher corresponding to this logarithm is
29.9 inches, and, adding one tenth of an inch thereto, we have thirty inches
of mercury for the required elasticity.
" The rule may he used conversely to find the temperature of steam of any
given elasticity thus. Deduct one-tenth of an inch from the height in inches
of the column of mercury ; take out the logarithm of the diminished height, and
add to it the constant logarithm 10.94123 ; then divide the sum of these loga-
rithms hy the constant number 5.13 ; and find by the Table of logarithms, the
number which corresponds to the quotient : that number is 51.3 degrees more
than the required temperature ; therefore deduct 51.3 from the said number,
and the remainder is the proper temperature in degrees of Fahrenheit.
" Example : WTiat is the temperature of steam of an elasticity of 120 inches
of mercury? 120 inc. — .1 = 119.9 inc. The logarithm of that number is
2.07882, to which add the constant logarithm 10.94123 = 13.02005, for the sum
of the logarithms, which being divided by 5.13 constant number, gives 2.53802
quotient. The number corresponding to that logarithm is 345.2 degrees, from
which deduct the constant temperature 51.3 degrees, and we have 293.9 de-
grees for the required temperature.
VOL. I. N
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90
MB. FABEY ON THE TEMPEBATUBE
" The following Table has been calculated by Mr. Southern's theorem.
'< Temperatuxe.
DegiMtof
FaSnnhett.
ElAiddty.
Column of mercury i
incfaes.
32
freezing.
0.18
42
0.25
52
0.35
62
0.50
72
0.71
82
1.01
r
92
1.42
102
1.97
5
112
2.68
i
r
122
132
3.60
4.76
142
6.22
1
162
8.03
1
162
10.25
172
12.94
i
182
16.17
¥
192
20.04
202
24.61
212
boiling.
30.00
Temperature.
Donees of
FaSenheit.
ElartieUy.
Column of mercury;
inchci.
212
i 250.6
g
r
1 276.2
1^293.7
|, 807.6
>
1
1 320.4
B
" 331.7
341.8
212 =1 Atmos.
222
232
242
30.00
36.32
43.60
52.20
250.2=2 Atmos.
252
262
272
60.00
61.90
73.00
85.80
275 =3 Atmos.
282
292
90.00
100.30
116.70
293.9= 4 Atmos.
302
120.00
135.20
309.2=5 Atmos.
312
322
150.00
166.00
179.30
322.3=6 Atmos.
332
180.00
205.40
333.7=7 Atmos.
342
210.00
234.40
343.8=8 Atmos.
240.00"
TreatUe on the Steam Engine^ Vol. I. p. 72.
It is presumed that it has now been shewn that English engineers have, for
Qore than 30 years past, been in possession of a standard scale, which is very
iccurate, and also of a theorem whereby the temperatures corresponding to
ilasticities, exceeding 8 atmospheres, may be correctly represented, notwith-
tanding assertions to the contrary.
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AND ELASTIC FORCE OF STEAM.
91
The complete scale laid down by the French Academicians is as follows.
1
I
I
E-
I
D* or
o B
g.
«>
&-
4i
5
5i
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
i 18
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
28
24
Tanpentum in D«gnei
Fahrenheit.
212.0
234.0
250.5
263.8
275.2
285.1
293.7
300.3
307.5
314.2
320.4
326.3
331.7
336.9
341.8
350.8
358.9
866.8
374.0
380.7
386.9
392.9
398.5
403.8
408.9
413.8
418.5
423.0
427.3
431.4
435.6
212.0
233.7
250.2
263.8
275.0
285.0
293.9
301.9
309.2
316.0
322.3
328.1
333.7
338.9
343.8
376.3
401.0
421.1
438.2
^
Note. At 4 atmospheres this complete scale changes its law of progressioD all at once, from the
6th power to the 5th power, which cannot he correct in principle. Neither the 6th power nor the
5th will give correct results in the lower part of the scale, hetween hoiling and ireesing, nor in the
higher part of the scale. But Mr. Southern's fractional power 5.1 3, applies without change through*
out the whole range, from freezing up to the temperature of melting tin.
By examining the French scale, it appears to correspond with Mr. Southern's
at 4 atmospheres within iS of a degree, hut in advancing only to 4^ atmo-
N 2
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92 MR. PABEY ON THE TEMPERATURE
spheres, it falls short liS- degrees therefrom, and yet, up at 24 atmospheres,
the deficiency is but 2r^ degrees.
The French theorem is virtually to the same effect as that of Mr. Southern,
for the logarithm of the elasticity in atmospheres is divided by 5 (instead of
5.13) in order to extract the 5th root, from which root unity, or 1, is to be
deducted, and the remainder divided by the constant decimal .7153, the
quotient expresses the increase of temperature above boiling, in terms of the
interval between freezing and boiling, that is, the said quotient expresses what
fractional portion of 180 degrees of Fahrenheit, the temperature is above the
boiling point.
This is by no means a convenient rule, and does not apply without modi-
fication to temperatures below boiling, which Mr. Southern's does most accu-
rately. The French rule, if modified, becomes inaccurate.
The only question as to the law of progression in the French rule being
better than that of Mr. Southern's, is whether the 5.13 power is more authentic
than the 5th power. Now the Academicians found Mr. Tredgold's rule, which
proceeds by the 6th power, did better than their own, between one and four
atmospheres, but it will not correspond either at lower or higher parts of the
scale, whilst Mr. Southern's corresponds accurately below, and very nearly
throughout.
Mr. Southern's theorem is preferable to any other for calculations concerning
the heights of mountains, according to observations of the temperatures at which
water is found to boil at their summits and at their bases.
On considering all these circumstances, we shall find good reasons for ad-
hering to Mr. Southern's theorem, because it is unquestionably accurate in all
the lower part of the scale below boiling, and also above the same, as far as
experiments can be made with certainty ; and the new experiments of the
academicians prove, that at very high parts of the scale, it cannot be far from
the truth ; but as there is no certainty in the exactitude of either temperatures
or elasticities, when so great as 438 degrees and 24 atmospheres, it is not ad-
visable to adopt a new law of progression for the sake of reconciling differences
of 2^ degrees from uncertain observations, when that new law will not cor-
respond so well as the established law, with very certain and unquestionable
observations.
67, Guildford Street, Russell Square,
1 May, 1833.
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AND ELASTIC FORCE OF STEAM. 93
P.S. It would be useful information, if some of the junior members, who
have leisure, would undertake to calculate the temperatures according to
Mr. Southern's rule, for every half atmosphere between 8 atmospheres and
24 atmospheres, now that the French experiments have shewn that this rule
will apply to such an extent with very probable accuracy.
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1^ Digitized by VjOOQIC
95
VII. On Ventilating cmd Lighting Tunnels^ particularly/ in reference to
the one on the Leeds and Selby Railway. By J. Walker^ Esq.^ F.R.S.
L. and E.^ President Inst. C.E.
The want of ventilation and light seems the greatest objection to tunnels on
railways and canals. An attempt is making to remedy both these evils in the
tunnel now (1832) forming on the Leeds and Selby Railway, near Leeds, by apian
which is simple, not attended with much expense, and likely to be at least
partially successful A short description will suffice to make it understood.
The tunnel is nearly half a mile long; the greatest depth from the surface about
80 feet. As three shafts were required for raising the excavation during the
progress of the work, it occurred to me, that by placing them at nearly equal
distances, and walling them in a permanent manner, they might be left open to
the surface afterwards. A strong elliptical casting, about 8 feet long and 5 feet
wide, has therefore been built in the arch of the tunnel, and over this a circular
shaft or well, 10 feet diameter, raised in strong brickwork. If it be found
expedient to cover the well as a protection from the rain, it may be done with
glass, raised on columns of such height as to admit a free circulation of
air between the surfitce of the ground and the roof.
So much for ventilation. But as the light afforded by the shafts is confined
to the space immediately below them, the desideratum is to throw it along the
tunnel, and I think this may be done so as to give a useful light by means of
plane reflectors of tinned iron placed on the ground between the two lines of
railway, at such an angle as to reflect the light where it will be most useful.
The idea was suggested by the rum vaults in the West India Docks, where the
marks on the casks are ascertained by catching the faint light from the
windows upon a small piece of tin plate, and throwing it on the casks. Those
who have seen this done have generally been surprised at the useful effect
produced ; but in the case of the tunnel, the light coming directly down the
shaft is more powerful, and the effect of the experiments I have made has much
exceeded my expectations. I shall take care that the results of any future
observations be communicated to the Institution.
P.S. — In compliance with the promise given in the preceding paper, I have
procured from Mr. George Smith, the resident engineer on the Leeds and Selby
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96 MR. WALKER ON VENTILATING AND LIGHTING TUNNELS.
Railway, the annexed observations on the subject containing the result of his
recent experience. Though they do not in all respects realize the expectations
I had formed from the first experiments which were made before the tunnel
was completed, or the railway formed, I may remark, that while the shafts
seem to be very serviceable for ventilation, the light they supply is useful to
those whose duties require them to pass through the tunnel on foot or unac-
companied with an engine. Mr. Smith's remarks are dated Dec. 1835, and
are as follows : —
" At the present period when there are so many railways in progress and in
" contemplation, many of them with tunnels of considerable length, the following
" observations on the eflFects of the Locomotive Engines, working in the tunnel of
'^ the Leeds and Selby Railway, may be interesting to those who have not the
" opportunity of witnessing those effects daily and under all circiunstances.
" The tunnel of the Leeds and Selby Railway is nearly half a mile in length,
'' situated at the commencement of that railway at the Leeds end, and has a slight
'^ ascending inclination in going from Leeds. The situation and inclination
" cause a considerable difference in the quantity of steam discharged from the
" chimneys of two engines travelling in opposite directions.
^* The ascending engine labouring at a first start against the inclination, to get
" into speed, (which is scarcely done before leaving the tunnel,) causes a great
" expenditure of steam, &c., while an engine coming in the opposite direction,
'' having a clear fire, and every means taken to prevent the generation of steam
" by opening the fire-door and pumping water into the boiler, expends very little,
" and that through the safety valve, the smoke from the chimney not being per-
" ceptible. It will therefore be necessary to detail the effect of an engine passing
" through the tunnel from the Leeds end only.
" The fires of the engines are made up, previous to starting, with coke mixed
" with coal, to hasten the ignition of the former ; the smoke from the coal is of
" course mixed with that of the coke and steam, adding to the density of what
** escapes from the chimney, and continues to do so for some time, frequently
" through the whole length of the tunnel : but notwithstanding this, the tunnel
" is generally clear in less than five minutes after ; in many cases nearly as soon
" as the engine has left it. This of course is governed, in a great measure, by the
" force and direction of the wind. In foggy weather there being little or no wind,
" the smoke from the coal is left after the steam is condensed, and forms itself into
k.
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MB. WALKER ON VENTILATING AND LIGHTING TUNNELS. 97
" a cloud which sails slowly along the roof, travelling at the rate of from two to
" three miles per hour; a great part of it ascends the shafts, but from the heavy
** state of the atmosphere, a considerable portion passes them and discharges
*^ itself at one end of the tunnel. It should here be mentioned, that the entrances
" into the shaft from the tunnel are much contracted, having not more than 5
" feet in the longitudinal, and 8 feet in the transverse direction of the tunnel,
^ and much of the smoke, &c., passes on each side of the shafts; and in con-
*^ sequence of the sluggishness of the draught on those
** the cloud has not sufficient time to alter its course u
" Two engines, having coal mixed with the coke in
" Leeds depot during a very heavy morning, and folic
" through the tunnel : each left a cloud behind, the one k
" distance from the other. The smoke (the steam app
*^ densed) seemed to have lost its usual sulphurous smel
" fog — the denseness appearing greater from the darknet
*^ is the freedom of those clouds from any thing unplea
" close carriages are not aware of having passed throu
" almost instantaneously.
" Passengers are never annoyed with the steam, &(
" the engines, as it does not descend low enough, ex<
" even then, the progress of the engines carries ther
" low as to affect them.
" From the effects described above, it appears e
" situated only a short distance from the starting-place,
" little or no inconvenience will be felt by the passenger
" Previous to the opening of the Leeds and Selby Rj
" entertained by many, and among others a celebrated
** of the atmosphere for respiration, in a tunnel workec
" now that the incorrectness of that idea is fully pre
" tunnel half a mile long, those doubts are still entertain
" as to tunnels of much greater lengths. These doub
" groundless as the former ones, for the following reas*
" A considerable quantity of the steam from the eng
* This naturally suggests the propriety of having the shafU mi
diameter as the width of the tunnel.
VOL. I.
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98 MB. WALKER ON VENTILATINO AND LIOHTINQ TUNNELS.
*^ all times, but there is no doubt a large portion is also condensed in the tunnel ;
** and were there no shafts at all, the steam could not remain long uncondensed,
^^ surrounded, as it will ever be, by walls always at an even temperature, a short
** distance from the ends of the tunnel, saturated with moisture, and the surfice
" in many parts covered with water.
** The coke, particularly when in a high state of combustion, gives out little
*^ smoke, and, from its having passed through the steam, loses, like the coal,
*^ the greater part, if not all its o£fensiveness ; and mixing with the air that has
** been used for combustion, will, from its buoyancy, readily find its way along
*^ the top of the tunnel to the first shafit, and make its escape up it
" Two great inccmveniences in tunnels, are noise and want of light; the former
" it will be difficult to remedy, the latter may be easily so, by carrying oil or
** portable gas lamps with the carriages. Oil lamps are used with the evening
^^ trains, during the winter months, on the Leeds and Selby Railway, and give
** sufficient light in their passage through the tunneL Some experiments were
*^ made with tin reflectors at the bottom of the shafts, and although the light
^^ reflected was sufficient to read the larger print in a newspaper advertisement
" at all parts of the timnel, (there being three shafts,) it is very doubtful whether
" lighting tunnels by reflection will be of use for passengers. The rays of
" light are thrown on the walls so very obliquely, that, from the rough and
" dirty state of their sur&ce, few are again reflected from them, and these
" are too feeble for the eye to accommodate itself to so great a transition during
^^ the time a train would be passing through a tunnel of moderate lei^th. A
'^ passenger sitting in a close carriage, having only the walls to look at, would,
*^ imder such circumstances, £ancy himself in total darkness, although the tunnel
" generally might be moderately light The difficulty of keeping reflectors clean
** from the effects of damp, steam, &c., would be a considerable expense in a long
** tunnel ; and it must also be borne in mind, that the moment an engine has
'^ passed a reflector, it becomes of no use to the train attached to that engme,
^^ as it is immediately surrounded with steam, &c., forcing its way up the shaft,
" and the next reflector, in a long tunnel, would probably be a quarter of a
^^ mile from the one thus thrown into darkness.''
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99
VIIL Particulars of the Construction of the Lary Bridge^ near Plymouth.
By Mr. J. M. Rendel^ Corr.M.Inst C.E.
As this bridge is founded on a shifting sand, in a rapid tideway, and presents
some novelties in the design, it is hoped that an account of the methods success-
fully adopted for laying and securing the foundations, and some particulars
of the superstructure, will be acceptable to the members of the Institution.
The Lary, over which this bridge is built, and from which it derives its
name, is the estuary of the river Plym, and connected with Plymouth Sound
by Catwater. The general width of the estuary is half a mile, but at the
site of the bridge the shores alwruptly approach each other, and form a strait
between 500 and 600 feet wide. The tide rushes through this strait with a
velocity of 3 feet 6 inches a second, and flows on an average 16 feet perpendi-
cular. — The depth at low water is from 5 to 6 feet.
By borings it appeared that the bed of the river was sand to a depth of
60 feet — the lofty lime rock on each shore dipping abruptly from high water,
and forming a substratum nearly horizontal across the strait The sand in the
wide parts of the estuary above and below the bridge is fine ; at the site of the
bridge the current leaves only the coarser kind ; but this is not sufficient to
resist the heavy land floods, to which the Plym is liable, and it frequently
happens that the bed of the river is scoured away several feet in depth in
winter and refilled in the summer.
When called on by the Earl of Morley, who built this bridge at his sole
expense, to prepare a design, I furnished one on the principle of suspension,
spanning the whole width of the strait, and having the towers on its rocky
shores. Our president* was consulted by his lordship, and the plan being
approved of by him, an act was obtained in the session of 1823 authorizing
its erection ; but ^n the commencement of the works, difficulties arose which
led to the abandonment of the suspension bridge and the ultimate adoption of
the present one of cast iron.
The drawings (see Plates XIV. and XV.) which accompany this paper, will, I
trust, give a general idea of the finished structure. The arrangement of the design
* The late Mr. Telford.
o 2
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100 MB- J. M. BENDEL ON THE CONSTRUCTION
differs materially firom other works of a similar nature : first, in the masonry of the
piers finishing at the springing course of the arches ; secondly, in the curvilinear
form of the piers and abutments ; and thirdly, in the employment of elliptical
arches. The adoption of these forms for the piers and arches in unison with
the plan of finishing the piers above the springing course with cast iron instead
of masonry, has, as I had hoped, given a degree of uniform lightness, combined
with strength, to the general effect, unobtainable by the usual form of straight
sided piers carried to the height of the roadway, with flat segments of a circle
for the arches.
Having given these particulars of the situation and design of the work, I
will now add some information as to the proportions of the several parts of the
structure.
The centre arch is 100 feet span, and rises 14 feet 6 inches ; the thickness of
the piers, where smallest, being 10 feet The arches adjoining the centre are
95 feet span each, with a rise of 13 feet 3 inches. The piers taken, as before,
are each 9 feet 6 inches thick. The extreme arches are each 8 feet span, and
rise 10 feet 6 inches. The abutments are in their smallest dimensions 13
feet thick, forming at the back a strong arch abutting against the return walls
to resist the horizontal thrust The northern abutment forms a considerable
projection, which was deemed advisable in consequence of the obliquity of the
adjoining wharf below the bridge y as well as to afford the noble proprietor an
opportunity of building a toll-house on extra-parochial ground. The ends of
the piers are semi-circular, having a curvilinear batter on the sides and ends
formed with a radius of 35 feet, and extending upwards from the level of high
water to the springing course, and downwards to the level of the water at the
lowest ebb. The fronts of the abutments have a corresponding batter.
The parts of the piers and abutments which lie under water at the lowest
ebbs, are composed of 2 feet courses of masonry with o&ets, as will be better
understood by reference to the drawing. (See plates.)
The roadway between the abutments is 24 feet wide, supported by 5 cast
iron equidistant ribs. Each rib is 2 feet 6 inches in depth at the springing,
and 2 feet at the apex by 2 inches thick, with a top and bottom flange of 6
inches wide by 2 inches thick, and is cast in 5 pieces ; their joints, (which are
flanged for the purpose,) are connected by screw pins with tie plates equal in
length to the width of the roadway, and in depth and thickness to the ribs ;
between these meeting plates the ribs are connected by strong feathered
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OF THE LART BRIDGE, NEAR PLYMOUTH. 101
crosses, or diagonal braces with screw pins passing through their flanges and
the main ribs* The springing plates are 3 inches thick, with raised grooves
to receive the ends of the ribs, which have double shoulders, thus :
These plates are sunk flush into the springing course of the piers J-
and abutments, which, with the cordon and springing course, are of
granite. The pier standards and spandril flllings are feathered
castings, connected transversely by diagonal braces and wrought iron bars
passing through cast iron pipes, with bearing shoulders for the several parts
to abut against The roadway bearers are 7 inches in depth by 1^ thick*
with a proportional top and bottom flange; they are fastened to the pier
standards by screw pins through sliding mortices, whereby a due provision
is made for either expansion or contraction of the metal — the roadway plates
are f of an inch thick by 3 feet wide, connected by flanges and screw pins,
and project 1 foot over the outer roadway bearers, thus forming a cornice
the whole length of the bridge.
After what has been stated of the character of the river and nature of its
bed, it is unnecessary to remark that extreme caution was indispensable in pre*
paring and seeming the foundations.
We commenced by driving sheeting piles to a depth of 15 feet around
the whole area of the base of the piers and abutments. These piles are of
beech plank, 4 inches thick, having their edge grooved to fit thus, ^ <> >
and were driven in double leading frames fixed to temporary guide piles : —
great attention was paid to have them perfectly close. When pitched they
were from 16 to 18 feet long, properly hooped and shod with plate iron shoes,
weighing on an average 2 lbs. each. These piles were driven with a cast iron
weight of 450 lbs. worked by seven or eight men in what is termed a ringing
engine. They were driven several feet below low water by means of
punches.
As these pilings were carried on, the sand was excavated from the space
they enclosed to a depth of 5 or 6 feet below the general level of the
river, and firom 9 to 10 feet below the level of low water of ordinary tides.
These excavations were effected by means of sand spoons of the following con-
struction. Strong canvas bags, capable of' containing about 2 cubic feet of
sand, were firmly secured to elliptical rings of wrought iron, each ring having
a socket to receive a long wooden handle in the direction of its transverse
axis, and a swivel handle through its conjugate axis. Stages were fixed
on the leading firames in which the sheeting piles were driven, at about 3
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lOS KR* J. M. BBNDEL ON THE CONSTRUCTION
feet abore low water^ and each spoon was worked by three men m the following
manner :^-^<a rope was fEistened to the loop in the swivel handle of the spoon
frame, one end of which was passed over a single block fixed a few feet above
the level of the stage, and the other end was held by one of the workmen,
whose business it was to pull the spoon when at the bottom towards him»
while a second pressed it downwards and guided it, by means of the long
wooden handle, till it was thought to be filled ; the third man, who was sta-
ti(Hied at the rope which worked through the single block, then hoisted the
spo<m to the stage and discharged its contents into a shoot, which drained
into the river. After the labourers had become used to the work, these
operations were carried on with considerable despatch, favourable tides gene*
rally affording from 3 to 4 hours* work per day.
As these excavations proceeded, the ground was piled with whole tim-
bers of large Norway and small sizect Memel, and as many of beech as
could be procured of the desired length ; these piles, being properly shod and
hooped, were driven from temporary stages, fixed above high-water level,
by weights varying, according to the size of the pile, from 10 to 15 hun-
dred weight ; they were disposed in five rows, in the width of the foundations,
from 4 feet to 4 feet 6 inches from centre to centre, and were driven till they
did not sink more than cme inch with eight blows of the 15 hundred weight
driver falling from a height of 25 feet, and then received twenty additional
strokes with the same weight and fall.
These piles, none of which were less than 35 feet long, were driven to the
level of the stage, and then punched to their proper depth. The pimches
used for this purpose were made of sound and well seasoned elm, hooped
throughout their length, and having at their lower ends a strong cast iron
ring, about 18 inches wide ; this ring had a thick partition plate, cast in the
middle of its width, which separated the head of the pile from the end of the
punch ; the lower end of the ring was cast a little conical, and the pile heads
were made to fit it accurately thus ^ :^iuu)^ JI [^i>iu { . By this means the
pile heads were but little injured, and the loss of momentum occasioned by the
intervention of a punch was reduced to a mere trifle.
The next operation was to cut off the bearing piles to their proper depth,
and to pave and grout the spaces between them. The usual mode of coffer-
dams was manifestly inapplicable to such a bed of sand ; I therefore, in an
early stage of the works, proposed to the contractors that the pile heads should
r
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OP THB LAEY BWDaE, NUAR PI^YMOUTIi. lOS
be levelled, and the spaces between them paved by means of a diving bell.
To save expense, this bell was made of wood, and with the necessary ma-
chinery was finished and put to work within six weeks from the time it wfw
determined on. With its assistance the works were carried on with expeditiw
and success. When in operation it ccmtained two men, who, being provided
with the necessfiuy instruments for cutting off the piles, paving the spaces
between them, &c., continued at work fw four hours, whw they were re-
lieved by two others.
As much depended on the regularity with which the pile heads were
levelled, great care was bestowed on this part of the work* It was accomr
plished in the following manner ^*^the four angular piles of each foundaticm
being cut as low as the water would permit, were accurately levelled from
a i^ug cm the shore to ascertain how much each had to be reduced to bring
it to its proper level ; on each of these piles wajs marked the porticm remainr
ing to be cut by the bell men, which being done, all the remaining piles were
levelled from them by means of a spirit-level, accurately adjusted in a piece of
wood, sufficiently long to be a^^lied to three jnles at a time. The paving be-
tween the pile heads was performed in an equally simple and satisfactory
manner.
As this economical bell answered every required purpose, a general descrip-
tion of the whole apparatus may prove acceptable.
The internal dimensions of the bell were 5 feet 6 inches in length, 4 feet
6 inches in width, and 5 feet in height ; the sides, ends, and top were made
of two thicknesses of 1^ inch well seasoned ehn board; the inner case
was constructed with its joints parallel to the top and bottom or mouth of
the bdl, whilst those of the outer one were vertical, or at right angles to
the inner joints ; the top joints were (tossed in the same manner as tb^ sides;
all the joints had a slip of flannel, saturated in a composition of bees' wajc^
laid between them, and were dowelled together and set as close as possible by
means of screw clamps, &c., the sides were rabbeted to the end, and the in-
ternal angles were strengthened with brackets. The whole sui&ce between
the iimer and outer case was covered with double flannel, sati^rated as jwt
described, and was then connected together by a number of wooden piuus,
dipped in tar and tightly driven ; the top was perforated with six holes of 6
inches diameter each, in which was firmly fixed a corresponding number of
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104 ME. J. M. BENDEL ON THE CONSTRUCTION
strong lenses set in white lead ; a hole of 3 inches diameter was made in the
centre, in which was fixed a brass pipe with a screw to attach the air tube ;
four hoops of wrought iron, two internal and two external, were screw-bolted
together through the sides and ends of the bell : internal and external cross-
lacings were also screw-bolted to those hoops, and to the sides and top of the
belL In these lacings, the chains by which the bell was suspended, were
fixed in strong iron eyes, which passed through the top of the bell, and were
riveted to the inner lacings. All the screw-bolts were driven with tarred
oakum, and every precaution was taken to render the whole air-tight. The
bell thus finished weighed about 1 ton 10 hundred weight, but it required
from 5 to 6^ tons to sink it, and overhaul the ropes by which it was sus-
pended ; cast iron plates, from Ij to 2 inches in the thickness, were therefore
hung externally round its sides and ends, till it was sufficiently loaded to sink
with steadiness in about 25 feet of water.
The bell was provided with two moveable seats and a foot-board for the
divers, and at top long boxes were fixed, in which their tools were kept ; it
was supplied with air by a double acting force-pump, the cylinders of which
were 7 inches diameter in the clear, the pistons making a 14 inch stroke.
This pump was generally worked by four men, and made, on an average,
according to the depth of water and run of the tide, about eight double strokes
per minute.
Around the foundations on which the bell was to be employed, temporary
piles were driven and cut off level about 15 feet above high water, and
cross braced ; on the top of these piles whole Memel timbers were firmly fixed,
care being taken to have the side beams parallel to each other. A strong frame,
equal in length to the distance between the parallel beams of the above stage,
and about 4 feet wide, mounted on four small cast iron flanged wheels, traversed
on an iron railway laid on the beams ; this frame was moved on the railway
by means of a rope connected to the sides and worked by two common
winches, one fixed at each end of the stage ; on the beams of this traverse
frame a railway was also laid, on which worked a carriage, mounted in a
similar manner, and sufficiently large and strong to carry a purchase machine
capable of raising the bell by the labour of four men ; the bell was suspended
to this carriage by two treble blocks, the upper block being lashed to one of
the cross beams of the frame, and the lower connected to the sling chains of
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OF THE LARY BRIDGE, NEAR PLYMOUTH. 105
the bell by a strong shackle. This traverse firame was easily moved by
winches aflixed to the ends of the long frame, over which ropes worked,
having their ends made fast to the purchase machine frame.
By these traverse frames the bell was moved with great celerity to any
part of the fomidations. The machinery required the attendance of six active
men, viz. one to each of the four winches, and two to the purchase machine.
It was the sole business of a careful man to attend to the signals of the divers,
and to direct the men at the machinery and air-pumps accordingly. The
signals were communicated by a line, one end of which was fixed in the bell,
and the other held by the signal-man, whose place was on the stage. To avoid
confusion in the signals, any thing requiring great precision was communicated
to either the divers or signal-man by means of a board attached to the line on
which either party wrote with chalk, and by these means a regular corre-
spondence could be carried on.
By means of the bell and apparatus, the works proceeded with safety and
expedition, and I feel confident that diving-bells may be employed by the
bridge builder in a variety of cases with much greater advantage and economy
than coffer-dams.
The foundations being prepared, and guides fixed to the plank piles, caissons
were floated off from the shore with one, and in some instances two courses of
maBonry, and sunk. The greatest success attended these operations from the
care that was taken to get the foundations perfectly level : of course, the heads
of the plank piles were not cut off until the caissons were sunk.
The bottoms of the caissons were made of beech plank and beams ; the
bottom plank was 4 inches thick and laid in the transverse direction of the
pier, across which the beams 12 inches by 8 inches were placed so as to corre-
spond with the rows of piles in the foundation. The spaces between the beams
were filled with masonry set in pozzuolana mortar, and grouted ; and a flooring
of 3 inch plank, closely jointed and well caulked, so as to be perfectly
water-tight, covered the masonry and beams. The top and bottom planks
were trenailed to the beams, and the whole strengthened by a strong frame of
beech a foot square, surrounding the bottom and fastened to it by strong screw
bolts and trenails.
The upper surfaces of the beams of this frame were grooved to receive a
strong tongue, fitting a corresponding groove in the bottom beams of the sides
and ends of the caissons, which were made in the usual way, and connected
VOL. I. P
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106 MR. J. M. RENDEL ON THE CONSTRUCTION
to the bottom by strong lewes irons fitted to cast iron boxes, firmly fixed in the
bottom planking. The lewes irons were fixed about 8 feet apart, and were
easily removed when the masonry was brought up to the height of the caisson.
The introduction of the tongue in the bottom beams of the caisson proved of the
greatest utility, as it prevented leaks from the slight sinkage of the bottom
between the lewes irons, which it is impossible to prevent when the caisson
grounds.
The caissons were furnished with sluices, and made 15 feet high, which
gave the masons an opportunity of working about five hours each tide on an
average of neaps and springs.
The masonry of the piers and abutments is composed of solid compact lime^
stone, raised in the quarries of the noble proprietor of the bridge* in the
adjoining cliflfe, and Dartmoor granite, the latter used only, however, in the
springing courses and cornices. The limestone is quarried in masses, varying
from two to six tons weight, and these were taken to the work on a railroad,
continued from the quarries across the river on a stage or temporary bridge,
passing close to the piers and abutments, and under the stages on which the
diving bell was worked as before described, and the machinery used in working
the bell was applied to taking the stone from the waggons, and in setting it.
This machinery was found of incalculable advantage in building with such
heavy blocks of stone, moving them with ease and the minutest accuracy from
over head, and, consequently, without obstructing or incommoding the builders
in the caissons.
Experience having taught me that the mortar used in the construction of
these works is of an excellent quality, I shall, I hope, be excused if I add to
this already long paper a few words on this subject.
The blue lias stone got from the coast of Dorsetshire was burnt at the bridge
as the works proceeded, and, whilst hot from the kiln, was ground in a mill to
a fine powder. It was then taken to another mill, and in its powdered state
mixed with prepared pozzuolana and sand, and ground until it formed a tough
paste, no more water being used than was absolutely necessary. The best
mortar, or that used in the bottom courses of the piers and abutments, and for
the front work, was composed of one measure of powdered lime, one measure
of pozzuolana, and two measures of sand. The backing mortar was prepared
with one measure of lime, half a measure of pozzuolana, and two measures and
* From these quarries the large hlocks of stone used in paving the breakwater are taken.
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OF THE LAEY BRIDGE, NEAR PLYMOUTH. 107
a half of sand : the sand was of an excellent quality, got from the site of the
bridge*
The following circumstance will sufficiently prove the goodness of this
mortar. Some masonry, which had been done in one of the foundations about
twelve months, had to be removed, when the stones were found so firmly united,
that gunpowder was necessary to separate them.
I have before described the bed of the river to be a loose sand moved by
the slightest increase of current, and that this circumstance, together with the
difficulty of founding piers and abutments, induced me to propose a suspension
bridge spanning the whole width of the river. It was however hoped, when
a change of plan became necessary, that the plank piles, with the aid of some
stone thrown round them, would be sufficient to meet the increased current
occasioned by the bridge ; but as the erection of the piers and abutments pro-
ceeded, the necessity of a more extended security for the foundations became
manifest, as the bed of the river, for its whole width, and to an extent of from
50 to 60 feet above and below the bridge, was gradually scouring away. I
therefore proposed to form an artificial bed, to the full extent to which the
natural one was removed, with clay from 18 inches to 2 feet thick, and
to cover the clay with rubble stone of all sizes from 200 lbs. each down-
wards. This plan of operation was suggested by observing these materials
in vast abundance in the adjoining limestone quarry spoil hills, and after I
had submitted the clay to experiment, and foimd it capable of resisting a
current acting immediately upon it at a velocity of 7 feet per second. The
clay and stone were deposited with great regxdarity, giving to the channels
under each arch a slight concavity in the middle : the combined thickness of
the clay and stone is from 2 feet to 2 feet 6 inches, and just replaces the
loss of the natural bed.
By this union of materials an indestructible bed has been produced. The
day shields the natural bed from the current, whilst at the same time it forms a
tenacious cement in which the stone buries itself, and which is hardened by the
volume of water constantly pressing on it. In six months after this work was
finished, I ascertained that sea weeds were growing over its surface, and that it
was sufficiently firm to resist an oyster dredge*.
* At the present time (1836) the surfGuse is so hard, that heavily laden waggons would not sink
in it.
P 2
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108 MR. J. M. RENDEL ON THE CONSTRUCTION, ETC.
Messrs. Johnson of Grosvenor Wharf, London, were contractors for the
masonry, &c., and Mr. William Hazledine, of Shrewsbury, for the iron work.
The contract amount for the masonry, &c., was . . £13,365
Ditto ditto for the iron 13,761
Making the total cost .... £27,126
The work commenced in August 1824, and the bridge was opened in July
1827.
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109
IX. An Ahstrojct Account of Coals used in Coke Ovens and Retorts^ and
Coke produced from One Yearns Work at the Ipsioich Oas Works.
Communicated bf/ Wm. Cubitt^ Esq.y F.KS.f ^c, V.P.InstC.M.
1826.
Coals uied in
Oveni.
Coke prodooed.
Coals used in
Ketoru.
Cokepiodaoad.
January .
February ,
March . .
April • .
May . .
June . .
July .
August .
September
October
November
December
Ch. Ba.
31 32
28 20
27 10
16 24
16 16
16 6
16 18
24 4
30
33 4
34 18
41 4
Ch. Bo.
36 9
29 27
31 16
19 7
17 36
17 24
18 1
28
34 29
38 22
40 18
46 6
Ch. Bo.
37 18
27 18
26
16 18
7 24
6
7 6
8 17
27
30 20
36 2
46 20
Ch. Bu.
66 16
40 34
37 4
24 16
11 161
6 32|
10 27
12 22
39 16
46 26
61 32
70
313 11
368 13
273 36
406 24
Experiments to shew the Weight of Coke produced from both Coke Ovens
and Retorts with a given Weight of Coals.
OOKB OVEN BXPBBIMENT8.
Measure of
Coals.
Wei^tof
Coals.
Wei^tof
Cinders.
Measure of
Cinders.
Ist Experiment in Ovens with TM coals
2d ditto ditto with same coals
Ch. Bu.
20
20
Cwt. qrs. lbs.
13 3 11^
13 2 18
Cwt. qrs. lbs.
8 22
8 20
Ch. Bu.
224
22|
BETOBT EXPERIMENTS.
Ist Experiment in 6 Retorts with small
coals .••••--•-.
10
10
6
6 2 16
4 3 6
4 3 20
12
14
2d ditto in 6 Retorts with TM coals .
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^^^'
110 BIR. CUBITT*8 ACCOUNT OF COALS USED IN COKE OVENS, ETC.
The coke ovens from which the above statement is made are worked with
a daily charge of 20 bushels of coals, which are burned off in £4 hours.
Each oven, by means of its spare heat, keeps at a constant working state
6 retorts for making coal gas, which retorts are charged with 10 bushels of
coals three times per day in a general way.
The coke produced from the ovens is the best possible quality for iron-
founders and maltsters, and is sold at 28s. per chaldron of 36 bushels.
The coke produced from the retorts is used by some persons for drying
malt, but principally for common fires, and is sold at 2ls. per chaldron.
The coals which are found to yield the greatest heat in converting into
coke in the ovens, and at the same time leaving the best coke, are PiWs Tan-
field MooTy fitted only by H. Clayton, of Newcastle.
The waste heat from these coke ovens keeps the retorts at a constant red
heat through an entire coating of fire-bricks, varying from 8 to 3 inches in
thickness, according to the distance from the end of the coke oven.
k
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HI
Xr An Approximative RiUeJbr calculating the Velocity with which a Steam
Vessel will he impelled through still Water ^ by the Exertion of a given
Amount of Mechanical Powers or Forcible Motion^ by Marine Steam
Engines. Communicated by Mr. Farey, M.Inst. C.E.
Notwithstanding the great experience which has been acquired in constructing
steam vessels, few engineers possess any rule for determining, a priori, what
will be the speed of a new vessel, which is designed.
The usual course is, to institute to a comparison with some former steam
vessel, whereof the dimensions and performance is known, and by estimating all
the differences of dimensions between that former vessel, and the new-intended
one, the difference of its expected performance from the known performance is
inferred. When the new intended vessel is not materially different from some
previously known case, this method of comparison answers the purpose ; but so
many cases arise in practice, which are not comparable with any known case,
that a general rule is greatly wanted, and the writer of this communication has
kept the subject in view, from the first establishment of steam vessels till the
present time, omitting no opportunity of ascertaining and recording the per-
formance of every steam vessel whereof the form and dimensions could be
ascertained, and at intervals arranging the observations in classes, and deducing
rules from them, which have been amended and improved from time to time, as
more complete information was attained.
Almost all experiments which have been made, on the resistance of draw-
ing floating bodies along the surface of unconfined but tranquil water, shew,
that the resistance increases as the square of the velocity ; and hence it may
be inferred, that if the draft, or direct pull, (such as horses exert on the
towing line of a canal boat,) which is requisite to draw a vessel along the
water at a rate of five miles per hour, is one ton, then to draw it at the rate
of ten miles per hour, will require a pull of four tons.
It follows as a consequence, that the exertion of mechanical power, or
forcible motion, must progress according to the cubes of the velocities, because
an increased force is to be exerted with an equally increased velocity ; for
instance, if an exertion of 25 horse power will impel a given vessel at the rate
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112 ME. FAEEY ON THE VELOCITY OF STEAM VESSELS
of five miles per hour, it would require an exertion of 200 horse power to impel
the same vessel at the rate of ten miles per hour.
These two propositions are to he considered as assumptions, when applied
to steam vessels, hecause the experiments on which the first is founded, viz., the
rate of resistance heing as the square of the velocity, have heen all made on
very small vesisels, nevertheless they all concur in very nearly the same result* ;
and again, in steam hoats, the water yields very considerahly to the paddles,
and a loss of power is thereby occasionedt, which is not contemplated in
framing the second proposition, (viz. that the power exerted must be as the
cube of the velocity, because the resistance of draft is as the square of the
velocity.)
* A fiind of valuable information on this subject is contained in the papers of the late
Colonel Beaufoy. Since the above was written, those papers have been published by his son in a
quarto volume, which has been distributed in the scientific world ; a copy is preserved in the
library of the Institution.
f This loss had formerly a mudi greater influence than at present; because the improve-
ments which have been made in proportioning the paddles of modem steam boats, has rendered
the loss less considerable. I was formerly induced to suppose that the exertion of power
increased by a higher ratio than the cubes of the velocities attamed by the exertion. This
notion arose in the course of some of my earliest deductions, from observations on the steam
boats first used in Scotland ; comparing their increase of speed with the power exerted by
suocesnVe engines, of greater and greater magnitude, which were substituted one after another
on board the same boats, it appeared that the exertion of power required to produce difierent
velocities, corresponded to some intermediate stage between the cubes and the biquadrates of
those velocities; an arithmetical mean between the cube and the biquadrate seemed nearly to
correspond to those observations, but subsequently it was found out, that the loss occasioned by
the yielding of the water to the paddles, had been very greatly increased when larger engmes
had been first substituted for smaller engines, but when larger paddle wheels, and paddles, were
given to the laiger engmes, the speed vras improved, and when so improved the power exerted came
out nearly as the cubes of the velocities.
This notion would be no more worthy of being recorded than a multitude of other attempts to
deduce rules from uncomparable observations, if a rumour of it had not, unknown to me, found its
way into a memoire upon navigation by steam, read before the institution at Paris in 1826, by M.
Seguin, who relates that he consulted me, when I resided at Leeds, and that I considered the re-
sistance of vessels to be proportional to the fifth powers, divided by the cubes of the velocities,
which M. Seguin says confirmed some opinions of his own.
Now the fifth power of any number being divided by the cube thereof, is only the same a^
the square of the number, and that is the proportion of force of draft, which I have always assumed
to be requisite for overcoming the resistance of pulling a vessel through the water, with different
velocities; but the mechanical power, or forcible motion, which must be exerted by a steam
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ME. FABEY ON THE VELOCITY OF STEAM VESSELS. 113
Notwithstanding any doubts which may be entertained of the exactitude
of the last proposition, the following rule (which proceeds on the assumption,
that the impelling power which must be exerted, is as the cube of the
velocity) wiU be found to give results which approximate to the actual per-
formance of steam vessels in common use.
The rule contemplates the extent of surface which the bottom of the vessel
exposes to contact with the water, and also the sectional area of the water which
must be divided by the vessel, in advancing forwards ; and numbers repre-
senting those two quantities, are combined into one sum, which is taken to
represent the resistance of the vessel, compared with any other vessel of
a different magnitude, but similar in form, the speed in both cases being equal.
In estimating the power exerted by the engines, the rule supposes the actual
power, as shewn by the mdicator, with due allowance for friction, not the
nominal power by which the engines are rated, which in modem engines is
always very much less than the power actually exerted. For instance, Messrs.
Boulton, Watt, and Co.'s marine engines, are calculated to exert about 7^ lbs.
effective force, for each square inch of their pistons, and the motion of the
pistons in their cylinders causes an expenditure of 31^^ cubic feet of steam per
minute, for every nominal horse power*, being a little different from their
scale for land engines.
Messrs. Boulton, Watt, and Co.'s 50 horse marine engines have cylinders 39^
inches diameter, their pistons moving 3^ feet stroke, and are calculated to
make 26^ strokes per minute. Their 80 horse marine engines have cylinders
47^ inches diameter, pistons 4^ feet stroke, and calculated at 22^ strokes per
minute.
When a trial of any modem marine engine is made by an indicator, the
effective or unbalanced pressure of steam, by which the piston is impelled, will
be found much more than the assumed 7i^ lbs. per square inch, after allowing
engine, in order to overcome that resistance, I assume io be as the cubes of those velocities ;
I explained to M. Seguin, that formerly I had supposed it to be a more rapid rate of increase
than the cubes, something like an arithmetical mean between the cube and the biquadrate as
above stated. The fifth power divided by the cube, was a statement made to me, and to which
I assented, as giving correct results for the resistance of draft ; but it is a needlessly complicated
mode of expressing the square of a number. J. F.
* That horse power being in all cases, according to Mr. Watt's standard, a force of 33,000 lbs.
acting through a space of one foot per minute.
VOL. I. d
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114 MB. FAEEY ON THE VELOCITY OF STEAM VESSELS.
amply for friction ; 11^ lbs. per square inch is probably nearer to an average
of good engines ; but the very best are considerably more, even as much as
12^ lbs. per square inch. The actual power exerted will be greater than the
nominal horse power, in proportion as the actual force exerted by the piston
is greater than the assumed standard of 7iV ^^* P^^ square inch.
The approximate nile is as follows : —
I. Find the area of the transverse section of the vessel, under water, in square
feet ; extract the square root of that number of square feet ; multiply the root by
the length of the vessel at the water's surface, and divide the product by the
greatest breadth of the vessel at the water's surface ; then add the quotient to
the above number of square feet ; the sum is to be taken for a representation of
the resistance of the vessel, compared with others of different sizes, but similar
in form, the comparison being made, by the above mode of computation, when
they are proceeding with the same velocity.
II. Find the number of horse powers actually exerted by the engines,
according to observations made by the indicator, and multiply that number
by 1000, in case of vessels of an ordinary form, such as were usually built for
sea-going vessels seven years ago • j divide the product by the number previously
found as above ; then extract the cube root of the quotient j and that root
will be near to the velocity of the vessel, in miles per hour, through still water.
Example, of a large vessel, 150 feet long, 27 feet broad, drawing 9^ feet
water, impelled by two engmes rated at 80 horse power each ; she went 9^
miles per hour (in 1826).
The sectional area of the part under water, was 207.6 square feet ; the
square root of that is 14.4, which multiplied by 150 feet long, and the product
divided by 27 feet broad, gives 80 for a representation of the surface of the
bottom in contact with the water, and that added to 207.6 square feet, gives
287.6 to represent resistance. The engines were found by the indicator, to
exert an effective force of 11^ lbs. per square inch of their pistons, (firiction
being allowed for,) when they made 23 strokes per minute, of 4^ feet ; the
pistons being 47^ inches diameter ; that is, 128 horse power, actually exerted
by each engine, or 256 horse power by both, this being multiplied by 1000, gives
* For the very full built forms, such as were used for the early steam boats, built more
than 14 years ago, the multipliers should be only 900 ; or for the very sharp improyed forms built
in the last two or three years, 1100.
i
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MB. FAREY ON THE VELOCITY OF STEAM VE8SEL8. 115
256,000, which product divided by 287.6 gives 890; and the cube root
thereof is 9*62 miles per hour, instead of 9*7 miles, as observed.
Another example, of a small vessel, 105 feet long, 17^ feet broad, drawing
5\ feet of water, impelled by one engine, rated at 50 horse power ; she went
9f miles per hour (in 1829)-
The sectional area was 62 square feet ; square root thereof 7.87 x 105 feet
long -r 17^ feet broad =47.25, to be added to 62, making 109.25 to represent
resistance. The piston, according to the indicator exerted 12^ lbs. per square
inch effective force, (after allowing for friction,) and made 30 strokes per minute
of 3^ fiset, piston 394 ^^^^^ diameter, that is, an exertion of 97^ l^orse power ^
multiply that by 1000, and divide by 109.25, gives 892, the cube root of which
is 9*626 miles per hour.
The above two vessels being the same in speed, but very different in
magnitude, the accordance of the results given by the rule with the facts, shews
that the rule makes a proper allowance for difference of magnitude.
Another example, of a small boat, 72 feet long, 15 feet broad, a very full built
form, impelled slowly, by one engine of the oldest construction, called 10 horse
power, made in Scotland, 1814.
Sectional area 42 square feet ; square root thereof 6.48 x 72 feet long -f- 15
feet broad = 31. 1, to be added to 42, making 73. 1 to represent resistance. The
engine was very inferior to the modem ones*, and probably did not exert above
7^ lbs. per square inch of the piston, which was 22 inches diameter, 2 feet
stroke, and made 32 strokes per minute, that would be 11.1 horse power. The
form of this old boat being very round at the bows, and more resisting than
the modem vessels, should have a lower multiplier, viz. 900 instead of 1000;
therefore 11.1 horse power x 900 -f- 73.1 resistance, gives 136.7; the cube
root of which is 5.15 miles per hour, which was very near the real speed of
this boat.
Another example, of an old boat, 156 feet long, 33 feet broad, in America,
1816, impelled by one engine, piston 40 inches diameter, 5 feet stroke, I7
strokes per minute, she went 6J miles per hour. Sectional area 150 square
* In those older examples preTioos to 1819, wherein no indicator observations were
made upon the engines, the probable force exerted by the pistons has been inferred from in-
dicator observations, made since, upon other engines of similar structure and proportions of their
parts.
Q 2
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116 MR. PABEY ON THE VELOCITY OP STEAM VESSELS.
feet; square root 12.25 x 156h-33=57.9 to be added to 150=207-9 for re-
sistance ; the piston probably exerted about 9^ lbs. per square inch, which
would be 61.5 horse power *. The form of this boat being very full, multiply
by 900 and divide by 207.9 = 266.5, the cube root of which gives 6.43 miles
per hour.
Another example, of a small boat, 85 feet length, 18^ feet wide, 3f feet
draft of water, impelled by two engines, pistons 22 inches diameter, 2^ feet
stroke, 34 strokes per minute (in 1818). Sectional area 62 square feet ; square
root thereof 7.87x85 feet length -f- 18^ feet wide =36, which, added to 62,
gives 98 to represent resistance. The engines were the earliest construction of
combined engines, and probably their pistons did not exert above 7f lbs. per
square inch * ; which would be 30.3 horse power. The boat was sharper than
those of the older construction, being very similar in form to those before cal-
culated with 1000 for a multiplier, which being used and -r- 98 resistance,
gives 309, the cube root of which is 6.76 miles per hour. The boat actually
went 6f miles per hour.
Another example, of a large vessel, 136 feet long, 26 feet wide, 12^ feet
draft of water. Impelled by two engines rated at 60 horse power each, she
went 8^ miles per hour, 1825. Sectional area 227 square feet ; square root
15.07 X 136 -=-26 =78.8 to be added to 227, making 305.8 to represent re-
sistance. The pistons 43 inches diameter, 4 feet stroke, 26 strokes per
minute, exerting llf lbs. per square inch, which is 107^ horse power by
each, or 215 horse power exerted by both engines. The form of the vessel was
full, such as requires 900 for a multiplier ; and 215 horse power x 900 -r- 305.8
gives 633 ; the cube root of which is 8.59 miles per hour.
The above examples shew that the rule applies to cases where the difference
of speed is very considerable, as well as the difference of magnitude.
* Vide note, p. 115.
25tli April, 1833.
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117
XI. On the Effective Power of the High-Pressure Expansive Condensing
Steam Engines commonly in use in Cornish Mines. By Mr. T. Wick-
STEEDy Civil Engineer. Communicated in a Letter to the President.
At your request I beg leave to forward you some observations upon Cornish
engines, which, although not entering into the detail you seem desirous of
obtaining, will not, I trust, be quite devoid of interest.
Having received instructions from the Court of Directors of the East
London Water Works to visit the mines in Cornwall, for the purpose of
making inquiries about the Cornish engines, I left London upon the 1st of
August last, and returned upon the 20th of the same month.
My friends, Mr. John Taylor and Mr. Grout, kindly gave me letters of
introduction, which enabled me to see any engine I was desirous of viewing.
The first mines I visited were the Wheel Friendship copper mines, near
Tavistock, Devonshire, and the Redmoor and Holmbush copper, and the
Wheel Brothers silver, mines, near Callington, Cornwall. At the Redmoor
mine I saw an engine with a 50 inch cylinder, erected by Messrs. Petherick
and West. The mine had not been long at work ; the shaft was not more than
156 feet deep; there were two shafts with pumps in, and one was about
560 yards distant from the engine ; the motion was communicated by means
of horizontal bars, suspended by pendulum rods. The engine was working
about two strokes per minute throughout the 24 hours ; the work done was
light, probably not equal to more than five horses* power ; it consumed only
three and one-third imperial bushels of coals per 24 hours. The engine had
been worked the previous fortnight with turf cut off the neighbouring moor,
at a cost of eight-pence halfpenny per 24 hours ; it required 18 feet square
of turf, about 2 inches thick, to keep the steam up for that time. I mention
this to shew that when a large engine is erected to clear a mine, although in
the first instance the work it has to do is not proportioned to its size, never-
theless, the consumption of fuel is nearly in proportion to the work done.
As regards the use of turf, it is evident, as these boilers were constructed
with the intention of using coal as fuel, when the depth of the mine and the
quantity of water increased, that turf could not be used without an alteration
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118 MR. WICKSTEED ON THE EFFECTIVE POWER OF THE HIGH-PRESSURE
in the fire-places, the bulk of turf required being much greater than that of
coal. Mr. Grout has since informed me that he has ordered an engine and
boilers for one of his mines, and that the boilers are to be constructed with a
view to the use of turf only.
The next engine that I saw was one at the Fowey Consolidated mines,
near St. Blazey. The cylinder was 80 inches, the pump stroke 9i feet, the
duty was, in August, equal to 83,296,000 lbs., raised 1 foot high, with an
imperial bushel, or 84 pounds of coals ; it consumed about a bushel or 84
pounds of coals per hour. This is a most splendid engine, and does greater
" duty " than any other engine in Cornwall ; the construction of the valves
and other parts of the engine is so perfect, that although its load was equal
to about 51,000 lbs., the hand-gear might be worked by a boy of ten years of
age, as far as strength was required ; I worked it myself with perfect ease ;
whereas, although the load upon one of our engines of 36 inches cylinder is
only about 12,000 lbs., it requires not only a strong, but also a weighty man
to work it.
The hand-gear is all bright work, and finished in first rate style. The
quantity of bright work in an engine of course depends upon the taste of the
person ordering it, and I certainly saw many Cornish engines of longer standing
than the one in question, that displayed very little bright work ; but that it
can be executed as well in Cornwall as in any other county in England must
appear evident to those who have seen this engine, and the founderies or engine
manufactories at Hayle. At the latter place I saw an 80 inch cylinder 12
feet long, in the boring machine, and could not perceive a flaw in it.
I was very much struck with the ease with which the engine in question
appeared to work ; there was scarcely any noise, the greatest was that of the
steam in its passage through the expansion valve. To one who had been used
to the noise of the pumping engines in London, it appeared remarkable.
The reason that this engine does more work than any other in Cornwall
is, in my opinion, owing chiefly to the construction of the boilers, which are
different to the generality, inasmuch as they have an internal tube, of about 21
inches diameter, passing through the main flue of the boiler, extending from
the back part of the boiler as far as the bridge of the fire-place, dividing the
flame as it passes from the fire-place, and thus where the heat is most intense
the surface exposed to its action is greatest ; there is also a tube of about the
same diameter, and 36 feet long, around which the flue from the boilers passes
before entering the chimney ; into this tube the feed is sent before it passes
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EXPANSIVE CONDENSING STEAM ENGINES. 119
into the boilers, and is previously heated to a temperature of 180"^ by means of
the heat that might otherwise pass into the chimney unused.
The engines that I next viewed were the following ; viz.
50 inch cylinder at Charleston,
76 Ditto at East Crennis, } Near St. Austel.
66 Ditto at Polgooth,
85 Ditto at the Consolidated Mines,
80 Ditto at Ditto, }- Near St. Day.
30 Ditto at United Mines,
}
Although all of these engines were good ones, they were not equal to the
Fowey Consols ; as regards the last, viz. the 30 inch cylinder, the water that
is raised out of the mine by this engine is conveyed by a pipe above ground
to supply a water-wheel ; and, although it is small and not of modem con-
struction, it is doing nearly twice the " duty '* of the London pumping engines
of 4 times greater area in the cylinder. I mention this engine particularly,
because it is doing precisely the same work that a water-works engine has to
do in lifting water into a reservoir.
I afterwards viewed the following engines ; viz.
Two 80 inch cylinders at Wheel Vor, near Helston.
One 70 Ditto at North Roskear, near Rednith.
60 Ditto at South Roskear, near Ditto.
80 Ditto at Wheel Darlington, near Marazion.
30 Ditto at Wheel Providence, near St. Ive's.
The SO inch cylinder at the United Mines, the 80 inch cylinder at Wheel
Darlington, and the 30 inch cylinder at Wheel Providence, were raising the
water out of the shafts to the surface^ and I had therefore an opportunity of
seeing it as it was thrown up, and I observed that in every case there were
no bubbles of air mixed with the water, proving that the pumps were lifting
" solid *' water, (as it is termed in Cornwall,) and not partly water, and partly
air, as has been suggested by those who have no faith in the reports of the
work done by the Cornish engines.
The foregoing, with the exception of the engine at Wheel Jewel Mines,
near St. Day, which was not at work while I was there, were all the engines
that I saw. And before I proceed to make any further remarks upon them,
I beg to call your attention to the Table • that accompanies this Report, which
gives further particulars of them, extracted from the " Monthly Reports."
* This *' Tahle of work performed, &c., in January, 1835," is omitted.
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120 MR. WICKSTEED ON THE EFFECTIVE POWER OF THE HIGH-PRESSURE
As the accuracy of these Reports has been questioned, or to use plainer
language, as it has been asserted that they are false, and that the Cornish
engines do not perform the work stated, it may be as well to explain how
these Reports are made.
When the agents of a mine wish the " duty ** of their engines to be pub-
lished, an accurate measurement of the lifts is made and the diameter of the
pumps, and other particulars, are recorded ; a counter is fixed upon the engines
by Captain Thomas Lean, (the gentleman who has been appointed by the
proprietors of the mines to take an account of the work of their engines,) and
this counter has a Bramah's lock attached to it, the key of which he keeps.
He visits each of the mines once per month, and takes an account of the strokes
made by the engines during the preceding month. In some instances there is
another counter attached to the engine, which is open to the inspection of the
engineer, agents, and engine-keepers.
The coals are supplied by a distinct party, who has to account to the agent
of the mines for the coals consumed per month ; the engine-keepers write
orders for the coals they require, and at the end of the month the quantity of
coals on hand is measured and deducted ; the orders are considered as vouchers,
which, after having been examined and countersigned by Captain Thomas
Lean, are passed. It is obviously the interest of the coal agent not to report
a less quantity than actually is consumed, being accountable for the quantity
used ; he cannot therefore be supposed to combine with the engine-keepers,
whose object, if dishonest, would be to report a less quantity.
But supposing, for the sake of argument, that the engineers, and the agents
of the mines, were so disposed, and could get these gentlemen to combine with
them for the purpose of making a false report, the insanity of such a proceeding
will, I think, appear evident upon a perusal of the following statement.
The engines in Cornwall are designed, the drawings made, and the con-
struction and erection of the machinery superintended, by gentlemen who are
appointed as engineers to look after the machinery of the mines. The castings
are made, and the work designed by the said engineers is executed, at two
large " founderies,'* or engine manufactories, at Hayle.
There are more than twenty engineers employed in the mines in Cornwall,
aU of whom are anxious to construct the best engine, as the parties producing
the engines that do the best duty, obtain, of course, the most employment. It
is therefore a matter of jealous attention on the part of these gentlemen to take
care that no engine shall have undue credit for doing the most work. It
f
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EXPANSIVE CONDENSING STEAM ENGINES. 121
happens occasionally, where a great improvement has been made, that doubts
are expressed as to the accuracy of the reported duty : in such cases the
engmeers and agents of the other mines call upon the parties whose engine is
reported as performing extraordinary duty to allow them to prove it ; this call
is answered by fixing a time for the trial — the trial lasts for two or three
days, during which time the engine is in the hands of the rival parties^ who
are on the watch to detect unfair play, if any should be attempted. If the
result of this trial is favourable, the party in question receives due credit ; if
otherwise, his character as an honest man is lost. If this is not as severe a test
of the accuracy of the reports as can be made, and not sufficient, then indeed
prejudice must have its full swing, and no farther proof can be given, as gen-
tlemen going into Cornwall from London and elsewhere, for the purpose of
proving the truth of the statement made by the Cornish engineers, may with
equal justice be charged with making false reports.
The reported " duty " is not necessarily the whole performance of the engine,
the amount of which cannot always be obtained ; it is, in fact, merely the
weight of water lifted, multiplied by the height in feet to which it is raised,
reduced to the number of pounds avoirdupoise raised one foot high, for every
bushel of coals consumed, without reference to friction. Now as the friction
of each engine, and the machinery worked by it, varies, — aud as, although this
friction has to be overcome, the amount of it is not reported, so the reported
duty is not the whole performance of the engine ; and, consequently, an engine
which is reported as performing certain duty may, in fact, be doing as much
work as another engine whose reported duty is greater.
The pumps in the mines in Cornwall are worked, and the water raised, as
the engine goes " out of doors,'* the force of the steam is employed to raise the
heavy pump rods ; these rods are in many instances so weighty that without
counterbalances, or, as they are termed in the county, ** balance bobs,** the
engine would not be sufficiently powerful to raise them, — for instance, in some
cases the pump rods are 150 tons in weight, which is equal to 336,000 lbs.
Now the greatest load upon any engine reported in September last, was under
100,000 lbs. It is therefore necessary to have "balance bobs,** or beams, one
end of which is connected by a rod to the pump rod, and the other is weighted
with iron as a counterbalance. These beams are in many instances as large as
the beam of a 100 horse Boulton and Watt engine ; it is evident that these
cannot be wwked without friction. In other cases the same engine not only
VOL. I. R
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122 ME. WICKSTEED ON THE EFFECTIVE POWEE OF THE HIGH-PEESSUEE
works the pump rods that are in the shaft immediately under the end of the
engine beam, but also the pumps in distant shafts, by means of horizontal rods
extending in some instances half a mile. These rods are supported either by
pendulum rods or work on friction wheels ; in these cases the friction must be
great It must also be borne in mind that there is more friction in a small
cylinder, in proportion to its area, than in a large one, and, in fact, in all the
bearings and working parts of the engine, — ^the power increasing as the squares
of the diameters, while the friction increases as the diameters, directly. There
are other sources of friction, but the above examples will be sufficient to prove
that, although there appears a discrepancy in the reported duties of the Cornish
engines, Bsjriction is not taken into the account, it does not necessarily follow
that an engine, whose reported duty is great, should be, in fact, superior to one
whose reported duty is less.
In addition to this, the reported duty, of the same engine doing the same
work, may vary 7 or 8 per cent, at different times, merely in consequence of
the different quality of the coals supplied.
Particulars of the Cornish engines, showing that they are not inapplicable
for water- works purposes : —
First — ^The steam is raised to about 40 lbs. pressure upon the square inch,
and the admission of it into the cylinder is cut off when the piston has travelled
one-third, one-fourth, one-eighth, or even one-tenth of the length of the stroke,
according to the work to be done, and during the remainder of the stroke the
expansive power of the steam is exerted.
Second — The boilers are tubular, in some instances having an internal tube,
bbj and a feed tube, cc, as represented in the accompanying drawing; in other
instances these tubes are not introduced. I consider their introduction an im-
provement ; the quantity of surface of the boiler exposed to the action of the
fire, or heat of the flues, in proportion to its cubic contents of water, as com-
pared with the Boulton and Watt boiler, is as 60 to 37, or as 3 to 2 nearly.
Third — All those pai*ts of the boilers, cylinder, and pipes containing steam
which are exposed to the air in most engines, are in the Cornish engines com-
pletely cased with a non-conducting material, which, in fact, renders the engine
and boiler houses, where this system is carried to its full extent, as cool as the
inside of a dwelling-house where there are only ordinary fires. Very little heat
is lost when the engine stands still for twelve hours, and if it is necessary to
start it during the night, or in case of emergency, scarcely any time is lost in
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EXPANSIVE CONDENSING STEAM ENGINES. 123
raising the steam, and one-fourth the fuel only is required after the engine has
been standing all night ; whereas, in the common engines, and boilers, where
every vessel containing steam is much exposed, it takes from twenty minutes
to half an hour, firing hard, to raise the steam.
Fourth — The steam and exhausting valves are (what are termed in the
county) " double beat valves ;'* they may be said to combine the advantages of
the circular and slide valves, although not constructed like either ; the effect is,
however, that a man, who would not have strength to raise the valves of a 36
inch cylinder made according to the ordinary construction, may with perfect ease
work the valves of an 80 inch cylinder, as made in Cornwall ; the exhausting
valves and the pipes leading to the condenser are made of much greater area
than ordinarily.
Fifth — The length of the stroke is greater, and the number of strokes per
minute fewer, than in other engines.
Sixth — The water is raised by a solid plunger working through a stuffing
box, instead of a packed piston or bucket, so that, the packing being external,
any leakage is detected immediately, without the delay attendant upon examin-
ing and fresh packing the ordinary packed pistons; and the pump may thus be
made always to do its fiill duty, instead of, as is frequently the case, the water
escaping by the piston when the packing becomes imperfect, or through bad
valves when a bucket is used, and which cannot be detected until it increases
to such an extent that the irregular working of the engine denotes it.
Seventh — The valves of the pump, instead of having their hinges in the
centre, obliging the water to pass through a confined space between the valve
and the side of the valve box, and lying almost flat upon their seats, making it
necessary for them to rise much higher than would otherwise be required to
deliver the quantity of water, and causing upon its descent so forcible a blow
as to render it necessary to admit air under the valves, partially destroying the
vacuum in preference to shaking the engine to pieces, and with openings
through them of one-half or two-thirds the area of the pump barrel, rendering
much greater power requisite to overcome the friction of the water in its
passage through them, — instead of this arrangement, the valves are hung at the
circumference of the circle and open in the centre, and the lower ones are fixed
directly under the pump barrel ; — they lie at a considerable angle to the horizon,
so that a less rise of the valves is sufficient for the passage of the water, and the
openings are made equal in area to the pump barrel. The effect is, that, without
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124 MR. WICKSTEED ON THE EFFECTIVE POWER OF THE HIOH-PRESSURE
the admission of air, as is absolutely necessary in the ordinary pumping engines,
and which diminishes the quantity of water raised per stroke, although working
under more than three times greater column of water, they make no blow of
any consequence upon the return stroke.
Eighth — The cataract is used, by which the engine may be made to work
from 1 to 12 strokes per minute, as may be required, consuming coals nearly in
proportion to the number of strokes ; the best rate however is about 5 or 6
strokes per minute. The cataract is peculiarly applicable to engines used in
draining mines, where the work to be done increases in proportion as the
working of the mine progresses ; and also to engines for water-works where
the demand increases every year, and the power must increase in proportion.
To illustrate this, when one of the London water-works was first established,
there were two engines of 30 horses* power, afterwards one of 20 horses* power,
and afterwards one of 80 horses* power erected; the number of engines increasing
as the demand for increased supply. Now if an engine upon the Cornish plan
had been erected, which at 8 strokes per minute had been equal to 160 horses*
power, then by working it 3 strokes per minute it would have been equivalent
to the two 30 horse engines only, at 4 strokes to the two 30 horse and the 20
horse engines, and at 8 strokes equal to all of them. In this case one engine
would have answered the purpose, and the saving that would have been made
in engines, boilers, buildings, &c., wear and tear of machinery, labour, and
current expenses, is evident.
Ninth — As the extent of pipes in a water- works district increases, the amount
of friction must also increase, and the engine must work under a greater
pressure ; there must consequently be a greater load upon the pump. The
ordinary engines would not be able to work under this increased load, and a
smaller pump must be used j but as this would not give a sufficient quantity of
water, a new engine must be erected, and this has been the case hitherto ;
whereas, in a Cornish engine, by increasing the pressure of steam, or by
working a less proportion of the stroke by the expansive force of the steam,
this increase of expense may be much longer deferred.
Tenth — The Cornish engines, in which the before named arrangements
have been adopted, do about three times more work, with the same quantity
of fuel, than the common water-T^orks pumping engines. As this has, how-
ever, been declared impossible, I will endeavour to prove the contrary by a
comparison of the two engines.
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EXPANSIVE CONDENSING STEAM ENGINES. 125
The common water-works engine is worked with steam at a pressure
generally of two and a half or three pounds above the pressure of the atmo-
sphere ; the admission of steam is not cut off until the piston has made three-
fourths or seven-eighths of its stroke, and the principal object in view in cutting
it off at all is to make the danger of the piston travelling too far, and the
chance of breaking the bottom of the cylinder, beam, or parallel motion, less.
On the 18th of February last, I tried the power of an engine upon this
construction ; the experiment lasted one hour, and 469 lbs. of good Holy-
well Main large coals were used. The diameter of the cylinder was 60 inches,
length of stroke 7 f^^t 9 inches ; the engine made 869 strokes in the hour, or
14.48 strokes per minute; the pressure of steam was 2^ lbs. per square
inch above the pressure of the atmosphere, which was 14| lbs. ; the vacuum
in the condenser equal to 13;^ lbs. j the diameter of the pump was 27
inches, the length of the stroke 7 f^et 9 inches, the pressure upon the pump
piston equal to a column of water of 115 feet in height, load upon pump piston
28,577 Ihs., equal to 10.1 lbs. pressure per square inch of the steam piston ;
as the pressure of the steam, minus 1^ lb. for imperfect vacuum in the con-
denser, was 15f lbs., the Motion of the engine must have amounted to 5.65
lbs. per square inch.
The steam used in the hour may be found thus : — the area of cylinder was
19.63 square feet, and the steam was cut off at 1 foot 3 inches from the end of
stroke, making the length of stroke for the dense steam 6 feet 6 inches,
which, multiplied by the area, gives 127.6 cubic feet per stroke, add tV for
loss of steam per stroke in the vacancies of the cylinder, making a total of
about 140 cubic feet of steam per stroke, which, multiplied by the number of
strokes per hour, (869 x 140,) is equal to 121,640 cubic feet of steam, gene-
rated under a pressure of 35.2 inches of mercury, at a temperature of about
222** Fahrenheit.
The " duty" performed was 34,467,052 lbs. raised 1 foot high with a
bushel, or 84 lbs. of coals.
Ita.kMd. stroke.
The power of the engine during the time of trial was (28,577 x 7.75 x
stroket per min.
14.48 -T- 33,000) equal to 97 ^ horses' power.
The steam used was equal to 1251 cubic feet per hour per horse's power,
to produce which, at a temperature of 222*" Fahrenheit, would require about
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126 ME. WICKSTEED ON THE EFFECTIVE POWEE OF THE HIGH-PEESSUEE
0.856 cubic foot of water, and to convert this quantity of water into steam at
222^ it required 4.82 lbs. of coals.
Now supposing the admission of steam was cut off when the piston had
travelled one-sixth of its stroke, the operation of its expansion, and the pressure
at different stages, and mean pressure of the whole, will be seen by the following
Table.
Ibt. preisure per
•quaceindt.
During J^th of the stroke dense steam was admitted at a pressure of 17.25
At f ditto the steam had expanded to twice its volume, and the
pressure was reduced to 8.62
At I ditto ditto three times 5.75
At I ditto ditto four times 4.31
Atf ditto ditto five times 3.45
At f ditto ditto six times 2.87
6)42.25
Mean pressure per square inch . . . 7.04 lbs.
If the steam had worked dense throughout, the pressure would have been
17,25 lbs. throughout, but 6 times the quantity of steam would have been
required ; whereas, with one-sixth the quantity of steam, the mean pressure is
7.04 lbs. per square inch, shewing that as the quantity of fuel required is in
proportion to the steam generated, by working the engine thus expansively the
effect is as 2.4 to 1.
If, however, the steam was to be generated under no higher pressure than
17.25 lbs. per square inch, it would be necessary to have the area of the steam
cylinder 2.4 times greater than the one hereinbefore mentioned, to raise the
load ; that is to say, a cylinder of nearly 93 inches in diameter, with 7.04 lbs.
pressure per square inch, instead of a cylinder 60 inches with Y]\ lbs. pressure
per square inch. As this would obviously be disadvantageous, inasmuch as
there would be a great increase of friction, the practice of using steam of higher
temperature, say from 35 lbs. to 40 lbs. above the pressure of the atmosphere,
has been adopted in ComwalL In fact, the general dimensions for a Cornish
engine to do the work hereinbefore stated, would probably have been as
follows, viz.
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EXPANSIVE CONDENSINa STEAM ENGINES. 127
Diameter of cylinder 57 iBchee.
Length of stroke 10 feet.
Number of strokes per minute 7
Diameter of pump piston 34 inches.
Length of stroke 10 feet
Load on pump piston 45.805 lbs.
Load per square inch on steam piston ... 18 lbs.
In addition to the foregoing, which only shews the advantage to be S.4
instead of 3, as I have before stated it to be, there is a very considerable
saving in fuel in consequence of the casing, which saving is of course greater
in proportion in engines where steam of a high temperature is used ; and
there is also less friction, in consequence of the slow motion of the engine, and
from the other causes already stated, which, in my opinion, are fully equal
to make up the difference. It is hardly necessary to observe here, that the
more the steam is worked expansively the greater is the proportional ad-
vantage.
The principle of expansion is not new; it is the extent to which it has been
carried, especially of late years, by the successful adoption of steam at a higher
temperature than is used in the common condensing engine, which is new.
The late Mr. Watt took out a patent in 1782 for working steam expan-
sively, and in his specification, dated March 12th, 1788, he says, " My new
improvement in steam or fire engines, consists in admitting steam into the
cylinder of the engine only during some certain part or portion of the descent
or ascent of the piston, and using the elastic forces wherewith the said steam
expands itself in proceeding to occupy larger spaces as the acting powers on the
piston, through the other parts or portions of the length of the stroke of the
piston."
He then shews, that if steam of 14 lbs. pressure is admitted into a cylinder,
and cut off at one-fourth of the length of the stroke, that at half the stroke the
pressure is reduced to 7 lbs. ; at three-fourths of the stroke to 4f lbs. ; and at
the end of the stroke the steam would be reduced to 3^ lbs., or one-fourth of
its original power. He then shews that the sum of all these powers is greater
than 57-hundredth parts of the original power multiplied by the length of the
stroke, and consequently, that one-fourth the steam, thus used, produces
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128 MB. WICKSTEED ON THE EFFECTIVE POWER OF THE HIGH-PEESSUEE
more than half the effect that four times the quantity would have produced if
worked dense through the whole stroke.
He then says, '^ consequently the said new or expansive engine is capable
of easily raising columns of water, whose weights are equal to 5 lbs. on every
square inch of the area of its piston, by the expenditure of only one-fourth
the contents of the cylinder of steam at each stroke."
He had previously shewn that the engine working dense steam might be
loaded to 10 lbs. per square inch of the area of the piston.
And lastly, he says, " and though, for example, I have mentioned the
admission of one-fourth of the cylinders fiill of steam, as being the most con-
venient, yet any other proportion of the content of the cylinder will produce
similar effects, and in practice I actually do vary the proportions ss the case
requires.'*
The casing of the cylinders, boilers, and steam-pipes is not new either, but
I have never seen it carried to the same extent as it is at present in Cornwall.
Great and deserved credit is due to the perseverance, energy, and inge-
nuity of the Cornish engineers for bringing the expansive engine to the state
that it now is, and for the daily improvements which, although taken sepa-
rately, may appear trivial, are in the aggregate of great importance.
I will conclude this portion of my observations by referring you to the
printed Report of the public trial to which the Fowey Consols engine
before mentioned has been exposed, in which it is stated, that the engine raised
above 125 millions of lbs. one foot high, with 94 lbs. of coals, or nearly 112
millions with 84 lbs., or an imperial bushel. This is the greatest performance
of any engine ; and the engineers, Messrs. Petherick and West, cannot fail to
receive the credit they so richly merit.
Although it is admitted by some engineers in London, that the reports from
Cornwall may be true, and that water may be raised out of the mines at the
expense of power reported, nevertheless, they assert that it is not applicable to
water- works purposes, on account of the variation in the pressure.
That there is a variation in the pressure where the water is forced into the
pipes directly from the engine is certain, and it must be dependent upon the
quantity of water drawn from the mains by the tenants, and as this varies, so
the pressure must vary — ^the variation is either not very great, or is periodical;
thus the pressure during the day is greater than at night, and during summer
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EXPANSIVE CONDENSING STEAM ENGINES. 129
greater than in winter. In either case, the increased pressure arises from the
circumstance of a greater quantity of water haying to be forced through the
same pipes in a given time ; consequently, the velocity must be greater, and
as a matter of course the friction, which increase of friction must be overcome
by increased power. If the only variation was a periodical one, and at each
period the pressure was steady, then reservoirs at difierent altitudes, to suit the
different pressures, would supply the district as well as a steam engine ; (even
this position has been disputed ;) but as at every stroke of the engine there is
a slight variation, not amounting, however, during any of the periods before
named to more than 5 or 6 feet, then, as the mean difference is Q\ feet, and
in case of a reservoir it would be necessary to have its altitude equal to the
greatest pressure, there would be a loss amounting to the difference between
the mean and the greatest altitude. It should be observed, that the greatest
portion of the metropolis supply is from summit reservoirs.
Supposing that a Cornish engine could not be worked in the same maimer
as a London water- works engine, which, however, is not the case, and that it
were necessary to work it under a fixed pressure, varying, however, at given
periods, the loss, as before shewn, is trifling. Suppose it to be 2^ per cent. ;
or taking the variation at 20 feet, instead of 5 feet, the loss would then be
10 per cent. ; the gain, however, by adopting the Cornish engine, is 300 per
cent
There would, however, be an advantage in working either a Cornish or a
London pumping engine under a fixed pressure instead of a variable one, and
much less danger ; for in all single engines, working under a pressure that
varies, and where from the great extent of mains and services there is great
liability to accident from the bursting of pipes, or sudden shutting off an im-
portant main by accident or design, the danger of the piston travelling too far,
and thereby breaking the beam, or the cylinder bottom, is very great, and the
only safeguard is the vigilance of the engine-keeper, who, if he is constantly
watching, may take the engine " in hand," in case of a sudden variation in its
speed, and thus prevent the accident which might otherwise have disabled the
engine. This is not by any means a hypothetical case.
It would therefore be the safest plan to work the engine under a fixed load,
even at the loss of a little power, if at the same time the liability to accident
was rendered infinitely less.
VOL. I. s
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130 ON THE HIGH-PRESSURE EXPANSIVE CONDENSING STEAM ENGINES.
In most cases, therefore, where the pressure under which the engine works is
known, and it ought to be knowrij I should recommend the adoption of a stand-
pipe, the water rising from the engine in one pipe, and flowing over either at the
top, or through communicating pipes, at any level required, into the descending
pipe communicating with the mains in the district. The engine might then
work under a regular load ; any fracture of the pipes in the district would not
afiect the engine ; its only liability to accident being from the fracture of one
leg of the standpipe, which of course could be provided against by extra
strength of materials.
Although I have shewn how (upon the supposition of the variation in
pressure being an objection to the application of the Cornish engine to water-
works purposes) the supposed difficulty may be overcome, I by no means
intend to allow that the engines in Cornwall are not subject to chances of as
great and even greater variation ; for if any valve breaks, which is very likely
to happen where there are so many pumps at work, if the water at any time
fails, and air is suddenly admitted through the suction-pipes, &c., &c., in all
such cases, the resistance to the power of the engine is reduced, and if the
parts of the engine were not made strong enough to resist the force of a sudden
blow, fracture would take place ; but they are generally, and ought always, to
be strong enough.
In conclusion, I beg to observe, that if the Cornish engines do the work
that it is stated they do, and if they are applicable to water- works purposes,
of both of which I have no doubt, then the saving is most important ; for sup-
posing instead of three engines, consuming SOOO tons of coals per annum, one
could be erected, doing the work of the three, and only consuming 1000 tons,
assuming the price of coals delivered to be 18^. per ton, the saving in coals alone,
without reference to the savings in the reduced number of engine-keepers and
stokers, the current expenses of one engine instead of three, the wear and tear
ichinery and buildings, would be £1800 per annum.
Toy. 4, 1835.
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XII. Description of the Plan of ^
Bridge. By James Cooper, A.I
the Secretary.
From the perishable nature of the
bridges were built, before the use oi
late years in the more important str
pairing parts falling to decay, is a j]
to contribute towards the stock of infi
the Institution the accompanying draw
that has been adopted by Messrs. Walk
of Blackfiriars Bridge, with the follo^^i
The decayed part is first cut out i
depth of 15 inches generally, but in fi
and never in shorter lengths than
opening being dressed fair, moulds (
correct shape for the new work.
The stone is inserted in two thi<
tailed or radiated rather more than
slightly tapered like a wedge, to ei
of the two when put together makii
holes are sunk opposite each other h
receive the dowel c, that in the lower ]
deep, while the corresponding hole in
dowel completely, so that when depo
obstruction to getting the stone in :
openings, c?, e, of about f inch diamet
of the joints.
The dovetailed stone, a, is first sel
its bed, by wedging applied in the pla
half, b ; which is next covered with n
in by wooden beetles until the circu
other, when, the cord d having been d
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132 MR. JAMES COOPER ON RESTORING ARCH8T0NES.
hole in the hed of the upper stone b) is drawn or pushed half its length into the
stone a. Should the new stone he sufficiently in contact with the old work,
which the sound from the heetle readily denotes, and he otherwise properly
driven, mortar is rammed down the hole (/, so as to surround the dowel and
keep it in its proper place. The cord e for drawing the dowel home runs in a
groove in the bed of the stone a from the dowel hole to the face of the archstone,
and sometimes when it is not brought into action, the dowel is pushed with a
jointed piece of iron wire inserted through the opening d in the upper stone.
The wedge-formed stones, 6, are usually 12 inches thick on the face,
tapering off half an inch at the depth of 15 inches, and run from a foot to 2
feet 6 inches long, which they seldom exceed, as when thicker or longer they
are found unwieldy to drive. These limitations are not, however, required in
the dovetailed stone, a, which is put in in as long lengths as are supplied, and
its thickness is regulated by the cavity to be filled, the other stone 6, being, as
has just been stated, generally uniform in this dimension. The dowels, which
are of Cragleith stone, are 5 inches long and 3 inches diameter in the middle,
diminishing to 2^ inches at the ends.
When the new stone is inserted, as has been described, and the dowel
secured in its place, it is evident that neither half can drop out, and that on the
hardening of the mortar, though two pieces, they become for practical purposes
one archstone. But while the work is in progress, and before the stone b is
put in, the dovetailed stone a has a tendency to slide out, which is sometimes
met by strutting from the scaffolding, or by leaving a small tenon on the under
side of the new stone fitting into a mortise in the masonry beneath ; but within
six or eight courses on either side of the crown of the arch, and in other places,
when a considerable length has been taken out, a joggle ^ 4 inches long by
2^ inches square, is inserted at each end of the new work, or in the case of a
very short stone at one end only, being let from the upper bed of the stone a
diagonally into the vertical joint between the new and the old work, so that
half is in one and half in the other.
So far as I am aware, the above scheme is new, and it seems fully to meet
the difficulties of the case ; the new stones filling completely the hollows left by
the old ones cut out, which from the radiation of the joints in an arch they could
not if put in as one piece, and so giving a perfect bearing between the original
and the restored work, while the whole is secured without injury to the ad-
joining masonry by external wedging or otherwise.
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133
XIII. On the Force excited hy Hydraulic Presswre in a Bramah Press ; the
resisting Power of the Cylinder^ and Rvlesfor computing the Thickness of
Metal for Presses ofvarioTis Powers and Dimensions* By Peter Barlow^
F.R.S.y Sfc.j of the Royal Military Academy.
I AM not aware that any of our writers on mechanics have investigated
the nature and amount of the circumferential strain which is excited in an
hydraulic cylinder by a given pressure on the fluid within ; it will be proper,
therefore, first to examine this question : viz., to find the circumferential strain
on a ring of any material, arising from an internal pressure.
Let a 6, 6 c, be any small elementary part
of the circumference, which may be taken as
right lines, and let the pressure on each of them
be called p^ which, being proportional to them,
may be represented by the elements themselves,
a6, 6c, these being perpendicular to the direc-
tion in which the pressure acts. Resolve these
pressures or forces into two rectangular forces,
adfdbf bCf ecy of which, arfand be will represent
forces acting perpendicular to their direction
or parallel to AB, and db and ec forces parallel to DC. Confining ourselves
at present to the former, if we conceive the semi-circumference DBC to be
divided into its component elements, it is obvious that the sum of all the forces
acting parallel to AB, will be equal to the sum of all the perpendiculars, arf, 6 c,
or to the whole diameter DC. That is, the sum of all the forces acting
parallel to AB, will be to the sum of all the forces or pressure on the semi-
circumference D B C, as the diameter to the semi-circumference. But the pressure
on the semi-circimiference is equal to the number of inches in the same, multi-
plied by the pressure per square inch, consequently the force or pressure exerted
parallel to AB, will be equal to the inches in the diameter, multiplied by the
pressure per square inch, the ring being here supposed, for the purpose of
simplification, only an inch deep. But to resist this pressure, we have the two
thicknesses of the ring at D and C ; therefore the direct strains on the circum-
ference at any one point, as D, will be equal to the pressure of the fluid per
square inch, multiplied by the number of inches in the radius.
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134> MB. BARLOW ON HYDRAULIC PRESSURE IN A BRAMAH PRESS.
We should come to the same result more simply, but perhaps not so satis-
factorilj, by conceiying a section passing through the diameter DC ; then it
follows diat the pressure on this section, which is directly resisted at D and C,
is eq«al to the number of square inches in the section, multijdied by the pressure
per square inch. Therefore the strain on D or C singly, is equal to the pressure
per square inch multiplied by the inches in the radius ; the same as above.
TO INVESTIGATE THE NATURE OF THE RESISTANCE OPPOSED BY ANY GIVEN
THICKNESS OF METAL IN THE CYLINDER OR RING.
It would appear at first sight, that having found the strain at D and C, it
would only be necessary to ascertain the thickness of metal necessary to
resist this strain when applied directly to its length ; this, however, is by
no means the case, for if we imagine, as we must do, that the iron, in
consequence of the internal pressure, suffers a certain degree of extension, we
shall find that the external circumference participates much less in this ex-
tension than the interior, and as the resistance is proportional to the extension
divided by the length, according to the law ut tensio sic visy it follows, that the
external circumference, and every successive circular lamina, fix)m the interior
to the exterior surface, offers a less and less resistance to the interior strain : the
law of which decrease of resistance it is our present object to investigate.
In the first place, it is obvious that whatever extension the cylinder or ring
may undergo, there will be still in it the same quantity of metal, or, which is
the same, the area of the circular ring, formed by a section through it, will
remain the same, which area is proportional to the difference of the squares of
the two diameters.
Let D be the interior diameter before the pressure is exerted, and D + rf its
diameter when extended by the pressure. Let also D' be the external diameter
before, and jy + df the diameter after the pressure is exerted ; then from what is
stated above it follows, that we shall have
or, 2iy + (f : QD + d::d: d!
or since ^ and d are very small in comparison with D' and D, this analogy
becomes IK : D : : rf : tt. That is, the extension of the exterior surface is to
that of the interior as the interior diameter to the exterior.
r
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MB. BARLOW ON HYDRAULIC PRESSURE IN i
But the resistaDce is as the extension diyided bjr
resistance of the exterior surface is to that of the interic
That is, the resistance offered hy each successive 1
square of the diameter, or inversely as the square of its distance from the
centre ; by means of which law the actual resistance due to any thickness is
readily ascertamed.
Let r be the interior radius of any cylinder, p the pressure per square inch
on the fluid, t the whole thickness of the metal, and x any variable distance
from the interior surface. Let also rp^9 represent the strain exerted at the
interior surface, according to the principles explained in the preceding part of
this paper. Then by the law last illustrated we shall have,
(r-^sY : 7^::s : ^ for the strain at the distance a: from the interior surface ;
/T^sdx
' rz H- Cor. = the sum of all the strains, or the sum of all
{T^XJ '
the resistance. This becomes, when x^U R^r^sl I =« •
\r r + ty r-^-t
That is, the sum of all the variable resistances due to the whole thickness ^,
is equal to the resistance that would be due to the thickness acting uni-
r + t
formly with a resistance 5, or rp.
APPLICATION OF THIS BULE FOB COMPUTING THE PROPER THICKNESS OF METAL
IN A CYLINDRIC HYDRAULIC PRESS OF GIVEN POWER AND DIMENSIONS.
Let r be the radius of the proposed cylinder, p the pressure per square inch
on the fluid, and x the required thickness : let also c represent the cohesive
strength of a square inch rod of the metal.
Then from what has preceded it appears, that the whole strain due to the
interior pressure will ,be expressed by pxj and that the greatest resistance to
which the cylinder can be safely opposed is c x : hence when the strain
and resistance are in equilibrio, we shall have
(1) ^P^:;rrz^^
I r + x
or pr'\'px^cx
whence x = -£— (the thickness) sought.
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136 MR. BARLOW ON HYDRAULIC PRESSURE IN A BRAMAH PRESS.
Hence the following rule in words for computing the thickness of metal in
all cases ; viz., multiply the pressure per square inch by the radius of the
cylinder, and divide the product by the difference between the cohesive strength
of a square inch rod of the metal and the pressure per square inch, and the
quotient will be the thickness required.
At present we have only considered the circumferential strain : to find the
longitudinal strain, we have to multiply the area of the piston by the pressure
per inch ; while the resistance in this direction will be equal to the cohesive
power of the metal multiplied by the area of the transverse section of the
cylinder ; so that when these are equal to each other we shall have
(2) 3. 1416 r*;) =3.141 6 (2rs + x')c
which gives 4r=r< ^f- + l )— 1 f
And it is obvious that whichever of these two values of :r, viz. (1) or (2), is
the greatest, is the one which must be adopted. It will appear, however, that
in all practical cases the former is the greater ; for it is only when p exceeds c
that the latter value of j; can be ever equal to the former. Let us, for example,
find the relative values of p and c, when these values of s are equal to each
other by making
^.-'K^0-}
this gives -
2p _p
(c'-py c—p c
or jp*c H- 2jpc (c — />) =jp (c — jp)*
or i^'-pc^^
whence p^c{\± \y/5^
That is, these two values of x can only be equal to each other when p exceeds
c in the ratio of (^ ± \y/5^ : 1 ; which is an impracticable pressure ; for it is ob-
vious from the first value of jr, that no thickness will be sufficient to resist an in-
ternal pressure which exceeds (per square inch) the cohesive power of a square
inch rod of the metal ; a result which at first sight appears to be paradoxical ;
but it will be observed that, with such a pressure, the interior surface will be
fractured before the other parts of the metal are brought into action.
It will therefore be sufficient to attend wholly to the first expression ; and
here it may be observed that j; and r, with the same pressure and cohesive
power, being always in the same ratio, we may reduce the rule for finding the
thickness of metal to the following tabulated form, in which it will only be
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MB. BARLOW ON HYDBAUUC PRESSURE IN A BRAMAH PRESS
122
necessary to multiply the number standing against any pressure by the internal
diameter of the cylinder or piston for the thickness required.
The cohesive strength of cast iron, according to experiments made at Capt.
Brown*s manufactory, is 7«26 tons per square inch ; but his machine under-
rates its power 8 per cent. ; (see my Essay on the Strength of Wood and Iron,
page 258, 2d edition ;) this added, gives us 7.86 tons, or 17,6X2 lbs., per
square inch.
Mr. Rennie gives two results for the cohesive power of cast iron, viz.,
1st =18,656
2d = 19,072
My experiment . . =17,612
Mean
= 18,685
We may, therefore, without sensible error, call the cohesive power 18,000 lbs.
per square inch.
The cohesive power of the best gun-metal is given by Mr. Tredgold, in his
edition of Buchanan's Treatise on Mill Work, 36,000 lbs. per square inch, and
that of lead, 3328 lbs. per square inch ; and with these numbers I have com-
puted the following thickness for pipes of an inch diameter, for the various
pressures given in the Tables, and which will apply to any other case by
multiplying the tabular numbers by any given diameter.
TABLE FOR COMPUTING THE THICKNESS OF CAST IRON PIPES AND CYLINDERS.
Consnrs Stabitoth or Cast Ibom,
18.000 lbs.
Pretsure.
Thicknen.
Pressure.
Thickness.
Pressure.
Thickness.
Pressure.
Thickness.
1000
.0294
2000
.0625
3000
.1000
4000
.1428
1100
.0325
2100
.0660
3100
.1040
4500
.1666
1200
.0357
2200
.0696
3200
.1080
5000
.1922
1300
.0388
2300
.0732
3300
.1122
5500
.2200
1400
.0421
2400
.0769
3400
.1164
6000
.2499
1500
.0454
2500
.0806
3500
.1207
6500
.2827
1600
.0487
2000
.0844
3600
.1250
7000
.3181
1700
.0521
2700
.0883
3700
.1293
7500
.3570
1800
.0555
2800
.0921
3800
.1337
8000
.4000
1900
•0590
2900
.0959
3900
.1382
8500
.4462
VOL. L
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138
MR. BARLOW ON HYDRAULIC PRESSURE IN A BRAMAH PRESS.
TABLE FOR COMPUTING THE THICKNESS OF GUN-METAL CYUNDERS;
APPLICABLE ALSO TO GUNS AND MORTARS.
CoBMi^B Stmnoth or
Oum-Mbtai.,
36,000 Iba.
Pretture.
ThickncM.
Praisuve.
ThUdmcM.
PreMure.
ThkkiMM.
Pmnm.
Thicknen.
rooo
.0143
2000
.0294
3000
.0454
4000
.0625
100
.0167
2100
.0309
3100
.0471
4500
.0714
200
.0172
2200
.0325
3200
.0487
5000
.0806
300
.0187
2300
.0341
3300
.0504
5500
.0901
400
.0202
2400
.0357
3400
.0521
6000
.1000
500
.0217
2500
.0372
3500
.0538
6500
.1102
600
.0232
2000
.0388
3600
.0555
7000
.1207
700
.0247
2700
.0405
3700
.0572
7500
.1315
800
.0263
2800
.0421
3800
.0590
8000
.1428
900
.0278
2900
.0438
3900
.0607
8500
.1543
TABLE FOR COMPUTING THE THICKNESS OF LEAD CYLINDERS,
WATER PIPES, ETC.
CoHJWira STKsiroTH or
SBBST hUAD,
3380 Ibt.
PreMura.
Thkknas.
PrflMure.
ThickncM.
Pmnire.
ThlckiMM.
5
.00075
100
.0155
1100
.2477
10
.001510
200
.0320
1200
.2830
20
.003030
300
.0496
1300
.3217
30
.004559
400
.0684
1400
.3645
40
.006097
500
.0886
1500
.4120
50
.007645
600
.1102
1600
.4651
60
.009202
700
.1335
1700
.5246
70
.010769
800
.1587
1800
.5921
80
.012345
900
.1859
1900
.6690
90
.013931
1000
.2155
2000
.7575
I pressure not found in any of the above Tables, it will be sufficiently
3 use the following proportion, viz. :
le difference of the two tabular pressures, between which the given
falls, is to the difference between the corresponding tabular thickness ;
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MR. BARLOW ON HYDRAULIC PRESSU
SO is the difference between the lesser tabula]
to the difference between the lesser tabul
Suppose, for example, the thickness for a caj
a pressure of 3650 lbs.
Pressure . . 3700
Do. . • . 3600
Difference . 100
100 : .0043 :: 50 :
Therefore . . .1250
.0021
.1271 thel
As another example of the use of the T
iron cylinder be required, that will bear a pre
inch, the interior diameter being 12 inches.
Here A^^ =3.819 tons or 8554 lbs. per
.7854 ^
then, by Table I., the thickness for an incl
4462 X 12=5.3544 inches, the thickness reqi
It will of course be understood that the tl
the least that will bear the required pressure
presses ought not to be warranted to bear a1
in the Table, unless it should appear that the
iron is too little ; if this actually exceed 18,
tion may be made in the computed thicknessc
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r
141
XIV. — An Account of some Experiments on the Expansion of Water hy Heat.
By the late T. Trsdgold, MJnst. C.E.
The expansion of water by increase of temperature, is one of those experi-
mental subjects that has not received the degree of attention its importance
would lead us to expect ; but, as even the smallest addition to any part of
knowledge contributes towards its increase, I have ventured to send this mite
for the consideration of the members of the Institution.
I began by a series of trials with a thermometer, containing water instead
of mercury, to find the point at which the volume of water is a minimum, by
cooling successively down to 32* with snow and water, and observing the
decrease of bulk, which continued till the temperature was 40* ; the rise again
was then sensible. In like manner by cooling, the decrease continued till the
temperature was about 39% when the rise became sensible. So small and
uncertain, however, was the rate of increase or decrease, that we may practi-
cally estimate 40* as the temperature corresponding to the maximum density
of water.
Having marked the tube at the point when the temperature was 40*, and
also another point within the range of the tube, I divided the distance between
these, into four equal parts. With this precaution I immersed the water
thermometer, and a mercurial one, in a vessel of hot water, and as it cooled
compared the temperatures as the water contracted to each division on the
tube. The mean of several trials was as follows :
Temp. 112* 4th or upper division.
— 104* 3d.
— 90* 2d.
— 74* Ist division.
— 40* maximum density.
I intended to repeat the trials and to correct these numbers ; but the cold
weather commenced, and instead of attending to the higher degrees of heat,
my attention was directed to the lower ones. The bulb of the thermometer
was immersed in a mixture of snow and salt, and a mercurial one placed beside
it, but I found the two were not alike affected by the mixture ; the water
thermometer rose rapidly till it arrived at, or very near to the third divison
on the tube, when it exploded. At the moment of explosion, the central part
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142
MB. tredgold's experiments on the
o£ the mass of water, and that in the tube, were both perfectly fluid, and the
fi'is^ments of the bulb were lined with a thin coat of ice, beautifully crystal-
lized. The firactured bulb presented a singular appearance, the whole being
cracked into very fine gores, somewhat less than one-twentieth of an inch in
breadth at the middle, and exceedingly regular.
The temperature of a mixture of snow and salt is— 5% or 5 degrees below
zero ; hence, if the expansion below 40'' had been the same as far aboye 40^
the thermometer ought not to have risen quite to the second division ; but, as
it rose very nearly to the third division, it seems that the expansion below 40^
is much greater than at a corresponding number of degrees above 40^ ; and
that the common opinion is not quite correct in this respect.
I have not had leisure to follow up these trials, for they consume an im-
mense quantity of time ; but from those made by others, and checked by my
own, I have deduced a formula for calculating the expansion at any tempe-
rature.
If we consider the force with which matter resists the entrance of heat to
be inversely as the square of the distance of its elementary atoms ; then, the
bulk being as the cube of the distance, the resistance to heat will be inversely
as the square of the cube root of the volume, and the increments of expansion
by heat directly as the f power of the volume. The sum of the increments
will, therefore, be as the i power of the volume, and the equation must give
zero at 40" ; hence it will be A (<— 40")* = the expansion, where -4 is a
coefficient to be found by experiment, and t denotes the temperature.
The calcidation is easy enough by logarithms, for, log -4 + flog (<— 40)
= log of the expansion ; or 3 / log expans«)n-log ^ ^^ ^ j^^ ^^_^^
The formula in the last form applies to my experiment, and becomes
3 /log expansion + 3.09555 A ^^^ ^^ ^^_^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^.^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^
considered unify ; hence the comparison is easy, and is as under.
1
0.75
0.5
0.25
0.00
Temperature by
ezperiment
112» .
104'
90*
74*
40'
aula.
112»
100*
87*
7V
40^
by
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I
EXPANSION OF WATEB BT HEAT.
The coincidence is as near as we tould expect, considerii
is to ensure perfect accuracy in the observations ; but, before ^
in experiment, it is natural to ask how it will agree with oth
The expansion of water from 40"* to 212^ has been found
bulk at 40^ being unity. By substituting this value in the
the coefficient A^ and have the rule f log (* — 40)-f (— (
equivalent f log (< — 40)— 5.089091 =the log of the expansi<
The formula being in this case derived from a probable
more likely to express the true expansion, than one made oi
short range of experiments. The absurd conclusions which
an experimental rule are avoided ; and that such conclusion!
formulse made to fit a particular set of experiments, we hav
the case under consideration ; for Dr. Young* has given a f
lating the expansion of water, which becomes negative when
is 540* ; indicating that water would decrease in bulk, by ir
perature above that point ; this is a circumstance too improbi
any practical application of the formula.
The annexed Table shows the bulk and expansion for a i
Tempe-
rature.
The expansion.
Bulk by
formula.
Tempe-
rature.
Expa
by for
By experiment
By formula.
40O
640
102O
212°
0.00133
0.00760
0.04333
0.00162
0.00791
0.0^i333
1.0000
1.00159
1.00791
1.04333
400O
800°
lOOOo
1171*>
0.14
0.51
0.7C
l.OC
In my own experiments, the formula was in defect in
between 40* and 112* ; here it is in excess ; the difference n
expansion of the glass in my trials. According to this fo
expand to double its bulk at 40** by a temperature of II7I
would be the force of the steam to confine it to the liquid st
perature ? There is abundant scope for curious research in 1
one where speculative opinion feels the want of experience.
I am not aware of there being any experiments on the es
above the boiling point. When I find an opportunity, I intei
* Lectures on Natural Philosophy, Vol. II. p. 392.
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144 MB. tbedoold's experiments on the expansion of wateb bt heat.
series as I can^ using something to colour the distilled water, for facility of
observing ; and I trust soon to be able to communicate some account of my
progress*.
* It is not certainly known whether Mr. Tredgold ever followed out the consideration of
this interesting suhject ; hat> as he made no further communication thereon to the Institution, and
his premature death took place soon after the date of this paper, it seems probable that his e^q>efi-
ments were never resumed.
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145
XV.— On procuring supplies of Water for Cities and Towns^ hy boring.
Communicated by Mr. John Seaward^ M.Inst. C.E.
A French gentleman of our acquaintance having recently addressed us upon a
project of supplying the different towns of France with water, by means of
boring in the earth, according to the method which has come lately a good deal
into fashion in different parts of England, and thus having brought the sub-
ject under our mature deliberation ; we offer the following remarks, which we
were led to give in reply, with the hope that they may be found not altogether
uninteresting to the Institution.
In the first place, as respects the project of furnishing water to the different
towns of France by means of simply boring in the earth ; if by this is intended
that the various towns are to be supplied with water economically, for all do-
mestic and manufacturing purposes, in the same abundant manner that it is fur-
nished to the inhabitants of London and other towns of England, we must at
once declare without any hesitation, that, as a general principle, the scheme
will be abortive, and if attempted, will infallibly end in loss and disappointment.
In stating thus explicitly our opinion, we do not wish to be understood as
being anywise unfavourable to boring generally ; on the contrary, as an art
when employed under suitable circumstances, we know that it can be made,
on various occasions, highly subservient to the wants of man, but we also
know that with many persons, a very erroneous opinion prevails as to the
economy, and other merits and advantages of the art.
The method of ^^ simple boring,'' as it is called, is not adapted for all situa-
tions and places ; it requires a combination of circumstances not generally met
with : London and the surrounding district, wherein this art has been most
successfully practised, is highly favoured in this particular ; the stratum of soil
is a bed of clay, varying from 100 to 200 feet thick, and is therefore very
easily bored through. It is remarkable that the springs under the bed of
clay produce the finest and most salubrious water, while those above the bed of
clay produce water so impure as to be unfit even for the most ordinary pur-
poses. It is therefore easy to conceive, that this method would here meet with
the most favourable encouragement, but in districts where the same circum-
stances do not exist, there would not be the same inducement to follow it.
" Simple boring,'* is suitable only when the quantity of water required is
comparatively small : thus if the object be to furnish a very superior water for a
VOL. I. u
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146 MB. SEAWARD ON PROCURING WATER BY BORING.
nobleman's mansion, for a small village or neighbourhood, or even for a single
manufactory, then this method is admirable, provided the circumstances are in
any proportion as favourable as in the district which surrounds London ; but
if the question be to provide an abundant supply of water for a large town or
populous city, then certainly in every case, the method of boring should, on
the score of economy, be the last that ought to be resorted to for the purpose.
That the bowels of the earth contain springs of water in abundance, there
can be no doubt ; miners and colliers are aware of this fact to their cost and
sorrow : but we know fuU well that those same springs, if they have sufficient
natural force, must find their way to the surfeu^ of the earth somewhere, with-
out any boring, and then form rivers and flowing brooks. Why then delve a
great depth at an infinite expense, to procure that which we can generally ob-
tain so readily and economically on the surfieu^ of the earth ?
There is scarcely a city or town of any magnitude but what has some fine
river or copious brooks in its immediate neighbourhood ; these are the natural
sources whence we should obtain our supply of water ; but if the streams
in the vicinity are so impr^nated with deleterious matter, as to render
the water unfit for domestic or manufacturing purposes, and if no ready
method can be adopted for cleansing it, recourse should then be had to the
water that falls from the heavens ; tanks and reservoirs, (similar to those em-
ployed in feedmg navigable canals,) should be formed in convenient situations,
to receive the rain-water which faUs from the adjacent hills : either of these
means would furnish an abundant supply of this necessary element constantly
and economically.
It is perfectly true, that a populous town may be so situated as to be at an
inconvenient distance from any salubrious river or brook, whence to obtain
water, and local circumstances may be such as to render it impossible or inex-
pedient to form in the vicinity tanks or reservoirs to collect the rain-water from
the hills ; in this case, there appears to be no alternative but that of obtaining
a supply from the bowels of the earth : in such case, it will be necessary to
sink very capacious wells or shafts to a great depth, with suitable pumps and
steam-engines, to bring the water to the surface ; and even then the supply
may be so scanty as to render it necessary to drive (in various directions) hori-
zontal levels or galleries from the bottom of the wells or shafts, in order to break
in upon the springs which may exist at a distance ; similar to the method
practised in the salt-works of England, to obtain a copious supply of the brine ;
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MR. SEAWARD ON PROCURING WATER BY BORING. 147
but in such case to expect that by simply boring down into the earth, a plentiful
supply of water can be obtained for the domestic and manufacturing purposes
of a populous town, is to expect what rarely or neyer can be accomplished.
The modem plan of boring to obtain water has been, without any rational
grounds, cried up as a new and wonderful discovery, but the truth is, that
boring is an operation of great antiquity ; the miner and collier make use
of it in a variety of ways, and it has from time immemorial been a useful
auxiliary to the well-digger ; he employs this process to discover where springs
of water exist. By this means he can at a comparatively small expense deter-
mine whether the situation is favourable or not for forming a well; at the same
time he can ascertain the quality of the water when obtained, and the probable
ultimate expense which must be incurred in order to secure a regular supply.
In Bome instances it has happened that in boring, from the cause
just stated, the water has of its own natural force risen up through the
hole, and flowed over the surface in considerable quantity, and thus, with-
out much further trouble or expense, a tolerably copious supply has been
obtained. This circumstance it is that has brought into favour the idea of
depending on simple boring alone, as a regular systematic method of obtaining
a supply of water ; and it is but right to say, that the method, in many
instances, has been remarkably successful ; but it should be bome in mind, that
the supply, copious as it is called, has scarcely in any one instance exceeded
what would be required for a moderately extensive manufactory, or for the
domestic use of a very small village ; moreover, although considerable success
has attended many of the experiments made to obtain water in this way, yet
it is most certain that, as regards the obtaining of an abundant supply by the
simple process of boring alone, in a majority of cases, the method has completely
failed ; and, after a very heavy and useless expense and loss of time has been
incurred in these failures, recourse has at length been had, either partially or
wholly i to sinking a welL
The most rational plan for obtaining a good supply of water from under-
ground is, in the first place, to sink a well to about half the depth at which it
is supposed the spring of water exists : thus, if the spring is judged to be 100
yards below the surface, then the well may be made 50 yards deep ; this being
properly built up and secured, the engine erected, and suitable pumps fixed,
the remainder oi the depth to the spring may be pierced through by the process
u 2
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148 MR. SEAWARD ON PROCURING WATER BY BORING.
of boring, and in this way a copious supply of water is frequently obtained, and
as may be readily judged, the quantity of water obtained will vary according
to the greater or less depth to which the well is formed ; but at the same time
it should be observed, that the deeper the well, the greater will be the expense
of raising the water to the surface.
If necessary we could here enumerate a long list of losses, failures, and con-
sequent disappointments, which have attended the process of boring, within
our own observation ; for the present, however, we shall confine ourselves to
two instances.
About four years ago we erected, almost in the heart of the metropolis, a
14«-horse condensing engine for a manufacturing purpose. As a good supply
of water was wanted for that and other objects, the proprietor of the establish-
ment thought he would obtain this necessary element on his own premises, and
make himself independent of the water-companies. We recommended him to
sink a well at once; but contrary to our advice, he determined to try the process
of simple boring, the situation of his premises being judged very favourable for
that purpose. A hole was consequently bored to about 100 yards deep, and
after some labour and expense water was obtained, but the supply was so scanty
as not to be half sufficient for the 14-horse engine ; several attempts were made
to remedy this but without effect; the hole was at length abandoned, and a well
was then formed, though not so deep as it should have been ; boring was then re-
sumed to the depth of what was considered the main spring ; pumps were put
down the well, and water was again obtained; but even after all, the supply was
barely sufficient for the engine. Theresultof this business was, that the proprietor
after having his premises in confusion for nearly two years, in the end expended
double as much money as would at once have formed a good productive well,
and the interest of the money so expended is considerably more than he would
have had to pay to any water-company for all the water he required for his
engine and manufactory, besides losing a considerable portion of the power of
his engine, which is expended in drawing the water to the surface.
Within a quarter of a mile of the above-described well was situated a
brewery furnished with a similarly constructed well, from which a considerable
supply of water had previously been obtained ; it is, however, worthy of
remark, that no sooner did our engine commence drawing water from the new-
formed well, than the brewers immediately lost a great part of the supply they
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ME. SEAWARD ON PROCUBINO WATER BY BORING. 149
had previously been accustomed to derive from theirs ; the consequence was,
they were under the necessity of sinking it deeper, and of putting up more
powerful pumps, in order to obtain their former supply.
We mention the above fact to shew that, although there is no question but
it is possible to find a spring of water in almost any situation, yet the springs
do not furnish that inexhaustible supply of water which some persons imagine ;
indeed a bare consideration of what is accomplished in mines and collieries
must convince us of the truth of this fact ; were the springs of that inexhaustible
nature some pretend, not a single mine or colliery in the universe could be
worked to any moderate extent whatever.
The second instance of failure in boring, which has happened in our own
practice, we shall now proceed to relate. About twenty years ago a canal
was cut in the neighbourhood of London which passes over a very hilly tract
of land, and in the summer months there is great difficulty in obtaining a suf-
ficient supply of water for the upper level. It is true the canal passes very
near some copious brooks and streams, which with little expense or trouble
might have been made available to supply every deficiency twenty times
over; but from some circumstances the proprietors of the canal were
not permitted to take advantage of these facilities, and as the rain-water they
were enabled to collect from the hills was inadequate, they were under the
necessity of resorting to the bowek of the earth to supply the deficiency.
For this purpose, a large hole was bored down at the side of the canal, to
a depth of two or three hundred feet, to what was understood to be the main
spring : the water speedily rose and flowed over the surface : however, it
was soon discovered, that the quantity obtained by this means was so very
small as to be of no practical utility : a well of large dimensions was then sunk
down about 80 feet, the boring still continuing to the original depth ; pumps were
fixed, and machinery worked by horses ; the supply of water by this means
was increased tenfold, but still was inadequate for the purpose required.
We were then employed to erect a steam-engine with suitable pumps, &c.,
and the well was sunk to double the original depth ; a much more copious
supply was now obtained, and the navigation thereby greatly assisted ; but
after all, the expenses attending these works, and the pumping up the water
from such a depth, and that too still inadequate in quantity, are evils of such a
serious magnitude, that these joined to other circumstances attending this pro-
perty, will probably before long cause the whole of the concern to be abandoned.
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150 BOL SEAWARD ON PROCURING WATER BY BORING.
We could add many other instances of the total failure of what is called
the simple boring system ; of works begun and never finished to any useful pur-
pose ; of others pertinaciously carried on for four or five years, until the patience
and the funds of the parties were alike exhausted ; but we think enough has
been stated above to prove to your satisfaction, how very uncertain has been this
method of obtaining water. We think it right, however, to guard against
the impression that boring for water is a bad system ; on the contrary, allow
us to repeat that we think most highly of it ; but then only under proper ma-
nagement, and as a useful auxiliary to the sinking of capacious wells.
With respect to the project generally, of forming a regular establishment
for the purpose of supplying water to the various towns of France, we have to
remark, that there can exist no physical impediment to the accomplishment of
the plan ; there is no question but every town in France might be made to
enjoy the same inestimable advantages possessed by the inhabitants of London
and other towns of j^ngland ; that is to say, a constant, abundant, and an
economical supply of good water, for all purposes of domestic and manufac-
turing use ; but of the three modes by which this can be accomplished, the
one by boring or well-sinking is decidedly the most expensive, and the most
uncertain in the final results.
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151
XVI. — Some Account of severed Sections through the Plastic Chyjbrmation in
the vicinity of London. By Mr. William OnAVATTt F.R.S.9 M.Inst. G.E.
TRING HILL^ HERTS.
A boting for water for the Grand Junction Canal commenced at 25 feet below the summit level of
the hill near Marshcroft Bridge.
Chalk . . . 20 feet
Hard blue clay . 30
Blue stone . 4. At 54 feet the water rose to the top, and ran over 1300 cubic
feet in 24 hours.
Hard blue day . 47
101 feet— no more water than at 54 feet.
The boring discontinued in Not. 1827.
A second boring in the same hill comm^iced 20 feet from the summit level.
Chalk . . 30 feet.
Hard blue clay . 34
Blue stone . . 4. Water rose up. The stone required punching before using
the auger.
Blue clay . . 82 C Strata of indurated clay at about every 4 feet, so hard as to
Black grit 10 | require punching from 2 to 10 inofaes.
Blue clay . .108 very hard.
268 feet Boring disccmtmued — ^no more water than at first. These
two borings cost £l45, and were 3 months in hand.
NORWOOD, NEAR STANDWELL.
A well 4 feet diameter sunk and bricked 280 feet through blue clay^ into
sand ; the instant the sand was reached, the water rushed up to the top so fast
as to endanger the workmen ) it now stands within 8 feet of the surface of
the canal, which is 86 feet above Trinity high water-mark.
BORING AT BRENTFORD, SIX MILES FROM LONDON.
Brick earth
Sandy gravel .
Loam
Sand and gravel
Blue clay
9 feet.
7
5 varies from 1 to 9 feet.
4 varies from 2 to 8. Contains water.
200
' 225 feet. Boring discontinued— still in clay.
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MB. GRAVATT*S ACCOUNT OF SECTIONS FOE
WOOLWICH SANDPITS.
AlIuYiam of yarious depths.
Rolled flints with sand
Clay, striped brown and red, a few shells
Blue and brown clay, many shells
Iron shot sand, with ocherous lumps .
Greenish sand, dean ....
Greenish sand wiih flint pebbles
Light ash-coloured sand, perfectly clean
Green sand, wiih green chalk
Chalk
12 feet.
6 water, merely drops.
9
9
8
1
35
1
unknown.
PLUM8TEAD COMMON.
Shafts for Chalk.
No. I. Alluvial gravel, and pure ash-coloured sand 120 feet.
Chalk penetrated to 24
No vrater at 144
No. n. Alluvial Gravel 36
Stopped by the water.
No. III. At a small distance from this, stopped again by water at the same depth.
N.B. These three shafts were in the same field.
BOSTON HEATH, NEAR WOOLWICH.
A well sunk for water.
Gravel 65 feet.
Sandy beds 65
Chalk 70
200
The water stands only 5 feet deep in this well; a trifling supply of vrater was found in
Ihe gravel*
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WATER THROUGH THE LONDON CLAY. 153
LEWISHAM LOAH PIT HILL.
AUuYium TarioQs.
Striped sand, yellow, fine, and iron shot 10 feet
Striped loam, and plastic day, wiih thin seams of coaly matter .10
Yellow sand 3
Lead-colonred day, with casts of leaves 2
Brownish day with cytherea 6
Three thin beds of clay, the upper and lower with cytherea, and ihe
middle with oysters 3
Loam and sand 4
Iron shot sand, with flint pebbles 12
Coarse green sand 5
Clean ash coloured sand 35
Green sand 1
91
Chalk with nodnles of flint unknown.
REDRIFF DRIFT SHAFT.
Ft Ib.
V^etable mould 6 9
Brown day 9
Grayel with water 2$ 8
Blue clay 3
Loam ..•••••.... 5 1
Blue clay, with bivalye shells 3 9
Cbayel and calcareous rock 7 9
Light blue soil with pyrites 4 6
Green sand 19
Leafy day •..•...^••84
6S 1
A pipe sunk by Mr. Turner 95 feet deep, near Bermondsey new church :
— ^when they reached 80 feet, the rod sunk down 15 feet at once; after
pumpmg out several tons of green mud, the water rose to within 25 feet of the
top ; it rises and falls about three feet with the tide ; the water is quite clear
and tasteless. At a place not 500 yards from this, they sunk a pipe 190 feet
with very little success, the water being out of reach of a pump, and appear-
ing bad.
VOL. I. X
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155
XVII. — Some Accounts of Borings for Water m London and its mdnity.
By Mr. John Donkin^ M.Inst C.IE.
PARTICULARS OF A WELL SUNK AT THE EXCISE OFFICE, IN BROAD STREET,
LONDON.
In the first place, after excavating the upper stratum of gravel and loose
soil, four cast-iron curbs were sunk, each 6 feet long ; the lowest of these
entered the clay about 3 feet ; the digging was then continued through the
clay to the depth of 140 feet, and a curb of brickwcwk within the iron curb
was sunk the whole depth in the ordinary way, the iron curb serving merely
to support the upper stratum, and to prevent the land water getting into the
well. Boring was then resorted to, to the depth of about 20 feet, when the
water appeared, and rose to within 60 feet of the top of the well ; a copper
pipe was then driven through the last-mentioned 20 feet, to keep the passage
open for the supply.
WELLS SUNK AT MESSRS. BRANDRAM S VITRIOL AND WHITE LEAD WORKS,
LOWER ROAD, DEPTFORD.
The wood and brick curbing was sunk barely 30 feet ; the bricks were laid
in Roman cement to keep out the water from the land springs ; the well was
then bored to the depth of about 180 feet into a bed of chalk, from which the
soft water rises and flows to within 9 feet of the top of the well, through
wrought iron tubes riveted together. The strata are chiefly composed of yellow
and green sand and gravel, like those found at the tunnel under the Thames.'
ACCOUNT OF BORINGS MADE NEAR LONDON, WHERE THE WATER RISES ABOVE
THE SURFACE OF THE LAND.
In Mr. Wilmot*s garden at Isleworth, a boring was executed to the depth of
327 feet. The blue clay was found to exist from about 24 feet below the
X 2
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156 MB. J. donkin's account of borings foe water, etc.
ground level, with little variation of colour, to the depth of 240 feet : it is then
of a lightish red, and afterwards of a darker colour very much variegated.
At the depth of 308 feet it is blackish, and at 310 feet very black ; at 311
feet it becomes yellow for some depth ; then light green, followed by dark green,
out of which the water rises, being a stratum of about 10 feet thick.
All the specimens, with the exception of the yellow, aj^ared to be clay :
the yellow had a sandy appearance. The cast-iron pipe is sunk 327 f^t, and
is 2^ inches diameter. The water rises about 10 feet above the ground, and
the well supplies eight gallons per minute. The land-water here stands about
16 feet below the ground.
Lord Cassilis * has also had a boring executed in his grounds at Isleworth,
to the depth of 290 feet : the quantity it supplies is about 30 gallons per
minute, and its water rises about 30 feet above the level of the surface.
* Now Marquess of Ailsa.
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157
XVIII. — Description of the Method of Roofing in zcse in the Southern Concan^
in the East Indies^ by Lieutenant Fras. OutbaMj Bombay Engineers.
Communicated in a Letter to the late President^ T. Telford^ Esq.y by
Major- Oen. Sir John Malcolm^ O.C.B.^ Sfc.^ Governor of Bombay.
EXTRACT OF A LETTER FROM MR. TELFORD, ENCLOSING MR. OUTRAM'S PAPER.
^^ I BEO to present to the Institution, a paper describing a mode of constructing
stone-roofed buildings in the East Indies, which, although it may be little applicable
in this climate, yet seems of considerable yalue as relating to an important part of
the British empire. It has been transmitted to me by direction of the Governor of
Bombay ; as will be seen by the accompanying note of his private secretary.
" ^ I have much pleasure in sending you, by desire of the Governor, the accompany-
^ ing copy of a letter from Lieutenant Outram, of the Engineers, on the subject of stone-
^ roofed buildings. The few houses which have been already constructed on this plan,
^ have been found to answer so well, that I understand Government have resolved to
^ construct, upon this principle, all the public buildings, wherever suitable materials
* are to be procured.' "
Nature of the erdies
oompodng the roof.
The roofing with stone (iron clay or laterite) in the Southern
Concan is of a compound nature, consisting of two kinds of
arches, the first being parallel to each other, fipom 2 to 3 feet apart, and very
light ; their average section being from 12 by 10 inches to 15 by 12 ; i. e. for
roofs of from 25 to 35 feet span: so that when any two of these arches or ribs
are complete, they are strong enough to bear slabs of stone 5 or 6 inches thick
extending a few inches over each, beginning from
the wall and meeting at the top, thus forming a
second complete arch, and making, with the ribs,
a compound much stronger than vaulting of equal
solidity over the same extent, made in the usual
way.
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158
BfE. OUTEAM'S description OF THE METHOD
The arches of one room are counteracted by those of the rooms
Their Utenl thrust . • ■, ■, a
on its sides, and so on tor
any extent; those of the end r(k)ms
being counteracted on their outer sides
by buttresses or by the walls of baths,
&c., so that the walls
are required to be only
sufficiently strong to support the mere weight of the masonry of the roofs,
which has an average thickness of about 9 inches, excepting the plaster or
tiles, and therefore in rooms of 400 square feet would be about one fifth the
weight of the upper walls of
Comparative weieht ^^ * ^
of the whole KK>r ^ two-storied house. As the "S. >^ Ci
roof itself is of considerable altitude, the
walls supporting it need not be of more than
two-thirds the usual height.
Loading of the arches.
One advantage of the lightness of these roofs is, that of what-
ever form the arches may be, very little loading will suffice; of
course some arches would require no loading, but such
are not the most convenient for roofs
in general. The best appears to be a
compound of two segments of a circle of 50 or 55\
their chords intersecting at an angle of about 100 ;
such compoimd arch requiring a little loading at the
top and haunches, which, when duly added, gives an outer
surface of two inclined planes to each roof, which may be then
either plastered or tiled. But instead of loading
the haunches throughout with solid rubble, it
is better to do so partly with hollow masonry,
to the upper surface of which may be given
any slopes, which by the connexion of the oppo-
site slopes of any two adjacent roofs, form a gutter of the securest kind. The
average height of this gutter should be about one-third that of the roof, if to be
plastered, but not so much if the roof is to be tiled.
And outer lurfiee.
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OF ROOFING IN USE IN THE SOUTHERN CONCAN. 159
The expense of these roofe, including the outer ploster, hajs
ComparixKi between o j.
^!Sh3S^^^ been found by myself and successor, in the Concan, to be much
less than that of tiled roofs over the same extent The walls
should cost no more than those of a substantial bungalow, for although the
transverse walls have a greater weight to support, yet as they need be only
two-thirds the height, their total expense should not be greater than that of the
walls of a substantial house. The only part of which the comparative expense
remains to be considered, is the ceiling. The inner surface of the stone roo£s,
when finely plastered, forms an excellent ceiling, being light and cleanly, and
most durable. The expense of this plastering, if not much ornamented, is
below one-third that of the lath and plaster generally used.
Hence it is plain, and has been practically found, that the total expense of
stone-roofed houses in the Concan, if properly constructed, is less than that of
tiled houses of the same size ; but the sums saved in annual and special repairs
are of far greater consideration.
In the Deccan, where timber is so expensive, the comparative
In the Deccan. ,
cost of these buildings would be still less, in all those parts of it
where proper stone is met with.
The principal cause of the cheapness of these stone roofs, is the very little
centering, &c., requisite. For as the ribs, or primary arches, are very light,
centering of the simplest kind does for any one of them^ and thus for all suc-
cessively in either room. But as the centering cannot be removed from any
rib till its counteracting ribs are complete, there is of course required one cen-
tering for each room, which, when one series of the primary arches is complete,
may be removed with ease for the next, till a convenient number are ready
for the superior arching, which of course is very quickly formed (as before de-
scribed) without any centering,
stonesflttestforthefe '^^^ materials fittcst for this kind of buildmg are the various
"°^ kinds of sand-stone, including the calcareous sand-stone of cutch.
The laterite, or iron clay, although a good material, and the only one hitherto
used, is apparently not so proper as the substance generally called free-stone, which,
if worked with saws, &c., would be found to answer better than the laterite,
which can be shaped only with a pick-axe, and is very heavy. This iron clay
is found to extend from Bancoote e.n.e. to, I believe, Ceylon, lying over the
trap-rock, even on the highest Ghauts, but is very unequal in thickness and
quality ; that of Pumalla and Pawnghur, for instance, being of the softest and
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MB. OUTRAM'S description OF THE METHOD
J kind, and that near Mahabulesher of the best. This stone, when
rain, &c., becomes very hard if good, but if taken from any depth ,
to be easily cut with a knife. It is hence called soap-stone at Bel-
>ther Madras stations.
In making the primary arches, each workman should be pro-
vided with a small square, one leg of which being laid on the cen-
other will, of course, be the prolongation of a radius of the
e. In beginning the arch, there-
irorkman has only to cut (with a
axe for laterite, and a chisel for
I the upper end of the first stone,
iapted to the square, after which
)ne is hoisted up, (the pulley being sufficiently high to allow it to
y over the centering,) and its lower end easily fitted to the surface just
the prepared ; the upper end of it is then cut to the square for the recep-
• tion of a third, and proceeding thus, both sides of the arch are formed
3et in a key-stone at the top, which should be connected, pro tempore^
with the side wall, or with the next rib, for otherwise these primary
ribs might be shaken down during the formation of the superior
the By the use of the square, the joinings of the arch -stones must
all properly concentrate, although made by the most stupid
and the arches are rendered perfect in much less time than they
been by cutting the stones to chalked lines on the ground, as is
ne ; besides, the stones may be of various lengths, and are thus
th more freedom, and none spoiled.
The stones of each superior arch
should be cut at their ends, so that ^^X^ >!>V
r surface be an inch or two below the
ace of the ribs.
^ The cuttings of the laterite, good chunam, and sand, (sea sand
should never be used,) in equal parts, form an excellent plaster for
J of these roofs. The cuttings, or stone rubbish, will do pretty well
ad, but it should not be very finely powdered.
«ry The roof having been well washed, and not allowed to dry,
the plaster should be laid on it throughout at once, and about
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OF ROOFING IN USE IN THE SOUTHERN CONCAN. l6l
2^ inches thick. No fine chunam should he put over this plaster, hut it must
be constantly heaten with small pieces of wood, for two or three days. As the
tempering of the plaster is of great consequence, every seven or eight square
feet should be under a boy, who has, besides the piece of wood, a pot of water,
to keep the chunam moist the whole time ; at the end of the two or three days
the plaster will have become very hard, and less capable of absorbing water ;
but after the boys have left it, there should be a sprinkling of water over the
whole, as long as possible, for the longer these roofe are kept damp the stronger
they become. Their surface should not be left very smooth ; but if any cracks
appear, they shew that the chunam has not been properly beaten, and should
be filled by rubbing fine chunam into them.
^^^. As new chunam, however properly made, absorbs water, it
In plAcet niliject to ' ir r J ^ »
"^"^ will be advisable in the first season to guard against very heavy
rain, by covering the surface with a thin coating of wax and oil, which is
easily done by rubbing the mixture on the roof in the heat of the day.
But if chunam be scarce, or if it be not very good, the roof
TilM may be uaed. ' j o — '
should be covered with tiles, (which would cost less than the
plaster,) as may be seen by the small proportion the tiles bear in the expense
of a tiled roof ; — the form of the roofs render such an addition very easy.
If adopted in Europe, buildings of this kind would be as remarkable for
warmth as in this country for coolness. But the plastering outside would not
be advisable on account of the frost ; tiles, however, or slate, would protect
the roof completely.
Advantages of Stone ^^^ principal advautagcs of these buildings in this country
looiii. dec, in India. ^^^ ^j^^j^ cooluess, and the little expense incurred in annual
and special repairs ; indeed, the latter will never be required if the build-
ings be properly constructed at first It is also very evident that they can
never take fire, nor can white ants afiect them ; of course they could be built
of several stories, the form of the floor ribs being merely a small segment
of a circle, (or ellipse,) instead of a compound of two as in the roof. The
upper floor of the jailor's house at Rutnaghery is thus built, as also part of
another house.
All the buildings hitherto constructed on this principle, are in a climate
perhaps the most unfavourable in India ; for there is not a terraced roof, con-
structed in the usual mode over wood, that is proof against the excessive
rains of the Southern Concan.
VOL. I. T
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l62 ME. outram's description of the method
inaome paru of it a This System could not be so economically adopted where trap
mixture of ftone and , 111 -ii
brick adviiabie. qf whinstonc Only IS procurable, unless wood be very expensiyCy
as at Poena ; where a compound structure of roofs, between stone and brick,
might be found even less expensive than common tiled roo&.
I take the liberty to add some remarks on brick and compound roofs of a
similar construction, and a proposal for the use of domes in some cases, which
I presume would be found more beneficial, and less expensive to government,
than certain tile-roofed buildings.
In the compound roofs, the primary arches, or ribs, to be con-
structed nearly as before mentioned, but being of harder stone, not
so massive ; the breadth of their section to be greater in pro-
portion to the height. For arches of thirty feet span, the section
of the rib stones may be as in the annexed sketch : their length \- ^^-
being from two to four feet. The slopes at the upper comers are made for bricks.
The ribs thus formed to be connected together by slabs of
Connecting tUbfc >-. i 1 1 1 • ,
the same stone. One slab between every two at their tops, and
another at each side, about the middle of the segment ;
the distance between the ribs to be about three feet.
centerin for the Whcu thus formcd, a piccc of planked
centering may be placed between any two
brickwork.
L
ribs from the wall to the first connecting stone, so that a thin brick vault may
be completed over that space, — the sides of both having been prepared (as
before stated) to receive it. One piece of centering, in length only one fourth
that of the ribs, and two or three feet wide, (consequently extremely light,)
would suflSce for the whole of the superior arching of a room, for the con-
nected strength of the ribs (by the lateral stones) would be quite enough to
sustain the then intermediate arches of brick ; similar parts being done in
succession, until the whole be covered. But care must be taken that a proper
n .^ I . resistance be secured against the lateral thrust of the brick- work,
Reuatance against <-' '
the lateral ruit. ^JjJ^jIj^ howcvcr, is SO vcry light, that an ordinary thickness for
the side walls will do, if the two side ribs of each room be placed about one
foot and a half, or two feet from them, so that, as with the laterite, flag stones
might lie on the intermediate space ; by the loading of which, a much greater
resistance than requisite might be obtained.
Rooft of brick ^^ ^^^^ *^® made of brick throughout, the proportion of the
throughout. ^ji^g ^^j ^jj^ vaulting should be somewhat different ; for 25 feet
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OF ROOFING IN USE IN THE SOUTHERN CONCAN. l6S
span, the ribs should have a section of 18 by 8 inches, and their intermediate
space be about 2 feet wide, so that the ribs will nearly of themselves sustain
the vaulting.
conoidai domes. In many cases, however, surmounted domes formed on a com-
pound conoid, two-thirds sphere, and the upper third cone, would be the most
economical kind of roofing, particularly for detached buildings in this country,
where verandahs or screens are necessary to protect them from sun and rain,
which object would be at once gained by arches over the buttresses, the load-
ing of which with mud rubble would of course increase their resistance, and
likewise present an additional obstacle to the heat.
These domes would be found particularly advantageous in government
buildings ; for instance, those in the military department, in comparison with
the barracks, store-rooms, hospitals, &c„ now in use ; they are far more easily
ventilated by holes or windows, unlimited, at the sides, and one at the top of the
roof, (the clumsy method adopted at present in barracks shews the necessity of
ventilation,) and the great space inclosed by the roof alone ensures a plentiful
supply of fresh and cool air in the closest days. — Secondly, their interior cannot
be afiected in the slightest degree, by the heat on the roof. — Thirdly, they in-
clude a larger space in proportion to their interior surface, thereby requiring
less superficial repair, and being more easily kept clean. — Fourthly, they are
altogether free from special repairs, and cannot take fire, nor be affected by
white ants, which have hitherto not only destroyed buildings, but also the
men's kits and public stores, the risk of which is perhaps of greater consideration
than the sums expended annually in repairing the buildings now in use ; but
those sums also would be saved in these brick-roofed buildings, except indeed
whitewashing and repairing the floor, for the tiles of the roofing being fixed
with chunam would require no turning. They should be placed in horizontal
divisions, by which means all angles will be avoided, and, unless the tiles
actually break, there will be no repairs whatever requisite to the roof.
If the expense of annual and special repairs to buildings in general be con-
sidered, together with the destruction of stores by white ants, the loss by fire,
and the loss of health, occasioned by the extremes of heat and cold under tiled
roofing, it may perhaps be allowed that were roofs of masonry generally adopt-
comptntivvespenie. cd by Govcmment, even at five times the original cost of the
buildings hitherto used, there would accrue a saving of money ; but it has
been already proved, that the compound arched roofs are cheaper, and it may
Y 2
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r
164 METHOD OF ROOFING IN USB IN THE SOUTHERN CONCAN.
now be shown, that those with the modified domes are also very economical ; for,
beginning with the walls, a circle being the least possible perimeter of a given
area, the walls, if made of the usual height and thickness, would be much less
expensive than those of an equal quadrangular space ; a square, for instance,
would cost one-third more, and the shape generally given to hospitals and bar-
racks, having the breadth one-fourth the length, merely because the roof would
be very expensive if wider, would cost just twice as much. But as resistance
is required against the lateral thrust of the dome, the additional buttresses ne-
cessary, would nearly double the expense of circular walls in all rooms above
20 or 25 feet diameter, were it not that the great height of the interior of the
dome itself, renders it unnecessary to make the walls more than 7 or 8 feet high,
i. e. just enough for the doors, &c. It will hence be perceived that the expense
of quadrangular walls is greater than that of circular walls of only half their
height with buttresses ; and it will be seen by every one who understands the
nature of a dome, that a surmounted dome, as described, would be perhaps the
cheapest mode possible (unless brick and chunam are enormously expensive)
of substantially covering a given space, and the larger that space the greater
the advantage of this dome over wood roofs, &c. : for such requires no centering
whatever, although 300 feet diameter ; and is built under the superintendence
of one intelligent person, as easily as the upper walls of a house, because the
arches over the buttresses afford a landing-place for the materials, and the outer
surface of the dome gives a footing to the workmen without any scaffolding ;
the expense, therefore, should be estimated as for upper walls, i. e. the same rate
for the solid masonry of the dome, which, together with the tiles covering it,
will cost less than a common tiled roof, over an equal extent.
DiiadYanugM. Thc disadvautages of domes, are, their inconvenient shape for
houses in general, and upper storied houses in particular, their inelegant appear-
ance, unless the walls be of a proportionate height, which would increase the
expense enormously in the buttresses, their depths being in direct ratio with the
heights of the walls, so that if the height of the walls be doubled, the expense
of the buttresses is fourfold. But where no stone is procurable, a house formed
of several dome-roofed rooms, properly connected together, would be foimd not
more expensive than one of the same size with compound arches, i. e. in one-
storied houses only, both being made of brick. Of course spheroidal roofe
may be made nearly as easily as domes, but they would cost more, and would
not do so well for tiles.
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165
XIX, — Experiments of the Resistance of Barges moving on Canals^ hy
Henrt R. Palmer^ Esq.y V.P.Inst. C.E. Addressed to the late President,
Thomas Telford^ Esq.
The statements that have been laid before the public in reference to the
swift passage of boats along the Ardrossan Canal, having occasioned a renewal
of, and more extended enquiry into the subject of the resistance to which the
motion of boats and barges is exposed, I think it important that every useful
fact relating to it should be collected and placed in the records of the Institu-
tion of Civil Engineers.
With this view I have transcribed the particulars of some experiments with
which, through your kindness, I had the honour to be entrusted in the year
1824, when the comparison of the cost of conveyance by canals and railways
constituted a popular question.
In the performance of the experiments referred to, I very soon perceived
the difficulty of obtaining the results with that accuracy which was required.
The moving forces being animal power, one imperfection arose from the
difficulty of preserving an equable motion. From the same cause I was unable
to obtain, at will, any given velocity, so that the results might be obtained in
the order required for a tabular registration. A third imperfection was
occasioned by wind, which, however slight to the sensation, materially
affected the results.
Considering, however, that the experiments were upon the large scale, that
the circumstances affecting each are recorded, and that no assumptions were
allowed to interfere, they are susceptible of some useful deductions, more
especially when received, in comparative order, with facts which have been
since and which may hereafter be obtained.
The purport of the experiments was entirely of a practical nature, and
therefore they were tried by means strictly conformable with those actually in
common use. The towing ropes were attached to the barges at the same parts
as usual, the lengths of the ropes used were of the customary dimensions on
each canal respectively, and the moving power exerted in the same position,
viz., along the towing path on one side of the canal.
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r
166 MR. palmer's experiments, etc.
The results, therefore, do not exhihit precisely the resistances of the harges
in a straight line, uninfluenced by the rudder, but that resistance which the
circumstaDces oblige the horse to overcome, which from the obliquity of the line
of force with that of the motion of the barge, gives an increased quantity in pro-
portion. Although this error is of small magnitude, and will have little effect
in the proportion of the results to each other, (which is an important feature
in the experiments,) it may lead to incongruities in the comparison of these
experiments with others determined by other means, if not attended to.
Method used for ascertaining the Resistances of the Barges moving on Canals.
A sheeve or pulley was suspended from the post to which the towing line
is usually fastened, the towing line was then passed over that pulley, and the
end of it fastened to the weights that were to indicate the resistance ; the
barge was then towed in the usual manner, and the weight being always in-
sufficient at the commencement, it was raised up to the pulley, and was suffered
to remain so, until the barge appeared to be in a regular and uniform motion.
Additional weights were then suspended, until they fell to about 12 inches
fipom the puUey, when they were so adjusted as to remain suspended there,
their only motion being a slight vertical vibration, occasioned by the stepping
of the men employed to draw the line.
A straight part of the canal was chosen, and the length through which an
experiment was continued was divided into equal parts, each being marked by
a stake. The equality of the motion was therefore ascertained by the time oc-
cupied in passing each division, so that when the divisions of the whole space
had been passed in equal times, and the weights had during the whole time
remained within the same limits of vibration, the experiment was considered as
having been fairly made.
The experiments being made on different canals, it was always found ne-
cessary to practise the men in drawing the barges, before they were found to
walk with sufficient regularity, and the loss of time thus engaged caused fire-
quent regret that soldiers could not be obtained for the purpose.
One of the experiments (No. 17) given in the Table was furnished to me
by Mr. Bevan, the engineer to the Grand Junction Canal Company. In the
four last I was favoured with the assistance of Professor Barlow, the late Mr.
Chapman of Newcastle, Mr. B. Donkin, and Mr. Bevan.
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MB. palmer's experiments ON
[le following are the particulars of the last four experiments, made on
rrand Junction Canal, at Paddington, by Messrs. Barlow, Chapman,
in, and Palmer.
KPERiMENT I. — Empty barge ; weight, 6^ tons ; force employed, 72 lbs. ;
m of the force to the whole effect, t^ ; wind in favour.
Number of
Stakei.
Timeb
Time between
the Stakes.
Velocity per hour,
in miles.
1
/ //
29
//
29
3.104
2
1 7
28
3.214
3
1 34
27
3.333
4
2
26
3.461
5
2 24
24
3.750
6
2 49
25
3.600
7
3 13
24
3.750
8
3 39
26
8.461
4 3
24
3.750
10
4 28
25
3.660
11
4 54
25
3.600
12
5 15
22
4.090
13
5 41
26
3.461
PERiMENT II. — Empty barge ; weight, 6^ tons ; force employed, 72 lbs.;
n of the force to the whole effect, t^- ; against wind.
Number of
Stakes.
Time.
Time between
tlie Stakes.
Velocity per hour,
inmUes.
12
/ //
33
//
33
2.727
11
1 2
29
3.104
10
1 29
27
3.333
9
1 56
27
3.333
8
2 24
28
3.214
7
2 51
27
3.333
6
3 18
27
3.833
5
3 45
27
3.333
4
4 11
26
3.461
3
4 40
29
3.104
2
5 8
28
3.214
1
5 37
29
3.104
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BARGES MOVING ON CANALS.
169
Experiment III, — Load, 21^ tons, which, added to 6^ tons, the weight
of the harge, gives 28 tons, the whole effect ; fraction of force to whole effect,
rh ; force, 308 lbs.
Number of
Stake*.
Time.
Time between
theStaket.
Velocity per hour,
inmUei.
I
/ //
38
//
38
2.395
2
1 3
25
3.600
3
1 26i
23|
3.829
4
1 491
23
3.918
5
2 12
221
4.000
6
2 34j
22i
4.000
7
2 67i
23^
3.829
B
3 21
23i
3.829
9
3 44^
23^
3.829
10
4 9
24|
3.673
11
4 .32
23
3.918
12
4 56
24
3.750
13
5 19
23
3.918
P^XPERIMENT IV. — Load, 21^ tons + 6^ tons = 28 tons, the whole effect;
force employed, 77 Its. ; fraction of force to whole effect, eir.
1 Number of
1 Stakes.
Time.
Time between
the Stakes.
Velocity per hour,
in miles.
1
1
' 1
/ //
1 6
/ //
1 6
1.363
1 2
1 54
48
1.875
i 3
2 34i
40
2.222
4
3 13
38i
2.337
5
3 49
36
2.500
6
4 25
36
2.500
7
5 1
36
2.500
8
5 37i
36^
2.465
9
6 15
371
2.400
10
6 42^
371
2.400
11
7 30
37i
2.400
12
8 6
36
2.500
13
8 42
36
2.500
VOL. 1.
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170
MR. PALMERS EXPERIMENTS ON
TABLE OF THE DIMENSIONS OF THE BARGES USED ON THE GRAND JUNCTION
CANAL.
Di&tance
from the
head of
the barge.
Greatest
width at the
several
dUtanoes.
Width inside
at the
distances.
Depth below water.
Depth above water.
Girth at
the several
distances.
on the
one side.
on the
other.
on the
one side.
on the
other.
Feet.
Feet. In.
Feet. In.
Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
Inches.
Feet In.
5
5 3J
1 10
...
...
35.3
36.0
10 3^
10
6 6
4 2
9.2
8.5
32.9
33.1
11 lOj
15
6 8^
5 7
...
...
31.5
32.2
13
20
6 7f
5 11
9.6
8.4
31.5
32.3
13 IJ
25
6 8
6
...
...
31.4
31.9
13 2
30
6 9
6
...
31.1
31.4
13 2
I 35
6 8^
6
...
...
31.0
31.4
13 2
40
6 8
6
9.8
8.9
31.1
31.7
13 2
45
6 n
6
.1
...
31.0
31.8
13 2^
50
6 8
5 11
11. 1
9.3
30.9
31.4
13 2i
1 ^5
6 9
5 1
...
...
31.4
31.8
12 9
; 60
...
4 2
9.7
9.0
32.9
33.1
11 3
1 65
1 10
...
...
36.8
37.3
9 7
69 feet the whole length, not including the rudder.
The weights with which the barges were loaded were those used for de-
termining the gauge marks on the part of the Company.
The experiments on the Mersey and Irwell canal were made upon vessek
that happened to arrive at the time, without preference. The first was upon
the packet which is used to convey passengers between Manchester and Run-
corn, and is usually towed at the rate of 5 J miles per hour.
Nos. 5, 6, 7, and 8 were made on the EUesmere canal, with a boat built
for the purpose, and which was of the same length as those commonly used,
but exactly half their width.
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J
BARGES MOVING ON CANALS. l?!
Nos. 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13, were made with one of the ordinary canal
Nos. 14, 15, and 16, were made with two boats joined together end to end,
and the curves, to the head of one and the stem of the other, so planked over
as to iorm one boat of double the ordinary length.
No. 17, having been made by Mr. Sevan, I have no other information
relating to it than the facts as given in the table.
Nos. 18, 19> 20, and 21, were tried under circumstances as favourable as
are usually met with; the effect of the wind was, however, very apparent.
Every variation in the resistance through all the experiments was easily
discernible when it amounted to six ounces, and sometimes less.
In conclusion, I think it necessary to remark, that in such experiments as
these which have been described, the action of the wind, whether in favour or
opposed to the motion of the vessel, should receive the nicest attention. The
difficulty does not consist only in ascertaining the amount of the atmospheric
action at any given time, but in making a due allowance for its variations
during the time of one experiment : still weather should be chosen for the
purpose, and the experiments should be made early in the morning, before any
sensible wind has arisen.
The above experimmits were submitted to Peter Barlow, Esq., F.R.S., and
the following are the deductions he made from them.
Report of Peter Barlow, Esq., F.R.S., on the experiments of Henry
R. Palmer, on the resistance of Barges on Canals, &c.
In order to reduce the law of resistances from the foregoing experiments, it
is requisite that the comparison should be made between those on the same
boat and under the same circumstances ; for the resistance opposed to different
boats will depend on their transverse sections, their draught of water, the section
of the canal, and various other circumstances, which will prevent the deduction
of any general law applicable to all cases.
Mr. Palmer states that the first four experiments on die Ellesmere canal,
with a small boat, were made under particularly fieivourabie circumstances of
weather, &c. These therefore may be employed for deducing the law of the
resistances, as it depends on velocity.
z 2
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^
172 ME. PALMER*S EXPERIMENTS ON
' It is generally assumed, on the common theory of fluids, that the resistance
varies as the square of the velocity, but it has been found that this law does
not obtain in practice, and different experimenters have obtained different
results, varying" from the 2d to the ^ power of the velocity. It will appear,
however, from the following investigations, that in the case of loaded canal
boats^ it varies in a stiU higher ratio, viz., as the cube of the velocity very nearly,
if not exactly. In order to make this comparison, it is only necessary to proceed
as below, by saying,
V- : ^"::F lo-
using for V, Vy Fy fy thc actual velocity and moving powers employed.
From this proportion is very easily obtained the theorem m = , ^ _Z-_-oJ_ -
^ ^ -^ ' log V -log i?
and employing in this the velocities and forces given in the first four experi-
ments, there is obtained the following results, comparing the experiment
lto3 . . . . m=3.2
1 to 4 . . . . w=2.7
2 to 3 . • . . m = 3.0
2 to 4 . . . . m = 2.6
Mean value of w=2.9, or 3 nearly.
By comparing experiments 7 and 8, which are made under like circum-
stances and on the same boat, we find m=3.2, and in the same way experi-
ments 17 and 18 give nearly the same result, viz., m = 3.0, the general mean
being w=3.0.
It is clear, therefore, that, whatever may be the deduction from theory, the
actual resistance of canal boats varies very nearly as the cubes of the velocities ;
and, by adopting this law, the velocities due to any force and load may be
computed from the velocity and resistance in any other case being given.
And as it will be seen by the experiments on the different railways, that at
a mean, one lb. will draw along 180 lbs., and that a power of 1 to 200 is the
greatest that the most perfect railway can ever be expected to attain ; I have
computed what velocity is attainable on a canal answering to those two cases,
viz., when the moving force is ri^th part of the whole load moved. These
results are given in the following table, omitting those made on empty boats
and sea-going barges.
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BARGES MOVING ON CANALS.
Nftvigstlotit doMsripCion
ofthe barges, Ace
Authority.
1
1
Whole
lottd. in.
eluding
barge.
Moving
force.
No. of lbs.
drawn by
lib.
Rate, in
miles per
hour.
Computed
rate when
1 lb. drawfl
180 lbs.
Tons.
lbs.
Ellesmere boats, half
the usual breadth;
length 69 feet;
breadth 3 feet 6
1 r
j
">- Palmer. ^
1
14|
14|
15
160
170
77
193
191
436
4.60
4.69
3.63
4.70
4.78
4.97
inches.
J I
15
50
672
2.96
4.59
Common boat.
Do.
30
50
1344
1.90
3.71
Common boat, half
load.
} - {
19|
19f
79
78
500
567
2.94
2.80
4.29
4.10
Common boat, full
load.
Do. i
29|
29f
98
175
680
381
2.73
3.27
4.25
4.19
Two common boats,
end to end.
I Do.
39
39
164
172
532
507
2.80
2.58
4.01
3.64
Do. full load.
Do.
60
196
689
2.50
3.91
Common boat.
Bevan.
31
80
863
2.45
4.13
Common boat, full
load.
) Barlow, (
j Donkin, &c.'
27
27
308
77
203
814
3.87
2.44
Mean
4.02
4.04
4.22
It is clear, therefore, that on a canal, when the moving
the whole load, including the barge, it may be taken forw
4 miles per hour, and that when the force is yii^th, the rat
be 4^ miles per hour. It is easy also, from what has hoy
compute the power on a canal, at different velocities : for exi
At 4 miles per bour, 1 lb. will draw 200 lbs.
3f 243
si 299
3J 373
3 474
2| 615
2J 819
2i 1124
2 1600
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--C
175
XX. — An Elementary Itttistration of the Principles of Tension and of the
Resistance of Bodies to being torn asunder in the Direction of their Length.
By the late T. TREDGOLDy M.Inst C.E,
Writers on mechanics have usually stated that the resistance which a body
offers to being torn asunder in the direction of its length is proportional to the
area of its section, but without showing that there are certain conditions neces-
sary to obtain results in this proportion. The object of this paper is to show
in a plain and simple manner, the conditions necessary to render the resistance
proportional to the area, and that there are few instances where the rule will
be found true in practice.
If a weight be suspended by a small filament or thread of any species of
matter, there can be no doubt that the strain at any point is equal to "«'•
the weight suspended by the section at that point; and when the
weight is sufficient to tear the filament asunder, such weight may be
considered the measure of its cohesion.
Fig. 1. Thus the weight W may be considered the measure of the
cohesion of a filament at C ; neglecting the weight of the portion CB
of the filament for the sake of simplifying the reasoning.
Let us now suppose that two threads of exactly equal strength
are applied at a given distance apart, to support a weight.
Fig. 2. Thus the weight W may be supported by two threads
or filaments by means of a small bar D£.
The filaments in this case being supposed to be of equal strength,
it is obvious that the stress on them ought to be equal, otherwise
only that one which has the greatest stress on it will bear its pro-
portion of the breaking weight.
And in order that the stress on both filaments may be equal, it
is evident that the point F, from which the weight is suspended,
should be exactly in the middle between the filaments. For if the
point F be nearer to the filament E than to D, then E will be most
strained, and consequently break before the other.
The proportion of the strain is easily found by the properties of the lever.
Call the force necessary to pull one of the filaments asimder P, and we have
A rtg.8. B
DF: DE:: P; W; whence
DExP
DF
=W.
This ifi the greatest weight the two filaments will support, hecause when
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176
MR. TREDGOLD ON THE PRINCIPLES OP TENSION.
Fig. 3.
K
the weight pulls one apart, the other will hreak of course. But if hoth filaments
were equally strained, the equation would he 2 P = W, and this can happen only
when DE = 2 DF, or when F hisects ED.
If the point F he only one sixth out of the centre of the har, then
/• -p
— — = 1^P = W. Hence, the filament AD will he exerting only half its
if
power when BE breaks.
Even in this stage of the inquiry we can see how important it is that the
links of chains should be formed so as to have the centre of tension in the centre
between the sides of the link. But when we have to consider the ex-
tension of the material, as well as the difference of stress, the variation
will be found more considerable.
The extension of a substance is nearly, if not accurately, as the a — P
strain upon it.
Fig. 3. Let a body be suspended by a pin at R, and suspend a
weight by another pin at S, so that a line drawn through the support-
ing points may not be in the middle of the width AB ; but nearer to
B than A.
Here the solid parts below the line B A perform the same office as
the lever or bar, in fig. 2, and the strain will be greater at B than at A;
and the extension will also be greater, and in the same proportion as
the strain ; and in consequence of the lengthening of the side B, the
bar will become curved.
Fig. 4. Represents the curved state of the bar. The curvature
it acquires will be such that the resistance of the part AC is equal to
the resistance of the part CB ; and till this equilibrium of resistance
takes place, the bar will continue to curve.
The distance of the neutral point may be found by differ-
ent methods, but a diagram on the barwill best illustrate this
point. Let Bm, and A/^, Fig. 5, be two equal portions of the
surface of the bar in its natural state, and B^, Ae, the length of
the same portions where the bar is strained by the weight
W. The lines drawn through AB, and egy must meet in
a point wherever the stress on the parts is not equal ; and
the point thus determined is called the neutral point.
To find the neutral point put DC, its distance from
the direction of the straining force, equal z ; and DB,
Fig. 4.
Fig.
5.
R
D
A
c
~ — ^^^^
e
--
^
s,
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MB. TREDGOLD ON THE PRINCIPLES OF TENSION. 177
its distance from the extended surface of the har equal a ; make C B =^, and
AC=:r.
Since the extension is proportional to the strain, we shall have,
the force of a filament at the distance x from C ; its force at B being^ And
suppose the section to be a rectangle of the breadth b ; we have -^ K^—^y^ _.
the fluxion of the force of any filament h x ; and its effect is as the leverage .r,
therefore the fluent of-^^^ — !^ <- — ^ = the resistance of the part AC of the
a
bar, or
fh:^{Sz^9.x) ^ ^y^^ resistance of AC.
o a
In like manner it will be found that the resistance of B C, is / if^ ^ "*" — yji
ba
Now, in order that there may be an equilibrium of resistance, we must have
6a 6a
or,
^(^3z + 2y)^x'(3z'-2x).
Whence we find the distance of the neutral axis.
If rf be the whole depth AB, then x^d-^y and
2 rf* — 3 dv
Consequently a^z + y = — r-^ 4^= the distance of the neutral axis from the
3{d—9.y)
point B.
The distance of the neutral point being found, the solution becomes easv.
Thus, let y be the cohesive force of a square inch, f/=the depth, 6 = the
breadth, and a=the distance of the neutral axis from the extended side.
The force of a filament Arf will be /6rf^ at the extended side; and its
force in any other part will be,
a \ a--d\\ fhd \ *L — v?LlI_2_.
*^ a
VOL. I. A A
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178 MR. TBEDCtOLD ON THE PRINCIPLES OP TENSION.
The fluent of/Ka-<0<^» j /^rf(g«-<0^w=:the weight the bar will
support.
^ y/2 ^ // 4/
But we havd found that a=-— ^ — ^^ > hence substituting this value of
Oy we have, /&rf* _ ^
That is, a bar strained in the direction of its length, the weight it will
support is equal to the breadth multiplied by the square of the depth, and by
the cohesion of a square inch in lbs. ; divided by four times the depth added
to six times the distance of the direction of the straining force from the nearest
side of the bar ; the quotient thus obtained expresses the weight it would sup-
port in lbs. ; and the dimensions are all supposed to be taken in inches.
If the distance of the direction of the straining force be half the depth, then
y =Arf and /^"j! =/6 rf=W.
But if V = i fl?, then —4 — tt— ^- — = W : which shows that by this varia-
^ 3 4rf-6j/ 2 ^
tion of the direction of the straining force, half the strength of the bar is lost.
In the same manner the investigation may be extended to other forms, but
the subject having been already treated by a different process of reasoning,
and also by a different notation, in the second edition of my book on the
Strength of Iron, I will not proceed further with analysis, but confine myself
to a few practical conclusions.
In making a joint to resist tension, the surface in contact should be so
formed as to render it certain that the direction of the tensile force mav be
exactly, or at least very nearly, in the centre of the bars that have to resist it.
r
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MR. TBEDaOLD ON THE PRINCIPLES OF TEN8IC
In all calculations of the magnitude of bars, &c., to resist tei
possible variation in the direction of the straining force shou
calculated upon, and the dimensions determined accordingly.
If the connections of a bar, to resist tension, be made as ii
6, it is very difficult to get them fitted so perfectly as to causi
direction of the tensile force to be in the centre of the bar.
A connection by a piece in the middle, as fig. 7> is more ce
to effect the object of limiting the variation of the direction o
straining force, as will be obvious from the figure, and the
should be fitted so as to bear in the line A the centre of direc
The like remarks apply to joints in long ties, joints of the f
shewn in figs. 8 and 9, are very common, and very good form
a connecting joint,
I have, however, not unfrequently seen joints in ties form<
in figs. 10, 11, 12, where the line of strain is at or bey one
side of the bar, and such a tie would obviously bend till the s
on its parts would become very unequal.
Fig. 10.
U, 12.
4
The same conclusions are obtained by considering the fore
instead of tensile, with the exception that the strain increa
when a curved bar is compressed, while it diminishes it wl
tended. Hence it is of still greater importance to attend to t
the centre of magnitude of the resisting body in cases wher
pressure.
This difficult subject, for so it has been considered by an e
whom I shall presently quote, is capable of an easy populai
regard to pressure.
I
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^^^r^
180 MR. TREDGOLD ON THE PRINCIPLES OF TENSION.
When a pressure is on the centre of the block which supports it, and the
block is a material of equal texture, then all the parts must offer an equal resist-
ance to the pressure, there being no reason why one part in the bounding sur-
face of the block should take a greater or less strain, all being similarly affected*
But if the pressure be nearer to one side of the block than the other, the *
resistance becomes obviously unequal If an elastic body be employed in the
experiment, the inequality of compression is decidedly shown ; but what body
is there which has not some degree of elasticity ? or what is worse, allows of
compression without restoration of figure when the pressure is removed ?
The consequence of a pressure being at a distance from the centre of the
supporting surface does not simply depend on the distance, but also on the
degree of compression it produces, for the form of the support, whether it be a
column, a pillar, or a wall, will alter till there is an equal resistance on each
side of the line of pressure, if it does not totally fail.
These considerations will explain many circumstances which occur in prac-
tice, where walls, piers, and arches imdergo changes of form, which have
always been familiar to practical men under the name of settlements.
The first person who remarked the deficiency of ordinary theories in regard
to inequality of resistance was Dr. Robison, in his article on the strength of
materials ; he was more conversant with theory than practice, but his remarks
have some interest. Speaking of Euler*s theory of columns, he says, "It leads to
" the greatest mistakes, and has rendered the whole false and useless. It would
" be just if the column were of materials which are incompressible. But it is evi-
" dent, from what has been said above, that by the compression of the parts, the
" real fulcrum of the lever shifts away from the point C (fig. 5), so much the more
" as the compression is greater. In the great compressions of loaded columns,
" and the almost unmeasurable compressions of the truss beams in the centres of
" bridges, and other cases of chief importance, the fulcrum is shifted far over to-
" wards (D), so that very few fibres resist the fracture by their cohesion ; and
** these few have a very feeble energy or momentum, on account of the short arm
" of the lever by which they act. This is a most important consideration in
" carpentry, yet it makes no element of Euler*s theory. It will now be asked
" (he continues) what shall be substituted in place of this erroneous theory? what
** is the true proportion of the strength of columns ? We acknowledge our in-
" ability to give a satisfactory answer. Such can be obtained only by a previous
" knowledge of the proportion between the extensions and compressions produced
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MR. TREDGOLD ON THE PRINCIPLES OF TENSION.
181
" by equal forces, by the knowledge of the absolute compressions producible by
" a given force, and by a knowledge of the degree of that derangement of parts
** which is termed crippling. These circumstances are but imperfectly known
" to us, ibd there lies before us a wide field of experimental inquiry."
Such was Dr. Robison's view of the subject, but the questio
remain in that state. Our celebrated countryman, Dr. Thomi
discovered the proper mode of investigation, which was publishe
yet, strange as it may seem, the popular writers on mechanics, in i
well as on the continent, either have not seen, or do not comprel
but elegant demonstration Dr. Young has given. We can attri
the difficulty of following the inquiries of that able philosopher '
extensive knowledge of mathematics and of nature.
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Igf Digitized by CjOOQIC
183
XXI. — Details of the Constrtiction of a Stone Bridge erected over the Dora
Riparia, near Turin^ hy Chevalier Mosca^ Engineer and Architect to
the King of Sardinia^ Sfc.j Sfc. Drawn up and communicated hy
Mr. B. ALBANOt A.Inst.C.E.
This bridge, which may be characterized as the boldest work of the kind, is
erected within the suburbs of Turin, over the Dora Riparia, a river ordinarily
shallow, but liable to heavy floods, during which it becomes extremely rapid,
owing to the great declivity of its bed.
It consists of a single large arch of granite, (of which the elevation is shewn
in Plate XVII.,) resting on solid abutments of the same materials ; its line of
direction is in continuation of the axis of the main road which crosses the Alps
from France, called the road of Italy, and it has an unvarying surface level
throughout its whole length.
The foundations of the abutments are l^»id upon piles headed with cross sills,
on which rest the first courses of stone with ofisets : over these are placed five
other horizontal courses, from the uppermost of which the arch springs, being
a segment of a circle, having a span of 147.63836 feet, and a versed sine of
18.04468 feet. These proportions, which correspond to an arc of 54^*56' 45''26'''^
render it, I believe, the flattest arch of this form yet constructed in Europe.
The lightness of appearance derived from the flatness of the arch is much
increased by the introduction of two ugnaturej or comes de vaches, (as the
French call them,) which, rising from the third course above the springs of the
principal arch, form a second one of a somewhat larger span, (as represented in
the Plate,) tangential to the first at the intrados of the key-stone, and having a
versed sine of 12.1391 feet.
The sides of the abutments are of a convex form, and thus acting towards
their bases as cut-waters, give, in conjunction with the ugnature, a more free
and open passage for the descent of the stream in time of floods, whilst their
upper parts add elegance to the wings of the structure and increase the width
of the approaches : these last are bounded on each side by an advanced body
of wall adorned at the saliant angle by a pilaster, and terminating at the other
end on the banks of the river, thus making the total length of the bridge be-
tween these extreme points 300 feet*
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184 MB. ALBANO'S ACCOUNT OF A STONE BRIDGE
The arch is composed of 93 wedges, of which 91, including the key-stone,
are of equal thickness, — as seen in Plates XVII. and Fig. 1, XIX., whilst the re-
maining two at the springs are larger; their thickness heing determined hy the
radius which meets the upper or apparent arch at the point where it springs
from the convex part of the ahutment. The key-stone is 4.9212 feet deep.
Upon the courses of the abutment from which the ugnature spring rest ten
other horizontal courses, the upper surface of the last or superior one being level
with the extrados of the key-stone, immediately surmounting which is a plain
cornice with modillions cut in the solid stone, similar to those round the Temple
oiMarte Vendicatore at Rome*, (as seen in the cross section of the cornice. Fig.
4, Plate XIX.) This cornice is continued beyond the pilasters of the abutments
in a plain band without modillions.
The upper line of the cornice marks externally the level of the footpath
and centre of roadway ; above this is a solid plain parapet rising perpendicularly
from its base, and terminated by a corona ; its total height being 3 feet 4
inches.
The roadway over the arch is 40 feet wide between the parapets : of this
width each of the footpaths occupies about 5 feet, and the carriage-way 30 feet;
but over the abutments the width is increased to 88 feet by their convex form,
and at the approaches the roadway between the parapets of the advanced body
of the walls is 144 feet wide, forming at each end of the bridge a piazzetta or
open ornamental approach.
The style of the architecture and the nature of the materials give to this
bridge a noble and simple grandeur, and a character quite unique ; and as a
work of art it surpasses all structures formed on similar^principles, and is far
superior to the bridge of Rialto, built by Michael Angelo, which, though only
having a span of 98.6 feet and 23 feet rise, was when erected and long after
reckoned a masterpiece of work on account of its flatness.
If I may be allowed to express an opinion, the general architectural appear-
ance of the bridge over the Dora would have been improved, if a simple project-
ing base had been given to each of the pilasters of the abutments, with its summit
forming a line a little above the water level. By this addition a better propor-
tion would have been maintained between the width and height of the
pilasters, and a more strict accordance with the cornice that surmounts them.
This method is now generally employed, with the best effect, in every great
* See PaUadio, Book IV. Chap. VII. Ed. Lond. 1738.
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OVER THE DORA RIP ARIA, NEAR TURIN. 185
work of the kind, and particularly in this country, which possesses some of the
most magnificent structures of the same nature, especially over the river Thames.
I shall now proceed to examine the particular reasons which determined
the engineer to propose and adopt such a structure, as well as to explain the
accurate nature of the processes which he employed for the construction of a
work, in which the holdness of the design is equalled, if not exceeded, by the
excellence of the execution.
In planning the proposed bridge, the engineer had to keep in view the
following points : 1st, That it was to be erected over a river of considerable
width, and during floods, to which it was subject, of great velocity ; 2d, That
it was to correspond in its proportions with the main road over the Alps, one
of the great thoroughfares into Italy ; and Sdly, That it was to adorn the
approaches to a capital city of considerable magnitude and beauty.
The nature of the river and the oblique direction of its bed, relative to the
axis of the main road at the entrance of the town, were the first difficulties to be
surmounted, and the engineer at once conceived the necessity of making a new
branch road through the suburbs, and of constructing the bridge of a single
arch. He perceived the impediments and bad effects that an oblique bridge of
three small arches would produce, having the piers also oblique to the stream,
or even one of a single arch of larger span in a very oblique direction ; he felt
convinced too that the art, although not of recent origin in Italy *, does not
afford to this day proper means of executing such a work satisfactorily on a
very large scale.
Nor could he adopt the plan of an arch perpendicular to the axis of the
stream, without deviating from the straight line of the branch road which he
had already projected from the centre of the town, which was designed to cross
the suburbs, pass over the bridge, and continue on the opposite bank ; nor with-
out also being obliged to form such angles a^ would endanger the safety of
travelling vehicles.
He could not therefore adopt any other scheme than the one described,
convinced, that where solidity, beauty, and convenience in a work of public
utility are alike required, no secondary considerations ought ever to influence
any one who undertakes the direction of such a national enterprise, in which
are involved the reputation both of the artist and his country.
* The art appears to have been known there as early as 1530, when Nicold, called ^' II
Tribolo," erected a bridge of this kind over the river Mugnone, near Porta Sangallo, at Florence,
on the main road to Bologna. See Vasari, Vol. XI. p. 308, edizione di Milano, 1811.
VOL. I. B B
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186 MR. ALBANO'S ACCOUNT OF A STONE BRIDGE
The required section of the water way having heen first estahlished, an
arch of the span ahove mentioned was resolved on, having its elevation re-
stricted to that of the level of the main road. Every part of the structure was
then projected on the soundest calculations of strength, and all the directions
to he ohserved during the execution of the work were specified, so that it
might be completed in the most accurate and satisfactory manner, and with
the strictest economy both of time and money.
Preparatory to laying the foundations of the abutments on the shore, dams
were constructed in front of their position, which being first drained by an
artificial channel, the soil within them was excavated to 6.7I feet. beneath low
water mark, and the surface reduced to a perfect horizontal level : — spiles of oak,
12 inches thick, varying from SO to 40 feet in length, and each furnished with
an iron shoe of about 16 lbs. weight, were then placed from 3 to 4 feet from
centre to centre, as shewn in Plate XVII I., and driven vertically through the
strata, after which their heads were cut in a horizontal plane. These piles were
driven by a rigging pile engine, having a monkey weighing 8 cwt. worked by
25 to 30 men, and thus 200 men were employed at the same time on each bank
of the river. The depth of the foundations of each abutment is 40 feet, with a
counterfort at the sides 20 feet by 10, — as shewn in Plate XVIII. and Fig. 1,
Plate XIX., taken at the level of the springing of the arch.
Piles were also driven in for the foundations of the circular parts of the
abutments and of the advanced body of wall forming the approaches, in which
a space of 18 feet diameter was left for the construction of an arch, — as shewn
in Plate XVIII.
Sills of oak 12 inches by 10 were then laid down upon the piles in
transverse and longitudinal directions, as shewn in Plate XVIII., and spiked
down to them : all the spaces between the transverse sills were then filled with
broken ballast immersed in moderately liquid cement of lime and ceroso*, in
the proportion of about equal parts in weight : this mass filled all the inter-
stices left between the siUs, and rose to a level with their tops.
Upon this was then laid the first course of the foimdation, consisting of
granite blocks 1 foot 9 inches in thickness, on which were continued three
similar courses with two ofisets of one foot, and over these were placed five
other horizontal courses, each 2 feet high, constituting the face of the abutments,
* Ceroso is fonned of tiles baked, pounded up in a mill, then passed through fine sieves, and
just before using well mixed with lime in the proportion above mentioned.
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OVER THE DORA RIPARIA, NEAR TURIN. 187
and the uppermost forming the resting points of the spring of the arch : — ^lastly,
seven other horizontal courses were superadded at the circular and rectangular
portions of the sides.
At this stage the masonry work was stopped, and left to settle for a whole
season, in order to take the consistency necessary for sustaining the lateral thrust
of the intended arch.
In the mean time, for the purpose of ascertaining with great accuracy, the
cut of the voussoirs, or arch-stones, and the disposition of the timber forming
the centres, and to facilitate the work in all its details, a platform of about
5,000 square feet was laid down, its surface being perfectly plane and level ;
and upon this was drawn the projected segment of the arch, together with
that of another arch for the construction of the centres, of which the versed
sine was 18.9015 feet. The arcs of these segments were drawn by means of
points determined on the platform by dividing the respective chords into small
equal parts, and finding the length of their corresponding ordinates by calculated
tables. Thus was avoided the inaccuracy liable to arise from the very great
length of the radius had they been described from a centre.
The centres of the two arches being determined, the disposition of the timber
to be adopted for the centering was drawn on the platform in full size, and
from these tracings all the timbers were prepared and shaped ; the requisite
operations for placing the different pieces forming a rib being facilitated by
circular wooden rollers of equal diameter, which, moving on the platform, sus-
tained the timbers at a certain height above it.
When the timbers had been thus adjusted exactly over the lines drawn on
the platform, each was conveyed to its destined place, and fixed to its position by
proper mortices and tenons ; and while twenty carpenters were thus employed
in constructing a rib, twelve others were putting up one already finished and
requiring no farther alteration. Thus was completed in 45 days the whole work-
manship and fixing of the centering, consisting of 10 equal ribs, each rib being
composed of 3 courses of timber, bound at the joints by straps and keys of iron.
Two timbers were then placed upright close to the abutments, and three piles
were driven into the ground in the^ middle of the river and crossed by three
horizontal ties ; the two upper ones supporting stays which strengthened the
ribs. The ribs were bound together by twenty hwizcmtal double timbers,
fixed by proper plates, straps, and bolts ; which with all other particulars will
be best understood by reference to the first Figure of Plate XIX.
B B 2
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r
188 MR. ALBANO'S ACCOUNT OF A STONE BRIDGE
Upon the platform was drawn also, by means of the tables before mentioned^
the segment forming the exterior arch, and those horizontal courses of the
abutments with which the voussoirs are connected ; and in order to obtain the
greatest precision in the cut of the wedges composing the two faces of the
arch, which wedges harmonize angularly with the horizontal courses, and at the
same time to verify their position on being placed, two tables were calculated,
in one of which was noted, — ^first, the exact dimension of the principal arch ; —
secondly, the abscisses measured on its chord ; — thirdly, the corresponding
ordinates ; — and fourthly, the tangents at the extrados of the key-stone. The
other table contained the same particulars calculated expressly for the face of
the exterior or upper arch.
On the tracing of the arch drawn on the platform were constructed the wood
models for cutting the stones, but as the wedges at the imposts and the inter-
sections of the ugnature with the convex part of the abutments were to form
part of the horizontal courses of the abutments, the models for those could not so
well be determined in this manner j these wedges were therefore formed upon
a special model made for the purpose, upon a scale of 1 to 33^. In cutting the
voussoirs a small temporary prism was left projecting on the lower face of each,
as seen in Fig. 1, Plate XIX., so that when placed in their position, the base
of this prism was the only part of the stone that came in contact with the
centering on which it rested.
In laying the body of the arch, the engineer deviated from the usual
practice of setting up a service bridge or gangway upon the ribs composing
the centering, but had small bridges constructed on each side and independent
of it, though connected with each other. These bridges were of a width
only sufficient to admit of the stones being moved along them, and the
flooring of each being formed in two inclined planes, tangents to the curve and
meeting at the centre, the stones were dragged on rollers by means of capstans
acting at the highest point of the service bridge, till each stone attained the
level at which it was to be laid, and then was suspended by the following
mechanism, and placed in its final position : —
On the side next the centering of each of the service bridges, vertical tim-
bers were erected at convenient distances, and supported by inclined props or
stays, all the props on one service bridge being connected with the correspond-
ing opposite ones on the other by strong horizontal beams that crossed the
width of the bridge. Upon these last were laid longitudinal timbers, which
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OVER THE DORA RIPARIA, NEAR TURIN. 189
served to sustain a moveable beam, that could be adjusted and fixed in a posi-
tion to be over the place at which each wedge had to be ultimately laid.
Pulley blocks were then attached to this beam, so that they could run
along it, and by means of ropes and a corresponding apparatus of punks,
&c., the wedges were lifted up by a capstan situated behind each abut-
ment With such a mechanical power acting from the extremity of the
bridge, two masons only on the centres, assisted by a few workmen and
labourers acting at the capstans, were able to place, in one day's work,
about nine wedges, weighing upon an average 5 tons each, and the whole
651 wedges composing the arch, and weighing together 3250 tons, were
placed in the space of seventy-five days. It should be observed, that the
course of the key-stone is formed of 7 wedges, as seen in Fig. 2, Plate XIX., the
two outer ones being not less than 8 feet in thickness. Near one- third of the
whole number of wedges weighed about 8 tons each, and those composing
the first course at the springs, from 15 to 18 tons ; and the whole of these
enormous blocks were placed without the smallest accident to the workmen
employed, or injury to the blocks themselves.
Theory shows, and it has been proved by trial on a small experimental
arch, as well as by observation on the subsidence of arches of limited dimen-
sions built by Perronet and other scientific men, that in this kind of structure
the settling down takes place by the descent of the parts about the centre of
the arch, and the pressing of the joints of the wedges at the intrados near the
springs and at the intrados near the key-stone, and consequently if the general
pressure that must ensue on removing the centres, and in the subsequent set-
tlement, is not properly guarded against, it will chip ofl^ the edges of the vous-
soirs, and might very probably be followed by accidents of a far more serious and
fetal nature. The engineer Boistard, to avoid those inconveniences in building the
bridge of Nemours*, which is only 72.30 feet span, and 7*20 feet rise, had the
wedges or arch-stones cut somewhat smaller than they would have been, had
the intended segment been divided by the determined number of wedges. He
supposed that in removing the centres the voussoirs would not come quite close
to each other, and directed them to be so placed that the intervals between the
joints should vary in the direction of the intrados according to the terms of a de-
creasing progression from the spring to the key, and consequently in an inverse
progression in the direction of the extrados.
* Buzani Antologia di Firenze.
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190 MR. ALBANO'S ACCOUNT OF A STONE BRIDGE
But the engineer Mosca, in planning the bridge over the Dora, supposed,
and with truth, that on removing the centering, the voussoirs should come com-
pletely in contact, and consequently he directed them to be cut exactly
equal to an arch of the span of 147*63836 feet, and a versed sine of
18.04468 feet, and in the framing of it, as we have already mentioned, an arch
was adopted for the centering, of the same span, but with a versed sine
of 18.9015 feet, and decreasing proportionally to the springs where it intersects
with the real segment. He directed also that the joints, instead of being on
the projection of the radius to the centre of the arch, as is too generally the
case, should be so placed as to have the faces of contact of those near the springs
diverging between themselves at the intrados in a decreasing progression pro-
ceeding from the impost, and of those near the centre diverging at the extrados
in a similar progression proceeding from the key-stone. It is proper to state,
that as the diflFerence between the real arch and that adopted for the centres,
was not of sufficient magnitude to enable the workmen, in so great a number of
wedges, to establish the spaces between the joints according to the calculated
progressions, in terms that they could physically appreciate during the erection,
the engineer adopted the practical means of dividing the arch into three parts, and
directed that in the lower, the joints should diverge near the intrados, that the
voussoirs should be placed parallel in the second, and that in the last or upper
they should diverge towards the extrados.
During the operations on the platform, the cutting of the arch-stones, fram-
ing the service bridges and centres, with the superstructure of timbers for
lifting and setting the voussoirs, the masonry of the abutments acquired the
necessary consistency, and it was then judged proper to proceed with the con-
struction of the arch.
In order to be able to rectify the position of the wedges by means of the
calculated tables, an horizontal beam was placed below the arch in a steady
position, independent of the centres, upon which were marked the abscisses ;
and the ordinates of the arch were designated upon two vertical timbers, es-
tablished like the horizontal one, in an independent and steady position near
the abutments.
The placing of the arch-stones was then begun, and carried on in the
manner before mentioned, and with all necessary precautions ; and besides
those generally employed, the following peculiar process was put into prac-
tice : —
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OVER THE DORA RIP ARIA, NEAR TURIN. 191
The coiiTses at the spring of the arch were first set ; these were connected
by crochets to each other, and to those of the face of the circular sides of the
abutments which rise above the spring of the principal arch of the faces, viz.
up to the twelfth horizontal course ; they were then cut and disposed in such
a manner as to form the required angles at the vgnature^ and at the meeting
of the convex surface of the abutments with the face of the arch. After each
course had been placed with the greatest nicety, their exact positions were
verified by means of the abscisses, and the corresponding ordinates marked
out on the horizontal and perpendicular timbers, and the inclination of each
was properly ascertained. The next proceeding was to place the remaining
courses of wedges ; and in order to obtain with the greatest exactness the
divergence of the joints between each voussoir, and to hold them in their
required positions till the lowering of the centres, small plates of lead of a
thickness determined by the terms of the fixed progressions were placed be-
tween those towards the impost at the intrados, and those towards the key^
stone at the extrados, and the exact position of each was verified by means of
the practical method established for finding the ordinates. With respect to
those voussoirs forming the centre part of the arch, they being somewhat
smaller than those of the faces, and of various lengths, small iron wedges were
introduced between the joints to hold them in their desired diverging positions
instead of the leaden ones. The work of setting the arch-stones being com-
pleted with the prescribed accuracy, and the final position of each voussoir
being progressively rectified according to the detailed directions, the intervals
left between the wedges were filled with a moderately liquid cement of lime
and clean sand, mixed in equal parts, which was retained by a slight stuffing
of tow, introduced at the lowest part of the aperture of each joint ; the iron
wedges were then taken away, and in order to ascertain the depression which
would take place in the arch on removing the centres, another ingenious yet
very simple and precise method was adopted.
A horizontal line was drawn over the total length of each face of the arch,
forming a tangent at the intrados of the key-stone, and on each side of the
key-stone an oblique line was drawn, starting from a common point at the
centre, and tangential to the faces of the exterior arch forming the ugnature.
By means of those three lines drawn on each face of the arch, the least
motion of the wedges, or voussoirs, would have been observed and determined,
upon referring them to the established points of level near the impost of the arch.
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192 MB. ALBANO'S ACCOUNT OF A STONE BRIDGE
Besides all these precautions, the engineer, before removing the centres,
directed that the cement should be scraped off all the joints of the arch-stones
at the extrados as well as at the intrados to the depth of three centimetres, to
prevent, in the settling of the arch, any chipping off the angles of the faces of
the voussoirs : these spaces were again filled at the conclusion of the work.
AU these operations being completed, and twenty days having elapsed from
that on which the arch had been keyed, the lowering of the centres was begun.
On removing the check pieces, the 240 wedges supporting the centres com-
menced with an almost simultaneous movement gliding down uniformly and
insensibly, by the eflFects of the gravity of the arch-stones and centres ; and
this motion was checked and repeated at intervals, until the arch was left in
equilibrium ; and thus the arch-stones, elevated 18.9015 feet at the key,
descended with the greatest regularity to 18.40 feet in the space of five days,
that being the time employed in removing the centres, and a beautiful curve
was preserved, leaving at this period the diflerence of 4f inches between the
existing arch and the projected one. The engineer, having proved the perfect
accuracy of the work and the solidity of the arch, and wishing, moreover, to
give it the greatest degree of settlement of which it was capable, and of ob-
taining a mass absolutely stable, that would enable him to work its spandril
walls, cornice, parapet, &c., in a perfect level line, directed the arch-stone to be
loaded with a mass, formed by a cube of ballast of 1854 metres and weighing
about 3000 tons, which was disposed symmetrically over it, and was much be-
yond what the arch when completed, with all the additional stone-work and
its greatest occasional loads, would ever have to sustain. This weight was
left upon the arch for the space of four months, and the sinking under it
amounted only to If inch (4 centimetres), leaving the diflerence in rise above
the projected segment 2f inches (about 7 centimetres).
After this trial, continued through such a space of time, the arch still
kept its perfect curve, and not the least alteration was observable in any part
of the structure. The engineer, now considering his arch solidly settled, and
in a state for continuing the works for its completion, directed the placing of
the horizontal courses to be proceeded with, viz. : — those of the face or span-
dril, which join the extrados of the voussoirs of the arch, and those to complete
the abutments, which were terminated by an inclined plane of 1 in 35^ starting
from the extrados of the key-stone towards them, — as shewn in Fig. 1, Plate
XIX.
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OVER THE DOEA EIPABIA, NEAB TURIN. 193
As soon as these operations were terminated it was verified that the upper
side of the last course of the faces of the bridge was perfectly level with the ex-
trados of the key-stone, throughout the whole length of the bridge and ap-
proaches.
The blocks of the cornice were then placed in a horizontal position, and
the whole surface of the arch-stones, abutments, and counterforts were covered
with a stratum of bituminous cement of the thickness of 0,15 metres, well
beaten till it became very hard ; then upon this another stratum of 7 centi-
metres was laid, mixed with fine gravel, and beaten smooth without the least
crack ; by this coating of cement the filtration of rain-water was completely
prevented. This operation finished, the space up to the level of the road was
filled in regular and even strata ; and when the whole was well settled and re-
duced to the prescribed form, blocks for the footpath were laid down with a very
slight inclination towards the roadway, and defended by truncated conical
stones, as seen in the superstructure of the bridge in Plate XVIIL, and the
paving was put down, consisting of a stratum of sand and gravel, of the mean
thickness of 15 centimetres, and covered with a stratum of sand of 0.05 centi-
metres J then were put up the blocks forming the parapet and its crown — as
shewn in the cross section of the cornice, &c., in Fig. 4, Plate XIX.
It is to be observed that no blocks less than from 8 to 9 feet in length
were employed for the cornice and parapet, and some of those used in the
latter at the abutments were as large as from 36 to 40 feet in length.
When every thing was thus completed, the most minute defects were cor-
rected, and all parts of the structure were minutely dressed ; the cement
of all the joints of each face, and every part of the bridge exposed to view, was
scraped ofi^ to the depth of 3 centimetres, and washed with lime ; afterwards,
all those parts which had been scraped were filled with a cement expressly pre-
pared, composed of one third part of fine powder of marble, one third of fine
lewder of the same granite used in the bridge, and one third of lime, with a
very small quantity of iron filings, well mixed and rubbed together, till it had
acquired a sufficient consistency. As soon as this cement was put into the
joints, the masons were directed to apply a straight edge to them, with a
groove cut in it just the width of the joints, which were of two millimetres
in breadth, and through this groove to rub over the cement with an iron point
till it became as hard as the stone itself.
In concluding the description of this work, I should mention particularly,
VOL. I. CO
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K. ALBANO'S ACCOUNT OF A STONE BRIDGE OVER THE DORA RIPARIA.
the blocks of the arch-stones, the face of the wall and the approaches,
ing the cornice, bands, footpath, parapet and crown, are of the best
^anite, of the quarry called Del Malanaggio, near Pinerolo ; and the
posed to view being finely dressed, every other face of contact of each
ock employed was dressed to equal fineness over three fourths of its
A small quantity of granite from the quarry of Cumiana, was
d, but only as backing, in the foundations and abutments*. The first
granite is the best, and is susceptible not only of being dressed very
)ut also of being used in very small and delicate work, and takes
a very high polish ; the second kind is harder but more brittle, and
many particles of iron, on account of which its surface, when ex-
) the atmosphere, becomes spotted, which gives it a very disagreeable
Qce, as may be observed in the bridge near Turin over the Po.
illy, I have to state that this bridge was constructed in the space of four
imder the immediate and able direction of the principal engineer, Cheva-
Moscat, well seconded by his assistants, and with such perfection and
hat to this day not the least settling has taken place in any part of the
its or arch, nor the smallest crack, or chipping of the angles of the
s or of any other block ; and as the whole face of this work has been
essed, it appears now to the most experienced and practised eye a single
iss of granite.
jed it is considered a noble structure and a perfect piece of workman-
all professional men who have seen it, whether natives or foreigners,
lay be concluded from the foregoing observations, that the results ob-
in the construction of this bridge are entirely conformable to those
iced in arches of limited dimensions, and thence that it may be freely
, that the theory of the equilibrium of flat arches remains no longer
I, and that a sure process for their construction has been satisfactorily
Qed.
lie specimens of these granites are deposited in the Institution of Civil Engineers, with their
»ed to the same degrees of fineness as the stones employed in the work,
was the actual time employed in huilding this bridge ; for the work was abandoned by the
about three years from its commencement, and after the lapse of some time, was taken up
the engineer and assistants ; and brought to a very satisfactory termination, conducted with
ist possible economy; the bridge, comprising the approaches, having cost the Sardinian
It the sum of £56,000.
aeer and Architect to the King of Sardinia.
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195
1
5 0^
XXII. — Memoir on the use of Cast Iron in Pilings particularly at Brunswick
Wharfs BlackwalL By Michael A. Bortuwick^ A.Inst. C.E.
A SHORT sketch of the introduction and use of cast iron in piling, may not
be considered an inappropriate accompaniment to an account of one of the most
recent works in which it has been adopted.
Public attention was first drawn to such an application of iron by Mr.
Ewart of Manchester, now of His Majesty's Dock-yard at Woolwich ; but
though this merit is certainly due to that ingenious gentleman, he had been,
as it afterwards proved, anticipated in the idea by the late Mr.
Mr. Mathews's plan. ^ .
Mathews of Bridlington, who, previously to the date of Mr. Ewart*s
patent, had used cast iron sheet piles in the foundations of the head of the north
pier of that harbour. These piles were
of different forms ; in the margin is given
a cross section of one of, I believe, the
most common, in which it will be seen the adjoining piles dovetail to each other,
while in others, I have been informed, they merely overlap. Their length was
about 8 or 9 feet, their width from 21 inches to 2 feet, and their thickness
half an inch.
In ignorance of Mr. Mathews's proceedings, Mr. Ewart, in the
Mr. Ewarf. p . ^jeginuiug of 1822, took out a patent for a new method of making
cofier-dams, which he proposed to effect by employing plates of cast iron, held
together by cramps fitted to dovetailed edges on the piles. A section of these
piles, taken from some that have been used, is shewn in the accompanying
sketch. A detail of the mode in which it was proposed to combine them so as
to form a coffer-dam might be out of
place, in a paper that has reference more
to the use of iron piling for permanent
purposes ; — the plan, as described in the
specification of the patent, is to be found in the Repertory of Arts, and an ab-
stract of it in the London Journal of Arts and Sciences for the year 1822.
c c 2
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196 MB, M. A. BOETH wick's
The length of the piles is therein stated as intended to be from 10 to 15 feet,
which is, I understand, about what they have generally been made, and for cases
requiring a greater depth, a mode is described of lengthening the piles, by
placing one above another, and securing the horizontal joints by means of
dovetailed cramps.
Though on being apprised of what had been done at Burlington, Mr. Ewart
did not defend his patent, his piles have been pretty extensively adopted, parti-
cularly by Mr. Mylne of New River Head, London, and Mr. Hartley of LiverpooL
Besides other operations in the important public work under his charge, the
former gentleman used the piles, soon after their invention, with complete success
in a coffer-dam of considerable size, constructed in the River Thames for the
purpose of putting in a suction pipe opposite the New River Company's establish-
ment at Broken Wharf. They have also been used with advantage by Mr.
Hartley, in founding the pier heads of the basin of George's Dock, and various
parts of the walls of some of the other docks at Liverpool, as ako in putting
in the foundations of the south river-wall.
Looking at the dovetailed form of these piles, one would, I think, have been
inclined to anticipate difficulty in driving them, but this does not seem to have
been met with to any extent in practice, at least in coffer-dams, the original
object of the invention. On this point 1 have pleasure in being able to quote
some observations of Mr. John B. Hartley, which contain the results of the
Liverpool experience : — " Considerable care," he writes, " is required in keeping
the piles in a vertical position, as they are apt to shrink every blow and drive
slanting. They require to be driven between two heavy balks of timber to
keep them in a straight line, as they expose very little section to the blow of
the ram, and are so sharp that they are easily driven out of a right line. There
is another very necessary precaution to be taken, which is the keeping of the
fall in the same line as the pile; — otherwise the ram descending on the pile and
not striking it fairly, all parts equally, the chances are that, if in a pretty stiff
im, the head breaks off in shivers, and the pile must be drawn, which is
times no easy matter." He concludes by saying, ** these piles are on the
3 the most useful tools you can use for their purpose (coffer-damming). I
ire they have had as extensive a trial at the Liverpool Docks as anywhere
and certainly with success. They have generally been driven with the
ig or hand engine and rams of 3 or 4 cwt., a front and back pile being
n at the same time by one ram."
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MEMOIB ON IRON PILING. 197
In the work at Broken Wharf, the practice was to insert the piles and
cramps all round the dam first, and drive them a moderate distance into
the gromid, — then to pass the engine repeatedly romid and send them down
gradually, instead of driving them home at once ; and Mr. Mylne has men-
tioned to me that while this was in progress, the piles heing at the time hut
slightly driven, he was somewhat alarmed one morning at finding that the
run of the water had elevated one end of the dam considerahly ahove the
other. The dovetails however held good, and proper precautions heing taken,
the return of the tide put all right again without at all crippling the work, the
movement having been regular all over the dam. I ought to add that these
dams are still used in the works on the New River, four sets being generally
kept in hand, and that the ringing engine is always employed, and the above
stated method of driving followed.
I have perhaps dwelt longer on Mr. Ewarf s project than I should otherwise
have done, from a feeling that from his labours has sprung much that has
followed in the way of iron piling; and besides, it may be observed, the
remarks as to driving are not entirely limited in their application to this
particular description of pile. The next work that occurs was executed
MnEwmrftpitti ^7 ^^* Walkcr in 1824; this was the rebuilding of the return
modiiied. ^^j ^£ ^j^^ quay.wall of Downes Wharf, Saint Katherine's,
which had been undermined by the wash from the Hermitage entrance of the
London Docks. With a view to a more efiectual resistance of a like action in
future, iron instead of wood sheet piling was introduced in the foundation of
the wall in question ; and though, if one may judge from the specification of
the patent, no application of his plan of so permanent a nature seems to have
been contemplated by Mr. Ewart, the work
was begun according to it, but it was after-
wards modified at the request of the con-
tractor, so as to give the section of pile
shown in the margin, the flanch being in -• hmo^
front or outside. Although, as has been al-
ready seen, the piles in their original form
may be easily enough driven in some cases,
it was found impossible to get them down in a regular line to the depth required
in the present instance, through the hard material that had to be pene-
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198
MB. M. A. BORTHWICK S
trated, and by which in fact they were surrounded and pressed for nearly
their whole length of 14 feet.
Mr. Cubitfi plan.
A work on a much larger scale than any yet mentioned
now presents itself, — the wharfing at the sea entrance of the Nor-
wich and Lowestoft navigation. In this
Mr. Cubitt has adopted sheet piling exclu-
sively without the intervention of main or
guide piles; the form and section will be
seen by the accompanying sketches, which
it is almost unnecessary to observe are not
drawn to the same scale, the transverse sec-
tion being considerably enlarged beyond the ^"
other two. The piles are all SO feet long ;
their weight is about a ton and a half each.
The back flanch, which is shewn at the
deepest on the cross section, tapers gra-
dually to about 6 inches at top, where the
angles are blocked in to form a head for driv-
ing, and is diminished at the lower end by
steps or setS'Offoi parallel width with square
ends, instead of a straight or curving line, as
the latter shape was found to have a tendency
to press the pile forward, whereas by the plan
adopted, it drove as fairly as if the flanch had
been continued its full width to the foot of the
pile. The driving was all eflected by means
of crab engines with monkeys about as heavy
as the piles, no more fall being allowed than
was necessary to send them down, and the
whole is secured by land-ties, two in height,
at intervals of six feet. The entire length of wharfing thus constructed is about
2,000 feet.
From the form of the pile according to this plan, giving so thin an abutting
surface, and the joints not being covered in any way, close and accurate driving
seems essential to its efiicacy, and the nature of the ground (sand mixed with
LW
<i o ±> ip >;>
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MEMOIB ON UtON PILING.
199
shingle) would have made this a somewhat troublesome operation at Lowestoft,
but for the plan that was taken to ensure precision. This consisted in riveting
close to the lower end of the pile about to be driven, a pair of strong wrought
iron cheeks projecting beyond the edge about two or three inches, which
clasping the pile already driven, served as a guide or groove to keep the piles
flush, however thin the edge *, and the tendency to turn out or in at the heel
was counteracted after a few trials by giving a greater or less bevel to the
front or back face. With these appliances the piling was pretty closely driven,
and the work, which was completed in 1832, has been found fully to answer
the object of supporting the sides of the cut from Lake Lothing to the sea
against the efiects of the very ingenious and powerful sluicing apparatus pro-
vided in the lock at that place.
Mr. Sibley's plan.
About a year later than the above, Mr. Sibley constructed an
iron wharfing on the Lea Cut at Limehouse on an opposite prin-
ciple, sheet piling being in this case altogether discarded,
and the work consisting of flat plates let down in grooves
on the sides of guide piles of an elliptical form according
to the section opposite, driven at distances of 10 feet.
These piles are 20 feet long, weigh about 1^ ton each,
and are 9 feet apart; they are hollow throughout, to
enable a passage for them to be bored in the soil by means of an auger passed
through them, and so ease the driving, and are filled with concrete ; each
pile is land-tied, and the plates extend to within 6 feet of the point. A similar
wharfing, but on a larger scale, has since been made on each side of the
Thames, adjoining New London Bridge ; that on the City side rather an ex-
tensive work, the piles in it being 43 feet long, (cast in two unequal lengths
with a spigot andfaudt joint,) of a cylindrical form, 12 inches diameter, and
of metal 1^ inch thick, and each pile being secured by two tiers of ties of
2 inch square iron carried 70 or 80 feet back, to resist the great depth of
filling up or backing.
The plan just described seems well enough adapted for situations where any
great increase of depth is not likely to take place. The absolute depth is not so
important, though, where this is considerable, it may be questionable whether a
* This plan has, I believe, been followed by Mr. Cubitt in driving timber piling also, in cases
requiring nicety of work.
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200 MB. M. A. BOETHWICK'S
heavy wharf would not be the better for the protection of a continuous row of
piling at foot ; — the strong land-tying necessary in the last mentioned work
seems to point to this.
I now come to the quay wall constructed in 1833-4 by Messrs.
"'^ Walker and Burges on the River Thames, in front of the East
India Docks at Blackwall, and since named Brunswick Wharf. The object of
this work was to afford accommodation for the largest class of steam- vessels at all
times of tide, for which the old quay, even had it not been in a state of decay, was
not adapted from the shallowness of the water in front of it. To effect this, the
first idea was to run out two or three jetties from the wharf, but this was soon
abandoned, and a new river wall resolved on ; and advantage was taken of the
occasion to improve the line of frontage by an extension into the river, under the
sanction of the Navigation Committee of the Port of London, varying from a point
at the east end to about ^ feet at the other extremity. The use of iron in the
work was, I have understood, suggested by Mr. Cotton, deputy chairman at the
time, and for many years an active member of the most respectable and liberal
body then in the direction of the East India Dock Company, and the adoption of
the proposal was facilitated by the circumstance which probably led in the first
instance to its being made, namely, the low price of the material at the period,
the contract being little more than £7 per ton delivered in the Thames.
In the accompanying drawing, Plate No. XX., an attempt is made to show
the mode of construction that was followed, so as to avoid the necessity for much
written detail. The first operation was to dig a trench two yards deep in the
intended line, and this was immediately followed by the driving of the timber
guide-piles. The deepening in front, which, to give the required depth (rf 10 feet
at low water, was as much as 12 feet, was not done until near the conclusion of
the work ; — to have effected it in the first instance would, without any counter-
vailing advantage, except some saving in the driving, have been attended with
the double expense of removing the ground forming the original bottom be*
tween the old and new lines of wharfing, and afterwards refilling the void so
left by a material that would require time to make it of equal solidity;
and even if this had been otherwise, such an attempt would have endangered
the old wall, or rather would have been fatal to it. The permanent piling
was next begun, the main piles being driven first at intervals of 7 feet,
and the intermediate spaces or hays then filled in, working always from
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MEMOIR ON IRON PILING. 201
right to left, towards which the dr(ifis of the sheet piles were pointed. The
ground is a coarse gravel, with a stratum of the hard Blackwall rock occurring
in places, and some trouble was occasionally experienced from its tendency to
turn the piles from the proper direction, but due attention being paid to the form
of the points, the driving was on the whole eflFected pretty regularly, but few of
the bays requiring closing piles specially made for them, so that the work may be
said to be nearly iron and iron from end to end ; — at the same time, the ver-
tical joints of the piling being all covered, as will be noticed presently, any slight
imperfection in this respect is no serious detriment to the work as a whole.
The main piles are in two pieces, the lower end of the upper one being formed
so as to fit into a socket on the top of the under length, and the joining made
good by means of a strong screw-bolt ^ — the only object of this was to insure a
supply of truer castings, and lessen the difficulty of transporting such unwieldy
masses from Northumberland and StaflFordshire to London*. Each sheet pile
is secured at the top by two bolts to the uppermost wale of the woodwork
behind, and the edge of the end ones of each bay, it will be observed, pass behind
the adjoining main pile, while the other joints are overlapped by the bosses with
which all the sheet piles except the closers are furnished on one side. Besides
adding to the perfection and security of the work by breaking the joints, so that
the water (if it penetrate, as with even the best pile-driving it wiU) cannot
draw the backing from its place, these projections appear to me to relieve the
appearance of the otherwise too uniform face ; and a like eflFect is produced
by the horizontal fillets on the lower edges of the plates above, which also
mask the joints. These plates, filling up the spaces over the sheet piling, are
bolted to the main piles and to each other in the manner shown, and the joints
stopped with iron cement. Where the mooring rings come, the plates are cast
concave, with a hole perforated in the middle to allow a bolt to pass through,
and this bolt is secured, as well as the land-ties from the main piles, to the old
wharf, which was not otherwise disturbed, or to needle piles driven adjoining it.
The backing consists of a concrete of lime and gravel, in the proportion of about
one to ten, extending down to the solid bottom. The coping with the water
channel in its rear is of Devonshire granite ; the water is conveyed from the
channel at intervals by pipes, extending from gratings in the bottom in a slanting
* The Birtley Iron Company, Newcastle-on-Tyne, were the contractors for the ironwork, hut a
portion was supplied hy the Horsley Iron Company. Mr. Mcintosh, of Bloomsbury Square, had
the contract for driving the piles and fixing the work.
VOL. I. D D
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202 MR. M. A. borthwick's
line to the lowermost plate, and discharging themselves immediately above the
sheet piling.
The main piles were originally proposed to be hollow in section, according to
the sketch opposite ; but this was given up on further con- ^ «
sideration of the uncertainty of procuring sound castings of rj^^^^^^
the intended form, and of the greater liability to break vi B
afterwards from a blow sidewise. The solid form shown on ^^^^^^^j
the plate was therefore adopted, according to which the lower ^ I
lengths weighed about 28 cwt. ; and that this was not too ^ ^^*"' "^^
much was shewn by the circumstance of several of the piles, particularly the
early ones, breaking in the testing or driving, and showing in the fracture the
danger of even a slight defect. The greater care subsequently taken at the
foundry, and probably also greater experience in driving, made accidents of
this kind of rarer occurrence in the later stages of the work ; and it may be
mentioned as no bad proof of the care of all parties, that of upwards of six
hundred piles, including both descriptions, only sixteen broke in driving, seven
being of one sort, and nine of the other : — the failure was in five cases attri-
buted to strains in driving, and to imperfections of casting in the other eleven.
The sheet piles, which bear a considerable resemblance in their general outline
to those used at Downes Wharf ten years before, were proposed to be an
inch thick, but it was found necessary to increase this dimension, and some
of them were as much as 1^ inch ; the average, however, was not above
1^ inch, and the weight of each pile 17 cwt. The length of the wharf is about
720 feet, and the whole weight of iron used upwards of 900 tons.
The crab engine was employed invariably, the heads of the piles being
covered with a slip of f inch elm, to distribute the force of the blow equally over
the iron, and prevent jarring. The monkeys used weighed from 13 to 15 cwt.
each, and it was found necessary to limit the fall to a height of 3 feet 6 inches,
and sometimes less, when the resistance proved more than usually great and
the pile showed a tendency to turn from its straightforward • course. The
driving throughout was very hard, more especially at the west end, where
the sheet piles in four bays could not be forced to the full depth, the space
above being in two of them made up with two plates in height, and in the other
two admitting only one, instead of three as in the rest of the work. Driving was
the only means resorted to, or indeed practicable in the gravelly soil that pre-
vailed. Had the bottom been clay or other similar substance, the plan of boring
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MEMOIR ON IRON PILING. SOS
to receive the points, that has been followed elsewhere, might probably have
been partially adopted in the main piles with advantage ; but I should say,
certainly not to the extent of depending niainly upon it for getting the piles
home to their places.
I cannot quit the subject of the Brunswick wharf without stating that his
avocations alone have prevented Mr. George Bidder's association with me in
the account of a work, the execution of which he had, under Messrs. Walker
and Burges, the charge of superintending. Though rejoicing at the cause, I
cannot help regretting the circumstance in the present instance, as such co-
operation on the part of my friend would, I feel, have given this paper an
interest and a value it has now but little claim to. I take this opportunity
also of acknowledging my obligation to several of the gentlemen above named
in connexion with the previous use of iron piling, whose kindness has enabled
me to make the preliminary review much fuller than I had at one time any
expectation of having the power to do.
Eflbcuofwateron ^* rcmaius for me only, in conclusion, to advert to a considera-
tion that ought not to be lost sight of in deciding upon the eligi-
bility of cast iron wharfing, — I mean the action of water upon it. I do not
recollect any observations made so as to enable a practical inference to be
drawn from them ; but the importance of the subject seems to claim attention,
and possibly even this notice may be the means of inducing it from those who
have the opportunity. The investigation belongs perhaps rather to chemistry
than engineering, but notwithstanding the practical turn some of the most dis-
tinguished cultivators of that science have given their researches, little I be-
lieve has yet been done to explain the present question. How iron is affected
by water in its various states, and in what manner the; action on wrought
differs from that on cast iron, are interesting points, still, so far as my informa-
tion goes, to be determined ; and they are not likely to be so in a satisfactory
manner, until some one competent to the task calls a series of well conducted
experiments in aid, as every day shows more clearly the imcertainty of ana-
logical reasoning, however apparently strict, on such subjects. But whatever
the modus operandi between cause and effect, that decomposition of the metal,
more or less rapid, gradually goes on from the action of water, seems to admit
of no doubt. Professor Faraday, in a letter to Captain Brown, says, " Cast
D D 2
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204 MR. M. A. BORTHWICK*S
iron is certainly liable to great injury from constant immersion in salt water,
and I think you would find few, if any exceptions, provided the water and the
iron are in contact/** And the saline principle^ to use a somewhat antiquated
form of expression, though a great accelerator of the process, does not appear
to be altogether an essential to itt ; at least, I know a caee that happened in
a part of the River Thames where the water cannot be said to be more than
brackish at any time, and indeed is generally quite fresh, in which cast iron,
after being immersed for little more than twenty years, was, on being with*
drawn from the water, found so soft as to yield to the pen-knife ; and the
original surface of the iron referred to, — it was the socket-plate to the heel-
post of a lock-gate, — ^had not been submitted to the tool, in which case it is
well known the water would have operated with much greater effect.
But though I have thought it well to glance at the above case occurring in
water, always except on rare occasions fresh, the sea is no doubt in practice
the invader whose inroads are most alarming. Instances might easily be
cited in proof of the ravages committed by that active enemy, though not per-
haps noted so circumstantially as is desirable, but I am unwilling to lengthen
this communication further, and shall therefore confine myself to a passing
allusion to the example on a large scale, and after long trial, furnished by the
state of the guns taken frcnn the wreck of the Royal George, as described at a
late meeting of the Institution t; and to a similar instance mentioned by
Berzelius, in a passage which I quote at length, not so much however in con-
firmation of so well established a fact as the eventual decomposition of cast
iron by the action of water, as for the properties mentioned of the substance
into which the metal is resolved. The extract is as follows :
" Quand la fonte reste long-temps sous Peau, elle est decomposee ; Tacide
carbonique contenu dans ?eau dissout le fer et I'entraine ; il reste ime masse
grise qui ressemble a la plombagine. Lorsqu*on retira de ?eau, il y a quelques
annees, les canons d'un vaisseau qui avait coule a fond cinquante ans auparavant,
aux environs de Carlscrona, on les trouva au tiers converti en une pareille masse
poreuse; a peine etaient-ils a Tair depuis un quart d'heure, qu*ils commenc^rent
* De$cr%piim qfa Bronze or Cast-iron Columnal Li^htkome, 4^., by Capt. Brown^ B.N.
t The difference between sea and other water, in operating with the galvanic battery, is much
less considerable than that between the latter and distilled, but it is between «aA and fresh that the
practical question lies in the present case.
X Min. qfCanvers. Vol. V. No. 12.
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MEMOIR ON IRON PILING. 205
k s^echauflfer tellement, que Peau qui y restait encore s'echappa sous forme de
vapeur, et qu*il fut impossible d'y toucher. Depuis, Macculloch a observe*
que le corps analogue a la plombagine qui se forme ainsi presente toujours ce
phenom^ne, et que ce corps s'echauffe presque jusqu'au rouge, en absorbant
de Poxygene. Ou ne sait pas precisement ce qui se passe dans ce cas/* —
Traits de Chimie^ Tom. III. p. 273.
* The observation referred to by Berzelius in the aboye, occurs in MaccuUoch's Western
Isles of Scotiandj (I think in the account of the island of MuU,) where an explanation of the
phenomenon was first attempted, though, if on such a subject I may '^ hint a doubt", not to my
mind quite a satisfactory one. A more perfect solution will probably be furnished by whoeyer,
availing himself of the powerful means of chemical analysis now possessed, may undertake such
an investigation of the whole question of the action of water on iron as I have ventured to allude to
in the text.
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207
XXIII. An Account of the new or Grosvenor Bridge over the River Dee
at Chester.
[The drawings fifom which the engravings of this bridge (Plates Nos. XXI.
and XXII.) have been made were furnished by Mr. John B. Hartley, son
of the engineer under whose direction the edifice was built, and the follow-
ing account has been derived firom a letter firom him to the President,
accompanying the plans, and other original communications in the posses-
sion of the Institution, and partly from the minutes of conversation at
several meetings when Mr. Trubshaw, the contractor for the work, was
present*, while such other trustworthy sources of information as were
accessible have also been referred to. The statements, so far as they go,
rest therefore on good authority, but the Council cannot help regretting
that they are unable on this occasion to present a connected account of
the work worthy of its magnitude, directly from the pen of some one of the
gentlemen engaged in its construction.
Though the site of the new bridge is quite apart from that of the old
one, and the latter exists as before with the exception of being no longer
the leading thoroughfeure, a short notice of the ancient structure, as sup-
plied by antiquarian writers, has not been considered altogether out of
place.]
The old bridge over the Dee at Chester extends from the city to a suburb
on the opposite side of the river named Handbridge. The first notice of a
bridge in this place occurs in the thirteenth century, during which it is recorded
to have fallen down or been carried away twice. Those structures were most
probably of timber, but on the second accident alluded to, a stone erection seems
to have been substituted at the cost of the citizens : this was in 1280, and it
does not appear that the bridge has been entirely rebuilt since, though it is men-
tioned that part next Handbridge was " made new** in the year 1500. The
two arches on this side are plainly of later build than the rest ; one of them is
* Orig. Commun. Vol. IV. No. 9, and Vol. V. No. 16; Min. of Convers. Vol. V. Nos. 8, 9,
and 13.
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208 THE NEW BRIDGE
in form a segment of a circle, the other is very slightly pointed, while the
remaining arches are pointed Gothic. The whole has been repaired and
widened within the last few years.
As usual in former days, Chester Bridge was provided with its gates,
which remained until towards the end of last century. Each extremity of the
bridge was guarded in this manner, and oyer the gate next the city stood a
tower, named " Tyrer*s Tower,'* for raising water from the wheels imder some
of the arches for the supply of the town : the tower no longer exists, and there
is now only one gate, a modem edifice, on the English side of the river, but
the waterworks and the weir still remain.
The bridge, thus irregular alike in workmanship, form and dimension, con-
sists of seven arches supported on huge piers or buttresses, and has been aptly
and pithily described as " a long fabric of red stone, extremely dangerous and
unsightly, and approached by avenues on the Chester as well as the Hand-
bridge side, to which the same epithet may be safely applied.'** The incon-
venience of a steep and twisting passage of this kind on the main communi-
cation between Wales and the centre and north of England, became more felt
every day amid the rapidly growing intercourse arising from the improvement
of the roads in the principality, particularly that to Bangor and Holyhead, and
at length brought about a conviction of the necessity of a new bridge. It was
many years, however, before any active measures were taken to carry so
desirable an object into effect, nearly a quarter of a century having elapsed
between the period when the late Mr. Harrison of Chester projected the
structure on the site it now occupies, and the beginning of the work ; and by
this time, from advanced age and declining health, the superintendence of its
execution required too much exertion for the strength of that most respectable
practitioner, whose works have added so much to the architectural embellish-
ment of his picturesque native city. Under these circumstances Mr. Hartley of
Liverpool was applied to by the commissioners to undertake the management,
which he consented to do on the condition that no alteration should be made
from Mr. Harrison's external design, but that the interior and all practical points
should be left entirely to him. It may be proper to add that Mr. Harrison had
given two elevations, one having the abutments ornamented with Grecian Doric
♦ Ormerod's Cheshire, Vol. I. p. 285.
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OVEE THE DEE AT CHESTER. 209
eolumns, the other having a plain niche with a pannel over it, and that the
latter was adopted hy Mr. Hartley's advice.
The new hridge is situated ahout a quarter of a mile to the west of or
lower down the river than the old one, stretching from the rock helow Chester
Castle towards the village of Overlegh, with a boldness that appears still more
striking if the view be from the low ancient bridge. The valley of the Dee
here skirts close round the city, the groimd next which rises rapidly, and the
road is carried with a slight fall from the castle gate on an embankment,
which, after ascending gently over the bridge, is continued across the broader
plain on the other side of the river, until it falls into the Flintshire road from
the old bridge. The harbour is below the site, but vessels occasionally pass
above the bridge, which from its great height oflfers no obstruction to navi-
gation. The flow of the tide so far up the river is not more than twelve feet
in ordinary springs.
The abutments are founded on the solid rock, except the back part of that
on the north or city side, where^ a fault occurring from the rock dipping down
almost vertically as shown on the section, piling became necessary ; and so soft
was the material with which the fissure was filled, (a kind of quagmire or
quicksand,) that the piles went down five or six feet at a blow for a (X)nsiderable
part of their depth. On the head of the piling a floor of stone was laid and
the abutment built upon it. In consequence of the defect in the foundation just
inentioned it was considered prudent, with a view to keep the lateral thrust of
the arch within the limit of the rock, to make the springing a foot lower and
the crown as much higher than was at first intended, and this was the only
deviation from the original design that took place in the work.
The arch is a segment of a circle of 140 feet radius, the span or chord
being 200 feet,^ and the rise or versed sine 42 feet. The arch-stones are 4 feet
deep at the crown, and increase to. 6 feet at the springing, but from the mode
followed in laying the masonry, it will be seen that the principle of the arch is
carried through the abutments, even down to the foundations, the radiating
joints giving place to horizontal ones only in what is comparatively super-
structure.
To prevent flushing near the haunches and rectify any tendency to
VOL. I. E E
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1210 THE NEW BRIDGE
change of form in the arch on the removal of the centre, the first course ahove
the springers was laid upon a wedge of lead 1^ inch thick on the face and
running out to nothing at the extremity of the bed, and strips of sheet lead
eight or nine inches wide were also introduced in the joints on each side, up to
where the point of pressure was considered to change its position from the
front to the back of the arch-stones, or in fact in the present case over about
two-thirds of the whole soffit. This disposition remained unaltered until the
easing of the centre let the whole of the arch settle on the lead, which from its
yielding nature then caused the pressure to be spread evenly over the whole of
the bed of each course, and thereby prevented drafts or openings at the back of
the arch-stone joints ; the wedge-piece at the springing also acting by way of
adjustment, and counteracting the inclination of the arch in coming to its bear-
ing when the centre is struck to throw an undue weight on the intrados of the
springing course. Judging from the soundness of the arch-stones throughout,
this plan seems to have answered fiilly the end sought, the weight having been
received so uniformly and gradually on all points, that not the slightest appear-
ance of spaukhing or cracking is perceptible in the work of the great arch.
In setting the key-stones three thin strips of lead were first hung down on
each of the stones between which they were to be inserted, and the key-stone
being then besmeared with a thin greasy putty made of white lead and oil, was
driven down with a small pile-engine, the lead acting as a slide and preventing
grating imtil the stone was quite home. '
The mode in which the spandrils were made up internally, by tiers of
pointed arches with flag-stones or landings at top to carry the road material, will
be seen by a glance at the cross section on Plate No. XXI. ; and indeed beyond
what has been already stated, and the materials used, which are now to be de-
scribed, with the mode of dressing them, there does not seem much of importance
as regards the construction of the permanent part of the work which an in-
spection of the plans will not readily supply.
The river face of the abutments up to the springing, and the first two
courses of arch-stones above, are of granite ; the key-course with one on each
side of it and the quoins all through the arch are of the limestone known
as Anglesea marble, and the rest of the work, including all the other arch-
stones, almost entirely of the sandstone of the country. The granite was
k
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OVER THE DEE AT CHESTER. 211
brought from Craignair near Castle-Douglas in Kirkcudbrightshire, the lime-
stone partly from Anglesea and partly from the similar quarries of Wagbur
near Burton in Kendale, and the other stone for the outside works from
Manley near Northwich and Peckforton near Nantwich in Cheshire, the
quarries of both which places produce a superior kind of the new red sand-
stone. The principal part of the backing is of a similar sandstone, found
adjacent to the site of the bridge. The mortar used was made from the lime
foimd in the neighbourhood, mixed with twice its bulk of sand.
The external faces of the bridge and abutments, with the cornices, para-
pets and dressings, are neatly tooled; the land-arches and wings slightly
chamfered in the joints and then scappled off, so as to have a rougher and
more rustic appearance. The arch-stones of the main arch are also chamfered
in the soffit joints, two inches on each arris.
The centre on which the stupendous arch of Chester new bridge was
raised, and which is stated by Mr. Hartley to have been exclusively designed
by Mr. Trubshaw, claims a detailed notice, from the novelty of the principle
it was formed on, the efficiency with which it did its work, and the economy
that attended its use. The centre consisted of six ribs in width, and the
span of the arch was divided into four spaces by means of three nearly equi-
distant piers of stone built in the river, from which the timbers spread ^ti-
like towards the soffit, so as to take their load endwise. The lower extremi-
ties of these radiating beams rested in cast iron shoe-plates on the tops of the
piers, and the upper ends were bound together by two thicknesses of 4 inch
planking bending round, as nearly as they could be made, in the true curve of
the arch. On the rim thus formed the lagging or covering, which was 4^
inches thick, was supported over each rib by a pair of folding wedges, 15 or
16 inches long by 10 or 12 inches broad and tapering about Ij^ inch ; — for
every course of arch-stones in the bridge there were therefore six pairs of
striking wedges. The horizontal timber of the centre was only 13 inches
deep, and the six ribs were tied together transversely near the top by thorough
bolts of inch iron, but with a view not to weaken and injure the timber more
than was absolutely necessary, the least possible of iron was used.
From this description and an examination of the drawing it will be ob-
served, that the centre differs essentially from those that have been used else-
£ E 2
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212 THE VEW BRIDGE
where. At first sight it reminds one of that employed hy Smeaton in huild-
ing Banff hridge, but the likeness is only apparent Each rib of the latter is
a complete connected frame from pier to pier, though supported intermediately,
and is capable of being eased only as one mass by the folding wedges which
are placed under and carry it ; whereas in the Chester centre each rib is com--
posed of four distinct and independent parts, and carries the wedges on its
outer rim instead of being borne by them, so that it can be struck gradually,
being made tight at one place and slackened at another, according to thie
symptoms shown by the arch as its support is removed and the stonework
comes to its bearing. Mr. Trubshaw*s principle is, therefore, in a few words,
to arrange the timber so as to have the strain all in a vertical direction, doing
away with the necessity of much horizontal tying, which from it& sinking he
considers apt to derange the framing, and to ease immediately under the cover-
ing instead of under the sill of tne centre ; and with this construction he
would strike a centre soon after the arch was finished, while the mortar was
yet as it were a paste, easing a little at first and then giving some time for
the joints to accommodate themselves, and so proceeding. His method of
striking is to keep up the crown and let the haunches down, and though this
has a tendency to press the key-stone up, he states that he has found a greater
and more usual difficulty to be in managing an arch after the key was lowered,
as it must be at once and beyond recall with centres of the usual make.
The centre was of fir, and with the exception of the parts already men-
tioned as otherwise, was composed entirely of whole and half timbers ; — ^pieces
from 22 to 36 feet long were not bored with more than one hole, and it of
small size, so that, the material being sound when taken out, the whole cost
to the contractor was only about £500, an amount which, even allowing for
the advantage derived from the accidental circumstance of a quantity of
seasoned wood being opportunely required for a public work in the neighbour-
hood, must still be considered a very low price for a structure requiring 10,000
cubic feet of timber. That the expectations of the projector were fulfilled in
other respects also, is proved by the circumstance of half the arch being
turned before the centre was finished, while the fact that on its removal the
crown sank only from 2^ to 2^ inches, the joints remaining perfectly close and
no derangement of form being perceptible, attests the skill and care at once
of the carpenter and the mason.
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OVER TMB DEB AT CHESTEE- 213
In reference to the temporary works, it seems necessaary only further to
mention that the arch^stones were carried to their places by the traversiiig
machine now usually adopted (or such purposes, whi^h, though old in prin^
ciple, it is believed assumed its present form in the hands of the late Mr.
Rennie, as a means of working the diving bell in his operations at Plymouth.
Of the contrivance, though it scarcely requires description in the present day,
it may be shortly said, that^it consists in suspending the body to be moved to
a carriage travelling on a railway fixed on a frame of timber, which frame is
itself moved in like manner on a similar railway under and at right angles to
it, so that the carriage has a double motion and can be brought over any point
within the range of the frames to deposit its load. In the present case the
inferior railway extended from abutment to abutment, resting on the inter-
mediate piers, and on it travelled two transverse frames of from 45 to 50 feet
span, so as to embrace the whole width of the arch ; and there being thus a
carriage at each end of the bridge, the setting of the arch-stones did not con-
sume much time.
The Act of Parliament under which this bridge has been built was ob-
tained in the session of 1825 ; the works were contracted fof by Mr. James
Trubshaw, of Haywood, in Staffordshire, early in 1827, and immediately
commenced, the son of the contractor being resident throughout ; the first
gtone was laid by the present Marquess of Westminster (then Earl Grosvcmor)
on the 1st of October in the same yeaar ; and the bridge was formally opened
on the 17th of October, 1832, by the Princess Victoria, on the occasion of
Her Royal Highnesses visit to Eaton Hall, and named, at the request of the
Commissioners, Grosvenor Bridge, but it was not thrown open to the public
generally until New- Year-Day, 1834.
The total cost of the work was £49,900, in which is included a sum of
£7500 for the heavy embankments required in the approaches. The money
was partly raised by bonds, and partly advanced by the Commissioners for the
Loan of Exchequer Bills, and is secured on tolls charged both on the new and
the old bridge, the revenue yielded by which is about £3000 aryear.
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214
THE NEW BRIDGE OVER THE DEE.
The following table*, containing the leading dimensions of the largest
stone arches that have been built, (from 150 feet span upwards,) will enable a
comparison to be made between the bridge it has been the purpose of this
paper to describe, and others approaching but not equalling it in magnitude
of arch.
Name.
River.
FomL
Span.
Rise.
Key-ctone.
Date.
Engineer.
Claix (Grenoble)
Drac
Circular
Feet
150
Feet
54
Ft
3
hi.
1
161L
Gloucester . .
Severn
Elliptical
150
35
4
6
1827
Telford.
London . . .
Thames
Elliptical
152
37i
4
9
1831
Rennie.
Touroon . . .
Doux
Circular
157
65
...
1545
Verona . . .
Adige
Elliptical
160
53
...
...
1354
Lavaur . . .
Agout
Elliptical
160
65
10
9
1775
Saget.
Gignac . . .
Eraolt
Elliptical
160
44
«
5
1793
Garipuy.
Vieille-Brioude .
Allier
Circular
178
69
^
3
1454
Grenier and Estone.
Chester . . .
Dee
Circular
200
42
4
1833
Hartley.
* The dimensions of the continental bridges have been gathered from M. Perronet's Description
des PrqfeU etdela Construction des PonUy M. Gauthey's Traiti de la Construction des PontSy and
Von Wiebeking's Theoretisch-Practiscke Wasserbaukunst ; and in the cases of the discrepancies
that sometimes occur, (particularly as to the span of the ancient bridge of Vieille Brioude, which is
stated to be 183 feet by Perronet, in his bold project for the bridge of Melun, and also as to the
rises of some of the other arches,) Gauthey's Work has been been preferred, as it seems entitled to
be from the character of its talented editor, the late M. Nayier, in whose death the Institution has
too soon to lament the loss of a valued honorary member.
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215
XXIV. An Account of some Experiments m^e in 1823 and 1824,^^ deter-
mining the Qicantitt/ of Water flowing through different shaped Orifices.
By Bryan Donkin, Esq., F.R.A.S., V.P.Inst. C.E.
The apparatus employed in these experiments having been made foradiflferent
purpose than that of merely ascertaining the quantity of water discharged,
occasioned the peculiar form which is here described.
A, in Fig. 1, Plate XXIIL, represents a vertical copper pipe of 3§ inches
interior diameter.
By a horizontal pipe of the same diameter, joined to the lower end of A
by what is usually called a mitre joint.
C, another pipe, joined to ^ in a similar manner, but so contrived that
it could be turned up or down into a vertical or horizontal position.
Fig. 2 represents the outer end of the pipe C, with a cap, D Z), fitting
closely upon its outer side, and capable of being put on or taken off at pleasure ;
upon the end of the cap D the ring dd was soldered, being about \ inch
wide ; this cap was employed for securing the different shaped orifices to the
pipe C For instance, where the efflux of water through an aperture in a thin
plate of metal was intended to be tried, the cap was taken off, and a circular
plate ecy of a corresponding diameter to that of the exterior of the tube C, was
applied to the end of C, and the cap D D put over it to secure it in its place.
To guard against any leakage of water between the joinings of the cap, the
pipe, and the plate, the joinings were filled with a soft cement made of tallow
and bees' wax.
Upon the upper end of the pipe A^ a copper cistern, Ey was fixed. This
cistern was about 2 feet diameter and 6 or 7 inches in depth ; the length of the
pipe B was 10 feet ; of C about 1 foot 9 inches, and of A about 25 feet, mea-
suring from the top of E to its junction with B.
The water was supplied jfrom a circular cistern, jP, of 6 feet 7^ inches diar
meter, and 2 feet 10 inches in depth, by means of a sluice^ and the trough g-.
During each experiment a man was placed to regulate the sluice, so as to
keep the cistern E always full. And in order to ascertain the quantity of
water discharged, a float with a graduated stem was placed in the said
cistern F.
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216 ME. donkin's experiments on the
On the 28th of November, 1823, the following experiments were made in
the presence of Professor Barlow, of Woolwich.
To the end of the pipe C, the conical pipe O was applied, by having a thiu
plate, hj soldered to it ; the opening at the smaller end, which was \ inch
in diameter, and that of the large end Q\ inches diameter, and its length 12
inches ; the discharge took place from the larger end of the cone, whilst the
pipes C and G were in a vertical position ; the height of the column of water
from its surface in E^ to the upper end of the cone G, was 22 feet 9 ijiches.
In 4 minutes it discharged 12.25 cubic feet of water, being at the rate of
3.0625 cubic feet per minute.
2d Experiment. — The conical pipe was inverted so that the discharge took
^lace from the smaller end ; in 4 minutes the discharge was 12.5 cubic feet,
or at the rate of 3.125 cubic feet per minute.
3d Experiment. — The conical pipe was removed, and a thin plate with a
hole ^ an inch in diameter in its centre was applied to the end of the pipe C,
the height of the column being 23 feet 3 inches ; in 4 minutes the discharge
was 8.2 cubic feet, or at the rate of 2.05 cubic feet per minute.
Nov. 29. The pipe C and the cone O were placed horizontally, vrith the
smaller end of the cone outwards, and a column of 26 feet ; in 8 minutes it
discharged 26.8 cubic feet, being at the rate of 3.35 cubic feet per minute.
Dec. 1st. Pipe and cone horizontal, the larger end outwards, and 26 feet
column; in 5 minutes discharged 15.4 cubic feet, or 3.08 cubic feet per minute,
Another experiment was continued for 8 minutes, and the discharge was
at the rate of 3.09 cubic feet per minute.
Decl 5. Two conical pipes, HHy each of which was of the same dimen-
sions as the one above described, were united at their smaller ends, and applied
to the pipe C; in 10 minutes the discharge through the double cone was 48
cubic feet, or at the rate of 4.8 cubic feet per minute, the column of water being
24 feet 3 inches.
A second experiment on the same day was made with a thin plate,, having
a;^ inch hole through it, and a column of 24 feet 3 inches ; in 10 minutes the
discharge was S0.6 cubic feet
In a third experiment, the double cone was tried again, and the discharge
obtained was 47*4 cubic feet in 10 minutes.
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DISCHARGE OF WATER THROUGH ORIFICES. 217
Dec. 8, The 2 conical pipes last mentioned were separated, and joined
together at their larger ends, as at */ */; in this form a discharge of 20.8 cubic
feet of water was obtained in 10 minutes, under a column of 24 feet 3 inches.
Dec. 12. The thin plate with a ^ inch hole was again applied under a
column of 24 feet 3 inches, and during 10 minutes discharged 20.75 cubic feet.
Same day. The single cone with the small end outwards, in 10 minutes
discharged 32.2 cubic feet, and with the large end outwards, 29-7 cubic feet
in the same time, under a head of 24 feet 3 inches.
Same day. The double cone united at their smaller ends, produced a dis-
charge of 46.5 cubic feet in 10 minutes, and in 5 minutes 23.5 cubic feet.
June 8th, 1824. The discharge through the ^ inch round hole in the thin
plate during 15 minutes, was 31.75 cubic feet, under a column of water of 24
feet 4 inches high =2. 116 cubic feet per minute.
June 9* Through the same hole, and under the same (X)lumn, the discharge
was 42 cubic feet in 20 minutes ; =2.1 per minute.
Through a round hole ^ of an inch diameter, in a thin plate, the discharge
was rather less than 16 cubic feet in 30 minutes, under a column of 25 feet
8^ inches.
June 10. The ^ inch hole through a thin plate gave a discharge of 65
cubic feet under a column of 25 feet 8^ inches, in 30 minutes, at the rate of
2.166 cubic feet per minute.
The single cone, with the smaller end outwards, delivered 58 cubic feet
in 18 minutes, under a head of 25 feet 8^ inches; =3.22 cubic feet per minute.
On a subsequent day in June. The same experiment repeated, and in 20
minutes the discharge was 63.33 cubic feet ; =3.166 cubic feet per minute. In
this experiment, the small end of the cone was immersed about 6 inches below
the surface of the water during the discharge, consequently the column was 25
feet 2^ inches.
Another experiment on the same day, with the same cone, having its larger
end outwards, and immersed seven inches below the surface of the water, dis-
charged 59 cubic feet of water in 20 minutes; =2.95 cubic feet per minute.
VOL. I. F F
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218 MR. donkin's experiments on the discharge of water.
The same experiment repeated during 10 minutes, gave a discharge of ^.46
cuhic feet, or 2.946 cuhic feet per minute.
In another experiment, the double cone joined at the smaller ends, in 18
minutes discharged 84.633 cubic feet under a head of 25 feet 9 inches ; =4.7
cubic feet per minute.
Another experiment. The same double cone with its axis 7 inches under
water, and a column of 25 feet 2 inches, discharged 56.5 cubic feet in 12
minutes ; =4.7 cubic feet per minute.
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219
XXV. On the Changes of Temperature consequent on any Change in the
Density of Elastic Fluids, considered especially with reference to Steam.
By Mr. Thomas Webster^ M.A. of Trinity College^ Cambridge.
Communicated by Mr. James Simpson, M.Inst. C.E.
My attention having been for some time directed to the theory and con-
stitution of fluids, it has appeared to me that there are some properties of
which little notice has been taken, but which, being of considerable practical
importance, ought to receive the attentive consideration of scientific men, and
especially of those who possess the opportunities of deciding on their value.
On the present occasion I beg to ofler a few observations respecting these pro-
perties. I wish, then, to call attention to the change of temperature which
always accompanies a change in the density of an elastic fluid, and to the
consequent change in the elastic force due simply to that change in tempera-
ture, as distinguished from the change which is due to the change of
density according to the law of Boyle, It has long been observed, that
the sudden compression of any quantity of common air is attended with
a great degree of heat, and its sudden expansion with a great degree of
cold. Thus, if a piston, having a small piece of tinder attached to it, be pressed
suddenly down in a cylinder of air or gas, the heat evolved, or squeezed
out, by the compression will ignite the tinder ; and again, if a delicate ther-
mometer be placed under the receiver of an air-pump, it will indicate cold
produced on every stroke of the pump. These eflects will not continue long,
since there will be an immediate transfer of heat, according to the well known
laws of the radiation of heat ; thus the heat evolved by the condensation will
be rapidly lost among, and that absorbed by the expansion will be supplied
from, the surrounding bodies, the general fact being, that the temperature
always tends rapidly to equilibrium. The beautiful and simple apparatus of
Gay-Lussac may be mentioned, since it exhibits at once both the phenomena
in question. Let two spherical glass vessels communicate with each other by
a stop-cock, and have a delicate thermometer suspended at their centres;
then if one have the air exhausted, and the other be filled by a condenser,
either with common air or with a gas, and the stop-cock be opened so that
the condensed air rushes into the empty vessel, the thermometer in one vessel
wiU sink and in the other will rise ; namely, it will sink in that which is
being emptied, or in which the air is expanding, and it will rise in that which
is filling, or in which the air is being condensed ; and when the experiment is
F F 2
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220 MR. WEBSTER ON THE RELATIVE TEMPERATURE
made with great care^ it will be seen that the cold indicated by one corre-
sponds exactly to the heat indicated by the other. If another thermometer
be suspended in the empty vessel close by the orifice, that is, just where the air
is in the act of expandmg, a very great degree of cold will be indicated ; and
this will diminish rapidly as it is placed further from the orifice. These in-
dications of heat and cold continue but for a very short period, since the equi-
librium of temperature is almost instantaneously restored. No accurate mea-
sure of the heat absorbed and developed can be procured by direct observations
on the thermometer ; it may, however, be calculated from the change in the
elastic force, as we shall see presently. This experiment of Gay-Lussac does
not appear to have been repeated on a large scale ; but I conceive that if a
large cylinder of thin metal were placed in communication with a vessel of
condensed air at a great pressure, the cold produced at the one end, where the
expansion was proceeding, and the heat produced at the other, where the
condensation was taking place, would be quite sensible to the hand, and a
series of air-thermometers would indicate very difierent states of temperature
at the same distances from each end. But the important practical inquiry is
the change which this developement and absorption of heat produces on the
elastic force of the fluid ; there must be increase of elastic force due to this
increase of temperature, and a diminution of elastic force due to the diminution
of temperature, besides the increase and diminution which is due to the
change of density according to Boyle^s law. In fact, we know that Boyle's
law is not true, imless the compressed air is allowed time to cool, as was dis-
tinctly ascertained in the series of experiments made by order of the Academy
of Paris on this subject. In the complete investigation of it by Desormes
and Clements, which I have detailed at full length in my Theory of Fluids,
Article 98, the increment of temperature is calculated by a series of mathe-
matical reasoning, from this very change in the elastic force for which I
contend. The problem proposed was " to detiermine the increment of tem-
perature for a given small condensation.** They observed the successive changes
which the mercurial column underwent when air was first let into an ex-
hausted receiver, and after it had lost the small increase of temperature due
to the small condensation. The column always sunk by a small quantity, and
the amount of this change enabled them to determine the amount of heat de-
veloped for a given condensation. Of the accuracy of their results there cannot
be the least doubt, for two other and quite independent phenomena, in which
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AND DENSITY OP ELASTIC FLUIDS. 221
the same causes are called into operation, namely, the production of sound and
the vibration of a cylindrical column of air, give results according with very
great accuracy. The preceding facts are mentioned, to give confidence in the
principle for which I contend, that whenever there is a change in elastic force
according to the law of Boyle due to the density, there is also an additional
change in the elastic force due to the change of temperature, which is the
necessary consequence of this change in the density: for it must be remembered
that in all the experiments, the elastic force agrees with the law of Boyle so
soon as the equilibrium of temperature is restored.
On this part of the subject it is unnecessary to insist, since the facts are well
established for most of the elastic fluids, but the experiments, so far as I have
become acquainted with them, do not extend to steam, and imless there be
some reason for excluding steam from the general properties of all other elastic
fluids, we must admit the preceding conclusions with respect to it also. Now
so far from having any reason to except steam from these laws, we have every
reason for believing that steam separated from its water, and maintained at a
higher temperature than 212*, differs in no respect from the permanent gases.
It can be readily liquified, but doubtlessly all the gases can be reduced to the
same form by a proper increase of pressure and diminution of temperature.
For if we consider steam as an elastic fluid owing its elastic qualities solely
to the repulsive power of heat, there can be no reason d priori for excepting it
from the laws of other elastic fluids, which appear to owe their energy and
existence to the same cause. Now so far as experiments have been made, it
appears that steam expands equally for all equal increments of tempera-
ture; thus following the law of other elastic fluids. There is a passage
in Professor Robisorfs Treatise on Steam which involves the principle in
question, but which appears not to have been followed out. He says, "it is
" well known that when air is suddenly expanded, cold is produced, and heat
" when it is suddenly compressed. When making experiments with the hopes
" of discovering the connexion between the elasticity and density of the
" vapours of boiling water and also of boiling spirits of turpentine, we found
" the change of density accompanied by a change of temperature vastly greater
** than in the case of incoercible gases. When the vapour of boiling water
** was suddenly allowed to expand into five times its bulk, we observed the
" depression of a large and sensible thermometer to be at least four or five
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222 MIL WEBSTER ON THE RELATIVE TEMPERATURE
^^ times greater than in a similar expansion of common air at the same tem-
" perature.'*
The fact of the depression being greater in the expansion of steam than of
air at the same temperature^ is explicable at once from the different consti-
tutions of the two fluids with respect to the properties of heat ; but on this I
cannot at present enter. The fact is invaluable as coming from such a man,
and, when viewed in connexion with the general theory of elastic fluids, and
the above-mentioned law of Gay-Lussac respecting the expansion of steam for
increments of temperature, entitles us to assume that, so long as steam retains
its gaseous character, it is subject to the laws of gases. These conclusions
might be sustained by many well known phenomena respecting vapours and
evaporation generally, but enough has been said to warrant our including steam
in the general law of the French philosophers respecting elastic fluids: " That
^^ equal volumes of all elastic fluids, taken at the same temperature and the
^^ same pressure, being suddenly compressed or expanded by the same fraction
** of their volume, disengage or absorb the same absolute quantity of heat.*'
Now the degree of heat or cold produced depends on the rate at which the
change takes place ; and this consideration will lead to some important conclu-
sions with respect to the expansion of high-pressure steam. The rate of
expansion will obviously depend on the elastic force of the steam ; the higher
pressure therefore which we use the greater will be the cold and the greater the
diminution of the elastic force beyond that which the law of Boyle would
give. Suppose steam of ten atmospheres suddenly to expand to four times its
bulk, then the elastic force of the expanded steam ought, on these principles, to
be much less than the elastic force of steam of five atmospheres suddenly
expanded to twice its bulk ; and the greater the elastic force of the steam, the
greater will be the deviation from the law of Boyle. So that, while Boyle's
law will be nearly true for steam of one or two atmospheres, it will be most
untrue for steam of five or ten atmospheres. These, I conceive, are results
which may be readily tested by careful experiments. I know of none in which
they have been fairly examined, for I am not willing to admit the conclusions
which may be drawn from some accounts of steam worked expansively, and
which would appear to militate against these principles ; but on this I shall
say more immediately.
It would appear then, that the mere rate of expansion may be such, that
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AND DENSITY OF ELASTIC FLUIDS. 223
the diminution of elastic force, consequent on the diminution of temperature,
may leave scarcely any elastic force in the expanded steam ; so that there may
be extreme cases in which the law of Boyle will appear absolutely false. These
conclusions appear to me supported and illustrated by the facts, that high
pressure steam does not scald, and that elastic steam is not so efficacious as
gunpowder for throwing bullets or other masses.
When low pressure steam expands into the air, it preserves very nearly
both its density and its temperature, but when steam of a high pressure
expands, the instantaneous augmentation of volume demands that a large
portion of heat should become latent, or it cannot exist at all as steam. If the
expansion were to stop the instant at which the elastic force of the steam
becomes equal to that of the atmosphere, its temperature would (since the sum
of the sensible and latent heat is invariable) descend only to 212** ; but in
consequence of the momentum which the particles have acquired fipom the
rapidity of the expansion, it expands far beyond this limit, so that the dimi-
nution of temperature becomes greater, in proportion as its original elastic force
was greater than the elastic force of the atmosphere. If this expansion takes
place in a vacuum, the reduction of temperature wiU be greater still, since the
particles of air present mechanical obstacles to the expansion. So that in some
cases the elastic force may be lost almost entirely. We know, thanks to the
ingenuity of Mr. Perkins, that highly elastic steam will impel bullets with con-
siderable velocity ; this velocity does not, however, appear to be equal to that
which can be generated by gunpowder. Now in order to increase the velocity,
we must increase the elastic force of the steam, the consequence of which being
an increased rapidity of expansion, the additional reduction of temperature may
more than nullify the original increase of elastic force, so that steam at a higher
pressure will be less efficacious than steam of a less pressure. If this be the
case, there is some temperature at which for a given ball the eflfect is a
maximum, that is, greater than either at a higher or a lower temperature.
But in the case of gunpowder the temperature of the elastic fluid is kept up by
the continued consumption of fresh materials j the heat evolved during the com-
bustion of these ingredients is quite prodigious, so that we have, in fact, the
repulsive power of heat itself in ftdl agency. I have said nothing respecting
the density of the steam at different temperatures, my object not being to
discuss this question fully, but merely to illustrate what must, I conceive, be
the necessary consequence of increasing the temperature and elasticity of the
steam beyond certain limits.
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S24 MR* WEBSTEB ON THE RELATIVE TEMPERATURE
The application of these principles to the working of steam expansively
is at once apparent ; there will in every case be a diminution in the pressure
exerted beyond what will be given by Boyle's law, and this will be greater
the more rapidly the engine is worked. But on this subject I hardly dare
venture any remarks ; practical considerations are of much greater value than
any which I can offer, especially as in one large class of engines, namely, in
condensing engines, where the steam is worked at a low pressure, the devia-
tions from the Boylean law, due to the cause which I have mentioned, cannot
be considerable ; still, however, these deviations must, I conceive, be appre-
ciable whenever the steam is generated at a higher temperature than 212*.
But in high pressure engines the deviations due to this cause must be con-
siderable, and I would venture to suggest that if higher pressure steam be used
than is from the circumstances of the case practically necessary, the steam gene-
rated is not applied in the most economical manner, so far as concerns the ratio
of the work done to the fuel consumed. The preceding remarks have referred
exclusively to steam separated from its water and maintained at such a tem-
perature that it may be considered as a permanent gas. If the steam be not
separated from its water, the case is so entirely different, that the preceding
remarks do not at all apply.
If the space above the water be not saturated with vapour, that is, if the
vapour which it contains have not the maximum density due to the tempera-
ture of the water, it is owing to the mechanical obstruction of the particles of
air ; but since we suppose the air removed, or the space full of steam, we
have to consider the nature of the changes which take place when this
given space is increased or diminished, that is, when the pressure on the
surface of the water is diminished or increased. In this case the law of
Boyle has no existence, for it applies only to a permanent gas, that is, it
is only a steam law, when the vapour is detached from its liquid and con-
tained in a space of such a temperature that it may be considered as a
permanent gas. The pressure of the existing vapour on the surface of the
water being the only limit to the formation of fresh vapour, whenever the pres-
sure on this surface is diminished in the boiler by the withdrawal of a portion
of the steam, fresh steam wiU instantly be formed, so that if, where steam is
worked expansively, there be any water at the bottom of the cylinder, or any
communication whatever with any water, the effect will be precisely the same
as if the communication with the boiler were not entirely cut off; there will
be a constant accession of steam, or fresh steam will be formed as fast as
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AND DENSITY OF ELASTIC FLUIDS; 225
the piston rises. It has sometimes been stated that where steam is worked
expansively, the eflTect is greater than the Boylean law would lead us to sup-
pose ; if such appear to be the 'case, it must be from some such cause as the
above mentioned ; either the steam is not entirely cut off, or there is some com-
munication with water: the smallest quantity of water will be suflBicient to
increase very considerably the apparent effect, and cause a great deviation from
the calculated elastic force. The whole theory of this subject is so intimately
connected with the theory of heat, and the elasticity of the fluid depends so
entirely on the repulsive power of heat, that the consequence of its known
laws may be immediately traced in every application of steam ; hence we may
be convinced that there is a loss of elastic force, besides that which is due to
the change in density, whenever steam is worked expansively, however much
it may be practically overruled and modified. As a means of detecting this I
would mention, that it ought to be shewn by the greater supply of heat which
a cylinder requires when the steam is worked more expansively, than where
the same steam is worked less expansively. From these considerations we may
see that there is a maximum in the useful effect of expansion working; but the
complete determination of it is a purely practical question, and since it will
depend on the conducting power of the metal, it must be somewhat different
for every different engine.
VOL. I. G G
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^27
XXVI. A Method of representing by Diagram and estimating the Earthwork
in Excavations and Embankments. By John James Waterston^ A.Inst.
C.E.
The object of this paper is to describe the construction of two sets of scales,
by the use of one of which a section may be plotted, representing the actual
amount of material contained in any cuttiDg or embankment, of the relation of
which to each other a mere profile of the country, from not showing the con-
tents of the side slopes, gives but an imperfect idea, even to professional men,
particularly if the heights and depths be at all considerable, or if the slopes
be not uniform ; and by the other a computation of the quantities may be made,
almost by the arithmetical process of addition only.
The principle on which the first operation is eflfected,»is to accumulate
the contents of the slopes ^, ^, into the rectangle y^ _
over the middle part z in cutting, and under it in em-
banking, which is done by the formula h = ^FP,
wherein B denotes the base or width of the excavation
or embankment, as the case may be. Hits depth, r the
ratio of the slope, or of >S to -fiT, and h the height of the
rectangle y, substituted in lieu of the slopes ar, x. From this theorem, the scale
shown on the drawing (Plate No. XXIV, fig. 1) is constructed, the heights H
being marked on the vertical line m, and the supplemental heights h on the
lines /I, w, at right angles to it; and if a curve be drawn through the
extremities of the latter lines, it will, as is evident from the equation, be a true
parabola.
The scale thus constructed is used as follows. The axis being laid over
the line of the railway, one leg of the dividers is placed at the point
where the perpendicular line m is intersected by the surface of the ground, and
the horizontal distance to the curve being taken in the compasses, is set off
vertically over the point of intersection. The scale is then moved along, the
axis coinciding with the surface of the railway*, which is easily done in
Strictly, the line m, should be vertical^ but, except where the heights and depths are great or
G G 2
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223 ME. waterston's scales foe
practice by running it on a straight edge, as shown on the plan, and the
operation is repeated until a sufficient number of offsets being obtained, the
line of section abed is drawn through them, and may be considered supplemental
to the actual section of the ground A B CDj the superficies included between
them representing what is due to the slopes^ and that between the latter and
the line of the railway what is due to the middle^ while the product of the
whole area, multiplied by the base or width of roadway, gives the total cubical
content of the cutting or embankment. But the scale to be described presently,
is better adapted for reducing the quantities to figures^ the above being intended
more to exhibit to the et/e the true amomits of excavation and embankment,
which, it is conceived, may be useftd, especially in parliamentary investigations,
in which the engineering e\'idence so frequently turns on such points.
In applying the scale to the case of canals, the process will be the same as
in the foregoing, which has been described as for railways and roads, except
that the line of supplementary profile, instead of being referred to the line de-
noting the surface of the banks, must be plotted from a parallel line drawn be-
low it, at a distance equal to the transverse area of the water channel divided
by the width or base at that surface ; and, indeed, in the cuttings for railways
this will also have to be done to an extent, to allow for the ballasting. And
with respect to an objection that may be taken to the number of the proposed
scales, it will be necessary to possess, in consequence of every combination
of original vertical scale with width of base requiring one of them peculiar
to itself, I would remark that though no doubt this is the case*, practically
there is no very great variety in the scales commonly used by engineers and
surveyors, or at all events the same individual generally adopts the same scales
for the same purposes.
the inclinations steep, the error from holding it perpendicular to the gradient is not of practical im-
portance.
* If only the parabolic curve, and the tangential line m at its apex, be marked permanently
on the scales, and the perpendiculars n, n, be traced on it as the occasion requires, one scale will be
enough for every purpose, the division of the tangent m (by which, and the curve, the lines n, n
^, in which Hy r and B^
are the same as in the text, / is the latus-rectum of the parabola, and H' the point in the new
graduation to be substituted for H in the original division ; and one point being thus gained, all the
others of course follow by equidistances. When the latus-rectum is large, the j>aiabola is more
obtuse, and the lines n, n, better defined.
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REPRESENTING AND ESTIMATING EARTHWORK, 229
The scale shown on fig. 2 was suggested by my ingenious friend Mr.
Henry E. Scott, to whom it occurred as a modification of the above, which I
had described to him. It is exceedingly simple, and the mode of using it
almost self-evident. The ordinary section has only to be divided into equal
lengths of say a chain, and the scale being applied to it at each point of division,
with zero on the base line, the cubic quantity contained in that length on the
given width and slopes is read off at the intersection with the surface of the
ground ; after which the content of the whole cutting or embankment is ob-
tained by simply adding those figures together. The degree of accuracy that
will be afforded must of course depend on the minuteness of the graduation,
as all measurements with scales do ; and if it appears impossible to go to feet
and inches by this one, unless the section be very large, it should be borne in
mind that the result given is final, and that (to say nothing of the liability to
error in casting) any portion of inaccuracy that may be in it is not subject to
increase by multiplication, which, if considered, may be found to affect to as
great an extent quantities calculated from the primary dimensions.
The construction of the scale is derived from the easily investigated formula
H^ A/ — .^-h^ — — — , in which A is the transverse area in square yards,
the other letters expressing the same elements as before ; or if (> denote the
7— , + 2^-g- is adapted for
calculating the quantities in lengths of a chain each. This will give the total
content, but as, when estimates are in progress, the angle the ground will
stand at may not have been precisely ascertained, and perhaps have to be cor-
rected afterwards, it is sometimes desirable to keep the slopes separate for a
time from the middle or rectangular part, in which case the scale may be con-
veniently graduated on the one edge for the middle portion by H=^ Q — ^,
and on the other, for the slopes, by H=/^ —^. The following table has
been constructed by way of specimen from these formulsB, and shows the heights
which, measured on the scales, give the points corresponding with the cubic
quantities in the first column, the length in all cases being taken as one chain,
the width or base as thirty feet, and the slopes as stated ; but the quantities for
other lengths, widths, and slopes are, as I need hardly say, in the simple pro-
portion of the variation in any one of the dimensions.
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230
MB. WATEBSTON'S SCALES FOB EABTHWOBK.
1
1
M
I. Middle and Slopes
[I. Middle
III. Slopes without Middle.
^=/>
TOGETHER.
B
WITHOUT
Slopes.
H-Q—
%%B
»=\
/9Q
/ B» 9Q
r
11
f
1
i 1
H
2
i
1 li
Feet
H
Feet.
H
Feet.
H
Feet.
H
Feet
H
Feet
H
Feet
H
Feet
H
Feet
260
3.2
3.1
. 3.0
2.8
3.4
14.3
10.1
8.2
7.1
500
6.2
5.7
5.4
4.8
6.8
20.2
14.3
11.6
10.1
750
9.0
8.1
7.5
6.8
10.2
24.8
17.5
14.3
12.4
1000
11.4
10.2
9.3
8.6
13.6
28.6
20.2
16.5
14;3
1500
16.1
13.9
12.5
11.5
20.4
35.0
24.8
20.2
17.5
2000
20.4
17.3
15.4
14.1
27.3
40.5
28.6
23.3
20.2
2500
24.3
20.3
18.0
16.3
34.1
45.2
32.0
26.1
22.7
3000
27.9
23.1
20.3
18.4
40.9
49.6
35.0
28.6
24.8
4000
34.6
28.1
24.5
22.1
54.5
572
40.5
33.0
28.6
5000
40.7
32.6
28.2
25.3
68.2
64.0
45.2
36.9
32.0
6000
46.2
36.8
31.7
28.3
49.6
40.4
35.0
7000
51.4
40.3
34.8
31.1
53.5
43.7
37.9
8000
56.3
44.1
37.8
33.6
57.2
46.7
40.5
9000
60.9
47.5
40.5
36.1
60.6
49.6
42.9
10,000
65.3
50.7
43.2
38.3
64.0
52.2
45.2
11,000
53.7
45.6
40.5
54.8
47.3
12,000
56.6
47.9
42.6
57.2
49.6
13,000
59.3
50.3
44.6
59.7
51.4
14,000
62.0
52.5
46.5
61.9
53.5
15,000
64.7
54.7
48.4
t
64.0
55.4
16,000
56.7
50.2
57.3
17,000
58.7
52.0
59.1
18,000
60.7
53.7
60.8
19,000
62.6
55.3
62.4
20,000
64.5
56.9
64.0
21,000
58.5
22,000
60.1
23,000
61.6
24,000
63.0
25,000
64.4
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XXVII. Remarks on Herm Granite, hy Frederick C. L uris, Esq. qfC
in reply to Enquiries from the President ; with some Experiment;
the latter an the wear of different Granites. Communicated by the 1
Also, Experiments on the force required to fracture and crush Storu
under the direction of Messrs. Bramah and Sons, for B. Wya
Architect. Communicated by Mr. William Freeman, A.Inst. C
1. Of the durability of Herm stone for buildings exposed to a
The Herm granite (sienite) as compared with Peterhead and Moorsi
Devon or Cornwall, is a highly crystallized intermixture of felspar, qu
hornblende, with a small quantity of black mica ; the first of these in
hard and sometimes transparent in a greater degree than that found
British granites, — the contact of the other substances perfect. It resists
of exposure to air, and does not easily disintegrate from the mass wl
does not prevail, but as this last is usually scarce in Guernsey granites,
is not deteriorated by its presence as in the Brittany granites, where it
decomposes, stains, and pervades the felspar, and finally destroys the
of the component parts : — tnde the interior columns of St. Peter's Poi
which is built of it, for an instance. The quartz is in a smaller quai
somewhat darker than the felspar in colour; the grains are not 1
uniformly mixed with the other ingredients. The hornblende, whicl
to supply the place of mica, is hard and crystallized in small prisi
accompanied by chlorite ; its dark colour gives the greyish tone to thii
or when abundant forms the blue granite of the Vale parish. This i
is essentially superior to mica in the formation and durability of gra
strength and resistance ; consequently its presence occasions more I
working or facing the block, and its specific gravity is increased. 1
is inferior in quantity to the hornblende, and usually dispersed in sm
in the mass ; — ^it may, with chlorite, be considered rare.
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^3*2 MR. LUKI8 ON HERM GRANITE.
2. Do air and water alternately cause any, and what symptoms of decay ?
The compact nature of a close grained granite, such as the Vale and Herm
stone, having the felspar highly crystallized and free from stained cracks, seems
well calculated to resist the effect of air and water. When the exterior bruued
surface of a block has been blown off, I do not know a stone better disposed to
resist decay ; — if the surface blocks of the island are now examined after the
lapse of ages, it will be found to have resisted the gradual disintegration of
time in a superior degree, when compared with large grained or porphyritic
granite ; when exposed to water and air there is no change beyond the polish
resulting irom friction of the elements. Among the symptoms of decay, dis-
integration prevails generally among granites, usually commencing with the
decomposition of the* mica ; its exfoliating deranges the cohesion of the grains,
and it may be considered then to be the more frequent mode of decay. Des-
quamation is rare with the well defined granites of Guernsey and Herm, and
instance of its existence.
ttest age of building, or experience of the above ?
3 Vale and St. Sampson, although much of the materials
ey, bear many proofs of the remarks made in the last
\ date A.D. 1100 — 1150. The ancient buildings of de-
}tone must be sought for among the old houses in the
re they not only encounter the effect of air and water
md burning rays of the sun. Disintegration alone ap-
degrees, but in no case affecting the interior of the
ad general as not to deface the building materially ;
>ofs taken from door-posts, lintels, and arches, have
nal sharpness or sculpture. The pier of St. Peter's
Sampson's may also be mentioned,
like manner do not show any material change of surface
) force of the tide is strongest, a slight smoothness
on the exterior particles, and in many instances each
polish without being levelled down to a face.
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EXPERIMENTS ON THE STRENGTH OF VARIOUS STONES. !
Vale stone on the northern point of Guernsey produces a finer grai
sienite than Herm, more homhlende m it, and specific gravity greater. "^
Herm is somewhat larger grained, hut equally good for e^ery erection wl
durahility is the chief point. The CaUanr-roque stone in the western pari
Guernsey must he considered of a different structure to the above : it is a
and good stone and appears to last well ; its schistose texture must ally i
the gneiss series, and I do not know its counterpart in Britain. In colour i. .„
much the same as the blue granites, the felspar is brilliant and the hornblende
prisms are well defined ; there is more chlorite in it, and it is easier to work.
Table shewing the result of experiments made under the direction of Mr.
Waleer on the wear of different stones in the tramway on the Commercial
Roady London^ from S!7th March 1830, to 24<A August 1831, being a
period of seventeen months.
Name of ftone.
Sup. area
in feet
Original weight
LoMOf
weight
by wear.
Loss per
Relative
lonea.
Gnerasej ....
4.734
cwt qra.
7 I
lbs.
12.75
Iba.
4.50
Iba.
0.951
1.000
Herm
5.250
7 3
24.25
5.50
1.048
1.102
Budle
6.336
9
15.75
7.75
1.223
1.286
Peterhead (blae)
3.484
4 I
7.50
6.25
1.795
1.887
Heytor
4.313
6
15.25
8.25
1.915
2.014
Aberdeen (red) .
5.375
7 2
11.50
11.50
2.139
2.249
Dartmoor ....
4.500
6 2
25.00
12.50
2.778
2.921
Aberdeen (blae)
4.823
6 2
16.00
14.75
3.058
3.216
The Commercial Road stoneway, on which these experiments were made,
consists of two parallel lines of rectangular tramstones, 18 inches wide hy
a foot deep, and jointed to each other endwise, for the wheels to travel
VOL. I. H H
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1^
234 EXPERIMENTS ON THE STRENGTH OF VARIOUS STONES.
on, with a common street pavement between for the horses. The tram-
stones subjected to experiment were laid in the gateway of the Limehouse
turnpike, so as of necessity to be exposed to all the heavy traffic^om the East
and West India Docks. A similar set of experiments had previously been
made in the same place, but for a shorter period, (little more than four months,)
with however not very different results, as the following figures corresponding
with the column of " relative losses " in the foregoing table will shew.
Guernsey 1.000 Peterhead (blue) . . 1.715
Budle 1.040 Aberdeen (red) . . 2.413
Herm 1.156 Aberdeen (blue) . . 2.821
All the above stones are granites except the Budle, which is a species of whin
from Northumberland, and they were all new pieces in each series of experi-
ments.
Experiments made with Messrs. Jossph Bramah and Sons' hydro-mechanical
press on various specimens of stone.
The following experiments were made with a 12 inch press, the pump one
inch diameter, and the lever 10 to 1 ; — the mechaoical advantage therefore
144 X 10 = 1440 to 1- The weights on the lever were added by 7 lbs. at a
time;— each addition therefore equivalent to 1440 x 7 = 10,080 lbs. or 4^ tons.
In consequence of the smallness of the specimens, the press was filled with
blocks to the required height, and with these the surplus effect of the lever was
4^ lbs. at 10 to 1, which strictly should be added to the pressure, but as the
friction of the apparatus is equal to the effect of the lever, it is dispensed with
in the calculation.
The column containing the pressure per square inch required to produce a
fracture, gives the true value of the stone, as the weight that does so would
possibly completely destroy the stone if allowed to remain on for a length of
time. It should also be observed, that from the exceedingly short time allowed
for the experiments, the results are probably too high.
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^^^^c^M
EXPERIMENTS ON THE STRENGTH OF VARIOUS STONES.
2S5
TABLE OF EXPERIMENTS.
DESCRIPTION OF STONE.
Weight
of
Surfthoe
to
preHure.
PreMure required to
ftacture stone.
Total
toesdi
specUnen.
Per nip.
inch ot
uurtace.
Avenge
per nip.
inch.
Premire required to
crush stooe.
Total Per nip.
to eadi inch of
specimen, surface.
Average
per sup.
Herm
Aberdeen (blue)
Heytor
Granites . < Dartmoor ....
lbs. OS.
(66
. 6 6
U
7
8
■•{
Peterhead (red) . . |
Peterhead (blue- f
grey) t
4 10
4 8
5 5
4 12
Marbles .
Penryn . .
fRayaccioni
Veined . .
4
7
4
IveiD
5 10
5 9
r Yorkshire (Crom- j
well-bottom) . . j
5
6
12
12
(Jritstones. <
Craigleith .
Humbie. .
LWhitby
Valentia slate * (laminae vertical)
fll 10
Lll 6
ri7 10
ll7 3
fl6 10
115 12
Lineallnchea.
4 X4 X4
4 X4 X4
4 X4lx3
4 X4|x3
4 X4 X3
4 X4 X3
4 X4 X3
4 X4 xd
41X4 X3|
4|x4 X3
4jx4ix3i
4|xd|x3|
4|X4 x3
4x4 xH
X4 X3|
X4 X3
41X4 X3
4x4 X3
1}
Ix
X5
X5
5 x5 x5;
5 x5 X
6 X6 X6
6 X6 X6
6 X6 X6
6 X6 X6
3 X3 x3
Sup. Ins.
16
16
17
18
16
16
16
16
18
18
18.6
17.5
18.5
18
18
18
18
18
27.5
27.5
25
25
36
36
36
36
Tons.
80.0
72.5
81.0
63.0
67.5
58.5
67.5
45.0
58.5
45.0
58.5
45.0
63.0
31.5
78.5
49.5
45.0
31.5
81.0
76.5
63.0
31.5
72.0
49.5
36.0
36.0
30.4
Tons.
5.00
4.53
4.76
3.50
4.22
3.66
4.22
2.81
3.25
2.50
3.14
2.57
3.41
1.75
4.35
2.75
2.50
1.75
2.95
2.78
2.52
1.26
2.00
1.37
1.00
1.00
Tons.
I 4.77
I 4.13
I 3.94
} 3.52
I 2.88
I 2.86
I 2.58
J 3.55
I 2.12
I 2.87
I 1.89
I 1.69
} 1.00
3.38 I 3.38
Tons.
116.0
96.4
85.5
76.5
103.5
94.5
Tons.
7.25
6.03
5.03
4.25
6.47
5.91
103.5
72.0
6.47
4.50
94.5
81.0
5.25
4.50
85.5
72.0
4.60
4.11
72.0
54.0
3.90
3.00
83.0
72.0
4.61
4.00
85.5
63.0
4.75
3.50
121.5
95.5
4.42
3.47
85.5
63.0
3.42
2.52
81.0
67.5
2.25
1.87
40.5
36.0
1.12
1.00
47.6
Tons.
} 6.64
I 4.64
I 6.19
} 5.48
I 4.88
I 436
I 3.45
J 4.30
I 4.13
} 3.94
} 2.97
I 2.06
} 1.06
5.29 I 5.29
* A few experiments were also made with inch cubes of this slate, placed on their natural bed, the results
of which were 5.44 and 4.83 tons respectively, or, on the average, 5.14 tons per square inch of exposed surface,
to crash the stone. A trial on a similar small cube with the laminss vertical, gave 5.98 tons as the corresponding
result The specific gravity of Valentia slate appears to coincide very nearly with that given by Kirwan for
Welsh slate.
H H S
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237
XXVIII. Recent* CanaUboat Experiments.^^Description and Tabulated
Results of a Series of Experiments made to ascertain the actual Tractive
Power exerted in drawing Boats on Canals^ under various circumstances
of Load, Speed, Sfc. By John Macneill, Esq., MJnst. C.E., F.R.A.S.,
M.RJ.A.
The series of Tables which I now have the honour of presenting to the
Institution, have no merit beyond that of an honest and accurate Register of
Facts. That the experiments which they record were made neither to sup-
port nor to invalidate any theory, the following accoimt of their origin will
demonstrate.
The attention of the Committee of Management of the Forth and Clyde
Canal Company, had frequently, in the course of their extensive and varied
experience, been directed to some results, in the use of boats of different
forms, on different canals, which appeared to contradict notions considered
to be long established. The paradoxical character and important conse-
quences of these results, at length determined the committee, that a careful
examination of the circumstances under which they had been observed should
be made, and that upon a scale which should be free from the usual objections
attending experiments made with models. I had the honour of receiving
their commands to design and conduct this inquiry. In July, last year, I
carried the examination into effect, with the boats, and on the canals, which
had apparently presented the anomalous facts. The object aimed at, and which
was supposed would satisfactorily settle every question, was to ascertain the
tractive power exerted in drawing these boats on the canals in question,
under very various circumstances of load, speed, &c. At least one beneficial
result seemed certain to be attained by the parties who had the spirit to under-
take the inquiry, in consequence of their being interested in the navigation of
the canals, viz. — ^it would determine which of the boats in use was best
adapted for the purpose for which it was intended.
* This term is preserved to distinguish these experiments from others of the same kind, which
Mr. MacneiU had previouslj made on the Grand Junction Canal, &c.
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238 MR. J. macneill's recent canal-boat experiments, etc.
Though thus somewhat restricted hy the very ohject of the inquiry, I could
not help hoping, that a vigilant attention to all the circumstances attending
' B numerous and varied experiments which would be necessary to solve the
oblem, and a faithful register of every influential fact, might add some
thentic data to the very small stock, hitherto collected from actual experi-
mt, on this most important and interesting, but intricate, subject of phy-
^al science.
It is in this way that, I conceive, the practical engineer may frequently
mt the physico-mathematician, and enable the latter to investigate and
duce to simple laws many of those apparent anomalies which often puzzle,
d sometimes disappoint, the former. As neither my professional engage-
3nts, nor my acquirements, will permit me in any case to attempt mathe-
sitical discussions of this high and important character, I have aimed at
other distinction than that of a careful observer, and a faithful reporter of
3ts. This is the utmost of my pretensions in the present paper, and so far
this, I must acknowledge, I am ambitious to establish a claim.
Canals. — ^The canals on which the experiments, which it is the object of
is paper to record, were made, are, viz. — ^the Forth and Clyde Canal, the
onkland Canal, and the Paisley ( Glasgow and Paisley) Canal. These were
sasured in several places. Sections made out from these measurements
e given in Plate 28, and they show, that each canal differs very materially
)m either of the others. These peculiarities should constantly be borne in
ind in comparing and reasoning upon the experiments.
Courses. — The portions of the canals selected for the sites of the experi-
ents in Tables I. — X. were straight, and as nearly imiform in breadth and
pth as could be obtained. These sites are designated, for distinction, the
nrses. On the Forth and Clyde Canal, there was no diflBiculty in the choice
a proper course of any desirable length. On the Monkland and on the
lisley Canals, no long line, free from objection, could be obtained ; and,
erefore, the courses on them were necessarily shorter.
Courses on the Forth and Clyde Canal. — Six stakes, marked a, 6, c, rf,
fj were driven into the bank of the canal at intervals of 110 yards = i*r of
mile. The first stake-interval a-b was used for getting the horses into the
oper speed, and the boat into a uniform velocity, it is therefore not
garded in the Tables. The instants of the boat's passage of the stakes
c, rf, e^ff were accurately observed. These are given exactly as they stand
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ME. J. MACNEILL's recent CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS, ETC. 239
in the minute-books of the recorders, in column C. of the Tables. From
these epochs the times of the passage of the boat through the stake-intervals, or
runsj h'Cy C'dy d-e^ and e^fi were obtained by simple subtraction. These times
are given in column £. The velocity in miles per hour and Jeet per second
were then calculated from the preceding data, and the results are given in
the columns F and H. In the experiment given in Table XII., the run
extended about eight miles, but in this the tractive power only was observed.
Courses on the Monkland and Paisley Canals. — From reasons already
stated, the courses on these canals were necessarily short. They had but
three stake-intervals, and consequently only two runs. In every other respect
they were the same as the course on the Forth and Clyde Canal. In the ex-
periment given in Table XI., the run extended along the whole canal, and
was about eight miles in length ; but in this, as in the similar long run on
the Forth and Clyde, the tractive power only was observed.
Boats. — All the boats had been, or were, in actual use on the canals in
question, except one which had never been tried before, which is called
** New Boat,** to distinguish it. Plans, &c., of the most remarkable boats
are given in Plate 27. Their weights will be foimd in column P of the
Tables.
The loads and speeds of the boats were varied so as to include every case
that had occurred, or was likely to occur, in practice. The speeds or velo-
cities are given in columns F and H, and the loads in column J. The effects
of the various loads, and of the different distributions of them, upon the
draught of the boats, are given in columns L and M.
Instruments^ and Manner of using them. — ^The Dynamometer^ or instru-
ment for ascertaining the tractive power exerted, was made a part of the
connexion of the towing-line with the boat, so that all efforts to draw the boat
by pulling the towing-line acted upon the instrument, and were indicated by
it Efforts from 1 lb. up to nearly 600 lbs. were clearly indicated on a large
dial-plate, and could be satisfactorily read off.*
* This instrument was similar to one I had previously designed and caused to be constructed,
for ascertaining the amount of the draught of carriages drawn by horses on turnpike-roads. The
principle is the same as that used in the spring-weighing machine, but the index of this instru-
ment in its simple form, when applied to measure horse-draught, vibrates too frequently, and over
too large an arc, for correct observation. This is a consequence of the peculiar nature of horse-
draught, which is not a uniform pull, as is popularly supposed, but a succession of impulses or
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240 Miu J. haoneill's recent canal-boat experiments, etc.
The times of the runs were ohserved with chronometers in the following
manner : — An assistant was so placed on the outside of the boat, that he
could accurately observe the moment of passing a stake. When this hap-
penedy he called out, and the instant was observed and registered by two as-
sistants, each with a separate chronometer. These time-observers were found,
on comparing their registers, never to have differed more than half a second
from each other, and that in a very few instances only. The tractive power
was obtained by three assistants : one gave a signal every two seconds ;
another, on this signal, read off aloud the figures at which the index pointed ;
and a third registered. By this arrangement all hurry and confusion were
avoided ; each assistant had ample time to do the work allotted to him ; and
it is believed, that few errors, and none of any magnitude, occurred in
making or noting the observations. The numbers representing the tractive
power were written down in columns, each column corresponding to a run,
or stake-interval. The sum of a column divided by the number of observa-
tions, gave a number which was considered to be the mean tractive power in
lbs. exerted during each run. These calculations were afterwards checked
by two other persons.
In many of the experiments the level of a theodolite, steadily fixed in the
boat, was observed imder the following circumstances : — ^The boat, with its
load distributed for the experiment, being at rest, the bubble was brought
to the middle of the tube, and the index set at zero. The bubble being pre-
served in the same place during the experiment, the angle read off on the
limb gave the angle of variation which the keel of the boat made with its
position before starting, or the difference, if any, between a state of rest and
one of motion. Many of the angles observed are given in column O.
For the purpose of ascertaining if the boat was raised in the water, a fine
strokes of the animal's shoulder against the collar. I added an apparatus, which indicated the niean
force of the pulls, and not only reduced the vihrations of the index, hut, like the fusee of a watch,
compensated for the increasing resistance of the spring in high efforts. A detailed description of
this Road-Dynamometer, and its application on the whole length of road from London to Holyhead,
is given in the Seventh Report of the Parliamentary Commiuumers for maintaining the Rood from
London to Holyhead, The instrument is also described in the Further Report made by the Com-
miseioners appointed to inquire into the Pott-Office Department^ on the Subject of the Mail Coachee^
dated I8th Aug. 1835. The instrument used on the canals was made from my designs, by Messrs.
Bramah, of Pimlico, and was most carefully and beautifully finished.
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MB« J. MACNEILL'S recent CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS, ETC. 241
wire was stretched across the canal, over two pulleys placed in posts erected
on the hanks, hy heavy weights attached to the end of it, so that it was very
nearly level across the canal, and ahout eight inches higher than the boat.
A bit of paper upon it marked the middle of the canal. On the top of the
boat four slips of thin wood were placed,— one near the bow, one near the stem,
and the other two at equal distances between them. These slips of wood
were suspended vertically on fine wire pivots a little above their centre, so
that they hung upright, except when they came in contact with the wire
stretched across the canal ; the moment they did so, they gave way, inclined
backwards, and allowed the boat to pass freely imder the wire : the edges of
these slips were hollowed out, and the groove filled with tallow, projecting a
little before the edge of the slip. The slips were divided into inches and
tenths. When the boat was prepared and ready for an experiment, it was
brought under the wire, and, being steadied near the^ paper-mark, the division
cut by the wire on each slip was noted down. When the boat in motion
passed under the same point, the wire struck the slips in succession, and
stripped off all the tallow above a certain point with a sharp and clean cut,
so that it was perfectly easy to determine the height to which the boat rose
when in motion, by examining the slips, and comparing the divisions at which
the tallow terminated with those previously noted.
Weather. — ^The weather was, almost without exception, extremely favour-
able for the purpose. The direction of the wind, its force, &c., are noted in
column K.
Tables. — Such parts of the experiments as would admit of it, are classed
together and tabulated to facilitate reference and comparison. Most of the
columns have been described in the preceding paragraphs — the others require
no explanation. The Tables I. — X. contain the experiments made on the
courses. Tables XI. and XII. are the two eight-mile runs. In these the
tractive power, indicated by the dynamometer, was read off as quick as it
could be written down.
OBSERVATIONS.
1. That in the wide and deep canal, the tractive power was observed to
increase with the velocity, but not in any uniform ratio.
2. That in the shallow and narrow canals, the increase of tractive power
had a limit at a certain velocity, and, imder certain circumstances, even
VOL. I. II
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MR. J. MACNEILL 8 RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS, ETC-
sed with the increase of velocity; so that it appears probable, that if
;e of the canal bear a certain proportion to that of the boat, there is
ain velocity at which a boat may be drawn on a canal with a mini-
tractive power. This velocity, on the Monkland and Paisley Canals,
oats like the Zephyr and the Swift, appears to be about nine miles
>ur. And I think it probable that a similar eflfect would be observed
Forth and Clyde Canal, if a boat similarly proportioned to that canal
ised, though the velocity and the minimum tractive power in such a case
be different from those on the other canals.
That, in the long run on the Forth and Clyde Canal, the surface of
Lter regarded on the side of the boat, wnen in motion, was concave or
about the middle of the length of the boat, rising at the bow
larter, as is shewn by the line a 6 c, in Fig. 1.
„. , II I I I I II III!
Ftsf. 1.
That in the long run on the Paisley Canal, precisely the opposite
took place, the surface of the water about the middle of the length
boat being convex, and higher there than at the bow and quarter, as
in Fig. 2.
._ liy I I II l l lll y^^teT
That there appears a relation between the tractive power and the
ntal position of the keel, the tractive power, it will be observed, dimi-
g and increasing in some ratio or other, as the angle of variation is
r or larger.
That the boat absolutely rises during its motion. This fact was most
ctorily demonstrated by the apparatus designed for the purpose,
ne of the experiments, the mean of the several rises indicated by the
jlips, was about four inches, the bow being, in every case, more
3d than the middle and stem. As this phenomenon is of recent
ation, and as the persons who have observed and annoimced it
been held up to unmerited ridicule, I beg leave to conclude with
tract from a paper read before the Philosophical Society of Cam-
, and published in their Transactions. The article is by one of the most
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MR. J. MACNEILL'S recent CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS, ETC. 243
profound physico-mathematicians in Great Britain, probably in the world,
the Rev. James Challis, late Fellow of Trinity College *, Cambridge. The
article is entitled, Researches in the Theory of the Motion of Fluids. Mr.
Challis prefaces his Paper thus : —
" The subjects treated of in this communication are of a miscellaneous
character, referring to several points of the theory of fluid motion, respecting
which the author conceived he had something new to advance. In illus-
tration of the principles he has attempted to establish, solutions are given of
two problems of considerable interest :—*the resistance to the motion of a
ball-pendulum ; and, the resistance of the motion of a body partly immersed
in water and drawn along at the surface in the horizontal direction. The
principal object in the solution of the latter problem is, to account for the
rising of the body in the vertical direction on increasing the velocity of
draught, which, in some recent experiments on Canal Navigation, has been
observed to take place.'*
After an elaborate investigation of the law of this phenomenon, and
showing that it must follow from the principles established by the Author
in the preceding part of the Paper, he concludes by observing, that,
" To obtain a numerical result respecting the rise of the body correspond-
ing to a given velocity, we will suppose, for the sake of simplicity of calcula-
tion, that when the vessel is at rest, the centres of the spherical ends, and con-
sequently the axis of the cylindrical part, are in the plane of the horizontal
surface of the water. This circumstance may be produced by lodding the
upper part of the body without altering its specific gravity. Let / = the length
of the axis of the cylindrical portion ; then the area of the horizontal section
of the vessel, at the level of the water surface, is /D -h —7- ""-^^ ^*^ breadth
being D. Now W—w must be equal to the difference of the quantities of
fluid displaced in the states of rest and motion, and is therefore equal to
yg- (/D + -7— "-^/, 7 being small. Therefore neglecting powers of —
above the first.
('°^'-?-?)^^=^(-T>
* This gentleman has since succeeded to the Plumian Professorship of Astronomy, in the
University of Cambridge, vacant by the appointment of Professor Airy as Astronomer-royal.
I I 2
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244 MR. J. macneill's recent canal-boat experiments, etc.
Let =^ = 3. It will then be found that V*=696 ft. x 7. And if 7 = one
inch, or iV> this equation gives V = 5.19 miles per hour; consequently, if
V = 10.4 miles per hour, 7=4 inches.
In general, neglecting ^ &c.
W^w^TjI (sine cose (2 sm* ^ + 1)- i-),
Also,W— t^=7^-J /D+ , (tf— sin ^ cos tf ) > nearly;
therefore, as D = 2a sin ^, it will be found that
V* sin2^(2sin*^ + l)-tf , . ,. I
7= • ,-^ — ; — —-^ — -, m bemg put for—.
^ 4>g 4msm'^~sm2^ + 2^ ^^ D
If be assumed equal to 15% and m=3, this equation gives V =5 7.35
miles per hour when 7=4 inches.
" These results, which probably are but very rough approximations to mat-
ters of fact, may yet suffice to show, that when vessels and boats of the usual
forms sail in the open sea, they may be expected to rise in some degree upon
an increase of their velocity, and so much the more as they are less adapted
to cleave the water. Our theory shows that the rise is the same for bodies of
the same shape and proportions, moving with the same velocity, whatever be
their absolute magnitudes ; also, that this effect is equally due to the pressures
on the front and stem of the vessel. The theory, in fact, determines these pres-
sures to be in every respect alike ; so that if we proceeded to investigate the
total pressure in the horizontal direction, we should find it to be nothing when
the motion is uniform. This may serve to show, that, if friction be left out
of consideration, a front ill adapted to cleave the water is not unfavourable
to speedy motion, if the stem be of the same shape ; and that the resistance
to the motion of vessels in the open sea is principally owing to the friction of
the water against their surface. This cause operates to produce unequal ac-
tions on the front and stem, making the directions of the motions of the par-
ticles in contact with the surface of the former less inclined to the horizon
than they would be in the case of no friction, and of those in contact with the
surface of the latter more inclined. To counteract this inequality, probably
the stem should be less curved than the front.'*
JOHN MACNEILL.
December^ 1835.
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245
RECENT
CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE I.— THE RAPID (First Sex— 89 ExperimeiOt).
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L M
N
P
"si
H
t
•si
-6
1
•s|
i
1
Draught
1
•s
.s
>
Remarks.
PLACE OF EXPEEDIENT,
FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL.
Bow.
Stem.
min. sec
sec
mUes.
lbs.
feet
56 58
58 05^
59 09
6
c
67J
63
3.33
33
4.89
7 passen-
Weight of Rapid, when empty,
8ton,8cwt 2qr. 201b. Tow-
1
Rapid.
d
3.54
39
5.20
One
gers, =
unf.
in.
in.
not
not
ing-line, 116 ft. long, attached
14
65
3.46
38.5
5.08
Horse.
c. q. lb.
light
12i
9
obs.
obs.
4i ft. from bow, and passed
c
f
62
3.63
37.1
5.32
9 2 1
through two pulleys. Load
1 16
distributed from bow to stem.
5 53
7 03
8 17
9 20
LO 22
e
d
e
f
60
3.75
30
5.50
2
Rapid.
64
63
3.52
3.57
25
31.3
5.16
5.24
do.
do.
fav.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
62
3.63
30.4
5.32
22 21
24 03
b
c
102
2.21
24
3.24
6 passen-
3
Rapid.
25 45
27 25J
28 59
d
e
f
102
lOOj
94|
2.21
2.24
23.5
23.5
3.24
3.28
One
Man.
gers, =
c. q. lb.
unf.
not
ohs.
not
obs.
do.
do.
2.38
23.5
3.49
8 15
33 54
35 28
36 57
38 27
40 00
b
94
2.39
19.4
3.51
4
Rapid.
d
e
f
89
90
93
2.53
2.50
2.42
18.25
18
18
3.71
3.67
3.55
do.
do.
fav.
do.
do.
do.
do.
50 03
51 13|
52 24|
58 37
54 51
b
70^
3.19
33.1
4.68
5
Rapid.
d
71
72^
3.17
3.10
28.3
28
4.65
4.55
do.
do.
unf.
do.
do.
do.
do.
f
74
3.04
27.8
4.46
20
1 29|
2 38
3 46
4 57
b
Q
69^
3.24
26.8
4.75
7 passen-
6
Rapid.
d
e
f
68^
68
3.29
3.31
24.8
24.1
4.82
4.85
do.
gers, =
c. q, lb.
fav.
m.
in
in.
9
do.
do.
71
3.17
23
4.65
9 2 1
23 14
23 55
b
c
41
5.49
76.1
8.05
9 passen-
7
Rapid.
24 37
d
42
5.36
64.5
7.86
One
gers, =
unf
not
not
do
do.
25 14
25 50
e
f
37i
6.00
98.7
8.80
Horse.
c. q» lb.
obs.
obs.
draught
36
6.25
99.7
9.17
12 25
35 08^
35 46
b
Q
38^
5.84
95
8.57
7 passen-
8
Rapid.
36 23
37 00
33 38
d
37
37
6.08
6.08
97
89
8.92
8.92
do.
gers, =
c. q, lb.
fav.
m.
12|
in.
9
do.
do.
€
f
38
5.92
84
8.68
9 2 1
'
Digitized by
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246
RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE I. CONTIH0BD.— THE RAPID (Pibst Set).
B
E
P
I
I
1
H
K
L M
N
Draught.
Bow.
Stern.
•XI
I
f
Remaeks.
PLACE OF EXPERIMENT,
FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL.
Rapid.
min. sec
43 30
44 05
44 40
45 15
45 51
h
c
d
e
f
35
35
35
36
mfles.
6.43
6.43
6.43
6.25
Ibi.
104.4
105
104
99.6
feet
9.43
9.43
9.43
9.17
One
Horse.
7 passen-
gers, and
10cwt.=
c. q. lb,
19 2 1
far.
m.
in.
not
obs.
not
obs.
10
Rapid.
51 25
52 00
52 34|
53 09
63 44
b
c
d
e
f
35
34^
34J
35
6.43
6.52
6.52
6.43
131
121
118
110.9
9.43
9.57
9.57
9.43
Two
Horses.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
11
Rapid.
2 10^
2 36
2 57J
3 19
3 40^
b
c
d
e
f
254
21
21;
8.82
10.47
10.47
10.47
261
302
299
286
12.94
15.35
15.35
15.35
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
12
Rapid.
10 53
11 16
11 37J
11 59
12 21
b
c
d
e
f
9.78
10.47
10.47
10.23
294
293
297
278
14.35
15.35
15.35
15.00
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
13
Rapid.
b
c
d
€
f
21
20;
21
22J
10.47
10.91
10.71
9.98
316
300
306.8
290.1
15.35
16.09
15.71
14.67
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
14
Rapid.
25 55|
26 17
26 38
26 59^
27 21
b
c
d
e
f
21
2U
2l|
10.47
10.71
10.47
10.47
298
290
295
290
15.35
15.71
15.35
15.35
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
15
Rapid.
39 00]
39 45]
40 3U
41 16]
42 00
b
c
d
e
f
45
46
45
43|
5.00
N4.89
5.00
5.17
73
71
78.7
72.5
7.33
7.17
7.33
7.59
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
16
Rapid.
49 13|
50 06
50 544
51 41
52 26
b
c
d
e
f
52J
48
46J
45'
4.29
4.64
4.84
5.00
54.0
61.9
62.9
70.3
6.29
6.80
7.10
7.33
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
17
Rapid.
19 28
20 15
21 03
21 52
22 42|
b
c
d
e
f
47
48
49
50^
4.79
4.69
4.59
4.46
68
56
60.2
55.7
7.02
6.88
6.73
6.53
do.
7 passen-
gers, and
1 ton, =
c. q, lb.
29 2 1
do.
12|
12i
do.
do.
Heavy Rain.
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RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE I. CONTINUED.— THE RAPID (First Set).
247
A
B
C
D
E
P
G
H
I
J
K
L M
N
1
P
■si
.•
1
1
I"
I
^
■
Draught
.S
Remarks.
PLACE OF experiment,
forth and CLYDE CANAL.
Bow.
Stern.
min. sec.
sec.
miles.
lbs.
feet
18
Rapid.
29 18
30 04^
30 52
31 39
32 30|
b
e
d
e
f
46
48
47
50|
4.84
4.64
4.79
4.46
68
63.9
68.8
52.2
7.10
6.80
7.02
6.53
Two
Horses.
7 passen-
gers, and
1 ton,=
c. q, lb.
29 2 1
fav.
in.
12i
in.
12i
not
obs.
not
obs.
19
Rapid.
40 45i
41 09
41 30^
41 52
42 13|
b
e
d
234
21
21
9.57
10.47
10.47
308
308
310
14.04
15.35
15.35
do.
do.
light
do.
do.
do.
do.
€
f
21
10.47
300
15.35
7 15
7 38
8 00
8 22
8 43
b
23
9.78
292
14.35
20
Rapid.
C
d
22
22
10.23
10.23
289
292
15.00
15.00
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
e
f
21
10.71
296
15.71
17
17
21
Rapid.
14 11
14 39
15 08
15 37
16 06J
h
c
d
e
f
28
29
29
29|
8.03
7.76
7.76
7-59
312
327
350?
356?
11.79
11.38
11.38
11.19
do.
7 passen-
gers, and
4itons,=
c. q. Ih.
94 2 1
none
do.
do.
Tractiye power doubtful. See
Remark, Experiment No.
44.
22
Rapid.
23 22
23 49
24 17
24 46
25 14j
h
c
d
e
f
27
28
29
28J
8.33
8.03
7.76
7.90
325
332
342
344
12.22
11.79
11.38
11.58
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
32 19
33 08
33 50
34 35
35 23^
h
49
4.59
59.6
6.73
23
Rapid.
c
d
42
45
5.36
5.00
118
61.8
7.86
7.33
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Bad experiment Horses ^
mg irregulariy.
e
f
48|
4.64
69.8
6.80
41 32^
42 24|
43 16
44 07
44 55
h
52
4.33
74
6.35
24
Rapid.
c
d
e
f
51i
51
48
4.37
4.41
4.69
52
57
70
6.41
6.47
6.88
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
42 55
43 23
43 52
44 21^
44 51
h
28
8.03
355?
11.79
Bad experiment Boy off
25
Rapid.
c
d
e
f
29
29
29
7.59
7.59
7.59
356?
360?
363?
11.19
11.19
11.19
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
horse. Tractive power
doubtfuL See Remark.
Experiment No. 44.
26
Rapid.
3 lU
3 34
3 68
4 21
4 44
b
c
d
e
f
221
24
23
23
10.00
9.38
9.78
9.78
360?
348
351?
353?
14.67
3 .75
14.35
14,35
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
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248
RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE I. coNTiNUBD.— THE RAPID (First Set).
A
B
C
D
E
P
G
H
I
J
K
L M
N
P
i
I
H
8-
li
1
1-^
I
1
Draught
1
>
Remarks.
FORTH AND CLYDE CANAI.
Bow.
Stem.
min. sec.
sec
miles.
lbs.
feet
13 23
13 46
14 09|
14 34|
15 01
b
23
9.78
374?
14.35
7 passen-
gers, and
4 J tons, =
c. q. lb.
94 2 1
Tnujtire Power doubtful
27
Rapid.
c
d
e
f
23^
25
27
9.57
9.00
a33
369?
366?
365?
14.04
13.20
12.22
Two
Horses.
none
m.
17
in.
17
not
obs.
not
obs.
See Remark, EzperimeDt
No. 44.
28
Rapid.
27 51
28 14
28 39
29 06
29 34|
h
c
d
e
f
23^
25
26|
28|
9.57
9.00
8.49
7.90
364?
345?
354?
355?
14.04
13.20
12.45
11.58
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
56 50
57 16
57 42
58 10
58 38
b
26
8.65
354?
12.69
29
Rapid.
c
d
e
f
26
28i
28
8.65
7.90
8.03
356?
863?
366.4
12.69
11.58
11.79
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
30
Rapid.
6 19|
6 48
7 17J
7 46
8 14i
b
e
d
28
29
28
7.90
7.59
7.90
316
324
340
11.58
11.19
11.58
do.
do.
unf.
light
do.
do.
do.
do.
e
f
28|
7.90
341
11.58
23 31
24 58
26 13|
27 41
29 00
b
87
2.59
31
3.79
31
Rapid.
e
d
e
f
75i
87|
79
2.98
2.57
2.85
34
30
30
4.37
3.77
4.18
One
Man.
do.
fav.
light
do.
do.
do.
do.
37 09
38 36
40 04
41 32
43 00
b
87
2.59
27
3.79
32
Rapid.
e
d
88
88
2.56
2.56
25
26
3.75
3.75
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
e
f
88
2.56
25
3.75
b
7 passen-
33
Rapid.
13 21
13 43
14 05
c
d
e
f
22
22
10.23
10.23
354?
351?
15.00
15.00
Two
Horses.
gers, and
3|tons,=
c. q. lb.
79 2 1
do.
16
16
do.
do.
Tractive Power doubtftiL
See Remark, Eiperiment
No. 44.
34
Rapid.
19 59
20 22|
20 45
21 09|
21 33
b
e
d
e
f
23
22
24
23
9.57
10.00
9.18
9.57
358?
353?
334
334
14.04
14.67
13.47
14.04
do.
6 passen-
gers, and
3|tons,=
c. q. lb.
78 15
do.
not
obs.
not
obs.
do.
do.
do.
35
Rapid.
31 27J
31 55
32 22J
32 51
33 19
b
e
d
e
f
27i
27
28;
28
8.18
8.18
7.90
8.03
328
337
351?
357?
12.00
12.00
11.58
11.79
do.
7 passen-
gers, and
3|tons,=
c. q. lb.
79 2 1
do.
16
16
do.
do.
do.
Digitized by
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RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE I. CONTINUED.— THE RAPID (First Set).
^9
A
B
C
D
E
P
G
H
I
J
K
L M
1
N
P
i'l
1
1
"Si
|.S
1
ii
J
Draught
1
1
>
Remarks.
FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL.
Bow.
Stem.
min. sec.
sec.
miles.
lbs.
feet
38 14
b
27
8.33
326
12.22
7 passen-
1
36
37
Raph).
38 41
39 09i
39 37
40 06
c
d
e
f
h
c
d
e
f
28
28
29
7.90
7.90
7.76
333
341
348
11.58
11.58
11.38
Two
Horses.
gers, and
3iton8,=
c. q.lb.
79 2 1
fay.
light
in.
16
in.
16
not
obs.
not
obs.
Rapid.
46 01
46 30|
47 00|
47 32i
48 03|
29J
29
32
31
7.59
7.76
7.03
7.26
238
249
245
238
11.19
11.38
10.31
10.65
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
55 41
56 12J
56 44
57 15
57 46
b
3U
3l|
31
31
7.14
274
10.48
38
Rapid.
c
d
e
f
7.14
7.26
7.26
247
2.56
243
10.48
10.65
10.65
do.
do.
nnf.
light
do.
do.
do.
do.
Heavy rain.
30
Rapid.
7 03
7 51|
8 42
9 35
10 28
h
c
d
e
f
48
50
53
53
4.64
4.46
4.25
4.25
65
67
59
62
6.80
6.53
6.23
6.23
do.
do.
far.
light
do.
do.
do.
do.
Light rain.
40
Rapid.
17 21
18 27
19 35
20 41
21 45
b
c
d
e
/
m
68
66
64
3.41
3.31
3.41
3.52
46.4
44
45
46
5.00
4.85
5.00
5.16
do.
do.
none
do.
do.
do.
do.
15 3U
15 55|
16 18
\6 3gi
17 01
b
e
d
e
f
24
9.38
366?
13.75
Tractive power doubtftil. See
Remark, Experiment No.
44.
Boatgraxed.
41
Rapid.
22j
2l|
21
10.00
10.47
10.47
376?
376?
376?
14.67
15.35
15.35
do.
do.
IkT.
light
do.
do.
do.
do.
42
1
i
Rapid.
22 57
23 23|
23 48
24 13j
24 39|
b
e
d
e
f
25-
24
25
26
8.82
9.18
8.82
8.65
335
357?
367?
365?
12.94
13.47
12.94
12.69
do.
do.
unf.
stmg
brze.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Tractive power doubtftiL See
Remark, Experiment No.
44.
28 32
29 00
29 30
29 59
30 28
b
28
8.03
337
11.79
43
Rapid.
c
d
e
f
30
29
29
7.50
7.76
7.76
328
337
338
11.00
11.38
11.38
do.
do.
fav.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Observed that the piston of
39 324
40 02|
b
c
30
7.50
317
11.00
range enough, therefore aU
44
Rapid.
40 33
41 03
41 33
d
30$
30|
7.38
7.38
314
316
10.82
10.82
do.
do.
unf.
do.
do.
do.
do.
oeeds 850 lbs., are doubtful
'
e
f
30
7.50
307
11.00
Gave sufficient range to the
piston.
VOL. I.
K K
Digitized by
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^0
RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE I. CONTINUED.— THE RAPID (First Set).
A
B
C
D
E
P
G
H
I
J
K
L M
N
p i
•si
M
.•
t
1
1
"sl
^
1
Draught
1
g
I
.S
>
Remaku.
PLACE OF EXPERIMENT,
FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL.
Bow.
Stem.
min. sec.
sec.
miles.
lbs.
feet
49 28^
b
29i
7.59
316
11.19
7 passen-
gers, and
3 J- tons, =
c. y. Ih.
97 2 1
1
45
Rapid.
49 57
50 26j
51 11
51 38
c
d
29|
7.59
11.19
Two
Horses.
fav.
in.
16
in.
16
not
obs.
not
obs.
Bad experiment Hone
broke loose. 1
1
6
f
27
8.33
324
12.22
56 56
57 28
57 57|
58 29
59 59|
h
32
7.03
274
10.31
46
Rapid.
c
d
29g
32
30|
7.59
6.91
278
279
11.19
10.15
do.
do.
unf.
do.
do.
do.
do.
€
f
7.38
291
10.82
47
Rapid.
2 42
3 03|
3 24
3 44
4 05J
b
e
d
2U
20|
20
10.47
10.93
11.25
497
498
486
15.35
16.09
16..50
do.
do.
fav.
do.
do.
do.
do.
e
f
20J
10.93
469
16.09
12 35
12 58
13 20
13 42i
14 04|
h
23
9.78
466
14.35
48
Rapid.
c
d
e
f
22
22J
22
10.23
10.00
10.23
426
416
417
15.00
14.67
15.00
do.
do.
unf.
do.
do.
do.
do.
49
Rapid.
39 37
40 01
40 24
40 46
41 08^
b
e
d
e
f
24
22J
22
22J
9.38
10.00
10.23
10.00
437
451
428
427
13.75
14.67
1.5.00
14.67
do.
7 passen-
gers, and
4itons,iz
c. q, lb.
94 2 1
fav.
17
17
do.
do.
50
Rapid.
46 53
47 17|
47 42
48 06h
48 d2|
h
c
d
24|
241
24|
9.18
9.18
9.18
435
433
426
13.47
13.47
13.47
do.
do.
unf.
do.
do.
do.
do.
e
/
26
8.65
428
12.69
51
Rapid.
8 25
8 53
9 225
9 52|
10 225
b
e
d.
e
f
28
29|
30
30
8.03
7.59
7.50
7.50
343
344
350
332
11.79
11.19
11.00
11.00
do.
do.
fav.
light.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Warm sunshine.
16 16
16 47
17 18
17 47J
18 18|
b
31
7.26
291
10.65
52
Rapid.
c
d
e
f
31
28i
31
7.26
7.90
7.26
286
309
304.5
10.65
11.58
10.65
do.
do.
unf.
do.
do.
do.
do.
i
1
1
21 22
21 53
22 25
22 54|
23 25|
b
31
7.26
321
10.65
1
53
Rapid.
c
d
32
29J
7.03
7.59
305
326
10.31
11.19
do.
do.
fav.
do.
do.
do.
do.
f
29
7.76
310
11.38
Digitized by
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RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE L CONTINUED.— THE RAPID (First Set).
251
A
'si
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L M
N
p
1
''A
1
1
1
1
i
1
Draught
1
0.
.s
>
Remarks.
i
PLACE OF EXPERIMENT,
FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL.
Bpw. Stern.
min. sec
see
miles.
lbs.
feet.
35 07
*
33
6.82
269
10.00
7 passen-
gers, and
35 40
c
32
7.03
237
10.31
Two
fev.
in.
in.
not
not
54
Rapid.
36 12
36 42
37 14
e
f
30
32
7.50
7.03
273
286
11.00
10.31
Horses.
4 J tons, =
c. q. U).
94 2 1
light
17
17
obe.
obs.
!
43 37
h
52
4.33
66
6.35
One
55
Rapid.
44 29
45 20i
c
d
51
51
50
4.37
4.37
60
67
6.41
6.41
Horse.
Boy
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
46 12
47 02
e
f
4.50
62
6.60
leading.
1
58 49
h
66
3.41
54
5.00
56
Rapid.
59 55
1 00^
2 07
3 10
e
d
64|
66|
3.49
3.38
49
46
5.12
4.96
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
57
e
f
63
3.57
'^^
5.24
Rapid.
9 37
9 59^
10 22
10 45
11 07^
h
c
d
e
f
22i
23
22i
22|-
10.00
9.78
10.00
10.00
487
457
446
421
14.67
14.35
14.67
14.67
Two
Horses.
do.
fav.
very
light
do.
do.
do.
do.
58
Rapid.
16 04
16 274
16 51
17 16
17 43
b
c
d
e
f
23i
24
25
26J
27^
26
28
29
9.57
9.38
9.00
8.49
445
419
421
417
14.04
13.75
13.20
12.45
do.
do.
unf.
very
light
do.
do.
do.
do.
37 46J-
38 14
38 41|
39 10
39 39
h
8.18
391
12.00
59
Rapid.
c
d
e
f
8.49
7.90
7.76
383
405
402
12.45
11.58
11.38
do.
do.
do.
19i
16J
do.
do.
Weight shifted forward.
44 28
h
27
8.33
388
12.22
60
Rapid.
44 55
45 25
45 54
46 23^
c
d
30
29
7.50
7.76
404
416
11.00
11.38
do.
do.
do.
light
do.
do.
do.
do.
61
e
f
29|
7.59
409
11.19
Rapid.
9 34
10 02
10 31
11 00
11 20i
h
c
d
e
f
28
29
29
29^
8.03
7.76
7.76
7.59
412
410
437
430
11.79
11.38
11.38
11.19
do.
do.
fav.
very
light
do.
do.
do.
do.
62
Rapid.
16 37|
17 06
17 36
18 05|
18 35|
b
c
d
e
f
2B|
30
29J
30
7.90
7.50
7.59
7.50
356
364
378.9
353
11.58
11.00
1L19
11.00
do.
do.
unf.
very
light
do.
do.
do.
do.
K K 2
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252
RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE I. CONTINUED.— THE RAPID. (First Sht.)
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L M
N
P
No. of
Experiment.
1
t
1 .
1
1
I.
I
1
1-^
1
1.
Draught
1
0.
.s
Remarks.
Bow.
Stem.
FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL. .
mn, sec
sec. 1
mUes. ; lbs.
roet.
1
1
W 02
33 30
b
c
28
29
1
8.03 ; 403
7.76 384
11.79
11.38
Two ;
7 passen-
E:ers, andiunf.
"ill '
in.
in.
not
not
Towing-line attached b\ ft.
63
Rapid. '
33 59
:34 27|
34 56
d
e
f
28i
28|
7.90
7.90
419
430
11.58
11.58
Horses.'
4itons,:z
c. q. Jb.
94 2 1
very .
light
19i
l,5i
obB.
obs.
from bow. |
49 41
50 10|
h
29|
29^
7.59
386.8
11.19
e
7.59
413
11.19
Towing-line taken through one
164
Rapid.
50 40
51 10^
51 40
d
30
7.38
414.6
10.82
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
pulley only, and 4 ft. 1 in.
1 rom the bow.
f
29|
7.59
428
11.19
28 54
h
27
8.33
316
12.22
65
Rapid.
29 21
29 49
30 18
30 46^
c
d
28
29
8.03
7.76
323
360.6
11.79
11.38
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
from the gunwale, and 5 ft.
from the bow.
f
28i
7.90
367.8
11.58
42 51
43 21
43 50|
44 20
44 50i
h
30
7.50
295.6
11.00
1
ee
Rapid.
c
d
29I
7.59
7.59
292.3
315.2
11.19
11.19
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
No outrigger.
f
30|
7.38
301.4
10.82
18 31
19 01
19 32
20 02
20 33
h
30
7.60
303
11.00
67
Rapid.
c
d
e
f
31
30
31
7.26
7.50
7.26
272.5
281
261
10.65
11.00
10.65
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Outrigger, 8 ft. 8 in. from
gunwale, 5 ft. 6 in. from
68
Rapid.
31 55
32 2l|
32 48
33 17
33 45
b
c
d
26^
29
8.49
8.49
7.76
366
378
382.6
12.45
12.45
11.38
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
€
f
28
8.03
419
11.79
\
53 20
53 48
54 17
54 45
54 13^
h
28
8.03
468
11.79
69
Rapid.
C
d
29
28
7.76
8.03
438.5
473.5
11.38
11.79
do.
do.
fav.
light
do.
do.
do.
do.
Towmg-Une frtim the bow.
€
f
28|
7.90
477.7
11.58
70
Rapid.
18
44;
1 13,
1 41
2 09
h
d
26|
29
271
8.49
7.76
8.18
328.4
314.2
386.4
12.45
11.38
12.00
do.
7 passen-
gers, and
3 tons, =:
c. q.lh.
69 2 1
none
151
151
do.
do.
A barge passed at 1 m. 12 s.
f
28
8.03
365
11.79
8 10^
8 37
9 05|
9 33
10 01^
h
273
28
27^
8.18
326.6
12.00
71
Rapid.
d
e
f
7.90
8.18
351.1
362.6
11.58
12.00
do.
do.
unf.
light
do.
do.
do.
do.
27g
8.18
364.7
12,00
Digitized by
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RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE I. CONTINUED.— THE RAPID (First Set).
258
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L M
N
P
1
t
it
la
o|
il
H
.|l
1
^1
II
1
.S
Dnuight
1
1
.s
1^
Remarks.
FORTH and CLYDE CANAL.
Bow.
Stem.
min. sec
sec
miles.
lU.
feet
13 641
b
26|
27
8.49
337
12.45
7 passen-
gers, and
14 21
c
8.33
339
12.22
Two
unf.
in.
in.
not
not
n
Rapid.
14 48
d
28
8.03
358
11.79
Horses.
3 tons, —
c. q. lb.
69 2 1
light
\b%
15f
obs.
obs.
15 16
15 44
e
f
28
8.03
365
11.79
26 03
27 11
27 39
28 075
29 36
h
28
8.03
289.3
11.79
73
Rapid.
e
d
28
28^
8.03
7.90
301.5
318.3
11.79
11.58
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
f
29
7.76
312.4
11.38
57 51
h
27
8.33
335.7
12.22
74
Rapid.
58 18
58 46
59 15
59 43
c
d
e
f
28
29
28
8.03
7.76
8.03
335.5
351.4
382.6
11.79
11.38
11.79
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
10 10
h
24
9.38
396.3
13.75
75
Rapid.
10 43
11 09
11 34
11 59
e
d
26
25
8.65
9.00
363
406.4
12.69
13.20
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
e
f
25
9.00
410
13.20
25 29
25 55|
26 22
26 50
27 18
b
264
8.49
386.5
12.45
76
Rapid.
c
d
26|
28
8.49
8.03
384.5
393.5
12.45
11.79
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
e
f
28
8.03
405.5
11.79
37 07
37 351
38 045
38 33
39 02|
b
281
7.90
319.4
11.58
77
Rapid.
c
d
e
f
29
282
29i
7.76
7.90
7.59
307.4
346.3
348.8
11.38
11.58
11.19
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
19 52
">0 14
50 35
50 56
51 17
h
22
10.23
474.1
15.00
78
Rapid.
c
d
21
21
10.71
10.71
454.5
438
15.71
15.71
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
•
e
f
21
10.71
440.6
15.71
6 48
7 44
8 41
9 39
10 38
h
56
4.02
64.6
5.89
79
Rapid.
e
d
57
58
3.95
3.88
56
53.7
5.78
5.69
Two
Men.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
e
f
59
3.81
52.6
5.59
80
Rapid.
53 28
53 58
>4 26
54 55
55 24
b
c
d
30
28
29
7.50
8.03
7.76
253
280.8
301
11.00
11.79
11.38
Two
Horses.
7 passen-
gers, and
2 tons,=
c. q. Ih.
49 2 1
do.
14
14
do.
do.
e
f
29
7.76
292.3
11.38
Digitized by
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254
RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE I. coNTiNUBD.— THE RAPID (First Set).
A
B
C
D
E
P
G
H
I
J
K
L M
N :
P
•si
Ed
1
li
t
H
1
•s'i
§1
P
1
1
1
1
4
J
1
Draught.
1
'h
>
Reha&is.
Bow.
Stem.
place of BXFERDl£yT,
FORTH AND CLYDE CAKAL
min. sec
sec.
miles.
lbs.
feet
i
22 05
22 30i
b
c
d
e
f
25i
25
8.82
9.00
337.3
355.8
12.94
13.20
Two
7 passen-
gers, and
fav.
in.
in.
not
not
81
Rapid.
22 55|
23 20|
23 46
25
25^
9.00
8.82
356.5
351.2
13.20
12.94
Horses.
2 tons, =
c. q. lb.
49 2 1
light
14
14
obs.
obs.
36 25
36 44
37 03i
37 23|
37 44
h
19
11.84
482
17.37
82
Rapid.
c
d
19^
20
11.54
11.25
483.2
461
16.92
16.50
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
f
20J
10.93
434.5
16.09
83
Rapid.
56 26
57 32
58 35
59 38
40|
h
c
d
66
63
63
3.41
3.57
3.57
47
44
43.5
5.00
5.24
5.24
Two
Men.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
f
62J
3.60
41
5.28
1
84
Rapid.
30 06|
30 27
30 47|
31 08
31 28|
b
c
d
e
f
20
20
20
20
10.93
10.93
10.93
10.93
420
372
380.8
374.8
16.09
16.09
16.09
16.09
Two
Horses.
7 passen-
gers, and
I ton, =
c. q, lb.
29 2 1
fav.
strng
m
12J
do.
do.
I
40 45
41 11
41 351
42 OOi
42 26|
b
26
8.65
302.3
12.69
85
Rapid.
d
24i
25
9.18
9.00
300
294.2
13.47
13.20
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
f
26
8.65
300
12.69
55 32
56 00
56 28
56 56
57 25J
b
28
8.03
234.6
11.79
86
Rapid.
d
28
28
8.03
8.03
242.2
261.3
11.79
11.79
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
t
f
29|
7.59
250.6
11.19
87
Rapid.
6 18
7 16j
8 12
9 11
10 08
b
c
d
e
f
58J
56
58lt
3.84
4.02
3.84
45.2
45.7
41.7
5.64
5.89
5.64
One
Horse.
Boy
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
57
3.95
43.8
5.78
leading
27 45
28 46
29 42
30 40
31 36|
b
61
3.69
56.8
5.41
88
Rapid.
c
d
e
s
56
58
56i
4.02
3.88
3.98
45.1
42
42
5.90
5.69
5.84
Two
Men.
do.
fav.
light
do.
do.
do.
do.
51 21
51 46
52 lOi
52 36
53 01
h
25
9.00
263.6
13.20
7 passen-
89
Rapid.
c
d
24^
25
9.18
8.82
264.4
248
13,47
12.94
Two
Horses.
gers, =
c. q. lb.
do.
m
9
do.
do.
i
f
25
9.00
255
13.20^
9 2 1
Digitized by
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RECENT OANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE II.— THE ZEPHYR (Fibst Sbi— 36 Expaimentt).
^5
6
2 I
I
90
Zephyr.
01
Zephyr.
92
Zephyr.
28 oOi
29 15'
29 39
30 03
30 27
93
Zephyr.
94
Zephyr.
96
Zephyr.
Zephyr.
97
Zephyr.
Zephyr.
1-1
§1
mm. sec.
5 03
5 52
6 42
7 33
8 27
I
H
b
C
d
e
f
39 lOi
39 27
39 44
40 01
40 18
39 20
39 39
39 57
40 15
40 33
47 04
47 28j
47 52
48 17
48 40^
1 15J
2 17'
3 141
4 13^
5 18
13 591
14 52i
15 451
16 38
17 32
47 231
47 42
48 00^
48 lor
48 38
h
c
d
e
f
h
c
d
e
f
h
c
d
e
f
h
c
d
e
f
h
c
d
€
f
h
C
d
e
f
h
c
d
e
f
h
c
d
e
f
E
11
49
50
51
54
24^
24
24
24
\1\
17
17
17
19
18
18
18
Oil
25
23|
6U
57|
59
64^
53
53
53|
54
181
18|
19
18|
%
miles.
4.59
4.50
4.41
4.17
8.82
8.65
8.18
8.49
9.18
9.38
9.38
9.38
12.86
13.24
13.24
13.24
11.84
12.50
12.50
12.50
9.18
9.57
9.00
9.57
3.66
3.91
3.81
3.49
4.25
4.25
4.21
4.17
12.16
12.16
11.84
12.16
G
lbs.
35.5
38.4
41.6
39.1
175.5
169
164.6
155.6
202
188.7
181.2
175.6
347
343.8
349
349
357.5
360
372.8
361
237.4
230.5
211
222.7
36.5
42.7
34.9
31.5
47
46
38
39
370
370.8
360
369.2
H
I.
feet
6.73
6.60
6.47
6.11
12.94
12.69
12.00
12.45
13.47
13.75
13.75
13.75
18.86
19.41
19.41
19.41
17.37
18.33
18.33
18.33
13.47
14.04
13.20
14.04
5.37
5.74
559
5.12
6.23
6.23
6.17
6.11
17.84
17.84
17.37
17.84
I
Two
Horses.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
One
Horse.
Boy
leading.
7 passen-
gers, =
c. q, lb,
9 2 1
fav.
Ught
do.
do.
do.
7 passen-
gers, and
1 ton, zz
c. q, lb,
29 2 1
do.
do.
One
Horse.
Boy
riding.
Two
Horses.
do.
7 passen-
gers, & It.
6 cwt.=
c. q. lb.
35 2 1
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
M
Draught
Bow.
in.
7
do.
do.
do.
H
do.
do.
do.
n
Stem
m.
5
do.
do.
do.
n
do.
do.
do.
n
N
§
J
not
obs.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
not
obs.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Remarks.
PLACE OF EXFEBDIENT,
FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL.
Weight of Zephyr, when
empty, 2 ton, 2 cwt 2
51b. Towing-line 11
from bow.
t
Zephyr, with 1 ton 6 cwt
and 7 passengers, nearly
equal to the weight of the
Rafid and 7 passengers.
Digitized by
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256
BECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE IL CONTINUED.— THE ZEPHYR (First Set).
B
99
Zephyr.
100
Zephyr.
101
Zephyr.
102
Zephyr.
103
Zephyr.
^P4
Zephyr.
105
Zephyr.
106
Zephyr.
107
Zephyr.
2 01
2 d2|
3 04
3 33|
4 Od|
12 14|
13 08
14 03
14 58
15 53
34 22
34 41|
35 00
35 10|
35 39
57 49
58 14
58 39
59 05
59 31
1 27
1 50
2 13
2 35|
2 58
13 3U
14 23|
15 12
16 05
16 58
48 49
49 44
50 40
51 36
52 31|
n
b
c
d
e
f
h
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
h
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
c
d
e
f
toe's
.2 t
u
II
23
24
24^
25
31
31
295
30
53|
55
55
55
m
18j
19j
193
25
25
26
26
52
49
52J
53
55
56
56
55|
61
60^
60
60
8
miles.
9.57
9.38
9.18
9.00
7.14
7.14
7.59
7.50
4.21
4.09
4.09
4.09
11.54
12.16
11.54
11.54
9.00
9.00
8.65
8.65
9.78
9.78
10.00
10.00
4.33
4.59
4.29
4.25
4.09
4.02
4.02
4.05
3.69
3.72
3.75
3.75
G
lbs.
259.8
227.4
223
224.7
138.5
152.5
167.2
156.9
45.5
45.2
40
41.1
410.4
391.5
456.4
345.2
272
243.6
240.2
250.2
317.7
281.2
274.8
252.8
44.2
55.4
45.4
47.4
54.1
do.9
47.8
48.8
92.8
76.4
69.7
65.8
H
I
feet
14.04
13.75
13.47
13.20
10.48
10.48
11.19
11.00
6.17
6.00
6.00
6.00
16.92
17.84
16.92
16.92
13.20
13.20
12.69
12.69
14.35
14.35
14.67
14.67
6.35
6.73
6.29
6.23
6.00
5.89
5.89
5.95
5.41
5.45
5.50
5.50
I
1^
Two
Horses.
gers,
6
c.
35 2 1
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Two
Men.
do.
passen-
<.
cwt. zz
q. lb.
do.
do.
7 passen-
gers, and
2 tons, =
c. q, lb.
49 2 1
do.
do.
do.
7
gers, and
3tons,=
c. q. U)
69 2 1
do.
K
fav.
light
do.
do.
do.
fav.
very
light
do.
do.
do.
do.
M
Draught
Bow.
m.
do.
do.
10
do.
do.
do.
12
do.
Stem.
m.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
11
do.
N
^
not
obs.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
>
not
obs.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Remaakb.
PLACE OP EXPKRIMBNT,
FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL.
A baige posKd, 56iii. 408.
Stern drawn
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RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE XL CONTINUED.— THE ZEPHYR.
257
A
B
C
D
E
P
G
H
I
J
K
L M
N
P
■si
z.
t
1
1 .
I
|£
>
1
Dmij^t
1
1
>
Remarks.
PLACE OF EXPERIMENT,
FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL.
Bow.
Stern.
min. sec
sec.
miles.
lbs.
feet
10 11
10 30
10 49|
11 09
11 28
b
19
11.84
449.8
17.37
7 passen-
gers, and
c
191
11.64
434.2
16.92
Two
&T.
in.
m.
not
not
lOB
Zbphtb.
d
e
f
19
19
11.64
11.84
418.4
407.4
16.92
17.37
Horses.
3 tons, =
c. q. lb,
69 2 1
light.
12
11
obs.
obs.
20 68
21 26
21 61
22 18
22 46
h
27
8.33
272.3
12.22
109
Zbphyb.
c
d
26
27
8.66
8.33
262.7
299.6
12.69
12.22
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
f
27
8.33
291.3
12.22
110
Zbphyb.
29 41
30 08
30 33
30 69
31 26
c
d
27
26
26
8.33
9.00
8.66
293.0
296.7
283.6
12.22
13.20
12.69
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
e
/
26
8.66
306.6
12.69
HI
Zephyb.
20 12|
20 34
20 66
21 16
21 36|
b
e
d
21i
21
21
10.47
10.71
10.71
441.1
418.2
406.4
16.36
16.71
16.71
do.
7 passen-
gers, and
4itons,=i
c. q, lb,
94 2 1
do.
13f
12|
do.
do.
e
f
20J
10.97
423.4
16.09
33 36
34 044
34 32
34 69
36 27
h
28|
27|
27
7.90
276.0
11.68
112
Zbphtb.
c
d
8.18
8.33
321.0
361.0
12.00
12.22
do.
do.
do.
do.
do/
do.
do.
e
f
28
8.03
377.6
11.79
42 64
43 49
44 42
46 33
46 24
h
66
4.09
69.8
6.00
113
Zbphyb.
c
d
63
61
4.26
4.41
69.8
62.7
6.23
6.47
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
e
f
61
4.41
67.6
6.47
I
|ll4
Zbphyb.
34 41
34 69
36 18
e
d
18
19
19
12.60
11.84
11.84
401.0
384.0
376.6
18.33
17.37
17.37
do.
7 passen-
gers, & It.
13 cwt.=:
c, q. lb.
42 2 1
do.
9|
8J
do.
do.
1 ton 13 cwt made the Ze-
PHYR and 7 pasBenpers near-
ly equal to the Velocity,
36 37
36 66
e
/
18
12.60
372.7
18.33
with 7 passengers.
17 03
17 26
17 48
18 11
18 33
b
23
9.78
291.6
14.36
dur.
run
1115
1
Zbphyb.
c
d
e
f
22i
23
22
10.00
9.78
10.23
271.0
267.0
269.4
14.67
14.36
16.00
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
bow
elev.
11'
68 18
69 06
69 62
40
1 28|
h
47
4.79
67.1
7.02
116
Zbphyb.
c
d
47
48
4.79
4.69
69.1
63.6
7.02
6.88
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Bubble vibrating a little.
f
48J
4.64
69.9
6.80
VOL, 1.
L L
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258
RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPEBIMENTS.
TABLE XL CONTINUED.— THE ZEPHYR.
A
<s|
H
B
C
D
t
E
P
G
H
I
J
K
L M
N
p
i
1.
I
1
li
1
1
s.
1
|.5
3
Draught
1
.a
>
Remarks.
PtACE or EXPEBIKENT,
FOBTH AND CLYDE CANAL.
Bow.
Stem.
min. sec.
sec
miles.
lbs.
feet
117
Zephyr.
8 52
9 55
10 55
11 52
12 47
6
c
d
e
f
63
60
57
55
3.57
3.75
3.95
4.09
37.8
39.9
50.2
42.0
5.24
5.50
5.78
6.00
Two
Horses.
7 passen-
gers, & it.
13cwt.=
c. q, lb.
42 2 1
fav.
light
in.
9f
in.
not
obs.
19 52
20 10
20 28j
20 47
21 06
h
18
12.50
414.5
18.33
dur.
118
Zephyb.
d
e
f
18|
18|
19
12.16
12.16
11.84
386.3
372.0
372.0
17.84
17.84
17.37
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
ran,
bow
elev.
27'
38 52
b
39 15
39 37^
40 00
40 23
23
9.78
302.6
14.35
do.
119
Zephyr.
d
22^
22|
10.00
10.00
270.8
258.3
14.67
14.67
do.
do.
do.
llj
n
do.
do.
eler.
Weight shiflMfomaid.
t
f
23
9.78
258.6
14.35
7i'
51 20
51 44
52 07J
.v> ail
b
24
9.38
280.8
13.75
do.
120
Zephyr.
c
d
23
22
9.57
10.00
259.2
266.7
14.04
14.67
do.
do.
do.
8i
lOj
do.
do.
elev.
do. aft.
52 53
f
23
9.78
250.6
14.35
16i'
10 25
10 47
11 08i
11 29
11 50|
b
22
10.23
328.8
15.00
do.
121
Zephyr.
c
d
2IJ
20i
10.47
10.97
311.2
317.3
15.35
16.09
do.
do.
do.
»i
8i
do.
do.
dep.
f
2l|
10.47
283.0
15.35
20'
!
i
12 06J
12 32
b
25i
a82
230.2
12.94
do.
122
Zephyr.
12 57
13 24
13 50
d
e
f
25
27
26
9.00
8.33
8.65
241.8
237.1
238.6
13.20
12.22
12.69
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
eleT.
22'
123
Zephyr.
21 18
2141J
22 06
22 30
22 53
b
c
d
e
f
24
23
9.57
9.18
9.38
9.78
257.5
253.0
256.7
245.2
14.04
13.47
13.75
14.35
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
elev.
22^'
1
34 27
34 51
b
24
9.38
246.0
13.75
do.
124
Zephyr.
35 16
35 40
36 03
d
e
f
25
24
23
9.00
9.38
9.78
253.6
255.2
249.0
13.20
13.75
14.35
do.
do.
do.
8
10
do.
do.
elev.
Weight shifted aft.
!
50 54
51 18^
51 44
52 09|
52 35
b
23^
9.57
254.5
14.04
do.
1
125
Zephyr.
d
25I
25
8.82
8.82
243.0
253.2
12.94
12.94
do.
do.
do.
14
7i
do.
do.
elev.
Weight shifted ferwanL
€
f
25|
8.82
259.2
12.94
zr
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KEOKST CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE III THE LARK (31 Experimentt).
259
B
•si
03
I
126
Lark.
127
Labk.
1 IBJ
1 36
1 57
2 M\
2 38
27 05
27 30
27 54
28 18^
28 42
t
b
e
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
E
■a .
1^
17i
21
20
20
25
24
24
23
P
I
J
miles.
12.86
10.71
10.97
10.97
9.00
9.38
9.18
9.57
G
ll
ibfl.
386.0
355.0
337.0
317.7
256.5
253.6
256.1
264.8
H
t3
I
feet
18.86
15.71
16.09
16.09
13.20
13.75
13.47
14.04
Two
Horses.
do.
1
»-3
7 passen-
gers, =
c, q, lb,
9 2 1
do.
1
fav.
light
do.
L M
Draugiit
Bow. Stem.
lOj
do.
m.
loi
do.
N
not
obs.
do.
do.
do.
elev.
15'
>
dur.
run.
bow
elev.
25J'
Remarks.
PLACE OF EXPERIMENT,
FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL.
Weight of Lark, when empty,
8 tons 3 cwt. 1 qr. 4 lb.
128
Lark.
41 04
41 53
42 45
43 35
44 30|
b
e
d
e
f
49
52
50
54|
4.59
4.33
4.50
4.13
64.7
55.9
56.5
46.5
6.73
6.35
6.60
6.06
do.
do.
fav.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
level
129
Lark.
52 44
53 53
55 02
56 12
57 25
b
c
d
e
f
69
69
70
73
3.26
3.26
3.21
3.08
26.0
23.3
20.8
28.6
4.78
4.78
4.71
4.52
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
130
Lark.
18 30
18 48
19 08
19 27J
19 47
b
e
d
e
f
18
20
2o|
12.50
11.25
11.54
10.97
396.0
368.7
370.6
364.5
18.33
16.50
16.92
16.09
do.
7 passen-
gers, and
5 cwt. =
c. q, lb.
14 2 1
fiav,
light
lOj
10|
do.
do.
do.
elev,
27'
5 cwt made the Lark and
7 passengers nearly equal
to the Rapid and 7 pas-
sengers.
131
Lark.
27 05J
27 2<
27 50
28 1^
28 36
b
e
d
e
f
9.38
9.57
9.57
10.00
279.7
270.8
251.5
265.0
13.75
14.04
14.04
14.67
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
elev.
ir
132
Lark.
36 51^
37 47
38 43
39 35
40 33
b
c
d
e
f
56J
56
52
48
3.98
4.02
4.33
4.69
43.8
50.1
43.4
39.1
5.84
5.89
6.35
6.88
do.
do.
fav.
u ^
a
I I
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
elev.
3'
133
Lark.
38
57
1 16^
1 36
1 56
b
e
d
e
f
11.84
11.54
10.97
11.25
393.4
372.3
363.6
366.8
17.37
16.92
16.09
16.50
do.
7
gers,
12
passen
and
c. q,
21 2
cwt.zi
1
do.
Hi
111
do.
do.
do.
elev.
29^
12 cwt made the Lark and
7 passengers nearly equal
to tne Velocity and 7 pas-
sengers.
134
Lark.
8 46
9
9
9 57
10 20^
b
c
d
e
f
9.57
9.38
9.57
9.57
286.2
280.2
278.5
265.6
14.04
13.75
14.04
14.04
do.
do.
fav.
ight
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
elev.
19'
L L 2
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260
RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE XXL continubd.— THE LARK.
A
B
C
D
£
P
G
H
X
J
K
L M
N
P
1
t
si
||
1.
1
^
1
Draught
1
0.
.s
>
Remasks.
Pt^CE op SXPFIincVMT 1
Bow.
Stem.
FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL, i
min. sec
sec.
miles.
lbs.
feet
1
22 35
b
58
3.88
34.6
5.69
7 passen-
©
dur.
135
Labk.
23 33
24 30
25 27
26 24i
e
f
57
57
57J
3.95
3.95
3.91
35.2
45.5
39.2
5.7B
5.78
5.74
Two
Horses.
gers, and
I2cwt.=
c, q.lb.
21 2 1
H
in.
in.
Hi
not
obs.
run,
bow
elev.
1
136
Lark.
52 34
52 531
53 12|
53 32
53 54
c
d
e
f
19J
19
19
19
11.54
11.84
11.54
11.54
404.8
398.3
382.3
388.0
16.92
17.37
16.92
16.92
do.
7 passen-
gers, and
1 ton, =
c. g. lb.
29 2 1
do.
111
111
do.
do.
do.
elev.
24'
1
2 18|
2 43
3 07
3 31
3 53
h
24^
9.18
295.0
13.47
do.
137
Lark.
c
d
24
24
9.38
9.38
295.2
293.1
13.75
13.75
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
elev.
€
f
22
10.23
293.5
15.00
13'
138
Lark.
14 45
15 40
16 39
17 37
18 34
b
C
d
e
f
55
59
58
57
4.09
3.81
3.88
3.95
37.0
36.5
35.0
36.0
6.00
5.59
5.69
5.78
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
level.
t
27 52
h
30 30
e
139
Lark.
32 55
34 10
36 03
d
e
f
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Bout drifted with the wfaid.
140
Lark.
44 45
45 05
45 26
45 47
46 07i
h
e
d
20
21
21
11.25
10.71
10.71
435.0
415.0
393.0
16.50
15.71
15.71
do.
7 passen-
gers, and
2 tons, =
c. q. lb,
49 2 1
do.
>3J
13i
do.
do.
do.
elev.
f
20J
10.97
387.0
16.09
wr
1
57 35^
58 01
58 26
58 51|
59 17
b
25*
8.82
338.7
12.94
do.
141
Lark.
d
25
25i
9.00
8.82
334.0
329.0
13.20
12.94
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
elev.
e
f
25|
8.82
334.7
12.94
26'
7 17
8 15
9 10|
10 04
11 01
b
58
3.88
46.2
5.69
do.
do.
level.
142
Lark.
c
d
e
f
55
5a
57
4.05
4.21
3.95
48.2
46.6
39.1
5.95
6.17
5.78
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
143
liARK.
36 01|
36 23
36 44|
37 06
37 27
b
c
d
e
f
21
21
21
21
10.47
10.47
10.47
10.71
448.7
422.6
400.0
401.0
15.35
15.35
15.35
15.71
do.
7 passen-
gers, and
3 tons, zi
c. q. Ih,
69 2 1
do.
14f
14|
do.
do.
do.
elev.
Digitized by
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RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE IlL coNTiNUBD.— THE LARK.
261
B
il
M
144
Lark.
min. sec
46 33
47 32
48 29
49 28
50 26
145
Lark.
146
Lark.
147
Lark.
148
Lark.
149
Lark.
150
Lark.
151
Lark.
152
Lark.
58 29
58 55
59 21^
59 48
14
41 46
42 11
42 36^
43 05
43 36|
56 05
57 07
58 10
59 13
14
9 29^
10 01
10 35
11 08
11 41
24 36
25 02
25 28
25 54
26 24
12
12
12 52
13 14|
13 37
22 07j
22 34
23 01 ]
23 29
23 57
39 28
39 51
40 13^
40 36
40 57
b
e
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
e
d
e
f
b
e
d
e
f
E
■5 .
si
SCO
59
57
59
58
26
26
26
26
25
25j
28
31
62
63
6:)
61
3U
33
33|
26
26
26
30
24
23
22
225
27
27
27^
28
s
miles.
3.81
3.95
3.81
3.88
8.65
8.49
8.49
8.65
9.00
8.82
7.90
7.14
3.63
3.57
3.57
3.69
7.14
6.52
6.82
6.72
8.65
8.65
8.65
7.50
9.38
9.57
10.00
10.00
8.33
8.33
8.18
8.03
9.78
10.00
10.00
10.71
G
%
u*
lbs.
41.3
56.6
49.3
34.0
359.2
359.3
364.4
379.0
432.3
408.0
380.6
372.1
47.3
43.2
56.8
45.8
248.5
181.6
195.2
176.7
421.2
413.4
432.4
419.5
463.7
456.2
430.7
412.0
377.8
377.5
402.6
422.0
474.0
458.2
431.0
424.7
H
1
feet
5.59
5.78
5.59
5.69
12.69
12.45
12.45
12.69
13.20
12.94
11.58
10.48
5.32
5.24
5.24
5.41
10.48
9.57
10.00
9.85
12.69
12.69
12.69
11.00
13.75
14.04
14.67
14.67
12.22
12.22
12.00
11.79
14.35
14.67
14.67
15.71
I
Two
Horses.
7 passen
gers, and
3 tons, =1
c. q* lb,
69 2 1
do.
do.
7 passen-
gers, and
4^ tons, =
c. g. lb,
94 2 1
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
fav.
fresh
brze.
do.
fav.
very
light
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
M
Draught
Bow.
in.
14f
do.
16i
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
18
Stern.
in.
14f
do.
m
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
15
N
not
ohs.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
dur.
run,
bow
elev.
do.
do.
elev,
28^
do.
do.
elev.
30^
do.
do.
level
do.
do.
elev.
5'
not
ohs.
do.
do.
elev.
45'
do.
do.
elev,
37'
do.
do.
elev.
34'
Remarks.
PLACE OF EXPEBUIENT,
FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL.
The towing-line dramed
along the water a Sort
distance.
Weight shifted forward.
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262
BECEKT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE m. ooifTiNiTKD.— THE LARK.
B
4
Ed
i
163
Lark.
u
52 35
53 024
53 30|
53 58
54 26
c
d
e
f
E
rt
27i
28
28i
28
P
I
miles.
8.18
8.03
7.90
G
^1
8.03 426X)
lbs.
398.3
382.1
413.0
H
feet
12.00
11.79
11.58
11.79
1
Two
Horses.
7
gers, and
4|ton8,=:
c. g. /6.
94 2 1
K
fav.
light
L M
Draught
Bow.
m.
18
Stem.
m.
15
N
not
obs.
II
dur.
run,
bow
elev.
35'
Rema&kb.
PLACE OF EXPERDIEinr,
FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL.
154
Lark.
6 l^
7 10
8 08
9 08
10 11
56^
58
60
63
3.98
3.88
3.75
3.57
50.9
55.6
44.8
40.6
5.84
5.69
5.50
5.24
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
level.
155
Lark.
37 53
38 17i
38 40i^
03l
39 26|
b
c
d
e
f
24|
23
23
23
9.18
9.78
9.78
9.78
444.4
449.3
436.0
422.2
13.47
14.35
14.35
14.35
do.
do.
do.
14f
17|
do.
do.
do.
elev.
32^
Weight shifted aft.
156
Labk.
59 03
59 26
59 50
12
35
23
24
22
23
9.78
9.38
10.23
9.78
479.0
460.5
449.2
439.7
14.35
13.75
15.00
14.35
do.
do.
fav.
very
light
l»i
13
do.
do.
do.
elev.
5'.At
rest,
depd
4'
Weight shifted forward.
Towing-line 5 ft. from the
stern. Dynamometer 5 ft.
6 in. from the bow.
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RECENT CANAL*BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE IV.— THE VELOCITY (23 Bxperiments).
263
A
B
c
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L M
N
P
C
to
II
8^
X
^ 1
1.
1
•1
DraugliL
1
■s
.6
Remarks.
place of EXFKRlMENTy
M
s-s
1
^
1
a
Bow.
Stem.
B.
>
forth and CLYDE CAKAL.
min. sec
iec
mUes.
lbs.
feet
14 16
b
20
11.25
407.8
16.50
7 passen-
dur.
157
Vblocity.
14 36
14 55|
15 15
15 35J
e
d
e
f
2o|
11.54
11.54
10.97
396.7
882.3
375.1
16.92
16.92
16.09
Two
Horses.
gers, =
c. q. lb,
9 2 1
not
obs.
in.
11
in.
8
not
obs.
run,
bow
eJev.
43'
Weight of Velocity, when
empty, 3 tons 15cwt 2 qre.
91b.
29 38
h
26
8.65
283.0
12.69
do.
158
Vblocity.
30 04
30 29
30 53
31 19|
c
d
e
f
25
24
26|
9.00
9.38
8.49
267.2
259.6
261.4
13.20
13.75
12.45
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
elev.
29'
59 13
b
1%
12.16
440.5
17.84
do.
159
Velocity.
59 31^
59 51
11
29|
c
d
e
/
19
20
18J
11.54
11.25
12.16
415.2
383.4
382.4
16.92
16.50
17.84
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
elev.
36'
25 40
b
26
8.65
314.1
12.69
7 passen-
gers, and
1 ton, =
c. q. lb.
29 2 1
atrett,
bow
160
Velocity.
26 06
26 31^
e
d
254
23|
8.82
9.57
327.0
360.6
12.94
14.04
do.
do.
11
11
do.
dur.
26 55
27 21
e
f
26
8.65
347.2
12.69
ay
161
Velocity.
35 21^
35 41
36 01
36 21
36 41|
h
e
d
19J
20
20
11.54
11.25
11.25
467.7
444.7
426.7
16.92
16.50
16.50
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
elev.
e
f
20|
10.97
423.8
16.09
43'
162
Velocity.
44 56
45 51
46 46
47 44J
b
c
d
e
55
55
58
58
4.09
4.09
3.84
3.84
47.0
42.1
38.4
37.5
6.00
6.00
5.64
5.64
do.
do.
very
light
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
level.
48 43
f
21 12J
b
21
10.71
474.6
15.71
7 passen-
gers, and
2 tons,z=
c. q, lb.
49 2 1
do.
163
Velocity.
21 33|
21 55
c
d
2U
92
10.47
10.23
442.4
425.4
15.35
15.00
do.
do.
I2i
12i
do.
do.
elev.
22 17
22 38
e
f
21
10.71
429.0
15.71
30'
32 43
33 10
33 36|
34 03|
34 30
b
27
8.33
362.6
12.22
do.
164
Velocity.
d
e
f
26|
27
261
8.49
8.33
8.49
358.4
381.0
386.7
12.45
12.22
12.45
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
elev.
43'
165
Velocity.
43 54
44 44
45 37
46 30
47 22^
b
e
d
e
f
50
53
53
521
4.50
4.25
4.25
4.29
63.2
57.3
51.5
55.5
6.60
6.23
6.23
6.29
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
level.
Digitized by
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264
RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE IV. CONTINUED.— THE VELOCITY.
B
a
M
166
Vblocity.
167
Vblocity.
28 08
28 36
29 0^
29 32
30 00|
168
Velocity.
39 17
40 11|
40 05|
41 00
41 54
169
Velocity.
170
Velocity.
171
Velocity.
172
Velocity.
mm. sec.
18 22
18 46
19 09
10 31^
19 54
6 29
6 52
7 I4i
7 37
8 58
25 55
26 21
'26 47
27 13
27 41
35 42|
36 06
36 28
36 50
37 12J
1 32
1 55^
2 19
2 41i
3 40
D
t
b
c
d
e
f
h
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
E
-B .
28
27j
28]
28
54
54|
54
23
22i
22|
21
26
26
26
28
23i
22
22
22i
I
X
mileB.
9.38
9.78
10.00
10.00
8.03
8.18
7.90
7.90
4.13
4.17
4.13
4.17
9.78
10.00
10.00
10.71
8.65
8.65
8.65
8.03
9.57
10.23
10.23
10.00
9.57
9.57
10.00
10.00
|.9
lbs.
484.5
467.3
451.0
424.5
386.0
376.7
387.8
412.0
53.4
50.4
57.6
54.3
462.8
455.0
447.5
438.2
432.6
419.3
424.3
436.2
488
471.2
423.6
482.5
461.5
447.3
440.7
H
-6
feet
13.75
14.35
14.67
14,67
11.79
12.00
II. .58
11.58
6.06
6.11
6.06
6.11
14.35
14.67
14.67
15.71
12.69
12.69
12.69
11.79
14.04
15.00
15.00
14.67
14.04
14.04
14.67
14.67
I
Two
Horses.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
7 passen
gers, and
3 tons, =
c. q. lb.
69 2 1
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
K
L M
Draught
very
light
do.
do.
do.
none
do.
do.
Bow.
m.
18i
do.
do.
16i
do.
16J
Stern.
m.
13i
do.
do.
10
12
do.
iH
N
.3
I'
not
obs.
do.
do.
do.
do.
level
do.
at rest,
bow
dur.
run,
elev.
SB'
do.
do.
do.
dur.
run,
bow
elev.
36'
do.
do.
elev,
40'
dur.
run,
bow
elev.
52'
do.
do.
elev,
29'
do.
do.
elev
24'
Remarks.
PT.ACE OF ZXFEEnaWt,
FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL.
Weight shifted fonnrd.
do.
Weight shifted aft.
173
Velocity.
30 23|
30 48
31 12
31 38
32 07
b
c
d
e
f
24J
24
26
29
9.18
9.38
8.65
7.76
504.5
489.2
481.3
485.7
13.47
13.75
12.69
11.38
do.
7 passen-
gers, and
4|tons,=
c. q. lb.
94 2 1
do.
15i
15J
do.
do.
elev.
54'
Heavy swelL
174
Velocity.
41 31
42 26
43 20
44 15
45 14
b
c
d
e
f
55
54
55
59
4.09
4.17
4.09
3.81
51.3
53.2
55.8
46.1
6.00
6.11
6.00
5.59
do.
do. do.
do.
do.
not
obs.
do.
do.
level,
Digitized by
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RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS
TABLE IV. CONTINUED.— THE VELOCITY.
265
B
a
M
175
Velocity.
mm. sec
54 16^
54 44
55 12|
55 42
56 12
176
Velocity.
15 15
15 40
16 08
16 26
17 06
H
b
c
d
e
f
c
d
e
f
E
271
28]
29]
30
25
28
28
30
miles.
8.18
7.90
7.59
7.50
9.00
8.03
8.03
7.50
lbs.
450.5
443.0
450.0
449.0
484.8
491.7
491.3
487.4
H
I
feet
12.00
11.58
11.19
11.00
Two
Horses.
13.20
11.79
11.79
11.00
7 _
gers, and
4|tons,=
c. q* lb,
94 2 1
do.
do.
K
none
watr.
in.
do.
L M
Draught
Bow. Stern.
watr.
in.
16J
20J
10
N
not
obs.
Mi
dur.
run,
bow
elev.
45'
at
rest,
dep.
45'
Remabks.
PLACE OF EXPEBDCENT,
FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL.
Little SweU.
Weight shifted forward.
177
Velocity.
6 lOj
6 35
7 00
7 27
7 54
b
c
d
e
f
24|
25
27
27
9.18
9.00
8.33
8.33
500.4
505.6
506.0
522.0
13.47
13.20
12.22
12.22
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
not
obs.
atratt,
'^-
duzing
run,
bow
tiev.
178
Velocity.
22 49
23 14
23 39
24 05
24 32
b
c
d
e
f
25
25
26
27
9.00
9.00
8.65
8.33
489.5
492.8
504.2
512.1
13.20
13.20
12.69
12.22
do.
do.
do.
18
13
do.
do.
do.
bow
elev.
52'
Weight shifted aft.
179
Velocity.
40 56
41 20
41 45
42
42 38
lU
38|
b
c
d
e
f
26
25
26^
27
8.65
9.00
8.49
8.33
489.2
502.0
460.0
509.0
12.69
13.20
12.45
12.22
do.
do.
do.
12|
18
do.
do.
VOL. I.
M M
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266
RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE v.— THE EAGLE (28 ExperimenU).
B
I
180
Eaolb.
181
Eagle.
182
Eaolb.
183
Eaolb.
184
Eaolb.
185
Eaolb.
186
Eaolb.
D
10 10
10 31
10 49
11 08
11 28|
22 51
23 16-
23 40;
24 05
24 29
34 ]5|
35 10
36 05
36 59|
37 54
48 59
49 22^
49 44
50 07^
50 31
14 00|
14 21
14 40|
15 00
15 20|
24 56|
25 21
25 46
2Q II
26 37
36 02
36 54
37 46
38 39^
39 33
187
Eaolb.
188
Eaolb.
2 16
2 37
2 57
3 17^
3 38
21 34
21 56
22 15i
23 35^
23 56i
1
I
E
teg
I
r
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
21
18
19:
20
25i
24
25
24
54
55
54
54
23^
21 i
23;
23^
20j
19]
191
2o;
21i
25
25
26
52
52
b^
53|
21
20
20J
21
22
19|
20
21
I
miles.
10.71
12.50
11.54
11.25
8.82
9.38
9.00
9.38
4.13
4.09
4.13
4.13
9.57
10.47
9.57
9.57
10.97
11.54
11.54
10.97
10.47
9.00
9.00
8.65
4.33
4.33
4.21
4.21
10.71
11.25
10.97
10.47
10.23
11.54
11.25
10.71
lbs.
381.6
335.5
415.6
400.0
292.1
295.4
303.0
300.8
63.6
57.5
^9.7
55.9
336.3
322.8
310.4
289.3
418.8
417.1
407.0
395.2
334.6
322.8
316.4
300.6
69.8
60.4
55.2
59.4
404.3
416.7
395.5
378.3
396.2
404.1
375.2
369.5
H
a
I
feet.
15.71
18.33
16.92
16.50
I
12.94
13.75
13.20
13.75
6.06
6.00
6.06
6.06
14.04
15.35
14.04
14.04
16.09
16.92
16.92
16.09
15.35
13.20
13.20
12.69
6.35
6.35
6.17
6.17
15.71
16.50
16.09
15.35
15.00
16.92
16.50
15.71
Two
Horses,
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
7 passen-
gers, =
c. q, lb.
9 2 1
do.
do.
do.
7 passen
gers, and
1 ton, =:
c, q, lb,
29 2 1
do.
do.
do.
do.
K
none
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
M
Draught
Bow.
watr.
in.
18
from
mrk.
do.
do.
do.
16J
from
mrk.
do.
do.
14
from
mrk.
from
mrk.
Stern.
watr
in.
18
from
mrk.
do.
do.
do.
m
from
mrk
do.
do.
17i
from
mrk.
14J
from
mrk.
N
§
•a
I
not
obs.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
§1
>
dur.
run,
bow
elev.
13'
do.
do.
elev.
ly
do.
do.
level,
do.
do.
elev.
lO'
do.
do.
elev.
lO'
do.
do.
elev.
16^
do.
do.
level,
do.
do.
elev.
V
do.
do.
elev.
38'
Rehakkb.
PLACE OF EXFERUCEKT,
FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL.
r Weight of Eagle, 3 tons
14cwt0qr.l51b. Towmg-
line fixed \5ifL from bow.
The lines of drauffht not
being marked on this boit,
the depths were therefore
taken from two marks
placed above the water at
stem and stem.
Weight shifted forward.
do. aft.
Little Swell
Digitized by
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BECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPEBIMENTS.
TABLE V. coNTiNUBD.— THE EAGLE.
267
I
189
Eaglb.
50 50
51 12
51 32
51 53
52 14|
h
c
d
e
f
22
20
21
2li
I
I
miles.
10.23
11.25
10.71
10.47
lbs.
415.8
426.8
414.5
402.0
H
t
I
feet
15.00
16.50
15.71
15.35
I
Two
Horses.
7 passen-
gers, and
2 tons, =
c. q, lb,
49 2 1
none
M
Draught
Bow.
watr.
in.
from
mrk,
Stem.
watr.
in.
from
mrk.
N
\^
dur.
run,
bow
elev.
2'
Rema&ks.
PLACE OF EXPERIMENT,
FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL.
Very little swell.
190
Eaglk.
2 45
3 11
3 36
4 01
4 27
c
d
e
f
26
25
25
26
8.65
9.00
9.00
8.65
363.0
354.5
336.5
341.8
12.69
13.20
13.20
12.69
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
near
bow.
do.
do.
elev.
16^
191
Eaglb.
18 07
18 461
19 25
20 06
20 46i
b
c
d
e
f
39}
38|
41
40|
5.69
5.84
5.49
5.56
122.1
119.8
105.1
102.2
8.35
8.57
8.05
8.15
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
not
obs.
do.
do.
level
192
Eaglb.
42 38
43 OOJ
43 21 1
43 42
44 04
b
c
d
e
f
221
21
21
22
10.00
10.71
10.71
10.23
404.2
404.2
374.0
367.1
14.67
15.71
15.71
15.00
do.
do.
do.
134
from
mrk.
16f
from
mrk.
at rest,
bow
during
nin,
elev.
W
Weight shifted forward.
193
Eagle.
22 05
22 27
22 49
23
23 32
10^
b
c
d
e
f
22
22
211
21|
10.23
10.23
10.47
10.47
419.7
400.0
421.8
388.0
15.00
15.00
15.35
15.35
do.
do.
do.
16f
from
mrk.
from
mrk.
do.
atrest.
bow.
elev.
ly
during
run.
do. aft
194
Eaglb.
51 28
51 50|
52 13
52 35
52 56
c
d
e
f
22A
22|
22
21
10.00
10.00
10.23
10.71
426.4
417.8
416.7
399.7
14.67
14.67
15.00
15.71
do.
7 passen-
gers, and
3 tons, :=
c. q, lb.
69 2 1
do.
I3g
from
mrk.
13g
from
mrk.
20 ft
from
the
bow.
do.
do.
elev.
14'
195
Eaglb.
8 31|
8 57
9 221
9 48|
10 16
c
d
e
f
25^
25^
26
8.82
8.82
8.65
8.18
I
357.4
372.4
372.0
12.94
12.94
12.69
12.00
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
iOh
from
the
bow.
do.
do.
elev.
23^
196
Eaglb.
24 15
24 54
25 32^
26 12
26 51
c
d
e
f
5.78
5.84
5.69
5.78
133.3
127.5
121.0
113.5
8.46
8.57
8.35
8.46
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
none
do.
do.
level
197
Eaglb.
50 31
50 54
51 16
51 88
52 00
b
c
d
e
f
23|
22
22
2H
9.57
10.23
10.23
10.47
414.1
423.5
418.0
391.6
14.04
15.00
15.00
15.35
do.
do.
do.
12i
from
mrk
15J
from
mrk.
not
obs.
at rest,
bow.
during
run,
elev.
15'
Weight shifted forward.
M M 2
Digitized by
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268
RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE V. coNTiNUBD.— THE EAGLE.
198
199
EUOLB.
Eagle.
200
Eaolb.
201
Eaolb.
202
203
Eaolb.
Eaolb.
204
Eaolb.
205
Eaolb.
mm. sec
12 67
13 21
13 44
14 06
14 27i
1 40
2 17i
2 54
3 20^
4 06
20 23
20 47
21 12J
21 36
22 21|
36 39^
37 05
37 29
37 53
38 18|
5 25
5 47
6 09
6 31
6 53
22 53
23 20
23 46
24 12
24 39
D
t
b
e
d
e
f
h
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
h
c
d
e
f
b
e
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
24
23
22
21J
24
22^
24
23
26
27
27
28
37i
36;
36;
24
25|
23|
25|
26^
24
24
25|
22
22
22
22
27
26
26
27
I.
J
miles.
9.38
9.78
10.23
10.47
9.38
10.00
9.38
9.78
8.65
8.33
8.33
8.03
6.00
6.16
6.34
6.16
9.38
8.82
9.57
8.82
8.49
9.38
9.38
8.82
10.23
10.23
10.23
10.23
8.33
8.65
8.65
8.33
lbs.
415.7
411.7
413.0
400.8
441.5
446.1
423.5
424.5
452.6
385.7
406.8
413.0
170.5
151.4
147.4
150.5
422.8
413.3
439.3
427.3
429.4
439.0
442.8
432.3
438.4
419.7
400.0
372.4
357.5
351.0
367.6
375.2
H
a
I
feet
13.75
14.35
15.00
15.35
13.75
14.67
13.75
14.35
12.69
12.22
12.22
11.79
8.80
9.04
9.30
9.04
13.75
12.94
14.04
12.94
12.45
13.75
13.75
12.94
15.00
15.00
15.00
15.00
12.22
12.69
12.69
12.22
I
.5 >
Two
Horses.
do.
passen
gers, and
4|tons,=
94
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
7 passen
gers, and
3 tons, =:
c. q, lb.
69 2 1
tons,=
q.lb.
2 1
do.
do.
do.
do.
7 passen-
gers, & 2 1.
13cwt.=
c. q, lb,
62 2 1
do.
K
none
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
M
Draught
Bow. Stem.
watr.
in.
from
mrk.
12i
from
mrk
do.
do.
lOf
from
mrk
14
from
mrk.
from
mrk
do.
watr.
in.
from
mrk.
12i
from
mrk
do.
do.
14
from
mrk
11
from
mrk
from
mrk.
do.
N
not
obs.
35 ft
from
the
bow.
15ft
from
the
bow.
not
obs.
15ft.
from
the
bow.
not
do.
do.
.S
1^
not
obs.
dur.
run,
bow
elev.
21'
do.
do.
elev,
23'
do.
do.
level.
do.
do.
elev.
27'
do.
do.
elev.
37'
do.
do.
elev.
17'
do.
do.
elev.
ir
RsxAacs.
PLACE OF EXFEEDfEirT,
I
FORTH AND CLYDE CAITAL. ■
Weight shifted aft.
Towing-line at 15 fiset froni
bow.
Weight shifted forward.
do. aft.
2 tons Id cwt made the Eagle,
and 7 passengers, nearljeqial
to Zephyb, with 4 tons 4cift
2 qrs. and 7 passengeit.
206
Eaolb.
3!) 53i
40 17
40 40
41 02|
41 26
b
c
d
e
f
24|
23
22
23
9.18
9.78
10.00
9.57
395.1
407.0
411.2
385.6
13.47
14.35
14.67
14.04
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
elev.
31'
Towing-line altered from \l\
feet to within 3 feet 9iii. (/
the bow.
Digitized by
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RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE V. CONTINUED.— THE EAGLE.
207
Eaolb.
1^
mm. sec.
52 00
52 27
52 54;
53 21
53 58
!
b
c
d
e
f
E
"I
ol
S ^
27i
27
26j
27
I
miles.
8.18
8.33
8.49
8.33
6
.i
1
lbs.
361.0
363.8
406.3
399.5
H
t3
I
I
feet
12.00
12.22
12.45
12.22
I
I
Two
Horses.
7 passen-
gers, & 2t.
I3cwt.=
c. q, lb.
62 2 1
K
M
Draught
none
Bow.
watr.
from
mrk.
Stem.
watr.
from
mrk.
N
not
obs.
dur.
run,
bow
elev.
37
Digitized by
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270
BECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPEBIHENTS.
TABLE VI.— THE HAWK (34 Experimentt.)
A
B
c
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L M
N
P
^
i
?
t
8 sr
1
Si
.1
e
Rbmaekb.
•si
1
|i
■si
§1
•s|
^
1
Draught
1
>
PLACE OF BXFSUXEMT,
FOaTH AND CLYDE CANAL.
Bow.
Stem.
min. sec
sec
miles.
lbs.
feet.
59 59i
18
36
55
1 15i
b
c
d
e
f
191
11.54
422.7
16.92
7 passen-
watr.
watr.
dur.
Weight of Hawk, 3 tons 16
18
12.50
417.4
18.33
Two
gers, =
I6i
from
mrk.
not
run,
cwt0qr8.24Ib.. Maria 18)
19
20i
11.84
10.97
397.1
373.7
17.37
16.09
Horses.
c. q. lb.
9 2 1
none
leg
from
mrk.
obs.
bow
elev.
8'
inches above the water were
made at bow and stem, when
the boat was empty.
17 34
17 56A
18 19|
18 42
19 OoJ
b
c
d
e
f
22|
23
22^
10.00
9.78
10.00
347.9
320.5
309.0
14.67
14.35
14.67
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
elev.
23i
9.57
297.2
14.04
14'
27 04J
27 39
28 \^
28 48
29 22i
h
351
34^
35^
6.34
147.3
9.30
do.
d
6.52
6.34
127.7
139.0
9.57
9.30
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
elev.
f
34^
6.52
133.0
9.57
1'
48 14
48 32i
48 52
49 12
49 32
b
C
d
e
f
18-
19|
20
20
12.16
11.54
11.25
11.25
431.0
408.0
388.2
376.6
17.84
16.92
16.50
16.50
do.
7 passen-
gers, and
7 cwt, zz
c. q.lb.
16 2 1
do.
"J
from
mrk.
17J
from
mrk.
do.
do.
do.
elev.
18'
7 cwt. made the Hawk and 7
paseengen neariy equal to
the Lark with 1 ton and 7
passengers.
58 321
58 56
59 19^
59 42
05i
h
23^
9.57
340.6
14.04
do.
c
d
e
f
235
23
9.57
9.78
323.5
302.0
14.04
14.35
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
elev.
23i
9.57
302.0
14.04
20'
29 23|
29 44
30 041
30 251
30 47'
b
c
d
e
f
20
20
21
211
10.97
10.97
10.71
10.47
518.3
488.1
443.7
423.6
16.09
16.09
15.71
15.35
do.
7 passen-
gers, and
4|tons,=:
c. q.lb.
94 2 1
do.
12|
from
mrk.
12|
from
mrk.
do.
do.
do.
elev.
16'
40 25^
b
40 51^
c
d
26
8.65
427.0
12.69
15ft.
do.
41 18
41 45|
42 13
27
27
8.33
8.33
395.4
430.6
12.22
12.22
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
from
the
do.
elev.
f
27^
8.18
448.2
12.00
bow.
31'
51 16i
52 06
53 53i
54 43I
55 36
c
d
e
f
491
471
50
52i
4.55
4.76
4.50
4.29
75.35
57.31
64.30
64.80
6.67
6.95
6.60
6.29
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
not
obs.
do.
do.
level.
do.
do.
elev.
35'
12 06
12 31
12 58
13 26
13 53
b
c
d
e
/
25
27
28
27
9.00
8.33
8.03
8.33
427.6
408.6
421.2
445.1
13.20
12.22
11.79
12.22
do.
do.
fav.
light
11
from
mrk.
14
from
mrk.
do.
1
Digitized by
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1
RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE VL CONTINUED.— THE HAWK.
271
B
I
217
Hawk.
mm. sec
24 31^
24 57
25 23i
25 51
26 20|
218
Hawk.
47 23
47 45
48 06
48 211
48 49
219
Hawk.
58 44i
59 lol
• 371
03j
30
220
Hawk.
34 50
35 lOi
35 3L
35 52i
36 14
221
Hawk.
222
Hawk.
223
Hawk.
224
Hawk.
225
Hawk.
48 45
49 11
49 37
50 03
50 31
14 29
14 50
15 11
15 32^
15 55
•25 19
•25 43
26 08
26 33
27 00
42 15i
42 59
43 48
44 38
45 26i
18 16i
18 36
18 57
19 19|
19 41
t
n
b
c
d
e
f
h
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
/
b
c
d
e
f
h
c
d
e
f
h
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
h
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
LI
251
26|
27|
29i
22
21
2\\
211
26
27
26
20i
20|
2l|
2lt
26
26
26
28
211
21
211
221
26
25
251
26J
44
48^
50
481
201
21
22i
2l|
P
I
miles.
8.82
8.49
8.18
7.59
10.23
10.71
10.47
10.47
8.65
8.33
8.65
8.49
10.97
10.97
10.47
10.47
8.65
8.65
8.65
8.03
10.47
10.71
10.47
10.00
8.65
9.00
8.82
8.49
5.11
4.64
4.50
4.64
10.97
10.71
10.00
10.47
A
n
lbs.
412.0
401.0
425.6
417.5
471.2
451.4
435.7
404.7
409.8
392.4
420.0
447.3
510.7
453.2
415.0
407.2
411.3
404.3
408.3
414.0
465.0
420.5
307.6
369.0
402.0
380.6
388.0
380.1
89.7
69.0
67.1
80.0
427.0
402.2
390.6
H
g
I
feet.
12.94
12.45
12.00
11.19
1.5.00
15.71
15.35
15.35
12.69
12.22
12.69
12.45
16.09
16.09
i5.a5
15.35
12.69
12.69
12.69
11.79
15.35
15.71
15.35
14.67
12.69
13.20
12.94
12.45
7.50
6.80
6.60
6.80
16.09
15.71
14.67
15.35
Two
Horses.
do.
do.
7 passen-
gers, and
4 J tons, =
c. y. lb,
94 2 1
7 passen-
gers, & 3 1.
I7cwt. =
c. g. /6.
86 2 1
do.
do.
7
gers,&3t.
12cwt.=
c. q, lb.
81 2 1
do.
do.
7 passen-
gers, and
3 tons, =:
c. q, lb,
69 2 1
do.
do.
do.
do.
I
fav,
light
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
M
Draught
Bow.
watr.
in.
14
from
mrk.
13
from
mrk.
do.
13J
from
mrk.
do.
14
from
mrk.
Stern.
watr.
in.
11
from
mrk.
13
from
mrk.
do.
13^
from
mrk.
do.
14
from
mrk
do.
do.
7 passen-
gers, & 2 1.
12cwt. =
c. g» lb.
61 2 1
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
from
mrk
do.
do.
from
mrk
N
not
obs.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
.s
o V
P
>
dur.
run,
bow
elev.
49^
do.
do.
elev.
20'
do.
do.
elev.
29^
do.
do.
elev.
12^
do.
do.
elev
37'
do.
do.
elev.
15'
do.
do.
elev,
31'
do.
do.
dep.
2'
do.
do.
elev.
15'
Remarks.
PLACE OF EXPERIMENT,
FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL.
Weights shifted aft.
d tons 17cwt made the Hawk
and 7 passengers nearly
equal to the Rapid with
4^ tons and 7 passengers.
3 tons 12 cwt made the Hawk
and 7 passengers nearly
equal to the Lark with 4^
tons and 7 passengers.
2 tons 12 cwt made the Hawk
and 7 passengers nearly
equal to the Kapid with
8 tons and 7 passengers.
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272
RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE VL CONTINUED.— THE HAWK.
^1
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
I
Hawk.
Hawk.
Hawk.
Hawk.
Hawk.
Hawk.
Hawk.
233
234
Hawk.
Hawk.
min. sec.
28 58
29 23
29 49
30 14^
30 40
42 \\\
42 32]
42 54^
43 16
43 37
1 23
1 45
2 06
2 n\
3 18
19 30|
19 55
20 20
20 45
20 10^
47 32
47 53
48 14
48 35
48 57
51 42|
52 08
52 33
52 50
53 24
6 575
6 46
7 38|
8 31
9 21|
23 194
23 44
24 08^
24 30
24 56
50 48
51 12
51 38
52 02^
52 26
D
E
t
I
b
C
d
e
f
h
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
e
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
1
25
26
25|
26
21
22
2H
21
22
21
21
25|
25
25
25|
21
21
21
22
25|
25
26
25
48
52.
5>J
50
25j
24
23]
24^
1
miles.
9.00
8.65
8.82
8.65
10.71
10.23
10.47
10.71
10.23
10.71
10.47
10.71
8.82
9.00
9.00
8.82
10.71
10.71
10.71
10.23
8.82
9.00
8.65
9.00
4.64
4.29
4.29
4.46
8.82
9.18
9.57
9.38
9.38
tt.65
9.18
9.57
lbs.
405.5
384.7
386.0
390.6
457.7
406.1
412.5
389.2
461.6
397.5
403.3
390.3
401.8
380.7
387.1
384.5
454.4
407.2
382.5
372.6
393.0
358.8
367.4
379.7
74.6
66.0
60.7
58.1
397.9
373.3
382.3
369.4
367.8
3">9.1
35)0.9
395.7
H
feet.
13.20
12.69
12.94
12.69
15.71
15.00
15.35
15.71
15.00
15.71
15.35
15.71
12.94
13.20
13.20
12.94
15.71
15.71
15.71
15.00
12.94
13.20
12.69
13.20
6.80
6.29
6.29
6.53
12.94
13.47
14.04
13.75
13.75
12.69
13.47
L4.04
I
Two
Horses.
7
ger8,& 2 1.
I2cwt.=
c. q, lb,
61 2 1
do.
do.
passen-
gers, & 2 1.
7 cwt. =
c. q. lb.
56 2 1
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
fav,
light.
do.
do.
7 passen
gers, and
2 tons, :
c. q. lb,
49 2 1
do.
do.
do.
do.
■i
watr.
in.
14J
from
mrk.
do.
fav.
from
mrk.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
fav.
light
L M
Draught
Bow.
watr.
in.
from
mrk.
do.
from
mrk.
do.
15
from
mrk.
do.
do.
from
mrk.
from
mrk.
Stem.
do.
do.
15
from
mrk.
do.
do.
m
from
mrk.
I3J
from
mrk.
N
not
ohs.
do.
do.
do.
elev.
12'
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
IJ
dur.
run,
how
elev.
30'
do.
do.
elev.
13'
do.
do.
elev.
31'
do.
do.
elev.
14'
do.
do.
elev.
34'
do.
do.
level.
at rest,
dep.
dur.
run,
elev.
99"
do.
do.
eJev.
42'
Remarks.
PLACE OF EXPB&nCENT,
FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL.
2 tons 7 cwt. made the Hawk
and 7 pasBengen neariy
equal to the Lark, with 3
tons and 7 passengers.
Weight shifted forward.
Weight shifted aft.
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RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE VI. coNTiNUBD.— THE HAWK.
273
•Si
1
I
235
Hawk.
1. sec.
49 57
50 21
50 46
51 09
51 32
236
Hawk.
28 24
28 44
29 05
29 26
29 47
237
Hawk.
238
Hawk.
Hawk.
240
Hawk,
241
Hawk.
41 04
41 28
41 53
42 16^
42 40
54 42|
55 03
55 23
55 44
56 06
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
4 38
5 024
5 27|
5 5ll
6 I5I
21 50|
22 10
22 30i
22 50|
23 12I
3L 40|
32 04
32 27
33 50
34 14
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
E
""CO
I
24
25
23|
23
20
19
21
21
20|
20
21
22
24|
25
24
24
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
20-
20
22|
23^
23
23
24
I
1
miles.
9.38
9.00
9.57
9.78
11.25
11.84
10.71
10.71
9.18
9.18
9.57
10.00
10.97
11.25
10.71
10.23
9.18
9.00
9.38
9.38
11.54
10.97
11.25
10.00
9.57
9.78
9.78
9.38
G
IbB.
400
374.5
383
390
446.6
396.2
386.3
374.5
379.3
362.5
374.3
360.4
456.6
406.2
380
372.6
369.4
348.5
356.6
357.5
450.6
381.7
375.2
363.3
H
a
feet
13.75
13.20
14.04
14.35
366.9
343.1
341.3
318.5
16.50
17.37
15.71
15.71
13.47
13.47
14.04
14.67
16.09
16.50
15.71
15.00
13.47
13.20
13.75
13.75
16.92
16.09
16.50
14.67
I
Two
Horses.
7 passen-
gers, and
2 tons, =:
c. q, lb,
49 2 1
14.04
14.35
14.35
13.75
do.
. passen
ger8,& It.
I2cwt.=
q. lb.
41 2 I
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
fav.
very
light.
do.
7
gers,<
5 cwt. n
c. q, lb.
34 2 1
do.
7 passen
gers, and
12 cwt.=
c. q, lb,
21 2 1
do.
K
watr.
in.
from
mrk.
do.
158
from
mrk.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
M
Draught
Bow.
watr.
in.
from
mrk.
15f
from
mrk.
do.
15|
from
mrk.
do.
from
mrk.
do.
Stem,
do.
15f
from
mrk.
do.
Ill
frt)m
mrk.
do.
N
not
obs.
bow
elev.
atre«t,
during
run.
do.
do.
do.
elev.
15'
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
elev.
25'
do.
do.
elev.
14'
do.
do.
elev.
34'
do.
do.
elev.
6'
do.
do.
elev.
12'
Remarks.
PLACE OF EXPERIMENT,
FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL.
Weights shifted.
Hawk, with 7 passengers, 1 ton
12 cwt., nearly equal to Rapid
with 2 tons and 7 passengers.
do.
Hawk,
1
with 7
ITK, witn 7 passengers and
. ton 5 cwt, nearly equal to
Lark with I ton 18 cwt. 7
passengers, and to Zephyr
with 3 tons, 7 passengers.
Hawk, with 7 paseencers and
12 cwt, neariy equaJ to the
Rapid with 1 ton and 7 pas-
sengers.
VOL- !•
N N
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274
RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE VII.— THE RAPID (Sboond Set— 43 ExperimenU).
i
1
I
Cd
242
Rapid.
243
Rapid.
244
Rapid.
245
Rapid.
246
Rapid.
247
Rapid.
248
Rapid.
249
Rapid.
250
Rapid.
mm. sec
41 20
41 51 i
42 23
42 55
43 28
53 19
53 45
54 13
54 43
55 15
5 54
6 20
G 48
7 17J
7 47
37 51
38 18
38 46
39 15^
39 45
35 13|
35 47
36 09
36 40
37 11
11 51
12 161
12 42|
13 10
13 38
3
b
e
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
49 32|
49 56|
50 21 1
50 45|
51 10
4 07
4 34|
5 02
5 29
5 57
21 58
22 22
22 44^
23 07J
23 31
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
b
c
d
e
f
E
26
28
30
32
26
28
29
29i
33i
32
31
31
25|
26
27i
28
24
25
24
25
27
27^
27
28
24
1^
23
23^
P
miles.
7.14
7.14
7.03
6.82
8.65
8.03
7.50
7.03
8.65
8.03
7.59
7.59
8.33
8.03
7.59
7.59
6.72
7.03
7.26
7.26
8.82
8.65
8.18
8.03
9.38
9.00
9.38
9.00
8.18
8.18
8.33
8.03
9.38
10.00
9.78
9.57
lbs.
338.7
322.1
328.1
273.7
406.4
483.5
492
412.7
499.5
477.8
477.5
473.5
483.8
477.5
547.8
477.2
488.8
470
466
428
456
442.8
455
467.2
447.1
447.5
429.6
360.6
419.3
411.4
452.8
453
480.5
436.4
413.5
370
H
I
feet
10.48
10.48
10.31
10.00
12.69
11.79
11.00
10.31
12.69
11.79
11.19
11.19
12.22
11.79
11.19
11.19
9.85
10.31
10.65
10.65
12.94
12.69
12.00
11.79
13.75
13.20
13.75
13.20
12.00
12.00
12.22
11.79
13.75
14.67
14.35
14.04
I
Two
Horses.
7 passen
gers, and
4iton8,-
c. q. lb,
94 2 1
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
7 passen-
gers, and
4 tons, =
c. q. lb,
89 2 1
do.
do.
do.
do.
7
ger8,&2t.
15cwt.=
c. q, lb.
64 2 1
unf.
stmg
do.
do.
do.
do.
fav.
do.
light
do.
M
Draught
Bow. Stern.
in.
16
do.
do.
16
do.
do.
iH
do.
14i
in.
16
do.
do.
i«i
do.
do.
I5i
do.
14i
N
^
O
I
not
ohs.
do.
do.
do.
elev.
40'
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
.S
■l-i
dur.
run,
how
elev.
ir
do.
do.
elev.
48^
do.
do.
elev.
40^
do.
do.
elev.
25'
do.
do.
elev.
1*6'
do.
do.
elev.
50'
do.
do.
elev.
.58'
do.
do.
elev.
10'
Remarks.
PLACE OF experiment,
FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL.
Rapid weighed when emplj,
dtons8cwt2qr. 201b.
A Passage-boat passed at 5 sec
Rapid, with 7 paaseoffen and
4 tons, neariy equal to the
Lark with 4^ tons and 7 pas-
sengers.
'I
Rapid, with 7 passengers, S tons,'
and 7 cwt, nearly equal to the'
VELocrrv, Hawk, and Eagle,
with 3 tons and 7 passeoger^
each.
Rapid, with 7 passengen and
2 tons 15 cwt, nearly equal toi
the Lark \iv-ith 3 tons and 71
passengers. I
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RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE VII. coNTiNUBD.— THE RAPID (Second Set).
275
A
B
C
D
E
P
G
H
I
J
K
L M
N
P
'si
it
M
2
t
1
i .
1|
1
li
1
It
1
1
Draught
1
0.
1'
Remarks.
place of experiment,
forth and clyde canal.
I
Bow.
Stem.
min. sec.
8ec.
miles.
lbs.
feet
251
Rapid.
33 14|
33 41
34 o^
34 36
35 04^
b .
c
d
€
f
26|
27J
27|
2b|
8.49
8.18
8.18
7.90
406.8
390
400
417.5
12.45
12.00
12.00
11.58
Two
Horses.
7 passen-
gers, & 2 1.
I5cwt.=
c. q, lb.
64 2 1
fav.
light
in.
14i
io.
14i
not
obs.
dur.
run,
bow
elev.
35'
57 41
b
23
9.78
450
14.35
7 passen-
do.
Rapid, with 7 passengers and
58 04
e
22
21|
10.23
10.47
420
419
15.00
15.35
gers,&2t.
do
2 tons 7 cwt, nearly equal to
252
Rapid.
58 26
58 47
59 09
d
e
f
do.
7 cwt. zz
c. q. lb.
56 2 1
none
131
18g
do.
elev.
the Eagle, VELocrrv, and
Hawk, with 2 tons and 7
22
10.23
406
15.00
38'
passengers each.
6 58
7 23i
7 50
8 15|
8 42
b
25|
8.82
401
12.94
do.
253
Rapid.
c
d
e
f
26
25
26
8.49
8.82
8.49
372
407
397
12.45
12.94
12.45
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
elev.
4B'
21 07i
b
23
10.23
440
1500
7 passen-
do.
Rapid, with 7 passengers, 1
254
Rapid.
21 29 f
21 4l|
22 13
c
d
g
23
21i
10.23
10.47
400
400
15.00
15.35
do.
gers, & 1 1.
15cwt.z=
c. q. lb.
44 2 1
do.
12f
12g
do.
do.
elev.
ton 15 cwt, nearly equal to
the Lark with 2 tons and 7
passengers, and Zephyr
22 35
/
23
10.23
382.5
15.00
8'
with 3 tons and 7 passengers.
30 46
31 12
31 38^
32 05|
32 32|
b
26
8.65
360
12.69
do.
255
Rapid.
c
d
26^
27
8.49
8.33
361.6
352.2
12.45
12.22
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
elev.
f
27
8.33
358.8
12.22
35'
24
b
21
10.71
461
15.71
7 passen-
do.
Rapid, with 7 passengers and
256
Rapid.
45
1 06
1 28
c
d
21
22
10.71
10.23
412.8
376
15.71
15.00
do.
gers, & It.
7 cwt. =
c. q. lb.
36 2 1
do.
12
Ill
do.
do.
elev.
1 ton 7 cwt, nearly equal to
the Velocity, Eagle, and
Hawk, with 1 ton and 7
1 501
f
224
10.00
352
14.67
do.
18'
passengers each.
257
Rapid.
18 06
18 35
19 02
19 28
19 57
b
c
d
29
27
26
7.76
8.33
8.65
289
308
346
11.38
12.22
12.69
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
elev.
f
29
7.76
323.7
11.38
42^
26 05^
26 27
b
2H
10.47,
374
15.35
7 passen-
gers, and
15 cwt. =
Rapid, with 7 oassengers and
15 cwt, nearly equal to the j
258
Rapid.
26 50
d
23
22
9.78
10.23
351
350
14.35
15.00
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
not
obs.
Lark with 1 ton and 7 pas- !
sengers, and to the Zephyr
27 12
27 34
e
f
22
10.23
325
15.00
c. q. lb.
24 2 1
with 2 tons and 7 passen-
gers.
35 35
36 04
;J6 30
'36 57
37 25
b
29
7.76
302.8
11.38
1
259
Rapid.
d
e
f
26
27
28
8.65
8.33
8.03
308.5
306.2
302.2
12.69
12.22
11.79
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
not
obs.
1
N N 2
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276
RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE VII. CONTINUED.— THE RAPID (Second Set).
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L M
N
1
1
1
P
■sf
1
h
t
11
I
1=
1
1
■6
o
Draught
.5
>
Remabks.
1
PLACE OF SXFBElMEKTy '
Bow.
Stern.
MONKLAND CANAL.
min. sec
sec.
miles.
lbs.
feet.
i
11 42
b
7 passen-
20
dur.
1
1
32
7.03
320
10.31
Two
Horses.
gers, and
in.
in.
yards
run,
1
260
Rapid.
12 14
e
35
6.43
326
9.43
I ton, =:
c. q. 16.
none
Hi
lU
bef.
the
bow
eJev.
12 49
d
19 2 1
boat.
I'O'
18 39
b
do.
do.
elev.
20
11.25
425
16.50
261
Rapid.
18 59
e
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
just
astern
1
21
10.71
387
15.71
lO'
19 20
d
27 13
b
20|
10.97
391
16.09
do.
do.
elev.
lO'
262
Rapid.
27 331
c
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
20i
10.97
375
16.09
27 54
d
33 34
b
about
do.
25
9.00
366
13.20
the
do.
elev.
263
Rapid.
33 59
e
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
mddle
34 22
d
23
9.78
349
14.35
of the
boat
40 27
b
about
do,
37
6.08
172
8.92
12ft.
do.
elev.
9^
264
Rapid.
41 04
c
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
from
41 40
d
36
6.25
164
9.17
the
bow.
49 53
b
about
the
do
32
7.03
324
10.31
bowtt
do.
elev.
l" 1'
265
Rapid.
50 25
c
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
heavy
34
6.62
345
9.71
wave
after
oO 59
d
the
boat.
59 17i
b
59
3.81
48
5.59
do.
266
Rapid.
1 19
c
d
m
3.60
36
5.28
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
level.
!
7 2
b
37
6.08
145
8.92
about
do.
do.
elev.
15'
267
Rapid.
7 39
c
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
the
38
5.92
125
8.68
quartr
8 17
d
21 lOj
b
268
Rapid.
21 31^
21 53
e
d
21
21i
10.71
10.47
406
342
15.71
15.35
do.
do.
do.
wj
9i
at the
mddle
of the
boat
do.
do.
level.
Shifted the weights to the
bow.
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RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE VIL coNTiNOTD.— THE RAPID (Sbcond Set).
277
A
B
C
D
E
P
G
H
I
J
K
L M
N
P
it
i
i j5
t
1 .
1
1
1
^1
1
1
^
Draught
1
.S
>
Remarks.
place of exprrimknt,
monkt.and canal.
Bow.
Stem
min. sec
sec.
miles.
lbs.
feet
28 28|
b
7 passen-
dur.
281
7.90
364.7
11.58
Two
Horses.
gers, and
in.
14i
in.
9i
justal
run,
269
Rapid.
28 57
c
28
8.03
385
11.79
I ton, =
c. g. lb.
none
the
bow.
bow
elev.
Heavy swell.
29 25
d
29 2 1
25'
36 59
h
25
9.00
318
13.20
15
feet
do.
do.
elev.
15'
270
Rapid.
37 24
c
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
hi-
Swell not so heavy.
37 48
d
24
9.38
259
13.75
ther
aft.
50 51^
b
31
7.26
362.7
10.65
about
20Yd£
before
the
boat
do.
do.
elev.
54'
271
Rapid.
51 22|
51 53
c
d
30i
7.38
431
10.82
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
58 38
b
do.
do.
elev.
43'
33
6.82
313.5
10.00
a little
before
the
272
Rapid.
59 11
c
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
33
6.82
346
10.00
boat
59 44
d
6 54
b
do.
do.
dep.
12'
48
4.69
82
6.88
after
273
Rapid.
7 42
c
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
the
Swell very slight
48^
4.64
78
6.80
boat.
8 30|
d
14 3
b
21
10.71
395
15.71
in
do.
do.
dep.
274
Rapid.
14 24
c
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
mid.
21
10.71
348
15.71
ships.
14 45
d
23 20
b
about
do.
do.
elev.
24
9.38
322
13.75
18
feet
from
276
Rapid.
23 44
c
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
23i
9.57
271
14.04
the
22'
24 11
d
bow.
45 20
b
do.
do.
elev.
1"17'
28
8.03
373
11.79
276
Rapid.
45 48
c
do.
do.
do.
9
14
at the
Weight shifted to stem ; swell
46 14|
d
26J
8.49
389.6
12.45
bow.
very high, rose 3 feet
54 10
b
do.
do.
elev.
27'
20^
10.97
375
16.09
at
277
Rapid.
54 30J
c
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
mid-
Not BO high.
20^
10.97
370.6
16.09
ships.
54 51
d
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278
RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE VII. CONTINUED.— THE RAPID (Second Set).
A
B
C
D
E
P
G
H
I
J
K
L M
N
P
.•
's'J
I
r
1
1
I
1
2«2
i
1
Draught
1
.5
>
Reicaekb.
PLACE OF RYPERIMBNT,
MONKLANO GAKAL.
Bow.
otorn.
min. sec.
3 53
b
sec.
miles.
lbs.
feet
7 passen-
aOydi.
before
dur.
83
6.82
324.6
10.00
Two
Hones.
gers, and
in
in.
the
boat.
run.
'
278
Rapid.
4 26
c
33
6.82
350
10.00
1 ton, =
c. g. lb.
none
9
14
broken
water
behind
bow
elev.
4 59
d
29 2 1
the
boftt.
VW
12 58
b
do.
do.
elev.
ir
54
4.17
60
6.11
279
Rapid.
13 52
c
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Very little swell
51
4.41
58.7
6.47
14 43
d
30|
b
25i
8.82
368
12.94
at
do.
do.
elev.
42'
280
Rapid.
56
c
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
mid-
26
8.65
340.6
12.69
ships
I 22
d
16 52
b
8 passen-
281
Rapid.
17 15|
17 38
c
d
23i
22i
9.57
10.00
383.5
328
14.04
14.67
do.
gers, and
I ton, =
c. q. lb.
II 3 3
do.
not
obs.
not
obs.
not
obs.
31 55
b
20
11.25
366
16.50
8 passen-
dur.
282
Rapid.
32 15
c
do.
gers, -
c. q. lb.
10 3 3
do.
11
8f
run,
bow
level.
32 35
d
20
11.25
347
16.50
40 38
b
do.
do.
elev.
45'
25}
8.82
319.7
12.94
283
Rapid.
41 03^
c
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
26}
8.49
366.5
12.45
41 30
d
00
b
22}
10.00
301
14.67
do.
do.
elev.
2'
284
Rapid.
22}
c
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Very little swell
I 45
d
22}
10.00
278.6
14.67
9 24|
b
50}
4.46
61
6.53
285
Rapid.
10 15
11 06|
c
d
51}
4.37
^l
6.41
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
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BECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE VIII.— NEW BOAT (14. Experiments).
279
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L M
N
P
^1
i'l
§1
i
i
1
^
t
Draught
1
0.
.S
>
Remabks.
place op expeeiment,
forth and CLYDE CANAL.
Bow.
Stern.
min. sec
sec
miles.
lbs.
feet
Experiments on Keek of dif-
4 28
h
25
9.00
206.5
13.20
6 passen-
ferent forms.
286
Nbw Boat.
4 53
5 18
5 41
6 05
c
d
25
23
9.00
9.78
185
202.8
13.20
14.35
Two
Hones.
gers, and
1 ton, =
c. q. lb.
28 16
none
not
obs.
not.
obs.
not
obs.
not
obs.
Keel 30 ft. long, 6 in. deep,
tapered off to a point at 4 ft.
from the ends. Boat 61 ft.
f
24
9.38
223.5
13.75
6 in. long.
26 28|
26 47|
27 06
27 25
27 ^14
h
19
11.84
307
17.37
287
Nbw Boat.
c
d
18J
19
12.16
11.84
299
290.8
17.84
17.37
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Heavy rain.
e
f
19
11.84
267.8
17.37
35 40
36 15
36 51
37 27
38 03^
h
35
6.43
96.8
9.43
288
New Boat.
c
d
36
36
6.25
6.25
86.6
84
9.17
9.17
do.
do.
unf.
strng
do.
do.
do.
do.
f
36^
6.16
81.7
9.04
48 32^
48 58
49 23i
49 47|
50 12|
h
25i
8.82
193.8
12.94
289
Nbw Boat.
e
d
24
8.82
9.38
202.5
190.7
12.94
13.75
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
f
25
9.00
186.6
13.20
46 25
46 54
47 22J
47 50'
48 19J
h
29
776
164.5
11.38
290
New Boat.
c
d
e
f
28J
271
28|
7.90
8.18
7.90
163
178.8
151.6
11.58
12.00
11.58
do.
do.
do.
in.
24
in.
21i
do.
do.
Triangular Keel 20 ft. long,
7 in. deep.
55 45
56 10
56 33|
57 57
58 21
h
25
9.00
180.6
13.20
291
New Boat.
c
d
e
f
23
23
24
9.57
9.57
9.38
203.7
209
191
14.04
14.04
13.75
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
2 38
2 54
3 11
3 28|
3 46|
b
16
14.06
339
20.63
292
New Boat.
c
d
e
f
17
\1\
18
13.24
12.86
12.50
346.6
318
303
19.41
18.86
18.33
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
17 18J
17 37
c
18i
12.16
316.6
17.84
not
Keel 20 ft. long, 10 in. deep
in the midcflfe, curved to
both ends.
293
New Boat.
17 57
18 17
18 37
d
e
f
20
20
20
25
11.25
11.25
11.25
288
273
277.5
16.50
16.50
16.50
do.
do.
80
strng
do.
do.
do.
do.
29 40
30 05
30 29
30 54
31 18
h
9.00
203.5
13.20
294
New Boat.
c
d
24
25
9.38
9.00
192.8
192.5
13.75
13.20
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
'•'
e
f
24
9.38
196.8
13.75
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280
RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE VIIL CONTINUED.— NEW BOAT.
295
296
297
B
i
New Boat.
New Boat.
New Boat,
II
mm. Bee
39 15^
40 08
41 01
41 6
42 49
20 48
21 07
21 27
21 46|
22 06
27 33|
27 67
28 21
28 44
29 07
I
b
c
d
e
f
c
d
e
f
c
d
e
f
E
I
I
P
52|
53
54
54
19
20
19
19
23^
24
23
23
%
I.
4.29
4.25
4.17
4.17
11.84
11.25
11.54
11.54
9.57
9.38
9.78
9.78
G
h
lbs.
50
49
47.7
48
298
276
261
267
207
214
221
200.7
H
a
I
feet
6.29
6.23
6.11
6.11
17.37
16.50
16.92
16.92
14.04
13.75
14.35
14.35
^1
Two
Horses.
do.
do.
6 passen-
gers, and
1 ton, =r
c. q. lb.
28 15
do.
do.
^
unf.
not
80
strng
do.
do.
L M
Draught
Bow. Stern.
m.
24
23
do.
N
§
1
in.
214
21g
do.
not
obs.
do.
do.
'II
I'
not
obs.
do.
do.
Remarks.
PLACE OF BXFE&IMENT,
FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL.
Very little fwelL
Keel 10 feet Ions, 14 in.
deep in the middle, being
the segment of a cirde,
the middle of which was
27 feet from the middle of
boat forward.
298
New Boat.
37 11
37 51 J
38 28
39 06|
39 45
b
c
d
e
f
40
36
38
5.56
6.16
5.84
5.84
73
88
71.8
7a5
8.15
9.04
8.57
8.57
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
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RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE IX.— THE SWIFT (First Set— 11 Experiments).
281
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L M
N
P
1
1
1 .
"si
SCO
1
||
§1
1
I
1
'
t
Draught
1
.2
>
Remaekb.
PLACS OF EXKEBIMBNT,
OLABGOW AND PAISLEY CANAL.
Bow.
Stem.
min. sec.
sec
miles.
lbs.
feet
21 25
b
7 passen-
dur.
299
Swift.
21 49
22 13
c
d
24
24
9.38
9.38
233.3
230.6
13.75
13.75
Two
Horses.
gers, and
3 tons,=
c. g.lb.
60 2 1
light
in.
13i
in.
13f
run,
bow
elev.
4'
33 301
b
17 ft.
do.
do
16
14.06
521.7
20.63
from
stern
onlar*
Boat one-third the width of
300
Swift.
33 46i
e
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
pIpv
the canal firom the towing-
in
12.86
475
18.86
board
6'
path.
34 04
d
side.
39
b
20
11.25
358
16.50
more
frwrd
than
IriRt
do.
do.
elev.
8'
301
Swift.
59
e
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
20
11.25
344
16.50
expe-
1 19
d
rimnt
51 14J
b
24J
9.18
250
13.47
at
do.
do.
elev.
6'
302
Swift.
51 39
e
24
9.38
221
13.75
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
mid-
ships.
Hones did not go steady.
52 03
d
4 40
b
do.
do.
dep.
24
9.38
272
13.75
303
Swift.
5 04
c
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
26
8.65
222
12.69
5 30
d
13 36
b
do.
do.
elev.
29'
25
9.00
268
13.20
about
304
Swift.
14 01
c
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
^frY>m
Not a good experiment.
26^
8.49
161
12.45
bow.
14 27J
d
21 47
b
do.
do.
elev.
I'T
33
6.82
360
10.00
40
305
Swift.
22 20
e
33
6.82
371
10.00
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
yards
ahead
of
22 53
d
boat.
29 56
b
do.
do.
elev.
68'
41
5.49
268.8
8.05
306
Swift.
30 37
c
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
31 17i
■d
411
5.42
347.7
7.95
38 50|
b
47
4.79
91.2
7.02
do.
do.
elev.
•V
307
Swift.
39 37J
c
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
47^
4.7«
76.6
6.95
40 25
d
r
VOL. I.
O O
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28a
RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE IX. coNTiNUBD.— THE SWIFT (First Set).
a
I
i,
D E
^1 !
= 1
308
Swift.
I CO
I
44|| i
1 12|!
1 39
28
26i
miles.
8.03
8.49
G
H
i
•5 .a
IbB.
266.6
358.8
I
feet
11.79
12.45
I
I
•S o
Two
Horses,
7 passen
gers, and
3 tons, =
c, q. lb.
69 2 1
K
-6
light
L M
Draught
Bow. Stern.
in.
13J
in.
13|
N
PLACE OF £XFERIMEMT,
GLASGOW AND PAISLEY CANAL.
dur.
run,
bow
elev.
Remaeks.
309
Swift.
52 15
52 49
53 23
c
d
34
34
6.62
6.62
341.8
335.5
9.71
9.71
do.
9 passen
gers, and
2tl5ct.=:
c. q, lb.
67 25
do.
TABLE X.— -ZEPHYR and RAPID lashed together (2 Experiments).
310
311
B
i
Zephyr
and
Rapid
lashed
together.
Zephyr
AND
Rapid
lashed
together.
mm. sec
53 20
53 54
54 28
55 03J
55 40
D
21 46
22 07
22 28
22 52|
23 17
b
c
d
e
/
h
c
d
e
f
E
34
34
35J
36
21
21
24
24;
I
miles.
6.62
6.62
6.34
6.16
10.71
10.71
9.18
9.18
G
«l
'I
lbs.
297.5
264.4
231
201.5
472
521.8
H
1
I
feet
9.71
9.71
9.30
9.04
15.71
15.71
13.47
13.47
^1
1
Two
Horses.
Three
Horses.
7 passen-
gers, =
c. q. lb.
9 2 1
do.
not
obs.
M
Draught.
Bow.
in.
7
do. do.
Stem.
m.
6
do.
N
I
a
o
I
not.
obs.
do.
not
obs.
do.
Remarks.
PLACE OF experiment,
FORTH AND CLYDE CANAL.
In this experiment the paO
went above the range of
the Dynamometer in the
first two stake-intervals.
^^^
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RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
283
TABLE XL— THE SWIFT (Second Sbt.)
ACTUAL TRACTIVE POWER OBSERVED IN WORKING THE SWIFT EIGHT MILES ALONG THE GLASGOW AND PAISLEY CANAL,
AT THE ORDINARY PASSENGER-SPEED, OR NINE MILES PER HOUR.
f^
g=s
H
li
|.S
EEMARK8.
|.2
REMARKS.
"? .^
REBiARKS.
REMARKS.
170
400
400
280
Load — Eleven passengers
and 2 tons 15 cwt, equal
to 69 cwt Sqra. 20 lbs.
from Half-waj House to
Glasgow, and one passen-
ger additional from the
Culvert to Glasgow.
225
215
210
225
350
240
300
305
240
310
260
235
pass Bridge.
260
195
270
245
265
240
220
285
pass Bridge.
235
230
240
230
pass Course — Place where
the Experiments were
made.
230
pass BiGle-stone.
270
235
215
240
230
240
215
230
220
235
240
220
235
pass Mile-etone.
225
210
210
230
225
200
205
235
240
235
210
245
230
200
215
270
260
Barge passes.
120
pass Aqueduct
215
260
250
120
210
230
275
turn.
150
220
205
250
150
245
turn oomer.
215
230
pass Mile-stone.
130
235
235
230
120
265
235
210
100
245
300
pass Narrow Bridge.
215
no
205
360
235
no
220
350
235
no
200
300
225
100
200
240
215
90
105
290
215
100
Port BgUnton.
190
890
stop and take in a passenger.
Load, therefore, about 71
cwt
320
300
aBoatpaased.
215
230
425
goon again.
270
240
380
320
235
230
250
270
220
340
pass Bridge. Bad turn.
260
o o2
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284
RECENT CANAL-BOAT EXPERIMENTS.
TABLE XII.— THE ZEPHYR (Sbcond Sbt).
ACTUAL TBACTIVB POWER OBSBRVBD IN WORKINO THB ZBPHTR BIQHT MILBS ALONG THB FORTH AND GLTDB CANAL,
AT THE ORDINARY PASSBN0ER-8PBBD, OR NINB MILBS PER HOUR.
ll
ll
RBMABKS.
||
REMARKS.
||
RBMAEKH.
395
370
405
315
395
395
3 tons, equal to 72 cwt
0qra.251bs.
375
350
395
340
305
300
400
250
190
Stopped by a Vessel at Bridge.
310
415
240
70
295
445
285
turn.
300
tum.
555
320
325
460
325
325
190
paas Bridge.
350
pass Bridge.
325
20
take off Rope.
420
170
340
20
425
330
300
20
420
380
310
pass Culvert
300
260
paas Bridge.
385
270
turn.
310
385
310
310
390
370
100
paasBafge.
pass Afile-^tone.
380
355
440
385
385
445
370
360
395
370
280
80
385
370
pass MUe-stone.
265
turn.
300
365
335
245
355
380
330
300
1
395
380
270
370
420
385
160
pass Stockinged Bridge.
360
425
360
150
stop.
310
425
350
\ ^
320
pa« Mile-stoQe.
410
355
^
345
405
330
start again.
360
405
325
130
390
405
350
310
390
375
320
355
390
355
345
355
400
355
340
345
400
345
290
tum.
340
400
1
320
200
315
370
Urnb^dn Bridge.
320
230
320
140
330
250
1
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APPENDIX.
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OFFICE-BEARERS.
1836.
COUNCIL.
JAMES WALKER, ESQ., FJR.S. L. & £., Prendeni.
WILLIAM CUBITT, ESQ., F.R.S., M.R.I.A., F.ItA.S.
BRYAN DONKIN, ESQ., F.R.A.S.
J. FIELD, ESQ., F.R.8.
H. R. PALMER, ESQ., F.R.S.
. Vice-Presidents,
I. K. BRUNEL, ESQ., F.R.S.
JOHN FAREY, ESQ.
GEORGE LOWE, ESQ., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S.
JOHN MACNEILL, ESQ., F.R.A.S., M.R.I.A.
JAMES SIMPSON, ESQ.
ROBERT STEPHENSON, ESQ.
JOHN THOMAS, ESQ.
AUDITORS.
JAMES HOWELL, ESQ.
NATHANIEL NICHOLLS, ESQ.
TREASURER.
W. A. HANKEY, ESQ.
SECRETARY.
MR. WILLIAM GITTINS.
ACCOUNTANT AND COLLECTOR.
MR. GEORGE COLLINS GIBBON.
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MEMBERS.
Anderson, William, Paddington, London.
Anderson, William D., Cannon Row, Westminster.
AsHWELL, James, Upper Thames Street, London.
Barnes, John, Commercial Road, London.
Bramah, Francis, F.H.S., Pimlico, Middlesex.
Brown, Nicholas, Wakefield, Yorkshire.
Brunel, Marc Isambard, F.R.S., Duke Street, Westminster.
Brunel, Isambard K., F.R.S., Duke Street, Westminster.
Brunton, William, Charlotte Row, Mansion House, London.
Clark, Willlam Tierney, F.R.A.S., Hammersmith, Middlesex.
CoLLiNGE, Charles, Westminster Bridge Road, Lambeth.
CuBiTT,WiLUAM, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., M.R.I A., Great George Street, Westminster.
DoNKiN, Bryan, F.R.A.S., New Kent Road, Surrey.
DoNKiN, John, F.G.S., Great Surrey Street, London.
Farey, John, Guildford Street, London.
Field, Joshua, F.R.S., Cheltenham Place, Lambeth.
Gordon, Alexander, Fludyer Street, Westminster.
Gravatt, William, F.R.S., Delahay Street, Westminster.
Hardwick, Philip, Russell Square, London.
Hawkins, John Isaac, Hampstead Road, Middlesex.
Hunter, Walter, Bow, Middlesex.
Jones, James, St. Katharine's, London.
Landmann, Colonel George, King William Street, London.
Lowe, George, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S., Finsbuiy Circus, London.
Macneill, John, F.R.A.S., M.R.I.A., St. Martin's Place, Westminster.
Maudslay, Joseph, Cheltenham Place, Lambeth.
Mead, John C, Keppel Street, Bedford Square, London.
Miller, Joseph, Commercial Road, London.
Mills, James, Battersea Fields, Surrey.
Palmer, George Henry, Old Kent Road, Surrey.
Palmer, Henry Robinson, F.R.S., Great George Street, Westminster.
Penn, John, Greenwich.
Perkins, Jacob, Great Coram Street^ London.
VOL. I. p p
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290 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Provis, William Alexander, Abingdon Street, Westminster.
Protis, Henry Thomas.
Rhodes, Thomas, York.
Savage, James, Essex Street, Strand, Westminster.
Seaward, John, Limehouse, Middlesex.
Sibley, Robert, Great Ormond Street, London.
Simpson, James, Pimlico, Middlesex.
Stephenson, Robert, Hampstead, Middlesex.
Swinburne, William, Westminster Bridge.
Thomas, John, Highgate, Middlesex.
ViGNOLES, Charles, F.R.A.S., Trafalgar Square, Westminster.
Walker, James, F.R.S. L. & E., Great George Street, Westminster.
Whishaw, Francis, Gray's Inn, London.
WiNSOR, F. A., Brick Lane, Old Street, London.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Aher, David, Dublin.
Atherton, Charles, Glasgow.
Baird, Francis, St. Petersburg.
Baird, Nichol, Upper Canada.
Bald, Robert, F.G.S., F.R.S. E., Edinburgh.
Baxter, William, Bangor, Wales.
Beamish, Richard, Cork.
Bidder, George P.
Blackadder, William, Glammiss, Forfexshire, N.B.
Blackmore, John, Ryton, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Blackwell, John, Hungerford, Berks.
Blom, Colonel Frederick, Stockholm.
BoDMER, John George, Bolton, Lancashire.
Bremner, James, Pulteney Town, Caithness, N.B.
Brooks, William A., Stockton-upon-Tees.
Buck, George Watson, Watford, Herts.
Buddle, John, F.G.S., Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Bury, Edward, Liverpool.
Casebourne, Thomas, Caledon, Ireland.
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LIST OP MEMBERS. 291
Clegram, William, Gloucester.
Cleland, James, LL.D., Glasgow.
Daglish, Robert, Wigan, Lancashire.
Dyson, Thomas, Downham, Norfolk.
Easton, Alexander, Newport, Shropshire.
Fairbairn, William, Manchester.
Forbes, Captain William Nairn, F.R.S., F.G.S., Bengal Engineers, Calcutta.
FoRDHAM, Ellas P., Dover.
Foster, Thomas, HasweU, Durham.
Fouls, Samuel, Northwich, Cheshire.
Gibb, John, Aberdeen.
GiBB, Alexander, Aberdeen.
Glyn, Joshua, Butterly, near Derby.
Goodrich, Simon, Portsmouth.
Grainger, Thomas, Edinburgh.
Green, James, Exeter.
Haden, George, Trowbridge, Wilts.
Halpin, George, Dublin.
Hamilton, George E., Walton, near Stone, Staffordshire.
Handiside, William, St. Petersburg.
Harrison, Thomas E., Sunderland.
Hick, BenjabIin, Bolton, Lancashire.
Hopkins, Roger, Plymouth and Bath.
Hopkins, Rice, Plymouth and Bath.
Hopkins, Thomas, Plymouth and Bath.
Irvine, Major Archibald, Bengal Engineers, Calcutta.
Jones, R.W., Langhor, near Swansea, Glamorganshire.
Knight, Patrick, Castlebar, Ireland.
Lagerheim, Captain Gustaff, Gotha Canal, Sweden.
Leather, George, Leeds.
Leslie, James, Dundee.
LiPKiNS, Antoine, The Hague, HoUand.
Locke, Joseph, Liverpool.
Logan, David, Glasgow.
Mackenzie, William, Liverpool.
May, George, Clackmacany, Inverness.
Miller, John, Edinburgh.
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292 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Moses, Moses, Newport, Monmouthshire.
Murray, John, Sunderland.
Manbt, Aaron, Creuzot, Saone et Loire, France.
Neilson, James B., Glasgow.
Newnham, Thomas G., Newtown, Montgomeryshire.
Oldham, James, HuU.
Parkes, Josiah, Cork.
Peel, Georoe, Soho, Manchester.
Potter, James, Birmingham.
Price, Henry H., F.G.S., M.R.I.A., Swansea, Glamorganshire.
Provis, John, Holyhead, Anglesea.
Rastrick, John U., Birmingham.
Rendel, James M., Plymouth.
Richardson, Joshua, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Roentgen, Gerrard Morris, Rotterdam.
SopwiTH, Thomas, F.G.S., Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Smith, James, Deanston, near Stirling, N.B.
Steedman, John, Edinburgh.
Stevenson, Robert, F.G.S., F.R.S.E., Edinburgh.
Stevenson, Alan, M.A., Edinburgh.
Steward, William, Bordeaux.
Stiruno, James, Dundee.
Storey, Thomas, St. Helen's- Auckland, Durham.
Stuart, William, Plymouth.
SuERMONDT, Y. D., Utrccht.
Tennant, Charles, Glasgow.
Thom, Robert, Rothsay, Isle of Bute, N.B.
Thomson, James, Shiflhal, Shropshire.
Thornton, George, Daventry, Northamptonshire.
Thorold, William, Norwich.
Trubshaw, James, Haywood, Staffordshire.
Welsh, Henry, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Wilson, Daniel, Paris.
Wilson, Alexander, St. Petersburg.
Wood, Nicholas, Killingworth, near Newcastle.
WooLF, Arthur, Camborne, Cornwall.
Yates, William.
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LIST OF MEMBERS. 293
ASSOCIATES.
Abebnethy, Geobge, Dover.
AiTCHisoN, George, St. Katharine's, London.
Albano, Benedetto, Piccadilly, Westminster.
Armstrong, John, Bristol.
Atrton, Lieut. Frederick, Royal Artillery, Bombay.
Baker, George, Montague Place, RusseU Square, London.
Baker, Hughbert, Parliament Street, Westminster.
Bartholomew, Charles, Roiherham, Yorkshire.
Barwise, John, St. Martin's Lane, Westminster.
Bevan, John, Buckingham Street, Strand, Westminster.
BiLLiNGTON, William, Pimlico, Middlesex.
BooRER, John, Chelsea, Middlesex.
BoRTHWiCK, Michael A., Great George Street, Westminster.
Bourns, Charles, Great Ormond Street, London.
Braidwood, James, Watling Street, London.
Bray, William Bayley, Bow, Middlesex.
Brine, John Augustus, Manchester Buildings, Westminster.
Bull, Wiluam, Halifax, Yorkshire.
Carpmael, William, Lincoln's Inn, London.
Combe, James, Nelson Square, Southwark.
Comrie, Alexander, Fludyer Street, Westminster.
Cooper, James, Kentish Town, Middlesex.
CoTTAM, George, Winsley Street, Oxford Street, London.
CoTTAM, George Hallen, Oxford Street, London.
CuBiTT, Joseph, Great George Street, Westminster.
CuBiTT, Lewis, Gray's Inn Road, London.
CuBiTT, William, Gray's Inn Road, London.
Davidson, John R., Stone, Staffordshire.
Davison, Robert, Spitalfields, London.
Dent, Edward John, Strand, Westminster.
De Ville, James, Strand, Westminster.
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294 LIST OF MEMBERS-
DoNKiN, Bbyan, Jun., New Kent Road, Surrey.
Drewry, Charles, Howland Street, Fitzroy Square, London.
DuNDASS, John F., Dumfiies, N.B.
Errington, John E., Chester.
Freeman, William, Millbank Street, Westminster.
Gordon, Lewis B., Roiherhithe, Surrey.
Green, Joseph, Exeter.
Guest, Josiah John, M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.H.S., Grosvenor Street, London.
GuTCH, George, Harrow Road, Middlesex.
Hallen, Benjamin, Winsley Street, Oxford Street, London.
Hawkshaw, John, Vincent Square, Westminster.
Hays, William Bennett, Bermondsey, Surrey.
Heathcoat, John, M.P., London.
Hemming, Samuel, Notting Hill, Middlesex.
Hennett, George, Guildford Street, London.
Heppel, John, Mansion-house Street, London.
HoRNE, James, F.R.S., City Chib House, London.
Houghton, Dugdale, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Howard, Thomas, Tokenhouse Yard, London.
Howell, James, Vincent Square, Westminster.
Hunter, James, Bow, Middlesex.
JoPLiNG, Joseph, Somerset Street, Portman Square, London.
Jones, Thomas, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Charing Cross, Westminster.
Kennedy, Henry, Kennington, Surrey.
Kepp, Richard, Chandos Street, Westaiinster.
Lawrie, Alexander, Manchester.
Leahy, Patrick, Cork.
Leather, John Thomas, Sheffield.
Lynde, James G., Great Queen Street, Westminster.
M*Intosh, David, Bloomsbury Square, London.
May, Charles, City Road, London.
Mitchell, Joseph, Inverness.
Moreland, Richard, Old Street, London.
MooRsoM, Captain W. S., St. John's Wood, Middlesex.
Macquiston, Peter, Glasgow.
MosELEY, William, King's Road, London.
NiCHOLLs, Nathaniel, Lambeth, Surrey.
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LIST OF MEMBERS. QQS
Oldham, John, St. Martin's Place, Westminster.
Page, Thomas, Roiherhithe, Surrey.
Palmer, William, Clerkenwell, Middlesex.
Parsons, William, Leicester.
Patrick, Thomas, Fludyer Street, Westminster.
Penn, John, Jim., Greenwich.
Poole, Moses, Lincoln's Inn, London.
Reid, Major, Royal Engineers, Chatham.
Renton, a. H., Pimlico, Middlesex.
Seaward, Samuel, Limehouse, Middlesex.
Simpson, William, Pimlico, Middlesex.
Spearman, Captain John Morton, J. U. Service Club, London.
SiMMS, William, F.R.A.S., Fleet Street, London.
Steele, Thomas, Ennis, Lreland.
Smith, Captain John Thomas, Madras Engineers, Madras.
Stutely, Martin J., John Street, Adelphi, London.
Stephenson, Roland Macdonald, Upper Thames Street, London.
Sylvester, John, Great Russell Street, London.
Taylor, Thomas F., Salisbury Street, Strand, Westminster.
Thomson, John G., St. Martin's Place, Westminster.
ToMKiNS, William G., Albion Place, Black&iars, London.
TowNSHEND, Richard, Highgate, Middlesex.
Treacy, William A., St. Martin's Place, Westminster.
Treherne, Edmund, South Molton Street, London.
Tucker, John Scott, Mecklenburg Square, London.
TuRNBULL, George, Cardiff, Glamorganshire.
Waterston, John James, Millbank Street, Westminster.
Watkins, Francis, Charing Cross, Westminster.
Wells, Major, Royal Engineers, Chatham.
Whitwell, Stedman, Highgate, Middlesex.
Williams, Charles Wye, Liverpool.
Wright, John, Brighton.
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296 LIST OF MEMBERS.
HONORARY MEMBERS.
AiKiN, Abthur, F.L.S., Society of Arts, Adelphi, Westminster.
Barlow, Peter, F.R.S., F.RA.S., Royal Military Academy, Woolwich.
Beaufort, Captain Francis, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S., Admiralty, London.
Brewster, Sir David, LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.RA.S., Hon. M.R.I.A., Edin-
burgh.
Colby, Lieut-Colonel Thomas, LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., M.R.A.S., F.G.S.,
F.R.A.S., M.R.I A., Tower, London.
DupiN, Baron Charles, Member of the Institute of France, &c., &c., Paris.
Gilbert, Davies, D.CX., V.P.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S., Hon. M.R.I.A., &c., &c.,
Eastbourne, Sussex.
Gregory, Olinthus, LL.D., F.R.A.S., Royal Military Academy, Woolwich.
Leorand, Mons., Councillor of State, Director General of Roads, Bridges, and
Mines in France, &c., &c., Paris.
Parnell, The Bight Hon. Sir Henry, Bart., M.P., Chester Street, Belgrave
Square, London.
Pasley, Lieut.-Colonel Charles William, C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S.,
Chatham.
Pearson, Rev. William, D.D., F.R.S., V J.R.A.S., Islington, Middlesex.
RiCKMAN, John, M.A., F.R.S., Duke Street, Westminster.
Wallace, William, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S., Edinburgh.
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REGULATIONS.
VOL. I. ft Q
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INDEX OF CONTENTS
TO THE
REGULATIONS.
ion Page
[. Of its Object 299
[. Of its Constitution 299
[. Of the Election and Expulsion of Members, Corresponding Members, and
Associates 300
. Of the Election of the Officers 303
. Of the Contribution of Members, Corresponding Members, and Associates . 304
'.. Of the President 305
. Of the Vice-Presidents 306
'.. Of the Council 306
. Of the Auditors 307
'., Of the Treasurer 307
. Of the Secretaries 308
. Of the Collector 308
. Of the Ordinary Meetings 308
Of the Annual General Meeting 309
Of Special General Meetings 309
Of Committees and Lectures 310
. Of altering the Regulations 310
Of the Property of the Institution 311
Of Donations and Bequests 312
Bye-Laws 313
Appendix 316
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REGULATIONS.
SECTION I.
OF ITS OBJECT.
The Institution of Civil Engineers has been formed for facilitating the acquire-
ment of professional knowledge, and for promoting mechanical philosophy.
SECTION II.
OF ITS CONSTITUTION.
1. The Institution of Civil Engineers shall consist of four classes, viz. Mem-
bers, Corresponding Members, Associates, and Honorary Members.
2. Members shall be persons who are, or have been, engaged in the practice
of a Civil Engineer.
3. Corresponding Members shall be persons of the same description, who
reside without the limits of the threepenny post.
QQ 2
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300 REGULATIONS.
4. Associates shall be those, whose pursuits constitute branches of £n-
gineeringy but who are not Engineers by profession.
5. Honorary Members shall be persons who are not engaged in the practice
of a Civil Engineer in this country, but who are men eminent for science, and
have written on subjects connected with the profession.
6. The number of Honorary Members shall be limited to forty.
7. The Officers of the Institution shall consist of a President, four Vice-
Presidents, and seven Members, who shall constitute a Council for the direc-
tion and management of the affairs of the Institution ; and of two Auditors, a
Treasurer, two Secretaries, and a Collector ; all of whom shall be elected an-
nually, and shall be re-eligible.
8. The President, Vice-Presidents, and the seven other Members of the
Council, shall be chosen out of the class of Members only ; and the Auditors
shall be chosen out of the class of Members, or of the class of Associates.
SECTION III.
OF THE ELECTION AND EXPULSION OF MEMBERS, CORRESPONDING
MEMBERS, AND ASSOCIATES.
1. All persons desirous of being admitted into the Institution as Members,
Corresponding Members, or Associates, must be proposed agreeably to form (a)
in the Appendix hereto, wherein must be inserted the Christian name. Surname,
and usual place of residence of the candidate, in which the qualifications of the
candidate shall also be distinctly specified in such a manner as to enable the
Members, Corresponding Members, and Associates, generally to judge of his
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REGULATIONS. 301
eligibility, and which form must, in the case of Members and Associates, be
subscribed by at least three Members of the Institution, who shall certify their
personal knowledge of such candidate; but in the case of Corresponding Mem-
bers, it shall be sufficient if one of such three, or more subscribing Members
certifies his personal knowledge of the individual proposed. And every person
proposed as an Honorary Member must be recommended by at least five Mem-
bers, who shall certify that he is a person eminent for science, and give the title
of one or more works which he may have written on subjects connected with
the profession.
2. Every recommendation of a candidate must be delivered to the Secre-
tary, who shall submit the same to the Council for them to inquire and
determine whether the candidate is a fit person to be balloted for, and also for
which class of Members he should be presented to the Ordinary Meeting.
3. When the Council shall have approved the recommendation of a candidate,
the proposition shall be signed by the Chairman of the Council ; it shall then
be read at the first following Ordinary Meeting, after which, it shall be hung up
in their principal meeting room, and there remain until the candidate is balloted
for.
4. The ballot shall take place at the second Ordinary Meeting of the Insti-
tution after that on which the candidate is proposed.
5. The proportion of votes requisite for the election of any person into
either class, shall be at least three-fourths of the ballot.
6. In the election of Members, CoiTesponding Members, or Associates, a
second ballot shall be granted at the same meeting, if immediately demanded
by three Members, Corresponding Members, or Associates present.
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302 REGULATIONS.
7. In the event of its being desired to transfer any Member, Corresponding
Member, or Associate of the Institution from one class to another class, such
proposition, containing the reasons for the desired change, according to form (f),
and signed by three Members, Corresponding Members, or Associates, shall be
submitted to the Council, as in the case of the admission of Members, Corre-
sponding Members, or Associates, and, if approved by them, shall go through
the same forms also, as a candidate for admission into the Society.
8. In case of the non-election of any person balloted for, no notice shall
be taken thereof in the minutes.
9. Whenever any person is elected, the Secretary shall immediately inform
him of the same by letter (b) in the Appendix, and the election of Honorary
Members shall likewise be communicated to them as soon as possible, by a letter
suitable to each particular case ; and no person shall be considered as an
Honorary Member, until he has signified his acquiescence in the election, after
which he shall have all the rights and privileges of a Member, except that of
filling any oflBce in the Institution.
10. Every person elected a Member, Corresponding Member, or Associate,
shall pay his first annual contribution within two months of the day of his
election, otherwise his election shall be void. But in the case of Corresponding
Members not resident in Great Britain, the Council shall have power to extend
this period as they may judge proper.
11. Every Member, Corresponding Member, and Associate elected, shall be
required to sign the form (c) in the Appendix, and having likewise paid his first
annual contribution, shall be admitted at the first ordinary meeting of the Insti-
tution at which he is present, according to the ensuing form: viz. the President
or Chairman of the Meeting, addressing him by name, shall say, "As President,
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REGULATIONS. 303
or as Chairman of this Meeting of the Institution of Civil Engineers, I introduce
Mr. B. W^. as a [<w may be} thereof.**
12. If at any time there shall appear cause for the expulsion of any Mem-
ber, Corresponding Member, or Associate, such proposition shall be handed to
the Council, who, if they think fit, shall call a special General Meeting for the
purpose, but no Member, Corresponding Member, or Associate, can be expelled
without a report from the Council ; and if one-half of the Members then pre-
sent, at such special General Meeting, agree that such Member, Correspond-
ing Member, or Associate be expelled, the President, or other Officer or Mem-
ber in the Chair, shall declare the same accordingly, and the Secretary shall
forthwith communicate the same to such Member, Corresponding Member, or
Associate, according to the form (d) in the Appendix.
SECTION IV.
OF THE ELECTION OF THE OFFICERS.
1. The President, Vice-Presidents, Council, two Auditors, Treasurer, two
Secretaries, and Collector, shall be elected annually by ballot, at the General
Meeting, on the third Tuesday in January.
2. That all persons to be eligible as Officers of this Institution, must be put
in nomination at the Ordinary Meeting, immediately preceding the Annual
General Meeting.
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f
304 REGULATIONS.
SECTION V.
OF THE CONTRIBUTION OF MEMBERS, CORRESPONDING MEMBERS,
AND ASSOCIATES.
1. The Contribution of each Member shall be three gumeas per annum ;
the first of which shall be payable at the time of his election, and every pay-
ment shall become due in advance, on the first day of January then Yiext fol-
lowing.
2. The Contribution of each Corresponding Member shall be two guineas
per annum ; the first of which shall be payable at the time of his election, and
every payment shall become due in advance, on the first day of January then
next following,
3. The Contribution of each Associate shall be two guineas and a half per
annum ; the first of which shall be due at the time of his election, and every
subsequent payment shall, in like manner, become payable in advance, on the
first day of January then next following. Any Member, Corresponding Mem-
ber, or Associate, residing in the United Kingdom, may, however, compound
for his annual contributions by the payment of twenty guineas, and any Mem-
ber, Corresponding Member, or Associate, residing abroad, may compound
for his annual contribution by the payment of ten guineas.
4. New Members, Corresponding Members, or Associates, shall pay the
sum of one guinea, as an admission fee.
5. Every Member, Corresponding Member, and Associate, is expected to
produce to the Institution, at least one unpublished communication in each
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REGULATIONS, 305
session, or present a book, map, plan, model, or instrument not already in pos-
session of the Institution ; or any drawing, model, or description of a work
already executed, will be acceptable.
6. Every Member, Corresponding Member, and Associate, shall be con-
sidered as belonging to the Institution, and as such, liable to the payment of
his annual contribution, until he has either forfeited his claim, or has signified
to the Secretary in writing his desire to resign, when his name shall be erased
from the list of Members.
7. Whenever any Member, Corresponding Member, or Associate, shall be
two years in arrear in the payment of his annual contribution, the Council
shall direct the Secretary to send to such Member, Corresponding Member, or
Associate, a letter of the form (e) in the Appendix. And if the arrears shall
not be paid within six months after the forwarding of such letter, the name of
the Member, Corresponding Member, or Associate so offending shall be pub-
licly suspended, in the meeting rooms of the Institution, as a defaulter, together
with the amount of contribution due by him j and such Member, Correspond-
ing Member, or Associate, shall not enjoy any of the privileges and advan-
tages thereof until his arrears be paid.
SECTION VI.
OF THE PRESIDENT.
The President shall be a person eminent as a Civil Engineer, and shall
take the Chair at all meetings of the Institution at which he is present, and
shall regulate and keep order in the proceedings. It shall likewise be his
duty to state and put questions, according to the sense and intention of the
meeting, and to carry into effect the Regulations of the Institution.
VOL. I. E R
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806 REGULATIONS.
SECTION VII.
OF THE VICE-PRESIDENTS.
In the absence of the President, it shall be the duty of the Vice-Presidents
to preside in rotation at the meetings of the Institution, and to state and put
questions, keep order, and regulate the proceedings. But in case of the ab-
sence of the President and all the Vice-Presidents, the Members present may
elect any one of their number to take the Chair at that meeting.
SECTION VIII.
OF THE COUNCIL.
1. The direction and management of all the affairs of the Institution shall
mfided to the Council.
!• The Council shall meet at the house of the Institution, at least once
J fortnight during the session ; but any two Members thereof may, by
r to the Secretary, require an extra meeting to be called, three days* no-
of which must be given to each of the Members of the Council.
(. At any Meeting of the Council, three Members thereof shall constitute
orum.
k All questions shall be decided in the Council by vote ; but, at the desire
Qy two Members present, the determination of any subject shall be post*
d to the succeeding Meeting.
>. An annual Account of the general state of the funds of the Institution
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REGULATIONS. 307
and of the Receipts and Expenses of the past year, shall he made out hy the
Council, which, after heing examined hy the Auditors, shall he laid hefore the
Annual General Meeting.
6. The Council shall draw up a Yearly Report on the state of the Institu-
tion, in which shall he given an abstract of all the proceedings, and such
Report shall be read at the Annual General Meeting.
SECTION IX.
OF THE AUDITORS.
The two Auditors shall audit the accounts of the Institution annually
previous to the General Meeting.
SECTION X.
OF THE TREASURER.
1. The Treasurer shall he a Banker in London, with whom all money
belonging to the Institution shall be deposited by the Council, on account
and for the use of the Institution.
2. No sum of money, payable on account of the Institution, amounting to
five pounds and upwards, shall be paid, except by order of the Council,
signed by three Members of the Council and the Secretary.
3. All admission fees, and life subscriptions, together with one moiety of
the surplus money, shall be annually invested as an increasing fund for the
use and advantage of the Institution.
R R 2
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808 REGULATIONS.
SECTION XL
OF THE SECRETARIES.
The duty of the Secretaries shall be to attend the meetmgs of the Institu-
tion and of the Council — to take minutes of all their proceedings, and enter
them in the proper books — to read the minutes of the preceding meeting-— to
annoimce any donations made to the Institution — to give notice of any
candidate proposed for admission, or to be balloted for — and to read the
letters and papers presented to the Institution in the order of time in which
they were received, unless the Council shall otherwise determine : also to
keep the accounts of the Institution.
SECTION XII.
OF THE COLLECTOR.
The duty of the Collector shall be to collect all monies due to the Institu-
tion, and pay the amounts to the Treasurer, and to lay accounts of the sums
^'^ '•eceived and paid to the Treasurer, before the Council.
SECTION XIII.
OF THE ORDINARY MEETINGS.
1. The sessions of the Institution shall commence annually on the second
»day in January, and ordinary meetings shall be held on every succeeding
3sday, until May, inclusive, but it shall be in the power of the Coimcil to
tract the sessions if it should seem necessar}'. The Chair may be taken
in five Members, Corresponding Members, or Associates, are present.
2. The business of the Institution shall commence at eight o'clock in the
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REGULATIONS. 809
evening precisely, and be conducted according to the order prescribed in the
Bye-Laws.
3. Every Member, Corresponding Member, and Associate, shall have the
privilege of introducing a visitor to be present at the public business of the
Institution, on writing his name in a book provided for that purpose.
4. At the Ordinary Meetings of the Institution, nothing relating to its
regulation or management shall be brought forward, and no motion shall be
made after ten o'clock.
SECTION XIV.
OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING.
A General Meeting of the Institution shall be held annually, on the third
Tuesday in January, at seven o'clock in the evening, to receive and deliberate
upon the report of the Council on the state of the Institution, and to elect the
officers for the ensuing year.
SECTION XV.
OF SPECIAL GENERAL MEETINGS.
1. The Council may, at any time, call a Special General Meeting of the
Institution for a specific purpose y and they are at all times bound to do so
on the written requisition of ten Members, Corresponding Members, or
Associates, which shall specify the nature of the business to be transacted.
2. No alteration of the rules or regulations shall be made, except at a
Special General Meeting of the class of Members only.
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310 REGULATIONS.
3. Members or Associates resident in London shall have three days* notice
of the time of such meeting, and shall he, at the same time, informed of the
nature of the business to be brought forward : and no other question shall be
discussed at such meeting.
SECTION XVI.
OF COMMITTEES AND LECTURES.
1. The Coimcil shall have power to appoint Committees, for the pur-
pose of investigating specific subjects connected with the objects of the In-
stitution ; and the reports of such Committees shall be submitted to the Coim-
cil, previously to their being read to the Institution.
2. The Council shall have power to grant, firom time to time, as they may
think fit, the use of the rooms of the Institution to any number of Members
who may be desirous of having Lectures delivered to them on subjects con-
nected with the profession, provided always that the extra expenses thereof
be defrayed by those who attend such Lectures.
SECTION XVII.
OF ALTERING THE REGULATIONS.
1. The Council shall, when they consider it expedient to propose the ^lact-
ment of any new regulation, or the alteration or repeal of any existing one,
summon a Special General Meeting of Members to decide on the same, and the
Council may also call a Special General Meeting of Members at any time dur-
ing the session for such purpose.
2. The alteration or repeal of any existing regulation may be recommended
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REGULATIONS. 311
to the Council, such recommendation to be written out and signed by any ten
Members, Corresponding Members, or Associates of the Institution; and on the
recommendation thus made the Council shall decide. — If such decision be not
satisfactory to the Members, Corresponding Members, or Associates proposing
the alteration, the Council shall, if required, submit the same to a Special
General Meeting of Members to be convened for that purpose.
3. No new regulation, nor alteration or repeal of any existing regulation,
shall be proposed at any meeting of the Institution, except in the manner here
described.
SECTION XVIII.
OF THE PROPERTY OF THE INSTITUTION.
1. The whole of the property and eflfects of the Institution, of what kind
soever, shall be vested in the Council of the Institution for the time being, to be
held in trust for its use.
2. Every paper, map, plan, or drawing, which may be presented to the
Institution, shall be considered as the property thereof, unless there shall have
been any previous arrangement to the contrary ; and the Council may publish
the same in any way, and at any time, they may think proper. But should
the Council refuse or neglect to publish such paper or other communication
within a reasonable time, the author thereof shall have a right to copy the
same, and publish it as he may think fit. — ^No other person shall publish any
communication belonging to the Institution, without the previous consent of
the Council.
3. No books, papers, plans, maps, or other property belongmg to the In-
stitution, shall be taken out of the house thereof; but every Member, Corre-
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312 BEGULATIONS.
spending Member or, Associate shall have a right at all seasonable hours to
inspect the same, and to make extracts and copies therefrom at his own ex-
pense.
SECTION XIX.
OF DONATIONS AND BEQUESTS.
1. The names of all persons who shall contribute to the Library, to the
Collection, or to the general Fund of the Institution, shall be read at the An-
nual General Meeting, and such persons shall be recorded as benefactors in
the next volume of the Transactions thereafter to be published.
2. Every person desirous of bequeathing to the Institution any manuscripts,
books, maps, plans, drawings, instruments, or other personal property, is re-
quested to make use of the following form in his will ; viz. —
" I give and bequeath to the Institution of Civil Engi-
neers, incorporated June 3, 1828, \^here enumerate and particu-
larize the ejects or property intended to be bequeathed,'] and I hereby
declare that the receipt of the Treasurer of the said Institution for the
time being shall be an effectual discharge to my executors for the
said legacy.**
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BYE-LA
I. At the Meeting of the Institution ever
order of business shall be attended to, as clos
1. The Minutes of the previous meetin]
signed by the Chairman ; and no entry sha
completed.
2. The Minutes of the conversation on c
meeting to be read and corrected.
3. New Members, Corresponding Memb
to the meeting.
4. Candidates for admission to be ballot
5. Business arising out of the Minutes t
6. Communications received since the li
read, if required.
7. Presents to be acknowledged.
8. Communications from the Council to
9. Questions on the printed circular to 1
II. After a discussion on questions at an (
expected to sum up the opinions that have be
VOL. I.
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314 BYE-LAWS.
to be the sense of the meeting on the subjects discussed, together with his own
opinion.
III. A weekly Circular Letter shall be sent to all the Members requiring it,
announcing the evening and time of meeting, and containing a list of Questions
for discussion, to be varied at the discretion of the Council, with the name of
the proposer of the question, and the class of members to which he belongs.
IV. All questions for discussion must be proposed by Members, Correspond-
ing Members, or Associates of the Institution ; be first delivered to the Secre-
tary, and by him submitted to the Council, who shall decide upon the adoption
of those that are suitable and in accordance with the objects of the Institu-
tion.
V. A Circular Letter shall be sent to all the country members at the com-
mencement of each session, with a list of questions that are appointed for dis-
cussion at the ordinary meetings of the Institution, requesting communications
from the Members, Corresponding Members, and Associates on them.
A similar Letter shall also be transmitted about the middle of the session,
with the addition of any new questions that may have been brought forward
and accepted : and at the end of the session, a list of questions shall also be
sent to all the Members, Corresponding Members, and Associates, in order to
collect information during the recess. Each Letter shall contain a list of the
written communications that have been made to the Institution.
VI. Each Member, Corresponding Member, and Associate is expected to
insert his name in a book kept for this purpose, whenever he attends at the
room of the Institution, whether at a regular meeting of the Society, or
at any other times, and also the name and residence of any visitor he may
introduce.
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BYE-LAWS. 315
VII. The Minutes of conversation that are taken by the Secretary, shall be
carefully pasted in a book in the order in which they occur, that Members,
Corresponding Members, and Associates may have easy access to them, and
that they may also be preserved as the original records of the Transactions.
VIII. It is expected that any gentleman addressing the meeting shall stand
for this purpose, in order to prevent interruption, and to command the attention
of the meeting ; and the person first rising shall have the precedence in speak-
ing, upon which, if there is any doubt, the Chairman shall decide.
IX. No persons, but Members, Corresponding Members, Associates, and
Honorary Members, can be allowed, on any pretence, to peruse any of the
books, papers, or records belonging to the Institution, except by permission
of the Coimcil, to whom a letter must be addressed through the Secretary,
stating the precise object of the application.
X. That the names of Candidates proposed, and of those by whom they
are proposed, and the names of new Members, Corresponding Members, and
Associates, be inserted in the weekly Circular Letters, with the date of the ad-
mission of such Members, Corresponding Members, and Associates, as soon as
they have complied with the rule by which their election is confirmed.
XI. No person can be eligible to be chosen as a Member who is imder the
age of twenty-one years ; and no person can be eligible to fill any office in the
Institution, who is under the age of twenty-five years.
XII. That any Member, Corresponding Member, Associate, or Honorary
Member, who may have occasion to designate his connexion with the Insti-
tution in print or otherwise, shall state the Class to which he belongs.
&s 2
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r
r
I
APPENDIX
TO THE REGULATIONS.
FORM, A.
A. B. [here state the Christian name. Surname^ and usual place of residence, with the qualifi-
cations of the Candidate.']
being desirous of admission into the Institution of Ciyil Engineers, we, the undersigned, from our
personal knowledge, propose and recommend him as a proper person to become a
thereof.
Witness our hands, this day of 18 .
FORM, B.
Sir,
I beg to inform you, that on you were elected a \as may be] of the
Institution of Civil Engineers. But in conformity with the R^ulations thereof, your election
cannot be confirmed until the enclosed form be returned with your signature, and until your first
annual contribution be paid, the amount being , and which unless paid within
two months the election is void.
You will therefore be good enough to cause the same to be done.
I am. Sir,
Your obedient humble Servant,
————— Secretary.
*^* The annual subscriptions become due on the first of January, and are to be paid in
advance.
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APPENDIX TO THE REGULATIONS. 317
FORM, C.
I, the undersigned, being elected a |[ ]| of the Institution of CiTil Engineers, do
hereby promise that I will be governed by the Regulations of the said Institution, as they are
now formed, or as they may hereafter be altered, amended, or enlarged. And that I will advance
the objects of the said Institution as £Ekr as shall be in my power, and will attend the usual
meetings thereof as often as I conveniently can. Provided that whenever I shall signify in writing
to the Secretary for the time being, that I am desirous of withdrawing my name therefrom, I
shall (after the payment of any arrears which may be due by me at that period) be free from this
obligation.
Witness my hand, this day of 18 .
FORM, D.
Sib,
It is my duty to acquaint you, that by a determination of the Institution of Civil
Engineers, pursuant to their Regulation Number 12, Section III., you are no longer a
of that Body.
I am, Sir,
Your obedient humble Servant,
Secretary.
FORM, E.
Sir
The Council of the Institution of Civil Engineers have directed me to inform you,
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318 APPENDIX TO THE REGULATIONS.
that your contribution thereto has been in arrear since , the amount
beinff .
»fore to request that you will order the payment thereof.
I am, Sir,
Your obedient humble Servant,
————— Secretary.
FORM, F.
names are hereunto subscribed submit to the Council of the Institution of Civil
propriety of transferring A. B, from the Class of in which he was
dlass of Members, because, &c., &c.
r hands, this day of 18
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CHAETEK
OF
INCORPORATION.
JUNE 8, 1828.
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Cfiarter.
George the Fourth, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom
of Great Britain and Ireland King, Defender of the Faith : To all
to whom these presents shall come, Greeting :
Whereas Thomas Telford j of Abingdon Street, in our city of
Westminster, Esquire, a Fellow of the Royal Societies of London
and Edinburgh, and others of our loving subjects, have formed
themselves into a Society for the general advancement of Mechanical
Science, and more particularly for promoting the acquisition of that
species of knowledge which constitutes the profession of a Civil
Engineer, being the art of directing the great sources of power in
nature for the use and convenience of man, as the means of pro-
duction and of traffic in states both for external and internal trade,
as applied in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals,
river navigation, and docks, for internal intercourse and exchange,
and in the construction of ports, harbours, moles, breakwaters and
lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the
purposes of commerce, and in the construction and adaptation of
machinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns: And have
subscribed and collected considerable sums of money for those
purposes : And We have been besought to grant to them, and to
those who shall hereafter become members of the same Society,
our Royal Charter of Incorporation, for the purposes aforesaid ;
VOL. I. T T
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32S CHARTER OF INCORPORATION.
Now KNOW YE, that We, being desirous of encouraging a design so
laudable and salutary, of our especial grace, certain knowledge, and
mere motion, have willed, granted, and declared : And do by these
presents, for us, our heirs and successors, will, grant, and declare,
that the said Thomas Telford^ and such others of our loving subjects
as have formed themselves into and are now members of the said
Society, or who shall at any time hereafter become members thereof,
according to such regulations or bye-laws as shall be hereafter
framed or enacted, shall, by virtue of these presents, be the mem-
bers of, and form one Body Politic and Corporate, for the purposes
aforesaid, by the name of "THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL
ENGINEERS ;" by which name they shall have perpetual succes-
sion, and a common seal, with full power and authority to alter,
vary, break, and renew the same^ at their discretion ; and by the
same name to sue, and be sued, implead, and be impleaded, answer,
and be answered unto, in every court of us, our heirs and successors ;
and be for ever able and capable in the law, to purchase, receive,
possess, and enjoy to them and their successors, any goods and
chattels whatsoever, and also be able and capable in the law (not-
withstanding the statutes of mortmain) to take, purchase, possess,
hold and enjoy to them and their successors, a Hall, and any
messuages, lands, tenements, or hereditaments whatsoever, the yearly
value of which, including the site of the said Hall, shall not exceed
in the whole the sum of one thousand pounds, computing the same
respectively at the rack-rent which might have been had or gotten
for the same respectively at the time of the purchase or acquisition
thereof; and to act in all the concerns of the said body politic and
corporate for the purposes aforesaid, as fully and effectually to all
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GBABUm OF INOOBPOBATION. 3S3
intents, effects, constructions, and purposes whatsoever, as any other
of our liege subjects, or any other body politic or corporate in our
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, not being under any
disability, might do in their respective concerns. And We do
hereby grant our especial licence and authority unto all and every
person and persons, bodies politic and corporate, (otherwise compe-
tent,) to grant, sell, alien, and convey in mortmain, unto and to the
use of the said Society, and their successors, any messuages, lands,
tenements, or hereditaments, not exceeding such annual value as
aforesaid. And our will and pleasure is, and We further grant and
declare, that there shall be a General Meeting of the members of
the said body politic and corporate, to be held from time to time,
as hereinafter mentioned, and that there shall always be a Council,
to direct and manage the concerns of the said body politic and
corporate ; and that the general meetings and the council shall have
the entire direction and management of the same, in the manner,
and subject to the regulations hereinafter mentioned. But our will
and pleasure is, that at all general meetings, and meetings, of the
council^ the majority of the members present, and having a right to
vote thereat respectively, shall decide upon the matters propounded
at such meetings, the person presiding therein having, in case of. an
equality of numbers, a second or casting vote. And We do hereby
also will, grant, and declare, that the council shall consist of a
President, four Vice-Presidents, and not more than fift^een, nor Jess
than seven other members, to be elected out of the members of the
said body politic and corporate ; and that the first members of the
council, exclusive of the President, shall be elected within six calendar
months after the date of this our Charter ; and that the said Thomas
T T 2
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SS4 OHABTBR OF INCORPORATION.
Telford shall be the first President of the said body politic and
corporate. And We do hereby further will, grant, and declare, that
it shall b^ lawful for the members of the said body politic and
corporate, hereby established, to hold general meetings once in the
year, or oftener, for the purposes hereinafter mentioned, (viz.) ;
That the general meeting shall choose the President, Vice-
Presidents, and other members of the council ; that the general
meetings shall make and establish such bye-laws as they shall
deem to be useful and necessary for the regulation of the said
body politic and corporate, for the admission of members, for
the management of the estates, goods and business of the said
body politic and corporate, and for fixing and determining the
manner of electing the President, Vice-Presidents, and other
members of the council, and the period of their continuance in
office ; as also of electing and appointing a Treasurer, two Audi-
tors, and two Secretaries, and such other officers, attendants,
and servants, as shall be deemed necessary or usefiil for the
said body politic and corporate; and such bye-laws firom time
to time shall or may alter, vary, or revoke, and shall or may make
such new and other bye-laws as they shall think most usefiil and
expedient, so that the same be not repugnant to these presents,
or to the laws and statutes of this our Realm j and shall and may
also enter into any resolution, and make any regulation, respecting
any of the afiairs and concerns of the said body politic and corporate,
that shall be thought necessary and proper. And We fiirther will,
grant, and declare, that the council shall have the sole management
of the income and funds of the said body politic and corporate, and
also the entire management and superintendence of all the other
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CHARTER OF INCORPORATION. 325
affairs and concerns thereof; and shall or may, but not incon-
sistently with, or contrary to the provisions of this our Charter,
or any existing bye-law, or the laws and statutes of this our Realm,
do all such acts and deeds as shall appear to them necessary or
essential to be done, for the purpose of carrying into effect the
objects and views of the said body politic and corporate. And
We further will, grant, and declare, that the whole property of
the said body politic and corporate shall be vested, and We do
hereby vest the same solely and absolutely in the members thereof,
and that they shall have full power and authority to sell, alienate,
charge or otherwise dispose of the same, as they shall think proper ;
but that no sale, mortgage, incumbrance, or other disposition of
any messuages, lands, tenements, or hereditaments, belonging to
the said body politic and corporate, shall be made, except with
the approbation and concurrence of a general meeting. And
We lastly declare it to be our Royal will and pleasure, that no
resolution, or bye-law, shall on any account or pretence whatso-
ever be made by the said body politic and corporate in opposition
to the general scope, true intent, and meaning of this our Charter,
or the laws or statutes of our Realm ; and that if any such
rule or bye-law shall be made, the same shall be absolutely null
and void, to all intents, effects, constructions, and purposes
whatsoever. In witness whereof We have caused these our
Letters to be made Patent. Witness Ourself at our Palace of
Westminster, this third day of June, in the ninth year of our
reign.
By Writ of Privy Seal. SCOTT.
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DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.
Portrait of T. Telford, Esq., to face Title-page.
I^ate of Autographs, to face p. ti. of Introductioii.
Put remainder of the Plates at the end of the Volume.
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