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Ver^o
HARVARD UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY OF THE
Department of Mining
and Metallurgy
/
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x
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[Frontispiece^ Vol. xxxiii."]
MAURICE DEACON.
PRESIDENT OF THE INSTITUTION OF MINING ENGINEERS. 1906-1907.
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TRANSACTIONS
OF
THE INSTITUTION
OF
MINING ENGINEERS.
VOL. XXXIIL-1906-190T.
Edited by M. WALTON BROWN, Secretary.
Newcastle-upon-Tyne : Published by the Institution.
Printed by Andbew Rbid & Co., Limited, Newcastle-ufonTyne.
1908.
\_AU rights of publication or translation are reserveA.]
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Vex^o
JUN151909
ADVERTIZEMENT.
The Institution, as %■ body, is not responsible for the statements and opinions
advanced in the papers which may be read or in the discossions whioh may take
place at the meetings of the Institution or of the Federated Institutes.
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CONTENTS OF VOL. XXXIII.
GENERAL MEETIKOS.
PAOK.
Adtbrtizement ii
Contents iii
Offigebs X
Bte-laws xii
Subjects for Papers xviii
The Institution of Mining BNanrBBBS.
1907. PAo«.
Jane 13.— General Meeting (London) 329
Prizes 329
"Presidential Address." By M. Deacon 330
Discussion 345
« Improvements required in Inland Navigation." By Henry
Bodolph de Salis 347
Discossion 363
"A Bye-produot Coking-plant at Clay Cross." By W. B. M.
Jackson 386
'' Notes on Bye-prodaot Coke-ovens, with Special Reference to
the Koppers Oven." By A. Victor Koohs 398
Discussion 416
''The Application of Duplicate Fans to Mines." By the Rev.
G. M. Capell 431
Discussion 433
Discussion of Mr. Sam Mavor's paper on ''Practical Problems of
Machine-mining" 445
*< Gypsum in Sussex." By W. J. Kemp and G. Alfred Lewis ... 449
Discussion 468
<* Water-supplies by Means of Artesian Bored Tube- wells." By
Herbert F. Broadhurst 473
Discussion 497
June 14. — General Meeting (London) 501
Discussion of Mr. A. Thompson's paper on ** Electrically-driven
Air-compressors combined with the working of Ingersoll-
Sergeant Heading-machines," etc 601
" The Thick Coal of Warwickshire." By J. T. Browne 502
Discussion 513
'* New Rand Gold-field, Orange River Colony. " By A. R. Sawyer 530
Discussion 531
*' The Ozokerite (Mineral-wax) Mine of the Galizische Kreditbank,
at Boryslaw, Galicia, Austria." By D. M. Chambers ... 535
<< Notes on the Structural Geology of South Africa." By C.
Sandberg 540
Discussion 556
" A Single-room System of Mining : An Adaptation of the Long-
wall Method to Work in Thick Seams." By H. S. Gay ... 558
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IV CONTENTS.
The Institution of Mining Enginbers.— Con^nwcrf.
1907. PAOB.
June 14. — General Meeting (London). — Continued.
"Cast-iron Tubbing: What is its Rational Formula?" By
H. W. G. Halbaum 667
Discussion 617
Visits to Works, etc : —
Park Royal Power-station of the Great Western Railway
Company 634
The Knight, Bevan k Sturge Works of the Associated Port-
land Cement Manufacturers (1900), Limited, Xorthfleet,
Kent 642
" Electric Transmission of Power at the Works and Collieries of
the Grand-Homu, Belgium." By E. Troussart 647
** Hauling Arrangement at the Face " 663
Florence Coal and Iron Company, Limited 664
Discussion of Mr. H. W. G. Halbaum's paper on <' Cast-iron
Tubbing : What is its Rational Formula ? " 664
* ' Memoir of Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart. " 665
Manchester Geologioal and Mininc Society.
1907.
Feb. 12.— General Meeting (Manchester) 170
Discussion of Mr. Otto Simonis' paper on ** Liquid Air and its
Use in Rescue-apparatus " 170
"Cage-lowering Tables at New Moss Colliery." By T. H.
Wordsworth 174
Discussion 177
March 12.— General Meeting (Manchester) 277
Discussion of Mr. W. E. Garforth's paper on " A New Apparatus
for Rescue- work in Mines " 277
April 9. — General Meeting (Manchester) 282
"The Cook Calorimetric Bomb." By W. H. Coleman 283
Discussion 288
May 14.— General Meeting (Manchester) 290
"The Rock-salt Deposits at Preesall, Fleetwood, and the
Mining Operations Therein." By Fredk. J. Thompson ... 291
Discussion 298
The Midland Counties Institution of Engineers and the Midland Institute
OF Mining, Civil and Mechanical Engineers.
1907.
March 9.— Joint General Meeting (Chesterfield) 120
Discussion of Mr. I. Hodges' paper on "An Account of Sinking
and Tubbing at Me thley Junction Colliery, with a Description
of a Cast-iron Dam to resist an Outburst of Water " ... 120
Discussion of Messrs. W. N. Atkinson and A. M. Henshaw's
paper on " The Courri6res Explosion " 124
"Elliott Washer and Hardy Dust-extractor and Grinder." Hy
£. Greaves 138
Discussion 149
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CONTENTS. y
Thb Midland Countiss Ikstitution or Enginsibs and the Midland Institute
OF Mining, Civil and Mechanical Enoineebs.— Con/trau^cf.
1907. PAOB.
March 9. — Joint General Meeting (Chesterfield). — Continued,
Diflcnaaion of Mr. W. C. Mountain's paper on the *' Commercial
PosBibiiities of Electric Winding for Main Shafts and
Auxiliary Work" 160
Midland Institvte of Mining, Civil and Mschanicai^ Engineers.
1907.
Feb. 20.— General Meeting (Bamsley) 89
'* The Importance of Scientific Mining in the Barnsley District."
ByRSutcliffe 90
Discussion 99
** The Most Suitable Form of Guides for Cages for Winding from
Deep Shafte: 1,500 FeetandDeeper." By N. W. Routledge 104
" The Most Suitable Form of Guides for Cages for Winding from
Deep Shafts : 1,500 Feet and Deeper." By A. J. Kennedy 108
Discussion 113
March 23.— Excursion Meeting (AltofU) 205
Experimental Gallery at Altofts Collieries 205
April 9. —General Meeting (Sheffield) 208
*' Report on Rescue-work done by Men wearing Rescue-apparatus
in the Experimental Gallery at Messrs. Pope and Pearson's
Collieries, Altofts, on March 23rd, 1907 *' 209
' * The Use and Care of Gxygen-breathing Apparatus. " By M. H.
Habershon 212
Discussion 222
The Mining Instititte of Scotland.
1907.
Feb. 13.— General Meeting (Glasgow) 52
Discussion of Mr. G^rge Ness' paper on <* Effects of Accelera-
tion on Winding.torques, and Test of Tarbraz Electrical
Winding.plant" 52
Discussion of Mr. John B. Thomson's paper on ** Tests of a Mine-
fan" 58
"Heading by Longwall Machines." By Sam Mavor 65
April 11.— Annual General Meeting (Hamilton) 151
Annual Report of the Council, 1906-1907 151
Election of Officers, 1907-1908 153
Accounts 154
Discussion of Mr. John B. Thomson's paper on " Tests of a Mine-
fan" 155
Discussion of Mr. Sam Mavor's paper on ** Heading by Longwall
Machines" > ... 157
<* A Stretcher for Use in Mines." By John F. K. Brown ... 102
« The Hanley Cage Guardian." By Albert Hanley 164
June 29. — Excursion Meeting (Polmaise Collieries) 235
June 29. — General Meeting (Stirling) 236
*' Polmaise Collieries." By James Salmond 237
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\
Vi COKTEKTS.
The North of England Insttitutb of Mining and Mechanical Enoinbkbs.
1907. PAOE.
Feb. 9.— General Meeting (Newcastle-apon.Tync) 1
Discussion of Mr. Otto Simonis' paper on ** Liquid Air and its Use
in Rescue-apparatus " 2
** Ferro-oonorete and its Applications.'* By T. J. Gueritte ... 10
April 13.— General Meeting (Newcastle-upon-Tyne) 179
Discussion of Mr. W« E. Garforth's paper on '* A New Apparatus
for Rescue- work in Mines " 180
Discussion on the Explosion at Wingate Grange Colliery ... 183
Discussion of Mr. E. Seymour Wood's paper on *' Sinking through
Magnesian Limestone and Yellow Sand by the Freezing-process
at Dawdon Colliery, near Seaham Harbour, County Durham " 197
• * Sliding-trough Conveyors. " By M. Malplat 198
Discussion 200
< < Memoir of the late John Daglish. " By M. Walton Brown ... 201
June 8. — General Meeting (Newcastle-upon-Tyne) 249
Discussion of Mr. R. Cremer's paper on *' The Pnenmatogen :
The Self -generating Rescue-apparatus, compared with Other
Types" ... 260
Discussion of Mr. E. S. Wood's paper on ** Sinking through Mag-
nesian Limestone and Yellow Sand by the Freezing-process
at Dawdon Colliery, near Seaham Harbour, C!)ounty Durham " 251
'* Treatment of Dust in Mines, Aboveground and Belowgrotmd."
By Richard Harle 264
Discussion 257
June 6.— Excursion Meeting (Sunderland) 276
C Pit, Monkwearmouth 275
The Nobth Staffobdshibb Institute of Mining and Mechanical Enginbbbs.
1907.
Feb. 4. —General Meeting (Stoke-upon-Tren t) 76
Death of Mr. W. H. Davies 76
Prizes 77
** A Gob-fire in a Shropshire Mine." By St. V. Champion Jones 78
Discussion 84
April 8.— General Meeting (Stoke-upon-Trent) 303
Discussion of Messrs. W. N. Atkinson and A. M. Henshaw's
paper on " The Courri^res Explosion " 303
June 3. --General Meeting (Stoke-upon-Trent) 312
"Outbursts of Coal and Gas in the Cockshead Seam, Shelton
CoUiery." By F. K Buckley 313
Discussion 320
Discussion of Messrs. W. N. Atkinson and A. M. Henshaw's paper
on " The Courri^res Explosion " 326
June 24.->Excursion Meeting (Tutbury) ... 328
Tutbury Gypsum-mines and Plaster-mills 328
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COFTENTS. VII
Ths South Statfobdshibb and Warwickshire Institute of Mining Enoinbbbs.
1907. PAGE.
Feb. 12. — General Meeting (Birmingham) 25
"The Hidden Goal-fields of the Midlands." By Charles
Lapworth 26
Discussion 50
April 16. — General Meeting (Birmingham) 167
IMscnssion of Mr. F. C. Swallow's paper on " Boilers for Colliery
Purposes*' 167
Discnssion of Mr. A. Hanley's paper on "The Hanley Cage
Guardian" 168
June 4. — General Meeting (Birmingham ) 261
Discnssion of Prof. C. Lapworth's paper on '*The Hidden Coal-
fields of the Midlands " 261
APPENDICES.
I. — Notes of Papers on the Working of Mines, Metallurgy, etc., from
the Transactions of Colonial and Foreign Societies and Colonial
and Foreign Publications 673
« Brown-coal Deposits of Upper Lausitz, Silesia." By Kurt
Priemel 673
*• Posidonia Becheri in Upper Silesian Coal-measures." By R.
Michael 675
" Asphalt^deposit at Mettenheim, Hesse." By A. Steuer ... 675
< * Kaolin-deposiU of Halle-an-der-Saale, Saxony." By Ewald Wiist 676
" Nickeliferous Magnetic Pyrites of the Black Forest, Baden."
By E. Weinschenk 677
** Stanniferous Deposits of the Fichtelgebirge, Bavaria." By
Albert Schmidt 679
*' Holzappel Metalliferoua Belt, Hesse-Nassau." By G. Einecke 680
"Pyrites-deposits of the Western Erzgebirge, Saxony." By
Otto Mann 680
" Tungsten-ore DeposiU in Saxony." By R. Beck 682
"Graphite-deposits in the Piedmontese Alps." By Vittorio
Novarese 683
" Aznrite-deposit of the Castello di Bonvei, Sardinia." By
F. MUlosevich 685
" Tungsten-ores in the Cagliari District, Sardinia." By
Domenico Loyisato 686
" MeUlliferous Deposits of North-eastern Sicily." By B. Lotii 687
" Blende- and Galena-deposits of Traag, Norway." By J. H. L.
Vogt 689
" Gellivaara and Kiirunavaara Iron-ores, Northern Sweden " : —
(1) By O. Stutzer 690
(2) By O. Stutzer 692
(3) By 0. Stutwsr 692
"Graphite-deposits in Lapland." By O. Stutzer 693
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VIU COXTENTS.
APVESDICES,— Continued.
I. — Notes of Papers, etc.— Continued* paos.
** Auriferous Deposits of Finnish Lapland." By Curt Firoks ... 693
**Manganiferous and Other Ore-deposits of Kizhne-Tagilsk,
Russia " :—
(1) ByN. Yakoviev 696
(2) By A. KrasnopoUky 696
*' Auriferous Deposits of Servia." By Douohan Jovanovitch ... 696
** Mercury Ore-deposiU of Avala Hill, Servia." By H. Fischer 697
** Ore-deposits of the Province of Almeria, Spain " :—
(1) By O. Piitz 699
(2) By Baron F. Fircks 701
(3) By Baron F. Fircks 702
**HuclvaPyrites-deposiU, Spain." By Bruno Wctzig 704
* < Argentiferous Galena of Cadlimo, Switzerland. " By £. Mariani 707
*' Mineral-resources of Asia Minor " :—
(1) By Fr. Freise 708
(2) By C. Schmeisser 709
*< Coal-bearing Beds of Fushun, Southern Manchuria." By J.
PaUbin 712
** Mineral Resources of Korea." By — Berteaux 712
*< Coal-bearing Beds in the Kuznetsk District, Siberia." By
B. K. PoUenov 713
" Gold-bearing Regions of Siberia " :—
(1) By E. Ahnert 714
(2) By A. Gerasimoff and P. I. Preobrazhensky ... 714
(3) By E. Ahnert, M. M. Ivanoff, A. Khlaponin, P.
Rippas and P. Yavorovsky 714
(4) By A. Khlaponin 714
(6) By Ernst Maier 716
*' Mineral Resources of the Chukchen Peninsula, Eastern Siberia."
By J. Korsuchin 719
" Copper, Tin and Gold in Katanga, Congo Free SUte " :—
(1) ByH. Buttgenbach 721
(2) By H. Buttgenbach 722
(3) By H. Buttgenbach 723
II. — Barometer, Thermometer, etc.. Readings for the Year 1906. By
Percy Strzelecki 726
Index 736
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CONTENTS.
IX
List of Plates :—
PAOS.
PAOS.
Portrait of Mr. Mattrics
xn
... 396
Dbaoon
Frontispiece
xm., XIV., XV., XVI.
416
I.
..
84
XVll
432
n
.
106
XVIII
... 496
m
112
XIX
612
IV
162
XX
530
V
166
XXI
... ^556
VI.
176
XXII
666
VII
201
xxm
616
vra
206
XXIV.,XXV
642
IX
256
XXVL, XXVII.
662
X
29S
XXVIII
734
XI
320
XXIX
. ... 734
Airr Publication of a Fbdxrated Ikstttute mat be Placed at the End
OF the Volume, ».e., "Annual Report," "List of Members," etc.
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LIST OF OFFICERS.
THE INSTITUTION OF MINING ENGINEERS.
OFFICERS, 1906-1907.
pa0t«pre0tDentd (ex-qficioj.
Mr. William Nicholas Atkinson, H.M. Inapector of Mines, Bridgend.
Mr. James Cope Cadman, The Clonghs, Newcastle, Staffordshire.
Mr. James Stbdman Dixon, Fairleigh, Bothwell, Glasgow.
Sir Lebs Knowlbs, Bart., Westwood, Pendlebury, Manchester.
Sir William Thomas Lewis, Bart., Mardy, Aberdare.
Mr. John Alfbbd Longden, Stanton-by-Dale, Nottingham.
Mr. Georoe Arthur Mitchell, 5, West Regent Street, Glasgow.
Mr. Henry Copson Pbakb, Walsall Wood Colliery, Walsall.
Mr. Arthur Sopwith, Cannock Chase Collieries, Walsall.
Sir Lindsay Wood, Bart., The Hermitage, Chester-le-Street.
ptesiDent
Mr. MAURICE DEACON, Brookfield Manor, Hathersage, Sheffield.
Mr. Thomas Douglas, The Garth, Darlington.
Mr. Jambs Tennant Forgib, Mosspark, Bothwell, Glasgow.
Mr. William Birkenhead Mather Jackson, Ringwood, Chesterfield.
Mr! Robert McLaren, H.M. Inspector of Mines, Craigmore, 77, Colinton
Road, Edinburgh.
Mr John Herman Mbrivalb, Togston Hall, Acklington, S.O., Northumberland.
Mr. Thomas Wilirbd Howe Mitchell, Mining Offices, 26, Regent Street,
Bamsley.
Mr Robert Thomas Moore, 142, St. Vincent Street, Glasgow.
Mr! John Newton, Woodlands, Wolstanton, Stoke-upon-Trent.
Mr William Garside Phillips, Ansley Hall Colliery, Atherstone.
Mr* Charles Pilkinoton, The Headlands, Prestwich, Manchester.
Mr' John Bell Simpson, Bradley Hall, Wylam, S.O., Northumberland.
Mr John George Weeks, Bedlington, S.O., Northumberland.
Mr. Robert Summebsidb Williamson, Cannock Wood House, Hednesford,
S.O., Staffordshire.
Mr. John Robert Robinson Wilson, H.M. Inspector of Mines, West Hill,
Chapeltown Road, Leeds. „ ^v r, »x ^
Mr. Wiluam Outterson Wood, South Hetton, S.O., County Durham.
Counctllors.
* Deceased.
Mr. Frederick Robert Atkinson, Duffield, Derby.
Mr. Richard Donald Bain, H.M. Inspector of Mmes. Durham.
Mr. Harry Drummond Dawson Barblan, 21, University Gardens, Glasgow.
Mr! Jambs Barrowman, Staneacre, Hamilton.
Mr. George Jonathan Binns, Duffield House, Duffield, Derby.
Mr. Archibald Blyth, Lochside, Hamilton. i^r v *
Mr. Henry Bramall, Pendlebury Collieries, Pendlebury, Magichester.
Mr. Bennett Hooper Brough, 28, Victoria Btreet, London, S. W.
♦Mr Mabtin Walton Brown, 10, Lambton Road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
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LIST OF OFFICERS. XI
Mr. Charlsb Sp£abman Caknbs, Marsden Hall, South Shields.
Mr. W11.LIAM CocHKAN Gabb, Benwell Colliery, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Mr. William HxyRT Chambebs, Conisborough, Rotherham.
Mr. William Frbdebigk Clark, The Poplars, Aldridge, Walsall.
Mr. Gbobob Elmslky Coks, 65, Station Street, Nottingham.
Mr. Frank Covlbon, Shamrock Hooae, Durham.
Mr. RoBSBT Wilson Dron, 55, West Regent Street, Glasgow.
Mr. Thomas Emerson Forster, 3, Eldon Square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Mr. JooN William Frtar, Eastwood Collieries, near Nottingham.
Mr. William Edward Garforth, Snydale Hall, Pontefract.
Mr. John Gsrrard, H. M. Inspector of Mines, Worsley, Manchester.
Mr. George Clemsntson Greenwbll, Poynton, Stockport.
Mr. Reginald Gitthrie, Neville Hall, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Mr. James Hamilton, 208, St. Vincent Street, Glasgow.
Mr. Arthitr Hasbam, Kinff Street, Newcastle, Staffordshire.
Mr. Henrt Richardson 'Sewitt, H.M. Inspector of Mines, Breedon Hill Road,
Derby.
Mr. Isaac Hodoss, Whitwood Collieries, Normanton.
Mr. George Henrt Holungworth, 37, Cross Street, Manchester.
Mr. George P. Hyslop, The Shelton Iron, Steel and Coal Company, Limited,
Stoke-upon-Trent.
Mr. Douglas Jackson, Coltness Iron Works, Newmains, S.O., Lanarkshire.
Mr. Thomas Edgar Jobling, Bebside, S.O., Northumberland.
Mr. Austin Kirkup, Manor House, Penshaw, Fence Houses.
Mr. Philip Kirkup, Lea field House, Birtley, S.O., County Durham.
Mr. Charles Cattsrall Leach, Seghill Colliery, Seghill, Dudley, S.O., North-
umberland.
Mr. George Alfred Lewis, Albert Sreet, Derby.
Mr. Henrt Louis, 4, Osborne Terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Mr. William McCrrath, 208, St. Vincent Street, Glasgow.
Mr John Morison, Cramlington House, Northumberland.
Mr. William Charles Mountain, The Hermitage, Gateshead-upon-Tyne.
Mr. David Marr Mowat, Summerlee L:on Works, Coatbridge.
Mr. Horace Broughton Nash, 23, Victoria Road, Bamsley.
Mr. John NByiN, Littlemoor House, Mirfield, S.O., Yorkshire.
Mr. Lucius Trant O'Shsa, University of Sheffield, St. George's Square,
Sheffield.
Mr. Henrt Palmer, Medomsley, S.O., County Durham.
Mr. Matthew William Parrington, Wearmouth Colliery, Sunderland.
Mr. William Saint, H.M. Inspector of Mines, Cromer Hou^e, Cathedral Road,
Cardiff.
Mr. Frank Robert Simpson, Hedgefield House, Blaydon-upon-Tyne, S.O.,
County Durham.
Mr. John Simpson, Heworth Colliery, Felling, S.O., County Durham.
Mr. Alexander Smith, 3, Newhall Street, Birmingham.
Mr. Sydney Arthur Smith, 1, Princess Street, Albert Square, Manchester.
Mr. Thomas Thomson, Fairview, Hamilton.
Mr. John Thomas Todd, Blackwell Collieries, Alfreton.
Mr. Thomas Turner, Caledonia Works, Kilmarnock.
Mr. George Blake Walker, Whamcliffe Silkstone Colliery, Bamsley.
2luDitor0,
Messrs. John G. Benson and Son, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Messrs. Lamston and Company, The Bank, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Sectctati^.
*Mr. Martin Walton Brown, Neville Hall, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
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XU BTE-LAWS.
THE INSTITUTION OF MINING ENGINEERS.
Founded July 1st, 1889.
BYE-LAWS.
At revised at Council Meeting held on September ISlh, 1906,
I. — Constitution.
1. — ^The Institution of Mining Enf^eers shall consist of all or any of the
societies interested in the advancement of mining, metallnrgy. engineering and
their allied industries, who shall from time to time join together and adhere to
the bye-laws.
2. — ^The Institution shall have for its objects —
(a) The advancement and encouragement of the sciences of mining, metal-
lurgy, engineering, and their allied industries.
(h) The mtercha
hange of opinions, by the reading of communications from
members and others, and by diocussions at general meetings, upon im-
provements in mining, metallurgy, engineering, and their allied
industries.
(c) The publication of original communications, discuasioDs, and other
papers connected with tne objects of the Institution.
(d) The purchase and disposal of real and personal property for such objects.
(e) The performance of all things connected with or leading to the purpose
of such objects.
3. — The offices of the Institution shall be in Newcastle-upon-Tyne, or such
other place as shall be from time to time determined by resolution of the
Council.
4. — The year of the Institution shall end on July 31st in every year.
6. — ^The affairs and business of the Institution snail be managed and con-
trolled by the Council.
n. — ^Membbbshif.
6. — ^The original adherents or founders are as follows: —
(a) Chesterneld and Midland Counties Institution of Ennneers, Chesterfield.
(bj Midland Institute of Mining, Civil and Mechanical Engineers, Bamsley.
(c) North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers^ New-
castle-upon-Tyne.
(d) South Staffordshire and East Worcestershire Institute of Mining
En^neers, Birmingham.
7. — ^Written applications from societies to enter the Institution shall be
made to the Council, by the President of the applying society, who shall furnish
any information that may be desired by the Cfouncfl.
8. — A. — ^If desired by the Council, any of the Federated Institutes shall
revise their bye-laws, in order that their members shall consist of Ordinary
Members, Associate Members, and Honorary Members, with Associates and
Students, and section B following shall be a model bye-law to be adopted by
any society when so desired by the Council.
B. — " The members shall consist of Ordinary Members, Associate Members
and Honorary Members, with Associates and Students: —
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BYE-LAWS. Xlll
(a) Each Ordinary Member shall be more than twenty-three years of age,
have been regularly educated as a mining, metallurgical, or mechanical
engineer, or in some other branch of eni^neerine, according to the
usual routine of pupilage, and have had auosequent employment for at
least two years in some responsible situation as an engineer; or if he
has not undergone the usual routine of pupilage, he must have been
employed or have practised as an en^neer for at least five years.
(h) Each Associate Member shall be a person connected with or interested
in mining, metallurgy, or engineering, and not practisinff* as a mining,
metallurgical, or mechanical engineer, or some other branch of en-
gineering,
(c) Eacl "
(c) ^ch Honorary Member shall be a person who has distinguished himself
by his literary or scientific attainments, or who may nave made im-
portant communications to any of the Federated Institutes.
(d) Associates shall be persona acting as under-viewers, under-managers, or
in other subordinate positions in mines or metallurgical works, or em-
ployed in analogous positions in other branches of engineerinfi".
(e) Students shall be persons who are qualifying themselves for tne profes-
sion of mining, metallurgical, or mechanical en^neering, or other
branch of engineering, and such persons may continue Students until
they attain the age of twenty-five years."
9. — The Ordinary Members, Associate Members and Honorary Members,
Associates and Students shall have notice of, and the privileee of attending,
the ordinary and annual general meetings, and shall receive all publications of
the Institution. They may also have access to, and take part in, the general
meetings of any of the Federated Institutes.
10. — The members of any Federated Institute, whose payments to the
Institution are in arrear, shall not receive the publications and other privileges
of the Institution.
11. — After explanations have been asked by the President from any
Federated Institute, whose payments are in arrear, and have not been paid
within one month after written application by the Secretary, the Council may
decide upon its suspension or expulsion from the Institution; but such sus-
pension or expulsion shall only be decided at a meetin^jf attended bv at least
two-thirds of the members of the Council by a majority of three-fourths of
the members present.
m. — SXTBSCBIPTIONS.
12. — Each of the Federated Institutes shall pay fifteen shillings per annum
for each Ordinary Member, Associate Member, Honorary Member, Associate
and Student, or such other sum, and in such instalment or instalments as may
be determined from time to time by resolution or resolutions of the Council.
Persons joining any of the Federated Institutes during the financial year of
the Institution shall be entitled to all publications issued for that year, after
his election is notified to the Secretary, and the instalment or instalments due
on his behalf have been paid.
lY. — ^Election or Otticibbs and Council.
13. — The officers of the Institution, other than the Secretary and Treasurer,
shall consist of Councillors elected annually prior to August m each year, by
and out of the Ordinary Members and Associate Members of each Federated
Institute, in the proportion of one Councillor per forty Ordinary Members or
Associate Members thereof; of Yice-Presidents elected by and from the Council
at their first meeting in each year on behalf of each Institute, in the proportion
of one Vice-President per two hundred Ordinary Members or Associate Members
thereof; and of a President elected by and from the Council at their first
meeting in each year; who, with the Local Secretaries of each Federated In-
stitute and the Secretary and Treasurer, shall form the Council. All Presidents
on retiring from that office shall be ex-officio Vice-Presidents so long as they con-
tinue Ordinary Members or Associate Members of any of the Federated
Institutes.
14. — ^In case of the decease, expulsion, or resignation of any officer or
officers, the Council may, if they deem it requisite, fill up the vacant office or
offices at their next meeting.
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XIV BYE-LAWS.
y. — Dmss or OmoxBs and Coxtncil.
16. — ^The Council ehall repreeent the Institutioii and shall act in iU name,
and shall make such calls upon the Federated Institutes as they ma^ deem
necessary, and shall transact all business and examine accounts, authorise pay-
ments and may invest or use the funds in such manner as ther may from time
to time think fit, in accordance with the objects and bye-laws of the
Institution.
16. — ^The Council shall decide the question of the admission of an^ society,
and may decree the suspension or expulsion of any Federated Institute for
non-payment of subecripuons.
l7. — The Council shall decide upon the publication of any communications.
18. — There shall be three ordinary meetings of the Council in each year,
on the same day as, but prior to, the ordinary or annual general meetings of
the members.
19. — A special meeting of the Council shall be called whenever the President
may think nt, or upon a requisition to the Secretary signed by ten or more of
its members, or by the President of any of the Federated Institutes. The
business transacted at a special meeting of the Council shall be confined to
that specified in the notice convening it.
20. — The meetings of the Council shall be called by circular letter, issued
to all the members at least seven days previously, accompanied by an agenda-
paper, stating the nature of the business to be transacted.
21. — The order in which business shall be taken at the ordinary and annual
general meetings may be, from time to time, decided by the Council.
22. — The Council may communicate with the Government in cases of con-
templated or existing legislation, of a character affecting the interests of
mining, metallurgy, engineering, or their allied industries.
23. — The Council may appoint Committees, consisting of members of the
Institution, for the purpose of transacting any particular business, or of in-
vestigating any specific subject connected with tne obiects of the Institution.
24. — A Committee shall not have power or control over the funds of the
Institution, beyond the amount voted for its use by the Council.
25. — Committees shall report to the Council, who shall act thereon and
make use thereof as they may elect.
26. — ^The President shall take the chair at all meetings of the Institution, the
Council, and Committees at which he may be present.
27. — In the absence of the President, it shall be the duty of the senior Vice-
President present to preside at the meetings of the Institution. In case of
the absence of the President and of all the Vice-Presidents, Ihe meeting may
elect any member of Council, or in case of their absence any Ordinary
Member or Associate Member to take the chair at the meeting.
28. — At meetings of the Council six shall be a quorum.
29. — Every question shall be decided at the meetings of the Council by the
votes of the majority of the members present. In case of equal voting, the
President, or other member presiding in his absence, shall have a casting vote.
Upon the request of two members, the vote upon any question shall be by
ballot.
30. — The Secretary shall be appointed by and shall act under the direction
and control of the Council. The duties and salary of the Secretary shall be
fixed and varied from time to time at the will of the Council.
31. — ^The Secretary shall summon and attend all meetings of the Council,
and the ordinary and annual ^neral meetinss of the Institution, and shall
record the proceedings in the minute book. He shall direct the administrative
and scientific publications of the Institution. He shall have charge of and
conduct all correspondence relative to the bunness and proceedings of the
Institution, and ofall committees where necessary, and shall prepare and issue
all circulars to the members.
32. — One and the same person may hold the office of Secretary and Treasurer.
33. — ^The Treasurer shall be appointed annually by the Council at their first
meeting in each year. The income of the Institution shall be received by him,
and shall be paid into Messrs. Lamb ton k Co.'s bank at Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
or such other bank as may be determined from time to time by the Council.
34. — The Treasurer shall make all payments on behalf of the Institution, by
cheques signed by two members of Cfouncil, the Treasurer and the Secretary,
after payments have been sanctioned by Council.
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BTE-ZJLWS. I XV
36. — The BurploB funds may after resolutioii of the Council, be inveeted in
GoTefniment securities, in railway and other debenture shares suck as are
allowed for iuTeetment hj trustees, in the purchase of land, or in tke purchase,
erection^ alteration, or furnishing of buildings for the use of the Institution.
All inTestmenta shall be made in the names of Trustees appointed by the
Council.
36. — ^The accounts of the Treasurer and the financial statement of the
Council shall be audited and examined by a chartered accountant, appointed
br the Council at their first meeting in each year. The accountant's charges
snail be paid out of the funds of the Institution.
37. — ^The minutes of the Coundrs proceedings shall at all times be open to
the inspection of the Ordinary Members and Associate Members.
YI. — GSNSAAL MXBTINOS.
38. — An ordinary general meeting shall be held in February, Mav and
September^ unless otherwise determined by the Council; and the ordinary
general meeting in the month of September shall be the annual general meeting
at which a report of the proceedinffs, and an abstract of the accounts of the
previous year ending Juljr Slst, diall be oresented by the Council. The
ordinarr general meeting in the month of may shall be held in London, at
which the President may deliver an address.
39. — ^Invitations may be sent by the Secretary to anv person whose presence
at discussions shall be thought desirable bv the Council, and persons so invited
shall be permitted to read papers and take part in the proceedings and dis-
40. — ^Discussion mav be invited on any ^aper published by the Institution*
at meetrngs of any of the Federated Institutes, at which tho writer of the
paper may be invited to attend. Such discussion, however, shall in all cases
De submitted to the writer of the paper before publication, and he may append
a reply at the end of the discussion.
VH. — ^Pttblications.
41. — ^The publications of the Institution shall consist of the reports of the
meetings of the Institution and of the meetings of the Federatea Institutes,
and abstracts of patents and other publications relating to mining, metallurgy
and allied indusmes.
The reports of the meetings shall consist of addresses, papers, and the
discussions thereon.
The publications may include: —
(a) I^ipers upon the working of mines, metallurgy, applied geology,
engineering, railways and the various allied industries.
(h) Papers on the management of industrial operations.
(e) Abstracts of colonial and foreign papers upon similar subjects.
ii) Abstracts of patents relating. to miniujf and metallurgy.
(e) Notes of ques&ons of law oonceming mines, manufactures, railways, etc.
The following shall be deemed unsuitable, and shall be refused : —
(a) Papers containing what is in fact advertising matter.
(d) Papers consisting largely of matter already printed in the English
language.
(c) Papers consisting largely of matter foreign to the objects of the In-
stitution or Feaerated Institutes.
(d) Papers containing matter the publication of which may be deemed
injurious to the interests of the Institution or of any Federated
Institute.
(e) Papers containing matter either libellous or slanderous, or gross mis-
statements.
42. — ^The Secretary of the Institution shall be responsible for the editing of
the volumes as a whole, for the editing of the reports of the meetings of the
Institution and of the Federated Institutes, and for the miscellaneous portion.
The Local Secretary of each Federated Institute shall prepare and edit all
papers and discussions of such Institute, and promptly forward them to the
Secretary, who shall submit proofs to the Local Secretary before publication.
43. — The Council shall appoint a Publications Committee to deal with
ques^ons concerning the publications.
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XYl BYE-LAWS.
44. — A paper for reading at any of the meetings of the Institution shall be
sent to the ^retary a clear three weeks before the meetinjg in question. The
Secretary may refer a paper back to the author for compression or alteration, or,
in case the matter be deemed suitable, but objection oe taken to the mode of
expression thereof, he may refer it back to the author for amendment in this
respect. If the Author and Secretary cannot agree as to the suitability of the
paper, the Secretary shall submit it to two members of the Publications Com-
mittee. If both of these approve or reject it, their decision shall be final, but
if their views differ it shall be referred to the President of the Institution,
whose decision shall be final.
A paper that has been submitted to and approved by the Council of a
Federate Institute shall be sent to the Secretary of the Insitution a clear
fortnight before the date of the meeting at which it is intended to be read,
together with any drawings or illustrations which may be required to accom-
pany it. If desired by the Secretary of the Federated Institute, the Secretary
of tne Institution wiu then have the paper printed in galley-form for dis-
tribution at the meeting. After the meeting, the paper, revised if necessary by
the Secretary in question, shall be returned to the Secretary of the Institution
in its final form ready for setting up in pages. If the Secretary of the Institu-
tion, at any time, considers the paper unsuitable for appearance in the Trans-
actioM, he shall notify the Secretary of the Federated Institute, and shall refer
it to two members of the Institution Publications Committee, excluding the
Secretary or member representing the Institute from which the paper proceeds.
If, in the unanimous opinion of these members, the paper is unsuitable for
appearance in the TranaactioM, it shall not appear in the Transactions, but if
their views differ, it shall be referred to the President of the Institution, whose
decision shall be final.
45. — Any discussion taking place at any meetings of the Institution shall
be reported by a competent reporter. The proof of each speaker's remarks in
the discussion shall be sent out to him by the Secretary of the Institution with
an intimation that, if not returned corrected within seven days, it will be
considered as correct, and the Secretary shall then edit the revised discussion.
The Federated Institutes shall make their own arrangements for reporting
the discussions at their meetings and for the correction of the reports of the
speakers. The Secretary of each Federated Institute shall forward a clear
transcript of the discussion, edited by him, to the Secretary of the Institution
for printing. Two galley proofs, together with the manuscript, shall be sent
to tne Secretary of the Federated Institute for correction, one of which, to-
§ ether with the manuscript, shall be returned ready for printing within seven
ays of receipt by him, failing which, it shall be considered to be correct.
46. — The Council majr accept communications from persons who are not
members of the Institution, and allow them to be reaa at the ordinary or
annual general meetings of the Institution.
47. — ^A paper in course of publication cannot be withdrawn by the writer,
without the permission of the Council.
48. — The copyright of all papers accepted for publication in the Transactions
shall become vested in the Institution, and such communications shall not be
published for sale or otherwise without the written permission of the Council.
49. — Thirty copies of each paper and the accompanying discussion shall be
presented to the writer free of cost. He may also obtain additional copies upon
payment of the cost to the Secretary, bv an application attached to his paper.
These copies must be unaltered copies of the paper as appearing in the publica-
tion of the Institution, and the copy shall state that it is an *' Excerpt from
the Transactions of The Institution of Mining Engineers."
60. — ^The Federated Institutes may receive copies of their own portion of the
publications in respect of such of their members as do not become members of
the Institution, and shall pay lOs. per annum in respect of every copy so
supplied ; and similar copies for exchan^ shall be paid for at cost price.
51. — A list of the members, with their last-known addresses, indicating the
Federated Institute to which they belong, shall be printed annually in the
publications of the Institution.
52. — The publications of the Institution shall only be supplied to members,
and no duplicate copies of any portion of the publications shall be issued to any
member or Federated Institute unless by order of the Council.
53. — The annual volume or volumes of the publications may be sold, in the
complete form only, at such prices as may be determined from time to time by
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BYE-LAWS. XVU
the Council: — To non-members for not less than £3; and to members who
are desirous of completing their sets of the publications, for not less than 206.
54. — ^The Institution, as a body, is not responsible for the statements and
opinions advanced in the papers which may be read or in the discussions which
may take place at the meetings of the Institution or of the Federated Institutes.
YIII. — Medals and othsb Rbwabob.
56. — ^The Council, if they think fit in any year, may award a sum not ex-
ceeding sixty pounds, in the form of medals or other rewards, to the author
or authors of papers published in the Tratuactions,
IX. — PnOPSBTT.
56. — The capital fund shall consist of such amounts as shall from time to
time be determined by resolution of the Council.
57. — ^The Institution may make use of the following receipts for its
expenses: —
(a) The interest of its accumulated capital fund ;
(6) The annual subscriptions; and
(c) Beceipts of all other descriptions.
58. — ^The Institution may form a collection of papers, books and models.
59. — Societies or members who may have ceased their connexion with the
Institution shall have no claim to paiticipate in any of its properties.
60. — All donations to the Institution shall be acknowledged in the annual
report of the Council.
X. — Alteration of Btb-laws.
61. — No alteration shall be made in the bye-laws of the Institution, except
at a special meeting of the Council called for that jsurpose, and the particulars
of every such alteration shall be announced at their previous meetine and in-
serted in the minutes, and shall be sent to all members of Council at least
fourteen days previous to such special meetins^, and such special meeting shall
have power to adopt any modification of such proposed alteration of the bye-
laws, subject to confirmation by the next ensuing Council meeting.
VOL. XXXIII.-IfD6.U07.
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XVUl
SUBJECTS FOR PAPERS.
THE INSTITUTION OF MINING ENGINEERS.
SUBJECTS FOR PAPERS.
The Council of The Instdtution of Mining Engineers invite original
communications on the subjects in the following list, together with
other questions of interest to mining and metallurgical engineers.
Assaying.
Boiler explosions.
Bore-holes and prospecting.
Boring a^inst water and gases.
Brickmakin^ by machinery.
Brine-pumpmg.
Canals, inland nayigation, and the
canalization of riyers.
Coal-getting by machinery.
Coal-washine machinery.
Coke manufacture and recovery of
bye-products.
Colliery leases, and limited liability
companies.
• Compound winding-engines.
Compressed-air as a motive-power.
Corrosive action of mine-water on
pumps, etc.
Descriptions of coal-fields.
Diamond-mining.
Distillation of oil-shales.
Drift and placer-mining.
Duration of coal-fields of the world.
Electric mining lamps.
Electricity and its applications in
mines.
Electro-metallurgy of copper, etc.
Engine-counters and speed-recorders.
Explosions in mines.
Explosives used in mines.
Faults and veins.
Fuels and fluxes.
Gas-producers, and gaseous fuel and
illuminants.
Gas, oil and petroleum engines.
Geology and mineralo^.
Gold-recovery plant and nrocesses.
Graphite: its mining ana treatment.
Haulage in mines.
Industrial assurance.
Inspection of mines.
Laws of mining and other concessions.
Lead-smelting.
Light railways.
Lubricating value of grease and oils.
Lubrication of trams and tubs.
Maintenance of canals in mining dis-
tricts.
Manufacture of fuel-briquettes.
Mechanical preparation of ores and
minerals.
Mechanical ventilation of mines, and
efficiency of the various classes of
ventilators.
Metallurgy of gold, silver, iron, copper,
lead, etc.
Mining and uses of arsenic, asbestos,
bauxite, mercury, etc.
Natural gas, conveyance and uses.
Occurrence of mineral ores, etc.
Ore-sampling machines.
Petroleu m-deposi ts .
Preservation of timber.
Prevention of over-winding.
Pumping machinery.
Pyrometers and their application.
Quarries and methods of quarrying.
Rock-drills.
Safety-lamps.
Salt-mining, etc.
Screening, sorting and cleaning of
coal.
Shipping and discharge of coal-cargoes.
Sinking, coffering and tubbing of
shafts.
Sleepers of cast-iron, steel and wood.
Spontaneous ignition of coal and coal-
seams.
Stamp-milling.
Steam-condensation arrangements.
Steam-power plants.
Submarine coal-mining.
Subsidences caused by mining-opera-
tions.
Surface-arrangements at mines.
Surveying.
Tin-mining.
Transport on roads.
Tunnelling, methods and appliances.
Utilization of dust and refuse coal.
Utilization of sulphureous gases re-
sulting from metallurgical pro-
cesses.
Ventilation of coal-cargoes.
Water as a motive-power in mines.
Water-tube boilers.
W^atering coal-dust.
Water-incrustations in boilers, pumps,
etc.
Winding arrangements at mines.
Winning and working of mines at
great depths.
For selected papers, the Council may award prizes. In making
awards, no distinction is made between commimications received from
members of the Institution or others.
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TRANSACTIONS
or
THE INSTITUTION
MINING ENGINEEES.
THE NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITITTE OF MINING
AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING,
Held in the Wood Memoktal Hall, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
February 0th, 1907.
Mr. J. H. MERIVALE, President, in the Chair.
The Secretary read the minutes of the last General Meeting
and reported the proceedings of the Council at their meetings on
January 20th and that day.
The following gentlemen were elected, having been previ-
ously nominated : —
Members —
Mr. Alexander Richard Bekenn, Mine-manager, Dundee Coal Company,
Limited, Talana, Natal, South Africa.
Mr. EvENCE CoppEE, Civil Engineer and Managing Director of Collieries,
Avenue Louise, 211, Brussels, Belgium.
Mr. Ernest Charles Dunkbrton, Mechanical Engineer, 97, Holly Avenue,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Mr. John Thomas Foulis, Mine-owner and Mine-manager, Durban House,
Ramsey, S.O., Isle of Man.
l^r. Frederick James Raine, Colliery Manager, Etherley Grange Colliery,
Bishop Auckland.
Associate Members—
Mr. Wilson Ormrod, Union Buildings, St. John Street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
"Mr. Frederick George Waley, The Bellambi Coal Company, Limited,
9, Bridge Street, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
1
TOL. XXXfII.-1906-U07.
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2 DISCUSSION LIQUID AIE AND ITS USE IN RESCUE- APPARATUS.
Associate—
Mr. Alfred Hill Askew, Under-manager, 16, Telford Street, Gateshead-
upon-TjTie.
Students—
Mr. William Grace Grace, Mining Student, Hall Garth Hall, Winlaton,.
Blaydon-upon-Tyne, S.O., County Durham.
Mr. Herbert Stanley Hunter, Mining Student, Blakelaw, Kenton, New-
caatle-upon-Tyne.
DISCUSSION OF MR. OTTO SIMONIS' PAPER ON
"LIQUID AIR AND ITS USE IN RESCUE-
APPARATUS.'**
Mr. Henry Simonis (London) exhibited the aerolith appar-
atus, and also made some interesting experiments. Liquid air was
preferably stored in vessels designed by Sir James Dewar : these
were practically vacuum vessels, but closed by a thick felt-cover
through which it wads possible for the air to penetrate to a small
extent. In such a bottle, liquid air would keep for aboift 12 days :
the evaporation not exceeding 6 per cent, per day. It was easy
to transport, and if packed in a case could be forwarded ordin-
arily by railwaj^ as there was no danger whatever of its explod-
ing. A vessel containing 3^ pints enabled the wearer of the
aerolith apparatus to work for 60 to 70 minutes, and a large
vessel holding 9 pints was sufficient for 3 hours' work. Liquid
air was approximately of the same specific gravity as water,
weighing about 62^ pounds per cubic foot and 10 pounds per
gallon, and therefore when filled with 9 pints for 3 hours' work,
the apparatus (which weighed 14 pounds) would weigh 25 pounds.
Liquid air cost about 6d. per gallon, when made with
a small plant; and with a larger plant the cost would be con^
siderably reduced. By the Claude system, it was calculated that
one horsepower (suction-gas or any other cheap method of produc-
ing power being used) would produce 4 gallons of liquid air at a
cost of l^d. per gallon.
Mr. A. L. Steavenson (Durham) said that no one had a
greater admiration than himself for the skill and knowledge
which had been employed to perfect life-saving apparatus during
the last 50 years ; and yet, at the present day, Mr. G. A. Meyer
stated that " it was difficult to understand why the Schwann
apparatus had, for so many years, been entirely forgotten."! The
* Trans, hist. M. E, , 1906, vol. xxxii. , page f Ihid,^ vol. xxxi. , page 579^
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DISCUSSION — LIQUID AIR AND ITS USE IN RESCUE- APPARATUS . S
Fleuss apparatus, and many others, one after another, had all
come and gone, because they were found to be of no practical
use. At a time when apparatus of this kind was called into
requisition, it was necessary for the wearer to scramble over
difficult falls and sometimes to squeeze through very small pas-
sages, then a man found that his ordinary pit-clothes were an
encumbrance ; and it was as much as he could do to trail him-
self through, without having an apparatus to carry on his
back. In 1854, Mr. T. T. Hall, a good practical pitman, brought
the subject of rescue-work before the members, and recommended
the use of pipes carried along the main roads; and he (Mr.
Steavenson) told them to-day that this was the best suggestion
that had been made during those 63 years.* In many mines
compressed air was being used, and he (Mr. Steavenson) suggested
that the pipes should be carried along the main roads and fitted
with cocks, so as to give off the air necessary to help any persons
shut off. In most cases the members were told that 2 or 3 hours
was the utmost limit of time for working a modern rescue-
appliance, but Mr. A. M. Henshaw, a thoroughly practical man,
had stated that in 37 minutes confusion of mind occurred in the
case of a man, who was 200 feet away from everybody
el8e;t he began to lose confidence and would throw off the
apparatus, and it was owing to this cause that a man, wearing
a rescue-apparatus, was killed at the Courrieres mines.{ The
rescuers in that disaster did not save any lives, but they lost
one, because the wearer of the apparatus had lost confidence in
it. Dr. J. S. Haldane and Mr. Bennett H. Brough approved
of the use of rescue-apparatus ; § but they were not practical
pitmen, and did not know what it was to travel a fallen road
filled with irrespirable air. Mr. W. E. Garforth stated that
" considering the interval [60 years] that has elapsed since the
first efforts were made, it is disappointing to have to admit
that there is not, at the present time, a rescue-apparatus which,
can be fully relied upon,"|l and he (Mr. Steavenson) agreed with
that conclusion. Mr. Garforth had erected an experimental
gallery to test the different forms of rescue-apparatus,ir but
♦ Trarvt. ^\ E, Inst,, 1854, vol. iL, page 87.
t Trans. Inst, M, E,, 1906, vol. xxzi., page 615. % Ibid-f vol. xzxL, page 610.
§ Ibid,, voL xxxL, page 617. || Ibid., vol. xxxi., page 628.
f *^ Experimental Gallery for Testing Life-saving Apparatus," by Mr. W.
£. Garforth, Trans. Inst. M. E., 1901, vol. xxii., page 169.
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4 DISCUSSION — LIQUID AIR AND ITS USE IN RESCUE-APPARATUS.
that was not sufficient. The man who submitted to experiment
in such a gallery knew that he could get out of it in 10
seconds, and would not, therefore, lose his confidence in an
appliance. Supposing, in a case like the Courrieres mines, that
the rescue-party got in after much trouble, and that there was,
say, a length of 1,500 feet, where there was good air, and then a
noxious zone of 1,500 feet; after getting through that, what
good purpose could a man wearing a rescue-apparatus fulfil ? If
he did find a number of men he would be quite unable to bring
them through that zone of 1,500 feet of noxious gases. The
rescue-party could never do any good work, unless by some means
they carried fresh air with them. At the Courrieres collieries
nothing was accomplished beyond bringing out a number of dead
bodies, and no good purpose was served by that. The best plan
was to carry the fresh air in with them, and it was the only plan
that held its own to-day. The members were much indebted to
Messrs. W. N. and J. B. Atkinson for the time and trouble which
they had devoted to the question of the prevention of coal-dust
explosions. There was no reason why the roads of a mine should
not be kept perfectly clo«n; let them provide sprinkling or
spraying apparatus if desired, but certainly let the dust be kept
out. As another way of preventing the devastation which takes
place, he would advocate that the stoppings be bowed slightly
outward, so that they could not be shifted or injured by an explo-
sion ; and then they would have a permanent road which no
explosion could destroy, and which would enable them to pene-
trate into a mine whenever it became necessary to do so.
Prof. Henry Loris (Armstrong College) asked whether the
apparatus described by Mr. Simonis had ever been tested, so as
to ascertain that one gallon of liquid air would actually keep a
man supplied with fresh air for 3 hours: this was about 40
cubic feet of air per hour, which was a somewhat small allowance,
unless the man got some external air. Tested in the air of an
ordinary room, which was drawn back and was available for
breathing, this quantity of air might be satisfactory ; but, if the
apparatus was used in an irrespirable atmosphere, it might easily
be too small. It would be interesting, therefore, to know
whether any practical tests had been made on this point. He
was not at all sure that the differential evaporation, as between
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DlSCrSSIOX — ^LIQUID AIB AND ITS USE IK RESCUE-APPARATrS. 5
nitrogen and oxygen, which was claimed as an advantage for
liquid air, was not rather a disadvantage, as a human being wat^
not constructed so that he could breathe, without discomfort, prac-
tically pure nitrogen or oxygen. He also had his doubts as to
any benefit that might result from the reserve air-bag, which
would become distended with the air which had been breathed by
the wearer, and which was (as a last resource in the event of the
supply of liquid air running out) to be breathed again, at a
time when the man would be fagged and worn out, and, therefore,
in special need of fresh air.
Mr, T. E. FoRSTEE (Xewcastle-upon-Tyne) said that he
supported, in a great measure, Mr. Steavenson's views. Rescue-
apparatus must be used with a great deal of care and caution.
Where a pit had to be reopened after an explosion, the air must
be systematically taken in by the explorers. The only use which
he saw for the apparatus was in the case where men were over-
come with gas in places which could be easily reached; and he
knew of an instance, recently, where an appliance of this kind
might have saved the lives of two men. The apparatus would
also be useful to make explorations in advance of the air, so as
to see the direction in which to open out most easily.
Mr. C. C. Leach (Seghill) said that the apparatus woidd
frequently get out of order, and a possible danger would arise, as
nobody would know exa<itly whether it was ready for use, for
these appliances were not used everyday.
Dr. Thomas Oliver (Newcastle-upon-Tyne) said that the
subject was one in regard to which he could only offer a few
remarks of a purely academic character, as he had had no experi-
ence whatever of the practical use of rescue-appliances such as
were before the members to-day. Still, he was one of those who
thought that they should not strike altogether a despondent note.
He quite agreed with Mr. Steavenson, if they could carry air
into the pits as far as they possibly could, that this was the
right thing to do. Experience had already shown the value
attached to such apparatus in the case of fire, etc., and he thought
that the time had come — ^for the Courrieres explosion had
awakened a spirit of public enterprise in the matter, and legisla-
tioli had already done much for the safety of the men while
working — when something would have to be done by science in
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6 DISCUSSION — ^LIQUID AIR AND ITS USE IN EESCUE-APPARATUS.
regard to the saving of life after explosions. Small quantities
of carbon monoxide were sufficient to bring about headache and
dizziness, followed in a short time by loss of power in the limbs,
which prevented the miner, though most wishful to escape, from
getting away, for he would soon fall and die. ilr. Steavenson
had alluded to the presence of dead bodies in the pit, and he
(Dr. Oliver) thought it was only right to say that there was
nothing that proved such a source of discomfort and danger as
the large number of bodies in the Courrieres mine, all of which
were undergoing extremely rapid putrefaction. Whether bodies
were left;, in the pit or not, was a question which would have to
be solved by mining engineers themselves. There was certainly
the dang'er that a rescue-apparatus might not work at the proper
time ; but, without committing himself to an opinion on that
matter, the time had come when they were almost obliged to face
the question, and see whether something could not be done in
the way of using rescue-apparatus. It was perfectly clear that
men could not under ordinary circumstances go into parts of
the mine where carbon monoxide was ; but if by such appliances
as these they could go in and stay 1 hour, or longer, and if it
could be shown that they could travel through the difficult places
mentioned by Mr. Steavenson, a great deal would have been
accomplished. He (Dr. Oliver) would not discourage the use of
scientific appliances of this kind, but would rather encourage
them, and therefore good service had been done by Mr. H.
Simonis in coming to explain this apparatus that day. There
was not the least doubt that, after explosions, carbon monoxide
was the cause of the death of miners. The largest number of
men who died in the Courrieres mine died from that cause, and
very few from shock and burns. It was an interesting point,
and he had found the same thing in experiments on animals,
that many of the miners died from pneumonia after being
rescued. In the case of animals that had not been killed by
carbon monoxide, a few days afterwards they died from pneu-
monia, and, on microscopical examination of the lungs he had
found small haemorrhages in the air-cells of the lungs. If this
rescue-work was to be encouraged, he (Dr. Oliver) thought that
they should follow Mr. W. E. Garforth's suggestion that training
galleries should be erected where men might be put through the
same trials as those that they would have to undergo in the mine
after an explosion ; and, if they could stay in the pit under these
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DISCUSSION — ^LIQiriD AIE AKD ITS USE IN EESCUE-APPAHATUS. 7
conditions for 2 or 3 hours, he was of the opinion that the value
of the apparatus would be quite substantiated.
He (Dr. Oliver) thought that other important facts would
come out soon in regard to carbon monoxide. If they were
going to train men for rescue-work, there was something in over-
coming the initial nervousness alluded to; therefore, men who
had been trained were much more likely to go into the pit, know-
ing how far the apparatus could be relied upon. Perhaps, too,
they could be trained to the inhalation, within limits, of carbon
monoxide. It was a well-known fact that animals could be
exposed to air containing carbon monoxide to the extent of caus-
ing 25 per cent, of saturation of the colouring matter of their
blood, that is to say, to cutting oflE one-quarter of the respiratoiy
power, and with the remaining three-quarters they got on very
well. With carbon monoxide there was at first a certain amount
of blood-destruction, but the red blood-corpuscles subsequently
became increased, and the respiratorj'^ power was quite sufficient
to overcome the deficiency. These animals lived and had
€;xcellent health, they improved in weight, the blood improved in
quality; and they could, by gradually increasing the percentage
of carbon monoxide, carry it to 35, or even 45, per cent., and the
animals would still live, while one which had not been so trained
would die in a very short time if placed in such conditions.
He therefore threw out the suggestion that, if Mr. Garforth*s
proposed galleries were erected and Messrs. Nasmith and
Oraham's experiments* were confirmed re carbon-monoxide
poisoning, a gradual acclimatization of men to mixtures of carbon
monoxide might be shown to be possible within certain limits,
as in the case of animals.
Mr. C. C. Leach (Seghill) asked whether Dr. Oliver advocated
that all who went down the mine should be taught to breathe
an atmosphere containing a high percentage of carbon monoxide.
Dr. T. Olivee said that he had only stated what had been done
with animals : he did not venture himself to suggest that the men
should do so, but it was worth consideration. If men could
become acclimatized to carbon monoxide, it would prove of great
value, especially if a certain amount of fresh air, in cylinders,
could be carried in by the rescue-party for the entombed miners.
• The Hoematology of Carbon- monoxide Poisoning," by Mr. G. O. Nasmith
and Mr. D. A. L. Graham, Journal of Phyftiology, 1906, vol. xxxv., page 32.
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8 DISCUSSION — LIQUID AIE AND ITS USE IX EESCUE-APPAEATUS.
Mr. C. C. Leach remarked that they would probably want to-
send in only a few men, but how were the hundreds alreadjr
in the mine to be saved ?
Dr. T. Oliver said that fresh air or cylinders of oxygen should
be carried in by the rescue-parties.
Mr. Heney Simonis, replying to the discussion, said that Mr.
A. L. Steavenson's remarks were directed against all i-escue-
apparatus ; but, after Dr. Oliver's remarks, he did not think that
he need reply to him. The use of pipes was an old idea, and, only
about a month ago, he discussed with Dr. J. S. Haldane the possi*
bility of leading liquid air in pipes to be used in mines, and
sprayed by sprinklers, as water was used in combatting a fire, that
was to say, whether it would be possible, with certain appliances,
to arrange that the liquid air should be automatically released,
and the liquid air could then be poured into the pit so as to purify
the air and produce a breathable atmosphere at the same time.
He did not think that it would be possible to reduce the size and
encumbrance of the aerolith apparatus below its present dimen-
sions: it was certainly, by far, the lightest and most compact
form that had yet been introduced. With regard to practical
experience with the apparatus, a complete installation, at one of
Baron Rothschild's collieries in Austria, had been working for
about 3 months ; and another similar plant had been erected and
would be completed at another colliery within a few days. It
had been proved thereby that 3 hours' work could verj' easily be
performed with the apparatus, even allowing a wide margin, when
charged with 1 gallon of liquid air, the equivalent of 120 cubic
feet of breathable air, and this was more than sufficient for anj^
man working for 3 hours. He (Mr. Simonis) did not put any
stress on the reserve-bag; it was only the very last resource pos-
sible, and experiments had shewn that the air contained in this
bag was still holding a larger percentage of oxygen than ordinary
atmospheric air. There was no possibility of the apparatus going
out of order, and as there was not a single valve nor complication
of any kind, the apparatus was bound to work the moment that
liquid air was poured in, although it might have been lying un-
touched for any length of time. It did not follow that pure
oxygen would do a man any hann, because a man's lungs were so
constructed that they could not take more than a certain amount
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DISCUSSIOX — LIQUID AIR AND ITS USE IN RESCUE-APPARATUS. 9»
of oxygen, so that any excess would simply flow away with the
air exhaled, and so do no harm whatever. Dr. Oliver s remarks
about carbon monoxide were very interesting to him personally,
and absolutely new ; and he would try to get some men to try the
suggested experiment. A plant capable of producing about 0*9
gallon of liquid air per hour would cost from £300 to £400, and it
would require from 6 to 8 horsepower, so that according to the cost
of the power, the cost of producing liquid air could be calculated.
Under conditions, not at all favourable, the cost would not exceed
2s. 4d. per hour or 2s. 7d. per gallon.
Mr. T. C. FuTERS asked whether this cost included interest-
on the cost and depreciation of the plant.
ifr. H. SiMoxis said that the manufacture had been sublet,
and the cost, therefore, included everything possible — and prob-
ably a considerable profit as well.
The President (Mr. J. H. Merivale) thought that there was
room, both for the carrying out of Mr. Steavenson's suggestion,,
and for such appliances as those put forward by Mr. 0. Simonis,.
Mr. G. A. Meyer, Mr. W, E. Garf orth, and others ; more especi-
ally if they could be perfected or brought nearer to perfection.
Dr. Oliver's remarks had been most interesting, and he had no
idea that it was possible for an animal to become immune to
carbon monoxide, and to breathe air containing that gas. Con-
sequently, if an animal could breathe a large percentage
of carbon monoxide, it seemed reasonable to suppose it
possible that a man could become accustomed to breathe much
larger proportions than at present. This was a most important
point, and no doubt would be followed up by those gentlemen who:
were making a study of this question.
Mr. T. J. Gueritte's paper on " Ferro-concrete and its
Applications " was read as follows : —
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10
FEREO-COXCEETE AXD ITS APPLICATIONS.
FERRO-COXCRETE AXD ITS APPLICATIOXS.
By T. J. GUERITTE, C.E., B.Sc., M.Ikst.C.E. (France).
Concrete, as is well known, has a high coefficient of resistance
to compressive strains, but its resistance to tensile or shearing
strains is low, and it would be very uncertain to rely upon it.
On the other hand, iron and steel have a high resistance to com-
tV;^"^;';v;;;:;;;;V:/-;Vvii
■.•-.• -..v.. ..; r .>•.'.■.•-.. ••••I
■;
ii
Fio. I.—Ferro-concretk and Iron Beams.
pressive tensile and shearing strains. It is, therefore, a natural
thing to try to compensate the shortcomings of concrete by the
use of steel : that is, to use concrete in a structure wherever
there is compression; and to meet the shearing and tensile
stresses where they occur bj- means of iron or steel.
---
WB
Fig. 2.- Shearing -stresses in a Beam.
Such is, in a few words, the principle of ferro-concrete con-
struction. If, therefore, a ferro-concrete beam be compared with
a rolled joist (fig. 1), the steel rods placed in the lower parts
represent the line of traction which, in the rolled joist, is con-
stituted by the lower flange. The concrete which forms the floor-
ing above the beams is relied upon to resist the compressive
■strain, and may be considered as playing the part of the upper
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FERRO-CONCRETE AND ITS APPLICATIONS.
11
flange of the rolled joist. The weh is formed by the concrete,
which encases the bars and connects the axis of compression to
the axis of tension. But concrete alone would not be sufiicient
for the purpose, as it would not resist, the shearing stresses.
The effect of shear-
ing stresses is to provoke
the formation of cracks
in the beam. These
cracks make an angle of
nearly 45 degrees with
t he horizontal near the
supports ; this angle de-
creases from the sup-
ports to the middle of
the span (fig. 2). In
order to meet these stresses, stirrups made of hoop-steel (fig. 3)
are fixed on the lower bar, and, being disposed vertically (fig.
4), connect the axis of compression with the axis of tension
Fig. 3.— Stirrup and Rod.
-mTto-TTi-r-i-x4^r ■
^
TTTfy-
^n
Fig. 4. Ferroconcrete Beams and Pillars.
and oppose the formation of cracks which, without them, would be
the result of the action of shearing stresses. In most ferro-
concrete structures the beams are continuous, and practice shows
that it is possible and certainly very economical
to consider them as semi-fixed at both ends in-
stead of supported only. But then tensile stresses
appear at the upper part, near the supports. Steel
will therefore be necessary there, and one of the
best ways to provide for it is to bring diagonally
to the upper part of the beam some of the bars
which were at the bottom in the middle of the
span and which are not required any more near
the supports ; for in such a beam there is near the
supports no tensile strain on the lower parts, as
it is confined to the upper portion. This dis-
position (fig. 4), and the triangle thus formed, gives groat
rigidity to the whole structure.
Fig. 5. — Ferro-
concrete Pillar.
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12
FERRO-COXCRETE AND ITS APPLICATIONS.
The writer's remarks about beams applies, of course, equally
to the flooring itself which may be considered as a beam, verj'
wide and of small depth.
Fig. 6.- Dwelling-house, Rue Dantox, Paris.
The pillai^s form the most important component parts of a
ferro-concrete building. A pillar, generally speaking, is sub-
mitted only to compressive strains, and therefore both concrete
and steel are suitable for its formation (fig. 5). Bars varying in
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FERRO-CONCEETE AND ITS APPLICATIONS.
18
number and size are embedded in a block of concrete : therefore
both elements work together, and each of them takes part of the
load to be supported.
The first applications of ferro-concrete construction were, the
writer believes, made in the shape of fireproof floors, pillars and
walls. But these applications belong more to architecture (fig.
♦)) than to engineering, and he will not, therefore, add anything
to the general principles already described.
Fio. 7. — Warehouse for Co-operative Whoijesale Society, Limited,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
There is a question which the writer thinks is of interest,
namely, that of very bad foundations in which settlements are
anticipated on account, for instance, of colliery- workings in the
immediate vicinity. Here, ferro-concrete has been found to be a
most useful and economical solution of the problem. To illus-
trate this view, the writer will take the case of a building entirely
built of ferro-concrete on the Quay, at Xewcastle-upon-Tyne.
This is an eight-storey building, and each floor has to carry the
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14
FBRRO-COXCRETE AND ITS APPLICATIOXS.
enormous weight of 6 cwts. per square foot (fig. 7). In addition
to this, the flat roof is calculated for the storage of empties and
non-perishable goods. The result is that the pillars in the base-
ment have to carry loads amounting to 600 tons, and some of
them have even to support nearly 900 tons. Now, the foundations
tions being composed of slush, peat, quicksand, etc., to a depth of
60 feet, it was evident that the foundations had to be formed
either by piles driven to that depth or by cylinders, at a very great
cost ; it was, therefore, decided to adopt f erro-concrete. A general
ferro-conerete platform was built over the whole area, spreading
!
fca>[^
;□
IP
n
'mm
-^1
n
n
:f=t
n
n
n
=^
n
""■ — )• i
?5r^
F
Ty^^
ng^
[^
^a:
Fig. 8.— Longitudinal Section op Warehouse. Scale, 36 Feet to 1 Inch.
the load at the rate of 28 tons per square yard. Of course,
such a platform would have been inadequate by itself to with-
stand the enormous strain imposed; but by means of pillars
and walls it is connected to the remainder of the building, and
the whole structure forms a monolithic block, a sort of huge box-
girder, 100 feet high and with a span of 130 feet. It was assumed
that the whole block would sink 6 inches below its original level
and without deterioration. The sinking process was carefully
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FEHRO-COXCRETE AND ITS APPLICATIONS.
15
watched, and it was found, ultimately, that the building had
sunk as anticipated, and without ill effect on its strength (figs. &
and 9).
Fig. 10 shows the effects of the subsidence of made ground at
Bizerta, Tunis, on ferro-concrete buildings. These were restored
to a horizontal position, at a lower level, by excavations.
The construction of water-tanks (fig. 11) and reservoirs offers
a vast field to ferro-concrete. A list of reservoirs built on the
Hennebique system alone, during the last seven years, numbers
Fig. 9. — Cross-section of Wareuousb. Scale, 36 Feet to 1 Inch.
over 1,000. This, it seems, would tend to give faith to the most
sceptical. The flat roofs of ferro-concrete buildings are in many
cases used as water-tanks.
A form of reservoir, of which a word must be said, is grain
or coal-silos, or hoppers, the latter being of special interest (figs.
12, 13 and 14). They are calculated as a sort of reservoir, due
allowance being made for the friction of the grain or coal on the
walls.
Fig. 15 shows the entrance to a large culvert, 32 feet wide,
at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, forming a new coui*se for the Ouse-
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16
FEERO-CONCRETE AND ITS APPLICATIONS.
Fig. 10.— HuiLDixGs for Manufactories, Bizerta, Tunis.
bum. Fi^. IG shows a ferro-concrete aqueduct for conveying
water to the water-power plant at the Simplon tunnel-works.
Fig. 11.— Water-tank at Newton-le- Willows.
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FESBO-CONCRETE AlID ITS APPUCATIONS.
17
FfrrfffET!
'Hi
.'-'^-i
Fig. 12.— Coal-hoppeks at Gabmaux Collieries, France.
Ferro-concrete bridges have very nearly the same appearance
as metallic bridges, and are, indeed, constructed on nearly the same
principles. They have a very small rise, varying from 4 per cent,
to 10 per cent, of the span. The total thickness at the key is
FlO. 13. — COAL-HOPPEBS AT LeNS COLLIERIES, FRANCE.
TOL. XXXU 1.-1906-1907. 2
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^8
FERRO-COXCRETE AND ITS APPLICATIONS.
very small. In the Liege bridge, for instance, at the middle arch,
with a span of 184 feet, the total thickness of the key is only 1$
inches from the intrados of the arch to the upper part of the foot?^
path (fig. 17). It is evident that such a light structure offers ^.
Fig. 14.— Coal-washino Plant at Aniche Ck)LLiEBiES, France.
greater space for the passage of floods, and it is possible, there-
fore, to lessen by a few feet the distance between the road-level
and the ordinary water-level. The consequences being a lower-
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FERHO-COXCRETE AND ITS APPLICATIONS .
1»
gradient, and a saving in the abutments and filling for
the approaches of the bridge. Another point well worthy of con-
sideration is that the weight of a ferro-concrete bridge is much
smaller than the weight of a masonry bridge, and the foundations
consequently are less costly.
Some apprehension was formerly entertained as to the security
offered by ferro-concrete bridges. However, the writer finds that
during the last seven years more than 800 bridges have been
built in Hennebique ferro-concrete, and most of these bridges
have been severely tested.
Fio. 15. — OusEBUBX Culvert, Newcastlb-upon-Tyne.
Ferro-concrete has also been applied to river and marine
works (fig. 18). Most of these works contain piles and sheet-
piles of ferro-concrete. Their principle of construction is some-
what analogous to that of pillars. They are consituted by a
certain number of bars embedded in concrete, and maintained at
the required distance apart by means of distance-pieces. Their
section may vary according to the requirements from, say, 4
inches by 8 inches for very small sheet-piles, up to 20 inches
square. Their length when moulded in one piece has attained.
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20
FERRO-CONCRETE AND ITS APPLICATIONS.
more than 65 feet. The question of weight alone prevents the
moulding of longer piles in one piece ; but, in cases where greater
lengths are required, there are means of connecting piles moulded
beforehand, insuring a very rigid joint, and it is possible to drive
ferro-concrete piles almost to any depth.
Architects sometimes object to ferro-concrete, owing to the
supposed plainness of its appearance. Although engineers are
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FEEEO-CONCEETE AND ITS APPLICATIONS. 21
not concerned so much about SBsthetics, the writer happens to
5
know that ferro-coDcrete lends itself to elaborate oniamentation
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22
FEEEO-CONCRETE AND ITS APPLICATIONS.
in buildings (fig. 6), and as regards bridges, jetties, reservoirs,
etc., it compares very favoui-ably with other materials.
It is sometimes argued that ferro-concrete is too new a
material. But ferro-concrete structures have been erected now
for fifteen years without showing any sign of decay, and have
been erected by thousands. Continuous vibrations, which were
at first supposed to be very detrimental to ferro-concrete, do not
affect it in the least. A most serious enquiry has been made on
this particular point by order of the French Government, and the
Fio. 18.— CoAL-SHippiNO Quay and Jetty, Southampton.
conclusions of the report are absolutely positive. The writer need
hardly state that the legend, that in course of time the steel bars
become rusted in concrete and lose a great pai-t of their strength,
has been abandoned long ago, it having been proved that oxide
of iron cannot exist in contact with cement. Besides, every-
day practice shows that rusted bars embedded in concrete will
be, in the course of a month or so, as bright as when leaving the
rolling mill, the rust having been deoxidized by the formation
of ferrite of calcium, which forms a protective skin all round
the bars.
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FERRO-COXCRETE AND ITS APPLICATIONS.
23
The adherence of concrete to iron has also been questioned.
But the coefficient of adhei-ence has now been determined, and
its value is such that it justifies the practice of ferro-concrete
specialists who i*eckon on concrete alone to make the junction
between the different metallic parts of the structures. The writer
means that two bars, which have to be connected, are merely set
close to each other in the moulds and embedded in the concrete.
Fig.
19. —Coal- HOPPERS at Southampton with a
Capacity of 4,000 Tons.
As regards the expansion of concrete and steel, their
coefficients are identical up to the fifth decimal figure, and in
practice it may be assumed that they are equal ; consequently, in
the fiercest fires, ferro-concrete resists without losing any of its
qualities of strength and elasticity.
Amongst the other advantages of ferro-concrete are its cheap-
ness, its rapidity of execution, the solidaritj^ between all the
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24 FERRO-COXCRETE AXD ITS APPLICATIONS.
elements of the structure, and its durable properties which
obviate almost entirely subsequent expense in upkeep, painting,,
etc., its absolute immunity against the attack of wood-worm,,
dry-rot, and damp-rot, and the like.
The writer will close by repeating the words by which the-
chairman of the committee of research on ferro-concrete, insti-
tuted by the French Government, characterized ferro-concrete : —
** Masonry has its weakness, which is insuperable, namely, the^
joint ; metallic structures have also an insuperable source of
weakness, the rivet ; ferro-concrete presents no joints and does not
rely on rivets, it is not made of pieces jointed or fitted together,
it is a block.'*
The President (Mr. J. H. Merivale) moved a vote of thanka
to Mr. Gueritte for his instructive paper.
Prof. H. Louis seconded the resolution, which was cordially
approved.
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TRANSACTIONS. 25-
THE SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE AND WARWICKSHIRE.
INSTITUTE OF MINING ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING,
Held at thx Univebsitt, Bournbbook, Bibminuham,
Febbuabt ISth, 1907.
Mb. F. a. GRAYSTON, Pbbsident, in the Chaib.
The minutes of the last General Meeting and of Council
Meetings were read and confirmed.
The following gentlemen were elected : —
Assooiatb Mbmbeb—
Mr. W. GoBDON Gbbbnbow, Hednesford.
Student—
Mr. Gavin Hildick Smith, The University, Birmingham.
Prof. C. Lapwoeth read the following paper on ** The-
Hidden Coal-fields of the Midlands": —
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*:26 THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS.
THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS.
By Prof. CHARLES LAPWORTH.
The day was when it was believed that each of the visible
coal-fields in the Midlands was a single and complete basin in
itself, whose coal-seams and associated strata had no relation to
those of the other visible coal-fields of the region. But that
primitive opinion had long since been disproved by the advance
of geology ; and the view now generally accepted, even among
those who have only a passing acquaintance with the science, is
that all the visible coal-fields are simply the exposed coal-bearing
portions of what once was a continuous sheet of Carboniferous
strata, originally laid down in one and the same grand area of
deposition, and afterwards covered by a similarly continuous
sheet of red Triassic rocks. These two rock-sheets, the dark
Carboniferous below and the red Triassic sheet above, became
bent and folded by earth-crust movement into broad arches and
troughs. From the crests of these arches, the Triassic rocks
have been swept off by denudation, laying bare the Coal-measures
below. These bared portions now form the visible coal-fields.
But, in the broad troughs and depressions between these
arches, the red rocks of the Triassic sheet still remain intact,
while beneath that sheet, at depths which increase, bix)adly
speaking, in passing outwards from the visible coaJ-fields towards
the central parts of the depressions, the Coal-measure sheet is
presei-^^ed, and forms an enormous hidden coal-field or coal-fields
underlying all the country intervening between one visible coal-
field and another.
This newer generalization is certainly a great advance upon
the older one, and it has, at all events, the advantage of bringing
into prominence one of the chief economic results of geological
mapping and research among the Midland Coal-measures during
the last 50 years, at the same time that it indicates, in a broad
way, the mode of origin and the present relations of the visible
and the hidden coal-fields of the district.
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THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS. 27
But while this view is adequate enough as a working
generalization, it is insuificient if the details be examined; for
it takes no account of the minor complications which enter
into the matter. The Coal-measure sheet is by no means
uniform everywhere either in character or in thickness ; for, in
the northern parts of the Midlands, as in Lancashire and Xorth
Staffordshire, the Coal-measures are a mile in depth and their
middle member is exceedingly rich in workable coal-seams, while
towards the southern parts the sheet becomes much thinner and
finally all that remains is a mass of sandstones and shales from
which coal-seams are absent or, if present, are thin and poor.
The red Triassic rock-sheet certainly overlies the dark sheet
of the Coal-measures wherever the two are found in association,
but there are large districts of country, like some near Charn-
wood, where the Coal-measure sheet was swept off before the
Triassic sheet was laid down, and where, as a consequence,
hidden coal-fields cannot possibly be met with.
It is true that a visible coal-field, like that of South Stafford-
shire, may occur on the crest of a denuded arch and be every-
where more or less surrounded by the Triassic rock-sheet with
its promise of hidden coal-fields. But there are far more cases
where, as in Xorth Staffordshire, the visible coal-field lies on one
of the flanks of an arch, or, as in the county of Denbigh, lies on
the outer rim of the region, so that the Triassic rocks occur on
only one of its sides. Again, even where the visible coal-fields
are fringed by Triassic rocks with hidden coal-fields below,
these hidden coal-fields are sometimes cut off by faults of enor-
mous throw, like the boundary-faults of the Black Countiy;
faults sometimes so great as to deter mining enterprise
beyond them down to the present time, as in the case of the
great red-rock fault of the Potteries country.
If, however, allowances are made for such difliculties
and complications, the generalization stands. All the produc-
tive Coal-measures of the Midlands are constituent parts of
what once was the same sheet of ordinary sediments ; and, where
they now remain preserved under the newer formations, they
form a series of hidden coal-fields collectively larger than all
the visible Midland coal-fields combined.
The story of the gradual accumulation of our present know-
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28 THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE HTDLANDS.
led^e of the Midland Coal-measures, visible and hidden, reaches
far back into the earlier half of the last century. To no British
geologist does the present acceptance of the view, that all the
Coal-measures and their coal-seams are ordinary sediments and
follow the wellknown laws of deposition, arrangement and
continuity of such sediments, owe more than to the late
Prof. J. B. Jukes, whose memoir on the South Staffordshire coal-
field* still remains classic. The detailed mapping of the coal-
fields and their surroundings by the ofiicers of the Government
Geological Survey has shown how naturally the characters and
distribution of the Carboniferous formations and subformations
fall into line and order under this simple view. It lies at the
foundation of the inferences drawn by the geologists of the First
Boyal Coal Commission in all that concerns the probable posi-
tions and resources of the concealed coal-fields then untested;
and all the underground extensions of our coal-fields won or
proved since that time fall within the areas then suggested.
The brilliant discoveries and speculations, made by our latest
generation of Carboniferous geologists — Messrs. Walcot Gibson^
Thomas Crosbee Cantrill, Wheelton Hind, John Thomas Stobbs
and Percy Fry Kendall — during the last few years, go to show
that this view is becoming applicable to yet finer and finer
detail. Indeed, the day has now arrived when, not content
with establishing the original continuity or otherwise of the
subformations of the Coal-measures, geologists will make an
endeavour to fix the details of the extent and range of the
smaller zones, and it may be of maoy of the individual coal-
seams themselves.
The Midland mining community has been by no means slow
to follow up the results of geological discovery and speculation,
and to extend its mining enterprise well outside the limits of
the visible coal-fields into the hidden coal-fields beyond. The
late Mr. Henry Johnson might almost be called the British
pioneer in this respect, and his conquest of the hidden coal-field
of Sandwell in 1874 was as bold and startling at the time as it
was successful in its results. In South Staffordshire alone, the
total area of hidden coal-fields below the red ground already
• "On the Geology of the South Staffordshire Coal-field," by Prof. J. Beete
Jukes, MuHtum of Practiced Geology and (reolotjical Survey : Records of the School
of Min€f< and of Science applied to the ArtM, 1853, vol. i., page 149.
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THE HIDOEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS. 29
practically proved by workings, shafts or borings in the Cannock
Chase country to the north, the Sandwell-Hampstead-Langley
ground to the east, and the Baggeridge-Four Ashes country to
the west, may be roughly set down as almost equal to one-third
of the total extent of the original visible coal-field itself. During
the last 50 years also, the mining community of Leicestershire
and East Warwickshire have doubled the previously known
•extent of their coal-mining country by opening out the hidden
Coal-measures below the red ground ; and the hidden coal-field,
claimed by mining authorities as already proved, below the
red ground to the east of the Yorkshire-Nottinghamshire coal-
fields, amounts to more than 500 square miles.
But if geologists are right in the conclusions that they draw
from the facts won by their researches, the total area of the
hidden Midland coal-field hitherto entered upon, or even fairly
proved by shafts or borings, is but a fraction of that which
actually exists. As the output of coal increases and the
visible coal-fields begin to show signs of exhaustion, two ques-
tions become more pressing year by year: — (1) Where do the
untested hidden coal-fields occur; and (2) which among them
are 80 situated and so prolific in coal-seams that they offer the
greatest promise of commercial exploitation and profit?
The answers to these questions, so far as they can be answered
in the present state of geological knowledge and engineering
practice, are fully set forth in the various local reports of the
recent Royal Commission on Coal-supplies which deal with the
coal-resources of the proved coal-fields, and in the General
Report on the Concealed Coal-fields prepared for Lord AUerton
by the Geological Committee.* The reports, published singly,
at low prices, should be studied by all who are interested in the
subject. It is only necessary, therefore, to summarize the
present state of knowledge and speculation so far as the Midlands
are concerned, and refer to these reports for details.
The original boundaries of the area of deposition in which
the Midland Carboniferous strata were laid down are unknown,
but the main or productive Coal-measures apparently die out
altogether towards the south along a curved line drawn from the
• Fined Report of the Boyal Commission on CocU^upplies, 1905, parts ii. to ix.
incluBive.
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30 THE HIDDE>' COAL-FIELDS OF THE HUDLAXDS.
Wash, to the south of Leicester and Corentry, and thence
through the Lickey Hills, the Forest of Wyre, and the Clee
Hills, to the Long^mynd. This line may be looked upon as
broadly marking the effective southern limit of the region.
Eastwards, the area appears to have extended through Lincoln-
shire to the shores of the German Ocean, and westwards its
deposits still survive as far as the hills of the counties of
Denbigh and Flint. Northward, the region includes at least
all the southern parts of the Pennine chain from about the
latitude of York. Within the limits of the Midland region,
thus extended, lie the visible coal-fields of Lancashire, York-
shire, Nottinghamshire, North Staffordshire and South Stafford-
shire, Leicestershire, East Warwickshire, Coalbrookdale,
Denbigh and Flint, and a few others of minor note.
The typical district of the Coal-measures of the Midlands is
the coal-field of North Staffordshire, where the strata have been
mapped and studied in detail by the officers of the Geological
Survey and by various local geologists. They have been
recently classified and described by Mr. Walcot Gibson in the
Survey Report on the North Staffordshire coal-field* and their
correlation has been discussed by him and others in various
geological papers and memoirs. According to these authorities,
the Coal-measures of North Staffordshire attain a thickness of
from 5,000 to 7,000 feet. For the present purpose, they are most
conveniently regarded as being made up of two main divisions : —
A Lower Coal-me«asure group, which may be called the
productive Coal-measures, as they contain nearly all the work-
able coal-seams of the district; and an Upper group, which may
be called the non-productive Coal-measures, for although they
contain occasional coal-seams, these seams are thin and of but
little commercial value.
The productive Coal-measures are sometimes regarded as
falling into two sections: — A lower section broadly referred to
as the Lower Coal-measures, and a higher section broadly
referred to as the Middle Coal-measures. The section of the
Middle Coal-measures contains the richest seams of coal in the
district, and its highest band is that known locally as the Bassey
mine.
• Meirwira of the Geological Sun^ef/ of England and Wales : Hie Geology qf the
Xorth Staffonlnhire Coal.Jiddy by Mr. Walcot Gibson, 1906, pages 38 to 65.
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THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS. 31*;
The non-productive Coal-measures which follow have a
collective thickness of 2,000 feet, and are more usually referred
to as the Fpper Coal-measures. They are arranged in four
successive gix)ups : — (1) Black-band group at ilxe base, from
300 to 450 feet thick ; sandstones and mottled clays, with a few
very thin coal-seams and many rich ironstones. (2) Etruria
Marls, from 800 to 1,100 feet thick; mottled and purple marls
and clays, with coarse green grits and sandstones. (3) New-
castle-under -Lyme group, from 300 to 350 feet thick ; grey
sandstones and shales, with four thin seams of coal. (4) Keele
series, over 700 feet thick ; red and purple sandstones and clays,
with rare and thin coal-seams. The Keele beds were formerly
mapped as Permian, but they are now classed as the highest
member of the non-productive or Upper Coal-measures.
Mr. AValcot Gibson and others have shown within the last
few years that the whole of this non-productive series forms a
geological unit, and must in future be looked upon as such.
Its four divisions are all conformable among themselves, and
graduate the one into the other. They all contain intermittent
coal-seams, although these are of little value. From the bottom
to the top of the series, there is a recurrence of thick beds
of brightly coloured clays and marls, of thin limestones
with Entomostraca and occasional examples of Spirorbis, the
Spirarbis'hsinds becoming more important towards the summit
of the series. Xot only is this non-prcKluctive series thus shown
to be a definite Coal-measui-e series following naturally after the
productive Coal-measures, but its distinction from the true Per-
mian beds has been made evident by the discoveries in East
Nottinghamshire. In a boring* at Thurgarton, 10 miles north-
east of Nottingham, these non-productive Coal-measures were
found to underlie unconformably the typical Permian rocks of
that district. These true Permian rocks there consist of the
Magnesian Limestone series. Below the unconformable base
of this series were met in descending order: — (1) 188 feet
of red sandstones and marls containing Carboniferous plants :
answering to the Keele beds; (2) grey sandstones and shales
containing a thin seam of coal : answering to the Newcastle
* "On the Character of the Uoper Coal-meafmres of North Staffordshire »
Denbighshire, South Staffordshire ana Nottinghamshire ; and their Relation to
the Prodnctive Series," by Mr. Walcot Qibson, Tfie Qnarttrly Journal of the
Geological Society of London^ ]901, yol. lyii., pages 202 to 264.
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•92 THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS.
group; and below these (3) the ordinary grey Coal-measures of
the visible coal-field. Thus, the non-productive series of North
Staffordshire, including the Keele beds or the so-called Midland
or Salopian Permian, was shown to belong to the Carboniferous
•system by its conformity with the productive Coal-measu!re8
beneath, and to be distinct from the true Permian by its uncon-
formity with the Magnesian Limestone series above.
In the Lancashire coal-field, the productive coal-measures
have a thickness varying from 4,000 to 6,000 feet. The non-
productive measures are also well developed, attaining a
thickness of from 1,600 to 3,500 feet; but, as yet, their com-
ponent divisions have not been worked out.
In the Denbighshire and Flintshire coal-fields the productive
Coal-measures are thinner than in North Staffordshire, but the
thickness of the non-productive measures is greater. The Black-
band series, at the base of the latter, has not yet been identified
in the Denbigh district, but the Newcastle group, the Etruria
Marl series and the Keele beds are all present and fully
developed.*
In the South Staffordshire coal-field, the productive Coal-
measures are well represented, as are also the non-productive
measures above. The productive Coal-measures attain a thick-
ness of nearly 2,000 feet in the northern part of the coal-field,
but thin down to a fourth of that thickness perhaps in the
Dudley and Oldbury district, and die out apparently altogether
as they approach the Lickey Hills. The non-productive series
is collectively thicker than in North Staffordshire. The Etruria
Marls of North Staffordshire are represented by the Brick-clay
series of Oldbury, with its included green and grey Espley
grits: the Newcastle series by the Halesowen sandstone group;
and the terminal red-rock group or Keele series is represented
by the so-called Permian sandstones and marls of the Lickey
Hills, Warley and Enville.
In the Warwickshire district, the productive Coal-measures
decrease from more than 1,000 feet in the northern parts of the
coal-field to less than half that amount where they are lost to
sight near Wyken and Coventry. The Etruria Marls are
• •* On the Character of the Upper Coal-measures of North Staffordshire,
Denbighshire, South Stiiffordshire and Nottinghamshire; and their Relation to
the Productive Series," by Mr. Walcot Gibson, The Qttarttrly Journal of the
(itdogical Socuty of London, 1901, vol. Ivii., pages 260 to 261.
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THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS. 38
represented by the Waxwickshire Brick-clay group, worked for
brick-making' near Stockingford and marked by the occurrence
of the usual Espley beds. The Halesowen group is represented
by certain grey sandstones and coloured clays, which follow in
the Stockingford country and have the usual Spirorbis-hsLiLds at
the summit. The Keele series is here more fully developed
than in any other district in the Midlands. These beds include
most, if not all, of the strata hitherto laid down on the Geo-
logical Survey maps as Permian: they spread out over all
the ground lying to the west and south of the coal-field from
Kingsbury to Kenilworth and Leamington, and are estimated to
have a maximum thickness exceeding 2,000 feet.
In the Coalbrookdale region, the productive CoaJ-measures
t)r " sweet coal " group, as they are locally called, are relatively
thin, about 220 feet at the most. They are followed by a series
of non-productive measures, consisting of grey sandstones and
coloured marls, with a few thin sulphurous coals and some
Spirorbis-hdinds. By many authorities, including Mr. Daniel
Jones and Mr. W. J. Clarke, this non-productive series is
regarded as lying unconformably on the productive measures ;
and it certainly overlaps south-westwards directly upon the
old pre-Carboniferous floor. The same relations of overlap or
unconformity also obtain throughout the whole of the southern
extension of the Coalbrookdale region down the Severn and into
the Forest of Wyre, where the sweet coals have been recognized
only in one small district near Highley. All the rest of the Car-
boniferous ground is apparently occupied by the Upper
Ooal-measures with their sulphurous seams and local bands of
JSpirorbisAimestone.
In the coal-fields of Lebotwood and Shrewsbuiy, the Upper
Coal-measures alone appear to be present. A few hundreds of
feet of grey sandstones and shales, with a few thin coal-seams
and Spirorbis-hoinds rest at once upon the pre-Carboniferous
floor, and these grey beds graduate conformably upwards into
the red sandstones and mai*ls hitherto mapped as Permian, but
which are, the writer imagines, the representatives of the Keele
-series of the north.
In the East Leicestershire coal-field, no Upper Coal-measures
appear to be present. This is also the case in the visible portion
of the Nottinghamshire coal-field; but, as has already been
▼OL.3CXXIII.-IMft.1W7. 3
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84 THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS.
seen, they come in to the south-eastwards in the hidden coal-
field under the post-Carboniferous cover, as proved in the boring
at Thurgarton.
Even from this hasty summation of the present knowledge
of the grouping and extent of the Coal-measures of the Midland
coal-fields, it is evident that these Coal-measures as a whole
were laid down in one and the same grand region of deposition.
Judging from the fact that the productive measures are thickest
at the north of this region and thin away and finally die out at
the south, the area must have been one in which the rate of
depression was much more rapid in the north than in the
southern direction. It would almost appear, indeed, that during
Lower and Middle Coal-measure times the southern margin of
the region remained above water. During the Upper Coal-
measure period, however, the depression seems to have been a
more general one, for the Upper Coal-measures appear not only
to have been deposited upon all the productive measures in the
central parts of the area, but to have overlapped them for some
distance in the southern pai*ts, so as to rest directly upon the
old Coal-measure floor along and beyond the southern margin
of the region.
It can hardly be expected that the physical conditions
which obtained during Coal-measure time in the Midland area
were altogether quite so simple as this broad generalization
would imply. Indeed, the relations of the Upper Coal-measures
to the productive series in Shropshire and elsewhere seem to be
incapable of interpretation, except upon the view of local eleva-
tion and erosion in inter-Carboniferous times, and there are
many other difficulties which still remain to be explained.
Nevertheless, for the sake of convenience of description and dis-
cussion, it may be assumed that at the close of Carboniferous
time the productive Coal-measures extended in a continuous
sheet over the whole of the Midland region almost to its
southern borders and the non-productive Coal-measures far
beyond. After the close of the Upper Coal-measure time, how-
ever, and previous to the commencement of the Trias, the base-
ment floor of the whole of the CaTboniferous region of the
Midlands, together with all the sedimentary sheets which had
been deposited upon it, became warped up by earth-crust move-
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THE HIDOEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS.
8S
<0
I I
meats into broad arches or ridges, separated by intermediate
troughs or basins. From the highest of these elevations, the
Coal-measures became denuded, and in some districts the
denudation progressed so far that the Coal-measures were
stripped off the crests and flanks of the elevations and the pre-
Coal-measure floor laid bare. In the broad hollows and basins,
however, lying between the main elevations, the Coal-meaaures
remained preserved: the thickness left being more or less in
proportion to the width and depth of the basin.
To this epoch of vigorous movement and erosion succeeded
the long period of slow and more or less regional depression
in which the
thick cover of
Triassic and suc-
ceeding forma-
tions was laid
down over the
whole of the
Midland area,
over denuded el-
evations and un-
denuded basins
alike.
Finally came
the more recent
period of re-el-
evation and de-
nudation, which
apparently lasted from early Tertiary time down to the present,
during which the red -rock cover has been again partly stripped
off the country and the Coal-measures laid bare over large areas.
**'
UJ
o
A
y
>?
'1- "j:
^
■y.
o
50|
'^th
MID -STAFFORDSHIRE
BASIN ,
5 *^- is I
^^..
-,^
£Z
! "5
Fio. 1.— Diagrammatic Flak of Anticlines and Basins
OF Southern Midlands.
In order to appreciate the present distribution and relation-
ships of the visible and hidden coal-fields of the Midlands, it
is necessary to bear in mind the arrangement of the great arches
and troughs into which the Carboniferous rocks and the over-
lying sediments have been warped.
The chief arch or anticline — the Pennine arch — enters the
Midland region from the north, and comes down towards the
centre of the area beyond Cheadle and Derby (fig. 1). This
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86 THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS.
arch dies down to the east into the Nottinghamshire basin, which
is broad and shallow and has its outer rim in East Lincolnshire
along the shores of the German ocean. The Pennine arch sinks
down similarly to the west into the corresponding, but much
narrower and deeper basin of Cheshire, whose outer rim lies
along the high grounds of Denbigh and Flint. To the south,
the great arch dips into the Mid-Staflfordshire basin, which
extends east and west almost from Nottingham to Cheshire.
A second but smaller arch — ^the South Staffordshire anti-
cline— enters the Midlands from the south, and is prolonged
northwards in its turn almost to the centre of the Midland
region. This arch splits the southern parts of the Staffordshire
basin into two long bays or troughs : — The Wolverhampton sub-
basin and the Birmingham sub-basin. East of the Birmingham
basin is the broad and irregular Leicestershire platform, which
shows coal-fields emerging here and there from beneath a ragged
red-rock cover, and is prolonged to the north-west below the red
ground as a barren underground ridge — the Melbourne-Derby
ridge — extending to the Pennine arch and separating the Stafford-
shire and Nottinghamshire basins. West of the Wolverhampton
basin lies the corresponding Shropshire platform, which has lost
practically all its former Triassic cover, and is similarly prolonged
to the Pennine arch as a subterranean, but perhaps coal-bearing,
ridge — the Newport-Drayton ridge — separating, along much of its
course, the Staffordshire and Cheshire basins.
The visible coal-fields of Nottinghamshire, North Staffordshire,
Lancashire and Cheshire flank the Pennine arch where it sinks
down into the Nottinghamshire, Staffordshire and Cheshire basins.
The coal-fields of Denbigh and Flint lie along the western border
of the Cheshire basin, and those of Shrewsbury and Lebotwood
along its border to the south. The coal-fields of Ashby-de-la-
Zouch rest upon the main body of the Leicestershire platform,
those of the Clee Hills on that of the platform of Shropshire,
and the coal-field of Dudley on the crest of the South Stafford-
shire anticline. The coal-fields of Coalbrookdale and Forest
of Wyre lie along the line where the Shropshire platform sub-
sides below the Wolverhampton trough, and the coal-field of
East Warwickshire where the Leicestershire platform dies down
into the Birmingham basin.
The visible coal-fields of the Midlands occur, as a rule, on
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THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS. 87
the flanks of the great arches and elevations. The hidden coal-
fields lie buried under the Triassic cover which overspreads the
intermediate basins. Where the elevations slope very gently
into the basins, as in Warwickshire and East Nottinghamshire,
the prolongation of the coal-seams under the red ground can be
followed, stage by stage, outwards from the visible coal-field
itself. This can be done in three ways: — (1) By working the
coal-seams, foot by foot, from the collieries inside the visible
coal-field, deeper and deeper under the red ground. (2) By
sinking trial borings in the red ground, in advance of the
workings, and proving the existence of Coal-measures prepara-
tory to sinking a shaft. Or (3) by boldly sinking a shaft in
the red ground into the hidden Coal-measures below.
By these three methods, employed either singly or in combina-
tion, large areas of coal-bearing ground have been won from
the collective area of the hidden coal-fields of the Midlands
during the last 50 years, and have been added as proved
marginal coal-fields to the edges of the visible coal-fields of
former days.
The total area of the visible coal-fields in the Midland
region may be estimated at 1,700 square miles. The total area of
the hidden Midland coal-fields already proved is about 830 square
miles, equal to about one-half the area of the visible coal-fields.
But this proved ground is a fraction of the collective area
occupied by the hidden coal-fields of the Midlands. While it is
as yet impossible, 'aad will be so for many years to come, to
calculate with any approach to accuracy the exact area ; yet, if a
rough estimate be made, founded upon the assumptioti that the
profitable Coal-measures are continued under the red rocks from
those points where they are found sinking down under the red
ground at the edge of one visible coal-field to the point where
they are found emerging at the edge of another, the collective
area of the hidden coal-fields yet to be tested may be reckoned at
from 5,000 to 6,000 square miles.
But this amount must be largely discounted, from the mining
and commercial points of view, for there comes eventually
a downward limit beyond which it becomes unprofitable to
follow these hidden coal-fields in their underground extension
below the Trias, no matter how promising the geologist may
consider them to be as respects the number and quality of the
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88 THE HIDDEX COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS.
coal-seams that they may contain. This liniit is fixe<l by the
depth of their coal-seams below the present surface of the country.
It may be true that as the depth increases the cost of extraction
can be reduced by capitalists securing a larger area for working,
and laying down at the commencement a plant sufficiently com-
prehensive to cope with the corresponding increase of output.
But broadly speaking, the eng'ineering difficulties of coal-working
augment with the increase of depth or, in other words, with
the thickness of the overlying cover.
At the Florence collieries of North Staffordshire, coal is
worked to a depth of 3,000 feet; and at Pendleton colliery, in
Lancashire, to a depth of 3,483 feet. It is not unlikely that the
time is fast approaching when such mines will be worked prac-
tically to a depth of 4,000 feet; but this may be said to be the
downward limit of profitable working, as accepted by mining
engineers of the present day. This depth was adopted as the
depth-limit by the Commissioners in the last two Royal Coal
Commissions; their lead is here followed in this respect, and
the limit of possibly profitable coal- working set down at a
depth of 4,000 feet.
But this downward limit has a most important bearing upon
the matter of the unproved hidden coal-fields of the Midlands,
and at once removes at least half the area which they probably
occupy from the category of practical discussioiv. If the Triassic
rocks and the underlying non-proii table Coal-measures of the
Midlands retain the same thickness in the cores of the great
basins as they possess along their margins, the productive Coal-
measures in the central parts of most of these basins must be
well below this limiting depth of 4,000 feet.
The extension and resources of the hidden coal-fields, proved
and unproved, as they are developed from district to district
when followed through the Midlands, now remain to be
considered.
The Pennine arch of the Northern Midlands sinks very
gently downwards towards the east and south-east into the Not-
tinghamshire bafiin, which, according to the conclusions of Prof.
Percy Fry Kendall, is continued eastward almost to the shore of
the German Ocean before its outer border is reached, and south-
ward, perhaps, to the latitude of the Wash. The Coal-measures
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THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS. 39
of this basin, sls they sink downward in an easterly direction,
are laid bare over an extent of 840 square miles, forming the
visible Nottinghamshire and Yorkshire coal-field. Their continua-
tion under the red rocks has already been proved by means of bore-
holes for a distance of from 4 to 10 miles under the red ground
beyond the limits of the visible coal-field, and they are already
worked under the red ground by a line of shafts like those of
Shireoaks, Warsop, Sherwood, etc., to a long distance outside.
The total area of hidden coal-field already accepted as proved
and added as a marginal coal-field to the visible coal-field is set
down by Prof. Percy Fry Kendall at 570 square miles.*
But the area over which the profitable Coal-measures extend
as a hidden coal-field in the Nottingham shire basin is certainly far
greater than this, and Prof. Percy Fry Kendall estimates it at
3,885 square miles.t The Royal Coal Commissioners acknowledge
an area of some 2,550 square miles, extending outwards from the
Nottinghamshire coal-field under the Trias and succeeding
formations across Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire almost to
the edge of the Wash, and thence north-eastward to a line drawn
through eastern Lincolnshire to a point midway between Selby
and Hull. Throughout the whole of this area, it is possible that
many of the best seams of the productive Coal-measures lie
within 4,000 feet of the surface, and will be worked in the course
of time. This great concealed coal-field constitutes, so far as
known, the grandest hidden coal-field in the Midlands. Its
Coal-measures dip at such a gentle angle, and are so little broken
by faults and folds, that they can be easily worked. Some of its
coal-seams, like the Bamsley Hard, have a very high reputation.
Its position, lying between the large manufacturing towns of
Yorkshire and Nottinghamshire on the one side and the sea on
the other, has an important bearing on the demand for its coals ;
and its special advantages, both from the commercial and from
the geological points of view, are certain to make it that hidden
coal-field of the Midlands which will be most profitably and
rapidly developed in the future.
West and south-west of the Pennine anticline, and thus cor-
responding in position to the Nottinghamshire basin, lies the great
* ** Sub-report on the Concealed Portion of the Coal-field of Yorkshire,
Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire," by Mr. Percy Fry Kendall, Final Rtport of the
Roydd Gamrnvtifion (ni Coal-supplies, 1005, part ix., page IS.
t liyid,, page 32.
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40 THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS.
basin of Cheshire and South Lancashire. But, while the Nottingr
hamshire basin is remarkable for its shallowness, and, as a
consequence, for the wide spread of workable Coal-measures,,
within 4,000 feet of the surface, the central parts of this Cheshire
basin are of great depth, and over fully one-third of its area the
profitable Coal-measures, if they exist, may lie deeper than the-
workable limit of 4,000 feet from the surface. The northern
flanks of the basin are occupied by the visible coal-field of South
Lancashire, and, under the unworked ground lying along the
south of the field, the Boyal Coal Commissioners estimate that
some 105 square miles* have already afforded suificient geological
evidence that their Coal-meausres lie within 4,000 feet of the sur-
face, and so this area is regarded as forming a proved extension,
of the Lancashire coal-field. On the western flanks of the basin,
lie the Denbigh and Flintshire coal-fields, and now that the red
so-called Permian measures of that country are grouped as the-
Keele series in the Carboniferous, much of the area that these
rocks occupy is looked upon as constituting a proved marginal
extension of these coal-fields. Over all the remainder of the
Cheshire basin, the existence of workable Coal-measures is-
inferred by geologists. A broad sweep of country occupying a
total area of some 200 square miles, t including the peninsula of
Wirral and almost the whole of the ground intervening between
the estuarj- of the Mersey and the edge of the Lancashire coal-
field, is believed by Mr. Aubrey Strahan and others, to contain,
coal-seams within workable depths. Into the same category also
falls a narrow strip of red-rock country on the flanks of the
Lancashire-Cheshire coal-field, in the district* of Manchester and
Stockport. J But, for all the central and southern parts of the
Cheshire basin, including the whole of the country lying between
Shrewsbury on the south and Runcorn on the north, Congleton
on the east and Chester on the west, no estimate has yet been
attempted. So far as the known geological facts enable one to
judge, it would appear that in the middle parts of this great
* ** Report on the Available Coal-resources of District G (North Wales,
Lancashire and Cheshire)," by I^f. Edward Hull, Sir George John Armytage,.
Bart., and Mr. Aubrey Strahan, Final Report of the RoycU Commission <wi Coal-
supplies, 1906, part iv., plate i.
t ** Sub-report to the Geological Committee on the Concealed and Unproved
Coal-fields, not including District B," by Mr. Aubrey Strahan, FincU Report of the
RoyaJl Commission on C<Ml-supplieSf 1906, part ix., page 16.
t Ibid., page 15,
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THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS. 41
area, from Middlewich through Crewe to Wem and Whitchurch,
there must lie from 3,000 to 4,000 feet of Triassic rocks* upon
the Carboniferous strata below. Below these, from 1,000 to 3,000
feet of Upper and non-productive Coal-measures may have to be
cut through before the productive Coal-measures are reached.
These numbers are, perhaps, extreme, but they are sufficient
to show that under all the central parts of the Cheshire basin the
profitable measures lie too deep for working.
On the eastern flanks of the basin, and between it and the
North Staffordshire coal-field, runs the great red-rock fault with
an unknown throw, as yet completely baffling research and enter-
prize in that direction. Along the southern and south-eastern
margins of this basin, however, from the northern edge of the
Shrewsbury coal-field far to the north-east, it is probable that
Coal-measures lie under the red ground at no very great depth
below the surface ; such Coal-measures as are seen sinking into
the basin contain, however, but a few thin coals and these
probably belong to the Upper Coal-measures. It may be some
miles inside the margin of the Cheshire basin in this direction
before the productive measures come in, and in that distance
they may have sunk to so great a depth or under such a thickness
of water-bearing Trias, as to make their exploitation unprofitable.
South of the Pennine anticline, the Coal-measures sink down
somewhat steeply into the Mid-Staffordshire basin. The north-
eastern flanks of this basin are occupied by the strata of the visible
North Staffordshire coal-field. Succeeding the grey measures of
that coal-field, the band of red rocks comes in, which constitutes
the Keele series, now classed as the highest member of the Upper
Coal-measures. About half the width of this Eeele band of
North Staffordshire,t having a total area of some 10 to 12 square
miles, forms a hidden coal-field, which is held to occupy ground
that is already sufficiently known and is regarded as the proved
extension of the Potteries coal-field. South of this proved
ground lies a much broader strip of country extending from
Madeley through Stone in the direction of Cheadle, occupying
* *< Sub-report to the Geological Committee on the Concealed and Unproved
Coal-fields, not including District B," by Mr. Aubrey Strahan, Final Rtpwi oftht
RoycU Commisaion mi C(Ml-supplieSf 1905, part ix., page 13.
t ''Report on the Available Coal-resources of District B (Staffordshire,
Warwickshire, Leicestershire, Shropshire, and a small portion of South Derby-
shire)," by Prof. Charles Lapworth and Mr. Arthur Sopwith, FincU Beport of the
R&yal Cammisai&n on Coal-auppHent 1906, part iiL, page 4.
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42 THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS.
some 96 square miles* and floored partly by the Keele series
and partly by the Triassie formation. In this ground it is held
that, in all probability, the higher seams of the productive Coal-
measures of the North Staffordshire coal-field lie within 4,000
feet of the surface. Beyond this narrow band, however, over
all the more central parts of the Staffordshire basin, which are
floored by the Keuper Marls, from Eccleshall almost to Burton,
if the productive measures occur at all, they probably lie
at unworkable depths below the surface ; for, at Chartley, in the
eastern i>art of this area, Keuper Marls have already been bored
through to a depth of 2,400 feet without reaching their base,t
and below this it may be naturally expected that the whole of
the Bunter and some of the Upper Coal-measui-es might have
to be pierced through before the profitable measures could be
reached.
Along a line running across the eastern part of the Mid-
Staffordshire basin, from Cheadle to Repton, and continued to the
north-eastern parts of the Leicestershire coal-field, the basement
beds of the productive measures must crop out against the over-
lying cover of Triassie rocks, so that a broad stretch of
country forming the subterranean ridge of Derby and Melbourne,
extending from this line as far eastwards as Trent Junction,
must be destitute of Coal-measures.
The groat Leicestershire platform extends from Burton-upon-
Trent Bridge eastwards to Melton Mowbray, south and south-
eastwards towards Rugby and Leicester, and westwards to Athei-
st one and Nuneaton. Over the whole of this platform the red-
rock cover is comparatively thin, and had the Coal-measures
remained as fully preserved upon this platform as in the Xotting-
hamshire basin, its hidden coal-fields would have been equally
promising. But previous to the deposition of the Triassie cover,
this area was broken up into comparatively narrow ridges, arches
and folds, from the crests of which the vCoal-measures were swept
off and the pre-Carboniferous floor laid bare. The denuded floor
shows out at the surface in Chamwood Forest, in the Nuneaton
* ** Sub-report to the Geological Committee on the Concealed and Unproved
Coalfields in Diatrict B," by Prof. Charles Lapworth, Final Report of the Royal
Commumon an Coai-Mupplies, 1905, part ix., page 7.
t "Table and Map (plate iii.) of the more important Borings, throwing
Light on the possible Occurrence of Concealed Coal-fields," by Messrs. Aubrey
Btrahan and O. T. Jones, Final Report of the Royal Commission oti Coal-tnipplies^
1905, part ix., page 37.
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THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS. 48
district, and in the Melbourne district overlooking* the valley of
the Trent ; it lias also been met with again and again in trial-
borings sunk through the red-rock cover, at Evington, neai*
Leicester, Market Bosworth and elsewhere.* Nevertheless, the
productive measures were not swept from off the whole of this
platform, but are preserved more or less over its north-western
parts and in certain deeper hollows to the south and south-west.
They show throug-h at the surface as the visible Leicestershire or
Ashby-de-la-Zouch coal-field, and are prolonged under the red-
rock cover south-eastwards as far as Desford, near Leicester, and
westwards to near Donisthorpe and Overseal. Much of the Coal-
measure ground under the red rocks has already been proved by
borings and shafts in these directions, and largely worked for
many years past. The area of hidden coal-field, thus added as
an extension to the previously known coal-bearing ground, is
estimated at about 54 square miles.
There are possibly other hidden coal-fieldst under the red
rocks of the Lieicestershire platform, lying in narrow basins on
the old Coal-measure floor, but such coal-seams as have already
been met with in them, as near Hinckley and Brandon, are
apparently thin and unprofitable.
Yery different in all these respects is the ground on the south-
eastern side of the Leicestershire platform, extending from Poles-
worth through Bed worth and Coventry in the direction of Kenil-
worth. Along this broad band of coimtry, the underground plat-
form slopes down into the eastern side of the Birmingham basin.
The Coal-measures show out at the surface as the visible East
Warwickshire coal-field. The main seams of this field dip,
at first, steeply westwards, and then flatten out and subside
gently below the broad spread of Keele or so-called Permian
ground, forming a hidden coal-field of very great but unknown
extent. The enterprise of the East Warwickshire mining engin-
eers has already proved some 34 square miles of hidden coal-field
under the red beds, and added it as an extension to the main
Warwickshire coal-field. The new ground has been tapped in
* "Table and Map (plate lii.) of the more important Borings, throwing
Light on the possible Occurrence of Ck)ncealed Coal-tieldB/' by Messrs. Aubrey
Strahan and O. T. Jones, FincU Rtport of the Royai Commisfdon on CocU-supp/ieSf
1906, part ix., page 39, etc.
t *• Sub-report to the Geolosical Committee on the Concealed and Unproved
Coal-fields in District B," by Prof. Charles Lapworth, Final Report of tht RoycU
CcmnU99wn on CocU-JtupplieM, 1906, part ix., pages 10 to 11.
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44 THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS.
colliery-workings and shafts for a distance of from 1 mile
(Tunnel shaft, Xewdigate colliery) to 4 miles, and the continuity
of the Coal-measures under the red rocks has been shown for a
distance of several miles more.* How far workable Coal-measures
may extend southwards from the ground already won, the writer
is, as yet, unable to say ; but, judging from the manner in which,
the coal-seams thin away towards Wyken and Craven, it caa
hardly be expected that they will extend in workable thickness-
far south of the latitude of Coventry-.
A long stretch of red-rock country occupies most of the
Birmingham basin,t lying between the East Warwickshire coal-
field on the east and the South Staffordshire coal-field on the
west, and ranging from Henley-in-Arden on the south to some
distance beyond Lichfield on the north. The prolongation of the
productive Coal-measures eastwards towards the centre of this^
basin has been demonstrated by the extension of the East War-
wickshire coal-field. The fact that they are similarly prolonged
westward from the South Staffordshire coal-field has long been
known ; they have been mined in the collieries of Hamstead and
Sandwell Park under the red ground for a distance of from at
least 2 miles from the edge of the visible coal-field, and they
have recentl3' been bored into below the red ground well to the
south of these localities at Langley. Several square miles of hidden
coal-field have here been already tested, and partly won. There
is much to be said for the view that Coal-measures extend more
or less continuously under much of the red-rock ground of this
Birmingham basin ; but, from the commercial point of view, the
several parts of the basin are by no means equally promising.
It is verj- doubtful whether profitable Coal-measures occur
south of a line drawn across the basin from Harborne to Coventry,,
all south of that line being occupied by upper measures.
Again, over the northern parts of the basin lying between the
extreme north of Cannock Chase and the Leicestershire coal-
field, the geological evidence goes to show tliat rocks older
than Coal-measures crop out in that direction under the cover of
* ** Report on the Available CoaUresources of District B (Staffordshire,
Warwickshire, Leicestershire, Shropshire, and a small portion of South Derby-
shire)," by Prof. Charles Lapworth and Mr. Arthur Sop with, FiiicU Report of the
Royal CommisHion on CocU-sHppfieSy 1905, part iii., pages 5 to 6.
t Ibid., part iii., pages 5 to 6 ; and '* Sub- report to the Geological Committee on
the Concealed and Unproved Coal-fields in District B," by Prof. Churles Lapworth^
Fifial Report of the Royal CommU'non on Coaf -supplies, 1905, part ix., pages 9 to IC
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THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS. 45
the yew Red rocks. If coal-seams are present, the measures will
probaUy be foniid to dip and thicken towards the Lichfield
country.
The productive measures are perhaps in their greatest force
along a line drawn across the basin from Aldridge towards Tam-
worth; but they probably lie at comparatively great depths, for
the highest member of the non-productive series — ^the Keele or
so-called Permian — is mapped as showing at the surface at more
than one locality, as near Four Oaks, and in a recent boring at
Streetly its thickness was found to be great. Promising
as this ground appears to be from the geological point of view,
the great but unknown throw of the western boundary fault on the
one side and the Tamworth faults on the other have hitherto
acted as effectual deterrents to mining speculation in this
country.
West of the Birmingham basin runs the long and narrow
South Staffordshire anticline and its visible coal-field.* From
the crest of this arch, over an extent of some 105 square miles,
the red-rock cover has been removed, laying bare the underlying
Coal-measures and giving origin to the visible South Staffordshire
coal-field. West of the visible coal-field lies the Wolverhampton
basin, answering in its way to the Birmingham basin on the
opposite side. Eastward, the coal-field is limited by the eastern
boundary fault, and westward by the corresponding western
boundary fault, both of very great throw. Southward, the arch
dies down under the red rocks of the Lickey Hills, while north-
ward it is prolonged far under the red rocks of Cannock Chase.
To the south there is no hope of the discovery of a hidden coal-
field, for the sinkings of Manor pit and Wassel Grove show that
the profitable Lower Coal-measures thin out or deteriorate in this
direction. Northward, however, the coal-seams are prolonged far
under the red-rock cover in the direction of Stafford. The
enterprise of South Staffordshire mining engineers has
already proved a hidden coal-field under the Cannock Chase
country by workings, shafts and borings to a. distance of from
1 to 3 miles in a north-westerly direction ; and the thickness of
the profitable measures and the collective thickness of the coal-
* "Report on the Available Coal-resources of District B (Staffordshire,
Warwickshire, Leicestershire, Shropshire, and a small portion of South Derby-
shire)," by Prof. Charles Lapworth and Mr. Arthur Sopwith, Final Report of the
Royal Commisnion on CocU-mipplieSt 1905, part iii., pages 4 to 5.
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46 THE HIDDEX COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS.
seams appear both to increase in this direction, while, as yet, the
red-rock cover has only thickened to a few hundreds of feet. It
is not impossible that, for many miles beyond this, the workable
measures will be found to lie within a reasonable depth of the
surface. The beds, however, in the more northerly parts of the
Cannock coal-field, dip to the west and south-west, so that on the
north-east side fewer and fewer seams come in below the red-
rock cover; and such evidence as has been obtained durin^g^ the
last few years goes to show that on the north-eastern side of the
Cannock Chase country the base of the Coal-measures may be
eventually reached.
Immediately west of the coal-field, and cutting it off from
the Wolverhampton basin, comes the western boundary fault,
bringing the red rocks suddenly against the Coal-measures of
the visible coal-field. Until quite recently, the great but un-
known throw of this fault effectually barred all coal-mining
enterprise beyond it. But within the last twenty years, the ad-
vance of geological knowledge on the one hand, and the certainty
of the approaching exhaustion of the coal-seams in the visible
coal-field on the other, have together prompted the more sanguine
members of the coal-mining community of South Staffordshire
to risk the venture of proving the hidden coal-fields, which should
theoretically lie beyond it in a westerly direction. In the only
two instances in which this venture has been attempted, it
has met with success. The presence of Coal-measures outside
the western boundary fault under the Triassic rocks of the
Wolverhampton basin* has been shown at the borings of Four
Ashes and of Baggeridge. At Baggeridge, the proof has since been
utilized by the sinking of shafts preparatory to the commence-
ment of colliery-workings. The total area of hidden coal-field
thus tested outside the western boundary fault may be roughly
set down as 10 square miles. Yet this is but a narrow
strip along the eastern edge of the great Wolverhampton basin.
The extent of red-rock country occupied by the basin is some
20 miles long, from the latitude of Stafford on the north to that
of Kidderminster on the south, and some 12 miles wide, from the
* "Report on the Available Coal-reaources of District B (Staffordshire^
Warwickshire, Leicestershire, Shropshire, and a small portion of South Derby,
shire)," by Prof. Charles Lapworth and Mr. Arthur Sopwith, Final Report of the
BoycU Commission on CoaJ-mipplies, 1905, part iii., page 6; and ** Sub-report to
the Geological Committee on the Concealed and Unproved Coal-fields in District
B," by Prof. Charles Lapworth, tWt/., part ix., pages 7 to 8.
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THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS. 47
boundary fault on the east to the coal-fields of CoalbrookdaJe and
the Forest of Wyre on the west. A thickness of from 1,100 to
2,100 feet of Upper Goal-measures shows out along the margin
of the basin above the productive coal-seams; and farther in-
wards this is followed by a thickness of 1,300 to 1,400 feet of
Triassic sandstones. In the central parts of the basin, this sand-
stone is overlain by an unknown but great thickness of Keuper
ilarl. It follows, therefore, almost of necessity, that over the
more central part of the basin where the Marls show at the
surface, as in the country running north from Patshull to Eocles-
hall, the productive Coal-measures may lie at a depth of from
8,000 to moi'e than 4,000 feet from the surface.
Between these more central areas, however, and the margins
of the basin, if the productive measures are present they will lie
at more reasonable depths. They are worked already on the
western margin of the basin from the collieries inside the coal-
field of Coalbrookdale, at Madeley and Oakgates, for some dis-
tance under the so-called Permian or Keele rocks ; and the whole
extent of this Keele country, extending almost to the town of
Shifnal, is regarded as constituting a hidden coal-field already
practically proved. But throughout the red-rock ground,
forming the remainder of the western and southern sides
of the basin, only one enterprising venture has yet been made.
This is the boring at Claverley recently completed. It may
reasonably be expected that, under the red-rock country, lying
between this point and the Staffordshire coal-field in the one
direction, and the Coalbrookdale coal-field in the other, the
productive Coal-measures soon occur in force and in workable
condition.
To the south, south-east, south-west and west, matters are
very different. The whole of the Forest of Wyre coal-field,
forming the south-western flank of the Wolverhampton basin,
appears to be occupied at the surface by the upper and non-
productive Coal-measures. Only in one small area in the Forest
of Wyre coal-field, namely, in the district of Highley, near
Kinlet, are the productive or sweet coals known to occur below
the Upper Coal-measures* nor, as matters stand, can these sweet
* *< Sub-report to the Geological Committee on the Concealed and Unproved
Coal-fields in District B," by Prof. Charles Lapworth, Final Report of the Royal
CommiiHon on CocU-suppHeSt 1906, part ix., page 7.
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48 THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS.
coals be expected in force below much of the red ground of the
Enville country. Down the valley of the Stour, however, between
Tettenhall and Stourbridge, they may occur in workable thick-
ness ; but, if so, they are certainly covered by a great thickness of
water-bearing rocks. Under the New Red Sandstone from
Shifnal to the latitude of Bridgnorth, they may be expected to
prove fairly well developed under the Triassic beds within a
reasonable depth of the surface. But there is the same difficulty
in that ground as under the Stourbridge country, for there is a
great thickness of water-bearing rocks to be cut through and
tubbed out before it would be possible to work them.
On the Shropshire platform,* which occupies all the country
lying between the Wolverhampton basin and the Welsh mountain
border, only thin coal-seams, apparently belonging to the Upper
Coal-measures, are as yet known to occur. This is the case both
in the Lebotwood and the Shrewsbury coal-fielde, and this fact
will no doubt have a very restrictive effect upon the search for
coal under the red ground which lies to the north of them and
sinks towards the depths of the Cheshire basin.
There can be little doubt that, a few miles north of these coal-
fields, the productive Coal-measures occur below the Upper Coal-
measures ; but, as they make their appearance, the Triassic beds,
probably rich in water, also come in above them, and thus add
to the cost of the sinking. There is, however, one band of coun-
try, namely, that joining the Shrewsbury and North Stafford-
shire coal-fields, some of which looks fairly promising. The
Keele beds of the Upper Coal-measures are mapped as showing out
along this band at the surface, as at Child's Ercal, Plaswarden,
and other localities, and it might be inferred that the productive
Coal-measures occur within workable depths below. But here,
it must be remembered that on the Shropshire side of this band
there are no productive Coal-measures whatever below the
Upper Coal-measures, while on the North Stafioixishire side there
occur some 2,000 feet of non-productive Coal-measures before the
productive Coal-measures are reached, and even this great thick-
ness does not show the top of the barren series. Any boring,
therefore, made along this line must, in the meantime, be looked
upon as almost wholly speculative.
* " Sub-report to the Geological Committee on the Concealed and Unproved
Coal-fields in District B," by Prof. Charles Lapworth, Final Report of the Roynl
Commismon on Coal-supplies, 1905, part ix. , pages 11 to 12.
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THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS. 49
It is quite impossible, of course, to make more than the
roughest estimate of the extent or the value of the workable
coal-seams in the hidden coal-fields of the Midlands. In spite of
all that has already been discovered it may be regarded as certain
that no two independent investigators would arrive at precisely
the same conclusions either as respects the true limits of the
Midland region or the distances to which its individual seams
are prolonged in a workable thickness or condition. But if, for
the moment, the boundaries here suggested be accepted, the area
once occupied by the productive Coal-measures may be estimated
at about 11,000 square miles. From this, some 3,000 square miles
of Coal-measures have been denuded away, leaving some 8,000
square miles of country where they may still remain preserved.
About 1,700 square miles only are exposed in the visible coal-
fields, leaving 6,000 square miles as the total extent of country
possibly occupied by the hidden coal-fields of the Midlands.
Judging from the reports of the RoyaJ Commission on Coal-
supplies, only an extent of some 800 square miles or thereabouts
of the hidden coal-bearing area of the Midlands has hitherto been
tested by coal-workings or by borings, and all the rest ha,s yet io
be proved. Throughout much of this remainder the coal must lie
at greater depths than 4,000 feet. But, if the conclusions of the
geologists, who assisted in drawing up the reports, are well founded,
more than 3,000 square miles of hidden coal-field lie as yet un-
tested at less than 4,000 feet from the surface. It cannot reason-
ably be hoped that very much of this untested ground will be
entered upon for many years to come, and in estimating the
promise which it holds out it must not be forgotten that, with
every increase of depth the working becomes more difficult and
more costly. It cannot be safely presumed that from all the hidden
coal-fields, yet to be tested, the miner can expect to secure an
available mineral wealth per square mile proportionate to that
of the coal-fields already proved.
It is well to be assured that in all likelihood the collective
area of unproved hidden coal-fields of the Midlands, in which coal
lies within a possible working depth from the surface, is larger
than the collective area of the visible and proved coal-fields com-
bined. But it will be a great misfortune if this assurance prompts
to hasty experiment or rash speculation. The complications are
so many that mining engineers cannot be too cautious. Geologi-
▼oL. xxxin.-i«»-i«7. 4
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50 DISCUSSION — ^THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS.
cal researchers must be taught to carry on their work into all
branches of the subject and down to the most accurate details.
Mining engineers must be trained to ever higher skill
to face the growing difficulties. No speculative sinking should be
started until the scientific and the practical evidence has been
fully gone into, and the commercial promise of the venture haa
been carefully weighed against the certainty of the pecuniary
risk.
The President (Mr. F. A. Grayston), in moving a vote of
thanks to Prof. Lapworth for his valuable paper, said he hoped
that the concluding remarks with regard to proving* the
hidden coal-fields of the Midlands would be of benefit to the
experienced mining engineer and to the student also. Perhapa
some of those present might have an opportunity in the course
of their career of putting into practice the valuable advice given
by Prof. Lapworth.
Mr. G. H. Claughton, in seconding the vote of thanks, said
that it was in accordance with Dr. Lapworth's advice that tbe
successful sinkings at Baggeridge were in their present position ;
and those interested would ever be grateful to him for his help
and co-operation. They were very fortunate in possessing a
man of his great ability and the ready access to his great know-
ledge. He trusted he would long be spared to them.
Mr. Alexander Smith asked whether, as suggested by Sir
Roderick Murchison and Prof. Hull, the old rocks might intrude
in part of the Birmingham basin, and whether these older rocks^
were struck at the Sandwell Park new sinking.
Mr. W. F. Clark remarked that he had had occasion to get
the valuable assistance of Prof. Lapworth for boring through
the red rocks in the Cannock Chase district, where coal waa
eventually proved, exactly as Prof. Lapworth had feared it would
be, that was, at such an angle that it could not be profitably
worked.
Mr. Henry Johnson wrote that the subject treated by Prof.
Lapworth was of great importance to the Midlands and to
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DISCUSSION — ^XHE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS. 61
Birmini^Iiain in particular. He suggested, as touching the
economic part of the subject, that as the future mining of this
country must be at increased depths, greatly increased working-
areas would be requisite to warrant the very large capital-cost
of the future collieries; and consequently that the working-
areas should not be broken by a large number of small owner-
ships of the minerals. It would, therefore, be well for the
Government, in dealing with any proposal for the subdivision
of the lands into small ownerships, to have a care for the future
mining of the country, by not hampering it by subdivision of
the mines as well as of the lands.
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62 DISCUSSION — EFFECTS OF ACCELERATION ON WINDING-TOEQUES.
THE MINING INSTITUTE OF SCOTLAND.
GENERAL MEETING,
HXLD IN THB TSOHNIGAL COLLBOB, GUkSGOW, FbBEUABT IStH, 1007.
Db. ROBERT THOMAS MOORE, Pbbsident, in thk CaAiB.
The minutes of the last General Meeting were read and
confirmed.
Office-bearers for the session 1907-1908 were nominated, and
Auditors were appointed to examine the Treasurer's accounts
for the past year.
The following gentlemen, who had been duly nominated,
were elected : —
Mbmbbbs—
Mr. John Black Boyd, P.O. Box 262, Johannesburg, TranavaaL
Mr. Thomas R. Gillbspik, Blantyre Collieries, Blantyre.
Mr. KiBKWOOD Hbwat M*Nkill, Island View, Ballycastle, County Antrim.
Mr. Thomas Smith, Fembank House, Kelty.
Associatb Mbmbebs—
Mr. WiLUAM Eylb, Winohburgh.
Mr. Adam Mubdoch, Baokus and Johnston Company, Casapalca, Peru.
DISCUSSION OF MR. GEORGE XESS'S PAPER ON
"EFFECTS OF ACCELERATION ON WINDING-
TORQUES, AND TEST OF TARBRAX ELECTRICAL
WINDING.PLANT."*
Mr. T. Lindsay Galloway (Glasgow) said that the members
were very much indebted to Mr. Ness for placing before tbem
definite facts as to the amount of current consumed by this
winding-plant, which was the first electrical winding-plant in
• Trans, hist. M. E,, 1906, voL xxxii, page 287.
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DISCUSSION — EFFECTS OF ACCELEBATION ON WINDING-TOBQUES. 58
Scotland. It would be observed that the test lasted for a little
over 2 hours, and during that time, 117 winds were made, the use-
ful load being 12^ cwts. Mr. James Caldwell stated that the useful
load for which the plant was designed was about 25 cwts.* He
thought, therefore, that it might be interesting to know why
the tests were made with a load of 12^ instead of 25 cwts., as
it was remarked by Mr. Ness in his paper that that circumstance
was unfavourable to the testing of the plant. He observed,
further, that ihe power-consumption, at the switchboard, was
0'541 imit per wind;t and they were also told that the con-
sumption of direct current as between the motor-converter or
flywheel motor and the winder was 0*2603 unit per wind.J
He wanted to know whether he was correct in assuming that the
actual consumption of power as delivered from the main was
0*541 unit per wind, and that 0*2603 unit was the consumption
of direct current as between the motor-converter and the wind-
ing-engine. Mr. Xess remarked that the latter figure repre-
sented an efficiency of 48J per cent., but if they compared the
useful work in lifting shale with the power taken at the switch-
board, the efficiency was only 41 per cent. He thought that
most steam winding-engines, with a mechanical counterbalance,
would show at least as high a result. Of course, they had to
bear in mind that the plant was not working at its full capacity,
and when that happened they could not expect to get the
same efficiency from it as when it was working at full power.
The members had not been informed as to the first cost of this
plant, but Mr. Ness had supplied an estimate of the cost of a
similar installation, amounting* to £5,633 or, omitting the dupli-
cation of certain parts, to £4,633. This amount would, he thought,
be regarded as a most liberal estimate for a steam winding-
plant capable of drawing 650 tons from a depth of 420 feet.
When all the circumstances were considered, the members might
ask themselves whether the use of electricity for winding was
advisable and worth such an expenditure. The point had often
been raised by members that, if they had to apply a steam-
engine to create electricity and then utilize that electricity for
winding, they ought rather to employ the engine direct
and wind with 8t«am instead of utilizing electricity. In the
♦ TroM. Inst. M. E.y 1906, vol. xxxi., page 227.
t /&i(i.,1906, voL zxxii., page 290. t ^^^^ ^^06, vol. xxxii., page 291.
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54 DISCUSSION — EFFECTS OF ACCELERATION ON WINDING-TOEQUES.
case of oil-works, where, if he was rightly informed, there was
a large quantity of waste heat, which could be utilized for the
production of electricity, it seemed economical to utilize it
for that purpose. Power-supply companies were being estab-
lished all over the country, and the day might come when
collieries, instead of creating their own power, would take it
from the general supply-mains. In that event, they would have
to face the question of electrical winding. Consideration must,
he thought, be paid to the possibility of reciprocating winding-
engines becoming obsolete. Steam-turbines had been found to
be much better suited for generating electricity, when the size
was sufficiently large, than reciprocating engines. Looming
in the near distance, they had the suction-gas engine. If either
of these types of engine came to be adopted at collieries, they
would probably entail electrical winding. Personally, he
thought that they had not seen the last of this subject, and it was
one which the members ought to keep before them.
The "President (Dr. Moore) asked whether Mr. Ness could
state the proportion that the work done in lifting 650 tons of
shale, from a depth of 420 feet, bore to the amount of power
generated in the cylinders of the steam-engine.
Mr. George Ness said that Mr. Caldwell had stated that
the plant had been made for an output of 25 cwts. per wind ;
and it was the case that the test which he had described in his
(Mr. Ness's) paper had been made with an output of only half
that amount. He was not able to enter into the exact reasons
governing this circumstance further than this, that when the
test was made the plant had to be taken oS the contractor's
hands; and, owing to various causes, the test was made at a
period when the full output could not be obtained from ihe
mine. The number of units delivered at the switchboard was
0*541 per wind ; and this was employed in transforming the
current from three-phase alternating to continuous current in
the flywheel converter. The total current of 0'2603 unit per
wind, sent from the flywheel motor-dynamo into the motor,
wound the cages; and it was quite independent of the current
taken to excite the fields of the winding-motor, which was
included in the total of 0*541 unit.
A large amount of energy was lost by the friction of the
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DISCUSSION EFFECTS OF ACCELERATION ON WINDING-TORQUES. 65
fl5rwlieel in the air. A plant was running at the Clydebank
Dock, belonging to the Clyde Trust, where the same principle
was in operation. There was, however, this exception that there
was more than one winding motor getting power from the
flywheel converter, the flywheel was run in a vacuum, and
the shaft was carried on roller^bearings.
The stated efficiency of (100 x(V2603-r 0-541 or) 48i per cent.
WA6 the calculated efficiency of the electrical plant under the
conditions existing during the test, but he (Mr. Ness) was of
opinion that the total efficiency considered in terms of shale
lifted, compared with the total energy put into the system, would
be about 47 per cent.
The total energy employed in lifting 12^ cwts. to a height
of 420 feet in 26 seconds would be [ (12i x 112 x 420) -f (550 x
25)=] 42-76 horsepower. The consumption of 02603 unit per
wind was equal to [(0-2603 x 1,000 x 60 x 60) -f (25 x 746) = ] 50*24
horsepower. The efficiency, in terms of the energy put into the
armature of the winding motor, was, therefore, (100x42*76-=-
50-24=) 8511 per cent.
Referring now to the current delivered at the switchboard,
the total energy put into the system was 0'541 unit. Now, the
number of winds was 117 in a period of 140 minutes, or at the
average rate of one wind in 71"8 seconds. This point would be
referred to later, as there was no intention to cloud the issue as
to the useful efficiency in any way, and in the meantime, 0*541
ttnit would be taken as consumed during the actual period of the
wind of 25 seconds. A consumption of 0*541 unit in 25 seconds
represented a total energy of 104*28 horsepower, and the useful
efficiency was (100 x 42*76 -r 104*28 = ) 41 per cent, as stated by
Mr. GhiUoway.
How then was this 41 per cent, to be reconciled with the
former statement that the whole efficiency was about 47J* per
cent? It would be remembered that the plant was designed to
make a wind every 55 seconds. Owing to the development of
the mine at the time of the test, allowing of a load of only half
the estimated amount, namely, 12^ cwts. per 71*8 seconds, instead
of 26 cwts. per 55 seconds, the time taken for decking
purposes was 46*8 seconds instead of 30 seconds. This necessi-
tated the flywheel converter and auxiliaiy plant running an
♦ Trans, InjU, M, E., 1906, vol. xxxii., page 105.
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56 DISCUSSION EFFECTS OF ACCELERATION ON WINDING-TOEQUES.
additional period of 16*8 seconds between the winds. The
difference between the unit (02603) consumed in actual wind-
ing, and the unit (0*541) at the switchboard, represented the
losses due to friction, heating and field-excitation during the
period when the plant was not performing useful work. This
difference, amounting to 0*2807 unit., spread over 71*8 seconds,
gave, over one second, a power-consumption of (0'2807-f71'8 = )
00039 unit. He had previously stated that the observed power-
consumption, when the winder was at rest, was 15 kilowatts,*
and this, divided by 3,600 seconds, gave a consumption of 0*0041
unit over 1 second or an observation-difference of 0*02 per cent.
If the lesser figure, 0*039 unit, were accepted as correct, it might
be assumed that the plant was penalized, by the prolonged deck-
ing period of 16*8 seconds above that estimated, to the extent of
(00039 unit X 16*8 = ) 006552 unit. Substracting this amount
from the 0*541 unit delivered at the switchboard, the total units
which would have been delivered to the plant, if the estimated
period for decking purposes of 30 seconds, had been adhered to»
were 047548 unit, giving an electrical efficiency of (100 x 0*2603
^0*47548 = ) 54*74 per cent. Again, taking 0*47548 unit as con-
sumed during the winding period of 25 seconds, representing a
total energy of 91*59 horsepower, the useful efficiency was
(100x42*76^91*59 = ) 467 per cent.
It might be shown by a reductio ad absurdum, that this reason-
ing was based on absolutely fair lines, without prejudice either
in favour of or against this system of electrical winding. Suppos-
ing a wind to be made, after which the flywheel converter con-
tinued to run on for 2 houra before the next wind took place. The
consumption by observation to run the flywheel converter idle
was at the rate of 15 units per hour, and would, therefore, for 2
hours, be 30 units -i- 0*47548 unit taken in winding. If this were
considered from the point of view of useful work in lifting
shale, there would be a total consumption in the 25 seconds'
period of winding of 30*47548 units, or energy at the rate of
1*219 units per second, or 5,882 horsepower; and the useful
efficiency would be (100x42*76-^-5,882 = ) 0*7 per cent., a result
which was sufficiently absurd to prove that losses* due to time
occupied in decking operations should not be debited against the
plant in estimating its efficiency.
• TraiM, Inst, M. E., 1906, vol. xxxii., page 291.
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DISCUSSION — EFFECTS OF ACCELEEATION OX WINDING-TOEQUES. 57
One of the chief features in this installation was that, with
a maximum energy of 45 kilowatts delivered into the system,
and that only over a short period of time, a peak-load of 104
kilowatts* was obtained in the winder during the test.
TTith reference to the useful efficiency in winding shale^
compared with the work done in the cylinders of the engine:
the engine was situated about | mile from the mine at which
the winding installation was situated. Diagrams were not taken
at the time of the test, and, if they had been, they would have
been useless, as power was delivered throughout a considerable
area for other purposes, and thus there would always have been
considerable doubt as to the proportions of power being taken
by the different processes, more especially as the load was a
variable one. It was perfectly safe, however, to assume an
efficiency of 80 per cent, for the conversion from mechanical to
electrical energy, including the loss in the cables; and, taking
the useful efficiency or power delivered at the switchboard as
46*7 per cent., then the total useful efficiency in lifting shale
would be (46*7 x 80 -=-100 = ) 37-36 per cent. If this figure were
taken, it should be pointed out in all fairness that the result was
very much in favour of the winding-plant, as it comprized a
high-class engine and boiler-installation, which, on calculation
from tests, would give 1 kilowatt for a consumption of 4 pounds
of coal. Allowing, say, 10 per cent, for the increase of energy
necessary to deliver this unit at the switchboaru, this worked out
at 4'4 pounds of coal per unit delivered at the winding-house.
The total consumption per ton on the basis of the trials, without
deduction for decking-time losses, was shown to be 0*866 unit
per ton,t or (4*4x0*866 = ) 3*8 pounds of coal consumed per ton
of shale raised. In compiling his previous estimate for com-
parative purposes, it should be noted that he (Mr. Ness) took
4 pounds of coal per unit,J but he had employed it per ton, as
the difference was so trifling. A fuel-consumption of 4 pounds
per kilowatt-hour, or 3 pounds per horsepower-hour, in mining
operations was certainly a moderate figure compared with the
figures given by their past-President (Dr. J. S. Dixon) in his
** Presidential Address." The result of a test of all the engines
at a modern well-equipped colliery showed that the average
* TroM, Inst. M. E,, 1906, vol. xxxu., page 292, plate xiii., fig. 3.
t Ibid., 1906, ToL xxxii., page 291. % Ibid., page 292.
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58 DISCUSSION — ^TESTS OF A MINE-FAN.
fuel-consumption was 8'21 pounds of coal per horsepower-hour,
and in the case of two winding-engines 9*87 pounds of coal
per horsepower-hour *
The result of the test of the Tarbrax plant afforded a striking
example of what could be effected by the concentration of power
in, and transmission from, a central generating-station.
The discussion was thereupon closed, and a hearty vote of
thanks was awarded to Mr. Ness.
DISCUSSION OF MR. JOHN B. THOMSON'S PAPER ON
'TESTS OF A MINE-FAN."t
Mr. Thomas Tukneb (Kilmarnock) wrote that the particular
Gapell fan was built for a duty of 50,000 cubic feet of air per
minute at a water-guage of 2 inches, on the usual condition,
namely that the mine would yield that quantity at that gauge :
the speed of the fan to be about 230 revolutions per minute, and
the efficiency of the combined fan and engine approaching, say,
70 per cent. Tests made by the owners showed 60,000 to 64jO00
cubic feet per minute passing through the drift, at a water-gauge
of 2 inches to 2^ inches, and the makers were not, therefore,
required to perform any tests. Subsequent tests carried out in
the fan-drift showed roughly 20 per cent, more duty than wa«
shown down the pit; but, even when that 20 per cent, waa
deducted from the above-given figures, the fan was evidently
right for its work. He (Mr. Turner) did not expect quite so
much as 86 or 87 per cent, of duty out of the installation, and
he thought that the high figures were due to the testers
not finding out all the negative or reverse currents of
the eddies. To get these more accurately it might be neces-
sary to divide the drift into 18 or -36, instead of 9 spaces. Anemo-
meter-readings, however, should, if possible, be taken at a place
where there were no eddies, that was to say, at a place where
there was a steady flow of air in one direction over the whole
area measured. In this respect^ the measurements down the pit
were better than those in the drift, the latter being too short
to allow the air to become steadied down to a regular flow in one
• Trans. Inttt. M, E., 1902, vol. xxiii., page 373.
t Ibid,, 1906, vol. xxxii., page 296.
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DISCUSSION — TESTS OF A MINE-FAN. 69
direction only in its length. The measurements down the pit
might, however, not include all the air that passed through the
fan. He asked whether there was a possibility of air or gases
being drawn from the unworked seams at the bottom of the
upcast shaft.
Mr. H. D. D. Babman (Glasgow) considered that it would be
difBcult to make accurate tests of this fan, as it must be admitted
that Mr. Thomson had a very awkward shaft to work in. The
tests would undoubtedly be influenced by the air having to turn
round a sharp corner from the vertical shaft to the fan-drift.
If Mr. Thomson could find time to erect shutters and to make
tests witb the drift entirely closed, and then with apertures of
4, 9, 16 and 25 square feet, he would thus get a characteristic
curve which would show that his former tests with the full
apertures were inaccurate.
Prof. A. Bateau (Paris) wrote that the recorded experiments
gave a combined result for the fan and engine nearly equal to
the efficiency expected for an engine aJone. This surprising
result could only be based upon errors in the methods of measure-
ment; and, from the records of the results of the experiments,
it was easy to recognize that the measurements of the volume of
air and the measurements of the water-gauge both yielded exag-
gerated figures. One could well, in this way, find an efficiency
superior to unity, as had been done in other tests. One could
not take too many precautions in making experiments on the effi-
ciency of fans. The volume of air had been measured in the
delivery-passage to the fan, immediately after an abrupt bend
that conduced to throw the current of air to the upper part of
the fan-drift, to such an extent that the cuiTent returned on itself
in the lower part of the drift. In such conditions, the measure-
ment of the volume by an anemometer would certainly yield
results much greater than the reality. It was wellknown that
anemometers always showed exaggerated results, and especially
when the current in which they were placed was very irregular.
The members might consult in this respect his (Prof. Bateau's)
experimental work.*
* ** Experimental Investigations upon the Theory of the Pitot Tube and the
Woltmazm Mill," by Prof. A. Rateau, 'JraiiH, ImL M. E., 1899, vol. xvii.,
j>age 124.
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60 DISCUSSION ^TESTS OF A MINE-FAN.
The fourth experiment, made on November 14th, 1906, in
which the air was measured at the pit-bottom and simultaneoufily
near the fan, showed well the exaggerated volume : near the fan,
the anemometers showed a delivery of 37*5 per cent, better than
that at the bottom of the pit. Unquestionably, the volume near
to the fan waa really greater than the delivery at the bottom of
the pit, (1) because the atmospheric pressure waa rather less, and
(2) there was probably a re-entrance of air at the interstices of
the door that closed the upper part of the pit. But these causes
of increased volume were certainly far from accounting for the
37*5 per cent, shown by the anemometers.
Regarding the water-gauge, it had been mentioned that this
was measured in the fan-drift at the point where the current of
air had a very high velocity, attaining and even exceeding 4,000
feet per minute. This measurement had probably been made
with a straight tube, whereas it should have been made with a
Pitot tube, turned towards the current. In the measurement
with the straight tube, account had not been taken of the energy
(due to the actual velocity) that the cuiTent of air possessed in
the passage, energy which assisted the fan. A velocity of 4,000
feet per minute was equal to a supplementary water-gauge of 1
inch ; and this was enormous when compared with the measured
water-gauge of 2J inches.
Besides the effect of the velocity of the air-current, it must be
remembered also that the measurement by a straight tube indi*
cated a figure less than that w^hich corresponded to the static
pressure at the point of observation. For these reasons, it was
probable that the pressure measured was about 40 per cent,
higher than the true water-gauge. Consequently, he (Prof.
Bateau) was of opinion that the tests had been made in a
manner which did not allow of an exact measurement of the
efficiency of this fan. In order to obtain more exact result s>
it would be necessary to measure the volume in a drift, where
the air-current was regular in all sections of the drift, and to
measure the water-gauge in the drift in front of the fan at a
point where the current had not a high velocity, and a correction
corresponding to the velocity should be applied, a correction that
was recorded when the measurement was made with a Pitot tube.
Mr. T. Lindsay Galloway (Glasgow) said that he did not
think that a test could be considered sufficiently conclusive when
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DISCUSSION — ^TESTS OF A MINE-FAN. 61
there was a difference of 30 per cent, in two measurements of
the Tolume. He asked . whether the anemometers had been
tested at high velocities, such as 60 feet per second. He did not
know whether any better method, than that in operation in the
mine, had been devised for producing high velocities. Perhaps
some member could enlighten him on tnat point. He suggested
as a subject for enquiry whether reliance could be placed on
anemometers at high velocities, and what means were adopted
for testing them. In any case, a reliable instrument wouia
probably not give correct indications in an unsteady current, full
of eddies, such as were produced in a short fan-drift.
Mr. T. H. MoTTRAM (Glasgow) asked why the anemometei-s
registered a greater velocity in the fan-drift than was due
to the quantity of air actually passing. He would like to
know whether the fan-drift, in which the air was measured, was
level, if the fan was directly in the centre, and how near to the
fan Mr. Thomson's measurements were taken. He noticed that
the highest velocities were got at the top of the drift, and the
negative ones at the bottom. This indicated that the main
portion of the air-current was passing from the bottom of the
drift at the shaft to the top of the drift at the fan. He would
also like to know whether the high velocities referred to were
still maintained at the top of the drift when the false floor of
wood and brattice-cloth was in use. 'WTien an open light was
held well to the side of an air-current passing through an air-
regulator it became unsteady, and in some cases indicated a kind
of whirl ; and, if this experiment could be applied to the air in a
fan-drift, a similar result would probably be obtained, as the
rebound and meeting of the currents at an angle would produce
a whirl in the air in close proximity to the fan. He imagined,
where the area of a fan-drift was considerably larger than the
area of the ear of the fan, that the whirl would be intensifieil — the
air to some extent moving round a centre, and consequently an
anemometer would record misleading results. Mr. Thomson had
referred to the vena contracta, or, as it is sometimes termed, the
co-efficient of contraction of the area of a jet escaping from
an orifice. The vena contracta is generally reckoned at 0'G5 times
the area of the opening in a thin plate, but this may vary accord-
ing to the construction of the fan. The application of this co-
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62 DISCUSSION — ^TBSTS OF A MINE-FAN.
eflBcient to a quantity of 58,000 cubic feet would yield about
43,000 cubic feet, approaching the actual quantity passing-
through the drift in the Ell coal-seam. At the same time, that
application must not be considered as a reliable method of arriv-
ing at the quantity of air actually passing. A simple experiment
would show how unreliable measurements of air might be, when
taken in close proximity to a fan. For instance, small pieces
of paper, discharged into the current under some conditions,
would indicate a whirl in the air. He had seen, while most of
the pieces of paper made direct for the fan, that others whirled
round and round before entering it. There could, he thought,
be no doubt about the matter, and he agreed with Mr. Thomson
that, in testing a fan for its mechanical efficiency, the measure-
ments of the quantity of air should not be taken in the fan-drift
— at any rate not in a drift so short as the one in which his
experiments were taken.
Mr. Sam Mavor (Glasgow) said that the observations of
wind-pressure made by the engineers of the Forth Bridge, extend-
ing over a period of seven years, elicited some points of interest
in relation to the behaviour of air-currents. Wind-gauges of
different sizes were used, varying from 1 or 2 square feet, to 300
square feet in area, and it was found, during wind-storms, that
the gauges of small area registered much higher pressures than
the mean pressures on those of large area. The tests showed,
even with gauges placed in the open atmosphere, high and free
from disturbing environment, that the pressure on the surface
(of a gauge with an area of 300 square feet) differed at different
parts of the surface, and that the points of highest pressure
changed from moment to moment, with a relatively small varia-
tion of the total mean pressure. The occurrence of such differ-
ences in the open atmosphere indicated the probability that
similar fluctuations would occur in the roadways of a mine, and
that they would be emphasized by the proximity and irregular-
ity of the walls, floor and roof.
Mr. J. M. Eonaldson (Glasgow) said that he found by experi-
ence, many years ago, that the more slowly the air was travelling
the more likely was it that he would secure accurate readings
from the anemometer. He found that he could never really make
a proper test when the air was moving at a great velocity in the
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DISCUSSION — TESTS OF A MINE-FAX. 68
fan-drift. He always preferred to take readings of the anemo-
meter of the various splits of air belowground, as a proper index
of the amount of air passing through the mine, in preference to
taking a reading in the fan-drift where the air was probably
travelling at a great velocity, and the whirls were apt to discon-
cert the reading of the anemometer. In dealing with whirling
currents, it was most difficult for any anemometer to register
correctly the exact average velocity of the air. Therefore, lie
thought that experiments should only be attempted under circum-
stances where the air was not travelling at too high a velocity, and
in a straight part of the airway where the area did not greatly vary.
Mr. R. W. DnoN (Glasgow) said that recently he had had an
experience similar to that recorded by Mr. Thomson, although
he had not found time to go into the details in the same scientific
way as that gentleman had done. The anemometer indicated
about 60,000 cubic feet of air per minute in the fan-drift, but
the actual quantity of air circulating underground was only
about 40,000 cubic feet per minute. In his own mind, he was
satisfied that the actual quantity was 40,000 cubic feet. The
reading of the anemometer in the fan-drift, in his case, had been
probably effected in the same way as in Mr. Thomson's tests.
Mr. James Black (Airdrie) said that Mr. Thomson was
perfectly right in regard to the method that he had adopted for
calculating the efficiency of the fan. The work done on the
negative currents was not the same as the work done on the
positive currents, because, comparatively speaking, no work was
done on the negative currents, and they were not circulated
against the resistance of the mine like the positive currents.
Mr. Thomson seemed to have been mystified at obtaining such
widely different results; and if he had obtained the same
efficiency in his series of experiments, he (Mr. Black) would have
been just as much surprised' as Mr. Thomson had been. The
members should consider the fact that the ear. of the fan was
only 18 feet from the edge of the shaft, and the air passed round
a right-angled turn, setting up cross currents ; and under such
conditions, he was not surprised that the anemometer failed to
record correct measurements, but indicated the velocity of the
oblique currents. Mr. Thomson's results showed that negative
currents flowed upon the floor of the fan-drift, and that the
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64 DISCUSSION — TESTS OF A MINE-FAN.
highest velocities existed near the roof. The highest velocity
could have been measured in the centre of the fan-drift, if
the velocity of the air-current, over the entire sectional area,
had been at right angles to the cross-section of the airway.
In his opinion, it was simply the length of the fan-drift that
determined the extent to which the measurements of the velocity
might be affected by cross currents. If the fan-drift had been
sufficiently long to give the air-current time to get into its
normal course, then it would have made no difference whether
the air was measured in the fan-drift or at the pit-bottom, so
far as accuracy of measurement at the respective points was
concerned. A simple example of the effects of cross currents
could be seen in any fast^running stream of water, where it made
a right-angled bend; and negative currents could also be
observed in many of such cases.
He (Mr. Black) did not agree with the mode adopted by
Mr. Thomson when measuring the ventilating-current. The
nine spaces, into which the fan-drift was divided, had an average
area of about 4 square feet, and consequently were much too
large. The area of each space should have been restricted to
about 2 square feet, in order that more accurate results might
be obtained. He also objected to the method of fixing
the anemometers on shelves, placed across the fan-drift, as the
air, in passing through the divisions formed by the shelves,
was affected in the same way as air was affected in passing
through a regulator. The shelves had always a tendency,
depending upon their thickness and width, to produce cross
currents; and he considered that more accurate results could
have been obtained by using fine wires to form the divisions,
and by moving the anemometer slowly over the area of each.
The instrument should be fixed to the end of a suitable stick,
and held on one side and in front of the operator. He (Mr.
Black) had proved, to his own satisfaction, that an obstruction
placed in an airway would certainly divert the air-current and
cause it to move obliquely; and these cross currents assuredly
would cause the anemometer to indicate an erroneous velocity.
The discussion was adjourned.
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HEABING BY LONGWALL MACHINES. 65
HEADING BY LONGWALL MACHINES.
By SAM MAYOR.
IntrodvMion.
The problems associated with the driving' of headings are
many, but the branch of the subject to be dealt with in this paper
relates only to the advancing of working-places of sufficient width
to permit of the stowage of the material ripped from two or more
roadways, and in seams under, say, 4 feet thick. The method
advocated has no reference to stoop-and-room working, nor
to other cases where the mining conditions compel close places.
The purposes for which it may be necessary to drive advance-
workings into a coal-field may be roughly classified as follows : —
(1) Winning out working-faces; (2) exploration to prove the
field; and (3) advancing to a boundary for retreating longwall
working.
The driving of a heading is not in itself an end, but is merely
proliminary or preparatory to operations on a more extended
scale, and therefore it is usually of importance that the work
should be expeditiously carried out. A frequent consequejQce of
the necessity for rapid advance is the sacrifice of economy in the
conduct of this operation. An endeavour will be made to show
that the advent of powerful machines to the coal-face has so
altered the possibilities that economy may be allied to rapidity
of advance.
Types of Heading Machines,
The high cost and slow advance of headings driven by hand-
labour, and the necessity for selecting the best miners for this
work, have stimulated a demand for mechanical aid, and response
has been made by machines of three types, namely : — (1) Rotary
heading machines; (2) channelling machines; and (3) chain-
breast machines. To this list the longwall bar-type of coal-
cutter may now be added.
TOL. XXX1II.-190«.M07. 5
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HEADING BY LONGWALL MACHINES.
Rotary Heading Machines, — ^Rotary heading machines have a
considerable vogue in the Midland counties for driving roads in
thick coal-seams, but the lype does not appear to be applicable
to the conditions prevailing in this district, and does not require
detailed reference here.
Channelling Machines, — Channelling machines may be
described as mechanically operated and hand-controlled portable
tools, and they may be used with advantage under conditions
usually associated with hand-labour. Their sphere is essentially
in close places and steep seams, where portability and conveni-
ence of handling are primary considerations, and where the
material to be holed is exceptionally hard. Under ordinary
conditions the actual rate
of undercutting is rela-
tively slow ; and, in places
exceeding 10 or 12 feet in
width, machines of greater
weight and power rapidly
assert their superiority
over the channelling type.
When channelling ma-
chines are used, as they
sometimes are, for making
a series of semicircular
cuts along a face which
cannot be described as nar-
row, the effective range
of the machine, in each
position, is reduced by the
necessity of overlapping, in order to avoid leaving triangular
pieces uncut between the semicircular sweeps of the tool. This
type of machine is less effective in deep than in relatively shallow
undercutting. The accompanying curve (fig. 1) has been diuwn
from data given in the Report of the Committee of the North of
England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers upon
Mechanical Coal-cutting,* This shows the relation of the depth
of cut to the number of square feet cut per hour by the machine.
The writer is not aware of any satisfactory solution of the
• Part II.— Heading Machines, page 43.
20 40 60 80
DEPTH OF cur IN JNCHES
Fig. 1.— Curve showing the Relation
OP THE Depth of the Undebcut to
the wobk done by a channelling
Machine.
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HEADING BY LONGWALL MACHINES. 67
problem of operating the percussive type of machine directly by
electricity, and the necessity of providing compressed air is
frequently a bar to the adoption of this type.
Chain-breast Machines, — Chain-breast machines are most use-
fully employed for driving close places in thick seajns, or in
stoop-and-room working, where the roof is good, the holing not
very hard, the seamB not steep, and where the rooms are wide ;
the best performance, relatively to other machines and subject
to the above limitations, is probably attained in places which
are 24 to 36 feet wide. The effective width of the cut made
by the chain-breast machine, in each position, is reduced by
about 6 inches by the necessity of overlapping in order to avoid
the leaving of triangular pieces at the back of the cut.
Longwall Bar Cod-cutters. — The longwall bar coal-cutter, the
use of which the writer advocates for heading, is too well known
in this district to require description here. The standard Pick-
quick machine of medium or small size, with a cutter-bar of
requisite length, is suitable, without further modification, to the
advance of places 90 feet wide. In connection with the applica-
tion of bar machines to heading work, it is permissible to
emphasize the distinction between this machine and the bar
type of heading machine which has been used in America. The
latter is of the breast type in which the bar, carried by a rect-
angular frame, is advanced into the cut in a direction at right
angles to the face similarly to the chain-breast machine. The
feature of the longwall bar machine, especially adapting it for
heading work, is the aiTangement which enables it to cut-in at
one end of the face and to cut-out at the other — thus avoiding
the necessity for stable-holes.
Performance of Machines.
There is wide divergence between the best performance of
any machine under test or specially prepared conditions and in
the hands of a skilled operator, as compared with the average
performance of similar machines, subjected to varying and often
adverse conditions, and to unskilled or unintelligent manipula-
tion. This is especially true of all machines of portable type,
in which the personal factor of the operator is so important,
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68
HEADING BY LONGWALL MACHINES.
and to this class heading machines belong. The Report*
already referred to, contains data relating to the performance
of channelling and chain-breast machines which illustrate the
point. The amount and character of the details of the various
examples cited in the Report are not identical, but the writer has
endeavoured to compile from them the averages relating to about
thirty machines (Table I.). The incompleteness of the information
Table I.— Average Results of Undktututting ik Headings bi
' Channelliko,
Chain -BREAST and Long wall Bar Machines.
Type of Machine.
Channelling.
Chain-breast.
Bar.
A*
B*
C
Thickness of seam
3 ft. 10 in.
4 ft. 0 in.
3 ft. 0 in.
Width of place
12 ft.
30 ft.
90 ft.
Height of roadway
6 ft. 6 in.
6 ft. 6 in.
6 ft. 6 in.
Depth of underctit
4 ft. 6 in.
5 ft. 8 in.
6 ft.
Rate of advance per day
4 ft. 6 in.
5 ft. 8 in.
6 ft.
Increase in rate of advance com-
pared with hand.work
84per oent.
105 per cent.
.
Area undercut per hour
14-6 sq. ft.
32 sq. ft.
67 sq. ft.
Area undercut per shift of 8 hours
13 sq. yds.
29 sq. yds.
60 sq. yds.
Cost of machine-labour, per shift
15s.
17s:
£1 L
Labour-saving, as compared with
hand-work
31 -6 per cent.
46 per cent.
E
Interest, depreciation and repairs
D
P
per shift
28.
6s.
6s.
Power-supply, per shift
2s. 2d.
2s. 5d.
38. 9d.
Do. per square yard ...
2d.
Id.
id.
Total cost of undercutting, in-
cluding labour, per shift
19s. 2d.
£1 5s. 5d.
£1 138. 9d.
Total cost per square yard
Is. 8-4d.
Is. l-2d.
Os. 6'75d.
Labour cost per square yard, by
hand
Is. 11 od.
Is. 4-4d.
•••
Net saving in cost, eflfected by
machine ...
31d.
3-2d.
* These columns contain the average results of the performances detailed in
the lieport of the Committee of the North of England histitule of Mining and
Mechanical Engineers upon MechaniccU Goal-cutting, 1905.
available in respect of some of the examples precludes exactness
from this table, but it may be accepted as approximately correct.
The upper columns, A and B, give the averages of the perform-
ances detailed in the Report. The lower columns, D and E, are
deduced from the upper columns, with the addition of the items
" interest, etc.," and " power-supply : " items which are frequently
omitted from comparisons of machine with hand-costs. Columns
C and F relate to the performance of a deep undercutting Pick-
quick bar coal-cutter, of the standard longwall type, operating
• Part II.— Heading Machines, page 43.
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HEADING BY LONGWALL MACHINES. 69
on a face 90 feet wide. The table simply g-ives a comparison of
the amount and cost of undercutting by the respective machines.
It will be seen from Table I. that the averag^e saving eflEected
in the cost of undercutting by channelling and by chain-breast
machines was, under the respective conditions of operating,
approximately the same, the amount of saving being slightly
over 3d. per square yard. The money directly saved by under-
cutting with these machines, instead of by hand, in a heading 9
feet wide advanced 100 yards, would therefore appear to be only
about £4, and the inducement to use machines must be found
in the accelerated rate of advance, rather than in reduced cost.
It may be objected that it is unfair to compare a single
example of the bar machine with the averages of a number of
the other two types, but a number of examples of the use of
the bar machine in headings 90 feet wide is not yet available.
The case given, however, refers to the driving of a very wet dip
working, in which the conditions were extremely unfavourable
to any type of machine, and would have been still more so to
hand-working. The only other example of which the writer
hsA data is much more favourable to the bar machine, owing to
the place, which was undercut 6 feet deep by a medium-sized
machine, being considerably wider. The wider the place, up to
the limit of capacity of the machine, the less will be the cost
of undercutting by the bar machine.
It is to be noted that the average performance of the channel-
ling machine is equivalent to undercutting two places, also that
the chain-breast machine, if advancing for heading purposes,
a place of sufficient width to permit of forming two roads,
would give better results than are shown in Table I.
Of the chain-breast machines referred to in the above cited
Report as being at work in this country, the one that gave the
best results operated in a winning place, 45 feet wide, and the
average time required to undercut this place to a depth of 5i
feet was 8 hours.
Method of Working,
The suggestion, which is the purpose of this paper, is not
revolutionary in character. It accepts an established and widely
practised system of advancing headings by hand-labour, and
merely advocates the use of the deep cutting-bar machine under
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70
HEADING BY LONGWALL MACHINES.
existing mining conditions. It is especially applicable to thin
seams, in which it is necessary to advance a place of considerable
width in order to provide space in the goaf for the stowage of
material ripped from the roadways. Fig. 2 is intended to repre-
sent a heading by which a pair of roads are advanced ; the system
has many variants, but the example shown, relating to a seam
2^ feet thick, will serve for its general illustration. Under the
conditions indicated by fig. 2, the whole space, 90 feet wide
(except the roctdways, a, 12 feet wide, and, 6, 8 feet wide, and
the two cundies, c, 5 feet wide), is required to contain the ripped
material. In
seams thinner
than 2J feet, a
place wider than
90 feet (assum-
ing the road-
ways to be of the
stated dimen-
sions) would be
required to con-
tain the ripped
material. In
thicker seams, a
less width would
be sufficient to
provide for
stowage, but it
is recommended,
where the bar
machine is used,
that the mini-
mum width of
place should be
90 feet, a cundie
Fig. 2.— Plan of a Heading, 90 Febt wide,
WITH Two Roads.
ScALB, 32 Feet to 1 Inch.
being left in the centre of the waste between the road-packwalls.
No gain in rate of progress would accrue from forming a narrower
place, but the output would be reduced and the costs increased.
As indicated by fig. 2, the bar cuts into the coal at the
position, A. When the machine reaches the second road-end, C,
it is turned there, and cuts, with the bar leading, to the end of
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HEADING BY LONGWALL MACHINES. 71
the face, D, where the bar is swept through a quarter-circle thus
cutting-out. On the return journey, the process is repeated, the
machine being turned at the second road-end, B. On a nearly
leyel floor and under a good roof, the machine can be turned in
half-an-hour. When driving to the dip, one end of the face
should be kept slightly in advance of the other, so that water
will flow to this end, where it can be dealt with by a pump.
When bar-machines are used in the manner described, the
rate of advance of the heading is limited only by the time
required to fill the coal. Experience of the method has shown
that a place, 90 feet wide, can be advanced, by a machine under-
cutting 6 feet deep, at the rate of 36 feet per week. Regular
advance at this rate requires the application of vigorous super-
vision to ensure the stripping of the face. The wider the head-
ing, the more difiicult it is to apply and maintain the requisite
pressure; and it is suggested, where the coal is hand-filled and
where quick advance is a primary consideration, that a length
of 90 feet of face should not be much exceeded. There is loss
instead of gain in attempting too much; failure to strip the
face in one day means the sacrifice of one day's forward progress,
and the deeper the cut the greater will be the loss. If, how-
ever, arrangements can be made for filling the coal with
certainty, economy will be effected by increasing the width of
the heading up to the limit of the capacity of the machine to
cut regularly across it in one shift. The time required to place
the machine in position preparatory to beginning to cut, and
the time required to turn the machine, are constant for any
length of face. With a face longer than 90 feet^ therefore, a
greater proportion of the shift will be .spent in productive work.
The depth of the undercut in a seam over 2 feet thick may,
so far as the machine is concerned, be anything up to 6 feet.
The medium-sized Pick-quick coal-cutter, which on a long-
wall face normally cuts between 3 and 4 feet deep in moderate
fire-clay or coal-holing at the rate of 18 inches per minute, will
undercut 6 feet deep at the rate of about 12 inches per minute.
If rapidity of advance were not a primary aim, an undercut 4^
feet deep would probably be considered sufficient and the small
size Pick-quick, which normally undercuts 3 to 3J feet deep, and
which with skids weighs only 28 cwts., is well suited for this
duty. In hard-holing the rate of progress along the face might
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72 HEADING BY LONG WALL MACHINES.
be half that attained on a longwall with a shallower cut, but the
distance to be traversed is only one-third or one-fourth of a long-
wall face, and there is ample time to cut through and to turn
the machine in a shift.
If any exceptional conditions render it impossible in the
time available to fill the coal when undercut to the depth indi-
cated, or if other considerations dictate a shallower undercut,
this can readily be adjusted by the use of a shorter cutter-bar.
A medium-sized machine was recently set to work with a 6
feet bar, on a face 72 feet long between a rib-side and a roadway
at an angle with it. The face was advanced 6 feet each cutting
shift, until it reached 240 feet in length. Owing to a scarcity
of men it was found impossible to strip the face each day, and
a shorter bar was inserted in order to give an undercut 4^ feet
deep, and to reduce Uie yield of coal within the capacity of the
fillers. The full advantage of deep undercutting was not in
this instance realized, but its value and possibilities were amply
demonstrated.
The time required to place the maehine in position, to cut
across a face, 90 feet wide, and to turn the machine, is, under
moderately favourable conditions, about 4 hours. It should,
therefore, be possible, if it were important to do so, to undercut
4^ feet deep in a seam about 2^ feet thick and to strip it in 12
hours. Filling could commence soon after the machine started
to cut, and the machine-men, on the completion of the cut, could
assist in filling the coal. This arrangement if the work were
contracted appears practicable. The rate of advance in such
a case would be 9 feet per day.
In ordinary longwall working, the rate of advance (unless
the holing is exceptionally hard) depends less upon the under-
cutting than upon the rapid stripping of the face. The same
truth applies with greater force to a heading worked
by a longwall machine. With well-organized hand-filling,
machine cutting, as advocated for headings, had in prac-
tice proved to be much more rapid and economical than hand-
holing. But the possibilities of economy in driving headings
are not exhausted by machine-holing. The mechanical conveyor,
as an adjunct to the coal-cutter in a heading 135 feet or 150 feet
wide, would greatly augment the effectiveness of the method
proposed. Indeed, it will only be by the co-operation of the con-
veyor that the full advantage of the method will be realized.
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HEADING BY LONGVVALL MACHINES.
73
In view of the larger output which would be yielded from
advance workings by the method proposed, reference may appro-
priately be made to auxiliary haulaiges — appliances which might
with profit be much more generally adopted. This district com-
pares unfavourably with some others in regard to the use of
electrically-driven, portable or semi-portable haulages for
auxiliary purposes. It is to be remembered that wherever
:r-J 'u
V . ^ * r J, *
"^
:* ^ , J * * • ' ' *■ -
nirbc^j>J<- j%j*LJntfV*.>
^
I
an electric coal-cutter works at night, a cable is in the daytime
available to supply electric power, and this could often be used
with advantage in connection with auxiliary haulage.
It would appear that every advantage attending the use of
machines on longwall faces would apply in greater measure to
the use of the bar machine for advancing headings, and these in
VOL. XXXIlI.-1906.1«r?,
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74 HEADING BY LONGWALL MACHINES.
addition to the special desideratum of rapidity of progress. The
driving of headings by hand costs a considerably higher rat«
per ton, especially in dip workings, than hand-labour in the same
seam on longwall faces. Yet in the example already referred to,
the costs of driving a very wet dip working, 90 feet wide, by a
bar machine, closely corresponded to the costs of longwall work-
ing by machines in the same seam. Most colliery managers in
the district have experience of machines on longwall faces, they
know why they are using them in rapidly increasing numbers;
they also know the amount of direct saving in costs, and the
incidental advantages and economies effected by these machines.
Members are, therefore, themselves in the best position to esti-
mate the saving to be gained by the application of machines in
the manner suggested, to the conditions with which they indi-
vidually have to deal, and to make their own valuation of the
benefits to be realized.
. For winning-out, the face might suitably be 136 feet wide ; a
haulage-road, a, being formed in the centre (12 feet wide) ; side
roads, b and b (8 feet wide), on each side; two cundies, c (6 feet
wide) ; and cross-gates, d and e, as indicated in a general way by
fig. 3. As the winning heading advances, longwall-machine
faces are thus prepared on either side, and as these longwall
faces when worked recede from the haulage-road, slant-roads
may be formed to cut off the cross-gates.
Advantages,
The special advantages resulting from the use of longwall bar
coal-cutters in heading work may be summarized as follows : —
(1) The avoidance of hand-holing at the face when holing is most
difficult, that is, before the roof-pressure comes on the coal-face.
(2) A substantial output in good condition is obtained from the
heading at low cost. (3) Sapidity of advance is secured without
any sacrifice of economy. (4) Ample stowage-room for the
ripped material encourages the formation of haulage-roads of
liberal width. (5) For exploration-purposes, the wide heading
reveals more than a narrow one. (6) Heading by a bar machine
requires the same class of labour as an ordinary longwall face,
whereas for heading by hand skilled men must be picked, and
these are withdrawn from more productive work with a conse-
quent reduction of output. Assuming, as possible, a rate of
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HEADING. BY LONGWAIX MACHINES. 76
progress by hand-working equal to that made by the machine,
double the number of men, skilled men, would be required.
{7) The machine used for winning-out only requires a change
of cutter-bar to adapt it for longwall working.
The added advantages gained by machines may extend the
system represented by figs. 2 and 3, or some modification of it,
into seams the thickness of which has hitherto excluded it.
Where thick seams are worked on the panel system, the deep
undercutting-bar, used as described, would yield excellent
results.
Limitations.
Steepness of the seam, within the usual limitations in this
country, is not a bar to success. The method advocated can be
applied in seams inclined 1 in 3^, and faces can be advanced
straight to the dip, straight to the rise, or at a right angle to the
line of dip.
The nature of the roof may prohibit an undercut so deep as
6 feet. In such a case, the bar can be shortened so as to meet
ihe conditions. It should be remembered that, with an under-
cut of 4 feet or more, the machine is under a new roof for each
cut.
The system of heading now under review is, of course, not
universally applicable, and the limitations which apply to the
system when operated by hand would, for the most part, be valid
as regards machine-working, but there are few cases in which it
could be adopted and worked by hand where it could not be
worked to greater advantage by the bar machine.
The limit of thickness of seam to which the system could be
usefully applied must depend upon local conditions. It is
probably about 4J feet, but other limitations may emerge in the
discussion.
It is probable that increasing experience in the application of
longwall machines and fuller acquaintance with their capabilities
will tend to a progressive diminution of narrow work. In plans
of new workings its complete abolition has already been fore-
cast by mining engineers of wide experience in the handling of
machines.
TOL. XZZni.~lMM-lM7.
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76 TRANSACTIONS.
THE NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE INSTITUTE OF MINING
AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING,
Held at the North Stafford Hotel, Stoke- upon -Trent,
February 4th, 1907.
Mr. JOHN NEWTON, President, in the Chair.
The minutes of the la«t General Meeting were read and
confirmed.
The following gentlemen, having been previously nominated,
were elected : —
Member—
Mr. H. Johnstone, H.M. Inspector of Mines, Stafford.
Associate—
Mr. John Bentley, Grackley Colliery, Chesterton.
DEATH OF MR. W. H. DAVIES.
The President (Mr. John Newton) said that, since their last
meeting, they had sustained a loss in the death of one of their
most esteemed and respected members. He referred to the late
Mr. W. H. Davies, general manager of the Shelton Iron, Steel and
Coal Company, Limited. The Council had decided to send a
letter of condolence, but they felt that an expression of sympathy
coming from the whole of the members of the Institute ought
to be forwarded. Mr. Davies had been a member of the Institute
since he came to the district, and he had gained the respect of
everybody who knew him. Steel-making had been a difficult
process in North Staffordshire, as everything had militated
against its manufacture, particularly their inland position and
the railway-difficulties with which they had to contend. Mr.
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TRANSACTIONS. 77
Da vies had taken up the work of lessening those difficulties, and if
he had lived something would have been done to relieve the pres-
sure that crippled the manufacture of steel by facilitating its
export out of the district. He moved that a letter of condolence
be sent from the Institute to the widow and family, expressing its
profound regret at the irreparable loss that they had sustained, and
he would ask the members to rise in their places, so as to show their
feeling in this matter.
The resolution was carried by the members standing up in
silence.
PRIZES.
The President (Mr. John Newton) presented prizes to the
writers of the following papers : —
" Notes on the Feed-water of Colliery-boileni." By Mr. A. E. Cooke.
"A Gob-lire in the Ten-feet Seam, North StaflFordahire." By Mr. W. G.
Peasegood
Mr. St. V. Champion Jones read the following paper on
'* A Gob-fire in a Shropshire Mine " : —
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78 A GOB-FIBE IN A SHBOPSHIBE MINE.
A GOB-FIRE IN A SHROPSHIRE MINE.
Bt ST. V. CHAMPION JONES.
This gob-fire occurred about the middle of 1906, at the Free-
hold colliery, belonging- to the Lilleshall Company, Limited.
Before dealing directly with the fire, it will be desirable to give
a brief outline of the geological disturbances to which the strata
at this colliery have been subjected, and a few particulars with
regard to the practical working.
The general average dip of the measures, throughout this
district, is 1 in 12 in a north-easterly direction, and it is fairly
evenly maintained until within about 150 feet from the shafts of
the Frfeehold colliery. There is then a gradual lessening in the
rate of dip until the strata reach the horizontal position ; and
thence they rise very rapidly northward until a maximum
gradient of 45 degrees is reached. The gob-fire broke out in the
steep workings of the Double coal-seam (fig. 1, plate i.). This
sudden upheaval of the measures is in all probability due to the
wellknown landmark known as Lilleshall hill, consisting of am
eruptive igneous rock protruding about 200 feet above the sur-
rounding surface. The outcrop of some of the coal-seams have
been traced to within about | mile from the foot of this hill, and
it is towards this outcrop that the present coal-faoe is advancing.
The depth at the shafts to the Double coal-seam is 627
feet; but, owing to the abnormal rise of the measures, the depth
from the surface to the point where the fire occurred would not
be more than 330 feet (fig. 2, plate i.).
The following is a section of the Double coal-seam : —
Ft. InB. Ft. Im.
J?oo/; Rock 2 0
COAL, with nodules ... 0 9
Rock 2 0
False rock ... 1 0
Seam: COAL
Floor : Dark shale
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A GOB-Fnt£ IN A SHROPSHI&E MINE. 79
The seam is worked by the longwall method, levels being
driyen at about right angles to the dip, and jigs set off about 120
feet apart.
Heating, without stink, was first perceived on April 5th, 1906,
at A (fig. 3, plate i.). The gob at this point had fallen to a con-
siderable height, and as it was considered impracticable to attempt
to dig it out, it was decided to seal it off by means of a
brick-wall. A rock-building, a, was therefore built across the
waste, and a brick-and-mortar wall, e, 14 inches thick, was built
in front of it, from the coal-pillar on the left to the top of
Powell's jig ; and it was continued down this jig, as it was found
that carbon dioxide was making its way through the jig-side
pack-wall. This wall was carried down the jig in sections, 12
feet long, each section being built up-hill against the ventilating
current. This method was adopted, as it was ascertained that^
when bricking downhill, the carbon dioxide found its way, along
the back of the wall, to the bricklayers working at the end of it ;
and this notwithstanding that 15,000 cubic feet of air per minute
was passing down the jig. A space of 18 inches was left at the
back of the wall, and this was filled with black sand, e, as the
brick- wall was erected.
Actual gob-stink was first noticed at B (fig. 3, plate i.),
about 8 weeks after heating was perceived at A ; and a stopping
was at once erected at this point between the coal-pillar and the
cog. A brick-wall, c, 18 inches thick, was also carried up the side
of this cog, and black sand, c, was rammed behind it. As an extra
precaution, the wastes, C, D and E, were built off by means of dirt-
and-sand stanks ; and the waste, E, was further sealed by means of
a brick-and-mortar wall, e, 18 inches thick, a slight trace of gob-
stink having been noticed at this point.
While the brick-wall was being built down the side of Powell's
jig, the heading was driven from F to G, and connected to Powell's
jig, so that, if necessary, a barrier of sand, or other non-inflamm-
able material, could be formed between the brick-wall, where
heating was first perceived, and the coal-face. This, however, was
not required, owing to subsequent developments, which will be
explained later on.
The work of building the walls was, of necessity, a very slow
process, on account of the difficulty of getting the material, up
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80 A GOB-FIKE IX A SHKOPSHIRE MINE.
the jigs, to the place where it was required. The bricks, sand
and mortar were conveyed up Wakeley's and Darlington's jigs
against tubs of coal (the gradient in these jigs being about 45
degrees), and carried along the face.
The solid coal-pillar (figs. 1 and 3, plate i.), consisted of
soft faulted coal, with numerous slips in it, and the seam was
about 12 feet thick, that is, more than twice the normal thickness.
The coal here was of so soft a nature that it could be ground to
powder in the hand, with very little effort. This pillar had
been left, as it was not considered safe to work the coal at that
point owing to the exceptionally bad nature of the roof, and
because there was not sufficient material for cogging purposes.
On Saturday, June 2nd, 1906, the condition generally seemed
to be much improved, and the brick-wall in Poweirs jig had
reached a point about 30 feet from the underlying level. The
thermometer, which was hung against the brick-wall about half-
way down the jig, where the temperature was highest, showed
that the temperature was decreasing. It had never been higher
than 69° Fahr. ; but, at this time, it was only 67° ; and the place
seemed to be cooling down. However, on the following Monday,
June 4th, the fireman reported that a thin stream of smoke,
about as thick as his arm, was making its way from the rise-side,
H, of a dirt-stank, 6, in the level at the bottom of Powell's jig.
Men were at once dispatched to the place with the object of trying
to build a wall along the disused part of the level, to the coal-
pillar, as had been originally intended, so as to seal the waste on
all sides, and prevent the heating from extending to the gob on
the lower side of the level.
All went well until Wednesday evening, June 6th, the level
having been cleaned up about 15 feet from the bottom of the
jig, and a brick- wall partly put in on the top side. The under-
manager and the writer, on arrival at the pit, were informed that
the men working in the place had come out, stating that there
had been a fall in the level where they were working, bringing
live fire with it and a quantity of smoke; and that they were
compelled lo beat a hasty retreat. The writer at once descended
the pit, and as soon as he had passed through the two doors, R,
into the return-airway, he perceived that it was charged with
dense smoke, and it was only possible to see a few feet in
advance. He therefore decided to try and reach the fire from the
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A GOB-FUt£ IN A SHROPSHIBE MINE. 81
intake-airway, and accordingly he travelled up Darlington's jig
and along the face to PowelPs jig, down which he proceeded till
he got to within a few feet of the bottom. At this point, further
progress was arrested by white smoke, so thick that he could not
see more than a foot in advance, and a lamp held in it was
extinguished almost instanteously. The fire could be heard
crackling a few feet away, and a faint red glow could just be seen
through the smoke. He then returned up Powell's jig, and
along the face to the top of Wakeley's jig, and parti}- lifted
the brattice-sheet, 0, in order to take more fresh air down the
jig. On returning down the jig and reaching the level below,
he was surprised to find that it was practically free from smoke,
and, looking along it, he could see the fire blazing at the far end.
He then proceeded along the level to the bottom of Powell's jig
and within a few feet of the fire. When this point was reached,
it was seen that an unexpected change had occurred in the
ventilation, as the smoke and fumes from the fire were ascending
Powell's jig in large volumes. He, therefore, beat a hasty retreat
into a current of fresh air, coming along the level, just beyond
the bottom of Wakeley's jig. This point was reached just in
time to escape the smoke which was rolling down Wakeley's
jig-
Under ordinary conditions, two splits of air united at the top
of Powell's jig ; the one from the west ventilated the pack-level
district, and the one from the east came from the Muxton-
Bridge pits, about i a mile distant, which ceased to wind coal
about a year ago. The united air-current travelled down Powell's
jig and an abandoned jig, on to the main or new-opening level
below. When the brattice-sheet, O, was lifted in Wakeley's jig,
part of the ventilating current from the Muxton-Bridge district
naturally short-circuited down the jig : this decreavsed the air-
current in Powell's jig, and consequently the heated air from the
fire waa able to form a motive column in this jig and so reverse
the air-current. This was an instance (which was certainly
unique in the writer's experience) of the ventilation going the
longest way round, instead of taking the shortest, and, under
ordinary circumstances, the easiest, direction ; and had the mine
been anything but highly inclined, the writer is of opinion that
this change would not have taken place.
Matters were then looking very serious, and, after a somewhat
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82 A GOB-FIKE IN A SHROPSHIRE MINE.
lengthy discussion, the writer came to the conclusion that, at
least, the whole of the new-opening district would have to be
abandoned, by building stoppings and. sealing it off. But it could
be recognized that even this would be no easy matter to accom-
plish effectively, as the east side of the face was stripping some
old workings, which had been abandoned about 4 years ago ; and
the roadways and workings were still in a fairly open state, so
that the only way of building satisfactory stoppings on this side
was to go right back to the Muxton-Bridge pits and build them
in the shaft-pillar. Brick-and-mortar stoppings were therefore
built at J, K, L and M (fig. 1, plate i.). On the west side, it
was decided to build a main stopping, N, in the new-opening
level, and another, P, at the coal-face, up Darlington's jig-
Stoppings, TJ atnd V, were also erected in the old headings on the
east side of the Freehold pits. The main stopping, N, in the
new-opening level consisted of two brick-and-mortar walls, each
3 feet thick, 6 feet apart, built well into the sides, as the ground
was much broken. Between these walls, two brick-walls, 9 inchea
thick, were built at right angles and about 2 feet apart, so that
the stopping could be completed, with the exception of a small
hole about 2 feet square, which could be quickly closed as soon aa
the other stoppings were completed. Black sand, from the
foundry, was used for filling between the walls and was rammed
solid with wooden rammers. The building of this stopping wa»
carried out under considerable difiiculties, on account of its being
in the return-airway from the fire ; and, although fresh air was
taken in to the men by means of a range of air-pipes, it was found
necessary to divide the men into three divisions, each division only
being allowed to remain at the stopping for 3 minutes before
being relieved by the next : 5 minutes was allowed at first, but
this time was reduced to 3 minutes as some of the men com*
plained of feeling bad, and showed signs of carbon-monoxide
poisoning.
The stopping, P, at the coal-face up Darlington's jig was built
in the following manner: a dirt-and-sand building, d, 4 feet
thick, was built across from the coal-face to the cog; and 3 feet
distant from this, a brick-wall, e, 9 inches thick, was built, and
the intervening space was filled with black sand, c. The stopping
was built with a brick-wall, only 9 inches thick, owing to the
difficulty of getting a sufficient supply of bricks and mortar up
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A GOB-FIBE IX A SHBOPSHIKE MINE. 88
the jigs. While this stopping was being built, a temporary stop-
ping was erected at the bend in the heading, FG, and in the air-
way, BF, between the brick-wall and the west side of the coal-
pillar. These stoppings were made with slack-coal, the only
material at hand.
Previous to these stoppings being erected, smoke with carbon
dioxide was backing along the coal -face towards the place where
the permanent stopping was being built : consequently the situa-
tion was much improved by the erection of these slack-coal
stoppings.
The main stopping, E, near the Muxton-Bridge pits, and the
main stopping, N, in the new-opening level, were the last to be
closed. It was arranged that they should be closed simultan-
eously ; but, as a matter of fact, the Muxton-Bridge stopping was
closed a few minutes before the other.
The fire was, in the writer's opinion, due to the oxidation of
coal, without the assistance of pyrites. Pyrites is met with occa-
sionally embedded in the coal in the form of lumps, but it is not
found in sufficient quantities to justify the opinion that the
origin of the fire was, either partly or wholly, due to its pres-
ence. The coal, at the point where the fire started, had the
appearance of being highly carbonized, and looked as if it had, at
some time or another, been subjected to great friction. It is not
thought that such friction or pressure contributed to the fire
in the present instance, except from the fact of the coal being
crushed into small pieces and consequently rendering it more
liable to oxidation.
Similar belts of soft, sooty coal had occurred in other parts of
this seam, and fires had been frequent ; but there had never been
any signs of heating when the coal had been strong and in its
normal condition.
At the Granville colliery, about IJ miles distant, where the
Double seam had been extensively worked, a fire had never
been known to occur.
The conditions prevailing at the present time are as follows :
— The stopping, Jf, in the new-opening level has been
strengthened by sand-and-brick walls, and has now a total thick-
ness of 45 feet. A pipe, 2 inches in diameter, has been fitted
through the stopping; and, on the valve being opened, carbon
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84 DISCUSSION — A GOB-FIRE IN A SHROPSHIRE MINE.
dioxide issues from it under slight pressure. A light is extin-
guished in a few seconds when held at the end of the pipe. The
temperature on the wall of this stopping is 81° Fahr., and this
has been constant for some months.
The stopping, P, at the coal-face of Darlington's jig has also
been strengthened by filling the face from the stopping to the
jig-side, with riddled slack-coal and sand, g. The temperature is
62° Fahr.
A roadway, S to T, has been driven in the gob of the Top
coal-seam, about 18 feet above the Double seam (fig. 1, plate i.).
This roadway provides an auxiliary airway, so that the roadways
to the west of the coal-pillar could be closed, should the fire
show signs of eating its way. into them. At the present time,
there are no indications of the fire breaking through, and the
writer hopes that it has been satisfactorily enclosed.
Mr. F. H. Wynne said that the coal in the pillar was faulted,
of a peculiar character, and a handful could be crushed to powder
by simple pressure. He had taken samples of the soft and of
the hard coal, and had hoped to have made experiments as to
their relative speeds of oxidation ; but, owing to the removal of
the county laboratory and other matters, the experiments had not
been completed.
Mr, St. V. C. Jones said that fires in the Freehold pits
had always occurred where the soft and sooty coal was found.
He could obtain samples of coal which would be similar to those
obtained at the point of the fire.
Mr. B. WooDWORTH asked whether the sooty coal was caused
by the bending of the strata, and whether fires had occurred al
the Granville pit.
Mr. St. V. C. Jones thought that the bending of the strata
had a connexion with the formation of the soft, sooty coal. He
thought that the upheaval of the Coal-measures was probably due
to the igneous intrusion, which now formed Lilleshall hill. The
Coal-measures were crushed and broken, and this band of soft
sooty coal was then produced. Fires had only occurred in the
soft sooty bands of the Freehold pits, and he thought that, owing
to their absence, no fires had occurred at the Granville pits.
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TKt, Tn^tt^sfure Mine *
n
VqlXXXIILPlatbI.
REFERENCES.
.^.. FAULT AND OIIIIOTION OF THROW
'.'r^.'. OiRICTION OF AIR-CURRINT C
'.-"0.-T VfMTILATION-OOOR fD't:,-
:::S'-1! RRAmci-tHeeT e^
FALLEN f'
ooa% 9"
OIRT
SAND
DIRT AND SAND
■RICH -WALL
SLACK
SAND AND SLACK
Datum 0
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DISCUSSION — ^A GOB-FIKE IN A SHROPSHIRE MINE. 86
Mr. F. E. Buckley said that he had arrived at the practical
conclusion that the fire had been caused by the narrow pillar of
coal beinf^ left in the centre of a large gotten area ; and, however
difficult it might be to work that pillar of coal, in his opinion, it
certainly should have been removed. Mr. Jones strengthened
that opinion by stating that fires had always occurred where coal-
pillars had been left. He contended that, at any expense, a
narrow pillar should be removed, for what was the cost of work-
ing such a pillar when compared with the loss of a district?
Therefore, the warning of the paper should be not to leave narrow
pillars of friable coal.
Mr. G. E. Lawton asked whether the roof-coal was recovered
from the goaf, and, if not, possibly this coal might be the means
of initiating a gob-fire. He thought that Dr. J. S. Haldane
proved conclusively that pyrites, when finely disseminated in a
seam, actively participated in propagating gob-fires, as it
caused disintegration of the coal and exposed larger surfaces
thereof to oxidation. But he did not think that, when found in
the lump-form, pyrites assisted in producing gob-fires.
Mr. A. M. Henshaw said that this interesting paper intro-
duced once more a question of vital importance to all engineers
interested in coal-mining in North Staffordshire and the neigh-
bouring county. The seam, in its natural condition, was not sub-
ject to spontaneous combustion, but a gob-fire had occurred under
circumstances that were abnormal. The cause was found in the
conditions of the seam at the seat of the fire ; and at that point the
coal was very faulted, very friable, very thick, and so soft that, by
the pressure of the hand, a lump could be squeezed into dust.
Whilst that condition of the seam obtained in that area, probably
with the very best intentions but with the most unfortunate
results, a course was adopted, which, from his experience of work-
ing seams much prone to spontaneous combustion, he would at
once describe as extremely risky. He had had a number of cases
of gob-fires in small patches of faulted, soft and thick coal ; and
he had been taught by experience that wherever coal of that
description was found, it should be left solid in large areas or
entirely worked out. He could quite see the diflSculty in this
case of working out the whole of that area of soft and thick coal.
The seam being 12 feet thick and part of a longwall district, it
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86 DISCUSSION A GOB-FIKE IN A SHROPSHIEE MINE.
would be very difficult to remove entirely the whole of the coal.
He presumed that the district was sufSciently well-known, so as
to determine the direction and extent of that faulty area. In that
case, he would have suggested that a larger area, including all the
soft coal and a certain margin of natural strata alongside of it,
without cutting places through, should have been left absolutely
solid. The fire broke out, at A, in a small area of goaf and along^
side a pillar of faulted coal (fig. 3, plate i.). Several places
appeared to have been driven through the faulted coal, from one
side to another, and at the same time the natural tendency of
the ventilating current was from west to east, so that it was very
likely that some leakage of air would pass from west to east into
the middle of the gob, A. It was quite conceivable, owing to the
coal being so soft, inferior and thick, that the gob, A, would
contain a considerable quantity of waste-coal and the forcing
of a small quantity of air into that mass would be sufficient to
encourage oxidation. It probably would not be sufficient to bring
about the necessary cooling, but it would be sufficient to supply
new oxygen and to increase the temperature until it attained the
ignition-stage. It was always easy to judge and draw conclusions
after the event, and he always sympathized with engineers
who had to deal with gob-fires. He invariably found that they
were more to be pitied than blamed, but he wanted for the pur-
pose of information to draw useful leesons from the cases that
came before the notice of the members. As to the question of
pyrites, he did not see that pyrites need have had anything to do
with the fire : it was due to the soft and broken condition of the
coal ; and, with multiplied surfaces exposed to oxidation, a rising
temperature was naturally propagated.
With regard to the method of dealing with the gob-fire, it
showed a great deal of pluck and ingenuity on the part of Mr.
Jones and his staff, and he was to be congratulated upon the
efl:'orts that he had made to confine the fire, in the early stages,
within close quarters. Considerable risks appeared to have been
encountered, and he asked whether they had to deal with fire-
damp.
Mr. St. V. C. Jones replied that a little fire-damp had been
found occasionally, and a small percentage was found when
driving the heading from F to G (fig. 3, plate i.).
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DISCUSSION — ^A GOB-FIRE IN A SHROPSHIRE MINE. 87
Mr. A. M. Henshaw said that part of ihe scheme suggested by
Mr. Jones was the filling of the road, above A, between the pack-
wall and the solid pillar above, and he supposed that it would be
8 or 9 feet wide. He had tried the plan of filling with non-
inflammable material, but he had found that 8 or 9 feet of sand
was not sufficient to prevent the conduction of heat to the solid
coal beyond, and the heat would be sufficient to fire the pillar on
the other side of it. A long time seemed to have elapsed between
the outbreak on April 5th and the evidence of real tire on June
6th, and he asked whether, during that time, any real fire had been
seen. Mr. Jones had stated in his paper that the coal at the point
where the fire started had the appearance of being " highly car-
bonized, and looked as if it had . . . been subjected to great fric-
tion." He would like to have a clearer idea of the meaning of
'' highly carbonized," as he did not think that Mr. Jones meant the
effect produced by heat, and he imagined that it would be similar
to the " mushy coal " of that district. Great credit was due to Mr.
Jones for his efforts, but he should have regarded the plan of
fi'ghting the fire, at close quarters, as hopeless from the first in
an area of longwall, and with a current of 15,000 cubic
feet of air per minute. He thought that they were bound
to be driven bcwjk to erect permanent stoppings in the main roads.
He could hardly judge the conditions, but he thought it was
possible that the fire might, some day, be observed at the en-
trances of some of these roads, probably on the margin of the
pillar of soft coal that had been left. He should advise Mr.
Jones to strengthen the stoppings at Darlington's jig, on the
face, and wherever possible. From what Mr. Jones had said of
the pressure of the carbon dioxide in the pipe carried through the
stopping in the new-opening level, he would imagine that air
was finding an entrance ; and if Mr. Jonee could build side- walls
alongside Darlington's jig, and reduce the pressure of the air
into the heated goaf, he would be taking a further wise pre-
caution.
Mr. A. Hassam, in moving a vote of thanks to Mr. Jones for
his paper, asked whether there was any water or damp about
the seam.
Mr. St. V. C. Jones said that there was no water at that point,
and practically no moisture in the seam. With reference to
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88 DISCUSSION — ^A GOB-FIRE IN A SHaOPSIIiaE MINE.
the leaving of the pillar, on the face of it, it looked wrong, and,
from a mining point of view, it was wrong, but it was left on
account of safety. The roof was wretched, and it was found that
sufficient cogging' material could not be procured to cog the
place (the seam being about 12 feet thick at that point). They
were afraid of accidents, and for that reason the pillar was left.
This soft coal had been found in other portions of the Double
seam, and it had with difficulty been removed. The seam being
thick, a certain amount of slack fell into the gob, and fires had
occurred frequently, where pillars had not been left. With
regard to strengthening the stoppings and preventing the fire
from coming through them, it had been decided, in case of the
fire showing signs of coming through, to fill in the roadways
to the west of the coal-pillar. The seam was practically free
from gas, which had only been found in very small quantities.
Its absence was due to the fact that the overlying seam of coal
had been worked, and had practically drained it away.
The Peesident seconded the vote of thanks to Mr. Jones for
his paper, and it was unanimously approved.
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TRANSACTIONS. 89
MIDLAND IIS'STITTJTE OF MINING, CIVIL AND
MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING,
Hkld at the Queen's Hotel, Babnslbt, Fkbbuaby 2€th, 1907.
Mb. J. R. R. WILSON, Pbbsidbnt, in the Chaib.
The following gentlemen, having been duly nominated, were
elected : —
Membebs^
Mr. William Badgeb, Mechanical Engineer, Jagersfontein Diamond Mining
Company, Orange River Colony, South Africa.
Mr. John Hbnbt Gbeaves, Mining Engineer, 69, Westgate, Wakefield.
Mr. Thomas Wiohton Hood, Engineer, 120, East Ferry Road, Mill wall,
London, £.
Mr. Joseph Jaggab, Colliery Manager, Grange Moor Collieries, Flockton,
Wakefield.
Mr. T. W. Keillab, Mining Engineer, Wortley, Leeds.
SlUDENT—
Mr. NoBMAN Samuel Robebts, Mining Student, Aldwarke Main Colliery,
Rotherham.
Mr. R. SxTTCLiFFE read the following paper on ** The Import-
ance of Scientific Mining in the Bamsley District": —
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so MIXING IN THE BAENSLEY DISTRICT.
THE IMPORTANCE OF SCIENTIFIC MINING
IN THE BARNSLEY DISTRICT.
By R. SUTCLIPFE.
Miners living but very few miles from this district, and
knowing something of its geological features must often envy
those who are surrounded with so large a number of valuable
coal-seams, which would be highly prized in other districts,
especially by those who may have happened to be connected
with the working of seams in which, if a man has a long pick-
blade, he has some difficulty in turning the second point to the
coal when the first has become blunted. To men employed
in the getting of such seams, what is considered in the Bamsley
district to be a thin seam, would to them appear to be a moderately
thick one. For clearness in this paper, the writer will assume all
seams under 3 feet in thickness to be " thin seams " and all seams
over 3 feet to be " thick ones." In thinking over the subject of
mining in the neighbourhood of Bamsley, one cannot always say
whether the thick seam bearing the name of the town has been of
that great benefit to the locality which, under other circumstances,
it might have been. However this may be, the fact that it is being
exhausted in the neighbourhood makes it necessary for miners,
who live in the town, to travel farther afield in order to reach
their daily work. As the nearest collieries, now at work, become
worked out, if the thinner seams continue to be neglected, the
daily journey of the miner must increase unless he moves into
the country; and, as human endurance is limited, it follows
that the miner's power or capacity for useful or productive work
will be proportionately reduced. A good service of trains may
exist to convey the workmen to and from their work ; but wait-
ing, even for a short time, for a train to move so starves the body,
especially after a day's work in a warm mine, that it is question-
able whether this train-accommodation is altogether to be desired.
Until recently, however, these disadvantages were probably
unavoidable, owing to a great extent to the inability of the
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MIXING IX THE BARNSLEY DISTEICT. 91
ordinary miner who has served a large portion of his life in
a thick seam to adapt himself to the conditions of work in a thin
one, and to the length of time required for him to reach that
degree of efficiency which would enable him to earn a fairly good
day's wage in the latter. Of course, it follows that the sons would
go with the father, and also become expert in the work of the thick
seam only. If this be so, it will easily be seen that the prosj)ect of
utilizing the thin seams under and around Barnsley in the early
future is not very promising, unless improved methods of work-
ing are adopted. In addition to this, the difficulties of the
colliery-owner in utilizing thin seams cannot be ignored;
because many departures must be made from the methods adopted
in getting thick seams : — (1) The royalty-rent payable to the
landlord should be much more than proportionately lower than
that for the thick seam — a fact not always readily recogpaized by
the landlord or his agents. (2) If the colliery-owner were not
doing very well out of his thick coal, he could hardly expect to
improve his position by embarking in the work of a thin one;
while, if he was doing well out of his thick one, he would naturally
"" let well alone," especially as he would have to meet the royalty
question just referred to, with, perhaps, the expiration of his
lease also in view. (3) He would have to procure plant, corves,
etc., suitable for thin seams, and work these while his plant,
suitable for the thick seam, might be lying idle.
When it is remembered that the total thickness of coal
underlying Barnsley, in the several beds which are known to be
of a workable thickness, exceeds 40 feet, it seems difficult to
understand why the three partners in the business could not come
to a mutually beneficial understanding and unlock this vast
amount of wealth, instead of letting the grand and fascinating
industry of coal-mining glide, slowly it may be, away from
the town. From the landlord's point of view, one would have
thought that the proverbial half-loaf would be better than no
bread, especially as the working of thin seams seldom, if ever,
injures the surface in uneven country. Colliery-owners, too,
often have shafts sunk through thin seams, which, if away
from the close proximity of the thick coal-seam for which the
shafts were originally sunk, would be of very considerable value ;
while the workmen, even if they were obliged to take rather less
wages, would find a great advantage in having their work within
VOL. ZZXI1I.-1M6-1M7. ^
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92 MINING IN THE BARNSLEY DISTRICT.
easy distance from their place of abode, and consequently would
have more time to spend at their homes for rest and recreation as
well as being able to avoid the disadvantages of either long walks
or train- journeys to or from work.
Under these circumstances, then, it is perhaps worth while to
enquire how far it is feasible to turn some of the thin seams which
abound in the neighbourhood to account. These, if only situated
a few miles distant from Bamsley, would be of much importance, if
not of great value. In order to show that many of the thin seams in
the district are of importance to the three parties referred to, it is
only necessary to say that, within 8 or 10 miles of Bamsley, seams
not more than 18 inches thick are being worked, and are
at least paying their way under careful management, even with-
out the mechanical aids obtainable at the present time. And
this is being accomplished even where the cost is greatly increased
by a charge of at least 8d. per foot for the ripping of gates 36 to 60
feet apart, and by the payment of a high rate for tramming
(owing to the almost universal use of small corves in these thin
seams). In some districts, for instance, in parts of Scotland and
Ireland, it is customary to cast the coal to the gate-side in order
that it may be filled into large-sized corves ; but in West York-
shire the tubs are taken through the working-faces even in thin
seams, with the result that corves which will hold only 3 cwts. of
coal are frequently used. And it is not uncommon to see a
miner, lying on his back and wedging himself between floor and
roof, push a corf out of some diflScult position with his feet.
Under such circumstances, it is impossible to get large coal into
a corf.
The majority of the seams around Barnsley, however, are not
thin enough to experience these disadvantages ; as many of them,
such as the Woodmoor, Summer, Abdy, Kent Thick and Beam-
shaw seams (all overlying the Bamsley seam) approach 3 feet
in thickness. All these seams have the advantage of being
passed through at various places by sinkings to the Bamsley
seam ; and consequently they should be comparatively free from
water. Below the Barnsley seam, the Swallow-wood, Lidget,
ThomclifEe Thin, Swilly and Silkstone Four-feet, all thin seams
according to the writer's definition, are pierced by pits in the
vicinity sunk to the Silkstone seam. In this list the writer has
omitted the Parkgate seam, as he does not class it amongst the
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MINING IN THE BARNSLEY DISTRICT. 98
thin seams in tlie Bamsley district, except where it is divided by
a thick band of dirt. In West Yorkshire, the Farkgate or Old
Hards, as it is called there, a very valuable seam^ is divided by
no less than 30 feet of band, and the lower portion of it is being
worked down to 16 inches in thickness. In mentioning the
thickness of 15 inches, the writer does not take into account some
4 to 6 inches of dirty, useless coal found next to the roof, known
as " dross " or " lime coal," which is invariably oast into the
goaf when there is room for it. Seeing, therefore, that so many
coal-seams are already passed through in this populous neighbour-
hood by shafts, it seems a pity that so little effort is being made
to win them, even though some of the pits have been abandoned
because the thick seams have been worked out.
In this rapid survey of the subject, it has been shewn that
formerly much could be said for leaving the working of these
seams, for the time being, in abeyance. This, however, is no
longer so, because appliances are quickly being matured and
perfected by practice, such as will enable the thinner seams either
to be got concurrently with the thicker ones (where the latter
are still unexhausted), or through the abandoned shafts which
have pierced them. Had capital to be found to sink pits to the
thinner seams alone, there would be some excuse for not troubling
about them while the thick ones lasted ; but, where shafts already
exist, it seems strange that so little effort is made to get them.
It may, however, be almost taken for granted that, when the
thin seams are worked, coal-cutters will be employed to under-cut
them, and conveyors used to put the coal into corves in the
gateways or pass-byes, very few of which will be employed or
required. In this way, manual labour can be employed in the
less laborious operations of coal-getting, such as operating
machines, placing the coal on face-conveyors, timbering, etc.,
while machinery will be adopted to do all the other work. In
this way only will it be possible to work thin seams on anything
like a favourable basis in a thick-coal district, where miners have
not been trained to thin-coal mining. By the adoption of appli-
ances now available, the output from even thin seams may be
made to approach more closely to that of the thick seams than
was formerly possible, whilst less work will be required in rip-
ping gates, which then become unnecessary.
It has already been mentioned that, in getting some thin seams
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94 MIXING IN THE BAENSLEY DISTRICT.
by hand-labour, it waa neceflsaxy to rip or make gateways for
every 36 to 60 feet of face. Now, with conveyors at the face, the
distance between the gateways need not be less than 600 feet, and
the main gateways may be 1,000 or 1,200 feet apart, so that
every gateway may be, and possibly will be, an engineplane pro-
ducing several hundred tons of coal per day. In many ways
this, in itself, is a very great benefit in working any mine at the
present time. The fact that 76 per cent, of the gateways are cut
off saves the cost of making such gateways, of the daily
examination of this proportion, and of the rails, sleepers, nails,
ventilation and general repairs. The deputy, being relieved from
the examination and care of 76 per cent, of the gateways, can
bestow more time on the coal-face, and on getting out his work,
which in itself is often of much importance. Again, the cutting off
of so many gateways along the face is of importance wiiere coal-
cutters are used, because where a large number of gateways exist
there is great difficulty in keeping the gate-ends clear and in
finding room for the debris produced by cutting, which accumu-
lates between the pack-walls and the coal-face — often leaving too
small a space for expeditious working, and sometimes burying
timber which would otherwise have been withdrawn.
All these advantages, however, are small compared with the
great saving in labour. The getting of empty tubs into a coal-
face, filling them there, and getting them out of the face and on
to the gate-rails when full, is neither light nor pleasant work
in any mine, no matter how thick the seam may be, but is
especially laborious work in a thin seam. It is not, therefore,
surprising that, when miners become even slightly acquainted
with the working of face-conveyors, they do not wish to return to
tub-filling. Objection is sometimes raised to the me of con-
veyors in a seam where two or more sorts of coal are filled
separately at the face; but a moment's consideration will show
that any such circumstance need not be considered detrimental
to the working of them, provided that they are worked systemati-
cally. At present, the different kinds must be sent out
separately by first filling one or more corves with one
kind of coal, and then one or more oorves with the other kind.
The same rule holds good in loading the conveyors: the only
difference being that, with hand-filling, each man may fill which-
ever kind of coal he wishes, irrespective of the kind which others
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MIXING IN THE BARNSLEY DISTRICT. 95
may be filling ; while, with a conveyor, every filler must load the
same kind of coal at the same time, and when a change is made
from one kind to another, no filler must fill the new kind until
the whole of the first quality on the conveyor has passed him.
This will cause very little inconvenience, as the fillers, being in
touch with one another, can readily agree at what time the change
from one kind of coal to another shall take place, and can arrange
that the attendant at the head of the conveyor shall change the
corves at that time. The fact that a corf may not be full at the
time when the change is made may appear to present a difficulty,
but this is more apparent than real. Flat^sheets will doubtless
be used in connection with conveyors, and a jjartly-filled tub can
easily be laid aside and its filling completed as soon as the kind
of coal that it contains is again sent over the conveyor.
Whilst the conveyor, for many reasons, seems to be the natural
complement of the coal-cutter, it is also applicable for use in
hand-holed faces where a good or fairly good roof exists ; and it
will probably revolutionize the getting of coal, even in thick
seams, where a good length of face can be cut. In such a face,
the conveyor may be fixed, say, 4 feet from the coal, to enable
the cutting machine to remain in any part of the face during the
filling of the coal, or even to cut the coal while coal in other
portions of the face is being filled. This is an advantage, the
effects of which may be far-reaching. It certainly overcomes the
inconvenience of compelling the machine to cut exactly from
stable to stable, and no more, in a day : thus doing away with
stables in or along the face, and allowing the cut to be made
gradually inward ; or the machine may be pushed into position
by jacks or otherwise while cutting. Further, a sufficient number
of machines can be put on a face, to cut any length of coal that
may be desired. Such a face, say, 1,200 feet in length, can
be dealt with by two conveyors delivering on to a gate-conveyor j
and such a face, 5 feet thick, with a 5 feet undercut would,
in round numbers, produce 1,000 tons or 2,000 corves, each
holding 10 cwts. To deal with this number of tubs in 8
hours would require 4 tubs to be filled per minute. This, how-
ever, is only the capacity of one face-conveyor, which not only can
fill, but has filled similar corves at the rate of one in 15 seconds.
The writer, however, is dealing with thin seams, and probably
only 400 tons of coal per day would be obtained from a face
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96 MINING IN THE BABNSLEY DISTEICT.
1,200 feet long*. Tkis quantity can easily be dealt with by two
conveyors, each 600 feet long, delivering on to a gate-conveyor
carrying the coal to the corves at the pass-byes. The latter con-
veyor may be of any length and capacity. It is not necessary to
refer to the smaller number of corves required under this system.
It will, of course, be readily understood that the pass-bye will
be placed at the delivery-end of the conveyor, and it will be as
readily conceived that, to deal with even 400 tons per shift in a
passage or gateway with either horse or hand-labour, is no easy
matter ; while it is inconvenient to have to keep shifting up the
main-rope haulage-wheel at short intervals. A small main-and-
tail-rope hauling-engine could, however, be placed in the main
pass-bye at the return-wheel, with a small return-wheel at the
conveyor-end for drawing the corves between the conveyor and
the engineplane or main pass-bye.
The writer has designed a small hauling-engine to deal with
this class of work, which, he thinks, will find favour with colliery
managers even for more extended use. It is suitable for endless-
rope haulage ; and the rope, contained on two drums, can be
readily extended as the gateway lengthens. It can be operated
by compressed air, electricity, or from the return-wheel shaft of
the main haulage-rope.
It has been already stated that, where hand-work prevails,
small tubs must be provided if thick and thin seams are to be
worked simultaneously ; but, where conveyors are used, this is un-
necessary, as the large tubs may be employed in even the thinnest
seams. Every colliery manager knows the trouble incurred at
a colliery when tubs of various sizes are used concurrently.
Thirty years ago, the writer used coal-cutting machines in a
seam 18 inches thick, in the largest colliery in Ireland, where the
measures dipped 1 in 5. Sledges were used at the face, the gate-
ways were spaced 135 feet apart, and the tubs were filled in the
gateways. As a consequence, it was found that, if the average
selling price of the coal could be maintained at 7s. 6d. per ton, a
fair profit could be made. Unfortunately, that price was not
obtained, otherwise the colliery, in all probability, would be
working still. The demand did not reach one-fourth of that
expected : consequently the coal-cutters were taken out, and were
afterwards brought to England, and the writer believes that some
of them are working in Yorkshire to this day after thirty years'
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MINING IN THE BABNSLEY DISTRICT. 97
service. In Yorkshire, the writer has worked coal-seams, with
coal-cutters, down to 15 inches in thickness at a profit, and in
the Bamsley district, he is interested in coal-cutters working
the Abdy seam, which he has no hesitation in saying is admirably
suited for such machines. Seeing, then, that the use of
machinery for getting coal is no longer problematical, and that
its application to the thin seams of this district is quite feasible,
the wonder is that coal-cutting machines have not been more
largely used. Notwithstanding the difficulties already referred
to, it is certain that, in the absence of thick seams, the thin
fleams found in the district would become valuable, and if worked
would give employment to a large number of people as well as
to coal-cutters.
It is, at least, of some interest to the district generally that
an industry so long established, and of such importance as coal-
mining, should not be allowed to decline even slowly; and, if
this is to be^prevented, the question of utilizing some of the seams
now lying neglected must be considered in earnest. Fortunately,
circunLstances in the neighbourhood are unusually favourable
for this, owing to the numerous abandoned shafts by means of
which access can be obtained to the thinner seams that have been
entirely ignored by the former proprietors, and now lie close to
these shafts waiting to be operated by some enterprizing capitalist.
The writer does not forget that thin seams in the Bamsley
district have, from time to time, been broken into, and that here
and there attempts have been made to turn them to account, but
with little success. Such attempts, however, were not made
either in the manner or by the means which were likely to be
successful. In order to achieve success under present conditions,
thoroughly organized, systematic, and energetic management is
of the first importance. To ensure this, the stafi should consist
of men knowing the requirements necessary for the successful
working of up-to-date methods and machinery. The courtesy
and fraternity at present prevailing amongst Yorkshire coal-
owners and managers greatly facilitates the acquisition of these
attributes or qualities by allowing friendly visits by interested
officials to neighbouring collieries; and the writer hopes that
this benevolent spirit, with the good that results from the mutual
interchange of ideas and suggestions, will long prevail.
Of all people, the working miners of the district should be
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98 MINING IN THE BARNSLEY DISTRICT.
particularly interested in the opening out of thin seams. The
writer has already remarked that it is doubtful whether the
Bamsley seam is of that great benefit which it might have been
under other circumstances, because its extreme value made nearly
all the other seams appear almost valueless; but, from the
workers' point of view, he thinks that the thinner seams ought to
be considered of greater importance, because more labour must
be employed to produce the same amount of coal.
Even with modern machinery and appliances, it can hardly
be expected that a man in a seam 3 feet thick can get coal as
quickly as in a seam 10 feet thick. Under these circumstances^
then, can the aid of the miner be counted on, in developing the
numerous thin seams which are found in the district? The
writer has no misgivings on the matter, and unhesitatingly says
yes, if properly dealt with. The writer has been amongst the
Bamsley miners, and knows many of them, and he has no hesita^
tion in saying that there are quite as many real heroes amongst
them as amongst any other miners in the kingdom. No person
can doubt that miners all over our land are real heroes in case
of need, when the numerous calamities which have occurred
within recent times are recalled. In proof of this statement^
reference need only be made to one case : not many miles from
Bamsley an accident occurred in a shaft, and several men were
precipitated from a scaffolding into the pit-bottom. When the
rescuers got down they found one man hanging head downwards
on a crook, which had cauight in one of his boots. This man
knew well enough that if his bootlace gave way it was instant
death for him, still he implored the rescuers to hasten to his
mates in the bottom, and relieve them before relecising him from
his dangerous position. Should not such heroism be printed in
letters of gold ? How prevalent such cases are amongst miners in
times of need ! Can it be doubted then that such men will try
to assist in all legitimate enterprise for the advancement of their
calling, and the good of all around them ?
Although the writer has not mentioned any of the seams of
the Lower Coal-measures (those below the Silkstone seam), it is not
because he attaches no importance to their value, but because it
is quite unnecessary to go to the expense of opening out and
working the deeper seams when so many exist in the district at
much shallower depths. It is well known, however, that the
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DISCUSSION — MINING IN THE BARNSLEY DISTKICT. 9^
lower seams play an importaat part ia a large area of the West
Yorkshire coal-field, where the Beeston and Black Bed seams
are extensively worked. Below these again are the Halifax
seams ; these seams are even of greater extent, reaching to the far
south of Ireland, except where they have become denuded, and
they enter largely into tlie production of coal in Lancashire as*
the Mountain mines.
The Pkesident (Mr. J. E. R. Wilson, H.M. Inspector of
Mines) said that the members would ag-ree with. Mr. Sutcliffe,.
when he stated that, to achieve success, '' thoroughly organized,,
systematic, and energetic management is of the first import-
ance," whether they worked coal at Bamsley or in any other part
of the country. The members were well prepared to admit that
amongst miners, as a class, there were real heroes ; but he ques-
tioned whether a man, although he would hang. down a shaft at
the risk of his life, would go to work in a seam, 2 feet 6 inches
thick, if he had the chance of working in a seam 6 feet thick.
He proposed that the thanks of the members be given to Mr.
SutclifiEe for his paper.
Mr. E. W. Thibkell, in seconding the vote of thanks, said
that a paper was written by the late Mr. Robert Millar, sixteen
or seventeen years ago, on " The Coal-field adjoining Bamsley,"*
and it would be interesting to compare the two papers. Mr.
Millar said that he did not aim at a very great deal, but he
hoped to cause people to think; and he (Mr. Thirkell) agreed
that, if they could get people to think, particularly in matters of
mining, they would be doing good. Mr. Sutcliffe would cause
people to think, if they only read the title of his paper, because
some engineers thought that if anybody knew anything at all
about getting coal, they did at Bamsley, and also how to get it
in a scientific way. But with the Bamsley seam, engineers did
not need to trouble very much about science in the olden days.
Regarding the subject of Mr. Sutcliffe's paper, the
situation was hardly that the seams under Barnsley were not
valuable, but that the necessity for working them had not yet
arisen. Bamsley engineers were quite as shrewd as others, and
they would not let valuable mineral property be lost for ever as
• Trans. Inst, M. E., 1890, vol. ii., page 7.
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100 DISCUSSION — MINING IN THE BARNSLEY DISTEICT.
stated by Mr. Millar in his paper. Mr. Sutcliffe and everybody
else could rest assured that Barnsley engineers knew full well
that it was there, and that they were only waiting* for the proper
time to work it. Respecting the statement that appliances were
being improved and perfected, he (Mr. Thirkell) said that was
so, but they were not yet perfect, and when they were, Barnsley
engineers would bring them into play in working the thinner
seams. He quite agreed that it would not have to be done in a
half-hearted way, nor would it be advisable for somebody in
prosperous times to start to work a thin seam, then leave it and
probably ruin it and himself, and he also agreed with what was
said regarding the management, which must be " thorou^ghly
organized, systematic and energetic."
Officials and workmen must be properly educated in the use of
the machinery to be applied, and trained men accustomed to the
work would be required. Machinery for coal-cutting, convey-
ing, etc., required skilled men, who, by long practice, were able
to avail themselves of every advantage, and, notwithstanding
Mr. Sutcliffe's belief that the miners in the district could be
counted upon to develop the thin seams (" if properly dealt with,"
whatever that meant), it was no disparagement to a Barnsley
collier to doubt his ability to compete successfully with a trained
thin-coal miner, in working thin seams. There was no disputing
the fact that coal-values were relative, and unless they could put
the thin seams on the market at a cheaper rate than the Barnsley
seam, they would prefer to have the Barnsley seam ; and not only
that, but the difference in price between the Barnsley and other
seams would have to be such as would equalize at least all the
economies brought about by the use of elaborate machinery, both
aboveground and belowground. He (Mr. Thirkell) believed that,
with the aid of machinery, seams which were regarded as worth-
less now would, in time to come, be worked. Several of the
seams contained thin bands of dirt, which made it impossible to
sell the coal as lai'ge coal ; but, when crushed, washed and sized,
it could be utilized for coke-making and for furnaces specially
made for firing by small coal. He (Mr. Thirkell) was sure tihat
these seams would be worked when the time came: a living
was now made out of seams that our fathers considered worthless,
and the recovery of what formerly was taken as waste or unpro-
ductive, was now the question of the day. The members could
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DISCUSSION — MINING IN THE BAENSLEY DISTRICT. 101
Bee what was being done in this respect in gas-works, soap-
works, bye-product plants, etc., and in years to come, those who
came after us would do as we were doing now.
In Mr. Millar's paper, which dealt principally with the
seams below the Bamsley bed, reference was made to the diffi-
culties to be met with in dealing with the water. These difficulties
were far greater to-day than when Mr. Millar wrote his paper.
The water in the old shafts probably alluded to by Mr. Sutcliffe
was practically at a level with streams on the surface, and the
question was one which the mining engineers of the district
had long had under consideration. When they looked at the list
of members, and particularly at the list of past-presidents, the
members saw a list of mining engineers upon whom they could
depend to cope with these difficulties and to see that the mineral
wealth under Bamsley was not wasted. In early Parliamentary
elections, much was said about Bamsley being the ** right eye "
of Yorkshire. He thought that the members could take it for
granted that when the time came for the seams of which Mr.
Sutclifie had spoken to be worked, that " right eye " would be
Tery wide open indeed.
Mr. J. L. Marshall said that he agreed with the spirit in
which Mr. Sutclifie's paper had been written, but the members
were also bound to agree with Mr. Thirkell's views as to the
difficulty of the present development of these thin seams. The
time for their working had not yet arrived ; but, when it did, he
thought that the seams would be worked with the aid of coal-
cutters, coal-washers and coal-conveyors. He asked whether the
writer had had experience of the use of conveyors in thin seams
with soft, spongy bottoms and similar tops.
Mr. H. Rhodes thought that the key of the position lay in
the question of average selling-price. If the average selling-
price could be maintained at 28. or 3s. a ton more than was
obtained at present, almost any seam might possibly pay to work,
assuming that the wages-rate remained the same. It might be
taken as certain, however, that the wages would increase as the
selling-price increased. In abnormal times any seam would pay,
but such a subject as this could only be dealt with on a normal
basis ; and, when the thin seams had to be worked in competition
with the thicker seams, in these days it would be impossible to
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102 DISCUSSIOX MINING IN THE BABNSLEY DISTRICT.
work them succeaafully unless they were so specially situated as
to obtain some exceptional advantages in the selling-price. If
Mr. Sutcliffe looked further into the matter, he -would find that he
was hardly correct in stating that the thin seams above the
Bamsley bed would be comparatively free from water. If he
(Mr. Rhodes) was not mistaken, many of them were water-logged
at the present time ; and, in several instances, their working had
been abandoned owing to the water-difficulty.
Mr. W. Walker (H.M. Inspector of Mines) said that the
statement that no thin seams were being worked in the Bamsley
district was hardly correct, as thin seams were being worked
at Barrow, Dodworth, and other collieries. It seemed to him.
very desirable that the thin seams should be worked simultan-
eously with the thick seams, and it would be an encouragement
if royalties coidd be arranged on a tonnage-basis, in proportion
to the thickness and qualities of the seams.
Mr. H. B. Nash said that, in 1892, he read a short paper before
the Bamsley Naturalist and Scientific Society on " The Un-
worked Coal-seams of Bamsley and District," and he then stated
that, owing to the difference in their thickness, their inferior
quality and their enhanced cost of working, they could not be
successfully worked in competition with the thicker and more
valuable Barnsley bed. On that account their development had
been comparatively slow, but sufficient had been done to show
that a very valuable coal-field remained to be developed and
worked, as time and circumstances warranted. He thought that
statement met the whole of Mr. Sutcliffe's arguments, as the
time had not arrived for the successful working of these seams.
When the time came, the necessary appliances would be utilized ;
although the experience of the last few years in the matter of
these thin seams had not been such as to induce any capitalist to
take them in hand.
Mr. T. W. H. Mitchell said that the miner whom Mr.
Sutcliffe praised so much, and who did display courage in times
of stress and danger, forgot himself at such times and went to
the succour of his companions ; but in times of arranging price-
lists he went for himself as against his employer. In two or
three cases, where the upper seams had been tried in pits in
which the thicker seams had been nearly exhausted, wages had
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DISCUSSION — MINING IN THE BARNSLEY DISTRICT. 108
T>een tlie gxeat obstacle to successful working. In his opinion,
the miners of Bamsley would have to learn to work in thinner
seams, and in so doing must expect the wages to be less. The
workmen ought to consider that their proportion of the develop-
ment of the thinner seams was given in the lesser wages that they
would accept, whilst the landlord would have to take less money
for his royalty, and the owner would take his smaller profits.
Mr. Marshall had referred to the working of seams with soft
bottoms. He had known one or two instances where a road had
been left beautifully clear at the end of a shift, but when the
miner wished to return to his work he could not get in because
the roof and the floor were practically meeting; and some
method must be devised for dealing with that difficulty. Mr.
Sutcliffe had stated that the working of thin seams would not
injure the surface: unfortunately, he (Mr. Mitchell) had had a
different experience in the working of a bed of clay at about the
same depth from the surface as the thinner seams referred to in
Mr. SuteliSe's paper.
Mr. T. QiLL said that he was afraid that some of the seams
under Bamsley were not so valuable as Mr. Sutcliffe represented
them to be. He knew a place in the borough of Bamsley, where
the Silkstone seam was worked and it had not a very profitable
section. It consisted of inferior coal, 2 inches ; top coal, 1 foot
7 inches ; dirt, 8 inches ; coal, 4 inches ; dirt, 1 foot 2 inches ;
and bottom coal, 9 inches. The 4 inches of coal were of very little
use, as splitting it off and picking out the dirt was not worth the
trouble, so that only 2 feet 4 inches of coal, together with 2 feet
4 inches of dirt, was left. It had been proved that the Silkstone
seam under Bamsley deteriorated in quality as it extended east^
ward. Therefore, in his opinion, the Silkstone seam under
Bamsley was not worth working at the present day.
Mr, R. Sutcliffe, replying to the discussion, said that his
chief point was that the thin seams should be worked, rather than
that the collieries, from which thick seams had been extracted,
should be abandoned. He was strongly convinced that the thin
seams were valuable.
Mr. N. W. RotJTLEDGE's paper on " The Most Suitable Form
of Guides for Cages for Winding from Deep Shafts : 1,500 Feet
and Deeper," was read as follows : —
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104 GUIDES FOR CAGES.
THE MOST SUITABLE FOEM OF GUIDES FOR CAGES
FOR WINDING FROM DEEP SHAFTS : 1,500 FEET
AND DEEPER.*
By N. W. ROUTLEDGE.
In selecting the form of guides to be adopted in a deep shaft,
the mining engineer is governed by many considerations. He
is confined practically to two forms : the rigid and the flexible.
In the former class, he may have wooden guides, iron or steel
rails, and H or T -section girders ; and in the latter, he has the
choice of wire-rope or round-iron rods.
Wire-rope Guides, — The writer considers that, under ordinary
circumstances, wire-ropes are the best kind of guide for a deep
shaft. The advantages are simplicity, smooth running of the
cage, little risk of derailment and long life. The disadvantages
are increase of weight on the headgear, and sag or sway in the
shaft, necessitating more clearance in the shaft than with rigid
guides.
The usual construction of guide up to 4^ inches in circum-
ference contains seven wires; and over this size, up to, aay, 5i
inches in circumference, twelve wires are twisted together. For
still larger sizes, they are made in the form of a rope, that is,
six strands of seven thick-drawn wires are laid together. In
selecting the size to instal, care must be taken to make allow-
ance for the weight of the rope, for the weight hung on it, and
for the wear of the guide.
The large wires give, as compared with an ordinary rope,
increased wearing surface and a longer lapse of time before the
wires are worn through. The best guides are made of charcoal-
iron, but this being practically unprocurable, they are usually
made of dead soft steel.
^ This student's prize essav is printed in the TranMctions at the special
recjuest of the Council of the Midland Institute of Mining, Civil and Mechanical
Engineers.
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GUIDES FOB CAGES, 106
Fixing the Guides, — ^There are several methods of fixing
guides, the most usual being as follows : one end of the rope is
clamped in the headgear, by a specially made clamp, AB, to
suit the size of rope, and after passing through a baulk or girder,
G (figs. 1 and 2, plate ii.), the rope hangs down the shaft as far
as the sump. In this method of clamping the rope, it is passed
througb an eye-hole or baulk to give it steadiness ; and a weight
of, say, 5 or 6 tons to give tension, and as far as possible to
prevent sway, is hung on the end. Fig. 3 (plate ii.) shows an
arrangement in the sump with the attached weights. The
weights are most conveniently handled when built up of a series
of small blocks weighing 5 or 6 cwts. each. It is important that
the weights should not be submerged in water, otherwise, their
weight, and therefore their efficiency, would be decreased in
proportion to the weight of water displaced. Where the sump
is shallow, or not roomy, a system of levers might be adopted to
decrease the size of the weight. In another arrangement, the
rope is clamped in the sump, and the weight put on at the surface
(fig. 4, plate ii.) : this takes up all variation in length due to
stretch, or difference in temperature. One weight may also be
made to suffice for two ropes.
Life of Guides. — ^The life of the guides varies under different
conditions from a few years up to 20 years. The chief factors
are atmospheric conditions, whether the shaft, is wet or dry, and
whether there is any acid in the shaft. Any or all of these com-
bined might cause the guides to corrode very qdickly. The
writer suggests a system whereby lime-water, or some other
alkali, coidd be constantly applied to the guides to neutralize
the acid.
Shoes or Runners, — ^Fig. 5 (plate ii.) shows an ordinary
runner for rope-guides. They are made 12 or 14 times the
diameter of the rope in length, and are lined with brass: the
liner being renewable. The runners are bolted to the side of
the cage. Rollers have been tried, but do not give satisfaction.
Position of Guides, — ^The position of the guides varies accord-
ing to the size of the cage, and according to the local circum-
stances met with in the shaft. The writer favours the us© of
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106 GUIDES FOR CAGES.
four guide-ropes to each cage, fixed practically at the comers
with rubber ropes (afterwards described) between the cages (fig'.
6, plate ii.). These are similar in construction to the guide-ropes,
and are fixed in the same manner at bank and in the sump. They
are not in any way connected to the cages, but are simply used as
a buffer between the cages at meetings and for the cages to rub
against when winding. Blocks of wood are attached to the
«ages, so as to make sliding contact with these ropes.
Clearance, — The writer considers that it is of more importance
to have clearance between the cage and the shaft-side than
between the cages at meetings. Where rubber ropes are used,
there is no danger of collision ; but, should the cage catch the
«haft-side, irreparable damage may be done. A clearance of
about 18 inches may be left between the cage and the shaft-
side, but the writer would let ihe cages make the contact with
the rubber ropes as nearly constant as possible.
Vibration and Sway. — The vibration of the ropes produces
swaying of the cages, and it is impossible to apply sufficient
tension on the guides to obviate this disadvantage. Mr. Charles
Snow, at South Kirkby colli eiy, uses a very ingenious arrange-
ment, which has proved satisfactory. He has, by varying the
weights, tuned up the ropes to different tensions; thereby, the
vibia-tions producing the sway are of different periods, and tend
to counterbalance each other.
Extra Weight on Headgear, — The weight of the guides,
together with that of the weights hanging at their ends, applies
an additional stress on the headgear, which must, in consequence,
be specially designed to resist safely the increase of weight. As
an example : eight guide-ropes, 4J inches in circumference, 1,500
feet long (weighing 6f pounds per foot), with eight weights of 5
tons each, puts a weight of 75^ tons on the headgear. With two
rubber ropes, similar in size, the weight would be increased to 94
tons. It will at once be recognized that this is a tremendous in-
crease, when compared with a headgear which has only to carry
the weight of the cages, etc.
The writer suggests that some member should draw a paral-
lelogram of forces, and find the position of the backstay on the
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Fio. l.-SiDE Elevation 4ation of Weighted Quadrant.
FlQ. 2.-PLAN OF Oi
Runner or Shoe.
SotU; 1 Foot to 7 Inok,
' U
( ! (
1 >
-^Sj A
Fig. 3.— Side EH
^ \ /h{\
, — i"
iJI^JiMli^li'J-UiiMl
''n^.
5ctf/«t ^ gca/g. tf /M to 7 /ifoA,
Midlojui JnstUiUe ofMvwuf.t
Tranaactufi
Vbx.XVnL,PLATE L
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GUIDES FOB CAGES. 107
headgear. If the weight of the guides, etc., be included, the
resultant is at a very singular angle to apply a backstay.
Arrangement of Ropes. — Fig. 6 (plate ii.) shows an arrange-
ment for rope-guides in conjunction with rubber ropes, and gives
the writer's ideas with regard to their positions for deep and
rapid winding. Four guide-ropes, A, are applied to each cage,
B ; two rubber ropes, C, are placed between the cages ; and two
wooden blocks, D, engage the rubber ropes. The limit of clear-
ance might be taken at 8 inches between the sides of the cages,
and at 18 inches between the comers of the cages and the shaft-
side.
The guides should be kept well lubricated ; and attention to
this item will prolong their life and reduce friction.
Mr. A. J. Kennedy's paper on " The Most Suitable Form of
Guides for Cages for Winding from Deep Shafts : 1,500 Feet and
Deeper," was read as follows: —
YOL. ZZXni.-lM0.UO7.
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108 GUIDES FOB CAGES.
THE MOST SUITABLE FORM OF GUIDES FOR CAGES
FOR WINDING FROM DEEP SHAFTS : 1,500 FEET
AND DEEPER.*
By a. J. KENNEDY.
I . — Introduction.
When dealing with winding or any other question relating
to the practical working of a colliery, three main considerations
are to be taken into account: namely, safety, efficiency and
economy ; and it is essential that all three conditions should be
satisfied by the best form of guide for deep shafts. The first
two naturally go together : for, in most instances, where almost
perfect safety has been realized, the standard of efficiency has
been as high. Therefore, when undertaking any kind of work
wherein the safety of either men ot- animals is aifected, these two
conditions must always be maintained, even in the face of
economy if necessary. But economical working can generally
be realized without loss of either safety or efficiency, if proper
means are used.
In order to discuss this particular question in an easy and
simple manner, the best plan will be to take a practical example
such as the following : — It is desired to wind 2,000 tons from a
depth of 2,400 feet in 8 hours. All other considerations, such as
the size of shafts, etc., are left to the discretion of the engineer.
This big tonnage will undoubtedly necessitate the sinking of
a shaft of large diameter. Let it be supposed that a shaft,
about 18 or 20 feet in diameter, will be reqiiired, varying in size
according to the kind of conductor employed. Therefore the
engineer is faced with the problem *' What is the most suitable
form of guides for cages for .winding from a shaft 2,400 feet
* Thifl student's prize essay is printed in the Transactions at the special
request of the Council of the Midland Institute of Mining, Civil and Mechanical
Engineers,
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GUIDES FOR CAGES. 109
deep ?" He has not many kinds to choose from, since there are
only three distinct types of guides : (1) Wooden gnides, (2) steel
guides, and (3) flexible rope guides.
As each case has to be decided upon its own merits, they must
be taken separately, and an approximate estimate formed of
their coat and suitability. All oth^r details remain the same,
except where the type of guide used requires a modification in
the construction of the cage. The cage adopted is shown in
figs. 1 and 2 (plate iii.). It will be seen that it is of modem
construction, and made for carrying a oounterbalance-rope. The
advantages of this device are now fully recognized, and will be
considered later.
II. — Wooden Gtjides.
The first thing to be considered is the position of the guides
with relation to the cage. The complete arrangement is shown
in fig. 3 (plate iii.) with two guides. A, placed at each end of
the cage, B, on account of its width. This arrangement makes
it necessary to have extra, guides, C, at the surface and at the
pit-bottom, because the shaft-guides must terminate before
reaching the landings in order to clear the ends of the cage.
The necessary amount of clearance between the cages, when
rigid guides are used, is obviously small, since little or no oscilla-
tion can take place. In practice it varies from 3 to 12 inches,
and, in this case, the clearance is 9 inches.
The cage-shoes, made of cast steel, are bolted to the ends
of the cage, on the top and bottom hoops (fiflrs. 4 and 5, plate iii.).
The method of fixing wooden conductors together and to the
buntons is shown in figs. 6 and 7 (plate iii.).
In order to ensure perfect safety with wooden guides, the
timber used must be of the best quality, free from knots, of
straight grain, and able to take up a large amount of lubricant
to maintain smooth running. At the same time the cost must
not be excessive. The timber which has satisfied all these con-
ditions is pitchpine. If it is sawn and planed correctly with the
grain, splintering, which has been the cause of some serious
accidents, can be entirely avoided.
The next consideration is the efiiciency of the wooden guide.
A large number of mining engineers of repute have stated, no
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110 GUIDES FOR CAGES.
doubt correctly according to their own experience, that wooden
guides only last from two to five years. But this period can be
extended to at least 15 to 20 years if the guides are greased,
thoroughly and regularly, every fortnight.
With regard to economy, the following is an approximate
estimate of the cost of fitting up a shaft, 18 feet in diameter
and 2,400 feet deep, with conductors, etc., as shown in figs. 3, 4,
5, 6 and 7 (plate iii.) : —
£ 8. d. £ ft. d.
AfatericUs :
Buntons, 8,400 lineal feet at i^d. per foot
Stays, 600 cubic feet at la. 3d. per cubic foot ...
Conductors, 4,800 cubic feet at Is. 3d. per cubic foot
10 per cent, for joining pieces
Cast-iron boxes, 27 tons at £8 per ton
Labour:
Sawing, planing and fitting buntons, etc.
Sawing, planing and fitting conductors
Total
III. — Steel-eail Guides.
Steel-rail guides are largely used on the Continent, but in
this country they have not found quite so much favour. If
steel-rail guides were used in the shaft already mentioned, the
following arrangement might be adopted : Four rail guides, A,
weighing 20 pounds per foot, placed, two at either side of the
cage, B. In the middle, they are clamped to steel joists, C,
and at the sides to cast-iron sleepers, D, bolted to wooden
buntons, E. The vertical distance between the centre of the
joists or of the buntons is 10 feet; and the rails, forming the
guides, are in lengths of 30 feet. This is the only arrangement
permissible, since rail guides are not suitable for fixing at the
ends of the cage. The arrangement is shown in figs. 8, 9, 10,
11, 12, 13, 14 and 15 (plate iii.).
This type of guide lasts about fifteen years; but, in some
cases, it has been known to fail at the web in a shorter time,
owing to the wear of the shoes at this iwint.
The approximate cost for fitting a shaft, 18 feet in diameter
and 2,400 feet deep, is as follows : —
148 15
0
37 10
0
300 0
0
48 0
0
216 0
0
760
R
0
250 0
0
O
V
400 0
0
650
0
0
...
£1,400
5
0
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111 j
£ 8.
d. £ s. d. I
1,028 8
0 i
93 12
0
25 0
27 0
58 0
0
0
0
1 232 0 0
500 0
400 0
0
0
900 0 0
£2,132 0 0
GUIDES FOE CAGES.
MaleridU:
Rails, 171 '4 tons at £6 per ton
Joists, 8 inches by 3 inches, 15*6 tons at £6 per
ton
Wooden buntons, 6 inches square, 400 cubic feet
at Is. 3d. per cubic foot
Cast-iron sleepers, 3 tons at £9 per ton
5 per cent, for waste
Labour :
Cutting and fitting joists, buntons, etc.
Fitting conductors
Total ...
IV. — Rope Guides.
This system is very popular amongst British mining engineers.
At first sight the cost appears to be very low, but this is by no
means the case when everything is taken into account.
Owing to the flexible nature of the guide there is a large
amount of oscillation. This can be reduced to a minimum by
usinif a tail rope under the cages; and, in some cases, this
device has been found to be absolutely necessary to prevent
bumping at meetings, even when curtain ropes are in use. But
even with a tail rope, in a shaft 2,400 feet deep, at least 18
inches of clearance between the cag^s, and 12 inches between
the cages and the sides of the shaft must be allowed. This
necessitates the sinking of a shaft 20 feet in diameter. The
difference in cost for this larger shaft will be at least £1 per
foot, which must be added to the cost of fitting rope guides.
The advantages claimed for this system are: — (1) Easy
fitting up and working; (2) freedom of expansion or contrac-
tion; (3) a clear shaft; (4) lessened first cost; and (5) longer
life than any other type of guide. The first three advantages
are undoubtedly obtained, but the fourth is quite incorrect, as
will be shown later.
There is a great diversity of opinion with regard to the
life of a rope guide. Instances are quoted where rope guides
have lasted over 30 years. But they are the exception, and not
the rule, as the writer discovered when making inquiries amongst
enginewrights who had had the handling of them. They stated
that 5 to 10 years was the average life of a rope guide.
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112 GUIDES FOB CAGES.
Figs. 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 and 22 (plate lii.) show the details
of the various arrangements.
The estimated cost of fitting a shaft, 20 feet in diameter and
2,400 feet deep, with rope guides, is as follows : —
£ B. d. £ a. d.
Materials :
Ropes, 42-4 tons at €30 per ton 1,272 0 0
Cast-iron weights, 24 tona at £8 per ton ... 192 0 0
1,464 0 0
Labour :
Fitting guides, etc. 50 0 0
Sinking :
Extra cost of sinking at £1 per foot 2,400 0 0
Total £3,914 0 0
V. — Conclusions.
As each system has now been considered, it only remains for
the best to be selected.
So far as safety is concerned, all three methods have been
laid out in such a way that the maximum safety has been
obtained in each case, so that it may be justly and correctly said
that they are all as safe as it is possible for anything to be, and
that no comparison can be formed on this point.
The next point to be considered is the relative efficiency.
Summed up as briefly as possible, the life of each system is as
follows: — (1) Wooden guides, 15 to 20 years; (2) steel-rail
guides, 15 to 20 years ; and (3) rope guides, 5 to 10 years. This
shows that wooden or steel-rail guides are the most economical,
so far as efficiency is concerned.
The relative costs are as follow: — (1) "Wooden guides,
£1,400 ; (2) steel-rail guides, £2,132 ; and (3) rope guides, £3,914.
From these figures it is proved that wooden guides are by far
the most economical.
Therefore, according to the general principle of analysis, as
regards safety, all three systems are equal in merit; as regards
efficiency, wooden or steel-rail guides excel; and wooden
guides are the cheapest. So that, to sum up the situation in a
few words, pitchpine guides are, by reason of their safety,
efficiency and economy, '' the most suitable form of guides for
cages for winding from deep shafts : 1,500 feet and deeper."
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I
'lies for Cages /orMndm^n^
voLXxxm^BLATEm.
?^iQ. 8,-Plan of Shaft. 18 Fe^"^'-^'^ ^^ Cage-shoe Fig. 14.— Elevation of
FITTED WITH SteEL-RAIlP'^^^L-BAIL GUIDES. STEEL-RAIL QuIDE.
\
AA
\,
B
:r.
A
\
'm
ilevation of Cage-shoe
$teel-rail Guides.
rz:
t
D
Fig. IS.-Plan of
Steel-rail Guide.
/« J
«4
Elevation Fiq. 12.-Elevation of
Guides, of Steel-rail Guides.
Fig. 20.— Ele
Clamped Enc
Guide in He^
im*
i
r -
T
Scale, 2 Feet to 7 inch.
Hi
Fig. 22— Elevation of
Weighted End of
Rope Guide in Sump.
Fiq. IS.-Sectional Plan
ON Line YZ of Fig. 12.
Fig. 21.-f
Clamped En
Guide in H
Fio. 19.— Section of
Caqe-shoe for Rope Guides.
et to 7 /nch.
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DISCUSSION — GUIDES FOR CAGES.
118'
Mr. Heebert Perkin (Leeds) wrote that, in dealing with the
construction of rope guides, Mr. Routledge did not mention the
wellknown locked-coil guide rope, which seemed to be the most
suitable as presenting a perfectly uniform wearing surface. A
good form of clamp (figs. 23 and 24) was in use at the Shelton Coal
and Iron Company, Limited's deep pit at Hanley, where rope
guides were in use in a shaft 2,550 feet deep. It consisted of a
rectangular block-forgin-g in which a slot was cut, and two
wedges, gripping the rope, were fitted into the slot. Above this,
with a slight gap in between, two or three clamps of the ordinary
bolted type were fixed on the rope, the gap being used to indicate
whether any slip was taking place. In the sump, the method of
attaching the weights was simply the reverse of the arrangement
used in the headgear. This method had been found eminently satis-,
factory. With regard to the weights hung upon the conductors,
rm fr"n
4 N
Fig. 23.— Side Elevation
OF Clamp.
Fig. 24.— Plan of Clamp.
Scale, 1 Foot to 1 Inch.
the limit, of course, was reached when fui-ther increase would
dangerously lower the factor of safety : this should not be below
5, that was, the attached weights together with the weight of
the hanging rope should not be more than one-fifth of the brejak-
ing load. The clearance of 18 inches between the cage-comers and
the shaft-wall was certainly most important, because of the possi-
bility of a bulging of the shaft taking place, and 15 inches
between the centre guides were ample.
He (Mr. Per kin) could not a^ree with Mr. Kennedy's con-
clusions that wooden guides were either as safe, as efficient,
or as economical as rope guides for great depths. It seemed a
very dangerous plan to fill a downcast shaft with timber,
especially if electric cables were taken down the pit. The bolted
joints were also a source of danger. Mr. Kennedy's addition of
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114 DISCUSSION — GUIDES FOR CAGES.
£1 per foot for the extra cost of siakiiig a shaft, 20 feet in
diameter instead of 18 feet, overlooked the important fact of the
largely increased area obtained. It was probable that in a shaft,
18 feet in diameter, fitted with wooden guides, the effective
area would be reduced by 8 or 10 per cent., owing to buntons.
For equal quantities of air, therefore, there would be a very
considerable saving in the power required for ventilation in
the case of a shaft 20 feet in diameter. If non-twisting ropes
were used there would be very little oscillation, and the addi-
tion of a tail rope was a profitable investment, apart altogether
from any steadying qualities that it might have. The great
disadvantage of rigid guides was their liability to cause extra
friction by being thrown out of plumb if there was a slight
movement of the shaft.
Mr. M. H. Habershon said that members, who had experi-
ence of winding large quantities of coal with wooden guides,
would agree that the cost of repairing was excessive, and that
the conclusion at which Mr. Kennedy arrived as to their economy
was not correct.
Mr. W. Walker (H.M. Inspector of Mines) said that it
appeared from Mr. Boutledge's paper, that he had taken as a
minimum a shaft 20 feet in diameter for wire-rope guides ; but
in the case of South Kirkby ooUiery the shaft was only 15 feet in
diameter, and the clearance between the cages at meetings was
as little as 6 or 8 inches. The shaft was 2,130 feet deep, and the
weight at the bottom was much in excess of the figures given by
Mr. Boutledge. This weight was a serious consideration so far
as the headgear was concerned, but the running was even, and
there was no difficulty in any other way. He thought that the
distance given between the buntons in both papers was too great,
as an accident had occurred from this cause in his mines- inspec-
tion district last year with rail guides. One of the rails broke,
and the cage became free and collided with the descending cage
at meetings. He could not agree with Mr. Kennedy's conclu-
sions that wooden guides were the safest or even the most
economical. Taking the speed at which the cages ran at Cadeby
colliery, about 72 feet per second, when men were being raised
or lowered, he should not like to be in the cage if the guides were
made of wood. The shoes used in connection with rail guides
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DISCUSSION — GUIDES FOR CAGES. 115
were better and safer if they extended over tke full length of the
cage, as at Cadeby colliery ; and, if a rail broke, there was not
then SO much chance of the cage getting out of the guides.
Mr. J. J. Eley said that he was, at the present time, substitut-
ing rope guides for wooden guides, and the cost of maintenance
and repairs of wooden guides was very high in comparison with
wire-rope conductors.
Mr. A. T. Thomson said that he had experience of three kinds
of guides. Wooden guides were a source of continual expense,
as some lengths were always being changed ; he had some wire-
rope guides which had been in use for thirty-three years, and they
were still in splendid condition; and he had had a rather un-
pleasant experience with rail guides. He much preferred the use
of wire-rope guides.
Mr. H. Rhodes said that, over a period of thirteen years, the
number of stoppages ai six shafts, fitted with wire-rope con-
ductors and varying in depth from 1,200 to 1,800 feet, was con-
siderably lees than at a similar number of shafts, fitted with
wooden conductors and varying in depth from 360 to 1,200 feet.
Mr. R, PuRDY said that he could not agree with Mr. Kennedy
that wooden conductors were either ihe best or even the cheapest.
He knew a shaft, over 1,800 feet deep, where wooden conductors,
7 inches by 5 inches, were in use. As they were occasionally
broken and caused stoppages and damage, they were replaced by
wire guides ; and the alteration proved a great advantage, and
soon paid for the cost of changing. He thought that Mr.
Kennedy's estimate of Is. 3d. per cubic foot was very low for
pitchpine suitable for conductors, and he (Mr. Purdy) was paying
nearly 2s. per cubic foot.
Mr. Routledge referred to vibration or sway, regarding which
he (Mr. Purdy) thought that the whip or swing of guide-ropes in
a shaft was not so much the fault of the guides as of the cage not
being properly level and balanced at the commencement. Wind-
ing a cage, 9 or 11 feet long, 4 feet wide and 12 or 15 feet high,
was like trying to balance a brick on its edge. If the cage were
lifted 6 inches at one end before being raised at the other, the
whip set up in the winding-rope would be transmitted to the
guide ropes and the cage would be in danger of striking the shaft-
sides or of coming into contact with the opposite ca^e when pass-
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116 DISCUSSION — GUIDES FOR CAGES.
ing. To prevent this whip, the four carrying chains should be
fitted with left-hand and right-hand screws, and the cage should
he hung in perfect balance from each corner. The props at the
surface and the buffers at the bottom should be made perfectly
level to receive the cage, so that when it was raised by the wind-
ing-engine, there should be no tilting motion at the comencement.
If the balance and levelling wore properly attended to, the risk
of accidents would be materially reduced.
Mr. H. Baddelky said that in the case of two shafts in
North Staffordshire the use of a balance-rope had considerably
reduced the oscillation of tie cages. Each shaft was over 2,400
feet deep, one shaft being 14 feet in diameter for some depth, and
it was then belled out to 20 feet in diameter. A flat balance-rope
was used in both cases, and the oscillations, as stated before, were
very little ; and, although there was not a great space between
the cages and the shaft-sides, everything seemed to work satis-
factorily. The use of a flat balance-rope was somewhat of a
novelty to him (Mr. Baddeley) and he was interested with the
satisfactory way in which it was working. No pulley or casing
was required in the pit-bottom, and the rope simply formed a
curve below the sump-boards. He observed that the estimated cost
given by Mr. Kennedy for pitchpine wasstoo low, and that he
would like to sell wire-rope guides at the prices named in Mr.
Kennedy's estimate.
Mr. C. H. Elliott (Wombwell Main colliery) said that the
winding shaft at Wombwell Main colliery was 1,500 feet deep,
the upper 660 feet being llj feet, and the remainder 13^ feet,
in diameter. Six corves were carried on three decks ; the wind-
ing-ropes were locked-coil, lyV inches in diameter ; and the cages
were provided with a balance-rope, which passed round a pulley
in the sump. Formerly, each cage ran on four wire-rope guides,
li inches in diameter, two guides being placed at either side, near
the corners of the cages. This arrangement gave a clearance of
12 inches, but the cages caught the sides occasionally, when in
the smaller portion of the shaft. This difficulty had been success-
fully overcome by suspending two separating guides, each 2
inches in diameter, down the centre of the shaft, bringing the
cages close up to them, and at the same time adopting three
guides, all placed at the outer sides of the cages, for the four
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DISCUSSIOX — GUIDES FOR CAGES. 117
which were formerly placed near each comer. Each cage was
fitted with a rubbin-g^ piece of soft steel, which could be changed
when worn out. This arrangement had now been at work for
seven years without the slightest hitch, and the cage ran very
smoothly. The output was 1,500 tons in 10 hours, a draw being
made in 50 seconds, with an average cage-speed of 30 feet per
second.
Mr. G. A. LoNGDEN (Pleasley) wrote that the two shafts at
Pleasley colliery, sunk to the Top Hard coal-seam in 1877, were
14i feet in diameter and 1,560 feet deep. The downcast-shaft
only was fitted with wooden guides; and, in 1888, the double-
decked cages, with two trams on each deck, were winding to
their full capacity. In order to obtain ^n increased quantity of
coal, the upcast-shaft was fitted up in 1888 with cages holding
one tram on a deck: at first two-decked and later three-decked
cages were used, decking at the pit-top and the pit-bottom.
This arrangement sufficed for eleven years ; and, in 1899, it was
decided to erect a new winding-engine, headgear and boilers to
work at a pressure of 100 pounds per square inch, and to fit
cages in the upcast-shaft similar to those used in the downcast-
shaft with simultaneous changing of the decks.
Rope Guides. — The question of conductors at the upcast-shaft
was carefully considered, and iron-rope guides were adopted as
being the safest and cheapest, with less friction in the shaft both
for the cages and for the ventilation, which must not be over-
looked in small shafts, 14^ feet in diameter. There were two loose
rope guides, 2 inches in diameter between the cages; oaken
rubbers were bolted to the cages to prevent them from touching
the guides; and there were three fixed guides, 1^ inches in
diameter, fitted on the outside of each cage. Ordinaiy winding-
ropes and two kinds of non-spinning ropes were not found satis-
factory, as they twisted the cages in the centre of the shaft, where
the guides were not stiff enough to keep them in position ; and
finally locked-ooil winding-ropes were adopted. The cages now
hung square at meetings, and hardly ever touched the two loose
central guides. Locked-coil winding-ropes were more expensive
than those used with wooden guides, and this extra cost must
be added. If the treads of the pulleys were true and locked-coil
winding-ropes were used, there was veiy little swaying of the
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118 DISCUSSION — GUIDES FOB CAGES.
cages, and they could be run close to the central rubbing guides.
The initial cost of the rope guides is detailed in Table I. The wet
Table I.— Cost of Rope Guides at Pleasley Coluebt.
Six rope guides, 1} inches in diameter, at £50 each 300 0 0
Two „ 2 „ „ „ , „ £85 „ 170 0 0
Cast-iron weights, 30 tons at £4 lOs. ... 135 0 0
Labour of fixing 30 0 0
Total £635 0 0
state of the upcast-shaft makes the rope guides wear rapidly,
and they only last about five years ; but the two rubber guides
last longer. Allowing £80 per annum for renewals and
£50 per annum for the enhanced cost of the special winding-
ropes over and above the cost of the ropes used in the downcast-
shaft, the total cost becomes £130 per annum.
Wooden Guides. — The downcaat-shaft is fitted with wall-boxes
to receive a centre stay and two side stays at intervals of 10 feet.
There are about 300 feet of cast-iron tubbing, with brackets cast
on the plates. There are eight guides, measuring 4| inches by
4J inches, two being fitted on each side of each cage. The cost
of installing the ^wooden guides is detailed in Table II.
Table II. — Cost op Wooden Guides at Pleaslet Colliert.
£ 8. d.
159 central stays of oak, 16^ feet long, 8 inches wide and 9
inches deep, at £1 9s. each 230 11 0
318 side stays of oak, 13 feet long, 6 inches wide and 9
inches deep, at 17s. each 270 6 0
Cast-iron wall-boxes, two large ones and four small ones,
say, 5 cwts. every 10 feet, 40 tons at £8 per ton ... 320 0 0
Eight pitchpine conductors, 1,580 feet long or 12,640 feet at
7 'Sid. per foot, the average price over 8 years ...
Wooden jointing of conductors
Pins for the conductors, 30 cwts. at 13s. 6d. per cwt.
Labour of fixing : this does not include the cost of fixing
the wall-boxes
Total
The annual cost of maintenance has been as follows : — The oaken
stays gave little trouble for twenty years, but since that period
several of them have been replaced, and, allowing 5 per cent, per
annum on £500, the cost has been £25 ; the actual average cost
411
6
6
50
0
0
20
5
0
420
0
0
£1,722
8
6
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DISCUSSION GUIDES FOR CAGES. 119
of pitchpine conductors over the past eight years has been £60 ;
labour, refixing, renewing pins, etc., 60 shifts at 27s. per shift,
£81 ; add the loss of three breakages per annum at li hours each,
or 4i hours' standing at 120 tons per hour, or 540 tons at Is. per
ton, £27 ; and the total is £193. The shaft contains about 300
feet of cast-iron tubbing, with bi'ackets cast on the plates to
receive the wooden stays, so that it would be impossible to adopt
two wooden stays with end-guides to the cages, even if it were
desirable to do so.
It will be seen from the preceding figures that the first cost of
the rope guides at the upcast-shaft was rather more than one-
third of the cost of the wooden guides at the downcast-shaft,
whilst the annual maintenance for ropes is £130 as compared with
£193 for wood. The annual charge of £130 for the maintenance of
the rope guides is considered very high, but it is due to the short
life of the guides ; and, if they had been placed in the downcast-
shaft, their life could be easily doubled. Rope guides used in
a dry shaft will last from twelve to fifteen years. Wooden
guides are found to wear most rapidly at the place where the
engineman begins to steady the cages. Oregon pine had been tried,
but it had been replaced by pitchpine. It must not be over-
looked that three months were occupied in fixing the wooden
guides, working three shifts of eight hours for seven days a week,
while the ropes, guides and cages were fitted in a week; and,
at Pleasley colliery, the fitting of the upcast-shaft with wooden
guides would have meant the loss of thousands of tons of coal.
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120 DISCUSSION — SINKING AND TUBBING.
THE MIDLAND COUNTIES INSTITUTION OF ENGIN-
EERS AND MIDLAND INSTITUTE OF MINING,
CIVIL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
JOINT GENERAL MEETING,
Hbld at Chestebfikld, Mabch 9th, 1907.
Mb. W. G. PHILLIPS, in the Chaib.
The Secretary announced the election of the following
gentlemen to The Midland Counties Institution of Engineers : —
Mkmbebs —
Mr. E. J. H. Christie, Electrical Engineer, Bank Chambers, Fargate,
Sheffield.
Mr. Thomas Pebct Nicholson, Mining Engineer, Hillcrest, Shepherdswell,
near Dover. ^
Mr. John SMrrnintST, Manager, West Cannock Collieries, West Cannock
House, Hednesford, Staffordshire.
Students—
Mr. Chables Gates, Student, Kirkby Road, Sutton-in-Ashfield.
Mr. Qeoboe Patrick Littlswood, Student, Blackwell, Alfreton.
DISCUSSION OF MR. I. HODGES* PAPER ON "AN
ACCOUNT OF SINKING AND TUBBING AT METH-
LEY JUNCTION COLLIERY, WITH A DESCRIPTION
OF A CAST-IRON DAM TO RESIST AN OUTBURST
OF WATER.'**
Mr. G. Elmsley Coke (Nottingham) said that he knew the
Whitwood collieries, but had not seen that shaft since the re-
tubbing. The shaft was sunk on a large fault which crossed the
measures, and ran through the canal, causing large feeders of
water. Mr. Hodges had the very difficult problem of making
the shaft watertight and secure, and he appeared to have solved
it with skill and success. The tubbing might now be expected
to endure for the extended life of the mine.
* Trans, Inst. M. E,, 1906, vol. xxxii., page 76.
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DISCUSSION — SINKING AND TUBBING. 1^1
Mr. H. R. Hewitt said that the work undertaken by Mr.
Hodges appeared to have only just been in time to avoid the
collapse of these shafts, and was a suggestion to those having old
shafts in use to examine their tubbing and ascertain the thick-
ness of the plates from time to time. In deciding upon a new
centre-line, the thickness of the new tubbing-plates prohibited
the centre-line from being moved far, as the author did not appear
to have taken any of the old tubbing out of the shaft. It
appeared strange that the work of putting a dam in the upcast
shaft was not done some years earlier when the water was found
to be troublesome, as the cost was so insignificant compared with
the annual charges dispensed with. It was well known that
f ormulsB for ascertaining the thickness of tubbing required gave
a variable result, and when these were placed side by side in
Table VI.* it would appear that the one given by Mr. W.
Galloway should in future be dispensed with as being altogether
misleading, and no harm could be done by erring on the side of
safety in a matter of this kind. When so wide a difference as
0*05 inch to 0'50 inch was given for the thickness of tubbing
at the same depth, there was a great error somewhere, and yet
the author* of the paper used a thickness of 0*75 inch for the
same depth m these shafts. It would be interesting to know
what formula he adopted for this, and why he considered such a
thickness necessary at a depth of 60 feet, for which, taking this as
his standard, the extra cost involved must have been very great.
Although shaft-work of a dangerous nature was frequently being
done, it was gratifying to notice that the number of accidents
was so few, and this was a creditable record of the skill and fore-
sight displayed by Mr. Hodges and his officials.
Mr. Isaac Hodges, replying to the questions asked by Mr. J. S.
Bamest at the last meeting, thought that he had made it clear
in his paper that the upper length of tubbing, 260 feet, stood on
one foundation crib only, the total weight on that crib being 286
tons. He agreed that this was a heavy weight for one crib;
but it was, quite impossible to make an atta>chment to the old
tubbing, nor was it desirable, as it was in so shaky a condition
as to be scarcely able to stand the pressure which it already had to
bear. Mr. Barnes said that he disliked cribs being spaced at greater
♦ TroM, Inst, if. S., 1906, vol. xxxii., page 96. t Ibid,, page 98,
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128 DISCUSSION — SINKING AND TUBBING.
distances apart than 60 feet. There was something to be said for
cribs being spaced at frequent intervals, but, at Methley Junc-
tion colliery it was impossible to do otherwise than stand the
whole length of the new tubbing upon the foundation-crib below
the old tubbing. Mr. Barnes had asked how the horizontal and
vertical sheathings were inserted. The tubbing was built in
rings at the surface by means of a turntable on the drawbridge,
and the vertical sheathing was placed in position at the time when
the rings were being built up. A ring of tubbing was run over
the pit, lifted, the drawbridge withdrawn, and the ring of tub-
bing lowered into position. The workmen followed afterwards
in a kibble, saw the ring of tubbing placed in position, and
then laid the horizontal sheathing for the next ring before
returning to the surface. It was by that means that they were
able to complete and put into position a ring of tubbing every
40 minutes ; and, by working 24 hours per day, the upper section
of 140 feet was completed and placed in position in less than
two days. Eeferring to the remarks as to coating, he thought
that Dr. Angus Smith's composition was a great safeguard
against corrosion. The original tubbing had been partly
destroyed by internal corrosion, and he thought that the use of
composition on the new tubbing would tend to remedy that evil.
The casting of figures in relief on the face of each segment of
tubbing indicating the thickne*ss would enable his successors to
test the then thickness, and so form an accurate judgment as to
the deterioration. It was difficult to refer to old figures and
plans, perhaps a quarter of a century old ; and it seemed to him
that there was greater safety in having the figures cast on the
tubbing, and knowing that those figures indicated the original
thickness. Tests would then either give them a sense of security,
or prompt them to take speedy measures to remedy the defect.
Since the paper was written, the slight leakage past the plug of
the second pipe had diminished until it was now quite dry. It
would be remembered that, when the dam was completed, about
100 gallons of water passed per hour; within a fortnight this
quantity was reduced to 26 gallons per hour, and it further gradu-
ally reduced to 9 gallons per hour. The shaft was now quite dry,
and no sign of water had shown itself in the workings. A saving
of upwards of £1,300 per annum in pumping had been accom-
plished by an expenditure of £1,590 on the dam-
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DISCUSSION — SINKING AND TTTBBING. 123
In calculating the strength of tubbing required to resist the
pressure of wat^r, he had occasion to take from various text-books
the thickness of tubbing as worked out by Messrs. J. J. Atkinson,
W. Galloway, G. C. Greenwell and W. Tate. He was much struck
by their divergence, and it occurred to him that it might be of
benefit to have these formulae put side by side for comparison. He
then compared the tested thicknesses of the old tubbing with the
patterns from which the tubbing had been cast in their own
foundry about 1850, and at once he saw that the half-century's
usage had resulted in serious deterioration, in quality quite as
much as in thickness. Therefore he came to the conclusion that
the formula generally adopted was inefficient, and needed revision.
The thicknesses of tubbing given in Table VI.* showed, so far
as shallow depths were concerned, that they were much too light.
In his case, tubbing IJ inches thick had diminished in thick-
ness to yV iiich after a usage of about half a century, and he had
therefore worked out a formula including a constant allowing
for corrosion and wear-and-t«ar. Although the formula might
perhaps he criticized as giving an unusually heavy thickness,
that was a fault which mining engineers would agree was not a
particularly grave offence. The dangers from weak tubbing were
serious and out of all proportion to the saving made in the original
capital expenditure. The formula that he had used was: —
LB I.— Thicknesses
OF Tubbing Calculated by the
PR
Formula : T = -^ + C,
TOOETHEB WFTH THE ACTUAL THICKNESSES USED IN
the Methley Junction
Shatts.
Height
of Tubbing.
ThicknesseB of Tubbing
calculated from the above Formula.
I. —Shaft: 10 Fett in Diameter,
Thickneflses of Tubbing
actiully uiie<l in Methley
Junction Shafts.
Feet.
Inches.
Inches.
60
0-69
0-75
100
0-82
0-87
140
0-95
100
ISO
1-08
1-12
220
1-21
1-25
260
1-34
IL— Shaft: 11 Feet in Diameter,
1-37
WO
1-45
1-50
340
1-59
1-62
3S0
1-74
1-76
420
1-88
1-87
* Trans. Inat. M. E,, 1906, vol. xxxii., page 96.
TOL. XXXI1I.~1906-1907.
10
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124 DISCUSSION — THE C0URRi4rES EXPLOSION.
T=(PR/S) + C ; in which P is the pressure in pounds per square
inch; R, the internal radius of the tubbing in inches; T, the
thickness of the tubbing in inches ; S, the safe stress of cast-iron
or 8,000 pounds per square inch; and C, a constant providing
for corrosion and wear-and-tear, namely : — i inch for depths not
exceeding 300 feet, | inch for depths exceeding 300 feet but not
exceeding 600 feet, and J inch for depths exceeding 600 feet.
The actual thicknesses of tubbing used in the Methley Junction
shafts, as compared with the thicknesses calculated from the
above formula, were recorded in Table I.
The Chairman (Mr. W. G. Phillips) thought that members
might refer to Mr. Hodges' paper as an interesting account of
overcoming extraordinary difficulties in a masterly manner.
They were indebted to Mr. Hodges for the trouble that he had
taken in compiling his paper and supplying drawings of minute
correctness, which materially helped to the understanding of the
paper.
The further discussion was adjourned.
DISCUSSION OF MESSRS. W. N. ATKIXSON AND
A. M. HENSHAW'S PAPER ON " THE COTJRRIERES
EXPLOSION."*
Mr. W. N. Atkinson (H.M. Inspector of Mines) wrote that
Mr. A. H. Stokes referred to the advantages, from the point of
view of safety from explosions, of having the districts of a mine
so split up by ventilation that any catastrophe which occurred
would so far as possible be isolated. Whilst, however, the panel
system was an excellent one for several reasons, it had been
proved over and over again that it was of no avail for arresting
an explosion in a dusty pit, when the roads connecting the
different districts contained inflammable dust. Where in dusty
pits, such as those in which large explosions invariably occurred,
certain ventilating districts had escaped the effects of the explo-
sion, the reason was found, not in the fact that they were separ-
ately ventilated, but because there was a break in the train of
dust or a change in the nature of the dust.
• Tran8. InU, M, K, 1906, voL xxxiL, pages 439, 340 and 507.
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DISCUSSION — ^THE COURRliEES EXPLOSION. 126
With reference to the shot in the LecoBuvre heading, and the
fact that it was not known to any oflficial that it was a shot which
had missed fire, the officials most likely to have known were
killed, and as the miners fired their own shots it waa quite possible
that no official knew anything about it. The heading was not a
new clean heading: it was an exceedingly dusty place, the
dust, as stated in the paper, being chiefly due to the use of a
percussive heading-machine.
With i-eference to the initiation of the explosion, whilst it
was practically certain that it occurred in the Lecoeuvre heading,
there was still room for some argument as to the exact means.
The suggestion made by Mr. Stokes as to the possibility of an ex-
plosion of Favier-powder while being handled was not overlooked ;
but to the writers (Messrs. Atkinson and Henshaw) the balance of
probabilities appeared to be strongly in favour of the theory set
forth in their paper. The cutting above and down to the shot-hole
(fig. 20)* appeared to have no other object than to enable the
explosive to be reached. The most difficult thing to account for
satisfactorily was the dismemberment of the body of the fourth
man, which was found about 60 feet from the face. Perhaps this
man was nearer the face at the moment of the explosion, and in
the line of the shot, and was blown and dismembered by the shot
blowing out. The damage to the air-pipes did not appear so
difficult to account for. Such pipes were sometimes made of
inferior metal, and, if rusted and worn, required no great force to
shatter them.
The shot in No. 1 experiment, at Frameries, was not fired
under conditions similar to those that attended the shot in the
Lecoeuvre heading. In the former case, there was neither gas
nor dust in the experimental gallery, whilst in the Lecoeuvre
heading there was an abundance of dust.
Mr. G. A. Lewis (Derby) said that he wished chiefly to draw
the attention of the members to certain remarks made by Mr. A. H.
Stoke8,t which it was possible, unless they had carefully read
the Transactions J might have escaped their notice. The great
point about this explosion was its origin, and he thought that it
was a matter of extreme surprise to many mining engineers in this
• Trans, Inst, M, F., 1906, voU xxxii., page 471.
t Ibid., page 340.
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126 DISCUSSION — THE COITBRliSRES EXPLOSION.
country that engineers who had inspected the collieries agreed
that the explosion was started in a heading. It was a coal-dust
explosion, and it was practically unanimously decided that there
was no gas whatever in the pit. The question then was, how
could a coal-dust explosion be started in a heading, which could
hardly contain dust of such a quality as would, judging by their
experience in this country, be liable to start such an explosion ?
If the blown-out shot, which was supposed to have started the
explosion, did really fire the coal-dust, the flame would have
had to travel 45 feet before it reached any dust. That was a
position which most of the members failed to comprehend.
Another point which seemed to have escaped the notice of many
of the members was that, whilst four men were killed in that
heading, the three men who were at the far end of the heading
were practically not injured at all, except by bums; but the
man who was most seriously injured (in fact he had a leg and an
arm blown off) was 30 or 40 feet, or even more, down the heading.
He thought that the construction which Mr. Stokes placed upon
that, and th.e explanation that he suggested, were extremely
reasonable, and such as he (Mr. Lewis) would be inclined to accept
without reservation. Mr. Stokes suggested that a shot was put
in at the end of the heading, that it mis-fired — ^not that it was
blown out — ^and that the material for the shot had been recovered
out of the hole. There were indications confirming the belief
that the hole had been dug out, and the explosive extracted, and
it was suggested that it had been taken by one of the men some
distance down the heading. Possibly he had placed it on one of
the air-pipes and was try^ing to extract the detonator from the
explosive, or some mishap occurred by which he caused a detona^
tion, and it exploded the material that he had brought with him.
The dust at this point would be more liable to explode, and this
theory would explain various otherwise puzzling phenomena.
These conclusions, to his (Mr. Lewis') mind, accounted for the
fact that the greater force of the explosion was to be seen 45 feet
down the heading, and that the men at the end of the heading
were not affected so much. Another point which gave plausi-
bility to this hypothesis was the fact that the air-pipes close to the
end of the heading were hardly damaged, while the third or
fourth lengths of air-pipe from thje face of the heading were
smashed to atoms. He thought that theory was extremely
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DISCUSSION — THE COUBRIERES EXPLOSION. 127
plausible, and it would go a long way to satisfy their doubts
as to why an explosion should take place in a heading, whilst
at the same time affording some idea as to the precautions
which should be taken in driving such a heading. The main
point seemed to be whether such explosions could not be stopped
entirely. It rather occurred to him (Mr. Lewis) whether those
of the members who were trying to solve the problem of prevent-
ing the spread of an explosion were not proceeding somewhat
in a wrong direction, and whether they should not direct their
attention to the question whether these explosions could not be
prevented altogether. By that he meant, was it not possible to
limit the shot-firing apart from the coal-face to the period when
the men were out of the mine ? It was a point to which he was
trying to devote his attention, and he was convinced that it was
better to do that than merely to endeavour to limit the spread of
an explosion, and to restrict the area which it affected when it
did occur.
Mr. H. Stevenson (Linby) remarked that the dust in the
heading, boot-top deep, consisted of fine coal made by a Sullivan
percussive holing-machine. There was nothing in the mines of
this country to compare with the dust in the Courrieres mines.
When down the latter he noticed that the seams were contorted
and twisted, and that the coal was peculiarly soft. It could
be knocked off or even scratched down by the hand, and was very
like black-lead. The amount of dust made was in excess of any-
thing found in this country.
Mr. J. T. Todd (Blackwell) said that there were one or two
matters, which he found a difficulty in following. He did not
think that there were any details which would tell the members,
whether, if this fire occurred in the return-airway, how or why
it occurred; or whether it was impossible to have occurred in
any other part; nor had they anything to tell them what was
the character of the coal-dust at Courrieres, or an analysis of it;
or whether that coal-dust was totally different from any that they
found in the mines of this country. He regarded it as an exceed-
ingly open question whether this explosion ever occurred in a
heading, or whether it did not originate from gas from some other
part. Of course, given an explosion, if there were fine coal-dust
and plenty of it, that explosion would be extended. He certainly
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128 DISCUSSION — THE COUBRliRES EXPLOSION.
did not think tkat Uiey were in a position to judge definitely
Whether the explosion at the Courrieres collieries occurred in a
heading and from a shot. They had to assume an exceptionally
big charge of explosive, and that several things were done
which were illegitimate and in flagrant violation of regulations,
before they could arrive at the conclusion that the explosion did
occur in that particulai* place. The information was not calcu-
lated to carry them to that conclusion. Before they could
accept the strong statement that a similar disaster might occur
in this country, they wanted to know something of the character
of the coal-dust, the principle of ventilation, an analysis of the
coal-dust, the temperature of the mines and the nature of the
explosive which they were using. So far as he was aware, it was
a fact, since the Explosives Order had been brought into opera-
tion, that no explosion had occurre<l on a main haulage-road
through the firing of a shot with any explosive which was now on
the Permitted List of Explosives. He agreed with Mr. Lewis
that, if they could find a safe explosive, and prevent flames from
blown-out shots such as they used to have from gunpowder, they
would, under conditions of watering and proper supervision, have
gone far towards removing the dangers of explosions in main
haulage-roads. If they looked at the explosions which had
occurred in this country and had been attributed to coal-dust,
they would see that none of them had gone into the face — ^they
stopped at a certain point. That indicated that the great danger
was on the main haulage-roads in which were accumulations of
very fine dust; and, if they removed in any way that source of
danger, they removed very largely all danger of a repetition in
this country of such a disaster as that which had occurred at the
Courrieres collieries.
Mr. A. H. Stokes (H.M. Inspector of Mines) said that Mr.
Lewis had given a good resume of what he had tried to emphasize
at the last meeting. The best advice that he (Mr. Stokes) could
give to Mr. Todd was to read the official reports of colliery explo-
sions, and they might give him an answer to many of the ques-
tions which he had put He confessed that many years ago he
was rather sceptical about coal-dust explosions without fire-damp,
but after the instances at Timsburj', Camerton, and the one,
which came especially home to him, at Blackwell, he could have
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DISCUSSION — ^THE COUBEIERES EXPLOSION. 129
no doubt on the subject. With, regard to the stoppings being
blown-out, ^uid the fire in the Courrieres collieries, it was recorded
that the stoppings were blown inwards : whereas, it the explosion
had occurred at the fire, they would expect to have found them
blown outwards. As regarded the explosion starting in the head-
ing, about which Mr. Todd appeared to have some doubt, could
Mr. Todd tell them what was the cause of the fourth stir-pipe
being shattered and torn into so great a number of pieces ? No
one could tell why the man near that air-pipe was so mutilated,
an arm and a leg being found 10 feet from the body and outbye,
if the explosion did not take place at the fourth air-pipe. With
regard to the blown-out shot, of which so much had been made,
it had been recorded by the authors of the paper that *' similar
holes have been observed before in these headings," and that ** a
somewhat similar hole has been since found at the face of the
parallel heading."* The point for consideration waa not so
much the result of the explosion, but the best means of prevent-
ing the recurrence of such explosions. They heard a great deal
about watering: it was good in its way, but if they watered a
road-way for 300 or 400 feet, and it stopped the spread of an
explosion, did it stop the foul gases which had been generated
by the explosion from coming out and killing the men ? Such
gases would travel to the upcast shaft irrespective of the watered
portion of the road-way — ^the explosion might not go all over the
pit, but the foul gases would be uncontrolled in their travel when
doors and stoppings were destroyed ; and it was the irrespirable
atmosphere after an explosion that claimed the greatest loss of
life. Then came the question : If watering was only one step to
the complete cure, where were they to look for safety ? Let them
try to put their finger upon it. He thought that Mr. Lewis went
half-way towards it. Let them stop shot-firing on the road-ways
during the working shift, and see whether every shot, except at
the coal-faces, could not be fired at night-time or when the coal-
tuming shift of men were out of the pit. He did not think that
they could completely get rid of shot-firing at the coal-face ; but
a working-face was quite different from the road-ways. In a road-
way, they had an ever-increasing accumulation, day by day, of
the finest dust ; whereas at the coal-face there was a continuous
advance and exposure of clean-cut coal. The face did not stand
and allow dust to accumulate, but moved forward ; and the face
Trans, Inst, M. E,, 1906, vol. zxxii., page 474.
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180 DISCITSSION — ^THE COTJERI^BES EXPLOSION.
of to-day was not the face of to-morrow. There were no accumu-
lations of dust at the face, like those in the road-ways. With
regard to the limitation of an explosion, when it did start, had
not the Courriferes disaster taught them the lesson that if they
had six pits it would be advisable not to connect them together?
Had it not taught them that in laying out their* mines they
should, as much as was practically possible, have isolated districts
from the main intake-airway to the upcast shaft? They all
probably could call to mind explosions where many lives had been
lost in one district, whereas men in another district had continued
working without knowledge of an explosion having occurred in the
mine. At the Wingate Grange explosion in October, 1906, "some
of the miners [in another part] had to be warned to leave their
work, and one was so little concerned that he fired a shot about
.1 a.m., or more than an hour after the explosion."* They would
do well to consider what lessons they could take from the
Courriferes disaster.
Mr. Isaac Hodges did not think that they ran anything like
the same danger in existing mines in this country as in the
French, Belgian or German coal-fields. There was a great deal of
difference in the fineness and explosive character of the coal-dusts
at the working-faces in those districts, as compared with the
granular dust found at working-faces in Great Britain. He
had visited one of the Belgian mines on the French border, not
far distant from Courrieres, and in their deepest seam he was
astonished at the amount of dust found at the working-face
and on the I'oad-ways, but especially at the working-face. The
strata were contorted, the coal was very friable, and at a
depth of 3,000 feet only about 5 per cent, of coal passed over
a round hole, 1 inch in diameter. The amount of dust was
obvious by looking at the faces of the miners themselves ; they
were very much blacker than the miners of Yorkshire, and in the
deepest seams in that county nothing could be found to rival it. It
reminded him of nothing so much as the appearance of men
recovered after an explosion. The point to which he particularly
addressed himself was that raised by Mr. Stokes, as to the inad-
* Reports to H, M, Secretary of State for the Home Department on the
Circumstances attending an Eocplosion which occurred at Wingate Orange CoHiery,
Wingate f on the 14th October, 1906, by Mr. A. H. Ruegg, and Messrs. R. D. Bain
and J. B. Atkinson, 1907 [Cd. 3379], page 23.
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DISCUSSION — THE COTJBRIEBES EXPLOSION. 181:
visability of connecting mines underground. Tliere were many
cases in which large outputs were required from a single shaft, and
extensive areas of coal must be connected to provide the necessary
pit-room. Even if Mr. Stokes' views were carried out for the
future, and mines were not allowed to be connected, how would
he deal with those mines which were already connected ? In his
own case, they had 8 square miles of surface-area connected
underground. The economies of that arrangement had been very
considerable ; and, although he would not say that anything could
justify loss of life, economy certainly justified any small extra risk
that there might be in connecting such mines. He agreed that
districts should be isolated in some manner; but he did not agree
with Mr. Stokes that districts should be isolated by leaving
barriers of coal, or by being worked from disconnected pits.
He would rather that more attention should be given to the best
means of zoning a mine, so that if an explosion occurred in one
district it could be prevented from travelling into another. They
had had some object-lessons from coal-dust explosions ; and in his
own case he had considered it advisable to separate districts from
each other by non-dusty lengths of brickwork. This consisted
generally of brick-walls with a concrete roof, as he found it
easier and cheaper, and less obstructive to the ordinary work of
the mine during erection, than building semicircular arches.
He felt that the Courriferes disaster was sufficiently serious to
make them attempt to do something, and by periodically
cleaning those zones he hoped to do a little towards preventing
an explosion from spreading. He did not know whether it
would be necessary to water those zones, but they would learn
more on that point during the course of the next twelve months.
As to shot-firing, he did not know how Mr. Stokes would be
able to fire all the ripping and coal-face shots required in a
large mine, with the number of men allowed by the Coal-mines
Regulation Act, when all the workmen were removed from the
seam. He thought that only ten were allowed for all purposes,
including those necessarily employed in attending to engines,
machinery, horses, etc., and inspecting the mine, and it would
be impossible for that small number to travel large mines and to
fire the shots. Shot-firing at the coal-face was an essential ; but
he should welcome the prohibition of shot-firing in main haulage-
roads, except under the supervision of officials and when the
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132 DISCUSSION — THE COURRIERES EXPLOSION.
workmen were out of the miaes. He very mucli doubted whether
that could be extended to the gateways, and certainly it could not
be extended to the working-faces. Shot-firing he was soriy to
say, had largely increased, and nothing of late years had quite so
much altered their methods of mining. In one district where
1,000 tons per day had been got without firing a shot, a consider-
able number of shots were now fired. Last year, upwards of
60,000 shots were fired at the Whitwood collieries, and the sug-
gested prohibition of shot-firing would be a veiy serious matter
to them; although he ought, perhaps, to add that he did not
think that six shots had been fired on main roads, and those
were the only shots which, in his opinion, required special atten-
tion or protective legislation.
Mr. A. H. Stokes said that if Mr. Hodges wanted a dusty
mine, he could tell him where to get one. He (Mr. Stokes) had
been down a mine, and brought away with him some of their
dust, which he had not been able to get rid of for days. He was
surprised that Mr. Hodges thought that ten men were insufficient
for shot-firing on road- ways, for he concluded his remarks by
saying that he had not fired six shots on main roads in a year.
Mr. I. Hodges stated that ripping shots were not included in
the main-road shots.
Mr. A. H. Stokes said that he had got the statistics of the
number of shots fired in his mines-inspection district during the
last yeai', and he was veiy pleased to congratulate the members
upon the considerable decrease (88,'Ml) in the number of shots
fired. He had intended to suggest that, instead of carrying the
main intake-air in one current and splitting it up into districts as
near the face as possible, the intake and return-airways for each
district should be made as distinct as possible, so that if an explo-
sion occurred it should, if possible, be confined to one district.
There were many difficulties, but there were other ways of dis-
connecting districts in old collieries. In his mines-inspection
district, one mining engineer had thought so much of the
Courrieres disaster that he had put in iron doors to separate two
seams. He (Mr. Stokes) had seen them, and he felt satisfied that
the doors and the way in which they were built in would stop an
explosion extending from one seam into the other, so far as the
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DISCUSSION — ^THE COUBBIERES EXPLOSION. 188
doors were concerned. Supposing it were made obligatory not to
fire any shots whatever in main road-ways, except under the con-
ditions suggested, then the rule or regulation containing the
prohibition might also include permission for more men to be
allowed in the mine if, as Mr. Hodges contended, ten was an
insufficient number. The legislative enactment that made pro-
hibitions could also make extensions, if necessar5^
Mr. I. Hodges said that, if they could separate seams with two
iron doors, it would be much cheaper than the method which he
was adopting. He asked whether they entirely cut off the intake
and the return-airways, and closed the passages into the mine.
Mr. A. H. Stokes said that the doors were used to separate one
seam from another, and they were put in between the shafts.
The best plan would be for Mr. Hodges to see them, and he
would gladly tell him where they were.
Mr. M. Deacon (Sheepbridge) said that he did not altogether
see any special advantage in discussing the Courrieree explosion.
Unfortunately, a number of explosions, equally instructive, had
happened in this country, and it was only the large number of
men who lost their lives in the Courrieres explosion that attracted
80 much attention to it. An explosion in this counti-y in which
one man was killed might be of as great importance to them, as
mining engineers, as this disaster in France, in which 1,100 lives
were lost. All it had done for them was to give rise to a renewal
of the consideration as to how they, in this country, could reduce
the risks of similar explosions. He thought, as Mr. Stokes had
said, that there was ample evidence of a coal-dust explosion in the
results at Camerton. With regard to the Courrieres explosion, he
should be extremely sorry to give any opinion, or to come to any
sort of conclusion, without having seen the mine very soon after
the explosion. The question of preventing the spread of an
explosion was a large one. No doubt the arrangement of ventila-
tion-areas in such a way as to limit any explosion which might
occur was a proper thing for the members to take into considera-
tion ; but it was a matter for each colliery manager to consider
for himself. No general rule could be laid down. The dividing
of collieries by barriers was absolutely prohibitory, because with
the deep sinkings which they had in front of them no colliery
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184 DISCUSSION — ^THE COXTBRIERES EXPLOSION.
owner would be disposed to sink to much less than 20 square
miles where only one seam existed. Those were big figures, but
he was now drawing coal 2J miles from the shaft and doing so
economically. He was sure that colliery owners were not going
to sink £500,000 in a colliery without working^ a very large
area, only limited by the distance over which they could economic-
ally draw the coal to one shaft. Therefore, the suggestion to
separate a mine into small compartments for the purpose of
limiting the effect of an explosion was not within the sphere of
practical mining. He had made many experiments in watering
over the past twenty years : he had tried watering by jets, by
barrels after the manner of street-watering, and also by laying
water-pipes, with taps at distances of 100 or 150 feet, watering
the floor, sides and roof of the roads, by means of a hose and rose.
He was very strongly impressed with the desirability of watering
wherever the roads would stand it; and where they would, and
especially where the dust was of a fine and impalpable character,
they ought certainly to be watered. In the Tredegar explosion,
they had direct evidence of the fact that watering the roads had
hindered the progress of the explosion. The explosion occurred
at the face; the main intake-airway had been perfectly and
thoroughly watered, but the return-airways had not been watered
and were very dusty. The explosion took place at the working-
face, but instead of going out by the intake-airway it followed
the return-airway to the pit-bottom. Tlie onsetters were burnt,
and the men in the intake-airways were not touched. He had no
hesitation in saying that watering did a great deal towards limit-
ing the seriousness of the Tredegar explosion.
Mr. J. T. Todd said that Mr. Stokes had recommended him
very strongly to read the official reports. Would Mr. Stokes
kindly tell him in what report he would find any record, since
the Explosives Order was instituted, where an explosion had
occurred by shot-firing on a main haulage-road with any of the
present Permitted Explosives?
Mr. Stokes replied that, if Mr. Todd's remark had reference
solely to a main haulage-road, he had misunderstood him. He
believed, however, that there was such a case, and he would
give Mr. Todd some quotations in confirmation. In the report on
the Wingate Grange explosion, the verdict of the jury was to the
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DISCTTSSION — THE COTJERlilRES EXPLOSION. 185
efEect that the deceased had: been killed " by an eixplosion caused
by the firing of a shot in the main haulage-way in the Low Main
seam."* H.M. inspectors of mines report that "the point of
origin and the initial cause of the explosion was a charge of the
Permitted Explosive geloxite fired by a stoneman by means of
fuse on the main haulage-road/' and " the inflammable agent,
both at the origin and in the propagation of the explosion was
coal-dust and not fire-damp."t Geloxite wa« a Permitted Explo-
sive on the present list, and it was only five months since the
Wingate Grange explosion had occurred.
The Chairman (Mr. W. G. Phillips) said he felt that the dis-
cussion was not by any means exhausted, and that the paper
was a most valuable contribution towards their knowledge of
extensive explosions. Whatever might have been the cause of
the explosion, whether it was initiated by coal-dust alone or
found some assistance from an aqcumulation of fire-damp at the
seat of the accident, there could be no doubt that it owed much
of its vitality and devastating power to the dusty condition of the
roads. He had come to that conclusion by diligently reading this
paper by Messrs. Atkinson and Henshaw. Confining himself to '
the Lecoeuvre heading he found, on making a slight calculation,
that no less than 19 inches of explosive had been used in the par-
ticular hole which it was assumed the men were undrilling at
the time of the accident. Mr. Lewis made a remark to the efPect
that the three men at the end of the heading were not much
injured, but there were plentiful indications in the heading, in the
shape of coked and charred coal-dust, of flame, and the bodies of
the men were reported by the doctor to be deeply burned. Cer-
tainly, they had no indication whatever as to the state of the
ventilation in this particular part of the workings previous to the
explosion, but there was a pair of levels heading from the top
of a jig, rising 1 in 6. They had been driven about 600 feet,
and to his mind it was very ominous indeed that on the date
when this explosion happened there was no one working in the
counter-heading. They did not know why, but the workings
♦ Reports to H.M, Secretary ofStxUefar the Home Department on the Circum-
stances attending an Explosionwhich occurred at Wingate Grange Colliery, Wingate,
on the 14th October, 1906, by Mr. A. H, Ruegg, and Messrs. R. D. Bain and
J. B. Atkinson, 1907 [Cd. 3379], page 13.
t /6id.,page32.
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136 DISCUSSION — ^THE COTTRHliRES EXPLOSION.
were far removed from the downcast shaft, the ventilating' current
would not be particularly strong, and he was apprehensive that
at the time the condition of the levels was such as not to be free
from -gas. He could not exactly make out the course of the
ventilation; but whether the intake-air went to the top, and
was then conveyed by pipes to the end of the bottom heading,
or whether it was the other way about, there could be no doubt
that the ventilation at that particular point could not be very
strong. He thought that the condition of the air-pipes, as
shown by the photographs, was due to an internal explosion.
It was not one pipe alone which was shattered, but from the
third air-pipe to the back of the bottom heading, they seemed
to have been blown to pieces. There was strong evidence
that something besides coal-dust had initiated this terrible explo-
sion, althou-gh possibly they might modify their views. The
great interest taken in this explosion was due to the effect that it
might have on mining legislation in this country. Lord
Monksweirs Commission had been dealing with the coal-dust
question, and they had to bear in mind that when a terrible
disaster like this took plajce and over 1,000 lives were lost, it struck
terror into the hearts and minds of the public, and there was a
tendency on the part of some who knew nothing at all about
what was required for safety in the working of coal-mines to
press for unnecessary legislation on the subject. When the
present Commission sent in their report he was afraid that some
drastic recommendations would be made to the Government,
beyond what was required from reasonable considerations of
safety in this country. It was, therefore, important that discus-
sions should be held by engineers in order that they might be
prepared to say what, in their judgment, was needed to avoid
similar disasters in Great Britain. Watering in all shapes was
recommended. Some recommended that the watering should be
in zones, and others over the whole length of the intake roads.
They might well turn their attention to the prevention of dust,
as well as to its removal. Mr. W. N. Atkinson stated in his
report that the condition of the tubs and roads in some parts of
his mines-inspection district was barbarous. In transporting
coal from the face to the pit-bottom a great deal might be done
to prevent the deposit of dust on the main haulage-roads: good
tubs were essential, which need not be of iron, and slow systems
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DISCUSSION — THE COtJEElfeftES EXPLOSION. 187
of haulage wherever they could be adopted. Another point was
that of the downcast-shaft taking an atmosphere laden with coal-
dust from the screens, a condition of things that certainly pre-
vailed at some collieries. The photographs of the surface-works
at the Courrieres collieries showed an elaborate heapstead, and
from an architectural point of view everything was very fine;
but the only parts of the headgear to be seen were the pulleys.
The downcast-shaft was placed in the midst of the screening
arrangements and how was it possible that under such conditions
the air carried down into the workings could be other than laden
with the finest and most impalpable dust from the screens ?
The further discussion was adjourned.
Mr. E. Greaves' paper on the " Elliott Washer and Hardy
Dust-extractor and Grinder'' was read as follows: —
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188 ELLIOTT WASHEE AND HARDY DUST-EXTBACTOE.
ELLIOTT WASHER AND HARDY DUST-EXTRACTOR
AND GRINDER.
By E. greaves.
Inteoduction.
The growing spirit of economy in the coal-mining industry,
and the pressure that is being brought to bear on colliery
managers by the Government authorities to avoid, wherever pos-
sible, the gobbing of coal on account of the danger of gob-fires,
without mentioning the national economic side of the question,
are doubtless to a great extent the reasons why large quantities
of small coal, which were formerly gobbed, are now drawn to the
surface. The appliances introduced during the last few years to
utilize small and inferior coal for generating steam, making
briquettes, etc., the ever increasing demand for coke, etc., make
slack and duff, which were formerly looked upon almost as waste,
a very valuable product. At present there is hardly any class of
small coal which cannot be utilized either for coking or for
briquetting, for hand or mechanical firing, if the percentage of
ash in it is not too high.
Coal-consumers now seek economy far more than formerly,
and refuse to buy coal containing much free ash; coal-owners
are far keener than they were to utilize every possible product,
and bye-product plants are being erected in all directions, so that
coal-washers, which at one time were a rarity, are now becoming
general, and in a few years will become as necessary a part of a
collierj'^-plant as the screens and sidings. Where there were
formerly two or three sizes of coal, there are now a dozen, and
washed peas, washed breeze, washed nuts, smudge, etc., are
everyday terms in the coal-trade.
Elliott Washer.
The Elliott coal-washer is based on the theory of all coal-
washers, namely, that the coal and shale dirt, being of different
specific gravities, fall through water at different velocities ; the
shale being heavier than the coal, if approximately of the same
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ELMOTT WASHEE AND HARDY DUST-EXTRACTOR. 189
cubic capacity, offers more resistance to the stream of water and
settles, whilst the coal bein^ lighter is carried away with the
stream. The Elliott is an improvement on the old trough-
washer, at one time so much in favour with colliery managers on
account of its simplicity and efficacy. Indeed, it only fell into
disuse because too much depended on the attendant in charge, as
it wafl necessary to run the coal and water into the second trough
so soon as the dams or stops in the first trough had got charged
with dirt ; and, unless this was done at the right moment, the dirt
in the dams or stops was carried away with the coal, with conse-
quent bad washing results. The labour required in removing the
dirt from the dams was a serious item, besides the cost of the second
trough and the extra space necessary. Furthermore, the old
trough system was hardly elastic enough for modern requirements.
The Elliott trough-washer possesses all the advantages of the
old system without any of the disadvantages, being absolutely
automatic in its action, requiring no skilled attendant or manual
labour; and each trough washes continually
without interruption, the coal and water
being delivered at the lower, and the dirt at
the upper end. The Elliott trough (fig. 1),
which is generally fixed at an inclination of Pio. l.— Though.
1 in 12, is constructed of cast-iron or steel
with a flat bottom 18 inches wide, and sloping sides, giving a
width at the top of 30 inches ; the total length is 60 feet and the
depth usually 11 inches. At each end of the trough^ sprocket-
wheels are fixed, which carry an endless chain. At right angles
to this chain, scrapers are attached at suitable distances, which
are of the same section as the lower part of the trough. The
scraper-chain travels along the bottom of the trough to the upper
end, and runs back over the trough on bracket-rollers, bridged at
intervals over the trough, the chain being driven by the sprocket-
wheels at the upper end. The scrapers in this manner form
travelling dams, which catch the shale and dirt settling in the
bottom of the trough, and carry them to the upper end ; whilst
the lighter coal is carried by the water over the dams and
delivered at the lower end.
The coal from which the fine dust has been removed is
delivered into the trough at a point about 25 to 30 feet from the
top end. The water, being admitted as near the upper end as
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140 ELMOTT WASHBE AUTD HAHDY DUST-EXTRACTOH.
possible, runs down the trough and cascades over the scrapers,
taking with it any coal that may still be mixed with the dirt.
When it arrives at the delivery-points of the coal, about half-way
down, its chief determinating action begins ; the heavier shale
and dirt settle down, and, being caught by the scrapers, are con-
veyed to the upper end, whilst the lighter coal is washed over the
scrapers by the stream to the lower end, where it is discharged
on to oscillating or other water-screens. These practically free
the coal fronv the water, which runs into a cistern and is
then pumped back to the upper end of the trough to be used
again. It will thus be seen that the upper half of the trough-
length serves to wash the dirt and shale free of coal, whilst the
lower half serves to wash the coal free of shale. When the
washer is at work it will be noticed that the scrapers, as they
begin to ascend the trough at the bottom end, are dammed up
with coal a« well as shale, the whole, however, turning over and
over from the action of the water running in the opposite direc-
tion down the trough. As the scrapers proceed to the upper end,
it will be noticed that the coal behind the dams is gradually
churned up and carried away by the water, so that when they
arrive at the upper end, the scraper-dams are free from coal, and
discharge nothing but shale and dirt.
Formerly, the Elliott washer was fitted with flat straight
scrapers driven by one chain, which gave perfect results with
nuts, etc., and fairly good results with duff. Practical ex-
perience, however, shewed that better results might be obtained
by altering the structure and shape of the scrapers. Duflf requir-
ing a slower action of the water, it was found that the natural ten-
dency of the water to follow the line of least resistance caused
the coal in the middle part of the trough to be perfectly freed from
shale, whilst the coal at each side of the scrapers was washed less
eflPectively. To obviate this defect, new types of scrapers, driven
either by a single or by a double chain have been introduced.
These scrapers are made either convex or concave, or serrated
throughout their width, in such a way that the water, on reach-
ing each scraper, is baffled into several channels instead of run-
ning in one as formerly. This ensures continuous movement in
the material as it is transported by the scrapers from one end of
the trough to the other, and the washing is equally effective
throughout the whole width of the scrapers. By this arrangement
the improved Elliott washer can ti-eat perfectly any size of coal
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ELLIOTT WASIIEa AND HARDY DTTST-EXTH.ACTOK. 141
down to the finest dust, so that even the finest grains are washed,
and the dust being so slight a percentage of the whole, it can
be added to the washed coal without materially increasing the
percentage of ash ; modem requirements are thus met, the whole
of the duff utilized, and any loss avoided.
The troughs are supplied with a differential headstock, so that
the speed of the scraper-chain can be varied to suit the class of
coal that is being washed. It is advisable to have a water-
cistem at the upper end, fitted with spray-taps, so that the
operator can regulate the volume of water for each size of coal.
To ensure perfect washing, that is, shale free from loose coal
and coal free from loose ash, the coal before washing should not
only have the fine dust carefully eliminated, but it should be
classified. The Elliott being a stream-washer does not require
the same amount of classification as in piston and other washing
systems. Theoretically, the coal being washed should never
exceed in cubic capacity three-and-a-ha^ f times the size of the
smallest piece of shale, assuming the averaige specific gravity of
coal to be 1'4 and that of carboniferous shale 2*4. If the specific
gravity of the material that is being treated differs from the
above, the results will be different; but the practical results of
washing with the Elliott trough, in many countries, and with
practically every class of coal and shale, have shown conclusively
that only three sizes are necessary for washing, that is : (a) ^ inch
to J inch, (6) J inch to | inch, and (c) | inch and upwards.
Mr. Franz Poech,* in a lecture given in Vienna a few
years ago, explained the action of the Elliott washer as a
continued forcing forwards of the particles against the counter-
acting friction and inertia of the same, the former being of less
importance than the latter. The particles of coal being treated -
are exposed to the pressure of the water, and carried forward by
impact and pressure, so that if p is the pressure of the water ;
rf, the ideal diameter of the particlest ; and s, the distance along
which they are exposed to the pressure of the water ; the motive
force may be written ; F equals pcPs, and the moment of ineiiia,
M equals P/g, may be expressed thus : —
2-2-7 ^ ^
• " Ueber einige Bergwerksapparate," by Mr. Franz Poech, Oeffterreichischen
Ztit9chriftfiir Berg- und HuiiernceJien, Vereins-Mittheilungen, 1895, page 35.
t The ideal diameter is the diameter of a sphere of a mass equal to that of
the irregular particle.
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142 ELLIOTT WASHER AND HARDY DITST-BXTRACTOR.
In the preceding formula, M is the mass ; t;, the velocity in feet
per second ; P, the weight of a particle in water ; g, the accelera-
tion due to gravity; and as P equals W(8— 1)/6 where 8 is the
specific gravity of the coal, then the formula (1) becomes :
-n- equals hr^ ' Neglecting friction : p(rs equals ^-
equals -^^ ; t/» equals ^^(^_^y and v equals J ^^j^^Y)'
Consequently, if - ^ equals the constant C, then :
" 7.^^, ; ■ ■ .*"
Similarly for a particle of the diameter, d^, the specific
gravity, 8,, and at a velocity, Vi, it follows that:
"^-J^^W^ ■ ...... (3)
The second (2) equation being divided by the third (8) equa-
tion, and each side being squared, it follows that :
v,^^ rf(8-l) ^^^
When V equals t'l, the point at which the separation of
particles of different diameter and different specific gravity
is no longer possible, the equation (4) becomes :
It follows, therefore, that sepamtion is no longer possible when
the diameters of the particles are inversely proportional to their
specific gravity minus 1.
This bears out the formula that von Rittinger deduced from
the laws of gravitation: v equals 2*44v^/a8-1), in which 2*44
is a constant arrived at from practical experiments.* Thus if
8 equals 1*4, the specific gravity of coal; and 8, equals 2*4,
the specific gravity of shale; the equation (5) would show
that J = «'_ , = f.j _ 1 = fvl = 3*5. Consequently, (f equals
3*5^1, demonstrating that the diameter of the -grains or
particles of coal should correspond with the grains or particles
of shale as 3i to 1. Of course, where a fixed constant is only
assumed, one naturally doubts a result obtained from such a
basis, but the writer repeats that many yeai-s' experience of the
• Tjfhrbuch der Au/bereitungskunde, by Prof, von Rittinger, 1867, page 191.
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tlthtOTT WASHtJE AND HAEDY DtJST-EXTRACTOK. 148
Elliott washer in different countries, with all sorts of coal and
shale, has shewn that to get the best results in washing, the coal
should be classified in such a way that the smallest grain of
shale should not be exceeded more than 3^ to 4 times by the
largest piece of coal in that particular category. One to four
has been adopted for practical purposes, so that when up to J inch
is eliminated, for coking or briquetting purposes three sizes only
are necessary, that is : (a) J inch to J inch, (b) J inch to | inch,
and (c) I inch and upwards.
For sale purposes, such as washed smudge, peas, small and
large breeze, nuts, etc., it is best to classify before washing, and
treat each size in its trough or troughs according to quantity,
not losing sight of ihe economical question as regards the number
of troughs.
The output per trough depends on the size and nature of the
coal that is being treated, but generally varies from 4 tons per
hour for the smallest size (i inch to J inch) up to 12 tons per hour
for large nuts. If the number of troughs be limited, and classifi-
cation after washing be compulsory, the screening should be
confined as far as possible to the larger sizes.
Hardy Dust-extractor.
The removal of very fine dust is always a matter of some
difiiculty, especially if the coal be damp or sticky, unless
hydraulic screens are used ; and sometimes it has been found to be
impossible to screen out anything less than J inch. Where only
small breeze was washed, say, up to J inch or | inch, it was found
impracticable to eliminate J inch as it formed too great a propor-
tion of the coal that was being treated ; and when attempts were
made to remove | inch the holes in the screen-plates became
clogged, and the screening results were very bad. Experiments
were made in order to overcome this difficulty, which resulted
in the introduction of the Hardy dust-extractor, a very simple
contrivance. With this dust-extractor, it is possible to extract
down to xV ii^ch if the coal is dty, so that all the coal from xV
inch upwards can be washed. Any sized grain of coal can be
treated successfully with the Elliott washer ; the only un washable
stuff is the very fine dust, and, in consequence of the possibility
of washing down to yV inch, all the dust may be added to the
washed coal without increasing seriously the percentage of ash
in the whole.
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144 ELLIOTT WASHER AXD HARDY DUST-EXTRACTOR.
As the whole of the dust and schlamm are used, there is
practically no loss with the improved Elliott washer, the output
of coke per 100 tons of coal treated being higher than with any
other system.
The Hardy dust-extractor is fitted over the screen which sizes
the coal that enters the washing troughs. The small stuff, up to §
inch falls into a hopper or receptacle, fitted with two or three
angular plates or bafflee, so arranged as to spread the falling
material into a thin stream. In its descent it comes into contact
with a current of air from a fan, or induced draught, sufficiently
strong to carry away the fine dust-particles and draw them
through an opening into a special chamber; whilst the larger
stuff falls down a shoot on to a conveyor, which delivers it into
the washing troughs. The dust-outlet is fitted with a baffling
screen to prevent any stray grainy from escaping with the dust,
which is carried into a special hopper where it is delivered on to a
conveyor and transported to the disintegrator to be wall mixed
with the washed coal whilst being ground. The dust-hopper or
chamber is fitted with an opening at the top, to allow of the air
escaping when the coal-dust has settled. If the dust, which is
removed, contains a high percentage of ash, the whole of it
cannot, of course, be added, as this would increase too greatly the
percentage of ash in the washed coal. For example, if the coal-
dust under iV inch be estimated to represent 10 per cent, of the
whole of the coal to be treated, assuming that the dust from
0 to ^V i^oh contain the same proportion of ash as the larger
coal, and assuming that the ash in the coal be reduced from 15
per cent, to 5 per cent, by washing, the addition of the whole of
the dust would increase the percentage of ash in the washed coal
to 6J per cent., or if only half the eliminated dust were added, to
about 5i per cent.
This mixture of the whole, or certain proportions, of the dust
with the washed coal renders the Elliott washer as elastic as the
more complicated and costly systems, because the percentage of
ash in the coal, coke or briquette can be regulated according to
the exigencies of the contract or the market. In the preceding
example the minimum is 5^ per cent, and the maximum 6^ per
cent, of ash, schlamm being left out of the question, as it amounts
generally to only 2 tons per 100 tons treated, if the dust is
well screened out; but, if a higher maximum limit is required,
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ELLIOTT WASHER AND HARDY DUST-EXTRACTOR. 146
this can be easily obtained by eliminating up to J or f inch by
regulating the dust-extractor accordingly. In the c-ase of coal
not destined for briquetting or coking, the desired proportion of
dust should be mixed only with the smallest size of washed coal,
as added dust spoils the appearance of beans and nuts ; in fact,
where washed coal is not coked or briquetted, it is better to have
an extra category of small to receive the dust and to be disposed
of as washed smudge.
Working of the Elliott Washer.
If the dust be well eliminated, a settling pond or tank is not
absolutely necessary in washers for coking or briquetting pur-
purposes, as the proportion of schlamm is very small (about 2 per
cent.) so that the density of the water is not seriously afiEected,
and the washing results remain practically the same with or with-
out decanting tanks. But, in the case of washed coal for sale,
tanks are advisable, as a finer washed sample is produced if the
schlamm is allowed to settle in a decanting tank. Even if the
nuts are sprayed with the fresh water, the final result with this
class of washer (non-coking) is not so satisfactory as with some
systems of decantin-g the water before it is used again. The
different mode of action in the piston-type of washer entails far
more classification to get the best washing results, which explains
many of the complications in this class of washer, leading to
increased friction and consequent increase of the schlamm, the
bugbear of coal-washing.
It is satisfactory to know that the schlamm in the Elliott
washer is reduced to an absolute minimum, as the coal only
undergoes one operation, whilst in the more complicated piston-
washers it is transported to and fro, which results in increased
friction, causing a larger proportion of schlamm. In some
Elliott washers settling tanks are dispensed with, the water from
the troughs being collected in a receptacle tapered down to the
inlet-pipe of the pump, the schlamm circulating with the water
until it settles either with the coal or with the dirt. This process
of settlement is so regular that the fresh delivery-water suffices to
keep the water sufficiently clear to get good washing results.
There are Elliott washers with settling tanks giving only 4 tons
of schlamm per week on a total output of 1,600 tons, or J per
cent. ; in other washers the quantity of schlamm will reach 2 per
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lis ELLIOTT WASHER AND HARDY DUST-EXTRACTOR.
cent., much depending' on the nature of the coal, the effective
removal of the dust, and good practical water-screens.
Where the difference between the specific gravity of the coal
and that of the dirt is small, the question of the inclination of
the trou-gh is important ; but an inclination of 1 in 12 is suitable
for general purposes, and is usually adopted. Generally, coal
upwards of 2 inches in diameter is not washed, hand-picking
being more practicable ; but if coaJ between 2 and 3 inches is to
be washed, an inclination of 1 in 10 will be found to yield better
results.
For the larger sizes of coal, such as nuts, etc., scrapers 4 to 5
feet apart and 2| inches in depth will give perfect results; but
for the smaller sizes, such as beans, smudge, etc., the scrapers
should be fixed only 2 feet to 3 feet apart and 1^ inches to 2 inches
in depth. By adapting the speed of the chain, the number and
height of the scrapers, the inclination of the trough, and the
volume of water to the class of coal that is being washed, abso-
lutely perfect washing results may be obtained with any coals
which differ in specific gravity from the shale that is to be washed
out: this is done at one operation, proving this to be the
simplest, most effective, and most adaptable coal-washing system.
This adaptability and elasticity are of vital importance, as, for
instance, where the coal being treated contains any batten coal,
or coal with streaks of shale, the water can be so regulated as
to deliver it either with the shale or with the coal, as required.
The Elliott washer possesses an advantage over the piston-
washer that is not generally known, namely', its effective treat-
ment of shale-flats, and the thin lenticular shale so prevalent in
some coal-seams. These float away with the coal in the piston-
washer, whilst the peculiar dam-action of the trough-washer
ensures the flat thin shale being caught long before it reaches
the lower end of the trough ; and, when once shale gets caught in
a scraper, it i-arely escapes before it is expelled at the upper end.
The writer does not maintain that it is impossible for a thin
piece of shale to escape with the coal, but he contends that the
proportion is veiy trifling compared with the piston-type of
washer. The writer has seen washed nuts from a large modem
piston-washer plant being treated by special screens, so con-
structed that the cubical nuts ran over the screens, whilst the
flat lenticular pieces of shale fell through the narrow specially
arranged meshes. There were such large quantities of this
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feLiJOTT WASHER AND HARDY DUST-EXTRACTOR. l47
lenticular shale, that the nuts were practically unsaleable until
it was removed.
It is evident that the motive power required for washing with
the Elliott trough is considerably less than for washing in a
piston-washer, and that the maintenance-charges are a mere
trifle in comparison. The wear-and-tear is practically confined
to the scrapers, which, being of very simple construction, can
be easily made by any oi-dinary colliery-smith in his spare time.
If the water which is used is moderately free from acid, the
trough-sheets will last for years.
After it is once regulated for the coal that is being treated,
the Elliott washer requires no attention, so that the man in
charge can devote the bulk of his time to some other work.
When the washer is stopped, all the water at once runs down to
the pump-well so that no airtight buildings are required, as
nothing can freeze even in the severest winter ; and, as there is
no quick running or heavy machinery, only a light structure is
required. In plants for coking or briquetting, the grinding
machinery is always placed on the ground floor. Each ton of
coal that is being washed requires about 700 gallons of water in
circulation ; and, if the dust is well eliminated and the proportion
of breeze and nuts is about equal, the water-wastage will be very
low, well under 5 per cent., 35 gallons per ton washed : for the
Elliott water-screens are very effective, and the wastage is con-
fined to the water in the washed coal. It will be found that
very little fresh water is necessary to keep up the washing
supply if special arrangements are made to free the washed coal
thoroughly from water by running it on a perforated conveyor
as it is delivered from the water-screens, the conveyor being
provided with catch-drops at suitable distances to shake and
turn over the coal.
It is impossible to determine the motive power that will be
required, as so much depends on the material being washed, the
height of the elevators, and different local conditions; but there
is not the slightest doubt that, whatever the conditions may be,
far less power is required for the Elliott than for the piston
type of washer. There are several Elliott washers now working
which treat 1,000 tons per day of 10 hours and are driven
entirely by a 90 horsepower engine, the plant including duff-
screens, sieves, elevators, pumps, scraper-chains, water-screens,
disintegrators, etc.
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148 ELLIOTT WASHER AND HARDY DUST-EXTRACTOR.
The working expenses, power, labour in washing, cleaning
out settling tank, repairs, belting, oil, etc., vary from Id. to lid.
per ton, excluding the sinking fund for redemption of capital,
which may vary from £5,000 for a washer capable of treating
1,000 tons per day of 10 hours, up to £10,000, according to the
class of building and general elasticity required in the washer.
If the dust is well screened out and the coal classifie<l in three
sizes, the first up to I inch, the second J inch to | inch, and the
third over 3 inch, it will be found that there is practically no free
coal in the shale, and that the washed coal, on analysis, shows only
i to 1 per cent, more than its natural fixed ash, the lower
percentage being obtained with coal containing, when unwashed,
12 per cent., and the higher with coal containing, when un-
washed, 17 to 20 per cent, of ash.
The main advantages and features of the Elliott washer, as
compared with the piston-type, are as follows : — Low initial cost,
greatly reduced labour-charges, very low repair and maintenance-
charges, great reduction in motive power, utilization of the
whole of the duff or dust, minimum of wastage, and maximum
of elasticity and eflBciency.
Devil Disintegrator.
A very important factor in coking and briquetting is the grind-
ing apparatus. It is not generally and suflficiently recognized
how important a part the grinder plays in the structure of the
coke. However small the coal may be ground, the uniformity
of the grain is of vital importance. With the ordinary double
disc bar disintegrator, it is impossible to secure a regular uniform
sample, and it will be found that there is always a great variety
of dust, of small and larger grain in the product of this type of
disintegrator, which results in the coke being too badly fissured
and broken up.
The devil disintegrator consists of two rings fitted with rows
of teeth of different sizes arranged in concentric circles, one of the
rings being fixed and the other revolving, the teeth of the revolv-
ing ring fitting into the interstices of the teeth of the fixed ring.
By means of a simple attachment on the revolving ring, it can be
brought closely into contact with, or at any desired distance from,
the stationary ring, thus enabling the operator to grind to any
desired size and ensuring greater uniformity in size of coal
ground than with the bar type of grinder, which is more percus-
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DISCUSSION ELLIOTT WASIIBB, AND HAKDY DUST-EXTEACTOR. 149
sive in its action and produces a mixture of very fine coal-dust
and different sized grains. Coal ground by the devil disinte-
grator yields coke of a better structure than coal pulverized by
the bar-type of disintegrator. There is an arrangement in the
devil disintegrator which prevents coherence, an important fea-
ture with wet coal, or a mixture of coal and pitch for briquetting.
The rings are made of cast-iron well chilled ; and they last
about 12 months, if the rings are reversed in running when the
teeth on one side are ground down. No reserve disintegrator is
necessary, but simply a pair of reserve rings, which can be fixed
by an ordinary labourer in an hour. The devil disintegrator only
requiies one belt, it is eeusily dismounted, and takes less power
than an ordinary disintegrator.
Many may wonder why so many foreign complicated and
costly washers, costly both as regards initial outlay and cost of
running and maintenance, have been and are being erected in
Great Britain, when so cheap and effective a washer has been
designed and constructed in this country. Germany was the
pioneer of modem coal-washing, and brought to the front the
economic questions of utilizing waste by manufacturing
briquettes and recovering bye-products, using the waste-gas for
power purposes, and classifying coal so as to render it suitable for
each class of consumer ; in fact there is no doubt that German
engineers were at work in this direction, and recognized the
importance of utilizing waste, etc., many years before their
British colleagues. This fact has given German constructors a
certain advantage, and many British colliery managers have the
impression that anything up-to-date in this particular line can
only be procured abroad. This may have been the case 10 years
ago, but certainly not to-day.
The Chairman (Mr. W. G. Phillips) said that the arrange-
ment described by Mr. Greaves appeared to have many merits.
It utilized not only coal, but other stuff, to which, in the ordin-
ary state of the market, customers objected. He had much
pleasure in moving a heariy vote of thanks to Mr. Greaves for
his paper.
The resolution was unanimously agreed to, and the discussion
was postponed to a future meeting.
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150 DISCUSSION — ELECTRIC WINDING FOR liAIN SHAFTS.
DISCUSSION OF MR. W. C. MOUNTAIN'S PAPER ON
THE " COMMERCIAL POSSIBILITIES OF ELECTRIC
AVINDING FOR MAIN SHAFTS AND AUXILIARY
WORK."*
Mr. Maurice Deacon said that he was not going to criticize
Mr. Mountain's paper, because he agreed with it. He thought
that the gratitude of the members was due to Mr. Mountain for
coming forward in such a pure engineering spirit and telling
them not to use electrical winding where steam-power could be
applied direct, although such advice was opposite to his interests.
Mr. G. J. BiNNS moved a vote of thanks to Mr. W. G. Phillips
for his services in the chair.
TrafU, Inst, M. E„ 1906, vol. xxxi., page 329.
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ANNTJAL REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. 161
THE MINING INSTITUTE OF SCOTLAND.
ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING,
Held in thb Hall of thr Institutk, Hamilton, April 11th, 1907.
Dr. ROBERT THOMAS MOORE, President, in the Chair.
The minutes of the last General Meeting- were read and
confirmed.
The annual report of the Council was road as follows : —
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1906-1907.
The Council have pleasure in submittin-g their twenty-ninth
annual report.
The number on the roll, at present, is aa follows : —
Honorary Members 4
Life Members 9 ^
Life Associate Member 1
Members (subscription £2 28.) 175
Members (subscription £1 5s.) 276
Associate Members 31
Associates ]«S
Students 18
Non-federated Life Member I
Non-federated Members (subscription £ 1 Is.) 12
Non-federated Members (subscription 10s. 6d. ) 4
Total ... 644
This number compares with that of last year as follows: —
On the roll at April, 1906 524
Added during the year 48
Total ... 572
Died 4
Retired 10
Gut off through non-payment of
subscriptions 14 28
At present on the roll 544
This statement shows a net increase of 20 during the year.
The following i>aper8, with discussions thereon, have been
before the members and published in the Transactions : —
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1«'>2 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.
"Electric Power-station, Winding-gear and Pumping-plant of the Tarbrax
Oil Company, Limited/' By Mr. James Caldwell.
"Acetylene Safety. lamps." By Mr. L. H. Hodgson.
" The Wolf Safetylamp. " By Mr. L. H. Hodgson.
"Non-rotating Wire-ropes, and Tests of Wire-rope Attachments." By Mr.
Ernest King.
" Notes on the Detection and Estimation of Inflammable Gases in Mines by
Means of Flame-caps." By Mr. Charles Latham.
" The McCutcheon Gas-detector." By Mr. Robert McLaren.
" Heading by Long wall Machines." By Mr. Sam Mavor.
" Effects of Acceleration on Winding- torques, and Test of Tarbrax Electrical
Winding-plant." By Mr. George Ness.
" The Gold-field of Paracatti, Minas Geraes, Brazil." By Mr. Hugh Pearson.
"A Diamond Hand-boring Machine." By Mr. John B. Thomson.
" Tests of a Mine-fan." By Mr. John B. Thomson.
Through the kindness of the Tarbrax Oil Company, Limited,
the members had an opportunity of inspecting the electric
installation at Tarbrax oil-works in June last, a special feature
being the electric winding, which is the first of its kind in
Scotland. There waa a large turn-out, and the excursion was
very successful.
On the occasion of the visit of the American Institute of
Mining Engineers to this country in August last, an oppor-
tunity was afforded, in conjunction with the West of Scotland
Iron and Steel Institute, of entertaining them to an excursion
by chartered steamer on the Clyde, a mark of courtesy which
was greatly appreciated by the visitors. On the evening of the
same day, the Lord Provost and Magistrates of Glasgow gave
a reception in the municipal buildings to the joint Institutes.
The issue of a new catalogue of the Library, at the beginning
of the year, has served to quicken interest in the large collection
of books which the Institute now possesses, and which is being
constantly added to by purchase and exchange.
The donations to the Library during the year, in addition
to those received by exchange, are aa follows ; —
Donors. Donations.
Mr. Robert McLaren. Mines' Reports and Statistics 1904-1905, 2 volumes.
Mr. J. T. Robeon. Mines' Inspector's Report, 1905, Swansea District.
Mr. J. M. Ronaldson. Mines' Inspectors' Reports, 1905, 13 parts or
volumes.
Mr. G. Henriksen. Pamphlet on Sundry Geological Problems.
Messrs. John Watson, Case with the complete core of a diamond bore from
Limited. the Splint seam to the Drumgray coal-seam, near
Hamilton.
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TRANSACTIONS. 168
The financial condition of the Institute is satisfactory, as
shown by the Treasurer's accounts.
There have been nine meetings of Council during the year.
The report was unanimously adopted.
The annexed abstract of the Treasurer's accounts was read
and adopted.
The following gentlemen were elected : —
Membebs —
Mr. CharlEkS Atherton Atchlby, c/o Messrs. G. Harland, Bowden & Co.,
Baltic Chambers, Glasgow.
Mr. James Cooper, 1 Roseneath Terrace, Edinburgh.
Mr. Andrew Sneddon Howie, Messrs. Backus & Johnston Co , Casapalca, Peru.
Mr. Thomas M'Meekin, Forth View Cottage, Wallyford, Musselburgh.
Mr. John W. M*Trustt, Technical College, Wigan.
Mr. John Sneddon, Comsilloch Colliery, Netherbum.
ELECTION OF OFFICERS, 1907-1908.
Office-bearers for the session 1907-1908 were elected as
follows : —
President :
Dr. Robert Thomas Moore, 142, St. Vincent Street, Glasgow.
Vice-Presidents :
Mr. Archibald Bltth, Lochside, Hamilton.
Mr. James Hamilton, 208, St. Vincent Street, Glasgow.
Mr. Thomas H. Mottram, 6, Kelvinside Gardens, N., Glasgow.
Mr. Thomas Thomson, Fairvlew, Hamilton.
Councillors :
Mr. James Armour, St. Abbs, Leven.
Mr. Thomas Arnott, 12, Garrioch Drive, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
Mr. James Bain, The Whins, Alloa.
Mr. Harrt D. D. Barman, 21, University Gardens, Glasgow.
Mr. Adam Brown, AUanton Colliery, Hamilton.
Mr. John T. Howat, Stobbs Mouse, Kilwinning.
Mr. William Howat, North Motherwell Colliery, Motherwell.
Mr. Douglas Jackson, Coltness Iron-works, Newmains.
Mr. Thomas J. Jamieson, Motherwell Colliery, Motherwell.
Mr. James M*Phail, Bog Colliery, Bothwell.
Mr. John Mbnzies, Auchinraith Colliery, Blantyre.
Mr. J. Balfour Sneddon, Oakbank Colliery, Mid Calder.
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154
ACCOUNTS.
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DISCUSSION — ^TESTS OF A MINE-FAN. 155
DISCFSSION OP MR. JOHN B. THOMSON'S PAPER ON
"TESTS OP A MINE-PAN."*
Mr. James Black (Airdrie) said that Mr. Thomson had made a
few mistakes in finding the effici-ency of the fan. In the first
test, the indicator-diagrams, to determine the average steam-
pressure in the cylinder, were taken when the engine was run-
ning at 90 revolutions per minute ; and the necessary measure-
naents to determine the horsepower in the air were taken when
the engine was running at 92 revolutions per minute. Of course
it was necessary, before Mr. Thomson could calculate the effi-
ciency of the fan, that he should find the horsepower in the air
and the horsepower in the steam-cylinder when the engine was
running at the same number of revolutions in both cases. These
calculations could have been accomplished in two different ways,
either by finding the horsepower in the steam-cylinder when the
engine was running at 92 revolutions per minute, or by finding
the horsepower in the air when the engine was running at 90
revolutions per minute. Mr. Thomson selected the latter method,
and in making this adjustment h.e incorrertly a,s8umed that the
horsepower in the air varied directly as the revolutions of the
engine. Actually the horsepower in the air varied directly as
the cube of the revolutions of the engine, and consequently the
accuracy of Mr. Thomson's result was seriously affected. Thus,
instead of the efficiency being 878 per cent., it was 83*98 per
cent. He could not say whether there was a similar mistake in
the other tests, as the information was not available in the
paper. However, the valuable deduction could be ma<Ie that, in
finding the efficiency of a fan, the various operations should
always be carried out simultaneously.
He (Mr. Black) thought that another mistake had occurred
in the third test : the air-current in that test wa,s measured under-
ground, and the water-gauge was 208 inches in the fan-drift, and
116 inches underground ; Mr. Thomson stated that '* the water-
gauge due to the differences of temperature, calculated on the
depth of the Main coal-se^im, was Oil inch ; and the actual water-
gauge due to the fan was (203 — O'll or) 1*92 inches." Mr.
Thomson had erroneously assumed that the reading of the
water-gauge on the fan-drift included the water-gauge due to
the differences of temperature in the shafts. The ** natural "
* Trans. Inst. M. E., 1906, vol. xxxii., page 295 ; and vol. xxxiii., page 58.
TO J*, xxx1u.-1w.wg7. 12
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156 DISCXTSSION — ^TESTS OF A MINE-FAN.
water-gauge did not increase the efficiency of the fen,
although it assisted the ventilation of the mine, but that was
an entirely different matter. Mr. Thomson was actually not
crediting the fan with work which it had leflritimately accom-
plished, and consequently he arrived at an inaccurate result;
and, instead of the efficiency being 64*2 per cent., it was actually
67*8 per cent. He (Mr. Black) could not understand why Mr.
Thomson in his summary did not notice that something was
wrong with one or other of his results, because in the first and
second tests the water-gauge due to the differences of shaft-tem-
perature were eliminated ; and it was taken into consideration in
the third test. Had he been justified in this exclusion in one
test, surely he would have been justified in all, unless the average
temperature in both shafts was the same, and this, of course, was
not probable. This error affected the efficiency in the fourth
test; and, instead of the result being 865 per cent., it was
actually 91'3 per cent.
Mr. John B. Thomson, in thanking the members for the way
in which they had received his paper and more especially the
gentlemen who had taken part in the discussion, said that he had
been specially interested in the communication by Prof. A.
Eateau, who mention^ that the measurements ought to have
been made with a Pitot tube. He had read Prof. Rateau's paper
on " Experimental Investigations upon the Theory of the Pitot
Tube and the Woltmann Mill,''* and found that the water-gauge
tube should have been held like the Pitot tube, namely, against
the air. If that had been done, the efficiency of the fan would
have been reduced, as Prof. Rateau had remarked, from about
86 to 55 per cent. ; but that did not explain the great differ-
ence between tlie measurements of the air in the mine and
on the surface. The fan-drift was not quite level : it dipped
about 1 in 6 ; and Mr. T. H. Mottram vividly described the whirl
that took place in that drift. Mr. James Black took exception
to the way in which the air had been measured, and thought that
the nine spaces, into which the fan-drift was divided, were too
large ; but 4 square feet might be considered as a small enough
area. Mr. Black also took exception to the system of shelves
as against dividing the fan-drift into squares with wires and using
• Tratvi. Inst. M, E., 1899, vol xvii., page 124.
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DISCUSSION — HEADING BY LONGWALL MACHINES. 167
the anemometer on the end of a rod. The rod could be used
in two ways: (1) The anemometer could be mounted on the end
of the rod, so that the observer must stand behind it and move
himself about with it keeping* the rod level ; but it was difficult
to keep the anemometer parallel to the section of the fan-drift,
and an eddy was set up by the body of the operator bein^^ placed
so near the instrument. (2) The anemometer could be mounted
on the side of the rod, and the operator would then stand in
the section where the air was being measured. This method
was subject to several difficulties, especially if the fan-drift was
large with va lying velocities of the air in the different spaces.
Great difficulty was experienced in keeping the aaemometer in
the section, when changing from space to space. Further, the
operator standing in the section reduced its area and set up eddies.
He thought that the system of shelves, taken off to a knife-edge
facing the current, was the better method, as the fan-drift was
entirely clear of men during the 5 minutes' duration of the read-
ing in each space. It took a very short time to start the anemo-
meter and for the operator to retire from the section. It was
evident that the efficiency of a fan was not easily determined
when measuring the air so near the ear of the fan, and more
especially in the case of small quick-running fans.
The Peesidbnt (Dr. R. T. Moore) said that the question of
measuring the quantity of air going into the fan-drift was a
difficulty which many members had experienced. The difficulties,
brought out in the course of the present discussion, illustrated
the advantage of bringing subjects of this kind before the notice
of the members.
The discussion was closed, and a hearty vote of thanks was
awarded to Mr. Thomson for his paper.
DISCUSSION OF MR. SAM MAYOR'S PAPER ON
"HEADING BY LONGWALL MACHINES."*
Mr. R. W. Dbon (Glasgow) said that he could not speak from
his own experience of the bar-type of machine, but in regard to
that type of coal-cutting machine further evidence would be
required before accepting all the claims put forward on its behalf.
* Trans. Itut. M. E,, 1907, vol. xxxiiL, page 65.
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158 DISCUSSION SHEADING BY LONGWALL MACHINES.
The idea of opening out work with a coal-cutting machine was
being genel-ally adopted. Mr. Mavor's paper was founded on
the assumption that the bar cutter could do something which
could not be done with any other coal-cutter; and he remarked
that ** the feature of the longwall bar machine, especially adapt-
ing it for heading work, is the anangement which enables it to
cut-in at one end of the face and cut-out at the other — thus
avoiding the necessity for stable-holes.*'* Perhaps some mem-
bers, who had bar coal-cutters and were doing without stable-
holes, would give their experience. Enquiries addressed to
engineers, who were using bar cutters, bixnight forth the reply,
*' stable-holes are made, the same as for any other machine."'
Table I.t showed that in a place 90 feet wide an area of 60 square
yards was undercut per shift of 8 hours ; and that the total cost
was £1 13s. 9d. jjer shift, which comprized £1 4s. for thrc<» men
at 8s. per shift, and 9». 9d. for power-supply, etc. He could not just
follow whether Mr. Mavor meant that these thi-ee men were em-
ployed for 8 hours in this 90 feet place, because Mr. Mavor also
said that it could be done in 4 hours.J (1) If the work were done
in 8 hours, Mr. Mavor's machine would cut across the face in 1
hour at the rate of li feet per minute ; and, consequently, 7 hours
and a proportionate part of the £1 13s. 9d. were employed in turn-
ing the machine and cutting the comers. (2) If the work were
done in 4 hours, allowing a cutting speed of 1^ feet, 1 hour would
be occupied in cutting and 3 hours and three-fourths of £1 13s. 9d.
would be spent in turning the machine and forming the comei-s.
And, in addition, the man who was working the comers and
breaking down the coal to this nice curve would require pay-
ment at the rate, at least, of Id. a ton extra on that place, unless
the coal was exceptionally favourable. Consequently, the cost
for the corners was practically the same with the boi' type of
machine as with the disc type. These figui'es, however, did not
altogether vitiate Mr. Mavor's main contention, that the longwall
coal-cutting machine could be utilized for driving headings. He
(Mr. l)ron) was driving faces with widths of 200 feet or so, with
an ordinary disc machine. Where the holing was reasonably soft,
a channelling machine would not give any benefit in driving
narrow headings, but it would show great economy' when com-
* Trans, InsU M, E., 1907, vol. xxxiii., page 67.
t Ibid., page 68. J Ibid,, page 72.
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MscTJssioN — ^Heading bH Longwall iiACHiKEs. 159
pared with haad-labour in a hard holing. Mr. Mavor's was a
valuable paper, and he hoped that criticism and further informa-
tion would be supplied by members who were using< the bar
machine.
Mr. John Blake (Hamilton) said that the bar coal-cutter at
Eddlewood colliery cut in and cut out. The machine was
turned on th© last road-head, and usually took 35 minutes. The
best speed, for 8^ hours actual cutting-, was 450 feet of longwall
face cut to a depth of 3 feet.
Mr. Thomas Stevenson said that at Eamock colliery the bar
machine cut out its own stables both at the bottom and at the
top. The machine was turned on the last road-head, and took
about 45 minutes, but it depended on the pavement. Places at
the rib-side were not paid anything extra : this work being piiid
at the same rate as the rest. The bar machine seemed to suit
their requirements better than the disc machine because the
coal was inclined to go down. With the disc machine, two men
were required to shovel back. There was no difficulty in the
bar machine cutting into any level, cutting straight and with-
out any stables.
Mr. Thomas Arnot (Glasgow) said that he had used the bar
mlachine in opening two machine-sections by two branching
headings with about 150 feet of face. The machine, with a 6
feet bar, could easily cut 150 feet to a depth of 6 feet in 8
hours. Some difficulty was experienced as the coal gave way;
and, at the same time, they had difficulty in stripping. It took a
little time to turn the machine, probably about an hour. It
took a little time, too, to get the bar into position, depending
on the length of the bar and the material into which it was cut-
ting. The bar machine was a good one for opening up two
sections simultaneously and quickly at a small cost.
Mr. Thomas Thomson (Hamilton) said that he had made a
turn-table, as he thought that it would be of great advantage
and save time in tui-ning the machine: but he found that it
occupied much space, the machine being 14 feet in length ; and
the roof would not stand over so great a width. However, a
machine could be turned in 30 minutes; he thought that this
was speedy work, and was content to work without a table.
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160 DISCUSSION ^HEADING BY LONGWALL MACHINES.
Mr. John McLuckie (Larkhall) said that he was much siir*
prised at the remarks of Messrs. Thomson, Blake and others who
said that the bar machine holed its own stables. Mr. Mavor's dia-
grams showed that part of the stable must be cut out at the end ;
and, wherever Mr. Thomson turned the bar machine, some part
must be left. And further, if Mr. Thomson turned the machine
at the nearest road to the end, it must cut up to the comer with
the bar in front to finish the run ; by so doing, he adopted the
method to which he strongly objected of cutting with the bar
in front. The bar machine was giving good results in longwall
heading, in the manner suggested by Mr. Mavor. If it was the
case that no payment was made for the comers, then the bar
machine was in a very favourable position compared with the
disc machine. Mr. Mavor stated that the wages of the workmen
were £1 4s. for three men ; but, in the Larkhall district, where
the seams were very thin ajid the work not too comfortable, the
machineman, and the second and third hands expected substantial
wages. He thought that Mr. Mavor would i^eciuire to enhance the
wages of his workmen.
Mr. Sam Mavor said that the claim of the longwall bar
maehine to inclusion in the list of heading machines was amply
justified by its performances, examples of which were given in
the paper. It was true that the disc-type of machine could also
be used for advancing places about 90 feet wide ; but it must be
quite obvious to members who had experience in handling both
disc and bar machine®, that the latter hiid special advantages
when applied to work of that kind. The point that he wished
to bring out in his paper was that the application of the bar
machine in the method described (holing 6 feet deep and cutting-
in and cutting-out at the ends of the face) allied rapidity of
advance with the economies of longwall working. The diffi-
culty instanced by Mr. Arnot could be easily overcome by in-
creasing the diameter across the cutters near the i-oot of the bar.
The ellect of this slight modification was to increase the height
of the cut at the front, giving the coal a greater distance to drop
and allowing it to fall forward. This method of tapering the
cut was used in undercutting thick seams in a number of col-
lieries in England. Formerly, when the machines were mounted
on rails, turn-tables had been used for turning the machines;
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DISCtTSSION — ^HEADING BY LONGWALL MACHINES. 161
but, since the introduction of skids, it was found that the
machine could be more easily turned without a turn-table. Mr.
Thomson had said that the machine on skids was turned in
about 30 minutes, and this time could not be :^eatly decreased.
The wages quoted in Table I. were those actually paid for the
minimum shift of 8 hours. The time required to cross the
short face was less than a shift ; and, therefore, the whole work
might be profitably contracted, and the machineman could assist
in filling coals or at stone- work
The discussion was then closed, and a hearty vote of thanks
was awarded to Mr. Mavor for his paper.
Mr. Henry Simonis gave a demonstration of the use of the
Aerolith liquid-air rescue-apparatus.*
Mr. John F. K. Brown iTad the following paper on
'* A Stretcher for Use in Mines " : —
* ''Liqaid Air and its Use in Rescae-apparatus," by Mr. Otto Simonifl,
Trans, Inst, M, E,, 1906, vpl. xxxii., page 534,
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162 A STHETCHER FOR USE IN MINES.
A STRETCHER FOR FSE IN MINES.
By JOHN F. K. BROWN.
There can be no doubt that, in many cases, the present
methods of removing injured men from the working-faces are
very inadequate.
The proposed stretcher is designed to carry men to the shaft-
bottom in comparative ease and comfort. It consists of several
strips of canvas or sail-cloth, 4 inches wide, arranged as shown
in fig. 1 (plate iv.), all the bands being strongly sewn together
at the points where they cross each other. It is intended that
the bands or end-supports, 6, 6, shall be fastened under the
bands, a, a, with hooks and eyes similar to those shown in figs.
8 and 9, so as to admit of raising and lowering either the head
or the feet, as the case may be, by fastening the hook into a
higher or lower eye sewn to the bands, a, a. The principal
dimensions are shown in fig. 1, which represents the support as
it appears when laid out on the ground. The size represented
is suitable for use on a hutch 4i feet long, 2 feet deep and 3 feet
wide. Figs. 2 and 8 show how the stretcher is attached to the
standards of any bogie, or to the side.s of any hutch in the pit.
ITie cross-bands, ri, nre aiTanged so as to give support to a man
of average height and tx) allow of a hammock-formation when
fastened to its support^s; and, if greater ease be required, coats
may be flung over the spaces between the bands. The end-
pieces, 6, 6, for the support, of the head and of the feet, are made
of somewhat stiffer canvas, and ai*e turned upward so as to assist
in affording horizontal as well as vertical support. The weight
of the man stretched out will be sufficient to keep them extended
a foot or less beyond the main supporting bands, «, a, and at
the same time give support to the patient. The stretcher is
intended principally for use with a bogie, and special caps are
provided for fastening over the standards as shown in figs. 4 aod
5 : these caps being varied in design to suit the standards of
different bogies. It may also be used, either with a door-butch
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A STRETCHER FOR USE IN MIXES. 168
or with an ordinary hntcli with the ends knocked out, by fasten-
ing the hooks attached to the bands^ a, a, over the hutch-sides.
This hook is shown in iigs. 6 and 7. It can also be made avail-
able for use as an ordinary stretcher by bending the bands, a, a,
over any long pole, bunton, etc., and attaching the hooks to
the eye in the back of the band as shown in figs. 8 and 9.
The advantages claimed for this stretcher as compared with
an ordinary stretcher are as follows : — (1) It is very much
easier for the injured person, being of the nature of a hammock ;
(2) consequently, it does not aggravate many injuries which might
otherwise become serious ; (3) as a result of this greater ease, the
bogie can be safely run at a greater speed to the shaft-bottom and
thus time is saved ; (4) it is easily put together ; (5) it can be
used with either a hutch or a bogie, or as an ordinary stretcher ;
(6) it can easily be folded in a small space and carried ; and (7)
it can be hung on a nail, anywhere, ready for fixing to the bogie.
Mr. A. Hanley read the following paper on " The Hanley
Cage Guardian " : —
VOL. XXXni.-19061P07.
13
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164
THE HAXLEY CAGE GUARDIAN.
THE HAXLEY CAGE GUARDIAN.
By albert HANLEY.
The cage guardian is intended to guard the cage against
dangers arising from excessive speed, unbalanced forces, jump-
ing the guides, breakage of guides and breakage of the winding-
rope, on whatever type of guide and weight of cage it may be
used.
In a practical application at Dean
Lane colliery, Bristol, and other col-
lieries, the guardian has ridden freely
at speeds up to 75 feet per second,
rendered the cage more steady, and
exerted test-grips varying from 4
cwts. to 10 tons. Figs. 1 to 4 (plate v.)
show two sets in practical application
at Dean Lane colliery. Each set con-
sists of the parts A, B, C, D, E, F and
H : the link or chain, Bi or Bj ; the
weight, H, and the horizontal links
connecting two or more sets are not
absolutely necessary. The horizontal
arm. A, the shackle, D, the shoe, F,
and the strap, C, form a solid built-up
rod. The end of the shackle, D, is
attached to the cage-shackle, I, and
the shoe, F, moves around, but not on
the guide, G. The strap, C, attaclies
the shoe, F, to the arm, A. The arm,
A, forms a connecting rod joining the
centre-line of the winding forces to
the centre of the guide-path. The
adjustable link, B, is attached to the arm. A, and to the rope, J,
at any point, 12 inches or more, above the shackle, D, which
Fig. 5.— Guide-rope, 4 Inches
IN Circumference, bent by
THE AcnON OP THE HaNLEY
Cage Guardian at Dean
Lane Colliery.
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THE HANLEY CAGE GUARDIAN.
165
may be attached to the cage-chains, the coupling-chain, the rope-
cap or the rope-pin. The link, B, may be attached to the rope-
cap, the short coupling, or any other part above the shackle, D.
The horizontal arm, A, and the link, B, form two sides of a tri-
angle, the third and guiding side being the rope, J, or other point
in the centre-line of the winding forces. These parts may be
made of any thickness or strength.
On the rope, J, becoming detached, the cage-shackle, T,
drops upon the shackle, D (fig. 1, plate v.); and because the
pressure is greater
on the shackle, D,
than on the shoe, F,
the horizontal arm,
A, assumes a sloping
angle, and the shoe,
F, grips the guide,
G, like a human
hand (fig. 3, plate v.),
while the shackle,
D, acts like a hinge
(fig. 4, plate v.).
The amount of
the grip is dependent
on and greater than
the weight of the
cage. The grip is
divided into a pull
on the upper and a
thrust on the lower
part of the guides,
G, when such are
of the rope, girder,
rail type ; and
p^l^B
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Fio. 6.— Two Sets op the Hanlet Cage Guardian
ON THE Downcast Shaft, Dean Lane Goijjert.
when they are of
wood, H or T iron,
the pull is prevented by a special design, and thrust only is
allowed, limited to suit the safe deflection of the particular
:gmde8, but the friction of the thrust would hold the cage. The
two sets (fig. 1, plate v.) are so designed and fitted that the
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166 THE HANLEY CAGE GUARDIAN.
angle of inclination is limited to a point when the shackles, D^
become locked against the cage-shackle, I (fig. 4, plate v.),
so that the rope-guides shall only be stretched and bent to-
an amount dependent on the particular guide (fig. 5).* If that
angle is not sufficient to hold the cage (as in breakages on the^
downward journey), the appliance slides on the guide until the
friction of the downward sliding movement consumes the sur-
plus energy of the cage.
As many as eight sets of this appliance may be used on as
many guides ; or a special safety-guide or guides may be erected,
and one set of the guardian of suitable dimensions used for the
cage.
The appliance does not exert any false grip when a cage is
dropped slack and picked up rapidly. The pressure, to cause
grip, must be exercised at the shackle, I) ; and there is no loosen-
ing action on the bolts.
The appliance has the peculiarity that, although the horizon-
tal arm. A, acts as a free rod, as soon as pressure comes on the
shackle, D, it behaves as if it were a lever ; and practically it acts
as a lever, without a fulcrum, attached to the cage. There are
no springs. The appliance is not attached, and at the first part
of the moment it is independent of the cage, which merelj^
tightens the grip sufficiently to hold itself.
The two sets at Dean Lane colliery (fig. 6) weigh 150 pounds,
or 35 pounds per ton of loaded cage ; and each set is sufficient to
hold the cage. The sliding action in a test, 7 feet in IJ
minutes or 280 feet per hour, slackened as the appliance slid
down the guide-rope and then the cage stopped.
* Rope-guideB, similarly bent, have been readily straightened in less than
30 minutes ; and in one special case, where the stress of the grip was 82 cwts. or
60 per cent, of the breaking strength of the guide, scarcely a trace of the previous-
bend was observable.
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TransacUonsJ^Sd907
Voi^XXXBL, Tlate Y
To illustrate'N^AJanl^bIhpero7i''I7i&B<z^^ Guardian^*
FiQ. l.-SiDE Elevation.
FiQ 2.-3E0TI0M SHOWING Grip
OF Shoe upon a Rope-Quiof
Fio. 4 -Elevatjon SHOwma Angle
OP iNCLi NATION OP SHACKLES.
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FiQ. 2.— Plan.
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ABa7ReiaACaB^L*flleweauI«t9ea1bmi. —
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DISCUSSION — ^BOILERS FOR COLLIERY PURPOSES. 167
THE SOUTH STAFFORDSHIRE AND WARWICKSHIRE
INSTITUTE OF MINING ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING,
Held at the Univsbsity, Bibminoham, April 16th, 1907.
Mr. F. a. GRAYSTON, President, in the Chair.
The minutes of the last General Meeting and of Council
Meetings were read and confirmed.
The following gentlemen were elected : —
Member —
Mr. Jonathan Hunter, Colliery Manager, Cannock, Staffordshire.
Associate Member—
Mr. W. DuTF Gibbon, King's Heath, Birmingham.
DISCUSSION OF MR. F. C. SWALLOW'S PAPER ON
"BOILERS FOR COLLIERY PURPOSES."*
Mr. J. T. Onions said that the author had quoted instances
where the consumption of fuel had been as low as li per cent, of
the output, and others where the consumption was as high as
11 per cent. : but both examples were extreme cases, the former
being exceptionally so. His own experience with boilers of the
Lancashire type had been an average of 6 per cent., which might
be said to be a low one for the district. He had recently perused
a colliery-lease which only allowed a colliery-consumption of 4
per cent, free from royalty. He desired to ask the author what
had been his experience with the deposition of mud in the tubes
and mud-drum of the water-tube boiler, and particularly whether
mud was deposited in the vertical tubes.
Mr. S. F. SopwiTH thought that so low a consumption as li
per cent, could only be attained under the most favourable con-
* Trans. Inst. M. E,, 1906, vol. xxxiL, page 320.
VOL. XZZIII.-1906-1N7. H
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168 DISCUSSION — THE HAXLET CAGE GUARDIAN.
ditions, Buch as tHiose where coking coal was manufactured into
coke and the boilers were fired by the gases drawn from the
ovens. His own experience in the Cannock Chase district had
been an average all the year round of about 8 per cent, on an
output of 500,000 tons per annum — in summer (when the output
was less) from 9 to 10 per cent., and in winter from 5 to 6 per
cent.
DISCUSSION OF MR. A. HANLET'S PAPER ON "THE
HANLET CAGE GUARDIAN."*
Mr. Albert Hanley exhibited and described his cage
guardian, an appliance designed to guard against accidents to
the cage from the breaking of the winding-rope. Recent acci-
dents proved once more how it behoved coUiery-ofiicials to take
every precaution for preventing loss of life ; and there was a
possibility of hasty and restrictive legislation unless such acci-
dents were prevented.
The President (Mr. F. A. Grayston) said that the Hanley
appliance appeared not to act too quickly, as was the case in some
appliances designed to prevent winding accidents. He con-
sidered that the invention should be put to more practical and
thorough tests, under ordinary working conditions, than had yet
been made. He was inclined to think, if the rope were to break
near the surface when the cage was at any depth, that the conse-
quences would be serious, owing to the heavy weight of rope
falling upon and around the cage and appliances, before the
latter had time to suspend the cage.
Mr. S. F. SoPWiTH asked what was the actual greatest stress
on a rope-guide that had been recorded on the breaking of the
rope on the downward journey, and whether existing guides^
which were not fitted for that purpose, were sufficient to with-
stand the additional strain?
Mr. Hanley said that it did not follow that the shoe of the
appliance stopped where it fijrst gripi)ed; and in one test it
slipped 7 feet in 1^ minutes. The shoe touched the guide, when
2 degrees out of the perpendicular, and commenced to grip when
♦ Trans, Inst. M, E,, 1907, vol. xxxiii., page 164.
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DISCUSvSION — THE HANLEY CAGE GUARDIAN. 169
it became 6 degrees. The movemeat and grip of the appliance
was not a sudden fall and a sudden grip at the stopping position.
When the rope was detached, the cage-shackle, I, and the cage-
weight pressed on the shackle, D, causing the arm, A, to move in
an increasingly inclined position, the motion gradually slacken-
ing and retardation gradually increasing till the cage and the ap-
pliance stopped.* The point of stoppage and the distance of sliding
on the guide depended on the cage-weight and the character of the
guide. The distance of eliding on the guides could be lengthened
or increased relatively, but sliding was allowed in practice so as to
enable the appliance to utilize the kinetic energy of down-break-
ages. He did not think that a broken rope, even if 500 feet
long, would interfere with the safety of the appliance, as the
apparatus tended to throw it on one side and it would then ioll,
to some extent, clear of the cage. The tests had been made with
a detaching-hook to sever the rope. The greatest stress on a
guide had -been 10 tons. A special guide could probably be
fitted for use with heavy cages, where it was not desirable to use
the working guides for safety purposes. A special safety guide
would prevent any excessive lateral swing of the cage if a work-
ing guide were broken ; and it could be used to replace, tempor-
arily, the broken guide. The use of a special safety guide would
provide extra stability to the cage, especially in the case of long
cages sliding on wood or iron guides.
Ml'. Alexander Smith said that he had great sympathy with
inventors, as they had considerable difficulty in putting an inven-
tion of this kind to a proper practical test, coUieiy owners being
very unwilling to carry out experiments and tests with their
plants under working conditions. There was certainly one good
feature about the apparatus, namely, that it was slow in action :
the fault of similar safety-appliances being their sudden action, a
remedy almost as bad as the disease.
Trans. Insi. M. E,, 1907, vol. xxxiii., page 165.
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170 DISCUSSION — LIQUID AIE AND ITS USE IN RESCUE- APPAEATUS.
MANCHESTER GEOLOGICAL AND MINING SOCIETY.
GENERAL MEETING,
Held in ths Rooms of thk Sociktt, Queen's Chambers,
5, John Dalton Street, Manchester,
February 12th, 1907.
Mr. CHARLES PILKINGTON, President, in the Chair.
The followiag gentlemeii were elected, having been pre-
viously nominated: —
Member —
Mr. Henrt Batson Beales, Mechftnical and Electrical Engineer, 64, Cross
Street, Manchester.
Associate Member —
Mr. Friedrich Schember, 9 Liechtenstrasse, Vienna.
DISCUSSION OF MR. OTTO SIMONIS' PAPER ON
"LIQUID AIR AND ITS USE IN RESCUE-
APPARATUS."*
Mr. Otto Simonis (London) demonstrated and explained the
aerolith, a liquid-air rescue-apparatus. He (Mr. Otto Simonis)
was not a mining* engineer, but a fire engineer; and it was for
the purpose of combating smoke that the apparatus was first
designed. The apparatus was now used at Baron Rothschild's
coal-mines in Austria, and by the London Fire Brigade. At
Baron Rothschild's mines, a plant had been installed at a cost
of £1,400 for the production of liquid air; about 5 gallons
per hour were made, and in addition compressed oxygen was
produced with the same plant. This plant proved to be not too
big, as they had found employment for the liquid air in a variety
of ways.
The President (Mr. Charles Pilkington) expressed the fear
that the aerolith apparatus would easily get damaged when
• Trans. Inst. M. E,, 1906, vol. xxxii., page 534.
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DISCTJSSIOX — LIQUID AIR AXD ITS USE IN RESCUE- APPARATUS. 171
worn on the back; because, in a mine after an explosion, the
wearer would have to crawl on his hands and knees, and the
knapsack or bag would be rubbed against the roof. He sug-
gested that the clock, placed at the top, and intended to warn
the wearer when the stock of liquid air was nearly exhausted,
might be placed, if possible, in a less exposed position.
Mr. Otto Simoxis replied that the bag was not an essential
part of the apparatus, as it could be removed, and the apparatus
would still work efficiently. He, however, preferred to use the
bag, as it afforded an auxiliary reservoir for extraordinary cases.
The man who was using the apparatus would become aware in
due time of his danger, by feeling the bag and by the diminution
of the volume of air passing through his lungs.
Mr. John Gerrard (H.M. Inspector of Mines) asked what
quantity of air was left in the knapsack after the clock had
given warning.
Mr. Otto Simonis said that the wearer could set the clock
to give warning when the supply waa half done, or when it
would be exhausted in another half-hour. Bottles filled with
liquid air could be taken into the mine and kept there for use
in emergencies.
The President (Mr. Charles Pilkington) said that he had
seen many appliances designed for rescue-purposes. He was
a member of a committee which had to deal with this particular
subject, and there were possibilities in this apparatus that, in
his view, were almost better than anjrthing else he had seen.
He was favourably impressed with it, but he wanted to see it
tested in rough work. The aerolith apparatus was very much
lighter than other kinds, and he hoped to see it severely
tested at one of the rescue-stations. He thanked Mr. Simonis, on
behalf of the members, for giving this demonstration of its use.
Mr. George H. Winstanley, in moving a vote of thanks to
Mr. Simonis, said that he had for a long time taken a deep
interest in the question of rescue-apparatus and read a paper
ten years ago before the Society in which, curiously enough, he
strongly advocated the establishment of properly-equipped
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172 DISCUSSION — LIQUID AIR AND ITS USE IN RESCUE- APPARATUS.
rescue-stations throughout the coal-fields of Great Britain.* The
aerolith apparatus struck him as having features which strongly
recommended it as a practical appliance. The great difference
between it and many other appliances was its simplicity. The diffi-
culty hitherto had been to dispose satisfactorily of the carbon
dioxide, which tended to increase in quantity in the initial
volume of air that was breathed over and over again with
additions of oxygen. In this apparatus no attempt was made to
breathe the same air again ; a great advantage would be found,
too, in the easily portable character of the bottles of liquid air
as against the large steel cylinders of oxygen for replenishing
the apparatus in actual use. The former (the bottles of liquid air)
could more easily be taken into the mine, and carried forward to
some convenient place for the purpose of replenishing the knap-
sack when necessary; and consequently the rescue-party could
carry on their work for a longer period, with less anxiety as to
their supply of respirable air.
Mr. John Gerrard (H.M. Inspector of Mines), in seconding
ihe motion, said that he was not going to commit himself to
anything more, than to say that, theoretically, the aerolith
apparatus appeared to have advantages over the oxygen principle
on which other systems depended. He preferred to wait, before
pronouncing a definite judgment, until the apparatus had been
tested at one of the rescue-statioms ; and he sincerely hoped that,
before very long, they would have a station in Lancashire where
they could prove whether this apparatus was practicable or not.
Their President was the chairman of the committee that was
working for this end, and it was very desirable that its labours
should soon be successful. He thought that such an appliance as
this might be useful in dealing with underground fires. He held
very strongly that there was a field for such apparatus. For-
tunately, they did not now have in Lancashire disastrous explo-
sions ; but they were constantly having to deal with underground
fires, and they had had, in the last few years, several disastrous
underground fires which had been most diflicult indeed to deal
with. It seemed to him that, apart from explosions, there was
a field for the use of these appliances in dealing with the extinc-
• TranMctions of the Manchester OeologiccU and Mining Society , 1897, voL
XXV., page 148.
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DISCUSSION — LIQUID AIB AND ITS USE IN RESCUE-APPARATUS. 173
tion of underground fires. He was sure that they were all veiy
grateful to Mr. Simonis for coining to MaiLchester, and giving
to the Society so full an explantion, because the people of
Lancashire liked to be in the van of progress.
The motion was cordially adopted.
Mr. Otto Simonis said that he did not claim that his apparatus
was perfect in every detail, such as the type of mouthpiece, etc.,
and therefore he welcomed any suggestions. He had always held
that the resoue-^ppliances hitherto in use possessed drawbacks
which were absolutely against them from a practical point of
view. The weight and complication were fatal disadvantages,
independently of the fact that there were certain dangers in the
use of caustic soda and other chemicals.
Mr. Thomas H. Wordsworth read the following paper on
Cage-lowering Tables at New Moss Colliery": —
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174 CAGE-LOWEBING TABLES.
CAGE-LOWERING TABLES AT NEW MOSS COLLIERY.
By T. H. WORDSWORTH.
When pits were shallow and only single-decked cages were in
use, there was no need for cage-lowering tables; but, as they
became deeper, the extra length of time spent in winding, coupled
with the great weight of the rope compared with the load lifted,
led colliery owners to adopt larger cages. As the size of the pits
rendered it impossible to put more tubs on a deck, cages with
two, three, four and up to six decks were used.
Where two-decked cages only are used, duplicate landings
may be put in both at the surface and underground, and a
double set of men may be employed ; and this reduces the period
of decking to a minimum. In other cases, keps are put in at the
pit-bottom; and, by carefully adjusting the ropes, the tubs for
each deck are changed simultaneously at the top and the bottom.
This system has the disadvantage that, if any hindrance takes
place at the top or bottom of Iha shaft, both sets of men are
stopped and the length of time occupied in changing is con-
siderably increased ; besides which, the engineman needs a signal
from the top and bottom for each deck, and, should he slightly
overrun, the cage is likely to be damaged.
The first cage-lowering table seen by the writer was at the
West Riding collieries, Normanton, although he believes that
they were originally used in Lancashire. The table in use at
the West Riding colliery was balanced by weights hanging in
a small pit, half of these being hung on the end of the rope and
the other half supported on a stage, so that they were picked up
after loading the second deck of a four-decked cage. The use
of these supplementary weights, whilst reducing the necessary
brake-power, caused complications when winding men, and it
was only possible to ride men on two of tile decks.
The tables now in use at New Moss colliery have been
evolved from this : they are so arranged that it is possible to lower
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Cage-lowering tables. 175-
the empty cage and table, and in this way men can ride on all
the decks. The balance-weights have been taken out of the
pit and put in sight. The apparatus may be divided into three
parts: — (1) The table on which the cages alight ; (2) the brake-
arrangement for giving the hooker-on control of the tackle ; and
(3) the balance-weights for bringing back the table when the
cage is lifted from the bottom.
The table is biiilt of steel joists and channels (figs. 1 and 2,
plate vi.). The main frame of the table, A, is formed of two
main longitudinal joists, a and 6, 13 feet 3 inches in length, 9
inches deep, 4 inches wide and ^ inch thick, connected at each
end by two cross joists, c, d, e and f, of the same section, trimmed
in and secured by steel angle-irons and rivets, 18 inches from
the end. This frame is further strengthened in the centre
by steel channel-irons, g and A, 3^ inches wide and 9 inches
deep, placed back to back ; and four short joists, i, j, k and I,
trimmed into these and the end joists form the opening for
the balance-rope. There are also four short channel-iron
distance-pieces, m, n, o and p. Four battens, q, r, s and t,
12 inches wide and 3 inches deep are placed longitudinally on
this table, so as to form a cushion between the steel cage and
the steel table and save wear on the bottom of the cages.
The table. A, is carried by two steel-wire ropes, B and C, 1^
inches in diameter, passing over two pulleys, D and E, 4 feet in
diameter, resting on girders running across the pit-bottom. The
attachment between the table and the ropes has been arranged
so that, by taking out two pins, u and v or w and »r, at either
end of the tabled it can be slung from the other rope and hung
clear of the cages. In case of cleaning out the sump or of
changing the weights, F and G, on the end of the conductors,
H, or for any work done below the table, this is a great
advantage.
The other ends of the ropes, B and C, after passing round two
surge-wheels, I and J, 4 feet in diameter (similar to endless-
rope haulage-wheels), and over two pulleys, K and L, 4 feet in
diameter, placed about 20 feet above the floor, are attached to
steel balance-boxes, M and N, built of angle-irons (3 inches
wide, 3 inches deep and ^ inch thick) and plates ^ inch thick.
The attachment is made by short sockets, a, with pins, 6, passing
through cross bars, e, inside the boxes. These boxes are filled
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176 CAGE-LOWERING TABLES.
vith small scrap-iron, such as chain, bolts, etc., and run in angle-
iron slides, d, e, f and g.
The brake-wheel, 0, 6 feet in diameter and 9 inches wide on
the face, together with the two surge-wheels, I and J, is keyed
on to a shaft, P, 6 inches in diameter, supported by six pedestals,
«, h, c, d, e and f. The brake is of the double-post pattern, with
compound levers, ai, ed, de, fg, ghi, hjy il and Id, the leverage
being about 400 to 1 ; and wooden brake-blocks, m and n, are
used, aa they have been found to give the best results. The
weight of the levers is balanced by a weight, g, attached to a
chain, passing over the pulley, p.
In working, the winding-engineman drops the cage, Q, on
the table. A, which is then in the top position, and at the same
time puts the top cage on the keps at the surface. The tubs are
then changed in the bottom-deck, and, when the brake-lever is
lifted, the weight of the cage, Q, is sufficient to overcome the
balance-weights. The hooker-on is then able to stop the cage,
with the brake, when the second deck comes level with the land-
ing-plates ; and, so on, until all the decks are loaded and the
cage and the table are in the position shown in fig. 2 (plate vi.).
In this way, by having a small amount of chase or slack on the
winding-rope, the hooker-on at the bottom of the shaft is enabled
to change his tubs practically as quickly as the change is made
on the surface, and no signal is necessary until all the decks are
changed and the cage is ready for sending to the surface.
After the cage leaves the bottom, the table is brought back
to the top position by the balance- weights.
Too much chase or slack, however, should not be allowed on
the winding-rope, aa this is objectionable when picking up, and
there is also a danger of the detaching-hook coming on the cage-
top or down the cage-iide, should there be any delay in changing
the tubs at the pit-bottom. This difficulty may be overcome by
using cage-chains, 10 to 12 feet long; and, with decks only 4
feet deep, it is then possible for the surface-man to deck the
whole of the decks of the cage before the detaching-hook
falls over the cage-side. On one occasion, when there was too
much chase or slack on the rope, the detaching-hook became
twisted in the cage-chains, and sheared the copper pin instead of
lifting the cage from the bottom.
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The InsUUtjUon^ ofMuUrig Enqwu,ers.
TransacliortsJS0SlS07.
Voz.XSX/11, Plate W.
T^les otMwMoss CblUery!'
27ia Jfanaheeear Oe^lo^ioaZ and. ATijia
TraJiaacUo7isl906]9C7.
U\^\Xy2M^^I'^SXZ.,PLATEllI.
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DISCUSSION — CAGE-LOWEBING TABLES. 177
Old winding-ropes may be used for working the tables, but
experience will show, in each case, whether this is the better
policy. The writer prefers to use a special flexible rope, as it
reduces the liability to stoppage during working hours ; and one
rope will la«t three or four years. In cases of overwinding, the
table has the advantage that the shock to the bottom cage is
considerably reduced. If men were in the cage there would
be less liability of their being injured ; and it has also been found
that the life of the cages is considerably lengthened.
In case of accident or breakdown of any portion of the tackle,
the table can be placed in the bottom position, as shown in
fig. 2 (plate vi.) and winding continued until the end of the
shift or such time as the repairs can be finished. But if the pit
has been previously fully occupied in winding, the reduction of
the output would vary from 10 to 20 per cent.
It is not suggested that cage-lowering tables should take the
place of hydraulic decking-cages, with simultaneous changing
for all decks, but there are many instances in faulted and steep
districts or thin seams, where it is practically impossible to get
sufficient coaJ to the pit-bottom to keep the winding-engine
working full time and so afford a return on the capital neces-
sary to instal hydraulic decking-plant. The writer is of opinion
that, where three or four decks are used and the output does not
warrant an expenditure on simultaneous changing plant with
balance-cages, the cage-lowering table is the best means of
dealing with three or four decked cages, especially if a spiral
drum be used, as it reduces the number of signals to a minimum
and leaves the top and bottom of the shaft practically
independent of each other.
The President (Mr. Charles Pilkington) expressed the obli-
gation of the members to Mr. Wordsworth for his paper and the
accompanying drawings. It was, no doubt, an important
apparatus that Mr. Wordsworth had described, and one that
saved a great deal of time in decking. There were several
appliances, very similar in character, in use at the Clifton and
Kersley collieries, with which he himself was associated ; but in
the latter case a chain was used, instead of a rope.
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178 DISCUSSION — CAGE-LOWEEING TABLES.
Mr. Geoege B. Haeeison (H.M. Inspector of Mines), in mov-
ing that the thanks of the members be accorded to Mr.
Wordsworth, stated that he did not remember having seen an
apparatus like the one described by Mr. Wordsworth before he
came to Lancashire, where, at some pits, there were as many as
six decks in the cages, and this apparatus afforded great advan-
tages, particularly to the engineman, who was thereby relieved
of a great strain.
Mr. G. H. WiNSTANLEY, in seconding the motion, remarked
that the apparatus described by Mr. Wordsworth included new
details and improvements, which had considerably enhanced the
value and interest of his paper. The members present had been
interested, and the drawings clearly demonstrated the advan-
tages of the apparatiis.
Mr. T. H. WoEDSWOETH said that, if the winding-ropes were
properly adjusted, there was no trouble with them.
The motion was cordially adopted.
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TRANSACTIONS. 179
THE NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE OF MINING
AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING,
Held in the Wood Memobial Hall, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
April 13th, 1907.
Mb. J. H. MERIVALE, President, in the Chair.
The Seceetaby read the minutes of the last General Meeting
and reported the proceedings of the Council at their meetings
on March 22nd and that day.
The following gentlemen were elected, having been previously
nominated: —
Members—
Mr. Thomas Abnold, Civil and Mining Engineer, Castle Buildings, Llanelly.
Mr. Simpson Cbombis, CoUiery Manager, Banks House, Durham.
Mr. ALT.AN Abthub Davidson, Mining Engineer, c/o Mr. F. F. Fuller,
138, Salisbury House, London, E.C.
Mr. WiLUAM Dick, Consulting Engineer, 190, Palmerston House, Old Broad
Street, London, E.C.
Mr. Lionel Asheb Jacobs, Colliery Manager, E. I. R. Collieries, Giridih,
Bengal, India.
Mr. Evan Jones, Quarry Manager, Bryn Golen, Station Road, Festiniog,
Blaenau Festiniog.
Mr. Henby Stuabt Mabtin, Mining Engineer, Trewem, Dowlais.
Mr. Lbbebbcht Fkbdinand Richard Schnabrl, Consulting Mechanical
Engineer, Salisbury Buildings, 443, Bourke Street, Melbourne,
Victoria, Australia.
Mr. Daniel Sneddon, Colliery Manager, 73, Scott Street, Newcastle,
New South Wales, Australia.
Mr. Neil Taylob, Mechanical Engineer, 58, Frederick Street, Loughborough.
Mr. Isaac Williams, Mining and Quarrying Engineer, Elterwater, Amble-
side.
Mr. RoBEBT Wood, Colliery Manager, 8, Olympia Gardens, Morpeth.
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180 DISCUSSION — NEW APPARATUS FOR RESCUE-WORK IN MINES.
ASSOCTATE MkMBEB—
Mr. Hans von Lovwevstein zu Loewenstbik, Friedrichstrasse, 2, Essen-
Ruhr, Germany.
Associates—
Mr. Thomas Bates, Under-manager, West Wylam Terrace, Prudhoe, Oving-
ham, S.O., Xorthumberland.
Mr. Chbistopheb Robinson, Back-overman, Dudley Colliery, Dudley, S.O.,
Northumberland.
Mr. Robert Wabdle, Under-manager, Edgewell Terrace, Prudhoe, Oving-
ham, S.O., Northumberland.
Mr. FosTEK Williams, Assistant Mine- and Quarry- manager, Rothay Cottage,
Grasmere, S.O., Westmorland.
Mr. Geobob Wood, Back-overman, Dudley Colliery, Dudley, S.O., North-
umberland.
Students—
Mr. Ebnest Hodgson Kibkup, Mining Student, Peases West Collieries,
Crook, S.O., County Durham.
Mr. Thomas Edwabd Slateb, Mining Student, Blaydon Burn Colliery,
Blaydon-upon-Tyne, S.O., County Durham.
SUBSCBIBER—
Rand Mines, Limited, The Corner House, Johannesburg, Transvaal.
DISCUSSION OF MR. W. E. GARFORTHS PAPER
ON **A NEW APPARATUS FOR RESCUE-WORK
IN MINES."*
Mr. W. C. Blackett said that, from what he had seen of
rescue-work at collieries, he thought that the so-called rescue-
appliances would seldom come into use. He could not remem-
ber a single instance in which he would have felt safer if he
had been provided with such an apparatus, or any instance
where he thought a single life could have been recovered by
such means. He was, however, bound to say that instances
could arise, but it would be very seldom indeed ; and, if they did
arise so very seldom, then he was afraid that, in the course of
years, the use of the apparatus would not be sufficiently practised
or persisted in. Therefore from that very fact, when called
upon, it would very likely constitute a source of danger. It did
not seem to him that such apparatus should be lightly used.
He would not like to go into any mine, for the purpose of
exploration after an explosion, with the intention of putting on
• Trans, Imt, M, E,, 1906, vol. xxxL, page 625.
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DISCUSSION — ^NEW APPAUATITS FOR EESCUE-WORK IN MINES. 181
a headgear, unless lie was certain that life was to be saved only
in this way; and he thought that was the attitude that should
be assumed. The use of such apparatus merely for the sake of
re-establishing ventilation would risk a valuable life, if anything
went wrong while the wearer was out of immediate reach, amid
irrespirable gases. If it were known that a person was in
a known place and could be reached in a certain time, under
those circumstances an apparatus of this kind would be extremely
useful ; but the difficulty he foresaw was that men would get
out of practice in its use, and he thought that if they were
to establish anything in the nature of rescue-stations and appli-
ances (as he hoped they would), they must be extremely careful
that the means they used were such that they would be constantly
kept in practice, and with a sort of discipline, which he feared
they were not likely to get at collieries.
The President (Mr. J. H. Merivale) said that, at the invita-
tion of Mr. W. E. Garforth, he and some other members of the
Institute had visited the rescue-station at Altofts collieries, and
he was favourably impressed with it ; but he came to the conclu-
sion that persons must be specially trained in the use of rescue-
appliances. Mr. Blackett had pointed out that he would not
like to use the apparatus unless there was some strong reason;
but he would go further than Mr. Blackett, and would not put
it on, under any circumstances, until he had had previous prac-
tical training in its use. Mr. Garforth was of opinion that there
should be a rescue-station in each district ; for instance, in New-
castle-upon-Tyne for Ihirham and Northumberland. A number
of men should be trained, and each man should have his own
apparatus that would fit him in the same way as his clothes did.
Such men, so fitted and trained, would be, humanly speaking,
absolutely safe in irrespirable gases, and could do hard work for
t\ro or three hours. These appliances were liable to get out of
order ; but if they were stored in a central rescue-station in New-
castle-upon-Tyne, under a trained man, they could be kept in
order ready for use when necessary. He hoped that colliery-
owners in their district might do something towards carrying
out such an arrangement.
Mr. W. C. Blackett said that he was not prepared to agree
that even men who were practised in the use of rescue-appliances
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182 DISCUSSION — ^NEW APPABATUS FOR EESCUE-WORK IN MINES.
could put them on their heads and shoulders and be perfectly and
absolutely safe. It struck him veiy forcibly, in reading the
account of the recovery of the Courriires collieries, that not a
single life was saved by the use of the apparatus and equally
strongly that one life was lost. An unfortunate man, who was
wearing the apparatus, was killed, and the helmet, torn off his
head, was found lying by his side. This result showed that it
was not to be accepted without reserve that men were perfectly
safe when using such appliances. If rescue-appliances must be
provided, he was prepared to suggest how that could be effected
for Durham and IN" orthumberland. It was very probable, even
if men were specially trained, that untrained persons would be
required to put on the apparatus : if a body of trained men went
to a colliery after an explosion, they could not be turned loose
in the pit without somebody to guide them, and that might be a
person familiar with the workings, who might not have had
-any experience of rescue-appliances.
Mr. Henry Lawrence said that if it were granted that they
could find an apparatus which answered all purposes for saving
life without the present encumbrances, it was a very poor argu-
ment to advance that, after a time, the apparatus would got out of
date, or would not be kept in proper order for work.
Mr. T. E. Forster said that he had an open mind on the
matter, but until somebody showed that there was more
necessity for the use of such appliances than was evident at
present, he did not think that it would be desirable to provide
them. He had been connected with the mines of Northumber-
land for many years, and could not recollect a case where such
appliances were required, except at Killingworth colliery, where
the Fleuss apparatus was used. The difficulty there was not,
however, in getting out those who were unprovided with the
apparatus, but in rescuing the man who was wearing it.
The President (Mr. J. H. Merivale) remarked that the man
who was killed at the Courrieres collieries was not accustomed to
the use of the appliance.
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DISCUSSION — ^EXPLOSION AT WINGATE GRANGE COLLIEEY. 188
DISCUSSION ON THE EXPLOSION AT WINGATE
GRANGE COLLIERY.*
Mr. Donald M. D. Stuart (Bristol) wrote that the Reports
presented a lucid description of the explosion, with perfect
agTeement as to its ori^n ; and contained valuable evidence for
discussing the causes of the disaster. The explosion evidently
originated in coal-dust in the main intake-airway where over
26,000 cubic feet of air was passing per minute, and where gas
could have no existence. Explosions of gas had been so exhaust-
ively investigated that the conditions were known, and remedies
were available in ventilation and safety-lamps that made such
explosions preventible ; but the dangers of coal-dust were not so
well known. It was true that evidence had been accumulating
for several years showing that the coal-dust deposited in mines
was capable of originating and propagating explosion ; but where
there had been long experience of immunity from explosion in
circumstances supposed to be favourable to coal-dust ignitions,
it was still difficult for many to realize that explosion could be
caused by cooj-dust alone. Wing^te Grange colliery, for example,
had been worked for over 40 years without any explosion or
ignition of coal-dust; and in recent years changes had been made
in the ventilation and explosives, that were supposed to enhance
its safety : consequently no apprehension existed that there was
danger in the coal-dust. The danger now stood disclosed by
the explosion, and on evidence of fact so complete that, supple-
mented as it was by the records of similar disasters, the
mining world might be fairly asked to accept the fact that coal-
dust was an explosive agent.
Many interesting questions arose, and amongst them the en-
quiry whether the coal-dust possessed explosive properties during
the 40 years of immunity from explosion, or whether they were of
recent development; it might be useful to consider the circum-
stances that were reported. The effect of air-currents sweeping
through haulage-roads had been often observed, and here the
moisture must have been largely absorbed in a period of 40
years ; but in some mines both deposition of coal-dust and with-
• Reports to His Majesty's Secretary of State for the Home Department on
the Ciraimstances attending an Explosion which occurred cU Wingate Orange
Colliery, Wingate, on the 14th October, 1906, by Mr. A. H. Ruegg, K.C., and
Measrs. R. D. Bain and J. B. Atkinson, M.Sc., two of H.M. Inspectors of Mines,
1907 [Cd. 3379].
TOL. XXXni.-lS06.1907. 15
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184 DISCUSSION — ^EXPLOSION AT WINGATE GRANGE COLLIERY.
drawal of moisture were ^adual, and might extend over many
years before the danger-stage wa« reached. It also appeared that
up to a recent year the mine wba adequately ventilated by a fan
producing 102,000 cubic feet of air per minute;* but subse-
quently the new fan had yielded nearly twice the quantity,
namely, 193,478 cubic feet.t If this increased quantity of air
was taken through the original intake-airways, the velocity of
the currents must have been considerably raised, accelerating the
absorption of moisture, increasing leakage from the tubs, and
adding to the coal-dust deposits in the haulage-roods. One
effect of the increased ventilation would therefore be dry intake-
airways and a more abundant supply of coal-dust; another, the
increased sensitiveness of coal-dust after exposure to aii*-curpents,
which had been observed by Prof. P. P. Bedson. These circum-
stances suggested that the explosive properties of the coal-dust
might have been of recent development, and this was consistent
with the fact that the explosion occurred after the changes in the
ventilation.
He (Mr. Stuart) had found similar circumstances in his invest-
igations of the explosions at the Camerton and Timsbury col-
lieries. Both mines had been worked with immunity from
explosion for from 70 to 100 years; but the ventilation was
largely increased with no alteration in the dimensions of the
intake-airways, whereupon explosive properties developed in the
coal-dust distributed in the haulage-roads, and extensive explo-
sions occurred.
The ventilation of mines had claimed principal attention in
past legislation, with limitation of view to dilution and removal
of gas ; but ihe time had now come when another factor of even
more disastrous energy had to be considered, since it was evident
that while large quantities of air, necessarily travelling at high
velocity, would dilute and render harmless noxious gases with a
large margin of safetv, they at the same time developed a more
serious danger in creating explosive conditions throughout the
main arteries of the mine, that needed only kindling at one point,
to traverse the whole.
♦ Reports to His Majesty*s Secretary of State for the n<yme Department on
the Circumstances attending an Explosion which occurred at Wingate Orange
Colliery, Wingatey on the 14th October , 1906, by Mr. A. H. Ruegg, K.C., and
Messrs. R. D. Bain and J. B. Atkinson, M.Sc, two of H.M. Inspectors of Mines,
1907 [Cd. 3379], page 16.
t Ibid,, page 17.
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DISCUSSION — ^EXPLOSION AT WINGATE GRANGE COLLIEEY. 185
Considerable labour bad been spent for many years in tbe
almost bopelees mission of obtaining explosives that would not
ignite gas or coal-dust in mines ; the subjects of dust^tight tubs
and watering haulage-roads were now receiving much attention^
but the potent relations of air-currents to the coal-dust question,
appeared to have been overlooked. With air-currents at velo-
cities of 400 to 800 feet per minute, and loaded tubs travelling
in the opposite direction at equal speeds, depositions of coal-dust
along the arteries of the mine, and development of explosive pro-
perties in the dust, appeared to be almost unavoidable; and he
(Mr. Stuart) suggested that regulation of the ventilation to
remove noxious gases with least effect in creating dangerous
coal-dust) claimed serious attention.
The disaster threw further light on the behaviour of explo-
sives when used in practical conditions ; it was well known that
detonating permitted explosives had failed to ignite coal-dust
in the large number of tests and experiments made in this
country, and the permitted explosives were supposed to possess
a high degree of safety ; it was recorded here that '* a permitted
explosive was only used as an extra precaution " ; * but this
explosive unfortunately caused an explosion with coal-dust,
although such an event had not happened with all the previous
shot-firing. It was true that the explosive was not used aa
required by law ; but it was used by a competent shot-firer, who
had evidently been misled by the reports that detonating explo-
sives could not ignite coal-dust. It was also true that the explo-
sive should have been used in a properly drilled hole ; but the
same class of explosive was used in holes at Albion colliery, and
ignited the coal-dust with an awful result. The doctrine was
still taught that a detonating explosive was the safer, because
its products expanded with lightning-like rapidity, and conse-
quently cooled down before they could ignite gas or coal-dust.
This theory was answered by the Wingate Grange explosion
with its fatal record.
There were several very interesting observations on the propa-
gation of the explosion. The men killed by violence were at
♦ Reports to His Majesty's Secretary qf State for the Home Department on
the Cireumstanoes attending an Explosion which occurred at Wingate Grange
Colliery, Wingaie, on the 14th October, 1906, by Mr. A. H. Ruegg, K.C., and
Messrs. R. D. Bain and J. B. Atkinson, M.Sc., two of H.M. Inspectors of Mines,
1907 [Cd. 3379], page 18.
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186 DISCUSSION — ^EXPLOSION AT WINGATE GRANGE CX)LLIEEY.
places distant from each other, and it was not quite clear whether
the authors suggested that the violence was due to a force rush-
ing through the field of explosion, or to the sudden development
of force where the men stood. It would be very useful if further
information could be given on this point, and bearing upon the
development of violent action also at the top of the drop staple.
It was recorded that there were indications of force " between the
shafts and the stable- way junction and in-bye of the junction ;
then, extending about 270 feet, there was a distinct length of road
on which, although there were things to disturb, no disturbance
had taken place ; beyond the undisturbed length evidences of a
renewal of disturbance were apparent."* It would be useful to
know the actual position of this space of repose : the stable-way
junction was marked at 720 feet from the shaft, and the shot 1,308
feet beyond the junction ; while the shot-firer was found some
42 feet from the shot, bearing marks of violent forces. It was
also shown that propagation failed a short distance beyond the
stable way, and at 2,700 feet from the junction, in the north-
east way; at the latter point abundant deposits of coked dust
were observed, presumably, therefore, the propagation did not
fail for want of coal-dust. It would promote the discussion of
this subject if further light could be thrown on the places of
failure of propagation, and the causes.
The action of Edward Murton (master shifter) and William
Peat (examiner) deserved to be chronicled ; and, if what they
did could be embodied in " Pit Stories," for circulation amongst
miners generally, such intelligence, self-reliance and courage
would have far-reaching effects in keeping that standard to the
front, and must have an educational value in the accidents of
mining.
He (Mr. Stuart) would like to join with the members in an
appreciation of this valuable contribution by the authors on
the subject of colliery explosions.
Mr. Philip Kirkup (Birtley) wrote that the evidence was
unanimous in proving that fire-damp did not enter into the
cause, no gas ever having been reported and the point of origin
• Reports to His Majtsttfs Secretary of State for the Home, Department on
the Circumstances attending an Explosion which occurred at Wingate Orange
Colliery, Wingate, on the Uth October, 1906, by Mr. A. H. Ruegg, K.C., and
Messrs. R. D. Bain and J. B. Atkinson, M.Sc, two of H.M. Inspectors of Mines,
1907 [Cd. 3379], page 24.
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DISCISSION — ^EXPLOSION AT WINGATE GEANGE COLLIERY. 187
being one that was very unlikely to harbour any. The evidence
wafl also very strong, to prove that the explosion was caused
entirely by an ignition of coal-dust and air, and originated from
flame due to a charge of geloxite being fired on a projecting
ledge of rock, probably covered by a mixture of grease and coal-
dust. The roadways were described as not particularly dusty,
proving that it was the very finest particles of dust that were
dangerous — those which were most likely to be unobserved, such
aa would rest on the top of baulks and props, etc. It did not
therefore appear that brushing the sides, roof, etc., would be
advantageous, unless effective watering was carried on at the
same time, to prevent the finer particles, thus disturbed, from
being carried inbye by the air-current. Further, by removing the
dust by brushing, the heavier portions, which are not dangerous,
are removed, and the lighter and inflammable particles, which
are too light to fall to the ground, are left. Consequently, in
order to effectively deal with the dust, it should be brushed and
cleared away at the same time as a water-spraying tub is work-
ing backward and forward on the inbye side ; and also further
assisted by fixed sprays at different parts of the roadway, fed by
water from the rising main of the pumps. These appliances
should produce a spray of such fineness that it would saturate
the atmosphere, the moisture being carried by this means into
every corner and also to the face of the workings. This
water-spraying should be worked during all hours of the day,
and it would also moisten dust carried in by the intake-air from
the screens as well as that made from the full tubs.
The following lessons may be learnt from this explosion : —
(1) The removal of coal-dust from the roadways, assisted by
tub-sprays and sprays under pressure from the rising main of
the pumps. (2) The thorough examination, by questions, of all
shot-lighters as to their duties and the rules to be enforced, when
giving out licenses. (3) The instilling of the fact into shot-
lighters that, even with a permitted explosive, no shot should be
fired where gas is present ; and that, when using such an explo-
sive in an unstemmed shot-hole, or where it has little work to
do, it is possible to ignite coal-dust without the presence of
gas. (4) Under no consideration must any charge of explosive
be fired, except in a properly drilled hole, efliciently stemmed
with clay. And (5) the absolute prohibition of blasting on main
haulage-roads without a written authority from the manager.
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188 DISCUSSION — ^EXPLOSION AT WINGATE GEANGE CX>LLI£&Y.
Mr. C. C. Leach (Segliill) wrote that Mr. Buegg stated that
all main roads should, as far as practicable, be kept free from
coal-dust. He (Mr. Leach) thought that the act of brushing the
roadways with hand-brushes would raise a cloud of impalpable
dust, and therefore of the most inflammable character, which
would settle on the sides and roofs. This fine dust would be a
greater source of danger than dust containing gritty and larger
particles of coal and shale, which would tend to prevent the igni-
tion of the dust ; the gritty and larger particles forming the inert
portion of it. It might, indeed, be desirable to introduce shale-
dust to neutralize the coal-dust. In very hot pits, extensive
watering would make it almost impossible to work in the steamy
atmosphere, which would prove injurious to the health of the
workmen.
Mr. J. P. KiRKUP said that Mr. R. L. Galloway* appeared to
question the verdict or decision of H.M. inspectors of mines and
Mr. Buegg as to the cause and origin of the Wingate explosion.
He thought that mining engineers in the county of Durham, how-
ever, were generally in agreement with the report of H.M.
inspectors of mines ; and, had those gentlemen been present, he
would have liked them to have refuted, what he might call pre-
sumptuous assertions founded, not on personal observation and
knowledge, but entirely on a superficial consideration of the
evidence given by the witnesses.
Mr. W. C. Blackett said that he was not surprised that
explosions occurred, arising, like that at Wingate Grange colliery,
out of the use of high explosives, when for so many years there
had been no serious explosions from gunpowder. It was a fact
that men would use high explosives under conditions where they
would never have dreamt of using gunpowder, and that was the
case at Wingate Grange colliery. It was futile for Mr. B. L.
Galloway, or anyone else, to controvert the observations that were
made at Wingate Grange coUieiy, as it was absolutely certain
that the conclusions of H.M. inspectors of mines as to the cause
of the explosion were correct. There could be no doubt that the
explosion was caused by the particular shot fired under the cir-
cumstances described in the report. The man who fired the shot
would never have dreamt of doing what he did if he had been
• " The Wingate Grange Explosion," by Mr. R. L. Galloway, The Colliery
rol, :
Ouardiaiiy 19079 vol, zciii., page 635.
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DISCUSSION — ^EXPLOSION AT WINGATE GEANGE COLLIEEY. 189
required to use gunpowder; and therefore they had a curious
anomaly^ that in this case gunpowder would have been the safer.
No man would place a charge of gunpowder on the top of a
projecting stone, and cover it with grease and dust. The man
knew that an explosive, like geloxite, containing nitro-
glycerine, would break down a piece of stone, and, having nothing
else particular to do, he put his time in that way. There could
be no doubt about the origin of the explosion.
After reading the reports on the Wingate Grange explosion,
the uppermost thought in his (Mr. Blackett's) mind was the
length of time wasted at the enquiry before the coroner, some of
which was due to the necessity of imparting technical instruction
to persons who took prominent parts therein and who were
ignorant of even the elements of mining. The report of Mr.
R^egg, considering his lack of familiarity with mining, was
most able ; and there wetre few men who, under similar circum-
stances, could have written so clearly on the subject. What
he might say, therefore, was not in disrespect to that gentleman,
but was meant to find fault with a system which permitted a
person, more or less completely ignorant of mining, to report in
authoritative terms, and to pass opinions upon so highly technical
a subject. The reports were, he supposed, intended to be records
for future guidance, and as such should only be written by men
who knew the subject completely ; otherwise they would tend to
mislead (as he thought that this one might do, and as others pos-
sibly had done), notably that written by Mr. J. E. Joel on the
Brancepeth explosion.* He (Mr. Blackett) would therefore warn
students against the conclusions drawn by gentlemen who came
down as oflSicial reporters to the Home Secretaay, and he advised
them to stick to the facta related so clearly and ably by the men
who knew, namely, H.M. inspectors of mines. In this case, an
eminent lawyer, who might never have been inside a mine in his
life, ventured to make a report on the cause of an explosion in
a mine aud on the means which, in his opinion, should be adopted
to guard against like occurrences. He (Mr. Blackett) valued the
opinion of a lawyer on law, but on mining he regarded it as
merely interesting.
* Reports to the Right HonourMe the Secretary of State for the Home Depart-
ment on the Circumstances attending an Explosuyii which occurred cU the Brancepeth
Colliery in the County of Durham, on the 13th of April , 1896, by Mr. J. Edmondson
Joel, Barrister-at-law, and by Mr. R. Donald Bain, H.M. Inspector of Mines,
1896 [C..8174], pages 3 to 14.
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190 DISCUSSION — ^EXPLOSION AT WINGATE GRANGE COLLIERY.
It waa instructive to hear from Mr. Ruegg's report that he was
of opinion that the ventilation was suflScient, that part of the
haulage-road was dusty and that the dust was dry, but this would
perhaps be more correctly described as the balance of opinion of
those who knew. It was also interesting to observe how reluct-
antly Mr. Euegg accepted what he called the "theory/* put for-
ward by the officials of the mine with the help of expert assist-
ance ; but it was more than theory, it was a definite fact
ascertained by those who knew, and scepticism was not warranted.
He (Mr. Blackett) chiefly objected to Mr. Ruegg's opinion
that the system adopted by Mr. C. S. Games, at his collieries, of
brushing down the dust with hand-brushes, if it were adopted
generally, would greatly minimize the risk of explosion by coal-
dust. Personally, he considered that brushing down dust was
not only quite impracticable, but was more or less futile, and
perhaps even somewhat dangerous. No doubt large quantities
of small particles of matter might be removed in this way ; but he
maintained that it would be impossible to brush off from timber
and other ledges so much dust as would leave a quantity so small
as to be harmless, and it was dangerous to give an impression
that such brushing could be effectual. Moreover, the most
dangerous dust would be moved on by this means nearer and
nearer to the face, carried by the air-current to a part of the
mine where it would be even more oKjectionable than before.
If managers would only make up their minds to use water,
and with a fine impalable spray wash the dust from the timber
and ledges, the dust would then be effectually removed or rendered
harmless for a considerable period. Water could reach places,
untouched by the brush, and could be used in quantities which
would have but a superficial effect, without the necessity of swill-
ing. It was quite true that some stones would not stand water,
but there were few that would not bear a superficial quantity.
He thought that this danger (although freely admitting that it
existed) had been made far too much of, and he was afraid that
the exaggeration, in the end, would do more harm than good.
Mr. T. E. FoRSTER said that he did not quite see himself
why a lawyer should make a report on collieries; but, if the
members read Mr. Ruegg's report, they would find that the
opinions which he expressed were really those of H.M. inspectors
of mines. He (Mr. Forster) could not understand why they were
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DISCUSSION — EXPLOSION AT WINGATE GRANGE COLLIERY. 191
not allowed to report alone. In this instance, Mr. Ruegg seemed
to have accepted their opinions and put them forward as his own ;
but, on another occasion, the gentleman instructed by the Home
Secretary might differ with E.M. inspectors of mines, and he
might make recommendations at variance with theirs and with
the general practice. The Royal Commission on Accidents in
Mines, now sitting, had paid great attention to the dust-problem.
The evidence was published week by week as the sittings pro-
ceeded, and was scarcely necessary to call the special attention
of mining engineers to the difiSculties and dangers in connection
with coal-dust, for they had all been aware of them for many
years. The publication of the evidence, however, would be very
helpful, in so far as it would draw the attention of under-officials
and shot-firers to the matter ; for one knew from personal experi-
ence that these men did not read professional papers, and were
not fully aware of the necessity of counteracting these dangers.
He approved of the suggestion that they should be cross-examined
by colliery managers from time to time. When Special Rules
were established, and for some time afterwards, everybody ob-
served them ; but after a few years they were apt to be forgotten,
and it was desirable that everyone's ideas should be furbished up
occasionally. He thought that it would prove advantageous if
copies of the reports upon the Wingate Grange explosion were
distributed to managers and under-managers for careful
consideration.
Mr. S. Hare, while he agreed with Mr. Blackett in almost
every way in connection with the use of water, said that water-
ing could not be adopted under all conditions, and then the only
thing that could be done was to adopt brushing. For instance,
watering was extensively adopted at the Murton collieries, and
several miles of water-pipes, from 1 inch to IJ inches in diameter,
had been laid, with hydrants fitted at distances varying from 150
to 250 feet apart. He was a believer in the use of water-sprays
and occasionally used them. Any system of watering was, how-
ever, in his opinion of little value unless the dust was gathered
together and sent out of the pit at short intervals. Brushes
were used to a limited extent at the Murton collieries, but only
where it was considered unsafe to apply a large quantity of water.
He had adopted a system, in connection with the shot-firers,
which was, he thought, worthy of emulation. In each district.
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192 DISCUSSION — EXPLOSION AT WINGATE GRANGE COLLIEEY.
where shot-firing was allowed, printed instructions were posted
for the guidance of the shot-firers and to ensure that their work
should be carried out with the utmost safety. He thought that
the posting of these instructions, which were of a stringent char-
acter, brought the subject very closely under their notice. la
addition, the more important regulations were printed on the
back of the license given to each shot-firer, and this helped to
impress upon each shot-firer the necessity and the importance of
the regulations that he was required to observe.
Mr. C. A. Crofton (Morpeth) said that the masterly report of
H.M. inspectors of mines had convinced him that the Wingate
Grange disaster was purely and simply a coal-dust explosion. He
agreed with Mr. W. C. Blackett and Mr. S. Hare with regard to
the watering of haulage-roads, which, although suitable in one
pit, might not be so advantageous in another, on account of the
nature of the strata and the depth of the pit. Cool varied
considerably in its properties, moisture, etc., and tests might
prove that all coal-dust would not explode, some being more
highly sensitive to ignition than others. Consequently he
suggested that coal-dusts from Wingate Grange and from some
shallower pits might be tested. In the transportation of coal
the larger pieces worked to the bottom of the tub and the dust
to the top, and on meeting the intake-air the dust was blown
out of the tub and deposited on the sides, timbers, roof, etc. He
suggested, as a remedy, that all tubs should be fitted with a
lid or cover, which would be removed from an empty tub and
put by the landing-lad on a full tub, and then again would be
taken off by the shaft-lad and placed in an empty tub. Catches
would be fitted on the tubs to prevent the lids from being blown
off the tubs. He thought that this method might prevent the
formation of 80 per cent, of the dust at present being deposited.
Mr. James Ashworth (Old Colwyn) wrote that it would
interest him, and doubtless many other engineers, to have addi-
tional information as to the part played by steam. It was stated
that the steam-pipes were broken; that the steam from three
ranges of pipes was added to the after-damp ; and that one sur-
vivor, J. McDougall, who escaped alive, was scalded by steam
in the Main coal-seam, whilst his mate, J. G. Dixon, was killed
by force : was this force from the steam or from the explosion ?
It might be concluded, after reading the reports, that the flame
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DISCUSSION — EXPLOSION AT WINGATE GRANGE COLLIEEY. 198
of the explosion weat down the stable way and burned G. Bloom-
field, but not the horse found dead near to him. He (Mr. Ash-
worth) would, therefore, like to know whether the appearance
of Bloomfield might not be due to scalding, and not to burning ;
more particularly because the horse was not singed, neither were
any of the horses singed in the stable. But it was quite conceiv-
able that steam and after-damp were either jointly or severally .
the cause of their deaths. At Elemore colliery, an explosion,
originating in a similar way, was carried down the shafts to the
mines below ; and therefore, if the dust from the screens made the
Low Main haulage-ways dangerous, the shafts themselves must
have been still more dangerous, as a consequence of the larger
volume of air passing down to the lower mines. In his (Mr.
Ashworth's) opinion, the steam saved the lower mines ; as no form
of water, excepting steam, could saturate an air-current suflS-
ciently to place a barrier in front of a gas or dust explosion.
Roughly estimated, air would have to contain over 5 per cent, of
water-vapour, or, say, 26 grains per cubic foot, before it could
exercise any controlling influence.* Not only did the steam, in
this way, serve a most useful purpose as a life-saving agent, but
it also appeared to have brought the explosion to a conclusion,
before it extended into the second east way, by its effect on the
ventilation. Thus, the large volume of steam struggling to escape
in every direction, particularly downwards, and acting in like
manner as the steam- jet of an injector, might for the time have
reversed the ventilation in the Low Main coal-seam : that was to
say, both the intake- and return-airways were brought under
an influence tending to draw back the intake-air, and to force the
return-air down the Harvey staple. The next phase would be
during the period of condensation, when air struggling to enter
from every direction to fill the void, tended to draw back the
advancing flame, supposing that the effect of the steam in the shaft
had not already caused the arrestment of the advancing flame by
the large volume of dust disturbed. It was a most marked feature
in this explosion that the explorers experienced very little trouble
from after-damp ; and that the men escaping from the second east
district also met very little after-damp, or they could not have
travelled such long distances before succumbing. He (Mr.
Ashworth) regretted that the plans attached to the Reports did not
* <*The Rate of Explosions in Gases,*' by Prof. H. B. Dixon, Trans, Inst.
M. B., 1892, vol. iii., page 317.
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194 DISCUSSION — EXPLOSION AT WIXGATE GRANGE COLLIERY.
indicate the doors, stoppings, and air-crossings that had been
blown out, and consequently where, in addition to the blown-out
casing in the upcast-shaft, the air short-circuited after the explo-
sion. For the foregoing reasons, he (Mr. Ash worth) had concluded
that excess of dust had brought the flame to an end, and not want
of (}ust, particularly as the greatest heat-effects were demonstrated
close to the point where the explosion appears to have terminated ;
and moreover some at least of the great force exhibited between
the shafts and the stable way, must have been due to the escaping
steam. He was also of opinion that, had it been possible for the
first band of explorers to descend to the Low Main seam sooner
than they did, and check the escape of air into the upcast-shaft,
most of the men in the north-east way would have escaped alive.
The hygrometrical observations* were interesting, as they
showed that the intake-air at the shafts was saturated with water ;
and, although there was a difference of 1*2 grains between the
observations made on October 22nd and those made on November
9th, 1906, yet when the air reached the curve of the second east
way, the water-content had risen to 0*2 grains per cubic foot, being
on the first date 04 grain, and on the latter date 0*2 grain only,
below absolute saturation. Therefore, it was doubtful whether it
was correct to call either the dust or the atmosphere ** drj'." At
the place where Bloomfield was found, the air was saturated,
and carried 6*3 grains of water per cubic foot of air. It waa
perfectly clear that air saturated with moisture was no protec-
tion against the extension of an explosion. On the other hand, it
assisted in the oxidation process ; and, moreover, in addition, the
explosion was reported to have passed over two wet places, of
considerable length, although neither of these were indicated on
the plans accompanying the Reports. With these facts so plainly
demonstrated, it was a misnomer to describe the paii; of the mine
traversed by the explosion as ** dry."
The analyses of dust were another interesting feature of the
Reports, but they did not throw any distinct light on the question,
as to whether dust containing a certain proportion of ash was
explosive or not.t For instance, the dust near Maddison's shot
• Reports to His Majaty^s Stcretary of State for the Home Department on
the Circumstances attending an ICxplwion which occurred at Wingate Grange
Colliery, Wingate, on the 14th October, 10O6, by Mr. A. H. Raegg, K.O., and
Messrs. R. D. Bain and J. B. Atkinson, M.8c., two of U.M. Inspectors of Mines,
1907 [Cd. 3379], page 30.
t Ibid,, page 35.
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DISCUSSION — EXPLOSION AT WINGATE GEANGE COLLIERY. 195
contained 44'13 per cent, of ash ; and at the point near the end
of the explosion on the stable way, 34*80, 39*20 and 44*14 per
cent,, and in the north district, near the end of the explosion,
only 26*95 per cent. These values, when compared with those
obtained at Camerton, Courrieres and other collieries, did not
demonstrate that such percentages of ash were a safe factor. The
addition of an analysis of the coal of the different seams would
have been useful for purposes of comparison.
Possibly no disaster would have resulted from the shot, if
Maddison had not used greasy dust from the roadway to cover
the charge, and it was in aJl probability the great flame from this,
as at Timsbury colliery, that really originated the disaster.
Mr. A. M. Hedley (Blaydon Bum) wrote that, during the
discussion on the Reports dealing with the Wingate Grange col-
liery explosion, Mr. C. C. Leach raised objection to brushing the
main roadways as it ** would raise a cloud of impalpable dust, and
therefore of the most inflammable character, which would settle
on the sides and roofs."* Views differed considerably as to the
necessity for, or practicability of, keeping all main roads entirely
clear of dust throughout their full length; but, in his (Mr.
Hedley's) opinion, every dry and dusty colliery should have its
roadways dealt with as far as possible in this direction, and he
thought that the idea was sound of having, at any rate, certain
lengths of the road kept at intervals clear of dust. Surely few
engineers would contend that there was no necessity for removing
the dust which accumulated in the main roadways, and to his
mind the only point in doubt appeared to be the means to be
adopted for its removal. Mr. W. C. Blackett was of opinion that
" brushing down " was '* impracticable " . . . . " and perhaps
even somewhat dangerous. "t Mr. Blackett favoured, however, the
system of watering, for the purpose of washing off the light dust
which had accumulated on the roof and sides; and a similar
expression of opinion from Mr. Hare, with the latter's extensive
experience at Murton, should carry considerable weight.
An effective combination, if feasible, of brushing and water-
ing seemed desirable, and he (Mr. Hedley) wished to recommend
a means of accomplishing this object which had recently been
suggested to him by Mr. R. Crombie, an associate of the
Institute. It was an idea which the latter had previously carried
* Trans, Iwtt, M.E.^ 1907,'vol. xxxiii., page 1S8. f i^d,^ page 190.
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196 DisctrssioN — explosion at wingate gbange colueet.
out, and he (Mr. Hedley) had since tried it with satisfactory re-
sults. He would assume that a length of 300 feet was required to
be cleared of dust on a main haulage-road, which at the same time
served as an intake-airway. On the inbye side (or the outbye side,
if a return-airway) of this area to be treated, a piece of brattice-
cloth, thoroughly soaked in water, was attached along its upper
edge to the roof-timber, across the full width of the road.
It was hung at such a distance from the roof as was deemed
necessary, without offering too great an obstruction to the ven-
tilating current; aoid, in the case of a strong current of air,
the canvas should be weighted by attaching pieces of timber
to its lower edge. When the brattice-cloth was fixed, the dust-
zone was treated by water-sprays to such an extent as the nature
of the seam's roof or thill would allow, and it was then found
that the operation of brushing the dust from the roof and sides
could be carried out with impunity. The light dust raised, if
carried forward by the air-current, would, on meeting the wet
canvas-obstruction, be moistened and fall in layers on to the
floor, whence, with the bottom dirt, it could be removed and
filled into a tub when the operation was completed. Possibly
a succession of wet sheets might even give better results, and
wet canvas stretched along the roof and sides would further
improve matters. It was possible that one sheet, treated with
a continuous spray of water throughout the brushing operation,
would answer the required purpose. It appeared to him (Mr.
Hedley) that the efiicacy of this treatment in the final capture
of the fine dust depended on the fact that the dust was driven
against a wet surface, instead of the water being thrown on to the
dust and so acting as an agitating and disturbing agent.
The President (Mr. J. H. Merivale) said that the chief point
brought out by the reports on the Wingate Grange explosion was
the danger from coal-dust. It seemed a truism that there was
danger connected with coal-dust, but on reading the Reports it
appeared that many persons still are, or at any rate were, in
doubt as to the dangers connected with it. He agreed with Mr.
W. C. Blackett to some extent as to the undesirability of bring-
ing down gentlemen ignorant of mining matters to report on
colliery explosions. Perhaps the classical instance was that of
Haswell colliery in 1844, when Sir Charles Lyell and Prof.
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DISCUSSION — SINKING BY THE FBEEZING-FSOCESS. 197
Michael Faraday, two of tke most eminent men of the day,
advised mining engineers to put in pipes to drain gases from the
goaves. If, however, an able man, who had no prejudices and
knew nothing about mining, presided at an enquiry and heard
all that was said on both sides, he was in a good position to form
an opinion.
DISCUSSION OF MR. E. SEYMOUR WOOD'S PAPER ON
"SINKING THROUGH MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE
AND YELLOW SAND BY THE FREEZING-PROCESS
AT DAWDON COLLIERY, NEAR SEAHAM HARBOUR,
COUNTT DURHAM."*
Mr. James H.. Brace (New York) wrote that, while this work
was entirely successful, it appeared (1) to emphasize the necessity
of keeping the borings plumb and at a uniform distance ; and that
(2) it was very difficult to form an ice-wall while water was run-
ning through the material to be frozen, and that every precaution
should be taken to stop any such flow before starting freezing.
He understood that the contractors for the work described had
had wide experience of iJiis kind of work, and he would like to
enquire what experiments had been maide with lower tempera-
tures. With the machinery now in use, it was practicable to
reduce the temperature of the brine down to — 30^ Fahr,, and it
would seem to be advantageous to make it as low as practicable.
In conclusion, there had, so far as he knew, been only two
applications of the freezing process for excavation in America in
recent years. One of these was on the rapid-transit tunnel be-
tween New York and Brookljm. This had recently been fully
described in the technical press ; t and the other work had not as
yet reached a final stage.
Mr. M. Malplat's paper on " Sliding-trough Conveyors " was
read as follows : —
* Trans. InsL M. S,, 1906, vol. xxxii., page 651.
t " The Freezing Prooess in the Battery Tunnel, New York," The Engineer-
ing Record [New York], 1906, vol. liv., page 656.
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198 SLIDING-TROUGH CONVEYORS.
SLIDING-TROUGH CONVEYORS.*
By M. MALPLAT.
At the present time, in No. 7 pit of the Lens collieries, the
Saint-Augustin seam is being worked, with the following
characteristics: — The seam is formed of one single bed of coal,
varying from 20 to 24 inches (0*5 to OG metre) thick in the more
regular poi*tions. The coal is hard, but it generally cleaves
into big blocks, without bedding. The roof is bad, and the
floor variable. The average dip is 11 degrees.
The method originally adopted for working this seam was
by means of rising gateways, 52 feet (16 metres) wide, with a
road in the middle of each. The working-cost of this system
was somewhat high, as the essential elements, namely, the
hewing of the coal and the opening of the roads, were expensive.
The stone taken up in the roads must be thick, because the seam
is thin ; and, in addition, each foot of roadway corresponds only
to a small output of coal. In order to reduce the costs of stone-
work, the management were induced to suppress every alternate
road, giving each working-face a length of 100 feet (30 metres).
It then became indispensable to establish, on either side of the
face, which measured 50 feet (15 metres), some method of con-
veying the coals.
The following system was adopted: — The coal-face, at each
side of the rising gateway, is made at a small angle with the
strike of the seam, and with a slight slope towards the road;
and, in the space between the coal-face and the goaf, rails weigh-
ing 10 pounds per yard (5 kilogrammes per metre) have been
laid (Fig. 1). The gauge of the rails is 9^ inches (24 centi-
metres); they are connected by riveted sleepers, and form
lengths of 8J feet (2^ metres), fitted to the neighbouring lengths
by means of fish-plates. Along this road slides a trough made
* "L'Emploi . . . . de Couloirs glissants pour le Boutage dans les Tallies,"
by Mr. M. Malplat, Comptes rendua mejisuds de9 R6\ini<yiis de la Soci6t6 de
V Industrie Min^rait, 1907, pages 27-2$.— Translated by Prof. Henry Louis, M,A.
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SLIDIXG-TROUGH CONVEYOES.
199
•of sheet-iron, 0*12 inch (3 millimetres) thick, in the form of a
semi-cylinder, 20 inches (50 centimetres) in diameter and 6J
feet (2 metres) long. This trough is protected by three rings of
half-round iron, which rest upon the rails (Fig. 2). A rope, 50
feet (15 metres) long is attached to each end of the trough, and
allows it to be drawn alternately from the further end of either
side of the face to the road.
The working is organized as follows : — Five workmen, one of
whom is an assistant, are engaged at the face. The assistant
works in the roadway, drags the troughs when they are full,
and loads the coals into the tubs. The amount of pull required
to move the trough is very small, and it is about the same in
either direction, full or empty, on account of the gentle slope of
the road. Unloading the trough is particularly easy, when, as
is the present case, the cut for the roadway is made in the
Fig. L— Plan of Gateway.
Scale, 48 Feet to 1 Inch.
Fig. 2.— Section of Conveyor.
Scale, 12 Inches to 1 Inch.
l)ottom-stone. The trough is tipped into the tub standing in
iihe roadway by attaching the rear cord of the trough to a prop
at the far end of the face ; and, by suitably regulating the length
of this cord, the trough can be abruptly stopped, producing
automatic discharge of the contents. In this method of dis-
charge, the trough is open at either end; but often, on the con-
trary, in order to increase its capacity, the lower end is closed
by a movable door. The trough has a capacity of about 3^
■cubic feet (2 hectolitres); in practice, three troughs fill a tub
•carrying lOJ cwts. (545 kilogrammes) ; and two troughs are suffi-
cient when the seam is thicker, and the trough can be loaded
above the level of its edges. Tery little height is required,
as the trough will pass under a height of 14 inches (0*35 metre).
The system has been well received by the workmen, who
found formerly that the transport of the coal was laborious on
vol. XXXni.-1906.19OT.
16
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200 DIvSCXTSSIOX — SLIDIXG-TROUGH COXVEYORS.
account of the thinness of the seam. The coal is loaded, as
fast as it is broken down, into the trough, and the face always
remains free for the ventilating current and the passage of the
miners. The width of the working-face of each gateway has
been doubled without increase of the hewing prices, and no
payment is made for laying the road for the conveyor. These
troughs are also used for throwing back into the goaf the
debris made in cutting the roads, part of which was formerly
sent to bank in tubs.
Mr. T. C. FuTERS said that the trough, merely lying on the
rails and having a capacity of 3^ cwts., would require a strong
boy to move it.
Mr. Hexry Lawrence said that the appliance seemed a very
unusual one : its adoption might have been necessary under the
circumstances in which it was employed, but he thought that
friction would soon wear out the trough.
Mr. T. E. FoRSTER asked what strain or pull was required to
move the empty and the loaded trough, whether the system had
been in use any length of time, and the cost of this method of
conveying.
Mr. C. A. Crofton remarked that tubs carrying lOJ cwts.
were rather large for a seajoi less than 2 feet high. The stone-
work would consequently be very costly.
The President (Mr. J. H. Merivale) said that the method had
evidently been developed, in order to reduce the cost of workings
thin seams by decreasing the number of gateways. Attempts
had been made, some with considerable success, and others with
not so much ; and one could hardly tell from a cursory glance
whether this proposal was likely to prove successful.
Mr. M. Walton Brown read the following ** Memoir of the
late John Daglish."
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Vol XXXI I L, Plate VII,
JOHN DAGLISH,
PRESIDENT OF THE NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE OF MINING AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, 1884-1888.
Born on June idth, 1828^ and died on August ^th, 1906.
(Presented by The North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers.)
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MEMOIR OF THE LATE JOHN DAGLISH. 201
MEMOIR OF THE LATE JOHN DAGLISH.
By M. WALTON BEOWN.»
The late Mr. John Daglish, mining and civil engineer, of
Rothley Crag, Cambo, Northumberland, was bom in Newcastle-
upon-Tyne, on June 26th, 1828. He attended Dr. John
CoUingwood Bruce's school in Newcastle-upon-Tyne from 1836
to 1838. Afterwards he went to Wesley College, SheflSeld, where
he remained until 1843; and during that year he commenced
his apprenticeship as a mining engineer with Mr. Nicholas
Wood, at Killingworth collieries. In 1848, he went to TJrpeth
colliery, as assistant viewer to Mr. Edward Fenwick Boyd ; and
from October 1849 to 1850, he attended lectures at King's and
University Colleges, London.
In 1850, he went to Barrington colliery,* as viewer, under
Mr. James Longridge ; and, in 1852, he was appointed viewer
of BadclifEe colliery. In October, 1854, he was appointed
viewer of Seaton colliery, then the property of the Earl of Dur-
ham and the Owners of Hetton collieries.
In 1855, he married Miss Sarah Ellen Eobson of Paradise,
near Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and of the marriage there was one
daughter, Adelaide Mary, who was bom at Seaton House on
December 28th, 1856, and died at Rothley Crag in 1905.
Mr. Daglish became viewer of the Hetton collieries in 1859.
He was in 1863 appointed chief viewer to the collieries belonging
to the Marchioness of Londonderry ; in 1865, he became general
manager ; and he resigned this position in 1869.
He became managing director of the Whitburn colliery in
1873 ; and in the same year, he was appointed managing director
of Cwmaman colliery, in South Wales, and held the appointment
until his resignation in 1895. He was also agent for Kimbles-
worth colliery, Durham ; Silksworth colliery, Durham ; Hough-
ton Main colliery, Yorkshire ; Swaithe Main colliery, Yorkshire ;
* Extended and revised from the Nexccasth Daily Journal ^ August 16th, 1906,
page 5.
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i^02 MEMOIR OF THE LATE JOHN DAGLISH.
aad^Manvers Main colliery, Yorkshire. He was a director of
Llest colliery, South Wales ; and as check viewer held numerous
mining agencies.
In July, 1891, Mr. Daglish resigned all colliery manage-
ment, and purchased the Rothley Crag estate of 1,100 acres.
The building of the hall at Bothley Crag was completed in
1895, and here he chiefly resided until his death.
He was one of the 44 " colliery owners, viewers and others
interested in the coal trade," who met in Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
•on July 3rd, 1852, and founded The North of England Institute
of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, '* to meet at fixed periods
and discuss the means for the ventilation of coal-mines, for the pre-
vention of accidents, and for general purposes connected with the
winning and working of collieries." He retained his member-
ship up to his death, and at all times took a keen interest in the
furtherance of the objects of the Institute. He was for many
years a member of council, and a Tice-president, and occupied the
office of President during the years 1884 to 1886. Mr. Daglish,
in addition to taking part in the business of the meetings, wrote
^he following papers: —
"The Relative Heating and Economic Values of Bound and Small
Coals," TraM. X. E, Imt., 1856, vol. iv., page 283.
"Experiments on the Strength of Wire-ropes and Chains," ibid,, 1859,
vol. vii., page 211.
"The Injurious Action on Iron in Tpcast Shafts," ibid., 1860, vol. viii.,
page 179.
"The Cause of the Loss of Strength in Iron Wire when Heated,"
ibid., 1860, vol. viii., page 181.
"The Construction of Ventilating Furnaces," ibid., 1861, vol. ix.,
page 131.
""The Various Modes of Ascertaining the Velocities of Currents of
Air in Mines, in order to Determine the Quantities Circulating in
a given Time," in conjunction with Mr. John Job Atkinson, ibid.,
1861, vol. X., page 207.
""The Destructive Action of Furnace Gases in Upcast Shafts," ibid.,
1861, vol. xi., page 19.
^'The Donesthorpe, Firth and Ridley Coal-cutting Machine," in con-
junction with Mr. Lindsay Wood, ibid., 1863, vol. xii., page 63.
*'The Ventilation of Underground Boilers," in conjunction with Mr.
William Armstrong, ibid., 1863, vol. xii., page 79.
"Paradoxes in the Ventilation of Mines," in conjunction with Mr. John
Job Atkinson, ibid., 1863, vol. xii., page 93.
*'The Magnesian Limestone of Durham," in conjunction with Mr.
George Baker Foster, ibid., 1864, vol. xiii., page 205.
''Minerals and Salts found in Coal Pits," in conjunction with Mr.
R. Calvert Clapham, ibid., 1864, vol. xiii., page 219.
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MEMOIR OF THE LATE JOHN DAGLISH. 20$
<* Certain Improvemento in the Construction of the Water-gauge," Trans,
X, E. Iiist,, 1865, vol. XV., page 103.
"The Broadbent Patent Safety-cage," ibid., 1866, vol. xvi., page 33.
"The Conveyance of Coal Underground," ibid., 1867, vol. xvi., page 53.
"A New Application of the Water-gauge for ascertaining the Pressure
of the Ventilating Column in Mines," ibid,, 1867, vol. xvii.,
page 27.
"The Counter-balancing of Winding-engines," ibid., 1871, vol. xx.,.
page 205.
"Some Remarks on the Beds of Ironstone occurring in Lincolnshire,"
in conjunction with Mr. R. Howse, ibid,, 1874, vol. xxiv., page 23..
"The Application of Counter-balancing and Expansion to Winding-
engines," ibid., 1876, vol. xxv., page 201.
"An Improved Expansion Gearing for Winding-engines," ibid., 1879,.
vol. xxix., page 3.
"Account of a Discharge of Lightning at Kimblesworth Colliery, on
July 12th, 1880," ibid., 1881, vol. xxx., page 129.
"Presidential Address," ibid., 1886, vol. xxxv., page 223.
With a view of celebrating the fiftieth year of the reign of H.M
Queen Yietoria, the council of The Xorth of England Institute of
Mining and Mechanical Engineers decided to hold a mining exhi-
bition in 1887. As soon as the details of the scheme were published,
it was taken up by the Mayor and many of the members of the
Council of the city of Xewcastle-upon-Tyne ; and, at a public
meeting, it was determined to expand the project and make it
worthy of the metropolis of the North of England. Committees-
were appointed to carry out this extended scheme, and Mr. John
Daglish was appointed chairman of the Executive Council. The
Newcastle-upon-Tyne Royal Mining, Engineering and Indus-
trial Exhibition, in which he took a keen interest, proved success-
ful in every respect.
Mr. Daglish took a leading part in the inception and forma-
tion of The Institution of Mining Eligineers. In his " Presiden-
tial Address "* to the members of The North of England Insti-
tute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, on August 7th, 1886,.
he referred to the several schemes which had been mooted for
the concentration of the various mining institutes. He con-
sidered that any attempt to amalgamate these institutes into one
body would be difficult, if not impossible, but thought that a
federation confined chiefly to the publication of their Transactions
could be carried out to their general advantage. It would place
the papers read at each institute in the hands of all mining
engineers, and prevent repetition of papers, and duplication of
• TVoiM. X. E. Inst., 1886, vol. xxxv., page 243.
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204 MEMOIR OF THE LATE JOHN DA6LISH.
investigations and experiments by committees on special subjects
of general interest. An institute representing the whole of the
mining science of Great Britain would be able to supply reliable
information to the Government upon the real practical require-
ments of legislation, and would be a power to resist any proposed
legislation contrary to the real interests of mine-owners and
workmen. Mr. Daglish lived to see the successful realization of
his ideafi, and was a member of council and a Vice-president
of The Institution of Mining Engineers until his death.
Mr. Daglish, for' many years, was a governor of Armstrong
College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and in 1890 he was appointed
to the council, of which he remained an esteemed member until
his death. He devoted considerable attention to its manage-
ment during the later years of his life, and his name will always
remain associated with Armstrong College owing to his munifi-
cent devise of property for its endowment. He founded the
Daglish travelling fellowship in mining, in connection with
that college, and the holders, after nomination by The North
of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, will
be appointed by the special election board of the college.
He had also been a Fellow of the Geological Society, and a
member of the Institution of Civil Engineers,* the Institution of
Mechanical Engineer8,t the Tyneside Naturalists* Field Club,
the Berwickshire Naturalists' Field Club, the Newcastle Far-
mers' Club, the Scottish Arboricultural Society, the English
Arboricultural Society, etc.
He acted as secretary of the Geological Section of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science, at their meeting
held in Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1863, and as an honorary curator
and a vice-president of the Natural History Society of North-
umberland, Durham and Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
He died in London, on August 9th, 1906, and was interred
five days later, in Cambo churchyard, Northumberland.
* '* The Sinking of Two Shafts at Marsden, for the Whitburn Coal Company,"
Minutes of Proceedings of the InslittUion of Civil Engineers, 1882, vol. IxxL, page
178.
t *' The Mechanical Firing of Steam Boilers," Proceedings of the Institution qf
Mechanical Engineers^ 1869, page 155
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EXPERIMENTAL GALLERY AT ALTOFTS COLLIERIES. 205
MIDLAND INSTITUTE OF MINING, CIVIL AND
MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
EXCURSION MEETING,
Held at Messrs. Pope & Peabson's West Riding Collieries, Altofts,
March 23bd, 1907.
The members visited the West Riding collieries at the invi-
tation of Messrs. Pope & Pearson, Limited, and Mr. W. E.
Garforth, to witness a demonstration of rescue-work in the
experimental gallery at Altofts collieries.
EXPERIMENTAL GALLERY AT ALTOFTS COLLIERIES.
Since the description of the experimental gallery at Altofts
collieries for testing life-saving apparatus was described in 1901*
•considerable alterations have been made. A short description
of the gallery as it now exists may, therefore, be of interest to
those who may contemplate the erection of a rescue-station.
The external framework of the gallery is the same as origin-
ally designed by^ Mr. W. E. Garforth in 1901 ; but the internal
parts have been altered from time to time, and further obstacles
added for the purpose of increasing the diflBculties of exploration-
work and of obtaining additional efficiency from the men wearing
life-saving apparatus.
The gallery, as now arranged, is 100 feet long, with a capacity
of 5,600 cubic feet (fig. 1, plate viii.) ; and it is divided into two
parts. The first section, AB, 30 feet long, 6 feet wide and 7i feet
high, is used as a training-ground ; it is termed the " nursery,"
and no obstructions are placed in it. The second section, BCD,
70 feet long, forms the actual testing-ground, and is made to
resemble, as far as possible, the damaged roadways of a mine after
an explosion (fig. 2, plate viii.). The obstacles placed in this
* " Experimental Gallery for testing Life-saving Apparatus,'' by Mr. W. £.
Oarforth, Trana, Inat. M. E., 1901, vol. xxu., page 169.
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206 EXPERIHENTAL GALLERY AT ALTOFTS COLLIERIKS.
road consist of overturned tubs, rocks and stones, witk broken:
timber placed irregularly, confined spaces, etc. The general
arrangement of this section consists of a clear space, D, represent-
ing the downcast shaft, and from this an upper roadway extends
to the nursery-section over the debris and other obstacles (fig. 3,
plate riii.). For the sake of reporting the work done by explorers,,
the various parts of this roadway have been given distinctive
names, namely, west road, south road and east road. The longi-
tudinal section (fig. 4, plate viii.) shows the various obstructions,
etc.
At E (fig. 1, plate viii.), a lower roadway, foi-med under tim-
ber-frames on which the debris rests, communicates, say, from
Ludgate through Kirkgate, Holgate, Briggate and Mousehole-
gate to B, where the two roadways emerge into the nursery-sec-
tion. Four slits, a, 6, c and d (tigs. 1 and 2, plate viii.) connect
the upper and lower roadways with each other and with the coal-
faces, represented by Kirkgate and Briggate. The sections
(figs. 5 and 6, plate viii.) show the relative positions and areas
of the two roadways.
The exterior is fitted with seven exit-doors, each h\ feet
high and 2yV f^t- wide, together with twelve inspection-win-
dows. The nurser>% AB, has two exit-doors, e and f^ and three in-
spection-windows, /, m and n ; and the section, BCD, or the actual
testing ground, five exit-doors, g^ A, /, j and it, and nine inspection-
windows, 0, py q, r, Sy t, u, V and tr. The windows, varying from
4 feet by 3 feet to 3 feet by 1^ feet, are so arranged that the attend-
ant is able to watch the explorer and render assistance if required.
In the nursery-section, an appliance is placed for ascertain-
ing the weight that an explorer can lift, when equipped with a life-
saving apparatus. It consists of a framework and pulley, over
which is passed a rope attached to a weight of 56 pounds. A
stretcher weighing 40 pounds, with a dummy-man weighing
160 pounds, is also used for exercise-purposes. The explorers
carry a pneumatic horn, similar to that earned by cyclists: it
is frequently sounded, once to indicate safety and twice for
danger.
An arrangement for conveying a man from the mine up the
shaft to the surface has also been provided. It consists of a
cradle formed like a saddle, the occupier being placed in a pair
of trousers, as in the rocket-apparatus ; and it is so arranged that a
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EXPERIMENTAL GALLEEY AT ALTOFTS COLLIERIES. 207'
man can be upset without being thrown out of it. If a man
were put in this appsiratus at a depth of 2,000 feet, it would be
safe to send him to the surface; and men could descend in it
wearing the life-saving apparatus.
An underground pipe connects the two ends, A and D, of
the gallery ; and, by means of slides, a continuous circulation of
gases can be maintained, when it is required to make the atmos-
phere very deleterious ; or fre&h air can be admitted to dilute the
atmosphere ; or the fumes can be entirely replaced by pure air :
the whole arrangement being under the complete control of the
outside attendant (fig. 1, plate viii.).
When the gallery was constructed, an iron boiler, 30 feet
long and 7 feet in diameter, was attached for the purpose of
holding a fire fed with compressed air. This fire represented a
gob-fire, and afforded a means of testing whether the apparatus^
would stand a temperature varying from 140° to 150^ Fahr.
The results of every trial and any remarks connected with
the same are recorded by the attendant in a book at the:
end of each trial.
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:208 TKAliSACnONS.
MIDLAND INSTITUTE OF MINING, CIVIL AND
MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING,
Held at the Institutk Rooms, Sheffield, Afbil 9th, 1907.
Mr. J. R. R. WILSON, President, in the Chair.
The minutes of the General Meetings held on February 20th
land March 9th, 1907, were read and confirmed.
The following gentlemen, having been duly nominated, were
•elected : —
Members —
Mr. William Jambs Belk, Colliery Manager, Thomclifife Collieries, near
Sheffield.
Mr. J. Kenneth Guthrie, Mining Engineer, Crigglestone Collieries, near
Leeds.
Mr. Frank H. Waterhouse, Colliery Manager, Denby Grange Collieries,
near Wakefield.
The President proposed that the thanks of this Institute
be given to Messrs. Pope & Pearson, Limited, and to Mr.
W. E. Qarforth, for their kindness in receiving and entertaining
the members of this Institute on March 23rd, and giving a demon-
stration of life-saving apparatus in their experimental gallery.
The resolution was carried unanimously.
The Secretary read the " Report on Rescue-work," etc., as
follows: —
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REPORT ON RESCUE-WORK. 209
HEPOET ON EESCTJE-WOEK DONE BY MEN WEARING
RESCUE-APPAEATUS IN THE EXPERIMENTAL
GALLERY AT MESSRS. POPE & PEARSON'S COL-
LIERIES, ALTOFTS, ON MARCH 23rd, 1907.
The following programme had been arranged to be carried
t)ut before the members of the Midland Institute of Mining,
Civil and Mechanical Engineers by two teams: one consisting
of four men from Messrs. Pope & Peai^on, Limited's collieries,
wearing the Weg apparatus; the other of four men equipped
with the Draeger apparatus from the Tankersley rescue-station,
belonging to the Barrow Hematite Steel Company, Limited,
Messrs. Newton, Chambers & Company, Limited, the Strafford
Collieries Company, Limited, and the Wharncliffe Silkstone
Colliery Company, Limited : —
(1) Four men to enter the gaUery, walk 100 yards, and creep on hands and
knees, 50 yards.
(2) The same four men to pick up a stretcher, weighing 40 pounds, carry it
through narrow roadways, over falls, at the same time removing stones, varying
from 40 pounds to 80 pounds in weight ; then crawl through an air-pipe, 2 feet in
-diameter and 6 feet long. Pick up dummy man, 160 pounds in weight, place him
on the stretcher, and carry the loaded stretcher back to the entrance of the gallery.
(3) Two of the rescue-teaui to return to the farthest point of the gallery,
•carrying fire-extincteurs, and discharge the contents of the same on the windows,
in imitation of extinguishing a supposed underground fire. When this work is
completed, they will occupy the rest of the time in fixing brattice.cloth, setting
props and bars, and other work useful for exploration.
(4) The remaining two men of the team will repeatedly lift a weight of 56
pounds to a height of 6 feet.
The Council of the Midland Institute of Mining, Civil and
Mechanical Engineers arrived at the colliery about 10'30 a.m. ;
and a committee was formed, consisting of the following
members: — Prof. Q. R. Thompson, Messrs. "VV. Walker, J. R. R.
Wilson, H. B. Nash, J. E. Chambers, J. J. Eley and J. Gill, who
supervised the work done by the two teams wearing respectively
the Weg and the Draeger apparatus. It was agreed that a coin
should be tossed, to show which team should enter the gallery
first ; and the choice indicated the Weg apparatus.
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210 REPORT OX RESCUE-WORK.
I. — The following is a detailed record of the work done by
the team of four men wearing the Weg apparatus : —
12*17 p.Tn. Entered the gallery.
12-20 p.m. Walking 80 yarcU.
12*23 p.m. Creeping 80 yards.
12*27 p.m. Went over the falls, clearing a way for the stretcher, and brought
ont the dummy man at 12*46 p.m.
12-49 p.m. Nob. 1 and 4 men went over the falls with fire • extincteurs,
through the air-pipe, discharged one fire-extinctenr, and returned over the falls
carrying fire-extincteurs to the nursery or entrance of the gallery.
12*53 p.m. Nos. 2 and 3 men commenced pulling the weight.
1 '0 p.m. Nos. I and 4 men went over the falls, through the air.pipe, with
three rolls of brattice-cloth, a hammer and nails. They fastened up the brattice,
cloth in a form representing a mid-feather, to improve or alter the ventilation,,
and returned over the falls to the nursery at 1*15 p.m.
1 '15 p.m. Nos. 1 and 4 men went over the falb carrying two fire-extincteurs,
through the air-pipe, and returned over the falls to the nursery.
1*25 p.m. Nos. 1 and 4 men travelled under the falls, and returned over the
falls to the nursery.
1*41 p.m. No. 1 man walked 96 yards, and came out of the gallery owing ta
a break-down in the apparatus ; and, the defect being adjusted, he re-entered the
gallery at 1*55 p.m.
1*45 p.m. No. 4 man travelled over the falls and under the falls, back to the
nursery, with a fire-extincteur.
1*58 p.m. No. 1 man travelled over the falls, through the air-pipe, and
under the falls, back to the nursery.
2*5 p.m. Nos. 1 and 4 men travelled over the falls with fire-extincteurs,.
through the air-pipe, and returned through the air-pipe, and over the falls to the
nursery.
2*27 p.m. No. 1 man travelled over the falb with a fire-extincteur, and back.
During this time, No. 2 man had lifted the weight 337 times and No. 3 man
had lifted it 251 times, or a total of 588 times, equal to 197,568 foot-pounds
of work.
After the team had been in the gallery for 2 hours and 15 minutes, they were
requested to come out, as this time had been agreed upon by the Committee as the
limit of the trial. The men had understood that they were to stay in as long as
they possibly could, and were surprised at the request ; and the leader wrote a
note saying that No. 3 man could stop in about 20 minutes. No. 2 man about 15
minutes, and No. 1 man about 10 minutes, and that No. 4 man had nearly
exhausted his supply of oxygen. After this, each man walked 336 yards.
2*42 p.m. No. 4 man came out of the gallery, having finished his supply of
oxygen, and he had been 2 hours and 25 minutes in the gallery.
2*45 p.m. No. 1 man came out of the gallery, oxygen finished.
2*46 p.m. Nos. 2 and 3 men were told to come out of the gallery. Their
oxygen -supply was not finished ; No. 3 man had a pressure of 40 atmospheres left
in one cylinder. Their time in the gallery was 2 hours and 29 minutes.
II. — Men wearing the Draeger apparatus entered the gallery
at 3*5 p.m. Xos. 1 and 2 men were wearing the new Draeger
mouthpiece, and Nos. 3 and 4 men the Draeger helmet.
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REPORT ON RESCUE-WORK.
211
3-5 p.m. Walking 96 yards.
Creeping 96 yards.
Went over the falls, clearing a way for the stretcher, and brought out the
•dummy man at 3*32 p.m.
3*34 p.m. Nos. 1 and 2 men went over the falls and through the air-pipe,
■and returned over the falls to the nursery ; but only one man went through the
■air-pipe.
4*0 p.m. Nos. 1 and 2 men went over the falls with brattice-cloth ; No. 1
man came back over the falls for the hammer, fastened up the brattice-cloth
similarly to No. 1. team, and returned at 4*20 p.m. to the nursery.
4*25 p.m. Nos. 1 and 2 men went over the falb, and back to the nursery at
4*34 p.m.
4*39 p.m. No. 1 man went over the falb to the sixth door,^', and No. 2 man
•as far as the fourth door, ft, and returned to the nursery (fig. 1, plate viii.).
4*44 p.m. No. 2 man came out, having been in the gallery 1 hour and 39
minutes.
During this time, Nos. 3 and 4 men had lifted the weight 762 times, equal to
1256,032 foot-pounds of work.
5*6 p.m. No. 3 man came out, oxygen finished, having been in the gallery 2
hours and 1 minute.
5*22 p.m. Nos. 1 and 4 men were told to come out of the gallery. They had
been in for 2 hours and 17 minutes, and they still had enough oxygen to last
for a few minutes longer.
III. — The following is a summary of the work done in a
noxious atmosphere, by ih© men equipped with the following
forms of apparatus : —
Occupation of Men.
Walking
Creeping
Travelling over falls
Creeping through contracted passages
Creeping through air-pipe
Carrying fire-extincteurs
Fixed brattice to alter ventilation
Lifting 56 pounds weight to a height of 6 feet
Foot-pounds of work
Apparatus used:
Weg.
Draeger.
1,760 yards.
384 yards.*
320 „
384 „
600 „
570 „
80 „
—
23 times.
14 times.
8 „
2 „
Once.
Once.
588 times.
762 times.
197,568.
256,032.
Mr. M. H. Habebshon read the following paper on "The
TJse and Care of Oxygen-breathing Apparatus " : —
* Mr. M. H. Habershon discusses these results, Trans, Inst, M. E,^ 1907,
voL xxxiii., page 233.
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212 USE AND CARE OF OXYGEN-BREATHING APPARATUS.
THE USE AND CARE OF OXYGEN-BEEATHING
APPARATUS.
By M. H. HABERSHON.
In view of the probability that, in the near future, stations
will be established in various places for the purpose of trainings
men in the use of oxygen-breathing* apparatus, and at which
such apparatus may be kept in readiness for any emergency,
it is thought that the following notes of the experience which
has been gained during the last few years at the Tankersley
rescue-station may be of interest to the members. It is not
intended to describe the various types of apparatus, as this has
been done so recently by Mr. G. A. Meyer,* Mr. W. E. Garfortht
and Mr. R. Cremer.J
The subject of rescue-appliances has been more or less before
this and other mining institutes for some time ; but the dispatch
of the Westphalian rescue-party to Courrieres collieries, and the
rescues effected at the recent Reden disdsterg have brought the
matter into greater prominence. It may therefore be assumed
that members are familiar with the arguments or considerations
which point to the necessity of appliances being kept and main-
tained in readiness for use when suddenly required, and the equal
aecessity of men being trained to use them.ll
For the present purpose it is only needful to state that the
essential conditions which must be satisfied are the following : —
* "Rescue-apparatus and the Experiences gained therewith at the
Courrieres Collieries by the German Rescue-party," by Mr. G. A. Meyer, Trans.
IiisL M, E,, 1906, vol. xxxi., page 575.
t " A New Apparatus for Rescue- work in Mines," by Mr. W. E. Garforth,
Trans. Inst, M. E., 1906, vol. xxxi., page 625.
X '*The Pneumatoeen : the Self -generating Rescue-apparatus, compared
with Other Types," by Mr. R. Cremer, Trans. Inst. M. E., 1906, vol. xxxii.,
page 61.
§ ** Rescue-apparatus in Mines," by Mr. Richard Jacobson, The Colliery
Guardian J 1907, vol. xciii., page 317.
II **A Joint Colliery Rescue-station," by Mr. M. H. Habershon, Trans.
Inst, M, E., 1901, vol. xxi., page 100.
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USE AND CARE OF OXYGEX-BEEATHING APPARATUS. 213-
(a) The apparatus must be conveniently at hand, (b) The appar-
atus must be in perfect working order, (c) The men must be
thoroughly conversant with the handling of the apparatus, and
not merely accustomed to wearing it. (d) The instructor or man
in charge of the apparatus must be thoroughly trained, not only
in wearing and handling the apparatus, but also in cleaning it
and testing the various parts for imperfections and leakages. No
ordinary caretaker, without special training in the construction
and principles of oxygen-breathing apparatus, is capable of
occupying this position. The instructor employed at the-
Tankersley rescue-station had, through the kindness of Mr. G. A.-
Meyer, the opportunity of going through a course of instruction
at the Shamrock colliery, and made himself thoroughly acquainted
with every detail of the apparatus in use there at that time, and
also of the organized work which is systematically carried on in
connection with the Hibernia collieries.
In order to estimate properly the importance of the various
points to which the writer proposes to call attention, the follow-
ing preliminary considerations must be stated. The three
chief desiderata in oxygen-breathing apparatus are as follows: —
(1) Complete absorption of the carbon dioxide. (2) Sufficient
provision of air for the lungs to allow of the performance of hard
work by the wearer. (3) Simplicity of construction.
As in ordinaiy breathing the lungs consume oxygen and
produce carbon dioxide, an artificial breathing-apparatus must
produce oxygen and absorb the carbon dioxide, and the various-
types of apparatus all have this end in view. But it is important
to notice that the lungs have a large surface for supplying the^
necessary amount of oxygen to the blood, and the apparatus,
being a counterpart to the lungs, should have a large surface for
absorbing the carbon dioxide. As, in natural breathing, oxygen
is conveyed to the lungs by the aid of the respiratory movements
of the muscles of the chest, the artificial apparatus must possess
some motive power to bring about a similar action. This is
supplied by means of the injector in the Shamrock, Giersberg
helmet and Draeger apparatus. The compressed oxygen, passing
through the injector, establishes a suction which forcibly draws
the exhaled air through the regenerator and round to the injector,,
where it merges with the fresh oxygen and is then carried forward"
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:214 USE AND CARE OF OXYGEN-BREATHING APPARATUS.
for inhalation. The injector thus establishes a continuous circu-
lation of the air in the apparatus.
The necessary supply of oxygen must not be taken as the bare
amount actually required for the lungs alone; but a surplus
should be provided in order to allow for leakages, so as to ensure
that the quantity available shall always be sufficient for the
possible requirements of the wearer. It has been ascertained
that a continuous supply of 122 cubic inches (2 litres) per minute,
is sufficient not only to meet the requirements of heavy work,
but also to ensure that the immediate needs of the wearer shall
Tdc constantly supplied.
The amount of carbon dioxide produced in the lungs has
generally been underestimated. A man doing heavy work will
exhale rather more than 6,100 cubic inches (100 litres) of carbon
dioxide in 2 hours. For information on this point members are
referred to the paper by Dr. J. S. Haldane and Mr. T. Lorraine
Smith, on " The Physiological Effects of Air vitiated by Respira-
tion,''* from which the following conclusions have been
•drawn: — Respiration becomes difficult when the percentage of
carbon dioxide in air exceeds 4, with 10 per cent, the possible
limit is reached. Breathing air containing 4 to 10 per cent, of
carbon dioxide brings on pains and throbbing in the head,
accompanied by vomiting. Xo ordinary excess of oxygen will
remove the consequences of breathing this high percentage of
•carbon dioxide. With an insufficient supply of oxygen, difficulty
in breathing first becomes noticeable when the percentage is
reduced to about 12, and with 6 per cent, the difficulty is
excessive. It has been assumed that a volume of 3,050 to 3,660
cubic inches (50 to 60 litres) of air at disposal during heavy
work would be sufficient ; but^ when a man is breathing heavily
nfter a period of unusual exertion, during a few seconds the
timount of air required by him is considerably increased, and it
is probable that 6,100 cubic inches (100 litres) may be utilized.
The above figures give some idea of the requirements that
have to be met by an oxygen-breathing apparatus, if it is to be
reliable under all the conditions in which it is likely to be
placed. A rescue-apparatus, therefore, should be capable of
complying with the above-mentioned conditions, in addition to
Jiaving the simplicity of construction which has been referred
• Tht Journal of Pathology and Bacttriology^ 1892, vol. i., page 168.
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USE AND CARE OF OXYGEN-BHEATHING APPARATUS. 215
to as onje of the chief desiderata ; aad it may be considered satis-
factory or not in proportion to its behaviour when judged accord-
ingly. Other matters^ such as facility for cleaning* and dura-
bility, are important, as they effect the second essential condition
above stated, also the necessary consideration of cost of main-
tenance ; but they should not be allowed to interfere too much in
selecting a type of apparatus. There are, however, several
•details which have an influence both on the question of satisfying
the essential requirements and on the possibility of keeping
the apparatus in proi)er working order, and it is chiefly to these
•details that the following notes refer.
The first apparatus used at the Tankersley rescue-station was
of the Giersberg 1901 type with two cylinders : it was exhibited
to the members of the Institution by Mr. G. A. Meyer on the
occasion of their visit to the Dusseldorf exhibition and the
Westphalian coal-field. Subsequently a three-cylinder appar-
atus, of the Giersberg-Shamrock type, embodying several im-
portant improvements, which Mr, Meyer had introduced, was
obtained ; and, at a later period, the Giersberg-Shamrock 1906
type, with two cylinders and additional improvements, as used by
Mr. Meyer at the Courrieres collieries. On the strong recom-
mendation of the makers, the Giersberg helmet-apparatus was
also procured. And, more recently, the Draeger apparatus,
arranged for either mouth-breathing or use with a helmet, had
been used, in consequence of the powerful regenerators with
which this apparatus is supplied. Attention had been directed
hy Mr. G. B. Walker to this apparatus in 1904 * The pneu-
matogen had also been tried.
The writer was fully aware of the decided preference expressed
by Mr. G. A. Meyer at the London meeting in 1906, for appar-
atus of the mouth-breathing type, but he had found that men
wearing a helmet or face-mask of the latest construction, with
separate tubes for inhaling and exhaling and powerful regenera-
tors of the Draeger type, were able to perform really hard work,
and to crawl through a length of air-pipe, 2 feet in diameter,
without any distress whatever ; and that at the end of 2 hours
the apparatus would still deliver air to the wearer free from
• Olilcka^f, 1904, vol. xL, page 1331 ; and Trans, hist, M, K, 1904, vol.
jcxviii, page 203.
VOL. zxxni.~i9oe-i907. 17
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216 USE AND CARE OF OXYGEN-BEEATHING APPARATUS.
carbon dioxide, without any liability to headache as formerly.
This apparatus is also arranged for mouth-breathing;
but it has been found that a greater amount of training is
necessary for mouth-breathing, and that many men seem to have
a reluctance to having their nostrils closed in a suflSiciently
secure manner to ensure satisfactory results with the mouth-
breathing arrangement, and have a preference for the helmet.
The writer thinks that in this country, where the work is done
by the men voluntarily, the question of helmet or mouth-breath-
ing may, for the present, be considered as a detail which will be
more easily decided after greater experience, and that men should
be trained in the use of both types, as there are distinct advan-
tages appertaining to each. The opinion of Mr. G. A. Meyer
on this point deserves our greatest respect and consideration;
but improvements are developing constantly, and the writer has
seen hard work done with a helmet-apparatus under most trying
conditions, work which could not have been beaten or so easily
done with the mouth-breathing apparatus. He thinks that^
probably as recently as a year ago, this would not have been
possible.
The improvements effected, which the writer considers to be
of decided merit, include an apparatus that can be fitted
up for either mouth-breathing or helmet; the complete absorp-
tion of all moisture ; no liability of any liquid alkali getting into
the breathing-tubes ; air delivered free from carbon dioxide after
2 hours' work ; time required for recharging reduced to about 8
minutes ; no assistance required ; and the wearer can be
trained to ascertain for himself the amount of oxygen still at
his disposal, and so to time himself. In case of apparatus used
for a short time only, the remaining alkali is not wasted.
In the use and care of the various appliances, the following
are the points which the writer wishes to bring under the notice
of the members.
In cleaning the Giersberg apparatus of the Shamrock type,
after use, attention should first be given to the breathing-bag.
The mouth-piece with the attached metal tubing and also the
escape-valve must be removed, then the regenerator should be
taken out of the inner part of the breathing-bag. All alkali
(caustic potash) and kieselguhr must then be removed, and the
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USE AND CAEE OP OXTGEN-BEEATHING APPARATUS. 217
holders of the same washed. The breathing-bag must be washed
perfectly clean, all sediment being removed, and a mild disinfect-
ant should be used with the water. The bag should then be^
allowed to dry naturally ; no forced method of drying should be
adopted. When dry, the passages of the breathing-tube, suction
and escape-valve tubes must be ascertained to be perfectly clean.
The suction and escape tubes should then be laid on the top of the
inner bag, as neglect of this might result in the buckling of these
tubes during subsequent handling, and give rise to a stoppage in
the working of the apparatus. The regenerator must then be
refilled with alkali, and the lower portion with kieselguhr. The
inner bag must be examined, in order to see that the holes in the
bottom are perfectly clear. The regenerator should then be re-
placed, the clamps securely fastened, the escape-valve and tubes
attached, and the mouth-piece should be plugged. The appar-
atus, being then ready for use, should be hung up. This complete
operation requires at least i day on account of the time required
for the drying of the breathing-bag.
In the Giersberg helmet-apparatus, the mica valves for
inspiration and expiration should be carefully inspected both
before and after use, as upon these depends, in a great measure,
the proper working of the apparatus. The mica discs and cups
must be perfectly dry, as any quantity of moisture may cause
these valves to stick. Sufficient room must be allowed in these
cups for the valves to move freely, particularly in the case of the
expiration-valve : the regulation of this is easily effected by the
two screw-caps above and below the mica discs, but care must be
taken not to screw these caps too tightly. Before use, the con-
dition of these valves should be tested by placing the helmet on
the head securely and drawing several breaths in quick succes-
sion, at the same time listening for the click of these valves,
which should accompany each inspiration and expiration. The
escape-valve should be examined, to see that it will blow off upon
a slight compression of the expiration-bag. The pneumatic
lining of the helmet and it^ valve should be carefully examined
on each occasion for possible leakages, and any defect immedi-
ately attended to. The breathing-bags should be washed and
disinfected occasionally, and allowed to dry before they are again
used. The regenerator should be washed out after use, great
care being taken to see that the passages connecting the two
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218 USE AND CAKE OF OXYGEN-BREATHING APPARATTTS.
chambers are perfectly clear and free from any sediment. The
flexible tubing should not be handled in too reckless a manner,
else injury of a permanent ch«iracter may be caused *; and these
tubes, being of special construction, are not easily replaced.
In the Draeger helmet-apparatus, owing to the different
arrangement of the valves in the helmet, the same amount of
attention to the valves is not so necessary. In the writer's experi-
ence of this apparatus, the valves have never been known to
stick, indeed any sticking of the valves in this apparatus seems
improbable, if not impossible ; but the writer thinks that some
provision should be made by the makers, so that these valves can
be replaced in the event of the mica plates or discs becoming
defective. As at present constructed, they cannot be easily got at.
The pneumatic lining of the helmet and its valve, as also the
breathing^bag, should have the same attention as in the case of
the Giersberg apparatus.
In the pneumatogen, in which oxygen is generated by passing
the expired air through cartridges containing layers of potassium-
sodium peroxide, by which also the carbon dioxide is taken up,
there are no valves and no oxygen-cylinders, a small quantity of
oxygen only being required to start the chemical action. Conse-
quently the apparatus is extremely simple, and the amount of
attention required is reduced to a minimum.
After the pneumatogen has been used, the exhausted cart-
ridges are removed, the upper and lower transverse tubes should
be cleaned out, and any particles of carbonate found adhering
thereto must be removed. After recharging with fresh cart-
ridges, any screws which have been loosened for cleaning pur-
poses must be firmly screwed down. The cartridges must be
placed in their proper position, and the handle of the upper
transverse tube pushed down into its right place. The breathing-
bag should be washed and disinfected occasionally. The tight-
ness of the apparatus may be tested by closing the mouth of the
lower transverse tube with the hand and at the same time blowing
into the mouth-piece.
The circulating system of all apparatus should frequently be
tested for leakages by blowing into the breathing-tube: the
valves of the oxygen-cylinders being closed, thus throwing the
apparatus out of action, and using the thumb to close the open
end of the tubing, which may have been disconnected for the
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USE AND CARE OF OXYGEN-BREATHING APPARATUS. 219
purpose of testing. When in action, a solution of soap and
water applied to the joints with a brush or sponge will reveal
any leakage by the appearance of a small bubble. The valves
of the oxygen-cylinders may also be tested for any suspected
leakage of oxygen by submerging the cylinders in water. An-
other method of testing for oxygen-leakages is by the red-hot
embers of a match.
Care must be taken to prevent any greasy substance coming
in contact with any cylinder or fitting used for the storage or
control of oxygen. For instance, the valves of oxygen-cylin-
ders must not be oiled, no lubricant whatever that is of a greasy
character must be used. Globe polishing-paste must not be used
for the brass fittings or any part of the apparatus.
No part of an apparatus requires more attention from the
man in charge than the injector, which, as explained above,
supplies the motive power and maintains the circulation of the
gases in the apparatus. This should at all times be kept under
careful observation. The eflSiciency of the injector is liable to be
affected by oxidation arising from the chemicals used for the
absorption of the carbon dioxide, and also by obstruction, which
may result from various causes. Any small particles of matter
are sufficient to cause a partial blockage, and interfere with the
proper working of the injector.
When the cylinders of the apparatus are charged with oxygen
from a large storage cylinder, and an hydraulic pump is used in
order to obtain the necessary high pressure of 120 atmospheres,
the oxygen being removed from the storage cylinder by displace-
ment with water, a grave danger is likely to arise which must be
guarded against. The oft-repeated operation, in time, produces
an accumulation of rust, and there is the possibility of small
particles of rust being conveyed into the cylinder of the appar-
atus, whence they are only prevented from entering the
injector by a thin gauze. If this gauze should be pene-
trated, a partial or complete blockage of the injector may
be produced. If the rust does not reach the injector it will prob-
ably accumulate in the reducing valve, but the result will be
the same — the apparatus will not work properly. Another and
more subtle liability to danger exists with the method of charging
the cylinders. Water may pass into the small cylinders during
the act of charging. This is unknown to the operator, and its
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^20 USE AND CABE OF OXYGEN-BEEATHIXG APPABATUS.
presence may not be revealed or suspected. An apparatus may
thus work perfectly for some considerable time, but after a while
a bubbling sound will be beard and the injector will act
spasmodically. Ultimately, an abrupt and premature stoppage
of the action of the apparatus may result. If the wearer at this
moment happened to be in an irrespirable atmosphere, he would
require the assistance of his comrades, or the apparatus might
be only a death-trap.
The operation of charging small cylinders from a large
storage cylinder by means of an hydraulic pump worked by hand
is very laborious, the time required is considerable, and there
are newer and improved methods of charging oxygen-cylinders
which should be adopted in preference, and with which the above-
named liability of water passing into the cylinders is avoided.
In the event of an injector becoming faulty from oxidation
or deposit, no hard or sharp tool should be used to clear the
offending matter, as damage to the injector may be easily caused
in this way, but the injector should be soaked and more gentle
means tried. Injectors should be under such close supervision
that no oxidation should ever be allowed to accumulate, but
the defect discovered and remedied upon the first indication of
any fault of this nature. Owing to the delicate mechanism of
the reducing valve, it is desirable that a perfect knowledge of its
construction should be acquired before any attempt is made to
remedy any defect which may be discovered.
Injectors and regulating valves should be included among
the necessary spare parts which should be kept at a rescue-
station.
All metal tubing on the apparatus should receive close
examination from time to time, and be kept perfectly clear from
sediment.
The indiarubber breathing-bags and tubes should be kept
moist and not allowed to get dry, or the rubber will lose its
proper character and the bags will crack and become leaky, par-
ticularly at points where any buckling takes place when they are
in use. The usual routine of washing and disinfecting the bags
is generally sufficient to keep them in good condition, provided
that they are used in rotation, and are not allowed to remain idle
for too long a period. All apparatus in any station should be used
strictly in rotation, and in an equipment consisting of, say, 20
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USE ANB CAEE OF OXYGEN-BEEATHING APPARATUS. 221
sets, five sets should always be ready for immediate use, and
before they are used for practice purposes another set of five
must be prepared to replace them. This being strictly attended
to, it will keep an equal working strain on each set of apparatus,
and will provide for any emergency. A station would in this
way be ready at all times to answer and keep up any call on its
resources, every apparatus in its turn would come under the
notice of the man in charge, and there would be ample time for
the work to be done carefully, and without hurry.
It is a good plan to test the circulation of the apparatus,
from time to time, by means of a linen bag made to contain
from 2,440 to 3,050 cubic inches (40 to 50 litres) of air, and this^
quantity should be passed into the bag from the apparatus in
1 minute. The air which is being delivered for breathing
should also be tested periodically for carbon dioxide when the
apparatus is in use. This is easily done by means of a special
fitting and a syringe, with which a sample can be taken and
injected into a solution of lime-water, wheu, if turbidity is
produced, carbon dioxide is present.
In training men, no work of any kind beyond gentle exercise
should be attempted during the first and second practices, but
the time should be devoted to instruction in the principle of the
apparatus and explanation of the various parts and the circula-
tion of the air. The men should be shown how to handle the
apparatus, and practised in the operations of putting it on and
taking it off. With helmet-apparatus, the opening and shutting
of the helmet-window should be well practised, until the men are
thoroughly at home in so doing. The accomplishment of any
kind of work must be approached very carefully and by degrees,
especially with the mouth-breathing apparatus, with which more
practice is usually required in order to become proficient. Suit-
able men can, however, obtain efficiency with this apparatus in
a few weeks, but without occasional subsequent practice the
efficiency will be lost, and the men will be surprised that they
are not able to wear the apparatus and do work as easily as they
anticipated. With the Draeger helmet-apparatus, a man having
become thoroughly trained would probably be able to use it after
a short lapse of time without intermediate practice.
In a fully equipped station, it would be advisable for men to
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222 DISCUSSION — USE AND CARE OF OXYGEN-BEBATHING APPARATUS.
practise in sets of five, so as to get accustomed to work together
under a leader. In addition to practices at a station, wluch
should involve hard work in a noxious atmosphere so as to give
confidence in the efficiency of the apparatus, it is desirable that
men who have been trained and are efficient should occasionally
have an opportunity of wearing the apparatus underground, for
which purpose each colliery connected with a station should
organize a pit-practice, say, once every three months.
The President (Mr. J. R. R. Wilson), in proposing a vote
of thanks to Mr. Habershon for his paper, pointed out the extreme
importance of such a paper at a time when the question of
rescue-stations was attracting so much attention.
Prof. G. R. Thompson said that all who were present at the
meeting at Altofts colliery were perfectly satisfied that rescue-
apparatus would be of use in mines. Recently, it had been con-
tended that the only way of dealing with a mine aft«r an explo-
sion was for the explorers to carry in the air with them. Every
miner would admit that the restoration of the ventilation was what
they wished to accomplish, and they had seen at Altofts colliery
the most convincing evidence that vigorous work was possible in
a poisonous atmosphere, when using either the Draeger or the
Weg apparatus. Surely such appliances would enable them to
re-establish the ventilation much more readily. Mr. Habershon
had given the members careful details of the steps to be taken
so as to ensure that the apparatus should always be ready for
use ; and, if his methods of testing and supervision were rigidly
adhered to, no fear need be entertained that the apparatus would
fail when required. He regretted that accurate information wae
not recorded in mining text-books, regarding the effects of varia-
tions in the composition of the atmosphere breathed, and he
wished that Mr. Habershon had told the members more on that
point. It was, however, stated that an increase in the amount
of carbon dioxide produced ill-effects, which could not be re-
moved by increasing the amount of oxygen ; and that a deficiency
of oxygen, apart from the presence of carbon dioxide, was also
harmful. The methods of absorbing the carbon dioxide generated
in breathing seemed sufficiently perfect in the newer forms to
keep it below injurious proportions ; but he asked whether there
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DISCUSSION — ^USE AND CAEE OF OXYGEN-BEEATHING APPARATXTS.
was any danger of the nitrogen, in the compressed oxygen used,
accumulating in the Weg apparatus to such an extent that the
deficiency of oxygen would become serious. He had much plea-
sure in seconding the vote of thanks.
Mr. W. McD. Mackey, referring to the breathing and re-
breathing continuously of one charge of nitrogen, said that a
man continually for months or years breathing nitrogen, or
rather air, under the conditions obtaining in rescue-apparatus^
would certainly weaken his lungs and become liable to consump-
tion ; that was, the organic matter continually breathed out of
his lungs would accumulate and bring on some sort of poison-
ing. But, in an apparatus of this kind, used for a short time
only, he thought that the matter was of no importance.
He supposed that the point raised by Prof. Thompson had
been dealt with before: he was not aware that provision had
been made to get rid of any excess of nitrogen, but he supposed
that it was so. Compressed oxygen in cylinders contained not
less than 2 per cent, of nitrogen, and it might rise to 4 per cent,
and even more. Of course, under these conditions, if nitrogen
accumulated in the apparatus, the percentage would become very
high in the course of a few hours. Looking at it from the
chemical standpoint, he (Mr. Mackey) liked the pneumatogen,
as it seemed very simple. It had the objection that it became
too warm ; but it was light, and mechanically simple. He asked
if there were any data by which a comparison could be made
between the pneumatogen and the other forms of apparatus!
Sergeant A. T. Winborn said that Mr. Paul Henaud had
stated that the period during which the pneumatogen could
be used was too short, and that it was liable to cause sickness
owing to the amount of carbon dioxide present,* and Mr. H.
Orahn, of the Bochum mining school, had reported that, where-
as no ill effects were experienced from the use of the Draeger
apparatus, the men wearing the pneumatogen frequently com-
plained of pains in the head.t In the very limited experience
at Tankersley with this apparatus, there had been no
* Comptes Beiidus Jfeimiels des Reunions de la Soci4t6 de VIndxistrie Mhidralt^
1907, page 6S.
t ** Bericht fiber Versuche mit Rettungsapparaten und ttber deren Verbea-
senmgen" (Experiments with Rescue-apparatus), by Mr. Hermann Grahn
Oluckauf, 1906, vol. xlii., page 665. *
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224 DISCUSSION — USE AND CARE OF OXTGEN-BREATHING APPARATUS.
complaints from this source, but complaints had arisen from
the over-heating of the apparatus, brought about by the
generation of oxygen. He (Mr. Winbom) thought that the
first type of pneumatogen, even in its present condition, formed
an almost necessary part of the equipment of a rescue-station,
as they could be used by a rescue-party in connection with the
bringing out of men who might need such assistance.
The theoretical principles of different types of apparatus had
been explained, as also particulars of tests made with them ; but
the actual number of men who had become efficient, out of a given
number undergoing instruction, in the use of any particular
type of apparatus had rarely been given in discussion upon this
subject. During his experience as instructor at the Tankersley
rescue-station, he had learned to judge an apparatus according
to the number of men that he had been able to get to wear it in an
efficient manner. He thought that the opinion of the men them-
selves went a long way in estimating the value of an apparatus.
They had to put up with any discomfort which might arise
through wearing it, and they would be the very first to find out
flaws or imperfections. He considered that the best testimonial
which any apparatus could have was the decided preference
shown for it, over other types, by the men who had to wear it. In
his opinion it was not sufficient to have at each pit a few men who
could wear an apparatus. The difficulty in getting such men
upon the spot when wanted would be great, and too lai^ly a
matter of chance ; and, at a time of disaster, these men might be
in the pit, and themselves in need of succour. An apparatus
was wanted such as the maximum number of men could wear,
with the minimum amount of practice to attain proficiency. All
men were not alike constitutionally. Some could wear an appar-
atus for a long period, and perform a creditable amount of work ;
whereas others could wear precisely the same apparatus only for
a short time, and the wearing was then often accompanied by
ill after-effects. Gb'eat strides had been made in the last few
years in perfecting the system of regenerating the exhaled air,
and all types of apparatus were much more perfect to-day than
a few years ago. For instance, during 1904, out of 70 men
attending for instruction in the Shamrock type of apparatus,
barely 10 per cent, attained efficiency. During 1906, out of the
same number of men receiving instruction in the same type of
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DISCUSSION — USE AND CARE OF OXYGEN-BEE ATHING APPARATUS. 226
apparatus, 60 per cent, became eflScient. But, in spite of improve-
ments, there still existed this distinction as between different types
of apparatus, that although 60 per cent, could wear one apparatus,
only 40 per cent, of the same men could wear another type of
apparatus in anything like a satisfactory manner. With regard
to the Draeger type of apparatus, all the men attending instruc-
tion last year were able to wear it for the full period ; and he had
yet to find the man, constitutionally suitable, who could not wear
it. The value of such an apparatus, where a large number of
men had to be trained, was inestimable.
He had seen the new Shamrock apparatus, which comprized
many important improvements. It could be used either as a
mouth-breathing apparatus, or with a helmet; the latter having
the additional advantage of being valveless. The position of the
injector had been altered, thus minimizing the possibility of any
matter effecting a lodgement therein, such as to impede its
proper working. The regenerator, instead of being carried inside
the breathing-bag, was now carried outside and on the top of it.
The apparatus could be recharged in a few minutes, by substitut-
ing a fresh regenerator for the used one, which could be recharged
with the necessary alkali at leisure and used again, and so on
indefinitely. The Draeger also had this advantage, excepting
that the cartridges or regenerators were discarded altogether after
being used. The oacygen-cylinders of the new Shamrock appar-
atus were now nickel-plated inside, as a precaution against the
accumulation of rust. A trap was placed at the outlet-end to
collect any foreign matter, which otherwise might find its way
into the reducing valve or injector.
Mr. W. D. Llotd (Altofts Colliery), on behalf of himself and
the men at Altofts, said that he was much gratified by the thanks
of the members. He thought that there were many points about
the oxygen-supply, which required carefully looking into. He
agreed with Mr. Habershon in regard to the question of the
recharging of cylinders by pumping water into the storage-
cylinders; Messrs. Draeger had introduced an apparatus which
overcame that difficulty, but there still remained the difficulty of
the moisture in the oxygen. He recently had occasion to
measure the cubical contents of a cylinder by filling it with
water : when the water was poured out, it was absolutely red with
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226 DISCUSSION — USE AND CAEE OF OXYGEN-BREATHING APPARATUS*
rust, and, after standing, there was a considerable deposit. The
accumulation of rust in the cylinder was a very serious matter,
because reducing valves of some sort and small passages with
wire-gauze protections were unavoidable in any apparatus ; and
this rust was liable to get into the passages, and block them
so as to render the apparatus inefficient, and possibly cause the
death of a man wearing the apparatus. He could corroborate
Mr. Mackey's statement that ordinary commercial oxygen con-
tained from 2 to 4 per cent, of nitrogen : there was often 6 per
cent, and sometimes more in it; and he had known as much as
10 per cent, of nitrogen to be present. Only a small volume of
OKjgen was carried in the apparatus, and if 10 per cent, were
nitrogen, it became a very serious matter. He most strongly
pleaded foK as pure a supply of oxygen as possible. He believed
that some of the methods of manufacture were within the scope
of rescue-stations, and he hoped that they would be able to make
their own.
Dr. J. S. Haldane, when testing the Weg apparatus at
Altofts, expected to find that an excess of nitrogen might, at
times, be present. Dr. Haldane laid stress on the point that, if
a man got too much nitrogen or there was a deficiency of oxygen,
it would not be noticed in the breathing.* The man would go
on breathing it until he became blue in the face and fell down,
but he would not experience any difference in his breathing.
The smallest percentage of oxygen found in the Weg apparatus
by Dr. Haldane was 14 per cent., and this meant, of course,
that there was 86 per cent, of nitrogen ; and, adopting the per-
centages quoted by Mr. Habershon, this was still a breathable
atmosphere, although the air analysed was obtained from the
back bag or reserve-supply, which should be renewed with more
oxygen before being breathed again. He thought that Dr.
Haldane had obtained as high as 60 per cent, of oxygen.
A point for discussion was that the apparatus described by
Mr. Habershon was of the constant-supply type. For ordinary
hard work, Mr. Habershon stated that between 3,050 and 3,660
cubic inches (50 to 60 litres) a minute were required, and, at
times, even 6,100 cubic inches (100 litres). If the apparatus
were set to supply, say, 3,050 cubic indtes (50 litres), the men
were not in a position to meet any demands for very great exer-
• Trans. Irut. M. E., 1906, vol. xxxl., page 617.
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DISCUSSION — USE AND CAKE OP OXYGEN-BREATHING APPARATUS. 227
iion, in the same way that they could with a lung-governed and
intermittent apparatus, such as the Weg- apparatus. The reducing
Talve in the Weg apparatus was operated by the lungs, oxygen was
supplied as required, and it was thus enabled to meet all excessive
•demands. In the Weg apparatus, if oxygen were not required,
it was not used ; whereas, with a constant-supply apparatus, if
the oxygen were not required, it had to come out and it was
wasted. If a man sat down, wearing an apparatus of the constant-
supply type, the apparatus would only last tHe ordinary period
of time; whereas, with the other, if the man sat down doing
nothing, he did not use much oxygen, and he could wear his
apparatus for a much longer time than the ordinary period for
hard work. For instance, a man had worn an ordinary Weg
:apparatus, sitting still, for 6 hours, and he was able to work after
that. Thus, one or more members of a rescue-party might be
•cut off by a fall of roof, and be unable to return to safety as early
a« they expected: if 2 hours were required to get at a man
after he had been using the apparatus, say, li hours, he would
1)0 dead long before he could be reached; whereas, wearing an
apparatus of the intermittent type, he might be able to stay 3
•or 4 hours, with every hope of being ultimately rescued.
With all deference to Mr. G. A. Meyer, the men who were
going to wear the apparatus should have a great deal to say
about the type. If one wore a nose-clip, and in addition put on
smoke-tight goggles, and tried to do one's ordinary work in a
pit, one would find oneself considerably crippled and uncomfort-
able ; and he thought that the more comfortable the apparatus
the better. Of course, the glass or mica pane in front of the
ordinary helmet was certainly a weak point, because once that
was broken the helmet becanu^ useless. Everything pointed to
the use of some sort of a mouthpiece, to include the nose without
covering the eyes, and to have the additional advantage that any
moisture from the breath, or induced by perspiration of the lower
part of the face, should not cloud the glass in front of the eyes.
Mr. F. Hagemann (Hibemia Collieries, Westphalia) wrote
that he had pleasure in acknowledging that Mr. Habershon
judged impartially, and had brought great experience and a com-
plete knowledge of important details to bear on the subject.
*The decision as to whether a helmet or a mouthpiece apparatus
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DISCUSSION — USE AND CA&E OF OXYGEN-BEEATHING APPARATUS.
was to be preferred, was, in his opinion, not a matter for tte
rescue-men, but one to be decided only by the engineer of the
rescue-corps. The men would be inclined to prefer the most
comfortable appliance ; whilst the manager of the rescue-arrange-
ments would, if he were the right man in the right place, feel the
full responsibility of his position, and would only think of safety :
after this point had been satisfactorily settled, he would then
consider the comfort of the men. Mr.^ Habershon had
pointed out that, in Great Britain, rescue-work was performed
voluntarily by the men ; and he appeared to be under the impres-
sion that, in Germany and especially at the Hibemia collieries,
it was done compulsorily. This was not the case : there was no
compulsion throughout Westphalia ; there were up to the present
date no Government or local rules requiring the provision of
rescue-corps at the collieries; and none of the miners at the
Hibernia collieries were compelled to become members of the
rescue-corps. It had been fully recognized that such an institu-
tion would never flourish and become effectual, unless it was
carried out and accomplished by voluntary work. He agreed
with Mr. Habershon that the question of helmet or mouth-breath-
ing could be decided only after greater experience had been
obtained, but he was not able to look at this question as one of
detail. He was convinced that the Swiss miner, who was found
dead in the Courriferes mine (after the German rescue-corps had
left) with the tom-ofi helmet beside him, had not considered the
question, when he decided to tear off his helmet. This ques-
tion had been solved at the Shamrock colliery in two ways:
For instance, if it was required to fit an apparatus airtight on
the surface of the human body, it would be most easily accom-
plished by finding the smallest surface. On the other hand,
experience had shown that it was very difficult to fasten a helmet
tightly on the human head, by pneumatic pressure, without affect-
ing the circulation of the blood in the arteries of the head, and
there was the additional danger of damage to the mica or glass
window in the helmet. For these reasons, the arrangement of
mouth-breathing, and closing the nostrils with greased-wadding
plugs combined with a nose-cap, had been adopted at the
Hibernia collieries. It was remarkable that, in the latest
types of life-saving apparatus, the mouth-breathing method
seemed to be preferred. Table I. records the result of
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DISCUSSION — USE AND CARE OF OXYGEN-BEEATHING APPAEATUS. 229
o
5
OQ
X
H
ll
1
I
aa
1
(I4
I
11
gftC
IS
!g
S2
11
00 to
OiO
I ^^
30 CO
s;
f
s
•s
:3
IS
§1
S:
^
52
3S
OCO
32
t
:c^
practices with the
Shamrock appa-
ratus at the Sham-
rock collieries
during 1906. The
apparatus had
shown some small
defects during the
early part of the
year: two pract-
ices, or 1*22 per
cent, of a total
of 163 practices,
had been inter-
rupted, owing to
defects in the ap-
paratus. In the
first case, the oxy-
gen - supply was
exhausted in 1
hour 45 minutes ;
and in the second
case, owing to a
leakage of the
emergency - valve,
the oxygen - sup-
ply was entirely
exhausted within
1 hour 33 minutes.
The emergency-
valve had only
been applied for
experimental pur-
poses, and was not
fitted to the stand-
ard type of ap-
paratus. The
rescue-corps com-
prized 31 men and
50 trained officials.
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280 DISCUSSION — USE AND CARE OF OXYGEN-BREATHING APPARATUS.
a total of 81 members. Out of 67 mine-officials, 62 men, or
92*54 per cent., had been fully trained in the care and use of
oxygen-breathing apparatus. He (Mr. Hagemann) had had
opportunities of seeing and experimenting with all the life-
saving appliances at present in use, excepting the Weg, which
had not yet been used on the Continent.
Mr. H. E. Gregory wrote that the increasing reliability and
usefulness of the newer forms of breathing-appliances were well
shown in Mr. Habershon's paper ; and it was evident that the
desiderata of purity and abundance of the breathing mixture,
as well as simplicity of construction, were being brought to a high
degree of safety. There was still the possibility of defect in
these matters, and whether this possibility had been sufficiently
recognized and provided for was, to some, still a matter of doubt.
Mr. Habershon did not say whether his appliances could be
considered simple in construction, or whether any difficulty
might be overcome by perfect training of the wearers and by
rigorous care and inspection of the apparatus. The training
would be of greater value if the practising chambers for the
apparatus were filled with a de-oxidized atmosphere, such as a
cooled beehive coke-oven effluent, or boiler-flue gases. Men
who had been trained under such conditions would be more
confident, and therefore more successful, when they came to
practical work in a wrecked mine. The probability of a fatal
sequel to a breakdown or defect in the apparatus, when in use,
should be provided for. The provision of each apparatus in
duplicate would make the appliances too heavy for a man to
carry, but perhaps the more delicate parts might be duplicated
and thereby increase the safety. With regard to the point
raised by Mr. Habershon as to the comparative advantages or
disadvantages of the helmet and mouth-breathing types, his (Mr.
Gregory's) preference for mouth-breathing was further strength-
ened by the following quotation : — " Breathing air containing
4 to 10 per cent, of carbon dioxide brings on pains and throbbing
in the head, accompanied by vomiting."* Vomiting, when
wearing a helmet, would, by choking up the tubes and valves,
probably prove fatal ; whereas the wearer of a mouth-breathing
• Trans, Inst. M, E,, 1907, vol. xxxiii., page 214; and "The Physiological
Eflfects of Air vitiated by Respiration," by Dr. J. S. Haldane and Mr. J. Lorrain
Smith, Tht Journal of Pathology and Bacteriology ^ 1892, vol. L, page 168.
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DISCUSSION USE AND CAKE OP OXYGEN-BHEATHING APPARATUS. 281
apparatus would possibly be able to remove the mouthpiece
before vomiting began, and to re-insert it immediately after-
wards, and thus preserve the apparatus from injury. The mem-
bers and the mining community generally were undoubtedly
under a great obligation to Mr. Habershon and the associated
•colliery companies for their great and humane work directed to-
wards minimizing the penalties of accidents in mines; and the
results of their practical efforts and achievements, as shown in
"this and previous papei*s, were of the greatest importance and
would be a useful guide in the establishment and working of
other rescue-stations.
Mr. Richard Jacobson (London) wrote that Mr. Habershon
iad referred to the grave danger likely to occur when using a
Jiydraulic pump to obtain a pressure of 120 atmospheres in a small
oxygen-cylinder: namely, the possibility of rust entering the
oylinder and passing into the vital parts of the apparatus, with
the ultimate result of hindering the free circulation of air in the
breathing-apparatus. In order to avoid the possibility of that
danger, Messrs. Draeger had constructed *a high-pressure pump,
which worked without the use of water. An interesting paper
on " Tests of Life-saving Apparatus," in which a self-acting
work-recording machine was used and accurate determinations
of carbon dioxide made with a special apparatus, had recently
been published.* He could not agree with Mr. Hagemann that
the decision as to whether a man should wear a helmet or mouth-
breathing bag should rest with the instructor or engineer in
charge of a rescue-party. That might be the case in practice-
work, but in the case of actual rescue-work, where a man wanted
all his confidence for the task before him, it was certainly
inadvisable to force him to wear an apparatus in which he had no
•confidence and which made him uncomfortable and nervous.
With apparatus in which the helmet and mouth-breathing appar-
atus wei-e equally efficient, as was the case with the Uraeger
apparatus, a man certainly ought to be allowed to choose for
himself. With regard to Mr. Hagemann's reference to the
danger that attended the use of a mica-window in the helmet, he
• **Die Priifung von Rettungsapparaten durch selbsttatiffe Arbeitsmeseung
find exakte Kohienaaure-Bestimmung, von Heinrich nnd Bernnard Draeger," by
Vn, Th. Wetzke, Chrifltern and Wex, Kohle und Erz, 1907, No. 6.
VOI^ XZXIII.~190<-1S07. IS
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282 DISCUSSION USE AND CARE OF OXYGEN-BEEATHING APPARATUS*
(Mr. Jacobsou) would point out that the window in the Draeger
apparatus was protected against damage by a strong wire guard.
The pneumatic arrangement in the Draeger helmet for making
an airtight joint between the helmet and the face of the wearer
was the only possible successful method. Referring to Mr.
Hagemann's remarks on the Swiss miner who, at Courrieres, was
found dead, with his helmet torn off, he (Mr. Jacobson) might
state that it had been established beyond a doubt that the man's
apparatus was not in action, and that two other men who were
with him, wearing the Shamrock apparatus, were affected by
the gas, but had had time to withdraw to a place of safety. Mr.
H. E. Gregory's remarks about the advantage of mouth-breathing
types of apparatus showed a want of acquaintance with the
Draeger helmet. The pneumatic method of making an airtight
joint in no way hindered the circulation of the blood ; the valves
were arranged so that they could not be choked; and, in case
of need, the air-lid in the helmet could just as easily be opened
by the wearer, as the mouthpiece could be removed.
Mr. M. H. Habershon, replying to the discussion, thought
that Mr. Gregory, in speaking of the breathing of carbon dioxide
was referring to the ShamrockrOiersberg type of apparatus, and
probably had had no experience of recent appliances fitted with
improved regenerators. His paper contained no reference to the
Weg apparatus, which was not yet standardized, and he had had
no opportunity of testing it. He had recently seen the improved
Shamrock apparatus, which showed a decided advance on the
type used at the Tankersley rescue-station, and he thought it was
probable that it would now permit of similar hard work being
done to that which they had accomplished with the Draeger
appliance. Experiments had not been made with the pneumato-
gen, on account of the high cost of the cartridges used with that
apparatus: their funds were limited, and they were obliged to
proceed carefully. During the last few years, however, various-
appliances had been tested as they had become available, and a
number of men had been trained. At the present time, about
68 men, altogether, had been trained, connected with the four
colliery companies interested in the rescue-station. The earlier
appliances were, however, now entirely obsolete, and their rescue-
station was not adequately equipped with a sufficient number o£
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DISCUSSION — ^USE AND CAKE OF OXYGEN-BREATHING APPARATUS. 283
up-to-date and reliabk apparatus. Sergeant Winbom's remarks
as to the probable value of the lighter form of the pneumatogen
seemed veiy apropos to the opinion expressed by Mr. F. A. Gray,
H.M. inspector of mines, in his evidence before the Boyal Com-
mission on the question of the possibility of saving the lives of
men.* The first type of pneumatogen had a total weight of only
3J pounds, and would supply air for 46 minutes. It could be
easily carried by a rescue-party, and used in the work of bringing
men out through an irrespirable atmosphere.t
Referring to the report on the demonstration of the use of
rescue-apparatus at Altofts colliery, he thought that the dis-
tances walked, namely, 1,760 yards with the Weg and 384
yards with the Draeger, were somewhat misleading, as the men
wearing the Draeger apparatus only walked the distance
arranged by the programme, not knowing that any further
distance would be recorded.
The best duration-tests made at the Tankersley rescue-station
were as follows: — (1) W. Clifford, of Strafford colliery, with
Draeger mouth-breathing type, 4 hours 3 minutes; no work
done. (2) J. Anderson, of Barrow collieries, with Draeger mouth-
breathing type, 5 hours, during which time he walked 7,400
yards. At the conclusion of this test the man was very hungry :
this seemed the most noticeable fact, after wearing the apparatus
for a long period. (3) As regards weight-lifting tests: J.
Anderson, on one occasion, had raised a 56 pounds weight to a
height of 7 feet, 610 times, equal to 239,120 foot-pounds, in 1
hour and 40 minutes. At Altofts collieries, he and another
man performed together 256,032 foot-pounds ; but, as Mr. Lloyd
had pointed out, they had previously been over falls, and assisted
in bringing out the dummy man on a sledge. He thought that the
fact that it was thus possible to do extremely hard work for 2
hours with this apparatus, somewhat answered Mr. Lloyd's re-
marks about the disadvantage of using an apparatus with a
constant supply of oxygen; and that much could be said in
favour of the constant supply, which required no thought, or
manipulation, or attention whatever, from the wearer for 2 hours,
• Minutes of Evidence taken before the Royal Commission on Mines,
Wednesday, 28th November, 1906, proof; and The Colliery Otuirdian, 1907,
vol. xciii., page 395.
t Trans. Inst, M. E., 1906, vol. xxxii., page 55.
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284 DISCUSSION USE AND CAEE OF OXYGEN-BEEATHING APPAHATUS.
and thus added to the desired simplicity of construction. He
thought that an apparatus sufficient for the above work for 2
hours might be considered a serviceable apparatus, and that, with
the improvements which were constantly being introduced, there
was every encouragement to go foiward. He thanked the
members for the kin'lly manner in which they had received
his paper.
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TRANSACTIONS. 235
THE MINING INSTITUTE OF SCOTLAND.
EXCURSION MEETING,
POLMAISE COUJERISS, JuNK 29tH, 1907.
The members, numbering about 160, were driven from
Stirling to the Polmaise collieries of Messrs. Archibald Eussell,
Limited, where they were met by Mr. James Salmond, general
manager, and Mr. David Todd, local manager, and shown over
the works. Luncheon was kindly provided at Stirling.
The President (Dr. Robert Thomas Moore) moved that the
thanks of the Institute be heartily given to their entertainers and
their officials.
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236 TRANSACTIONS.
THE MINING INSTITUTE OF SCOTLAND.
GENERAL MEETINO,
Held in Stiblino, June 29th, 1907.
Db. ROBERT THOMAS MOORE, Pbbsidbnt, in thx Chaib.
The following gentlemen were elected: —
Mbmbkbs—
Mr. J. A. G. Bayne, Kerse Road, Grangemouth.
Mr. RoBEBT H. Cbawfobd, 208, St. Vincent Street, Glasgow.
Mr. James Dalglbish, Woodbank, Park Street, Wiabaw.
Mr. William Davidson, Plean Colliery, Plean.
Mr. John Gibson, Earlston, Kilmarnock.
Mr. John Gbay, GU>rdon Cottage, Cowdenbeath.
Mr. Alexandeb Hamilton, Roman Camp, UphalL
Mr. James Hbndebson, Auchengeich, Chryaton.
Mr. Peteb Henderson, Lochgelly Collieries, Lochgelly.
Mr. William King, 7, Dalkeith Avenue, Dumbreok, Glasgow.
Mr. Jambs Leckie, Bertrohill, Shettleston.
Mr. George A. Lindsat, 5, Leslie Road, PoUokshields, Glasgow.
Mr. H. A. McGuFFiE, 87, Union Street, Glasgow.
Mr. Angus Mackay, Jamadoba Colliery, Gharia P.O., Bengal, India.
Mr. Pebcy H. M. Mackintosh, Public Works Department, Greymonth,
New Zealand.
Mr. Thomas Malone, Buen Retire, Coronel, Chile.
Mr. James Pabk, Viletta, Woodbine Avenue, Airdrie.
Mr. Thomas Reid, P.O. Box 24, Bethlehem, Orange River Colony.
Mr. David Speib, Balgonie Colliery, Thornton.
Associate—
Mr. RoBEBT Leogatt, Clover Park, Dunaskin, Ayr.
The following description of ** Polmaise Collieries " by Mr.
James Salmond was held as read : —
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POLMAISE COLLIERIES. 237
POLMAISE COLLIERIES.
By JAMES SALMOND.
Polmaise collieries, the property of Messrs. Archibald Bussell,
Limited, consist, at present, of four shafts, situated in the parish of
St. Ninians : Jfos. 1 and 2 pits being about IJ miles, and Nos. 3
and 4 pits 3 miles, distant south-east from the county-town of
Stirling. The mineral-fields comprize the following leaseholds : —
Polmaise, 2,100 acres ; Townlands, 600 acres ; Blackgrange and
Westga-ange, 400 acres; Stewarthall, 270 acres; Broadleys, 125
acres; and Clayslaps, 30 acres; a total area of 3,525 acres.
Numerous bores, put down at former times on the Townlandfl
and Stewarthall, along with seven diamond bores put down by
th© present tenants on Polmaise, Blackgrange and Westgrange,
go to prove the existence of the various seams of coal under
practically the whole of the field. The strata, which are in
the Carboniferous Limestone series, have an inclination of 1 in
4J towards the north-east.
Nos. 1 AND 2 Pits.
The sinking of Noe. 1 and 2 pits, 66 feet apart, was com-
menced in December, 1902, and finished in June, 1904. The
No. 1 shaft, 18 feet long and 6^ feet wide, contains two winding
spaces of 7 feet, and one space of 1 foot and one of 2 feet are
utilized for water-pipes ; and the No. 2 or upcast shaft, 19^ feet
long and 6^ feet wide, contains two winding spaces of 7 feet, one
space of 3^ feet, and another of 1 foot in which are thie cables.
The surface (Table L), which was soft and troublesome, was
^Table I.>— Surfagb-stbata Sunk through in Nos. 1 and 2 Pits,
Polmaise Collikbies.
Thick- Depth
neaa of from
yo. Deacription of strata. Strata. Surface.
Ft. Ina. Ft Ina.
1 BoU 16 16
2 Yellow clay 3 6 5 0
3 Blue silt, very soft ... 21 0 26 0
4 Peat 0 6 26 6 _ , „
6 Fine sand, with boulders 19 0 99 0
Thick- Depth
neas of from
No. Description of Strata. Strata. Surface-
Ft. Ina. Ft. Inn.
6 Coarse sand and shells 0 6 39 0
7 Ked clay and stones... 4 6 43 U
8 Red clay, very soft ... 36 6 80 0
9 Scknd, gravel and
water 12 0 38 6 1 10 Broken rock 2 6 101 6
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238
POLMAISE COLLIERIES.
I
s
5
O
M
sunk through by
means of a steel
crib 24J feet long,.
9^ feet wide and
7 feet deep.
The water got
during the sinking
was brackish, and
was observed to be
most abundant in
quantity at the
time of high tide
in the river Forth^
which is about 1
mile distant. When
sunk through the
surface, No. 1 pit
was lined with
pitchpine, 9 inches
wide and 6 inches
thick; and all the
other pits were
lined with pitch-
pine 9 inches
square. A second
set of barring, 9
inches wide and 4
inches thick, was
then built in to
the finished size of
the pit, the space
between the two
barrings being fil-
led with clay. The
remainder of the
shafts is lined
throughout with
pitchpine, 9 inches
wide and 3 inches
thick: thebuntons.
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POLMAISE COLLIERIES. 28^
9 inches wide and 4 inches thick, being placed 4 feet apart. The
wall-plates are 24 feet long, 9 inches wide and 3 inches thick, and
the corner-rackings, 3 inches square. The slides are pitchpine,.
5 inches wide and 4 inches thick.
Seam^ of Coal. — Twelve seams of coal were passed through
in the shafts, amounting in thickness to 23 feet 3 inches. The
thicknesses of the seams which are at present being worked, and
the depths at Jfo. 1 pit, are as follows : — The Hartley seam, 2 feet
at 291 feet; the Greenyard seam, 3 feet 3 inches at 372 feet;
the Main seam, 3 feet 1 inch at 447 feet; and the Knott seam»
3 feet at 486 feet. The whole of these seams are wrought by
the longwall system.
The first two seams are navigation coals and the others anthra-
cite, with the following analyses: — {a) Navigation coal, volatile
matter, gas, tar, etc., 24*41 per cent. ; sulphur, 0*16 per cent. ;
and water, 3*62 per cent. : a total of 28*19 per cent; coke, fixed
carbon, 68'86 per cent. ; sulphur, 0*41 per cent. ; and ash, 2*55
per cent. : a total of 71*81 per cent. The specific gravity is
1*33. The practical heating power, by Playfair's formula (water
at 212 degrees Fahr. evaporated by 1 pound of coal), is 9*60
pounds. (6) Anthracite coal, volatile matter, gas, tar, etc., 1011
per cent. ; sulphur, 0*09 per cent. ; and water, 2*00 per cent. : a
total of 1220 per cent. ; coke, fixed carbon, 83*69 per cent. ;
sulphur, 0*61 per cent. ; and ash, 3*50 per cent. : a total of
87*80 per cent. The specific gravity is 1*30. The practical
heating power by Playfair's formula (water at 212 degrees Fahr.
evaporated by 1 pound of coal) is 11*18 pounds.
Boilers. — Steam is supplied by six Lancashire boilers, 30 feet
long and 8 feet in diameter, working at a pressure of 100 pounds
per square inch. The chimney is 125 feet high, 12 J feet square
at the base and 7i feet square outside at the top. For the
purpose of dealing with the anthracite gum and table-pickings,
forced-draught has been fitted to the boilers. A Sirocco fan,
36 inches in diameter, produces the draught, which is led
through pipes into perforated hollow fire-plates. The motor
for driving the fan, of 20 horsepower, of the squirrel-cage
type, runs at 940 revolutions per minute, and is started by
means of an oil-immersed auto-starter. Owing to the pit- water
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240 POLMAISE COLLIERIES.
being unsuitable for the boilers, a turbine pump, situated at
the Bannock burn, pumps a supply of water to Nos. 1, 2, 3 and
4 pits. This pump is capable of delivering 150 gallons per
minute, and is driven direct by a squirrel-cage motor of 8i
horsepower, running at 1,450 revolutions per minute. The
exhaust steam is led to a heating cylinder in connection with
two feed-pumps, and heats the water before it is fed into the
boilers.
Winding^engines, — The winding-engines are alike at both
pits, each having* two horizontal cylinders, 22 inches in diameter
and 4i feet stroke, fitted with balanced slide-valves, and drums
12 feet in diameter. The engine-houses are built of brick and
are of ample size, with open bound roofs, and lined with red
pine. The pithead frames are of the trestle type, constructed of
pitchpine and oak, and the pulleys are 12 feet in diameter.
The winding-rope is 3i inches in circumference, and the cage
is constructed to carry two hutches with a capacity of 10 cwts.
each. The hutches have steel sides and bottoms, with wooden
ends, and the rails are of the bridge type.
Electric Generating Plant, — Two compound steam turbines,
each of about 350 horsepower, and running at 3,000 revolutions
per minute, are coupled direct by means of flexible clutch-coup-
lings to three-phase, 50 periods, 500 volts alternators of 200
kilowatts output. The direct-driven exciters are mounted on
an extension of the armature-spindle. The shaft at the other
end bearing carries a screw-thread, working a worm-wheel
which actuates a pump for forcing oil through the bearings and
the steam-admission governor by means of an eccentric. A
pump, situated in the boiler-feed house, circulates water round
the oil-tanks to keep them cool. The machines are at present
non-condensing, but the question of condensing is under
consideration.
Switchboard and Switchgear. — The main switchboard in the
power-house consists of five white Sicilian-marble panels: — Two
panels for controlling the two generators are so arranged that the
machines can be run in parallel, and each having mounted
thereon, three ammeters ; an exciter voltmeter ; a three-
pole oil-switch and fuses; a pilot switch; a synchroniz-
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POLMAISE COLLIERIES. 241
ing arrangement; and an earth-detecting device mounted on a
swinging bracket at the end of the board. Two feeder-panels,
each having mounted thereon two ammeters; and two oil-
immersed switches with fuses. One lighting panel, having
mounted thereon three transformers, each having a capacity
of 7i kilowatts for reducing the current to 100 volts continuous
current for the purposes of lighting ; three ammeters ; and three
back-of-panel type switches on the high-tension side of the
transformers.
The underground switchgear is of the totally-enclosed unit
type. In the Greenyard seam there are two pillars, and in the
Knott seam three pillars, each containing an ammeter, an oil-
break switch, fuses, isolating links, omnibus-bar ch^unbers, tri-
fucating box, etc. On pillars which control the haulages, the
oil-break switch is replaced by oil-break circuit-breakers.
Ventilation, — The fan is driven direct, by a non-condensing
compound steam-turbine similar to those driving the alternators.
Two single-inlet fans of the propeller type, 47 inches in dia-
meter, when running at 2,500 revolutions per minute, are
capable of exhausting 150,000 cubic feet of air per minute
against a watergauge of 3 inches.
Safety-lamps. — Safety-lamps are in use throughout these pits,
they are magnetically locked and electrically ignited : the under-
ground appliance for relighting them being so constructed that
it cannot be operated nor can a spark be produced unless the
lamp is in position underneath an airtight closed-down lid.
Two machines are fitted in the lamp-cabin : one for charging the
accumulators, and the other for cleaning 100 lamps per hour,
each being driven by a motor of IJ horsepower.
Haulage, — ^The only dip workings at present are in the Hartley
seam, and the coal is taken out therefrom by means of a main-rope
haulage driven by an enclosed slip-ring motor of 85 horse-
power running at 560 revolutions per minute, and operated by a
single-hand drum-type oil-immersed controller with oil-immersed
resistances suitable for starting against a 200 per cent, full-load
torque in 30 seconds, and regulating down to half-speed for one
minute in each six.
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242 POLMAISE COLLIERIES.
Pumping. — The AVorthingion six-stage turbine pump, placed
in the Knott coal-seam, is capable of pumping 200 gallons of
water per minute to the surface, and is driven direct by a
motor running at 1,440 revolutions per minute. The motor
is mounted on a combination base-plate, and is operated by mean*
of an oil-immersed auto-starter.
Another pump, in the Hartley dook, delivers into the lodg-
ment of the turbine pump. This three-throw pump, having
rams b\ inches in diameter and 9 inches stroke, is driven
thi-ough gearing by a squirrel-cage motor of 9 horsepower, run-
ning at 940 revolutions per minute, .and operated by an oil-
immersed auto-starter.
Screening and Washing Plants, — The screening and washing
plants, together with the housing and gangways, are arranged
for dealing with 1,000 tons, but have been found capable of
dealing with 1,200 tons in a day of 9i hours. The screening
and washing plant-houses are of brick and steel, and the pithead
house and gangways are of steel: the whole is roofed over
and covered in with corrugated-iron sheeting and glass, no part
of the plant or gangways being exposed to the weather. The
loaded hutches run by self-acting gradients from the pit-mouth
to the bottom of a creeper-haulage, which elevates them to a
sufficient height to carry them over the weighing-machine to
the revolving tippers fitted with automatic starting-and-stopping
gear. From the tippers, the tubs gravitate around the
cleaning plant to another creeper which elevates them
to a height sufficient to enable them to gravitate to the
back of the pits. Fixed screens are provided in the
pithead-house, for dealing with coal for local sales. The
navigation coal is passed over two picking-belts of the bar-
grating type : the delivery-ends being provided with radial por-
tions, operated by means of power-driven worm-gear for lowering
them into the trucks to minimize the breaking when loading.
The small coal from the shakers and the belts is collected by
means of a scraper-conveyor, and is delivered into wagons for
conveyance to the washer at Nos. 3 and 4 pits.
The anthracite-coal plant consists of two sets, one of which
is used for round coal when required, and is similar to those
already described. The other set is also similar, but contains
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POLMAISE COLLIERIES. 248
two sets of crusher-rolls which are employed for reducing* the
round coal to the size of jumbos and trebles, the latter of which
are passed over a picking-belt of the same kind as the others.
The jumbos are delivered to a small conveyor, which in turn
delivers them to the round-coal belt. The coal that is smaller in
«ize than the trebles passes into a scraper-conveyor, and is con-
veyed to the dross-pit of the washer. The refuse, picked off the
picking belts, is thrown into a conveyor, running at right angles
under the picki^ig-floor, and conveyed to a hopper at the pithead,
whence it is taken to the dirt-bing in hutches.
The anthracite-washing plant, with a capacity of 30 tons per
hour, is arranged to separate the small coal into doubles,
singles, pearls and gum. The small coal, elevated by means
of a bucket-elevator from the dross-pit, is delivered into a rotary
screen, where it is separated into four sizes, the pearls and gum
being delivered into a nest of six felspar-washers, the singles
into two bash-tanks, and the doubles to the Primus washer. The
fine coal and water is led by pipes to a silt-recoverer, which
recovers the fine coal and delivers it into a conveyor supplying
the boiler stokehold. The refuse, taken out of the coal by wash-
ing, is elevated by means of bucket-elevators and delivered
into the same hopper as that which receives the refuse from the
screening plant.
The washing and screening plants are each driven by means
of a slip-ring motor of 100 horsepower, running at 470 revolutions
per minute, and operated by a faceplate starter. The silt-i'eoovery
plant is driven by a squirrel-cage motor of 10 horsepower, run-
ning at 940 revolutions per minute, and started by means of an
oil-immersed auto-starter.
Primus Washer, — A Primus washer has been fitted up, on
trial, to separate from the doubles a sclit* which closely approxi-
mates the weight of coal. Its capacity is about 15 tons per hour,
and in principle it differs from other washers in use, the un-
cleaned coal being fed into a perforated-bottom reciprocating
box, in motion in water, causing the coal to be displaced by the
sclit which forms the bottom. The depth of bottom and the
line of separation are under positive control, and subject to
delicate adjustment by levers. Once adjusted, the separation is
* Slaty coal.
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244 FOLMAISE COLLIEBIES.
automatic, the products passing to the draining elevators and
thence to the wagons. The plant is driven by a small horizontal
steam-engine, with a cylinder 7 inches in diameter and 8 inches
stroke.
Railways, — In addition to the locomotive-road, there are
eight other roads, for dealing with the different classes of fuel,
laid at an inclination of 1 in 75.
Offices and Workshops, — The offices and workshops, of ample
size, comprize the counting-house, store, ambulance-room,
smithy, and engineer's and joiner's shops.
Dwelling-houses. — Thirty cottages, with all modern conveni-
ences, are erected at the entrance to the colliery, principally for
the use of officials.
Nos. 3 AND 4 Pits.
Nos. 3 and 4 pits lie about If miles to the east of Nos. 1 and 2
pits, and are connected thereto by a private railway 2^ miles in
length. The sinking was commenced in August, 1904. No. 3
pit was finished in. December, 1905, and No. 4 pit in April, 1906.
The shaits passed through twenty seams of ooal, over 1 foot
in thickness, the total amounting to 32 feet 6 inches. The seams
at present being worked, and the depths at No. 3 pit, are as
follows : — The Hirst seam, 2 feet 2 inches at 102 feet; the Hart-
ley seam, 2 feet 4 inches at 1,008 feet; and the Knott seam,
2 feet 6 inches at 1,242 feet. The Index limestone, 33 inches
thick, was got at 786 feet.
The surface was of the same soft nature, although not so deep
as that at Nos. 1 and 2 pits, being in this case 60 feet thick. The
same method of sinking was adopted, a crib of like dimensions
being used : but a second set of barring was not put into No. 4
pit, as it had been decided to have separate winding-spaces for
the Hirst coal-seam. The No. 3 and downcast pit, 22 feet long
and 6i feet wide, has four divisions, two of them for winding
purposes being 7 feet, another of 6 feet, and the fourth, 1 foot, is
used for the cables. The No. 4 pit, 16 feet long and 6^ feet wide,
has three divisions, two of them, each 7 feet, being used for wind-
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POLMAISE COLLIERIES.
245
ing, and tie other,
1 foot, contains the
steam- and water-
pipes. Down to the
Hirst coal - seam,
the pit is 22| feet
long and 8 feet
wide, owing to
there being two
separate winding
spaces of 3 feet
10 inches by 6 feet
to this seam, over
and above those
already mentioned.
Both pits are lined
throughout, and
are fitted with the
same sizes of wood
as in Nos. 1 and
2 pits.
Bailers, — There
are six Lancashire
boilers, 30 feet long
and 8 feet in dia-
meter, fitted with
rocking firebars
and working at a
pressure of 100
pounds per square
inch. The chim-
ney is of the same
dimensions as that
at Nos. 1 and 2
pits, and the ex-
haust steam is also
passed through a
heater, there being
two feed-pumps.
H
3
O
H
o
i
2
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246 POLMAISE COLLIERIES.
Winding-enghies. — There are three winding-engines, two
winding from each of the pits and the other from the end of
No. 4 pit. The former of these are both alike, each having
two horizontal cylinders 26 inches in diameter by 5 feet stroke,
iitted with balanced valve-gear, and drums 16 feet in diameter.
The winding-engine to the Hirst coal-seam is of the same type,
with cylinders 12 inches in diameter and 2i feet stroke, the
-drums being 5 feet in diameter. The pithead frames are of
the same style as at Nos. 1 and 2 pits, with pulleys 16 feet and
S feet in diameter respectively for the large and small pits ; the
ropes are 3^ inches in circumference.
Electric Generating Plant. — The generating plant at present
consists of an alternator with a fixed armature and revolving
field magnets, and a direct-coupled exciter. It is designed to
give an output of 200 kilowatts at a pressure of 500 volts, 50
periods, three-phase, when running at the speed of the engine,
namely, i28 revolutions per minute. The engine of 300 brake-
horsepower is of the compound, double-crank, enclosed and
iorced-lubrication type, the cylinders being 16^ and 24J inches
in diameter and lOJ inches stroke. Provision has been made for
accommodating another generator in the same house.
Switchgear. — The switchboard consists of a generator panel,
«. lighting panel and a feeder panel fitted generally in the same
manner as at J^os. 1 and 2 pits. In the Hirst seam, there are
:five feeder and control pillars, and in the Hartley seam two, all
of the same unit type as those in use at Nos. 1 and 2 pits.
Ventilation. — The ventilation is produced by a Capell fan,
•8 feet in diameter and 7 feet in width, running at 320 revolutions
per minute and capable of exhausting 150,000 cubic feet of air
per minute at a watergauge of 3 inches. It is rope-driven by
:a single horizontal engine, with a cylinder 18 inches in diameter
and 2 feet 10 inches stroke, fitted with Meyer expansion-gear,
and running at 80 revolutions per minute.
Safety-lamps. — ^With the exception of the Hirst seam, safety-
lamps are used throughout. In this case, the cleaning and
-charging machines are driven by two steam-engines, with
cylinders 5 inches in diameter and 6 inches stroke.
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POLBiAISE COLLIERIES. 247
Haulage. — There are two main-rope haulages: that ia the
Hirst seam is driven by a slip-ring motor of 85 horsepo»wer, run-
ning at 560 revolutions per minute; and the other in the
Hartley seam is driven by a motor of 100 horsepower of the
same type, but running at 470 revolutions per minute. Both
of the motors are governed by a controller similar to that in
No. 2 pit.
Primping. — In the Hirst seam, there is a three-throw pump
and motor of the same dimensions as that in No. 2 pit forcing
water to the surface. Another pump, placed in the Knott coal-
seam, forces its water to a lodgment at a depth of 810 feet. It
is a three-throw pump, having rams 4 inches in diameter and
9 inches stroke, and is belt-driven by a squirrel-cage motor of
15 horsepower running at 710 revolutions per minute, and oper-
ated by means of an oil-immersed auto-starter. The water in
the lodgment at 810 feet is dealt with by a Worthington pump,
having two steam-cylinders 20 inches in diameter, and two
double-acting water-plungers 7 inches in diameter, all having a
stroke of 15 inches.
Screening and Washing Plants. — The screening plant is on
similar lines to that at Nos. 1 and 2 pits, the gangways in this
case being open, only the pitheads being covered. There are
three picking-belts each being used respectively for Hirst (or
splint) coal, anthracite coal and best house coal. The small coal
from the anthracite table is delivered into wagons, and taken to
the washer at Nos. 1 and 2 pite. The dross from the other
tables is treated by a washer on the ground. The whole of the
cleaning plant is driven by a horizontal steam-engine, with two
cylinders 8 inches in diameter and 16 inches stroke.
The washer is of the same kind as that at Nos. 1 and 2 pits,
but it is able to wash 50 tons per hour, having three bash-tanks
for treating the trebles, doubles and singles, and two nests of six
felspar washers for treating the pearls and gum. The plant is
driven by a horizontal engine, with two cylinders 10 inches in
diameter and 18 inches stroke. The silt-recoverer, and the
conveyor for the gum received from it and conveyed to the
boilers, is driven by an engine with a cylinder 6 inches in
diameter and 12 inches stroke.
TOL. XXXni.-1906-lMf7.
19
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Hs
POLMAISE COLLIERIES.
Railwai/'sidimjs. — There are eip^ht roads in addition to the
engiue-road, for dealing with the various classes of fuel.
Dwelling-houses. — There are twenty cottages for officials
erected at the entrance to the colliery ; eighty workmen's houses
of the room-and-kitchen type, with all conveniences, have been
built near the colliery; and a hundred more are in course of
erection. Water for domestic purposes is led in pipes for a
distance of 2 miles from the town-mains: and, owing to the
supply being scarce, storage-tanks have been erected. The pit-
water, pumped into tanks, is conveyed to the houses for flushing
purposes.
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TKANSACTIONS. 249
THE NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE OF MINING
AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING,
HiLD IN THE Wood Mbmobial Hall, Newoastle-upon-Ttnk,
June 8th, 1907.
Mb. J. H. MERIVALE, President, in the Chair.
The Secretary read tie minutes of the last General Meeting
and reported the proceedings of the Council at their meetings
on May 25th and that day.
The Secretary read the balloting list for the election of
officers for the year 190T-1908.
The following gentlemen were elected, having been previously
nominated: —
Members —
Mr. John Abel Chapman, Engineer, 56, Bewick Road, Gateahead-upon-Tyne.
Mr. Francis Henrt Lambton Crovdace, Colliery Manager, The Lodge,
Lambton, Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia.
Mr. Sydney Croudace, Colliery Manager and Mining Engineer, New
Lambton, Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia.
Mr. Robert William Hall, Colliery Manager, Thrislington Colliery, West
Comforth, S.O., County Durham. .
Mr. Harold Horwood-Barrett, Mining and Consulting Engineer, 2, Park
View Villas, Hove, Brighton.
Mr. Charles Howson, Colliery Manager, Harraton Colliery, Chester- le-Street.
Mr. DtTDLEY James Inskipp, Mining Engineer, Grand Hotel, Bulawayo,
Rhodesia, South Africa.
Mr. William Henry Ramsay, Colliery Manager, Harperley Hall, Tantobie,
S.O., County Durham.
Mr. Robert Smart, Assayer to the Yukon Government, White Horse, Yukon
Territory, Canada.
VOL. xxznL-t0O<-in7. 20
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260 DISCUSSION — ^THE PNEUMATOGEN.
Mr. William Tbutbnbebo, Mining Engineer and Surveyor, Nenthead^
Alston, S.O., Cumberland.
Mr. Errington Thompson, Metal-mlne Manager, Weardale House, St. John'a
Chapel, S.O., County Durham.
Mr. HiNRY Walker, H.M. Inspector of Mines, Durham.
Mr. HxKRT STKvsNSOir Willis, Colliery Manager, The Garth, Medomsley,.
S.O., County Durham.
Mr. William Wilson, Colliery Manager, Chilton Colliery, via Ferry Hill.
AssociATB Members —
Mr. Featherstone Fenwiok, County Chambers, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Mr. James Kirklet, Cleadou Park, Cleadon, Sunderland.
Associates—
Mr. Philip Sidney Blundek, Under-manager, The Villas, Dean Bank,.
Ferry Hill Village, Ferry Hill.
Mr. George Elliott, Under-manager, Dinnington Colliery, Dudley, S.O.^
Northumberland.
Mr. George Tweddell, Back-overman, 61, Double Row, Seaton Delaval, S.O.,.
Northumberland.
Students—
Mr. William Ernest Avery, Mining Student, Ravensworth Colliery Office^
Low Fell, Gateshead-upon-Tyne.
Mr. John Brown, Mining Student, 4, Scotch Street, Whitehaven.
Mr. Thomas Watson, Jud., Mining Student, Rosebank, Darlington.
Mr. Hubert Watts, Mechanical Engineering Student, Cleveland House,.
North Shields.
DISCUSSION OF MR. R. CRBMER'S PAPER OX ** THE
PNEUMATOGEN : THE SELF-GENERATIXG RESCUE.
APPARATUS, COMPARED WITH OTHER TYPES."*
Mr. M. Walton Browx said that Mr. Fickler, of Gneisenau
colliery, Westphalia, had stated that on April 17th, 1907, ia
company with Mr. von Harlessen and Mr. Qiese, he had made
a trial with the pneumatogen in the mine.t After the appli-
ance had been in use for about 18 minutes, and as they were
walking up a steep incline, it commenced to burn, and after
great trouble he was able to prevent the flame from burning
his clothes. It was found afterwards that heated peroxide of
sodium and potassium had come into contact with an indiarubber
ring, and caused it to take fire.
• Trans. Inst, M, E., 1906, vol. xxxii., page 61.
t QlUckauf, 1907, vol. xliii., page 524.
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DISCUSSION — SINKING BY THE FEEEZING-PROCESS. 261
Mr. L. H. Hodgson said that the pneumatogen had been tried
by Mr. W. E. Garforth in the Altofts-coUiery experimental gal-
lery with good results, but he thought that appliances of this
kind would only be generally adopted in Great Britain when they
were enforced by law.
Mr. R. Cremer (Leeds) wrote that Mr. von Harlessen, who
was present at the incident, stated that the occurrence was due
to an indiarubber jointing ring used in the pneumatogen at
Gneisenau colliery ; and that, in order to prevent such incidents,
the indiarubber jointing material had been replaced by asbestos.
DISCUSSION OF MR. E. S. WOOD'S PAPER ON " SINKING
THROUGH MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE AND YELLOW
SAND BY THE FREEZING-PROCESS AT DAWDON
COLLIERY, NEAR SEAHAM HARBOUR, COUNTY
DURHAM."*
Mr. E. S. Wood said that during the previous discussion a
question was asked about the lowest temperatures that had been
observed for freezing shafts, and why temperatures down to
— 34-4° Cent. (—30^ Fahr.) were not used. He asked the con-
tractors to give their experience in the matter, and they stated
that many experiments were carried out in Holland to produce
lower temperatures in the freezing-tubes by the direct expansion
of anhydrous ammonia or carbonic acid. Temperatures of — 18^
to -210 Cent. (-O40 to -S'S^ Fahr.) were adopted in order to
keep the freezing-tubes sound, because long experience had shown
that with lower temperatures the freezing-tubes in many
instances were broken. In one case, the temj^rature of the brine
was lowered to— 30^ Cent. ( — 22^ Fahr.) because running water
was circulating in the strata round the freezing-tubes ; the water
was frozen, but a high percentage of the pipes were broken. The
plant used at Dawdon was capable of working at much lower
temperatures, but it was advisable not to do this in order to save
the freezing-tubes from being broken.
Mr. F. CouLSON (Durham) said that the variation of the water
in the pit as compared with the tides seemed somewhat remark-
• Tran$. Inst. M. E,^ 1906, vol. xxxii., page 651 ; and vol. xxxiii., page 197.
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252 DiscirssiON — sinking by the freezing-process.
able, and perhaps Mr. Wood could give some theory to account
for it. Did the water in the pit rise in exact proportion to the
tide, or was there any difference in the speed of rising ? They
found that, with tides varying from 14 to 17 feet, the water in
the pit only varied about 4 inches. He would like to know,
if possible, how this variation of rise and fall in the water varied
with the rise and fall of the barometer, if that had been observed.
It seemed to him that the attraction that made the tides might
have some influence on the large mass of water that was located
in the Magnesian Limestone ? It seemed curious that the rise
and fall of the water in the shaft was the same before the sand-
feeders were tapped, and that the sand-feeders rose to a level
4 feet higher than the Magnesian Limestone feeders. He would
be glad to know the cause of this.
Mr. R. SuTCLiFFE (Bamsley) asked whether the rising water
in the shaft might not be retarded by the inlet through the sand.
If the spaces through which the water flowed were very con-
tracted, it could not enter in anything like the proportion of the
movement of the tides. Thus, 8 inches in 17 feet represented 1
in 26 ; and if the time when the tide was in did not permit of
more water getting into the pit during that time, it could not
rise so high. With respect to the attraction of the moon or sun
causing the rise of water in the strata of the earth, the rise of the
tide was almost enough to indicate that this was not so. There
was not a tidal variation of 17 feet out at sea, but part of the 17
feet would be caused by the land-resistance, causing an excessive
rise through the momentum of the water set in motion by the
tides, and the amount of water getting into the shaft would
depend on the openings in the stone to admit it. He did not see
how the attraction of the sun or moon would affect the rise of
the water, without affecting the barometer much more, which it
had not done.
Mr. M. Walton Brown said it occurred to him that the varia-
tion was not altogether due to the tide, but might be due to a
variation of the hydraulic gradient, caused by the water in the
strata being dammed up by the rising tide, and being released
by the falling tide. This would occur if the level of the water
in the shaft corresponded with the level of low water.
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DISCUSSION — SINKING BY THE FEEEZING-PROCESS. 25S
Mr. F. CouLSON said that the water in the shaft continued to
rise for 3 hours after the turn of the tide, and it appeared to him
that on the tide falling, the shaft being only a short distance
from the sea, the water ought to start to fall again, but it did
not do so. The highest rises of water in the shaft occurred with
a low barometer. There was a \i ell at Sunderland, some dis-
tance from the sea, where the level of the water in the sand, about
45 feet above sea-level, used to rise and fall 4 inches with the
tides. It might be caused by tides backing the water, but he
did not see how this could take place without stopping the
outlet.
Mr. E. S. Wood said that the rise and fall of the water in the
shaft was carefully recorded ; and, as Mr. Coulson had pointed
out, it wa« at its highest about 3 hours after the tide was at its
height. It gradually followed the rise and fall of the tide.
The saltness of the water, when they were pumping, seemed to
indicate that some of the gullets were connected directly with
the sea, and that would account for the tidal variations of level.
The fact of the water rising above the previous water-level, on the
bore-holes passing through the Magnesian Limestone into the
sand, might be owing to the outcrop of the sand, at the surface
inland, being at a higher level than the water in the Magnesian
Limestone on the coast. In that case, there was a flow of water
from the higher level inland towards the sea, and the outlet at
the shaft would naturally cause the water from the sand and
below the Marl Slates to rise.
The P&ESiDENT (Mr- J. H. Merivale) said that the points raised
in the discussion were interesting, and Mr. Coulson might find
that the forces which originated the tides would necessarily tend
to cause similar tides in the water contained in the earth's crust.
Mr. EiCHAHD Hahle's paper on the " Treatment of Dust in
Mines, Aboveground and Belowground" was read as follows: —
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254^ TEEATMENT OF DUST IN MINES.
TREATMENT OF DUST IN MINES, ABOVEGROTJND AND
BELOWGBOUND*
Bt RICHARD HARLE.
The recent explosions in mines undoubtedly confirm the
opinion that " where there is dust there is danger/' they prove
that newly-made dust can easily be ignited with explosive vio-
lence, and they show the danger of using naked lights in dusty
mines.
It is admitted that dust-accumulations are derived from the
tops of loaded tubs in transit out-bye, on meeting the intake air ;
by the running of empty tubs in-¥ye ; and dust caused by screen-
ing aboveground finds its way into the mine, and is deposited on
all timbers, pillarings, floors and other places on the main roads.
The writer has been continually reminded of the destructive
efit'ects of explosions, and has seen so much of the dangers of dust,
that he has endeavoured, in respect equally of its removal, its
prevention and watering, to improve and get rid of the danger
by a new system of damping and spraying, at the places above
and belowground, where it is made.
With the view of preventing accumulations, the writer has
previously described a method of dealing with dust by auto-
matically sprinkling the tops of loaded tubs, before leaving the
in-bye stations.! That arrangement has been in use at Browney
and South Brancepeth collieries for a number of years, and it
has done much to prevent accumulations of dust on the road-ways,
along which the coal is conveyed.
Another mode has recently been perfected to deal with the
dust-danger aboveground and belowground ; it can be applied at
any place wherever fine water-spraying is required for damping
or cooling ; and, by its means, the damped dust is arrested and
kept secure in the tubs during transit on the main roads from
the in-bye landings to the shaft.
* Application for British patent, February 13th, 1007, No. 3,612.
+ '* Automatic Sprayer for Preventing Accumulations of Dust in Mines," by
Mr. R Harle, Trans. Inst, M. A'., 1899, vol. xviii., page 113.
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TREATMENT OF DUST IN MINES. 255
The new arrangement provides wet zones of misty spray on
ihe wagon ways, traversed by the tubs; dampens both full and
empty tubs, and moistens the dust so as to ensure its removal
out of the pit ; and the air, periodically saturated as it goes in-
l>ye, deposits sufficient nioisture to damp any other dust.
The distributors can be fixed to stand-pipes and applied to
screens, coal-tipplers, coal-conveyers, coal-drawing shafts, or
other places aboveground, to moisten the dust at any point where
it arises, and to prevent it from getting into the mine.
The apparatus can be fixed at any intervening space on under-
groimd roadways, at junctions, at rope-oflftakes, and where one
haulage-road joins another, so as to isolate each district, and at or
near the shafts or in-bye stations. The water is delivered at a
high pressure, and is pulverized by the action of the distributors,
for the precipitation of dust.
The new apparatus works automatically, and can be applied to
both main-and-tail-rope or endless-rope systems of haulage. The
spraying continues during working hours, so long as the tubs are
travelling, and ceases at the end of the shift, when no coal is in
transit.
The arrangement consists of a small pump, about 2 inches in
diameter and 6 inches stroke, with gearing and attachments,
eapable of delivering sufficient water, at a pressure of about 100
pounds per square inch, to a spray-pipe, | inch in diameter, placed
in the gallery, and fitted with nozzles and distributors to pulverize
and distribute the water equally over the surrounding surfaces.
The approximate quantity of water pulverized from each nozzle
and distributor is about 1 quart per minute, under a pressure of
100 poimds per square inch ; and it can be varied according to
the pressure, and to the size of the hole in the nozzle.
On the roadways where coal is conveyed by main-and-tail-
rope haulage (figs. 1, 2 and 3, plate ix.), the drum or friction-
wheel, A, is actuated preferably by the movement of the tail-
Jiaulage rope, B, arranged by pulleys, C and D, to pass over or
under the wheel. A, at a point near to the pump, G, gear-
wheels, E and F, and water-tank, H. The water-pressure is con-
trolled by a valve, J, on the delivery-pipe, K ; and the water can
be delivered at a pressure of 100 pounds per square inch (figs. 4,
-5 and 6, plate ix.). The delivery pipe is fitted with nozzles, L,
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256
TEEATMENT OF DUST IN KIXES.
arranged to produce a fine spray, botk in-bye and out-bye.
wet zone can be extended to a length of 150 feet or more in eitlie
direction, by extending the spraying or outlet pipe.
The method of spraying where endlees-rope haula^ is in ub
is shown in figs. 7, 8 and 9 (plate ix.). In this case, a suitable
length of rope or chain. A, is arranged on the tub-way, and
carried round a drum or sheave, B. The apparatus is controlled
and kept in motion by the tubs as they pass over the chain, there
by working the shafting and gearing in connection with th€
pump, G, and keeps a continuous spray in the g^lery as the
tubs pafis along. Water is stored in the tank, D ; and forced bj
the pump, C, through the pipe, E, and regulating-valve, F, to the
pipe, G, fitted with nozzles, H, producing a misty spray, both in-
bye and out-bye (figs. 10, 11 and 12, plate ix.). The wet zone^l
can be extended to a length of 150 feet or more in either direc-|
tion, by lengthening the spray or outlet pipe.
The author has designed two patterns of nozzles and water
distributors for attachment to the pipe6 of the automatic water- j
spraying apparatus. In the first design, the nozzle, A, made of |
pipe I inch in diameter, is screwed into the water-supply pipe;
B, is a barrel or drum, fitted with blades or vanes, C, and carried
by the bridle or supporting straps, D, attached to the nozzle by
the screw or rivet, E (figs. 13 and 14, plate ix.) The second
design is similar in every respect, except that the drum or barrel,.
B, is fitted with a diverting ring, F, which materially assists in
the formation of the water-spray (figs. 15 and 16, plate ix.). The
dimensions of the nozzle and of the distributor may be varied to
suit any diameter of pipe or flow of water.
The working of the machines show the following ad-
vantages: —
(1) Sprayed and well-watered zones, over long distances, are-
produced at any suitable place in the galleries or main roads.
(2) Each district can be isolated ; and, in case of an explosion
of gas, damage to roadways and air-crossings will be prevented,,
the loss of life will be greatly minimized, and the entry of fresh
air into the mine will be facilitated.
(3) The dust, kept moist and secure in its transit in tubs on
the wagt)nways, is carried out of the mine, just as in damp mines,,
where no trace of dust is found.
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DISCUSSION — ^TREATMENT OF DUST IN MINES. 257
(4) There is no excessive watering or wetting of coal.
(5) It obyiates the danger of dust accumulating in the
galleries, and prevents it from being carried in-bye to the face-
workings.
(6) The distributors prevent, when placed aboveground, the
removal of dust, which is found at screens and other places above-
ground, and prevent it from moving about the shaft and passing
down the pit.
(7) There is no waste of coal or dust in screening, or in
conveying it to the coke-ovens; and explosions are prevented
in coke-ovens and other places aboveground.
(8) The cost of upkeep and supervision is almost nily and the
system will save labour and cleaning of roads.
(9) It requires little, if any, extra space to fit it on the main
roads.
(10) The coal-dust is arrested at the source, and absolute
safety is afforded against sweeping explosions.
The President (Mr. J. H. Merivale) said that one of the
most important problems in connection with the question of
watering was the effect of damping the roads, as it might cause
heaving and other injury in the mine. It seemed to him
that the arrangement proposed by Mr. Harle would very largely
overcome the difficulties, as, instead of damping the floor, it would
simply damp the coal on the top of the tubs. The greater part,
probably the whole, of the dust distributed on haulage-roads
must necessarily come from the sets of tubs, or be blown down
the shaft from the screens; and, by damping the coal on the
sets of tubs, the dust would be prevented from accumulating on
the ground and causing those difficulties, which arose from the
use of water on haulage-roads.
Mr. E. S. Wood (Dawdon colliery) endorsed what had been
said by the President about the use of water-sprays in mines,
as, in some mines in the county of Durham especially, undue
watering of haulage-roads would materially affect both the roofs
and sides; but, at the same time, watering seemed to be a step
in the right direction. There could be no doubt that coal-dust
was a source of great danger in coal-mines. The danger might
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258 DISCUSSION — TREATMENT OF DUST IX MINES.
be reduced by providing proper tubs, with absolutely tight
bottoms, so that coal-dust could not get out on to the haulage-
roads, upon which the tubs were travelling. And further, the
provision of distinct and separate wet zones in the different dis-
tricts might, in the case of an explosion, absolutely prevent the
explosion from being carried over the wet zone. The apparatus
described in Mr. Harle's paper might be adapted to a certain
extent to making such a zone immediately under the water-spray.
A distance of 450 to 600 feet in the vicinity of the water-spray
might be arched and made absolutely wet without damaging the
floor of the seam and causing heaving, and it would obviate the
probability of an explosion passing beyond that wetted area.
These watering arrangements could be placed at the different
engine-landings, and at some collieries they might be placed near
the working-places. He suggested further that portions of the
haulage-roads should be converted into absolutely wet zones.
Mr. C. C. Leach (Seghill colliery) said that he had sent
samples of dust from haulage-roads for analysis, and he was asked
why coal-dust had not been sent. This dust had been actually
collected by himself from the roofs and sides of haulage-roads.
He thought that it chiefly consisted of clay and shale, with a
little coal-dust. He thought that water-spraying could be
done, without special machinery ; and water under pressure from
the surface would make a more efficient spray than would be pro-
duced by a small pump. He did not quite agree with Mr. Wood
that haulage-roads could be sprayed without injury. Watering
would be chiefly required, in wide places, at the junctions of
haulage-roads, and the effects would sometimes be very injurious.
Mr. T. C. FuTEES (Newcastle-upon-Tyne) said that Mr. Harle
claimed that his arrangement would prevent the accumulation
of dust on the heapstead. The apparatus would simply spray
the top of each tub EUi it passed underneath it, and consequently
he did not see how the coal inside the tub would be sufficiently
damped so as to prevent the dust from rising, especially on the
jigging-screens, where it would cloud the air and finally pass
down the shaft.
Mr. C. H. Steavensox (Redheugh colliery) said that the
arrangement was very ingenious, and the members werfe indebted
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DISCUSSION — ^TREATMENT OF DTJST IN MINES. 269
to Mr. Harle for bringing it to their notice ; but he did not think
that watering was the solution of the difficulty. He had found
that the watering of roadways had a most injurious e£Eect upon
them ; and, although that method suited some collieries, it was
necessary to discover some means of removing the dust without
watering it. It was possible that it might be enacted by Parlia-
ment that dust should be removed by brushing ; but it occurred
to him that it might be possible to remove dust from mines
by means of suction-machines, similar to those used for cleaning
carpets.
Mr. C. C. Leach (Seghill colliery) asked what was the cost of
cleaning a square yard of carpet, and then only a few ounces of
dust would be removed.
Mr. T. C. FuTEBS said that such an arrangement had already
been successfully applied to a screening-plant: a series of suc-
tion-pipes were applied to the jigging-screens, and all the dust
was withdrawn from the screens and so prevented from going
down the pit.
Mr. R. SuTCLiFFE (Bamsley) said that the removal of dust
by brushing in a strong current of air would result in the dust
being carried in larc^e quantities into the working-places, and that
would be increasing the danger.
Mr. F. CouLSON (Durham) said that if the water-spray was
used in a length of haulage-road, arched with brickwork, so as
to prevent crushing owing to the action of the water, and the
space kept damp, it would stop any coal-dust explosion; but a
severe gas explosion would be carried through any moderate
length of damp ground. In any case, a wet zone would not pre-
vent the after-damp from passing from the vicinity of the actual
explosion into other districts. He suggested that tub-grease
might render coal-dust more explosive, and pointed out that on
an ordinary haulage-road hundreds of tons of tub-grease were
used and ground and mixed with the coal-dust. He moved
a vote of thanks to Mr. Harle for his interesting paper.
Mr. C. C. Leach seconded the resolution, which was cordially
adopted.
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260
DISCUSSION — ^TREATMENT OF DUST IN MINES.
Mr. B. Habxe, replying to the discussion, wrote that the
sprayers were being efficiently used at the collieries under his
charge, and it was found that no injury was done to the roadways
by the dewy spraying. No walling <»r arching was required in
the dustless zone. His best reply to all other questions and
criticism on the performance of the invention would be by a
practical demonstration of the working of the apparatus ; and he
would be very pleased to show it in use to any of the membenB.
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DISCUSSION — ^THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS. 261
THE SOUTH STAFFOEDSHIRE AND WABWICKSHIRE
INSTITUTE OF MINING ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING,
Held at thx Untyxrsitt, Birmingham, Junk 4th, 1907.
Mb. F. a. GRAYSTON, President, in the Chair.
The minutes of tlie last General Meeting and of Council
Meetings were read and confirmed.
The following gentlemen were elected : —
Associate Member—
Mr. H. Sharrock Hiooinbottom, Colliery Proprietor, African Houae,
LiverpooL
Students —
Mr. Victor Holmes McNauohtbn Barrett, Etruria Vicarage, Stoke-upon.
Trent.
Mr. G. BAiiiiJE Hill, Gillott Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
DISCUSSION OF PROF. C. LAPWORTH'S PAPER ON
"THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS."*
The President (Mr. F. A. Grayston) remarked that Prof.
Lapworth stated that **all the visible coal-fiel.ls [of the Midlands]
are simply the exposed coal-bearing portions of what once was
a continuous sheet of Carboniferous strata. . . . afterwards
covered by a similarly continuous sheet of red Triassic rocks."
He confessed that he was unable to reconcile this theory with
the fact that the Carboniferous strata were frequently found
to be unconformable with the overlying Triassic rocks : the
latter, in Warwickshire, having generally only a slight inclina-
tion. It was true that Prof. Lapworth further stated that al-
though this view was " adequate enough as a working generaliza-
• Trans, Inst. M. E,, 1907, vol. xxxiii., page 26.
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262 DISCUSSION — ^THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS.
tion, it is insufficient if the details be examined," and mentioned
that there were large areas, like some near Chamwood, where
" the Coal-measnre sheet was swept ofiE before the Triassic
sheet was laid down;"* and later, he stated that in some
districts the Coal-measnres had been subjected to distortion and
subsequent denudation before the Triassic rocks were deposited.t
It appeared desirable in considering the question of the hidden
coal-fields that all information possible should be obtained to
assist in forming an opinion as to the condition of the Coal-mea-
sures below the Triassic rocks. The late Sir Andrew C. Ramsay-
said, referring to the basin-shaped form of the Coal-measures,
"the reason of this is that the Carboniferous strata were dis-
turbed and thrown into anticlinal and synclinal folds, before the
beginning of Permian and New Red Sandstone times.^t Sir
Charles Lyell considered that the amount of volcanic energy was
great at certain epochs of the Carboniferous age ; and that
enormous curving and dislocation of the Carboniferous rocks
and great denudation of their exposed surfaces occurred before
the deposit of the Permian rocks.§ He (Mr. Grayston), how-
ever, believed that Prof. Lapworth's researches prevented his
going as far as the above-named authorities on the question of
the disturbance of the Carboniferous rocks prior to the Permian
and Triassic periods, at all events, so far as the Midland coal-
fields were concerned. He (Mr. Grayston) assumed that the
Birmingham basin, referred to by Prof. Lapworth, formed one of
the troughs described at the beginning of the paper. He,
therefore, asked Prof. Lapworth, whether he could give any
reason why the boring at Packington, which was fairly centrally
situated in the basin, showed a much less thickness of red rock
than that at Streetly, which was nearer to the edge of the basin
and within 2^ miles of the eastern boundary of the South
Staffordshire coal-field.
It was also stated that " judging from the manner in which
the coal-seams thin away towards Wyken and Craven, it can
hardly be expected that they will extend in workable thickness
• Trafu. Inst. M, E,, 1907, vol. xxxiii., page 27.
+ Ibid., page 35.
X The Physical Oedogy and Geography of OrecU Britain, by Prof. A. C.
Ramsay, third edition, 1872, page 301.
§ The Student' Jt Elements qf Geology, by Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., third
edition, 1878, page 388.
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DISCUSSION — ^THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS. 268^
far south of the latitude of Coventry."* He would be glad to
know Prof. Lapworth's reasons for concluding that the Coal-
measures would become less productive to the south of Coventry^
because the coal at Wyken colliery was thicker than at other
collieries in that district.t He (Mr. Grayston) did not take
into consideration the thickness of the coal-seams below the
Slate coal-seam, as they were not generally proved or worked
in that district. The actual thickness of coal at Wyken col-
liery (section No. 5), from the bottom of the Slate coal-seam to
the top of the Two-yards coal-seam was 26 feet, exclusive of 8
feet of ground occupied by partings.^ At Hawkesbury colliery
(section No. 10), the thickness of the same coal-seams was 24
feet 8 inches, exclusive of partings; at Hawkesbury colliery
(section No. 13), the thickness was 21 feet 6 inches under the
same condition; and at Bedworth colliery (section No. 12), 2^
feet.§
It was also stated that " the productive measures are perhaps-
in their greatest force along a line drawn across the basin from
Aldridge towards Tamworth."|| Possibly that was so, but he
(Mr. Grayston) suggested that the Thick coal-seam of Stafford-
shire, which he considered to be identical with the Two-yards,
and the Slate coal-seams and the intervening coal-seams of
Warwickshire, would probably be found in a more or less direct
line from Sandwell Park to Hawkesbury, subject, of course, to
the possibility of disturbance and denudation.
Mr. T. H. Bailey (Birmingham) said that, in 1865, his father,.
Mr. S. Bailey, instructed by the Earl of Dartmouth, sank a bore-
hole, near Newton Road railway-station, over the eastern bound-
ary fault of the South Staffordshire coal-field ; and a trial-shaft
passed through 40 feet of coal, evidently the upturned coal-
seams forming the Thick coal of South Staffordshire. Prom
his studies of the district he had little doubt that the Thick
coal-seam extended from Sandwell Park in the South Stafford-
shire coal-field to Hawkesbury in the Warwickshire coal-field.
The occurrence of SpirorbisAim.estoiie being an indication of
• Trans. huU M. E., 1907, vol. xxxiii., page 44.
t "Vertical Sections of the Warwickshire Coal-field," Qeologiccd Survey of
Great Britain, Vertical Sectims, Sheet No. 21, 1857.
t Ibid, § Ibid.
II Trans. Inst. M. E., 1907, vol. xxxiii., page 45.
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^64 DISCUSSION — ^THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS.
underlying Coal-meafiures, he asked whether there were great
variations of depth between the Sjnrarbis-limesixyne and the coals
of the South Stafiordshire Thick coal-seam.
Mr. Alexander Smith (Birmingham) said that Mr. F. A.
Orayston's " President's address,"* dealing with the Warwick-
shire coal-field, might be discussed with Prof. Lapworth's paper.
He could not help being impressed by the accuracy of the geolo-
gical surveys of the South Staffordshire coal-field by Prof. J.
Beete Jukes,t and the Warwickshire coal-field by Mr. H. H.
Howell, + and their memoirs were still serviceable and indispens-
able to mining engineers at the present day.
A remarkable section of coal-seams had been proved in the
Lower Coal-measures at the Tunnel pits of the Haunchwood
colliery ; and appeared to form the bottom of the basin at that
part of the Warwickshire coal-field. The Coal-measures at Arley
colliery rose rapidly westward towards the great north-and-south
fault. § In the bore-hole at Packington, the coal-seams occurred
at the depth of 1,800 feet (nearly double that at Arley, 990 feet),
and nearer the north-and-south fault, yet there was no evidence
that the coal-seams were rising towards the surface. He eon-
firmed the President's (Mr. Grayston's) statement as to the thick-
ness of the coal-seams at Wyken and Craven collieries; it
certainly proved that the seams were not thinning out at
"Coventry ; and it was favourable to their continuance southward
for a longer distance than Prof. Lapworth anticipated.
Mr. Daniel Jones (Shifnal) said that Prof. Lapworth had
•done great service in laying before the members a survey of
the more or less associated and kindred coal-fields of the Mid-
lands. For want of opportunity in making a wide study, mining
engineers were prone to generalize from insufficient data, and
to draw conclusions from observations gleaned in their own coal-
field. Now, Prof. Lapworth had spread before them a Carboni-
ferous tract with its superincumbent strata removed, and proved
• Trans. Inst. M. E,, 1906, vol. xxxii., page 312 and plate xiv,
t ** On the Geology of the South SUffordshire Coal-field," by Prof. J. Beete
Jukes, Museum of Practical Oeology and Geoiogical Survey/ : Beeorda qfthe School
of Mints and of Science applied to the Arts, 1863, vol. L, page 149.
X Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Oreat Britain and of the Musevm of
Practical Geology : The Geology qf the Warwickshire Coal-field atid the Permian
Hocks and T'rias of the Surrounding District , by Mr. H. H. Howell, 1869.
§ Trans. Inst, M, E,, 1906, vol. xxxii., page 316.
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DISCUSSION — ^THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS. 265
ihat the coal-fields generally spoken of as separate formed one
homogeneous whole. The contents of this area could only be
approximately determined ; and the contour of the pre-Carboni-
ferous basin, and the eflEects of denudation at varying periods,
-could not be ascertained by theoretical reasoning.
The Symon fault of the Shropshire coal-field was an illus-
tration of extensive denudation. It was traceable from the
Woodhouse pits of the Lilleshall company by Stirchley and the
Hem pits, and had shorn off the whole of the southern end of
the Coalbrookdale coal-field. Southwards, in the Forest of Wyre
coal-field. Upper Coal-measures only were found resting on an Old
Red Sandstone base ; until at Billingsley and Highley a consider-
able area of the productive coal-seams of the lower part of the Coal-
brookdale series occurred. Outliers of similar productive
•coal-seams occurred at Shirlot, and in the Brown Clee and the
Titterstone Clee coal-fields. It was evident that, as originally
laid down, the productive coal-seams extended far away westward
•over the Old Red Sandstone base. From his (Mr. Jones') re-
searches, it would appear that this particular denudation must
have taken place at the close of the formation of the Middle
Coal-measures and before the Fpper Coal-measures were laid
down ; but no one could determine how far it had extended east-
ward in denuding the productive coal-seams. It was even
possible that the Coalbrookdale coal-field was only an island of
Coal-measures similar to those of Shirlot, Highley and the Clee
Hills. The boring at Claverley did not prove productive coal-
seams, but that might have been due to two causes : (1) The high
level of the original Silurian base or (2) the denudation of the
older Coal-measures. There could be no doubt that productive
coal-seams did exist between the Baggeridge pits and some
undetermined point westward. This illustration of denudation
supported the wise remarks made by Prof. Lapworth by way of
caution to mining engineers, and he could speak from his own
experience in three different cases where considerable expendi-
ture had been incurred in boring with futile results. The bore-
holes were first made and the geologist was consulted afterwards,
thus putting the cart before the horse.
Prof. R. A. S. Redmayne (Birmingham), referring to the
statement made by Piof. Lapworth, on the authority of the Royal
VOL. XXXIU.-1906.1907. 21
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DISCUSSION — THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS.
Coal Commission, that the limit at which coal could be profitably
worked was 4,000 feet, said that recent developments in Belgium
tended to disprove this, as some collieries were already very near
the said limit and were being extensively and profitably worked.
The greatest difficulty in the way of deep coal-mining was the
heat-increment, but he thought that it did not say much for
science if, in the near future, cheap and practicable means were
not discovered to minimize that difficulty. Furthermore, the
variation in the rate of increase in the temperature in point of
depth was very great as between district and district, and so far
no satisfactory explanation for this difference was forthcoming.
He (Prof. Redmayne) remarked that at the Tamarack copper-
mine, in Michigan, U.S.A., a depth of 5,100 feet had been at^
tained, and no difficulty was experienced from the temperature,
which was but slightly increased. He (Prof. Redmayne) asked
Prof. Lap worth how far, in his opinion, workable coal extended
in the direction of Frankly Beeches, near Halesowen. Mr. G.
H. Timmis' Witley colliery, not shown on the map of the Geolo«
gical Survey, proved the existence of workable coal further than
was originally expected ; but, at the same time, it showed, owing^
to the rise of the measures in the direction mentioned, that the
limit of workable coal had been very nearly reached in this part
of the coal-field.
Mr. J. C. Forrest (Wolverhampton) said that the faults on
the west of the Cannock-Chase coal-field were not correctly
indicated on the maps of the Geological Survey. The western
fault, north of Wolverhampton, had not, as was once supposed^
a big downthrow; and south of Wolverhampton, it had not
been proved, but the indications seemed to show that there would
be a big downthrow beyond the Baggeridge area, as the fault
seemed to increase in size going southward. In an area on the
western side of Cannock Chase, there was sometimes an upthrow
fault, and then, of course, a much larger downthrow fault. At
other places, there was a verj^ heavy dip in the measures, all to
the westward, and all leading down to what was no doubt the
original level of the coal-field. These indications showed that
the Cannock Chase coal-field and that of South Staffordshire
were formerly raised from a lower level, and, in consequence,
the edges on the east and west sides, where the break took
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DISCUSSION — ^THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS. 267
place, were ixot necessarily clean cut, but rather the reverse.
There would be areas, as had been proved at Baggeridge on
one side and at Pelsall and Walsall Wood on the other, where
the upheaval from the lower level had not raised the coal-seams
to the ordinary level of the surrounding country. But the fact
remained that to reach workable coel-seams on the west or on
the east, the level at which the highest workable coal-seam would
be found under the New Red Sandstone would be about 2,000
feet below sea-level.
In a general way he asked Prof. Lapworth, if east-and-west
lines were drawn across the coal-field, whether the coal-seams
found along such lines were, as a rule, of much the same thick-
ness and quality as they were found in the centre, taking that
centre either in the South Staffordshire coal-field or in Cannock
Chase as the case might be. For instance, taking a line from
Baggeridge to Sandwell Park, one would expect that the some
seams would be found to the west of Baggeridge as to the east
of Sandwell Park, allowing, of course, for variations caused by
distance and by what had been proved, say, on the west in the
Highley or Shropshire coal-fields and on the east in Warwick-
shire, on the same east-and-west line of section. Similarly also,
on drawing an east-and-west line across the centre of the Cannock
Chase coal-field, the coal-seams to the west would be much the
same, allowing, similarly, for the change already proved in the
coal-seams worked in Coalbrookdale and district, and on the
east by the seams proved along the same east-and-west line in
Warwickshire. He thought, also, that it would be admitted
that the coal-seams were more in number and of greater thick-
ness, altogether, in the north than they were in the south, where,
eventually, they died out. In the west, a very uncertain and
large barren area appeared to extend to the east of the Shropshire
coal-field, and he suggested that this barren area, or its cause,
extended southward on the east side of the Highley coal-field.
North of the Cannock Chase coal-field, and between it and
the North Staffordshire coaJ-field, there was a very uncertain
area which carried with it many conditions like the area lying
eastward of the Shropshire coal-field. He asked Prof. Lapworth
whether he had found, under the Coal-measures in any of the
coal-fields, beds of red rocks which yielded considerable bodies
of brackish water.
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268 DISCUSSION ^THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS.
Mr. G^RGE M. CocKiN (Rugeley) asked Prof. Lapwortli
whether recent geological evidence proved that rocks, older than
the Coal-measures, cropped out under the New Red rocks in the
northern parts of the basin lying between the northern end of the
Cannock Chase coal-field and the Leicestershire coal-field. Prof.
Lapworth said that Spirorbis-limesione bands were characteristic
of the Keele series and the Upper Coal-^jeasures ; but Mr. J. T.
Stobbs had discovered them in true Coal-measures as low down as
the Bowling Alley coal-seam in North Staffordshire, and he
(Mr. Cockin) had recently been able to locate a well-defined band
of S pirorbis AiTdesione in the Cannock Chase Coal-measures, near
the Main Hard or Old Park coal-seam.*
Mr. S. F. SoPWiTH (Cannock Chase) said that Prof. Lapworth
spoke of the probability of the productive Coal-measures of the
Cannock Chase district pinching out altogether, beneath the Red
rock covering, in a north-easterly direction; and that the pro-
ductive Coal-measures were absent also under the Red rocks in
the northern part of the Birmingham basin. Consequently a
large part of the Mid-StafEordshire basin, lying to the eastward,
would be barren of productive Coal-measures. He asked Prof.
Lapworth whether this inference was correct, and whether any
theories had been advanced as to the probable limits of the
Coal-measures in this basin.
Prof. C. Lapworth said that the President (Mr. Grayston)
had with great judgment addressed himself to the most vital
points of his paper. If, considered as a whole, the Carboniferous
rock-sheet did not, as the newer generalization implied, share in
the fold-arches and fold-basins of the Triassic rock-sheet con-
sidered as a whole, then it was idle to expect that in these great
basins there would be found more or less continuous hidden coal-
fields, extending from one visible coal-field to ajiother. And
further, as formerly suggested by some authorities, if the Car-
boniferous rock-sheet had .been finally folded and denuded before
Triassic time, the newer generalization that Carboniferous and
Triassic rock-sheets were folded in combination, appeared to be
in conflict with the known facts. It might be replied that this
* •* On the Occurrence of Limestone of the Lower Carboniferous Series in
the Cannock Chase Portion of the South Staffordshire Coal-field," by Mr. George
Marmaduke Cockin, The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of Lond<m^
1906, vol. Ixii., page 623.
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DISCUSSION — ^THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS. 269
conflict was only in appearance. All these views were natural
and harmonious enough if considered as summarizing parts of
the whole truth, and as stages in the growth of knowledge. The
earlier generalization of Sir Andrew Ramsay and Sir Charles
Lyell that the Coal-measures were thrown into anticlinal and
synclinal forms and denuded before the Permian rocks were
deposited, still held good so far as the true Permian rocks of
Yorkshire were concerned. But it had been disproved, with
respect to the so-called Permian (or Keele beds) of the Midlands ;
for, as Mr. Walcot Gibson and others had shown, these followed
at once conformably upon the underlying grey Coal-measures,
of which, indeed, they formed merely the upward continuation.
Again, the further generalization of the authorities, that so
great a folding and denudation of the Carboniferous rocks
took place before Triassic time, that the Carboniferous and
Triassic sheets (spoken of collectively) were everywhere uncon-
formable with respect to each other, parts of the former being
absent altogether in some districts, had never been disputed.
But during these pre-Triassic movements, it should be remem-
bered that the Carboniferous rock-sheet was bent into synclines
as well as anticlines, and in these synclines it would remain un-
denuded. And more, it must be remembered that the collective
Carboniferous rock-sheet was originally so thick in the northern
and central parts of the Midland area — the Coal-measures alone
(including the so-called Permian) being from 3,000 to 8,000 feet
thick — that only upon the highest anticlines and along the
margins of the whole Midland basin, where the beds were at
their thinnest, could it be reasonably argued that it was entirely
denuded away. It was only natural, therefore, to infer that,
with these exceptions and others of minor note, a more or less
continuous Carboniferous rock-sheet still remained undenuded,
upon which the Triassic sheet was in its turn deposited, the
Triassic sheet not only extending over the collective undenuded
mass of the Carboniferous sheet, but even over those areas from
which the Carboniferous sediments had been denuded away.
But the folding movements did not close at the end of Car-
boniferous times. The Triassic sheet became eventually folded in
its turn, and in its folds the underlying and still largely con-
tinuous surviving Carboniferous sheet must necessarily have
taken part; and from this followed, quite naturally, the newer
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270 DISCUSSION — ^THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS.
generalization. From the arches thus finally formed in post-
Triassic times, the Triassic rocks had since been swept off by
denudation, and in these parts consequently, as a rule, occuiTcd
the visible coal-fields. And in the broad basins developed at
the same time, and as yet tindenuded, must, if anywhere, lie
the hidden coal-fields which remained yet to be discovered.
Of course, this generalization only professed to be a guide on
a broad and regional scale. There were movements in progress
during the whole of Carboniferous times, probably over the whole
of the collective Carboniferous area of which this Midland basin
merely constituted a part. The Midland basin as a whole was
then undergoing a general depression, so that the successive
Carboniferous formations overlapped towards the southern
margin. At the same time, however, the rate of depression
seemed to have been much faster towards the central parts, for
there the formations were thickest, and they all decreased in
individual thickness southward from the centre. It was by no
means unlikely, indeed it was highly probable, that this more
central depression was correlated with a corresponding elevation
and denudation towards and beyond the margin. And it was
probable that even the floor of the great basin might have
been in part locally warped and denuded, as in the case of the
so-called Symon fault. But these were matters of theory and
future discovery. At all events, the identity of the succession
of the sub-formations throughout the Midland basin, and the
persistence of their lithological characters forbade the assump-
tion that any^ of the movements during Carboniferous times were
of an importance sufficient to destroy the unity of the basin as
a whole.
The Triassic period was also a period of movement and local
denudation. The north-western half of the Midland Triassic
area sank first under the waters, so that the successive Triassic
formations overlapped each other in turn to the south-eastward,
until finally nothing but the highest formation — the Keuper —
was found. As the rate of depression was again most rapid to
the north and north-west, all the Triassic formations thinned
away to the south-eastward, so that the Keuper, about 2,000 feet
thick in Cheshire, was reduced to less than 1,000 feet when it
finally disappeared under the Lias of Warwickshire.
All these matters must be borne in mind when employing
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DISCUSSION — THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS. 271
the generalization of the post-Triassic folding and denudation,
but they left its value as a general guide undisturbed.
As to the suggested difficulty respecting the borings at
Packington and Streetly, it must be remembered that, in the
Birmingham basin as elsewhere, the collective thickness of non-
productive measures (including the Keele beds) increased to the
northward, and also that the Birmingham basin was not a
simple, but a compound basin, somewhat bent and broken by
folds and faults. At Packington, not only was the floor of the
basin locally raised from the west, but much of the southern
Keele series was denuded; and at Streetly, not only were the
rocks depressed deeply by the great downthrow of the eastern
boundary-fault lying no great distance to the westward, but
most of the more northern (and therefore thicker) Keele series
was present, as well as the overlying Pebble-beds of the Trias.
It was pleasant to learn that in the southern part of the
Warwickshire coal-field the coal-seams (at all events, those
above the Slate coal-seam), did not actually thin away but only
came closer together at the Wyken and Craven collieries, and
that consequently there was a reasonable prospect that they
might continue workable well to the south of the latitude of
Coventry. Nevertheless, it must be carefully remembered
how rapidly the corresponding coal-seams of South Staffordshire
deteriorated and disappeared soon after they came together to
the south, so that there was especial need for caution.
As respects the view that productive Coal-measures might be
found in greatest force between Aldridge and Tamworth, this
view accorded with the fact that the total thickness of the pro-
ductive Coal-measures increased northward from the Thick-coal
country into the country lying well north of the Bentley fault,
while, to the north-east of this area, the coal-seams begin to
rise towards the Permian anticline.
The discovery in 1865, referred to by Mr. Bailey, of the
existence of the Thick coal-seam at Newton Road railway-station
to the east of the boundary-fault was a most interesting point in
the early history of the opening-out of the Birmingham basin.
Since 1882, when the Carboniferous measures of East Warwick-
shire were found not to include the Millstone Grit as previously
supposed, but to be made up of the same succession of forma-
tions as those of South Staffordshire, while the coal-seams had
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272 Discrssiox — the hidden coal-fields of the midlands.
already been proved to come together towards the south in the-
same manner, it had been acknowledged on all hands (by those
who had carefully considered the matter) that the Thick coal-
seam and its representatives probably extended more or less
continuously under the Birmingham basin into the Hawkesbury
district. But the exact parallelism of the coal-seams in the two
coal-fields was still far from being established.
The behaviour of the coal-seams, referred to by Mr. Alex-
ander Smith, at the Tunnel shaft, at Arley colliery, and at
Packington was explained if it were borne in mind that there
was an upthrow fault and a rise of the beds immediately west of
Arley. Consequently, the coal-seams at the Tunnel pit lay in
the bottom of the basin formed between this rise to the west and
the wellknown natural rise of the outcrop to the east near
Stockingford. The Packington bore-hole lay away in the area
on the downthrow side of the Arley fault, and hence the greater
depth of its coal-seams.
The well-known Symon fault, to which Mr. Daniel Joi^es
referred, was doubtless, where it occurred typically in the Coal-
brookdale coal-field, a denudation-phenomenon, probably preceded
by folding movements, as Mr. W, J. Clarke had shown.* Mr.
Jones had done good service in pointing out that the movement
and denudation might have extended for some distance to the
south-west and south, and possibly even below some of the Red
ground of the Wolverhampton basin. But the theory that the
productive Coal-measures and the underlying Carboniferous
formations once extended to the Clee Hills and had been
removed by denudation at the time of the formation of the
Symon fault, although a fascinating one, was far from being
as yet established. At all events, the Carboniferous measures
of the Titterstone Clee coal-field were claimed by some to be
not those of the type of the Midland basin, but those character-
istic of the Southland basin, those of the South Wales and
Bristol coal-fields.
The new facts as to the behaviour of the western boundarj^-
fault, brought forward by Mr. J. C. Forrest, were valuable
additions to knowledge. The line of the fault laid down upon
* "The Unconformity in the Coal-measnres of the Shropshire Coal-field/^
by Mr. WilUam James Clarke, The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of
London, 1901, vol. Ivii., page 86.
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DISCUSSION — THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS. 273-
the old maps of the Geological Survey had long been acknow-
ledged by some as not marking everywhere the main dislocation „
which might in some areas lie very much farther to the west.
There was much to be said for the view that the dislocation and
its branches formed in some districts a compound series depres-
sing the coal-seams to greater and greater depths.
Doubtless it was to be expected as the coal-seams of South
Staffordshire varied in number and character, gradually as they
were followed from south to north; that they would continue
more or less unaltered in these respects as they were followed
at right angles to this (or from east to west), not only over the
visible coal-field but also into the hidden coal-fields on either
side. But, when this generalization was employed, it should be
checked by calling to mind the general form of the Midland
Carboniferous basin considered as a whole, and it might be
anticipated that, when followed under the Red ground outside
the South Staffordshire coal-field, the lines of similarity would
bend more and more northward, at all events in the Wolver-
hampton basin, in proportion as the distance from the visible
coal-field increased.
The presence of saline waters in the Carboniferous and under-
lying series would form a good subject for a special paper.
The discovery by Mr. G. M. Cockin of a band of Spirorhis-^
limestone in the productive Coal-measures of Cannock Chase
formed another link in the lengthening chain of evidence bear-
ing upon the original continuity of the Coal-measures of North
and South Staffordshire, and one looked forward with growing
confidence to the time when the coal-seams and marine bands of
the two districts would be more or less paralleled in detail. While
it was doubtless true that Spirorbis-Xime^ioriQ bands occurred not
only in the non-productive, but also in the productive Coal-
measures, they were apparently much more prevalent in the
latter than in the former. And as Mr. T. H. Bailey had sug-
gested, some of the Spirorhis-hoxLHL^ of the non-productive Coal-
measures where they overlaid the productive series, although
the examples referred could not be asserted to be absolutely
constant in position, yet they had nevertheless proved a valuable
aid in the Southern Midlands in estimating the probable depth
of the workable underlying coal-seams.
In reply to Mr. S. F. Sopwith and Mr. G. M. Cockin, it
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"274 DISCUSSION — THE HIDDEN COAL-FIELDS OF THE MIDLANDS.
might be pointed out that, where the Pennine anticline was
overlapped by the Eed rocks of the Stafford basin, from Cheadle
io Derby, the Carboniferous rocks were denuded, even down to
the level, locally, of the Mountain Limestone; and, almost on
the opposite side of that part of the basin, on the north-east of
the Leicestershire coal-field, the denudation extended down to
the level of the Millstone Grit. Even if the denudation was not
as great under all the Red ground of the basin lying between
these two areas, the presence of undenuded Coal-measures in
mass was, to say the least of it, doubtful. Again, the influence
of the Pennine anticline was felt even in the north-eastern area
of Cannock Chase, where the Millstone Grit laid at no great
-distance below the surface, a fact pointing in the same direction.
Although east of that area, the great eastern boundary-fault
might again bring down the productive Coal-measures for a
-certain distance under the Red rocks, the Carboniferous rocks
would naturally retain their general rise towards the Pennine
anticline, and a broad spread of barren ground might therefore
be found under the Red rocks of what had been called the Mel-
bourne-Derby ridge.
The downward workable limit of 4,000 feet, referred to by
Prof. R. A. S. Redmayne, was not a limit set by geologists, but
that accepted by the last two Royal Coal Commissions. It was
pleasant to be assiued that mining engineers had already ex-
"Ceeded it successfully and profitably, and that consequently all
the buried coal-fields might in time be worked. In the mean-
time, however, Midland engineers could afford to be patient.
Within the last thirty years, about 500 square miles of hidden
<!Otil-field had been added to the productive areas in Nottingham-
shire within that depth, the extent of the Warwickshire coal-
field had been doubled, and in the same way as the Birmingham
basin was opened out more than thirty years ago, by the late Mr.
Henry Johnson's successful sinking of the shaft at Sand well
Park, the Wolverhampton basin had now been opened out by
Mr. John Hughes' successful sinking of shafts at Baggeridge
Wood.
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MONKWEARMOUTH COLLIEEY. 275
THE NORTH OF ENGLAND INSTITUTE OF MINING
AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
EXCURSION MEETING,
Hbld at Sunpebland, June 6th, 1907.
C PIT, MONKWEARMOUTH.
The freezing method of sinking the new or C pit has been
adopted, so as to avoid any chance of disturbing the A and B
pits, at the adjoining Wearmouth Colliery, which have been in
operation for seventy years. These pits are sunk to the Hutton
seam, at a depth of 1,723 feet; and the new or C pit will be
sunk to the Harvey seam, at a depth of 1,902 feet. The C pit,
18 feet in diameter, is now sunk to a depth of 117 feet; but
sinking operations have been suspended until the strata are
frozen. For this purpose, 28 holes, 360 feet deep, have been bored
round the circumference of the shaft, in a circle, 28 feet in dia-
meter— ^three boring-machines, three steam-winches, and three
steam-pumps being employed. Boring commenced on October
8th, 1906, and was completed on March 15th, 1907: the total
boring of 9,726 feet being thus completed in 128 days, or an
average of 26 feet per day.
Hollow rods, 2 inches in diameter and in 16 feet lengths,
were employed, the weigh1>-rod being 16 cwts. The chisels varied
from 7 inches to 12J inches in diameter, and weighed from i
cwt. to 1^ cwts. The steam-pumps forced 4,000 gallons of water
through each set of boring-rods per hour, the pressure at the
pumps being 76 pounds per square inch. As an example of the
speed of boring, one hole was bored 100 feet by means of chisels,
12^ inches in diameter, and the hole was lined with tubes 11
inches in diameter; it was then bored 90 feet deeper with chisels
lOJ inches in diameter, and lined to this depth with tubes 9J
inches in diameter; and the remaining 170 feet were bored with
chisels 7J inches in diajneter, and the full depth was lined with
tubes 6J inches in diameter, the total time occupied being 10
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276 MONKWEAEMOUTH COLLIEBY.
days. Each freezing-pipe comprises an upper tube, 240 feet long'
and 5 inches in diameter; an expansion-piece; and the lower
tube, 4 inches in diameter and 120 feet long : the double nipple
being placed at a depth of 75 feet.* The central pipe, 1 inch in
diameter, delivers the brine 3 feet above the bottom of the
freezing-pipe.
The refrigerating agent is anhydrous ammonia, and the brine
is a 28-per-cont. solution of chloride of magnesium. Freezing
commenced on April 10th, 1907. On June 6th, 1907, the tem-
perature of the brine entering the pit was 2° Fahr. ( — 16'6^
Cent.), and returning from the pit, 9'50 Fahr. (- 12*50 Cent.).
The cooling water entered the condensers at a temperature of
54-60 Fahr. (1250 Cent.), and left at 61-70 Fahr. (IQ'b^ Cent.).
The circulation of brine is about 150 gallons per minute, and the
quantity of cooling water is approximately 200 gallons per
minute. The pressure of the ammonia in the condensers is 9*&
atmospheres, and in the refrigerators, 06 atmosphere.
Trans, Inst, M, E,, 1906, vol. xxxii., page 576, plate zxviii., fig. 8.
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DISCUSSION — ^NEW APPAKATTTS FOB EESCUE-WOEK IN MINES. 277
MANCHESTER GEOLOGICAL AND MINING SOCIETY.
GENERAL MEETING,
Held is the Booms of the Society, Qtteen's Chambers,
5, John Dalton Stbeet, Manchesteb,
March 12th, 1907.
Mr. CHARLES PILKINGTON, President, in the Chair.
The following gentlemen were elected, haying been previously
nominated: —
Members-—
Mr. Tom Stone, Mining Engineer, The Collieries, Garswood, near Wigan.
Mr. Percy Hottston Swann Watson, Mining Engineer, 11, Trafalgar Square,
Aahton-nnder-Lyne.
Associate —
Mr. John Galliitord, Colliery Manager, 479, Edge Lane, Droylsden.
Student—
Mr. H. Harorbaves Bolton, Jun., High Brake, Accrington.
DISCUSSION OF MR. W. E. GABFORTH'S PAPER ON " A
NEW APPARATUS FOR RESCUE.WORK IN MINES."*
The Peesident (Mr. Charles Pilkington) said that the com-
mittee, entrusted with the work of fitting up a station, near
Tyldesley, for rescue-apparatus and for te^aching men how to use
it, would start operations at once, and he hoped that six months
hence there would be a place connected with the collieries of
the district, where mining engineers and others could see rescue-
apparatus at work and be trained in its use, or to which they
could send their men to be trained.
Mr. W. E. Gaeforth gave a demonstration of the working
of the Weg apparatus. He would have preferred that the
members had attended at Altofts to see the apparatus in use in
• Tran». Inst. M. E., 1906, vol. xxxi., page 626 ; and vol. xxxiiL, page 180.
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278 DISCUSSION — NEW APPABATUS FOR BESCUE-WORK IN MINES.
the experimental gallery, under conditions which approximated
as nearly as possible to those found in a mine after an explo-
sion— as regarded damaged roadways, contracted passages and a
noxious atmosphere. He had been engaged on the work of the
life-saving apparatus for many years, and still considered that it
could be improved. The supply of oxygen was sufficient for 2i
hours, if the wearer were undergoing exertion, or enough for 6
hours when the wearer was resting. The purifier contained about
2 J pounds of caustic potash and caustic soda, which absorbed the
carbon dioxide given ofE by the person wearing the apparatus.
The apparatus had been made entirely at the colliery, but when
it was put into the hands of a surgical-instrument maker he
apprehended that the weight, at present 30 pounds, would be
materially reduced. The apparatus did not interfere with the
hearing of the wearer, and the goggles over the eyes could be
removed (when advisable) without interfering with the other parts
of the apparatus. As only a small portion of the head was
covered, perspiration was as far as possible unchecked.
Mr. Joseph Dickinson said that had Mr. Garforth carried
his history of rescue-appliances 13 years prior to Sir Henry
T. De la Beche and Dr. Lyon Playf air's invention, it would
have comprized one on a similar basis for which 50 guineas and
a silver medal was presented by the Society of Arts and the
Royal bounty of £100 by King George IV.* The inventor
was Mr. John Roberts (of XJpton-and-Roberts safety-lamp fame).
The apx>aratus consisted of a mask, with goggles and inhaling
arrangements through the interstices of a sponge immersed in
varied saturated solutions of lime-water, chloride of lime, caustic
soda, and sometimes pure water, according to the impurity likely
to be met with. The expired air was not passed through the
inhalator.
Personally, the only breathing-appliance used by himself
(Mr. Dickinson) on many explorations in foul air was the 1846
bag of Glauber salts and lime. The mine was on fire, follow-
ing an explosion in 1851, and Mr. Goldsworthy Gurney's treat-
ment with the fumes from burning coke, salt, and sulphur had
* ** ApparatuB to enable Persons to breathe in Thick Smoke, or in Air
loaded with SuflFocatinff Vapours," by Mr. John Roberts, Transactions of the
Society of Arts y 1825, vol. xliii., page 26 and plate L ; and Report from the Select
Committee on Accidents in Mines, 1835, page 262.
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DISCUSSION NEW APPAKATUS FOR RESCUE-WOEK IN MINES. 279-
failed to extinguish the conflagration. The bags with the mix-
ture were used for some hours, most of the explorers being sick ;
and eventually the bags were discarded, and the fire was.
approached in the old-fashioned way.
E/escue-apparatus were now available of better form, and
possibly some such might have saved some time ; but the
saving would probably have been less than some persons might
suppose. On such occasions, when survivors might possibly
be rescued or valuable property saved, advances were made which
under ordinary circumstances would be inexcusable. Dormant
side-accumulations of foul air were then passed by, and left for
future clearance. Exploration also followed underneath smoke
and gas to close a hole in a blown-out stopping, and close touch
was kept with the advancing air-column. In front of this, among
debris, it would often be imprudent for apparatus-men to advance
far. The common tests for gas — elongated flame and blue cap
for fire-damp, dulled flame or extinction for black-damp, sensitive
creepings for after-damp and white-damp— did not delay much,
and with practice and care were reliable. The good results
occurring from the lessening number of fire-damp explosions
were it seemed so diminishing opportunities for re-entering that
special education w:as now suggested ; consisting of the establish-
ment of central training-stations with rescue-apparatus and a
practi sing-gallery, which deserved favourable consideration.
Mr. "W. E. Garforth pointed out that the apparatus would
be considerably lightened if it were charged to last a man for
only an hour. He asked Mr. Dickinson to say, from his un-
equalled experience in rescue-work, if at times he had not found
it of the utmost advantage for a man to be able to get as soon
as possible into a pit when an explosion had occurred in order to
ascertain the state of affairs underground. He did not hesitate
to say that five men, who had been trained in the gallery in
the use of this apparatus, could go into the most noxious atmo-
sphere, and give relief to men who might be suffering. He held
that if they could only save one life, it was worth all the trouble
that he had taken in perfecting the Weg apparatus. With this
apparatus a man would also be able to travel a certain distance,
in order to ascertain if any part of the mine was on fire. On the
occasion of an explosion at Altofts colliery, a fortnight was lost
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^80 DISCUSSION — NEW APPARATUS FOR RESCUE-WOEK IN MINES.
'before they were able to reach a certain point where a fire was
discovered ; but with this apparatus they might have discovered
the fire on the second day, instead of suffering great risks and
anxiety actually incurred.
The President (Mr. Charles Pilkington) said that he was in
favour of rescue-apparatus being provided, but there was a diffi-
■culty in the matter of weight. Thirty pounds was a great
weight for a man to carry a long distance. As to the general
utility of rescue-appliances, it had been stated that no lives
were saved through their instrumentality after the Courrieres
explosion ; but it must be remembered that there were no appar-
atus in the district at the time of the disaster.
Mr. John Gerrard said that occasionally the need arose, in
exploring mines after explosions and in connection with fires,
to use all the appliances that science and experience had sug-
gested : thus mice and birds, by reason of their greater suscepti-
bility to carbon monoxide, gave early intimation of its presence.
The statement that rescue-apparatus failed at the Courrieres
mines, he emphatically declared, was most unfair, as the rescue-
apparatus had not a chance to save life. It was perfectly true that
men came out of the pit alive after Mr. G. A. Meyer arrived at
the Courrieres collieries, but everybody at that time firmly be-
lieved that there was not a living man in the pit, and everybody
acted on that assumption. He (Mr. Gerrard) thought that Mr.
Garforth was deserving of all praise for his persistent efforts
to perfect this apparatus. Fortunately, Lancashire had been
spared disastrous explosions of recent years ; but not infrequently
trouble had arisen through fires which might much sooner
have been extinguished, if such an apparatus as that which Mr.
Garforth had designed had been available for use. Life also
would have been saved. In connection with fires, there was,
he was persuaded, a big field for the use of this kind of appar-
atus in Lancashire. He was hoping that before long they
would have a rescue-station in Lancashire, where men could
accustom themselves to the use of these appliances. He (Mr.
GeiTard) raised the question of what could be done in the
event of a man equipped for rescue-purposes passing through
foul air to a place where the air was tolerable and finding men
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DISCUSSION — ^NEW APPAEATttS FOB. JEtBSCUE-WORK IN MINES. 281
alive there. Mr. G. A. Meyer had made a supplementary appar-
atus to bring out men. in such cases. He moved that the best
thanks of the members be given to Mr. Garforth.
Mr. John Gallifoed seconded the motion, which was
cordially approved.
Mr. John Galufom> read a paper on '^ A New Eeflector for
Safety-lamps." The reflector, made of aluminium, 5 inches in
diameter, can be fitted, above or below the standards or poles
protecting the glass of a Clanny type of safety-lamp; by means
of a spring clip or a bayonet joint.
TOL. XXX1II.-1906.W07.
22
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282 TKANSACnONS.
MANCHESTER GEOLOGICAL AND MINING SOCIETY.
GENERAL MEETING,
Held in the Booms of the Society, Qitebn's Ghambbbs,
5, JoBK Dalton Street, Mawohesteb,
April 9th, 1907.
Mr. CHARLES PILIUINGTON, President, in the Chair.
The following gentlemen were elected, having been previously
nominated : —
Member—
Mr. William Oldfield, Miniog Engineer, West View, Minsterley, Shropshire,
Associate^
Mr. George Reynolds Wynne, Hope Cottage, Tarvin Road, Cheeter.
Mr. W. H. Coleman read the following paper on " The Cook
Calorimetric Bomb " : —
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THE CX)OK CALOBIMETBIC BOMB. 28S
THE COOK CALOBIMETBIC BOMB.
By W. H. COLEMAN.
Introdtietion. — In bringing this new pattern of bomb calori-
meter before your notice^ it is necessary to preface the descrip-
tion with a few words on fuel-valuation.
This subject may be divided into three heads : — (1) Sampling
the fuel ; (2) determining its calorific value ; and (3) comparing
different fuels, so as to find out which will serve the purpose in
hand most economically.
(1) The Sample, — The chief difficulty in the way of deter-
mining the calorific value of a fuel is the fact that it is not at all
easy to obtain an average sample. Unless the sample is what it
professes to be, that is, of the same composition as that of the
whole bulk of the fuel under examination, it is useless to waste
time and money in making elaborate calorimetric determina-
tions. If the sample is to represent a seam of coal, several
freshly hand-cut portions should be taken from different parts
of the seam ; taking care that a strip is cut from a fresh face from
top to bottom of the seam and that it contains everything,
whether coal or dross, that would be sent to the surface as coal,
and nothing else.
If the sample represents a delivery of a particular quality
of coal, then a truck or a cart-load should be selected at random
from a number of freshly-filled trucks or carts. Special care
should be taken that the loads are average ordinary loads, which
have been filled for delivery, without any attempt to pick the
quality. The whole load should be tipped, well mixed, and quar-
tered down until a sample of about 1 hundredweight is obtained.
Great care must be taken that this contains the right proportions
of large, small and fine coal. The sample should then be either
put through a stone-breaker, or ground roughly in a mortar-mill.
It should then be again quartered, until a sample weighing 2
or 3 pounds is obtained. This must then be ground in a suit-
able mill to a moderately fine granular powder. It is necessary >
when determining the moisture in a coal, to be sure that it is
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284
THE COOK CALOBIMETRIC BOMB.
not too finely ground, and it should be bottled at once. The
sampling, grinding, etc., should be quickly done, so that the
coal may not lose moisture.
(2) The Calorific Value. — Three ways offer themselves for
determining the calorific value of a fuel : — (l)An ultimate analysis
of the coal may be made, and its theoretical calorific value
may be obtained by calculation. This method, though accurate,
takes a considerable time and requires the services of an expert
Fill. 1.— Thk Cook Calobimetbic Bomb.
chemist. (2) The moisture, ash, volatile matter and fixed car-
bon may be estimated, and the calorific value calculated from one
of the numerous formalee given by different authorities. This
method is simple, and can be carried out by an average intelli-
gent laboratory-assistant; but the results, though useful in
checking deliveries, the calorific value of which has been deter-
mined by the first method from a previous sample-delivery, are
not sufficiently accurate to discriminate between several different
qualities of coal. (3) The actual calorific value may be deter-
mined by means of a calorimeter.
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THE COOK CALORIMETRIC BOMB.
285
In principle, all calorimeters depend upon burning a weighed
quantity of coal and observing the rise in temperature imparted
to a known quantity of water by the heat given out during the
complete combustion of the fuel. Several forms of calorimeters
have been proposed.
(a) LemS'Thompson Calorimeter, — In this instrument, the
weighed sample of coal is mixed with potassium chlorate or some
other oxygen-carrying body and burnt in a bell- jar immersed in
water contained in the calorimeter. .-^
The products of combustion bubble up- [J ^ j*;^^^ H
wards through the water, to which they j |_
communicate their heat. I
1^
(6) Williani'Thomson, Fischer and
Darling Calorimeters, — These calorime-
ters are all modifications of a similar
principle. The coal is burnt in a
crucible placed in a bell- jar immfersed
in water in the calorimeter. It is not
mixed with any oxygen-carrying ma-
terial, but a stream of oxygen is caused
to pass into the bell- jar. The products
of combustion escape, as in the first-
mentioned apparatus. In the Fischer
calorimeter, the gases pass through a
special chamber.
(c) Parr Calorimeter, — In this ap-
paratus, the weighed coal is mixed with
sodium peroxide, which serves to supply
the oxygen necessary for combustion,
and the caustic soda produced absorbs
and combines with the carbon dioxide
given off by the burning fuel. The mix-
ture is placed in a closed metal chamber
immersed in the water of the calorimeter, and ignited.
r
Fig. 2.— The Cook Bomb.
ScALB, 2 Inches to 1 Inch.
(d) Berthelot'Mahler Bomb. — In the new modification of this
instrument (fig. 1), the weighed sample of coal is placed in a
platinum crucible, G, which is then placed on the wire support-
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286 THE COOK CALORIMETBIC BOMB.
ing ring, H (fig. 2). In order to ignite the coal, a fine platinum
wire, I, is connected to the supporting ring, H, and to the other
wire, J, depending from the cover. The latter, carrying the
crucible, is gently lowered into the bomb and screwed up tightly.
Oxygen, under pressure, is then admitted to the bomb until the
gauge registers a pressure of about 21 atmospheres. The valve,
A, is then shut, and the oxygen-cylinder is disconnected. The
bomb is then carefully lowered into the copper calorimeter vessel,
into which about 2 litres of water, slightly below the temperature
of the room, is poured; and the wires of the battery are con-
nected to the bomb, at E and K, the circuit being open. This
vessel stands in another double-walled copper vessel filled with
water at the room-temperature, and surrounded by felt to prevent
loss or gain of heat from surrounding objects.
The agitator is set to work, and the rise in temperature of
the water is observed ; and, when this is constant, the circuit is
closed, and the coal is burnt. The temperature of the water
rises, and the maximum point is noted. Then the increase in
the temperature of the water in Centigrade degrees, multiplied
by the weight of the water and the water-equivalent of the appar-
atus, gives the number of calories evolved by the combustion
of the weight of coal taken. If 1 gramme had been taken, then
this number represents the calorific value in calories ; and if not,
then the figure is divided by the weight of coal taken. The
calories multiplied by 1*8 give the British thermal units per
pound of coal. The evaporative power of the fuel from and at
212^ Fahr. is obtained by dividing the calorific value, expressed
in British thermal units per pound by the number, 966, repre-
senting the latent heat of vaporization of water in Fahrenheit
units. Several forms of this calorimeter have been proposed ; —
The original Mahler bomb; the Bryan-Donkin bomb; and the
Cook-Berthelot-Mahler calorimetric bomb shown in figs. 1 and 2.
This latter form has several improvements, and has been found
very satisfactory in use. The chief improvements are the gas-
valve, A, and the gas-inlet, B. In older forms of the instru-
ment, the gas entered at the top instead of at the side, and the
valve had to be slightly loosened to disconnect the copper pres-
sure-tube. Other minor advantages are the following: — The
gas-inlet valve does not easily get out of order. The stirring
arrangements are very simple. The connections have coned
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THE COOK CALOKIMETBIC BOMB. 287
joints, C, and do not require washers. The insolation, D, of
the ping, E, is protected from injury by high temperature at the
moment of explosion, by a quartz plate, F. Care must be taken
that the apparatus is tight ; and, to ensure this, the lead-washer
should be examined to see that it is not burred.
Several points require a little attention : the coal should be
dried at a temperature of about 110 Cent. (230° Fahr.) ; and
should be finely powdered, and then made into briquettes with
the small briquetting machine.
The water-equivalent of the apparatus is best found by deter-
mining the calorific value of pure cellulose (4,200 calories) or
naphthaline (9,692 calories). A correction for cooling ought to
be made for very accurate experiments.* If, however, the water-
equivalent of the apparatus is determined by burning naphtha-
line, and such a quantity is used as to give about the same rise of
temperature as the weight of coal taken, this correction may be
neglected if the determination is only wanted to be within ^ or
1 per cent, of the truth.
It may also be advisable to correct the results for the nitric
acid and sulphuric acid formed. This can be done by washing
out the bomb after the experiment, and estimating the quantities
of nitric acid and sulphuric acid formed.
The room, in which calorimeter-determinations are made,
should have a temperature of about 60° Fahr., and the water should
be about 2^ Cent. (4° Fahr.) below the temperature of the room.
Of course, a calorimetric determination does not tell all there
is to be known about the suitability of a coal for any particular
purpose. The length of flame, the quality of the ash (whether
easily fusible or not), and other factors must be taken into con-
sideration ; but, given several samples of coal, all of which are
otherwise suitable for the intended use, the most economical coal
can be selected by the calorimeter. If, from the result of the
determination, the number of calories obtained for any given
sum of money be calculated, it is easy to pick out the most
economical fuel.
* This is made by obaervinc the rate of the riBe of temperature that takes
place when the bomb is placed in the calorimeter and before the charge is fired, and
.also the rate of the fall of temperature daring a similar period of time after the
maximum temperature has been reached. From these observations, the loss by
radiation daring the experiment can be calculated and a correction applied.
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288 DISCUSSION — ^THE COOK CALORIMETBIC BOHB.
At the present day, when every little detail has to be con-
sidered in order to make a profit, there is no doubt that the coal
which can be guaranteed to give the best result for the money
will find the readiest sale.
Anyone who is desirous of going further into the question
of valuing fuel may refer to the excellent paper by Mr. J. B. C.
Kershaw.*
The President (Mr. Charles Pilkington) thought that the
instrument was very valuable, and suggested that, when a coal-
owner wished to ascertain the true value of his coal-seam, or of a
particular X)ortion of a seam, samples taken from all points of
the seam should be duly tested in the calorimeter by a competent
person.
Mr. Gqleman said that a sample of 7 or 8 pounds of coal
should be sent, broken into nuts, and then the final grinding
could be done quickly.
The President asked what allowance was made for ash.
Mr. Coleman said that no allowance was made for ash in the
coal, as it would have the same influence in the calorimeter as
in the furnace. The coal was burnt with pure oxygen. An
electric current with a pressure of 12 to 20 volts would suffice
to ignite the charge.
The President said that the calorimetric bomb was valuable,
but he thought that it was more for use in the laboratory than at*
a colliery.
Mr. Sydney A. Smith said that the calorific value of a coal
could be ascertained by this instrument, but it did not indicate
the value of the coal as a fuel suitable for a particular purpose ;
and much depended on the rate of combustion. In a recent
case, there was a dispute about a shipment of coal. The calorific
value was excellent, but it could not be burnt, except at a very
slow rate, in the ordinary grates of water-tube boilers, without
forced draught. In ascertaining the value of coal as fuel, that
* ** Fuel Analysis for Steam Users," by Mr. J. B. C. Kershaw, The Engineer^
1906, vol. cii., pages 314 and 337.
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DISCUSSION — THE OODK CADLOHIMETRIC BOMB. 28ft:
point must be considered, because the value of a coal for a
particular purpose depended on the rate of combustion. Some
coals burnt rapidly, others burned slowly, and yet all might
have the same calorific value.
Mr. Coleman admitted that even when the calorific value of a
coal had been determined, the question as to the coal's suitability
for a particular purpose was not settled. But given several
coals, at different prices, that were suitable as regarded their
burning qualities, the calorimetric bomb would indicate the one
that produced the most heat for the least money. The question
of ash was of the utmost importance in some cases.
A vote of thanks was accorded to Mr. Coleman for hi»
interesting jniper.
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290 TBANSACnONS.
MANCHESTER GEOLOGICAL AND MINING SOCIETY.
GENERAL MEETING,
Held in thb Rooms of thk Sociktt, Queen's Chambeil«,
5, John Daltov Strut, Manchbstkb,
May 14th, 1907.
Mr. CHARLES PILKINGTON, Prkidsnt, in the Chair.
The following gentlemen were elected, having been previously
nominated: —
Members--
Mr. Alfred Ackroyd, EUerslie, Victorift Crescent, Ecoles.
Mr. Hugh Frank Taylor, Mechanical Engineer, Sandy Croft, near Chester.
Mr. Thomas Williams, Mining Engineer, 5, Westboume Grove, Hexham.
Mr. Frederick J. Thompson read the following paper on
** The Rock-salt Deposits at Preesall, Fleetwood, and the Mining
Operations Therein " : —
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EOCK-SALT DEPOSITS AT PEEESALL. 291
THE ROCK-SALT DEPOSITS AT PREESALL, FLEET-
WOOD, AND THE MINING OPERATIONS THEREIN.
By FREDK. J. THOMPSON.
Introdiiction. — This paper is divided into four parts, com-
prizing: — <1) Tlie history and the geology of the rock-salt
deposit at Preesall; (2) the method of sinking shafts for
Tock-salt; (3) the methods of mining rock-salt; and (4) a
description of the Preesall salt-mine worked by the United
Alkali Company, Limited.
(1) History and Geology. — ^The earliest record of any under-
ground exploration, near Fleetwood, is that of a bore-hole, A
■(fig. 2, plate X.),* put down by the Royal Engineera in 18G0 in
search of water for the troops then stationed at Fleetwood, the
iown at that time being entirely dependent on surface-wells for
its water-supply. This bore-hole was carried to a depth of 559
feet, the whole of the distance being bored in Keuper marls —
with the exception of a few feet, near the surface, in the usual
surface-drift ; but no water waa found.
In 1872, the district on the Preesall side of the river Wyi*e
was mapped out by a syndicate, with the intention of putting
down twenty bore-holes in various places in search of iron-ore,
as it was thought possible that such might exist on the south
side of Morecambe bay, as well as at Barrow-in-Furness and
other places on the north side (fig. 1, plate x.). The site ot
-each of these twenty bore-holes was fixed^ and some of them were
bored simultaneously, but the only available records are those
of Nos. 2, 8, 9 and 17 (fig. 2, plate x.)- Rock-salt was struck
in No. 2 bore-hole in 1872, and signs of rock-salt in two of the
others; and there is no doubt that the discovery of rock-salt
prevented the completion of the original design of twenty bore-
holes.
In 1875, No. 17 bore-hole was put down about | mile to the
jiorih-east of No. 2 bore-hole in which rock-salt had been stinick,
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292 ROCK-SALT DEPOSITS AT PBEESALL.
and red sandstone was found at a depth of 45 feet from the sur-
face. The boring was continued to a total depth of 664 feet from
the surface, and indicated the existence of an enormous supply
of fresh water. The map (fig. 1, plate x.) shows the relation
of Fleetwood on the south side of Morecambe bay to Barrow-in-
Furness on the north side. All previous geological surveys had
indicated that the red-sandstone fault was 8 miles eastward of
the site of No. 17 bore-hole, which had struck sandstone at
Preesall. The author, in 1906, constructed a geological section
running east-and-west through the rock-salt deposit, and the
late Mr. C. E. de Bance expressed the opinion that it was-
substantially correct. A reproduction of this section is shown,
in fig. 3 (plate x.).
Nothing further was done in the development of the minerals,
as the state of the salt-trade did not warrant such, except that m
1885, a shaft around No. 2 bore-hole, which had previously been
sunk from the surface into the rock-head, was carried still lower
into the rock-salt bed until the bottom was reached. This shaft
indicated a total thickness of 340 feet of rock-salt stratified in
several layers of very good and some of inferior rock-salt and
marl.
The general theory amongst geologists as to the origin of the
various rock-salt deposits found in this country is that, at some
remote period in the world's history, considerable quantities of
sea-water had, owing to changes in the earth's surface, been,
separated from the main body of the sea; and that solar evapora-
tion concentrated such bodies of sea-water until salt was-
deposited. This flooding of the same area, happening again and
again, would account for the deposits of marl and inferior rock-
salt, which originally would be deposited as mud and salt. It
is not the author's intention to express any opinion as to this,
theory ; but it is obvious to anyone that salt could not have been
in solution in sea^water, unless it had been dissolved from the
solid mass in some previous formation.
Nothing was done in the way of serious development until
1889, when the reconstructed Fleetwood Salt Company, Limited,
took over the undertaking, and the author was engaged by them
to take charge of the development of the salt-beds. The old
shaft previously mentioned was converted into a shaft for pump-
ing brine, the small amount of natural brine found in it on the
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BOCK-SALT DEPOSITS AT FBEESALL. 293
rock-head being augmented by putting water down bore-holes,
which were bored down to the rock-head at a short distance away
from the shaft. Salt-works for the evaporation of the brine
were erected on the Fleetwood side of the river Wyre and were
connected to the brine-pumping station by a line of pipes, which
were laid across the estuary of the Wyre (fig. 2, plate x.). It
is not the author's intention to deal with the question of brine-
pumping or salt-making, except to state that both operations
have attained considerable proportions, especially since the erec-
tion of the Ammonia-soda works at Fleetwood by the United
Alkali Company, Limited, who acquired the whole of the Fleet-
wood imdertaking from the Fleetwood Salt Company, Limited,
in 1890. It may be stated at this point that salt was required
by the company as a raw material in the manufacture of various
products involving the use of chlorine or sodium.
(2) Sinking Shafts. — ^In 1893, the United Alkali Company,
Limited, decided to sink sha'fts for the purpose of mining rock-
salt in a dry state, and they were commenced in that year.
In sinking shafts for the purpose of mining rock-salt it is neces-
sary to ensure the absolute exclusion of all water or moisture ;
as, rock-salt being extremely soluble, great havoc would be
caused if water were allowed to enter any salt-mine. This must
be effected, before the rock-salt bed is entered, in carrying down
the shafts.
The first stratum passed through was the boulder-clay over-
lying the Keuper marls, and this was gone through by two tim-
bered shafts, each 7^ feet square. A considerable amount of
water was found in various places in sand-beds in the boulder-
clay, besides enormous boulders, which occupied in some places
the whole area of the shaft in sinking, and had to be blasted
before they could be raised to the surface. The boulders were
mainly of limestone, and many of them showed extraordinarily
clear ice-markings of the glacial period.
The Keuper marls were reached with both shafts, which were
continued until the marls were found in such a condition as to
afford a safe foundation ; at these points in each shaft, a brick-
work foundation was built in with blue bricks and Portland
cement; and from this foundation, iron tubbing was carried
to the surface. This tubbing consisted of cast-iron socket-and-
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294 BOCK-SALT DEPOSITS AT PBEESALL.
spigot pipes, 6 feet in diameter. The space between, the back of
these tubes and the timbering of the shaft was filled with clay-
puddle, and the absolute exclusion of the water was thus effected.
The shafts were afterwards continued downwards through the
Keuper marls to the rock-salt bed, and were stopped, for the
time being, in a good bed of rock-salt, about 450 feet from the
surface.
«
(3) Mining, — ^As an interval of 50 years had elapsed, prior to
this, since any rock-salt mine had been opened out, the author
had no previous personal experience to guide him as to the best
method of opening out a mine in the shortest possible time. A
rock-salt mine is different from most mines, owing to the fact
that it does not consist of a series of passages or ways ; but it is
only one large excavation or cavern hewn out of the solid rock-
salt, with solid masses of rock-salt left in at various places for
the purpose of supporting the roof /fig. 4, plate x.). The usual
way of opening out such a mine had been to commence enlarg-
ing the two shafts, around their bottoms, until they met and
formed one excavation, and afterwards this operation was con-
tinued all around. This meant that for some time, owing to the
smallness of the excavation, very few men could be put into the
work, as blasting operations would render the presence of a
large number of men undesirable, because of the danger.
It was ultimately decided to employ a compressed-air tunnel-
ling-machine, to drive headings in various directions into the
rock-salt at as rapid a rate as possible. This machine, supplied
with air from a compressor stationed on the surface, drove head-
ings b\ feet in diameter at the rate of 360 feet per week. A
heading was driven first from one shaft to the other in an
easterly direction and continued a considerable distance in that
direction, and afterwards a heculing was driven in a westerly
direction ; and, while so driving in this westerly direction, men
were put into the eastern heading to widen it out northward and
southward. Another heading was driven by the machine in a
northerly direction and other men put into the western heading,
so that in a very short time there was a considerable area of
excavation, 6 feet in height. The widening out of the headings
was done by rotary undercutting machines, worked by com-
pressed air, and these machines have been retained until this
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KOCK-SAI.T DEPOSITS AT FREESALL. 295
day, four being now at work. The bed of rock-salt that is being
mined is about 40 feet thick, and it dips in a north-westerly
direction at the rate of 1 in 3^.
The rock-salt is mined by making a " roofing," A, 6 feet in
height at the top of the bed; and the roof thereof afterwards
forms the ceiling of the mine (fig. 6, plate x.). The roofing
is done by machine-undercutting, in lengths of 105 feet — ^the
distance between each pillar, the pillars being 60 feet square.
Bock-salt is much harder to mine than coal, and an ordinary
coal-undercutter will not touch it. The special undercutting
machines made for this purpose, undercut to a depth of 2^ feet
only.
The roofing lays bare the whole of the lower part of the bed^
say, 34 feet thick, and this is worked by blasting from the face
as in open quarry operations. Black gunjwwder, in compressed
cartridges, is used for the purpose of blasting all over the mine.
The rock-salt, after blasting, is slid down the face to the floor of
the mine where it is filled into hoppets, B, trammed to the shafts
and wound to the surface in the usual way (fig. 5, plate x.).
Members who have had any experience of the ordinary rotary
undercutter, will no doubt be aware that, in undercutting from
one face to another, the two ends of the cut cannot be touched^
but have to be got out by other means, as the rotary under-
cutter will not start at, or finish right to the end of the cut.
This necessitates getting out the two ends either in advance of
the cut or after the cut has been made by the undercutter. In the
case of rock-salt mines, it has been found easier to get out these
ends after the long cut has been made; and, for this purpose,
IngersoU-Sergeant coal-cutting or punching machines are used.
These machines are also used in other parts of the mine, where
the range of cutting is so short that it will not pay to run the
rotary undercutter.
It is in the direction of drilling holes for blasting that the
most rapid strides have been made in advance of the old methods
employed in Cheshire and elsewhere, and it has been the means
of great economy over the original methods of drilling holes.
The original method of drilling holes in rock-salt was by using
a long bar of iron, steel-pointed at each end, as a jumping di-ill,
worked by hand. By this means one man can drill a hole, 1^
inches in diameter and 5 feet deep, in about 45 minutes. The
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'296 BOCK-SAKT DEPOSITS AT PBEESALL.
author first introduced into salt-mines worm-drills, operated by
ratohets, worked by hand, the Elliott drill being* the most suit-
able for rock-salt mining owing to the fact that the pressure on
the feed can be regulated by a friction-brake. This is especially
necessary in rock-salt owing to its varying nature, several degrees
of hardnees being gone through in a single hole. Later, com-
pressed-air motors were applied to the end of the feed-screw of
these drills, the result being eminently satisfactory, and, at the
present time, practically the whole of the drilling in the mine is
done by means of drills driven by compressed-air motors. It is
now quite easy for one man to put in a hole 1^ inches in diameter
and 6 feet deep in 5 minutes, by means of one of these motor-
driven drills.
(4) Description of Mine and Plant, — The total thickness of the
rock-salt bed at the Preesall mines is approximately 380 feet;
but^ as stated previously, although homogeneous, it contains
strata of varying quality and only a portion of it is mined.
There are two levels in the Preesall salt-mine: the floor of the
upper mine being about 470 feet from the surface, and that of
the lower mine 900 feet. In opening these mines, a thickness
of about 40 feet was mined in the upper level ; but, some three
years ago, the shafts were carried down to the bottom of the
salt-bed, and it was found that a thickness of about 22 feet of
rock-salt at the bottom was of very superior quality. At the
present time, mining operations are confined to thicknesses of
122 feet in the upper mine and of 22 feet in the lower mine.
The same winding-engine is used for both mines, a larger
drum and a longer rope being used for the bottom mine than
those used for the upper mine, the difference in the weight of the
load being made up by a balance-weight on the rope of the
upper mine. Cages are not used in the shafts. There are two
guide-ropes, EE, in each shaft, and guides, D, are attached
thereto (fig. 6, plate x.). The rock-salt is loaded in the mine
into large wooden hoppets, locally called " rock-salt tubs." These
hoppets, placed on the frame of a bogie, are not attached to it
in any way, and when fully loaded they contain about IJ tons
of rock-salt. They are trucked to the shaft-bottom by the men
who load them. The empty tub goes down the shaft and is
placed on a bogie waiting to receive it, the three hanging chains.
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BOCK-SALT DEPOSITS AT PSEESAIX. 297
attached to it, are unhooked and the bogie and the empty tub
are pushed away ; the bogie and the loaded tub are moved into
the place of the empty tub, and the three chains are hooked and
the loaded tub hoisted to the surface.
There are two systems of signalling, one being electric and
the other by an ordinary signal-line, pulled by hand, which
actuates a hammer and gong on the surface. Similar return
signals are also employed, the one system of signalling being
simply a standby for the other in case of failure.
The dip of the strata necessitates the use of several com-
pressed-air haulage-engines in the mine. Air for driving the
haulage-engines, the undercutting machines and the drills, is
supplied from an air-compressor, fixed on the surface, capable of
dealing with 2,250 cubic feet of free air per minute. The air
has a pressure in the mine of about 70 pounds per square inch.
The upper and lower mines are lighted by electricity ; Cooper-
Hewitt mercury-vapour lamps have been found extremely
effective for this purpose; while for general lighting, and in
other places for local lighting, tantalum-lamps have now taken
the place of ordinary, carbon-filament incandescent lamps. No
gases of any description are encountered in the rock-salt beds,
and natural ventilation is found to be all that is required,
assisted by the exhaust-air from the various engines.
The mine is capable of turning out 3,500 tons of rock-salt per
week, containing an average of 96'5 per cent, of chloride of
sodium. About one half of the present output is consumed at the
various works of the United Alkali Company, Limited, at Widnes,
St. Helens, Runcorn, Flint, Glasgow, Irvine and Bristol. This
portion of the output is ground by specially designed machinery
to a fine grain, and it has been the means of ousting higher-
priced manufactured salt from the various chemical processes of
the United Alkali Company, Limited. This grinding process is
peculiar, inasmuch as it mechanically removes the marl-impuri-
ties contained in rock-salt, these impurities going from the
screens in the shape of tailings. The grinding machinery is
capable of reducing 60 tons per hour to the grain of common
white salt.
The mine is situated about 1 mile from the estuary of the
river Wyre at Fleetwood, and there is a railway of standard gauge
to the Company's pier on the river Wyre, where vessels up to
VOL. zzxiu.-iMe.uo7. 23
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298 DISCUSSION — ^ROCK-SALT DEPOSITS AT PBEESAIX.
1,500 tons burdea can be loaded. A large percentage of the
output is shipped direct to the Continent.
In conclusion, the author expresses his thanks to the direc-
tors of the United Alkali Company, Limited, for permission to
give the information respecting their operations contained in
this paper.
Specimens of rock-salt of various qualities and colour, and
also of the Keuper marls, overlying the rock-salt, were produced
for inspection.
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins moved that a vote of thanks be
tendered to Mr. Thompson for his paper.
Mr. Joseph Dickinson, in seconding the motion, said that
Mr. Thompson's paper related to a branch of mining in which he
(Mr. Dickinson) had been much interested, having in his time
been in every rock-salt mine in England and Ireland. He had
been several times in the first shaft sunk at Preesall, and had
seen the development as now described. The paper gave the
depth of the two workings in the mine, one under the other, and
the distance between the supporting pillars, leaving members to
infer from the section that a sufficient thickness of rock-salt was
left for roof-strength between the pillars. The height of the
workings was similar to that of many old mines, but it had been
greatly exceeded in recent Irish mines, where the dip was about
the same as at Preesall. Under-cutting or holing by machinery
had during many years been successfully used in other rock-salt
mines. He (Mr. Dickinson) was much impressed with the rapid
rate at which the mine had recently been extended, and the in-
crease of brine, by putting water down the bore-holes, from a
trickle to a large quantity. The quickened opening was explained
by the altered mode of driving out from the shafts, aided by com-
pressed-air drilling-machines. In addition to these modifications^
the improved dressing apparatus had been mentioned.
The motion was carried unanimously.
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkixs (Manchester) said that he had been
very much interested in hearing Mr. Thompson's account of the
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Du-l
Voi^XXXm^TiATE K.
49a to 1 inch.
VojlXXX.
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DISCUSSION — ROCK-SALT DEPOSITS AT PBEESALL. 299
occurrence of the red sandstone in the vicinity of the Preesall
mine. Large quantities of water were always found in the red
sandstone, where there was a fault, as in this case, with the red
marl, which was practically impervious, on one side, and the red
sandstone on the other. The discovery of rock-salt was extremely
interesting to him, because it went to prove the existence of a
salt-field under the sea, between the Isle of Man, and Preesall
and Barrow in England, and Carrickfergus in Ireland. Some
years ago he laid before the members an account of the discovery
of rock-salt in Triassic strata in the boring at the Point of Ayr
in the Isle of Man, and a thickness of over 70 feet of rock-salt
was proved. The brine was now pumped and conveyed in pipes
to Ramsey from the Point of Ayr, and the manufacture of salt,
on a small scale, had been commenced. The rock-salt round
the Irish Sea was of very great geological interest. He could
not help thinking that in remote times there was a great salt-
basin between the Isle of Man and the Lake country, analogous
to the great salt-field of Cheshire.
Mr. John Gerhard (H.M. Inspector of Mines) said that
geologically it was extremely interesting to note that at Fleet-
wood, near Barrow, also in the Isle of Man, and again on the
north-eastern coast of Ireland, rock-salt had been proved. At
Fleetwood, a bore-hole seeking iron-ore; at Barrow, in the Isle of
Man, and at Carrickfergus, the bore-holes were in search of coal.
The Preesall mine was probably the most productive salt-mine in
this country, and having seen Mr. Thompson's work at the mine
he could assure the members that the intelligence which Mr.
Thompson had displayed in this paper was fully carried out in
the practical work of the mine. He (Mr. Gerrard) had seen in both
the upper and lower mines, a band of salt, very crystalline in
appearance, several inches thick; the men stated that this
guided them in working the salt; and he asked whether this
band ran generally throughout the proved mine. He also asked
whether it was a fact, where the very pure, very^ white rock-salt
was found, that above or below it, the salt was very impure and
mixed with marl. And, lastly, in giving the time occupied in
drilling the holes by machine, did the author include the time
vpccupied in fixing and taking down the machine.
Mr. Thompson replied that the seam of crystalline salt was
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800 DISCUSSION — ^ROCK-SAI.T DEPOSITS AT PREESALL.
overlaid by 6 feet of rock-salt and underlaid by 16 feet or 16 feet
of good rock-salt. Tliis seam was found in the upper as weU as
in the lower mine, and indicated the direction of the dip. There
was nothing like it found in Cheshire. An analysis of this seam
showed that it did not vary from that of the other parts of the
mine, except that it was uniformly of good quality and contained
no marl, and was softer than the larger bed of rock-salt. It
was more like g^t, although it was not in any way grritty, and
the men called it the *' gritty seam."
Mr. John Qebrabb asked whether Mr. Thompson had formed
any theory as to these guiding crystalline bands and their rela^
tion to the seams around them.
Mr. Thompson stated that he had not formed any theory as to
the relation of the crystalline bands; but they were found in
both the upper and the lower mines, and could be relied upon
as guides in working the rock-salt.
Mr. John Qerrabd said that he had been repeatedly asked by
persons interested in brine and salt production why at Fleetwood
so large an amount of rock-salt was mined, in addition to the
pumping of a large quantity of brine. The mechanical arrange-
ments worked admirably, and the rapid opening-out of the mine,
under the conditions obtaining in this case, showed that colliery
engineers had something to learn. It was an instance of the
advantage of persistent effort in using machinery for opening
out mines ; and he thought that Mr. Thompson would bear him
out in saying that the first machine tried was not altogether a
success, as it had to be altered and adapted to the conditions.
Mr. H. Stanley Atheeton asked how it had come to pass
that these salt-deposits were found so much below the present
sea-level. He also asked whether in the working of rock-salt it
was easier to cut in one direction than another. In other words,
was it similar to working an anthracite-mine, where if the cut
was made along the lines of crystallization the work was much
easier, and there was an easier line of cleavage and a much
better way of cutting.
The President (Mr. Charles Pilkington) directed attention to
the supporting shaft-pillars in the Preesall mine, being on a dif*
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DISCUSSION — ^EOCK-SALT DEPOSITS AT PBEESALL. 801
ferent scale from those deemed necessary in coal-mines. He was
astonished at the rapid process of the tunnelling-machines : 360
feet a week being driven in rock-salt that was harder than coal.
He wished that such a speed could be secured in coal-mines:
they could not touch 360 feet a week at the mines that he had to
do with. He could scarcely believe that rock-salt was harder
than coal.
Mr. Thompson stated that the tunnelling-machine was worked
continuously by three shifts of men, eight hours each. Brine
and rock-salt were both worked, because both were required by
the United Alkali Company, Limited. Two processes were
worked, in one of which salt was required in the shape of brine.
The rock-salt was mined mainly to supply tho salt required at
the works at Widnes and St. Helens, and a considerable quantity
was required for export, because rock-salt was admitted at a lower
rate of duty than manufactured white salt. Brine was raised
from about ten bore-holes, each one being independent of the
other, all in the neighbourhood of the Freesall mine. In his
experience, a bore-hole became useless, after a certain quantity
of salt had been extracted from it. The original level of the sea
was not maintained because the land did not retain its level;
and there must have been tremendous upheavals at times.
Cutting was carried on incessantly, and the cut was made across
the face.
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins said that salt was merely the result
of the evaporation of sea-water. He would expect to find a
variation in a thick bed of rock-salt like that at Fleetwood, for
the very simple reason that, in various stages of the evaporation
of sea-water, different minerals were deposited. It was very
largely, therefore, a question of the degree of concentration of
the water from which that salt had come. With regard to the
present level of the sea, it was quite an accident that rock-salt
should be in this relation to it in this place, but in the British
Isles nearly all rock-salt was below sea-level. In the vicissi-
tudes of time, after the Triassic rocks had been formed in the sea,
they were thrown into a series of folds, and parts of these folds
were worn away by denudation ; and the salt had been washed
out of most of them down to sea-level. Consequently, there was
very little rock-salt in Britain above sea-level.
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802 DISCUSSION — aOCK-SALT DEPOSITS AT PEEESALL.
Mr. John Kigby (Winsford) said that rock-salt was found in
Cheshire above sea-level.
Prof. Boyd Dawkins asked whether it was known that rock-
salt occurred above sea-level in any other part of Britain, and
remarked that this was an exception to the general rule. There
was a large district near Burton, whence the salt had been dis-
solved out, leaving the broken and disjointed red marls, and in
some cases the casts of salt-cry&tals in the rock, as evidence that
it was formerly present.
Mr. Dickinson said that Mr. Thompson gave the geological
view of rock-salt formation, and refrained from expressing hia
own opinion. Was it not quite possible that the sea obtained
its salt from the rock-salt, rather than by the reverse process,
namely, that the salt was the result of the evaporation of sea-
water ?
Mr. Thompson thought that it was the accepted theory that
the earth was gradually cooling down. If they reversed the
process and assumed that the earth was gradually becoming
hotter, the water would become steam, and salt would be left.
The same rule would apply when the earth was cooling down,
and the last occurrence would be that of steam condensing into
water.
Prof. Boyd Dav^tkins said that the earth was originally in a
heated condition, like the sun. As it gradually cooled down, it
would arrive at such a stage that chlorine and sodium would
combine together in the atmosphere, and a deposit of salt would
be formed over the surface ; and hydrogen and oxygen combining
together, would form water. Thus the sea was salt from the very
beginning. The salt-fields of Britain were all derived directly
from the evaporation of sea-water.
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DISCUSSION — THE COURRIERES EXPLOSION. 808
THE NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE INSTITUTE OF MINING
AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING,
Hkld at the North Stafford Hotrl, Stoke.ttpon-Trent,
April 8th, 1907.
Mr. JOHN NEWTON, President, in the Chair.
The minutes of the last General Meeting were read, confirmed
and signed.
The following gentleman, having been previously nominated,
was elected: —
Associate—
Mr. Albert Marshall, Florence Colliery, Longton.
DISCUSSION OF MESSRS. W. N. ATKINSON AND A. M.
HENSHAW'S PAPER ON "THE COURRlilRES
EXPLOSION."*
Mr. W. G, Peasegood asked what was the cause of the second
Josephine fire, discovered on June 2Gth, 1906, three months after
the explosion.
Mr. A. M. Hexshaw replied that it was believed to have
been caused by the explosion, which had been smouldering the
whole time, not having been discovered until three months after-
wards. The two Josephine fires were attributed to the flame of
the explosion.
Mr. E. B. Wain asked what were the conditions as to the
storage and use of explosives. Were large or only limited
quantities taken into the mine.^
* Trans. Inst. M. E., 1906, vol. xxxii., pages 439, 340 and 507 ; and vol.
xxxiii., page 124.
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804 DISCUSSION — ^THE CXJFRElilRES EXPLOSION.
Mr. A. M. Henshaw replied that only limited quantities
were taken, as they (in England) took them. Explosives were
not stored in the mine.
Mr. E. 0. SiMCOCK asked what was the amount of explosives
in the Lecoeuvre heading at the time of the explosion.
Mr. A. M. Henshaw replied that seven cartridges were found
intact in the box after the explosion, and he believed that such
was the amount given out to the men that morning.
Mr. E. B. Wain asked whether the explosion was suflSciently
violent to explode the explosives.
Mr. A. M. Henshaw said that he could not answer the ques-
tion, but, in many cases, explosives were found intact in different
parts of the workings.
Mr. E. B. Wain asked whether average dusty main roads
as found in average English collieries were comparable to these
roads at the Courri^res pits.
Mr. A. M. Henshaw replied that the condition of the main
roads of the Courrieres pits was very similar to the average main
roads of the average English colliery — ^not more dusty and not
less. Of course, the roads were more dusty in some places and
less in others, but, generally speaking, they were about on a
par with those of an ordinary dry English colliery.
Mr. E. B. Wain asked whether the main roads were packed
roads or driven narrow headings.
Mr. A. M. Henshaw replied that the roads were of both
classes, but mainly headings. Straight work and longwall was
worked; many of the roads were packed roads ; but the majority,
he supposed, were straight roads driven in the coal.
Mr. Hugh Johnstone (H.M. Inspector of Mines) said that
Mr. Henshaw might have been justified inanswering Mr. Wain's
question, Scotch fashion, by asking another, namely, what did
he mean by an average dusty road in an English colliery ? He
thought that it was practically impossible to fix any standard by
which to decide definitely whether a road was dusty or not.
The Wingate Grange explosion took place on a main intake road.
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DISCUSSION — ^THE COUEElilBES EXPLOSION. 80&
with which he was well acquainted, and he had travelled scores
of roads in North and South Staffordshire collieries much more
dusty than that road in Wingate Grange colliery. It was a road
which probably no one present would have considered a dusty
one, if they had travelled along it ; and yet an explosion origin-
ated on it and wa« propagated along it. With reference to the
initiation of an explosion in a mine, where the roads were dusty,
and presumably free from fire-damp, he would like to know
whether the writers of the paper considered it to be essential that
there should be a detonation, as in the Lecoeuvre heading; or
whether a flame sufficiently large and of sufficiently high tempera-
ture would suffice. He thought that it was practically admitted
that the imperfect detonation of high explosives in confined places
might initiate an explosion in a dry and dusty road. Several cases
seemed to establish that clearly ; but he was not sure that there
were sufficient data available to enable them to determine what
size or temperature of flame was necessary to ignite coal-dust with-
out detonation. There was evidence that a sufficiently large flame
would ignite coal-dust, but there was almost always a difficulty in
proving the entire absence of fire-damp. It was known that a per-
centage of fire-damp, not sufficient to be capable of detection by
ordinary means, could be exploded in a dusty atmosphere; but
there wa« frequently a difficulty in determining after an explosion
whether any, or how much, fire-damp might have been present^
when the explosion was initiated. To illustrate the facility with
which coal-dust might be ignited by a sufficiently large flame, he
might refer to an incident which had occurred at a Scotch mine : a
tub of dust, filled on one of the main haulage-roads — ^not on
account of suspected danger, but because it was found to be an
inconvenience — ^was sent to bank, and the contents were shot into
the fire-hole, to be mixed with the slack for the boiler-fires. The
fireman had just cleaned out the fires and the hot clinker lay in
front of them. As the dust was shot over, the lighter particles rose
in a dense black cloud, and, on their coming into contact with the
burning clinker, it was at once ignited, the flame rising 30 feet
into the air. There could have been no fire-damp there, and it
showed that the dust could be ignited by a sufficiently hot flame.
If this was established, it pointed to a serious danger in all dusty
mines ; because there were several means by which a large flame
might be produced. He referred more particularly to the dangers
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S06 DISCUSSION — THE COURRIERES EXPLOSION.
arising from the use of electricity as a motive power : the cables
were usually laid along the intake roads, and no means had been
devised of eliminating the danger of a flare-up through a fall of
Toof rupturing or damaging a cable. He did not know that this
had actually occurred, but it was more than possible ; and this
or any breakdown of the insulation might ignite blowers or local
pockets of gas and initiate an explosion. It appeared to him to
be worthy of the consideration of mining engineers, because one
could easily understand that an explosion of that sort initiated in
a dry and dusty main road might sweep the whole pit. The
risks were so great that any trouble incurred in eliminating them
was repaid. He knew that there were inconveniences from the
application of water, but he had an impression that in many cases
the difficulties were greatly exaggerated. Of course, a road
with a fire-clay floor and deluged with water wa.s liable to heave ;
but it was not necessary to have a large excess of water perco-
lating through the floor. If water were applied only in sufficient
quantity to damp the dust, he questioned whether it would have
the effect of making the bad floor that had usually been experi-
enced, simply because an excess of water had been used. That was
largely the cause of the heaving of the floor. The authors referred
in several places to dust-free spaces ; and, accepting the accuracy
of their conclusion that these dust-free spaces were a barrier to
an explosion, he should like to know whether the authors had
formed any opinion as to the length of dust-free space necessai-y
to break or interrupt an explosion. It was mentioned that a
distance of 230 feet (70 metres) had been sufficient to stop the
^explosion, and he should like to know whether there were any other
cases showing what length of dust-free space was necessary to pre-
vent the flame from travelling. The authors had also stated that
in some of the roads the dust had been shown by analysis not to
be highly inflammable. He should like to hear an expression
of opinion from the members as to the disadvantage and the
<langer that might arise from an admittedly non-inflammable
dust. Travelling along turnpike roads, they knew the incon-
venience of being enveloped in a dust-storm, which rendered
respiration practically impossible ; but what would be the result
of that dust-storm, in the confined space of a mine, lasting for,
not a few seconds, but half an hour? There was a possibility
that many of the deaths reported as due to asphyxiation had been
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DISCUSSION — THE COUERlfeRES EXPLOSION. 807
really due to suffocation by the action of non-inflammable dust,
whicli had not subsided before life was extinct; and, conse-
quently, the treatment of dusty roads should not be limited to
those coated with inflammable dust ; but all dusty roads whatso-
ever should be treated. The writers stated that the three fans
were not injured by the explosion, and he should like them to say
whether any special precautions were taken in the erection of the
fans by placing them some distance from the pit or protecting
them with safety valves ; or whether their immunity from injury
was simply due to the explosion not having reached them. The
members were under enormous obligations to Messrs. Atkinson
and Henshaw fbr the trouble that they had taken in communicat-
ing this careful study of the explosion and of the lessons to be
drawn from observed facts ; and the following of their arguments
to a logical conclusion might have the effect of minimizing the
risk of dust-explosions in that district, and of saving many lives.
Mr. W, G. CowLisHAW said that Mr. A. H. Stokes had enunci-
ated another theory as to the origin of the explosion.*
Mr. William Lockett asked whether the authors were entirely
satisfied that fire-damp had nothing to do with the ignition of
coal-dust. In his experience, he had known very sudden out-
breaks of gas. In 1883, a sudden outburst of gas filled the work-
ings for a distance of 7,200 feet : this occurred at a fault, but
fortunately no life was lost, although there might have been,
inasmuch as at that particular period the ordinary Davy lamp
was in use, and not until afterwards was the Marsaut lamp intro-
duced. In 188(5, another outburst of gas took place in a goaf and
again filled the workings, and he wondered whether a sudden out-
burst of gas might not have been concurrent with the firing of
this shot. He (Mr. Lockett) suggested that fire-damp might have
been liberated by the shot fired in the Lecoeuvre heading, or from
the fault, crossing the heading parallel to the Lecoeuvre heading,
or from one of the large faults that crossed the coal-field.
It was stated that : ** neveiiheless fire-damp was not entirely un-
known, as it is recorded that, in 1904, a miner was burnt by fire-
damp, ignited by a naked light,"t and that the '' regulations . of
the Pas-de-Calais mines-inspection district require safety-lamps
* Trans, Inst. M. E., 1906, vol. xxxii., page 34L
t lb\d,t page 454.
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808 DISCUSSION — THE COURRIERES EXPLOSION.
to be used in headings and stone-drifts."* It was rather strik-
ing, taking the huge amount of old workings or goaf into con-
sideration, that this stipulation should be in force, and that open
lights should be allowed in other parts of the mine, practically
in the same ventilating district.
Tfo. 3 pit, a winding, downcast and upcast shaft, divided hy
wooden partitions, was the ventilation centre of a large district,
and situated at distances of 3,800 and 4,200 feet from Ifos. 2, and
4 and 11 pits respectively. He (Mr. Lockett) asked whether this
single pit was sufficient for the ventilation of the area of work-
ings governed by its position. Further, the use of wooden parti-
tions rendered this pit liable, in case of accident* to become im-
passable; and, after the explosion, this shaft was completely
blocked by debris at a depth of about 600 feet.
Mr. E. B. Wain thought that North Staffordshire engineers
were generally convinced that coal-dust per se was an explosive
agent, and whatever might have been the primary cause of
ignition in this particular case, whether it was a blown-out shot,
whether (as had been suggested by Mr. A. H. Stokes) some one
had been tampering with explosives and caused a small explosion,
or whether (as suggested by Mr. Lockett) there had been a small
gas explosion in the Lecoeuvre heading, there seemed little doubt
that coal-dust propagated the explosion throughout the whole
area. The analyses raised the question as to whether certain
dusts were incapable of propagating flame. Many years ago>
Sir Frederick Abelt obtained explosive results with magnesia-
dust in a mixture of 2| per cent, of fire-damp and air, not in-
flammable per se, and if that inert substance was capable, shale
might also be capable of propagating an explosion. This accident
had proved very clearly that it was not desirable to couple large
groups of workings together in the rough-and-ready way in
which they appeared to have been connected at the Courriferes
collieries, so that an accident in one might affect the whole.
Some of them had learnt that lesson already, but he thought it
was a lesson that might still be thought over with advantage.
* Trans, Inst, M, E., 1906, vol. xxxii., page 444.
t Report on the Be^ndts of Experiments made icith Samples of Dust collected at
Seaham Colliery, by Prof. F. A. Abel, 18S1 [C. -2923J, page 9 ; and Final Report
of H.M, Commissioners appointed to inquire iiUo Accidents in Mines, 1886 [C.—
4699], page 155.
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DISCUSSION — ^THE COUBJtiiltES EXPLOSION. 809
Mr. F. H. Wynne said that there was one point against the
theory of the explosion originating at the powder-box. This box
was found a long way from the face, a considerable distance out-
bye from where the mutilated body of the fourth man lay ; and
it was found practically intact, the cartridges served out in the
morning were in it and were not exploded, so that unless there
was a second powder-box in the heading, which seemed unlikely,
there was not much possibility of the coal-dust having been
ignited by that means. This explosion taught the necessity of
isolating one district or seam from "another by the requisite
length either of thoroughly watered roadway or of bricked arch,
which, whether white-washed or not, could be kept clean and
free from dust with very little difficulty. At Wingate Grange,
a workmaai, firing an explosive, through ignorance apparently,
caused a disaster which cost twenty-four lives ; and a somewhat
similar case occurred recently in North Staffordshire. He
thought that it was the duty of every manager to drill into the
minds of firemen and shot-firers the dangers of the explosives
which they were using, and the necessity of complying absolutely
with the conditions laid down in the Home Office Order for the
use of explosives in dusty or in any other mines.
Mr. J. Gregoey asked whether the special method of timber-
ing adopted at the Courrieres collieries* had prevented or mini-
mized the heavy falls, which as a rule obstructed the work of
rescue following upon an explosion. Another question arising
out of the discussion was the indefinite information regarding
the conditions under which coal-dust was liable to initiate or
propagate an explosion. He believed that, even at the present
day, there were mining engineers who would not admit the danger
of coal-dust in an atmosphere free from gas. They were in a
minority ; but even amongst those who had accepted the fact and
had studied the question there was no certainty as to the relative
immunity of coal-dust mixed with metal-dust, as compared with
pure coal-dust. It was generally agreed that a length of wet road-
* " Methods of Preventing Falls of Roof adopted at the Courrl^s Collieries,"
by Dr. C. Le Neve Foster, Mines and Quarries : General Report and Statistics for
1899, pa^e 74, and Trans, Inst, M. E,y 1900, voL xx., page 164; and HepoH to
His Majesty's Secretary of State for the Home Department on the Methods of
Preventing Falls qf Roof adopted at the Courrieres Collieries, by Messrs. W. N.
Atkinson, C. Le Neve Foster, John €rerrard and Henry Hall, H.M. Inspectors of
Mines, 1901.
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810 DISCUSSION — THE COURRIERES EXPLOSION.
way, or a length from which the dust had been removed, would
isolate an explosion ; but, so far as he was aware, there were no
data which would enable one to determine with certainty what
minimum length would prove effectual. He suggested that
experiments ought to be made on a large scale in an experimental
gallery. The Government had provided a gallery for the testing
of explosives; and, failing any action by the Government on
this important question, this work might be undertaken by The
Institution of Mining Engineers in order to decide the relative
susceptibility of the various classes of dust and the efficiency of
the several suggestions for isolation.
Mr. M. Walton Brown wrote that Messrs. H. Le Chatelier,
chief inspector of mines; de Morgues, mining engineer at the
Blanzy collieries; and Cordier, delegate-miner, appointed to
report in the judicial enquiry, had suggested five causes of the
explosion: — (1) The fire in the Cecile seam; (2) a shot in the
LecoBUvre heading might have ignited a small volume of fire-damp,
initiating a general dust-explosion ; (3) an ignition of dust : the
suggestion of a general explosion of dust, ignited by a shot, made
by Messrs. H. Cunynghame and W. N. Atkinson,* had not been
accepted ; (4) the explosion of a small volume of fire-damp at or
near the face, ignited by the flame of an open lamp ; and (5) the
clandestine and unlawful storage of explosives in an air-pipe in
the Lecoeuvre heading. The force of the explosion in that heading
was most formidable and inexplicable, because the minimum
force was most generally found at the seat of an explosion.
The experiments of the committee of The Xorth of England
Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers had shown con-
clusively that: — *' (1) The high explosives . . . are less liable
than blasting-powder to ignite mixtures of air and coal-dust, with
or without the presence of fire-damp. These explosives cannot be
relied upon as ensiiring absolute safety. (2) The experimciuts have
shown that ignitions of mixtures of air and coal-dust, with or
without the presence of fire-damp, can be obtained when there
is present a much smaller quantity of coal-dust than has been
previously supposed to be neces8ary."t Five ignitions of coal-
• Report to H,M, Secretary qfStcUe/or the Home Department on the Disaster
which occurred at Courriires Mine, Poa de Calais, France, on March 10th, 1906,
by Messrs. H. Can>^ghame and W. N. Atkinson, 1906 [Cd..3171].
+ Report of the Proceedings of the Flameless Explosives Committee of the North
of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, 1896, page 103.
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DISCUSSION — THE COUEKIEEES EXPLOSION. 811
dust in suspension were recorded in their experiments with un-
stemmed safety explosives (Table I.) J* ^^^ blasting-powder
ignited coal-dust, in suspension' and in situ, in 28 out of 32 ex-
periments (Tables I, K, L and M).t It was possible, therefore, that
an ignition of coal-dust, in the entire absence of fire-damp,
resulted from the improper firing of an explosive.
Mr. H. Johnstone said that some years ago the idea was put
forth that coal-dust might be removed by a system of aspiration
— the vacuum-process of to-day ; and when that idea was mooted
it was laughed at as impracticable. Anyone conversant with
mining knew that the removal of the dust throughout the whole
of a mine by such means would be impracticable; but the
system might be applied to the removal of dust from short spaces,
especially if these spaces were bricked and arched as Mr.
Wynne had suggested. Vacuum-cleaners could be introduced
at small cost, and power could be easily applied to work them.
Mr. A. M. Henshaw, in reserving his reply to the discussion,
said that he must acknowledge his indebtedness to his assistant^
Mr. McGowan, for the admirable plans attached to the paper.
• Report qf the Proceedings of the Flameless Explosives Committee of the North
of Sngland Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, 1896, pages 96, 118.
and 121.
t Ihid,, pagea 122, 127, 129 and 133.
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312 TRANSACTIONS.
THE NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE INSTITUTE OF MINING
AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING,
Held at the Nobth Stafvobd Hotel, STOKE-upoy-TREKT,
June 3rd, 1907.
Mr. J. G. GADMAN, Past.Prbsident, in the Ghair.
The minutes of the last General Meeting were read, confirmed
and signed.
The following gentleman, having been previously nominated,
was elected : —
Member—
Mr. H. T. Pebworth, Asylum Villas, Gheddleton, Leek.
Mr. F. E. Buckley's paper on " Outbursts of Coal and Gas
in the Cockshead Seam, Shelton Colliery," was read as follows : —
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OTTTBURSTS OF COAL AND GAS. 818
OUTBURSTS OF COAL AND GAS IN THE COCKSHEAD
SEAM, SHELTON COLLIERY.
By F. E. BUCKLEY.
Introduction, — Outbursts of coal and gas had been unheard of
in North Staffordshire until the past few years, and it is thought
that on account of those which have occurred in the Cockshead
seam, worked at the Deep pit at Hanley, might be of interest to
the members.
The Cockshead coal-seam lies at a depth of 2,550 feet from
the surface, and has an average thickness varying from 7 feet to
7 feet 6 inches. The upper portion, about 3 feet 6 inches thick,
is usually of a softer nature than the lower portion. The roof
is strong grey metal, with bands of rock, and the floor is a strong
dark stone. The general inclination of the seam varies from
14 to 17 degrees, from east to west. There are, in an area within
1,500 feet of the shafts, numerous small faults usually running
north-west and south-east, and north-east and south-west.
Each outburst, described in this paper, occurred at a point
where a fault intersected the seam; and, in each case, where
the coal, at the point of contact with the fault, became light,
porous, friable, and dull in appearance, for a width varying
from 18 inches to 3 feet.
With the exception of the last occurrence, there had been no
indications whatever that an extraordinary quantity of fire-damp
was present; but, prior to each outburst, one or two unusually
heavy " goths '' or " bumps," sometimes accompanied by a
peculiar grinding or rending noise, had taken place. Heavy
goths were, however, of frequent occurrence in this seam when
heading out, and no special importance was attached to the
goths preceding these outbursts; especially, as in many cases,
it had been thought that the goths did not arise from any
severance or movement of the coal, but from the roof.
First OiUbvrst. — The first outburst occurred in a rise heading,
A (fig. 1, plate xi.), where a roll had been met with, and the
VOL. XXXIII.~1M6.1907. 24
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814 OUTBURSTS OF COAL AND GAS.
coal was of the hard, dull character frequently seen in the
vicinity of faults. This heading was 12 feet in advance of the
line of the top level, which was then within 8 feet of inter-
secting it.
At 3 p.m., on September 24th, 1903, a collier was eng^aged
in cutting coal on the north side of the heading on the roll,
when a terrific goth took place, dislodging a large quantity
of coal and releasing a huge volume of gas (figs. 2 and 3, plate
xi.). The loader, whose light was extinguished, 15 or 20
feet from the face, saw or felt the rush of coal ; he shouted to
the collier, and receiving no reply, he fortunately rushed out
for assistance. Otherwise, he would undoubtedly have been
overcome by the large quantity of fire-damp, which immediately
filled the heading. A, and the main level to B (fig. 1, plate xi.).
Officials, on the scene within 5 minutes of the occurrence^
could not proceed beyond B, owing to fire-damp being present in
great quantity, and steps were taken at once to remove it.
Eventually it was cleared to the bottom, C, of the rise heading
(fig. 1, plate ^i.). Another heavy goth then occurred, and
the level was again filled with fire-damp to the point B. The
operations were recommenced, and progress was made until the
jig-post, d, could be seen (figs. 2 and 3, plate xi.). A third
heavy goth, discharging more fire-damp, drove the workers back
again to the bottom, C, of the heading; but, the goths having
ceased, the fire-damp was removed sufficiently, and the body of
the collier, g, was recovered 4 hours after the outburst. On
examination, he was found to have received severe injuries to
the face sufficient in themselves to cause death, indicating that
he had received the force of the outburst of material immediately
in front of him, or that he had been blown either against the roof
or the timber. The body was found upon the blown-out material,
and there was practically no material lying on the man.. The
section (fig. 3, plate xi.) shows ihe position assumed by the
blown-out material, hi^ and the amount of coal, ef, thus displaced
was approximately 10 tons. This heading was continued about 40
feet in order to prove the fault, but was carried no further
(fig. 4, plate xi.).
The detailed plan and sections of the rise heading (figs. 4,.
5 and 6, plate xi.), show that the roll was very irregular in
its contour, and that there was a considerable difference on the
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OtTTBUBSTS OF COAL AXD GAS. 815
two sides of tlie heading. The theory advanced at the time was
that a large quantity of fire-damp was contained in a small area
or i)Ocket of the dull friable coal, under very great pressure ; and
that the collier, cutting near one of the ridges of the roll, had
BO weakened the harder crust surrounding this area that ulti-
mately the pressure overcame the resistance and the occluded gas
suddenly burst out.
Second Outburst. — The second outburst occurred in a rise
thirling, which was being driven between two levels running to
the north. Two men were engaged there, and both of them were
killed.
For a distance of 450 feet, the top level had been driven along-
side a downthrow fault, which ran irregularly on the rise side
of it. This fault caused no trouble, except in the timbering;
but, owing to its irregular course, it was touched frequjently,
without, however, revealing any undue pressure, and at various
points it made a quantity of water, which soon dried up.
On one occasion along this length, a collier was cutting the
top coal in a kneeling position, when some heavy goths occurred,
which he stated " lifted him up off his knees." No special
importance was, however, attached to this occurrence, for, as
above stated, the seam is subject to goths, which at times are very
severe, and frequently release much fire-damp. The coal was
very strong, and it was noticeable that the goths did not set free
any considerable quantity of fire-damp.
In due course, the rise thirling was commenced ; and, as the
fault had crossed the top level, it was expected that it would be
found in this thirling. On February 12th, 1904, the thirling
was driven upward, a distance of 50 feet to D (fig. 1, plate xi.),
in hard coal; and was rapidly approaching the fault, when at
7*20 p.m., a tremendous goth took place. In the words of the
colliers who were working in the top level, " it sounded as if the
whole earth was tearing up." This so alarmed them that they
hurried down to the main level ; and, hearing nothing from the
rise thirling, they managed to reach the bottom of it by crawling
below the fire-damp, which, however, increased so rapidly as to
cause them to withdraw.
Efforts were at once made to reach the rise thirling, but the
fire-damp was present in such great quantity, that it took 2
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316 OUTBURSTS OF COAL AND GAS.
Lours to reach the body of the collier, o, who was found lyings
on his face 26 feet up the thirling (figs. 7 and 8, plate xi.).
Artificial respiration was unsuccessful; and, his mouth being
full of coal-dust, the medical opinion was that he had been
asphyxiated, no other injuries being found.
The body of the loader, n, was reached 4 hours after the
outburst, his legs having been pinned under some timber and
roof, which had fallen or been displaced at the time of the out-
burst. Although he had received severe injuries, yet medical
examination showed that the immediate cause of death was
asphyxiation. After clearing the thirling of fire-damp and
debris, it was found that coal had been blown out from the point
of contact of the seam with the abovementioned downthrow
fault. The force of the outburst had blown out six bars, broken
the jig-post, m (a larch-post, 10 inches in diameter), and caused
a heavy fall of roof.
There was every indication that the collier had been cutting
the coal, thus weakening the crust of good coal, gh, against the
fault (which had a thickness of 3 feet of this dull sooty coal, ti,
lying against it). He had then gone from the face, probably to
put a sharp blade on his pick, leaving the loader at the face,
when suddenly the outburst took place, and he was overcome by
shock and fire-damp before he could get away.
This outburst was so severe, that it affected the level and
roads in the vicinity. The roof in the adjacent roads became
broken, and a large proportion of the bars in the main level,
then 150 feet in advance of the rise thirling, were broken at the
moment of the outburst, and the pillar of coal between the two
levels was shaken. The force of the outburst was extremely
heavy, evidently relieving a considerable area of an abnormal
pressure. It was afterwards noted that the coal was even
stronger to cut than previously, and that it made practically no
gas for some time afterwards. The lower level was subsequently
carried through the same fault, but no indication of gas or
abnormal pressure was noticed there.
In consequence of the disastrous effects of these two outbursts,
and in consequence also of the difficulty of foreseeing them or
of preventing their recurrence, it was decided that the only
practicable precautionary method was to adopt a system of ad-
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OUTBUaSTS OF COAL AND GAS. 817
vance bore-holes in all level and rise headings. This was hardly
expected to prevent such outbursts, but it was hoped that pos-
sibly some indications would be given of the near proximity of
£tny enormous pressure, such as had already been encountered.
Bore-holes, 2^ inches in diameter, were at once put in as far as
possible with a Bumside long-hole boring-machine ; the heading
was then cut to within 9 feet of the extremity of the bore-hole ;
and then another hole was bored. In the case of approaching
the supposed position of a known fault, or of frequent goths
taking place, one and even two flank bore-holes were also bored
to test the pressure ; and, in a few instances, considerable quan-
tities of gas, as well as water were tapped and relieved. In no
case was there any sudden appearance of gas under pressure in
the bore-holes ; and it is, therefore, by no means certain that any
bore-hole has encountered an area of pressure similar to those
which produced the fatal accidents just described. Some of the
holes were frequently filled with crushed coal as soon as they
had been bored; but, beyond this, nothing extraordinary has
occurred, although these bore-holes have been continuously
maintained in narrow headings.
Third Outburst, — The third outburst occurred at a depth of
about 2,800 feet, where two levels were being driven 90 feet
apart. It was noted that the coal at the face of the top level
was all " on the work " ; and that, in place of an occasional goth,
there occurred a series of goths, follqwing each other at short
intervals. The collier was kneeling on the bench of bottom
coal cutting the top coal, when a goth much heavier than the
rest knocked out a bar; and, immediately afterwards, the full
face of top coal, 10 feet wide by 3 feet 6 inches in height, sud-
denly burst outwards at E (fig. 1, plate xi.), and partly buried
the collier. The estimated quantity of coal thus displaced was
2 tons ; and, at the same time, the heading was filled with fire-
damp for a distance of 10 to 15 feet back from the face, although
ventilating pipes, 18 inches in diameter, were fixed to within
2 feet of the face.
On removing this debris, it was found that an upthrow fault
of about 18 inches, running north-west and south-east had been
bared, and that 18 inches of the dull sooty coal had lain against
it. The goths had ceased, and the coal on the upper side of the
fault was of its usual appearance.
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818 OUTBUESTS OF COAL AND GAS.
The bearing of this fault was taken, its position in the main
level and in the next rise thirling* estimated, and this informa-
tion given to the officials. The colliers were specially warned of
its position; and ordered, should anything unusual occur, to
withdraw at once, and fetch out the top-level men as soon as
possible, as the air-current would pass on to them from the
main level.
The rise thirling was commenced in due course, and an extra
flank bore-hole was put in to meet the fault. This hole gave ofE
water only; but the centre bore-hole was giving off water and
sufficient gas to fire in a safety-lamp at the outer end of the hole.
The fireman, on examining this thirling at 7 a.m. on January
24th, 1907, heard peculiar gurgling noises at the face; but this
gave rise to no apprehension, as it was considered that it was
caused by the water at the extremity of the bore-hole.
At 12'30 p.m. on the same day, he again examined the thirl-
ing ; the face was then working considerably, the gurgling noise
was continuing, and frequent goths were taking place. Within
half an hour, a very heavy goth occurred, causing the men to
withdraw from the face ; and this was followed in a few minutes
by the face of coal, F (fig. 1, plate xi.), suddenly bursting
away, followed by some roof, adjoining the slip of the fault,
which liberated a quantity of water and fire-damp, the latter
filling the thirling for the whole of its length of 54 feet down
to the landing-plates on the level.
The water washed the displaced coal (54 cubic feet) and dirt
(162 cubic feet) ; and distributed it on the floor of the thirling,
and to a depth of 6 inches on the landing-plates at the bottom.
The top-level colliers were fetched out at once, no one being
injured and no lights extinguished. In this case also, the goths
discontinued immediately after the outburst. The fault was
again proved at Q- (fig. 1, plate xi.) in the main level; but,
although centre and flank bore-holes were put in, no extra pres-
sure was encountered, the outburst in the thirling having
evidently relieved it over this area.
Conclusions. — From the foregoing descriptions, it will be
seen that prior to each of these outbursts an unusual number of
goths occurred ; and, although the seam is subject to goths
in its normal condition, the writer is of opinion that such areas
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OUTBUESTS OF COAL AND GAS. 819
of great pressure, can, to a limited extent, be located by care-
fully noting these goths, and serious accidents can be avoided by
the use of advance bore-holes and by the withdrawal of men
until the disturbances should subside. In the last outburst,
there can be little doubt that a fatality would have occurred,
unless the bore-holes had been maintained and the experience
gained from previous occurrences acted upon.
It is difficult to suggest any reason for the occurrence of these
patches or pockets of coal containing fire-damp under such great
pressure in the particular locality with which this paper deals.
The Cockshead seam has been worked for many years to the
south-east and to the north-east, but at shallower depths. At
the time of the occurrence of these outbursts, this seam of coal
was being opened out at practically the same depth at the
adjoining colliery on the north; but, so far as the writer is
aware, no similar occurrence had ever been met with either in
this or any other seam at neighbouring collieries. It therefore
appears that the depth has no bearing upon the occurrences above
recorded.
What seems to have some greater bearing upon the ques-
tion is the fact that the large downthrow north-and-south
fault of 300 feet, known as the Far Green fault, splits up
into two faults as it passes southwards on the west of the Deep
pit. One of these faults, with a downthrow of about 66 feet,
maintains the general direction of the main fault; and the
other, a downthrow fault of 150 feet, takes a south-easterly
direction. The area of strata, contained within the curve
formed by the severance of the larger fault from the main fault,
is broken up by numerous small dislocations ; and it is at these
dislocations that the outbursts have occurred. These disloca-
tions are more numerous in the Cockshead seam than in any of
the upper seams, and the Cockshead seam is much less disturbed
in the north, where the Far Green fault makes one direct step of
300 feet. It may, therefore, be suggested that in the process of
faulting, the seam had been subjected to abnormal pressure, and
thereby isolated patches of disintegrated coal had been formed,
such as have produced these outbursts.
An analysis of the blown-out coal throws no light upon the
subject, as it is practically the same as that of the normal seam.
A considerable extent of longwall-face has been opened out to
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820 DISCUSSION — OUTBURSTS OF COAL AND GAS.
the north of the site of these occurrences, and there have been
no indications of fire-damp under great pressure in this face.
It is only fair to say, however, that the face is comparatively
free from faults ; but, when the longwall method of opening out
this seam was decided upon, it was hoped that the larger area
of coal exposed at the face would ensure that any accumulation
of excessive pressure would relieve itself over a wider area than
could be the case when it was approached only by a narrow
heading.
The Chairman (Mr. J. C. Cadman) said that Mr. Buckley had
given the members an historic record of some of those occurrences
which now more frequently happened in deep mining, and the in-
formation would be valuable to those engaged in that class of
work in this or in any other district. This new feature of danger
would have to be carefully met, as pointed out in Mr. Buckley's
paper.
Mr. W. X. Atkinson (H.M. Inspector of Mines) wrote that he
had investigated the accidents caused by the outbursts of 1903
and 1904 ; * and it seemed probable that a fatal accident was
averted by the precautions taken in the case of the fourth out-
burst. It appeared difficult to understand the relationship be-
tween the goths and the outbursts. Were the goths caused by
pockets of disintegrated coal saturated with gas at high pressure ?
Or were the goths only the means of breaking down the strong
coal surrounding such pockets, so as to liberate the disintegrated
coal and gas ? Although bore-holes were not a certain means of
indicating where outbursts would take place, nor of relieving
the pressure so as to prevent them, they were advisable where
it wa,s thought that outbursts might occur; and the greater the
diameter of the holes, the more useful they were likely to be.
Alertness to observe and to be warned by indications similar to
those noticed in connection with previous outbursts was of the
greatest importance.
Mr. J. T. Stobbs said that Mr. Buckley had brought before
the members a large number of facts, which, together with the
• Rep(yrt8 of H.M, Inspector of Mines/or the Staf&rd District for the TearlBOS,
by Mr. W. N. Atkinson, 1904, page 24 ; and Reports of H,M. Inspector of Mints
for the Stafford District for the Year 1904, by Mr. W. N. Atkinson, 1905 [Cd.
2506— VIII.], page 21.
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Trart
Fig. 4.— Plan of Heading, AC, Fiq. 1.
Z
mU\\<\ ':F i^ U Xi I:
OF Thirunq,D, Fig. 1
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DISCXTSSION" — OUTBUESTS OF COAL AND GAS. 821
samples of coal from the various outbursts, were of special
interest; but those from the second and third outbursts wer^
very striking samples. He had not had an opportunity of seeing
this outburst-coal previously, but he noticed that the pieces were
all very finely coated on a few of the sides with chocolate-brown
coal-dust, that was to say, coal-dust of the very finest powder.
As they looked at coal, it was ordinarily black ; but, the finer
it was ground, the browner it appeared, and this coating of the
finest brown powder suggested that there had been considerable
grinding action preceding the actual outburst of the coal. He
thought that the outbursts were not due to gas-pressure, because
the bore-holes that had been put in would tap the gas, if it existed
under such very great pressure, and would prevent the outburst.
The intimate connection between the outbursts and the faulted
areas, and especially the rolls in the floor, seemed to point to
regional disturbances that might have occurred some time pre-
viously— it might be years and years before — or might have been
induced by the actual workings approaching that area. What
was the nature of the floor of the heading, in which the outburst
of September, 1903, occurred ? Was it broken up or was it in its
normal stratified state ? Any puckering would indicate that the
influence of the fault had extended into the strata. The fact
that " the pillar of coal between the two levels was shaken "*
pointed to regional disturbances of the measures. The members
wanted more facts, placed side by side with one another, so that
they could form a working hypothesis of the cause of these singu-
lar occurrences ; and when they had obtained a scientific explana-
tion of the facts, steps might be taken to guard against the risk
and danger attending these outbursts.
Mr. William Lockett said that he had been working the
Cockshead seam at an adjoining colliery by the pillar-and-stall
and a semi-longwall system for a number of years ; and, although
coal-outbursts were new to him, outbursts of gas were not. In
February, 1883, on approaching a large fault, there was a
tremendous outburst of gas, filling the whole of the workings,
which extended roughly about 7,000 feet; and, fortunately for
themselves and everyone concerned, no further disaster arose.
This outburst occurred in the Cockshead seam, at a depth of
• Trans. Inst, M. E,, 1907, vol. xxxiiL, page 316.
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3S2 DISCUSSION — 0UTBXJEST8 OF COAL AND GAS.
about 800 feet. Another outburst took place in the roof of the
Cockshead seam, at a depth of about 900 feet. In this case, the
gas was accompanied by a considerable amount of water, which
continued to run long after the gas had spent itself. Whilst
examining the place, he observed a man, carrying a Davy safety-
lamp, running towards him and passing through the explosive
mixture; and his feelings on that occasion would be better
understood than described. The Marsaut lamp was then intro-
duced, and minimized the danger that existed when Davy safety-
lamps were used in the Cockshead seam. He thought that Mr.
Buckley had introduced a very wise precaution in approaching
these dangerous areas by means of bore-holes.
Mr. A. M. HfexsHAW said that the members could not ignore
the facts that had been put before them by Mr. Buckley with
regard to the occurrence of these outbursts : (1) At a great depth ;
<2) where the seam was faulted; (3) accompanied by outbursts
of gas ; and (4) where soft, locally called " mushy," coal, was
found in the neighbourhood of a fault. It seemed to him that
all these conditions had impo^ant bearings on the occurrence
of these outbursts, and he disagreed with Mr. Buckley that the
depth of the workings should not be taken into consideration,
and with Mr. Stobbs that gas-pressure had nothing to do with
these outbursts. He had tried to picture in his mind the con-
dition of things, and what brought them abouit; he understood
that the great fault divided into two, and that it was in the fork
of these smaller faults that the outbursts had taken place; and
it seemed to him likely that the long-imprisoned gas, under great
pressure, was chiefly responsible. It was on record that bore-
holes had been put into seams, properly stopped, and gauges had
recorded a pressure of 461 pounds to the square inch.* The
conditions here gave them considerable pressure and the gas,
under pressure, was locked up in a small pocket of friable coal,
which had been disintegrated by fault-action and was not cohe-
sive ; and, if a pocket of coal, containing gas at a high pressure,
was approached by a heading or a bore-hole which perforated
the jacket of that pocket, then it did not seem to him surprising
that these outbursts should occur. The depth, the faulting, the
soft coal, and the occurrence of gas all had considerable bearing
* ** Experiments showing the Pressure of Gas in the Solid Coal," by Sir
Lindsay Wood, Bart., Trans, N. E, Inst,, 1880, vol. xxx., page 204.
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DISCUSSION — OUTBUKSTS OF COAL AND GAS. 828
on the question, especially as they were always accompanied by
goths, which showed that considerable subsidenoe-pxessure was
brought to bear on a local area, and that the pressure, brought
about by the driving of the roads, caused the roof-pressure. All
the conditions helped to disturb the mass of soft coal contain-
ing the gas, and to increaae the tension of the surrounding strata,
until the moment when the jacket of the pocket was perforated.
Then the outburst came, and the gas and the soft coal were dis-
charged at the point of least resistance.
Mr. William Lockett asked whether the Cockshead seam
contained 3 or 4 inches of cannel coal, containing a larger pro-
portion of gas than the remainder of the seam.
Mr. A. M. Henshaw said that at a fault, and particularly ai a
large fault, there was generally a " leader " or " clod," that was,
a mixture of all the disintegrated material alongside and between
the walls of the fault-faces, produced by the sliding action of the
two sides of the fault. Where the fault crossed the coal-seam,
the coal was similarly and often extensively disintegrated, the
bedding had been destroyed, and the coal could be ground into
dust, in their hands. The crushed coal would contain gas, like
the coal-seam ; but the seam, in its natural condition, would not
release its gas so freely as would the ma«s of soft coal contained
in the pocket. When the crust or jacket of the pocket was per-
forated, the soft coal was not sufficiently cohesive to retain gas,
under pressure, and it would relieve and empty itself of the coal
and the gas suddenly.
Mr. E. 0. SiMCOCK asked how the safety-lamps behaved at the
time of the outbursts and the general condition of the lamps
when recovered. He had found pockets of gas, not pockets of
coal, in the thick coal-seam of Upper Assam, at a depth from the
surface of about 120 feet. There was absolutely nothing in
them but gas at a high pressure, that was to say, they were quite
empty, after the gas came out, except for the atmospheric air.
Some extended for a length of 20 feet, and as much as 10 loads
of stuff had been filled into them, after the gas had escaped.
Mr. A. Hassam said that he was not in agreement with Mr.
Stobbs, when he stated that the outbursts were not due to gas
under pressure. Could Mr. Stobbs define what he implied by
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B2i DISCUSSION — OrXBURSTS OF COAL AND GAS.
a '* regional disturbance " ? They were very much indebted to
Mr. Buckley for bringing this matter forward, and he had much
pleasure in moving a vote of thanks to him for his interesting
paper.
Mr. F. H. Wynne said that a similar occurrence took place in
1904, at Sneyd colliery, also in the Cockshead seam. The face
was burst off, but there was no fault and no soft coal. It had
been described as follows : —
On August 23rd, at 7.30 p.m. ; barometer 29'76 inches, steady. Three fatally
injured. This explosion occurred in the Cockshead seam, in a heading being driven
to split a pillar of coal, preliminary to its removal. The seam lies at a depth of
875 yards, and is 7 feet 6 inches thick, of clean coal. The pillar of coal which was
being split was about 40 yards long by 25 yards wide, and the heading was driven
20 yards in the direction of the length of the pillar, so that the face of the heading
was about the centre of the pillar. The heading was about 7 feet 6 inches high by
10 feet wide, and was ventilated by a range of 18 inches air-pipes, led from a
brattice -sheet, the end of the pipes being within a few feet of the face of the
heading. The place was examined by a fireman at 5.30 p.m., who found it safe
and free from gas ; and two colliers and a loader went into work at 7 p.m. About
half an hour afterwards, a brattice-man, who was working on the road about 100
yards fron\ the face of the heading, heard a very lond goth or concussion of the
strata. He went towards the place and heard shouts, and found the three men
running out of the heading, the clothing of two of them being on fire. . . . Two
of the safety-lamps (extinguished) were found hanging on posts near the face, and
the third lamp was found impaled on the brake-handle of the jig-wheel, with the
glass broken, the brake-handle having passed right through tho glass. The lamp
was in such a position as it might be if it had been hanging on the lid over the jig
post and had fallen therefrom. It was fitted with a hook for hanging up, and the
lid of the jig-post would be a convenient place to hang it for lighting the loader.
Before the explosion it had probably been hanging on the lid, and had been
shaken off by the goth.*
Mr. A. Hassam said that the occurrence at Sneyd colliery would
be at the nearest point, in the adjoining colliery, to where these
outbursts took place in the Cockshead seam, and at or about the
same level. Similar occurrences had been described by Mr.
Meachem,t and several interesting papers described outbursts
of gas in South Yorkshire.
Mr. J. T. Stobbs said that by the term " regional disturb-
ances," he meant strata in bulk undergoing movement, espe-
cially intense at local centres, due either to cosmic movements or
♦ Reports qfH.Af, Inspector of Mines for the Stafford District for the Year 1904y
by Mr. W. N. Atkinson, 1905 [Cd. 2506 -viii.], page 13.
t "Notes on an Earth Explosion or 'Bump' at Hamstead Colliery," by
Mr. F. G. Meaohem, Trans, Inst. M, E., 1893, vol. v., page 381.
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DISCUSSION — OUTBXTESTS OF COAL AND GAS. 825
to the draw of the working-faces or goaf. Cosmic movements
of the earth's cmst gave rise to earthquakes and faults, and were
most marked along belts of special weakness, such as fault-lines.
There was no doubt that movements of this kind would produce
in some places pockets of soft coal, and it was exceedingly pro-
bable that in the deeper coal-seams there might be an intimate
connection between these outbursts and earthshakes.
The Chairman (Mr. J. G. Cadman) said that he remembered
a very serious outburst of gas, which occun*ed whilst cutting
through a downthrow fault of 300 feet to open out an area of
coal that lay surrounded by faults. When the crut was
approaching the coal-seam, a small fault of 30 feet was found,
running parallel to the main fault, and about 10 to 12 feet
distant from it. The strata, between these faults, during the
week-end were thrust or forced out, and filled the crut for 20
er 30 feet ; and although the inlet and outlet cruts were then about
300 feet long, both were filled with gas on the inbye-side. At
the expiration of eight or ten weeks, when the ga« was drained
ofE sufficiently so as to allow the men to reach the face, it was
found that the strata at the far end of the crut had been forced
out from the main fault and doubled over like the leaves of a
book. The gas was evidently under great pressure in situ, no
pockets were perceived, and although no coal was thrown out,
he considered that the pressure of gas could have lifted the
strata. He had pleasure in seconding the vote of thanks.
The vote of thanks was cordially approved.
Mr. F. E. Buckley, in replying to the discussion, said that
arguments could be used in favour of several theories, but at
Shelton colliery they were of opinion that the outbursts were
eaused by pockets of gas under pressure; and, of course, until
something different was proved, that argument held good. The
samples of coal differed, because the first outburst was entirely
different from the other two, in which the burstings were from the
side of a fault. The first samples were from the face of a heading
and from the side of the heading, on the top of a roll, and there
was no dislocation of the roof (fig. 3, plate xi.). If this occur-
rence was not produced by a pocket of gas under pressure, why
was coal burst from the face and from the side of the heading ?
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826 DISCUSSION — ^THE COUBRlilllES EXPLOSION.
This was one of the arguments in favour of the theory of a
pocket of gas. Mr. Lockett's experiences at an adjoining col-
liery were confined to outbursts of gas, followed by a little top
coal, and not of coal blown out immediately in advance. The
floor at the roll was of the usual nature : it was not broken in any
way, but simply altered in its contour, and the stratification fol-
lowed along the same lines. Each safety-lamp was intact, when
found; and it was supposed that each one was extinguished by
gas or by concussion, either one or both. The safety-lamps
would be hung up, and the goth might cause them to drop to
the floor, so extinguishing them, without damage.
The further discussion was then adjourned.
DISCUSSION OF MESSRS. W. X. ATKINSON AND A. M.
HENSHAWS PAPER ON " THE COURRlilRES
EXPLOSION."*
Mr. F. H. Wynne asked whether the authors, in the course of
their explorations, had found any dust-free spaces or dust-safe
spaces, over which the explosion had passed ; and if so, what was
the length of these spaces?
Mr. Edw. B. Wain wrote that as the question of the pro-
bability of non-inflammable dust limiting a coal-dust explosion
had been raised, the following notes from a report by Prof. F. A.
Abel t were of interest.
The results obtained with this particular dust led me to try whether tho
ignition by a lamp-flame of a mixture of fire-damp and air, not inflammable joer «e,
would be brought about by stlspending in it a fine readily-floating dust which was
quite non-combustible, and not susceptible of any chemical change by exposure
to a high temperature. The powder answering to these conditions which was most
readily procurable when this experiment suggested itself, waii calcined magnesia.
A gas- mixture having 3 per cent, of fire-damp was allowed to pass a lamp-flame at
a velocity of 600 feet per minute for some time ; no result was produced, but on
causing it to convey calcined magnesia in suspension long flares of flame were
produced within a few seconds of the mixture first passing the lamp, and the
inflammation speedily spread throughout the gallery with feeble explosive effect.
* Trans, Iwl, M, B,, 1906, vol. xxxii., pages 439, 340 and 507 ; and vol
xxxiii., pages 124 and 303.
t Report on the Results of Experiments made loith Samples of Dust collected at
Seaham Colliery, by Prof. F. A. Abel, 1881 [C.-2923], page 9 ; and Final Report
of H.M, Commissioners appointed to ijiquire into Accidents in Mines^ 1886 [C. —
4699], page 156.
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DISCUSSION — THE COXJERlilRES EXPLOSION. 327
With only 2*75 per cent, of gas, results quite similar were produced, the general
ignition following, however, less rapidly after the first production of the flares ia
front of the lamp-flame. With another sample of calcined magnesia, which was
not quite so light as the first one, a corresponding result was obtained with a.
mixture containing 3 per cent, of fire-damp.
In a still atmosphere, containing 2*5 per cent, of coal gas, one of the most
sensitive of the Seaham dusts (K), when suspended in it, produced ignition of th&
mixture, with no explosive effect. A corresponding result was produced by sus-
pending calcined magnesia in a still atmosphere containing 3 per cent, of gas.
It will be seen from these results that the perfectly non-combustible powder,
magnesia, is, in its power to bring about the ignition of an otherwise uninflam-
mable mixture of fire-damp or coal gas and air, little inferior to the most inflammable
and sensitive of the Seaham dust-samples.
These remarkable results led to the trial of a number of other non-combustible
powders or dusts, which are not chemically affected by such heat as they would be
exposed to in the flame of a lamp (such as kaolin, powdered flint and other forms
of silica, pumice, slate dust, etc. ) with results similar to those f urniBhed by the
magnesia-dust, but more or less affected by variations in the density and other
physical properties of the dusts. In experiments with currents of 1 ,000 feet velocity,
the effect of any one of the powders being deposited on the bottom and sides of the
gallery, was to cause the instantaneous ignition of a 3*5 per cent, gas-mixture on
its reaching the lamp-flame, through the influence of dust-particles carried along
by the current, and in some instances a like result was obtained with 3*25 and 3-
per cent, gas-mixtures.
Mr. J. T. Stobbs directed special attention to the point raised
in the paper that some dusts were apparently harmless, when
containing over 60 per cent, of non-combustible material, such
as shale or stone-dust. That statement was in direct conflict
with Sir Frederick Abel's work and the quotation, supplied by
Mr. Wain, proved that statement. Consequently, Mr. Wynne's
"dust-safe spaces" was a contradiction in terms, that was to
say, if any dust was dangerous.
Mr. F. H. Wynxe replied that, if all dust was dangerous, it
was a contradiction in terms, but they had evidence in the paper
of dusty spaces over which the explosion had not continued.
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528 TUTBUEY GYPSUM-MINES AND PL ASTEE- MILLS.
THE NORTH STAFFORDSHIRE INSTITUTE OF MINING
AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
EXCURSION MEETING,
HXLD AT TUTBITBT, JUKB 24tH, 1907.
The members visited Messrs. J. C. Staton & Company's
^psum-mines at Fauld and plaster-mills at Tutbury, where
they were met by Mr. T. TrafPord Wynne and shown over the
works. Luncheon was kindly provided at Tutbury.
A hearty vote of thanks was accorded to Messrs, J. C. Staton
& Company and to Mr. T. Trafford Wynne, for their kindness
in allowing the members to inspect the mines and works.
TUTBURY GYPSUM-MINES AND PLASTER-MILLS.
The gypsum-mines of the Dove valley* have been described
in the Transactions,
The plaster-mills at Tutbury were originally the corn-mill
for Tutbury Castle. The whole of the power required on these
extensive premises is obtained fi-om turbines, the motive power
being furnished by the waters of the river Dove, conveyed in a
flume cut in the reign of Henry VII.
The various grade? of plaster are chiefly accounted for by
the different qualities of gypsum, but various processes are
«.dopted in the manufacture. The finest plaster used for artistic
purposes and various other plasters are made by calcining the
gypsum in kilns, cleaning it with brushes, and grinding it in
mills. Ordinary plasters used for mould-making and for
builders' purposes are made by breaking the gypsum, grinding
it, and treating it by the process known as ** boiling." This con-
sists in placing it on circular hearths, heated from below, and
on these the plaster is continually stirred by mechanical means.
Keens, Parian and other cements are also manufactured, the
processes being more or less secret. It may, however, be said
generally that the gypsum is calcined in kilns, treated with
<jhemicals, baked and finally ground.
• "Gypsum, and its Occurrence in the Dove Valley," by Mr. T. Trafford
Wynne, rrarw. Inst. M. K, 1906, vol. xxxii., page 171.
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TRANSACTIONS. 829
THE INSTITTJTION OF MINING ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING,
Hku) in the Rooms of the Geological Sogiett, Rublinoton House, London,
June 13th« 1907.
Mb. MAURICE DEACON, President, in the Chair.
PRIZES.
The Seceetaey reported that the Council had awarded prizes
of books to the writers of the following papers, which had been
printed in volumes xxx. and xxxi. of the Transactions: —
" Mining Fields of Southern Rhodesia in 1905." By Prof. J. W. Gregory.
** Practical Problems of Machine-mining." By Mr. Sam Mavor.
" Rescue-apparatus and the Experiences gained therewith at the Courri^res
Collieries by the German Rescue-party." By Mr. G. A. Meyer.
*' Description of the Sinking of Shafts through Sand at Ardeer, Ayrshire, by
the Pneumatic Process, with Notes on the Subject of Caisson-ventilation
and Sickness." By Mr. T. H. Mottram,
<' Commercial Possibilities of Electric Winding for Main Shafts and Auxiliary
Work." By Mr. W. C. Mountain.
"The Value of Fossil MoUusca in Coal- measure Stratigraphy." By Mr.
John T. Stobbs.
Mr. Maurice Deacon read the following " Presidential
Address " : —
VOU XXXIII.-1906-1«07-
25
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880 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
By M. deacon.
Before entering upon the subject of my address, I desire to
thank you for conferring upon me the honour of the Presidency
of this Institution for the current year, and in doing so I make
no apologies for any lack of ability to fulfil the office to your
satisfaction; I can only assure you of the great interest that I
take in the Institution, and of mj desire to assist in widening
its influence for the benefit of the profession and of the public at
large.
In endeavouring to review the progress which this Institution
and the profession of mining engineering have made during the
past few years, I have fully in mind the difficulty of adding to
the knowledge of the members in any important degree or of
making any statement of a startling or novel character. I there-
fore propose to cast a retrospective glance at the history of this
Institution and of mining engineering during the past quarter
of a century, coupled with a few suggestions as to the possi-
bilities of future years.
This Institution was formed in the year 1889, with the object
of broadening the sources of information upon matters affecting
the profession of mining engineering, by amalgamating the
various mining institutions of the Kingdom into one consolid-
ated body ; and, with the sole exception of the South Wales
Institute of Engineers, I believe that this object has been
attained.
In the year 1891-1892, there were 1,401 federated members
and 19 non-federated members, contributing subscriptions
amounting to £1,060, whilst the working expenses amounted to
£1,471. In the year 1905-1906, the federated and non-federated
members respectively were 2,972 and 73, whilst the subscriptions
amounted to £2,859 and the working expenses to £3,170. This
great increase of membership, representing over 100 per cent, in
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PRESIDENTIAI. ADDRESS. 831
15 years, can only be regarded as satisfaetory, whilst the financial
results are also satisfactory, representing as they do an increase
in the subscriptions of nearly 170 per cent, and in the working
expenses of only 115 per cent., whilst the income from all sources
of the year 1906 exceeded the working expenses by £368 and a
cash-balance of £1,907 remained, the highest amount since the
establishment of the Institution.
In the year 1905-1906, 64 papers were received by the
Institution, including 42 from the Federated Institutes. Many
of these papers contained valuable information, which was
materially increased by the discussions upon them.
The previous decision of the South Wales Institute of Engin-
eers not to amalgamate with this Institution is regrettable, from
the fact that the profession at large suffers from the absence of
that free interchange of experience and opinion which is neces-
sary for its fullest advancement, and which alone can be attained
by the association of all the mining institutions in the United
Kingdom. The other allied professions have, I believe, all
recognized the benefit of the consolidation of their interests,
with the result that civil engineers, mechanical engineers,
and electrical engineers, architects, and geologists, have
each but one Institute, and there is but one Iron and Steel
Institute. With such an example from the allied professions,
it would appear that little risk would be incurred in mining
engineers adopting a similar course, and it is to be hoped that
the South Wales Institute of Engineers will shortly recognize the
advantage to themselves and to this Institution, of consolidating
into one powerful body the two Institutions, in order that the
fullest advantage from the combined deliberations of mining
engineers throughout the Kingdom may accrue to the nation.
Perhaps the most striking advancement during recent years
is the progress of scientific education. Twenty-five or thirty
years ago, the facilities for the scientific training of the younger
members of the profession were extremely meagre, and, in fact,
it was rarely possible for any person occupying a salaried posi-
tion at a colliery to acquire scientific knowledge except by the
reading of books. It is true that the Universities of Oxford,
Cambridge and London existed, and that some of the large
qentres of industry had their scientific or technical schools ; but
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^^2 PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
these were few and far between, and beyond the reach of the
majority of young men employed at mines, excepting those who
could afford to spend two or three years in scientific training
before commencing practical work. The opportunities for com-
bining scientific with practical instruction were available in very
few instances.
At the present time, the existence of technical schools in the
heart of every industrial centre brings within the reach of every
person desiring to acquire scientific knowledge the opportunity
of doing so, without materially interfering with his daily work.
The facilities offered to mining students by some of the provincial
universities of combining scientific education with practical
mining work has, in my opinion, established the best means of
training the mining engineers of the future, for the reason that
the practical work assists the student in the readier comprehen-
sion of the scientific teaching, and that the scientific teaching
assists him to comprehend many of the practical problems con-
fronting him in his daily work, from a scientific standpoint.
It is natural that professors should prefer the student to
devote the whole of his time to scientific work for a given period,
but it is not within the financial reach of many students to do so.
Personally, however, I am strongly of the opinion that the
sacrifice of two or three years in the initiation of the student into
practical work is not calculated to produce the best type of
mining engineer, to whom the nation must look for the economi-
cal production of its coal and other minerals in the future.
In briefly referring to the safe working of our mines, it is a
source of satisfaction to note the improvement which has taken
place in the diminution of fatal accidents in relation to output
and to the persons employed.
In the year 1882, the output of coal in the United Kingdom
was 156,499,977 tons, whilst in 1906 it amounted to no less than
251,067,628 tons, which is equivalent to an increase of 61 per
cent. In the same years, the persons employed in and about the
coal-mines in the United Kingdom were 503,987 and 882,346
respectively, representing an increase of 76 per cent., whilst the
loss of life was 1,126 and 1,142 respectively, an increase of only
IJ per cent. The average loss of life for the 10 years ending
December 31st, 1882, was 1,129, and the death-rate per 1,000
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PRESIDENTIAL ADDEESS. S38
persons employed was 224, and 7*42 per million tons of coal
raised; whilst in 1906 the parallel figures were 1*29 and 4*31
respectively. Such figures as the foregoing can only be regarded
as highly satisfactory, and as the result of the more careful
management of our mines. Nevertheless, every colliery manager
and mining engineer will continue to direct his best efforts to the
still greater reduction of accidents. To what further extent the
death-rate may be reduced probably depends more upon the care-
fulness of the men themselves than upon colliery managers, since
the principal sources of accident are such as are mainly under
their control. The deaths from falls of roof and sides in 1906
were no less than 551, or nearly 50 per cent, of the total loss of
life from all causes ; whilst 214 were due to haulage accidents,
the greater part of which might probably have been avoided by
the exercise of reasonable care on the part of the victims. It is
a matter for congratulation to every person connected with
mining and to the public at large, that the loss of life from
explosions of fire-damp was reduced to the low figure of 65 in
1906, or under 6 per cent, of the deaths from all causes, as com-
pared with an average of 263 deaths for the ten years ended
December Slst, 1882, which was equivalent to 23 per cent, of
the average total deaths over that period.
Many and various suggestions have been made by mining
engineers, giving evidence before the Royal Commission on
Mines, with regard to the safer working of our mines, the most
prominent relating to methods of attempting to arrest the exten-
sion of explosions by the aid of coal-dust. Without attempting
to criticize the evidence which has been given, it may be stated
that the watering of the roadways in and around the points where
shots are to he fired must be recognized by all as necessary in
dusty mines. Whether the watering of the whole of the main
roads can be economically carried out, having regard to the effect
of water upon certain floors, roofs and sides, is very doubtful, and
it may be safely stated, in view of the varying conditions of mines,
that no general rule applicable to all mines in the Kingdom can
be wisely made.
Whilst dealing with the death-rate from accidents in mines,
it may be interesting to refer to the comparative mortality in
other occupations, both from accidents and from all causes.
The latest published returns of the Registrar-general are for the
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384
PRESlDEJfTlAL ABDttESS.
years 1890 and 1892, and for this purpose it will be sufficient to
give a very short abstract of the mortality in a few of the principal
occupations during those years (Table I.). It is clear that the
Table I.— Mean Annual Dbath-rate per 1,000 Living engaged
IN Various Ocx3Upation&
A«ed
Aged
Aged
Aged
Oooupatioiu.
25to46
45 to 66
25 to 45
45 to 65
Yean.
Tears.
Years.
Years.
Percent. Percent.
Per era t.
Percent.
Sawyers
..*
7 04
23-91
General labourers, London 14*76
38-14
Garriage-maken ..
8-86
30-74
Ironstone-miners
7-00
22-02
Wheelwrights ...
6-66
24-48
Tin-miners
10-41
46-59
Ship- Wrights
Wool and worsted d
7-11
2001
Stone and slate quarries . .
10-75
34-62
aanu-
Coal miners: —
facture
9-08
29-37
Durham and Northum-
Cotton, flax and
linen
berland
6-60
23 07
manufactare ...
9-39
3411
Lancashire
8-63
31-55
Laoe-manufacture
6-63
21-18
West Riding of York-
Hosiery-manufacture
7-23
20-89
shire
7-20
26-46
Paper-manufacture
7-18
2775
Derbyshire and Notting-
Potters, etc.
12-98
52-78
hamshire
5-98
21-41
Glass-manufacture
1411
40-83
Staffordshire
719
30-28
Bailway platelayers
and
Monmouthshire and
railway labourers
10-52
30-41
South Wales
9-90
33-27
Costermongers, hawkers .
19-65
42-10
All males
9-99
28-30
Note.— The Report!
>f the Eight Hours' Day Departmental Committee stated
that in the 10 years
from 1890 to 1892 ai
id 1900 to 1902 the mortality of all coal-
miners had decreased 20*8
per cent. , and all other *' occupied males "
16-1 pel
•cent.*
occupation of the miner is not of an unhealthy character, and
that it compares favourably with most other occupations (having
regard to the fact that the death-rate from accidents exceeds that
of many of the other occupations) and with the average of " all
males." Any opinions which may have been formed by those un-
acquainted with the working conditions of the British coal-miner's
life, to the efEect that the occupation is unhealthy as compared with
other occupations, may therefore be banished from their minds.
During the year 1906, three important Acts of Parliament
affecting the mining industry were passed, namely, the Work-
men's Compensation Act, the Trade Disputes Act and the
Census of Production Act. By the first-named Act a further
burden will be placed upon coUieiy owners and the public from
July 1st next. The extent to which this Act will affect the cost
of production remains to be seen, but that it will be greatly
increased is indisputable, and this is evidenced by the largely
increased premiums that insurance companies are demanding
upon their present scales.
Among other items of le^slation in regard to the working of
* Final Report of the Departmental Committee appointed to inquire into the
ProhaUe Economic Effect of a Limit of Eight Hours to the Working Day of Coal-
miners, 1907 [Cd. 3605], part i., page 48.
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PBESIB£NTIAL ADDEESS. 885
mines, tke following bills kave been promoted in Parliament,
namely, the Coal-mines Regulation Bill, Engines and Boilers
(Persons in Charge) Bill, and two Bills for limiting the period
of working underground. The proposal to disturb again the Coal-
mines Regulation Act (which has had but a short period of exist-
ence, and during which a marked improvement in the death-rate
from accidents has occurred) appears to be unnecessary and un-
desirable, and likely to introduce fresh difficulties in the manage-
ment of our mines, coupled with an increased cost of production.
The proposals of the Coal-mines (Eight Hours) Bill is fraught
with serious danger, not only to the industries of the country and
to the public at large, but to the very men in whose supposed
interests the promoters introduced their Bills. At the present
time, few miners work over 8 hours in one day, and this cannot be
regarded as excessive, in view of the fact that the average number
of days worked per week over the whole country is less than five.
By the passage of such an Act, the time available for coal-work-
ing would in many cases not exceed 6 hours per day, and in those
mines where the working-face is situated a very long way from
the pit-bottom, probably not more than 5i hours. The effect of
such a serious limitation, apart from the injustice to the industri-
ous workman anxious to make provision for the future comfort of
himself and his family, would be to increase the cost of produc-
tion so seriously that those industries which are of necessity large
consumers of coal, especially the iron and steel trades, would be
seriously prejudiced in competition with foreiign countries, to
the grave detriment of the trade of the country generally ; whilst
the household consumer, and especially the poorer class, would
suffer great hardship by the increased cost of fuel for house-
consumption. To what extent the price would rise, it is, of course,
impossible to suggest, but that a reduction of 20 to 25 per cent,
in the output, which would probably accrue, would result in a
great scarcity of coal, tind that such a scarcity would result in
a great rise in the price, cannot be questioned. In an experi-
ment made some years ago to test the practical result of such a
limitation of hours of working, I found that the output of a
certain colliery was reduced by 27 per cent, below the output
obtained on a normal day of 9 hours' winding. It is, therefore,
to be hoped that the Legislature will refrain from entering upon
a step pregnant with such serious results to all sections of the
community.
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836 PEESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
With regard to future legislation, it appears desirable in tke
interests of lessees and of the country at large that the power of
a mineral-owner to decline to lease or sell his coal, in the case of
small areas, upon reasonable terms, where such refusal would
result in the coal remaining unworked, and the withholding of
wayleave-rights or the imposition of unreasonable terms for such
rights, should be dealt with by Parliament.
Whilst on the subject of legislation, it may be interesting to
allude to the important question of the right of a surface-owner
to support of the surface. It is now well known to every mining
engineer that, where the ownership of the surface is separated
from the ownership of the minerals, fhe minerals may not be
worked so as to let down the surface except by consent of the
surface-owner. It is not, however, generally known that an
action is pending in the courts in which the right of the lessee to
let down the surface, where both the surface and the minerals
belong to the same lessor, is being challenged, notwithstanding
the fact that by a provision in the lease it is set out that the coal
shall be worked by the longwall method. If this claim be up-
held by the courts, it may be stated without contradiction that
the majority of the leases now existent will be of value to the
lessees only by the goodwill of the lessors. Many old leases con-
tain no specific power to let down the surface, but in yiew of
recent aad possible future judgments, no new leases should *be
made without such a provision.
The improvement in the working of collieries during the
past twenty-five or thirty years has not been confined to the
great and satisfactory diminution in the number of accidents in
relation to the output of coal. Considerable progress has
been made in the economical working of coal by the adoption of
the longwall system in those districts where the pillar-and-stall
method was to a large extent in operation, whereby economies in
working, improved ventilation, and the more complete extraction
of the coal have taken place, whilst the proportion of small coal
to large has been considerably reduced.
Great progress has been made in the mechanical engineering
of collieries, the development of perhaps the most striking
prominence being, the use of electric power. Twenty years ago
it was considered by mining engineers and colliery managers a
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PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 387
dangerous expedient to use electric current in the underground
workings of fiery mines, and even within the past 10 years it
haa been so regarded in South Wales. The adoption of the
alternating current, the use of enclosed motors, oil-immersed
switches and fuses, and the encasing of cables or burying them in
the floor, have, however, gone far to remove the fears which then
existed, with the result that it is now generally admitted that this
useful method of transmission of power for hauling and pumping
may be adopted with safety in most mines. Its application for
haulage purposes, not merely on the main roads, which in itself
is frequently a matter of economy and convenience in the case of
deep shafts, but particularly to auxiliary ropes employed for the
purpose of feeding the main ropes, has done much to reduce the
cost and increase the efficiency of the conveyance of coal from
the working-face to the pit-bottom.
In seams which are worked to the dip, it is now a common
practice to employ mechanical haulage to the entire exclusion of
horses ; and, in Warwickshire, where several seams are worked in
conjunction with one another and brought to one main gateroad,
it is the custom to employ a small haulage-set on every gateroad,
as well as on the subsidiary levels or cross-gates.
In underground pumping, where small volumes of water
require to be pumped at various points in the workings, great
economy has been effected, as well as in the case of small shaft-
pumps of the three-throw, high-speed, or centrifugal types.
By the use of steel props and girders, economies have been
effected in some mines of fully Id. per ton upon the ooal raised,
and there is little doubt that their use might be adopted and
extended in many mines with successful results. Making allow-
ances for breakages and losses in an average mine, the average
life of steel props varies from 10 to 13 years ; whilst in the same
pit it is not unusual to find that the life of a wooden prop, even
when re-set time after time, and ultimately cut up for sprags
and lids, does not exceed three months.
Electric coal-cutting machines have been largely adopted in
recent years in seams of varying thicknesses and conditions.
Considerable economy has arisen, both in the case of getting the
coal and in the reduction of the proportion of small coal, conse-
quent upon much of the holing being performed in the clunch
or under-clay. The economy so effected may be roughly stated
to vary from 3d. to Is. per ton, according to circumstances.
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388 PEESIBEKTIAL ABD&ESS.
The use of belts for conveying the coal along the working-
face to the gate-ends has been successfully adopted in some thin
seams, where the height is insufficient to permit of an ordinary
tram being loaded.
Heading machines, by which as much as 108 feet of coal-
heading per week has been cut, have also played an important
part in the economical working of those thick seams where it is
necessary to fore-win the coal, and for heading through shaft-
pillars. These machines, which were until recently driven by
compressed air generated on the surface, whereby great loss
of power was involved by loss of heat and friction in the pipes,
are now frequently actuated by electrically-driven portable high-
speed compressors placed near to the machines and moved forward
as the headings progress, thus avoiding the loss of a considerable
amount of power in transmission, and providing a cheaper means
of carrying the power to the machines.
The improvement in the surface mechanical equipment of
collieries has been still more marked. The egg-ended boiler,
with its accompanying steam-pressure seldom exceeding 50 or
00 pounds per square inch, and having' evaporative powers of 200
to 300 gallons of water per hour and a duty frequently not exceed-
ing 5 pounds of water per pound of fuel consumed, has given
place to the Lancashire boiler, working at pressures varying
from 100 to 160 pounds per square inch and having evaporative
powers- of 800 to 1,000 gallons and upwards per hour, whilst the
duty may be roughly stated to be 8 to 9 pounds of water evapor-
ated per pound of fuel consumed. In cases where the water has
been found suitable, water-tube boilers, with working-pressures
up to 200 pounds per square inch have been adopted to a con-
siderable extent, with successful results, both as regards high
evaporative power, economy in fuel, rapidity of steam-generation ,
and limitation of space. As an instance of the perfection to which
the economical evaporation of steam may be brought, a Babcock-
and- Wilcox boiler, fitted with a chain-grate stoker, a superheater
and an economizer, gave an over-all efficiency of 88 per cent,
compared with the efficiency of an ordinary Lancashire boiler,
without an economizer or a superheater, of 60 to 65 per cent.
By the use of induced draught, high chimneys have, in some
cases, been avoided, greater evaporative powers obtained from
boilers, and inferior fuel consumed.
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PKESlDENTIAIi ADD&ESS. 839
By the use of higher-pressure steam, coupled with more
economically designed engines ; by the greater use of expansion
gear ; and sometimes by superheating and condensing, the steam-
consumption of modem collieries has been greatly reduced.
Winding-engines, which fonnerly consumed 70 or 80 pounds of
steam per indicated horsepower, may now be found using not
more than 30 pounds of steam; whilst continuously-running
engines and steam-turbines, such as are commonly used for fan
and electric driving, are in some instances working with not more
than 14 or 15 pounds of steam per indicated horsepower. The
numerous smaller engines necessary in the past for driving screen-
ing-plants, workshops, shaft-pumps, and for other purposes,
have been superseded in all modern collieries by the use of
electric motors, thus avoiding long ranges of steam-pipes and the
accompanying loss from radiation and condensation, which were
visible at every colliery not many years ago.
As an instance of extreme economy in the production of power
with inferior fuel, the plant erected by the SchwartzkopfE Coal-
dust Firing Syndicate, adjoining the Haydock collieries of
Messrs. Richard Evans & Company, Limited, is well worthy of
notice. The fuel, consisting of the finest dust produced on the
colliery-screens and further ground in a mill to an impalpable
powder, is introduced into the furnace of a water-tube boiler by
means of a revolving brush, and is there consumed as a gas.
The engines are of the triple-expansion high-speed type, con-
densing, and the steam is superheated to a high degree. The
steam-consumption is said to be 9 pounds per indicated horse-
power, and the duty of the boiler is 9 pounds of water evapor-
ated per pound of fuel. Here is an instance of extremely low
fuel and steam-consumption ; but, on the other hand, the capital
outlay and the cost of repairs to the mill, operate as a heavy
counter-balance to the low fuel-cost.
Considerable attention has been paid by mining engineers of
late years to the treatment of impure water to be used for boiler
purposes. There is perhaps no greater necessity in connection
with the working of a colliery than the provision of pure boiler-
water, by which the fuel consumed and the labour, together with
the cost of repairs, may be reduced to the lowest possible point.
In view of the extremely low cost, which varies from |d. to 2d.
per 1,000 gallons of water purified, it is somewhat astonishing to
find that this easy source of economy is not more generally
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840 PRESIDENTIAL ADDEESS.
adopted where bad water exists. Where sufficient condensing
water is available, surface-condensing has been in many cases
adopted, whereby the advantage of the use of pure boiler water,
eotipled with the economy of a vacuum, has given excellent
results. Objection may be raised to the use of surface-con-
densers when the water forms considerable scale in the tubes;
but this may, in many instances, be overcome by the occasional
application of a weak solution of muriatic acid.
These various improvements have led to great economy in
fuel, with the result that whereas the old-fashioned colliery (not
being heavily watered) frequently consumed from 6 to 10 per
cent, of its output in raising steam for the working of the colliery-
engines, the well-designed colliery of recent date may be found
to be working with a consumption as low as 2i per cent, of the
output.
An economy of such magnitude is not merely of vital im-
portance to the colliery owner, but to the nation at large : for not
only is the cost of production thereby decreased to an important
extent, but the coal which, under the old practices, would have
been wasted is preserved for the performance of useful work.
AVhen it is borne in mind that the annual output of coal in the
United Kingdom has reached the enormous total of 251,000,000
tons, it is apparent that the coal-reserves of the country will be
economized to an important degree when, in the course of years,
the old-fashioned colliery machinery has been superseded by the
more economical appliances adopted at modern collieries; for,
an economy of 2^ per cent, only on the output of 1906 would
represent no less than 6,275,000 tons of coal saved in one year.
In connection with this important subject, the better utiliza-
tion of the calorific value of our fuels by the use of gas-producers
and gas-engines has received and is receiving considerable atten-
tion. It is a well-known fact that the effective utilization of the
calorific power of fuel by this means is about five times as great
as when the same fuel is used under steam-boilers. The result
obtained from plants of this description which have been running
for many years, shows that a consumption of 1 pound of small
coal or slack will pro<luce 1 indicated horsepower in a gas-
engine when running on full load; whereas the quantity of
the same fuel used in a boiler for steam-raising would probably
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PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 841
be not less than 4 or 6 pounds, taking into account the losses by
radiation and condensation. At a colliery in Yorkshire, a plant
of this description has been provided for the purpose of utilizing
the bats picked out at the screens. These bats, containing 18 per
cent, of ash, yield 153,000 cubic feet of Mond gas per ton, having
a calorific value of 146 British thermal units per cubic foot, and
the waste-gases are used for heating the boilers of the colliery.
The capital cost of a combined Mond producer, gas-engine and
electric plant of 250 to 500 kilowatts may be taken approximately
at £25 per kilowatt and the working cost at 0'4d. to 0"5d. per
kilowatt-hour, including 10 per cent, for interest and deprecia-
tion on capital-outlay, and with fuel charged at 8s. 6d. per ton
at the producers. In the case of plants of 1,000 kilowatts and
upwards, working costs as low as 0'15d. per kilowatt have been
obtained. The economy in fuel in such plants is admittedly
great; but the additional capital-outlay, as compared with
modem high-class steam-engines, detracts to a large extent from
the apparent economy, necessitating careful consideration before
deciding to depart from the use of the well-known and proved
steam-engine. It need hardly be mentioned that the use of gas-
engines will necessarily be confined to the supersession of engines
other than winding-engines, except in those instances where the
distribution of electric power to several winding-shafts may
render the adoption of electric winding economical.
In those cases where the fuel is rich in nitrogen and of a non-
cokingi character, the abstraction of the sulphate of ammonia and
tar, plus the utilization of the surplus gases, may fully warrant
the greater capital-outlay. Further, the result may, in the case
of fuel of this character, not only be the production of the steam
required for colliery purposes without the need of coal-firing; but,
in addition, the possible sale of surplus gases and the revenue
to be obtained from the sale of the bye-products. By the gas-
producer, not only may the fullest calorific value be obtained
from good coal, but waste-heaps, containing a large propor-
tion of bituminous matter, will probably be more or less utilized
in the future.
Suction-gas plants have made considerable headway in recent
years. They may be very conveniently adapted to small isolated
purposes and controlled by one man. The working cost of small
plants of this class, inclusive of fuel (anthracite-nuts), stores,
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842 PKBSIDENTIAIi ADDRESS.
labour and repairs^ but exclusive of interest on capital and
depreciation, may be taken to be about 0"2d. per indicated horse-
power and the fuel-consumption at 1 pound per indicated horse-
power. This is a great advance upon the results of the Cornish
pump, the most economical of our old-fashioned engines, with a
consumption of 3 to 4 pounds of good Welsh coal, and this result
is hard to beat where large volumes of water require to be
pumped from considerable depths. Various developments have
been made in heavy pumping-engines of late years, but no marked
economy in steam-consumption appears to have been gained in
this class of engine.
The progress in coking and bye-product abstraction from the
small fuel produced at many collieries has caused a far more
valuable result to be obtained from fuel, which, not many years
ago, was regarded as of little or no value. Thanks to our Con-
tinental neighbours, the beehive coke-oven is fast becoming ex-
tinct in favour of the retort-oven. The revolution which has
taken place in this direction has not only been the means of
utilizing, to a far greater extent than heretofore, a considerable
proportion of our national wealth, but, at the same time, in many
instances, has enabled collieries, the economic conditions of which
rendered it difficult for them to exist in the past, to be transformed
into profitable concerns, owing to the larger yield of coke per
ton of fuel used, together with the value of the residuals, forming
as they do, in many instances, a greater source of revenue than
the coke itself. The objection originally raised to the use of
retort-oven coke is rapidly dying out, and it is perhaps not going
too far to say that with care on the part of the coke-burner as
regards the percentage of water that he sends away in the coke,
this objection will disappear altogether : for the reason that the
density of retort-oven coke when properly burnt is generally
greater than that of beehive coke, and it is consequently capable
of carrying a heavier burden in the blast-furnace, a circum-
stance highly prized by the blast-furnace manager. The
utilization of the surplus gas from regenerator-ovens forms
another source of profit from this process, supplying, as it fre-
quently does, power for driving electrical plants, aiid in some
cases for the lighting of the colliery-premises and adjoining
villa^s,
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PKESIDENTIAIi ADDRESS. 843
Tho careful consideration of economies in fuel for colliery-
purposes becomes increasingly important, by reason of the greater
depths from which the coal of the future will of necessity be
wound. The question of raising large quantities of coal from
depths of 2,600 to 3,000 feet, which will have to be confronted
on a large scale at an early date, opens up a fresh field for the
exercise of the ingenuity of the mining engineer. In the case
of collieries sunk to such depths, where only one workable seam
is available, very large areas, probably not less than 18 to 20
square miles to each pair of pits, will be necessary, to warrant
the heavy capital-expenditure entailed in sinking and equipping
plants of the magnitude that will be necessary to raise the
large quantities of coal required to produce a low cost and enable
a reasonable return to be made upon the large capital involved.
In order that large daily outputs may be raised from such
depths, the winding-engines and the accompanying plant will
necessarily require to be of great capacity and powerful construc-
tion, so as to withstand the strain of the heavy loads and rapid
winding. The difficult question of the increasing weight of
winding-ropes, to cope with the greatly augmented loads in deep
shafts, will occupy much of the colliery manager s and the rope-
maker's attention. The difficulty of providing a capel of equal
breaking-strain to a rope of large diameter has fortunately been
solved by the use of white metal run into the capel. Tho old
method of capping, by means of hoops shrunk on to the cap,
fails to give a resistance exceeding 76 or 80 tons, and this is
obviously useless in the case of a rope with a breaking-strain of
160 to 200 tons. Loads of fully 25 to 30 tons will have to be
lifted by one rope, if large outputs are to be obtained from the
deep pits of the future, unless the expedient of winding in two
lifts be adopted. Ropes of large diameter, composed of high
tensile steel, will require to be used; and, with white-metal
capping, there seems to be little fear of obtaining a capel equal
to the breaking-strain of any rope which is likely to be put
into use.
The question of the ventilation of the larger areas of work-
ings, accompanying the more extensive mines of the future, and
the greater volumes of air that will be required, will necessarily
command the careful consideration of the mining engineer of
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844 PRESIDENTIAL ADDBESS.
the future. Amongst other problems, it will be part of his
business to decide whether it will be more economical and effi-
cient to provide specially large air-ways or to adopt higher water-
gauges. On the Continent, the practice has generally been
followed of substituting high water-gauges for large airways. A
good example of this appears in the case of the Neumtihl colliery,
where, I am informed, a Capell fan is producing 328,000 cubic
feet of air per minute, at 15'8 inches of water-gauge, and an
expenditure of over 1,000 horsepower in the steam-engine and
816 horsepower in the air. It appears to be highly improbable .
that such excessive water-gauges will be required in the mines of
this country ; but it is not improbable that higher water-rgauges
than those at present employed will be found to be more econom-
ical than the maintenance of great lengths of very large air-
ways.
The improvement in screening-plants of late years has gone
far to reach the point of perfection ; and it is difficult to imagine
that any great advance will be made in the methods of coal-
sorting, except in the generalization of the practice of washing
the smaller sizes of coal. In all new plants, where circumstances
will permit, the screens will no doubt be placed at such a distance
from the downcast-shaft as will render the impregnation of the
intake-air with coal-dust from the screens practically impossible.
Before concluding this brief attempt to review the recent
and prospective advancement in the engineering of collieries, it
will be appropriate to say a few words with regard to the improve-
ments which have taken place in the social condition of the miner
during the past twenty-five years. In those days, colliery-cot-
tages (many of which still remain) were frequently huddled
together near the colliery, where they had little air-space sur-
rounding them. The architect's skill and taste displayed in
their design wa« not of a very high order, and the general effect
was not calculated to arouse in the British miner and his family
that respect for home which is conducive to cleanliness and respect-
ability. The opportunities for obtaining rational recreation
and mental improvement were few and far between, and the
public-house not infrequently formed the only place where any
kind of social intercourse could be procured. To-day, another
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DISCUSSION — ^PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 845
condition of things exists at nearly all modem collieries and at
many old ones, where brighter and more picturesque houses,
'with ample air-space and gardens of a greater or lesser extent,
are found to exist; houses which will enable the miner and his
family to live a more healthy and brighter life than in the past.
Workmen's clubs or institutes, providing rational means of
recreation and amusement, coupled with the opportunity of
mental improvement by means of libraries and lectures, and the
reading and discussion of papers relating to matters of interest
to the working-man, are now to be found in connection with
many old and new collieries. Such institutes afford a means of
gradually improving the social life of the miner and those
associated with colliery-work; and, if judiciously supervized by
the resident colliery manager and his subordinates, can only
result in a feeling of greater respect and confidence between
the one and the other class. Whilst it may bo said by some that
this subject does not come within the category of mining engin-
eering, it can hardly be argued that it does not form a very
important part of the management of a colliery ; for it is mainly
by such consideration and attention that it may be possible to
lift the miner to a social level commensurate with his intellect
and his means.
In conclusion, I desire to thank you for the time which you
have so kindly and patiently devoted to the hearing of this some-
what long, and I fear uninteresting, address.
Mr. Emebson Bainbridge, in moving a vote of thanks to the
President for his interesting and excellent address, said that he
had avoided superficial treatment in every department of min-
ing, and had illustrated his address with figures which made it
unusually practical. Mention had been made of the Trade Dis-
putes and the Workmen's Compensation Acts, and there was also
a wise reference to the danger of over-legislation for mines. The
address was an interesting and practical summary of all that
was involved in modem mining.
Prof. A. LuPTON, M.P., in seconding the vote of thanks, said
that the addrees embodied the results of great and carefully
▼OL. ZZZm^lMSOMT. 26
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346 DISCXTSSIOK — PRESIDENTIAL ADDBESS.
gathered experience, and would be a guide for the younger
members. He was particularly gratified at the reference to the
reduction of the death-rate in mines, a matter in which The
Institution of Mining Engineers had had a very considerable
share.
The vote of thanks was cordially adopted, and was briefly
acknowledged by the President.
The meeting then divided into two sections for the read-
ing and discussion of papers. Mr. Maurice Deacon (president)
presided over one section, and Mr. W. G. Phillips (vice-president)
over the second section (in the rooms of the Royal Astronomical
Society, Burlington House).
Mr. H. B. DE Salis' paper on " Improvements required in
Inland Navigation " was read as follows : —
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IMFSOYEMENTS BEQITIRED IN INXAND NAVIGATION. 847
IMPROVEMENTS REQUIRED IN INLAND NAVIGATION.
By henry RODOLPH DE SALTS, Assoc. M.Inst.C.E.
The author proposes, in the following paper, to record his
views on the improvements required in inland navigation in this
country, from the experience obtained from his association
with Messrs. Fellows, Morton & Clayton, Limited, canal carriers,
as a director for 10 years ; and from having made a personal inspec-
tion of the whole of the inland navigations of England and Wales,
amounting to a mileage travelled on waterways of over 14,000
miles, for the purpose of collecting the information contained in
Bradshaw^s Canals and Navigable Rivers of Englamd and Waies.*
In the first place, there often appears to be considerable un-
certainty as to the extent of the navigable inland waterways of
England and "Wales, and more than once the author has heard
the figures contained in the Railway and Canal Traffic Act,
1888: Returns made to the Board of Trade in respect of the
Canals and Navigations in the United Kingdom, erroneously
quoted as being a complete summary of the whole of them.
This is far from being the case, although it is extremely difficult
to define exactly what may be considered as " inland navigation.'*
The total mileage of the waterways described in tte author's
Bradshaw^s Canals and Navigable Rivers of England and Wales
amounts to 3,915 miles, comprizing 3,073 miles non-tidal and
842 miles tidal ; and he considers that the above total is a fair
representation. The Board of Trade returns for 1898 only show
a total mileage for England and Wales of 3,167 miles, and do
not apparently take into account amongst others such water-
ways as : — The river Arun ; the river Avon (Bristol), the portion
under the control of the Bristol Docks' Committee; the river
Bure; the river Colne (Colchester); the Dartford and Crayford
* Brad8?taw*8 Caruda and Navigable Rivers of England and Wales : A Hand-
book of Inland Navigation for Manvfacturera^ Merchants, Traders and Others,
oompUed, after a personal survey of the whole of the waterways, by Mr. Henry
Rodolph de Salis, 1904.
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848
IMPROYEMENTS REQUIRED IN INLAND NAVIGATION.
Navigation; the river Dee; the river Hull: the river Med-
way, Hawkwood to Sheemess, 21 miles ; the river Mersey,
Wamngton to Liverpool, 25 miles ; the river Ouse (Bedford), in
respect of its direct course from Bedford to the sea, 75 miles, with
the exception of 2| miles from St. Ives to Holywell ; the river
Parrett ; the river Boding ; the river Stour (Kent) ; the river
Tamar; the river Tees; the river Teign; the river Thames,
below London Bridge, including the navigation of Deptford,
Bow, Barking and Bainham creeks ; the river Trent, from Gains-
borough to the mouth, 26 miles; the river Tyne; the river
Waveney ; the river Wye ; and the river Yare.
W^
^V.#*^";a ■ .--^
< .i'r'-- ■ >.:^
■i^^^^^^^^^^^ff^
[ . . . ^^
^tf^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^HQJ'^
•■«M-<
ivAi^-
Fig. 1.— Steamer and Bpttt-boat on the Grand Junction Canal.
The navigable inland waterways of England and Wales may
be divided, for the purpose of the more easy investigation of
their condition, into two groups, the first consisting of the main
system of connected waterways which have inland communication
with each other; and the second consisting of isolated water-
ways, or small collections of isolated waterways, which have no
inland communication with the main system. With regard to
the waterways of this latter group, the author does not propose
to say much. They comprize navigations of various sorts and
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IMI^ROVEM^NTS REQtJIRED IN INLaKD NAVIGATION. 349
sizes and various deg^rees of prosperity and decay, and partaJke
more of the nature of local concerns, destined to succeed or fail
each on its own merits. The author would, however, suggest that,
in considering any general scheme for the improvement of water-
communication throughout the country, the question of exten-
sions to connect some of these isolated groups of waterways with
the main system might receive attention.
In considering the waterways of the first group, it will be
apparent that the condition of each one affects the system of
water-communication as a whole, and is, consequently, of primary
Fig. 2.— Steam-launch "Dragon-fly,*' used by the Author, in Wyre
Lock, on the Lower Avon Navigation, Vi^ARWicKSHiRB.
importance to trade. The author is not a believer in canal-
communication for rural or sparsely populated districts, but he
considers that good water-communication between the principal
manufacturing centres, the large towns, and the ports, is much
to be desired.
Undoubtedly one of the principal causes which have operated
to prevent the carrying out of improvements in the inland water-
ways of England and Wales by private enterprise is the excessive
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850
IMPROYEMEXTS BEQtJIBED IN INLAND NAVIGATION.
number, as also lie vajied constitution, duties, interests, and pro-
cedure, of the numerous authorities controlling them. There
are canal companies who are carriers, canal companies who are
not carriers, railway companies, dock companies, boards of con-
servators, navigation trustees and commissioners, drainage
trustees and commissioners, local authorities, private individuals,
and, in some ca^es, no authority at all, in respect of portions of
navigable waterways.
It is not surprising, therefore, that among so multifarious
a collection of authorities charged with so many other
duties, that the interests of navigation are not always, by any
means, thefirst con-
sideration. Hence
it is that there has
never been any
serious movement
amongst the pro-
prietors of water-
ways towards their
combining to form
a united system of
communication.
There is no "Canal
Clearing House,"
and (with few ex-
ceptions) every
boat-owner has to
deal separately
with the manage-
ment of every navi-
gation over which
he trades. Even
among the independent canal companies forming the through
routes, there is a great lack of united action ; it is only since 1897
that the four canal companies, forming the route between London
and Birmingham, have made arrangements by which through
tolls can be quoted by the Grand Junction Canal Company, who
own the largest portion of this route. Such matters as the
arrangement of times for stopping the canal for repairs, ice-
breaking, etc., are generally left to the individual action or
inaction of each company.
Fio. 3. — Column erected in Ashbidoe Park,
Hertfordshire, "in Honour of Francis, Third
Duke of Bridoewater, Father of Inland
Navigation," 1832.
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IMPROVEMENTS BEQtJlBED IN tNlAKB NAVIGATION.
851
Siinilarly, the ideas of different companies differ widely as to
what constitutes efficient maintenance ; one company will keep
the chjannel of its canal fairly dredged, but will possibly neglect
the towing-path so that it becomes a slough of mire in wet
weather. Another company will attend carefully to the metal-
ling and draining of its towing-path and the trimming of the
hedges, but will allow the channel of the canal to choke with
mud for want of dredging : this, being under water, cannot be
seen, although it has a disastrous effect, by increasing the power
required to haul the boats, and reducing their speed.
Fig. 4.— Basb of the Bridoewatxb Column, Showing the Inscription.
If the number of canal companies were reduced, a consider-
able saving would be effected by the universal use of modem
plant and machinery for executing repairs and dredging, the use
of which is at present confined to the larger companies, such as
the Manchester Ship, Grand Junction, North Staffordshire, and
Leeds and Liverpool canals.
On the question of railway-owned canals, the author is of
opinion that in general railway-ownership of canals is undesir-
able, as being inimical to canal-development ; but he can hardly
go so far as to endorse the sweeping assertion that all railways
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852
nfi^EOVEMENTS fi,£QtTlR£D IK INLAND NAVIGATION.
desire to strangle the trade on the canals in their possession.
In fact, the policy of railway companies towards the canals that
they have acquired appears to have been, as might be expected,
exactly what suits them best in each particular case, and conse-
quently not always the most favourable to canals as a whole.
One of the largest railway-owned properties, the Trent and
Mersey canal of the North Staffordshire Railway Company, will
compare favourably both in condition and in management with
any independent canal. The Lancaster canal of the London and
North Western Railway is equally well maintained, whilst among
others which are quite up to the average may be mentioned the
Ashton, Peak For-
est, and Maccles-
field canals of the
Great Central Rail-
way Company. On
the other hand, a
railway company
having originally
purchased a canal
as the price of dis-
arming opposition
to its line, or of
extinguishing a
competitor, it is
obvious that its
policy with regard
to it may not be
one favourable to
water-carriage or
the adjoining canals. In several cases the obligations imposed
by section 17 of the Railway and C^nal Traffic Act of 1873, as
regards maintenance in good working condition, appear to be
a dead letter; but even if the Act is not openly violated, it
is easy to discourage trade by such means as indifference to
the requirements of the traders, the imposition of the full
maximum tolls in all cases, and tbe ordering of frequent
stoppages for repairs.
Years ago. Parliament permitted some extraordinary mutila-
tions of canals by railways, two instances of which may be worthy
Fig. 5. —Old Pattern of Wooden Drawbridge, on
THE Wilts and Berks Canal.
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IMPROVEMENTS REQtIIIlEl) IK INLAND NAVIGATION. 858
of mention. In 1879, the Monmouthshire Railway and Canal
Company obtained an Act authorizing them to stop up and fill in
the mouth of the Monmouthshire canal in the town of Newport,
thereby severing communication between the Newport docks and
the canal. In the following year, 1880, the canal wa« acquired
by the Great Western Railway Company. In the returns made
to the Board of Trade in respect of the canals and navigations in
the United Kingdom for the years 1888 and 1898, it appears
that the Monmouthshire canal was conducted at a loss by the
Great Western Railway Company, and, under the circumstajuces,
this is not surprising. In 1845, the Gravesend and Rochester
Railway and Canal Company purchased the Thames and Medway
canal, which extended from the Thames at Gravesend to the
Medway ^at Rochester. The tunnel, which had previously con-
veyed the canal between Higham and Rochester, was turned into
a railway tunnel, leaving the canal to extend from Gravesend to
nowhere in particular.
Turning attention next to authorities controlling navigable
rivers, it will be found that, in addition to navigation, they may
have to consider the prevention of floods, the pollution of the
stream, and the interests of rowing-boats, sailing-boats, house-
boats, steam-launches, motor-launches, water-companies taking
supplies from rivers, riparian owners, fishermen, bathers, etc.
Sometimes authority is divided, as in the case of the Thames
above Long Wittenham, where, in addition to the many duties
carried out by the Thames Conservancy, the Thames Valley
Drainage Commissioners have a separate drainage-jurisdiction ;
or, in the case of the Severn, where the towing-path between
Gloucester and Worcester and again between Worcester and
Stouiport belongs to two distinct towing-path companies.
In earlier days, navigation was considerably hampered on
many navigable rivers, by the control of the water exercised by
mill-owners. Although many of these water-rights have been
bought out, some still survive, as on the river Stour (Suffolk),
and also on the river Stort, where a toll of 6d. for every vessel
passing through a lock is payable to the occupier of the mill, in
addition to the ordinary navigation-tolls. Again, in Somerset-
shire, Lincolnshire, and throughout the large group of waterways
of the Bedford level and district, nearly all the waterways are
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354
nCPBOVEMEHTS KEQUIRED IN INlAHD KAVIGATION.
primarily maintained for the purpoee of drainage, out of the rates
leTied on the land by varions bodies of drainage commissioners,
navigation being, conseqnenUy, qnite of secondary importance.
In the Bedford level, a large tract of country depends for its very
existence on its waterways, into which the. surface-water from the
land is lifted by pumping-engines. In no other part of the country
is there such a multiplication of authorities crowded together:
tracing those in respect of the natural channel of the river Ouse
from Bedford to the sea, they are as follows : — From Bedford to
Holywell, 33^ miles, the navigation-rights are private property ;
Fio. 6.— Gbitfin's Lock, Stsoud, on thb Thames and Sevsbn Canal.
from Holywell to Earith, 5 miles, the river has no controlling
authority, but the lock known as Brownshill or Over Staunch,
situated in this length, is maintained by the South Level Drain-
age and Navigation Commissioners; from Earith to Pope's
Corner, the junction with the river Cam, llj miles, and known
as the Old West river, is dredged and kept open by the South
Level Drainage and Navigation Commissioners, but the Bedford
Level Corporation cut the weeds and are the owners of the lock
at Earith called Hermitage sluice. From Pope's Corner through
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IMPROVEMBNTS REQITlBfD IN INLAND NAVIGATION. 855
Ely to Littleport Bridge, 9J miles, the river is under the juris-
diction of the South Level Drainage and Navigation Com-
missioners. From Littleport Bridge to J mile above Denver
sluice, 10 miles, the river has no controlling authority. From J
mile above Denver sluice to the commencement of the Eau Brink
cut, 10 miles, the river is under the jurisdiction of the Denver
Sluioe Commissioners. ' Denver sluice was built by the Bed-
ford Level Corporation, who own the site and appoint the
sluice-keeper; the Denver Sluice Commissioners maintain the
fabric of the sluice and all the sea-doors (gates), while the
South Level Drainage and Navigation Commissioners maintain
the navigation-doors (gates). From the commencement of the
Eau Brink cut to its termination, 3 miles, the river is under the
jurisdiction of the Conservators of the Ouse Outfall. From the
termination of the Eau Brink cut to the mouth of the river, abo]it
4 miles further, the jurisdiction is that of the King's Lynn Con-
servators. Again, the haling- ways (towing-paths) between Denver
sluice and King's Lynn are under the jurifldiction of the Ouse
Haling-ways Commissioners ; and the banks of the river between
Denver sluice and the commencement of the Eau Brink cut are
under the jurisdiction of the Ouse Banks Commissioners, and
are divided into six districts. It is interesting to note that,
throughout the Bedford level, doubtless on account of the Dutch
origin of the works of drainage, in matters relating to inland
navigation the district appears almost as a foreign country. Not
only are the boats (called fen-lighters) and the method of work-
ing them chained together peculiar to the district, but in addi-
tion there exists an almost entirely different vocabulary of terms
respecting river and canal navigation from that used in any other
part of the country.
Having now rapidly reviewed the controlling authorities in
respect of the navigable waterways of England and Wales, the
author submits that one of the first steps to be taken in the direc*
tion of reform is to reduce greatly their number, and to deprive of
all navigation-jurisdiction those authorities that are adverse or in-
different to the development of navigation. The author thinks
it desirable that the State should control such of the waterways
as could be made useful, or, say for instance, the main routes,
leaving branches and feeders as at present, so that long-distance
traffic might be administered by one authority.
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856
IMPROVEMENTS EEQtIIRED IN INLAND NAVIGATION.
Passing on to consider the present condition of the waterways
of England and Wales, the author will examine that of the
main system of connected waterways. There is nothing in it
approaching the uniformity possessed by the railway system with
its universal gauge, interchangeable rolling stock, and arrange-
ments for forwarding and receiving traffic to and from the lines
of other companies. The waterways differ widely in character,
and may be arranged in three principal classes as follows : —
(1) Canals, being waterways constructed solely for the pur-
pose of conducting traffic, and affording still water for the passage
Fig. 7.— Lancasteb Aqueduct, over the River Lune, on the LancasterJ
Canal op the London and North-western Railway Company.
of craft in either direction. Setting aside, for the moment, the
Manchester, Gloucester and Berkeley, and Exeter ship-canals,
the gauge of the canals varies from that of narrow-boat canals,
admitting narrow boats measuring 72 feet in length and 7 feet
beam, with a draught varying from 2 feet 6 inches to 4 feet, up
to that of the Aire and Calder navigation, and the newly con-
structed Aire and Calder, and Sheffield and South Yorkshire
junction canals, which have locks giving a capacity of 120 feet
by 17 feet, and a draught of water of 7 feet 6 inches.
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IMPROVEMENTS REQUIRED IN INLAND NAVIGATION.
857
(2) Upland rivers made navigable by the provision of locks
and weirs, which have, usually, a stream flowin-g downwards
with a velocity, say, up to 3 to 4 miles an hour. As in the case
of the canals, the gau^e of the locks of the upland rivers varies
considerably. The river Soar, which forms for the most part
the Leicester and Loughborough navigations, admits craft
measuring 72 feet in length and 14 feet beam, with a draught of 3
feet 6 inches, while the locks of the river Weaver measure 229
feet in length and 42 feet 6 inches in width, and will admit, at one
time, four vessels of the ordinary type using the river : these are
90 feet long, 21 feet beam, and draw 10 feet 5 inches of water.
Fig. 8.
-Beablet Aqueduct, on the Stratford Canal of the
Great Western Railway Company.
(3) Tidal rivers and estuaries, where rough water is at times
encountered, and where the tide ebbs and flows often with «i
considerable velocity, which may, as in the case of the Severn
estuary, amount to as much as 12 knots an hour on spring tides.
As almost all through routes between important centres at
the present time contain links of narrow canal, the effect of these
diversities of gauge is to confine any long-distance through traffic
to narrow boats. Nothing but a narrow boat can navigate
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858 IMPEOVEMENTS BEQUIBED IN IKLANB NAVIGATION.
between London and Northampton, Leicester, Nottingham, or
Manchester, and nothing but a narrow boat can get into or out
of Birmingham. If an attempt be made to take a narrow boat
from London to Leeds, it will fail altogether, as it will be stopped
at either "Wigan, Sowerby Bridge, or Cooper Bridge by the locks
of the Leeds and Liverpool canal, or Calder and Hebble naviga-
tion, which, although of twice the width required by the narrow
boat, are 10 feet too short Again, the narrow boat occasions a
large amount of transhipment, as it is not safe to send it on wide
estuaries or tidal waters. When goods are to be sent from
London to Liverpool direct, narrow boats to load them cannot
be sent lower down the Thames than Greenwich, and even then
they will have to be fastened two together, side by side, for
stability. When the boats arrive at either Runcorn or Ellesmere
Port, the cargo will have to be transhipped into flats, as under
no circumstances is it safe to send them down the Mersey estuary.
Similarly, a narrow boat cannot be sent from London to Hull, as
it is not fit to go below Stockwith on the river Trent, or on the
river Humber. In the case of cargo in Leeds for delivery in
London, the author will presume that it starts from Leeds in a
short boat measuring 57 feet 6 inches in length and 14 feet beam.
It can proceed by way of Castleford, Wakefield, Sowerby Bridge,
Rochdale, Manchester, Runcorn and Ellesmere Port to Chester
on the Shropshire Union canal, where it will be stopped by the
insufiicient width of the locks ; and, for the same reason, if it
travels by the river Weaver and the Trent and Mersey canal of
the North Staffordshire Railway Company, it cannot proceed
further south than Middlewich. Again, seeking to reach its
destination by another route, it can journey by Wakefield,
Bamsley, Doncaster, Keadby, Newark, Nottingham, Lough-
borough and Leicester as far as the flight of seven locks at Wat-
ford (Northamptonshire) on the Grand Junction canal, where it
would be again stopped. These locks can only accommodate
narrow boats, and form the sole remaining obstacle to prevent
the boat from reaching London.
Supposing that the author wished to take a cargo from
Birmingham to King's Lynn, he would reach Peterborough with
his narrow boat without difficulty, at any rate so far as the gauge
of the navigations is concerned. At Peterborough, he would be
unable to follow the direct route by entering the Middle level,
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IMPEOVEMENTS BEQTHRED IN INLAND NAVIGATION.
859
as the entrance-lock, called Stanground sluice, is too short, and
it would be necessary for him to travel vid Wisbech to the Ouse
at Salter's Lode. This, as again the locks at Wisbech and
Salter's Lode are too shorty he could only do by waiting at
Wisbech for a spring tide to level the water in the river Nene with
that of the Wisbech canal, and also at Salter's Lode for another
spring tide to level the water in the river Ouse with that of Well
creek. Tet another difficulty of a diflferent nature will present
itself on this journey, for the horse whicb the author had brought
Pig. 9.— Hincaoter Tunnel, on the Lancaster Canal of the London
AND North-western Railway Company.
from Birmingham to tow his boat will be useless in the Pen
country, as he cannot jump. In the Bedford level and district,
gates are not placed at the points where the towing-path passes
through the various boundary-fences, but stiles (some of them as
high as 2 feet 7 inches) are provided instead. All towing horses
have to jump these stiles and frequently give themselves nasty
knocks in so doing.
Seeing that a barge of 60 tons only takes the same crew and
practically only the same power to haul in a good waterway as
a narrow boat, of the same leng^, but of half the width and
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860 IMPROVEMENTS REQTJIKED IN INLAND NAVIGATION.
capaxjity, and that the barge of 60 tons is suflSciently seaworthy for
all ordinary estuary work, the author considers that this vessel
would form the best minimum unit to which all alterations for
the purpose of standardizing British waterways should be worked.
This would also accord with the case of any branch narrow-boat
canals at present existing, and not thought worthy of any capital-
expenditure, as two narrow boats are the exact equivalent in a
lock of a barge of 60 tons. For the most important main lines of
canal, the author would suggest locks with a capacity of at least
three barges of 60 tons, in which case the locks should be divided
again by a third intermediate pair of gates, so that a lock for
one, two, or three barges could be readily made. The average
top width of a narrow-boat canal is 40 feet; but a very small
proportion of this width is available for loaded boats, on account
of the flat shelving slope to which the banks are usually formed.
If these slopes were taken out and the canal deepened and walled
on both sides, no extra width of land would be required to make
a narrow-boat canal available for barges of 60 tons.
Concerning mechanical haulage on canals, a certain amount
has from time to time been written. By some persons, it would
appear to be regarded as a panacea for all the ills of canals in
their present condition, and not long ago a daily paper made the
startling announcement of a ** report that mechanical haulage
was about to be practically tested for canal traffic." Mechanical
haulage by steam-boat has been known on canals for upwards of
one hundred years, but it has never greatly developed on account
of the smaller canals being so badly adapted for its use, just as
the heaviest type of modern locomotive would be quite unsuitable
for work on the original permanent way of one of the early
railways.
The advantages sought to be obtained by any system of
mechanical haulage are obviously greater speed and greater
loads than those taken by horses ; and, as a large proportion of the
through routes in this country contain narrow-boat canals, it will
be well to examine particularly the question of haulage aa
applied to them. Contrary to what is often supposed, haulage
by steam or other form of motor-boat on ordinary narrow canals,
adds but little to the speed of vessels as compared with horse-
haulage. Whatever horsepower may be developed, the rate of
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IMPROVEMENTS REQUIRED IN INLAND NAVIGATION.
361
progress is limited by the ease with which the water in the canal
can get past the vessel as it travels : this is governed by the pro-
portion of the cross-section of the waterway to the immersed sec-
tion of the vessel, subject to the proviso that with a given im-
mersed section of vessel and a given section of waterway, the
waterway which has the most water beneiath: the vessel, and the
sides of which more closely approximate to the vertical, will give
the best tesult. Any attempt to increase the speed beyond what
the section of the waterway permits, merely causes a waste of
Fig. 10.-
-Pebshore Nayigation-wetr, on the Loweb Avon
Navigation, Wabwickshibb.
power, heaps up the water in front of the vessel, creates a breaking
wave highly injurious to the banks of the canal, aaid renders the
vessel more difficult to steer. And further, it is not practicable
on the general run of narrow-boat canals to gain any advantage
by making use of mechanical haulage to tow a train of boats.
Long pounds of water are the exception and not the rule, and at
every lock each boat has to be locked through separately, so that
in the case of a train of five boats the delay at each lock will be
at least five times as great as in the case of a single boat. Again,
if the working of boats in trains were universal on narrow canals,
27
VOL. XZXin.-l906.lfO7.
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862 IMPROVEMENTS EEQITIEED IN INI4AND NAVIGATION.
delay and inconvenience would be constantly caused by tlie
abstraction of sundry locks of water from the short pounds at
one time, without any corresponding' replenishment from the
pound above, thereby causing, temporarily, a serious reduction
of the navigable depth.
The author's company own 20 narrow steam-boata, and nearly
all of them are engaged in the London and Birmingham traffic.
They measure 71 feet in length by 7 feet beam, and draw 3 feet
6 inches of water when loaded. Owing to the space occupied by
the machinery, these boats only curry about 17 tons instead of
from 28 to 30 tons, the load of an ordinary narrow boat, and
consequently they always have to work towing one narrow boat
behind them. On the Grand Junction canal, where the locks
are large enough to accommodate the two boats at one time, this
works well enough ; but, when passing over the Warwick and
Kapton, and Warwick and Birmingham canals, where the locks
are narrow, delay is occasioned by each boat having to be locked
separately at every lock. The author is of opinion, therefore,
that before mechanical haulage can come into general use on
the waterways of England, the channels of the narrow canals
must be improved so as to permit of greater speed, and the
capacity of the locks must be enlarged so as to accommodate a
suitable train of boats at one time.
Passing from the steam-engine to consider the modem motors
available for propelling canal-boats, the author may say that
he has not yet seen any intemlal-combustion engine which he
considers sufficiently reliable for the ordinary everyday work
of through traffic. On the question of safety alone, he could
not advise the use of any motor requiring petrol to work
regularly through tunnels. The chance of a petrol-fire in a
long tunnel, which might easily at the same time contain a tow
of over 20 boats having upwards of 50 people on board, is not
lightly to be risked. The danger of such liquids, giving off
inflammable vapour at ordinary temperature, has been only too
well demonstrated by the explosion on the Regent's canal of
October 2nd, 1874, and, although the great amount of damage
done was caused by gunpowder, it no doubt owed its origin to
leaky benzoline or naphtha casks. The use of petroleum or paraffin
oil for working motors m boats has the advantage over petrol in
regard to risk of accident from inflammability ; but it is not per-
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DISCUSSION — ^IMPEOVEMEXTS BEQUIRED IN INLAND NAVIGATION. 86^
missible on vessels carrying damageable cargo, on account of
the all-pervading and most penetrating smell given off by it.
The writer has lately inspected the wooden hull of a canal tug-
boat from which a petroleum-engine had been removed after a
few months' work in order to give place to a steam-engine, and •
although the engine and the top and sides of the engine-room
down to the gunwale had been removed for some days, the odour
of petroleum arising from it was most pungent. Of all types of
internal-combustion engine, the author considers the suction
gas-engine open to the least number of objections for use for
canal-boat propulsion ; but it has yet to prove its ability to keep
time with steam on long journeys.
The most desirable motor of all for the purpose would doubt-
less be an electric motor driven by storage batteries, to be ex-
changed for others freshly charged as required at different points
on the canal, but such a system must of necessity await the
invention of an accumulator of less weight and size, and costing
less to maintain, than any that are on the market at the present
time.
The author may briefly recapitulate his views as follows: — He
is of opinion that, when the waterways which it is considered
desirable to improve have been selected, the first step should be
to re-organize the authorities controlling them ; and that, when
the works of improvement have been carried out and efficient
waterways provided, the problem of mechanical haulage will soon
solve itself.
The President (Mr. Maurice Deacon) said that Mr. de Salis,.
in his paper, had discussed an extremely interesting subject, very
largely from a commercial point of view ; and, as it was particu-
larly interesting to the colliery-owner, he thought that it should
claim their attention and consideration. Railway companies were
large owners of canals, and the owner of a small section might
prohibit the utilization of the adjacent waterways to any useful
effect. Mr. de Salis had pointed out that it was useless to hope
for reasonably cheap water-carriage on through routes, until the
whole of the "innumerable* canal companies, which occupied the
waterways, could be either induced to amalgamate, or to sell
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364 DISCUSSION — ^IMPROVEMENTS REQUIEED IN INLAND NAVIGATION.
their undertakings to a single proprietor. Some years ago an
attempt was made to amalgamate the several canals connecting
the Midland coal-fields with London, but one or two of the canal
companies did not approve of the proposed scheme of amalgama-
-tion, which, from accurate calculations, would have enabled coal
to be carried from the Midland coal-fields to London for 5s. per
ton instead of the 68. 6d. then paid to the railway companies.
The difficulty, with regard to passing through small locks, might
be overcome by fitting the boat with wheels, and running it over
a railway, of the required gauge, laid at the side of the lock.
Mr. W. Peice Abell said that he was surprised that canals
continued to exist under the vexatious obstructions to their
intercommunication. If the authorities would undertake the
nationalization of canals, greater good would ensue than from
the proposed nationalization of railways.
Mr. Fhank Raynee (River Trent Navigation) said that Mr.
de Salis had had an unique experience of the waterways of
England in regard to their works, natural features and trades.
The River Trent Navigation, with which he (Mr. Rayner) was
associated, were carriers, as well as owners of navigation rights,
and unfortunately they knew the great difficulties which arose
from the multiplicity of companies and authorities that had
control over the inland waterways. There was absolutely no
justification, so far as efficiency was concerned, for the continued
existence of these innumerable bodies. In the case of the
Bedford level and adjoining navigations, nine distinct authorities
controlled a length of about 86 miles; and, in the case of two
short navigations, there was no controlling authority. Conse-
quently, there was no uniformity, and this led to endless con-
fusion and difficulty. His own view was that the country
should be divided into natural districts, following the great
watersheds of the country, that each watershed should be en-
trusted to a board of management, and that a central authority
should be responsible for ensuring uniformity of gauge, condi-
tions and maintenance, and that the works and control of the
boards of management were consistent with each other. He
agreed with Mr. de Salis in giving a word of commendation to
some of the railway companies who did their duty to their
canals; but they were in the minority, and there was endless
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DISCUSSION — IMPROVEMENTS REQUIRED IN INLAND NAVIGATION. 865
difficulty in conveying traffic over waterways controlled by railway
companies. Independently-owned canals welcomed mechanical
traction; he thought that, so long as a proper speed was not
exceeded, it was desirable, and it kept down weeds : but railway
companies alleged that it would burst the banks. In one railway-
owned canal, the banks would withstand the pressure of pleasure
steamboats, but when cargo was conveyed instead of passengers,
the use of steamboats was said to be dangerous and was pro-
hibited. Independently-owned canals did not raise artificial
difficulties, but many railway companies, on the contrary, would
not keep their canals open by such measures as breaking the ice
in winter : they said that those who paid the tolls should provide
horses ; and they placed other obstacles in the way of traffic. A
flagrant case existed of a railway-controlled canal, which before
the railway-days had perhaps hundreds of thousands of tons
passing over it, but now the water-supply was said to be insuffi-
cient for a small fraction of the traffic. There should be a
minimum barge, to which all alterations for standardizing water-
ways should be designed, but the question of a standard canal
or a standard barge should not be rigidly enforced. Where
natural conditions admitted, that minimum should be multiplied
as much as possible, and if a barge carrying 60 tons was found
to be a practical minimum, then, as in the case of the River Trent
Navigation, where the water-supply and other natural features
enabled them to do so, that minimum might be multiplied and
trains of barges might be passed through the locks at once. It
should be borne in mind that when a certain tonnage, with a tug
or other propelling power, was exceeded, practically all the
freight earned by the additional tonnage was profit. The cost
of towing 60 or towing 70 tons was practically the same, assuming
that the waterway was in a proper condition. He agreed that,
with improved organization and waterways, and mechanical
means of propulsion, a large traffic would follow.
Mr. L. F. Vernon-Harcourt said that Mr. de Salis had
shown plainly the difficulties which, at present, confronted convey-
ance on through routes. The question of the length of canals and
navigable waterways was not a very important matter, but it was
curious that the figures contained in the first report of the Royal
Commission on Canals did not agree with those approved by
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866 DISCUSSION — IMPBOVEMENTS REQUIRED IN INLAND NAVIGATION.
the Board of Trade. He looked forward with great interest to
the final report of the Eoyal Commission on Canals, which might
be issued before the close of the present year. The Royal Commis-
sioners had inspected canals in Belgium, France and Germany ;
but, on Continental waterways, the conditions were very different
from what they were in this country. In Germany, barges, carry-
ing up to 1,000 or 1,200 tons, could be used on the large navigable
rivers; the standard barge, on French waterways, carried 300
tons ; and, in Belgium, the standard barge carried 400 tons. Des-
pite the improvements carried out on French waterways, the bulk
of the traffic was conveyed on the waterways going into Belgium,
from the northern coal-fields, and along the river Seine ; and,
in the south of France, there was very little traffic, even over
the waterway, originally made as a ship-canal, connecting the
Mediterraneaax with the Bay of Biscay, and on most of the other
central and southern waterways, notwithstanding the improve^
ment of these waterways, making all the main canals of a uni-
form gauge for barges carrying 300 tons. Through-route water-
ways should be placed under one control. Mr. Rayner had men-
tioned the possibility of grouping them according to the
drainage-areas; and, so far as rivers were concerned, that
would be desirable, if Britain had such great rivers as they
had on the Continent. It was desirable to group the rivers
according to the basins ; but if they dealt with canals in that way,
they would find that most of the canals from the centres of
trade to the various ports passed through several river-basins,
and a large number of locks would be required. Mr. J. A.
Saner, in a paper read before the Institution of Civil Engineers
early last year, proposed the creation of a number of through
routes ; * but it was necessary to provide through routes of suffi-
cient size, and to raise money for that purpose. Although it was
desirable that the separate authorities should be abolished, it was
not easy to induce them to give up whatever rights they might
possess. He approved of the creation of certain through routes,
and in a paper,t read before this Institution at Birmingham, a
few years ago, he pointed out that a route from Birmingham to
* "On Waterways in Great Britain," hj Mr. John Arthur Saner, Minutes
cf Proceedings qf The InstittUion of Civil Engineers^ 1905, vol. clziii., page 21 and
plates i., ii. and iii.
+ "Inland Naviffation, with Special Reference to the Birmingham District,"
by Mr. L. F. Vemon-Harcourt, Trans. Inst, M. E., 1896, vol. viii., page 611.
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DISCUSSION — IMPEOVEMENTS B£QT7I|LBD IN INLAND NAVIGATION. 867
the sea by Worcester and the river Severn would probably prove
useful and profitable. Routes, however, say, from Birmingham
to the Mersey, to the Humber, or to London, would have to cross
a number of water-partings, which made it extremely expensive
to construct a satisfactory waterway. He agreed with Mr. de
Salis that if through waterways were provided, haulage would
not prove an insurmountable difficulty. The financial difficulties
encountered during the construction of the Manchester ship-canal,
a waterway for ocean-going vessels, had deterred people, more
than one would wish, from undertaking schemes for the improve-
ment of inland waterways. In the meantime they should wait
for the decisive report of the Royal Commission on Canals, who
might formulate a scheme, other than for the purchase of the
canals by the State; because he did not think that would be a
practical scheme, or one that a government should undertake.
Mr. GoEDON Thomas (Grand Junction Canal) said that Mr.
de Salis' paper might be taken as correctly representing the great
difficulties met with by the trader who required to navigate upon
a canal. Traders were now in the hands of the railway com-
panies, and he asked whether the companies served mine-owners
conveniently and at such rates as enabled them to compete, say,
with Continental and other competitors. From his own know-
ledge and from the evidence that had been given before the Royal
Commission on Canals, it appeared to him that traders were not
satisfied. Consequently, with the difficulties at present existing,
he asked whether the canals could be so improved at a reasonable
expenditure as to enable colliery owners to be placed in a better
position. He had hoped that Mr. de Salis would have stated the
speeds and relative costs of hauling by the several systems em-
ployed by his firm, as compared with railways; and what the
costs would be with an improved canal, such as he had suggested,
taking barges of 60 tons.. Personally, he was rather in favour of
a load of 80 tons, by reason that the present naiTOw boat could
carry 40 tons, and it was merely putting the maximum load in
pairs through one lock. A load of 80 tons seemed convenient,
and it could be hauled through the improved canal at the same
rate as a load of 60 tons ; and, therefore, a load of 80 tons in one
vessel could be taken from the country (especially if taken in
trains of three) in improved canals and improved lockage at
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868 DISCUSSION — ^IMPROVEMENTS REQUIEED IN INIAND NAVIGATION,
possibly one-half of the present rate, say, only 0'442d. per ton
per mile. Taking* any district, say, Stafiordshire to London, the
rate was 7s. per ton ; and on the improved canal, under improved
conditions, the rate would be reduced to 3s. 3d : thai would be
an enormous advantage to the country, and it would require no
heroic system of ship-canals carrying vessels of 1,000 tons. The
speed of the steamers and butty-boats worked by Messrs. Fellows,
Morton and Clayton, Limited, was, on a level pond, 3i miles per
hour ; but that speed was reduced (owing to various reasons) for
through traffic, say from London to Birmingham, a distance of
135 miles, to 2-15 miles per hour. On that route, the traffic
passed through 157 locks, occupying 14 hours 64 minutes; and,,
in addition, 9^ hours were lost through slowing down when
approaching bridge-holes. Consequently, about 24^ hours were
lost by blocks in the waterway, which might, with improved
conditions, be entirely abolished. One of the greatest difficulties-
in improving or maintaining canals was the water-supply. The
present locks were of antiquated construction, and an improved
system of lockage would have to be adopted. At the present
time there was nothing more efficient than inclined planes or
vertical lifts, which could be constructed at much less cost than
a flight of Ipcks. In addition, they saved time, and their
capacity for passing traffic was almost unlimited. The whole of
the bridges, throughout the length of any main canal, would
also require reconstruction. The proper sectional area of a
canal should not be a wide canal with a big surface-area exposed
to evaporation and leakage, but a section approaching a rect-
angular form, with a depth at least one-half greater than the
draught of the vessels frequenting it. These dimensions would
allow a much greater speed than at present, and the cost of main-
tenance of the paths, banks and dredging would be reduced. A
canal, 45 feet wide and 7 feet deep, would take craft with a capacity
of 80 tons ; and it could be constructed, to connect the four water-
ways of England, at a moderate cost, requiring the purchase of
very little land, and with little disturbance of important works
on the banks of the canals. Improvements 'had not been carried
out, owing to the past action of Parliament, particularly in 1846,
in permitting railways to control certain links. The Gband
Junction canal was hemmed in, owing to a policy which nobody
could blame Parliament for having followed, for they all liked to-
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DISCUSSION ^IMPKOVEMENTS REQUTBED IN INLAND NAVIGATION. 86^
experiment ; but, when they found how detrimental it was to the
progress of the canals, it was not flattering to our commonsense
that they should have allowed it to continue for so many years.
The Grand Junction Canal Company tried in 1853 to bring about
a large amalgamation, but they were stopped by railv/ ay- owned
links. They now owned or had leased 171 out of 180 miles of the
route from the Nottingham and Derbyshire districts to London;
but the last few miles were in the hands of a railway company. The
maximum craft only carried about 22 tons, and frequently that
load was reduced to 10 and 12 tons, so that it was absolutely
impossible for traffic to be brought profitably from such a dis-
tance. Large sums of money had been spent in endeavouring to
develop the traffic on that route, but they had failed owing to the
fact that a few miles belonged to a railway company, which had
been quite contented to leave the canal in the state in which it
was handed over to them in 1846. As the independent and
isolated canals could not possibly bring about any development,,
this must be effected by a stronger body. He anticipated that the
Royal Commission on Canals would express an opinion as to the
type of canal that should be provided. In 1895, at the Birming-
ham meeting of the Institution of Mining Engineers, some able
papers were read, but the proceedings did not contain any recom-
mendation as to. the views of the members on the subject, which
was of such great importance to the coal trade.
Mr. P. BoNTHRON (London) wrote, as one associated with
lighterage matters, and who had traversed nearly every canal
and canalized river south of the Midlands, that he had come to
the conclusions that: (1) Large or ship-canals should be en-
couraged. (2) Canals within a radius, say, of 20 miles of a port,,
even as they are now existing could be made profitable; and
dock or landing and railway-charges would be thereby avoided,,
and a saving effected. (3) Unless the existing inland canals are
developed, and the uncertainties of the water-difficulty overcome,,
they cannot compete with railways. (4) In all the discussions
of the canal-question, a very important point and factor had been
quite overlooked, and that was the labour-question. Should any
development take place, the wages of the canal-boatmen might
have to be considered, and any advance of their present wages
would seriously hamper the industry. Thames lightermen, he
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-870 DISCUSSION — IMPROVEMEXTS BEQUIRED IN INLAND NAVIGATION.
might mention, now received such wages that, with the exist-
ing rates received for the lighterage of goods, this class of busi-
ness was more or less unremunerative. (5) He agreed with Mr.
Oordon Thomas (Grand Junction Canal) as to the size of barges
to be used on certain canals, and as to the suggested widening of
the locks so as to allow of the passage of craft carrying 80 tons :
this could be done without great expense. Personally, he advo-
cated the use of an even larger size of barge, if the depth of
water so permitted. In conclusion, he considered that Mr. de
Salis' paper was a very sound production ; it formed a good
basis for future development, and it was written by a gentleman
who had very wide experience relating to these matters.
Mr. Owen J. Llewellyn (H.M. Inspector under the Canal
Boats Acts) wrote that the main point in dealing with inland
navigation was to remember that England was quite differently
situated from all other countries. France, Belgium and Germany
were all continually being urged as models to copy, and England
was represented as being far behind them with regard to inter-
communication. But the advocates of new and improved canals
should remember that Hull, London, Bristol, Liverpool. Glasgow,
and scores of other large towns were connected by the sea. And
Manchester, Gloucester and other places, by reason of their ship-
canals, could also be included. Therefore, with the exception of
Birmingham, the Potteries and the Black Country of Stafford-
shire, there was hardly a manufacturing district of importance
which was not within 20 miles of a sea-connected port.
The modern practice also of motor-traction, direct from works
to dock-side, was a serious and growing competitor to canal-
traffic ; and it was only an unpractical visionary who would pro-
pose to use the taxpayers' money to support a system which had
failed simply because of the competition of more modern and up-
to-date methods of transit. T\^hen canals were in their hey-day,
the alarmed road-authorities eased the gradients of some of their
roads and laid down setts to compete with them. This had
little effect, and canals continued to be extended. But as
canals had beaten roads, so railways had beaten canals, and it
was well known that canal companies were only too pleased to
find anyone to take over their decaying businesses ; at the same
time, the railway companies grasped at the idea of getting rid of
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DISCUSSION — IMPROVEMENTS REQUIRED IN INLAND NAVIGATION. 87 1
iheir only possible competitors. The story of the North Stafford-
shire Railway Company, as told to him, makes this clear : When
the directors of the Canal Company saw that railways were doing
•so well elsewhere, they made a railway alongside of the canal,
and guaranteed the canal shareholders against loss. The result
had been satisfactory from a business point of view, although
the absence of competition had prevented any cutting of rates
and so naturally displeased certain traders.
His (Mr. Llewellyn's) work took him all over England and
Wales, wherever there was any navigable water, and he divided
•canals into two distinct kinds: — (1) Where there would be
water in any case ; and (2) where there would not be water,
unless it was artificially introduced. He thought that if
successful foreign canals were considered, it would-be found that
very seldom were they anything but canalized rivers, or, at any
rate, canals in flat districts. Of course, two rivers might be joined
by a connecting artificial canal, although this was exceptional.
English canals, as a rule, were entirely artificial and the number
of' locks was very much greater than on the Continent. Extra
locks not only entail extra cost, but they considerably shorten the
lives of the boats. He was often amused by motorists who desired
to turn canals into speed-ways, as if canals lay as straight from
town to town as railways do. The reverse was the case and, out
of flat land, the canal followed the contour of the country until
the distance was often doubled.
Ho agreed with Mr. de Salis in his opinion that rural or
sparsely populated districts did not need intercommunication;
and farmers had little to sell or buy now-a-days.
It was impossible to augment speed on canals by engines, for
it was well known that two donkeys could pull a laden boat as
far as a team of big horses. Any increase in pace piled the
water in front and dropped the stem of the boat on the bottom
of the waterway.
Because of late years there had been ho very long frost, it
had been forgotten that such had ever occurred ; but a total stop-
page of water-traction for nine weeks (as had frequently happened)
would play havoc with an artificially-fostered big industiy. A
week's delay even now produced a great deal of sufEering among
the boat-people.
The cost of enlarging tunnels (and there were numbers of
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872 DISCUSSlON — IMPEOVEMENTS BEQUIfiED IN INLAND NAVIGATION.
them) would be great, and if to this were added the cost of enlarg-
ing locks and deepening channels in order to make all canals
take a bigger size of boats, it would be difficult even for a company-
promoter to issue a favourable prospectus. Further, until the
last canal was finished in the new style, intercommunication
would not be possible : there would be a record lock-up of capital.
He felt rather like Balaam must have felt ; but, with his oppor-
tunities of seeing canal-traffic, he would be blind if he could see
(much as he should like to) any chance of success in the resurrec-
tion of canals ; and very few people seemed to take any interest in
the subject.
He trusted it would be understood that, officially, he. had
nothing to do with canals — only with canal-boats and their
inmates. Neither was he an engineer or expert, but as he had
said in his evidence before th» Royal Commission on Canals —
he would be very dense if he did not keep his eyes open with
regard to the surroundings of his work.
In conclusion, he asked the question as to who was going to
pay for the proposed enlargement of the canals ? And engineers
seemed to be the only class who would make anything out of it.
Mr. Arthur Carey (Widnes) wrote that Mr. de Salis'
paper was a powerful and practical appeal, from a practical
man who knew England's waterways as probably no other man
knew them. There could be no doubt that manufacturers in
this country suffered severely from the high cost of transport.
If the cost of transport in this country were as low as it actu-
ally was at the present time in Belgium and Germany, chemical
products would be cheaper to produce by about 10 per cent, of their
sale-price. This figure had been carefully calculated, and was
the conclusion deduced from data collected by the Internal Trans-
port Committee of the Society of Chemical Industry. The points
to which Mr. de Salis had drawn the greatest attention were un-
doubtedly the key to the situation : (l)The necessity for uniformity
of gauge on the main through routes, and a material increase in
that gauge. From his own experience, he would go further than
Mr. de Salis and ask for waterways capable of taking barges carry-
ing cargoes of 100 tons ; and, even then, the barges would be far
short of the average barge, carrying 200 to 300 tons, used on Con-
tinental canals. (2) Mr. de Salis drew attention to the multitude of
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DISCUSSION — ^IMPUOVEMENTS B£QXJIB£D IN INLAND NAVIGATION. 378
small authorities, controlling short lengths of water, thus adding
greatly to the cost an.d inefficiency of management and to the
•difficulties of traders. In addition, the number of canal com-
panies made it very difficult, even in a journey of considerable
length, to get the advantage of the comparatively low tolls
charged after the first 30 miles. It was absurd in a journey of
50 miles to be charged uniformly at the toll levied for the first 10
miles because the barge travelled over water owned by five
•different canal companies. There were, he thought, good grounds
ior hoping that practical good would result from the labours
of the present Royal Commission on Canals, and that they would
help to remove one of the greatest handicaps from which British
industries at present suffered : the high cost of inland carriage.
Mr. W. WoBBY Beaumont (London) wrote that he agreed with
Mr. de Salis' conclusion as to the use of steam-engines and in-
ternal-combustion engines for canal-boats, more particularly relat-
ing to the canals of Great Britain. He also agreed with his
conclusion, at present at all events, that the steam-engine was in
most cases the more suitable flexible motor, and that there was no
doubt as to the force of objections of the kind he raised with
regard to the use of petrol or petroleum in canal-boats. It was
•quite possible, however, that ere long suction gas-producers and
^as-eQgines might be employed for propelling canal-boats.
Mr. J. A. Sanee (Northwich, Cheshire) wrote that he had
long been of opinion that draatic improvements, both as to
management and capacity of many of the English canals,
required undertaking. His views had been fully set forth in
the paper written for The Institution of Mining Engineers in
1895 ; * also more recently in a paper read before The Institu-
tion of Civil Engineers in November, 1905,t for which the
Telford gold medal was awarded; and also in his evidence
before the Royal Commission on Canals and Waterways in
May, 1906.J In these papers, he had uniformly advocated that
main trunk-canals should be constructed for conveying cargoes of
• "Canals,** by Mr. J. A. Saner, Tratu, Inst. M. E., 1895, vol. viii.,
page 467.
t "On Waterways in Great Britain," by Mr. John Arthur Saner, Minutes
of Proceedings of The Institution of Civil Engineers^ 1905, vol. clxiii., page 21 and
plates L, ii. and iii.
X Report of Royal Commission on Canals and Waterways f 1906, vol. i.,
part ii., pages 35 to 51 ; and Appendix, third day, May 9th, 1906, pages 15 to 25.
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874 DISCUSSION — IMPEOVEMEXTS BEQUIRED IN INLAND NAVIGATION^
not less than from 250 to 300 tons at a time. He knew that in the-
opinion of some others, as well as Mr. de Salis, a boat of 60 tons
was considered to be sufficient; but there was really not veiy
much difference between what they advocated and what he had
been advocating, inasmuch as everyone was agreed that a train
of boats should be able to carry far in excess of this amount,,
and that, therefore, the locks must be large enough to take^
several boat«, in which case they would also be large enough,
should occasion require and circumstances develop (and he felt
certain that they would) to allow of the use of larger craft-. He
had not, of course, advocated the improvement of all canals, in the
first instance, but had taken cross-country routes, such as Liver-
pool, Birmingham and London ; Hull, Birmingham and Bristol ;
and Manchester and Hull, as being the important routes. If these-
were made with locks suitable for taking either a train of boats,
each carrying 50 to GO tons, or vessels capable of carrying from
250 to 300 tons at one locking, it would then be possible gradually
to improve the smaller canals in such a manner that the smallest
canal would eventually be able to take a boat of 60 tons. He quite
agreed that a boat of 50 to 60 tons was the smallest which could
safely navigate the estuaries of the Mersey and Humber, as he had
had experience of such boats navigating both these estuaries. If
canals were made so that these boats could penetrate to nearly all
parts of the country, it would in his opinion effect a very great
saving to the community in the cost of carriage ; but he did
consider that main canals should be large enough to accommo-
date craft of 250 to 300 tons, as he was quite convinced that
within a short time after such canals were made, trade would
so arrange itself as to enable them to carry full cargoes.
Some years ago, he made a tour of inspection through some
of the foreign canals, especially those in Belgium and Germany,
and although the circumstances of trade in this country were
somewhat different from those obtaining there, it was quite
certain that the main through routes as suggested above would,
within a few years, fully compensate the promoters and con-
structors, whether such promotion and construction was carried
out under Government guarantee or by private enterprise.
He would like to remind the members that, despite all diffi-
culties and apparent losses entailed through the construction of
the Manchester ship-cadal, that canal had already improved the^
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DISCrSSION — ^IMPaOVEMENTS REQUIRED IN INLAND NAVIGATION. 875-
trade of Manchester to a marvellous extent, and was now well
on the way to remnnerating those who had supported it by lending
mone5\
Mr. F. S. GiBDLESTONE (Bristol Docks) wrote that there had
recently been signs of considerable activity in connection with
the canal-traffic between Bristol and the Midland counties; and
the Sharpness Xew Docks and Gloucester and Birmingham
Navigation Company, who owned the canal, and the Severn and
Canal Carrying Company, who carried the traffic, were actively
interesting themselves in the question of shipments from the
Midland counties at Avonmouth dock. This had been brought
about to a very large extent by the increased opportunities for
shipping at Avonmouth and the progressive policy of the Bristol
Docks Committee in assisting in the effort to make the facilities,
of Bristol better known in the Midland counties. In Birming-
ham, a commodious warehouse was being constructed to replace
the small building which had hitherto existed, and electric
cranes and other modem appliances were being erected on the
wharf to expedite the loading and unloading of merchandise.
Recently the Gloucestershire and Birmingham Navigation Com-
pany had been able to get the whole of the towing into their
own hands, and improvements had been effected in this direction
so that whereas formerly steam-tugs were only used to tow
canal-boats through the tunnels between "Worcester and Birm-
ingham, they were now used throughout the whole journey (with
the exception of a short distance between Tardebigg and Wor-
cester, where there was a considerable flight of locks and steam-
towing would be of no advantage). The Severn and Canal Carry-
ing Company had been induced to quote rates sufficiently low to
secure various classes of traffic for Bristol which had not hitherto
been shipped at that port, and a very substantial margin could
be shown between canal and railway rates from the Midland
counties to Bristol, and an even greater saving as against the
rates to Liverpool. There was also a margin in favour of Bristol,
between Birmingham-Bristol and Birmingham-Liverpool canal
rates respectively. The time occupied in the journey was, how-
ever, still an obstacle in the way of getting this route generally
used, as it was not safe to calculate on less than five days for
goods from Birmingham, and it required a longer period for
goods from Wolverhampton and other districts.
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576 DISCUSSION — IMPROVEMENTS REQUIEED IN INLAND NAVIGATION.
Then again, at the present time, all goods received from
north of Worcester must be transhipped between that place
and Sharpness, as the canals around Birmingham were only
-constructed to take ordinary canal-boats, say, up to 35 tons,
whereas larger craft were necessary to navigate safely the
waterway between Sharpness and Bristol. At present, he believed
that, except on rare occasions, the transhipment was effected
by manual labour, and no doubt time would be saved by
the use of mechanical appliances. Various suggestions had
l)een put forward to obviate the necessity of transhipping, the
three principal proposals being: — (1) The construction of a
oanal between Bristol and Sharpness; (2) the improvement of
the canal between Worcester and Birmingham ; and (3) the con-
struction of pontopns for conveying the canal-boats with their
cargoes between Bristol and Sharpness. If the first proposal
were carried out, a canal would have to be constructed for a
distance of 16 to 18 miles. The canals around Birmingham cost
about £15,000 per mile, and these, as beforementioned, would
only allow the passage of a canal-boat carrying cargo up to 35 tons.
Taking into consideration the increased cost of labour and mate-
rails, and the fact that, if the canal as proposed was constructed, it
would be necessary to make it available for craft up to 100 tons
at least, it would probably cost not less than £30,000 per mile,
which would mean a total cost of £540,000. There would also be
the delays that a craft would experience in passing through the
locks of the proposed canal from Avonmouth to Sharpness.
At present, a boat can, in good weather and studying tidal
conditions, accomplish the sea-journey between Avonmouth and
♦Sharpness in, say, 3 hours, but this would probably be considerably
increased by passage through the canal; but, as against this,
there would be the freedom from tidal and weather delays.
The cost of interest on capital, maintenance and working would
be a considerable item ; while there would still be the difficulty
of the canal to the north of Worcester, and unless only small
boats were used transhipment would still have to take place.
The cost of improving the canal between Worcester and
Birmingham to take craft of 100 tons would be upwards of
£200,000. This would still leave the canals in the district of
Birmingham untouched ; and it must be borne in mind that only
a proportion of the traffic of the district arises in Birmingham ;
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DISCUSSION — IMPROVEMENTS BOEQUIRED IN INLAND NAVIGATION. 377
wherefore transhipment would still have to take place, although it
might be done at the canal-wharf in Birmingham instead of lower
down the canal.
The third proposal was by far the best and most economical
scheme as yet put forward. The cost of providing pontoons,
as compared with the other proposals, would be comparatively
trifling and would not exceed £2,000 per pontoon ; and, even sup-
posing that the cost was doubled, six pontoons could be provided
for £24,000. The proposal was that canal-boats should bring their
cargoes down to Sharpness, where the floating pontoon would be
waiting in water-ballast ready to receive them. The compart-
ments would be opened and the canal-boats propelled into the
pontoon, after which the compartments would be closed, the
water-ballast pumped out of the pontoon, and she would proceed
either under her own steam or in tow to Avonmouth ; and, when
inside the docks, the canal-boats would be brought out and
their cargo loaded into the outgoing steamer. The same opera-
tion would be put in {orce at Avonmouth, in the event of the cargo
being for the Midlands.
Mr. TJequhaet A. Forbes (London) wrote that he fully
concurred with Mr. de Salis in the conclusions arrived at in his
very interesting paper, that the first steps towards the improve-
ment of our inland-navigation system must be the selection of
such portions of the main system of waterways having inland
communication with each other as would best repay expenditure
upon their development, and the reorganization of the authorities
controlling them. It also seemed clear from his description of
the conditions of the system, that it was equally essential for the
establishment of remunerative through traffic that a minimum
scale of dimensions for all the waterways forming each through
route, and a maximum rate for freight-charges for goods carried
on them, should be definitely determined by some competent
authority.
One of the methods which might be suggested for effecting
these reforms was the appointment, either by the Board of Trade
or the Government, of a committee of experts, representing the
principal canal companies, conservancy authorities, and railway
companies owning canals, empowered to make the necessary
surveys, investigations and arrangements for carrying them out.
28
VOL. XXX in -1908-1907. *^
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878 DISCUSSION — IMPEOVEMENTS REQUIKED IN INLAND NAVIGATION.
The reorganization of authorities might then be accomplished
by the establishment of single governing bodies for each of the
great through routes, comprizing representatives of the various
canal and navigation authorities now controlling the different
waterways of vhich each was composed. Such bodies would be
analogous in constitution to the Thames Conservancy Board and
the Metropolitan Water Board, being representative of all the
bodies entrusted with the regulation of the through route ; and
their creation would promote the process of amalgamation and the
establishment of the clearing-house system, which had been the
chief factors in the success of the railway companies. At present,
whilst each through railway route was governed by a single
company formed by such amalgamations — ^the London and
North-western Eailway Company, for instance, was a combina-
tion of forty or fifty small companies — there was not a single
through water-route which was controlled by less than ten
different authorities; there were twenty-six competing bodies
on the three connecting London and Liverpool, and twenty-seven
on the four between London and Bristol. Such combinations of
waterway authorities might be authorized to purchase links in
through routes owned by railway companies, which, it might
be noted, were now prohibited from acquiring any canal-interests
without express statutory provision; but, as such links were
apparently often retained by such companies at a loss, it would
obviously be to their interest to co-operate in a scheme which
would relieve them of some of their surplus traffic. The advan-
tages of a clearing-house system had been so often demonstrated
since its establishment was rendered possible, 19 years ago,
by Section 44 of the Eailway and Canal Traffic Act, 1888 —
notably in a report of 1892 by Mr. Waghom, counsel to the
Cheshire Conference on Railway and Canal Rates — that it was
needless to enter into them. It might, however, be pointed out
that there were various provisions in the abovenamed Act, the
systematic utilization of which by a strong combination of navi-
gation authorities might materially tend towards the improve-
ment of waterways and their freedom from railway-control.
These were: the power conferred on the Railway and Canal
Commissioners of making orders for the alteration of rates levied
on railway-owned canals, where they could be proved to be
calculated to divert traffic to the railway to the detriment of the
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DISCUSSION — ^IMPEOVEMENTS REQUIRED IN INLAND NAVIGATION. 879
canal or persons sending traffic over it or other adjacent canals
(section 38) ; the extension of the provisions of the Railway and
Canal Traffic Act, 1854, and the Eegnlation of Railways Act,
1873, requiring* railway companies to afford all reasonable
facilities for forwarding traffic from railways to canals (section
37) ; the authorization of canal companies to enter into contracts
and arrangements for through tolls (section 43) ; and the provision
for the inspection by the Board of Trade of all canals dangerous
to the public, or liable to cause obstruction to traffic, and the
provision for their abandonment, if necessary, or, should the
Board of Trade think fit, their transfer to any body of persons
or local authority (sections 41 and 45). The last-named pro-
vision seemed especially noteworthy, with regard to the acquisi-
tion of all the links on any through route by a single governing
authority.
Although Mr. de Salis expressed himself in favour of State
control of the main routes of waterway, he did not say whether
he also advocated their ownership by the State. As regarded the
first point, the State already possessed a limited control of this
kind, administered through the Board of Trade, which might be
extended by statute for the purposes above suggested if neces-
sary. In order that it should be thoroughly effective, such an
extended control* ought to be vested in a Special Water Depart-
ment of the Board, entrusted not only with the regulation of
navigation, but also with the conservancy of the water-system
of the United Kingdom, on which not only navigation, but
fisheries and water-supply for industrial and domestic purposes,
were also dependent. The formation of such a department had
been suggested by both the Salmon Fisheries Commission of
1902, and the Sewage Disposal Commission in their Report of
1903-1904, who also urged the appointment of subordinate boards
for each watershed area, constituted on the lines of the river-
boards or joint committees of county councils, which were now
charged with the prevention of pollution in the rivers of the West
Riding of Yorkshire, and the Mersey, Irwell and Ribble.
With respect to the State purchase of canals, it must be
borne in mind that the Caledonian and Crinan canals in Scotland,
and the Maigue, Boyne, Tyrone and Shannon navigations in
Ireland were the property of the State, and that they could not
be regarded as being better managed or more remunerative than
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880 DISCUSSION — IMPROVEMENTS REQTTIEED IN INLAND NAVIGATION.
waterways belongiDg to canal companies or ordinary navigstion
authorities. Although theoretically attractive, State purchase
of the inland navigations was also open to the weighty objec-
tions of the difficulty of obtaining the money necessary for the
purpose ; the opposition that it would naturally arouse amongst
the most successful canal companies, such as the Aire and Calder,
Weaver, and Leeds and Liverpool; and the length of time
requisite for carrying out effectively any scheme requiring the
consent of Parliament. Its feasibility might, however, be
experimentally tested by the acquisition by the State of any one
of the main through waterways, or by its construction of one of
the new canals projected during recent years — such as that for
a canal capable of accommodating steam-barges connecting the
Thames and Mersey ; that for the improvement of the Wilts and
Berks canal; that for connecting Birmingham with the Trent
and the North Sea ; or the ship-canal for connecting the English
and Bristol Channels favourably reported on by Mr. Thomas
Telford and Capt. Nicholls, R.N., in 1825. In conection with such
projects, it appeared worth noting that nearly all the main water-
routes ran from north to south, and that the construction of one
uniting the Wash with the Bristol Channel might restore to the
East-coast ports some of the large trade that they enjoyed, until
the construction of Denver sluice at the close of the seventeenth
century caused the silting-up of the Wash rivers.
Mr. W. H. Hunter (Manchester) wrote that no one could
deny that, for the greater part, the inland-navigation system
of Great Britain was no better than an anachronism, which
might have been tolerable (though even this was doubtful) 50
or 60 years ago, but which was intolerable now. The striking
instances given by Mr. de Salis of the hopeless manner in which
the routes between London and Leeds were blocked, were suffi-
cient to prove this point to demonstration. The difficulty was
not so much to find a remedy for the admitted evil as to
impel the traders and othera interested in the matter to seek
the means for giving effect to remedial proposals. Whatever
the Eoyal Commission on Canals and Waterways, which was
now sitting, might, in their wisdom, recommend, it seemed
futile to expect that, in the present state of public opinion in this
country, funds for canal-improvement and development could be
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DISCUSSION — ^IMPEO VEMENTS REQUIRED IN INLAND NAVIGATION. 88 1
obtained, either from the Govemmeat, or from local authoritiee.
It WBS a self-evident proposition that an improved system of
inland navigation would be of great benefit to the commercial
interests of Great Britain, but it must be admitted that a great
part of the benefit would be due to the manner in which facilities
for the water-carriage of goods would bring about a reduction
in the rates for rail-borne traffic, to the detriment of the share-
holders in British railways. Under these circumstances, it
could not be supposed that the great railway interest would
remain supine when eflPorts were being made to introduce effec-
tive competition with railways by means of canals constructed
or improved out of public money ; or that the mass of the people
of this country, who had no direct interest in inland navigation,
would be willing to submit to an increase in the burden of rates
and taxes, already so onerous, for the sake of inducing this com-
petition, either from the point of view of pure patriotism, or
with the hope of obtaining certain commodities at a slightly
cheaper rate. On the other hand, no man of affairs would at
this present time delude himself with the hope that the private
investor who looked only for a direct and immediate return for
his money, could be persuaded to provide the capital necessary
for so great an undertaking as that which would be required if
our inland-canal system were to be brought up to date. A
direct return of a satisfactory character could only be looked
for in special cases where special trades were concerned — because,
except in respect of the transport of minerals and heavy raw
materials, the trade of this country was so largely of a retail
character, that was to say, was distributed in such small parcels,
that a smaller unit of conveyance than any canal-boat could
supply was required for the conveyance of traffic. There were
one or two points of detail, which might be regarded as fitting
subjects of criticism in Mr. de Salis' paper, but they were not of
great importance. As an instance, he described upland rivers
made navigable by the provision of locks and weirs as having,
usually, a stream flowing downwards with a velocity up to 3 or 4
miles an hour. If he had divided these figures by 3, he
would have been much more nearly correct: the figures which
he suggested represent flood-velocities. Again, in dealing with
the question of motors now available for the propulsion of canal-
boats, Mr. de Salis referred in a somewhat deprecatory manner
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382 DISCUSSION — IMPEOVEMENTS BEQtTIKED IN INLAND NAVIGATION.
to internal -combustion engines; but he made no reference to a
class of motor from which it seemed at the present time more
was to be hoped for than from any of those named by him,
that wa« to say, oil-engines of the Diesel type, which used
crude petroleum-oil as fuel, in which no explosion took place, and
in which the oil was ignited by compression, without any of the
magneto-electric or other sparking arrangements which caused
trouble and difficulty in so many gas-engines.
Mr. G. W. Keeling (Cheltenham) wrote that his experience,
and probably that of other engineers engaged on schemes for
the improvement of waterways on which the income was in-
sufficient to pay both the expenses and the interest on obligations,
had been, that a large amount of sympathy, enthusiasm and
moral support could be obtained in favour of schemes for the
improvement of canals from traders, manufacturers, and public
bodies. But the lack of financial support was probably due to
the fact that business men, whilst appreciating the effect of navig-
able waterways on the carriage of heavy goods in convenience
and rates, had no faith in such waterways being ren^unerative.
This feeling had possibly given rise to the proposal that the
waterwaj^s should be improved and maintained by the State or by
the county councils. He (Mr. Keeling) did not advocate the
general enlargement of canals and making them of uniform
gauge.
In many cases, the sources of traffic and the supply of water
would not justify the vei-y costly works involved and the expense
of securing a larger supply of water. Canal-boats had a very
useful size (carrying 36 t<)ns) and two of tliem abreast would
pass through a barge-canal lock. He (Mr. Keeling) suggested
that the convenient and economical course would be to leave the
waterways in the hands of the present proprietors, but to en-
courage the formation of trusts for districts; and that the
State or the county councils should have power to advance
capital, where necessary, for improvements desirable in the
public interest, or to guarantee the deficiency in interest on
such capital — subject to the condition that the tolls charged,
and the maintenance and management of the waterway, should
be to the reasonable satisfaction of the officers representing the
State or the county councils. With regard to railway-owned
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DISCUSSION — IMPROVEMENTS EEQUlRED IN INljiND NAVIGATION. 388
canals, in many cases the railway companies were compelled
to take them over, either by Act of Parliament or to satisfy the
opponents of the railway bill, and in any case the transfer was
sanctioned by Parliament. If it were now proposed to take such
navigations out of the hands of the railway companies, with the
object of their becoming active competitors for traffic, it appeared
fair and reasonable that the capital expended by the railway com-
panies in acquiring such canals or navigations should be
returned to them ; and, in cases where the railway companies had
been required to guarantee interest on canal stocks, that they
should be relieved from such guarantees. Of railway-owned
canals, the Kennet-Avon canal-navigations and the Birmingham
canal-navigation were also well maintained. The towing path
on the river Severn, between Gloucester and Worcester, was not
now of importance, as the Sharpness Dock Company undertook
the towing, between Gloucester, Worcester and Stourport, with
their steam-tugs, at moderate charges. The current, running at
12 knots per hour, referred to by Mr. de Salis, in the river Severn
estuary, only occurred on the rising tide in high spring tides, at
exceptional places, where the river was narrowed by promontories,
such as at Beachley and at Old Sharpness point.
Mr. John Nevin (Mirfield) wrote that one difficulty often
overlooked in inland navigation was the supply of water, espe-
cially in hilly country. Between Yorkshire and Lancashire,
three canals crossed the Pennine chain. (1) The furthest south,
the property of the London and North-Westem Railway Com-
pany, was a narrow canal, from Huddersfield to Saddleworth:
the locks being little more than 7 feet wide, would only take
boats carrying a little over 20 tons ; and very little traffic passed
through it. This canal passed through Pule hill by a tunnel 3|
miles long, and this canal-tunnel was stopped for more than a
year, while the railway company were driving a new railway-
tunnel. (2) The Rochdale canal passed through the hills be-
tween Todmorden and Littleborough, by locks, without a tun-
nel. By this route from Hull to Manchester, the boats passed
through three navigations, in addition to the river Humber, be-
tween Hull and Goole: (a) the Aire and Calder navigation,
from Goole to Wakefield ; (6) the Calder and Hebble navigation
from Wakefield to Sowerby Bridge; and (c) the Rochdale canal.
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884 DISCUSSION — IMPROVEMENTS EEQtJIBED IN INLAND NAVIGATION.
from Sowerby Bridge to Manchester. The Aire and Calder
navigation could take boats carrying over 100 tons; on the
Calder and Hebble navigation, the smallest lock was 56 feet
long and 14 feet wide, with a draught of water of 5 feet, and the
boats could carry 60 tons. On the Rochdale canal, the locks
were 68 feet long and 14 feet wide, with a draught of water of only
4 feet, and boats could carry 45 tons only. The Aire and Calder
canal, fed from the rivers Aire and Calder, had a plentiful
supply of water. The Calder and Hebble canal was fed from
the river Calder, and the high level on the Halifax branch was
supplied by pumping. The Eochdale canal had a limited
supply from streams and reservoirs in the hills. (3) The third
waterway from east to west, the Leeds and Liverpool canal, reach-
ing from Leeds to Liverpool, crossed the Pennine chain between
Colne and Skipton. It was supplied from streams and reser-
voirs, and the navigation was often stopped in summer for want
of water. No further supply could be procured for these three
canals, as the whole of the watershed was now taken up for
domestic water-supply in Lancashire and the West Riding of
Yorkshire. If the locks on the Calder and Hebble navigation
were lengthened to the same dimensions as those on the Roch-
dale canal, and if the depth of the water in the Rochdale canal
were increased at least by 1 foot, this through navigation would
be much improved. It must be remembered, however, that if
the dimensions or the depths of the locks were increased, more
water would be used by each boat passing through them, and this
would intensify the want of water now ex.perienoed in a, dry
summer. The expense of pumping was so great that it would be
commercially impossible. The Rochdale canal and the Leeds and
Liverpool canal at present only paid a dividend of 1 per cent, to
their proprietors, and he could not suggest how any Act of Parlia-
ment was likely to reduce the expenses.
The President (Mr. Maurice Deacon) proposed a vote of
thanks to Mr. de Salis for his paper.
Mr. G. E. Coke seconded the resolution, which was cordially
approved.
Mr. DE Salis, in acknowledging the vote of thanks, said
that there was only one point upon which he would like to
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DISCUSSION — IMPEOVEMENTS EEQtTlRED IN INLAND NAVIGATION. 385
reply, and that was the means of getting over a flight of locks
by transport on wheels. The great difficulty was that the boats,
if of any considerable size, must be taken out of the water and
floated in a tank. The only craft that had been worked dry,
uphill on wheels, had been small tub-boats of 4 or 5 tons, such
as were formerly used on the Bude canal in Cornwall, and on the
Coalport canal in Shropshire. A boat of any size, with a full
load, could not be supported at two points. An accident
occurred on the Grand Junction canal to a boat loaded with
chalk, that came to a lock to go downhill. The man in charge
drew the paddles to let out the water, and feeling thirsty ad-
journed to the adjoining public-house, leaving the boat to
settle down of its own accord. A pufi of wind blew the boat
back and the stem settled on the edge of the sill, and before the
water had fallen down more than 2 or 3 feet, the boat was broken
in two.
The meeting then adjourned, and, on its resumption, Mr. James
Cope Cadman took the chair.
Mr. W. B. M. Jackson's paper on " A Bye-product Coking-
plant at Clay Cross '' was read as follows : —
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386 A BYE-PRODUCT COKING-PLAXT AT CLAY CROSS.
A BYE-PRODUCT COKING-PLANT AT CLAY CROSS.
By W. B. M. JACKSON.
Introduction, — In writings the following few notes on the
working of a bye-product coking-plant with which the writer is
connected, he does not claim to be able to find anything new to
lay before the members, but hopes that the facts given will be
of some interest, more especially to those members who are con-
nected in any way with the manufacture of coke.
Coke has been manufactured at Clay Cross for many years,
the date of the original ovens being 1840. These ovens, 9 feet
long and 6 feet wide, of the bee-hive type, were erected under
the supervision of the late Mr. George Stephenson, who at that
time was one of the owners of the Clay Cross collieries, he having
discovered the value of the coals existing in the neighbourhood,
whilst making the tunnel at Clay Cross for the then North Mid-
land railway. It is interesting to note that these ovens were
erected for the purpose of producing coke to be consumed by
locomotive engines ; and, further, they were built with old stone
sleepers that were taken up from the North Midland railway.
These ovens numbered 52 in two double rows, and an old esti-
mate shows that the cost of labour per oven was £3 7s. 4(i. Large
coal was used exclusively for coke-making, taken from the Low
Main or Tupton seam. The coal made a large coke which was
used in the blast-furnaces. From time to time, the coke-ovens
have been altered, improved and added to, and another range of
bee-hive ovens, 50 in number, was built in 1870. These ovens,
10 feet 4 inches in diameter and 8 feet high to the apex, were
built with flues, and the waste-gases were used for generating
steam at two egg-ended boilers at a colliery close by. In 1889,
37 ovens of the original battery were rebuilt: these ovens were
10 feet 0 inches in diameter and 8 feet 2 inches high to the eye;
and the waste-gases generated steam from three egg-ended
boilers. Washed and crushed coal from the Black-shale and
Tupton seams was used in these ovens.
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A BYE-PRODUCT COKING-PLANT AT CLAY CEOSS. 887
ExperimerUal Coke-ovens. — Some years later, it became ap-
parent to tke writer that retort-ovens and a bye-product plant for
dealing with the waste-gases must lead to more satisfactory
results. Considerable doubt existed as to whether the slack from
the Clay Cross collieries would be suitable for the manufacture
of coke in retort-ovens; and, after many installations both in
this country and on the Continent had been inspected, it was
decided that it would be advisable to erect a small number of
trial-ovens. Eight ovens were therefore built in 1904 by the
Simplex Coke-oven and Engineering Company, Limited, the
agents for the Entreprises de Constructions de Fours a Coke
et d'TJsines M^tallurgiques. These ovens, 33 feet long and
6 feet 9 inches high, were arranged in pairs, each pair being of
a different width, the first being 24 inches; the second, 26
inches ; the third, 28 inches ; and the fourth, 30 inches ; with a
view to ascertaining the most suitable dimensions. It was proved
that the narrowest ovens gave the most satisfactory results, and,
ultimately, when the main battery was built, the width of the
oven was again reduced, as will be shown later. The side-flues
of the ovens were horizontal, and were three in number. The
eight ovens were divided into two sets of four, varying in the
manner in which the gas passed in the flues; one set was
arranged so that the gas entered at one end and passed the full
length of the ovens and thence to the waste-gas flue. In the
other set, a dividing wall was built midway in the flue, and the
gas was admitted at both ends and coursed backwards and for-
wards between the end and the dividing wall, as shown in fig. 1
(plate xii.), and so underneath the oven itself into the waste-gas
flue. It was found from experiments that the latter form of flue
gave the best results : the heat being more regular and easier to
control.
At first, the slack, after being washed and crushed, was
put into the ovens from the top; but the results were not
entirely satisfactory, the coke coming out small and not of a
very good appearance. Experiments, therefore, of a somewhat
rough character (owing to the absence of anything in the nature
of machinery), were made to prove, as far as possible, what would
be the result of compressing the slack. This was done by filling
wooden boxes with slack, and compresvsing by hand : the bottom
of the box was then drawn into the ovens, with the compressed
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888 A BYE-PRODUCT COKING-PLANT AT CLAY CEOSS.
cake, and during the process of carbonization the wood was
burnt and the slack was left as a cake of coke. The advantage
of compressing was immediately observable and the small quan-
tity of coke, made from slack compressed in boxes, was larger
and better in every way than the remainder of the charge.
Simplex Retort-ovens. — After this plant had been at work long
enough to prove that a really good coke could be made from the
slack in bye-product ovens, by means of using a compressor, a
contract was entered into with the Simplex Coke-oven and
Engineering Company, Limited, for the erection of 34 ovens and
a complete bye-product plant: it being arranged, should it be
deemed advisable to extend the plant by an additional 16 ovens,
that the bye-product plant should be capable of dealing with this
extension. These ovens were completed and set to work in Novem-
ber, 1905, and consisted of 34 bye-product recovery-ovens and a
bye-product plant, with three Lancashire boilers, 30 feet long and
8 feet in diameter, heated by the waste-gases, and working at a
pressure of 100 pounds per square inch. The plant was enlarged
in January, 1907, by the addition of 16 ovens and two Lancashire
boilers, 30 feet long and 8 feet in diameter.
The complete plant consists of 50 Simplex bye-product
recovery-ovens, with a bye-product plant for the recovery of
sulphate of ammonia and tar; five Lancashire boilers, 30 feet
long and 8 feet in diameter, heated by the waste-gases, and
working at a pressure of 100 pounds per square inch; and a
chimney. The crushing plant comprizes a Carr-type disinteg-
rator, 4 feet 6 inches in diameter, driven by a Tangye engine,
with a cylinder 13 inches in diameter and 26 inches stroke,
developing 42^ horsepower, under full load, when running at
90 revolutions per minute. About 25 tons of slack aie crushed
per hour, but this quantity can be increased if necessary. Elec-
tric power is supplied by a steam-turbine, running at 3,000
revolutions per minute, coupled direct to a continuous-current,
compound-wound dynamo producing 50 kilowatts at 110 volts.
The current is taken to the 38 horsepower motor, actuating the
travelling gear and ram in the travelling charging-machine ; to the
8 horsepower motor, working the stampers ; and to the 15 horse-
power motor, elevating the slack into a storage-tower of 450 tons
capacity. The arc and incandescent electric lamps, lighting the
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A BTE-PEODrCT COKING-PLANT AT CLAY CEOSS.
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890 A BYE-PRODUCT COKING-PLANT AT CLAY CROSS.
works, axe supplied from the same source. Tke plant occupies
a total area of about 2 acres of land, situated inside tke works
of the company, and within 600 feet of the blast-furnaces. Figs.
1, 2 and 3 show the general arrangement of the plant. The ovens
are constructed on the Fabry-Linard principle : each oven being
32 feet 9 inches long, and 20^ inches wide at the charging end,
tapering to 22 inches at the discharging end. The height at the
springing of the arch is 6 feet, and at the crown of the arch
6 feet 7 inches.
The slack for coke-making, taken from the Black-shale and
Tupton mines, is sent from the various pits belonging to the com-
pany to a central station where it is washed in a Barraclough
washery. This machine is of the pulsating type, the dashers or
pistons being attached to a horizontal shaft, working through a
stuffing-box on the side of the washer-tank. The pistons, 20 inches
in diameter and 6 inches stroke, make 68 strokes per minute.
From 10 to 12 per cent, of dirt is washed out. The washed slack,
delivered in railway-wagons at the crushing-plant, is emptied
into a hopper and raised by an elevator to the disintegrator,
where it is crushed and drope down into a hopper to be raised
again by an elevator into a storage-chamber.
The bottom of the storage-chamber is arranged with sliding
doors, through which the slack is drawn into charging wagons on
rails at the level of the top of the ovens. The pear-shaped wagons,
holding about 32 cwts. of slack, are emptied into a hopper, car-
ried on the charging machine. The contents are then emptied
into the charging and compressing box, which has a capacity
of 8^ tons: the charge of each oven. The charging and com-
pressing box is made of the same length, width and height as
a coke-oven. The slack is compressed in layers by means of
electrically-driven stampers. There are two stampers, each
weighing 400 pounds, travelling backwards and forwards by an
automatic arrangement over the whole length of the charge.
As soon as the slack is compressed to a sufficient solidity, the
machine travels behind the coke-ovens to the oven about to be
drawn; the oven- doors are then lifted by hand-winches (fig. 1,
plate xii.), and the ram is set in motion. This ram pushes out
the coke, and, on being drawn back, the machine is moved about
3 feet so afi to bring the charging apparatus into line with the
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A BYE-PEODUCT COKING-PLANT AT CLAY CEOSS.
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892 A BYE-PEODUCT COKING-PLANT AT CLAY CROSS.
oven. The compressed slack is then pushed forward into the
oven on a forged-steel plate, forming the bottom of the compress-
ing box •, the doors at each of the ovens are closed, and the plate
is drawn back, leaving the slack in the oven. The travelling
compressor is then moved back to the charg^ng-place, where it
is again filled ready for the next oven. The whole of the
machinery is actuated by continuous-current motors; and since
the ovens have been started, now 18 months, there has scarcely
been a hitch in the working of this machine. The time occupied
in filling, compressing, removing to the required position, draw-
ing the coke, re-charging the oven, and returning to the point
at which the slack for a further charge is taken into the machine,
is on an average something less than 35 minutes. The time
occupied in coking averages 36 hours.
Considerable difficulties were experienced at first in the
quenching of the coke. This has now been overcome, and the
quenching is effected by water at a pressure of 40 pounds to
the square inch. In the opinion of the writer, the higher the
pressure at which the quenching water can be discharged the
better. The coke is pushed out of the oven on to a platform 45
feet in length, with an inclination of li inches to the yard. The
hose-pipe is played on to the coke from both sides during its dis-
charge from the oven ; and the coke then stands upright in a
mass. A 2 inches wrought-iron pipe is then connected to the
hose-pipe, this pipe being bent in the form of an inverted U
with the opening pointing downwards ; and it is moved along
the whole length of the coke. After this watering, the mass of
coke divides in the centre longitudinally, and is pulled over by
the men ; and the rest of the required quenching is carried out by
hand. When cooled, the coke is loaded by forks into steel
barrows, and from these it is filled into wagons, the tops of which
are level with tJie bench.
The gas generated in the process of coking the slaek is drawn
through a pipe, E, 12 inches in diameter, fixed midway on the oven
(fig. 1, plate xii.). This pipe then delivers into a dry gas-main
connected with the exhausters of the bye-product plant through
the various coolers. The return-gas, used to heat the ovens on its
way back from the bye-product plant, is divided into two mains,
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A BYE-PE0DT7CT COKING-PLANT AT CLAY CROSS. 398
A and Ai, carried the full length of the battery, one on the front
of lihe oven and the other at the back. Connections are made
from these mains to each heating-flue by means of pipes, a, and
^1, IJ inches in diameter, with nozzles entering the flues : nozzles,
I and hi, are the main ga«-inlets, and e and Ci are additional inlets..
The gas from the upper or main nozzles, h and 61, passes along the
flues, f and f^, until it is deflected downwards by a cross-wall, i, in
the flue into the second flues, g and ^1. At this point, additional
gas-inlets, d and d^, are provided ; the gas travels outwards and
meets a fresh supply through the nozzles, c and Ci, and is again
deflected downwards into the third and lowest side-flues, A and h^.
It travels inwards again through the flues, h and Ai, and then
into the flues, k and ki, underneath the oven. The gas from the
charging end of the ovens passes from the centre of the sole-
flue, Zi, outwards through a damper, m, and into the main collector-
flue, C, extending the whole length of the ovens. The gas from
the opposite end passes outwards from the centre of the sole-flue
to the coke-bench end of the oven and then through a portway, o,
into the sole-flue, Z, under the next oven. It traverses the whole
length of this flue, and passes through a damper, m, into the
collector-flue, C. It will be seen from this description that the
gas, after entering the bottom flue, is divided by the cross-wall, i,
one portion passing straight into the collector-flue, a distance of
half the length of an oven, while the other portion, before it
reaches the collector-flue, has to traverse the length of one-and-a-
half ovens. Each bottom-flue being fitted with a damper, the
amount of gas passing can be regulated so that both flues are
kept at the same temperature ; and it has been found that any
variation in wind-pressure can be neutralized by this arrange-
ment.
Air is admitted at two points, (1) round the main gas-nozzle,
b and b^, and also through a grid, e and e^, at each end of the
oven, the air passing down three openings to meet the gas in
the top side-flue, f and fi.
The expansion of the ovens after lighting was about 1 in 144.
The quantity of coke produced per week by the 50 ovens is
1,100 tons, each oven producing about 22 tons. The yield of
coke is 67| per cent., calculated from the dry slack after being
washed. The slack contains 32J per cent, of volatile matter, and
VOL. XXZI1I.-1906.1907. 29
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894
A BYE-PEODUCT COKING-PLANT AT CLAY CROSS.
the average quantity of moisture in the slack, when put into the
ovens, varies from 12 to 15 per cent. Analyses are made two or
three times a day from samples of the slack, taken as delivered
into the ovens. It may be considered that 15 per cent, of mois-
ture is somewhat high, but the quantity has been determined
after experiment; and it is found that the largest and best
coke physically is produced from slack containing from 12 to 15
per cent, of water. An average analysis of* the coke is as
follows: — Fixed carbon, 8530 per cent.; ash, 10'20 per cent.;
volatile matter^ 100 per cent. ; sulphur, 1*50 per cent. ; and
Fio. 6.— North Side of Byk-peoduct Plant.
moisture, 200 per cent. The coke is used in the Clay Cross
blast-furnaces, and the balance is sold for blast-furnace purposes.
It is a very good coke. The proportion of breeze is 1 per cent.
No trouble has ever been experienced in the working of the
ovens since the commencement, except on one occasion, shortly
after they were originally started, when the heat was lost for a
few hours. This occurred when the ovens were first connected
with the bye-product plant, as for the first week the ovens were
worked without the bye-product plant ; but since that time there
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A BYE-PEODUCT COKING-PLANT AT CLAY CROSS.
895
has not been a hitch of any sort. Nothing has been spent in
repairs to the ovens, and they show at present no sign whatever
of any deterioration.
The number of men employed in connection with the coke-
burning is 20 on each shift, and it is, of course, scarcely neces-
sary to say that the ovens are working continuously throughout
the year.
Bye-product Plant. — The bye-product plant is erected at the
eastern end of the ovens, there being an open space of 30 feet
between the ovens and this plant. The plant is arranged in the
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form of a hollow square, the various coolers, scrubbers, etc., on
the four sides and the large underground tank for the tar and
ammoniacal liquor in the centre.
The temperature of the gas leaving the ovens is 482^ Fahr.
(250^ Cent.). From the dry gas-main an inclined pip© conveys
the gases to the bottom of the first air-cooler. This pipe is ex-
tended and left open, the open end being closed by dipping into
a small water-tank; the gases pass in succession through two
air-coolers ; a serpentine cooler, which can be used either as an
air or 4s a water-cooler ; three water-coolers ; a tank in which the
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896 A BTE-PEODUCT COKING-PLANT AT CLAY CKOSS.
remainder of the tar is caught; and thence to the gas-exhauster
in the enginehouse. There are two exhausters, one of which is
used and the other forms a duplicate, driven by horizontal
steam-engines. Steam is conveyed to these engines and for
other puiposes to the bye-product plant in pipes from the boilers,
which axe situated at the other end of the coke-ovens. These
engines drive, by a countershaft, various belt-driven water, tar
and ammoniacal-liquor pumps. The exhausters maintain a
partial vacuum of 5 inches of water. After leaving the exhauster,
the gases pass through a Pelouze-Audouin separator, which ex-
tracts any remaining trace of tar; and then through a serpentine
water-cooler to two scrubbers, where the gases entering at the
bottom meet, in rising, a stream of falling water which is broken
into spray by a number of wboden hurdles placed IJ inches apart
across the scrubber; thence the gases pass through a gasometer;
a water-seal tank to prevent an explosion at the ovens from
reaching the bye-product plant ; and so back to the ovens.
The ammoniacal liquor from the scrubbers, being carried into
the large tank in the centre of the plant, is pumped into stills,
where the free ammonia is liberated from the liquor by coming into
contact with steam, and the fixed ammonia is liberated by treat-
ment with lime. The ammonia gas is then conducted by pipes
into a sulphuric-acid bath, where it is converted into sulphate of
ammonia. And after the sulphate has passed through a centri-
fugal dryer, it is stored ready for sale. The average weight of
sulphate of ammonia produced per ton of slack coked is 32
pounds.
The tar, collected into the central tank, is pumped into an
elevated tank, from which it is run into railway tank-wagons.
The weight of tar produced is 67J pounds per ton of coal car-
bonized. The tar is sold in the crude state to refiners, as it was
not considered worth the expense of erecting a plant to deal further
with that bye-product.
The cooling water necessary for the recovery of bye-products
from the 50 ovens is approximately 4,500 gallons per hour, at a
temperature not exceeding 63^ Fahr.
After the waste-gases have passed from the ovens, as previously
described, they are conveyed to the boilers. These are evaporat-
ing 500 gallons of water per boiler per hour, the pressure of the
steam being 100 pounds per square inch. The steam is utilized
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A BYE-PEODUCT COKING-PLANT AT CLAY CROSS. 897
for the coal-crushing plant, for the steam-turbine, and in the bye-
product works. The surplus steam is used to drive the fitting-
shop- and foundry engines, at a distance of some 600 feet from
the boilers.
The company supply a considerable area round their works
with gas, making on an average some 50,000,000 cubic feet a
year. It was found that the waste-gases from the ovens were in
excess of that required for the generation of steam, and a main
was laid from the ovens to the g^as- works, a distance of about*
i mile. A meter was fixed at the end of the main, near the coke-
ovens, and the gas is conveyed from the coke-ovens to the gas-
works, entering the purifiers and mixing there with ordinary
coal-gas manufactured at the gas-works. It has been found that
this gas is a good iUuminant, with a candle-i)ower, when used by
itself, of 14J ; when mixed, however, with ordinary coal-gas, the
candle-power is raised to 17 before distribution to the public. This
has been found to be perfectly satisfactory, and has proved an
economy both in coal-consumption and in labour.
The Chaiehan (Mr. J. C. Cadman) moved a vote of thanks to
Mr. W. B. M. Jackson for his interesting paper.
Mr. Isaac Hodges seconded the resolution, which was cordially
approved.
Mr. A. Victor Koch's "Notes on Bye-product Coke-ovens,
with Special Reference to the Koppers Oven" was read as
follows : —
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898 NOTES ON BYE-PEODUCT COKE-OVENS.
NOTES ON BYE-PRODUCT COKE-OVENS, WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO THE KOPPERS OVEN.
By a. victor KOCHS.
Introduction, — The main object of this paper is to explain
the design and construction of the bye-product coke-oven in-
vented by Mr. Heinrich Koppers, of Essen, Germany, and to
point out the special features which distinguish it from other
systems. But, as coke-ovens of the kind have not been employed
in this country to any considerable extent, the construction and
the working thereof are comparatively little known to colliery and
iron- works engineers, and it has therefore been thought that a few
preliminary remarks on the general design and advantage of this
type of oven would not be out of place.
The introduction of the original non-bye-product retort-oven
had for its object the acceleration of the carbonizing process by
employing the gases of distillation for heating the oven-walls;
which was not previously the practice with beehive ovens. The
long rectangular form of the oven, was, of course, chosen to
enable the coke to be mechanically discharged from the oven.
The step from the ordinary retort-oven to the bye-product oven
was a simple and natural one, and it is a matter of great surprise
that up to the present so few plants have been erected in this
country. All coke-oven builders are practically of the same
opinion as to the general shape of the ovens ; and it is principally
in regard to the method of heating the ovens and the arrangement
of the heating-flues, which are, of course, the most important
points to be taken into account, that the various ovens differ
one from the other.
The main points of difference between the several systems
of ovens may be summarized as follows : — (1) The arrangement of
the heating-flues; (2) the facilities for inspecting the heating-
flues; (3) the method of applying and regulating the heating-
gafies; and (4) pre-heating the air for combustion.
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NOTES OX BYE-PRODrCT COKE-OVENS. 899
Heating-flues. — ^The ideal requirements of bye-product coke-
ovens are quite obvious, and may be concisely stated to be the
uniform heating of the oven-walls along the whole length of
the ovens, combined with easy and perfect means for inspecting
the working of the ovens and for regulating the combustion. In
order to attain these requirements, many designs have been
brought out, showing various arrangements of heating-flues, but
there now seem to be only two flue-arrangements which have
survived, namely, the vertical and the horizontal. Of these two
designs, it can safely be stated that the vertical flue has been by
far the most popular, as the great bulk of the ovens which have
hitherto been built are of this construction. It might be men-
tioned that the employment of horizontal-flued ovens has in Ger-
many been practically abandoned.
It is claimed for horizontal flues that they permit of the
working of the ovens being better supervised and controlled,
owing to the facilities provided for inspecting the heating-flues
whilst the ovens are at work. This is certainly an advantage
over ovens in which the heating-flues cannot be examined. The
great function of the flues, namely, to heat the oven-walls uni-
formly, is, however, in the writer's opinion, sacrificed to attain
this object, as it is evident that to heat uniformly a chamber 33
feet long, it is absolutely essential that the side-walls be heated
at the greatest possible number of points with jets of equal
intensity. The construction of horizontal-flued ovens will not
permit of more than three or four jets being employed at each
end of the oven ; and it is quite evident that the walls cannot be
so equally heated as the walls of vertical-flued ovens having a
large number of heating jets distributed along the whole length
of the oven. This will be clear when it is borne in mind that
the greatest heat of a flame is a little beyond the point of com-
bustion, and it is, therefore,* obvious that the walls of horizontal-
flued ovens are overheated at the few points of ignition of the gas
and air, whilst the other portions of the wall are comparatively
cool. In horizontal-flued ovens, furthermore, the top flue is
heated to a high degree, and it is generally admitted that this is
a disadvantageous feature, as the great heat has the effect of
decomposing the gases of distillation and entailing a consequent
loss of bye-products. With vertical-flued ovens, on the other
hand, the greatest heat is generated at the lowest point of the
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400 NOTES ON BYE-PBODUCT COKE-OVENS.
oven ; and the top portion of the oven is much cooler, there being
a difference of from 200<^ to 300^ Cent. (392o to 572^ Fahr.) be-
tween the temperatures at the top and bottom of the oven.
Some ovens of the horizontal-flue type are arranged with a
dividing-wall between each oven; and it is commonly supposed
that the provision of this wall is an advantage, in that it acts as a
store for heat and prevents the temperature of an oven from being
affected when the next oven is freshly charged with coal. This
theory, in the writer's opinion, has no foundation in fact ; but, on
the contrary, the central wall is a distinctly disadvantageous
feature, because it necessitates the provision of double the number
of flues, which has the effect of extending the length of a battery
of ovens by from 60 to 100 per cent, and thus increasing the
area of heat-radiation to that extent. The heat lost by radia-
tion in a battery of ovens with single-flued walls is calculated
to be about 25 per cent, of the total heat supplied to the ovens ;
and as the radiation of heat is directly proportional to the surface
exposed, it necessarily follows that heat will be lost in the same
ratio as the battery is extended. Any advantage that the wall
may have as a store for heat would therefore obviously be lost.
It is true that the wall serves to prevent the temperature of an
oven from being affected when the next oven is freshly charged.
This, however, is no advantage over ovens having single-flued
walls, as experiments have indisputably established the fact that
no appreciable difference in temperature takes place in a single-
flued oven when its neighbour is freshly charged. Even if such
a difference of temperature took place, no loss in heat would occur,
as any heat extracted would assist the carbonization of the coal in
the cold oven. It might be added that the provision of a central
wall cannot very well be dispensed with in ovens having horizontal
flues, if air heated in the basement of the ovens is to be employed
for combustion-purposes ; as it is only by means of flues in the
central wall that the hot air can be conducted to the points of
combustion. The provision of a central wall is, furthermore,
essential with ovens having horizontal flues, in order to afford
sufficient support for the superstructure : it being quite evident
that a wall formed of single-horizontal flues could not be re-
garded as being otherwise than a very weak construction. "Walls
of vertioal-flued ovens, on the other hand, consisting, as they do,
of a series of hollow columns of brickwork, are of very strong
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NOTES ON BYE-PEODUCT COKE-OVENS. 401
coDfitruction ; and there is, therefore, absolutely no necessity for
providing a central wall with a view to increasing the strength.
Regvlation of Working. — The next most important point
which should be taken into consideration is the method of regu-
lating the working of the ovens. The main object aimed at in
the construction of coke-ovens is the production of a homogeneous
coke ; and, as this is only possible when every part of the charge is
subjected to the same temperature, it is essentially necessary,
not only that the oven should be heated at the greatest number
of points along the whole length of the walls, but that each jet
should be capable of easy regulation. In a number of ovens,
the regulation has to be effected wholly from the galleries
beneath the ovens, where the heat renders the work very uncom-
fortable; in consequence of which the regulation is neglected
and, therefore, not properly performed. It happens in all ovens,
from time to time, that dark places appear in the walls, indicat-
ing either that the flues are choked up or that the gas or air-
admission requires adjustment. Such defects in the heating
should be rectified immediately, and if the adjustment cannot
be effected without trouble and discomfort, the workmen will not
seek to remedy the defects. It is, therefore, quite evident how
absolutely necessary it is that all means of regulation and adjust-
ment should be easily accessible, in order that the heating can be
controlled without any difficulty or discomfort.
Pre-heating of Air. — ^A point of great importance is the pre-
heating of the air for combustion. The higher the temperature to
which the air is raised, the less is the quantity of gas required for
generating the necessary heat for carbonizing the coal. By
raising the temperature of the air to the highest attainable degree
(1,0000 to 1,100° Cent., or 1,832 to 2,012° Fahr.) by means of
regenerators, only from 46 to 56 per cent, of the total quantity
of gas evolved from the coal is required for heating the ovens,
the remaining quantity being available as a surplus for external
purposes. In nearly all systems of ovens, the air is heated by
conducting it through the galleries under the ovens and through
air-channels formed in the brickwork-foundations of the ovens ;
but the heat thus gained is of no great value in enabling surplus
gas to be produced in any quantity. In fact, in a number of
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402 NOTES ox BYE-PEODUCT COKE-OVENS.
cases it has been foimd impossible to carbonize coal in ovens
where the air is heated only by such means ; and ovens arranged
with regenerators have had to be adopted, as the entire surplus
heat in the coal is produced in such ovens in the form of a com-
bustible gas, the whole of which is available if necessary for
heating the ovens. Ovens working without regenerators, on the
other hand, produce the surplus heat in the coal mainly in the
form of a hot waste-gas, which can only be used for boiler-firing
and could not be made use of in any way for assisting the car-
bonizing process.
Development of the Koppers Oven, — The Koppers oven is ar-
ranged with vertical flues, and is a development of the old Otto-
Hoffmann oven, which, for about 20 years, was the most popular
oven on the Continent. The Otto-Hoffmann oven was, however,
essentially a regenerator-oven, whilst the Koppers oven can be
arranged to work with or without regenerators. The main feature
of the original Koppers oven, in which it differed from the Otto-
Hoffmann, was the separate distribution of gas and air, and
causing combustion to take place in each separate flue along the
whole length of the oven. This improvement had the effect of
compelling the gases of combustion to pass up each flue instead
of making their way up any flue according to the line of least
resistance, as was the caae with the old Otto-Hoffmann oven. The
distribution of the heating thus effected was found to be a great
improvement ; but it was also found necessary, in order to be able
to arrive at perfect uniformity in the heating of the walls, for
each of the gas-inlets to be accessible for regulation. Openings
were therefore subsequently made in the top of the ovens, one
over each flue, by means of which the gas-admission nozzles could
be taken out and replaced with the least possible trouble. The
next step in the development of the oven was the provision of
regulating sliding-bricks over each flue, which are accessible for
adjustment through the openings at the top of the ovens previ-
ously referred to. Through the agency of these sliding-bricks
the quantity of air entering each flue can be regulated to a
nicety, and, in practice, it has been found to be a most important
advantage.
Bye-product ovens which produce the surplus heat in the coal,
that is the heat over and above that required for carbonizing the
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NOTES ON BYE-PRODrCT COKE-OVENS. 408
coal, mainly in the form of a hot waste-gas, are not distinguished
in this country by any particular name from those which produce
the surplus heat wholly in the form of a combustible gas. In
Germany, the name given to the former type of oven is Abhitze
Of en (waste-heat oven), whilst the latter is known by the name
Regenerativ Of en (regenerator-oven). As there is a distinct
difference between the two systems, and the Koppers oven is
designed on both principles, they are distinguished by the
designations of waste-heat oven and of regenerator-oven.
Koppers Waste-heat Oven, — Plate xiii. shows longitudinal and
cross-sections through the oven-chamber and heating-flues. Fig.
1 is a longitudinal section through one of the walls and shows
the arrangement of the heating-flues; fig. 2 is a longitudinal
section through the oven-chamber; and fig. 3 shows three
different cross-sections through a number of ovens. The oven
is a chamber 32 feet 10 inches (10 metres) long, 6 feet 7 inches
(2 metres) high and from 20 to 24 inches wide in the centre. The
height and the width, however, vary somewhat according to the
class of coal to be coked. The top of the oven is provided with
three openings. A, for charging the coal, and a fourth opening, B,
through which the gases of distillation are drawn off to the con-
densing plant. The purified gas is returned from the bye-product
plant by the main, C, placed in a position convenient for access,
either in front of or at the back of the battery of ovens. Separate
branch supply-pipes, D, fitted each with a regulating-cock, con-
duct the gas to each oven ; and these branch pipes communicate
with the gas-distributing channel, E, placed immediately below
the heating-flues. This channel, E, is formed of fire-brick pipes,
and runs along at the base of the whole of the heating-flues, with
the exception of one or two at the end remote from that at which
the gas is admitted, and these latter flues conduct the waste-
heat to the main flue, P, leading to the steam-boilers. The
heating gas passes out of the distributing channel through orifices
each fitted with a gas-nozzle communicating with each vertical
flue. The air for combustion flows along the conduit, F, and
induced by the chimney-draught it is drawn into the air-distribut-
ing channels, G, situated immediately beneath the oven-cham-
bers. The air enters each heating-flue through the openings, H,
and meets the gas issuing through the gas-nozzles, TJ. Com-
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404 NOTES ON BYE-PRODUCT COKE-OVENS.
bustion takes place a little above the nozzle, and it is to be
particularly noticed that the comparatively cold air flows
around the base of the nozzle (fig. 5, plate xiii.), keeps it cool, and
prevents any likelihood of the nozzle setting fast. The products
of combustion of the gas and air pass up the heating-flues, K, and
through the openings, L, at the top of each flue. These openings
are each furnished with a damper, M, which can be easily regu-
lated so as to enable the exact amount of air to enter the flue
necessary to effect perfect combustion. The sliding-bricks are
accessible from the top of the ovens through the openings, N,
which are fitted with easily removable plugs (fig. 4, plate xiii.).
At this point, particular attention should be directed to the
sliding-bricks and to the openings at the top of the ovens which
give access to them, as these are two of the principal features of
Koppers ovens and distinguish them from all other constructions.
The openings at the top of the ovens serve not only to provide
means for regulating the dampers, but serve more particularly to
give access to the gas-nozzles, TJ, and they further permit of the
flues being inspected at any time. Without the facility thus pro-
vided for examining the flues, it would not be possible to work
the ovens satisfactorily. The gas-nozzles are furnished with oval
orifices, to enable them to be taken out by a rod having a tee end
as shown in fig. 6 (plate xiii.). The orifices in the nozzles vary in
size, according to their position in the flues. The removal and
replacing of a nozzle can be effected in a few moments, without
the slightest trouble or discomfort.
As already mentioned, it happens from time to time in all
ovens that dark places appear in the oven-walls indicating that
the combustion is defective ; and, in the absence of means of ac-
cess to the flues, it would be necessary to cool down the oven and
break into the walls in order to remedy the defect. By means of
the openings over each flue in the Koppers oven, the cause of any
irregidarity in the heating can be immediately detected, and in
the great majority of cases such defect could be rectified in a
few moments. The effect of any adjustment in the regulation of
the gas and air can, moreover, be seen immediately ; whereas in
other ovens the effect of any alteration in the gas or air-supply
can only be ascertained after the lapse of some time, and then
only by the appearance of the wall inside the oven after the
coke has been discharged.
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NOTES ON BYE-PKODUCT COKE-OVENS.
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406
NOTES ON BYE-PRODUCT COKE-OVENS.
Other oven-builders, in endeavouring to provide similar facili-
ties for regTilating the combustion in the flues, have adopted
means of adjustment at the base of the flues, to which access is
obtained from the basement of the ovens. It has already been
pointed out that the heat in the galleries beneath the ovens is
too great to permit of the work of regulation being carried out
without great discomfort. Apart from this the throttling of
the air-inlets at the base of the flue has the effect of increasing
the velocity of the air, so that the speed of the gases of com-
bustion up the heating-flues would be unequal along the length
of the oven, and the heating cannot, therefore, be uniform.
Fig. 19.— Koppebs Coke-ovens, Barnslbt Main Colliery.
After passing through the openings at the top of the heating-
flues, the gases of combustion flow along the horizontal flue, 0,
in the direction indicated by the arrows (fig. 1, plate xiii.),
and finally pass down into the main fine, P, leading to the boilers.
The outlet-fiue from each oven is furnished with a regulating-
damper, R, by means of which the chimney-draught is adjusted.
It will have been seen that each oven-wall is formed of about
thirty vertical fines, and that each of these flues is provided with
a heating jet and also with means for regulating the admission of
the gas and air, namely, by substituting the gas-nozzles, and by
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NOTES ON BYE-PRODUCT COKE-OVENS. 407
adjusting the sliding-bricks over each flue respectively. It is,
therefore, obvious that it is easily possible to control the heating
SO that the oven-walls will be subjected to exactly the same tem-
perature from end to end. This uniformity in the heating has
been striven after by coke-oven builders for many years, as it is
the ideal requirement; and, unless it be attained, it is impos-
sible to produce a coke which will be homogeneous in character
throughout the charge.
Experience has shown that it is a great disadvantage for the
upper part of the oven- walls to be heated to an intense degree (as
is the case with horizontal-flued ovens), as the gases of distillation
become decomposed by the heat, which results in a loss of bye-
products. In the Koppers oven, the zone of greatest heat is oppo-
site the bottom of the charge of coal, and by the time that the
gases of combustion reach the upper part of the oven the tempera-
ture is so much reduced that they will have no detrimental effect
on the gases of distillation.
Besides the production of a homogeneous coke, the uniform
heating of the ovens possesses another most important advantage,
namely, that it enables the period of coking to be reduced, which
results in an increased yield of coke. This will be evident when
it is considered that, in ovens where the walls are more intensely
heated at some points than at others, parts of the charge become
carbonized sooner than the portion in the cooler part of the
ovens, but the charge has to remain in the ovens until the whole
is carbonized. It follows therefore that, with perfectly equally-
heated walls, the carbonization of the whole charge is completed
at the same time.
Koppers Regenerator-oven. — ^The Koppers regenerator-oven is
designed on identical lines to the waste-heat oven, and differs only
in that the air for combustion is heated to an intense degree by
means of regenerator-chambers. The advantages of equal heat-
ing, easy means of regulating, and the facilities for inspecting
the flues, which distinguish the waste-heat oven over other sys-
tems, are the same in the regenerator-oven.
The form of regenerators which was originally employed with
the Koppers oven consisted of two long chambers filled with a
chequer-work of fire-bricks, running the whole length of the
battery of ovens in the position shown in figs. 7, 8 and 9 (plate
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408 NOTES ON BYE-PEODUCT COKE-OVENS.
xiv.). The air for combustion enters at the end of one regenera-
tor, and passes to each oven through the openings, W. After
ignition with the gas in the heating-process of the oven, the
resulting products of combustion pass through the heating-flues
to the other regenerator, and, induced by the chimney-draught,
they pass along to the chimney, giving up their heat to the
chequer-work of fire-bricks. After a period of time, usually
about 30 minutes, the air which entered the first regenerator has
abstracted the heat from the chequer-brickwork; whilst the
bricks in the other regenerator have been raised to an intense
heat by the waste-gases going to the chimney. The direction of
combustion is then reversed by automatic means, the air being
admitted into the highly heated regenerator; and the products of
combustion pass through the other regenerator, which again
becomes heated to an intense degree. The air is heated to a
temperature of about 1,100° Cent. (2,012<^ Fahr.), whilst the heat
of the waste-gases is absorbed by the fire-brick chequer-work, to
such a degree that the gases are quite black on entering the
chimney and are useless for any further purpose.
In order to avoid the trouble and inconvenience which may
be experienced through repairs having to be carried out in con-
nection with the regenerators (which would always necessitate
the whole battery of ovens being shut down), an oven was designed
and patented by Mr. Koppers in which separate regenerator-
chambers are provided for each oven. A large number of ovens
of this construction have been erected, and have proved a great
success. The new construction has a number of important
advantages over the older form, apart from rendering the ovens
independent of each other: the principal one is, that it permits of
a better regulation of the air and of the draught for each oven.
This point will be explained more fully later on. Another
advantage is that the substructure is of a simple character, and is
less liable to be affected by the expansion of the brickwork. A
further advantage is that it enables the hot air to be still more
satisfactorily distributed amongst the heating-flues.
Figs. 10, 11 and 12 (plate xv.) show longitudinal and cross-
sections through the latest Koppers regenerator-oven and figs. 7,
8 and 9 (plate xiv.) similar sections through the former type of
regenerator-oven. The working of the two systems is identical in
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NOTES ON BYE-PRODUCT COKE-OVENS. 409
all respects, and differs only in the arrangement of the regener-
ators. The lettering in the two plates is accordingly the same, and
the following description can therefore be taken as appljring to
either construction.
The air for combustion flows along the passage-ways, A, at
the front and back of the ovens, and thence it passes into the
regenerators through the inlets, B. In the regenerators, the
temperature of the air rises to 1,000<^ Cent. (1,8320 Fahr.). The
highly heated air passes out of the regenerators into the vertical
heating-flues through the openings, C. The purified gas from
the bye-product plant is returned to the ovens by the mains, D,
running along the whole length of the ovens on each side.
Branch supply-pipes, H, conduct the gas into the gas-distributing
channels, E, which are situated directly beneath the oven-walls;
thence it passes through the gas-nozzles, F, into each vertical flue,
where it ignites with the hot air entering through the passages, C,
previously referred to (fig. 13, plate xv.). A jet is therefore formed
on a level with the oven-floor in each of the heating-flues of the
oven-chamber, in which respect it will be seen that the heating is
identical with that of the waste-heat oven already described.
The employment of regenerators renders it necessary to
reverse the heating-process after a period of time, usually about
30 minutes ; and the heating-flues are divided into two sections,
80 that combustion can take place alternately in each half of the
oven-wall. When the gas is burning in one half of the wall,
the products of combustion pass up the flues and enter the top
horizontal flue, G, whence they make their way down the flues
in the other half of the oven-wall, and enter the regenerator
through the same passages, C, by which the air is admitted to
the flues when the direction of combustion is reversed. On
issuing from the regenerator, the waste-gases pass into the flue
leading to the chimney, after having given up their heat to the
chequer-work of fire-brick.
It should be here pointed out that the same means of regu-
lating the combustion in each separate flue and of obtaining
access to the flues, are provided as in the case of the waste-heat oven
<figs. 1, 2 and 3, plate xiii.) ; and the oven therefore possesses the
same advantages as regards uniform heating and easy regulation.
It has been stated by interested parties that the walls which
divide the regenerator-chambers in the Eoppers new system,
TOL. XXXIII.— 1M6-If07. 30
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410 NOTES OX BYE-PRODrCT COKE-OVENS.
having to support the ovens and the superstructure, are of insuffi-
cient strength owing to their being in a kighly heated condition.
It should therefore be mentioned here that the total sectional
area of the walls is two-thirds of the whole surface upon which
a battery of ovens is built. The walls in no case would be sub-
jected to a greater temperature than 1,100^ Cent. (2,012<^ Fahr.) :
and, as the walls in a cool state are easily capable of supporting a
load 100 times the weight that they have to bear, it is abundantly
evident that they will be more than amply strong enough to
carry the load at the temperature stated.
It might, furthermore, be pointed out that the cubical con-
tents of the new regenerator-chambers are from three to four
times that of the ordinary construction; and that, notwith-
standing this great increase in capacity, there is, if an3rthing,
less chance of heat being lost by radiation owing to the protected
position in which they are placed.
Mention has been made that the employment of separate re-
generators for each oven enables the supply of air and the
chimney-draught to be better regulated than is possible with
the old form of regenerators. On referring to figs. 7, 8 and 9
(plate xiv.) it will be seen that there is a regulating damper over
the passage leading from the regenerator-chambers to the air-
distributing channel. This damper has to be set to serve the
dual purpose of regulating the admission of air when the ovens
are burning in one direction, and of regulating the chimney-
draught when the ovens are burning in the reverse direction. It
is not possible to effect a satisfactory regulation of both the air
and the draught by means of only one damper.
Figs. 14, 15, 16 and 17 (plate xvi.) show the new means of
regulation, as also the arrangements for reversing the combustion.
Figs. 14 and 16 show, respectively, longitudinal and transverse
views of the gas and air-supply fittings on the side of the oven
where the gas is burning ; whilst figs. 16 and 17 show the corre-
sponding arrangements on the other side of the ovens where the
waste-gas is passing to the chimney. The gas is supplied to each
oven by the branch pipes, H, which are each provided with a regu-
lating-cock, K, as well as with a second cock, Ki, fitted with a lever.
All the levers are attached to one of the wire-roi)es, Li, which lat-
ter communicate with the automatic changing-gear. The air is
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NOTES ON BYE-PRODrCT COKE-OVENS. 411
admitted to each oven by means of the cast-iron damper-fitting,
M, which also serves to conduct the waste-gases to the chimney-
flue, XJ. These dampers are each fitted at the top with a slide,
If, which are like the levers of the gas-cocks, all connected to the
second wire-rope, La ; and the whole is so arranged that, when the
automatic changing-gear oi)erate8, the gas-cocks and damper-
slides on one side of the battery are closed simultaneously with
the opening of the corresponding parts on the other side of the
battery. When the gas is burning on the side of the ovens as
shown in figs. 14 and 15, the air-damper is open, and the air
passes into the regenerator in the direction indicated by the
arrows, the main chimney-damper, P, being closed. A little
below the damper-slide there is a second slide, B, which can be
set in any desired position, and serves to regulate the quantity of
air required for each oven. When the gas is burning on the
opposite side of the oven, as shown in figs. 16 and 17 : that is,
when the waste-gases are passing to the chimney, the gas-cocks
and air-dami)ers are closed, but the main chimney-damper, P, is
opened. The waste-gases are therefore drawn through the cast-
iron damper-fitting, M, into the chimney-flue, TJ, in the direction
indicated by the arrows. At the base end of the cast-iron fittings
there is a third slide, S, which can be set in any desired position
to regulate the draught on each oven. It will, therefore, be seen
that, by the new arrangement, the quantity of air for each oven
and the chimney-draught on each oven can be separately regu-
lated, which is not possible with ovens working with the older
form of regenerators. A very disadvantageous feature has thus
been removed in the new system.
The automatic changing-gear is a simple clockwork arrange-
ment, and is placed at one end of the battery of ovens. It is
electrically operated, and requires the least possible attention. It
may be added that the gear is so designed that should anything
fail to act, an electric alarm is set in action which does not stop
until the gear is again at work.
A discovery of more than ordinary importance has recently
been made by Mr. Koppers, in regard to the regeneration of the
air for combustion and the utilization of the waste-gases. It
was found by observation and experimental tests that the heat
of the waste-gases could not be reduced in the regenerators below
a certain temperature, no matter of what capacity they were
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412 XOTES ON BYE-PRODUCT COKE-OVEXS.
made ; and the result of calculations showed that the whole of the
heat in the waste-gases could not be extracted by means of re-
generators. Mr. Koppers ascertained that this was due to the
air only being regenerated, the gas being admitted in a cool
state. The proportion of gas is from one-sixth to one-seventh of
the quantity of air, and consequently the volume of the waste-
gases is about IG per cent, greater than the volume of the air that
it has to heat up. A loss of heat therefore took place by passing
the whole of the waste-gases through the regenerators, and in
the latest construction of the Koppers ovens means have been
introduced to enable a portion of the waste-gases to be drawn off
in a hot state for boiler-firing purposes. On referring to fig. 10
(plate XV.) a vertical flue, T, in the centre of the heating-flues will
be seen. By means of this flue a portion of the hot waste-gases
passes into the central flue, Y, beneath the ovens, and is con-
ducted to the boilers. A sliding-brick is placed at the top of the
vertical flue, by means of which the quantity of waste-gases to
be drawn off can be regulated. The reduced volume of the waste-
gas which passes into the regenerators is sufficient to heat up the
chequer-work of bricks to the same maximum temperature as
when the whole of the waste-gases is passed through the regenera-
tors ; and the air will accordingly be heated to the same degree
when subsequently passed through, Jhe only difference being
that the temperature of the waste-gases on entering the chimney
is reduced to a lower degree than when the whole of the waste-
gases pass through the regenerators.
It will be gathered from the foregoing description that the
new construction enables about 16 per cent, of the hot waste-
gases to be saved at the expense of the gases passing into the
chimney. The air being raised to the same temperature as in
the older construction, no more combustible gas is required for
heating the ovens ; and consequently the same amount of sur-
plus gas is available. As already stated, the quantity of surplus
gas from the Koppers regenerator-oven amounts to from 45 to 55
per cent, of the total quantity evolved from the coal. The gas
being in a combustible form, can be conducted almost any
distance, and can be utilized for any purpose for which ordinary
town illuminating-gas can be used. There is, therefore, no
necessity for erecting a special range of boilers in close proximity
to the ovens, as is necessary with waste-heat ovens.
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NOTES ON BYE-PRODrCT COKE-OVENS.
413
Gas-engines, — The great advantage of recovering the surplus
heat in the coal in the form of a combustible gas is that it can be
employed for generating power in gas-engines, which enables
about three times the power to be derived from it that can be
obtained by consuming it under steam-boilers, or that can be
generated by the hot waste-gas from waste-heat ovens. The sur-
plus gas from a coal of average composition is sufficient to pro-
duce a continuous supply of from 50 to 60 horsepower per oven.
Another great advantage which combustible gas possesses over
Fio. 20.— NDbnbero Gas-ekoinb of 1,200 Hobsepowbr, Barooed Colliery.
hot waste-gas is that the former can be stored so long as it is
not required ; whilst the latter must be used on the spot directly
it is produced, and cannot be employed for any other purpose
than boiler-firing. At most collieries, little power is required
to be produced during the night-time and on Sundays; and at
such times hot waste-gas would be lost, whilst combustible gas,
on the other hand, could be stored in gas-holders and consumed
during working hours.
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414
NOTES ON BYE-PRODUCT COKE-OVENS.
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NOTES ON BYE-PBODTJCT COKE-OVENS. 415
Great progress has been made in recent years on tlie Continent
in the design of large gas-engines, and at a number of collieries
in Germany large gas-engine power-installations have been put
down in connection with coke-oven plants. Indeed, the great
waste of power which formerly took place at coke-oven plants,
through employing the surplus gas for boiler-firing, is respon-
sible in a great measure for the development of the gas-engine.
At a number of Koppers coke-oven plants erected in Germany
and in this country,* large gas-engine central-power stations have
been installed. As an example of the extent to which gas-engines
are employed on the Continent, an interior view is given (fig. 21)
of the gas-engine power-station at the Anna colliery of the Esch-
weiler Mining Company, near Aix-la-Chapelle. At this col-
liery, there are six batteries of Koppers regenerator-ovens, total-
ling 342 ovens, and the power-station is designed for the pro-
duction of 16,000 horsepower from the surplus gas. At present,
engines having a capacity of 9,400 horsepower are in operation,
whilst others are under construction.
Until recently, gas-engines of high power were viewed with
great disfavour in this country, as it was generally supposed that
they could not be made to drive electric generators running in
parallel with each other. This was the case at one time, but
difliculty in this direction is no longer experienced. At two of
the pits of the Rheinpreussen collieries, situated near Homberg,
Germany, two large gas-engines have been driving, for a con-
siderable time past, three-phase generators of about 1,300 kilo-
watts capacity. The engines are situated several miles apart,
and no trouble is experienced in getting them to work, not only
in parallel with each other but with a steam-engine generating-
set at a third colliery. At the Rheinpreussen collieries, it may
be added, there are five batteries of Koppers ovens, totalling 225
ovens, and the surplus gas is employed partly for driving the
gas-engines.
Conclusion. — In conclusion, reference should be made to the
results obtained from the Koppers ovens. As the output of coke
per oven depends to a great degree upon the character of the coal
and is also dependent upon the sectional area of the oven itself,
the results obtained from any particular plant ^ould not be
taken into account. Generally speaking, however, the output of
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416 DISCrSSION — notes on BYE-PRODrCX COKE-OVENS.
coke, free from breeze, made from coal of average coking quality
as raised in Westphalia and the Rhineland, is about 5*2 tons per
oven per day, so that a battery of 50 ovens produces about 1,800
tons of large coke per week. The yield of bye-products simi-
larly is greatly dependent upon the character of the coal; but
it is claimed for the Koppers oven that, owing to the uniform
heating of the walls and to the fact that the zone of the greatest
heat is at the bottom of the oven and therefore remote from the
point where the gases pass out at the top of' the oven and where
the volatile constituents would be decomposed by great heat, a
higher yield of residuals is obtained than in other systems where
similar conditions do not prevail.
Before closing this paper, attention should be drawn to the
great progress which the Koppers oven has made, since it was
first brought out a little over four years ago, indicating clearly
that the oven possesses advantages of more than ordinary
character.
The Chairman (Mr. James Cope Cadman) said that the
subject of bye-products played a most important part in the
successful working of collieries, and would do so to an even
greater extent in the future.
Mr. L. T. O'SiiEA said that Mr. Kochs' paper was exceedingly
comprehensive with regard to many points of importance as to
the manner in which Koppers ovens were conducted. In the
Koppers oven, and others of similar construction, an attempt
had been made to solve the great difficulty not only of the distribu-
tion of the gases into the flues, but also that of the air used for
combustion. It was necessary in order to secure the proper com-
bustion of any gas that the proportion of air required to bum that
gas should be carefully regulated. An attempt had been made to
do this in the Koppers oven, and he thought that in this respect
a considerable advance had been made. The pre-heating of the
air for combustion deserved consideration, from the point of view
of the use to which the gases were to be applied. If the waste-
gases from the combustion-flues were to be used for generating
steam, they should be as hot as possible, when they reached the
boilers, in order to generate sufficient steam for use in the bye-pro-
duct plant ; whereas if the generation of poyeer in an internal com-
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DISCUSSION — ^NOTES ON BYE-PRODUCT COKE-OVENS. 417
bustion-motor was the object in view, the waste-gases from the
combustion-flues could not be used, but the surplus of combustible
gas was important. Consequently, if the waste-gases were used for
generating steam, the pre-heating of the air was not desirable,
because the gases, which came away from the combustion-flues,
would be left in a hotter condition than if some of the surplus
heat was utilized before it passed to the boilers ; but if surplus
combustible gas was required it would be considerably increased
by pre-heating the air. He thought that Mr. Kochs was perhaps
not altogether giving sufficient credit to the advantage which
might be received from the thickness of the partition-walls be-
tween the ovens, when double flues were used. He (Mr. O'Shea)
did not think that the question of the storage of heat was of the
first importance ; but he did think that double heating-flues pro-
bably utilized the heat in each oven to better advantage. The
thick partition-walls carried the weight of the superstructure, and
thinner oven-walls could then be used, which allowed the heat to
be conducted more quickly through the walls. The small experi-
ence that he (Mr. O'Shea) had had in dealing with bye-product
ovens had led him to notice how very large an amount was ex-
pended annually in repairs ; and that, he thought, was largely
due to the fact that the least fusible material was not employed
in Great Britain for the erection of the oven-walls. He thought
that more attention should be devoted to the selection of infusible
bricks, because the intense heats that were obtained and the local
heating that occurred suddenly, without proper attention on the
part of those who had the care of the ovens, entailed a considerable
amount of expense in the matter of repairs. Both the papers were
valuable, because it was only by such papers that the members
could obtain an idea of the construction of the ovens, and were
enabled to compare the relative simplicity of different ovens. Bye^
product ovens were largely increasing both in number and in
variety, and it was a matter of considerable difficulty to say which
was the best.
Mr. J. J. Prest (Horden collieries) said that the difference
between Koppers ovens and other bye-product ovens appeared
to be primarily in the adoption of vertical flues, and the manner
in which the regenerative system had been scientifically worked
out. The adoption of the regenerative coke-oven provided a
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418 DISCUSSION — NOTES ON BYE-PKODUCT COKE-OVENS.
large percentage . of consumable gases, and these could only be
utilized efficiently in internal-combustion engines. Therefore,
unless it was proposed to utilize the waste-gases in this
manner, the regenerative system had better not be adopted.
Many large installations of bye-product ovens and recovery-
plants had been erected, within the last few years, at costs up
to £100,000 or more ; but, whether the return on the large
•capital-expenditures involved was satisfactory or otherwise, one
could never definitely ascertain. Estimates of the probable
amount of profit could be obtained in abundance: but figures
giving the actual results were required. After careful considera-
tion of the whole question, his firm had decided to erect an
experimental plant of 70 beehive coke-ovens at one of their
collieries, as it was considered that a larger commercial return
would be obtained from them than from the erection of bye-
product coke-ovens at this particular place, and under the special
conditions prevailing.
Dr. J. A. RoELOFSEN (Middlesbrough) said that Mr. Kochs
stated that ** the construction of horizontal-flued ovens will not
permit of more than three or four jets being employed at each
end of the oven ; and it is quite evident that the walls cannot be
so equally heated as the walls of vertical-flued ovens. . . ."* He
might state that in some horizontal-flued ovens there were twelve
burners for each individual oven ; and combustion in the horizon-
tal-flued oven did not take place in a short space, as Mr. Kochs
indicated, but. travelled as a luminous flame the entire length,
•33 feet, of the oven-flue. This was effected by the proper
regulation of the air-admission, and, if necessary, one could
make some of the flame come back in the next flue ; consequently
the heat along the length of the oven was uniform. Mr. Eochs
stated that '* dark places " occuiTed,t he (Mr. Roelofsen) sup-
posed, in the case of Koppers ovens. This was caused, as far as
he knew, by some of the nozzles of the Koppers ovens closing
and not being so accessible as was implied in Mr. Kochs' paper.
At any rate, whatever the cause might be, it was easy to avoid
dark spots in ovens when the gas-admission was under perfect con-
trol by hand from the outside. Mr. Kochs said that " in horizontal-
flued ovens, furthermore, the top flue is heated to a high degree,
* Trans. Inst. M. K, 1907, vol. xxxiii., page 399.
t Ibid., 1907, vol. xxxiii., pages 401 and 404.
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DISCUSSION — NOTES ON BYE-PBODUCT CX)KE-OVENS. 419
and it is generally admitted that this is a disadvantageous fea-
ture, aa the great heat has the effect of decomposing the gases
of distillation. . . ."* This latter was quite true, but he main-
tained that the horizontal-flued oven was particularly suitable for
avoiding the creation of excessive heat at the top of the oven,
inasmuch as heating took place in horizontal strata so to speak,
and, by regulating the gas-admission in each horizontal flue,
ihat particular stratum of the oven could be kept cool or hot as
was desired. For practical purposes it was, as everyone ad-
mitted, necessary and desirable that all parts of the oven should
be uniformly heated, and that no part should be overheated;
and this was done every day in horizontal-flued ovens. Mr.
Kochs stated that in the Koppers oven the top portion was
kept from 400° to 500° Fahr. cooler than the bottom portion ; t
and, if this were so, he failed to see how that could be called
uniform heating. It was also stated that the division-wall was
absolutely necessary in horizontal-flued ovens, otherwise the
ovens of that sort would not be strong; but this was not so.
He had a battery of 100 Huessener ovens which had been at
work on the Continent for 20 years, and were at work at the
present day. They had never had division-walls, and yet during
that time they had been making coke and had given such good
results that the expenditure on repairs during the last 10 years of
iheir life had only been between Jd. and id. per ton of coke made.
This showed that it was not absolutely necessary to use division-
walls in horizontal-flued ovens. After making many experiments
over many years, the Huessener oven had, however, finally adopted
the division- wall, although, as Mr. Kochs had correctly remarked,
it extended along the whole length of the oven-battery and made
the structure more expensive. For this reason it naturally handi-
capped them in competing with the builders of coke-ovens with-
out a division-wall. The Huessener oven would discard the middle
wall, which caused greater capital outlay and more ground-space
to be covered, if it were not believed that there were substantial
advantages to be gained from its adoption. It had been stated
that the value of division-walls had been under-estimated : he
agreed that it doubled the number of flues round the ovens. It
was well known that, during the last stages of coking, the charges
in the oven did not require such an amount of gas as a fresh
• Tram, Inst, M, E,, 1907, vol. xxxiii, page 399.
t Ih%d,y 1907, vol. xxxiii., page 400.
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420 DISCUSSION — NOTES ON BYE-PRODUCT COKE-OVENS.
charge ; and if there were no division-wall, it was not possible i\>
check the heat on the oven, which naturally became hotter
because it was older in coking time. Furthermore, as had
already been pointed out, the division-wall carried the super-
structure of the oven, which was of the greatest importance.
It relieved the oven-walls of the heavy weight on the top of the
oven and enabled the walls to be made thinner. Without going
any further into a theoretical discussion, it was desirable to get
practical figures of everyday work. The. figures for a battery
of 60 Huessener ovens, now in their seventh year of work
without interruption in the county of Durham, working with
ordinary Durham coking coal, containing about 30 per cent,
of volatile matter, were as follows: The cost of repairs to these
60 ovens was only about Jd. per ton of coke, and during the 6^
years that they had been at work, only six ovens had been re-
lined. The ovens were built of British material ; and, al-
though the oven was of German origin, it had not been found
necessary to go abroad for refractory fire-bricks. There was
no lack of good fire-resisting fire-clay in this country ; and the
only difficulty was to get fire-brick-makers to work accurately
to dimensions, and to produce bricks of perfect shape. There
was no need to go to Belgium or Germany for material, and if
brick-makers would study the nature of their fire-clay, and make
proper allowances for shrinkage, they could produce a brick of
good shape and perfect dimensions. Mr. Eochs stated that, in
Westphalia, the Koppers oven made 5*2 tons of coke per oven
per day, or 1,800 tons of large coke from 50 ovens per week.
He thought that this result was obtained from Westphalian coal
containing about 20 per cent, of volatile matter ; could Mr. Kochs
give the production of coke from coal containing 30 per cent,
of volatile matter, as in the case of Durham coal, or 32 per cent,
as in the case of South Yorkshire coal ? It would also be interest-
ing to know the cost of repairs, during the four years that Koppers
ovens had been on the market.
Mr. Emerson Bainbridge said that Mr. Prestos remarks were
all the more interesting, as that gentleman was never behind
in finding out the most modem improvements in mining engin-
eering, and therefore they were to be regarded with all the more
weight. His own experience, however, had been that the
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DISCUSSION NOTES ON BYE-PRODUCT COKE-OVENS. 421
proprietors of new plants were only too anxious to point out
the advantages of such plants, and they would no doubt take
the opportunity of doing so. There had been marvellous pro-
gress in Germany in the utilization of the waste-gases from
coke-ovens, and it justified one in expecting that in a few years
there would be many collieries working their entire plant,
without steam, by gases produced from bye-product ovens. He
was afraid that the multiplication of bye-product ovens might
lead to such a diminution of the value of the materials produced
as to make the advantage rather less important than at first it
appeared to be ; but, as the demand seemed to continue, the
values might be maintained.
Mr. R. SuTCLiFFE (Bamsley) said that for several years he
had been using compressed-air plant, and he felt that the present
method was a wasteful one. He believed that it was partly
due to the piston of the steam-cylinder travelling at the same
speed as the piston of the air-compressing cylinder; and, in
order to get a high efficiency from the steam-cylinder, the piston
of the air-cylinder was overrun. He had had some experience
in the use of gas-engines, and, after having used steam-engines
for many years, he had come to the conclusion that the former
was the most economical when used for power-purposes in con-
nection with gas produced at a colliery.
Mr. Isaac Hodges said that a life for bye-product ovens of
6i years, with negligible repairs, was almost unprecedented in
his own knowledge, and must be largely due to the state of
dryness in which the coal went into the ovens.
Dr. J. A. RoELOFSEN said that washed coal was used, contain-
ing 12 per cent, of water.
Mr. Hodges said that he had never heard of a bye-product
coke-oven standing for 3 years, and 6 years was unprecedented.
He had found from experiments that the lime in the water
acted as a flux on the fire-bricks, and produced extensive honey-
combing. Dr. Roelofsen must have used exceedingly pure water
at the ovens under his charge, or they must have been built with
exceptionally good bricks : he thought that he had used the
same bricks, and therefore it was difficult to correlate the facts.
After 10 years' experience of bye-product ovens, he had found
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422 DISCUSSION — ^NOTES ON BYE-PRODUCT COKE-OVENS.
that the bye-products of a comparatively new oven were much
larger than those obtained from an oven in a poor state of
repair. Horizontal flues, which were so much -a feature of the
earlier bye-product ovens, had almost entirely disappeared;
the chief reason had not been mentioned by Mr. Kochs, namely,
the effect of the wind-pressure on the horizontal flues, causing^
that part of the oven to be rapidly cooled ; and for that reason
he had changed to vertical-flued ovens. The flues of the ovens-
under his charge had no middle wall; he believed that the
superstructure was too heavy a burden for the flues to carry in
normal times, especially after being slightly weakened. However,
he agreed that the middle wall, if not absolutely necessary, was a
great convenience in the case of repairs. The ideal oven was one
which would not fail because it had a very heavy superstructure
to carry ; the fabric should remain intact, so that it could be
relined at leisure, making the cessation of coking a limited
matter, and reducing at the same time the cost of repairs.
Mr. J. Kenneth Guthrie (Leeds) wrote that the Otto Com«
pany, in Germany, introduced the regenerative principle about
20 years ago, and for many years enjoyed almost a monopoly witk
their regenerative coke-ovens. About 1895, however, coke-ovens
of the waste-heat type came to the front as rivals ; and, realizing
that this type of oven had some striking advantages, more espe-
cially in simplicity of construction and greater provision of steam
for colliery-purposes, the arrangement of heating from below
the oven as introduced by Mr. Hilgenstock had been applied
mainly in waste-heat ovens, but, of course, they were equally fitted
for regenerative purposes. The Otto Company had erected many
ovens of this type in Germany, etc. ; but in Great Britain there
was a strong preference for the waste-heat type, owing, no doubt,
to the fact that gas-engines did not enjoy the same popularity in
this country as on the Continent.
Mr. H. W. Seymour (Leeds) wrote that Mr. Kochs' paper was
very interesting, in so far as it showed the most recent construc-
tion of the Koppers oven. The comparison drawn, however, be-
tween that oven and horizontal-flued ovens was naturally to the
disadvantage of the latter, and faults were shown that were non-
existent in any modem system of horizontal-flued ovens. So
far as Great Britain was concerned, the latter system waa
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DISCUSSION — NOTES ON BYE-PRODUCT COKE-OVENS. 42^
meeting with increasing' favour, and as many, if not more, were
being erected as those of the vertical-flued type. It was pro-
bably on account of the vertical-flued system being built wholly
by German companies that they had found such favour in Ger-
many. Mr. Eochs had been misinformed as to the largest number
of jets possible in a horizontal-flued oven being three or four
on each side : * it was quite possible to use as many as eight or
nine jets on each side. The same effect, however, as a large
number of jets, was obtained in a simpler way, by admitting the
air for combustion at various points. In practice, it was found
that as regular a heat was obtainable as with the vertical-flued
system. Intense overheating of the top-flue was not a feature
of horizontal-flued ovens ; in most types the top part of the oven
could be controlled from comparative coldness to an intense heat,
without affecting the heat of the lower part of the oven : this
feature not bein^ possible with the Koppers type of oven.
Judging^ from the number of inventions intended to obviate this
defect, the excessive heating of the top part of an oven appeared
to have been a difficulty met with to an even greater extent in
vertical-flued than in horizontal-flued ovens.
The experience of many builders proved that the solid central
partition was a most valuable and indispensable feature, as it
facilitated repairs, two ovens only being partly affected instead
of four ; and it considerably reduced the period of coking. In
the case of two plants working side by side, one with and the
other without a central wall, the flues of the latter appearing to
be hotter than the central-wall plant, the production was only
22 tons of coke per week as against 26 tons. The increase in
the length of a plant built with central partition-walls would
certainly not exceed 20 to 26 per cent., and the heat-radiation,
especially with ovens surrounded by air-flues, would be even less
than with the single-flued vertical type. It was usually
found in the course of time that the tops of single-flued ovens
sank to a greater extent than in the case where the great weight
of the superstructure was supported independently of the highly
heated thin oven-walls ; it was to be noted also that a thinner
oven-wall could be used where this weight was supported by a
solid central wall.
It might be thought from Mr. Kochs' remarks that no surplus
* Traiu. Inst. if. E., 1907, vol. xxxiii., page 399.
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424 DISCUSSION — NOTES ON BYE-PRODUCT COKE-OVENS.
^s was available in the case of a non-regenerative oven; but
in the case of Yorkshire coal, at least 33 per cent, of the gas was
available, phis all the steam required for working the plant. It
was a question, therefore, whether it was worth the capital-charge
and complication to work a regenerator for a gain of 5 or 10
per cent., especially where steam had to be made for working
the plant. This point was well exemplified in the case of one
regenerative plant, where the coke-oven boilers were hand-fired
with coal. He (Mr. Seymour) acknowledged the theoretical
value of many of the ingenious contrivances explained by Mr.
Kochs, but so far as practical working was concerned he would
like comparisons to be made with other than German coal. The
English equivalent was apparently not greater than 20 to 25
tons of coke per week; and both in quality and quantity of
products this could be easily equalled by any modem type of
horizontal-fiued coke-oven at a lower capital-outlay than with a
plant such as the one in question. Further, the ease of inspec-
tion and adjustment at every stage of the working in a horizon-
tal-fiued oven proved of paramount importance in practice;
and, from the results obtained at many plants in this country,
it did not appear as if they were gained at the expense of the
oven — considered as a producer of saleable coke and bye-pro-
ducts. The working results of the plant described by Mr. Eochs
did not warrant, in his opinion, such claims of superlative
excellence over and above other systems having the same end
in view.
Mr. A. Victor Kochs, replying to the discussion, wrote that
he was obliged to disagree with the view expressed by Mr. O'Shea
that the provision of a division-wall enabled the heat in each oven
to be utilized to better advantage, as it was an incontrovertible
fact that heat was lost through radiation by greatly increasing
the length of the battery, which could not possibly be avoided if
a central wall and double fines were adopted. Whereas in
single-flued vertical ovens, as pointed out in his paper, any cool-
ing effect, which a freshly charged oven might have on its neigh-
bour, would simply be an exchange of heat and would have not
the slightest influence on the ultimate result. Mr. O'Shea further
stated that the dividing wall served to support the superstruc-
ture, and the walls of the oven could therefore be made thinner.
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DISCUSSION-^NOTES ON BYE-PRODTJCT COKE-OVENS. 425
To a certain degree this waa correct^ but there was a limit to
the thinness of the oven-walls; and, as a matter of fact, the
walls of vertical-flued ovens were no thicker than those of hori-
2ontal-flued ovens arranged with a dividing wall. A large
number of Koppers ovens had been built with side-walls, not
exceeding 3 inches thick. If the walls were made thinner,
leakage of the gases of distillation into the heating-flues would
be very considerable, especially after the ovens had been work-
ing for some time. The strength of the walls of Koppers ovens
lay mainly in the flue-partitions, 5 to 6 inches thick, and only
to a comparatively small extent in the side-walls, 3 to 3f inches
thick. The total weight of the superstructure, including the
gas-collecting equipment and three loaded corves, carried by
each single wall, amounted as a maximum in the Koppers oven
to no more than 32 tons, and as the sectional area of the walls
at the weakest point was 35 square feet, the load per square
foot was rather less than 1 ton. Fire-bricks, such as were em-
ployed in Koppers ovens, had a crushing strength equal to 150
to 200 tons per square foot, and an easy calculation would show
that the walls were 150 to 200 times as safe at the weakest
part. This was, of course, when the ovens were cold, but it
was, nevertheless, abundantly clear that the factor of safety
would be more than ample when the ovens were in a heated
condition. The sectional area on a line drawn horizontally
through the heating-flues was 52 square feet, and this surface
would support a load of several thousand tons ; and it was quite
obvious that there was no likelihood of such a wall giving way
through the comparatively light superincumbent weight.
Further, the single vertical-flued wall of the Koppers oven was
even stronger than that of a horizontal-flued oven with two sets
of flues and a dividing wall, 14 inches thick. The whole of
the weight of the superstructure in a horizontal-flued oven rested
on the dividing wall, and the horizontal sectional area of this wall
was no more than 40 square feet as compared with 52 square
feet in the Koppers oven. In addition, the weight of the super-
structure of a horizontal-flued oven was very considerably more
than that of a single vertical-flued oven, which was due, of
course, to the ovens being further apart. The area of the wall
being less and the weight to be carried being greater, it neces-
sarily followed that the construction was considerably weaker
TOL. XXXI1I.-1906.1907. ^^
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426 DISCUSSION — ^NOTES ON BYE-PRODUCT COKE-OVENS.
than that of the Koppers oven. It was, therefore, quite fallacious
to claim that the dividing wall was an advantage as regarded
strength.
The fire-bricks employed in the construction of Koppers ovens
were made of a special composition which had been found, from
experience, to be most suitable for the purpose. This material
could be obtained in England, and the only trouble experienced
was in getting the bricks made to the exact sizes and shapes
required. Brickmakers were, however, now taking much
greater care in the manufacture of the bricks, with the result
that complaints aa to size had seldom to be made.
The supposition expressed by Mr. Prest that the difEerence
between the Koppers oven and other systems was primarily in
the regenerative principle was incorrect ; and, as there appeared
to be a general misapprehension in this regard, he (Mr. Kochs)
would here emphasize the fact that the main advantages of the
Koppers oven were the same, whether the oven was designed to
work with or without regenerators. The special feature of the
Koppers oven was the uniform heating of the walls, combined
with easy accessibility of all flues for regulation and inspection,
which was attained to a remarkable degree of perfection. The
regenerators were only necessary adjuncts, when the surplus heat
in the coal was required to be produced wholly in the form of a
combustible gas for firing existing boilers situated at a point re-
mote from the battery of ovens, or where power was required to be
generated by means of gas-engines, in which latter case about
3 times the power would be derived that could be obtained
by raising steam with the gases, or that could be generated by
the waste-heat from non-regenerator ovens. The information
as to the commercial results to be obtained from a bye-product
oven-installation was rather difficult to supply, as there were
so many factors that affected the economy and working of the
ovens, which varied in different parts of the country. The prin-
cipal factor was the quality of the coal together with the amount
of residuals which it contained, whilst other factors were the
value of the coke produced, the length of time required for carboni-
zation, the percentage of alkaline salts contained in the coal
(which had the effect of corroding the oven-walls and rendered
repairs frequently necessary), etc. The size of the plant had also
much to do with the return, as the first cost and the labour-cost
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DISCUSSION — NOTES ON BYE-PRODUCT COKE-OVENS. 427
did not increase proportionately with the capacity. Any figures
therefore which might be given would probably be misleading;
but, generally speaking, it could safely be stated that a mode-
rate-sized plant of 60 ovens costing, say, £60,000, would yield
a return of from 30 to 40 per cent., after making full allowance
for repairs and redemption of capital.
Dr. Roelofsen had pointed out an error in his paper, wherein
he stated that only three or four heating-jets were employed at
each end of a horizontal-flued oven. This was an inadvertence,
and he should have stated that there were three or four jets at
each end of each set of heating-flues. He (Mr. Kochs) noted that
the Huessener oven was heated at six points at each end of the
oven, that was twelve points altogether; and, as it was more
particularly in respect to the distribution of the heating that
the Koppers oven was distinguished from other systems, he
would draw particular attention to the fact that each Koppers
oven was heated by sixty to seventy gas-jets. It would there-
fore be apparent that there was far more likelihood of uniform
heating being attained with a large number of jets distributed
along the length of the oven, than by comparatively few jets
at the ends only. As regards the " dark places " referred to
in his paper, he must express surprise that Dr. Roelofsen should
take exception to this term, as it was a technical expression
universally employed to indicate the comparative intensity of
the heating of the walls. In horizontal-flued ovens, there were
only twelve really ** bright places," that was at each point where
the gas was admitted ; and no one could deny that it was theoreti-
cally and practically impossible for a flame, 33 feet long, or even
half that length, to be as hot at the end after giving up its heat
to the charge of coal, as it was at the point of combustion. This
was the reason why the building of horizontal-flued ovens had
been abandoned in Germany, and in his (Mr. Kochs') opinion
admitted of no argument. Dr. Roelofsen also referred to the
statement that there was a difference of 400° to 500° Fahr. be-
tween the temperatures of the top and the bottom of the oven,
and he was at a loss to see how that could be called equal heat-
ing. Dr. Roelofsen must be well aware that uniform heating
was required along the length of the oven, and not so much in
the height ; that was, that the greatest heat should be applied
opposite the bottom of the charge, lessening towards the top, but
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428 DISCUSSION — NOTES ON BYE-PRODUCT COKE-OVENS.
equally along the length of the oven, so that the charge of coal
would be subjected to exactly the same temperature throughout
its length, and so that the top part of the charge would not
be too intensely heated.
In making the statement that there was on the Continent a
battery of 100 Huessener ovens arranged without division-walls,
which had been at work for twenty years and had cost very little
for repairs, Dr. Boelofsen should have pointed out that the side-
walls were made correspondingly thick to compensate for the
absence of the division-walls ; and the effect of these thick walls
was the prolongation of the period of coking, as the heat could
only pass through very slowly. These ovens, he understood,
required 48 hours to bum ofE. It was easily understood, there-
fore, why the single-flued wall was finally discarded in the Hues-
sener oven. At any rate, it was quite clear that, if a single
horizontal-flued wall would stand the length of time stated by
Dr. Roelofsen, a single vertical-flued wall, being a much supe-
rior and stronger construction, would last very considerably
longer. The figures given by Dr. Roelofsen as to the cost
of repairs at the Huessener plant in Germany, and also those
given of the plant in Durham, must have been miscalculated,
as he had been informed by a former manager of the first-named
plant, who was now in charge of a large installation of Koppers
ovens, that the walls of the ovens required renewal, every two
to three years, notwithstanding that the ovens were worked at
a comparatively low temperature: the coking period being, as
already stated, 48 hours. In regard to the Huessener plant in
Durham, Mr. C. Lowthian Bell* had stated that the cost of re-
pairs taken over 12 months, after the ovens had been working
three years, amounted to l'60d. per ton of coke. It was diflGlcult
to reconcile this figure with that given by Dr. Roelofsen, namely,
Jd. per ton of coke, after the plant had been working for seven
years.
Dr. Roelofsen was correct in stating that, during the last
stages of coking, the charges of the oven did not require the same
amount of gas as in the earlier period of coking ; but, after men-
tioning that without a division-wall it was not possible to check
the heating, he should have added that this was unnecessary and
* "The Manufactiire of Coke in the Huessener Oven at the Clarence Iron-
works, and its Value in the Blastf umaces, " by Mr. C. Lowthian Bell, The J(mmal
of The Iron and Steel InatittUe, 1904, vol. Ixv., page 188.
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DISCUSSION — ^NOTES ON BYE-PBODtTCT OOKE-OVENS. 429
waa never done with single-flued ovens, being only rendered
necessary by the provision of a division-wall. It never
happened that two adjoining ovens were charged at the same
time, and consequently there would always be a more or less
considerable difference in the coking stages of any two ovens.
As a result, when one oven was ready, its neighbour would re-
quire heating for a further period of time. The heat produced
in the flues automatically passed to the charge, which was in-
completely carbonized, whilst the oven which contained the com-
pleted charge would take only a comparatively small portion of
the heat. It would be obvious that this would not be possible
if a division-wall were placed between the ovens, and towards the
later period of coking the heat on such ovens must be checked,
otherwise overheating, with possibly disastrous consequences,
would occur. The single-flued walls of the Koppers oven, on
the other hand, could not only be maintained at the same high
temperature throughout the coking period', but could be forced
in the second half of the coking period without fear of overheat-
ing, and it was for this reason that a greater output of coke was
obtainable from the Koppers oven than from any other system
working under equal conditions.
As mentioned in his (Mr. Kochs') paper, the output of coke
was dependent upon the character of the coal, the size of the
ovens and the working conditions. The amount of moisture in
the coal also affected the coking period, whilst the time of coking
was extended if the coal were charged into the oven in the
form of a compressed cake. Nearly all the Koppers ovens
erected in England were from 22 to 24 inches wide, and with
one exception the coal was compressed in every plant. The
output of coke from ovens working with compressed coal was
28 tons per week from Durham coal, and 26 tons per week from
South Yorkshire coal, whilst the output from ovens working
with uncompressed coal was 35 tons per week. In the latter
case, however, the coal contained only 20 per cent, of volatile
matter. A reduction in the width of the oven would enable the
output to be considerably increased ; and, in comparing the yields
of several different types of ovens, the width should be taken
into account. The reduction in the width had the disadvan-
tage, of course, of producing short pieces of coke.
He (Mr. Kochs) had been asked to state the cost of repairs
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480 DISCUSSION — NOTES ON BYE-PEODUCT COKE-OVENS.
of Eoppers ovens, and ag^in in this regard he mu&t say that the
cost of repairs depended greatly upon the working conditions,
which varied considerably at difierent plants. The great bulk
of Koppers ovens which had been erected during the last four
years, that was, since the oven, was introduced, had not cost
Id. in repairs. The heating of the ovens, as would have been
seen, was so uniform that the oven-walls were subjected to a
much smaller variation in temperature than in any other system,
and the wear-and-tear was therefore correspondingly less. In
cases where the coal was charged into the ovens in a very wet
state, or where the coal (or the water in the coal) contained alka-
line salts, the wall-bricks sufEered severely ; and any oven work-
ing under such conditions would require frequent repairs, espe-
cially those systems which were not uniformly heated. He
could safely state that the cost of repairs of a battery of Koppers
ovens, working under normal conditions, would be lower than
that of other systems, and further, that no serious repairs would
be necessary during the first four or five years. After this
period of time, it would probably be necessary to renew the lower
courses of bricks in the oven-walls.
The Chairman (Mr. J. C. Cadman) moved a vote of thanks
to Mr. A. V. Kochs for his interesting paper. He might mention
that in some districts, particularly in North Staffordshire, slack-
coal, which was formerly almost given away, was now washed and
made into a valuable coke, through the introduction of bye-pro-
duct coke-ovens.
Mr. Isaac Hodges seconded the vote of thanks, which was
heartily carried.
The Rev. G. M. Capell read the following paper on " The
Application of Duplicate Fans to Mines " : —
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APPLICATION OF DUPLICATE FANS TO MINES. 481
THE APPLICATION OF DUPLICATE FANS TO MINES.
By the Rbv. G. M. CAPELL.
The general idea has hitherto prevailed that little or any
advantage could be gained by using two fans, on one upcast-
shaft, as compared with running one of them singly at the same
speed. There are records in the Transactions* which appear to
confirm this idea, that whether one or two fans are run at an
equal speed, the result will practically be the same ; but in cdl
those past experiences the fans were not placed on the mines with
a view to their working together. On thinking over the question,
the writer came to the conclusion that the disposing of two fans
on a mine, either a single or a double inlet, in such relative posi-
tions to each other that the passing of the air would correspond
to the action of a double-inlet fan, was possible, and would pro-
duce the results of a double-inlet fan with other advantages.
The positions of the fans, Ai and Ag could be arranged so as
to resemble the action of a double-inlet fan, by using the parting
of the air-drifts between the inlets (figs. 1 and 2, plate xvii.).
Another condition must be considered, namely, that in double-
inlet fans, Ai and Ag (fig 3), with a central dividing-plate, each
fan is practically a separate machine, so far as each inlet is con-
cerned. There is, however, a great difference between a double-
inlet fan and two separated fans, namely, that the double-inlet
fan, working in a single casing, has a constant condition of water-
gauge in that casing; whereas two fans, working in duplicate,
might have a variation of the water-gauges in the casing, arising
from small difference of speed, or in those variations which affect
air-currents in coming to the inlets -of a fan. This is remedied
by a regulating passage, with a valve connecting the two fan-
cases in the new arrangement. With this arrangement for balanc-
ing the case-pressures, the two fans can be relied on to act as if
* *' A Duplex Arrangement of Centrifugal Ventilating Machines," by Mr.
W. Cochrane, IVana, Inai, M. E., 1891, vol. ii., page 483.
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482 APPLICATION OF DUPLICATE FANS TO HINES.
they were running in one casing. Tte equalizing or regulating
passage, F, is shown with its valve, g, placed between the two
fans (figs. 1, 2 and 3, plate xvii.).*
In working a fan by tri-phase current, now so much in use, a
difficulty presents itself, namely, the great loss of power at week-
ends and other off-days, by being unable to regulate in a simple
manner the speed of the fan and the consumption of current. In
the application of two single-inlet fans, say, 16 feet in diameter^
to a mine, at 220 revolutions per minute, the two fans would
each produce 260,000 cubic feet of air per minute at 6^ inches of
water-gauge in the inlet-passage; and this would unite in a
common water-gauge, beyond the division between the inlets,
that is, in the main drift, D. A model of the arrangement shows
very clearly, when one motor-driven fan is stopped and the auto-
matic drift-door is closed, by the minus or suction water-gauge of
the working-fan, still running at the same speed, and using the
same power as when creating 6^ inches of water-gauge, that the
single fan will pass 66 per cent, of the volume of air produced bj^
the two fans, working together at the same speed, at 2*8 inches of
water-gauge. Consequently, the speed of a tri-phase motor need
never be changed in these duplicate fans, and the cost of working
the fans can, in a minute, be reduced to half, or even less than
half, at pleasure, while 66 per cent, of the full daily circulation
of air is secured in the mine. The difficulty of reducing the
speeds of tri-phase motors first turned the attention of the writer
to this new application of duplicate fans.
It may be of interest to state that the actual cost of the two
duplicate fans is very little more than that of a single fan to do
the same maximum work. It will doubtless be seen that great
advantages will result from applyinor this system especially to
new mines, where one fan will probably be sufficient to ventilate
the mine for, say, 10 years ; and the other fan can be added, as the
water-gauge of the mine, the length of the air-ways and the
rubbing-surface increase. The two fans can then be worked
together in unison, and prodtice the higher water-gauge required,
with a larger volume than that produced by the single fan.
The reason why one fan running alone at the same speed as
the two fans produces up to 75 per cent, of the volume produced
* British patent, April 28th, 1906, No. 9,952 ; and United States patent^
November 6th, 1906.
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'■e^Ajix^.i, orJ/inui-g I^ n^imrrs
VolJLXXULTjjweWIL
,^Oor^>' 19062907
To illustrate^ the^Sei^, CKCapeUs Paper onfTTbeAppbcatioTi
ofDupUcaie^Fans to Mutes '!
FiQ. 1.— Side Elevation of Sinqle-inlet Fan.
BEFERJENOE.
DIRECTION OP AIR-CURRENT« -
FiQ. 2.— Plan of Arrangement of Duplicate Fans
^^,,___, with Single-inlets
31r: "^m^
Fig. 3.— Plan of Arrangement of Duplicate Fans
^i^^S^^^jj^cv^ with Double-inlets.
Soale^je^Feet^toJ Inch,
AnSTUnd & CompYL'* Newcasile upanTjm*
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DISCUSSION — ^APPLICATION OF DUPLICATE FANS TO MINES. 48S
by the two fans, on this duplicate system, is very simple. If the
volume, say, 400,000 cubic feet per minute at 6 inches of water-
gauge, is produced by two fans at equal speeds : then, if 300,000
cubic feet per minute be passed, the water-gauge, due to 300,000
cubic feet under the same mine-conditions, will be reduced from
6 inches to 3'375 inches, and the horsepower in the air will be
163-6. When one fan is producing half of 400,000 cubic feet at
6 inches of water-gauge, the horsepower in the air is 189,
leaving a wide margin for loss of useful effect due to the large
volume per revolution passing through the fan under the lower
water-gauge, because the water-gauge produced by the fan at its
normal speed is transformed so largely into volume : a fact well
known to engineers who have tested fans on a mine, under varying
water-gauge conditions.
Duplicate fans, for the largest volumes and high water-gauges,
are now in construction ; and, when they are running, the form-
ulas relating to their work will be compiled so as to enable them
to be easily adapted to the varying conditions of mines.
The Chairman (Mr. C. C. Leach) asked what results would be
obtained by the two fans, where one fan delivered the air through
the other.
The Eev. G. M. Capell said that, in such a case, the same
efEect was obtained as in a series pump. He had calculated the
anticipated results of the two fans long before they were made :
he had then worked the details into a practical form, and it
was possible to get almost any desired result at varying water-
gauges. The duplicate fans as shown in figs. 1 and 2 (plate
xvii.) had not yet been tested on a mine; but an electrically-
driven plant was in course of erection.
Mr. Robert Clive (Doncaster) asked what would be the effect
if one fan was run at a higher speed than the other.
The Rev. G. M. Capell said that the fans would be electric-
ally driven, so that the two fans would run closely to the same
speed. The speed would have to be reduced at once, should there
be any great differences of speed. The fans would work eflGlciently,
if the difference of water-gauge between the two fans did not
exceed J inch ; but a difference of water-gauge exceeding J inch
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434 DISCUSSION — ^APPLICATION OF DUPLICATE FANS TO MIXES.
would cause air to be drawn from one fan to the other, and then
the balancing air-passage and its valve, between the fan-cases,
would come into action.
Mr. J. C. B. Hendt (Etherley) wrote that some years ago
he made experiments with duplicate Waddle fans at Pleasley
colliery.* He (Mr. Hendy) did not believe in running two fans
on the same fan-drift, in regard either to efficiency or to economy.
The Pleasley fans were not run together, the idea being simply
to have a spare fan always in readiness.
Mr. D. MuRGUE (St. Etienne, France) wrote that the ideas ex-
pressed by Mr. Capell seemed very judicious. Undoubtedly, in
theory, the volume of air furnished by two fans revolving at pre-
cisely the same speed could not be greater than the volume fur-
nished by a single fan. But, in practice, it was otherwise, as the
friction of the air in the various parts of the fan must be taken
into account, for it caused a diminution in the volume which the
fan was capable of producing. Now, when two fans were at work,
only half the volume was produced by each, diminishing therefore
by a half the total loss of useful effect due to friction, and increas-
ing consequently in a noticeable proportion the volume of air
passed through them. This increase was especially noticeable when
the two fans were of small dimensions and were working on a mine
with a large orifice, such as were most British pits. But in a mine
with a small orifice, such as were very frequent in France and
Belgium, two fans of large size would hardly yield a volume of air
notably greater than that yielded by a single fan. It was,
therefore, quite possible that in a mine with a large orifice, two
fans being set in motion at a constant speed by tri-phase cur-
rent, 66 per cent, of the normal volume of air would be obtained
with a single fan and at much less cost.
Mr. Sydney F. Walker (Bath) said that he would like to get
down to the bed-rock of the whole matter. As he understood the
results, each of the fans exhausted 200,000 cubic feet of air
at 6 inches of water-gauge, that was, together they produced
400,000 cubic feet of air at 6 inches of water-gauge; and singly,
each fan produced 300,000 cubic feet of air at 3| inches of water-
gauge; but, when running together, the two fans produced a
Avater-gauge of 6 inches, that was, 3 inches each.
• Trans, Inst. M. E.y 1891, vol. iL, page 536.
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DISCUSSION APPLICATION OF DUPLICATE FANS TO MINES. 486
The Eev. G. M. Capbll said that when tne two fans were
running together the water-gauge was 6 inches ; but when one fan
^as running alone the water-gauge was 3f inches.
Prof. G. E. Thompson (Leeds) asked (1) whether the statements
contained in the paper were taken from actual tests or from
theory; also (2) what disadvantages were expected from two
ordinary fans working at similar speeds on a mine, and what
advantages would ensue on raising the valve in the passage be-
tween the cases of the two fans. The chimneys were connected
together at the top, through the medium of the outside air, and
he could not imagine that any advantage would be obtained by
connecting points where the chamber was expanding and the air
wa4S losing its velocity. WTiatever the general opinion had been as
to the effect of two fans on one mine, the results obtained would
•depend upon the relative sizes of the fans and the resistance of the
mine. If the resistance offered to the passage of a given volume of
air through the fan was great compared with that of the mine,
then two fans in parallel placed on one mine would give a largely
increased result; but, if the resistance of the fan was small
compared with that of the mine, then two fans in parallel placed
on the mine would practically give no better result than one
fan. Was it a fact, when one of the two motor fans was stopped,
that the other fan running at the same speed and using the same
power would pass 66 per cent, of the volume produced by the two
fans working together; and consequently, with the duplicate
arrangement, the cost of running one fan at the week-ends in-
stead of both (when the motor was of the constant-speed type)
would be half or even less, while 66 per cent, of the normal output
of air was obtained ? It would be interesting to know how the
results were obtained, and the conditions of their application,
because it was generally understood that the water-gauge pro-
duced by a fan was proportional to the square of the speed of
the tips of the blades, and was constant for a constant speed.
Now, whether one fan was working alone, or whether it was work-
ing in conjunction with another fan, the water-gauge produced
by that fan would be constant if the speed was constant ; and, as
the energy absorbed depended upon the water-gauge produced
and upon the volume of air passing through the mine, if the
Telocity remained constant, the water-gauge and the work would
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IM DISCUSSION — ^APPLICATION OF DUPLICATE FANS TO MINES.
increase in proportion to the Yolume of air passing* through the-
fan. One would therefore expect that a fan, driven by a three-
phase motor running at a constant speed, would probably produce*
a volume, such as that stated by Mr. Capell, somewhere about 66
per cent, of the total produced by two fans ; th© water-gauge in
the fan-drift would be lower: the estra water-gauge produced
by the fan, owing to the constant speed, being absorbed in over-
coming the resistance of the fan to the passage of the increased
volume of air. Mr. Capell also suggested that his system could be
applied " to new mines, where one fan will probably be su£Gicient
to ventilate the mine for, say, ten years ; and the other fan can bo
added, as the water-gauge of the mine, the length of the air-ways,
and the rubbing-surface increase."* He (Mr. Thompson) ven-
tured to think that anybody who put this system into practice
would meet with failure, under the conditions premised. The
fans would probably have to be placed in series, thus adding th&
water-gauges, and not in parallel, adding the quantities.
Mr. J. W. Fbtaji (Eastwood) said that Mr. Capell's proposed
application of duplicate fans might afford the best results when
the fans were electrically driven, but he was not so sure that
any advantages would be obtained in the case of steam-driven
fans. He (Mr. Fryar) was rather an advocate of the use of
electricity, but he had not yet reached the point where he woiild
use electricity to drive a mine-fan. Mr.. Capell had suggested
that, in his system, one fan would be suflGlcient to ventilate a mine,
say, for the first ten years, and after that period had elapsed and
if the requirements of th© mine demanded it, a second fan would
be erected ; but no one could forecast what conditions might exist
at the end of ten years. A considerable saving might be
effected by selecting a fan of suitable dimensions for a new
colliery. Very often, a large fan was erected, and for the first
ten years it was working at from 20 to 50 per cent, of its full
load, and the eflGlciency would only be 30 to 40 per cent, instead of
60 to 66 per cent. From a purely commercial point of view,
if a small fan were erected, the cost would be small, the cost of
working would be small, and the efficiency during the first ten
years would be 60 or 70 per cent, instead of 30 to 40 per cent.
He was sure that the savings in ten years resulting from the erection,
of a small fan would pay for the cost of a large fan and new plant.
* Trans, Imt, M. E., 1907, vol. xxxiii., page 432.
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DISCUSSION — ^APPLICATION OF DUPLICATE FANS JO MINES. 487
tit the end of the ten years; and then the new fan should be
able to supply the requirements of the mine for another ten
years. He, however, thought that it would be economical, so
far as steam-driyen fans were concerned, to erect a small plant
at first and to replace it by a larger one, say, at the end of ten
years.
Mr. Emerson Bainbmdge (London) agreed that it would be
economical to erect a fan, of small dimensions, which would
^ve a high useful effect for the first ten years of the life of the
mine ; but, if it were of proper capacity for the ventilation of the
mine for these ten years, it might afterwards be used as a dupli-
<5ate or reserve fan for the large permanent fan. Engineers advo-
cated the erection of a duplicate fan in the hope and idea that it
might never be used ; and if an accident happened to the large fan,
the small fan, originally erected, could be used. He did not
agree with the suggestion that they should look forward to the
second fan breaking down at the end of twenty years or so. He
thought that it was quite possible to so arrange a colliery-plant,
that the first and small fan would work for ten or fifteen years,
and at the end of that time, when they knew their exact conditions,
a large permanent fan (erected before being needed) would be
available.
Mr. W. H. Patchell (London) said that it often happened
that an engineer, who might preferably desire to dri-sje a fan by
5team, had to resort to electricity, through force of circumstances.
When a colliery was being worked electrically, the saving due
to electric working was greatest on a plant which was worked
intermittently, such as haulages ; and, when current was being
generated by the owners, it was necessary to work electrically
the plant which ran long hours, so that the load-factor on the
generating-station was kept up. The total cost of production
was then low and the total saving was great, although if con-
sidered on their own merits there might appear to be a loss on
working the fans electrically. He (Mr. Patchell) asked whether
Mr. Capell had done anything more than experiment with the
model of the interesting arrangement exhibited. Results from
a full-sized installation would be most interesting, and he felt
sure that all the members wished that Mr. Capell's hopes might be
realized.
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438 DISCUSSION — ^APPLICATION OF DUPLICATE FANS TO MINES •
Mr. A. J. Kennedy (Whitwood collieries) said that by adopt^
ing the arrangement suggested by Mr. Capell, a source of great
waste might be overcome. Since Prof. T. Guibal introduced his-
centrifugal fan, it
had been the practice
to erect a large fan
at a new mine ; but,,
at the same time, it
could not be used
economically for
many years, and in
a large number of
cases, the fans were
never worked at
the si)eed for which
they were designed
during their whole
life at the mine.
The uncertainty
about a large num-
ber of mines, as ta
how long they would
work or how the out-
put might be altered^
was sufficient to give
Mr. Capell's scheme
very great weight.
Mr. Cax>ell also laid
stress on the pre-
vention of waste at
week-ends, a point
well worth consider-
ing; and when the
power absorbed by
a large fan, doing
very little work and
driven by a corres-
pondingly large engine, was considered, the waste was very
apparent. With regard to electric driving, the advantages were
very evident. He (Mr. Kennedy) knew of an electrically-driven
Fig. 4.— Duplicatb Capkll Fans, with Singlb-
INLSTB, WhITWOOD CoLLIEIUKS.
Scale, 16 Feet to 1 Inch.
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DISCUSSION — ^APPLICATION OF DUPLICATE FANS TO MINES. 43^
fan, running at full speed, and, as the mine was only in its
infancy, the inlet of the fan was partly closed in order to reduce
the quantity of air passing through it.
An alternative to Mr. Capell's scheme had been devised by Mr.
Isaac Hodges, of the Whitwood collieries. The fans were
designed for a mine which had reached its maximum output;
and, as the workings got further away from the upcast shaft, a
higher water-gauge would be required to pass the same quantity
of air along the increased length of roads. In order to efEect
this result as economically as possible, two fans had been erected
to run in series (fig. 4). The first Capell fan. A, 16 feet in
diameter and 4| feet wide, was designed to produce a water-gauge
of 6 inches ; and the second Capell fan, B, 16 feet in diameter
and 5^ feet wide, was designed to produce a water-gauge of 3
inches. The second fan, B, had been working some time, and
was producing all the air that was required at present; but,
when required, the first fan. A, would be started and would pull
the air directly from the shaft at a water-gauge of 6 inches, pass-
ing it on to the second fan, B, which would produce a water-gauge
of 3 inches. Consequently, the first fan. A, would only have to
produce (6— 3=) 3 inches of water-gauge, and a great saving of
power would be efEected. Whether these results would be realized
in actual practice, however, remained to be proved.
The Eev. G. M. Capell, replying to the discussion, said that
his paper was a statement of results founded on theory and proved
by experiments. The pipe, F, and the valve, ^, between the casings^
were intended to produce equilibrium between the pressures in
the two fan-casings, thus producing the conditions of a divided
fan, with two inlets, working in one casing ; and the nearest com-
parison would be the connection of two air-chambers by a con-
necting-pipe. He would suppose that both fans, working together,
showed 65 per cent, of manometric efficiency; and, on stopping
one fan, the volume dropped to 66 per cent, of the total passed by
the two fans. The one fan produced this volume, running at the
same speed as when passing half the original volume at the water-
gauge required by the mine ; but, the volume being reduced, the
single fan dealt with it at the lower water-gauge of 2*8 inches.
The equivalent orifice of the mine being unchanged, the lower
water-gauge, due to only 66 per cent, of the original volume pass-
ing, had now to be produced by the single fan. He (Mr. Capell)
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440 DISCI7SSI0N — ^APPLICATION OF DUPLICATE FANS TO MINES.
only knew of two conditions which would produce the same
water-guuge when the fan was running at the same speed : — (1)
When the initial water-gaug« of a fan was tested, with the mine
closed entirely from the fan; or (2) when a fan was tested on
the same equivalent orifice. When working in series, each
duplicate fan would produce equal water-gauges at the same
speed, and each would deal with the volume of air that they
would pass normally at that water-gauge. When working in
parallel, each fan would produce its normal water-gauge, in its
own drift ; this water-gauge would be united at the main drift
beyond the division, and would be the water-gauge required to
pass the required volume under the equivalent orifice of the
mine. The present-day and future developments of a mine, of
course, depended on circumstances ; and where more seams were
worked, more air was required, at an enhanced water-gauge.
Mr. H. W. Halbaum (Birtley) wrote that Mr. Capell had
stated one proposition that was sound, and another that seemed
untenable. By duplicate fans he understood Mr. Capell to mean
two fans of similar design, having practically equal efficiencies,
both with respect to the production of pressure and to the passage
of volume.
With regard to Mr. Capeirs sound thesis that, if one of the
duplicate fans were stopped whilst the other continued to run
at the same speed, the reduced volume of air would be greater
than half of the original volume, the question: How much
greater? would naturally occur to most engineers. The follow-
ing solution depended on the theory of the equivalent orifice.
If one fan be stopped, the power expended on the passive resist-
ances would be reduced by a half, since half of the belt-and-
joumal friction, etc., would be done away with, the speed being
the same as before, when both fans ran together. Then as to
the volume of air. Let the total pressure produced in either
case be H, then H = A + Ao: h being the pressure expended on
the mine-resistance ; and Aq, the pressure expended on the resist-
ance of the fan or fans to the passage of the volume. Let
a be the equivalent orifice of the mine ; and o/2 the orifice of pas-
sage for each fan ; then the sum of the fan-orifices is o. Ignoring
unnecessary numerical constants, which affect both cases alike:
. = -^;and. = -^.
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I>ISCTTSSION— APPLICATION OF DUPLICATE FANS TO MINES. 441
Tte squared quantities being, at present, more convenient,
tHe equations may be written:
ya ya
«»=-^;and.» = ^: ..... (1)
V "being the volume of air when both fans are running. Since
h equalled the pressure expended on the equivalent orifice of the
XKiine, a ; and Aq equalled the pressure expended on the sum of
tlie fan-orifices, o ; it is clear that H = A + A© ; that is, the pressure
esipended on a and o combined. Hence, the joint orifice of the
mine and fans together, or the effective orifice of the whole
arrxangement is m ; and :
ya
^' = ^ (2)
Substituting the value of (A + Aq) for H, and then substituting
tlie values of A and A© given by equation (1), it followed that :
^' = y2— ya'
but as V had the same value on all the orifices «, o and m, the
expression can be reduced to :
^ = T": — 5 » ftii<i m = fl ^ •
It was obvious, when both fans were running, that:
w=sa sin ftan""^ - J, (3)
or m equalled a multiplied by the sine of an angle whose tangent
was equal to o divided by a. Let that angle be <^, then :
m = fl sin <^ (4)
But, from equation (2), m equalled V divided by the square root
of H; and combining this with equation (4), it followed that
the value of V. when both fans were running, was :
V = reVHsin<^ (A)
When one fan was stopped and the other continued to run, the
original effective orifice m was reduced to n\ the orifice of pas-
sage was reduced from o to o\% ; and a remained the same as before,
since the mine conditions were unaltered ; and H was the same
value as before, since the speed was constant. But the volume V
originally obtaining was now reduced to v. By precisely the
TOL. XX4III.-.19064J07, 32
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442 DISCUSSION — ^APPLICATION OF DUPLICATE FANS TO MINES.
same reasoning as that adopted above to find the value of V,
the following formula was obtained for the altered conditions.
The effective orifice of the new arrangement was :
n = fl sm
K'2-J
Let the new angle be 0, then :
n=za sin 0 (5)
and also :
V
"=71'
which, by combination with equation (f5), gave for the value of
V when only the one fan was running :
r = rtv^Hsin^ (B)
And since a s/ H wa^; the same for both cases, the ratio of V and
V was:
^ . , sin ( tan"^ - )
V sm Q
'^ (*^°" £)
Now, except in the infinitesimal arcs of mathematicians where
arc, sine and tangent were all equal, there was no case where
the sine and the tangent varied at equal rates. But the angles
0 and 0 were always very large arcs. It was indeed sufficiently
well known that no fan could give a satisfactory efficiency on
any mine unless o was at least equal to 2a, And probably
Mr. Capell, who had a keen eye for visible efficiency, had seldom,
if ever, of his own free will, installed a fan on a mine apart from
the conditions that o should be at least 3 or 4 times a* Hence
the value of the tangent of the angle <f> was seldom less than 2
and seldom more than 4. If tan <l> equalled 1, then o equalled a,
and half the pressure must be expended within the fan itself,
and such a fan could obviously never yield an efficiency so large
as 50 per cent., since 50 per cent, of the aerodynamic power would
be spent within the fan, and a proportion of the total power on
the passive resistances. Table I. showed the effect of the ratio
oja upon the problem stated by Mr. Capell. The table, read in
horizontal lines, was self-explanatory, and showed that acconi-
* «* Ventilation of Mines,'* by Mr. M, Walton Brown, The Colliery Manager^s
Pocket Book, 1891. page 274.
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mSCtJSSION — ^APPLlCATlOTf OF t)Ul»LlCATE FANS TO MINES. 448
iugly ag the original value of oja (when both fans were running)
varied from 1 to 5, the volume v obtained by the one fan would
vary from 63 to 95 per cent, of the volume V obtained by both.
Table I.
Volume of Aik produced fbom varying Fan-orifices
AND Mine-orifices.
No.
_ 0
~ a
Tan e
0
~ 2a
Siii</>
= v
Sin^ «
F
V
1
1
0-5
0-707
0-447
1-68
0-63
2
2
10
0-894
0-707
1-26
0-79
3
3
• 1-5
0-949
0-832
1-14
0-88
4
4
2-0
0-970
0*894
1-09
0-92
5
5
2-6
0-981
0-928
1-05
0-96
The unsoundness of Mr. Capell's second statement was easily
demonstrated. He stated that *' the speed of a tri-phase motor
need never be changed in these duplicate fans, and the cost
-of working the fans can, in a minute, be reduced to half, or
even less than half, at pleasure, while 66 per cent, of the full
daily circulation of air is secured in the mine."* In this, Mr.
Capell seemed to be under a misapprehension, as the cost would
vary as the power expended. The power expended, apart from
the portion absorbed by the passive resistances, would vary
directly as the total pressure, H, multiplied by the volume, V, or,
V, as the case might be ; and not as the reduced mine-pressure, A,
multiplied into v, as Mr. Capell appeared to suppose. The speed
being constant, the total pressure, H, was constant, however
much the relative values of its two terms, h and ho, might be
made to fluctuate. Since H was constant, the total aerodynamic
power, and its cost, would vary directly as the volume of air.
If the speed were constant, the cost could be reduced to one^half
only by reducing the volume by one-half. This could be done
by a regulating screen in the fan-drift, or by changing the gear
of the fan. But the question naturally suggested itself: Why
not have recourse to the regulating screen, or the differential
pulley in the first instance, instead of putting down a second
fan? The regulating door, brattice, or screen referred to,
appeared to furnish the most simple, the cheapest and the most
practical solution of the difficulty which had suggested to Mr.
Capell the erection of duplicate fans.
* Trans, Inst, M. L\, 1907, vol. xxxiii., page 43*2.
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Hi DISCUSSION — ^AI^PLlCATlON OF DUI^LICATE FAl^S TO ICtNliS.
Mr. B. L. Galloway (Bridge of Allan) wrote that Mr.
Capell's chief aim in suggesting the employment of two fans,
instead of one, seemed to be to obtain facilities for slowing
down the ventilation at week-ends and other idle days. In
the interests of the safe working of fiery mines, the adoption of
such an arrangement with such an object could not, in his
(Mr. Galloway's) opinion, be too strongly deprecated. When
mechanical ventilators first began to come into use, one of the
advantages claimed was that a greater degree of exhaustion
might be employed with a view to draining the mine of gas
when the men were out. It was perhaps doubtful whether this
had ever been practised, but unfortunately, in many cases, the
opposite course had been followed. The speed of the ventilator
had been slackened, and accumulations of gas allowed to form
in the workings, thus predisposing the mines to explosion on
the resumption of operations. If the history of these disasters
were examined, it would be found that they had ever been most
rife after periods of cessation from work; not only was the
slowing-down of the ventilation during periods of cessation from
work fraught with danger, but he (Mr. Galloway) believed
that it was illegal. He did not wish it to be understood that he
disapproved of duplicating ventilators; but both should be of
full power, and the ventilation should be constantly maintained
at its normal rate at all times, whether the mine was at work or
not. This was a paramount consideration of safety in the
working of fiery mines.
The Chairman (Mr. C. C. Leach) said that Mr. Capell had
drawn particular attention to the advantage of incurring only a
small outlay at the beginning of the life of a mine. The use
of electricity was advocated, but he hoped that the members
would remember that steam-engines had been vastly improved
of recent years. He moved that the best thanks of the members
be accorded to Mr. Capell for his clever paper.
Mr. M. Walton Bkown seconded the resolution, which was
unanimously approved.
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i)tSCUSSlON — PRACTICAL PEOBtEllS OF iiACHlNE-MINING. 446
DISCUSSION OF MR. SAM. MAYOR'S PAPER ON
" PRACTICAL PROBLEMS OF MACHINE-MINING."*
Mr. Sam. Mavoe, referring to Prof. C. Latham's question re-
garding the height of the cutt, wrote that where the undercut
was not deep, say, 3 to 3^ feet, it was usually desired, if the holing
was made in coal, that the height of the cut should be the least
possible in order to save the coal; and if the cut was made
under the coal, it should also be the least possible (unless addi-
tional height at the face was required) in order to keep down the
amount of dirt to be handled. Where, however, the undercut
was deeper it might be desirable to increase the height of the
cut (whether made in the coal or under it) in the following
cases : — (a) Where a hard coal parts in large blocks from the
back of the cut and sits down without breaking up : (b) where
the pavement rises, and reduces the clearance for the coal to
drop after being undercut. In such cases, considerable advantage
had frequently been observed in the tapered cut made by the bar
machine : the greater height at the front of the cut permitting
the coal to fall forward and facilitating its breaking up.
With regard to the use of inbye air-compressors, Mr. W.
Reavell's statementj that he had found it possible to convey
hot compressed air through covered pipes to a distance of 1,000
feet with very little fall of temperature was extremely interesting,
as was Mr. Reavell's confirmation of his (Mr. Mavor's) view that
substantial gain in economy would result by compressing adia-
batically, conveying the hot air to the coal-cutter motor, and
there using it expansively.
Certain limitations had been correctly indicated by Mr. J. S.
Ward to the provision of more frequent gate-roads§, as suggested
in his (Mr. Mavor's) paper. But the advantage of feeding the
shaft from a large area was not apparent; and, by doing so,
many of the advantages, which ought to be realized from
machine-working, might be sacrificed. He (Mr. Mavor) had
data relating to the working by machines of a large number of
seams under 3 feet thick; and, almost without exception, the
gate-roads to the faces yielding the largest and most regular
outputs per machine, were less than 60 feet apart.
* Trans. Inst, M, K, 1906, vol. xzxL, page 378 ; and vol. xxxii., pages 197,
391 and 499.
t Ibid,, 1906, voL xxxL, page 440. I Ibid., 1906, vol. xxxi., page 441.
§ Ibid,, 1906, vol. xxxL, page 442.
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446 mSCItSSlOIf — PBACItCAL PaOBLEMS OF MACHINtl-MmiNG .
From tlie point of view of the electrical design of three-phase
coal-cutter motors, Mr. H. M. Hobart's advocacy* of low period-
icity could not be challenged, but these machines were the result-
ant of compromise and concession in relation to every factor. In
the case of coal-cutters of the larger sizes, 750 or 800 revolutions
per minute from the mechanical point of view might be con-
sidered a suitable rotor-speed; but the diimeter of these
machines permitted six-pole or eight-pole windings to adapt
them for the speeds named, at periodicities of 40 or 50 cycles
per second. In the case of small size three-phase coal-cutters,
however, there was no mechanical reason why the rotor-speeds
should not be 1,000 or even 1,200 revolutions per minute; and a
periodicity of 25 cycles, by limiting the speed to 750 revolutions
per minute, also limited the power available from a machine of a
given height. On a circuit, with 26 cycles per second, therefore,
the smaller machines, which could also be wound with four poles
or with six poles, were at a disadvantage in respect of power
as compared with machines of the same dimensions on circuits,
with 30, 40 or 50 cycles per second. In short, the machine,
with 25 cycles per second, was restricted to one speed, namely,
750 revolutions per minute, whereas higher periodicities afforded
a choice of increased speeds and powers.
Mr. Hobart's remarks on starting torquet were very interest-
ing : the problem of starting torque with a simple squirrel-cage
rotor was satisfactorily solved, so far as the Pickquick bar
machine was concerned ; but for machines of other types, which
required higher starti^ig torques, the advantage of the double
squirrel-cage rotor as compared with a slip-ring rotor was worth
considering.
The communication from Dr. J. R. M. Robei-tsonJ of New
South Wales afforded some interesting glimpses of problems in
coal-mining that presented themselves in that colony. The
impelling motive in the adoption of machines appeared, in Dr.
Robertson's case, to have been the hard necessity for reduction in
costs ; and it was gratifying to learn that, notwithstanding the
difficulties encountered, the results of this pioneer essay with
longwall machine working had been entirely satisfactory. It
might be noted that the success was not immediate, nor did it
♦ Trana. Inst, Af. E,, 1906, vol. xxxii., page 391.
t Ibid., 1906, vol. xxxu., page 392. t Ibid., 1906, vol. xxxii., page 393.
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DISCUSSION — PEACTICAL PROBLEMS OF MACHINE-MINING. 447
seem yet to be complete. The best methods of adapting and
applying the machine to the peculiarities of the seam were only
arrived at by the exercise of intelligent observation and resource-
ful management. The seam in several respects was a difficult
one, and the achievement of success in a country remote from
the aid of riper skill and experience in machine working was
highly creditable to those concerned. It was evident that the
full advantage of the large output available from machines in that
case would only be realized by the application of mechanical con-
veyance at the face. The adoption of the skip described by Dr.
Robertson would alleviate the difficulty in respect of filling the
coal, and would serve as a step towards a solution by simple
mechanical means. It was satisfactory to know that the initial
hostility of the men had been overcome, and it waa probable that,
as had occurred elsewhere^ the men would ultimately exhibit a
preference for employment in machine-wrought sections. The
experience of Dr. Robertson, in respect of complete immunity
from breakdown of the machines, was similar to that of a colliery
manager, who recently stated that when he adopted machines he
" expected nothing but trouble, but had had nothing but coal."
Mr. W. Bolton Shaw, in his valuable contribution* to the
discussion, referred to the flywheel effect of electrically-driven
coal-cutters ; but apparently he had not realized the full import-
ance of this point. In machines of the larger and more power-
ful sizes, the stored energy in the rotating parts was considerable ;
and, in machines of corresponding power, it was generally greater
in the three-phase than in the direct-current type, owing to the
greater diameter required to meet the exigencies of design in
the former. The absence of commutators in the three-phase type
gave greater license in respect of speed of rotation; and, when
the periodicity of the electric supply permitted, speeds of between
900 and 1,000 revolutions per minute were not infrequent. The
stored energy in a three-phase coal-cutter rotor was therefore
often much greater than that in a direct-current armature, and
had actually called for the strengthening of mechanical parts,
which had never given trouble in direct-current machines. It
was true that the three-phase motor would stop when loaded
above a certain point, beyond which a direct-current machine
• Tro^na, Inst. M, E„ 1906, vol. xxxii., page 502,
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448 DISCUSSION — ^PBACTICAL PEOBLEMS OF MACHINE-MINING.
would stniggrle on ; but in case of the cutters meeting' with great
and sudden resistance, as when striking a large ironstone-ball
when the haulage rope was short and tight, the energy stored
in a three-phase rotor (it amounted sometimes to 26,000 foot-
pounds) might cause breakage of a mechanical part before the
machine had time to pull up.
Mr. Shaw's comparison of direct-current and three-phase
motors was extremely interesting, but it could not be accepted
as universally, and probably it was not generally applicable. The
three-phase motors referred to must have had relatively low over-
load capacity which, although admittedly an advantage in the
case under discussion, was not a characteristic of all coal-cutter
motors of the type. The case cited by Mr. Shaw showed clearly
the disastrous consequences of overdriving coal-cutters, and
should serve as a warning against this practice. His (Mr. Mavor's)
discouragement of the submergence of coal-cutter switches in
oil was due to the difficulty of maintaining the oil-tightness of
switch-boxes in seams that were not approximately level, and
therefore of keeping a suitable head of oil above the sparking
points. The machine-faced joints of switch-box covers were
flame-tight. He was in complete agreement with Mr. Shaw's
views as to the type of power-plant for coal-cutters.
Messrs W. J. Kemp and G. A. Lewis' paper on " Gypsum
in Sussex " was read as follows : —
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GTPSUM IK SUSSEX. 449
GYPSUM IN SUSSEX.
By W. J. KEMP and G. ALFRED LEWIS.
Occurren^ie of Gypsum. — The Sussex gypsum occurs in tlie
Purbeck beds, found at the surface, in two or three isolated
patches, in a narrow band of country lying between two great
faults, running from south-east to north-west. These beds were
identified as of Purbeck formation, as one of the results of the
Sub-Wealden exploration-boring commenced at Netherfield in
the year 1872. Although in this paper the authors are not
directly concerned with the ultimate result of this historic bore-
hole, it may not be out of place to mention that, through the
enthusiasm and untiring devotion of the late Mr. Henry Willett,
of Brighton, and with many troubles and difficulties, it was
finally carried to a depth of 1,905 feet, by the Diamond Rock-
boring Company, without finding any indication of the nearness
of the Primary rocks.
The Sub-Wealden Gypmm Company, Limited. — Gypsum hav-
ing been discovered, the next thing was to endeavour to make
some practical use of the circumstance. This idea occurred to
two different sets of men : one party coming from Leicestershire,
hailing Mr. Bosworth as their leader; and the other from Surrey,
consisting, for the most part, of directors and others, connected
with the Dorking Grey Stone Lime Company. The Leicester-
shire party soon got to work, and sank a shaft, within about 60
yards of the experimental boring, on land belonging to Mr. C. A.
Egerton. He gave every facility for the work, and granted a
lease to the Leicestershire gentlemen above mentioned, who had
been strengthened by the addition of one or two wellknown
Sussex men. At this juncture the two rival parties met, and,
after talking matters over, decided to work jointly, and formed
the Sub-Wealden Gypsum Company, Limited. The company, at
that period, had no thought of manufacturing plaster, as it was
understood that there was an abundant market for gypsum in
the lump.
3.3
▼OL. XXXIII.-U0e-lW7.
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450
GYPSUM IN SUSSEX.
The shaft, which had then reached the upper seam of gyiwum,
was 4 miles from the nearest railway-station, and 1 mile from the
nearest available road. Consequently nothing" could be done until
a railway-siding had been arranged for and put in, and a tram-
way had been constructed to connect the siding with the shaft,
over a mile away. No building-materials of any importance, or
machinery of any weight, could be got to the shaft without
the tramway, so there was considerable delay. However, these
troubles were overcome at last, and in the year 1876 some gypsum
was sent away.
Sussex Gypsum. — The working or upper seam, with which the
authors have been most concerned, consists of a continuous bed
FlO. 1.— MOUNTFIBLD GypSUM-MINB, WITH HaULAGE-ROADS FROM RaILW AY-
SIDINGS AND Boiling-pan House.
of compact grey gypsum, with pockets of white. Usually there
is no cleavage at all between the grey and the white gypsum, and
the two kinds merge into each other more or less abruptly. The
pockets of white are enclosed in and attached to the grey gypsum,
and sometimes are themselves engrained with the grey gypsum,
and therefore anything like complete separation of any consider-
able quantity of the white would be very difficult. It was one
of these pockets of white gypsum, doubtless, that the drill re-
vealed as a seam of " pure statuary alabaster." On analysis, the
white gypsum is found to be absolutely pure crystallized sulphate
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GYPSUM IN SUSSEX.
451
of lime. Some of the grey gypsum is almost equally pure ; and
some recent analyses average as follows: — Crystallized gypsum,
991 per cent. ; sand and clay, 0*7 per cent. ; and moisture, 0*2 per
cent. In places, the grey gypsum is not of this pure character,
and is found engrained with more or less calcareous shale, formed
in films between the layers of crystals. The upper seam of
gypsum, now being worked, varies from 4 to 7 feet in thickness.
It is bounded
at the top and
bottom by lines
of satin-spar of
variable thick-
ness. These
satin-spar lines
rise and fall :
when the top
line falls the
bottom one
usually rises,
inclining the
two lines to
approach each
other. They do
not actually
meet, however,
but approach
and recede
without coming
nearer than
about 3 to 4
feet. When they
are nearest to-
gether, the grey gypsum is engrained with rock, and when they
are farthest apart, the grey gypsum is purest and there is more
white. The roof and floor of this seam are both composed of
alternate layers of calcareous shale and gypsum. Peculiar
nodules of gypsum are found in the floor, varying in size from a
pea to a diameter of 2 feet or more. Some of these nodules are
discoid, and some of the large ones are found with a number of
small nodules enclosed within them.
Fig. 2.— Gypsum-kilns.
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452
GYPSFM IN SUSSEX.
There is another seam of gypsum, below the one that is now
being worked, of a beautifully crystalline character. It appears
to be very regular in its thickness of about 21 inches. An analysis
of a specimen of it is as follows : — Crystallized sulphate of lime,
99*5 per cent. ; sand and clay, 01 per cent. ; and moisture, 0*4
per cent.
The overlying beds, as described by Mr. J. E. H. Peyton, in a
paper read, in March, 1874, before the Hastings and St. Leonards
Historical and Philosophical Society, are detailed in Table I.
Tablc I.— Sbctiox of Strata in the upper portion of the
Sub-Wealden Boring, 1S72.
Thiek-
Depth
Thick-
Depth
nptsof
from
net
IB of
from
No. Desp-riptlon of fltniU.
HtraU.
Surface.
No. DeKriptSon of Strata.
Strata.
Surface.
Ft.
Iru.
Ft. Iw.
Pt. InB.
Ft iDfU
1 Shales
.. 17
0
17
0
14 Grey shale ...
13
0
97 6
2 Blue limestone
.. 2
0
19
0
15 Greenish shales,
with
3 Shale
.. 6
0
24
0
veins of gypsum ...
20
0
117 6
4 Blue limestone
.. 2
0
26
0
16 Impure gypsum
9
0
126 6
5 Shale
.. 4
0
30
0
17 Pure gypsum •
...
4
0
130 A
6 Limestone
.. 1
0
31
0
18 Impure gypsum
...
8
0
138 6
7 Shale
. 4
0
35
0
19 Pure gypsum
3
0
141 6
8 Limestone
.. 3
0
38
0
20 Dark gypsum.
im-
9 Shale
.. 4
0
42
0
pure
...
13
0
154 6
10 Blue shale ..
.. 16
0
5S
0
21 Blue shale ...
3
0
157 6
11 Grey shale ...
.. 3
0
61
0
22 Gypsum- nodules
and
12 Hard shale
. 14
0
75
0
veins
...
13
0
.170 6
13 Shale, with crystals
of
23 Gypsum-marl
24 Black sulphurous
8
0
178 6
carbonate of lime
.. 9
6
84
6
marl
1
0
179 6
* Gypeum-aeam now being workrd.
Mr. Peyton states that under the beds of g^yx)aum, there is a
greenish sand, with nodules of chert, 21 feet thick, and below
that are several veins of sulphurous shale, whilst at *V28 feet,
comes a grey shale (very fossil if erous) stated to belong to the
Kimeridge clay. At about 480 feet from the surface, beds were
found strongly impregnated with petroleum. Gypsum is often
found in the mine, in the neighbourhood of faults, stained with,
and smelling strongly of, petroleum. Attempts have been made
to find natural gas in the neighbourhood by boring into the clay,
but they have not been successful.
Plaster-manufacture, — It was soon fo-und that, from one cause
or another, very little business could be done in raw gypsum,
and it was determined to manufacture plaster, etc., on the spot. The
first planter was made with gypsum broken into small pieces, about
the size of a ben's egg, and baked in a Perkius oven erected for
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GYl^SUM tft SUSSEX. iM
the purpose.* This oven was heated by longitudinal tubes, run-
ning the whole length of the oven. In the manufacture of these
tubes, one end was sealed by welding, and enough water was run
into the tube to fill one-tenth of its length. The water was then
gently heated, until the air was driven out by the steam so pro-
duced. The remaining open end of the tube waa then sealed by
welding, leaving a vacuum, except for the enclosed water and
water-vapour. A number of these tubes were laid side by side,
forming a flat series along the bottom of the oven, passing at one
end through a firebrick-wall, dividing the oven from the furnace.
The tubes were inclined towards the furnace-end of the oven,
their lower ends forming the fire-bars. A coiTCspcmding set of
tubes ran along the top of the oven, also passing through to the
front of the furnace and receiving the upward heat from the
fire. The water in the tubes was vaporized, and the steam car-
ried the heat, and distributed it evenly over the whole length of
the oven. The plaster made by this method was very good, and
received nothing but praise from those who used it. The tre-
mendous cost, however, of the ovens in relation to the quantity
of plaster treated, and the high cost of filling and emptying, pre-
cluded the continued use of these ovens for manufacturing plaster
on a commercial scale.
Ordinary plaster-ovens were then adopted, and a form
of continuous kiln was used for some years with fair success.
An American plaster-dryer (a revolving-cylinder anangement),
which was said to have achieved a reputation in the United
States, was at one time brought into notice, and was given a fair
trial. The inventor spent some days at the works, but he was not
able to make his machine a great success. The gypsum for treat-
ment in this apparatus was broken to about the size of peas ; and
this, of course, entailed the making of a large proportion of dust,
which could not be dealt with satisfactorily in the machine. It
was necessary to keep a strong current of air moving onward
through the cylinder to get rid of the steam, and this current of
air carried the dust with it, distributing it over the surrounding
country. This dust might have been intercepted doubtless, and
deposited in a stive-room; but, as it was neither calcined nor
uncalcined, it would have been difficult to utilize it profitably.
A small dust-collecting chamber, attached to the apparatus,
• Trans. N. E. Inst,, 1879, vol. xxix., page 49 and plate ii.
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454
GYPSUM IN SUSSEX.
proved quite inadequate. And further, the products of combus-
tion, passed through the cylinder, proved to be objectionable.
In the meantime, a change was going on in the trade, which
was relegating baked plaster, more and more, into the background.
Years ago, and until nearly the time of which the writers are
speaking, baked plaster had always been in demand, and boiled
plaster had not been in favour. The reason of this was, that
boiled plaster had formerly been made by hand-labour, the result
Fig. 3.— Hoppebs above Boilino-pans.
being good, or bad, according to the care taken by the man who
had charge of the making of it. The plaster therefore varied in
quality, and could not be depended upon. By the introduction
of round pans, with mechanical stirrers, boiled plaster was
brought to perfection, and became liked for the regularity of its
setting quality; and as it sets slowly and gives the plasterer
more time for working it than quick-setting baked plaster does,
it became gradually more popular in the eyes of the men who had
to use it, and now boiled plaster is almost exclusively used for
building work.
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GYPSUM IN SUSSEX.
455
The modem method of producing boiled plaster is to sort, break,
and grind the gypsum to powder (fig. 3). It is then run into a
round pan built of firebrick, with flues under the floor, and fitted
with revolving stirrers (fig. 4). Sometimes cast-iron plates cover
the flues, and form the bottom of the pan, the plates nearest the
furnace only being protected with a layer of fire-tiles under them.
Forced draught is often used, but it is not essential. When the
fresh charge gets warm it runs freely, almost like water, before
the scrapers ; and steam escapes from it, giving the appearance of
Fig. 4. —Boiling-pans with Revolving Stibrebs.
V
boiling, from which the process takes its name. When the heat-
ing has gone on long enough, the liquidity of the plaster lessens
and the latter gathers in front of the stirrers, showing to the
experienced attendant, ihat it has been sufficiently heated. A
door in the side of the pan is then opened and the charge swept
out by scrapers which are let down for the purpose. The plaster
flows into a hopper, and is elevated into another hopper for the
purpose of sacking-off.
The " perfect and inexpensive " system of making plaster has
yet to be devised; but, in the meantime, boiling-pens provide a
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456 GYPSUM IN SUSSEX.
means of making excellent plaster of regular quality, much appre-
ciated by the workpeople, who have to deal with the material
after it has left the manufacturers' hands. There is undoubtedly
a great deal of wear-and-tear with the furnaces and flues, and the
heat at which it is found necessary to keep the floor is greater
than, from theoretical considerations, would seem to be required.
On the other hand, the result of calcining a charge of plaster in
this way is so sure, that nothing but the grossest wilful neglect
on the part of the man in charge, would be sufficient to produce
an indifferent batch of plaster by this process.
There is a remarkable difference between baked and boiled
plaster in their setting time. The former, when new, sets in
about 6 minutes, whereas boiled plaster takes 15 or 16 minutes to
set. Probably the quick setting of the baked plaster is due to its
containing some particles finer than those which are produced in
the boiling process. The finer particles are more easily soluble
in water, and solubility is the chief factor in starting the setting
action. Mr. W. A. Davis, in a paper read before the Society of
Chemical Industry,* showed that the setting of plaster goes on in
two stages : An orthorhombic dihydrate is formed ; this after-
wards passes, with some expansion, into gypsum, which is a
mono-symmetric dihydrate. The two dihydrates are of the same
chemical composition, but of different crystalline characters. Mr.
Davis found that the first effect of heating gypsum is to convert
it into the orthorhombic variety before the water of crystalliza-
tion is given off. Thus there is a double series of bodies, each
pair being alike in chemical propoi-tions, but of different crystal-
line characters : (a) Insoluble anhydrite, as found in nature or
obtained by heating gypsum at a red heat, and soluble anJiydrite
prepared by heating gypsum at a low heat, etc.; (b) Gypsum
itself, the mono-symmetric dihydrate, and the orthorhombic dihy-
drate; and lastly (c) the haJf hydrate known as plaster of Paris,
and the less soluble half hydrate produced by boiling gypsum in
water under pressure.
Besides plaster of Paris, Keene's cement and Parian cement
are made in the usual way, and a speciality called ** Sirapite," is
turned out in fairly considerable quantities. Sirapite, a
• " The Nature of the Changes involved in the Production and Setting of
Plaster of Paris," by Mr. W. A. Davis, The Journal of the Society qf CJiemUai
Industry y 1907, vol. xxvi., page 727.
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GYPSUM IN SUSSEX. 457
thoroughly calcined cement-plaster, has acquired much popularity
amongst architects, as well as with builders and plasterers. It is
sold cheaply, and can be used in most localities at about the same
cost as that of common-lime plaster. The London Hospital, Naps-
bury Asylum, King Edward VII. Sanatorium, and many other
similar buildings, as well as many inexpensive cottages, have been
plastered with sirapite.
Gypsum as Manure, — Gypsum has been used as a manure for
many years. It has been largely used in Germany for clover,
etc., and in America, it is said, for all crops. Benjamin Franklin
demonstrated the remarkable action of gypsum when used as a
dressing for clover. Prof. James F. W. Johnston, in his Lectures
on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology, gives many striking in-
stances of the efficacy of gypsum, and other interesting examples
of the same kind are to be found in Mr. J. Chalmers Morton's
Cyclopcedia of Agriculture, The writers, in their own experience,
do not find the use of gypsum at all genei*al amongst farmers.
As an exception to this, however, there is a considerable quantity
used by hop-growers in Kent and Sussex. Several large hop-
growers have used gypsum every year, for many yeai*s past ; and
they find tJiat it prevents mould and improves the quality of the
hops where it is used.
Anhydrite, — Sussex gypsum is practically free from anhy-
drite ; but small quantities have been found now and then, and it
is merely a curiosity at Mountfield. The writers have tried in vain
to get specimens for this occasion, but none have been discovered.
Anhydrite is formed artificially, however, in the sludge from
the steam-boilers. When using mine-water in the boilers, very
little scale is formed, but a precipitation of sulphate of lime takes
place ; and this is, or becomes, nearly pure anhydrite, in exceed-
ingly fine crystals. It is certain from this, that anhydrite is pro-
duced from a solution of gypsum, under conditions existing in a
steam-boiler working at a pressure of 60 pounds i)er square inch ;
and probably a much lower pressure would produce a similar
result. After a series of experiments, Prof. J. H. van't Hoff* con-
• **Gips und Anhydrit," by Messrs. J. H. van't Hoff and F. Weigert,
Sitzung^>erichte der Kihuglicfi PreuMiwhen Akademie der Wisiiefischaften zu Berlin^
1901, page 1140 ; and Abstract, Jcumal of the ChemiaU Society y 1902, vol. Ixxxii.,
part ii., page 137.
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468 GYPSUM IN" SUSSEX.
eluded tkat anhydrite is precipitated from a saturated solution of
sodium chloride containing calcium sulphate at 25^ Cent., and
thus accounts for the deposition of anhydrite from sea-water in
nature.
Mr. T. Tra£Eord Wynne had asked for suggestions for the
utilization of anhydrite,* and that must be the excuse for allud-
ing at some length to a matter scarcely afifecting Sussex gypsum.
It seems not impoesible, where anhydrite is found in a state of
hardness that does not present insuperable difficulties to its
reduction to a fine powder at a reasonable cost, or if by weather-
ing, a sufficient state of softness can be imparted to it, that it
might be turned to account by extracting the sulphur from it. The
suggested process is remarkably simple, and appears quite feasible
commercially, with sulphur at anything like its present price.
Anhydrite contains 23*52 per cent, of sulphur, or very nearly one-
fourth of its total weight; and 1 ton of sulphur can, there-
fore, be produced from about 4^ tons of anhydrite. Flowers of
sulphur, as a commodity, is quoted, in the prices current given
in the Chemical Trades Joumul, at about £G per ton ; and if the
selling price be taken at £b per ton, or even less, there seems
a fair margin for the handling and working of 4^ tons of
material. The sulphur from this process would be absolutely free
from arsenic and, therefore, of the highest possible value.
The process divides itself into three stages : (1) the reduction
of the sulphate of lime to the condition of sulphide ; (2) treating
the sulphide with carbon dioxide to drive off the sulphur in
the form of hydrogen sulphide ; and (3) utilizing the gas so driven
off for the production of sulphur. The second and third stages of
this process have been successfully worked out by the users of
the Chance processt for the recovery of sulphur from alkali-waste.
The first part of the process (based upon wellknown chemical
principles), as outlined by Mr. F. B. Sa.wes,t is to mix intim-
ately and grind together as finely as possible a proportion of coal
or its equivalent of other carbonaceous matter with the anhydrite,
and to heat the mixture, out of contact with the atmosphere, in
retorts or suitable furnaces. The calcium sulphate becomes reduced
to sulphide, and carbon dioxide, or carbon monoxide, or a mix-
ture of these gases would be given off. Theoretically, the calcium
* Trana. Irut, M. B,, 1906, voL xxxii, page ISl.
t British patent, 18S7, No. 8,666. % British patent, 1882, No. 1,393,
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GYPSUM IN SUSSEX. 459
sulphate and coal can be mixed in two different proportions. In
each case, the same amount of calcium sulphide is obtained, but
the bye-products are different. The first case may be represented
as follows ; — CaS04 4- 2C = CaS 4- 2C0a. That is, 13(5 parts of anhy-
drite, mixed with 24 parts of coal or its equivalent, produce 72
parts of calcium sulphide (containing 32 parts of sulphur) and 88
parts of carbon dioxide. The other mixture gives the following
reaction : — CaS04 4- 4C = CaS + 4C0. That is, 13G parts of anhy-
drite, mixed with 48 parts of coal, give 72 parts of calcium sulphide
and 112 parts of carbon monoxide. If either of these theoretical
reactions could be realized in practice, there would appear
to be no difficulty whatever; as, in the one case, the car-
bon dioxide could be used for the treatment of the calcium sulphide
in the second stage of the process ; and, in the other, the carbon
monoxide might be utilized in heating the retorts or furnaces, or
in the gas-engines, etc. In practice, no doubt, a mixture of these
bye-products would be produced and an intermediate proportion
of coal would be required. There is little doubt, however, that the
mixed gases might be profitably utilized with, or without, their
previous separation. The calcium sulphide so produced, transferred
to a vessel containing water, is treated with carbon dioxide, and
hydrogen sulphide is evolved. This gas is mixed with a properly
regulated supply of air in a Claus kiln, furnished with a quantity
of porous material, where the hydrogen is burned oft', and the
sulphur sublimed in a condensing-chamber. There would, of
course, be a number of sets of retorts or furnaces, and a number of
desulphurizing vessels: thus the process would be continuous,
the various individual retorts and vessels being successively
brought into use. A residue of carbonate of lime would be left
from the last operation, in the proportion of about 70 per cent, by
weight of the weight of the anhydrite used. This might be util-
ized in the manufacture of Portland cement, or burned into lime in
rotary kilns, or otherwise disposed of.
The advantages and disadvantages, compared with those of the
process for the recovery of sulphur from alkali-waste, are as fol-
low : — (1) With the latter, the original alkali- waste costs nothing ;
whilst with that for the abstraction of sulphur from anhydrite,
although the anhydrite itself costs nothing, the process of grind-
ing and heating with coal must be more or less expensive. (2)
To compensate in part for this enhanced cost, the writers find that
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460
GYPSUM m SUSSEX.
the calcium sulphide produced is much richer iu sulphur than is
soda-waste. The latter is said to contain between 20 and 30 per
cent, of sulphur, whilst the proportion of sulphur in the re-
duced anhydrite would be about 44 per cent. (3) Again, in the
alkali-waste process, the carbon dioxide must be obtained from a
closed lime-kiln; whilst in the anhydrite process, the carbon
dioxide would be furnished by the process itself.
Much, of course, would depend upon the effect of such a new
supply of sulphur upon the market. At anything like present
Fig. 5. — No. 1 Gas-snoink of 50 Nominal Horsbpoweb.
quotations of best sulphur, it does appear as though the process
would be successful, if carried out on an adequate scale. It is
hardly an undertaking that would be entered into by an indi-
vidual gypsum-manufacturer, who is not, as a rule, a large
capitalist; but if plaster-makers would co-operate with each
other for mutual advantages, things might be done which now
seem impossible to achieve.
It will be evident that if the treatment proved itself satisfac-
tory in the case of anhydrite, it is only another step to treat
gypsum itself in precisely the same manner.
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GYPSUM IN SUSSEX.
461
Perkins Engines and Boilers. — ^When the Sub-Wealden
Gypsum Company, Limited, began to get to work, it soon became
evident that there were special difficulties to overcome, in the adop-
tion of power of an economical nature. The water, as in the case of
most gypsum-undertakings, was extremely hard, whether got
from the mine or from the neighbouring stream. The carriage
of fuel, from any source, was a costly item; and coal of good
quality could not be obtained except at high prices.
Fi«. 6.— No. 4 Gas-engink of 55 Nominal Hobsei-owub.
These considerations led to the adoption of Perkins engines
and boilers, which were of an exceptionally interesting character.*
The boilers were of the water-tube type. Several rings of tubes,
superposed one over the other and connected by short vertical
tubes, spoken of as ** nipples," formed the fire-box. Some of these
tubes were not complete rings, but were terminated at the sides
of the fire-door, so as to leave an opening in front for firing.
• "A Boiler, Eneme and Surface-condenser for very High-pressure Steam,
with great Expansion,*^ by Messrs. Alexander W. Williamson and Loftus Perkins,
Proreedinga of the IruftitfUum of Mechanical Engineers, 1861, page 94; and
** Steam-boilers and Engines for high Pressures," by Mr. Loftus Perkins, Ibid,.
W7, page 117.
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462
GTPSITM IN SUSSEX.
Above the fire-box, running' from front to back, were several sec-
tions consistinig of straight horizontal tubes, superjKMed and con-
nected together with nipples in the same way aa were the rings.
A nipple at each end of the lower tube of the section connected
the section with the front and back upper fire-box tube. Super-
posed upon the whole, and connected to the sections below it with
nipples, was a steam-chamber of cylindrical shape running from
one side of the boiler to the other. The whole was enclosed in
brick-work, and a cast-iron front with fire-doors and man-holes
was bolted on. The flues on leaving the boiler were designed to
Fio. 7.— Fack of Lonowall Gatjs-road, showing Packwalu
surround a system of water-tubes for heating the water on its way
to the boiler. With this boiler and accessories, it was possible to
get up steam from cold water in half-an-hour. The pressure,
worked at every day, was 450 pounds on the square inch : the pres-
sure being indicated by gauges both at the boiler and at the
engine. When working, a vacuum was maintained of about 25
pounds per square inch.
The heat of the steam was so great that lubrication of the
cylinders was not possible. It was impossible to use any ordinary
water in these boilers and engines, because there must be no
deposit inside the water-tubes. The first charge of water was
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GYPSTJIC TS SUSSEX.
468
distilled in an apparatus fixed for that purpose in the water-
system. Then the steam leaving* the engine was condensed and
returned to the distilled^water tank for use again. In this way,
very little fresh water was required, and all that was necessary to
make up waste, was distilled in the manner described before it
went to the engine or the tank. It can be easily understood that
no lubricating oil or other matter could be allowed to pollute
the water or the steam, if the boiler-tubes were to be preserved.
Both of the vertical engines were triple-expansion and of
peculiar construction, with a single-acting high-pressure cylinder
at the top and a single-acting medium-pressure one at the bottom,
Fio. 8.— Face op Lonowall Gatb-road.
with a common piston-rod actuatinfir one crank; and a double-
acting low-pressure cylinder, with a piston-rod actuating a crank
at right angles to the other. The steam, on issuing from the
high-pressure exhaust^valve, went direct into the lower or
medium-pressure cylinder; and then into a chamber which fed
the low-pressure cylinder at the top and bottom alternately. All
the valves but one were of the tappet type. Anti-friction piston-
rings were used ; these were subject to considerable wear, and
made up the chief item in the repair-bill. The rings of the high-
pressure cylinder were usually renewed about every six weeks.
The rings of the medium-pressure cylinder would go a few
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464
GYPSITM TS SITSSEX.
monthfi, and of the low-pressure cylinder for a year or more. The
dimensions of the engines are detailed in Table II.
TaBLK II. — DiMKNSIONS of PeBKINS HiQH-PbBSSUBK ENGDriES.
DimenilonB. etc
Diameter of oylindera : high pressure, inches
„ medium pressure, „
„ low pressure „
Stroke •... „
Revolutions per minute
Weight of flywheel tons
Winding-encfne. , Mill-«i«iiie.
J.
51
8
lOf
17i
15
24
16
24
140
98
6
11
FlO. 9. — WlNDING-GKAR, DRIVBM BY TwO BeLTS, AND FaST
AND Loose Pulleys.
Gas-engines, — The Perkins engines did their work for about
20 years, when it became necessary to consider the question
of replacing the boilers. The able inventor had unfortunately
died and the manufacture of this kind of boiler had not been con-
tinued, whilst other water-tube boilers had. not been constructed
to stand the conditions of pressure required. It was, therefore,
determined that a gas-engine should be adopted as an auxiliary,
and as an experiment, at the same time.
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GYPSUM IX SUSSEX.
465
The first gas-engine (fig. 5) was erected in the year 1896. It
was of 50 nominal horsepower, working to something like 125 indi-
cated horsepower. It wa^s constructed with a loose liner for
the cylinder, easily replaced at a small cost, obviating the neces-
sity of renewing the whole cylinder and water-jacket. The
engine was guaranteed to work with a consumption of 1 pound
of coal per brake-horsepower per hour, and justified the
Fig. 10* — Elbctricallt- DRIVEN Endless-bope Haulage-gear.
guarantee in actual work. In the year 1899, a second gas-engine
of a similar power and type to the first was installed ; a third of
the same power was acquired in 1901 ; and in 1904-1905 one of 55
nominal horsepower (fig. 6), and a smaller one for winding pur-
poses. An auxiliary oil-engine is provided to drive the stirring gear
of the boiling-pans, which can be driven either by this engine or
from the main shafting. Two locomotives are used in turn, to
take trucks to and from the works and sidings.
VOL. XXXIII.-1906.1907.
34
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466 GYPSUM IN SUSSEX.
Mines, — The shafts having been sunk, the actual working
of the gypsum was commenced in the year 1876 : the system of
working was originally a kind of pillar-and-stall method, but for
various reasons this was found unsatisfactory and costly.
It then appeared to the owners that the conditions of the
floor and roof, as well as the thickness of the seam, were fitted
to a very large degree for the system of longwall working ; and
the late Mr. George Lewis, Past-President of this Institution,
was called in to advise, and to attempt to carrj' out this method.
The trial was, after some vicissitudes, eminently successful, and
the longwall system has since 1879 been prosecuted without
intermission. This point, the writers consider, makes the work-
ing of this gypsum of particular interest to mining engineers, as
it is the only gypsum-mine in the country which has adopted
the system. It may be added, however, that other gypsum-
deposits, either in the Midlands or in the Carlisle district,
do not lend themselves to such methods, and with them a different
system is a simple matter of necessity.
There is no need to enter into any description of the manner
of working, as the word ** longwall '' is sufficiently expressive
to a technical audience. The roof, however, varies in character :
at one side of the mine it is strong, and requires x^ry little
timber; whilst on the other side, some 1,200 feet away, the
gypsum is overlain by a bed of impure shaly rock which has
been honeycombed by water until it somewhat resembles a
sponge. This bed has necessarily to be taken down; and, al-
though not of a very strong nature, it is used to build the pack-
walls.
Jf o attempt, however, is made to work the rock in webs, but
the men bore shot-holes where they consider that the shot would
have the best effect, and with plenty of gate-roads, they are
enabled to get the trams readily to the haulage-rope.
The seam having been worked for some 30 years, it was
naturally found about 2* years ago that, without any haulage
system at all underground, the labour and cost of bringing the
trams from the face to the shaft was becoming excessive. Owing
also to the success which has accompanied the undertaking of
recent years, a larger output was required, and these facts led
to a wholesale re-arrangement of the winding and working
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(GYPSUM IN SUSSEX.
467
details. Up to that date, the whole of the material had been
raised by means of a rope-drum geared to the mill-machinery,
raising and lowering a single cage running in a small shaft. The
new arrangements provided for the widening of the upcast shaft
to a diameter of 11 feet, and the reversal of the air-currents,
so that the old winding-shaft became the upcast. A fan was
installed, capable of producing as large a current of air as will
ever be required at the mine. Previous to this arrangement
the ventilation was produced by a fire — hardly large enough to
be termed a furnace.
Fig. 11.— Wagon ok Endlsss-ropb Haulaob-boad.
At th6 new shaft, a winding plant has been provided, actuat-
ing two cages in the shaft and driven by a gas-engine similar to
those producing the mill-power. Two belts, one crossed, transfer
ihe power to the gearing driving the drum, and the moving of
one belt or the other from the loose pulleys to the fast pulley pro-
vides the motion of the cages in one direction or the other (fig. 9).
A neat arrangement, although somewhat difficult to describe, pro-
vides for the automatic stopping of the drum in case of an overwind,
and also in case of breakage of a rope or other similar mishap.
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468 DISCUSSIOX GYPSUM IN SUSSEX.
The gypsum had, until about two years ago, been worked in
a longwall face in a north-westerly direction ; but it was found
desirable to push out in other directions, chiefly north and south.
Very curiously, however, the strata were found to dip in both
those directions, and a system of power-haulage was deemed neces-
sary. After consideration it was decided that this should be
electrically driven, and the following system has been installed. A
continuous-current dynamo is driven by belting from the mill-
shafting, and the current is taken to an engine-house at the
bottom of the shaft, where a motor is fixed driving, through
gearing, an endless rope which travels along two north-and-south
main roads (fig. 10). This system is, of course, a very small one,
and is probably the most diminutive of its kind in the country ;
but it works exceedingly well, and has been a most useful adjunct
to the successful working of the mine (fig. 11).
The mill, pit-bottom, and a portion of the main haulage-roads
are lighted by means of lamps connected with the electric cables ;
and, generally speaking, the mine and its appliances are claimed
by the writers to be a model of simplicity, effectiveness, and up-to-
dateness.
It may be added finally that a considerable number of men
are employed, and the villages of llountfield and Js^etherfield have
derived great benefit from the discovery of *' Gypsum in Sussex."
Mr. G. A. Lewis stated that the specimens displayed on the
table showed that gypsum differed widely in appearance, and
that there was no dividing-line between the various kinds, rang-
ing from pure white to a dirty-grey colour. A gypsum-mine in
the Carlisle district was now being worked, in a very small way,
on the longwall system, and not at all comparable with the
Sussex mine.
Mr. Isaac Hodges asked how the neutral position was
obtained when the cage was standing and the engine running.
Mr. G. A. Lewis replied that the belts were then placed on
the loose pulleys. One belt was crossed and the other plain, so
that one drove the drum in one direction and the other in the
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DISCUSSION — GYPSUM IX SUSSEX. 46^
opposite direction. There were one fixed and two loose pulleys,
which allowed of winding being made in either direction or
ceasing although the engine was running.
The Chaibman (Mr. W. G. Phillips) asked whether there was
any definite parting between the gypsum and the roof.
Mr. G. A. Lewis said that a practically-continuous thin band
of fibrous gypsum divided the stone from the shale at the roof of
the mine.
Mr. J. S. Martin (H.M. Inspector of Mines) asked Mr. Lewis
to give the members some information as to the effect of the
weighting of the roof, and as to whether any difficulty had been
experienced in this respect owing to subsidences at large breaks
and faults. The principle of working at the face was like that
followed in rock-salt mines, the mineral being all blasted out.
He asked whether the rock, under the bed of gypsum, was suitable
for holing.
Mr. G. A. Lewis said that the mine was only about
150 feet deep, and the counti-y about the mine was simply in
the heart of a forest, without roads or buildings. They did not
know of any damage to the surface, but such had never been
looked for, and he did not think that any difficulty of that sort
would ever arise. Of course, the goaf did squeeze and roof had
been taken down to make height, but the pillars, left under the old
system of working, were substantial and little trouble had arisen
from subsidence of roof.
Mr. J. S. Maetix asked whether the falls spread over a large
area, and whether the falls took place on the roads or on the
packs.
Mr. G. A. Lewis said that falls usually took place at the face,
when they did occur; but the falls were few, as the packs were
built close to the face, and they only covered a small area. It
would be practically impossible to " hole " in the underlying
strata, or even in the gypsum, owing to the hardness of both.
The longwall system had proved successful and satisfactory, and
the output was considerable for a gj'psum-mine, although, of .
course, not comparable with a modern colliery.
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470 DISCUSSION GYPSUM IN SUSSEX.
Mr. Philip Kirkup asked whether the amount of gypsum
was small, compared with the amount of material taken out of
the mine.
Mr. G. A. Lewis said that nothing was taken out of the mine
except gypsum. On one side of the mine especially, a band of
rock, taken down from the roof for safety, practically provided
packing for that side of the mine; whilst on the other side, a
small percentage of useless rock provided most of the packing,
which had to be supplemented with gypsum-rock, if found
necessary.
Prof. Edward Hull (London) wrote that it was remarkable
how, in recent years, the district south of the Thames had been
yielding minerals, which were undiscovered and unsuspected up
to the middle of the last century : as, for instance, ironstone, not
that of the Wealden beds, but much more important and now
being worked and smelted at Westbury; then the gypsum-
deposit at Netherfield ; and last, but by no means least import-
ant, the coal-seams of Kent, which in a few years were destined
to produce large supplies of mineral fuel for use in the South of
England. It was to be for ever regretted that the boring at
Xetherfield in Sussex, intended to prove, or otherwise, the exist-
ence of coal, and carried down to a depth of 1,906 feet, had been
abandoned without the desired result, owing to the extraordinary
thickness of the Kimeridge clay, and the consequent narrow-
ness of the bore-hole at that depth. A few more feet of depth
might have been sufficient to reach Palaeozoic strata of some age,
and thus have proved a warning or encouragement to further
exploration as the result of the experiment. With the know-
ledge since obtained, it might be doubted whether the site of the
boring was well selected ; it was probably too far south for coal-
strata to have been proved, but it was easy to be wise after
the event. Messrs. Kemp and Lewis were doubtless correct in
stating that the gypseous deposits now being worked at Xether-
field occurred in the Purbeck beds, lying at the base of the
Wealden series. This series, as was well known, was of fresh-
water, or lacustrine, origin, although at a short distance below
the marine beds of the Kimeridge clay occurred. Gypseous
beds were common in Cheshire and the Midlands in the New
lied Marl, associated with beds of salt, which were also of lacu-
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DISCUSSION — GYPSl'M IN SUSSEX. 471
strine formation. It was impossible to suppose that the beds of
gypsum could have been formed under marine conditions ; and
it might be suggested that these beds were originally deposited
as limestones, like those occurring at a higher level as shown in
the section, but were afterwards converted into gypsum by the
influx of sulphurous waters, converting the carbonate into sul-
phate of lime. If this were so, the gypsum-beds were a
secondary product, due to chemical action. The limestones of
the Purbeck were full of freshwater fossils such as Paludina,
Planorbis, etc., and they had yielded the well-known Purbeck
marble which, in the thirteenth century, was so largely used in
ecclesiastical architecture, and of which the slender shafts of
Westminster Abbey afforded the most conspicuous example. The
directors of the Sub-Wealden Company deserved the greatest
credit for the manner in which they had carried out their mining
operations, and surmounted the physical and mechanical
obstacle which they encountered in opening their mine, and they
fully deserved the success which had attended their enterprise.
Mr. David Burns (Carlisle) wrote that, in addition to giving
exact details of the occurrence of gypsum in a new locality, this
paper was important geologically as throwing one or two rays of
light on the origin of such beds. The films of calcareous shale
found in the grey gypsum were very direct evidence of the
calcareous origin of the mass: the clay of these pai-ts having
protected them from the metamorphic influence that attacked
the purer rock, and thrust the impurities slightly aside. Tlie
lines of satin-spar that occurred at the top and the bottom (as
they did in the Eden-valley deposits), and which had never been
very satisfactorily explained, seemed to indicate, by their rising
and falling, that the bed of gypsum had swelled on its formation
into gjrpsum, and that where purest it had swelled most. This
was what must have happened to an irregular bed of calcareous
matter attacked by sulphuric acid. Let it be assumed that the
calcareous bed was of the nature of calcite, containing 56 per
cent, of lime, and of a specific gravity of 2*6. It was attacked by
sulphuric acid, the carbonic acid was driven off, sulphuric acid and
water taking its place ; and every 100 parts by weight of carbonate
of lime would become 172 parts by weight of gypsum. Taking
gypsum as having a specific gravity of 2'3, the carbonate of lime
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472 DISCUSSIOX GYPSUM IX SUSSEX.
that had a bulk of 100 would bulk 194 as gypsum or nearly twice
as much. Where the calcareous matter was most compact
and pure, this increase of bulk would be greatest, and hence the
lines of satin-spar would behave as described. Mr. T. Trafford
Wynne had given a drawing* which might indicate something
of the same action in the Dove valley ; but no instance had come
under his (Mr. Bums's) notice in the Eden valley. This differ-
ence would be explained by the g^psum-bed of the Eden valley
having been a land-surface at the time of the change from
carbonate to sulphate, that of the Dove valley having been nearly
so, and by the Sussex deposit having been heavily covered when
metamorphosed, and probably also from its having been origin-
ally a much more irregular bed. If the shales under the Sussex
bed were soft and yielding, thej' would be the more readily
indented when the roof was being raised against gravity. The
presence of petroleum was significant, and it would be interesting
to learn whether the neighbourhood contained many faults, lodes
and dykes.
Mr. W. J. Kemp wrote that the 0'2 per cent, of water men-
tioned by the analyst existed (in the specimens examined) as
accidental moisture, in addition to the 20"93 per cent, of water
contained and chemically combined in the crystallized gypsum. f
The hardness of the grey gj-psum was greater than that of the
white, but none of the Sussex gypsum approached the hardness of
anhydrite.
The CiiAiKMAX (Mr. AV. G. Phillips) moved a vote of thanks
to Messrs. Kemp and Lewis for their interesting paper.
Mr. P. KiRKUP seconded the resolution, which was cordially
approved.
Mr. Heebert F. Broadhurst read the following paper on
Water-supplies by means of Ai-tesian Bored Tube-wells '' : —
• Tram, Itist. M. K, 1906, vol. xxxii., page 184, plate x., fig. 3.
t Ibid., 1907, vol. xxxiii., page 451.
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WATEE-SUPPLIES BY TUBE- WELLS.
47a
WATER-SUPPLIES BY MEANS OF ARTESIAN BORED
TUBE-WELLS.
By HERBERT F. BROADHURST (in connection with
Messbs. C. Isler & Co., London).
Introduction, — The question of both public and private water-
supplies is continually increasing in importance. Water com-
panies and local authorities operating water-supplies are con-
stantly finding it necessary to tap fresh sources of supply, so aa to
meet the growing demands and at the same time to provide a
water of a higher standard of purity.
Numbers of small towns, previously dependent on private
wells only, have been obliged to face the question of a public
supply of pure water to replace these wells. In many cases this
has been found necessary, owing to the widespread pollution of
the surface-waters from which small private wells obtained their
supplies: such pollution affecting all the wells in the entire
district. The same thing occurs on large private estates, where
it is frequently found that old surface-wells have failed to yield
the required supply or have become polluted, making it necessary
for fresh supplies to be obtained or a central water-supply system
to be put down for the whole estate.
Another reason for the continually increasing demand for
private water-supplies is the cost of buying water, when required
in large quantities. Large works and factories of all kinds, and
public institutions, such as baths, workhouses and hospitals, find
that a large saving can be effected by putting down wells and
pumping their own water-supply instead of buying water from
the mains. Hotels and large blocks of business-premises are now
putting down private wells and pumps. The saving effected is
surprising. In many cases the total cost of the bore-hole and of
the pumping-plant has been saved in less than two years, showing
a return of over 50 per cent, per annum on the capital expended,
after allowing for working costs, repairs and depreciation.
In the case of large works, using from 10,000 to 20,000 gallon*
per hour, or, say, 150,000 gallons per day, the usual cost of the-
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474 WATER-SUPPLIES BY TUBE-WELLS.
water supplied by meter would be about 6d. per 1,000 gallons,
whereas, with bore-holes and modem pumping-plant, the supply
could be pumped for a total cost of about Id. per 1,000 gallons,
showing a clear saving in cost of water of about £2 10s. per day
or, say, about £750 per annum.
In the case of large business-buildings, hotels and ware-
houses, the saving can be equally great, even if only a co-mpara^
tively small supply is required. Owing to these being domestic
supplies, the water-rate is charged on the raiteable value of the
building, making the cost of the water out of all proportion to
the amount supplied. In such cases, deep bore-holes and small
electrically-driven pumping-plants are adopted, ensuring an
ample supply of pure water at a cost averaging about l^d. to 2d.
per 1,000 gallons and showing a large saving per annum: the
amount depending on the water-rate that would be charged to
the building. Frequently a duplicate pumping-plant is installed,
and no connection is made to the mains.
For breweries, a private supply is indispensable, in order to
be able to obtain sufficiently cold water for refrigerating and
temperating. In most cases, the main-water, in addition to
being very costly to use for this work, is too warm in summer-
time to be available; whereas well-water can be depended on
for a uniform temperature, averaging between 51° and 53° Fahr.,
all over the country.
Public baths, owning private supplies, are actually able to
pump the whole of the water which they require at no cost for
power through the use of steam-driven condensing pumps. The
steam is employed first to drive the pump, and afterwards to heat
the water up to the necessary temperature for the swimming baths,
the water is usually pumped at 52° aaid heated to 74° Fahr.
Where no pumps are in use, the heating is now generally done
with live steam, and practically the same amount of steam is
required to heat the water only, as to first pump up and then
heat it, nearly the whole of the heat in the steam going into the
water after the steam has been expanded in the cylinders of the
pumps. In winter-time, when the water from the mains comes in
very cold, it is often found to be actually cheaper to pump and
heat the well-water than to heat the very cold water from the
mains to the necessary degree. Of course, these advantages are
lost in the case of electrically or gas-driven pumps: so that for
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WATEE-SUPPLIES BY TUBE-WELLS. 475
baths, or in any case where the water is required to be heated,
steam-driven pumps should be employed.
Sunk Wells, — Most of the older wells were what is known as
sunk or dug wells, lined with brickwork or cast-iron cylinders, or
were sunk as far as the water-level and bored the remainder of
the distance. This sinking for a part or the whole of the depth
was a source of trouble and expense, and is not now necessary.
There was, moreover, always the risk of polluted surface-water
percolating through the brickwork or going down behind the cylin-
ders and contaminating the lower pure supplies. In the case of
the partly sunk and partly bored well, the remedy is to extend
the lining tubes of the bore-hole to the surfa<;e, make the bottom
of the dug well water-tight with a considerable thickness of con-
crete, and then fill up the dug well : leaving the water-tight steel-
lined bore-hole only, and pumping from it with either a bore-
hole pump or by the new air-lift system. In other ca^es of con-
tamination by surface-water, a fresh boring can be put down
from the bottom of the dug well and then the well is filled up ;
or the well can be filled up, and a bore-hole put down on another
site.
The expense, again, of sinking a dug well, after the water-
level is reached, is very heavy and is very much against this
system, owing to its being necessary to pump out the whole
available supply of water while the sinking is going on.
Artesian Bored Tube-wells. — These difficulties are all overcome
by the artesian bored tube-well. By this system, a boring is
carried entirely from the surface and lined with water-tight steel
tubes, which can be forcibly driven downward, so as to seal them
tightly into the ground, for the whole of their length and thus
prevent any possible leakage of surface-water or undesirable
springs into the bore-hole. Also by this method, the bore-hole
can be carried deep into water-bearing strata, forming a natural
reservoir. There is consequently no necessity to sink a shaft and
drive headings for storage ; and the bore-hole can be lined at any
part, perforated pipes being put in where required and solid tubes
driven or sealed into the ground by means of cement, so as to
shut out any \mdesirable sources of supply.
Modern artesian wells are bored and finished with a single
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476 WATER-SUPPLIES BY TUBE-WELLS.
tier of lininpf tubes of the same diameter from top to bottom^
without telescoping of the tubes or reductions in the diameter
of the bore. To carry out work in this way, heavy boring plant,
sound lining tubes, and considerable experience are necessary;
and without these essentials a bore-hole cannot be completed in
a proper manner. The old-fashioned plan of drilling and lining
consisted in inserting a number of different sized tubes, telescoped
inside each other; and, when one tier of tubes became set in
the ground and could not be got down any further, another set of
tubes were put down inside them and the boring continued.
Sealing the tubes in the ground was not in any way considered,
and could not practically be executed. In consequence, there
was frequent failure of the work, either at once or after a few
years, either through sand silting in, or through surface or other
polluted springs percolating into the bore-hole and contaminating
the supply.
The success of a modem artesian bored tube-well is largely
due to the well-lining tubes employed. Often in the case of
defective bore-holes, which let in sand with the water or un-
desirable springs, the cause can be traced to the use of inferior
tubes. The lining tube should really be the fii-st consideration,
as employing a cheap-made tube makes it almost impossible to
line the bore-hole in a proper manner, chiefly because they will
not stand the heavy driving required to force them into the
ground to make a tight joint and shut out the upper springs.
It is also frequently necessary to raise the tubes with powerful
hydraulic jacks to free them, or partly withdraw them to under-
cut so as to get them down ; and, unless a really first-class well-
made tube is employed, the result is likely to be either a useless
or an unsatisfactory well. For the same reasons, tubes known
as flush-jointed, that is, one tube screwed into the other without
any sockets, are useless for lining artesian bored tube-wells.
To put down a finished boring of the same diameter from top
to bottom and to line it successfully, it is necessary to commence
with a larger size of lining tube to hold up the upper part of the
bore-hole, while proceeding with the boring and the lining of the
lower part. In some cases, it is necessary to employ two or three
tiers of preliminary guide-tubes, each deeper than the last, before
putting in the final lining tube, the number depending on the
depth to which the bore-hole has to be lined and the nature of
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WATEE-STTPPLIES BY TUBE-WELLS. 477
the ground. On the completion of the bore-hole, these outer
tubes are withdrawn and the space can be filled with clay or
■cement.
In the case of the water-bearing strata, overlain by porous
beds such as the alluvial gravels to be found at the bottom of
most valleys and many other places, it is most desirable that one
of these outer lining tubes should be driven into the impermeable
stratum underlying these beds, so as to shut out the water from
them, as this water is generally contaminated through want of, or
through a defective drainage-system, and in amy case it is always
liable to become contaminated. Then, on the completion of the
bore-hole, the tier of tubes shutting out this surface-water should
be retained, and the space between them and the bore-tube proper
should be grouted with cement. This not only effectively seals
out the surface-water, but it protects the bore-tube against
corrosion.
When a water-bearing stratum crops out and is of the same
nature from the surface to the level at which the water is tapped,
the same steps with regard to the lining of the well should
generally be taken, with this difference, that the inner-lining
tube should be carried, say, 20 to 30 feet below water-level.
This method also applies to cases where the water is contaminated
through percolation finding its way from existing dug wells,
cesspools or defective drainage ; but each individual case requires
to be dealt with according to the district and to its geological
position.
For a permanent and continuous supply, it is generally advis-
able to carry the bore-hole between 100 and 200 feet below the
point where the water is first reached. There are, of course,
exceptions when an abundant supply has been found as soon as
the water-bearing bed is reached, and proceeding with the boring
every foot deeper increases considerably the volume of water.
The quantity of water obtained depends entirely on the geo-
logical formation of the water-bearing strata, for in some the
channels or fissures are larger, and consequently the percolation
becomes freer, and the flow is therefore more rapid. Copious
supplies are found in the following strata, namely : — The Wool-
wich and Eeading Beds overlying the Chalk, Upper Greensand,
Lower Greensand, Oolitic beds. Red Marls, New Red Sandstone,
Bunter Conglomerate or Pebble-beds, Mognesian Limestone, and
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478 WATER-SUPPLIES BY TUBE-WELLS.
from rocks in the Coal-measures, but from the underlying shales
the results are doubtful.
In some instances the process of well-boring may appear
tedious, but in any case it is much more expeditious and reliable
than sinking shafts. It becomes tedious when deep layers oi
clays, and dead and blowing sands are overlying the water-
bearing seam, and necessitate the lining of the hole as each foot
is drilled ; also when different springs are struck and each requires
to be eliminated owing to its objectionable character. Wh.en
doubts exist as to the purity of the water, each spring tapped
should be tested by pumping, and samples obtained for analysis ;
and, if found unfit for the purposes required, they can be excluded
safely by driving the lining tube below the level of these springs.
Cement-seals. — Frequently the sealing-ofE can be very effec-
tively accomplished by the use of a special process, by which cement
is forced into a recess behind the bottom of the pipes, effectually
filling the whole space round the pipes and the surrounding
fissures if such exist. In the case of an old bore-hole or of a
bore-hole already completed, with the lining tubes fixed in posi-
tion, this sealing-off can still be accomplished by relining the
bore with another tube carried down to the required distance and
the recess with the cement forced into it fixed at the bottom of
this tube.
Recently, a successful cement-seal was fixed for the London
and North-western Railway Company, at Monument Lane, Birm-
ingham (fig. 1, plate xviii.). The bore-hole was lined with tubes,
ab, 15i inches in diameter, to a depth of 152 feet below the surface.
The running water-level, c, is at a depth of 136 feet. An ample
water-supply was obtained from the Red Sandstone; but it
was found to be too hard for the use of locomotives, so it was
decided to try if a softer water was obtainable from the lower part
of the bore-hole. This was therefore tested with a temporary ex-
panding plug made of indiarubber, put down the bore-hole on a
smaller tube, with arrangements for expanding the plug tightly
into the bore-hole at any point. This plug was tried in different
positions, and samples were taken each time of the water in the
bore-hole below the plug. It was found that below a certain point
the required soft water could be obtained. The temporary plug
was then removed, and a new lining tube, de, 13^ inches in in«
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WATER-SXn?PLIES BY TUBE-WELLS. 479
temal diameter, put down to a depth of 330 feet below the surface.
A recess waa cut, and the cement-seal, fg^ was made outside the
lower end of these tubes (fig. 1, plate xviii.). The space outside
of the tube, c?e, was filled with cement. The supply was not
in any way diminished, and the hardness of the water was
only 4 degrees instead of 16 degrees as previously. The air-pipe,
hi, 2i inches in diameter, from the air-compressor, and the water
delivery-pipe, iZ, 5 inches in diameter, are attached to the foot-
piece, y, at a depth of 270 feet.
The same process was also used at the Mellin's Food factory
and at the West Ham Corporation works, both near London, to
shut out sand-water containing iron, and in each case it was
perfectly successful.
Another kind of plug was used at a brewery at Leeds. Two
bore-holes, yielding water strongly impregnated with sulphuretted
hydrogen, were tested ; and it was found that the objectionable
springs were situated at the bottom of the bore-holes. In this
case, the plug was fixed in each bore some distance above the
bottom, completely excluding the lower waters and a new bore-
hole was put down to the same depth at which the old ones were
plugged up. The result is that all the wells are now yielding
a wholesome and suitable brewing water.
Diameters of Tuhe-wells, — The diameters of artesian bored
tube-wells vary from 3 or 4 inches in internal diameter, the
smallest sizes bored, up to 20 inches in internal diameter, and
there are the usual intermediate sizes between these ; but borings
are made and lined with steel tubes up to 36 inches in internal
diameter. A well, bored at Dartford, was lined with cast-iron
cylinders 6 feet in internal diameter, with a bore 24 inches in
diameter, from the bottom, from which a supply of 60,000 gallons
per hour was obtained. The bore-hole, 6 feet in diameter, was put
down, and the cylinders fixed with the water-level standing close
to the surface, no pumping being employed.
Another well, at Chatham, was bored through the Chalk and
Gault and into the Lower Greensand, and lined with a single
tier of tubes, 18 inches in internal diameter and 700 feet long.
This size of tube reached the Greensand ; and a short length of
perforated tubes was lowered through them into the Lower
Greensand.
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480 WATEE-SUPPLIES BY TUBE-WELLS.
From many wells, 10 and 12 inches in diameter, supplies of
12,000 to 30,000 gallons per hour are being obtained, and in
some cases considerably more.
Driven Tnbe-iccUs. — For small supplies, in cases where a
sufficiently good surfaoe-water is obtainable, or where the quality
of the water is of no importance, supplies can be obtained cheaply
by means of the driven tube-well. This is simply a pointed
tube, generally about 2 or 3 inches in internal diameter, having
the last few feet perforated with holes. This tube is driven into
the ground by a falling weight, to such a depth that the perfor-
ated part of the tube remains in coarse gravel, or some such
formation, through which the water can flow freely. A pump is
attached to the top of the tube, and the water is drawn by suction.
Supplies of from 500 to sometimes considerably over 1,000 gallons
per hour can be obtained from a tube, 2 inches in diameter.
This method, however, is not available for a depth of more than
30 to 40 feet below the surface, and for anything deeper a well must
be bored.
Methods of Boring, — The most common method of boring in
this country is the percussion tsy stem used with iron rods. These
rods are screwed together in lengths of 10 to 15 feet, so as to reach
to the bottom of the bore-hole. The cutting is done by a
hardened steel chisel, of the same width as the diameter of the
bore-hole and from 1 inch to 2 inches thick. The method employed
is by lifting and dropping the rods, known as punching, the rods
being raised by tightening the turns of a rope or chain round the
revolving drum of a winch and dropped by slackening ofE the
turns, and at the same time rotating the rods slowly by hand so
that the flat chisel cuts all over the bottom of the bore-hole,
crushing the soils and mixing them with the water into a slurry.
After cutting a few feet in this manner, the rods and chisel are
withdrawn, and the slurry is removed by a shell-tube or sludge-
pump, put down either on the rods or run down the bore-hole on
a wire-rope. The lining tubes are fitted with a steel cutting-
shoe and follow down, or are driven down as the hole is bored.
Frequently it is necessary in hard material to undercut, that is, to
enlarge the bore beneath the tubes with an expanding chisel.
A large variety of other tools are also employed, for trimming the
hole and recovering broken rods and tools.
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WATER-SUPPLIES BY TUBE-WELLS. 481
Another metiiod of boring is by using wooden poles instead
of iron rods. In this case the weight is put on the chisel by
several heavy iron bars fixed immediately above it, known as
" sinker-bars." The wooden rods are worked up and down in the
bore-hole by a punching beam, driven from a crank, and a sharp
blow is obtained by the use of jars or loose links placed between
the rods and the sinker-bars. This arrangement enables the
chisel to strike the bottom while the crank is in the centre of its
stroke and moving at its greatest velocity. The remainder of the
movement of the crank and of the rods is taken up in the jars.
In this method, the rods are removed in the usual way, a.nd the
shell-tube is run down with a wire-rope to remove the slurry.
Another method is practically the same, but involves using
rope instead of wooden rods. In this case, a punching beam is
employed ; and, in the bottom, a chisel, sinker-bars and jars.
Another method is also. by percussion, employing hollow rods
instead of solid ones, and forcinig water through them by means of
steam or other power. As the rods are lifted up and down,
the chisel strikes the soil through which it is cutting, the
water, forced through the hollow rods, issues at the extremity
of the chisel through holes drilled for the purpose and washes
all the d^bi^is to the surface, so that the drilling is done in one
operation instead of several, as in the other systems. Whenever
this principle can be used, it will be found most expeditious and
economical. Oi> an average, it requires from 200 to 700 gallons
per hour, and more in the case of a large bore-hole; but meians
can be taken to use the water over and over again, thereby
lessening the consumption.
Diamond drilling is executed by rotating the rods and forcing
water through them, to keep the diamond-crown lubricated and
to wash the slurry out so as to prevent the tool from becoming
wedged or set. The core thereby travels upwards inside the crown-
tube, as the tube descends. The crown and the crown-tube are
made in lengths according to the soil which is being perforated,
and varying from 10 feet to 50 feet, or more if necessary. This pro-
cess is only required in solid rock formations, otherwise the above-
described systems are quicker, more reliable, and less expensive
to work.
The diamond rock-drilling process is now almost entirely
superseded by the shot drill which works on somewhat the same
TOL. XXXIII.— 1906-1M7, 35
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482
WATER-SUPPLIES BY TUBE-WELLS.
principle ; but expensive diamonds, requiring so much care and
delicate handling in setting and using, are not used. Large
and deep bore-holes are now drilled by this process.
Fig. 2 shows a general view of a shot-drilling plant in use at
Malvern, where a bore-hole was put down to a depth of 900 feet ;
the cores taken from this hole are shown piled up against the
side of the shed. Fig. 3 is a detailed view of the drilling gear.
On the left is the steam-winch used for handling the tools, rods
and lining tubes. In the centre is the boring gear used for
rotating the rods, with the swivel-head above it which suspends
Fio. 2. Shot.drilling Plant, Malvern.
and takes the weight of the rods while drilling ; the flexible con-
nection for the water-supply; and the cup-arrangements for
feeding the shot into the rods. On the right-hand is the counter-
balancing gear, with the handwheel by which the man in charge
can raise and lower the whole weight of the rods and regulate the
feed while running. In front of this is a steam-pump, supplying
water under pressure to the hollow rods.
The system is simply a hollow crown at the bottom of the
hole, almost the same as for diamond drilling; but, instead of
being set with diamonds to cut the rock, hard steel shot are run
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WATEE-STJPPLIES BY TUBE-WELLS.
483
loose underneath the crown ; and, with the pressure of the crown
above them, these shots roll a path in the stone which is
crushed and ground away. The slurry thus formed is washed up
by the water pumped under pressure downward inside the rods
and tools. As the tools cut away the stone round the edge of
the bore a solid core is left, and the coi-e-tube above the cutting
crown slides down over this core. When the core-tube is full,
the tools are lifted and a wedging a-ction takes place at the bottom
of the core-tube, which grips the core and breaks it off; and then
the core is brought to the surface in the core-tube. By this
Fig. 3.— Shot-driluno Plant, Malvksn.
method, fissured rocks and conglomeratic strata can be drilled
easily; while it would be almost impossible to drill them with
diamonds, owing to difficulties arising from the stones wedging
and breaking.
Testing Bored Tnhe-iceUs. — On completion, the tube-well
should be tested by means of pumping. The action of the pump
not only helps to increase the yield, but also to clear the fissures or
crevices of the rocks, which have naturally become partly clogged
through the continuous working of the tools during boring opera-
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484
WATER-SUPPLIES BY TUBE-WELLS.
tions, and it is found in practice that pumping a bore-hole in-
crea-ses the supply. Should there be an insufficiency of water at
the outset, the pumping should not be discontinued too hurriedly,
but should be persevered with for some time longer, as an
improvement will frequently show itself.
Should the pumping, however, fail, it should not always be
taken for granted that failure will be the result, as other artificial
means can be
taken to create
a freer water-
way, that is, to
torpedo or fire
some powerful
explosive, such
as gelatine, one
of the strongest
agents for this
purpose. Fig.
4 shows a shot
being fired in a
bore - hole in
South Wales.
This method is
not commonly
practised, 'but
it is highly re-
commendable
when the rocks
of the water-
bearing strata
are c 1 o s e 1 y
jointed. The
explosive is
used to shatter and open fissures or crevices of the rocks for
the purpose of inci-easing the flow of water.
In many cases the results are marvellous, the supply increas-
ing beyond all expectation. At Messrs. Peters' cement-works,
near Rochester, a single gelatine cartridge weighing 18 pounds
was exploded at a depth of '107 feet from the surface, in the Lower
Greensand formation, composed of rocks and compact sands, A
Fig. 4.— Firing a Shot'in a Bore-hole, Socth Wales.
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WATKJt-SUPPLlES HY trliE-WKLLS.
486
water-supply of 20,000 gallons per hour is now obtained, where
no supply existed previouvsly. This tube-well, 15 inches in dia-
meter, is lined to a depth of 298 feet.
In cases of apparent failures, w^here blasting- would not obtain
the required result, such as obtaining supplies from sand-beds,
the air-lift pump has, of late years, provided another very valu-
able means of developing supplies. An instance occurred at
Willesden, where there is practically no water in the Chalk. On
the completion
of the boring,
the supply
proved to be
less than 1,000
gallons per
hour. Air-lift
pumping was
therefore re-
soi-ted to, and
the sand-beds
were forced by
a system of
applying air-
pressijre to the
bore - hole at
regular inter-
vals, meanwhile
pumping con-
tinuously by an
air-lift. By
these devices,
the supply was
gradually in-
creased; and
although, at
first, large quantities of sand were drawn into the tube, it
was all pumped out with the air-lift, many tons of sand being
removed in this manner. As the supply came in more freely,
less sand was raised, and the water gradually became clear.
The final result was a continuous supply of 10,000 gallons per
hour of excellent water, quite clear, and free fi*om sand.
Fio. 5.
-Artesian Tube-well, Bourne Station,
Lincolnshire.
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486
WATER-SUPPLIES BY tlBE-WELLS.
At Bembridge, Isle of Wij^ht, a bore-hole had not been
pumped for some time ; and, when the permanent air-lift
pump was fixed, it was found to be filled with blue silt and
the w^hole of the water-supply was shut out. In this case,
the air-pressure system was used, with the result that the
water broke in,
washing up the
silt with it,
and it was all
pumped out by
the air - lift.
The original
water-supply of
6,000 gallons
per hour was
restored, and
in a few hours
the supply was
pumped clear:
the whole op-
eration being
completed in
one day. In
many cases
this system
has been suc-
cessfully em-
ployed to ob-
tain water and
Fio. ({.—Artesian Tube- well, West Drayton, London. increase the
supply, where it would not have been possible with ordinary
pumps.
Artesian Tube-icelh, — In a few cases, the water-supply will
naturally overflow from the bore-hole. Fig. 5 shows a veiy large
overflow obtained from a boring, llj inches in diameter, and
sunk in the White Limestone for the Great Northern Railway
Company at Bourne station, Lincolnshire. Fig. 6 shows an over-
flow from a bore-hole for the Rotary Photo Company, at West
Drayton, close to London. In this case, the water overflowed at
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\VATER-SU1'1»L1ES BY TUBK-WKLLS.
487
the rate of 1,000 gallons per hour to a height of 14 feet above the
surface ; and, when tested with a surface pump, 12,000 gallons per
hour were obtained.
Fig. 7 shows ain air-lift plant testing the well at the Hackney
baths, London, where 10,000 gallons per hour were obtained
from a bore-hole 11^ inches in diameter. The delivery-bend was
taken ofP the top of the air-lift pipes, and the illustration shows
the first rush of
water straight
up the delivery-
pipe in the
bore-hole on
starting the
air-lift. Fig. 8
shows a bore-
hole, 7| inches
in diameter, at
the works of
Messrs. Vic-
kers. Sons &
Maxim, Limi-
ted, Erith, be-
ing tested by
a pulsometer
at' the rate of
15,000 gallons
per hour. Fig.
9 shows the
water - supply
from a bore-
hole at Messrs.
White's works,
Birmingham,
being measured by a weir-box : the water is being pumped by an
air-lift, and the supply is gauged by the depth of the flow of
water from the notch at the end of the box. Fig. 10 shows test-
pumping with an air-lift, at the Kent water- works, at Dartford :
the compressor can be seen on the left-hand ; the well is in the
centre, under the derrick; and the water can clearly be seen
coming from the end of the delivery-pipe.
Fig.
7.— AiB-LiFT Pump testing a Tube-will, Hackney,
London.
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488
WATKR-srPPLlKS HY TCBK-WKLLS.
Pumping- pi ant. — ^AVhen considering the question of perman-
ent pumping-plant for an artesian bored tube-well or for a dug
well, it is always a desirable precaution and generally necessary
to have a test made with a temporary plant, so as to ascei-tain the
quantity of water available and the level to which the water falls
when pumping, in order that the pix>per length and capacity of
pumps can be insei-ted at once, unless these particulars are already
available. The
saving on the
cost of the per-
manent pumps,
through know-
ing the exact
particulars, will
always pay for
the cost of a
test.
When the
supply is ascer-
tained by test-
ing, the style
and capacity of
the permanent
pumps can be
decided upon.
If it is an over-
flowing bore-
hole, or one
from which a
sufficient sup-
ply can be
obtained within
30 feet of the
surface, of course, ordinary surface pumps of any type can
be used; but, if the pumping level is below this, it is neces-
sary to pump the bore-hole, either by a bore-hole pump
or by an air-lift pump. A bore-hole pump consists of a
series of tubes connected together in the same way as the well-
lining tubes, lowered into the bore-hole and suspended from
the surface by flanges secured to the top of the bore-pipe ;
Fio. 8.
PULSOMETEB TESTING A TUBB-WELL, EbITH,
London.
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WATER-SU1»PLIES BY IIUK-WELLS.
489
• Fig.. 9.— Watkr-supply from a Tobe-well measured by a Wbir-box,
I Birmingham.
Fio. 10.- Air-lift Pump tk^stino a Tdbb-weij^, Dautford.
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WATER-SVPPLIKS BY TVBE-WELLS.
and the pump-barrel and the suction-pipe are secured to the end
of this tube. The pump-rods are passed down the centre of
these tubes, and are connected to the bucket ; and at the surface
they are passed through a packing gland. The rods work in the
water inside the rising main. By withdrawing the rods, both the
pump-bucket and the foot -valve can be removed for repairs, with-
out disturbing the main or barrel. This kind of pump is worked
by a crank and a connei'tiiig rt)d, or it can be built a« a dii-ect-
acting steam-pump, with an inverted steam-cylinder directly
connected to the top of the rods. This arrangement makes
a quiet- working pump, occupying little space; but it is not
.■■■'' 1 '.^
m
^mb^=^ i i
1
L^^lMHl^M^
Fio. 11. — Deep- WELL Pump, Hatfield.
economical, as it cannot be worked expansively and the full pres-
sure of the steam must be carried to the top of the stroke, where
it is released and discharged into the atmosphere. A deep-well
pump, worked with a crank and gearing and driven by a goo<l
engine, is, on the contrary, a very economical machine, and re-
quires less power than any other method of pumping bore-holes.
Fig. 11 shows a gear of this type, supplied to the Marquis of
Salisbury, for Hatfield water-works. This set when tested,
although a comparatively small pump raising 8,000 gallons per
hour, gave an efficiency of 75 per cent, of the indicated horse-
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WATElt-SUt»FLlES BY TUBE-WELLS.
491
Fig. 12. — Deep-well Pump, Worcester.
Fio. 13. -Deep-well Pump.
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M)2
WATKR-SrlTLlKS BY TIUK-WKLIS.
power. Fig. 12 shows the gear of a larger pump raising 25,000
gallons per hour for the East Worcester water-works. Fig. l-i
shows another gear of the same size built for Messrs. Barclay,
Perkins & Company, when erected in the works ready for fixing.
This pump, 20
inches in dia-
meter, is fitted
with an extra
crank, carry-
ing counterbal-
ance - weights
to equalize the
work on the
up and down
strokes, and a
plunger- pump
at the surface,
half the area
of the bucket:
this pump displaces half the
supply at every down stroke,
thus making the pump double-
acting above the surface.
Air-lift Pump, — A more
modern arrangement than
the bore-hole pump and one
which, in many cases, can be
adopted with considerable
advantage is the air-lift
pump, in which the water
is raised by means of com-
/[ A' P^^'**^^*^ *^"'- -^^&- ^^ shows
an air-lift pump applied in a
bore-hole. The air, supplied
from a circular four-cylin-
dered air-compressor, a, driven by a belt and pulley, b, passes
through the pipe, i\ to the combined air-receiver and oil-
extractor, rf, and from this down the air-pipe, e, in the boi*e-hole
to the foot-piece, /", w^here the air mixes with the water. The
Kio. 14.—
14.— Elevation of an Air- lift
Pump in a Bore- hole.
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WATER-SUPPLIES BY TUBE-WELLS.
498
(1 air and water are delivered from the larger pipe, g,
e surface-tank, A, where the air instantly separates from
ater.
his system possesses the following advantages: there are
orking parts in the bore-hole ; nothing but straight open-
\ pipes, with nothing to go wrong or require repairing ; all
machinery is accessible at the surface, and need not be
d near the well; thus the bore-hole can be fixed near the
•-tank and the air-compressor placed in the engine-room
distance away. Another important point is that, owing to
mall size of the pipes required, about three times as much
r can be raised from a certain sized bore-hole as with a
well pump, that is, of course, if the water-supply exists.
. 15. — AiR-LiRT Pump and Subface Pump drivkn by a Oas-bnoine.
the air-lift pump saves capital cost, a,s a much smaller
nm always be put down, and frequently, in the case of large
-supplies, the whole can be obtained from one bore-hole
id of having to put down two bore-holes. It is also possible
is system to duplicate the pumping-plant on a single bore-
and, of course, with deep-well pumps duplication is impos-
The limitations of the system are as follows : it cannot be
:o pump a hole empty ; there must be sufficient depth of water
)nierge the pipes, and this submergence must, for economical
n^, be rather greater than the total lift; thus, if the total
7, is 100 feet, the minimum working depth of wat«r, jhy
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4U
WATER-SUPPLIES BY TFBE-WELLS.
should be 120 feet. The air-lift pump has the disadvantage that
it cannot be used to pump horizontally, and the delivery-pipe must
rise to the required height and then turn over into the tank with a
long easy bend. If the water is required some distance away,
it should be pumped to the required height, and delivered into
a tank, in which the air and water separate, and then allowed to
flow by gravitation to the point required.
Fig. 15 shows an air-lift pump for a small water- works driven
by a gas-engine and suction gas, the gas required to drive the
gas-engine being generated as it is required. The compressor
Fig. 16.— Straight-line Air-comprbssob, Battle.
is built on the crank-shaft of the gas-engine. The water is
delivered by the air-lift into the surface-tank, where it is picked up
by the surface pumps, shown at the left-hand side, and delivered
into the mains and forced to the reservoir. The combined air-
lift and surface-pump plants in this manner will raise a supply
to a height of 300 feet, for a fuel -cost as low as Jd. per 1,000
gallons, and can be worked constantly with a minimum of atten-
tion. The whole plant is as reliable as steam-driven machinery.
A steam-driven air-lift pump and surface-tank fixed at the
public baths in Prince of Wales road, London, raises 15,000 gal-
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WATER-SUPPLIES BY TUBE-WELLS.
495
Ions per hour : being one of two similar sets fixed. A condenser
is fixed over the surface pump, and the supply from the surface-
tank is pumped through the condenser on its way to the baths,
thus heating the water to the required temperature at the same
time as it is pumped. The same quantity of steam would be re-
quired to heat the water, even if it were taken from the mains, so
that actually the pumping costs nothing : the whole of the steam
being utilized
for heating the
water.
Fig. 16 shows
a straight-line
air -compressor,
doing good duty
at Battle water-
works, and rais-
ing a water-
supply of 8,000
gallons per
hour.
Fig. 17 shows
a double-ended,
multi - cylinder-
ed air - com-
pressor at the
works of Messrs.
Elliott's Metal
Company, Birm-
ingham. The de-
livery of water
through the air-
lift is shown,
together with
the long-delivery bend and splayed ca«t-iron delivery-iiozzle,
affording an easy outlet for the water. The water-supply is
10,000 gallons per hour and from a depth of 230 feet.
Fig. 18 shows a combined gas-engine for suction ga«, and a
new pattern of air-compressor, fixed at Burnham water-works.
Fig. 19 shows the same engine and the compressor with the
door removed, showing the crank and connecting rods of the
Fig. 17.
-Double-ended FouB-cyojfDERED Air-
compressor, Birmingham, J
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496
WATER-SUPPLIES BY TrBE-WELLS.
Fio.
18.— Gas-engine driving a Four-cylindered A ir-com pressor,
BURNHAM.
f '
5 ^ , . J \ ,» 1
1 /
Fkj. 19.
Gas-engine driving a Four-cylindered Air-compressor,
Burn HAM.
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2X« InttUiUieTv ofjfirung Enoin
VQLXXXlff.I^LAT£jm:
lb liliisiraJeM^JlBroajdhursiil^ei'f^^
Fig. 1,— Section of Bore-hole and Air-lift Pump
AT Monument Lane. Birmingham.
Na
OltOAIFTtOH
h
MI
Depth fhoh
SunFASE.
1 -^i^U,
4 HOUND
9. HCD i^MD
t. nCD UMDATQHC:
4- HAftD ItKD
MND«rTCHl«
0 irra m¥L_
•. ffXltH PttD^
■ANDftTOHE
7. RED 8AHDT
_iiij^«
Na
DiacmPTioN
OF Strata.
DertH PROM
Surface.
fcst. inohcs.
a. KARO RED
•ANOarONE
a. RED MARL
10. RED aANOarONE
11. RED MARL
12. RED EANDtTONE
13. RED MARL
14. RED SANOarONE
10. HARD RED
EANOaTONE
a»c» O
aaa » o
Horlioittal Seal*, 4 ft€t to 1 Inch. Ycrtloal SeaU, 76 Fett to 1 Inch.
Anif Rod Jk CoBJjP^L** 1f«wc«sll* uponTbrn* /**^"
REFERENCES.
TUBEE .
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DISCUSSION — WATER-SUPPLIES BY TUBE-WELLS. 497
four cylindered air-compressor. Tlie surface pump at Bumham
water-wotks, drawing from a large glazed-brick surface-tank,
into wliicli the air-lift pump delivers, forces the supply into the
mains. This plant was started and was put to work, pumping
the full water-supply on the same day. It has not been out of
service and has given no cause for anxiety since, and is a good
example of pumping with an air-lift and suction-gas. The
water-supply delivered is 12,000 gallons per hour, and t^e total
head, from the pumping level in the bore-hole to the reservoir-
of 300 feet, is divided into two lifts. The air-compressor, raises
the water, 120 feet, from the pumping level into the surface-
tank ; and the three-throw belt-driven surface pump draws from
this tank and delivers to the reservoir against a head of 180 feet.
This plant, when running, uses 20 pounds of anthracite-coal per
hour, at a cost for fuel of Jd. per 1,000 gallons; and over six
months the average cost of fuel was loss than ^d. per 1,000 gallons
delivered to the reservoir.
Mr. G. A. Lewis (Derby) asked whether any difficulty had
been experienced in breaking ofE the cores with a shot-drilling
plant.
Mr. H. F. Broadhub^t said that there was no difficulty ; the
tail-piece gripped the cores and brought them out, but more
generally the core was broken. A core, 10 feet long, was often
broken in two or three places.
Mr. Frank Coulson (Durham) said that Mr. Broadhurst
stated that " public baths .... are actually able to pump the
whole of the water they require at no cost for power ....
nearly the whole of the heat in the steam going into the water
after the steam had been expanded in the cylinders " ; * and it
would be interesting to know the quantity covered by the word
" nearly," which would be the cost of pumping. It was further
stated that " modem artesian wells are bored and finished with
a single tier of lining tubes . . . without . . . reductions in
the diameter of the bore.^t " To put down a finished boring of
the same diameter from top to bottom .... it is necessary
• Traru. Inst. M. E., 1907, vol. xxxiii., page 474. t Ibid,, page^ 475-476.
VOL. xxxiii.-i9oe.i»07. 36
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498 DISCUSSION — WATEE-SUPPLIES BY TUBE-WELLS.
to commence with a larger size of lining tube. ... In some
cases, it is necessarj'' to employ two or three tiers." • He asked
which of these statements was correct, and for his own part he
thought the last. It would be of interest to know from what
depth and how 30,000 gallons of water per hour could be
obtained from bore-holes 12 inches in diameter, or how 1,000
gallons of water per hour could be pumped from a tube 2 inches
in diameter. A number of methods of boring were named, and
it was stated that by shot-drilling fissured rocks could be drilled
easily. Would not the shot leave the bore-hole and find its way
even into small fissures and be useless ? In describing the air-lift
pump, no mention was made of the percentage of efficiency ob-
tained from the various depths from which the water was raised.
In the case of the supply of 10,000 gallons of water per hour from
a depth of 230 feet, at the works of Messrs. Elliotts Metal
Company, Birmingham, did this mean that the bore-hole was
something over 470 feet deep ? He (Mr. Coulson) believed that
the air-lift pump, although very efficient for testing the supply
of water from a bore-hole, was an extravagant method when the
water had to be lifted from anything over a depth of 70 feet.
Would Mr. Broadhurst give the members the result of his
experience as to the decrease of efficiency as the depth from
which the water was to lift increased, say for each 50 feet ; and
did not the efficiency decrease very rapidly in proportion to the
depth ?
Mr. G. Elmsley Coke (Nottingham) wrote that Mr. Broad-
hurst, in the introduction to his paper, apparently assumed that
there was a plentiful supply of good water in the ground. It
was hardly necessary to suj that these conditions were excep-
tional. In the city of Nottingham, which was partly situated
on the Bunter Sandstone, there was great variation in the quan-
tity and quality of water derived from wells not far apart. In
most cases, before expensive works were commenced, it was neces-
sary to ascertain the quality and quantity of underground water by
boring. A difficulty was usually found afterwards in excluding
surface-water from the bore-hole, and if the artesian system
could succeed in doing this, no doubt there would be many
cases where it might be usefully employed.
* Trans. Inst. M. E.y 1907, vol. xxxiii., page 476.
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DISCUSSION — ^WATEE-SUPPLIES BY TUBE-WELLS* 49^
Mr. H. F. Bboadhubst wrote that, when pumping for public
baths and heating the water with the exhaust-steam, the heat
lost was the amount radiated from the steam-pipes and cylinders.
This amount had not been measured, but with suitable plant was
very small. It had been actually tested and proved that in the
winter time, when the mains water was colder than the well-
water, more coal was required to heat a bath of main water
than to pump and heat the same amount of well-water ; but, of
course, when the mains water was warmer part of this advantage
was lost. It was quite correct to state that modem artesian
wells were bored and finished with a single tier of lining tubes ;
but to make this final lining possible, several tiers of guide-
tubes were necessarily used. His statements were therefore
correct, together with the explanation given in his paper that
** on the completion of the bore-hole, these outer tubes are with-
drawn and the space can be filled with clay or cement."* A few
weeks ago, 30,000 gallons per hour were obtained from a bore-
hole, 12 inches in diameter and 200 feet deep, at Cambridge
water-works, at Cherryhinton, by an air-lift pump. The supply
was drawn from the Lower Greensand, and the total lift waa
72 feet. A permanent air-lift plant was now being installed.
Fissures certainly reduced the speed of cutting with the shot-
drill, probably owing to shot being lost, but, although cores
were frequently obtained showing considerable fissures, no case
had yet occurred of the shot-drill proving unworkable from this
cause. Possibly slurry, filling the fissures, might save some of
the shot that would otherwise be lost. The air-lift pump, at
the works of Messrs. Elliott's Metal Company, Birmingham,
raises the water 230 feet, the bore-hole should be at least 500
feet deep, and actually it was 700 feet. At the station of the
Central Electric Company, at St. John's Wood, an air-lift pump
fixed in a bore-hole, 10 inches in diameter, raised 16,000 gallons
per hour, a total lift of 260 feet. The air-lift pump, although
low in efiiciency, was, if well designed, not so bad as was gener-
ally supposed. The efficiency varied both with the lift and with
the quantity raised. High lifts were much more efficient than low
ones : this difference being probably due to pipe-friction, which
was considerable, owing to the high velocity of the discharge.
An average efficiency, for a lift of less than 100 feet, would be
• TrwM, ImL M. E., 1907, vol. xxxiii., page 477.
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600 DISCUSSION — WATEE-STTPPLIES BY TUBE-WELLS.
40 to 50 per cent. ; less than 150 feet, 36 to 40 per cent. ; less
than 200 feet, 30 to 35 per cent. ; and over 200 feet, the efficiency
might drop to 25 per cent.
The Chaihman (Mr. W. G. Phillips) moved a vote of thanks
to Mr. Brbadhurst for the interesting account that he had given
to the members of the use of artesian-bored wells.
Mr. M. Walton Brown seconded the resolution, which was
cordially approved.
Mr. G. A. Lewis moved a vote of thanks to Mr. W. G.
Phillips for his services in the chair.
Mr. Frank Coulson seconded the motion, which was cordially
approved.
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DISCUSSION — ^ELECTBICALLY-DBIVEN AIB,-COMPB£SSOBS. 501
THE INSTITUTION OF MINING ENGINEERS.
GENERAL MEETING,
Held in the Rooms of the Geological Society, Burlington House, London.
June 14th, 1907.
Mr. MAURICE DEACON, President, in the Chair,
DISCUSSION OF MR. A. THOMPSON'S PAPER ON " ELEC-
TRICALLY-DRIVEN AIR. COMPRESSORS COM-
BINED WITH THE WOREING OF INGERSOLL-
SERGEANT HEADING-MACHINES," ETC.*
Mr. Philip Kirkup (Birtley) wrote that since this paper was
read in June, 1906, the machines had continued to do good work;
and in the first district there was, at present, over three years'
work of retreating longwall opened out, in addition to the panels
now working. Consequently the working of the machines had
been curtailed on this account. Three further districts were now
being opened out. In every case the machines were holing in the
bottom coal, and it was found that this system was justified by
the class of coal produced. The cost of maintenance of the
machines, since the beginning of 1906, had been very low.
Since then 41,510 tons had been' produced, the cost of spare
parts over that period had been £12 18s. 3d. for eleven machines,
giving a cost of 007d. per ton. The workmen first put to the
machines still operated them and complained of no ill effects,
and now earned from 7s. to 8s. per day of 8 hours. The two
air-compressors still continued to work, and since the paper was
read had required practically no attention for repairs. The
renewals had been nil.
Mr. J. T. Browne's paper on *' The Thick Coal of Warwick-
shire " was read as follows : —
• Trans. Inst. M. E.y 1906, vol. xxxL, page 366.
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502 THICK COAIi OF WAKWICKSHIRE.
THE THICK COAL OF WARWICKSHIRE.
By J. T. BROWNE.
Introduction. — From time to time, excellent papers and ad-
dresses have appeared in the Transactions describing^ in detail the
geolo^cal formation of the important Warwickshire coal-field
and its relation to other coal-areas. The writer proposes, there-
fore, in the following notes to deal more particularly with the
methods of working the coal-seams as they occur in one particu-
lar district, together with a consideration of such problems as
have presented themselves in the course of his experience at
collieries in the neighbourhood.
Coal-seams, — It may be interesting, however, to compare the
sections of the coal-seams, actually proved in the most recent
developments on either side of the great hidden coal-field lying,
roughly speaking, between the Birmingham and Nuneaton dis-
tricts. Although the writer believes that the seams of the
respective districts are truly correlated in the manner shown in
figs. 1, 2 and 3 (plate xix.), he is bound to confess that some of
the more marked characteristics of the seams in East Warwick-
shire appear to be absent in the Thick coal-seam of Staffordshire.
This, however, is not surprising, in view of the fax3t that the two
districts are separated by a distance of nearly 20 miles (fig. 4,
plate xix.).
The so-called Thick coal of Warwickshire, so far as it has yet
been proved, is somewhat limited in extent, and is formed by the
thinning of the binds and shales, which, north of the village of
Bedworth, separate the Ryder and Ell coal-seams. In this form
it extends to Wyken colliery, at the southern end of the coal-
field ; but in the deep workings of that colliery the coals show a
tendency to separate, and it is a significant fact that in the most
easterly developments at the Sandwell Park colliery, on the
Birmingham side, the same intervention of dirt-partings occurs
between the coals.
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THICK COAL OF WARWICKSHIRE. 608
It is fairly ceirtain that the coal-seams exist, in some form or
other, more or less continuously under the large tract of country
at present separating the South Staffordshire collieries from those
of East Warwickshire ; but there is little doubt that under a
considerable portion of this area, the coal will lie at a great depth,
possibly cut up by faults, and by patches of barren ground.
Thick Coal-seam, — ^A typical section of the Thick coal-seam,
now being worked at Newdigate colliery, is given in Table I., the
total thickness of coal being 23 feet 9 inches.
TABiiE I. -Sbction of Thick Coal-seam, Newdioatb Colliekt.
Thickness i Thickness
Description of Strata. of Strata. I Description of Strata. of Strata.
Ft. Ins. Ft. Ins. " ' '^ '
Roof: Shalybind ... — — -
Seam : Two-yards Cocd-aeam :
COAL, tops ... 1 3 —
COAL, hards... 0 10
COAL, brights 2 3
COAL, Blotters 1 8
Dirt 0 6
Bare Coal-seam :
COAL 2 0
6 0
0 6
2
Ft Ins. Ft. Ins.
COAL, bottoms 2 0
Dirt 0 4
Ell Coal-seam:
COAL, black... 2 5
COAL, spires... 0 10
Dirt 0 2
Slate Coal-seam :
COAL, three-
I quarter ... 1 6
6 1
0 4
3 3
0 2
Stone ^ ^ . i Batt ... ■.'.'. 0 1
^ 1 COAL, bright 2
Ryder Coal-seam : ^ - . .
COAL, wind-
ings 0 8
COAL, spires... 1 1
Stone 0 4 I
COAL, bottoms 2 7
6 5
Floor: Clnnch —
COAL, spires... 2 0 Total 24 10
The shaly bind above the Two-yards seam is exceedingly
friable, and it is generally necessary to leave up the tops coal as
a roof ; although it is sometimes possible to get a little of this in
the wastes. The chief characteristic of this seam is the layer of
spiry coal, known as " the hards," which occurs consistently
throughout the district under the tops, and somewhat resembles
anthracite in texture and quality. The remainder of the seam
provides a house coal of excellent quality.
The Bare coal-seam is not worked usually, being somewhat
soft and dirty ; and the Ryder seam, although inferior and full of
stone and iron-pyrites near the outcrop and towards the north,
is, at Newdigate colliery, at a depth of 1,600 feet from the
surface, a good hard and bright seam.
The Ell and Slate coal-seams (sometimes known as the Nine-
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504 THICK COAL OF WABWICKSHIKE.
foot) are fairly constant in quality and thickness througkout the
southern part of the coal-field, except at Wyken colliery, where
the Ell coal-seam reaches a thickness of 5 to 6 feet. The bottom
parting of the Ell seam consists of hard spires, and is in good
demand for annealing and similar purposes.
The Slate coal-seam, so-called from the thin band of slaty
batt occurring below the Three-quarter coal, contains several
layers of bright coal, which are sold for domestic use ; but the
larger proportion of the produce of this seam is disposed of as
locomotive coal and for general steam-raising purposes.
The chief considerations in deciding upon a system of work-
ing this Thick coal-seam are : — (1) The liability to gob-fire ; (2)
the absence of packing material ; (3) the presence of water ; and
(4) the gradient of the mine.
Gob'iires, — Like its sister seam of South Staffordshire, all the
constituent seams of the Thick coal-seam of Warwickshire,
whether worked singly or otherwise, are liable to gob-fires. The
writer does not propose to enter closely into the theories of
chemical action which have been advanced at various times to
account for the undesirable properties (possessed by some seams)
of promoting spontaneous combustion ; but, with a fairly long ex-
perience of Warwickshire gob-fires, he believes that the following
causes are chiefly responsible for them : — (a) The friction due to
the crushing of ribs and pillars of coal ; (6) the oxidation of the
organic constituents of the coal ; and {c) the presence of iron-
pyrites in the coal. Undoubtedly these several forces combine ;
but in certain circumstances any one of them may be, in itself,
sufficient to generate enough heat to cause combustion.
(a) There can be no longer any question that the heat
mechanically produced by the crushing of the coal at opening-
ofE ribs and by the side of pillars of coal is one of the chief
factors contributing to spontaneous combustion. Fires are
generated most readily in the Ryder seam, and on leaving the
rib-side in this seam, working on the longwall system, the writer
now makes a practice of banking-up to the coal with incombust^
ible material, such as sand or boiler-fiue dust ; and he believes
that it has, to some extent, acted as a deterrent.
In support of this theory of crushing, the writer may instance
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THICK COAL OF WABWICKSHIBE. 505
a case which came under his observation at Gri£E colliery, a few
years ago. In a certain district, where the measuires rise at an
inclination of 1 in 6, the Ryder coal was being worked simul-
taneously with and in advance of the Two-yards seam.
For commercial reasons it became necessary to cease working
the Ryder seam, with the result that fire broke out, without excep-
tion, whenever the Two-yards face reached the point at which the
Ryder coal had been abandoned.
In the same way, at Newdigate colliery, where, owing to the
depth, the weight on the seam is exceptionally heavy and the
crushing severe, intense heat is generated in the Two-yards seam
when the faces arrive at the Ryder rib-side ; and it is only by the
application of a good supply of cool air that fires can. be averted.
It must be borne in mind, that, as the weight comes on and the
gob-spaces become more and more confined, the gases are sub-
jected to considerable pressure, and conditions are brought about
which are highly conducive to the generation of further heat.
(b) In working seams of this character on the longwall sys-
tem, especially when they contain a large proportion of moisture
and volatile matter, some of the gob-mat«rial is necessarily of a
combustible nature; and this, as well as the coal around, is
continuously subjected to the oxidizing action of the atmosphere.
The writer has frequently observed,- in working the Slate and
Ell seams with solid Ryder coal above, that although heat has
been generated in the wastes, actual fire has not occurred until,
owing to excessive weight or insufficient packing, the Ryder seam
has broken down in the goaf and exposed a large surface-area of
the coal.
(c) The floor and partings generally contain a large propor-
tion of moisture, apart from that in the coal itself, and this
moisture, together with the humid atmosphere prevailing in the
gobs, is sufficient to decompose any iron-pyrites existing in the
coal, and then it becomes a powerful auxiliary in the heating of
coaly matter in its vicinity.
At Tfewdigate colliery, the Two-yards seam, which is prac-
tically free from pyrites, has been worked singly for several
years without showing any sign of fire ; while at Griff colliery,
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506 THICK COAI* OF WABWICKSHIBE.
li miles away, the same seam worked singly, but containing in
places a small proportion of iron-pyrites, some of whick finds its
way into the goaf, is subject to occasional gob-fires, although the
wastes are well filled up.
Many experienced colliers assert that the oily shales which
form the partings between the seams are mainly responsible for
the generation of heat; but, although it is true these shales are
often found to be steaming, it is more likely to be (in the early
stages at any rate) the effect of heat rather than the cause.
From a practical jwint of view, the prevention of gob-fires
under such conditions is well nigh impossible, but a great deal
can be accomplished in this direction by avoiding, as far as
possible, the occurrence of heavy falls in the goaf and the conse-
quent exposure of a large surface of coal ; and by completely
isolating, by means of cross-packs of incombustible material, any
small pillars or ribs of coal, which have been left, purposely or
otherwise.
Ventilation should be supplied at a low pressure, so that there
may be less tendency for the air to be drawn through the goaves,
the necessary quantity being made up by an increased number of
intake-airways to the coal-face.
A straight line of faqe of fair sectional area, free from
cuttings, falls, and other obstacles, is perhaps the most important
condition of all ; but in the working of a thick coal-seam such
perfection is seldom attained.
The methods of dealing with gob-fires when they do occur,
are few and simple : the chief point being that they should be
tackled promptly, and the minds of pit-officials should be im-
pressed with the fact that no such thing exists as a fire which is
"not serious.''
Complete exclusion of air by means of cross-packs, well sanded
and made solid, generally meets with success, and very often
prevents the spread of the fire, which inevitably happens when
valuable time is lost in trying to fill out the burning material.
However desirable it may be to employ the latter method of
dealing with fires on main roads and in similar places, efforts
so spent upon a gob-fire in Warwickshire are almost certain to
be futile.
The writer is not a believer in the application of water, un-
less, aided by the dip of the mine, the fire can be completely
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THICK COAL OF WAKWICKSHIRE. 607
c
drowned. Sometimes, when the heat is so g^reat a^ to prevent
approach to the seat of the fire, the water-hose may be used in
order to cool the place sufficiently to enable men to work; but
great caution should be observed, and sufficient fresh air immedi-
ately supplied to carry off the dangerous gases which may result.
Large coal-areas have been successively worked in the neighbour-
hood, where, with a considerable dip and retreating faces, suffi-
cient water has been present or available to fill the goaf com-
pletely, and such a state of things presents the most favourable
conditions under which the seams can be worked.
The foregoing remarks refer only to the occurrence of fire
at the working-face, trouble of this kind being somewhat rare
in the pillars between main roads; but the opinion may be
expressed that, in forming main roads which may have to stand
for many years as intake and return-airways, it is advisable to
work out the whole of the top seam for a sufficient width, filling
up the space with solid packing. However bad the roof may be,
a good road will be made eventually by ripping, and this will not
only be free from the danger of fire, but, where there is con-
siderable crushing, it will be a cheaper road to maintain, in the
long run, than where coal-pillars are left.
Working the Thick Coal-seam at one Operation. — The seam
may be worked by (a) fore-winning to the dip or by (b) driving
jigs to the dip.
(a) Fore-winning to the dip. — ^It will be seen, that in the
choice of a system of working, due regard must be had to the
probable occurrence of gob-fires ; and the system which commends
itself most strongly is that of fore- winning the coal by means
of driving out heads to the dip-boundary, or some convenient
distance from the shaft, and working home.
It is not always practicable or expedient, however, to drive
to the boundary, but each panel of work so developed should
have a separate existence, and provision should be made for
entirely damming it off when worked out or abandoned. Fig. 5
(plate xix.) shows a district actually at work which has been
opened out on these lines at Newdigate colliery. The level was
driven out from the side of the main hill; and from this, at
intervals of 400 to 500 feet, hills have been driven down on the
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508 THICK COAL OF WARWICKSHIRE.
•
full dip for a distance of about 1,000 feet, and heads driven across
the bottom to form faces of work in the seams. Three lines of
face are at work, the Slate coal in advance, followed by the
Ryder seam, 45 or 60 feet behind, and the Two-yards seam at a
further interval of about 35 feet. The spires of the Ell seam
form a tough roof to the Slate coal, and are taken down between
the packs whenever possible, while the Bare coal is left in per-
manently, first as a roof to the Ryder seam, and then as a floor
for the Two-yards seam. The system of working will be made
clear by reference to the plan and the section (figs. 6 and 7,
plate xix.).
It is usual to drive the gate-roads and hills in the Ryder seam,
thus leaving a considerable thickness of coal both below and
overhead. In order to save excessive dinting, and consequent
high and dangerous places at the bottom of the hills, the road
is carried directly to the Ryder face, to which point the coal
from the other seams is brought by means of the congates or
level roads, thirled across from one seam to the other. In spite
of the coal left as a roof in the Two-yards stalls, the bind roof
is so bad and so liable to break down, that it is advisable to divide
the places into short lengths of 150 feet or thereabouts in order
to keep the face constantly moving. Six or more separate sets of
men occupy the stalls so formed, and with a full complement of
workers, 150 to 170 tons per shift is sent out of each hill.
It may be remarked that the hills from the main haulage-
level to the face, when properly driven, require few repairs ; and,
whenever it becomes necessary to rip the roof or dint the floor,
the product is coal in each case. It will be observed from the
section (fig. 7, plate xix.) that the lower seam, the Slate coal,,
is devoid of any packing material beyond what is produced from
the dirt holing ; and it is highly necessary that builders of rock or
bind shall be imported from some other part of the pit.
One of the advantages of this system of working the coels
simidtaneously is that plenty of suitable material is available
from the Two-yards goaves, and this is systematically filled and
conveyed during the off-shift into the Slate-coal stalls for. the
use of the men.
In the Ryder seam, however, it is the custom of the district
to fill the coal with forks and to gob the slack; and, however
reprehensible this practice may appear, no evil results are
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THICK COAL OF WARWICKSHIBJE. 509
specially noticeable. This slack, together with the holing dirt
and the stony parts of the seams, provides sufficient material for
effective packing.
In the older collieries near the outcrop, where the seam lies
4tt a considerable angle, better advantage was taken of any water
which might be available for closing the wastes ; and, in
addition, it was possible to throw back the roof -weight better and
with more effect than is practicable where the mine is less
inclined. The result in the latter case is that where packs are
not properly built, the roof cuts off at the face-side and trouble
arises in the seam that is following behind.
Experiments have been made in the district, with the view of
getting out more coal per acre, by simultaneously working the
seam divided up somewhat differently ; and this system was suc-
cessfully employed at Wyken colliery, where the Ell coal is
"^thicker ; but, on the whole, the division described is fairly general.
(6) Driving Jigs to the Rise, — It is sometimes necessary to get
coal lying to the rise of the shaft-bottom, and in such cases it is
usual to drive out a level and counter-head in the solid coal with
a pillar, 75 to 100 feet thick between them, cross thirls being
driven to the rise at right angles to the level at intervals of 300
feet or less. The three seams are then opened out in exactly the
same way as already described, the gates being carried forward
as the faces move up.
Where there is sufficient gradient for the haulage to be self-
acting, the cost of working is low in this respect; but this
advantage is outweighed by the difficulty of getting material
up the jigs to deal with gob-fires should they occur. Although
by this system a face of working can be more quickly opened
out, the subsequent cost of ripping the jigs and dealing with the
spoil is heavy; and it is certain, in most cases, that the pillar
left for the supjwrt of the haulage-level will be lost.
Separate Working of the Seams. — The immunity from gob-
fires while working the Two-yards seam, which is commercially
the most valuable, has on more than one occasion tempted colliery
owners to work this seam first, leaving the others to a doubtful
fate ; but, while there may be questions of expediency to con-
sider, the writer is not prepared altogether to condemn the
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610 THICK COAL OF WABWICKSHIRE.
system from a practical point of view. The obvious advantage is
that the most valuable seam is secured with possibly a smaller
percentage of slack, the work being opened out on the fore-
winning system or by means of jigs to the rise. One of the dis-
advantages is that another set of roads must be driven to develop
the Slate and Eyder seams at a later date, with a possibility of
losing the latter.
The writer is now working, on the retreating system, a panel
of the lower seams in a part of the mine where the Two-yards
seam was worked four or five years ago. It is, as yet, too early
to say definitely whether the coal can be worked as cheaply as by
the alternative system; but at present the seams are somewhat
dead owing to the absence of top weight. A further disadvantage
lies in the absence of packing material, which must be hauled
from some other part of the pit and sent down the hills. As an
experiment, hills have been driven down to work the Slate coal
first, leaving the upper seams intact ; but here again one meets
the problem of providing packing material, while there seems
little doubt that the other seams will be badly broken up and
difficult to get.
It is not claimed that the above modifications of the fore-
winning system are the most suitable in all cases. Large areas
of coal have been worked successfully elsewhere in Warwick-
shire, where only two main hills have been driven to the dip,
an intake and a return-airway, to deal with the output from
faces up to 1,800 feet wide, the Slate and Ryder faces being used
as haulage-roads, but there are obvious drawbacks to this arrange-
ment where the faces are liable to break down.
There can be little doubt, from an economical point of view,
that the simultaneous working of the seams in three (or possibly
four) retreating faces is the system which possesses the most ad-
vantages; but one must not lose sight of the fact that in the
most recent developments the coal-field is approaching the bottom
of the basin, and with a reduced dip the difficulties of applying
this system are certain to increase.
Haulage,— ~ln describing the systems of haidage employed in
this part of Warwickshire, it may be well to point out that the
dip of the seams is very rapid at the outcrop, gradually decreasing
towards the west, and the natural tendency on the part of colliery
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THICK COAL OF WASWICESHIBE. 611
proprietors has been to sink the shafts as far to the rise of the
royalty as possible. The result of this arrangement is that, in
most cases, the entire output of the collieiy is eventually brought
to the shaft-bottom by one or two main roads. Mining engineers
have not been slow to recognize the importance of an efficient
system to cope with these conditions ; and, even among&t the older
collieries in the district, haulage-plants are to be found which will
compare favourably with the most recently laid down arrange-
ments elsewhere in the kingdom.
Systems of main-rope and endless-rope haulages driven from
the surface or by power transmitted to the pit-bottom are in
general use for these main haulages, and in some cases auxiliary
mechanical haulage has been carried to the working-faces to the
entire exclusion of ponies.
The writer will describe one or two arrangements laid down
by himself, which, though perhaps devoid of originality, are
interesting examples of subsidiary haulage designed to meet
special circumstances. Fig. 8 (plate xix.) shows the dip-work-
ings in the Two-yards seam at the Clara pit. Griff colliery. The
shaft is sunk to the Seven-foot seam, and the Two-yards seam is
reached, at A, by a level stone-head driven a distance of 900 feet
across the measures. The road is then carried down in the seam
at the normal dip of 1 in 6 for a further 250 feet, and levels are
driven out on either side. From this level, at intervals of 300
to 350 feet, hills were originally driven down in the coal to the
dip, a distance of about 1,200 feet: these being gradually
shortened towards the end of the level, in order to enable the
farthest stalls to work first out to the level.
The motive power is compressed air, and the main haulage is
dealt with by a hauling-engine, B, with two cylinders 13 inches
in diameter, fitted with two drums and main-and-tail ropes.
The tail-rope pulls the empty tubs from the pit-bottom over the
brow of the hill, and passes round a pulley fixed in the roof at C,
where a boy unhooks the rope, and the train, going forward by
gravity, takes in the main rope with it. On the return of the
main-rope with the full journey of tubs, the tail-rope is hooked
on behind, and taken out to the pit-bottom ready to repeat the
operation. The main train of empty tubs is driven to a flat on
either side, where a single-drum hauling engine, D, with two
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612 THICK COAL OF WARWICKSHIRE.
cylinders 8 inches in diameter, is fixed. At the far end of each
level, a similar engine, E, is fixed, and the ropes from these two
hauling engines act in see-saw fashion, alternatively as main-and-
tail ropes in taking in and bringing out the trains of tubs. The
same results could, of course, be achieved by a single main-and-
tail rope hauling engine, but the roads in question, lite most
Warwickshire levels were not driven absolutely straight; and,
in addition to this, some difficulty would have been otherwise
experienced in picking up and setting down tubs at the hills.
Each hill has a separate hauling engine (fig. 9, plate xix.)
drawing 4 or 5 tubs from the working-face. The full tubs are
placed upon the main road in readiness to be picked up by the
level train as it comes out. The empty tubs are similarly dealt
with on the inward journey, and by regulating the supply of tubs
the system has proved most efficient.
A modification of this arrangement on a smaller scale is in
use at Newdigate colliery ; but there, advantage has been taken
of a slight rise in the level which allows the train of full tubs to
gravitate towards the main hillside bringing with it the rope,
attached to the drum of an electrically-driven haulage-gear placed
at the inbye end of the level. Where the gear has been provided
with a brake powerful enough to control the speed of the full
train, this system works well. The empty tubs are dropped off,
and full ones picked up at the tops of the hills in the same way
as previously described.
Conclusion. — In submitting the foregoing observations to the
members, the writer does not suggest that the approved methods
of working the Thick coal-seam of Warwickshire, which he has
described, are incapable of modification, or that the important
problems connected with it have received in this paper the full
consideration to which they are entitled.
Possibly conditions may arise in future developments necessi-
tating the adoption of some entirely different method of working,
such as the Staffordshire square work, or the pillar-work em-
ployed in parts of Scotland ; and it is chiefly with the object of
inducing members, who are interested in the working of thick
coal-seams, to join in a discussion of the subject that this paper
has been written.
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Clara Pit, Qriff Colliery. Top of Hill.
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DISCUSSION THICK COAL OF WARWICKSHIRE. 513
Mr. Alexander Smith (Birmingham) said that this i)aper ap-
pealed to him, beeaufle his interests were largely those of the
lessors as their agent, and the system which Mr. Browne had so
well explained, of working the Thick coal at greait depths, was
calculated to produce more coal than any other system that he
knew. Mr. Browne had not touched upon the difficulties of South
StafEordshire, where the Ten -yards seam, at a moderate depth, was
worked on the rib-and-pillar system, taking out comparatively
small portions, and after going in four or five times bringing out
ultimately nearly the whole ; but, when it was worked at depths of
1,500 to 2,000 feet, the difficulties commenced, and as a result only
about half of the coal was worked and the remainder was left. The
weight on large hollows had been so terrific that miniature earth-
quakes had closed the roads in the solid coal as fast fis they were
made. At Hamstead colliery, they had a further calamity ; and,
although what was thought to be sufficient pillars were left, spon-
taneous combustion had ensued, and a fire near the shaft had
resulted in the colliery being closed. Later, the seam was re-
covered from a fresh inset, a long way above the fire-area., but the
process of recovery was a very difficult and expensive matter.
There were capable 'engineers in Warwickshire, who would
grapple with the difficulties of fire and weight, and he hoped that
they would work the seams in the manner described by Mr.
Browne.
Mr. H. R. Hewitt (H.M. Inspector of Mines, Derby) said that
although Mr. Browne agreed that the East Warwickshire coal-
field was identical with the Thick coal-seam of Staffordshire, yet
there were some differences in the more marked characteristics.
He (Mr. Hewitt) would like to know in what particulars they dif-
fered, and to what extent; and, in discussing this paper, it was
necessary that great attention be paid to the sections (figs. 1, 2 and
3, plate xix.), and also to the depths at which the coal-seams were
worked at Newdigate colliery. The packing of the goaves of the
Warwickshire mines, where all the seams came into close prox-
imity with each other, was always performed in a somewhat un-
satisfactory manner. Fig. 6 (plate xix.) showed the packing of
the stalls as it should be done, but he had seldom seen it done so
well in practice. Packing material was admitted to be scarce,
and it appeared, therefore, that they might follow a practice of
VOL. XXXI1I.-.190HW7. 37
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614 DISCUSSION — THICK COAL OF WARWICKSHIRE.
their Continental neighbours by working stone at a surface quarry
for sending into the mine where all the stalls are to the dip of
the shaft, to be used for packing the goaves, instead of using
bitipninous shales, which were subject to spontaneous heating
after being disintegrated by the pressure due to the remoaral of
the coal. The amount of coal lost in working the Thick coal-
seam of Staffordshire was very great, and it was probably for this
reason and the peculiar condition for ventilating the working-
places, that the Staffordshire system of working had never been
applied to the thick section of Warwickshire. The main coal of
South Derbyshire, 14 feet thick, was subject to fire. The lower 8
feet was worked on the main face and the upper 6 feet was got in
the wastes between the paoks only, and when the first symptoms of
fire were notjced, by the deposition of small globules of moisture
in the waste, a cross-pack was placed across several wastes, built
in with flue-dust or sand; the greater portion of the packing-
material used was the white sandstone rock overlying the
Eureka coal-seam worked some distance away, and it was the
use of this packing-material which had removed so much anxiety
in working the Main coal-seam of vSouth Derbyshire.
Mr. J. H. W. Laverick (Sheffield) said that, after lengthy
experiences in Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, and elsewhere, he
found that a^ good packing as he had seen anywhere was used in
the Slate coal-seam of Warwickshire. The packing of the other
seams at the back of the Slate coal-faces was difficult, because the
material, employed for packing, was very tender. The difficulty
might be overcome in some measure by bringing stone from the
upper seam to help to fill up the wastes. The working of the
Thick coal of Warwickshire presented unusual difficulties at a
depth of 1,500 feet. The hill system of working was not new : it
had been successful, from a practical point of view, in the case of
shallow mines, near to the outcrop, where the measures were not
too fiat ; but, as the depth increased, the pressure also increased,
and the difficulties increased enormously. After two years' work
in Warwickshire, he was of opinion that it was desirable for the
Two-yards or top coal only to be worked in one or more districts
of the pit, owing to the freedom of this seam from spontaneous
combustion, and the debris from that or those districts could be
used for packing in a district where tihe full section of the Thick
coal-seam was worked.
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DISCUSSION — ^TIIICK COAL OF WABWICKSHIEE. 515
Mr. W. G. Phillips (Atherstone) said that at the Ansley Hall
collieries, these thick seams of coal were divided by 135 feet of
strata, and he appreciated them very much better in that posi-
tion. The Two-yards seam at Newdigate colliery was a very
excellent quality of coal ; and in any system of working the thick
coal at Newdigate colliery, regard should be had for the superi-
ority of that coal and the enhanced price which it realized — a very
important factor. In working the Slate coal in advance and the
Ryder coal following, 45 to 50 feet in the rear, the overlying
Two-yards coal (fig. 5, plate xix.) would suffer from the crush-
ing effect of the goaf, and the underlying adjacent workings ; and
the average selling price of the Ryder coal, owing to the greater
percentage of slack, would be materially reduced. He thought,
if he might be allowed to say so, that the working of the Slate
coal, underneath the Ryder coal, had taken place rather too soon
after the working of the Ryder coal, to render it an advantage
to work the Slate coal by the retreating system. If this had
been deferred for 10 years or so, until the goaf had settled down,
the effect of the weight on the Slate coal would be the same as
though the Two-yards coal had been left unwrought. He thought
that it would be possible to combine the two systems, taking out
the Two-yards coal by the ordinary system of working ; but, in-
stead of driving out levels, to follow the somewhat modified course
that they had adopted at Ansley Hall collieries, of driving heading
stalls, 75 feet wide, and taking out all the coal : ultimately
adopting the system shown in figs. 5, 6 and 7, for the working
of the Slate coal. He understood that the Ryder coal was not a
valuable coal. From Ms observations in Warwickshire, extend-
ing over 30 years, he considered that packing in Warwicksbire
compared very favourably with that of other parts of the country
working steep seams. He did not think, from an economical point
of view, that it would be possible to quarry packing material on the
surface and send it into the mine, as the cost would be too great.
Mr. H. S. Smith (Timsbury) said that at the Himley collieries,
some years ago, an attempt was made to work the Thick coal-seam
in two sections, but it was not successful. This system and a
modified longwall system had been described in the Transaciicns*
♦ "A General Deacription of the South StaflFordahire Coal-field," etc., by
Messrs. W. F. Clark and H. W. Hughes, Trans, Inst. M. E., 1891, vol. iii., pages
38 and 40.
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516 DISCUSSION THICK COAL OF WARWICKSHIBE.
At Sandwell Park colliery, the Thick coal-seam was worked on the
rib-and-pillar system, and it was stated that practically all of the
ribs-and-pillars would be abstracted at some time in the future ;
but he thoug^ht that, when worked, both there and at Hampstead
colliery, a large proportion of the coal would be lost. He was of
opinion that, if the longwall method of working the Thick coal-
seam of South Staffordshire were adopted in Warwickshire, it
would probably be found to work successfully.
Mr. Henry Hall (H.M. Inspector of Mines) said that, in North
Wales, where slate, a very valuable material, was mined, only
about half of it was worked. A chamber was driven, about 46 feet
wide, and a pillar, 46 feet wide, of the valuable material was
left, and so on. He would like to know what proportion of the
Thick coal-seam was worked in Staffordshi<re, as it appeared to
him that a considerable percentage was left in the mine. The
landlord fixed how much of the slate was to be left, as a " crush *'
was a most serious matter; and, when the surface began to move,
the mountain began to slide downhill very rapidly and covered
up the access to the mine.
Prof. A. LuPTON, M.P., who made his fiirst acquaintance with
Warwickshire and with South Staffordshire 40 years or more ago,
thought that the Thick coal-seam of Warwickshire was worked in
a different fashion from that of South Staffordshire, owing to the
fact that it had a steeper inclination near the out-crop, and the
Staffordshire Thick coal-seam was found nearly level at a moderate
depth. The difference between level and steep seams would
account to some extent for the different methods of working the
Thick coal-seam, and the systems would be followed up, as it was
very difficult to change a system. Solid stowing was generally
adopted in France in the working of thick coal-seams. The stone
was quarried on the surface, and in some. places dropped down a
pit used for that purpose ; the tubs, loaded with stone, were taken
to the working-fa<;e ; it was emptied there, and the coal was loaded
into the tub which had brought the stone. In France, surface-
owners were entitled to support, and could claim considerable
compensation if the surface was damaged. Possible claims for sur-
face-damage constituted an important reason in deciding a French
colliery-manager to adopt a system of complete stowing. There
could be no doubt that to stow a mine economically with material
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DISCUSSION — THICK COAL OF WARWICKSHIRE. 517
from the surface, the mine must be laid out with that object,
80 that it could be done with a minimum of labour. He thought
that the time would come when a great deal of stowing material
would be sent from the surface into British mines.
Mr. S. F. Walker (Bath) suggested that carbon-dioxide,
dissolved in water, would provide a ready means for reducing
combustion if it had broken out, and it would also, under
certain conditions, prevent the outbreak of fires. The use of water
was possibly objected to, because it would carry heat along and
start combustion somewhere else. He suggested, therefore, that
if water were sprayed on the fire they would probably get rid of
that difficulty.
Mr. C. C. Leach (Seghill) was of opinion that Mr. Walker
had never seen a gob-fire. It would be most dangerous to spray
hvrge volumes of carbon dioxide on a fire, and it might lead to
the loss of many lives in a mine. He had seen a fire in a mine
that had been burning for about 40 years; he did not want to
see it again, but there was no intention of trying to extinguish
it with carbon dioxide, owing to the danger to life involved in such
an attempt, together with the prohibitive cost.
Mr. H. S. Smith (Timsbury collieries) said that a modified
system of Thick coal longwall working had been successfully
worked in a seam dipping 1 in 3. The seam was worked in the
reverse direction to that followed at the Newdigate colliery. The
main roads were driven to the full rise of the seam, and the
working ro«uis were driven level on the strike. The best method,
in his opinion, of preventing gob-fires was to keep the coal-fa<3e
constantly moving ; and, when a fire did occur, it could be isolated
by means of a rib of coal.
Mr. F. C. Swallow (Hednesford) said that it waa only within
the last 10 or 15 years that much attention had been given to the
difficult question of working thick coal, lying flat or at a small
angle of inclination, at considerable depths, and subject to spon-
taneous combustion. He did not believe that there was any
system whereby all the coal could be extracted. Mr. Browne
stated that the retreating system could be worked successfully;
but he suggested that this system could only be successfully
adopted where gob-fires could be drowned, aided by the dip of
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518 DISCUSSION — THICK COAX* OF WARWICKSHLRE.
the mine. He believed that a system of water-sprays was in use
at Hamstead colliery for initial fires, but it was only used in emer-
gencies ; where possible, the fire was dug out or choked by pack-
ing with sand or boiler-flue dust, and this appeared to be the best
practical means of successfully dealing with gob-fires.
Mr. M. W. Wateehoitsb (Bedworth) said that Mr. Browne
gave three reasons for the occurrence of gob-fires, bift had not
referred to the colliers' objectionable habit of leaving props in
the goaf. A prop, say, 8 inches in diameter, soon became a
mass of splinters, like matchwood, and formed a convenient
centre for originating a gob-fire. He agreed with all the rules
proposed by Mr. Browne for the avoidance of gob-fires, but he
thought that Mr. Browne might have added the advantage of
travelling the face forward at a great speed. In one thick seam,
the working-face advanced at the rate of 66 feet per month ; and it
had been working for 8 or 9 months, without a vestige of gob-fire
being seen ; but at an ordinary rate of advance, numeix)us fires
would have occurred. Mr. Browne discussed the desirability of
avoiding the occurrence of heavy falls in the goaf and the conse-
quent exposure of large surfaces of coal to the danger of spon-
taneous combustion. He agreed with this recommendation, but
he had recently been compelled to work a large area of coal,
that had been somewhat badly treated by nature, and it was
impossible to prevent falls, as the strata formed one mass of
joints and fissures. Mr. Browne did not mention the use of
rescue-appliances in connection with pit-fires, but that had al-
ways appealed to him as a desirable method. He rather favoured
their use until, a few years ago, he happened to hear that a few
lives had been lost through the use of such appliances, and he
realized that their use in Warwickshire mines might prove
dangerous on account of the difficulty, generally experienced,
of introducing new apparatus. Mr. Browne did not believe in
the application of water in large quantities, but he had found
that small quantities of water were most useful. They had
to be small, owing to the great distance from the supply. A tub of
water, a 3-gallons fire-extinguisher of the Menyweather type,
and a few spare charges, would make better progress in extinguish-
ing a small fire than any other method, especially when digging
it out, where it was practicable. He believed that he was correct
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DISCUSSION THICK COAL OF WARWICKSHIEE. 519
in stating that the Thick coal-seam in Warwickshire had not been
worked at depths exceeding 1,500 feet until 4 or 5 years ago ;
and, therefore, any experience obtained or observationfl made with
regard to other collieries, which had worked the Thick coal-seam,
would not apply to the present conditions, becauBe the seams were
not woited at so great a depth. He observed that Mr. Browne left
in ribs of coal, at the sides of the flat, in the Slate coal-seam (fig.
6, plate xix.) He (Mr. Waterhouse) had been compelled to leave
similar ribs, in the case of roads driven prior to his time, and he
found that the leaving of these ribs was most disastrous. The road,
passing through them, was in a continual state of upheaval ; and
it would rise as much as a foot in one shift. All new roads were
now so driven, as to avoid having to leave any pillars in the Slate
ooal-seam. It was obvious, notwithstanding any slight advantage
that might be gained in the reduction of gob-fije and timber-costs,
that it would not afford adequate compensation for the enormous
expenditure required to quarry stone for packing material and
take it into the mine. Mr. Browne stated that it was possible to
produce from 150 to 170 tons per shift from each hill ; many mem-
bers would be glad to do the same ; but he (Mr. Waterhouse) had
found it sometimes desirable to nearly double these figures. Where
the dip was great, an accumulation of water was an advantage
in extinguishing fires in the gob. In his own experience, if one
was troubled with water, the dip was always too slight to take it
away; and if one wanted water to extinguish a fire it was not
available.
Mr. L. Holland (Hamstead Colliery) wrote that the diffi-
culties of working thick coal by the longwall method were
innumerable, including scarcity of packing material and fre-
quency of gob-fires, with the risk of losing a diaibrict (and con-
sequent reduction of output) until a new face could be^ opened.
In square work, on the other hand, the sides of work or panels
were cut out in such areas as could ordinarily be worked out com-
pletely before taking fire ; and before the side of work was finished
the rib was being cut ofE for the new side, so that if the old
side should fire before it was completely finished, the new side
could be worked double shift. As a matter of fact, if carefully
watched, there was seldom any loss of output from this cause. In
working the seams separately, it might be convenient for certain
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520 DISCUSSION — THICK COAL OF WARWICKSHIRE.
reasons to work the Two-yards seam first, but it was certainly in-
advisable, having regard to future workings ; and unless the gob
was packed solid and without wastes, one would expect tkat the
Ryder seam would be lifted and bi'oken, and a very bad roof would
be left for the lower seams. He (Mr. Holland) bad a somewhat
similar experience to that of Mr. Browne's in the South Stafford-
shire Thick coal-seam, in working the bottom part of the seam
where the top coal had been worked previously, all above the Stone
coal being removed. The Stone coal was left as a roof, and the
remaining thickness of 6 feet of coal was worked. Close timbering
was necessary, but even that was not sufficient to prevent the gob
from running in and burying the face in places where the coal was
severely crushed and small knobs of coal had to be left to catch
the roof again. Where the floor of the top roads had lifted and
had been lowered, the bottom coal on each side was crushed to
fine slack and was the cause of fires. The labour-cost per ton
in this district was excessive in comparison with the cost in
other districts, worked by the square-work method. Where
thick dirt-partings or inferior and hard seams of coal occurred
in the Thick coal-seam there might be some advantage in the
longwall method of working; but in working thick coal, as it
occurred in South Staffordshire, with very thin partings and all
good saleable coal, it was generally agreed that, of the many sys-
tems of working, the square-work system was the most suitable.
Where thick coal occurred at a depth of 1,500 feet or more, the
initial temperature of the coal was necessarily high, and if the
coal were very liable to spontaneous combustion it was certainly
minimizing a serious risk if the work was cut up into panels,
whatever method of working might be adopted inside those
panels, so that in case of a fire which could not be removed, it
could be dammed off effectually and cheaply, and the loss of
coal ag.d workings would be confined to a small area. In
deciding whether to work longwall or square work, inside those
panels, there were several advantages to recommend square work.
The opening-up for work would be much cheaper, the output per
man would be much greater, and the removal of dirt for packing
would be avoided.
Mr. R. KiRKBY (Prestonpans) wrote that he agreed with Mr.
Browne's remarks as to the probable causes of spontaneous
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DISCUSSION — THICK COAL OF WARWICKSHIRE. 521
combustion in coal-seams. In the Ghemiss seam in Fife, several
fires were found to be due to two distinct causes, namely: (a)
heat caused by crushing of pillars or ribs oi coal left in the
waste ; and (6) chemical action. At a depth of about 500 feet
from the surface, two separate fires were undoubtedly due to the
crushing of narrow ribs of coal, abandoned owing to the expense
which would have been incurred in repairing roads to work out
the coal. The coal, at these places, was good and free from
iron-pyrites or other foreign matter, so far as could be seen. In
this same seam and in the same colliery, at a depth of about IjOOO*
feet, there was a very good illustration of a spontaneous fire from
heat caused by chemical action. A section or district of coal had
been worked in the ordinary way. The dip was 1 in 6, and the
main roads were built through the waste straight to the rise.
Side-roads were branched from these main roads at right angles,,
every 30 feet. A fire was discovered in the waste between two
of the side-roads, and it was dug out and filled into tubs. In the
course of this operation, a considerable quantity of white spar
was found in the burning rubbish. This spar was found in this
seam in the form of vertical veins from 1 inch to 4 inches thick.
The coal was clean for a considerable distance, then a series of
these veins were found, running in the direction of the main
backs or cleat of the coal, and shortly again the seam was got
clear and free from them. The miners cleaned the coal, and
stowed the spar along with small coal and a thin top stone
or fire-clay parting. This fire extended from one roadside to-
the other, and was about 10 feet in width. It was totally cleared
away, and the place left supported on trees.
Some time afterwards, another fire was discovered in the next
waste, between the second and third roads, and in a straight line
with the first fire. This second fire was dealt with in the same
way, and the white spar was again found at the hottest part. The
roof of the road, separating the two fires, was quite solid. It
shoiild be stated that the roof was inferior coal about 2 feet thick.
A week or two afterwards, a third fire was found between
the third and fourth roads, and another between the fourth and
fifth roads. These were all in a straight line, and the roof was
not broken in the wastes or in the roadways. There was no
water or even dampness. The whole area was very dry. This
spar had not been analysed, but there was probably soda in it»
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522 DISCUSSION — THICK COAL OF WAKWICKSHIKE.
So far as could be seen, the wastes in which these fires took
place contained this foreign material, and the other wastes, in
other pai*ts of the neighbouring workings, were clear of it.
According to his (Mr. Kirkby's) experience, water was of no
use in extinguishing fires in situ, unless, of course, the section of
work could be drowned. If the burning* material was to be filled
away, then, let them by all means, use water, if possible, to cool
it before putting it into tubs. This could not always be done,
and it was often only possible to cool the rubbish by throwing it
into the tubs in two or three casts. Where a seam was liable
to spontaneous combustion, the question whether the pavement
or floor was of a soft or a hard nature was the deciding factor as
to fires or no fires. The Dysart Main seam, at one colliery in
Fife, had a soft fire-clay pavement, 3 or 4 feet thick; and
although now and then a place heated up slightly, there waa
never a fire in that pit. The pavement soon heaved and met the
roof, and the heat was smothered. In the neighbouring colliery,
only one mile away, the pavement was hard. The change took
place gradually, the 4 feet of fire-clay altered to 1 foot of hard
stone, and a coal in the pavement, 18 inches thick at the first
colliery, became 3^ feet thick a mile off: this pavement did
not heave, and there were fires in that colliery almost constantly.
In both the Dysart Main and the Chemiss seams, a road driven
in the solid coal, if allowed to remain undisturbed, would, in
a few years, often be found to have a deposit on the coal-sui*f aces
of white spikey crystals of sulphuric acid and water, which
looked like cotton-wool at a distance of a few feet. He had
never seen this in any other seam not subject to spontaneous
combustion, and he would be very much interested to learn
whether Mr. Browne had noticed anything of the kind in
Warwickshire.
Mr. H. Johnstone (H.M. Inspector of Mines, Stafford) wrote
that Mr. Browne made no reference to the '* bumps " or sudden
weighting and breaking of the roof, which formed such an ele-
ment of danger in the working of the Ten-yards coal-seam in
South Staffordshire. If, as he presumed, these were less fre-
quent or more easily dealt with in Warwickshire, it would be
interesting to know the reason. This was probably to be found,
not so much in the nature of the seams or in the methods of
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DISCUSSION — THICK COAL OF WABWICKSHIBE. 528
working them, as in tie nature of the overlying strata. Could
Mr. Browne favour the members with ai section of the strata,
and also with a statement of the depths to the various workings
described ? Mr. Browne referred to outbreaks of fire, when the
working-face of the Two-yards coal-seam overtook that of the
Ryder coal-seam: were these outbursts in the Two-yards or in
the Eyder coal-seam P If the latter, was the working-face left
standing open when it was abandoned ? Mr. Browne also referred
to occasional outbursts of fire in the Two-yards seam at Griff
colliery, while the same seam worked at Newdigate colliery
showed no signs of fire. He attributed the immunity of the latter
working to the coal having been practically free from pyrites.
Could he inform the members whether the depths and conditions
of working were exactly similar; 'whether the gobs were equally
stowed or packed; and whether the small coal was filled out or
left in the mine ?
Mr. Thomas H. Wakd (Giridih, India) wrote that Mr. Browne
had described a most interesting system of working thick coal
on the longwall principle. At first, a South Staffordshire thick-
coal man would instinctively feel that, if a face of such great
length as that shown in fig. 8 (plate xix.) were opened out in
South Staffordshire, it would lead to enormous waste of coal in
the shape of rib© left for damming off gob-fires. In fact, he would
be inclined to say that such a system was impossible in a coal-
seam so liable to spontaneous combustion as the South Stafford-
shire Thick coal-seam. He (Mr. Ward) was of that opinion on
reading the paper, but further reflection and careful considera-
tion of the facts adduced by Mr. Browne as to the causes of gob-
fires under sub-head (a), and his description of the methods
found effective in dealing with these fires, suggested an entirely
opposite conclusion. Mr. Browne gave a most prominent posi-
tion, as a cause of gob-fires, to the heat mechanically produced
by th^ crushing of the coal at " opening-off " ribs, and by the
side of pillars of coal, and adduced an interesting instance. It
was everyone's experience in South Staffordshire that a fire
would start on the side of a rood, or in a solid pillar ; and it was
a common practice to hole and stow 6 feet on each side of gate-
roads, so as to ease the pressure and reduce the risk of fire.
It needed no argument to demonstrate that, when a mine
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524 DISCUSSION — THICK COAL OF WABWICKSHIRE.
had been laid out on the South Staffordshire square-work system,
a maximum resistance to crushing was expected from the ribs
and pillars forming- a side-of-work. The principle relied on was/
in fact, to afford direct support to the roof by the coal left in the
ribs and the pillars, and thereby to gain a sufficient interval of
time to enable the remaining portion of the coal to be won ; and
to prevent any sagging or bending of the superincumbent strata
until this operation had been completed. In short, a maximum
resistance to crushing was offered; and it waj9, therefore, clear
that the maximum number of heat-units which could be
mechanically produced by crushing would be evolved. In the
system described by Mr. Browne, the application of the longwall
system allowed the strata to bend over gradually; the weight
was distributed ; no attempt was made to use the coal as a direct
support ; and it was obvious that the minimum number of heat*
units mechanically produced by crushing would be evolved.
A very pregnant question then arose, as to whether the square-
work system, in vogue in South Staffordshire, was the cause of
the extraordinary frequency of gob-fires ; ako whether it was not
time for South Staffordshire workers to reconsider their position,
and iA) ask themselves whether the very ancient system of opening
out which they were following should not be revised in the light of
the experience of thick-coal working in Warwickshire. He
could assure the members that it was with very great surprise
that he found himself arguing against the continuance of a
system of work with which he was so familiar, in which he
was brought up, and which he had always looked upon as the
only possible method of working at depths greater than 1,200
feet. The depth at which the operations took place had always
been considered a very important factor in determining the
system of working which could be adopted ; and in this connec-
tion he would have liked fuller information from the author.
So far as he could see, the only depth mentioned was that of
the Xewdigate colliery, 1,600 feet. Apparently the system of
work described had been carried on at that depth, as the author
stated that at Xewdigate colliery " the weight on the seam is
exceptionally heavy and the crushing severe, intense heat is
generated in the Two-yards seam when the faces arrive at the
Eyder rib-side; and it is only by the application of a good
supply of cool air that fires can be averted." Actual experience
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DISCUSSION — THICK COAL OF WABWICKSHIBE. 6*25
had, therefore, shown that the system could be successfully
applied at a depth of over 1,500 feet, and it became of the greatest
interest to enquire whether better results would not have been
attained at Ham stead had this system been followed.
There could be no doubt that the yield of coal from mines
worked on the square system was poor; while in the system
described in the paper it appeared to be very high. This, how-
ever, was not the most important point that had to be considered.
The most important issue was whether or not gob-fires in South
Staffordshire were due to leaving ribs and pillars ; and whether
or not they would be obviated if the Warwickshire system were
adopted. It was something of a revelation to read that gob-
fires could be dealt with " by completely isolating, by means of
cross-packs of incombustible material, any small pillars, or ribs
of coal, which have been left, purposely or otherwise." In the
square-work system such a method could not be followed ; any
attempt to cut off a portion of a side-of-work was practically
impossible ; and the usual method was to abandon it. Dams or
stoppings must be built to the full height of the excavation, and
a practical limit was soon reached. Was this difficulty inherent
in the system ? Was it because the roof was not allowed gradu-
ally to come down ? At any rate by working the seam in three
lifts, as was done in Warwickshire, the roof was much more
accessible. It certainly seemed to him (Mr. Ward) that it would
be worth the while of coal-owners and mining engineers in South
Staffordshire to look carefully into this matter. It appeared,
from the experience now available in Warwickshire, that the
system which was being followed in South Staffordshire was the
principal cause of the gob-fires which had caused such heavy losses.
Of course, as Mr. Browne was careful to point out, one of the
important considerations, in deciding whether the Warwickshire
system of working could be adopted, was the available pacl&ng
material. It must, however, be remembered that complete
absence of packing material was not an insuperable difficulty;
and it was conceivable that it might be economical to adopt a
method of work which promised a notable decrease in the risks
from gob-fires, and a greater yield of coal, even when no packing
material was available in the seam itself; that was, when the
packing material would have to be brought into the wastes.
Were he (Mr. Ward) responsible for the development of deep
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626 DISCUSSION — ^THICK COAL OF WARWICKSHIRE.
mines in South Staffordshire, or an owner of coal-land there,
he would very seriously consider the advisability of working on
the lines of the Warwickshire system. Mr. Browne diffidently
suggested that perhaps the method which he had described might
possibly be replaced by the South Staffordshire square-work
system, or the pillar-work system employed in parts of Scotland.
The paper seemed to suggest, as he (Mr. Ward) had previously
pointed out, that it was the South Staffordshire men who should
carefully reconsider the position.
Mr. Edward Watson (Akmolinsk, Siberia) wroto that he had
read Mr. Browne's paper with great interest, more especially as
he was at present considering the system to be adopted for the
working of a very similar seam. All the seams on this royalty,
10 miles long and 3J miles wide, dipped south eastward at an
angle of 10 to 12 degrees, and cropi)ed out along the north-western
boundary. The Mariana seam, referred to above, was 24 feet
thick, with a few bands of fire-clay, which never exceeded 2 inches
in thickness and easily separable at the surface, forming partings,
here and there. The seam was caorefully sampled at close intervals
(2J feet) and an average analysis w:as as follows: — ^Volatile
matter, 24*6 per cent. ; fixed carbon, 614 per cent. ; and ash, 140
per cent.
A bed of fire-clay, 12 feet thick, underlying the coal-seam,
had the following analysis : — Silica, 64*4 per cent. ; alumina, 230
per cent. ; lime, 0*5 per cent. ; oxide of iron, 1"4 per cent. ; mag-
nesia, 0*7 per cent. ; and moisture and organic matter, 10 per cent.
He (Mr. Watson) believed that this coal was of Coal-measure age.
The clays and shales contained Calamites, Lepidodendroriy Sigil-
laria, Stigmaria and other Coal-measure fossils. Thick beds of
limestone, which cropped out about 8 miles north-westward corre-
sponding in position to the Mountain Limestone, were fossil-
if erous and contained Productus giganteus and other characteristic
species.
At present, this thick seam was being opened by an inclined
road, 11 feet wide, driven on the full dip ; at 238 feet levels
were turned away right and left, and at distances of 280 and 210
feet respectively they were connected with the surface, by rect^
angular shafts, for ventilation. Below the first level, at intervals
of 105 feet, others were turned off every 105 feet, and pillars were
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DISCUSSION — THICK COAL OF WABWICKSHIRE. 527
formed 105 feet long and 70 feet wide, next to the main road, and
elsewhere, 105 feet long and 35 feet wide. The present idea was
to work the seam by some system of longwall — a method not yet
introduced into Siberia — and to utilize the back roads as main
return-airways.
In the meantime, in order to increase the output, whilst the
main roads were advancing to the dip, experimental panels of
work, to the rise of the first level, had been successfully worked.
Pillars, 35 feet long and 15 feet wide, were formed next
to the main level. The bottpm 7 feet of coal wa« removed, and
the roof supported by wooden chocks. These were drawn, one
at a time, and the overlying 7 feet of coal was worked ; and higher
chocks, set on the small coal and shale left from the former work-
ing, were built. These were in turn removed, and the top section
fell, the men standing between the chocks and removing the coal
by rakes, in order to avoid working under the unsupported roof,
which very soon fell. This system might not be practicable at a
greater depth, but it was satisfactory under the present cover.
The Warwickshire system described by Mr. Browne appeared
to be very suitable for this district. There would be very little
filling for the gob, but this could be brought from the surface at
a small cost. He (Mr. Watson) asked whether any special pro-
vision was made in the lower workings for the support of roads in
the upper workings, and whether the 2 feet to 3 feet of coal left
as a roof formed a sufficiently strong floor ? Were the upper por-
tions of the seam much affected by the working of the lower
seam, and was a large percentage of slack produced ?
The description of the electrical haulage made him very envi-
ous, when it was comi)ared with the system at present in use at
Akmolinsk : a taratan (horse-gin) worked, depending on the load,
by one or two horses. A strong horse, 13'2 hands high, drew two
tubs, each containing 8 cwts. of coal, up a gradient of 1 in 4, so
that the cost of haulage was not great: especially when such a
horse could be bought for about £7, and hay cost about 9ff.
per ton.
He (Mr. Watson) agreed with Mr. Browne's assertion " that
heat produced by the crushing of coal in opening-off ribs is one
of the chief causes of gob-fires " ; and in his experience in the
Shallow seam of South Staffordshire, the only fire that broke out
in five years originated within 100 feet of a boundary-rib.
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528 DISCUSSION — THICK COAX OF WABWICKSHXRE.
The President (Mr. M. Deacon) thought that the whole
of the marketable coal could be worked, and that the desiderata
to be observed were : (1) To leave very wide pillars on the main
roads, in order to avoid any leakage of air that would encourage
gob-fires when they arose; (2) the faces must be worked very
quickly ; and (3) where there was no natural water in the mine,
that would soften the fire-clay in the Slate coal-seam and cause
the goaf to close rapidly, water must be introduced, and that
would obviate the necessity of packing or of quarrying material,
because the clay underneath the coal-seam was so soft that when
water was introduced it swelled like barm, and rapidly closed
the goaf within 30 or 40 feet of the face. It must also be
remembered that, while the question of packing was an important
one, the difficulty did not apply to the whole seam. The Two-
yards seam had a bad roof, yielding more packing^material than
was wanted, as it was constantly falling.
Mr. J. T. Beowne, replying to the discussion, said that the
well-known characteristics of the Thick coal-seam of Warwick-
shire were the dull spiry bands in the Two-yards, Ryder and
Ell coals ; and the unmistakable batt, about 18 inches from the
top of the Slate coal, was found generally throughout the dis-
trict. He believed that it was not possible to trace these marked
peculiarities, at any rate, in the more easterly of the South
Staffordshire collieries. The suggestion that rock should be
quarried and sent down from the surface, into seams where
packing material was scarce, was one which hardly came within
the range of practical colliery management; and the amount
of material that could be sent from one part of the pit to another
was limited by the heavy cost of hauling and handling. Mr.
W. G. Phillips had raised the important question of the amount
of slack produced in the Two-yards coal (commercially the most
valuable part of the seam) by working it behind the other
coals, compared with working it singly. As a matter of fact,
less slack was produced in the former method than in the latter,
owing somewhat to the fact that the holing was assisted by the
soft goaf under foot, and the coal needed less blowing. He agreed
generally with the remarks made by Mr. Waterhouse, who had had
considerable experience at a neighbouring colliery working under
similar conditions. He had no doubt that if a rescue-apparatus
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DISCUSSION ^THICK COAL OF WARWICKSHIRE. 529
<jould be produced which combined lightness with efficiency, it
would render valuable assistance to men working at fires, when
the gases given ofE were poisonous. There was little doubt that, by
working the faces quickly and introducing a good supply of water
to fill up the goaves, the simultaneous system of working the coal-
seams would be successful, and probably less coal would be lost
than by working on any other system.
Mr. Holland had raised the question of labour cost as com-
pared with that in South Staffordshire, which possibly was lower
than for deep working in Warwickshire, but a comparison of
working-costs involved other considerations, such as the amount
of dip, hardness of the coal, percentage of slack, etc.
** Bumps " were becoming more and more a feature of deep
mining in Warwickshire, though, owing to the nature of the
overlying strata, which for a considerable distance consisted of
shales and rock binds, these were not so pronounced as in Staf-
fordshire. The depth from the surface of the workings referred
to, was about 1,800 feet, while at Griff colliery the Two Yards
seam was worked up to a depth of 1,100 feet from the surface.
The forewinning system of working the Two Yards coal at the
latter collieiy had been adopted for reasons of economy; and,
with the rapid closing up of the wastes, immunity from fire might
have been expected. Xo small coal was intentionally left in the
mine, and the packing was well done. The fires refen^ed to
alwaj''s occurred in the wastes, and possibly might have been
caused by the breaking of the Bare coal between the abandoned
Eyder face and the Two Yards coal. Since the paper had been
written, he had had to deal with two separate fires which had
broken out on the sides of main roads driven in the solid coal ;
and he could not too strongly reiterate the opinion expressed in
the paper as to the ultimate position of permanent main roads
with regard to the coal seam.
The President (Mr. M. Deacon) moved a vote of thanks to
Mr. Browne for his interesting paper.
Mr. S. F. Walker seconded the resolution, which was
cordially approved.
Mr. A. R. Sawyer's paper on ** The New Rand Gold-field,
Orange River Colony," was read as follows: —
VOL. XXXIII.-l»08-li07. ^
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580 NEW RAND- GOLD-FIELD, ORANGE EIVER CX)LONY.
NEW RAND GOLD-FIELD, ORANGE RIVER COLONY.
By a. R. sawyer.
Allusion was made to the New Rand gold-field by the writer
in his paper on " The South Rand Gold-field " read before this
Institution in 1904.* Since then the borings have been con-
tinued, and as it may still be some time before the details of
the work can be published, the writer thought that some informa-
tion regarding the general geological conditions obtaining in the
locality of this new gold-field would be acceptable to members.
Although it may be premature to speak of the area in question
as a gold-field, the results so far obtained are sufficiently
encouraging for us to venture to call it so.
The locality of this gold-field has been indicated in the
writer's previous paper. The geological plan (fig. 1, plate xx.)
shows its relative position to other Transvaal and Orange River
Colony gold-fields in the Witwatersrand system. It will be seen
that the area, as a gold-field, is, in fact, entirely new, and that it is
practically everywhere covered with younger Karroo beds, about
700 feet thick in that locality. The section (fig. 2, plate xx.) on
the line AB of the geological plan shows its position relatively
to the Witwatersrand gold-field.
It will be noticed that the sites of bore-holes in the New Rand
gold-field are about 50 miles due south of the Cinderella. Deep shaft
on the Witwatersrand. The intervening country is more or less
covered with younger formations.
The section (fig. 2, plate xx.) shows that the Witwatersrand
strata in the New Rand gold-field dip, as on the Witwatersrand,
to the south ; and the writer considers that this is a very strong
point as regards the future of this gold-field, for he has noticed
instances in which the same banket-reef is more auriferous when
dipping to the south than when dipping to the north.
The section (fig. 3, plate xx.) on the line CD of the geological
plan gives an idea of the geological formation occurring east
• Trails, Inst. M. E., 1904, vol. xxvii., page 553.
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7/ . ir. i^eMi^erCbloTQ^. ^^
i
^ AND Orange River Colony.
Voz^XXXm., PiATE XX,
J
HS
4
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I>ISCUSSION — ^NEW AAND GOLD-FIELD, ORANGE EIVER COLONY. 581
of the section AB (fig. 2, plate xx.). A bore-hole was recently
put down at Schaapplaats (fig. 1, plate xx.), about 25 miles south-
vrest from the New Rand : the section of this bore-hole has been
published as follows: —
Description of Stnta.
Thiekneae Depth
of fkom.
Strata. Surface.
Feet. Feet.
Surfaoe-aoil and wash
68 68
£cca (Karroo) Series, with seams of coal ..
762 830
Dwyka Conglomerate
15 845
Dolomite
. 2,»26 3,770
This result confirms the view held by the writer that a syncline
occurs in this neighbourhood, as shown on the plan.*
Mr. H. W. Struben (London) wrote that he bad read Mr.
Sawyer's paper with great interest, together with the plans and
sections showing the work that Mr. Sawyer had done during the
last four years on a section of country hitherto undeveloped and
wLich he sincerely hoped, in the interests of South Africa, would
prove a second Witwatersrand. It seemed an age since, in June,
1885, he (Mr. Struben) made known to his Honour, the late Presi-
dent Kruger, his Executive Council, and the assembled Volksraad,
tbe discovery of 42 miles of gold-bearing conglomerate-beds along
the watershed of the Witwatersrand, where his brother, himself
and their employees had worked on the wild, open veldt, living in
waggons and tents, where now thousands of houses, batteries,
plantations, etc., cover the entire area, worldwide known as " The
Rand." He was told by friends that he was a visionary, and would
ruin himself. All the work was done at his own cost and risk, as
not being an expert he would not take the responsibility of invest-
ing other people's money in an unproven venture. He would not
dwell now on the discovery of the Rand, the absence of any reliable
data, the anxious times, the successes and failures of the earlier
days of the Rand ; but he would draw attention to the fact that Mr.
Sawyer, with his knowledge of geology and mineralogy, and the
now known conditions in the mines at a depth on the central Main
Eeef series, had definite information, of which he (Mr. Struben),
in 1885-1886, had no conception, and he trusted that Mr. Sawyer s
industry and perseverance would meet with as great a measure of
* Trans. Inst, M, E,, 1904, vol. xxvii., page 564, plate xxv., fig. 1.
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532 DISCUSSION — NEW BAND GOLD-FIELD, ORANGE BIVER COLONY.
success as crowned his own efforts on the northern edge of this
extensive gold-bearing area. He and his bix>ther, Mr. F. Struben,
had to trace the pebble-reefs by outcrops and probe intermediate
buried sections by sinking shafts; while Mr. Sawyer could work
upon more or less ascertained lines, and form correct deductions
based on practical experience. If the results of further develop-
ment proved as satisfactory as the data submitted would lead
one to hope, this discovery of a section of gold-bearing country,
50 miles south of the northern outcrop, and cori-esponding in
formation to the Main Reef series, would give fresh impetus to
the mining industries of the Transvaal and Orangia. In 1885,
the existence of the most continuous and permanent gold-mining
area in the world was unknown, but energy, capital and fore-
sight had combined to produce gold worth many millions. He was
confident that the potential wealth of these South African up-
lands was not yet realized, systematic prospecting should still
be continued, for so far the country had merely been scratched,
and only a commencement had been made in the development of
its vast mineral resources. On June 6th, 1885, he (Mr. Struben)
sent for the first stamp^battery as a. testing-mill; and now
thousands of stamps thunder day and night along miles of
what was then bare veldt woi-th a few shillings per acre. On
December 20th, 1886, the first conglomerates were crushed, and
since then gold valued at millions of pounds sterling had been
obtained from the tilted pebble-beds. There was evidence that
these conglomerates, auriferous in greater or less degree in
various sections as they traversed the country from west to east,
were practically continuous for hundreds of miles, confirming the
opinion held by him in 1885-1886 that they were formed on the
coast-line of Southern Afiica, many geological ages ago ; and Mr.
Sawyer's recent discovery, at the junction of the Wilge and Yaal
rivers in the Orange River Colony, fully established that theory-.
These conglomerate gold-fields were continupus, and with the ex-
ception of certain sections along the line of reefs were not rich,
when compared with the gold found in erratic quartz-reefs in
other countries ; consequently the strictest economy was necessary
if they were to be worked to profit.
Over fifty years' experience in Natal and in the Transvaal, in
official and private capacities, and in conducting industrial opera-
tions, had convinced him that native African races (Zulu, Basuto,
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DlSCrSSIOX — NEW RAND GOLD-FIELD, OBANGE RIVER COLONY. 58S
Bechuana, etc.) were incapable of continuous labour, especially-
arduous labour such as mining ; and it was obvious tbat no con-
siderable industry could be carried on successfully without con-
tinuity of labour.
The mininjf industry required greater facilities for the con-
veyance of unskilled labour from a distance to the mines, as
natives only worked for a short time and must frequently be
replaced. It should be remembered also that the increasing
agricultural development of the country demanded a consider-
able share of the available labour-supply, and that about six men
per annum were required to perform one man's work, as the
average time that a native cared to work continuously on a farm
was about two months. The future prosperity of South Africa
would largely depend upon the discovery of some method that
would induce natives, who were rapidly increasing in numbers^
to work more continuously than they did at present. He feared
that he had taken up much time in dealing with the native
labour question, but the mining industry depended upon its
satisfactory solution.
Mr. Sawyer, by his practical and exhaustive research, ap-
peared to have discovered an extensive gold-area; its develop-
ment would largely benefit the Orange River Colony and the
Transvaal, and he cordially wished his enterprise every success.
This and similar undertakings depended (1) on capital, and this
coijld only be secured where confidence was established ; and (2)
on labour, continuous and at a reasonable cost. All else was at
hand, in a perfect climate, that made mining a pleasanter occupa-
tion than in most other parts of the world. Personally, he had
for many years taken no active part in mining matters ; but he was
confident that the time was near at hand when the real value of
temperate South Africa as an important and highly mineralized
country would be recognized, if not by people in Great Britain,
then by others.
Mr. G. A. Denny (London) wrote that he had very grave
doubts whether capital for the deep-level areas of the Witwaters-
rand would ever be raised; and, if it should be raised, whether
there would be any commercial profit arising out of it, unless the
capital-amount required for exploitation could be materially re-
duced ; and, therefore, it might be infeiTed that his views regard-
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584 DISCUSSION — ^NEW RAND GOLD-FIELD, OEANGE EIVEE COLONY.
ing the practicability of working an area situated 50 miles to the
south of the Witwatersrand were not favourable.
Mr. Sawyer wrote, in reply to Mr. Denny, that as the Wit-
watersrand beds in the New Band Gold-field dipped at an angle
of 30 degrees it was obvious that the sub-outcrops of any auriferous
" banket " interbedded among them would occur there at a ver-
tical depth from the surface of from 670 feet to 700 feet, whatever
the depth might be at which it might be intersected in any of the
bore-holes. He could not, therefore, see that Mr. Denny's remarks
were applicable to sub-outcrop propositions on the Xew Rand
Gold-field. He failed to see what connection there was between the
difficult deep-level propositions on the Witwatersrand, with their
working depths of from 2,000 feet to over 4,000 feet, and possible
sub-outcrop propositions in the New Eand of from only 700 feet
to, say, 1,500 feet.
The President (Mr. M. Deacon) moved a vote of thanks to
Mr. Sawyer for his interesting paper.
Mr. W. G. Phillips seconded the resolution, which was
cordially approved.
Mr. D. M. Chambers' paper on " The Ozokerite (Mineral-wax)
Mine of the Galizische Kreditbank, at Boryslaw, Galicia,
Austria," was read as follows: —
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OZOKEHITE MINE AT BORYSLAW. 535
THE OZOKERITE (MINERAL-WAX) MINE OF THE
GALIZISCHE KREDITBANK, AT BORYSLAW,
GALICIA, AUSTRIA.
By D. M. chambers.
Introduction, — Galicia, a Crownland of the Austro-Hungariaii
empire, is notably rich in supplies of liquid hydro-caxbon. Some
idea of fhe maigfnitude of the Galician petroleum-industry may
be obtained from the fact that the crude-oil production for the
year 1903 from Galicia alone was about 50 per cent, in excess of
the quantity necessary to supply the whole illuminating-oil
requirements for the Austro-Hungarian empire.
Closely allied to this industry, but much less well known,
is the business of wax-mining. The product won, known as
ozokerite, when purified, is largely employed in the manufacture
of candles, and mixed with rubber, for insulating purposes, Gtreat
Britain being, perhaps, the best market for Galician ozokerite.
Wax-deposits are fairly often met with throughout the country,
but those of Boryslaw, Dzwiniacz, Starunia and Trusfcawiec
are the- best known; and although all are worked to a greater
or less extent, the deposits of Boryslaw, a village about 75
miles south-wefft of Lemberg, the capital of the province, are
by far the most important. The existence of ozokerite at Bory-
slaw has been known for very many years ; in fact, the workings
date back to the year 1831. Nevertheless, the systematic exploi-
tation of the mines only commenced after 1880, and by far the
best-equipped mine at the present day is that belonging to the
Galizische Kreditbank. This company acquired the workings of
various small owners, consisting of about seventy to eighty
separate shafts, sunk to depths of up to 200 feet and more in
certain cases.
The early history of the company was unfortunate, owing
chiefly to the fact that the work was carried on without any due
regard to the rudiments of mining technology, and it was only at
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586 OZOKERITE MINE AT BORYSLAW.
the end of 1898 that the installation of the present admirably-
arranged system of working was commenced, since which time
matters have improved out of all recognition.
Geology. — According to Dr. Joseph Muck,* the geological
formation of that part of Boryslaw from which both ozokerite
and petroleum are obtained is properly classified as belonging to
the Miocene series of the Tertiary System. The formation
consists of alternating layers of grey sandstone (rich in musco-
vite) and grey shale u the strata being much disturbed. The
sandstone is frequently very porous, impregnated with bitumens,
and of a brown colour, and is then locally known as Sytitica
stone. The shales are generally very hard and impervious, but
always laminated and so disturbed that it is sometimes extremely
difficult to form any correct opinion as to the run of the strata.
Layers of rock-salt are frequently found, and sometimes veins of
gypsum. The whole formation is poor in fossils. Gas is present
in large quantities in the workings, and petroleum is also fre-
quently met with in the wax-mines.
Surf ace-installation, — ^With the exception of the winding-
engine at the main shaft, all power used throughout the mine
for pumping, ventilation, hauling, etc., is electrical : the company
generating its own energy. Steam is raised for this purpose in
a battery of five tubular boilers of ordinary pattern, each with a
heating-sui-face of 754 square feet (70 square metres), generating
steam at a pressure of 10 atmospheres, and fired by gas obtained
from the mines. Steam is led from the boiler-house direct to the
electrical generating-house and the winding-eng'ines. The boiler-
house is a brick-and-timber structure ; and water for the boilera
is obtained from the river running near the property. The
electrical power-house consists of a separate brick building, con-
taining two sets of direct-coupled direct-current 77 kilowatts
Siemens-and-Halske machines, both of which run at about 140
revolutions per minute. Each set is sufficient for supplying all
necessary current for the mine at any time, and each set is
run for a shift of 12 hours per day. A main switch-board of
simple pattern controls the supply of current to all parts of the
mine.
* Der ErdivcLchsherghau in Boryslaw.
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OZOKERITE MINE AT BOBYSLAW. 537
The compound winding-engine develops 240 horsepower. The
steam-valves, brakes, reversing gear, etc., are placed so that the
engineer, at his platform, has complete control over the whole
enigine ; whilst the speed at which the cag'e is travelling^ together
with its position in the shaft, is shown by an arrangement of the
usual kind. The cages, running in guides, are used for the draw-
ing of material, aiud for conveying men into and from the work-
ings. The winding-plant will deal with a daily production of
about 850 tons, corresponding to a monthly output of 180 to 200
tons of wax.
Mines, — The workings are entered by a main shaft, sunk to a
depth of 738 feet (225 metres), with a diameter of about 13 feet
(4 metres). The shaft, for a depth of 89 feet .(27 metres) from
the surface, is lined with masonry to keep out surface-water ; and
the rest of the shaft is very heavily timbered. Ii\ addition to
this main shaft, a smaller one for conveying material only is
situated at the far end of the workings. From the main shaft,
two main levels run, one at 410 feet (125 metres) and the other
at 738 feet (225 metres); and there is an intermediate level
between them, at a depth of 574 feet (175 metres), not connected
to the main shaft, but it is connected with the other two levels
by a staple, fitted with an electric winding-plant for the convey-
ance of materials.
Galleries, driven from the levels, follow the wax in all direc-
tions. They are heavily timbered, owing to the extremely un-
stable nature of the formation in which the wax is found : indeed,
so great is the pressure on the timbering on all sides that solid
pieces of hard beech (the wood ordinarily used), 12 to 15 inches
thick, are bent out of shape, and frequently snapped in a few days ;
and a large stafi of men is continually employed in attending to the
timbering throughout the mine. A curious effect of the insta-
bility of the formation is to twist even short shafts out of shape.
Mounting such a deformed shaft can only be likened to climbing
a spiral ladder. From all sides of the galleries, headings are
driven following the wax-veins until they are lost.
The galleries are provided with tramways for the transit of
small four-wheeled trucks pushed by hand. Each cage lifts three
trucks at a time.
Owing to the large amount of gas always present, ventilation
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538 OZOKEBITE MINE AT BORYSLAW.
lias to be most carefully attended to. This is generally done by
means of doors and heavy brattice-curtains, and electric blowing-
fans are always at work forcing air to the extreme end of the
various headings. Sometimes in new workings, primitive hand-
blowers are still met with, worked by boys. As a general rule,
the greatest quantities of gas are found in the deepest workings.
Safety-lamps are used for lighting purposes practically through-
out the entire mine, and only in the neighbourhood of the main
shaft has electric lighting been installed. In spite of all pre-
cautions, explosions are of not infrequent occurrence. A great
feature of the lower workings is their extreme dryness, as opposed
to the large quantities of water mixed with some oil found at the
higher levels.
An extensive pumping installation is provided on the higher
level, in close proximity to the main shaft. In a large chamber,
cut out of th,e rock and lined with bricks, there axe four electric-
ally-driven pumps capable of raising together 396 gallons (1,800
litres) per minute. All the water found in the workings is con-
veyed by pipes to a large reservoir under the floor of the pump-
room, whence it is lifted to the surface.
Treatment of Wax. — The wax, won from the mine, varies
largely as regards purity. In many cases, especially in new
workings, the wax is found in a more or less pure state, and very
little treatment is necessary to prepare this variety for the
market. The trucks bringing it to the surface are run to a
special receiving-shed where girls subject it to hand-picking, after
which it is melted, the impurities rise to the surface and are
skimmed off, and the pure wax remaining is run out and cast into
moulds and is ready for the market.
Usually, the wax is more or less intimately mixed with rock
and shale, and has to be subjected to a more complicated course
of treatment before it can be put on the market. The trucks
bringing it to the surface are run along a set of elevated rails to
the second floor of a building, where the trucks are tipped and
the contents spread on tables on the first floor. Here girls im-
mediately hand-sort it, and are sufficiently experienced to deter-
mine the stone without wax from that containing wax at a glance.
The former is at once cast away, but the wax-stone is cast into a
hopper, whence it runs to trucks on the ground-floor ready to
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OZOKEHITE MINE AT BORYSLAW. 589
receive it. As a general rule, the stone contains only about •!
per cent, of wax, consequently it is evident how much work has
to be done before any considerable quantity of wax is obtained.
The sorted stone is wheeled away to the washing shed, where
it is cast into large circular boilers, not unlike washing coppers,
mixed with water and cooked. The wax is melted out of the
stone and rises to the surface of the water, where it is skimmed
off and put into receptacles. The skimming process is continued
until wax ceases to come to the surface, when the water, stone
and dirt are cast away, and a fresh charge put into the boilers.
The wax thus obtained is melted a second time, but without
water. The impurities rise to the surface and are skimmed off;
whereupon the residue is run into moulds, cooled, and is then
ready for the market.
Different grades of refined wax are put on the market, but the
above gives a general idea of the various processes to which it is
subjected. The treatment varies according to the purity or
otherwise of the wax, more than one washing often being neces-
sary. The tailings are separately treated, so as to recover any wax
that may have passed unnoticed through previous treatments.
• At the end of the year 1903, when the writer visited the
mines, the wax realized £79 to £80 per ton and cost £41 to £42
per ton to mine and refine. The vend is closely regulated, and
in 1903 this mine marketed from 100 to 120 tons monthly.
The President (Mr. IT. Deacon) moved a vote of thanks to
Mr. Chambers for his interesting paper.
Mr. M. Walton Brown seconded the resolution, which was
cordially approved.
Dr. C. Sandberg's "Notes on the Structural Geology of
South Africa " were read as follows : —
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540 STEUCTUBAL GEOLOGY OF SOUTH AFRICA.
NOTES ON THE STEUCTURAL GEOLOGY OF SOUTH
AFRICA.
By C. SANDBERG.
I. — Introduction.
With the increase of knowledge of the geology of South
Africa, it will prove to be less and less satisfactory to invoke the
influence of comparatively small and very restricted forces, in
order to explain the cause of folding and tilting in the different
sedimentary systems. The tectonic characteristics of different
regions, hitherto often regarded and studied as the result of
local and separate phenomena, as, for instance, huge igneous
intrusions here, faults in another region, etc., will, as a wider
view is taken, more and more prove to be unmistakably con-
nected with one another in origin. Once this conclusion is
accepted, one may hope to ascertain the law or laws which
governed the energies that built up the geological structure at
the time or times of their action. Although the data already
accumulated by various authors do not cover every portion of
the region, the writer thinks that even now, certain general con-
clusions might be drawn regarding the origin of the geological
structure of South Africa, as one indivisible edifice; and this
paper may be considered as an attempt in that direction.
II. — ^Main Direction of Mountain or Fold-producing
Pressures.
(a) South-to-north Pressure. — Dr. G. A. F. Molengraaff states,
referring to his South African Primary system, that the strata
were nearly everywhere greatly tilted, folded and dislocated;
and that these movements of dislocation had been the result of
mountain-forming forces which had been exerted generally from
south to north.* This view is also held by Prof. H. G. Seeley.t
• " G6ologie de la R^publique Sud-Africaine du Transvaal," by Dr. G. A. F.
Molengraaff, Bulletin de la SocUU OMogique de France, 1901, fourth series, vol. i.,
pages 18 and 19.
t •* Some Scientific Results of a Mission to South Africa/' by Prof. H. 6.
Seeley, Transactions of the SotUh African Philosophical Society, 1889, vol. vi.,
page 1.
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STaUCTXTRAL GEOLOGY OF SOUTH AFBICA. 541
Dr. Molengraaff also states that this rule has many exceptions,*
but he has only tendered an explanation of one of these excep-
tions in his paper on the Vredefort Mountain-land, when he says
that *' we should fail to find that the overtilting [of the older
sedimentary strata round the Vredefort batholite] is due to lateral
pressure, as is shown to be the case with the great majority of
the large mountain-chains ; .... In our area there is no sign
of unilaterality in the structure ; . . . . evidently, the pressure
has been exerted in every instance from the centre towards the
periphery. "t Dr. Molengraaff had admitted that the whole of
the sedimentary deposits from his Primary system, up to and
including the Transvaal system, had been simultaneously affected
by the same cause. J
Mr. E. Jorissen has emphasized his opinion of the mountain
or fold-producing pressure having had a direction from north
to south, that was, diametrically opposed to the one assumed by
Dr. Molengraaff.§
Mr. A. R. Sawyer was of opinion that the African continent
was formed by compressing forces, active during different ages,
and having a south-and-east direction.il
Speaking more especially of the Transvaal, the writer agreed
with Dr. Molengraaff that it would often seem very difficult, if
not impossible, to force field-evidence into the harness of the
theory admitting only one exclusively south-to-north directed
mountain-producing pressure ; or any other pressure unilaterally
directed. The writer could, on such a basis, never explain the
perfectly tangential strike of the strata (around the periphery of
a granite-mass) when the granite was surrounded by schists and
other sedimentary beds, to which Dr. Molengraaff called special
attention, magnificent demonstrations whereof are found round
the Vredefort and Barberton granite-masses, and distinct tenden-
♦ "Geologic de la R^publique Sud-Africaine du Transvaal," by Dr. 6. A. F.
Molengraaff, BiUleiin de la SociiU Oiohgique de Francty 1901, fourth series, vol. i.,
page 19.
t *' Remarks on the Vredefort Moan tain-land," by Dr. G. A. F. Molengraaff,
Traiisactions of the Geological Society of South Africa^ 1903, vol. vL, page 24.
X Ibid., page 25.
§ '* Structural and Stratigraphical Notes on the Klerksdorp District, with
SpecisJ Reference to the Unconformity beneath the Elsburg Series," by Mr. £.
Jorissen, Tranmctions of the Geological Society of SotUh Africa, 1906, vol. ix.,
page 45.
II ** Anniversary Address," by the President (Mr. A. R. Sawyer), Proceedings
of the Geological Society cf South Africa, 1905, pages xvi. and xvii.
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642 STaUCTUUAL geology of south AFRICA.
cies to which are encountered again east of the Heidelberg and
north, south and west of the Johannesbui^ granite-boss.
The explanation of its being due, in the case of the Vredefort
granite-mass, to pressures having been exerted in every instance
from a centre towards the periphery would seem, however, an
hypothesis in contradiction with field-evidence. For, were it
correct, why then should the effect of this pressure be found, as
exhibited by the behaviour of the sedimentary beds, to have
reached its maximum in a zone some distance away from the
contact, as Dr. MolengraafE has pointed out? But what seems
to be conclusive is that the least sign of rents, fractures or
breaks is not found in these strata, and such should have been
as the consequence of so violent an eruptive action. On the con-
trary, as will be shown later, these strata show distinct and un-
mistakable proof of having been subjected to strong compression.
Of the folding, tilting, etc., in the younger series. Dr. Molen-
graaff explains such as are e«rident around the Bushveld area, as
having been the result of tensions called forth by the intrusion
and subsequent substance of the Bushveld laccolite.* The writer
will discuss the behaviour of these sedimentary strata hereafter,
and will only now remark that the conception 5f the Bushveld
granite-area as a laccolite is entirely of a hypothetical nature,
and apt to be considerably modified as the knowledge of that
area increases.
(b) North'tO'SotUh Pressure. — The extremely tilted nature
of the sedimentary beds to the north of the Vredefort granite-boss
may certainly be taken as pointing to an erogenic force, having
worked from the north directly toward the south, as maintained
by Mr. Jorissen. Sedimentary rocks impelled in a southerly
direction under the influence of this force would, however, in
encountering the Vredefort granite-boss supposing it to have
been pre-existent), have been cleaved by the tearing and renting
phenomena, attendant on the presence of this obstruction. Their
dip would also differ at every point, in direct relation to the
angle between the direction of the force and the tangential line
at the periphery of the semicircle, at the point where the line
representing the force meets that periphery. It is clear from
♦ *• G^ologie de la R6publique Sud-Africaine du Transvaal, *' by Dr. G. A. F.
Molenflrraaff, BidUlin de la SociSU Oeologique de France, 1901, fourth series, vol. i.,
page 56.
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STRUCTUKAL GEOLOGY OF SOUTH AFRICA.
54S
fig. 2, that the intensity of the radial force, he, plying the sedi-
mentary beds round the granite-boss, and at the aame time
determining their strike and dip, diminishes from' a maximum
at the extreme north, to nil at 90 degrees from it to the east
and west, and the inclination of the
strata towards the granite-boss would
thus proportionally decrease from a
maximum at A to nothing at B.* As
the strike of the strata at the north,
west and east of the Vredefort granite-
mass remains tangential to its peri-
phery, and as their dip remains equally «/
similar throughout, this assumption
must also be discarded as impossible.
The same reasoning applies equally
to the Barberton and other supposed
pre-existing granite-bosses showing
similar conditions, and excludes the
possibility of these sedimentary beds having been under the
influence of any unilateral force during the mountain-folding
period or periods. Further, the upward and downward curving
of the anticlinal and synclinal axes of the folds striking
east and west, so apparent on Dr. Hatch's map of the southern
Transvaal,! could not have been engendered by any unilateral
force, nor could even the brachy-synclinal which Mr. Jorissen
may justly claim the merit of having discovered at Rietkuil.J
A similar reasoning, as regards the granite-masses, is applic-
able to prove that the assumption of two folding forces (south and
east)§ could not explain the phenomena above described.
Fig. 2.— Nobth-to-south
Pbbssube.
(c) Omni'lateral Pressure. — To account for this homogeneous
encircling of the granite-bosses by the sedimentary masses in
the way referred to above, one is bound to admit that they
* Trajis. Inst. M, E., 1907, vol. xxxiii., page 648.
t A Geological Map of the Southern Transvcuilt t>y I^r* F. H. Hatch, London,
1897 ; second (revised) edition, London, 1904.
X "Structural and Stratigraphical Notes on the Klerksdorp District, with
Special Reference lo the Unconformity beneath the Elsburg Series," by Mr. E.
Jorissen, Transactions of the Geological Society of South Africa , 19>06, vol. ix.,
page 46.
. V) §** Anniversary Address," by The President (Mr. A. R. Sawyer), Proceed-
tngs of the Geological Society of South Africa, 1906, pages xvi. and xvii.
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-544 STHUCTURAL GEOLOGY OF SOUTH AFRICA.
were subjected to simultaneous pressures, whicli could all be
reduced for convenience sake to four main pressures directed to
one common centre and of 90 degrees between each (fig. 3, a, b,
c and d). Locally three of these forces must have been, roughly
speaking, of equal value ; in the case of the Yredefort area, a, 6
and d\ and in the case of the Barberton area, a, c and 6. Of
jj course, one or more will generally
predominate over the others, a pre-
dominance which is expressed in the
behaviour of the folds and, for minor
accidents, is often still traceable to
local and secondarv causes.
/^
-H
The question now arises whether one
is entitled to generalize the conclu-
^ sions arrived at by the study of these
^'^- ^Y^^^^^^ granite-masses and to conclude that this
system of forces has exercised its influ-
ence over the whole of South Africa; and the fact that evidence
ef their action, as described above, is to be found scattered all
over the central part of the Continent certainly points in this
direction. Now, if similar evidence could be shown to exist in
other parts of South Africa, then the writer thinks that such a
generalization could be enunciated.
On reference to a geological map of South Africa (fig. 1,
plate xxi.), a prominent feature is seen at once, and very forcibly,
namely, that in the central zone of South Africa, the strike of the
folds, that is, the direction of their axes, runs east and west. De-
tailed mapping on a much larger scale has only emphasized this
feature, showing the deviations from this course to be purely local
as a rule, and proving a distinct tendency to return to the main
east-and-west direction. This can be seen in the southern part of
Cape Colony, in the endless flats of the Karroo, and in the
Orange River Colony; it is found in the Central Rand, in the
Rustenburg-Pretoria-Middelburg area, in the Bushveld, as well
as in the Chuniespoort, the Pietersburg and the Leydsdorp dis-
tricts, and further north. Everywhere, the beds of all the sedi-
mentaiy systems, if folded at all, from Swaziland to the Upper
Karroo, show that the axes of their folds extend east and west.
These facts, being so general over the whole central zone of
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STET7CTURAL GEOLOGY OF SOUTH AFRICA. 545
Soutli Africa, from its southern shore to the north of the Trans-
vaal, exclude the possibility of their having been brought about
separately, by local and comparatively insignificant causes.
They give the author the right to generalize and to conclude
that the north-and-south directed energies, the action of which
left such unmistakable proofs on the strata round the granite-
masses, have been at work over the whole of this part of South
Africa, affecting all the above-mentioned sedimentary systems.
The comparative value of these two opposing forces (north to
south an.d south to north) has, of course, been different over
every area, the northward pressure generally predominating.
Dr. G. A. F. Molengraaff's map of the Transvaal* shows that,
on the eastern border of the Highveld, the strike of the axes of
the folds is north and south, in the Lydenburg, Machadodorp
and Barberton districts. The subsidence of the Bushveld lacco-
lite is assumed partly to explain this north-and-south course,
but its persistence beyond the range of influence of so small an
accident justifies one in looking for other causes which might
have produced these phenomena. Southward of Barberton, the
disposition of the strata becomes much flatter, so that it is often
very difficult to recognize a strike-direction in the overlying
younger series. In the Vryheid district, a tendency towards
this north-and-south direction of strike is distinctly noticeable,
■even in the younger series,t whilst Mr. C. L. Griesbach, in his
map and section, discloses an identical disposition existing in
Jf atal.J Speaking of the older formations, he stated that " all
these slate formations [mica-schists, clay-, chlorite- and talcose-
5late formations] are to be met with at places where the granite
base is laid bare ; and everywhere the slates stand nearly upright,
at an angle of 70 to 75 degrees, with a strike from north to
south. "§ He then quoted different localities all over Natal, re-
marking that these granite-masses are situate^ in a straight line
• " G^ologie de la IWpublique Sud-Africaine du Transvaal," bv Dr. G. A. F.
Molengraaff, Bulletin de la SoeUU 06ologiqtte de France, 1901, fourth series, vol. i.,
page 92, plate i.
t Mr. D. Draper found the Karroo series to the south of the Umkusi river,
-showing steep dips to the west and to the east.
J **0n the Geology of Natal, in South Africa," by Mr. Charles Ludolf
■Griesbach, T^ Quarterly Journal x>/ the Geological Society of London, 1871, vol.
jcxvii., page 72, plate IL
§ Ibid., page 55.
VOL. XXXIII.-1906.1M7. 39
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546 STRVCTURAL GEOLOGY OF SOUTH AFRICA.
from the Umtwalume river due north. Similar conditions pre-
vail, it would seem, in Pondoland, right down to Port St. John
on the Indian Ocean.
In the Lydenburg district, Mr. A. L. Hall* has substan-
tially confirmed Dr. Molengraaff's mapping. The axes of the
folds in the older beds (Transvaal system) have a distinct north-
and-south orientation: the same tendency being unmistakably
shown in the behaviour of the gently-inclined younger series.
Further east and south, Mr. H. Kynaston's investigationst
have led to important results. He has established the fact that
there is no sign whatever of the great north-and-south fault in
the Komatipoort district, which was supposed to exist west of
and parallel to the Lebombo range. Neither has Mr. W.
Anderson, J either in Zululand or in Xatal, found any trace of
this supposed fault, his conclusion being as equally emphatic as to
its non-existence here, as Mr. Kynaston's was as to its absence
further north.
The strike, dip, constitution and general behaviour of the^
sedimentary series remaining the same for more than a 100
miles to the north and south of the Komati river, together with
Mr. Anderson's observations, lead to the conclusion that there is
no great eastern fault south of the Singwedsi river. Conse-
quently, the inclination of the strata of the Karroo system in
this zone, which is generally one of from 15 to 25 degrees to the
east, cannot be ascribed as having been caused by a downthrow
fault. At the same time, it must be admitted that here again,
as in the Lydenburg-Barberton-Vryheid area, this tilting is the
result of the mountain-folding forces having had an east-and-
west direction. Lastly, the form and structure of the lakes along
the Zululand coast distinctly point to the same conclusion.
As for north-and-south pressure, there is ample evidence of its
minor action here, as well as all over the Lydenburg-Machado-
dorp-Barberton-Yryheid-Xatal area. The connexion! of the
north-and-south and east-and-west fold being further south,
* On the Greology of the Country between Lydenburg and the Devirs
Kantoor," by Mr. A. L. Hall, Transvaal Mines Department : Report of the
Oeoiogical Surrey for the Year 190S, pages 39 to 57, platea ii., viiL, xxii. and xxiii.,
and a map.
t ** Report on a Survey of the Komati Poort Coal-field," by Mr. H. Kynaston,
Traiisoaal Mines Department : Report qf the Oeoiogical Survey for the Year 1905^
pages 17 to 26, plate and a map.
X Personal communication to the author.
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STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY OF SOUTH AFRICA. 547'
mainly hidden from view by the Indian ocean, the writer
will now examine the western border of the South African
continent.
Striking evidence of the action of the four main forces is to
be found between Worcester and Van Rhynsdorp, on glancing at
the geological maps of the south-west of the Cape Colony.*
Messrs. A. W. Rogers and A. L. du Toit testify to their
having existed when they state that "the southern boundary-
folds were produced by a force acting in a north-and-south direc-
tion, and the western ones by an east-and-west force. The two
groups of folds meet in the neighbourhood of Karroopoort, and a
complicated structure is the result. ''t
Then, again, in his description of the north-western part of
the Van Rhynsdorp district, Mr. A. W. RogersJ recognized a
great pressure as having exerted its influence from the west ; the
general strike is consequently one tending towards the north,
the dip being towards the west. The north-and-south pressure
has here again left abundant evidence of its minor action.
In Damaraland, constituted mainly (as it would seem) of the
older dejwsits, the strike of the strata is again east-and-west,
coinciding with the direction prevailing in the central zone of
South Africa.
In German South-West Africa, evidence of the combined
action of these forces is again available, the strike of the country
being, according to Dr. F. W. Voit,§ north-east and south-west,
while lower down in Griqualand West, the strike affects a north-
east and south-west direction, changing to north and south
mainly in British Bechuanaland. Here, however, it is often
difficult to speat of a general strike.||
In Rhodesia, the north-and-south and east-and-west trend of
• Second Report of the Geological Survey of Natal and ZultUand, by Mr.
William Anderson, 1904.
+ ** Geological Survey of Parts of the Divisiona of Ceres, Sutherland and
Calvinia," by Messrs. A. W. Rogers and A. L. du Toit, Cape of Good Hope :
Department of Agriculture: [Eighth] Annual Beportofthe Geological Commiwiony
1903, page 13.
X " Geological Survey of the North-western part of Van Rhyn's Dorp," by
Mr. A. W. Rogers, Cape of Good Hope : Department of Agriculture : Ninth Annual
Report of the Geological Commission, 1904, page l4.
§ " Beitiilge zur Geologic der Kupfererzgebiete in Deutsch S.W. Afrika,*' by
Dr. F. W. Voit, Jahrbuch der Kdniglich Preussischen Geologischen Landesanstalt
und Bergakademie zu Berlin fur das Jahr 1904, vol. xxv., page 384.
II Private communication to the author from Mr. A. L. du Toit.
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548
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY OF SOUTH AFRICA.
the strata in different areas make it probable that the same
causes have been at work there. j^^ ^^le Central zone,
where the preponder-
ance of north-and-south
forces is seen, evidence
of the action of the
east-and-west forces is
testified to in a remark-
able degree by the
upward and do^-nward
curving of the axes of
the folds, which in the
Witwatersrand is so evi-
dent from Dr. Hatch's
map.* A similar con-
vincing proof is re-
corded by the highly-
tilted quartzites at the
northern periphery of
the Vredefort granite-
mass on the Aasvogel-
rand, Orange River
Colony, vertical joint-
planes running north
and south being mag-
nificently developed
therein, as shown in fig.
4. Their very presence
and development prove
that these strata had
been subjected to con-
siderable pressure from
the east and the west.f
The effect of this pres-
sure on the axes of the
folds is not observable
here, the strata being
too much tilted.
• A Gedogkal Map qfthe Southed Transvaal, by Dr. F. H. Hatch, London,
1897 ; second (reviaed) edition, London, 1904.
t Trans, Inst, M, E.y 1907, vol. xxxiiL, page 543.
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STarCTURAL GEOLOGY OF SOUTH AFRICA. 549
The writer may mention that he is verj'^ much inclined to
regard the Yredefort granite-mass as a denuded dome, being part
of a fold, the axis of which may perhaps be roughly parallel to
the Klerksdorp-Johannesburg-Heidelberg fold, and marked by
their three denuded granite-masses on Dr. Hatch's map of the
Southern Transvaal.*
From the above facts, the writer may conclude that the whole
of the South-African sub-continent has been subjected, during
one or more periods, to mountain-folding pressures, mainly
directed in a north-and-south and an east-and-west direction;
the result of the former being predominantly evident in the
Central zone, and that of the latter on the periphery of South
Africa. The variations of strike and dip in the sedimentary
strata, so conspicuous in south-western Cape Colony, round
the granite-masses, in the Witwatersrand area, in the Rusten-
berg-Middelburg area,t round the Bushveld laccolite, etc., may
thus be readily explained as the result of the action of these
pressures.
III. — Origin of Poorten,J River-valleys and Pans.§
(a) Poorten and River-v alleys. — ^When making a trip along
the broad valley following the southern escarpment of the
MagaJiesberg range (north of Pretoria) (or for the matter of that
either of the two parallel inner ranges) it is seen to be broken
through by gaps, called poorten.
Dr. G. A. F. MolengraafP, on different occasions, has ex-
plained the origin of poorten as due to tensions called forth
by complex movements caused by the subsidence of the strata of
the Transvaal system under the weight of the Bushveld igneous
masses accumulated above them, during the period of their
intrusion. He (Dr. Molengraaff) states that " these complex
♦ A Geological Map of the Southern Transvaal, by Dr. P. H. Hatoh»
London, 1897 ; aecond (revised) edition, London, 1904.
t " On Folding and Faulting in the Pretoria Series and the Dolomite," by
Meflsrs. A. L. Hall and F. A. Steart : Mr. A. L. Hairs reply to the discussion.
Proceedings of the Geological Society o/SoiUh Africa, 1905, page xliii.
J Poorten (plural of poort or porch in English) is the name given by the
Boers to j;aps in mountain-ranges, and now in universal use throughout South
Africa. It is pronounced poart.
§ Pans (plural of pan or pan in English) is the name given by the Boers
to shallow depressions (circular, oblong or kidney -shaped) containing water,
at least in the rainy season, and sometimes the whole year through. It is similar
to the hassinsfemUs of French and Swiss geologists.
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550 STKUCTURAL GEOLOGY OF SOUTH AFRICA.
movements have given rise to tensions which, in the outer range
of the curve, the Magaliesberg range, necessitated an extension in
length ; consequently the Magaliesberg range was fractured, and
the rents so caused have originated the natural gorges called by the
Boers jworten, . . . Generally these crevices are filled with erup-
tive matter/'* American geologists have explained their origin
by the shifting of the drainage-lines.
Messrs. A. L. Hall and F. A. Steart, in the beginning of
190G, stated that '* to find an eruptive breccia in a poort is
rather an exception than a rule/'t Subsequently the work of
the Geological Survey has shown that this exception is very
rare, and, moreover, that the continuation of the strata in these
poorten is, so to say, never interrupted. These same facts can
be. observed all over the South African continent, and in the
deposits of every one of our sedimentary series, as is quite evi-
dent in the field, as well as from a study of the geological maps
of the Transvaal, the Cape Colony and Xatal.
This then would have been sufficient to do away with the
'* rent " theoiy (based on exceptional and local evidence within a
small area as it would seem) as a probable explanation for the
origin of these gaps. But when this range is examined where
these rents should have been best developed, everywhere distinct
evidence of compression is found instead of stretching. Follow-
ing, for instance, the uppermost quai-tzite-beds in any of these
ranges, it will be seen that, on nearing a poort, they bend down
gradually, become flatter towards the centre, and rise up again
on the other side of the poort to form the capping of the ranges
again. As there is no discontinuity of the strata, this phenomenon
cannot be ascribed to faulting, and it must be acknowledged to
be due simply to the downward curving of the axes of the fold.
The entrance of the Zwartebergen-poort (fig. 5) in Cape Colony
is very clear evidence on the subject. This undulation in the
axes of the folds is simply due to the east-and-west pressure re-
feiTcd to above, the existence of which in the past has been shown
to be manifest over the whole of South Africa, and the proof of
this contention is found at the summit of the same Magalies-
* Geology of the Trawivaol, by Dr. G. A. F. Molengraaflf, translated from
the French by Mr. J. H. Ronaldson, 1904, page 55.
+ " On Folding and Faulting in the Pretoria Series and the Dolomite," by
Messrs. A. L. Hall and F. A. Steart : Mr. A. L. Hall's reply to the discussion,
Proceedintjs of the Geoloyiccd Society of South Africa, 1905, page xliii.
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STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY OF SOUTH AFRICA.
561
berg range, as well as in the poorten. Last year, the writer had
occasion to draw the attention of one of his colleagues to this
fact, which is demon-
strated by the pre-
sence of vertical pres-
sure-planes and of
superimposed monti-
cules on the top of
the range, that is, be-
tween Wonderboom-
poort and Crocodil-
poort, where these
vertical joint-planes
are seen running
north and south. A
typical example of
these monticules can
be easily reached and
studied, standing as
it does in the centre
of one of these very
poorten, in Com-
mand onek.
In the two inner
parallel ranges,
nearer the Johannes-
burg granite-mass,
these facts may per-
haps not be so ap-
parent, as the local
augmentation of the
intensity of the com-
pressing forces has
engendered compli-
cated structures,
whilst erosion has
also often obscured
the facts. But even
here, with a little trouble, the problem can generally be disen-
tangled, and its origin traced to the influence exercised on the
strata by these mountain-folding pressures.
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55^ STRirCTURAL GEOLOGY OF SOUTH AFRICA.
The same evidence is available in the Witwatersrand area,
and further south in the Karroo and other parts of the Cape
Colony, Natal, etc., and in all the systems from the Witwaters-
rand upwards.
The writer will now describe the peculiar structure of the
Alps. From Genoa, this chain bends round in a graceful polygon
to Bale ; thence to Innsbriick and further east, the angles be-
tween the strikes of the strata are less pronounced. The central
part is occupied by the huge gneiss and granite-massies of Mont-
Blanc, Dent Blanche, Weisshorn, Ofenhom, Monte Rosa, P.
Pombi, and P. Stella, Borgasesia, Omegna, etc. The whole
structure of the chain seems to prove that this magnificent erec-
tion has been built up by the action of forces emerging and
radiating from one common igneous centre. Here, far more
than in the Rustenburg-Middelburg and Vredefort areas, the
idea is forced upon us that the sedimentary strata have been
subjected to enormous pressure from within, and consequently
to stretching tensions. This impression is strengthened almost
to conviction when by closer study it is observed that all the
rivers break away from the chain in a radial fashion, and, more-
over, at the very point where the strike of the strata change in
direction. Dr. M. Lugeon oonclusively proved,* however^
not only that the curious valley of the Rhone (between Martigny
and the Geneva lake), as well as the great majority of the Alpine
valleys, were due to erogenic causes, but also that there was no
sign of rents due to supposed bending and stretching tensions.
He showed, moreover, that rivers generally follow the main and
secondary synclinal troughs produced by and during the process
of mountain-folding, and that they break away from the chain
by outlets provided by the downward curving of the axes of the
folds, producing poorten, due to forces directed at more or less
high angles to the main fold-producing ones.
These facts are equally observable in the field, as on any
detailed geological map on a large scale. And it appears self-
evident that nature will rather make use, for its drainage-pur-
poses, of the more or less large synclinal troughs readily pro-
vided by folding, than of the cracks and crevices which may
♦ ** Recherches sur rOriffine des Valines des Alpes Occidentales," by Dr. M»
Lugeon, Annates de O^ographie, 1901, vol. x., pages 295 to 317 and 401 to 428.
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STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY OF SOUTH AFRICA. 65&
have been formed all along the top of anticlinal folds, and which
would have to be dug out.
The only excuse for having so long adhered to the anticlinal
crest-valley theory is perhaps that erosion has often hidden,
even obliterated, the real facts, so that their origin have become
nearly untraceable. Such may have been the case in the Jura,
from where this theory originated, or at least received its strongest
support.
(6) Pans. — ^Mr. M. S. Alison was the first who tendered
a theory to explain the origin and formation of pans. He sug-
gested their harving " been excavated by the hoofs of animals
collecting mud, while going from and returning to certain centres
to quench their thirst."* It would appear that his very words
imply the existence of a depression or basin previous to the
arrival of those animals, and so his theory might, perhaps, well
account for the enlarging and deepening-out of a pan, but hardly
for its origin.
Dr. G. A. F. Molengraaff ascribed their origin to wind and
chemical action chiefly,! and though this may undoubtedly have
been the case in many instances, the question why the wind and
th^ chemical agencies should have selected and belaboured the
particular spot where the pan is found may often remain
unanswered.
Prof. A. Prister considered their origin to be closely con-
nected with the rock in which they occur. He had specially
drawn attention to the fact that pans were generally found in
gently undulating country, and that such undulations may form
either a river-bed or a pan. Rainfall, evenly divided over the
year, would produce the former phenomenon, while intermittent
rainfall, variation of temperature, etc., would originate the
latter.J
Mr. E. T. Mellor ascribed the origin of some pans at least
to the " removal of the pyritic and soluble portions of the strata
affected, followed in some cases by subsidence of the overlying
• «• On the * Origin and Formation of Pans,' " by Mr. M. S. Alison, Trans-
actions of the Geological Society of South Africa, 1898, vol. iv., pages 159 to 161.
t Ibid,, discussion, page 161.
I " Notes on Mr. Alison's paper * On the Origin and Formation of Pans,* "
by Prof. A. Prister, Transactions of the Geological Society of South Africa, 1899^
voL iv., pages 167 and 168.
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554 STRUCTUEAL GEOLOGY OF SOUTH AFEICA.
beds."* He (Mr. Mellor) noticed that these curious basins
" almost always occur either close to the head of a spruit or on
the watershed between two or more spi-uits.^t
Lastly, Mr. J. P. Johnson summed up his definite con-
clusions regarding their origin as follows : — (1) All pans are on
the site of springs; (2) all pans are intimately connected with
dykes ; (•]) these springs once came to the surface, and were the
main factor in the formation of pans; (4) in many cases they
still rise to within a short distance of the surface ; and (5) these
springs are due to the damming-back of underground water by
dykes.J It is clear that some of Mr. Johnson's conclusions aie
perhaps to be regarded more as a necessary consequence of pan-
formation than as the cause thereof. And as to his statement
that all pans are intimately connected with dykes, the writer
doubts whether many of the members would like to support it
unconditionally.
Still, as nature did not work according to any one rule which
might be imputed to her, the writer is convinced that the various
explanations given above do rightly account in many instances
for the formation of pans.
Prof. A. Prister stated that ** pans generally belong to gently
undulating country ;''§ and Mr. E. T. Mellor, "close to the head
of a spruit or on the watershed between two or more spruits." ||
In an intensely-folded country one of the erogenic forces will
be largely preponderant and thus produce well-defined anticlines
and synclines. In a softly undulating country, however, the
intensity of the erogenic forces has evidently been small ; the
chances of the radial opposing main-forces being nearly equal,
are thus much greater than in a more disturbed region. Brachy-
synclines, basins, pans or domes, being the result of an approxi-
mate equality of these forces at a given point, will thus be readily
met with in little-disturbed areas. The points where this con-
• ** The Origin of ' Wash-outs' in Coal-mines and their Relation to other
Features of the Transvaal Coal-measures," by Mr. Edward T. McUor, Tranaactuma
of the Geological Society of South Africa, 1906, vol. ix., page 78.
t Ibid., page 81.
J Ibid., discussion, Proceedings of the Geological Society of South Africa,
1906, page xlix.
§ *' Notes on Mr. Alison's paper ' On the Origin and Formation of Pans,' "
by Prof. A. Prister, Transactions of the Geological Society of South Africa, 1899,
vol. iv., page 167.
II Op. cit., page 81.
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STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY OF SOUTH AFRICA. 565
dition of the approximate equality of the forces has the best
chance to come about in more disturbed regions, are at a river-
head and on a watershed, as the action of the predominating
force here met with the greatest resistance : consequently these
are the places where pans are most likely to be formed, again
as a result of the action of erogenic forces.
If now in a gently undulating countiy a more resistant factor
is met with in the strata, such as an igneous dyke (Mr. J. P.
Johnson), basin-shaped accidents will by preference be formed
all along it, on the same principle, as they will be most readily
originated on a small scale, all along a more resistant zone
in a thin indiarubber sheet which is being subjected to a centri-
petal lateral pressure. It also becomes very clear why springs
should be found either close to or at the bottom of most of these
pans, or only a few feet below them; especially in the Karroo
formation, with its alternation of sandstone and shale. The
atmospheric precipitations, falling on and saturating the top
layers of some formation or other, will in their further, that is,
descendent, course be deviated along the inclination of those
strata. . Their tendency is to collect in the natural basins and
river-valleys, forming springs of more or less strong flow, accord-
ing to the quantity of water absorbed in a given time by a certain
formation, and its capacity both of storing up as well as of
releasing the once absorbed liquid, that is, the permeability of
the beds. The existence of springs in these basins is thus the
inseparable consequence of pan-formation by erogenic forces,
though, of course, the possibility of their having been a cause
may not perhaps be totally excluded.
As a last example, in the Ermelo and Carolina districts in
the eastern Transvaal, several of these pans, far from being on
the site of springs, have rivulets running into them.
The intimate relation of the origin of numbers of the pans
to the action of mountain-folding forces, is again very markedly
demonstrated by the direction of their longer axes, as also by
the direction of the line or lines along which these pans are
found, coinciding as they do with those of the axes of the folds
in a given region.
The writer has already drawn attention to an exaggerated
form of this same accident, the Rietkuil brachy-syncline in the
Klerksdorp district.
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656 DISCUSSION — STBirCTirRAL GEOLOGY OF SOUTH AFRICA.
The writer has shown that not only is the formation of pans
one of the necessary results of the action of erogenic forces, but
also that all the facts observed by different investigators in the^
study of this phenomenon are an equally necessary consequence
of the origin contended for above.
IV. — Conclusions.
In conclusion, the writer's results may be summarized as
follows : —
(1) The main directions of mountain-folding pressures have
been north and south and east and west, the result of the former
being predominantly evident in the central zone and that of the
latter on the periphery of South Africa.
(2) These erogenic forces worked simultaneously and together
built up the tectonic structure of South Africa, which may thus
no longer be regarded and studied as the outcome of many
different and local, that is, comparatively insignificant, causes^
that have worked independently of one another.
(3) These systems of forces acted on all the strata of the
geological systems, from the Primary upwards, either at different
periods, or possibly during one long period, when there was
active deposition of the younger sediments in oiie place, and
denudation of the older in another.
(4) The origin of poorten, river-valleys and pans is traceable
to the same causes which produced anticlines and synclines,.
brachy-synclines, basins or domes, that is, to fold-produoing pres-
sures, the former set of phenomena being, in fact, only modifica-
tions or diminutives of the latter.
Finally, the writer states that it is, of course, impossible,
within the necessarily rather restricted limits of a paper, to
discuss the many local problems which the tectonic structure of
a region will often present. His intention, in placing these
facts before the members, has been merely to direct their atten-
tion on very broad lines to the main laws which, it would seem,
have governed the building of the South African continent, so
that they may, perhaps, serve as a basis in the study of compli-
cated local tectonic phenomena.
Mr. A. R. Sawyeb (Johannesburg) said that Dr. Sandberg'a
paper was an important contribution to the study of the building
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DISCUSSION — STEUCTUBAL GEOLOGY OF SOUTH APBICA. 557
of the South African continent. He was in agreement, to some
extent, with him as to the forces or tangential thrusts which
tended to produce the tectonic phenomena found to-day. In
his (Mr. Sawyer's) " Presidential Address " to the Geological
Society of South Africa in 1906,* he touched on this subject, but
whereas Dr. Sandberg was of opinion that the pressures came
from the north, the south, the east and the west, his view was
that these pressures came from the south and the east only, and
that the pressures from the north and the west were more in the
nature of resistances.
Dr. G. A. F. MoLENGBAAFF (The Hague) wrote that he agreed
with Dr. Sandberg where he concluded that the main directions
of mountain-folding pressures had been north and south, and
east and west, in the Transvaal. He was of opinion that the
value of Dr. Sandberg's paper would have been considerably en-
hanced, if he had described where pressure in one or the other of
those two main directions prevailed during each of the subsequent
geological periods.
He agreed at present with Dr. Sandberg's opinion that the
Vredefort granite-mass was a denuded dome. He believed,
however, that in the Vredefort area, as well as near Johannes-
burg, there was ample evidence of a powerful pressure from south .
to north in a period either entirely or at least partly subsequent to
that of the deposition of the Pretoria (Gktsrand) beds. He was
of opinion that the well known Jeppe's hill, north of Belgravia,
where strata of the Vaal-river system (Elsburg beds and Klip-
river amygdaloid) occurred in reversed stratigraphical order,
must be regarded as an overthrust remnant (lamheau de recouvre-
ment), pushed northwards by a powerful overthrust, and preserved
from denudation by being jammed between two overthrust fault-
planes.
The Peesident (Mr. M. Deacon) moved a vote of thanks to
Dr. Sandberg for his interesting notes on the structural geology
of South Africa.
Mr. John Gebbabd (H.M. Inspector of Mines) seconded the
resolution, which was cordially approved.
* "Anniversary Address,*' by the president, Mr. A. R. Sawyer, Proetedinffs
of the Geological Society qf SotUh Africa^ 1905, pages xvi and xvii.
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568 A SINGLE-ROOM SYSTEM OF MINING.
A SIXGLE-ROOM SYSTEM OF MINING: AX ADAPTA-
TIOX OF THE LOXGWALL METHOD TO WORK IX
THICK SEAMS.
By H. S. gay.*
By the term " single-room system " is meant a system by
which the entire product from a series of entries is obtained
from a single room; where each division of labour necessaiy to
produce that product is regularly employed and at the same
time. It is the outcome of an effort to work the longwall
system. The mine where it is in operation is that of the Gay
Coal and Coke Company, located in Logan county, West
Virginia.
The seam of coal, 200 feet above the river-level, averages 5
feet 7 inches in thickness, dipping south and west about 1^ per
cent. It is practically free of partings and of the nature of
splint coal, the bottom bench rather strong and the top bench
somewhat friable. The average thickness of cover does not
exceed 500 feet, while the maximum is less than 1,000 feet.
The application of the longwall system of mining in moder-
ately thick seams has been the dream of many mining engineers.
It has been attempted several times in West Virginia, but, so far
as the writer can learn, without success. The great difficulty
has been to control the action of the roof.
The writer, not having the vision of a prophet, determined
on the first suitable opportunity to give the system a trial, which
opportunity in due time arrived. For the experiment, a section of
the seam was selected where it could be most conveniently and
quickly developed. A block of coal, ABCD, was cut by two longi-
tudinal entries, Xos. 4 and 5, GOO feet long (fig. 1, plate xxii.),
and one transverse entry, Xo. 2, 300 feet long, with the necessar^^
air-courses separated from the entries by a pillar about GO feet
* A paper read before the Coal Mining Institute of America, December 19th,
1906.
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A SINGLE-ROOM SYSTEM OF MIXING. 55^
wide. It was proposed to mine the block by the retreating
method, commencing at the eastern end, and working westward.
The character of the roof at that time was unknown, except
that apparently it was good. From the nature of the work it
was absolutely necessary that the roof be supported near the
face of the workings at all times. To obviate the continual
supply of timber which this provision would otherwise require,
the writer designed a portable post.
These posts, 100 in number^ are of beech or hickory, «, averag-
ing 20 inches in diameter and 38 inches long. The top is covered
with 1 inch poplar, 6, and the bottom with yV inch sheet steel, c.
Each post is mounted with a hydraulic head, which consists of
a steel cylinder, dy 2 inches thick, one end closed and the other
fitted with a cast-iron plunger, e, 12 inches in diameter, having
a stroke of 4 inches (fig. 2, plate xxii.). The weight of each
head is about 700 pounds. They were tested to a pressure of
3,000 pounds per square inch. The aggregate cost of the equip-
ment was approximately £1,000. It was proposed to set these
posts with 6 feet centres in two parallel rows, 3 feet apart (fig. 3,
plate xxii.). The last row could always then be moved one at a
time to an advanced position with safety.
Actual mining from the block was begun in January, 1905,
the undercutting being done by a Morgan-Gardner electric long-
wall machine. The cars into which the coal was loaded entered
No. 5 entry (fig. 1, plate xxii.), passed by the face, and after
being loaded proceeded out by No. 4 entry to the tipple, as shown
by the arrows.
As the work advanced, and the walls became over 30 feet
apart, a row of props with 15 feet centres was set at intervals of 8
feet to 10 feet. After the distance between the walls had reached
60 feet, the portable posts were put into use. A row of 50 with
6 feet centres was set within 11 feet of, and parallel to, the work-
ing face (fig. 3, plate xxii.). The heads were covered with a
wooden cap-piece and the plunger then raised by an initial water-
pressure of 50 pounds per square inch, till the cap rested against
the roof. The pressure was supplied by a pump at the power-house.
A line of IJ inches pipe, ab, was laid from the pump to the work-
ings, extending along the rib of No. 4 entry to the wall. This pipe
was connected by a 50 feet length of indiarubber-hose, be, to a line
of I inch pipe, cd, which was laid alongside of and fastened to the
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560 A SINGLE-EOOM SYSTEM OF MINING.
tra^k running parallel to the workmg-faee, EF. Provisions were
made so that the latter pipe could be connected to any one of the
hydraulic heads by another 50 feet length of hose, ef. Wlien the
plunger had reached its limit, the pressure was retained by closing
a valve, and the hose disconnected. In this manner each post was
firmly set in place.
The next tier of posts, 50 in number, was set when the wall
advanced 6 feet farther. As the work continued, the first tier
was moved 3 feet beyond the second. Commencing at one end,
«ach post was released and set in new positions successively by first
opening the valve and releasing the plunger. The manner of
moving them was by use of a jack, ^, and chain, y, the posts being
dragged along the bottom in an upright position (fig. 2, plate
xxii.). This operation was performed by three men, followed by
another who connected the hose to the hydraulic head and applied
the pressure, which forced the plunger firmly against the roof.
The time consumed was about 5 minutes for each post. An
occasional row of props similar to the first was also set as a pre-
cautionary measure.
This work proceeded without difficulty until the walls, BC and
lEF, were 100 feet apart, and it was deemed advisable to bring down
the roof and face the conditions that were to be confronted. The
track was moved close to the face, and the portable posts set in a
single row 6 feet from the face. Eighteen holes. 6 feet deep, were
drilled in the roof in a line 10 feet from the posts. They were
charged with dynamite. Holes were bored in twenty of the
largest props, and also charged with dynamite. All were fired by
hand in quick succession, and the result awaited with mingled
curiosity and anxiety.
An examination in due time revealed the immediate roof
to be a seam of strong sand-slate, at least 30 feet thick, without
sign of a. single parting. One block, 100 feet in length, had
sheared close to the post-s on the one side and to the opposite rib
on the other. The sight of the space that it left directly above it,
showing a vacancy equal in height to the one it had filled, fore-
told the difficulties to be encountered in prosecuting the longwall
system.
At one point the slate had broken over the posts and covered
the track for a distance of 50 feet. At least 150 feet of the roof
remained undisturbed. Not one of the posts was broken, though
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A SINGLE-BOOM SYSTEM OF MINING. 561
many of the plungers were forced to the bottom of the cylinders.
For a period of 6 weeks the work was continued along this line.
It was a constant and, at most times, a desperate struggle against
the force of gravity ; the output was reduced to less than one-
half, though the cost of mining, while greatly increased, was less
than by the room-aud-pillar system. It was evident to those in
charge that such a method could not be operated smoothly in a
locality where labour was inexperienced and where the conditions
of mining by other methods were the most simple. The chief
difficulty was the possibility at any time of a mass of rock break-
ing directly over the posts and endangering the lives of the work-
men.
While the writer was forced for a time to admit defeat, yet he
has ever since thought that, had the roof been more to his liking,
had it been stratified, or contained partings that would have
allowed it to break behind the posts, he would have been suc-
cessful. The enormous pressure — at times 300 tons or more on a
post — was not due to the actual load, but to its leverage. Before
it was safe to recover the posts, and in less than a fortnight, they
were so completely covered by the debris that no two were visible
at the same time.
The facility with which the coal could be moved, the concen-
tration of labour^ the need of so little skilled labour, the sim-
plicity of the ventilation, and other features, revealed, in this brief
experience, advantages which the writer was loth to lose.
In any method that he might adopt other than those in vogue
in this locality, several conditions confronted him with which he
had to comply ; (1) The percentage of coal won must equal on an
average that of the other mines in the same ooal-field. (2) Since all
the coal could not be removed by a single operation, pillars of
some sort were a natural consequence. Therefore sufficient pillars
must be left to sustain the roof for a length of time such as would
allow each particular section to be mined in safety. (3) The
proportion of narrow to wide work must be such that the addi-
tional cost of the former would be absorbed by the decreased cost
of the latter.
Of the various schemes that suggested themselves, the follow-
ing was adopted : It was proposed to work the remainder of the
TOL. XXXIII.-1906-1907. 40
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562 A SINGLE-ROOM SYSTEM OF MIXING.
block by a system of rooms each 80 feet in width, and one at a
time, leaving a 30 feet pillar between (fig. 4, plate xxii.). Each
room was opened by a sub-entry, and the manner of working
thereafter was identical in every respect with the longwall system,
the writer hoping thus to retain its advantages without being
encumbered with its difficulties.
The dimensions adopted, which satisfied the three condi-
tions, were based on the following assumptions : (1) Since it was
already demonstrated that the roof was self-supporting at a span
of 120 feet, it might with perfect safety be worked with a span
of 80 feet. (2) If a vein of coal will support 5,000 feet or more of
overlying strata, one-half the coal may therefore sustain 2,500
feet of strata, and likewise one-fourth, of the coal may sustain
1,250 feet of strata. Thus 30 feet pillars, with regular interven-
ing spaces of 80 feet to 90 feet between them, can for a time
sustain the weight of 1,000 feet of strata. At least so it appeared
to the writer.
In accordance with this hypothesis, a sub-entiy, GH, 10 feet
wide, was driven 30 feet from the abandoned wall and parallel to
it. At a distance of 100 feet from the first sub-entry, a second
one, IJ, was driven parallel to it as the coal from the first was
being mined. This plan, it was considered, amply fulfilled the
conditions to be met. It will be observed that the labour em-
ployed in mining is at all times working on the solid. Further-
more, in the event of a local or general squeeze, it is impossible
for it to spread any further than the worked-out territory.
In the second room (fig. 5, plate xxii.), an attempt was made
to mine without the use of portable posts, but they were again
resorted to, as the roof gave evidence of having an initial strain,
by the bursting-out of a triangular piece near the working-face.
As the remaining rooms were enlarged, the roof continued to
grow worse as it neared the outcrop, requiring at times auxiliaiy
props close to the face to support the loose fragments of slate.
Owing to the extremely poor roof, the rooms were gradually
reduced in width, the last measuring but 60 feet.
From the knowledge gained by this experience, it was believed
that with the roof in normal condition the rooms could be
worked 90 feet wide, with 30 feet pillars between them, and then»-
fore No. 4 and No. 5 entries were continued eastward to the line,
and the sub-entries spaced accordingly for the rooms 6, 7, etc.
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A SINGLE-KOOM SYSTEM OF MINING. 668
(fig. 5, plate xxii.). These sub-entries in this case were driven
from both ends as the main entries proceeded.
Commencing with the last one driven, 12, it was widened to
40 feet, and a single row of ordinary timber-props, 8 inches to
10 inches in diameter with 15 feet centres, was set close to the
face. At 50 feet, a second row was set ; at 60 feet, a row of
portable posts having 10 feet centres ; and at 70 feet, a second
row in the same manner. The ordinary props are used for the
purpose of detecting the action of thS roof. The remaining rooms
in this tier were worked in the same manner. It may be remarked
here, what is plainly evident, that as the room approaches its
maximum width, the danger of a break in the roof also increases,
and it is at this time that the greatest care should be exercised.
Should there exist a fissure in the roof parallel to the working-
face, without substantial supports its presence might prove very
dangerous.
After a room has been finished, the track is removed. The
work of removing the portable posts is begun in the middle,
each half being hauled into the respective entries near the
adjoining room.
Lately, the style of setting the posts on the heads has been
adopted, supporting the latter on two pieces of wood, 2 inches by
6 inches and 2 feet long (fig. 6, plate xxii.). The work is thus
simplified, to the extent that the labour is less to move and set
the portable posts than it is to get and set the same number of
ordinary props.
The first tier of rooms has now been exhausted, leaving but
two fair-sized pillars between the first and last set to protect the
haulage-ways. In the seven that have been driven under solid
cover, there is as yet no sign of subsidence of the roof in any,
except in the first worked, 12 ; and, strange to say, this subsidence
is in the northern end, where it might least be expected, and was
just as evident when the room was worked as it is now. At no
point, however, are the overlying strata above 300 feet in height.
Fig. 5 (plate xxii.) shows the actual condition of the mine as
it is to-day and the manner of keeping the work in advance.
Mining has been started in the last room in the second tier. Since
work began in room 12, a Sullivan electric chain-machine has
been used, bought under a guarantee to cut the length of a room
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564 A SINGLE-ROOM SYSTEM OF MINING.
in 10 hours. It has actually cut in 8i hours 377 feet with an
average depth of 6 feet 1 inch, thus preparing for the labour to
follow over 500 tons of marketable coal.
An Agnew electric drill is used for drilling, by the use of
which two men are enabled to drill and shoot the entire face in-
side of 10 hours. The holes are drilled 6 feet deep and about 10
feet apart. FFF powder is used, and in the rooms 180 tons are
obtained per keg of 25 pounds.
Fig. 7 (plate xxii.) shows a truck for moving with a mule
the hydraulic heads, which being circular can be easily rolled.
The two side-pieces of this truck axe made of 2 inches by 6 inchee
timber, and are held together by long bolts which can be loosened
so as to spread apart the sides. In one side-piece there is a cir-
cular recess, in which is placed the projection in the bottom of the
head (fig. 2, plate xxii.). The other side-piece has a projection,
which enters a circular opening in the end of the plunger. The
head may thus be hauled like a street-roller.
The cars pass continually in one direction, the loads at all
times following the dip, and the empties immediately replacing
the loads as they leave the room (the arrows in the entries show
the direction taken by the cars). One mule can deliver regularly
each day 1(X) tons to a distance of 1,000 feet from the working-
face. As each cut is completed, the track is shortened in the
entries, and the track in the room is swung the depth of a cut
towards the face, and is always kept within convenient loading
distance.
Table I.— Hahds Employed in the Mine.
Room : 800 Tons per Day.
No. of Men.
Cutting coal 2
Shooting coal 2
Scrapping bottom 4
Loading coal 12
Driving from room 3
Extra ariver 1
Trackman 1
Posts and props 1
—26
Entries : 60 Tons per Day.
No. of Men.
Entry-men 6
Machine-men 2
Drivers 2
Trackman 2
—12
Foreman 1
Total 39
With the number of men that can be conveniently handled
on a face of 300 feet, 300 tons is probably the maximum con^
venient tonnage per day from one room. Sixty tons per day from
the entries will maintain sufficient development for this output.
With a total output of 360 tons per day under the conditions
described, Table I. shows the number of hands required inside
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A SINGLE-BOOM SYSTEM OB MINING. 565
and the yield in tons per individual ; being a yield o-f 9*2 tons per
man inside. The number (39) is sometimes increased by the
presence of a strong- bottom clinging to the floor, requiring an
increase in the number of scrappers, and by other minor causes.
The decrease in the yield following such additions is shown as
follows : 39 men, 360 tons, 9*2 tons per day ; 40 men, 360 tons,
9 tons per day; 42 men, 360 tons, 85 ions per day; and 44 men,
360 tons, 8'2 tons per day.
Between the various systems of mining under similar condi-
tions, the basis of comparison is the yield per individual employed
inside. In France this yield is less than 1 ton ; and in Germany
and Great Britain somewhat over a ton. In the bituminous coal-
fields of Pennsylvania, the yield is highest in the thick Pittsburg
seam, varying from 4*5 tons to 5 tons per inside employ^. In
West Virginia, the most favoured places reach 5 tons, and some-
times exceed that quantity.
The yield is governed by conditions; probably the greatest
skill in mining is shown in many cases where the yield is the
least. The above figures would indicate, however, that in a vein
5 feet 6 inches to 5 feet 9 inches in thickness, under the most
favourable conditions, 5 tons per employe is all that may be
expected under the room-and-pillar system. In the system de-
scribed, 60 per cent, more than this is readily obtained ; 70 per
cent, more without great difficulty; and 80 per cent, more is
practicable.
In comparing the single-room with the longwall system, it is
found that in the former, besides possessing gieater safety, the
yield per employe is not less than 20 per cent, more than the
latter. Had the prosecution of the longwall system been sucess-
ful, it would have required not less than 5 men under the most
favourable conditions to protect those engaged in producing the
coal. This labour is now sufficient to drive the sub-entries,
thereby increasing the output to that extent. It requires much
less skilled labour. Of the 26 men designated as being in the
room, only one besides the foreman is a miner. The majority,
as a rule, are inexperienced labourers. On the other hand, the
longwall system yields nearly 20 per cent, more coal for the area
mined. In the single room, as it was laid out, but 78 per cent,
was recovered. Nevertheless, this equals the best results obtained
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^66 A SINGLE-BOOM SYSTEM OF MINING.
in West Virginia in veins of similar thickness and character of
roof. The pillars left may not necessarily all be lost : possibly
one-third of this coal could still be taken out; in fact, if the
author were mining for a higher percentage in this direction, he
would undoubtedly make an effort to recover some of it. But at
this stage he prefers to let well enough alone. It must be
remembered that this coal is mined in a region where but a short
time ago land could be bought for £4 and less per acre. West
Virginia has no home markets, and its coal is carried from 200 to
500 miles into the hearts of thriving coal-fields. Its commercial
salvation lies in the quality of its coal and in cheaper mining than
its competitors.
The writer has described the operation of a single unit of this
system of mining. A similar set of entries in an opposite dii-ec-
tion would double the capacity. Other modifications in their
arrangement can be made to enlarge the output to any reason-
able amount. Wor are the dimensions that he has adopted arbitrary.
Under different conditions, it might be advisable to diminish
the widths of the rooms and pillars. It is doubtful as to the system
having much advantage over the room-and-pillar system with
rooms less than 50 feet in width.
In conclusion, the writer would observe that a mechanical
loader is not an impossibility^ and the day may come, in some
mines, when every division of the work will be performed or
greatly assisted by mechanical means, and 10 tons per inside
employe will be a regular and steady production.
Mr. H. W. G. Halbai'm's paper on " Cast-iron Tubbing :
What is its Rational Formula ?" was read as follows : —
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^^•^Mininff7etc.
(
No.2. No.1
to 1 inch. '
FiQ. 8.
o [o]
[o]
SetU9t 20 ineh§s to 3 Inoh.
Fig. 5.
Ho.2. No.1.
■flATTICC.
PIMURBt.
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CAST-IRON TUBBING. 567
CAST-IBON TUBBING: WHAT IS ITS RATIONAL
FORMULA?
By H. W. G. HALBAUM, Gbebnwell Medallist.
The Current Formulce. — Attention has recently been directed
by Mr. W. O. Wood,* by Mr. Isaac Hodges,! and others to
failures of shaft-tubbing. Attention has also been called to the
fact that, beyond the element of danger attaching to a fractured
shaft, the cost, direct and indirect, of re-tubbing a shaft is out
of all proportion to that which sufficiently substantial tubbing
would have entailed in the first instance. J It has further been
stated that there is some difficulty in fixing the proper dimen-
sions of the tubbing required in any given case, owing to the
mutual contradiction of current formulse relating to the matter;
and Mr. Hodges has given some very striking comparisons in a
table.§ Mr. M. Deacon subsequently remarked that '' He was
glad to find that Mr. Hodges had departed from the old-fashioned
rules regarding the strength of the tubbing. Everyone would
agree that if he had taken one of the formulsB quoted in his
paper, he would not have had to wait very long before the whole
thing came in."|| Again, in his " Presidential Address," Mr.
Charles Pilkington stated that " although some formulse are
recorded in handbooks on mining, the information is untrust-
worthy, as little attention is paid to the depth and frequency of
the flanges and ribe."ir Still further, Prof. H. Louis raises another
question, namely, whether the actual pressure is so arbitrary a
♦ "The Re-tubbing of the Middle Pit, Murton ColHery, 1903," by Mr. W.
O. Wood, Tram. JnsL M. E., 1904, vol. xxvU., page 197.
t **An Account of Sinking and Tubbing at Methley Junction Colliery,
with a Description of a Cast-iron Dam to resist an Outburst of Water," by Mr.
Isaac Hodges, Tram, Inst, M. E., 1906, vol. xxxii., page 76.
X Ibid., page 96. § Ihid., page 96.
II Trails. Inst. M, E., 1906, vol. xxxii., page 98.
% ** Presidential Address " to the Manchester Geological and Mining Society,
by Mr. Charles Pilkington, Tram. hist. M. E., 1906, vol. xxxii., page 360.
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668 CAST-IEON TUBBING.
ratio of tke head of water as all the f ormulsB assume ; * he also
notes the remarkably contradictory attitude of one rule to
another ; and he concludes by saying that no sati3f actory tubbing
rule has yet been framed. All the critics, above quoted, are
men whose views are entitled to substantial respect.
The Necessity of Examining the Formulce. — In order to ascer-
tain, if possible, what ground exists for this general distrust of
current formulae, the writer has collected together all the tubbing
rules he can find, namely, those associated with the names of
Messrs. J. J. Atkinson, G. C. Greenwell, G. G. Andr^, W.
Galloway, G. H. HoUingworth, W. Tate, and W. S. Aldis, the
last named being No. 42 formula in Mr. J. H. Merivale's
Notes and Formulce for Mining Students. \ There may be other
rules (the writer possesses few strictly mining books), but the
seven referred to should be sufficient for the present purpose.
It will be observed that at least two of this number are modem
(since their authors remain with us), and not to be included in
the category of " old-fashioned rules " so whole-heartedly con-
demned by one of the speakers above quoted. It may be
remarked that one does not condemn a rule simply because it is
old-fashioned. It may be that, but it is not necessarily out-of-
date on that account. Still, it is necessary to have authoritative
teaching as to the means by which the permanent security of
costly shafts may be achieved. - The supreme importance of the
matter demands the immediate attention of those men who aspire
in any measure to be constructive teachers of mining technique.
It is important to criticize unsound formulae, but it is of greater
importance to construct something better to put in their place.
A fairly adequate examination of current formulae has
convinced the writer that, from the practical standpoint,
engineers are left in chaotic confusion, owing to the mutual
contradiction of the several rules. The rules differ widely with
respect to the numerical values employed to represent a given
factor; and, what is worse, they differ with regard to the funda-
mental principles which they take into account. Again, as will
* Practical Coal-mining, by Leading Experts in Mining and Engineering,
under the Editorship of Prof. W. S. Boulton, 1907, divisional volume i., page 137.
t First edition, 1887, page 24.
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CAST-IEON TUBBING. 569
be presently proved, not a single rule of the seven mentioned is a
" rational tubbing nde." Tie term " rational " is used in its
ordinary scientific sense, as opposed to the quality of empiricism :
this last word being construed in its best sense. A rational rule
proceeds on established principles ; an empirical rule rests on more
or less practical data the underlying principles of which are not
understood. None of the current tubbing formulae are rational.
Some of them again are neither rational nor empirical ; they are
simply sciolistic. That is to say, they are standard rational
formulae wrested from their original and legitimate connections,
and made to do duty under circumstances which they were never
designed to embrace. The writer is, therefore^ obliged to conclude
that the general distrust of the current tubbing formulae is amply
justified ; and he believes that the whole of these rules, including
the modem as well as the older examples, are irrational in theory
and misleading in practice.
In common fairplay, however, a word should be said in
extenuation of the framers of these formulae, and it is this:
sound scientific formulae can be evolved only from sound experi-
mental data. But these practical data can be supplied only by
practical men, from the stores of their united practical experi-
ence. And practical men may be asked if, in the past, they have
always given of their practical data as generously aa they might
have done. If they have not, they can scaicely now, with any
pretence of justice, tilt at the " theorist* " for failing to make
perfect bricks (in the shape of rational formulae) without straw
(in the shape of experimental data). The present scantiness of
knowledge in this and many other directions must not be attri-
buted to the theorists alone — it is far more to the point to say
that, in spite of all the work of our institutes, technical poverty is
part of the price now being paid for the repugnance of the
individual practical man to divulge the nature of his collected
experimental data, lest, haply, the knowledge should prove of
value to others.
Neither can one even appear to depreciate any work of such
men as Messrs. J. J. Atkinson and G. C. Greenwell without a
word of explanation, nor yet without a tribute of admiration to
the great qualities of these grand old engineers of British mining.
Mr. Atkinson's formula is a perfectly rational formula for thin
cylinders subjected to hydraulic pressure only. Its great defect as
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570 CAST-raoN tubbing.
a tubbing* rule is, that it fails to take into account the possibility
of chemical action on the metal. It is a pressure-formula only, and
may safely be employed in cases where the tubbing- is subjected to
pressure only, provided that pressure is not excessive. Mr. Green-
well's wellknown rule allows something for chemical action on the
metal, as well as for the hydraulic pressure thereon. It was prob-
ably put forward as an empirical rule closely corresponding with
the mining practice and technical standards of Mr. Greenwell's
time. Tubbinig put in according to this rule, in shafts piercing
moderately firm strata containing feeders of water distinctly cor-
rosive, without being excessively so, may, in the writer s opinion,
be relied on for something* like half-a-century's service. And, when
Mr. Greenwell wrote, it is probable that few shafts were expected
to have a longer working life than the period named. There are,
therefore, individual cases even now where one or other of these
two formulae might be safely employed to fix the strength of the
tubbing. The principal danger lies in the fact that many practical
men are unable to analyse the precise conditions and the exact re-
quirements of each individual case. Indeed, all formula-makers,
past and present, appear to have been alive to this danger. So far
as the older writers are concerned, it may have been a necessity of
the times in which they lived ; but however that may be, they
all endeavour to take the responsibility from the practical man.
And, to this end, their formulae take no account of local circum-
stances, except the diameter of the shaft and the head of water.
These two being given, the required thickness of the tubbing,
by any given formula, is irrevocably fix:ed, irrespective of time^
place, and general environment. A speaker commenting on Mr.
Hodges' paper said that " the question of the strength of the tub-
bing required imfettered consideration, from the point of view
of the greater diameter of the shafts now than in the past."*
If this means that the current formulae ignore the diameter, the
present writer has been unable to find an instance of it, and
certainly none of the formulae quoted by Mr. Hodges furnishes
such an instance.
The Current FormidoB are not General Formulce. — Now that
the writer's attitude is made plain, it may be well to illustrate,
by a single example, the contradictory teaching of the current
• Trans, ImL M. Ky 1906, vol. xxxii., page 98.
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CAST-IBON TUBBING. 671
f ormulsB. Example : 450 feet of open-topped tubbing in a
shaft of 20 feet diameter. What should be the thickness of the
bottofm ring ? Messrs. Greenwell and Andre (by their f ormulsB)
make it 2^ inches; Mr. G. H. HoUingworth's formula* makes
it 3 inches; Mr. W. Tate's rule, quoted by Mr. Hodges,t makes
it 3i inches ; whilst Mr. Galloway^s rule, quoted by Prof. Louis,^
puts the safe thickness at something less than 0'90 inch. This
mutual divergence does not actually prove that no one of the rules
is a general one, but it furnishes a presumption to that effect.
No Current Formula is a Rational Formula. — ^That none of
these rules is, in the scientific sense, rational, is proved by the fact
that each of them employs constant numerical values to represent
factors which are by no means constant between one case of prac-
tice and another. What, for instance, is the use of employing
figures implying that the ultimate crushing strength of cast-iron
in pounds, or in tons, or even in tens of tons per square inch, can
be expressed as a numerical constant correct to five significant
figures, when no dependence can even be placed on the first figure?
If it be said that the numerical values of a formula represent aver-
age values, what about the safety of the tubbing when the metal
is below the average ? If, on the other hand, it be said that the
numerical values of the formula represent minimum values, what
about the economy of tubbing made of good material P It is ob-
vious that if an engineer orders metal of a higher quality, and
exacts certain guarantees, such as proof tests or tests to destruc-
tion, from the founders, he may legitimately count on a higher
value of the safe stress than if he had ordered his metal anyhow.
But so soon as he acts on scientific principles, that is to say, so
soon as he acts rationally, he departs from the formula. Hence
the formula cannot be a rational formula.
In the better examples of ourrent formulse, the thickness of
metal required by the pressure forms only a portion of the total
thickness, the remainder being designed to cover waste due to
corrosion and wear-and-tear. This allowance, by Mr. Greenwell's
• Practical Engineer Pocket-hook, 1903, page 630.
+ "An Account of Sinking and Tubbing at Methley Junction Colliery,
with a Deacription of a Cast-iron Dam to resiat an Outburst of Water," by Mr.
Isaac Hodges, Trans, Inst, M. E., 1906, vol. xxxii., page 96.
I Practical Coal-mining, by Leading Experts in Mining; and Engineering,
under the Editorship of Prof. W. S. Boulton, 1907, divisional volume i., page 138.
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572 CAST-IBON TUBBING.
formula, is 003 feet or 0*36 inch, while Mr. Andre puts it at 0-36
inch ; and, right or wi-ong^, therefore, these older authorities are in
practical agreement. Of the two more modern authorities, one,
Mr. G. H. HoUingworth, increases Mr. Greenweirs 0*36 inch to
0'50 inch ; and the other, Mr. W. Galloway, reduces it to zero, and
allows nothing at all. Whether the member of waste be taken
at nothing, or at 050 inch, or at any other constant figure, its in-
clusion in the formula as an arbitrary numerical value applying
to all cases alike at once renders that formula illogical and mis-
leading from the practical standpoint, and irrational in the scien-
tific sense of the term.
Corrosion, wear-and-tear, and waste show (1) the work per-
formed by certain agents; (2) a work the ultimate quantity of
which depends on (a) the strength of the agents of waste, and (6)
the duration of the time that they are allowed to work. The wear-
and-tear of aji engine will be greater at the end of 10 than at the
end of 5 years. The corrosion of metal under water continuously
will be more pronounced after 100 than after only 20 years.
And, again, the corrosion of one kind of metal by one quality of
water during 20 years may be greater than the corrosion of another
kind of metal by a better kind of water during a century. Now,
since mine-waters vary with regard to their contained impurities,
the force of the corroding agents at work on tubbing varies be-
tween colliery and colliery. The duration of the corrosive action
(so far as it is necessarily taken into account) is measured by the
working life of the tubbed shaft ; and this working life may be
very much greater in the case of one than in the case of another
shaft. Hence the allowance for waste of metal should vary as the
power of the corrosive agents multiplied by the estimated working
life of the tubbed shaft; and the rational allowance for waste
cannot be represented for all cases alike by 0*36 inch, or by 0.60
inch, or by any other numerical constant. To say that it can is
equivalent to saying that the working life of any given colliery,
multiplied by the corrosive properties of the local water, is equal
to the working life of any other colliery, multiplied by the corro-
sive properties of the local water. In other words, it is equivalent
to asserting that the corrosive properties of local water vary in-
versely as the working life of the colliery. Therefore it is equiva-
lent to saying that the corrosive properties of local water can be
reduced to the smallest possible value by simply deciding to ex-
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CAST-ntON TUBBING. 578
tend the life of the colliery to a sufficiently distant period. Hence,
in any rational formula applicable to the general case, the allow-
ance for waste cannot be stated as an arbitrary and eternally con-
stant numerical value ; and it would be just as rational to suppose
that the diameter of the shaft, or the head of water, can. be ex-
pressed in the general formula as a numerical constant.
The Properties of a Rational Forrmda, — The ideal rational
formula correlates the various principles affecting the general
case. The numerical values of the algebraic factors must be
substituted by the engineer-in-charge of the particular shaft. The
actual rational formula correlates the general principles as effi-
ciently as the present state of knowledge permits. The actual
rational formula, therefore, is not necessarily a perfect formula ;
and that is so because the present state of knowledge, upon which
the formula is based, is not perfect. A rational formula, there-
fore, embraces the principles that are known, and it ceases to be
a rational formula so soon as newer principles bearing on the case
are discovered. But, in all cases, the rational formula indicates
general and known principles ; and in all cases of individual prac-
tice, the engineer-in-charge must make the local application of
those principles on his own responsibility. All that the rational
formula professes to do is to indicate the principles affecting the
case and the nature of their interrelation, and it affords a safe-
guard against oversight and inadvertence.
The Rational Tubbing Formula. — The rational tubbing for-
mula must determine the thickness of tubbing required for any
particular case. Let the total thickness be T inches : then the
present state of knowledge teaches that T, reduced to its simplest
and most comprehensive terms, is the equivalent of a binomial,
namely: —
T=t,+t, (1)
where t^ is the thickness in inches necessary to cover the waste
of metal ; and t^, the thickness necessary to be maintained against
the pressure proper throughout the entire life of the mine. But
just as T is the sum of t^ and <a, so also are tj^ and t^ the quotients
of -various factors divided by others. These factors must be found,
if possible, and placed in their proper relations one to another
in a rational formula. As set forth in the formula (1), T is the
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574 CAST-IBON TUBBING.
sum of two temus, or members : t^ being the corrosion-member^
and ^a the pressure-member of the rational tubbing formula.
The Known Factors of the CorTosion-memher, — ^It is usual ta
speak of the corrosion and wear-and-tear of the tubbing. The
wear-and-tear is a very vague and uncertain quantity ; and there
is some difficulty in conceiving what wear-and-tear can occur with
shaft-tubbing, if the term be used as in any sense similar to the
way in which it is applied to the wear-and-tear of an engine, a
wheel, a rail, a rope, or any other structure dealing with a live load.
There must be some little wear-and-tear with a dead load also :
hence there must be some on the tubbing supporting the dead
load of water behind it. But such mechanical wear-and-tear
must be so infinitesimal, compared with the chemical action of
corrosion, that the two may be considered together as simple corro^
sion. In any case, both alike are the work of time : and equally
in any caae, the two would be impossible of separate measurement
in practice. Hence, in the present state of knowledge, it is con-
venient to assume that the '* factors of corrosion '* include all
factors of waste that require time to develop certain given results.
In these are included (1) the factors of corrosion by water, (2) the
factors of corrosion or oxidation in the shaft-atmosphere, and (3)
the factors of mechanical wear-and-tear.
The rational factors of t^ are easily stated in algebraic form.
Let the estimated working life of the newly tubbed shaft be I
j^diTs, and let it be estimated that the factors of corrosion are
capable of eating into the metal at the rate of - inch per annum ;
then the corrosion-member of a rational formula must be ^i, and
/j = /x- = - inches (2>
n n
It is obvious that - is the only rational value of t^ and it is
n ^
the place of the practical man to substitute, in each particular
case of practice, the proper numerical values of I and n. And
since the practical man has been so severe on Mr. Greenwell and
others who have given empirical values of - , he will doubtlpss
have little difficulty in fixing the rational numerical value him-
self. Seriously, however, in any particular case the estimation
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CAST-IBON TUBBING. 575
of the numerical value of I should be a comparatively easy
matter, but that of n will be more difficult to get at. Analyses
of shaft-waters and the probable shaft-atmosphere (if it be an
upcast) will be required. The probable nature of the shaft-
atmosphere will be the same as that of the nearest pit already
in full work. But, these analyses having been obtained, the cor-
rosive power of the ingredients requires to be accurately known.
There might have been much knowledge of this kind available,
had the opportunities of the past been utilized. As it is, the
desired knowledge of the corrosive properties of various mine-
waters is not to hand, and it can only result after extended ex-
periments.
The Class of Data Required, — Prof. J. Clerk Maxwell states
that "the most important step in the progress of every science
is the measurement of quantities. Those whose curiosity is
satisfied with observing what happens have occasionally done
service by directing the attention of others to the phenomena
they have seen ; but it is to those who endeavour to find out
how much there is of anything that we owe all the great advances
in our knowledge."* Some remarkable instances of the corrosion
of cast-iron exposed to the action of water for many years have
recently been recorded in mining literature. These records,
however, are deprived of commercial value by the regrettable
fact that the work of the corrosive forces was not measured, nor
was any attempt made to measure it. One can only suspect,
without being (from these records) able to prove, that the corro-
sion-member in the rational tubbing formula may, in many cases,
represent a numerical value far greater than many people imagine
to be possible. The required data are those of measured quanti-
ties, and these must be supplied by practical men.
Mr. Isaac Hodges' Experiments, — Mr. Hodges has made a
series of experiments on tubbing which had stood in a downcast
shaft for about 50 years. t Selecting six consecutive rings of
tubbing, test-holes were drilled in every segment thereof to
determine the thicknesses. The various segments showed great
* Theory of Heat, by Prof. J. Clerk Maxwell, tenth edition, 1891, page 74.
t *'An Account of Sinking and Tubbing at Methley Junction Colliery,
with a Description of a Cast-iron Dam to resist an Outburst of Water," by Mr.
Isaac Hodges, Tram. Jrutt. M. 7i., 1906, vol. xxxii., page 78, table ii.
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576 CAST-IRON TUBBING.
differences in strength. In one particular ring, the maximnm
thickness was 1 inch; the minimum xV inch. Mr. Hodges does
not appear to state what was the original thickness, but it is
fair to assume that segments of the same ring would be originally
put in of equal thickness ; and the natural inference is that the
difference between the maximum and minimum thickness found
after 60 years was eaten away in the interval by the corrosive
agents contained in the mine-waters, on the one hand, and in the
shaft-atmosphere on the other. The difference was ^V inch.
It is practically certain that the actual maximum corrosion
was greater than ^ inch, for this figure represented merely the
difference of corrosion as between the best and the worst segments
of the ring ; and it is very certain that the least corroded seg-
ment was not actually a non-corroded plate. The actual maxi-
mum, therefore, would be equal to yV inch plus the corrosion of
the best-preserved plate in the ring. Mr. Hodges appears to have
fully appreciated this side of the problem, for on each segment
of his new tubbing he '* had the thickness cast on the inside
face in relief figures, for future reference and testing in coming
years."* It is very certain, therefore, that the maximum corro-
sion was more than t\ inch. If it be assumed that the corrosion
of the worst-preserved segment was four times as great as that
of the best-preserved segment, the maximum value will be | inch
and the minimum value ^ inch : for the difference of 4 to 1 is 3,
but the actual difference wasyV, hence, as 3:4, yV :|. Conse-
quently, the maximum corrosion effected during 50 years was
equal to | inch of solid plate, representing a rate of, say, ^ inch
per annum, that is, the corrosive agents at Methley Junction col-
liery are capable of eating away one inch of metal in a period of 67
years.
Available Data respecting Corrosion, — ^Whether the rate ob-
taining at Methley Junction colliery represents an altogether
extreme case or not is very difficult to say, as the available data
are not sufficient to entitle one to express an opinion. The
literature of iron-shipbuilding may furnish some data, but the
literature of mining appears to be altogether deficient in this
* ** An Account of Sinking and Tubbing at Methley Junction Colliery,
with a Description of a Cast-iron Dam to resist an Outburst of Water," by Mr.
Isaac Hodges, Trans. Imt. M. E., 1906, vol. xxxii., page 80.
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CAST-IEON TUBBING. 677
respect. Corrosion in steam-boilers is not analogous : for, in the
tubbing question, the temperature-factor is absent. Tables given
by Sir Guilford Molesworth* suggest that the corrosive agents
are much less energetic, but the waters there taken into account
are not mine-waters. On the other hand, the phenomena observed
on the re-opening of Hartley colliery,t after the colliery had
been drowned for 40 years, suggest that the rate of corrosion at
Methley Junction colliery may not be so great as one would
fain hope. On re-entering this historical mine at Hartley,
Mr. B. E. Omsby found that " cast-iron pipes were covered by a
thick incrustation of iron oxide, in which shale and coal were
embedded, and cast-iron tub-wheels were similarly incrusted.
Wrought-iron rails and picks and all parts of tubs made of
wrought-iron were also incrusted, but, unlike cast-iron, the
wrought-iron had been diminished in size, being partially eaten
away, while the cast-iron waa altered in its nature, and looked
like indurated clay."$ In the discussion of this paper, Prof.
R. A. S. Redmayne (the then manager of the colliery) said that
" the iron itself was completely changed : it was a« light as brown
paper, and looked like graphite."§ And he subsequently added
this very material bit of information : " The water ....
was as nearly as possible a saturated solution of salt, and it was
probably derived from the sea/'H Mr. T. E. Forster stated that
" the experience with regard to ca^t-iron was exactly the same
as they met with at "VVallsend colliery, a pit which had been
under water for about 40 years.^lT K^ow, in comparing notes, it
must be remembered that 40 years was also the measure of the
time during which Hartley colliery was drowned, and also that
the "VVallsend water cannot be derived from the sea. Hence, it
appears that similarly energetic corrosive action occurs at Hartley,
on the sea-coast, and at Wallsend, which, though not far distant
from the coast, is yet sufficiently distant to warrant the assertion
that its waters are land-waters.
* Pochet'hook of Engintering Formvlcie, twenty-third edition, 1896, page 42.
+ " The Re-opening of Hartley Colliery," by Mr. R. E. Omsby, Trans, Inst.
M, E., 1905, vol. xxix., page 657.
X Ibid,, page 600. § Ibid., page 663.
II <<An Account of Sinking and Tubbing at Methley Junction Colliery,
with a Description of a Cast-iron Dam to resist an Outburst of Water," by Mr.
Isaac Hodges, Trans. Inst, M, E,, 1906, vol. xxxii., page 95.
^ Trans, Inst. M, E., 1906, vol. xxix., page 663.
yoL, xxxin.-i906.M07. 41
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5T8 CAST-IEON TUBBING.
Mr. Sydney F. Walker s corrosion theory is so very sugges-
tive, that one cannot refrain from quoting it in this important
connection of preservation of tubbing. In the discussion on Mr.
Omsby's paper above referred to, Mr. Sydney F* Walker gave
his opinion, as an electrical engineer, " that the action of the
salt-water on the iron was an electrical one. Wrought-iron was
almost pure, and if oxygen were present in any form for which
the metal had an affinity it simply ate away the iron. In the
case of cast-iron, they had practically an alloy of iron and carbon,
the carbon being in very much greater quantity than in wrought-
iron. It must be borne in mind that time was a factor of great
importance. In this case, the lapse of time was considerable, and
he thought that in the caat-iron they would have iron and carbon
in a more or less mechanical mixture with other things. This dirt
was partly dissolved out, and they had the salt-water getting
in between the carbon and the iron, forming at once a galvanic
battery. The iron became oxidized, and other actions following
between the new substance and the carbon produced gradually
another substance which had been described as indurated clay.'**
This theory may or may not be absolutely sound, but it is at least
extraordinarily suggestive; and it certainly shows that in esti-
mating the probable corrosion of one substance in presence of
another, the *' electrical attitudes " (so to speak) of the substances
must be taken into account.
It will be admitted that the estimation of the numerical value
of n which is to be substituted in the rational formula in any given
case of practice is at present a problem of great difficulty and great
complexity ; but it is certainly the only rational solution of the
tubbing difficulty, so far as the allowance for waste is concerned.
What then can be done ? The immediate duty is certainly plain :
it is to set about and find the practical data relating to the case ;
and if they cannot be found ready-made, they must be made.
For example, it would add to the value of Mr. Hodges' already
valuable work, if he now furnished a more detailed descrip-
tion of the exact nature of the 113 grains of solid matter per gallon
and other insidious impurities contained in the water of the
Methley Junction shafts.t And, if Mr. Ornsby, and other
* Trans, Inst, M, E., 1905, vol. xxix., page 654.
t ** An Account of Sinking and Tubbing at Methley Junction Colliery,
with a Description of a Cast-iron Dam to resist an Outburst of Water," by l/Sx,
Isaac Hodges, Trans, Inst, M, E,, 1906, vol. xxxii., page 95.
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CAST-IEON TUBBING. 679
engineers with similar opportunities, would institute at other col-
lieries experiments similar to those undertaken by Mr. Hodges,
very soon a mass of data might be tabulated for general reference.
Such tabulated results might include : (1) the name of the col-
liery, (2) the name of the experimenter, (3) an analysis of the shaft-
water, (4) an analysis of the return-air, (5) the quality of iron
composing the tubbing, (6) the nature of the strata in the shaft,
and (7) the amount of corrosion proved to have taken place during
X years. The value of this tabulation for general reference is too
obvious to need any illustration.
The Effect of a Back Lining, — ^Where the con*osive agents are
as active as those at Methley Junction colliery, the allowance for
waste alone would require to be li inches, if the tubbed shaft were
required to stand 100 years. In such a case, the engineer might
decide to use a lesser thickness of metal, and back it with a lining
of some material that was supposed to be able effectually to pre-
vent the water from making actual contact with the metal, al-
though the tubbing, of course, would ultimately take the whole
pressure. In that case, the value of - would, numerically, be zero,
or nearly so, since the waate would now be limited to the weather-
ing of the concave surface in the shaft-atmosphere and the mech-
anical wear-and-tear, whatever that shadowy entity may be.
Nevertheless, it is questionable whether so perfectly efficient a
backing material really exists. Such a material, it is plain, must
not itself be corrosive; it must not be porous under pressure,
neither must it be liable to crack by reason of slight earth-tremors
due to the radiative draw of the strata towards the more or less dis-
tant goaves of the mine, or towards the depressions left by running
sands contained, maybe, in the circumjacent strata. Such a per-
fect material may possibly exist ; it may even be available : so
much the better if it is, but opinions seem to differ on the point.
As an illustration of apparently divergent views, two recent prac-
tical examples may be cited.
(1) When Mr. W. 0. Wood re-tubbed the middle pit at Mur-
ton colliery, he backed the new tubbing with a lining of carefully
prepared cement-concrete. He lays emphasis on the fact that the
materials were carefully prepared ; and he thinks, that with this
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580 CAST-IEON TUBBING.
lining to resist it, the water can have no effect on the new
tubbing.*
(2) On the other I^and, when Mr. Hodges re-tubbed the Meth-
ley Junction shaft, he coated each separate piece of metal with
Dr. Angus Smith's composition, and afterwards backedthe joined-
up tubbing with concrete (whether or not that was prepared with
extra care he does not say) ; but, after doing all this, he placed so
little confidence in the efficiency of the arrangement to prevent
corrosion that he allowed, over and above the thickness due to
the pressure, an additional thickness of metal amounting to W
inch, all the way down, to cover the risk of corrosion. Mr. Hodges
does not state the fact in so many words, but an examination
of Table Vl.t shows that the various thicknesses of tubbing at
various depths of his 10 to 11 feet shaft agree absolutely with the
following formula : —
T=:l-+ -5-
16 820 '
where T is the thickness of the tubbing in inches ; and H, the
height of the tubbing in feet.
Possibly Mr. Wood's cement was the more elaborately pre-
pared of the two, and whether it will have a correspondingly
greater efficiency remains to be seen. The two cases show a wide
difference of views, as to whether a concrete-lining can really be
depended upon to prevent the water from ultimately finding its
way to the metal bej^ond. And if there be any doubt on the matter,
then, until further data are forthcoming, the only course which is
obviously safe in any particular application of the formula is to
disregard the lining in its supposed office as an impenetrable bar-
rier, and to give - the same numerical value as it would naturally
receive if the lining were known to be porous, cracked, or other-
wise inefficient.
Synopsis. — The first member of the rational tubbing rule, the
extra thickness of the tubbing required to allow for waste, is : —
• «* The Re- tubbing of the Middle Pit, Murton Colliery, 1903," by Mr. W.
O. Wood. Tram, Iiist, M, E,, 1904, vol. xxvu., page 204.
t "An Account of Sinking and Tubbing at Methley Junctioa Collierj,
with a Description of a Cast-iron Dam to resist an Outburst of Water," by Mir.
Isaac Hodj;es, Trans, Inst. M. E., 1906, vol. xxxii., page 96.
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CAST-IEOI^ TtJBBING. 581
ti = - inches,
n
where ^i = T — ^a5 where ^a agiin is the normal thickness required
by the proper pressure.
Whatever difficulty may occur in any given case of practice,
with regard to substituting in the formulsB the locally correct
numerical value of n, clearly arises from the lack of practical data
such as practical engineers alone can supply, but such, however,
as practical engineers are also well able to furnish if they care to
put themselves to trouble for the gfeneral good. Before passing to
the consideration of the rational value of t^y the writer will briefly
recapitulate the argument relating to the case of t^. It is perfectly
clear, therefore, that : — (1) The rational value of t^ is not a numer-
ical constant applying to all cases alike. (2) In the present state of
knowledge the onlj^ possible rational value of ^i is -. (3) The only
71
difficulty in applying this value in practice arises from a lack of
the necessary data. (4) The necessary data can be supplied only
by practical engineers from their united experiences. (5) Practical
engineers are well able to furnish the required data. And (6) if (1),
(2), (3), (4), and (5) are true, it must also be true that - is an access-
ible and get-at-able value of ^j, susceptible of employment in
practice, as well as the only rational value consistent with known
facts.
Tfie PressuTe-mernber of the Rational Formula. —The next step
is to substitute in equation (1) the value of t^ given by thfe equation
(2), and obtain : —
T=^ + / (3)
n
and ^2 is the pressure-member of the rational formula. The suc-
ceeding step is to seek the rational factors of ^a-
The completed tubbing in a mine shaft may be practically
defined as a vertical cylinder, subjected to external pressure
exerted horizontally. Each separate ring of tubbing may be
legitimately conceived to form a complete cylinder in itself, sus-
taining a pressure greater than that on the ring above and less
than that on the ring below. The connections of the ring with the
rings immediately above and below it serve the purpose of more
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CAST-IEON TUBBING.
certainly assuring the rigidity of its two ends — an important con-
sideration in any problem dealing with the strength of such cylin-
ders as those under investigation. The cylinder, then, is a cylinder
with rigid ends. The writer will use the following definitions : —
The "cylinder'' is any given ring of tubbing ; the "column of tub-
bing " is the whole height of the completed tubbing ; and a "given
perimeter " is the perimeter of the tubbing in any given horizontal
plane.
Since any structure is no stronger than its weakest part, it is
evident that t^ is the least thickness required in the cylinder, in
view of the pressure which it is called upon to resist. It is the
effective thickness ; indeed, all the three members of equation (1)
must be understood as representing in each case the effective
minimum : of the total thickness T, of the corrosion member t^
and of the pressure-member ^a- No rational formula will contain
a plus numerical constant to provide against imperfect castings ;
for that provision must be made by the practical engineer on the
spot, and the quantity of allowance must depend on the local cir-
cumstances of the case, and on the nature of the iron-founders'
guarantees. When the theorist states that J inch or thereabouts
must be allowed for imperfections in the castings, he is exceeding
his duty as a theorist, and usurping the office of the practical
engineer, who is placed in charge of the local case in order to deter-
mine, jfor that particular case, the proper numerical value of this
" thereabouts " and other varying quantities. Therefore, in this
section of the investigation, <2 is the effective thickness, and it is
the concern of the practical engineer to see that the difference
between the effective thickness and the apparent thickness is as
precise as safety and economy will permit.
Whatever rational tubbing formula may be held to apply,
it must proceed on the assumption that the perimeter is origin-
ally a circle, whatever shape it may ultimately possess. No one
formula can rationally apply to a thousand-and-one ill-defined
shapes, which, in the first instance itself, can only be described as
approximately circular. Here, again ^ the theorist must not
exceed his limits ; he may build up his rational formula on the
assumption that the tubbing is circular, but it is the concern of
the practical engineer to see that it is actually circular, just as
much as it is his place to see that the whole column is set plumb.
The rational f ormtda for ^a can apply only to normal cases :
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CASt-lEON TUBBING.
588
a shaft passing through, water-bearing strata is a normal case,
even though the water-bearing strata contain beds of quicksand
at great depths from the surface : for the statical pressure of the
sand and water can be calculated beforehand, and their wearing
effect on the metal can be provided against beforehand. But, if
the quicksand afterwards flows away from the shaft, leaving a
large cavity of wide area behind the tubbing (and such cases are
not unknown), the case then ceases to be normal. For the lia-
bility of the roof of the cavity to fall and (by means of the re-
maining sand and water) transmit its kinetic energy in force
against the tubbing, opens up abnormal possibilities the full mea-
sure of which cannot be calculated beforehand. And, therefore,
the strength of the tubbing required to withstand successfully the
abnormal onslaught cannot be calculated beforehand. Neither
can any rational formula be framed such as would define the
dimensions of efficient tubbing to be placed in a shaft, which is
thereafter straightway undermined and shattered by the removing
of coal that ought properly to form part of the necessary shaft-
pillar.
So far as the factors of t^ are concerned, all the current
formulas known to the writer are crushing formulae. And so far,
probably, as most engineers who have examined these rules are
concerned, the present question (apart from that of t^) is whether
any one of these rules is a crushing formula rationally applicable
to the normal tubbing case. But in the opening paragraph of
this paper, Mr. Charles Pilkington is quoted to the effect that
current formulae are untrustworthy, by reason of the fact that
they pay little attention to the depth and pitch of the flanges
and ribs. This criticism evidently raises the previous question as
to whether any simple cioishing formula whatever is capable of
supplying a rule rationally applicable to the tubbing case. It
is herein implied that a really rational formula must take ac-
count of the ribs and flanges : that it must deal with the stiffness
of the tubbing, and, therefore, with the resistance of the cylinder
to collapse. Hence, it seems to be implied that, with regard tp
^2, the rational formula is not one of simple crushing, but of
combined crushing and bending: in short, that it is a collapse
formula after the model, presuniably, of Sir William Fairbaim's
well-known rule relating to furnace-tubes in boilers — modifica-
tions of which rule have been from time to time proposed by
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584 CAST-lEOI^ TUBBING.
various authorities; amongst whom may be mentioned Messrs.
W. C. Unwin, A. F. Seaton, M. Longridge, and even the Board
of Trade. This, then, is the previous question demanding to be
considered: Is the rational formula for t^ a simple crushing
formula? Or, is it a collapse formula which determines the stiff-
ness of the tubbing as set forth in the depth and pitch of the
various ribs and flanges ?
Collapse versus Crushing/, — The question, just raised, natur-
ally resolves itself into three distinct queries, namely: — (1)
Whether, in the normal tubbing case, the factors of collapse are
present; (2) if present at all, to what extent they are effective;
and (3) to what extent it is necessary in a rational tubbing formula
to take those factors of collapse into account.
It is necessary to ascertain what external factors of collapse
are present. It is known that all arches are liable to collapse,
if the various thrusts at various points of the curve are not
opposed by their various proportional resistances. And, looking
at the case in this very general way, it might at first sight be
supposed that the tubbing is safe against collapse. For, at all
points in a given perimeter, the thrusts, in the ordinary tubbing
case, are equal to the degree of ideality. Generally, the pressure
is almost entirely a fluid pressure, and fluids exert equal pressure
in all directions at any given horizontal plane in the fluid. And
if, in addition to the fluid pressure, there are other pressures on
the tubbing, these also are calculated from a common horizontal
datum plane directly above the horizontal plane in which the
given perimeter is contained. Then, since all the pressures on
the given perimeter are equal, and since t^ is of the same value all
round the perimeter, it is not easy to see how collapse can occur
so long as ^a is large enough to provide against the simple
crushing stress. For collapse is the result of bending, and there
appears to be little liability of bending where the whole system
of pressures is so excellently adjusted.
There is another standpoint, however, from which the ques-
tion may be argued : instead of a masonry arch, consider a furnace-
tube within a steam-boiler of the Cornish or of the Lancashire
type. Here the liability to collapse arises from the unequal
expansion of the tube induced by unequal temperatures over
various portions of it. Unless sufficiently stiffened by flanges,
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CAST-IAOI^ TUBBlJ^G. 686
hoope, or corrugations, the tube will collapse; for the effect
of the unequal expansion is to transform the originally cylin-
drical tube into a sub-cylinder. This departure from circu-
larity invites collapse, and is, indeed, the invariable antecedent
of collapse. But in the normal (and modem) tubbing case, the
temperatures obtaining around the whole length of any given
perimeter are equal temperatures (since the aaitiquated custom
of bratticing a single shaft into intake and return air-compart-
ments no longer obtains). Hence, the pressures being equal, and
the temperatures being uniform at all points of the perimeter, the
circular tubbing has no cause to depart from its originally circu-
lar form, and, therefore, there is little occasion to fear that it
may perish "by collapse.
It will be advisable to analyse this position a little more
minutely, since the object now is to fix and define the precise
significance of the ribs and flanges of the tubbing ; and the argu-
ment of the two preceding paragraphs may be considered from
yet another standpoint. Take the case of what the engineer calls
" long columns." These are liable, as is well known, to perish
by collapse long before simple crushing-stress limits are reached.
At first sight it seems a far cry from rings of tubbing and furnace-
tubes to long columns ; but there is an intimate analogy between
the two problems, as Prof. Unwin has pointed out.* In fact, the
following argument on the tubbing case presented itself to the
writer after he had studied Prof. XJnwin's position on the problem
of furnace-tubes and provision against their collapse. The
argument, therefore, is hardly to be described as original to any
notable degree ; but it has at least the merit of being absolutely
simple to understand, in addition to the merit of being scientific-
ally sound*
A " long column " is defined as one the height of which, A, is x
diameters, or more ; and its office is to transmit a compressive
stress through the path h without relying on lateral support. If the
column be subjected to increasing stresses, it begins to bend as if
it were a beam supported at both ends and loaded normally to
its length, and finally collapses with more or less abruptness,
although the crushing stress proper to the material has not been
reached.
• Elements qf Machine. Design^ by Prof. W. C. Unwin, thirteenth edition,
1892, vol. L, pages 82 to 84.
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586 CAST-ntON TUBBING.
Suppose a column, then, the length of which A = .2^; testing it
with gradually increasing loads, it ultimately snaps at, say, the
half-height, under a load much below crushing limits. It is
evident that sufficient lateral support at the half-height would
have prevented collapse under the same load. The long column
would, in that case, have sustained a greater load, and might,
under this greater load, have collapsed at the quarter-height, or
at the three-quarters-height, or at both. But sufficient lateral
support at these heights, again, would prevent collapse even there :
although still greater loads would produce collapse at intermediate
points, such as the ^th, fth, fth, and |th-heights. Continuing the
investigation, the conclusion follows that if sufficient lateral sup-
port be given to the long column at x equal intervals of its length,
the long column, in the technical sense, ceases to exist, but in place
thereof there are x little columns, in each of which the height
is equal to the diameter. The safe stress on each of these little
columns is obviously equal to the safe crushing stress of the
material, and each of these little columns is therefore absolutely
free from risk of collapse. It is not, of course, herein implied
that crushing formulae cannot be relied on till d=h: it is merely
desired here to depend on data of the reliability of which there can
be no possible question. Consequently, in the case of long columns,
the risk of collapse arises solely from the absence of lateral
support. But what is the mechanical nature of that entity, the
" lateral support *' ? It is a system of pressures properly
balanced, or, rather, it is an essential part of such a system. The
ideal system in, say, the case of long columns, is realized, if the
forces which strive to prevent bending are equal to the forces
which strive to effect the bending of the column. In that case,
there would be no bending at all, and no possibility of collapse-
Now this ideal state of balance, so far as external mechanical
forces are concerned, is as nearly as possible the actual position
in the normal tubbing case. The perimeter being circular, every
line of pressure thereon is represented by a common numerical
measure. Each individual line of pressure on each individual
point in the perimeter is a bending force, and each is met by
another line of equal magnitude which resists the bending force
exerted by the first line. In other words, all the lines of pres-
sure are those of compressional force, and every individual line
of compressional force is the lateral support of an equal line of
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CAST-IEON TUBBING. 587
compressional force at right angles. The student can easily
demonstrate the soundness of this view by drawing a series of
figures, of which the first steps are shown below.
In the case of the long column, without lateral support, it
fails by collapse at some point in its length ; and with lateral
support at various intervals, something very like collapse may
occur at points intermediate between the points of lateral sup-
port. The case of the circular ring is strictly analogous, when
the pressure is external and normal to the perimeter. Let ahab
(fig. 1, plate xxiii.) be a homogeneous ring of uniform thickness,
and let it receive sufficiently severe stresses (or excesses of stress
over the average stress) on two opposite points, a and a, in the
circumference. Then the stresses will tend to depress the ring
at a and a. But since depressions at a and a can be effected only
on the condition that some other pointa in the ring axe bulged, this
bulging may be supposed to take place at b and &, and the
ultimate result is the collapse of the ring. If the ring be made
of some moderately pliable material, as wrought-iron, the final
form of the collapsed ring may be something like that shown in
fig. 2 ; whilst, if the ring be brittle like cast-iron, fig. 3 might •
represent the ring at the instant of collapse.
•If, in order to supply sufficient lateral support to prevent the
bulging at b and b, the pressures on those points are increased
until they are equal to the pressures on a and a, then the ring
will be depressed by. the pressures at b and 6, as well as by the
pressures at a and a ; but it will now bulge at c, c, c, and c, as shown
in figs. 4 and 5. Thus, taking the case of the brittle metal, two
opposite pressures 180 degrees apart break the ring into arcs of
90 degrees ; four equal pressures on points 90 degrees apart break
up the ring into arcs of 45 degrees ; and so on to the end of the
chapter, when, covering all the points in the ring with equal and
sufficient pressures, the ring breaks up into infinitesimally small
fragments. But, when the number of fragments increases to
infinity, it is evident that the associated phenomena. are then no
longer those of collapse, but those of simple crushing. It is
obvious, therefore, that whatever the depth and pitch of any stiff-
ening ribs or flanges that may be employed, the collapsing pres-
sure can never exceed the limits imposed by the crushing pres-
sure. Hence, the Board of Trade lays it down as aji axiom that
whatever the pressure deducible from and allowable by any col-
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688 CAST-lKON TUBBING.
lapse formula (even if that foiinula eoustitutes the official rule of
the Board of Trade), the actual pressure shall not in any case ex-
ceed that allowed by the " limiting formula " (as it is called),
which limiting formula is found, on examination, to be a simple
crushing formula. This pronouncement of the Board of Trade
applies to furnace-tubes, but it is manifest from what has been
said that it has a general application to all tubes pressed
externally.
It is .perfectly clear, however, that uniform pressure all round
the perimeter means lateral support all along the " long column "
which the circular perimeter represents ; and this particular stage
may be concluded by saying that a circular tube of homogeneous
material and uniform thickness, surrounded by equal pressures
and equal temperatures on all points of any given perimeter, must
fail, if it fails at all, by simple crushing and not by collapse.*
It appears, therefore, that in the normal tubbing case, and
with the single exception of corrosion, already provided for, the
usual external factors such as those which produce the collapse
of an arch, or of a boiler-furnace tube, have no practical existence.
. Then to what purpose are the usual ribs and flanges cast on ordin-
ary tubbing-plates? The purpose is very clear. (1) The first
office of the flanges is to provide a cylinder with rigid ends. As
shafts, and, therefore, tubbing rings, must be left open, the ring
is a cylinder with open ends; and open ends are evidently weak
ends, unless the rigidity associated naturally with closed ends is
secured by other means. In the tubbing case, the necessary
rigidity is secured by casting the cylinder with end-flanges. A
further purpose served by the flanges is that of facilitating the
accurate joining-up of the various segments and rings in a single
structure, and thus more surely securing the stability (as di3tinct
from the mere strength) of the completed column. It will be
seen, therefore, apart from any question of collapse-risk in the
ordinary sense, that the flanges are necessary for structural pur-
* Prof. W. C. Unwin considers the number of segments or lobes found in a
collapsed tube as functions of the ratio -r where I is the length, and d the diameter
of,
of the tube. The writer has considered them as functions of the distribution of
pressures. The difference of these two standpoints, however, is more apparent
than real, since it could, if necessary, be easily shown that the distribution of the
efifective pressures is itself, in some measure, a quantity that depends on the value
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CAST-IRON TUBBING. 589
poses, just as flanges are necessarily cast on the various pieces of
the rising main, where collapse is altogether out of the question ;
since, in this latter case, the strain on the tube is due to a tensile
stress. (2) However, in the case of the ribs, the clear presump-
tion is that whoever first initiated the practice of casting the
segments with ribs must have had the risk of collapse present to
his mind. And, indeed, it would have been curious if the grand
old engineers of British mining had lived through their whole
strenuous liv^ without ever having once apprehended the possi-
bility of their long tubbing columns perishing by collapse. It is
said, of course, that their formulae pay no attention to the ribs
and flanges. Quite so : but the design of the specimens of tub-
bing bequeathed by them bears silent but effective witness to the
fact that these grand old men knew all about it. Therefore,
they designed their long tubbing columns in precisely the same
way as that in which mechanical engineers have since learned to
design their long furnace-tubes in steam-boilers. They built up
their long columns on the principle that the effective length
divided by the effective thickness was equal to a comparatively
small ratio. They might have realized this (then) new theory by
increasing the effective thickness only, in which case the effective
length would have been measured by the total height of a whole
column of what is now called ** shell " tubbing. But, instead of
this, they reduced the effective length by building up the column
in a series of short cylinders having rigid ends ; and the effec-
tive lengthy became straightway equal to the distance separating
each pair of stiffening rings, whether such rings be called ribs
or flanges.* To this end, the late Mr. Greenwell proposed his
practical tubbing formula (so the writer understands) as being
applicable when the height of the segments does not exceed 2
feet, with, presumably, a horizontal rib at half depth. That is to
say, his formula is not guaranteed to be perfectly safe, unless the
" rigid ends " are within one foot of each other. And it may
be asserted without hesitation that wherever furnace-tubes in
steam boilers are so designed that the ratio of effective length to
effective thickness is a ratio so small as even to approximate to the
value seen in ordinary tubbed shafts, no collapse formula will
• Similarly, to-day, the effective length of a furnace-tube in a steam-boiler is
simply the distance between each pair of *' rigid ends," whether such rigid ends be
CfkUed flanks, hoops, rings, or corrugations.
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*^PPly ; *^d> ill such a case, the only safe rule for the allowable
working pressure is the ** limiting " formula, which is the formula
of simple crushing. It must be noted, moreover, that, a^ com-
pared with rings of tubbing, the furnace-tube is subjected to
conditions which are inmieasurably the more severe.
What, then, in the tubbing case, are the actual collapse-
factors against which these ribs make provision ? So far as the
writer can see, there are but two of them. The first has its birth
in the difficulty of securing the perfect circularity of the tub-
bing, although there is really no reason why the departure there-
from should be other than infinitesimal. A circle, no doubt, is a
plane figure the shape of which is perfect ; casting methods, on the
other hand, are not perfect, but the departure from circularity dur-
ing careful casting should not be so large as to make the collapse-
risk appreciable. It is the concern of the practical engineer-in-
charge to see that his specifications in this direction are duly
adhered to by the founders. If he cannot reasonably demand
perfection, he can at least insist on the minimum of error.
Against the slight collapse-risk due to such a small deviation from
circularity, the ordinary design of cast-iron tubbing is absolutely
efficient — almost ridiculously so : it is like sending a whole regi-
ment of soldiery against a boy throwing stones.
The other factor of possible collapse is one created by the
practical engineer : it arises from improper methods which may be,
and often are, employed in setting-up the tubbing. If the
founders fail to secure perfect circularity in the casting of the
metal, the average practical sinker may be trusted to magnify
the error as much as possible in the setting-up of the various
pieces in their permanent positions. Wedging the tubbing into
positions which the casting imperfections object to, or which
previous errors in setting-up now render untenable, is a very
pretty process to watch, so long as one doee not appreciate what
it all means. One of the " bafp-ends " wedged in behind a refrac-
tory segment may exert a local pressure greater than that ever
to be sustained by any other segment in the ring, and greater,
perhaps, than that which any segment in the whole column
was ever designed to resist. The effect of this (especially if the
interspaces between these murderous ** baff-ends *' be merely filled
in with loose material) is to further impair the circularity of the
arch at each ring, and to destroy the symmetrical arrangement
CAST-ntON TUBBING. 591
of the pressures on the column as a whole. Then comes the wedg-
ing of the various vertical joints, the wedges being driven from
the itiner surface of the arch : wooden wedges so long as they
can be entered with the assistance of a chisel, and iron wedges
afterwards until no more can be driven in. If the tubbing still
stands after all these desperate attempts to unkey the whole arch,
the job is complete, and is then considered satisfactory, and with
apparently good reason. For one would naturally suppose that
if the arch stands up against all these wedges and " baff-ends,"
it will thereafter stand up against anything else that may, in
the future, be arrayed against it. This wedging business is about
the onl^ appreciable factor that may ultimately invite the collapse
of the cast-iron arch. Such a method is not worthy of imitation
in this twentieth century, and, what is more to the point, it is not
a method that anyone is obliged to employ.
In order to prove the soundness of this argument, it suffices
to look at the practical way in which some engineers have im-
proved on the methods above described. For example, in the
re-tubbing of the middle pit at Murton colliery,* Mr. W. 0. Wood
seems to have thrown all the old tubbing traditions to the four
winds, clearly showing that the rule-of- thumb engineer may soodl
be superseded by the hitherto despised man of theory. The fol-
lowitlg are points in Mr. Wood's paper: — (1) The tubbing was
specially designed to suit the conditions ; (2) the metal used was
of special quality and according to specification ; (3) none of the
usual jointing material was used ; (4) the joints were machine-
planed, so as to make a perfect vertical joint, and then bolted
firmly together into a complete ring ; (5) the ring thus formed was
placed on the face-plate of a special lathe, and both horizontal
flanges properly faced to gauge ; (6) all these perfect fits being
• made in the first instance and on the surface, every separate seg-
ment and every complete ring was so numbered or marked as to
come into its proper place in the shaft ; and (7) in Mr. Wood's
paper nothing is written about '* baff-ends " or other atrocious
methods of destroying the natural and necessary equilibrium of
pressures on each ring, but, instead, it is stated that as each ring
of tubbing was placed in position, it was rammed solid behind with
cement-concrete. The above forms a summary of the details of
* " The Re-tubbinK of the Middle Pit, Murton Colliery, 1903," by Mr. W,
0, Wood, Trans, Inst, M, E.^ 1904, vol. xxvii., page 197,
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CAST-IRON TUBBING.
Mr. W. 0. Wood's method of fixing the tubbing; but there are
probably few engineers who have as yet adequately appreciated
what an immense advance it constitutes on the older method pre-
viously described. The collapse of tubbing designed on the
ordinary plan and built up on Mr. Wood's lines is absolutely out
of the question, provided that the allowance for corrosion be suffi-
cient.
Enough has been said, however, to prove that the supposed col-
lapse-risk is, or may be made, practically non-existent. In any
ordinary case, with any ordinary style of tubbing, the stiffness
is sufficiently conspicuous to bring the tubbing cylinder within
the jurisdiction of the " limiting " formula, and that is so because
no possible stiffening can ever extend the collapsing pressure
beyond the limits of the crushing pressure.
But it may be asked : Do not the pitch and depth of the ribs
and flanges affect the crushing strength in its totality P Do they
not add to the area of metal resisting the crushing stress ? Do
they not diminish the intensity of the stress ? And may not there-
fore the safe numerical value of t^ be taken at something less than
it would be if the ribs and flanges were not there? The answer
is both " yes " and *' no/* as there is a little fallacy here at which
one may stumble into error. The ribs, etc., add to the stiffness only
without adding anything to the strength of the structure. Their
object is merely to impart stability or equilibrium. The rib may
even aifect the strength adversely, in the same way as surplus
material does in other structures: the stress concentrates itself
on the weakest part. On the other hand, it is certainly true that
if the ribs and flanges were absent in any tubbing column of
appreciable height, ^a would require to be greater, because the
want of stiffness would create a state of unstable equilibrium, and
in that case, being no longer able to count upon the normal crush-
ing strength of the material, the lesser crushing strength must be
compensated by the greater area of crushing resistance in ^a- But
having put on ribs, or stiffening hoops, in sufficient number to
restore equilibrium, and the normal crushing strength being re-
stored, no additional stiffening can ever justify anyone in count-
ing upon more than that.
Therefore, it is herein concluded that, so long as tubbing plates
of the ordinary design are employed, and so long as moderately
careful methods of setting up are practised, the only rational
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CAST-IBON TUBBING. 598
formula for t^ is one based on the laws of simple crushing. In
what follows, any idea of collapse-risk is ignored, and any idea
implying that the surplus material in ribs and flanges adds to
the natural crushing strength of the tubbing is also ignored as
untenable.
Crushing Formula for " Thin " Cylinders. — ^For all structures
the rational formula consistent with safety and economy alike is
that the total pressure equals the total resistance. If a cylin-
der be one inch long and very thin, it is practically true that : —
pd = 2/t . . . (4)
where p is the pressure in pounds per square inch; f the safe
stress in pounds per square inch ; d, the internal diameter of the
cylinder in inches ; and t, the thickness of the cylinder in inches.
For pd is the total pressure acting at right angles to any given
diameter, and 2 ft is the total resistance : since there are t inches
of metal at each end of the given diameter, or 2 ^ inches in all,
each inch being capable of resisting a stress of f pounds per square
inch. And, if ^ be very small in comparsion with d, it is not,
perhaps, of practical moment whether p act on the internal or
on the external surface of the cylinder, provided that f be. taken
as the tensile strength in the one case, and as the compressive
strength in the other. Still, it is quite clear that the projected
area of an internal pressure can be truly denoted only by d ; and
it is equally clear that the projected area of an external pressure
can be truly denoted only by D, the external diameter of the
cylinder. Moreover, it is just as obvious that there is no real
reason why calculations in formulse should be based upon a total
pressure pd if the actual total pressure in the concrete is pD. In
th ) tubbing case, the projected area of the pressure is always and
necessarily D, yet most of the current tubbing formulsB persist
in stating it as d, without any qualifying coefficient of compensa-
tion whatsoever.
But, if the tubbing cylinder be considered simply as a " thin "
tube the thickness of which varies directly as the total pressure,
when d is constant, its rational formula can only be written as : —
pj)=2ft. . . '. . . (5)
and tx will be greater than the thickness t in the equation (4) by
a measurable amount.
But as D, in many cases, cannot be known until t^ is known,
YOL. XXXIII.-1908.1W. ^^
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694 CAST-IBOX TUBBING.
the equation (5) may be reduced to terms of d. Then, if R be
the external radius in inches, R equals r + ^« where r is the in-
ternal radius of the cylinder, and D equals 2 R ; then, by the equa-
tion (5): —
therefore,
and.
2ff^=2pr-\-2pf^y
It will be noted that this is really Mr. Atkinson's formula for T,
the total thickness of the tubbing. Hence Mr. Atkinson's would
bo a rational tubbing formula if t^ t^ and T were equal values.
But they reduce to practically equal values, only when the tubbing
is a '' thin " cylinder in the technical sense, and a " thin " cylin-
der, moreover, not liable to con^osion by shaft-waters.
Comparing equations (4) and (5a) it will be seen that
^=^; and that/. =^ . . . (6>
f R
Thus j^ is an identity of -^, which may be used in formulae before
the values of R and tx are determined. (See Appendix III.)
Definition of a *' Thin " Cylinder. — A " thin " cylinder is
usually defined as one where t is small in comparison with d. But
such a definition merely hides the indefinite quantity " thin "
behind the equally indefinite quantity " small/' The more
practical definition of a thin cylinder is that it is one so thin
that the error contained in the formula (4) is so small as not
to be of practical moment. For, after all, the equation (4) does
proceed on an assumption which is not absolutely sound. But,
if the practical engineer is to appreciate the fact that the error
is unimportant, he can do so only by first ascertaining its mag-
nitude. And, to ascertain this, he must refer to the formulae of
so-called " thick '' cylinders. But the formulae of thick cylinders,
let it be noted, are the formulae of all cylinders, thick or thin,
which are subjected to direct tensile or direct compressive strain^.
As a matter of fact, there are, in actual practice, no " thin " cylin
ders, for all have an appreciable thickness, through which the
stress varies from film to film, a fact which the equations (4) and
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I
CAST-IRON TUBBING. 695
(5) entirely ignore. Then why not refer at the outset to the
ease of " thick " cylinders, that is to say, to the general ca^e of
all cylinders, and have done at once and forever with such lame
makeshifts as those constituted by the equations (4) and (5) ?
The General Case of all Cylinders, — The rational formula has
been defined as one which is consistent with the present state of
knowledge. That state is not by any means perfect — far from
it — but it is at least more advanced than the general and constant
harking back to such rules as the equation (4) would seem to
evidence. And it is simply rational to bring practice into line
with the best theory, rather than to base it on any which is worse
than the best.
Now, it is known (1) that the pressure being constant, the
thickness of a cylinder is required to vaiy directly as the projected
area of pressure ; and (2) it is well within the present state of know-
ledge that, the projected area being constant, the thickness is
required to vary rather faster than the intensity of the pressure.
The writer desires to emphasize this second statement, since it
has recently been attempted to teach that the thickness need not
increase even as fast as the pressure p increases.* Just precisely
how much faster t should vary than p is, as yet, a matter of some
little uncertainty ; but formulae constructed on those lines (some
derived from theory and some from experiment) show a remark-
able measure of agreement. Four of these rules may be quoted
and compared. No doubt they are a little cumbrous to manipu-
late, but the present writer intends to submit a practical and much
more simple rule that will give the same results within limits that
cover the whole of the tubbing problem. For purposes of com-
parison, all the formulae will be reduced to similar symbols,
namely, R, r, p, t„ and f as already defined, f being the safe com-
pressive stress. It is assumed that tx and R are the unknown
quantities, and that r, p, and f are known. Some of the formulae
are stated originally for an internal pressure p acting on a pro-
jected area equal to d, and these will be practically equated to the
opposite case of an external pressure acting on D by putting f = ^
compressive stress, and t^ = t multiplied by f and divided by (f-p).
(For direct formula, see Appendix III.)
♦ ** The Thickness of Cast-iron Tubbing," by Mr. T. A. O'Donahue, The
Colliery Guardian, 1905, vol. xc, page 314.
i
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Aldis,* and may be stated thus : —
Il=rx a// (A)
f-2p
and, 4=R— r.
General Formula (B).— This is due to Prof. Grashof, and is
stated by Prof. TJnwint from the standpoint of a bursting pres-
sure. Equating the rule to the greater area projected on D, and
putting f=the compressive stress, it follows that : —
General Formula (C). — This is given by Prof. Andrew Jamie-
son,J and he states it as a bursting formula. Equated to the
tubbing case, it becomes : —
w.[i+^]=,4-, . . . ■ (0
from which ^^ is easily found. It will be noted that the logarithm
is hyperbolic. If common logarithms are employed, the formula
becomes : —
where M = 0'43429+ .. = the modulus of common logarithms.
General Formula (D). — This rule is due to Prof. Lam^, and is
quoted by Prof. W. Lineham§ as an internal-pressure formula.
Equating again to the external pressure, projected on the larger
diameter D, the rule becomes : —
'.=^,[-lVg] . . . . (D)
In all these formulsB, thus stated, ^ in the general case corres-
ponds to ^a in the tubbing case, as per equation (3).
* ** On Internal Stress in Cylindrical and Spherical Dams," by Prof. W.
Steadman Aldis, Traris. N. E. Inst,, 1883, vol. xxxii., page 201.
t Elements of Machine Design, by Prof. W. C. Unwin, thirteenth edition,
]8d2, vol. i., page 48.
X Text-hook of Applied Mechanics, by Prof. Andrew Jamieson, second
edition, 1900, vol. ii., page 248.
§ Text-hook of Mechanical Engineering, by Prof. W. Lineham, second
edition, 1895, page 399.
Now, all I
able agreem
specific refei :
formidable i
writer kalf ( |
stated. Not
that would c ;
tainly believ
portion of tl
included.
A Simph I
covered by tl
prizes all case
greater than
hand, will pn i
Olf. It seer i
metal, and a 1
1,000 pounds
the writer is i i
practice. A i
no instance \ '.
the safe stress i
to the entire ' i
of ^a is conce:
tubbing formT
for ^a obtainec
equations (A)
In Table I
formulae lettei
▼alues of ^a g
by ordinary c
(4). The firs
Bures, p, met i?
site each pressi
ous values of i
the lettered g
and the irratic
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to minimize the number of decimal places, whilst at the same time
displaying the values to three significant figures, it has been
assumed that in all cases the numerical value of r is 100
(inches), corresponding to an internal diameter of from 16 to 17
feet. If columns 6 and 7 be carefully compared, it will
be seen that in no instance, from f = 10p to f=200p, do the results
of these two columns of thicknesses differ by so much as i per cent.
Table I.— Thickkbss of Tubbing for Shaft, 100 Inches in
Internal Radius.
Thicknesses of Tubbing by the General Formulas of Cylinders.
Thickness
Thickne«8
by the
Equation (4),
the Ordinaiy
Rule.
Value of
p.
of Tubbing
by the
Equation (7).
Inches.
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
Mean.
Inches.
Inches.
Inches
Inches.
Inches.
iDchei.
/+200
0-504
0-505
0-504
0-504
0-504
0-504
0-500 '
/-^150
0-675
0-674
0-673
0-674
0-674
0-674
0-667 ,
/H-lOO
1-015
1-017
1-015
1-015
1-016
1016
1000 1
/-*- 90
1130
M30
1-130
1-130
1-130
1-131
1-111 1
/+ 80
1-270
1-280
1-270
1-270
1-273
1-276
1-250
/+ 70
1-460
1-470
1-450
1-460
1-460
1-462
1-429
/+ 60
1-710
1-720
1-710
1-710
1-713
1-712
1-667
/+ 50
2-050
2-080
2-060
2060
2063
2 066
2-000
/+ 40
2-600
2-620
2-600
2-600
2-605
2-604
2-500
/+ 30
3-510
3-550
3-510
3-510
3-520
3-621
3-333
/+ 20
6-410
6-500
5-400
5-400
5-425
5-436
6-000
/^ 10
11-800
12-160
11-750
(4)
11-730
11-860
11-905
10-000
(1)
(2)
(3)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
The Complete Rational Tubbing Formula. — One may now sub-
stitute in equation (3) the value of t^ given by equation (7), and
thus obtain the complete rational formula for T. the total effective
thickness of the tubbing. Then : - -
/
pr
T = - +
n /--I'Qp
(8)
This is a rational tubbing formula, because, so far as the present
state of knowledge peimits, it takes into due account all the
various factors of T. The numerical values of the algebraic
symbols employed will vai-y between one case of practice and
another, and these must be carefully determined by the practical
engineer in charge of the local case. Xo theorist can rationally
fill in the values beforehand. A word, however, may legitimately
be added with respect to the methods by which those numerical
values may be estimated.
Allowance for Castin</'itnperfections. — ^AVith regai'd to the
necessary allowance for imperfections of casting, in equation
(8), T is the ei
ness, or the th
where c is the
K the ** appar
designed to p.
that c should
plates. Thus,
top and a min
of covering tl
that the entir
square root ol
tubbing rule : -
where m is a i i
ous as it may •
the essential fa
of which there i
matter of fact,
this casting al
formula; and,
exercising one'
(1) By min
fections of the
should not be c i
should they b<
doubtful whetl
the flanges, is :
fivct remains thi
tuate casting
material is a pc
equal cooling ci
material being
the casting ma;
an improper, di
be distributed i:i
by unequal cool
* "The Thicli
Colliery Guardian , 1
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man accentuated, by tne lurtner unequal strains maucea oy tne
pressure, p, of the shaft-waters. The pressures, p^ may be equal
pressures all round the tubbing ring ; but the strain on the inner
film of the ring, the length of which is dvy is greater than the strain
T>
on the outer film, the length of which is— times aa great. Thus,
since the pressure, jp, is uniform, the compressional strain per unit
■p
of length of the inner film of the rincr is— times greater than the
compressional strain per unit of length of the external film.
Then, since the normal pressure produces the greater compressive
strain of the inner film, the engineer should distribute his sur-
plus material on the tubbing plate so that the greater initial
compressive strain of the metal shall be on the outer film; and
this partial compensation of strains can only be secured when
the tubbing plates are cast with inside ribs and flanges ; that is
to say, with the surplus material cast on their concave faces.
(2) As the maker of the tubbing naturally knows more about
these matters of imperfect casting than the purchaser can be
expected to know, the purchaser will further minimize such im-
perfections by putting the maker on the alert by reason of the
guarantees exacted from him by the prospective buyer.
And, finally, the mining engineer, in each particular case of
practice, will best arrive at an estimate of the proper value to be
attached to c in the equation (9), by friendly consultation with
the maker of the tubbing, who, as an expert, will be fairly com-
petent to advise, and who, as a business man, will be only too
pleased to give a customer the advantage of his expert counsel.
Note on the Value of p. — It is commonly supposed, and all
current tubbing formulae actually take it for granted, that p==why
where w is the weight of a cubic inch of water, and h the height
of the water-head in inches. In most cases, this is not quite true :
in some cases, it is very far from being true. For, in most in-
stances, if the water were not there at all, it is necessary to dam
back the earth-pressure by walling the shaft ; but, since the water
is there as well, cast-iron tubbing is substituted for the brick-
walling, and in that case, the pressure behind the dam wiU
evidently be: —
p = wh-\-E . . . . (10)
CAST-IBON TUBBING. 601
where E is the pressure of the earth or rock, and where wh is the
pressure of the water, both in pounds per square inch.
These earth-pressures^ so far as they are resisted by the tubbing,
are exerted horizontally, and these horizontal components of the
earth-pressure may be calculated by the usual formulas of retain-
ing walls. If the shaft-strata are moderately firm, and the shaft
of circular form, the value of E in the shaft may be rather less
than the value of E on the flat retaining wall, and the formulae
referred to may thus give the value of E a little too large for the
circular shaft. On the other hand, however, the very fact of the
strata being moderately Arm will give E a veiy small value for
either the flat or the circular dam ; and since the theoretical value
of E is thus small, and the actual value also small, the difference
of the theoretical and actual values will constitute an error small
enough to be left out of account, especially as whatever error
exists will be one on the side of safety. Hence, where the strata
are moderately firm, the formulae of flat retaining walls may be
legitimately employed in the case also of the circular retaining
wall or tubbing.
In the opposite case, where the strata are of a less compact
nature, the circular form of the shaft, as the strata become more
and more unstable, will have less and less effect in the restraining
of the earth-pressure, until the semi-fluid condition is attained,
as typified by wet clay, shingle, and quicksands, when the circu-
larity will lose its restraining influence altogether. Therefore,
the formulae of retaining walls will apply more and more closely
to the case of the tubbing as the shaft-strata adhere less and less
firmly. Hence, the formulae referred to will apply generally;
because (1) if the strata be firm, the positive error will be small ;
whilst (2) if the strata be loose, the percentage error will be
smaller still ; and (3) because whatever small error may be made,
that error will be one on the right side of safety.
The case of retaining walls was well investigated by the late
Prof. Bankine,* and he gives certain rules which may be stated
thus : —
If the surface of the ground be horizontal, then :
E=aM }"^!^ t .... (11)
1 + sm </) ^
* A Manual of GivU Engineering, by Prof. W. J. M. Rankine, fifteenth
edition, 1885, pages 316, 321, 396 and 401.
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602 CAST-IRON TUBBING.
Or, if the surface slope at the angle of repose, then :
E=s/rAcos</> .... (12)
Here E and w have the same values as in the equation (10), A
is the head of earth or rock retained, s is the specific gravity of
the material, and </> the angle of repose. Hence swh is the total
weight of a column of earth one square inch in cross-section, and
h inches high. It may be possible to find a use for the equation
(12) where the strata are more or less considerably inclined ; but
the equation (11) will cei-tainly apply where the shaft-strata lie
horizontally or nearly so. The equations (10) and (11) may now
be combined. Let H be the total head of water in inches;
A, the height of the tubbing in inches, or, H, when the tubbing is
open-topped ; w, the weight of a cubic inch of water in pounds ;
s, the specific gravity of the earth or rock ; and </>, the angle of
repose, the angle being made with the horizontal line. Then
assuming that the earth-pressures above the tubbing are sup-
ported by other means, the equation (10) shows that :
but by the equation (11) :
l-hsm (p
and, consequently,
"=-[=+•* ifir*] ■ • ■ ^3)
A graphic solution of the awkward portion of this formula is
demonstrated in the Appendix ; see also Table IV.
An English engineer recently declared that the dimensions of
tubbing adopted on the Continent ** ciin only be characterized as
absurd."* The rule just stated and the reasons advanced there-
fore may assist British engineers to modify thfeir views in this
direction. The real absurdity lies in the idea that the water-
pressure is the only pressure that nets behind the tubbing. How
-can any thinking engineer suppose that, having dammed back the
natural eaith-pressures by walling the dry shaft, he should
straightway be absolved from the same duty in tubbing the wet
shaft?
It is easy to see that the true value of p may have to be
calculated in sections under some circumstances, and it is neces-
* '^The Thickness of Cast-iron Tubbing," by Mr. T. CampbeU Futers, The
ColHery Guardian , 1905, vol. xc, page 314.
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sarv^ to gu
In passing
fllime will
cubic foot '
particular
Table IJ
Material.
Moist earth
Dry earth
Compact ear
Vegetable es
It is pr
met with i:
general, tin
presence of
may have c
or larger n:
of moisture
from its cr
slicrhtly ; b
diminishing
condition, o
some cohesi
it has no fr;
angle of re i
imagine th .
students ; s
impressing t
sures to be 1
Note on \ i
guilty of ass i
they have li
of assigning
if there are i,
♦ Pock-et-b
twenty- third ec
I A Mann
edition, 1885, pi
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D^ legiumaxeiy aaopiea, xne tuDOing case is one oi i^em, praviaea,
of course, that the other co-efiEicients of t^ in formulse can be esti-
mated with approximate accuracy. There are two reasons why
this is so : —
(1) The load on the tubbing in any average case is a dead load,
and a load uniformly distributed. Consequently, if one may judge
by engineering practice under similar conditions, it would appear
that there is no sound reason why the factor of safety should exceed
4 or 5 ; and probably its true value in tubbing cases has often
been less than that, although its apparent value may have been
twice as much, owing to the under-estimation of the pressure p
and of the corrosion allowance <i, the neglect of the casting im-
perfections, and the absolute ignoring of the variation of stress
from film to film of the cylinder-thickness. All of these errors
are inseparable from the use of the current tubbing formulse, and
all of them could only be compensated by adopting an apparently-
large factor of safety. But if, in the twentieth century, the
various quantities can be more accurately estimated, then so
large an insurance against errofr need no longer be maintained.
(2) It may be noted that when a numerical value is assig^ned
to f in the equation (8), a final, and not an initial, factor of safety
i.*» then and there adopted. In almost every other kind of struc-
ture the case is different. A machine is built, say, or a rising
main, and at first a factor of safety is adopted amounting to
perhaps 10. As years roll on, the machine wears down, or the
rising main corrodes away, until the actual factor of safety is
gradually reduced from its initial value of 10 to a final value
so small that the structure becomes unsafe, and has to be renewed.
In the machine, or the rising main, therefore, the nominal factor
of safety is the initial factor at the beginning. In the tubbing
case, on the other hand, the nominal factor of safety is the final
factor existing at the end of the mine's life of I years. If the
corrofiion-member Ijn be appreciable (and after Mr. Hodges' reve-
lations the corrosion-allowances are likely to be much greater in
future than they have been in the past), it is necessary to start with
an initial factor of safety, M, greater than the nominal factor.
Of, which appears in the formulae, where Q is the ultimate crush-
ing strength of the metal, and f the estimated safe stress.
By trai}
IS found to
This is th
reached in
ness, T, wi
corrosion t<
^2 ; /"is esse
up of the c(
Table III.—
DIMINIS
orbate:
AB8umed Thick i
Various 1 1
Corrosion
Allowance.
('.4)
1
Inches.
10
1-0
10
10
10
10
1
(1)
ultimate crushi :
the tubbing hai
/ in the f ormu i
actual stress oi
At the <!
tubbing is ii
T. The in I
but is only o
If the nomi
initial factoi
inversely as
At the end (
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of safety denoted by the safety-factor, m, employed in the
original formula of design. In order to illustrate this aspect
of the case, an arithmetical portraiture of the lessons of the
equations, (14), (15), and (16), is presented in Table III., which
may be left to speak for itself.
Therefore: It is suggested that a low factor of safety, Q/^
and a moderately high stress, /, may be legitimately employed
when designing the tubbing for average cases : (1) Because the
nature of the load does not by any means demand a high value
for m. And (2) because during the entire life, /, of the tubbed
shaft, the actual stress on the tubbing metal is less than the
stress, /", of the formulae; always provided that the numerical
values of the co-efficient-s of / in the formulae have been estimated
with a reasonably close approach to accuracy.
Table IV.— Values of the Trigonometrical Expression in Equation (13).
Values taken from slide-rule, and, in order to minimise decimals,
STATED 1,000 times TOO LARC2E. TrUE VALUE = TABULAR VALUE DIVIDED
BY 1,000.
Angle of
Value of
Angle of
1
Value of
Repose
denoted by
0.
1 - Bind) , ^^^
1 + sin^ ^ ^'^•
Repose
denoted by
r^J ^ ».«»■
Degrees.
Degrees.
0
1,000
46
163 000
2
933
48
147-000
4
870
50
132000
6
810
52
118-000
8
755
54
106-000
10
704
56
93-600
12
656
58
82-400
14
610
60
71-800
16
569
62
62 000
18
529
64
53-400
20
490
66
45-400
22
456
68
37-600
24
421
70
31-000
26
391
72
26-000
28
361
74
19-900
30
333
76
15-100
32
307
78
11000
34
283
80
7-660
36
260
82
4-890
38
238
84
2-750
40
217
86
1-220
42
198
88
0-306
44
180
90
0000
N.B. — The above table may contain errors less than, say, one per cent.,
like all other slide-rule computations.
There ;
would hav(
inate lengt
any neglec
paper now
APPENDIX
With cei
xxiii. ) draw tl
Beet it with th
repose, EOC c
draw the choi
vertical diame
smaller circle,
cats the horiz<
O : its measuri
Mr. Isaac '.
thick had dimii
It thus appeal i
Junction Colli« :
to deduce fron
already referrec
that the value < i
tubbing dcsigne !
required to resi
This cannot be |
50 years, is a di i
Nothing could £ :
with their arbi ;
irrespective of •
life.
Appendix III. -
OF A Genii
Stbucturii
To save s]:
surface of a cy I
distinguished as
(7) in the text is
* Trans. I
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pressure is convergent ; and (c) when the numerical value of — is not less than 10.
Within these limits, it is a practical and convenient mean of the formuUe,
(A) to (D). These in turn are quoted or deduced from prominent authorities, who
arrive at their formulae by the assistance of the calculus — a branch of mathematics,
unfortunately, not familiar to the average practical man. It is desirable that the
theory of stress in cylindrical structures should be stated in plainer terms, and
illustrated by more familiar methods. An engineer may be unacquainted with the
calculus, and, at the same time familiar with the theory of wedges. He may
construct a rectangular hyperbola and understand its properties, without under-
standing the mystic sign f of integration. And if so, he can easily grasp and
appreciate the general rational theory of stress in cylinders, and thereafter dispense
with make-shift formulae in this connection.
Let fig. 7 (plate xxiii. ) represent an imaginary cylinder. If solid, its half-
section RAR'O may be subdivided into a number of sectoral areas, AOB and BOC.
Such areas are evidently transverse sections of wedges, whose cutting edges lie along
the axis of the cylinder. The length of each wedge is equal to the radius of the
solid cylinder. If the cylinder be not solid, but hollow, its half-section will be
that of the annulus RaR'e. Its constituent parts may be represented by frustums,
such as a/e6, htdc^ etc., the frustums of the wedges, AOB, BOC, etc., in the
solid cylinder.
If the pressure be convergent, its effect is to drive all these frustums toward
the centre O. The wedging effect of the frustum, q/e&, will be as marked as that
of the completed wedge, aO&, since the complement /Oe is already free and serving
no purpose. Hence the frustums which make up the hollow cylinder are true
wedges in all respects, except that of name. Then the tendency of the convergent
pressure being to drive all these frustums home, a compressive force is set up
which actually reduces the inner and outer diameters of the cylinder. It is im-
material that the reduction is small. The vital point to be realized is that it is
sufficient to signify a strain in the structure, strain being defined as the deforma-
tion produced by stress ; and one cannot admit strain without also admitting
deformation.
The character of the strain depends on the character of the force producing
it. The force here acting is a wedging force, and one peculiarity of the wedge is
that it transmits the force at right angles to the line of its own motion. The line
of its motion, due to the pressure, is along the radius of the cylinder.' Any line
{in a plane-circle) at right angles to a radius is a tangent, and hence the compression
produced in a cylinder by a convergent pressure is called the <* tangential
compression." And, as the frustum has one free end in the radial line and no free
face in the tangential line, it is clear that the tangential stress is by far the greater
portion of the entire stress. It is, therefore, only necessary to take into account
the tangential strains, since adequate provision for the principal strain must
necessarily cover the inferior strain also. It is by a parity of reasoning that, in
designing a steam-boiler, the engineer takes only one class of seams into account.
It must be a necessary assumption in this enquiry that the whole cylindrical
structure is a homogeneous body. If its homogeneity be doubtful, that suspicion
can only find expression in the numerical value assigned to the factor of safety.
Then the homogeneity being assumed, each constituent frustum must take up, in
the compression of its own body, the whole of the pressure that it receives from with-
out. For the tangential pressure of each frustum is met by that of the next, and
CAST-IBON TUBBING. 609j
there is no extraneous body to which such pressure might be transmitted. So much
will be clear from fig. 8 (plate xxiii. ) where the whole number of frustums in the
cylinder are conceived of as forming the large frustum, ABGD, which is afterwards
bent round upon itself until it again forms the cylinder EFG. From this illustra-
tion, it is obvious that the cylinder as a whole must take up the entire pressure
in the compression of its own body. And since, by h3rpothe8is, the structure is
homogeneous, it follows that each constituent frustum must take up its own share
of the pressure in the same way. Therefore it is clear that the strain produced in
the frustum is the true type of that produced in the complete cylinder. Hence
the case of the cylinder may be considered as the case of a single frustum which is
driven in by pressure and cannot propagate that pressure, in any effective sense,
beyond its own body. In such a case, the ''useful effect" (so to speak) of the
entire pressure will be completely measured by the strains produced in the frustum.
As the simplest method of obtaining a sufficiently open scale, let the given
cylinder be very thick, as in fig. 9 (plate xxiii.). Let r equal 3, and R equal 6
units. Let it be supposed that the entire pressure, for the time being, is concen-
trated on the single frustum, ABCD. The condition is that the single frustum must
reflect the entire pressure in the compression of its own body. As no strain can be
translated to the remainder of the structure, that remainder may be considered as
absolutely incompressible. Before the pressure is applied (and understanding the
figures as ratios only), the thickness of the frustum at R will be AB, and at r it
will be CD. AB equals 6, CD equals 3, and at intermediate points, equally spaced,
the thicknesses are 4 and 5 units respectively. Let the concentrated pressure now
drive in the frustum to a distance of 1 unit, as set out in fig. 10 (plate xxiii.).
Results : the thickness, which was originally 6, is reduced to 5 units, that which was
5 ia now only 4 units, and that whic^ was 4 is diminished to 3 units. (The thickness
which was originally 3, is unaltered in the diagram, which would not be the case in
the concrete instance, but this difference does not affect the argument in any way.)
It may be noted (a) that the compressions at the various radii are, in the
positive sense, equal. For 6— 5=5— 4=4— 3=1 unit in each case. But it should
be noted (6) that the strains are unequal. For the strain equals the diminution of
thickness divided by the original thickness. Hence the order of the strains is as
follows : it i, and ^. The character of the strain in the frustum, and, therefore, of
that in the cylinder, is now manifest. In any homogeneous cylinder subjected to
a uniform convergent pressure, the strains at the various radii vary inversely as
those radii. Thus the strain at the inner radius is a maximum, and that at the
external radius a minimum. The minimum strain of the series ia thus proportional
to w and the maximum ia proportional to - .
If the pressure is a bursting or divergent pressure, the strains produced are
tensile strains, and the projected area upon which the pressure acts is less than in
the case of the convergent pressure. But the distribution of stress is the same in
both cases. The maximum strain occurs at the least radius and the minimum at
the greatest radius, as before. For the action is now that of a lever whose total
length is R, the pressure being uniformly distributed over a portion of length
equal to r, the remainder (R— r) of the total length R being fixed in the cylinder
thickness. The prising of the lever R by the pressure on r tends to tear open the
cylinder, from A>o D and from B to C, as shown in fig. 1 1 (plate xxiii.). The pressures
«xerted at A and D may be equal in magnitude though opposite in direction, but
R
«ven so, the stress at D acts on a film of metal which is - times longer than the film
r
VOL. XXXIlI.-lgM.l9OT.
4.*^
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receiving an equal pressure at A. Hence, since the stress at D is dist
through R/r times the material, the intensity of the stress is only r/R of the h
at r. From which the general law of strains in a cylinder under pre
evident. Whether the pressure be divergent, as in the case of a rising i
whether it be convergent, as in the case of cylindrical dams and tubbing,
holds good : namely, the strains in all films of the cylinder-thickne
inversely as the distances of those films from the axis of the cylinder ; or,
the strains vary inversely as the radii at which they occur.
Now, since the strains at r^^ r,, r,, etc., vary as -, — , — , etc., i
rj r, r,
evident to all engineers familiar with the principle of the indicator diagr
the various strains arrange themselves as the vertical ordinates to a h
curve, such as that of the rectangular hyperbola shown in fig. 12 (plate xx
the radius r equals OA, the strain is A/; at the radius R equals OX, th<
Xm : and at all intermediate radii, such as OB, 00, OD, etc., the strai
given film of the thickness is proportional to the vertical ordinate meetii
of that film where it abuts on the horizontal asymptote, OX. The
product of the co-ordinates to any given point on the curve is equal to 0
equals the minimum radius r multiplied by the maximum stress /on the
The total stress on the radial line equals the sum of the stresses
radii, equals the hyperbolic area, A/mX. The total stress on the diamet
of course, twice as much, but in this enquiry it is convenient to co
projected area as a radius rather than as a diameter, and the ratios ^
affected thereby.
From their knowledge of the indicator-diagram and its formulas, al
know perfectly well, without calling in the aid of the calculus, that
bolic area equals the rectangular area multiplied by the hyperbolic Ic
the ratio of expansion. In the present enquiry it is sufficient to i
logarithm by that of the ratio of the greatest to the least radius of tb
OX
In both cases alike the logarithm required is that of -^y^. Then :
OX
The hyperbolic area= OA x OY x Loge ^ . .
Translating these geometrical quantities into algebraical symbols,
hyperbolic area : r equals OA, / equals OY, and R equals OX. Tl
stress is : —
A«r/Loge ^.
But the total stress, A, equals the total pressure, pA ; where A is t
area of the pressure on the quadrant. Thus, if the pressure be cc
equals R ; but, if the pressure be divergent, A equals n Then, since
it follows that :
joA-r/Loge-^.
Therefore : Log« - =^.
® r fr
fr
This is the rational formula for all cylinders under pressure, no m
such pressure be a bursting or a crushing pressure. For the cylind
there are two cases.
(1) Cylinders subject to IiUemal Pressure, — This is the case of
Here the projected area, A equals r, and / is the safe tensile stress
oogle
Substitating
This ifl exact
Prof. Jamiesc
shown by an
the surface b;
pounds per &<
diameter. ^
ATisioer.
not be wise
Substituting ^ I
The value of
1*492, and
For the same
would give 1 1
wrong side, &< i
(2) Cyliv
dams and of r i
area A equals
The formula ii
appears on bi
numerical rati
may evident! i
solved for - e
r
as the logaritl:
Example
per square in
wedge-frustuii
resisting this
proper value ci
Answer,'
times the nuni
3. Looking i
that of 1*85 i
large, and the
those number
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612 CAST-IEON TUBBING.
B
smaller still, and it may be assumed that — equals 1'86. The dam can be built
to any radius or radii found convenient, but the ratio of R to r must be 1'86 in
any event. In other words, the length of the tapered balks, which forms the
thickness of the dam, must be 0'86r. If the balks be 10 feet long, then 10 equals
0*86r, and r equals 11*63 feet; and the internal curve may be drawn to that
radius, or to one rather less, but not to any greater radius than that.
It will be observed that the formula (C) in the paper is not quite identical
with the true formula (G) last given. But the formula (G) is merely an adaptation
from Prof. Jamieson's rule for internal pressure. The adaptation proceeds on the
assumption that the maximum stress in the convergent case exceeds the maximum
in the divergent case, in the same ratio as the mean stresses vary, which is not
quite true. But within the limits of the tubbing case proper it is practically true ;
and the formula (C) applied within those limits will give the same results, prac-
tically, as those yielded by the formula (G). Hence, since the formula (G) is more
convenient than the formula (G), it may be used for the tubbing case with
advantage in that respect, and without appreciable loss in the res|>ect of accuracy.
Maximum Value of the Allotcabie Pressure.— When the pressure is internal,
the projected area is r and the pressure is p. The maximum stress is/, and it is
the stress at r only. Hence, when the pressure is internal, the area of the maxi-
mum stress and the area of the pressure increase or diminish at the same rate as r.
If r be constant, the area of pressure and of maximum stress is constant and, by
T>
the formula (F)73 equals /Logr —. But the maximum stress cannot rationally
exceed the safe stress, and that is a constant for the same material. Hence,
when the pressure is internal, p varies as Log^ — ; and p may be increased as
long as the logarithm can be increased. That is to say, p may be increased
indefinitely.
But, when the pressure is external, the area of pressure is R and that of
f is only r. Let r be constant, then fr will also be constant if / is not to exceed
the safe stress. If p be increased, R must be increased also ; hence the intensity
of the pressure and the area of pressure increase together, and since /r is constant,
it would appear that the product of p and R cannot be increased indefinitely.
R
The formula (G) shows the limit of p in terms of/. Let the natural number —
T
equal n and let its hyperbolic logarithm be h ; then from the formula (G), it
fh
follows that n equals*' — . Now, there is no natural number n, which is less than
p
e times the value of its logarithm to the base e ; and, therefore, it follows that there
f
is no rational value of — , which is less than e. Hence, the pressure being external,
the minimum value of — equals e ; and the
p
f f
maximum value of p= - =^;=Yg— (H)
The value of e is incommensurable, but stated to 10 significant figures, e equals
2*718281828. The practical maximum of p is reached, however, much sooner, say
when p equals \f. Above that value, very small increases in p necessitate ^exor-
bitant increases in the thickness of the dam. For example, the thickness required
when p equals \f is double that required when p equals \f. In this particular
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CAST-IEON TUBBING. , 618
case, an increase of 32 per cent, in the pressure involves an increase of 100 per
cent, in the thickness of the dam and an increase of no less than 135 percent, of the
materials of construction. Hence it may be, in many cases, that a cast-iron dam
may be cheaper than a wooden dam, for the simple reason that -~ in the one case
will be a much smaller value than ^ in the other. Large values of ^ are values
which are unduly costly by reason of the increasing rapidity of the rate at which
R f
the value of — progresses as the value of — slowly approaches to its minimum
value denoted by e. In practice, it may therefore be taken that, when the pres-
sure is external, the minimum value of — is about 4, which corresponds to a maxi-
R
mum value of — , a little less than 1*4.3, which is but little more than the square
root of 2. Hence, an easily remembered rule may be formulated thus : In cylinders
subject to an external series of converging pressures, the practical
R
maximum value of — = v/o (J)
r '
and the
practical maximum value of p = v^ . . . (K)
If the proposed material of which a dam is to be constructed should require
a departure from the principles of formulie (J) and (K), it may then be considered
whether another kind of material showing a greater value of / should not be
employed.
Approximate Rules. — If it be desired to dispense with the use of logarithms,
it may be remarked (a), that up to p equals ^/, the equation (7) in the paper will
R
give results within 1 per cent, of the true value of — as found by the equation (G).
R
Bat 1 per cent, in the value of —means 3 or 4 per cent, difference in the value of
R
U This, however, would be the maximum error when — equals the square root of 2.
r
At less values the error would be less.
Another approximation may be made as follows : The projected area of the
©R
convergent pressure is R, and a is the mean stress. It is known that a equals -^ .
But the maximum stress is /varying as — , the minimum is, say m, varying as r^.
These reciprocals are the end-ordinates in the stress-diagram, fig. 12 (plate xxiii.).
The approximate value of the mean ordinate is equal to half the sum of the end-
ordinates. Then / is the initial ordinate, ; m, the terminal ordinate, ^;
r Jtv
and a, the mean ordinate, J ("""*■ ^)' Therefore :
a'-'r • \1r 2R>/ " R + r
Henoe, on the false assumption that the mean ordinate is equal to half the sum of
the terminal ordinates :
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614 CAST-niON TUBBING.
- 2R
/—ox- — ,
pB. pR
But a-— -j^— ,
and substituting this value of a in the preyious expression, it follows that :
pR_ 2R 2pR»
•^"R-r ""R + r-R^-r*-
Whence, by transposition, inversion, and division by R* :—
2p f^
-J -1- Ri,
2p r*
from which -y=- — 1 = — ^2.
Finally, changing the signs of every term, and extracting thejsquare root of each
side, after inversion, we obtain :
^.VA~ ....'. (A)
r ^ f-^p
This is Prof. Aldis' formula for cylindrical dams and tubbing, already quoted in
the paper. It is thus seen that the formula (A) is but an approximation to the
rational formula, notwithstanding the fact that its author evolved it by the
ponderous machinery of the integral calculus. It is an approximation, of course,
because it is based upon the assumption that the mean stress is equal to half the
sum of the maximum and minimum stresses, which all engineers familiar with the
indicator-diagram know to be not quite true. It could, in fact, be true only if
the hyperbolic curve were a straight line, whereas the most that can be said is
that, when only small arcs are in question the radius of curvature is much greater
than the length of the arc. Nevertheless, in most cases, it will be foimd that the
approximate formula (A) will give results which very nearly approach the results
obtained from the rational formula (G), the pressure, of course, always being
convergent.
A still closer approximation to the rational formula (6) may be made as
R
follows : Up to the practical maximum value of — already stated, it is a fact that :
't R 2(R-r) ,
Log* — — —^ ■ very nearly.
Substituting this value of the logarithm in the formula (G) :
2(R-r) jpR
R + r ~/r'
The reduction of this equation is a rather tedious process, and need not be here
stated at length. As a simple equation, it reduces to :
r ^ / 3
^'*"2r'"jo 2'
and can only be solved as a quadratic equation. Completing the square and re-
ducing, the simplest way of stating the result when solving for t is to put :
/ 3
^-2=^'*-
Then <-=r {m±(w«-2)*} (L)
The ambiguity may always be read as minus, provided that the practical maxima
and minima are adhered to.
There is no need to deduce approximations to the formula (F), spplytng to
cylinders pressed internally, as it is already simple enough.
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CAST-IRON TUBBING. 616
Spherical Dams. — It is with some diffidence that the writer approaches this
part of the subject. Mining literature appears to be destitute of any formulas by
which one can compare one's results ; and, it is equally destitute of any rational
rules dealing with cylinders under external pressure. It is true that Prof. Aldis
has framed some formulte for cylindrical and spherical dams, but the discovery
that his formula for the cylinder is merely an approximation rather shakes one's
•confidence in the absolute rationality of his rule for the spherical dam.
Then, just as a cylinder may be imagined as an assemblage of wedge-frustums,
MO also a sphere may be regarded as a structure built up of frustums of pyramids.
Having this difference in remembrance, then, a precisely similar line of reasoning
to that employed in the case of the cylinder leads, in the case of the sphere, to the
•enunciation of the following rule :
a fa
A is the external surface of the sphere receiving the pressure p; and a is the
internal surface subjected to the maximum stress/. If we put it in another way,
we have
A /. A
The same law of maxima obtains in the sphere with regard to the value of — as
obtains in the cylinder with regard to the value of - ; and the minimum value of
/* A A R*
— with regard to — cannot be less than e. But — equals -j- ; hence
pa a r"
Log. ^,-^-, (M)
A R' R*
and - =^ ifl greater than e Log« ^ ;
hence the
Minimum value of - » e ;
and the practical minimum is always greater than*e.
Example,— A deep pit has approached the old abandoned workings of an
equally deep pit, now filled up with water. A cast-iron dam is to be put in a
heading which is deemed dangerously near to the old workings. The estimated
pressure of the head of water is 800 pounds per square inch, and the safe stress
permissible is supposed to be 12,000 pounds per square inch. The dam is to be a
R
spherical one. Find the value of -,
Answer,— From formula (M) :
R« 12,000^ I^' ,c T ^'
T«" 800 ^«* p-=15Loge ^•
Looking in the tables, this condition is fulfilled by some number between
1'07 and 1-08. Now 1*08 is about 14 times greater than its logarithm, whilst
1 *07 is nearly 16 times greater than its logarithm. Hence, not to be tedious, 1 '(yj5
is about 15 times as great as its logarithm. Then
-^-1-076,
R
and - = >/l -075 = 1 '037 very nearly.
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Approxmifite Formula for Spherical Damn, — This may be obtained, withoair
the use of logarithms, by substituting the approximate value of log« in the
formula (M), which then becomes :
W + r^ ~fr^'
R
Solving this rule to find the value of — is a tedious process, and it will suffice U>
state the final result, namely :
-3'^ + 0-25;
P
and
R- V--0"5±r?i.
Here, again, in all practical cases, the minus sign of the ambiguity must be taken.
If, however, the numerical value of - be less than li + >/2, the numerical value
of m will itself be a minus quantity which, being preceded by a minus sign, will
become a plus value.
All the formulse, rational and approximate, as set forth in this appendix,
have been independently deduced without recourse to the calculus, in order that
the theory of strains in cylindrical and spherical structures may be made compre-
hensible to all students, whatever be the extent of their mathematical attain-
ments. And if those who are more expert in this direction will examine the
formul» here submitted, and point out any errors which may have crept in, no
one will be more pleased or more grateful than the writer. The following is a.
synopsis of the results.
(1) Bising Mains, — The rational formula is :
T R P
Log. r-f-
(2) Cyli-ndricaJt Darns and TM>ing, — The rational formula is :
r p ° r
The minimum value of - is e, but practically it is greater than c. The
practical maximum of p equals ^ /. The practical maximum of - equals*
^2' The approximate formula most nearly approaching the rational rule is :
< = r{m±^(7»--2)};
[f 3)
where • ^"-j^-gj*
(3) Spherical Dams,— The rational formula is :
T R' pH^
Loge-.«^^.
The same laws of maxima, which apply, in th© case of cylinders, with
respect to the ratio of the radii, also apply, in the case of spherical structures^
with respect to the ratio of the squares of the radii. And generally, for the same
values ofp and/, the formul» for spherical dams differ from those for cylindrical
dams only in the fact that the squares of the radii replace the first powers of the
radii which appear in the rational formulse of cylinders.
Du, InsCUuA » T • '' J
tf-., Cb ^ 'c^
Fig. 5.
1 ■
if
:
FiQ. 8.
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?=. A//_o-5±m;
r ^ p
where m = A/ « - 3 - + 0-25.
P P
The numerical value of m yanishes when equals I4 + v/2 ; and becomes a-
minus quantity when the value of the ratio - is less than 1^ 4- s/2.
Mr. T. A. O'DoNAHUE (Wigan) wrote that Mr. Halbaum's
complete rational formula was little difEerent from other existing
formulae, except that he left to the engineer the task of assigning
values to the factors. Were the engineer in a position to
determine correctly the values of the factors, this would be an
easy task ; but as some of them could not be even approximately
estimated, and further data were required to approximate others,
no rule, however correct mathematically, was of much practical
value which did not give some assistance in determining the
unknown factors. Mr. Halbaum objected to the thin-cylinder
rule (4) ordinarily employed. It was well known that it was
not strictly correct to apply this rule to shaft tubbing, and he had
pointed this out in his paper.* The more precise formulae
referred to by Mr. Halbaum, however (A, B, C, and D), afforded
results so little different, that there was no inducement to
adopt a more complicated formula when the factors could
not be accurately determined. The hydrostatic pressure af-
forded the only basis for the calculation of the stress on
tubbing. An approximate estimate of other pressures was
impossible, and an allowance could only be made for them in
the factor of safety. The necessary allowance for deterioration
might, to some extent, be fixed by the prevailing conditions;
but it was not exceeding the latitude allowed to an empirical
rule to fix an allowance suitable for normal conditions. The
same remark applied to the allowance for imperfections in cast-
ing. He (Mr. O'Donahue) agreed that the allowances given in
the old rules for deterioration and imperfections were inadequate
for thin plates, and that moderately correct results were obtained
only by allowing an excessively high factor of safety in the
* **The Thickness of Cast-iron Tubbing," by Mr. T. A. O'Donahue, TIte
Colliery Guardian, 1905, vol. xc, page 314.
O'Donahue) kad attempted to teach that the thickness need not
increase even as fast as the pressure increases,* he might reply
that Mr. Halbaum's formula taught the same; otherwise the
allowance for deterioration and imperfections would have to
increase materially with the depth. The allowance need not
be greater; in his (Mr. O'Donahue's) opinion it might be less
in a thick plate than in a thin one : in which case the theoretical
factor of safety, based on the pressure only and taking the full
thickness of the metal, decreased with the depth. It was for
thia reason he objected to Prof, Bodart's ^formula, in which there
was no special allowance for deterioration and the thicknesft
varied directly as the pressure. He (Mr. O'Donahue) considered
that the tbiii-cyliiider rule (4), with an allowance added for deteri-
oration, etc, was suitable for all practical requirements, providing
there was a proper disposition of flanges. Thus :
c
where t is the thioknesa of metal in inches; jj, the pressure in
pounds per square inch ; r, the radius of the shaft in inches ; /*, the
factor of safety ; u, the crushing streogth of the metal in pounds
per square inch ; and a, the addition for deterioration, etc. The
important questiona to decide j and as to which discussion wa«
desirable, were the values to be assigned to the factor of safety and
to the allowance for deterioration, etc- He considered that a
factor of safety of fl or 7 would be adequate; and for normal con-
ditions he would give a a value of irom 0'4 to Owo, according
to the diameter of the shafts etc., for the top plates^ and decr^sase
the allowance slightly with the depth. Many general rules were
adopted, to apply to more vaiying conditions than obtained with
tubbing, and if the members of the Institution would assist in
this matter, there was no reason why a more or less trustworthy
rule should not be approved.
Mr, C. PiLKiNGTON (Clifton) wrote that many nf the preheat
formulsB for the thickness of the metal gave widely diflierent
results, quite apart froon making no mention of flanges and ribs.
He understood that it was better in every way to work out the
formula, regaixling tubbing as a plain cast* iron cylinderj into
which three questions would enter: — (1) the theoretical thick*
• " The Thickness of Gast-iroE Tubbing," by Mr* T. A. 0'Donahti«j 7 kt
CoHkrif Gvjardiajit l&O^^i t'oI- xc, page 15,
Tiess necessj i
ihe allowar :
These three
metal; and :
have flange i
as Mr. Hal i
•did not app] j
The present
increased st •
they might
ihem), they
•engineer,
strains othci
thought th I
•experiences :
ation ; but ; i
years later,
usually non< i
Mr. T. C
without doul
made to pr<:
whilst little
direction in
to the fa^t t
to a calculai
As a rule, 1:
« quantity ci
shaft when ];
appearance ;
ness of the
he remarkeci
more than i\
the tubbing
was decided
a mathemat
said for Mr,
time, and tl
tubbing of i
strong enouj
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620 DISCUSSION — CAST-IEON TUBBING.
time that the tubbing was required to last. He (Mr. Futers)
had not heard of a single instance where tubbing had failed
owing to a want of sufiScient strength to resist the pressure of the
hydrostatic head of water. Accidents had happened by a sec-
tion of tubbing being burst or blown out, owing perhaps to a faulty
casting or to the kinetic energy stored in a moving column of
water, air, or gas; but these were extraordinary incidents, and
should be dealt with as such. It was useless to attempt to devise
formulae for the thickness of tubbing necessary to withstand extra-
ordinary and unexpected pressures. The most difficult point,
however, was with regai-d to the material itself. Cast-iron was
the most unreliable metal — except for masses subject mainly to
compressive strains — that the engineer had to use, and practically
nothing more was known about its properties at the present time
than in the days of our forefathers. Certainly its use was becom-
ing more and more restricted every day, and steel, in the shape
either of rolled sections or of casting<5, was taking its place.
Why then should cast-iron still be adhered to for shaft tubbing ?
Probably the worst feature in connection with cast-iron tubbing
was corrosion, which, in his opinion, was purely a chemical action ;
and the difficulty would be to devise a formula for t^ that would
meet all cases of corrosion, as the destruction due to this cause
might be much more rapid in some cases than in others. He would
certainly advise the removal of this quantity of t^ altogether, and
so arrange matters that the tubbing would not corrode. This
could easily be done ; hence this extra thickness was not required,,
and the formula was simplified. He (Mr. Futers) was rather sur-
prised that Mr. Hodges, in the tubbing used at Methley Junction
colliery, should first use Dr. Angus Smith's composition to guard
against corrosion, and then put an extra thickness on the tubbing-
to allow for corrosion. There was surely a lack of faith in the
anti-corrosive composition. In his (Mr. Futers's) opinion, a com-
pound bitumen-asphalt was better than Dr. Angus Smith's com-
position.
The question, as to whether tubbing should be treated as a
thin collapsible tube, or as an arch, and whether the stiffening
ribs should be taken into consideration or left out, required care-
ful consideration. He was inclined to think that a section of
the tubbing should be treated as a ribbed arch. Too little was
known, both in theory and practice, with regard to long columns
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and thin tul
lutely safe a
for instance
ample — ^ho^
dented, and
normal cone
He (Mr. Fi
formula, an(
the concurre
tation in reo
mine the thi
This pressuri
ments, quoti
adopted on 1
was absurd t
diameter shi
agree with 1
wall could b
Prof. W
chief conten
cient conside
sion by his
employed ir
suflBciently a
In regarc
nant water I
between the
cement, how<
by acid vapoi
lining of bri(
In regard
formula, due
in which : H
D, the interr
• Mechanic
+ *'TheTy
OiMrdiaUy 1905,
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of the lining, of whatever kind, in metres ; R, the resistance in
kilogrammes per square metre which the lining can support;
w, the weight in kilogrammes of a cubic metre of water; and
p^ the atmospheric pressure in kilogrammes per square centimetre.
The formula* reproduced by Prof. H. Louis and himself
(Prof. W. Galloway) was: —
__ WHD
^~2(R-WH) ^^^
in which, W is the weight of a cubic inch of water in pounds ;
H, the depth below the piezometric level, in inches; D, the
diameter of the shaft in inches ; B, the pressure in pounds p&r
square inch required to crush cast-iron, divided by an empirical
factor of safety; and T, the thickness in inches. An error was
made in substituting + for — in the denominator, but as the
quantity expressed by WH was very small, compared with the
value of R when referred to cast-iron, it did not appreciably affect
the result; and, as would be shown presently, WH could be
eliminated from the denominator without sensible error.
In the formula of which Mr. Halbaum appeared to claim
to be the inventor, the essential part, namely: ^-r(^— l*6p) was
identical with the one given above, except in regard to the co-
efficient 1-6, since ^ = WH, r = iD, /"=R, and r6^ = r6WH.
He (Prof. Galloway) could not trace the origin of the co-efficient
1*6, but as WH was a small quantity, and according to M. Haton
de la Goupilliere, could be neglected,t so also could l'6p. To his
formula, Mr. Halbaum had added Ijn, the utility of which was
doubtful in the face of his preceding remarks.
The formula recommended by M. Haton de la Goupilliere, J
one of the first mathematicians in France, was
^ = -2R ...... (C>
which, with the symbols employed by the writer (Prof. W.
Galloway), becomes :
T=^^ (D)
In calculating the thickness of oast-iron tubbing required for a
shaft, 4 metres in diameter, 100 metres deep below the piezo-
* ExploitcUion des Mines, first edition, 1884, vol. i., paee 281. The symbols
used by M. Haton de la Goupilliere in the first edition of his work and repro*
daced in the third edition, vol. ii., page 837» were : e ^ vHD •«- 2 (R - vH).
t Ibid,, third edition, 1005, vol. i., page 851. % Op, cU,
DISCUSSION — CAST-iaON TUBBING. 625
metric level of the water, and assuming that E equalled 5,000,000
kilogrammes per square metre, or about one-tenth of the pressure
required to crush cast-iron, M. Haton de la Goupilliere arrived at
the following figures : (1) By Prof. Lamp's exact formula, 41 milli-
metres ; (2) by formula r, 40 millimetres ; ai^i he remarked that
the latter value was sufficiently approximate to the exact figure.*
In c€Jculating the thickness of tubbing required at the
bottom of a shaft, 460 feet deep and 20 feet in diameter, by
means of his (Prof. Galloway's) formula, Mr. Halbaum arrived
at the thickness 0*9 inch, which he erroneously attributed to some^
imperfection in the formula. If he had taken a factor of safety
of one-twelfth, he would have obtained 357 inches: in fact
practically the same thickness as his so-called " complete rational
formula" would give him, if divested of its adventitious ele-
ment l/n. Taking the value of B as 6,720 pounds in the formula,,
it follows that T = [ (0036 x 5,400 x 240) ^ 2 (6,720 - 0-036 x 5,400) 1
= 357 inches, and by eliminating— 0*036 x 5,400, it follows that
T=3'47 inches, or only 0*10 inch less.
The formula T= op ^s> therefore, obviously sufficient for
all practical purposes on the assumption that the x>erson employ-
ing it possesses ordinary intelligence ; for he would then know (1}
that at its upper end the tubbing must be thick enough to admit
of its being cast in moulds and handled without the risk of being-
broken ; and (2) that the factor of safety he could afford to employ
depends upon several considerations, cost amongst others, over
which he would naturally desire to exercise some control.
Prof. HENB.T Loins wrote that he was much disappointed in
Mr. Halbaum's paper, as his complete rational formula (8)
appeared to him to be rather less rational than those of his pre-
decessors. It consisted of two terms, the first of which was to-
represent a thickness of metal to allow for corrosion, and the
second a thickness to resist crushing. The former postulated
that corrosion was always inevitable, and was further based upon
an assumption, in favour of which no evidence at all wa&
adduced, namely, that if a given thickness of metal were dis-
solved off tubbing in one year, I times as much would be dis-
solved in I years. There was really nothing definite known as to the
* Exploitation des Mines, first edition, 1884, vol. i., paae 281. The symbols,
used by M. Hafcon de la Groupilli^re in the first edition of his work and repro-
duced in the third edition, vol. ii., page 837» were : e = wHD -»- 2 (R - vH).
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^24 DISCUSSION CAST-IROX TUBBING.
laws that regulated the rate of corrosion, but it was tolerably
-certain that no such simple arithmetical ratio as this existed ;
corrosion in the first year was probably more rapid than in the
second, and might conceivably in a certain number of years cease
altogether; this was by no means sure, and almost the only
thing that could be said to be sure was that Mr. Halbaum's
simple-proportion theory was wrong. Furthermore, it seemed
to have escaped Mr. Halbaum^s attention that this " corrosion
term" was really not necessary; all that was needed was to
select a factor of safety suflSciently gi*eat, so that even after a
given quantity of metal had been dissolved away, the factor of
safety would not be reduced below some desired safe figure. It
would be shown subsequently that this method had been adopted
by quite reliable authorities. He (Prof. Louis) agreed with Mr.
Halbaum's views on the subject of the factor of safety (Note
on the value of /O, but he thought that he might well have carried
them further, to the conclusion now indicated. Mr. Halbaum's
second term, so far from being a rational formula, appeared to
be rather an empirical approximation to the average of the
rational formulae of other authorities, some of which were, how-
ever, specially applicable only to internal pressures.
There was only one way of obtaining a true rational formula for
such a problem as this, and that was by a rigorous mathematical
analysis of the whole subject, based on first principles, and this
was precisely the course that Mr. Halbaum had not adopted. He
had, indeed, quietly disregarded the main difficulty of the whole
problem, inasmuch as he had treated a ring of tubbing as a plain
cylinder, which was precisely what it was not. The ordinary cylin-
der-formulae applied to continuous cylinders, not to segments
pressed or joined together. Probably mathematical analysis would
demand that each segment should be treated as an arch resting
against abutments constituted by the rest of the ring, with the
peculiarity that the thrusis on such an arch took place along
radial lines, and not, as usual, along parallel lines ; it had also
been suggested that possibly tubbing should be treated as though
each pair of adjoining plates formed a hinged arch, although this
treatment seemed to present more difficulties than the one first
suggested. It was quite unnecessary for Mr. Halbaum to trouble
about the simple case of the plain cylinder, disregarding both
the horizontal and vertical ribs and flanges, because that com-
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paratively sim
been solved 1(
where that a
"bing " formed
PcBtsch, and :
heing a strict;
Tvhere j
using the sai
It might be i
this was the e
other workers
Aldist (which
the thickness
second the fo
surface ; obv:
the special ca
1, and <^ equa
torily for sha
he applicable
In practic
came to pract
which actual
the Kind-Cha
had used for n
E = 0'02r
where E is t
below water-1
in metres ; anc
centimetre. T
sible strain on
taken at abo
factor of saf(
equations mig
• This is mer<
+ Travis. N.
YOL. XXXIIL-
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626 DISCUSSION — CAST-IRON TUBBING.
E = 0-02m -h^^; and (a)
^"~H~+5;ooo ^^^
Reduced to British measurements (t and r in inches and h in feet),
these formulae were respectively : —
rh
t = 0"08 inch + fg"TAQ> when h is less than 164 feet . (a)
t — — J .^_^^^ when h is greater than 164 feet (6)
When it was remembered that the thicknesses of all the cylin-
ders used in all the Kind-Chaudron sinkings (some 80 in
number) had been calculated by these formulae, it seemed pretty
safe to say that they had proved to be reliable in practice. Mr.
J. Riemer held that whilst these were the proper formulae for
comparatively shallow shafts, they gave too high results for
deep shafts. He held that for shafts 300 or 400 metres in
depth the first term might be neglected ; also that a lower factor
of safety (about one-tenth) might be adopted with the reliable
castings now available, and that for shafts 400 metres deep or
more it was safe to adopt the expression E = RP/800, or
^~8,000V 26,300>/'
It would be seen, therefore, that the best modem Contin-
ental practice favoured the method of omitting the corrosion
factor, and using a variable factor of safety. Mr. Chaudron's
formula was 50 years old, and had stood the test of practical
experience, so that the problem might fairly be said to be suflS-
ciently solved for plain cylinders exposed (like Kind-Chaudron
cylinders) to pressure of water alone, and this was all that Mr.
Halbaum had now attempted. It must be emphasized that he had
not even attacked the problem of ordinary tubbing. They were
as far off a solution as ever where tubbing proper, composed of
segments, was concerned, and a mere statement of the real difii-
culties of the case, which Mr. Halbaum had not attempted to con-
front, showed what still remained to^ be done before a rational
formula could be set up. Should the thickness be calculated
for strength or for stiffness? Was the arch formula or any
modification of it the proper formula to use, or should the hinged-
arch formula be employed? What part was played by the
vertical ribs and what by the horizontal ribs? If these ques-
tions could be successfully answered, the nature of the pressure
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DISCUSSION — CAST-IRON TUBBING. 627
to be resisted still remained to be considered; it was easy to
calculate the pressure due to a head of water, to quicksand, or to
soft ground, alone, but that due to their joint effect was still
obscure. Furthermore, could anyone calculate the pressure
produced by swelling ground? It was easy to determine the
resistance to crushing of any particular cast-iron, but when this
was known, it still remained to fix on a suitable factor of safety,
having regard to the fact that this might be lowered in time
by corrosion, and possibly by molecular changes and other more
obscure causes. After all was said and done, the factor of
safety — which was the dominant figure in every one of these
formulae — ^would always have to be fixed empirically, and since
this wan the case, attempts to get at a rational formula had
mainly an academic interest. Until a thoroughly rational theory
could be set up, it was better frankly to adopt empirical data for
thickness, based on experience, and which they knew gave an
ample margin of safety.
Mr. J. J. Prest (Horden collieries) said that, after careful
study of Mr. Halbaum's paper, he agreed with the deductions.
The formula (8) appeared to cover all the elements to be con-
sidered in ascertaining the thickness of metal required in cast-
iron tubbing. The difficulty, of course, would be to obtain with
any degree of accuracy the elements Ijn of the formula, and in the
end, no doubt, this would resolve itself into the addition of one-
third, one-half, two-thirds, or may be 1 inch, to the thickness of
cast-iron calculated to be required to overcome the statical pres-
sure of water, pretty much as was provided by Mr. Gr. C.
Greenwell's formula. He quite agreed with Mr. Halbaum that
the whole of the work incidental to the lining of the tubbing
in the middle pit at Murton colliery was designed and executed
in an admirable manner; but it did not by any means follow
that feeders of water encountered in the sinking of shafts should
be tubbed off in like manner. Having in view, however, the
larger diameter of modem shafts, and the experience of the past
50 years in sinking through more difficult ground, and in the
corrosive nature of feeders of water frequently encountered, the
time had arrived when it would be desirable to ascertain whether
the usual British method of tubbing back feeders of water in
sinking pits was really the safest and most expeditious method
of overcoming the difficulty. He was personally of the opinion
that the tubbing segments might conveniently be 4 feet in depth.
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ana, in many cases, max iniemai nanges wixn mexaiiic jomis
would be simpler; also that these segments should, after being
properly tested, be coated with Dr. Angus Smith's composition,
and the whole of the tubbing backed up solid with good cement-
concrete. There was no doubt whatever that tubbing in shafts
sunk 60 or 70 years ago, and more particularly in furnace upcast-
shafts, was put in much too thin to provide for the decom-
position set up by the sulphurous fumes from the furnace on the
inside, and the corrosive action of deleterious waters tubbed back
in the strata on the outside ; and it was probable that many of
these shafts would have to be re-lined. The variation in the
thickness of the segments of tubbing at the Methley Junction
colliery in Yorkshire might or might not have been due to
corrosion. The most extraordinary feature in connection there-
with was the great variation in the thickness of metal in each
segment of .tubbing, which appeared to suggest that some of the
test-holes had been bored through the strengthening ribs at the
back of the tubbing: otherwise there was no reason why the
depreciation in thickness should not have been uniform over
the whole of the segments. Mr. Halbaum would not mind his
saying that it was not good practice to use iron wedges in the
joints of any kind of tubbing, and that it was usual for the
thickness of metal to be delineated in raised figures on the
inside of each segment : also that if the mixture of iron required
was specified, the castings themselves inspected, and a certain
percentage tested to destruction, there was no necessity to make
any mathematical allowance for imperfections in casting.
Dr. J. Morrow (Armstrong College) wrote that, as pointed
out in the paper, the strength of hollow cylinders must be
considered quite apart from their resistance to collapse. The
question of collapse, however, could not be put on one side. A
simple cylinder, without ribs or flanges, subjected to a uniform
external pressure, p, retained its shape until p reached a cei-tain
critical value. When this critical pressure was reached, the
circular form was not necessarily stable; it became possible,
in fact, for the cylinder to assume some shape other than circu-
lar. It was this possibility that constituted the danger. The
critical pressure might be shown, for a long cylinder, to be
proportional to the third power of the ratio of the thickness to
the diameter. Flanges and ribs reduced the effective length of
the cylinder, and thus raised the critical pressure ; but it might
easily happen,
would have to 1
be more conver
and above that
number of sti
strength of the
forces which ac
way in which tl
be cylindrical,
distributed, ant
in the material
to occur as a 1:
surface of the
equation (A) o:
Lame's theory.
If 2p could
was reduced to
Mr. Halbaum :
of equation (4),
equation (4) wa
in (D), afi migl
Table I. The i
identical. Fori
but agreed ver
Halbaum's pap
were vitiated b;
When, on t]
on the outside i
everywhere of
used. In this <
similar to thoi
masonry archef
normal, and tl
an arch formul
made by the £
large ; but if i.
the subject of <
The geome
laborious; and
very much simj
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Mr. H. W. G. Halbaxjm, replying to the discussion, thought
that a more careful perusal of his paper would remove some
of the misapprehensions that appeared to obtain. Certainly
a reference to his paper would quickly dispose of some of the
surprising statements made by Pi'of. Louis. However, he (Mr.
Halbaum) would point out to Messrs. 0' Donahue and Futers
that they had in The Colliery Guardian discussed the case
of shafts 18 feet in diameter and pressures up to 1,500
feet of water. In such cases, the error of the thin-cylinder
formula was not small, nor was tubbing 7 inches thick
necessarily absurd. The real absurdity lay in using formulae
admitted to be erroneous, when a better class of rule lay ready to
hand. Factors of safety, having a numerical value of 15 or
other ridiculous proportions, might be reliable, but they did not
belong to engineering, which combined safety with economy;
any amateur could combine it with waste.
He (Mr. Halbaum) was sorry if he had not done justice to
Prof. Galloway's formula ; but he would like Prof. Galloway to
say plainly what his formula really was. Was it that quoted by
Prof. Louis, or not?* Or was it the amended rule by Mr.
Futers? Or was it the rule which one of H.M. inspectors of
mines recently declaredt ** should, in future, be dispensed with
as being altogether misleading?'' Prof. Galloway, however,
now desired to amend it still further : (1) he gave a formula, and
marked it (A), but this was Prof. Lame's rule ; (2) then he (and
Prof. Louis) reproduced a formula from the French, and marked
it (B) in his printed remarks. That, however, was not Prof.
Galloway's rule, for it was credited to Mr. J. J. Atkinson in the
Transactions of The Xorth of England Institute of Mining and
Mechanical Engineers long before Profs. Louis and Galloway re-
produced it from the French. Prof. Galloway's formula, marked
C, was public property half a century since. Consequently, the only
original item of the entire reproduction from the French was
that part where the error was made of substituting + for— in the
denominator. Prof. Galloway now desired to eliminate that
error, forgetting that the error was the only thing that differen-
tiated his formula from Mr. Atkinson's. It might be asked, in
the interests of mining education, why Prof. Galloway had
* Practical Coal-mining , by Leading Experts in Mining and Engineering,
under the Editorship of Prof. W. S. Boulton, 1907, divisional volume i., page 138.
t Trans. Inst, M. £,, vol. xxxiii., page 121.
allowed his fo
he chose to ac
With resp
general chara
had already b
discovered anj
the approximj
he was please(
which was du
the tubbing c
(8) was stated)
(8) gave: a si
Appendix III
rational, as P:
to the ration
obtained. Co
of p, he (Mr.
Prof. Louis's
misprint. It
prepared to a(
and he set it
respective me
Louis's own (
W. J. il. Rt
vertical surfa*
adhering to t
apparently co
However, the
Prof. Louis ]
Kankine, wha
It was a m(
Louis should
formulae. H(
• "Shaft S
Jlxperts in Mininj
1907, diTiaional \
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682 DISCUSSION — CAST-IEON TUBBIXG.
applied equally well to the special case of a pressure of water^
in which case S equalled 1 and <f> equalled 0.'' But under these
conditions, by Prof. Louis's strictly rational formula:
tvh
and this was obviously false. But by Prof. Rankine's formula,,
applied under similar circumstances:
and this was obviously true. It would have been correct if he
had stated that the total pressure on the whole height of tubbing
per lineal inch of the outer circumference was :
but then, on the other hand, that result would agree with Prof.
Rankine's formula again, and the standard of sj'mmetry, to-
which Prof. Louis had appealed, would again confirm the
formula for p stated in the paper, which was precisely what Prof.
Louis desired it not to do.
The formulae used by Mr. Chaudron were, as Prof. Louis ought
to be aware, nothing more nor less than ** thin ''-cylinder formulae.
The only difference between them and those of Messrs, Andre,
Green well and HoUing worth was the difference of the arbitrary
numerical constants employed. Mr. Chaudron's rule was simply
Mr. Greenwell's tubbing formula with a different factor of
safety and an increased corrosion-term, just as Prof. Galloway's
formula (C), recommended by ** one of the first mathematicians
in France," was absolutely the same old ** thin ''-cylinder
fonnula which every pocket-book of engineering formulae pub-
lished during the last sixty years affirmed to be :
pd=2/f.
The work of the first mathematician of France evidently con-
sisted in approving the substitution of WH for p, and of R for f.
Surely Prof. Louis and Prof. Gallowaj' should be able to recog-
nize the old familiar inile-of-thumb formula as it came along, at
different times and in different garbs ; or how would they recog-
nize the true formula when it appeared ?
It was pleasing to learn that so high an authority as Mr. Prest
agreed with his (Mr. Halbaum's) views, and it was certainlj' high
time that founders should be able to supply the reliable metal
which Mr. Prest referred to in his concluding remark.
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DISCUSSION — CAST-IBON TUBBING. 68S
Dr. Morrow seemed to have too high an opinion of formula (A),
and might be referred to Appendix III. In fact, both Dr. Morrow
and Prof. Louis ought to see from Table I. that even the approxi-
mate practical formulae (7) was, within the limits of the tubbing
case, a slightly safer and a much more convenient rule than the
Aldis formula. It might be freely admitted that equation (6) was
only an approximation when applied as in the paper, but within
the limits of the tubbing case, the error was not worth noting.
The true formula, however, was correctly deduced in the ap-
pendix, and that by a mode of reasoning which illuminated the
principles in the sight of the practical man, instead of obscuring
them by a system of mathematics that few men could follow. Dr.
Morrow was also mistaken in thinking that the author had made a
large allowance for deterioration. On the contrary, the author
had striven to expose the folly of making any arbitrary allowance
at all, " large " or otherwise.
The Pbesident (Mr. M. Deacon) moved a vote of thanks to
Mr. Halbaum for his paper, which had elicited so lengthy a
discussion.
Mr. M. Walton Brown seconded the resolution, which was
cordially approved.
Mr. J. Gerhard (H.M. Inspector of Mines) moved a vote of
thanks to the President and Council of the Geological Society,
and to the President and Council of the Eoyal Astronomical
Society, for their kindness in granting the use of their rooms;
and to the owners of works to be visited during the course of the
meeting.
The Rev. G. M. Capell seconded the motion, which was very
cordially approved.
Mr. W. G. Phillips moved a cordial vote of thanks to the
President (Mr. Maurice Deacon), to Mr. J. C. Cadman (Past-
president), and Mr. C. C. Leach, for their services in the chair,
during the course of the meeting.
Mr. Henry Hall (H.M. Inspector of Mines) seconded the
motion, which was cordially agreed to.
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The following notes record some of the features of interest
seen by visitors to works, etc., which were, by kind permission
of the owners, open for inspection during the course of the
meeting on June 13th, 14th and 15th, 1907: —
PARK ROYAL POWER-STATION OF THE GREAT
WESTERN RAILWAY COMPANY.*
The power-station (figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4, plate xxiv.) situated at
Park Royal, beside the Great Western Railway Company's line
to High Wycombe, occupies about one-sixth of the ground avail-
able, and it is so designed and placed as to enable five other
similar stations to be built as the demand for power increasee.
The three-phase current is generated at from 6,300 to 6,600
volts and 50 periods per second. It is transmitted from Park
Royal by six high-tension, three-core, paper-insulated, lead-
covered and armoured cables, laid underground on the solid
system to the first sub-station at Old Oak Common. From Old
Oak Common sub-station five high-tension main feeders are
carried to Westboume Park, where they branch in a special
inspection-chamber, four feeders going to a sub-station at Royal
Oak, and three going to a sub-station near Shepherd's Bush.
The distance from Park Royal to Old Oak Common is about 1
mile, to Royal Oak about 4J miles, and to Shepherd's Bush about
b miles (fig. 5).
In the sub-stations the greater part of the three-phase current
is transformed by motor-generators from 6,500 volts to 600 volts
direct current; and at this pressure it is distributed from the
Royal Oak and Shepherd's Bush sub-stations by concentric lead-
covered cables to the conductor-rails of the Hammersmith and
City Railway. At Old Oak Common and at Royal Oak, the
direct current at 600 volts is also distributed for lighting the
locomotive-sheds, carriage-sheds, goods-yards, and ofiices, and
part of Paddington station. A part of the three-phase supply to
each sub-station is distributed at the full pressure of 6,500 volts
to eleven distributing centres, where it is transformed down by
static transformers to either 220 or 110 volts. At this pressure,
the alternating current is used for arc and incandescent lighting
and small motor-work throughout the stations, goods-yards,
offices, and hotel, at or near Paddington, and on the Hammer-
smith and City Railway.
• The Railway Times, 1»06, vol. Ixxxix., page 765.
FABK EOYAL POWEErSTATION.
685
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686 PARK EOYAL PO WEE-STATION.
Generating Units. — The main engine-room is buUt in tliree-
bays. Four three-phase generators of 750 kilowatts and engines,
are placed in line in each outer bay (fig. 6, plate xxv.), making
altogether a total capacity of 6,000 kilowatts. The three-phase
generators, built by the Electric Construction Company, are
of the ordinary rotating field-magnet type, star-connected, but
the centre-point is not permanently earthed. They have an
overload capacity of 25 per cent, for one hour. The arma-
tures can be slid sideways for inspection or repair. Each
generator is direct-coupled to a Belliss & Morcom triple-expan-
sion side-by-side engine running at 260 revolutions per minute.
The governor of each engine is controlled by an electric motor
from the switchboard gallery, for adjusting the load between sets
running in parallel. An electrically controlled emergency-
switch is also fitted to each engine, so that under emergency
steam could be entirely cut oflE by the switchboard hand.
AiLxiliary Plant, — The excitation-current for the main three-
phase generators is obtained from two auxiliary sets and two
batteriee. One of these exciters is steam-driven and the other
is motor-driven. The exciter-generators are similar machines,,
each of 150 kilowatts output at 220 volts. The auxiliary
Belliss & Morcom compound engine, with two cranks, is run at
428 revolutions per minute. The motor driving the second
exciter-set is a three-phase induction-motor designed for the full
high-tension pressure of 6,500 volts. The batteries, forming a
stand-bye for the excitation-supply, are worked in parallel with
the exciter-generators, with motor-driven boosters for charging
them from the omnibus-bars. Each exciter-generator, with its
battery, can be worked by itself, and used for exciting any or all
of the main generators when required. Two auxiliary three-
phase generators of 150 kilowatts output, one steam-driven and
the other motor-driven, generate three-phase current at 650^
volts. The steam-engine is a duplicate of that driving the
exciter-set described above, and the motor driving the three-
phase auxiliary generator is a direct-current motor, taking its
supply from one of the exciter switchboards.
The auxiliary three-phase supply at 650 volts is used prin-
cipally for driving the various motors throughout the generating
station, such as the circulating pumps for the condensers, the
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FABE KOYAL POWER-STATION. 687
automatic stokers on the boilers, the coal-conveyors, etc. A
three-phase switchboard for the auxiliai-y supply is placed on
the switchboard-gallery between the two main high-tension
switchboards. Two sets of step-down transformers are provided,
by which all the auxiliary three-phase plant can be driven when
necessary from the main high-tension supply without running
any of the auxiliary sets. The motor-driven three-phase genera-
tor can be used when required for charging feeders, or it can be
run backwards, taking current through the transformers from
the high-tension supply or direct from the auxiliary supply, and
delivering direct current to the exciter switchboard.
Switchboards. — Two main high-tension three-phase switch-
boards are placed at the western end of each main engine-room
bay. The two boards can be worked independently of each other,
or can have their omnibus-bars connected for working in parallel.
Each switchboard has a duplicate set of main omnibus-bars and
high-tension synchronizing omnibus-bars, used for testing and
charging the feeders as well as for synchronizing the generators.
Any generator or feeder can be connected to either set of main
omnibus-bars. The circuit from each main generator and each
feeder is branched and connected to two oil-break automatic
switches, each directly connected to one set of the main omnibus-
bars. By this arrangement the two automatic switches ar^ used
as selector-switches as well, and are also a stand-bye to each other.
The machines can be changed from one set of omnibus-bars to
the other, through the machine's own switches or through a
separate bar-coupling switch. In order to avoid any mistake in
synchronizing with the wrong set of omnibus-bars when switch-
ing in a generator, a system of mechanical interlocks is fitted at
the back of the control-panels.
The high-tension part of the switchboard consists of a steel
framework filled in with stone slabs. Each circuit runs from the
bottom to the top of the switchboard, and is separated from the
others by vertical stone partitions. The switches, transformers,
•etc., of each circuit are further separated from^ each other by
four horizontal partitions, dividing the whole structure into a
set of fireproof cells. Iron doors are fitted to the back of the
•cells, giving access for inspection and cleaning. The control
switchboard is placed on a gallery, and slightly in front of the
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kigh-tension switchboard. The main switches are worked by
rods and cranks from the control panels. All the instruments
are placed on the control panels, and are worked off transformers,
so that all connections on these panels are low tension.
Immediately in front of the control panels are placed the
main generator field-regulating resistance columns, and also a
set of signal columns and indicators by which the switchboard
attendant can communicate with the driver of the engine. At
the end of the centre bay of the engine room, the auxiliary three-
phase switchboard, working at 650 volts, is placed on the same
gallery as the main switchboard control panels. This auxiliary
board is also fitted with two sets of omnibus-bars, and is con-
nected through step-up transformers with each of the main high-
tension boards. The supply is, however, normally obtained from
the two three-phase auxiliary generators. Feeders are taken
from this switchboard to the various three-phase motors through-
out the power-house. Two direct-current exciter switchboards
working at 220 volts are placed, one at the end of each of the
main engine-room bays, at the floor-level, immediately under the
front of the main switchboard gallery. The two exciter switch-
boards can be worked separately or in parallel, and each is con-
nected to an auxiliary direct-current generator and to a storage-
battery. The supply for the excitation of the main and auxiliary
three-phase generators is taken from these switchboards, as well
as feeders for working the direct-current crane-motors and the
arc and incandescent lighting of the power-house.
Pipe-work. — The main steam-pipes between the boilers and
the generating plant are arranged on the duplicate system in
the boiler-house and on the ring system in the engine-room.
Each boiler is connected to two lines of steam-pipes carried down
the sides of the boiler-house and connected across the end of the
boiler-house above the pump-room. The ring of pipes in the
engine-room is connected to the double line of pipes in the
boiler-house through the necessary valves, and is divided into
sections by valves between the branch-pipes to the several engines.
The whole of the steam-pipes are made from solid-drawn steel
tubes.
Condensing Plant, — The condensing plant (fig. 7, plate xxv.),
placed in the centre bay of the engine-room, consists of four sur-
PAHK HOYAL POWER-STATIOX. 68^
face condensers with Edwards air-pumps and circulating pumps,
the main engines being connected in pairs to the condensers.
A small force-pump is also driven by each air-pump engine for
raising the condensed water to the filtering plant. The circulat-
ing pumps are of the centrifugal type, each driven by a three-
phase motor of 65 horsepower worked from the auxiliary supply
of 650 volts. The circulating water is brought by four pipes, run
in the basement under the centre bay, to the pump suction-pipes,,
and, after passing through the condensers, rises vertically to a
gallery over the centre bay, 30 feet above the floor level (fig.
8). The water passes back by two pipes along the gallery
and out at the western end of the engine-room to a set of four
Klein cooling-towers, among which it is distributed by pipes and
troughs. The water is collected in large concrete tanks below the
towers, from which it is drawn again by the circulating pump,
suction-pipes.
Oil-separating and Filtering. — The use of surface-condensers,
makes it necessary to remove all oil from the condensed water
before it is returned to the boilers. For this purpose a large oil-
separator is placed in the exhaust-pipe between each engine and
its condenser. From the bottom of this separator, the oil falls,
by gravity to a small steam-driven force-pump, by which it is
pumped to settling-tanks in the basement. After the condensed
water has passed through the air-pumps, it is lifted by the force-
pumps, driven by the same engines as the air-pumps, to the oil-
separating plant at the western end of the boiler-house. This elec-
trolytic plant is arranged in two units, which together are (iapable
of dealing with the whole of the water from the engines when
required. The clean water falls by gravity into two large hot-
well tanks placed in the basement under the feed-pump room
in the boiler-house. The make-up feed-water is treated in a
Paterson softening plant, supplied in duplicate to facilitate
overhauling and cleaning. After treatment, the water falls by
gravity into the two large hot-well tanks.
Boiler-house Plant, — ^The boiler-house contains ten Babcock
& Wilcox water-tube boilers arranged in two rows of five.
Each boiler is fitted with a superheater, and has suflicient
heating surface to render the use of economizers unnecessary.
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£tted with a i
from an over
Iwilers is driT
660 volts. W
claw-clutches i
required, drivi
A duplicai
at the westerD
boilers. Thes(
the eastern enc
plete duplicate
to both rings,
the -boilers car
suction-pipes i
basement of tl
feed-pumps cai
from the circu
Cocd'handli
of coal, are sh
the eastern en<
There are five
Crete, below w!
silo is built be)
so that the coa
made with bott<
Two tray-cc
transport the c<
the boots of t^
silo. The coal
above the boilei
bucket-conveyo:
house. Each t
three-phase ind
conveyor is dri
y^y to the elc
gravity to the
weighing mach
coal passed fro
conveyors run c
TOL. XXZIII.-1WM
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642 THE KNIGHT, BEVAN AND STtJEGE CEMENT WORKS.
boiler-house, where they pass over a row of large steel bunkers,,
into which the coal is discharged. These bunkers are built over
the boilers, and form a co^-store from which the coal falls by
gravity through measuring boxes into the hoppers of the chain-
grate stokers. The Klein coaJ-ineasuring boxes, one of which is
placed in front of each boiler, dre fitted with adjustable shutters
for calibrating their capacity, and with counters for registering
the number of times that each box is emptied. The bucket-con-
veyors, after passing over the coal-storage bunkers, pass down
vertically through the pump-room etid of the boiler-house to the
basement, along which they return under the boiler-house floor.
The ashes from the boilers are filled into the conveyors as they
pass below the boilers, and are so taken back to the railway-
siding, over which they are discharged into a large steel hopper,
whence they can be discharged by gravity into wagons.
THE KNIGHT, BEVAN & STTJHGE WORKS OF THE
ASSOCIATED PORIXAND CEMENT MANUFAC-
TURERS (1900), LIMITED, NORTHFLEET, KENT.
These works comprize one of the largest and most up-to-date
branches of the Associated Company, which was formed seven
years ago, and includes the manufacturers of nearly all the prin-
cipal brands of Portland cement made in this douhtry.
The visitors witnessed the quarrying of the chalk on the exten-
sive properties of the company, adjacent to the works, and the
importation of the alluvial clay from the river Med way, where
the company and their predecessors have purchased large supplies.
The estuaries 'of the Thames and Medway are acknowledged
to be the cradle of the industry, and the origin of Portland
cement dates back to 1824, when letters patent were obtained
by Mr. Joseph Aspdin for this material, which was first made
commercially at Northfieet, Swanscombe and Clifie, at works
which are now owned by the Associated Portland Cement Manu-
facturers.
At the washmills, the chalk and clay are amalgamated, in
fixed fim.d definite proportions, with about 43 per cent, of water,
and the mixture leaving these mills is of such a fineness that
95 to 97 per cent, will pass through a sieve having 32,400 holes
per square inch; The chalk consists of almost pure carbonate
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i
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3*L
I li^l-
U
a
(
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THE KNIGHT, BEVAN AND STURGE CEMENT WORKS, 648
of lime, and the clay of silicates of alumina and fine quartz-sand,
the ratio of total silica to alumina being about 3 to 1. The
materials thus reduced, and thoroughly amalgamated,, are
pumped to large storage-tanks, where the mixture is kept in
continual motion, and settlement prevented until the material is
transferred to the kilns for calcination. The whole of the process
is under the direct control of the works, chemists, who keep the
composition of the mixture constant, and thus ensure a perfectly
uniform and sound product.
In the second or chemical section of the manufapture, the
water present naturally in the raw materials, together with that
added for mixing purposes, is evaporated. The dry materials
thus obtained are gradually heated up to a temperature of 2,800
to 3,000 degrees Fahr., at which temperature the whole of the
carbonic anhydride of the chalk has been expelled, converting
the chalk into lime ; whilst the latter has entered into chemical
combination with the silica and alumina of the clay, thus form-
ing a double silicate of lime and alumina, which constitutes the
principal factor of Portland cement clinker. Here again the
greatest care is required during the process of calcination, so as
to prevent the production either of an under-burnt or of an over-
burnt product: the former being conducive to an unsound
cement, and the latter to an over-burnt inert slag.
It follows that the method of calcination which permits of
the maximum of control during the process should, be productive
of the first quality of cement clinker, and for this reason the
modem method of continuous burning with rotary kilns has
been found to excel all other more antiquated and intermittent
methods.
The whole of the process on the rotary system is under the
absolute control of the operator, who can regulate the quantity
of raw material entering the kiln, the amount of fuel (pulverized
coal) being injected to keep up the temperature, and the speed
of rotation of the kiln, thus governing* the output at will ; and
so the calcined clinker leaves the kiln in a stream of small
particles, in which any variation of hardness is easily detected
and immediately rectified.
One other important improvement obtained by this method of
calcination is the exclusion from the clinker of practically all
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644 THE KNIGHT, BEVAN AND STUHGE CEMENT WORKS.
the ash from the fuel, which passes away with the escaping gases.
In the old intermittent method of burning, this ash is retained
in the product of the kiln, thus contaminating the clinker with
which it eventually gets ground. To such an extent does this
obtain with clinker burned in old-fashioned kilns, that the
amount of ash from the coke used, consisting of silicates of alu-
mina, etc., is sufficient to reduce the proportion of lime in the
cement from what would be 64 per cent., if the dried slurry could
be burned out of contact with this ash, to Gl per cent., the
amount usually found in a cement manufactured by the old
process. The absence of this inert matter is one of the causes of
the superiority of rotary-burned cement.
The heat in the clinker falling from the kilns is extracted
by means of passing the same through rotary coolers, the finished
clinker being delivered cold ready for the third process of
mechanical grinding.
The process of grinding the clinker economically is one that
has received much attention of late years, and at these works
the most modem machinery is used for the purpose, namely, the
ball-mill and the tube-mill. By this system the clinker is ground
to a coarse powder by the ball-mill, which powder is subsequently
reduced to the required fineness by means of the tube-mill, the
fineness being regulated by the amount of the feed entering the
mill.
The ball-mill consists of a cylinder revolving round a
horizontal axis with perforated plates around its circumference.
The grinding is effected by means of steel balls, which roll on
the bottom of the mill, falling from plate to plate as the mill
revolves, crushing the clinker. The crushed clinker is thrown
on to sieves on the periphery of the mill, that which is fine enough
passing through, and the residue returning automatically to the
mill as it revolves.
The tube-mill is a cylinder 26 feet long and 5 feet in diameter,
charged with flint-x>ebbles to a point about the centre ; as the tube
revolves, the cement passing through is subject to the attrition of
the falling stones, and is reduced to any required degree of fineness
by the regulation of the quantity of feed supplied to the mill.
It will be understood that this is a very costly part of the
manufacturing process, the cost of grinding being in direct ratio
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to the finene
valuable the
The most mi
reduction of
through a 5(
sieve, 95 per »
per cent, thi
corresponding
inch respecti^
It is at th
the setting-ti;
made and fin
ground, very
tion of the ra\>
the finer the |
cement prodi
quicker the se
Except for
not desirable ;
to neutralize
of the recogni
addition of vf
as some engii
material, the :
attaining the
A new and
some time, was
facturers (190(
the final stage
by injecting i
steam, regulal
enclosed mill
revolves, carr;
therein, every
and repeated j
the mill in th(
equally treatei
follows quite
setting cemeni
YQL. XXXIII.-1)
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atmospnere, Decomes slow-setting, ana tnat m proportion to ine
period of aeration; and it also improves in soundness by the
neutralization of any particles of free lime present through the
absorption of water and carbon dioxide (COj) from the atmos-
phere. This action is very imperfect, however, when cement is
stored in bulk, and can only be in a measure successfully accom-
plished by continually turning over the cement and exposing
fresh surfaces to aeration.
Practically the whole of the works are electrically driven, the
main generating station consisting of four Belliss high-speed
engines coupled direct to Westinghouse generators.
After inspecting the foregoing departments of the manu-
facture proper, the members visited the cooperages, where the
necessary packages for export are made in special machinery,
which is the subject of patents owned by the company.
ELECTRIC T
AND COLLII
The iiistor]
About 1891
a certain amo
rent at 600 vol
(1) Three
narrow-gauge
of bringing th<
are situated, t
triangle with
side.
(2) Numerc
at the surface,
(3) Two sn
220 gallons (1
feet (80 metre
metres) level a
8,000 gallons (
525 feet (160 n
650 metres) lev
The old di]
feet (550 metre
The experi<
been working :
installation hat
a point that i
the pumps on i
At the con
• **Lln8talla
-de, HoniUe dn Qra
VEeole ProvincicUe
xiii., page 284.
t Tranalated
VOL. XXXIII.-!*
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648 ELBCTEIC TRANSlilSSIOK OF FOWEH.
replace the old direct-acting pump, which, wad too weak ami
threatened to break down, by one single underground pump
installed at a depth of 2,296 feet (700 metres). At this stage,
however, it waa considered advisable to put in a central electric-
station and to supply by means of it the following, namely : —
(a) Three winding-engines at pits Noe. 7, 9, and 12.
(6) Two fans of 200 horsepower each, at pits Nos. 2 and 8,
(c) Two pumps of 125 horsepower each.
{d) Motors for the screening plant, taking about 200 horsepower.
(e) Underground haulage, requiring about 100 horsepower.
(/) Machine-shops and repair-shops, requiring about 100 horsepower.
iff) Lighting and the plant Worked by the existing continuous
current, equal to 300 horsepower.
(h) Sufficient reserve of power.
Finally, it was decided to put in a main central station, and,,
provisionally, a subsidiary generating-station comprising a three-
phase dynamo under the same conditions as those to be laid down
at the main central station, which should have an effective power
of 150 kilowatts at 1,250 volts, a periodicity of 47 alternations,
and 185 revolutions per minute. It is pla<5ed in a side building
and driven by belting from the reserve steam-engine of the
subsidiary central station.
The electric generator is connected to four motors by means of
an air-line 1,969 feet (600 metres) in length, together with a
short length of underground cable beneath the sorting-house.
The motors of the screening plant (2 in number) work the
screens and conveyors; their power is equal to 50 horsepower
at 335 revolutions per minute. One motor drives an endless-
chain haulage, 1,148 feet (350 metres) in length, and another an
aerial ropeway 2,625 feet (800 metres) in length. Each of these
motors is of 25 horsepower at 335 revolutions per minute. These
respective motors are of the same tyi)e, and completely inter-
changeable. Recently, three triphase motors of 15 horsepower
each have been added.
The rotors of these machines have startin^^-rings connected
with a fluid resistance. Once the motor has attained its full
ispeed, it is possible to short-circuit the rotor, so as to get the
best possible efficiency. This installation has been working
since December, 1902, and in spite of great difficulties of work-
ing, due to such causes as dust, damp, and overload, the motors
have given no trouble whatever.
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electeic teansmission of powbk. 6*9
Central Eleoteical Station.
As already stated, this central station is for the present suffi*
cient to work the whole of the mine and works of the Grand-
Hornu. It is placed near pit "No, 7.
Boilers.— The boiler-house, 105 by 66 feet (32 by 17
metres), contains at present six semi-tubular boilers, having
each 2,153 square feet (200 square metres) of heating-surface,
blowing off at a pressure of 142 pounds per square inch (10
kilogrammes per square centimetre). Space has been reserved
for eight boilers altogether. The evaporative power amounts to
6,610 pounds (3,000 kilogrammes) of steam per hour, so that
with five boilers working, 2,500 horsepower can be produced,
which is sitfficient for the needs of the moment.
The safety appliances comprise two Lethuillier-Pinel valves
with gradual discharge and blow-off pipe, float-indicator,
whistles showing excess and deficiency of water, watergauge, and
pressure-gauge. Each boiler has a superheater of the Hering
system of Nuremberg, raising the temperature of the steam to
5360 to 5720 Fahr. (280° to 300° Cent.). The employment of this
superheater is fully justified, for experiments have shown a
saving of fuel amounting to 16 per cent. The superheater consists
essentially of two series of horizontal worms made of steel tubes
1*38 inches (35 millimetres) in internal diameter, terminating in
collectors of cast steel, placed vertically at the four comers on
the outside of the block of masonry of the superheater. The two
front collectors communicate with the steam-dome; those at the
back with the steam-pi}>e.
The boilers are fired by mechanical firers made by the
Economical Firing Company (Spaarfeuerungs Gesellschaft) of
Diisseldorf. The coal is teemed into a brick cellar, and raised
by a bucket-chain into the trough of an archimedean screw con-
veyor, which conveys it to the hoppers of the fire-places ; the ooal is
then pushed forward, over a front fireplate and the interior in-
clined wall of the doors, on to the firebars by a rectangular piston,
the stroke and speed of which can be regulated as desired. There
are two pistons and hoppers for each fire-place. The latter con-
sists of steel grates, which have a slow movement produced by a
cam keyed to a shaft situated in front of and outside the fire-place.
This movement advances all the firebars simultaneously, and then
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brings them back successively to their original position. The
first movement advances the coal, the second clears the grates
and discharges the fine ashes. Ordinary firedoors are provided, so
as to enable hand-firing to be employed should any accident hap-
pen to the machinery. The ashes are picked up mechanically by a
chain trauspork^i^ which drops them directly into ci truck. A
15 horsepower triphase motor works the firebars and th*? trans-
porters for coals and a^hes. The ad^-^iintages of these prrates are
as follows: — (1) They consume the smoke almost entirely, the
coal being first distilled inid the gases thiis generated subse-
quently burnt. (2) They eftect a saving of coal, owing to tbe
complete rombu.stion produced by working with doors always
closed, and by the rational distribution ol iuel, (3) The bar?i
are cleaned mechanically vrithout stopping the firing, (4) Com-
bined with mechanical transport, they keep the boiler-honse
neater and cleaner. (5) They produce economy of labour^ two
men sufficing for eight boilers. The boilers are fed by a
Worth ingf on pump and a 15 horsepower eleclrie pump. The
steam is conveyed to the engines by diuwn-steel tubes 10 inclies
(25 centimetres) in diameter, covered with JLagniette- composi-
tion. Each boiler can, of course, be shut nif indepeDdentiy from
the main steam -pipe. There is no steam reservoir.
Ciuttal Station,— Th'i^ lies at the side of the boiler-bouse*
separattnl from it by a passage of 20 feet (iJ metres), and is 69 by
79 feet (21 by 24 metres), with a wing 69 by 20 feet (21 by 6 metres).
The engine-house i;^ supplied with a 25 tons hand- travelling crane,
which itself weighs 18 tons.
Fiviit Group of Gtrtrratars. — A hori^ontiil tandem *compoun3
condensing steam-engine drives directly a triphaso ^nerator.
The engine has balanced valves of the Sulzer-Cai'els type, with
cut-off of the high'pressuie cylinder regulated by the governor
and fixed cut-off on the low-pressure cylinder. The dimensions
of the engine are as follows:^
Diameter of th« high.preaaure cylinder, 51^ tnehes (O'S iDctre).
DUtneter of the low-pressure cylmder, 51 isichea (1*3 metres).
Stroke, 5S inohcs (1/S5 matreB).
Velocity, ft9 revolutions per minute.
Fistoo -velocity, l^ feet (3 '96 metreH) pet aeoond.
Diameter^) of the piston-rods^ 6| and 7 inches (165 and 180
mUlimetres) respeotively.
.ELBCTMC TIIANSMISSJQN OF, POWER. 651
With an initial pressure of 128 pounds per square inch (9
kilogrammes per square centimetre), iand at cut-offs of
3 per cent., 6 per cent., 16 per cent., 36 per cent., it ia capable of developing
625 825 1,340 2,100 indicated horsepower, respec-
tively, with a oorveepondiBg consumption oi
12 pounds 11} pounds 11 i pounds 14 pounds of steam superheated to
(5-5 kilo- (5-25 kUo- (5-25 kilo- (6-5 kUo- 500° Fahr. (260^ Cent. ).
grammes) grammes) grammes) grammes)
The condenser works by injection, is placed below the cross-
head guides, and is worked by means of a vertical connecting-
rod and bent lever. The governor is arranged to control the
engine, so that when all the load is taken off the speed shall not
increase by more than 6 per cent., and shall be brought back to
3 per cent, in 20 seconds. Furthermore, a special arrangement
shuts off all the steam, destroys the vacuum of the condenser,
and stops the engine in case of any accident to the governor or to
the valves. The co-elBcient of regularity is ^Ijy,
It need hardly be said that all the oiling arrangements are
of the most perfect type. Thp engine is started by a little steam
turning-gear working directly upon the rim of the flywheel,
Running empty and without current, the engine absorbs about
100 horsepower. The triphase generator works at 1,260 volts,
47 alternations, or 23*5 periods, and is capable of giving out
normally 2,000 kilo- volt-amperes, or 1,600 kilowatts effective
with cos. <l> = 0'8. (The periodicity has been fixed to suit the
speed of the winding-engine.) The rotor is in four pieces, keyed
on a shaft, 26f inches in diameter (0*68 metre), and, mounted
complete, weighs 75 tons (75,000 kilogrammes). It carries thirty^
two poles with induction-coils. The weight of the copper in these
coils amounts to nearly 5 tons (5,000 kilogrammes). The stator,
16^ feet (4*95 metres) in the clear, with a width of iron for the
magnets of 31^ inches (800 millimetres), contains in 480 recesses
the high-tension coils formed of bars of copper insulated by
micanite. The stator is in two pieces, and weighs altogether
38A tons (38,500 kilogrammes). The amount of clearance be^
tween the rotor and stator is 0*3 inch (7*5 millimetres).
The efficiency of the alternators (cos. <^=:0'8) is 95 per cent,
at full load, 93 per cent, at half -load, and 88 per cent, at quarter-
load. The fall of tension between running light and running
at full load is at most 7 per cent.
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652 BLECTEIC TBANSMISSION OF POWER.
The second group of generators has a power double that of the
first ; that is to say, it conaiBts of two tandem-compound engines
of the same dimensions iM^d same construction, acting at an
angle of 90 degrees on the same shaft. Each engine has its
separate condenser. This engine, therefore, at 80 revolutions per
minute, with cut-oSs of
3 per cent., 5 '5 per cent., 16 per cent., 36 per cent, can evolve
1,260 1,690 2,680 4,180 indicated horsepower re-
spectively, with a steam-consnmption of
12 pounds 11) pounds 11} pounds 14^ pounds of steam per horsepower,
(5-5 kUo- (5-25 kilo- (5*25 kilo- (6*5 kilo- superheated to a tern-
grammes) grammes) grammes) grammes) perature of 500° Fahr.
(260** Gent.), at a pressure of 9 atmospheres.
The steam consumption is guaranteed, the guarantee being
subject to a beavy penalty, which increases for every i pound
(200 grammes) of additional steam consumed. The engine run-
ning empty absorbs 210 horsepower. The rotor of the electric
generator is keyed between the two cranks, on a sbaft 29^ inches
(075 metre) in diameter; it is in four parts, and weighs 100
tons (100,000 kilogrammes) when complete. It consists
of a cast-iron flywheel, on the rim of which is keyed the lamin-
ated magnetic crown which carries the thirty-two pole pieces. The
thirty-two msugnetizing ooils contain 10 tons (10,000 kilogrammes)
of oopper. The enormous weight of this rotor flywheel has been
so calculated as to store momentum equal to the energy necessary
for the simultaneous starting of the three winding-engines.
The engine is started by a little steam-starter acting upon the
iron crown. The stator, 24 feet (7*30 metres) in the clear, with a
width of iron magnets equal to 23^ inches (600 millimetres),
haa 384 recesses for the high-teuBion ooils. The total length of
the miachine is 33 feet (10 metres). The frame is in four pieces,
and weighs altogether about 66 tons (56,400 kilogrammes). The
clecurance is 0*55 inch (14 millimetres). The guajraunteed efficiency
of this generator is 97 per cent, at full-load, 93 per cent, at half-
load, and 91 i>er cent, at quarter-load, with a value of cos. <l> = 0'8.
The fall of tension between running empty and running at full
load must not exceed 7 per cent. The machine can withsiamd over-
loads of 15 per cent, with a fall of cos. <l> = 0*76. The capacity of
this generator is double that of the first, or 4,000 kilo-volt-amperes,
equal to 3,200 kilowatts, with coa.<l> =0*8.
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ELECTRIC TRANSMISSION OF POWER. 658
The central station has a capacity, therefore, of 6,280 horse-
power, or 12*5 horsepower per square metre (10 J squfere feet) of floor
space of the building. The 4,000 horsepower engine is sufficiently
powerful to furnish energy to the whole installation, and will
suffice to start simultaneously the three winding-engines, so that
normally this will be the only portion working. The smaller unit
of 2,000 horsepower is in reserve. As there is greater danger of an
accident to the steam-engine than to the generator, there are alto-
gether three identical steam-engines, of which two are coupled to
the same generator. In case, therefore, of an accident to one of
the two tandem-compound engines, the connecting-rod can be
uncoupled, working with one side only, the large motor working
at half-load, which can be connected directly with the smaller
unit, giving together the 4,000 horsepower required. In case
of any accident to the alternator, which would be a very extra-
ordinary events the small unit can be made to do the work by spac-
ing it and starting the winding-engines successively. This can
be done, seeing that each driver has before him a voltmeter and
an ammeter. The voltmeter will indicate a certain momentary
fall of current-tension, lasting for a few seconds, when any of the
winding-engines are started.
Rotary Transformer. — ^In addition to these two groups of
steam-driven generators, there is at the central station a rotary
transformer, consisting of three dynamos keyed to the same
shaft : —
(a) In the centre, a triphase motor of 350 horsepower and 460
revolutions per minute.
(h) On the one side, a continuous-current dynamo of 90 kilo-
watts and 240 volts, acting as exciter for the alternators, and
capable of supplying the general lighting. This dynamo is so
constructed that, by employing a tension-divider, it is possible
to work the lighting installation at 2 x 110 volts, with one
dynamo.
(e) On the other side, a continuous-current dynamo of 135
kilowatts at 600 volts to supply energy to the existing installa-
tion, as also a shunting locomotive of 100 horsepower for the nor-
mal gauge of rail. Finally, a little battery of PoUak accumulators
of 135 ampere-hours has been installed, to be used in case of need
for lighting, and when it is necessary to start the alternators at
times when the works are completely stopped.
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B51 ELECTBIC TBANSHISSIOX OF POWE&.
The switchboard is a very importaat part of the central sta-
tion, and is of especial interest to electricians. It consists of
three floors, one above the other:— r
(a) The upper floor-level, with a gallery 41 feet (12'5 metres)
long, forms the portion visible from the inside of the engine-
room. It consists of twelve panels of white marble, in
front of which are placed all the measuring instruments and the
switches for the continuous current, handles for working regu-
lators, and the oil-switches of the large dynamos, as also the
handles for working the distant switches of the high-tension
triphase circuits. Behind it there is a space 8 J feet (2*5 metres)
wide, in which are placed the connections, safety-fuses for the
continuous current, the regulators for exciting the continuous
and triphase dynamos, and a little appliance for charging the
battery.
(b) The intermediate level is accessible only by a staircase
opening behind the switchboard, and encloses the high-tension
apparatus. The entry to this place will be strictly forbidden
during working hours, as it is well known that any contact with
conductors of a 1,250 volts current is sui&cient to cause death.
(c) The third level underground below the engiHe-room con-
tains the bars and cables connecting the dynamos and the start-
ing-points of the underground cables.
The current collected from the fixed terminals of the alternators
is brought to the second level of the switchboard by aluiminium
bars carried on insulators and enclosed in metallic shea4:hing,
so as to prevent any accidental contact with them. Between the
three omnibus-bars for 1,250 volts and each of the generators is
placed an oil-switch worked from the upper-level of the switch-
board by means of a chain, as also a tripolar switch worked by
hand. The triphase measuring-transformers make it possible to
observe at a perfectly safe low tension of 60 volts the appliances
of the switchboard, voltmeter, ammeter, and watt-meter, carried
upon marble slabs. Each branch from the omnibus-bars in-
cludes a hand-switch and a special oil-switch, which is automatic,
and can be worked electrically by means of a double contact (one
to close it, the other to open it), situated on the front of the
marble switchboard. This may require. some explanation. Out-
side the oil-reservoir of these automatic switches are two electro-
magnets excited by the continuous current at 240 volts. One of
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the other ca
opens autom;
maker, it is
these electro
catch is auto'
current excet
switches com
in charge oj
circuit witho
he would be <
Cables. — ]
underground,
sealed in leat
as follows : -^
(1) To the 1
(50 m
millinn
(2) To the w
aectioi
(3) To the fa
of cop]
(4) To the I
same.
(5) To the 8C]
same.
(6) To the ui
0118:
(7) Tothero
incheB
These cab;
(GO to 80 cent
in. Their pc
the public ro;
boiler-flu«.
Cooling, —
(225 litres) pe
horsepower at
hour. It waj
supply of wat<
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with sufficient water to make up the loss by evapoiration. This
•cooling-appliance is an immense pond with sloping sides, measur-
ing 40 by 80 feet (12 by 24 metres) at the bottom, and 56 by
95 feet (17 by 29 metres) at the surface of the ground, with a total
depth of 20 feet (6 metres). In the bottom there are always
^4,000 gaUons! (290 cubic metres) of water to a depth of 40 inches
(1 metre). Over the pond is erected from ite bottom a huge
wooden shaft 72J feet (22 metres) in total height, rising 56 feet
{17 metres) above the aurface, measuring at the base 'SZ by
72i feet (10 by 22 metres) and at the top IGi by 40 feet {5 by 14
metres). The overflow from the condensers is brought to the
ground-level, passes through a grease -extract or. then runs
through a series of wooden canals of decreasing dimensions, and
is finally allowed to drop in spray over a series of baffle-plates of
inclined planks. The chimney, by introducing a current of fresh
air, draws away the steam. The apparatus is calculated for cool-
ing 128,000 gallons (580 cubic metres) of water per hour with an
external temperatiire of 68 "^ Fabr. (20^^ Cent.), the water leaving
the overflow at 140*^ Fahr. (60^ Cent.). The oooHng^appliance is
to bring this temperature down to 86^ Fahr. (30° Cent.).
The Winding-engine (plate xxvi., flgs. 1, 2, 3 and 4). — The
moat interesting portion of the injstallation is without doubt the
electric winding-engine. Two identical winding-enginea have been
laid down at pit^ Nos. 7 and 12, that at No. 7 undergoing its tests
at the time when the paper was written. A similar engine, but
rather less powerful, is intended for pit No 9. The new electric
winding-engine for pit No. 7 is placed directly behind the steam
winding-engine which it is to replace, in a new engine-house 49 J
by 62^ feet (15 by 16 metres). The winding capacity is 66 tons per
hour from a depth of 3,2S0 feet (1,000 metres); 38 seconds are
allowed for changing tubs, but by shortening this time it will be
possible to increase the capacity of the machine. The actual depth
of the shaft is, however^ only 2,330 feet (710 metres) at present,
The following figures have been taken as a basis for calcula-
tion:—
Deptb, 3,280 feet (1,000 metrea).
UB«fal live load^ 5,7S2 pounds (2,600 bilogranimei ; six tabs}.
Weight of tub«, 2,773 pouadB (1,260 ttUogrammea),
Weight of c&gCj 4,410 pounds (2,000 kilogr&mmet)).
having the fo]
Lengths of 8ecti<
Fteet. .
]
0. 394
394. 720
1
720-1,060
2
1,050-1,380
3!
1,3801,706
4
1,706-2,080
6
2,030-2,360
6:
2,360-2,690
7:
2,690-3,020
8:
3,020.3,346
9!
3,345.3,676
1,01
Mean wei
Mean thi
The dianK
the initial tw
IS SECONDS
Fig. I.-^Diaoha;
perly speaking
can therefore 1
The rate oJ
realized in prs
mittedly suffic
of the motor h
of constant vel
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656
ELECTBIC TBANSMISSION OF BOWER,
has determined the rate of altemationB to be allowed for the in-
stallation. To determine the power required to start the engine,
the mass to be accelerated has been calculated by the following'
(fig. 2).
PD' of the two drums uid the brake-drum .
PD* of the rotors
PD- of the pulleys
PD' total
220,000
100,000
16,000
1,000,000
^^a HOfiSEPOWLR
Taking friction at 25 per cent., the effective power required for
the winding-motor will be shown by the following diagram
(fig. 2):- ;
The electrical portion is carried out in
a style analogous to that of Preuasen II
of the Harpen Colliery, Limited, of Dort-
mund. The triphase current of 1,260 Tolts,
' and 23^ periodicities per second is brought
from the .central station by an under-
ground cable. From the tripolar safety-
fuses the three
bars taking the cur-
rent pass into an
oil - switch, which,
acts as a safe-
ty - switch ; then
through the re-
versing mechanism
to the fixed termi-
nals of the stator.
The stator is made up of two lateral cast-iron checks, bound firmly
together by hollow stays, which results in a very much lighter
stator than would otherwise be the case. It has an inside diameter
of 12J feet (370 metres), and a« width of iron of 25^ inches (650
millimetres), and weighs 16 tons. The clearance between stator and
rotor is 0128 inch (3*26 millimetres). Any wearing* of the bearings
can be taken up by lowering or raising the stator by means of
micrometer screws. The rotor weighs 13 tons. The induced current
is taken up from three cast-iron rings by brushes of very soft
brass ; it is carried directly to the liquid-resistance starter, whi<^
serves to start and regulate the speed of the engine. This appli-
ance, which is a patent of the General Electric Company, has been
Fig. 2.— Diaokam of effxctiyx Poweb ok
WiNDIHO-MOTOB.
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ELECTBIC TKANSIOSSION OF POWEB.
659
TOVte ROTOH
6 .6 6
'y^ STEAM OUTLET
tested on the high-speed line from Berlin to Zossen with a
nLaximmn i>ower of 3,000 horsepower. It has been applied to the
engine of Preussen No. II colliery, where it hajs been working per-
fectly for fourteen months. The mode of construction is indicated
in fig. 3.
In an internal vessel, having a capacity of 108 cubic feet (3
cubic metres), are suspended the sheet-iron electrodes, supported
upon porcelain in order to insulate them from the body of the ap-
paratus, and connected with the three phases of th© rotor. The
liquid, a solution of soda, is pumped into this reservoir by means
of a little centrifugal pump worked by a 3 horsepower triphase
motor constantly running. As long as the intake-valves of the
vessels are open, the fluid runs freely into an external vessel con-
taining a cooling-tube. If
the valves are closed, the
liquid rises and closes the
circuit between the three
phases of the rotor, which
begins to turn slowly. The
higher the level to which the
liquid rises, the deeper are
the electrodes plunged into
it, the less is the resistance,
and the nearer does the motor
approach to its normal ve-
locity, reaching this speed
when the level of the liquid
reaches an overflow, which is
always open. The period of ac-
celeration can easily be regulated once for all by the rate of dis-
charge of the pump by means of a valve placed in the delivery-pipe.
By this means the engine-driver can never start too rapidly ; and,
in starting, jerk upon the ropes is entirely prevented. The levers
actuate the valves of the starting switch and of the reversing
switch (to which they are connected by the same lever worked
by the engineer), turn the current into the stator, and close
the valve of the starting-switch ; so that one simple movement of
the lover, forward or backward from its vertical position suf-
fices to start the engine. An adjustable overflow is arranged at
the bottom of the reservoir, so that the iron plates shall con-
, Q TO THE
CIKCULATING
PUMP
Fig. 3.— Liquid-rbsistance Stabtsb.
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660i £L£CTBIC TBANSMIBSIOK OF POWEB.
atantly dip a little distance into the solution to enable the motor
to start as soon as the current is sent into the stator and to aivoid
sparking at the edges of the iron plates. Moreover, the depth of
tibis first hath can be regnlaied as desired, so as to be able to
start at variable speeds ; for instance, when hoisting light loads.
Experience at Freussen No. II colliery has shown that these
starting-switches enable any desired speed to be attained with any
desired load, and that these speeds oan be maintained without
difficulty. Moreover, the machine is very easily handled, and
the starting is veiy sonooth and without jerk.
All necessary safety appliances have been attieu^hed, namely :
(1) A progressive brake tor normal runnings, worked by
means of an ordinary brake-lever. At No. 7 pit steam has been
used for the brake, as this pit is only 65| feet (20 metres) away
from the boilers. At No. 12 pit, air compressed to four atmos-
pheres by a 6 horsepower motor is employed.
(2) A safety-brake, with counterpoise, to be worked by the
engineer by means of a pedal, which will at the same time open
the safety-switch. This brake will only be used in oases of acci-
dent in the shaft or to the engine.
(3) A vertical depth-indicator, with double screw, shows the
position of the cages in the pit and signalizes their arrival within
98i feet (30 metres) of the surface.
(4) This indicator also forms an apparatus to prevent over-
winding. When the cage has risen 1 or 2 yards (1 or 2 metres)
above the banking-out level, as may be desired, the saiety-switch
is automatically opened, so that no current passes to the motor,
whilst the steam brake immediately stops the engine.
(5) There is a retarding apparatus, which automatically
brings back the starting-lever to such a point that the cage can
only arrive at the banking-out level at a very slow speed — 1 yard
(1 metre), for example— whenever the machinist for any cause
whatever may neglect to do his work. This retarding apparatus
can be easily regulated for raising or lowering materials or men,
so that the moment in which the starting-lever is acted upon
may be delayed.
(6) If for any cause whatever the current should fail, an
electro-magnet immediately loses its X)ower; its armature drops,
and, in falling, throws over levers which work the safety-switch
and put on both brakes.
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(7) A Karli
and is comhiiK
maximnm spe
voltmeter^ am:
full sight of
safety-appliani
wlwn electricit
winding plant
that the triph
able overloads
station. Eina
the appearance
of a steam-eng
lever to be m
lever; (3) a 1(
before slow stc
are riding; (4)
to modify the
apparatus.
TTndbeg
The nnderi
(710 metres) ii
feet (4-25 mei
height. A littl
erection of the
by a series of c
by 150 by 14
the spaces beti
tion of the i
block of cone
plant consists
revolutions pe
capable of for
a height of 2,3
4 and 5| inch
tively. The m
piston-speed o
veyed by a trip
millimetres) c
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shaft. The electric fitting are reduced to a tripolar switch, an
oil-switch, and an ammeter. The motor is furnished with
starting-rings communicating with a liquid resistance, which is
short-circuited in normal running.
The principle of the Riedler pump is well known.: it is an
ordinary short-stroke pump, working at a great number of revo-
lutions per minute, the suction-valve of which is placed around
the piston. This valve, which opens automatically at the com-
mencement of the period of suction, is closed positively at the end
of the stroke by contact with the piston itself. Air is supplied to
the air-vessel by a little compressor driven by a special electro-
motor of 6 horsepower. The rising-main is of Mannesmann rolled
steel, of 4J inches (108 millimetres) internal diameter. Before tie
rising-main and the principal air-vessel there is placed a valve
with a bye-pass and spring safety-valve. The mechanical efficiencv
of the pump is guaranteed at 80 per cent., and that of the motor at
90 per cent. The installation at the time when the paper was
written was working well.
Fans.
There is nothing special to mention except the small size of
the plant. The Capell fan at No. 8 pit, worked directly by a
triphase motor of 200 horsepower at 270 revolutions per minute,
is capable of delivering from 2,120 to 2,880 cubic feet (60 to 80
cubic metres) per minute at a watergauge of 6 to 10 inches (150
to 250 millimetres). The motor is coupled to the fan by means
of an elastic coupling. The motor is furnished with starting-
rings, and the starter allows a permanent reduction of velocity
of 30 per cent.
TRI
CT
^
^
^
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FLORENCE COAL AND IRON COMPANY, LIMITED.*
By an unfortunate error, the description of Florence Colliery^
visited by the members of The Institution of Mining Engineers
during the course of their Annual General Meeting, held at
Hanley, September 12th, 13th and 14th, 1906, was inserted under
the heading of the " Stafford Coal and Iron Company, Limited,'*
instead of the " Florence Coal and Iron Company, Limited."
DISCUSSION OF MR. H. W. G. HALBAUM'S PAPER O^
"CAST-IRON TUBBING: WHAT IS ITS RATIONAL
FORMULA?"!
Mr. H. W. G. Halbaum (Birtley) wrote that he had overlooked
certain clerical errors in some of the figures contained in his
paper, as under: —
Page 598, Table L, column (B), bottom line: for 2*160 read
12-160; .column (C), bottom line : for 1-750 read 11-750.
Page 616, ninth line from top : for R— , etc., read
• Trans. Inst. M, E,, 1906, vol. xxxii., page 216.
t Ibid., 1907, vol. xxxiii., page 567.
MEMO]
Sir Lowthij
Tyne in 1816,
wellkno\*Ti fim
works at Walk
the largest of tl
ter of Mr. Isaac
Sir Lowthia
academy in his
Edinburgh Un:
of the Sorbonn<
At the time
Walker Ironw<
Lowthian was i
In 1<S50, he, to^
Mr. B. B. Bow
ington, the late
of the firm. Ii
the Washing^;©]
. attention to the
on the banks o:
honourably ass(
the Cleveland i
great iron-trade
associated with
Losh, Wilson a
firm, shortly be
Tees. His disc*
most energetic d
Bell, and his bi
pioneers in the
about 30 acres (
Tees, opposite 1
Ironworks; and
Brothers has he
with the iron-t
acres has been eu
200 acres in ex
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and coal-royalties in Durham were secured and worked by them,
and for many years past the company has given employ-
ment to about 6,000 workmen. Every improvement in the
mode of production of iron was adopted by the firm, the result
being- that the Clarence works have been regarded among iron-
manufacturers as models of perfection. The small blast-furnaces
originally erected were replaced by large structures, built on the
most improved principles, and the firm was tl^ first in Cleveland
. to adopt the plan of utilizing the waste-gases which escaped from
the furnaces.
The great difficulty in the smelting of Cleveland ores in
regard to steel is the high percentage of phosphorus (1'8 to 2 0
per cent.) contained in the cast-iron which they yield; yet
Middlesbrough, largely as the results of experiments carried
on under Sir Lowthian's directions, at a cost, it is said, of
between £40,000 and £50,000, produces steel-rails in which the
percentage is reduced to 007 or less. Many thousand tons of
such basic-steel rails have been laid on the North-eastern Eail-
way, and the careful records kept of their behaviour convinced
Sir Lowthian that neither in loss of weight by wear nor in the
number of breakages did they give any grounds for complaint
In connection with rails, it is interesting to note, as an illustra-
tion of the advances made during his exceptionally long and
active life, that he remembered wooden rails in use on the tram-
roads by which coal wa« brought down to the river Tees.
To Messrs. Bell Brothers, Middlesbrough is also indebted for
the development of the salt industry. In 1862, Messrs. Bolckow
and Vaughan, when boring for water for their works on the south
side of the Tees, proved a bed of salt at a depth of 1,313 feet;
but apparently no use was then made of so important a discovery.
Ten years later, Messrs. Bell Brothers had a boring made at Port
Clarence, on the north side of the Tees, and, at a depth of 1,127
feet, found a stratum of salt, which is about 100 feet thick; and
in the year 1882 commenced working this valuable bed of rock-
salt. In 1888, they disposed of their salt-works to the Salt Union,
Limited ; and in the year 1884, erected a soda-works, where alkali
containing 58 per oent. of causticity was manufactured by the
ammonia process, invented by Mr. Schloesing, the eminent French
chemist.
Sir Lowt
sugg^ested im
iron; and tL
chemist and i
of the creates
His reputatic
mineralogy ai
was equally 1(
many Europe
oiation for th(
Tyne in 1863
connexion wi
and at a meeit
brough in IST
Phenomena o:
added to^ as i
appeared in
regarded as a i
country, but
translated int(
other book to
tions is The
(1863).
In 1854, S:
land Institute
elected to th<
one of its Vic
He was one o:
followed Sir 1
He was a FelL
of London, a
Association fc
The Institutic
Institution of
of that Instit
President of t
* Report of
Advancemtnt of Si
t The Joum
vol. ii. , pages 67 i
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668 MEMOIR OF SIK LOWTHIAX BELL, BART.
For his scientific work he was honoured by many of the
learned societies of Europe and America. When the Bessemer
Gold Medal was instituted by the Iron and Steel Institute in
1874, Sir Lowthian was the recipient On the presentation to
the Boyal Society of his paper " On some supposed changes
Bajsaltic Veins have suffered during their passage through and
contact with Stratified Bocks, and on the manner in which theee
Rocks have been affected by the heated Basaltic,"* he was elected
a Fellow on May 27ih, 1875. In 1885, on the advice of Mr. Glad-
stone, a baronetcy was conferred upon him in recognition of his
gi*eat services to the State. From The Institution of Civil En-
gineers he received the Geoige Stephenson Medal in 1900, and in
1891 the Howard Quinquennial Prize, which is awarded periodic*-
ally to the author of a treatise on iron. In 1895, he received at
the hands of the King (then Prince of Wales) the Albert Medal of
the Society of Arts, in recognition of the services rendered to arts,
manufactures, and commerce by his metallurgical researches.
From the French Government he received the decoration of the
Legion of Honour. He was a D.C.L. of Durham University, an
LL.D. of the Universities of Edinburgh and Dublin, and a D.Sc.
of Leeds University.
With his chief interest centred directly on the manufacture of
iron, and as one of the original founders of the Iron and Steel In-
stitute, it was only natural that after its birth he should favour it
with the bulk of his writings ; yet, in the early days of The North
oi England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, he
devoted considerable time to its welfare and success, and took
an active part in the discussion of all papers read bearing upon
any subject upon which he could throw enlightment.
An explosion took place at Hetton Colliery on December
20th, 1860, in the boiler-flues of one of the engines near the
bottom of the downcast shaft. The force of the explosion blew
down an air-crossing over the main wagonway, and then pene-
trated inbye, with the most serious results, 22 persons, 9 horses,
and 56 ponies being killed, as well as considerable damage being
done to the pits. Sir Lowthian, lalong with Dr. Richardson,
two of the leading scientific and manufacturing cheonists of the
district, were called in, with a view of ascertaining if they could by
their chemical knowledge account satisfactorily for so extra-
• Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 1875, vol. xxiii., page 543.
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MEMOIR OF Snt IX>WTHIAN BELL^ BART. 669
ordinaiy an explosion, cund tke conclusion arrived at was that l^e
disaster was due to tke presence of underground boilers, the
accident being caused entirely by the damping of the fire with a
large quantity of coal ; and the dampers having been too closely
put down, the distillation of -gSA from these coals oozing through
underneath the dampers filled the flues with explosive gas because
too little air was allowed to pass to sweep it away as it was
^^enerated.
In 1861, he was appointed, together with the late Mr. Nicholas
Wood and the late Mr. John Tom Woodhouse, by the Council
of The North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical
Engineers, to give evidence before the Commission appointed by
the Home Offiice to enquire into the constitution and mjanagement
of the University of Durham, with a view to inducing the authori-
ties to incorporate with the University a practical Mining College ;
and in 1868 the Council again appointed him with the late Sir
George Elliot (first baronet) and the late Mr. William Cochrane,
to give evidence before the Parliamentary committee then sitting
to consider the advisability and the best means of initiating and
extending technical education throughout the district.
On the founding of the Durham College of Science (now Arm-
strong College) in Newcastle-upon-Tyne in the year 1871, he was
appointed a Governor, and continued to serve on that body
throughout his long life. From the first he took a very great
interest in technical and scientific education, and remained to the
last a generous friend of the College, one of his latest benefactions
being a donation of £4,600 to defray the entire cost of the building
of the main tower, which bears his name. His son. Sir Hugh Bell,
Bart., presented to the library of the College a large collection of
valuable books from his father's library.
He was a director of the North-eastern Railway Company from
the year 1865 until his death, and for many years was vice-chair-
man, and chairman of the locomotive committee.
Among other labours, he served on the Royal Commission
on the Depression of Trade, and formed one of the Commission
which in 1866 proceeded to Vienna to negotiate free trade with
Austria-Hungary. He also gave evidence before the Parlia-
mentary committee on the coal question in 1873. He acted
as judge at the Philadelphia Exhibition of 1876, and as a
juror at the Paris Exhibitions of 1878 and 1889. He served as a
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670 MEMOIR OF SIR LOWTHIAN BELL, BART.
member of the Executive Council of the International Inventions
Exhibition, London, in 1885, and at several other great British
and foreign exhibitions. He was a member of the Council of the
Imperial Institute (acting as Vice-Chairman of the Organizing^
Committee of that body), the appointment having been made by
His Majesty the King (then Prince of Wales) in 1888.
He was a justice of peace for the county of Durham, and
deputy-lieutenant and high-sheriff in 1884. He was also a
justice of the peace for the North Riding of Yorkshire, and for
the city of Newca«tle-upon-Tyne.
As a large employer of labour. Sir Lowthian Bell was a keen:
observer of, and took a warm interest in, everything relating to
the welfare of his workmen. At an early stage of the general
strike of miners in the County of Durham in 1879, as head of
the £rm of Messrs. Bell Brothers he announced his wiUingness to
accept arbitration in the difl&culty with their workpeople, thia
proposial being readily accepted. The men returned to work, and
shortly afterwards mining operations throughout the entire
county were resumed.
Sir Lowthian always took a deep interest in the pros-
perity of his native city. He entered the Town Council in 1850,
was elected to the ancient and honourable office of sheriff in 1851 ;
and on November 9th, 1854, he was elected mayor. The chief
events of his mayoralty were the laying of the foundation-stone of
the Town Hall buildings, and the opening of a new wing at the
Boyal Infirmary. In October, 1859, Alderman Joseph Lamb died,
and Sir Lowthian was then unanimously elected an alderman, and
retained his seat on the Council until November 9th, 1880.
The invitation to the British Association for the Advancement
of Science to hold its meeting in Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1863
having been accepted, it was necessary that the Council should
elect to the post of chief magistrate a gentleman who, by his
ability and learning, was qualified to welcome the members of so
learned an Association to the metropolis of the north, and the
choice of the Council fell a second time upon Sir Lowthian.
Not only did Sir Lowthian worthily maintain the reputation
of the town for hospitality, but he also, as before mentioned, read
a valuable paper to the members of the Association.
Throughout his life Sir Lowthian took a fair share of
interest in politics, supporting the moderate Liberals until the
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MEMOIE OF SIB LOWTHIAN BELL, BART. 671
rupture in the party on the Home EuJe question, when he joined
the Unionists. His connection with Tsmeside and the county
of Durham, in the industrial prosperity of which he was so
deeply concerned, led to his beings selected in 1868 by the Liberal
party as a fellow-candidate with Sir Hedworth Williamson for
North Durham, in the place of Mr. Shafto, one of the retiring^
members. The Conservatives were represented by the late Sir
George Elliot (first baronet). A long and well-fought contest was
brought to a termination in November, 1868, the defeated can-
didate being Sir Lowthian. The next general election took place in
February, 1874, and Sir H. Williamson, not being willing to fight
another contested election, retired, and the Liberal party brought
forward Sir Lowthian and the late Sir C. M. Palmer in opposition
to Sir Gteorge Elliot and Mr. E. L. Pemberton. The polling re-
sulted in the defeat of the Conservatives. For only a brief time
did Sir Lowthian Bell and Sir C. M. Palmer enjoy their victory,
as a petition was lodged by the Conservative candidates, and re-
sulted in their being unseated on the ground of general intimida-
tion by agents. Sir Lowthiaji contested the Hartlepools in 1875,
and was returned at the head of the poll. For five years Sir
Lowthian enjoyed the honour of a seat in the Hou^e of Commons,
and rendered great service in committees, his great knowledge of
the commercial industries of the country being invaluable. He
was ousted from his seat at the general election in April, 1880.
Sir Lowthian Bell, in 1842, married the second daughter of
the late Mr. Hugh Lee Fattinson, and had a family of two sons
and three daughters. For many years he resided in Newcastle-
upon-Tyne, removing to Washington Hall on the establishment of
the chemical works at Washington. On the severance of his con-
nection with the Washington Chemical Company, he took up his
residence at Rounton Grange, near Northallerton.
He was one of the founders of The Institution of Mining
Engineers, and was elected President at the annual general meet-
ing held at Birmingham on September 14th, 1904, but died at his
residence, Rounton Grange, Northallerton, on December 21st of
the same year, in his eighty-ninth year, and was buried at
Rounton two days later in the presence of the members of his
family and a large gathering^ comprising representatives of all
classes. At a memorial service held simultaneously at Middles-
brough, the Dean of Durham delivered an address in which he
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pointed out that Sir Lowthian's life had been one of the strenu-
ous exertion of great powers ever grappling and successfully
combating with the difficult problems which have revolutionized
the engineering world during his long life, giving life-long
denial to the statement that Englishmen can always " muddle
through/' for he based all his action and success on clearly-
ascertained knowledge.
Among the many expressions of sympathy conveyed to the
family of the late Sir Lowthian Bell, was one from the King*
WHO wafi pleased to say that he had a great respect for Sir
Lowthian, and always looked upon him as a very distinguished
man. The Council of The Institution of Mining Engineers
passed the following resolution : —
The Council have received with the deepest regret intimation of the death of
their esteemed President and oolleagne, Sir Lowthian Bell, Bart., one of the
founders of the Institution, who presided at the initial meeting held in Lcmdon
on June 6th, 1888, and they have conveyed to Sir Hugh Bell, Bart., and the
family of Sir Lowthian Bell an expression of sincere sympathy with them in their
bereavement. It is impossible to estimate the value of the services that Sir
Lowthian Bell rendered to The Institution of Mining Engineers in promoting its
objects, and in devoting his time and energies to the advancement of the
Institution.
He is succeeded in the title by his eldest son, Hugh^ who also
takes his late father's position as managing partner of the firm
of Messrs. Bell Brothers, Limited.
I.— NOTES 01
ETC., Fj
SOCIET]
BROWN
Die Braunkohl
KUKT Pi
im preus
figwrt» in
The browr
of the so-called
Tertdaries whic
To the south a
of the neighbo
the brown coal
of the great se
Pomerania^ M
Oerman browB
is of Miocene i
Hercynic brow
The hilly
Dr. Priemers i
granites, gneig
«ionally to foil
lie considerab]
beds included)
hills, which U
1,000 feet or n
Lausitz, cuts t
as it flows noi
the hills beco
heath-country
Although
the coal-beari:
it would be a n
that are discc
clays of the f(
linking the w
A descripl
tion: namely,
schifits; the 1
Btonee, etc., of
Ab to the «ru]
exceptions, th
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674 NOTES OF PAPERS IN COLONIAL AND FOREIGN
however, proof that eruptions were still continmng even during the deposi-
tion of that formation.
The author then proceeds to describe in auccession (1) the Gorlitz-Ostrits
brown-coal basin; (2) the finds of coal west and north-west of Gorlitz, which
do not seem to be of much importance; (3) the Hermsdorf-Schonbrunn coal-
belt; (4) the Troitschendorf coal-basin; (5) the brown-coal deposits in the
neighbourhood of Lauban and Lichtenau-Geibsdorf ; (6) those of the MarkliBsa
district (unimportant); (7) the brown-coals of the western extension of the
Lowenberg basin; and (8) those of the Muskau district. He adda to these,
for the sake of comparison, a description of the Zittau basin, across the border
in Saxony. Details ave given of a great number of bore-holes, and the fifth
chapter of the memoir is devoted to a consideration of the pressures and thrust-
ing which the Tertiaries of the region underwent during the Glacial period.
The sixth chapter is taken up by a stratigraphical summary; and in the
eighth chapter the final results of the author's minute and laborious investi-
gations are set forth, somewhat as follows : The brown-coal formation of Upper
Lausitz includes on an average one to two seams, which may, however, be
split by partings occasionally into four or more seams. The thickness of t^e
seams ranges from 20 inches to 62^ feet, leaving out of account thinner and
industrially unimportant seams. Given an average thickness of Tertiary de*
posits, brown-coal is almost invariably found, if not always at workable depths;
and at the very least such substitutes as bituminous marls or clays with
venules of coal occur. There are some cases of wash-out. The beds of the
brown-coal formation,, consisting as they do of clays, sands, gravels and coal-
seams, are of extraordinarily variable cliaracter, and any attempt to tabulate
(even locally) a normal succession of the strata within that formation is all
but impracticable. On the whole, its age may be set down as Lower Miocene,
and the seams appear to have originated from the drifting-together of plant-
remains in lakes and flood-areas.
The Lichtenau district is a typical scene of active mining operations^
the Gluckauf mine there being the most important of any in Upper Lausita.
Shafts are sunk some 120 to 150 feet down to the main seam, which attains
a maximum thickness of 40 feet in the middle of the basin, gradually tJiin-
ning out towards the edges. The yearly output of brown-coal averages 106
million cubic feet (tonnage not stated), the number of workpeople employed
in and about the mine being 400. The coal yields only 4 per cent, of ash,
and its heating-power is equivalent to 2,500 calories. Two briquette^ac-
tories are attached to the mine.
The brown-coal worked in the Louisa mine at Nieder-Schonbrunn is of
such Ugneous character that, even when moist, it cannot be compressed into
briquette-fuel. The average yearly output amounts to 688,000 bushels (ton-
nage not stated), the number of workpeople oscillating between 40 and 50.
A pumping-installation above bank drains the mine of 220 gallons of water
per minute. The main or upper seam attains a maximum thickness of 13
feet, and is separated by 4 to 5 feet of marl from the lower seam, which varies
in thickness from 20 to 40 inches. The various shafts in use go down to depths
of 130 and 160 feet.
In the Troitschendorf district, the Joseph Hermann mine employs 30 work-
people, and yields an annual output of some 12,000 tons. Two shafts are sunk,
and the pumping-engines drain the mine of 286 gallons of water a minute.
Speaking generally, the Troitschendorf seam increases in thickness eastward
and south-eastward from 6^ feet to 20; the ooal is tough and compact, yields
5| per cent, of ash, and contains no less than 58-06 per cent, of water.
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in ine norunc
mine at Moys, w
annually 64,000 t
up in the brique
below bank is ca{
but the average
minute. The mi
feet in thickness
basin, the seam t
POSIDONIA
Das Aujtreten von
By R. Mic
vol, Ivii., Pi
Prof. Fritz I
proved to range i
the discovery of
courage the pros]
and to show tha^
field. There, a e
the undoubted E
contain Posidonic
as two distinct e
finely-ribbed Pas
donia Btcheri.
The true Po
Lower Carbonifei
the useless ezper
have been accura
statement, in reg
be found to hold
ASP]
Uehtr ein AsphaU
Notizblatt d
LandesansU
The village o
midway between
This elevation re
the great Bhenis
g^at mass of d:
bituminous limes
blue coloration,
blue marls like u
at a favourable s
he did not reach
the bituminous li
lents of the Corl
in the form of a
near by, and in 1
recurs in the foi
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676 NOTES OF PAPERS IN COLONIAL AND FOREIGN
in the limestones ; below that depth no more of it is found. Three specimens
from various depths hare been analysed and compared with Trinidad asphalt.
They seem to be of generally higher specific gravity than the Trinidad mineral,
and while that only melts at 275^ Fahr. (135^ Cent.) they melt at 212^ Fahr.
In chemical composition they bear fairly close comparison with the Trinidad
asphalt, the proportion of carbon ranging roughly from 50 to 64, of sulphur
from 6 to 6^, of mineral impurities from 17^ to 25^. All four aaphalts were alike
in regard to their relative solubility and insolubility in different liquids, such,
as alcohol, benzol, turpentine, etc.
The greatest enrichment of the asphalt-deposit is not so much in the
limestones as in the marls, especially between the depths of 53 and 60 feet. A.
premature announcement in the newspapers of the results of the bore-hole
caused the descent of an avalanche of enquiries upon the local municipal
authorities, some speculators wishing to bore eventually for petroleum (which
in the Mettenheim district would be a quite hopeless undertaking, judging
from the available geological data).
It does not seem very likely that even the asphalt will repay working,
on anything like a commercial scale. At all events, an old mining concession,
granted under the laws promulgated during the Napoleonic regime, and
covering the entire commune of Mettenheim, has still legal force, and it
includes the asphalt-deposit. L. L. B.
KAOLIN-DEPOSITS OF HALLE-AN-DEE-SAALE, SAXONY.
Die Eiilstthung der Kadinerden der Oegend von Halle a, 8, By Ewald WGst.
ZeiUchrift fur praktiacke Geologies 1907) vo/. xv.^ pages 19-23, toUh 7 figures
in the text.
The kaolin-earths of the Halle district are, for the most part, derived
from quartz-porphyries ; but how they are so derived has long been a matter of
controversy. According to one hypothesis, the quartz-porphyries (mantled
over though they were by Tertiary deposits, drift, and alluvia in succession)
were and are being decomposed by atmospheric agencies; the process, which
began as far back as the Upper Oligocene time, has continued down to our own
day, and that very mantle of later deposits has prevented the products of
decomposition of the porphyries from being swept away to other localities.
According to another hypothesis, the kaolinization of the quartz-porphyries is
the outcome of post-volcanic pneumatolytic and hydrothermal phenomena imme-
diately connected with the eruption of the porphyries, and consequently dating
back to the Lower Bothliegende period. The author's own researches have led
him to propound a theory essentially different from either of those just out-
lined. He attaches some importance to the fact that there is a certain amount
of regularity about the distribution of the Halle kaolin-deposits; in every
case they are associated with the older Tertiary land-surface, upon which the
continental sediments of the Lower Oligocene brown-coal formation were laid
down. Wherever the quartz-porphyries immediately underlie these Lower
Oligocene deposits they are kaolinized, and the author regards the Halle
kaolin-earths, as a whole^ as forming a portion of an extensive crust of weather-
ing, in part broken and disjointed by later denudation. But many other pre*
Tertiary formations, besides the porphyries, constituted the above mentioned
ancient land-surface; and, wherever they occur in contact with the Lower
Oligocene plane of deposition, they exhibit signs of intense chemical decom-
position : — thus the Lower and Upper Bothliegende arkoses, the Upper Bothlie-
gende porphyry-breccias and porphyry-conglomerates are kaolinized, the red
sandstones both of the Bothliegende and the Bunter are bleached, as also the
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TEANSACTIONS AND PEEIODICALS. 677
red marls of the same formations^ the Muschelkalk limestones are in part
crumbled away to calcareous sands, and so forth.
The crast of weathering below the older Tertiary land-surface is here
defined as belonging to the group of the grey earths, which are essentially
characterized by kaolinization of the felspars, bleaching of the ferruginous
constituents, and in damp climates are the outcome of the action of humio
acid on the components of the^ surface-rocks. This crust was already in
existence when the Lower Oligocene brown-coal deposition was beginning;
and, no doubt, under conditions which were so favourable to the activity of
humic acid as those of the brown-coal epoch were, the crust must have further
increased in thickness. The point which the author perhaps most of all
emphasizes, in sketching the origin of the Halle kaolin-earths, is the influence
of humic acid; but he expressly disclaims any desire to put this forward as
the principal factor in the genesis of all kaolin-earths. He agrees nevertheless
with Dr. E. Bamann that, probably, most of the kaolin-deposits of Central
Europe were formed in Tertiary times by humic-acid weathering. The prac-
tical interest of the paper, if the author's views prove unassailable, lies
therein that kaolin-earth deposits may be looked for wherever porphyries form
the bed-rock of the ancient Tertiary land-surface; now, by piecing together
evidence from various sources, it will prove quite possible to map out this
ancient surface, and this is an undertaking to which the author will shortly
address himself. L. L. B.
NICKELIFEROITS MAGNETIC PYBITES OP THE BLACK FOREST,
BADEN.
Die Xickelmagnetkienlagerstdtten im Bezirk St. Blasien im mdUchen Schoarziuaid^
By E. Wbinschenk. Zeitschrifl fur praktische Gedogie, 1907, vol. xv.,
pages 73-86 and 2 plates.
In the autumn of 1906, the author made a detailed study of the deposits
of nickeliferous magnetic pyrites, situated in the district of St. Blasius, in the
southern portion of the Black Forest, being partly moved thereto by the fact
that, although repeatedly mentioned by many writers, these deposits had not
so far been made the object of really ca^reful investigations on the spot.
He begins with suggesting the erasure, from the list of acknowledged
mineral species, of horbachite (so-called by Prof. Knop from the farmstead
of Horbach, near Wittenschwand) declaring it to be synonymous with true
nickeliferous magnetic pyrites. At the same time, he admits that chemical
analyses of specimens of the ore, taken from the Horbach mine, show it to be
a fairly constant mixture of iron and sulphide of nickel, corresponding either
to the formula FOgNiS or to the formula Fe^NiS; and that consequently tho
name "horbachite" may ultimately hold good. This ore is constantly asso-
ciated with varying quantities of iron-pyrites and chalcopyrite, the former of
which plays a very subordinate part in the opencast workings at Horbach (and
would appear to be of small industrial value, as it contains at most a minute
proportion of cobalt). The chalcopyrite, on the other hand, assumes occasion-
ally some importance ; and the general average ratio of nickel to copper in the
Horbach ores ranges between 2:1 and 3:1. The infinitesimal proportion of
platinum which usually characterizes the metalliferous ores in other districts
of the Black Forest is here conspicuous by its absence.
Stress is laid on the general resemblance between the Scandinavian and
Canadian nickel-ore deposits and those here described, despite admittedly
marked differences in individual details. All nickeliferous magneto-pyritic
ores, properly so called, lie within the direct sphere of influence of granitic
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€78 NOTES OF PAPERS IN COLONIAL AND FOREIGN
masses, occurring perhaps especially along the contact-zone of a granite and
a more basic eruptive; but they are not limited to one or to the other of these
rocks, although as a rule they are incomparably more fully developed in the
basic eruptive. In its fresh condition identified as an olivineless, frequently
quartziferous norite (but metamorphosed successively into olivine-gabbro,
picrite, and even hornblende or bronzite-peridotite) this forms the typical
matrix of the nickel-ores in Norway as in Canada, in Piedmont as in the
Southern Black Forest. It would seem evident that the granite is the
younger rock, which welled up after the solidification of the original ore-
carrier, and often enwrapped masses of the more basic rock.
Once the drift-deposits of the Rhine-valley are left behind, the country
thence as far as St. Blasius is seen to consist of a complex of granites and
gneisses among which is repeatedly intercalated a variety of so-called '^ crystal-
line schists," the literature of the 'subject according special mention to serpen-
tine; among these are intruded a great number of eruptives, in the form of
dykes and sills, the quartz-porphyries between St. Blasius and Hohenschwand
furnishing conspicuous examples thereof. A few patches of Bunter Sandstone
and of drift overlie in places the crystalline rocks. The narrow valleys and
gorges afford innumerable fine exposures, and quarrying operations are active,
the rocks being of use, some as building-stones and others for road-metal.
The most important metalliferous mines, for the greater part worked opencast,
are that of Horbach (already mentioned) and that in the Scheuerloch at Todt-
moos.
The granites frequently tend to become markedly porphyritic, while on
the other hand they pass by every conceivable gradation into the gneisses.
The dyke-rocks are described in some detail, and the author then proceeds to
show that the so-called '' serpen tinized gneisses " (regarded by some observers
as good indicators of the nickel-ore), never were gneLsses, nor are they by any
means trustworthy indicators. Despite the extensive exposures afforded by
the opencast workings of Horbach and Todtmoos, geological investigation is
considerably hampered by the fissured and crushed condition of the rocks;
moreover, the weathering of the pyrites has set up much superficial decom-
position, and efflorescences of pale-green salts of nickel and bluish-green salts
of copper everywhere help to mask the original appearance of the rock.
Nevertheless, it is ascertainable that the richest ore (consisting mainly of
sulphides) is concentrated in a compact dark rock, seamed in places by veins
of white to pinkish aplite which broaden out into almost horizontal sheets. At
Todtmoos, where the ores assume the form of lodes, the despised iron-pyrites
oceurs in considerable quantity ; while at Horbach such ore as occurs in masses
consists chiefly of feebly-lustrous nickeliferous magnetic pyrites, but the more
frequent occurrence there is in the form of an abundant impregnation of the
rock, the chief associates of the nickel-ore being magnetic pyrites, chalcopyrite,
and but little ordinary pyrites. Not much of all this is very visible in the hand-
specimens, but their high specific gravity, the results of the chemical analyses,
and finally microscopic examination, confirm the presence of far greater
percentages of ore than are superficially discernible.
Although both these ore-deposits (Horbach and Todtmoos) belong to zones
which have undergone the most intense contact-metamorphism, it is still pos-
sible to identify the unaltered basic eruptives. Thus, the norite of Todtmoos
(described in detail) agrees in every particular with the most typical norites
of Sudbury. From Horbach comes a very fresh rock, but of far more basic
character, being a true homblende-gabbro, the felspar of which has been
determined as labradorite. But perhaps the most noteworthy rock of all is
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that which predo
resemble the blue
gravity and its h
appearance in th(
The question
and reasons are s
selves originally
were brought in i
able to the influei
and similar nicke
tion, buB are pre
molten granitic-a
the deposition oi
nickel in many o
lytic action origi
STANNIFEROUJ
Daa Vorkomvitn r(
alter. By
SaUnen-went
377-382, wit
In the distrii
Forest cuts acrosi
mountainous mas
of rare minerals,
attains a maxim u
cal times and in t
to the washeries
mined in its qua
the immediate ne
the occurrence ol
famous tin-mininj
matolytic phenoin
lithia-mica, tourn
and the sporadic
to us from other
with the granite,
of fumarolic actic
have been ident
through a gneiss
stanniferous diori
centuries from 14
be seen about 20
the highest point
birge, cassiterite
are now overgrov
workings are desc
War wrought din
The author h
old plans of whic
workings; but h
washeries in that
VOL. XXXIII.— ]9
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680 NOTES OF PAPERS IN COLONIAL AND FOREIGN
HOLZAPPEL METALLIFEROUS BELT, HESSE-NASSAU.
Die sUdwestliche Fortsetzung des Hclzappdtr Oangziiges zunschen der Lahn und der^
Mosel. By G. Einecke. Bericht der Senckertbergisehen Naturforsckewien
Oesellschqft in Frankfurt am if am, 1906, part »i., iVissenschafUiche MittheU-
ungen, pages 65-103, tvith 2 maps and 2 plates.
The earlier geologists, chief among them Messrs. — Bauer and F. Wenken-
bach, had classified the lead, silver, zinc, and copper-ore deposits, which are
dispersed through part of Hesse-Nassau between the Rhine and the Lahn, into
an eastern and western group of lodes respectively. In the former was in-
cluded the Holzappel metalliferous belt, traced as far back as 1841 over a
length of 30 miles or more. It was thought that the extension of this belt
in a south-westerly direction must be looked for towards Wellmich, Werlau,
and Peterswalde. This idea must now, however, be abandoned, and the are-
belt is shown to strike through the neighbourhood of Oberwies, Schweighausen,^
and Dachsenhausen, to the Rhine valley at Bomhofen, passing thence by
Ehr, Liesenfeld, and Sevenich, near Corweiler, where it joins up directly with
a group of lodes that extends to Zell on the Moselle. Taken as a whole, this
great belt has a west-north-westerly and east-south-easterly strike, with a
dip in its central portion of 40 degrees, which steepens to 60 degrees towards
both extremities. The rocks in which it occurs are a mighty complex of Lower
Devonian (Coblentzian) quartzites, greywack^, greywack^-slates, and shales^
broken through in places by intrusive diabases, porphyries, and basalts, and
at some few localities unconformably overlain by strata of later age. A net-
work of fissures some 130 to 160 feet in breadth extends through these Devonian
rocks for a distance of 41 miles, from Holzappel on the Lahn to Zell on the
Moselle; the fissures are infilled with quartz and metalliferous ores, with
a marked enrichment (especially of galena) in the north-eastern portion. Pro-
ceeding south-westward, however, the observer will note the diminution of
galena and zinc-blende, while copper-ores increase in quantity, and there is
simultaneously a proportionate increase of the quartz, occasionally to such,
an extent as to involve the disappearance of all metalliferous ores whatso-
ever. On approaching the Moselle, zinc-blende is seen to increase again in.
quantity. It is noted that many of the cross-faults of this fissure-system
coincide in direction with the tributary valleys of the Lahn and the MoseUe*
while in the Rhine valley there is no sign of any faulting of the ore-belt.
Parallel with the lodes and occasionally uniting with them, as at the Gute
Hoffnung mine at Werlau, certain white dykes course through the rocks;
while a series of white dykes of later age cut across both the older dykes and
the metalliferous lodes.
Detailed descriptions are given of the main lode (average thickness 3^ feet)
as it is seen to occur in the Holzappel and Leopoldine Louise mines at Dom-
berg, and again in the Gute Hoffnung mine at Werlau, and the reasons for
controverting the earlier views as to the correlation of the Holzappel ore-
belt with Mr. Wenkenbach's eastern group are marshalled at great length.
L. L. B.
PYRITES-DEPOSITS OF THE WESTERN ERZGEBIRGE, SAXONY.
Zur Kenntnim der Kiedagerstcitten zwUchen Klingenthal und Grasiitz im westlichen
E'i'zgthirge, By Otto Mann. Ahhandlungen der Naturwi^sensch^fllichen
Gtsblhckaft Isvt in Dresden, 1905, pages 86-99.
W^ithin recent years, mining operations, long suspended, have been re-
started at the ancient copper-ore workings on the Eibenberg, between Klin-
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TBANSACTIONS AND PEEIODICAIiS. 681
genthal and Graslitz. The industry in that region can be traced back for at
least six hundred years; the volume and number of the old mine-heaps bear
witness to its former extent and activity, while considerable accumulations
of slag point to the association of the metallurgist with the miner.
Those who are now conducting operations have penetrated much deeper
down than the old minors, and the information thereby obtained has fur-
nished matter for the various quickly succeeding memoirs of Messrs. C. Gabert,
R. Beck, and B. Baumgartel. The views of these authors in regard to the
origin of the deposits are discussed by Dr. Mann, who has studied the rocks
both in the new deep-level workings and above bank. The ore-deposit lies
at the base of the tongue of Graslitz slates (which penetrates for about 3 miles
eastward into the Eibenstock massif); it does not belong to the actual con-
tact-zone, but lies rather within the g^oup of normal slates or Lower PhylUtes.
These are of a pale-green colour with a silky lustre, and contain much quartz
in the form of nodules; chlorite is one of the common constituents of the
rock, and a dmall quantity of pyrites is almost invariably present. The strike
is approximately north and south, and the dip about 30 degrees westward.
The particular ore-body to which the name Segen Gottes (God's blessing) has
been applied, is, like the other ore-bands which have been proved here-
abouts, intercalated on the whole conformably among the slates. Its
lower portion consists predominantly of a succession of layers (about 20 inches
thick) of ordinary pyrites and magnetic pyrites: in the richest part of the
deposit the partings of slate disappear entirely, but in the poorer part the
slate and the ore may be found to alternate in layers of extreme tenuity.
In places, the ore assumes rather the form of lenticles and pockets, which,,
however, still show a general conformity with the country-rock. The occa-
sional Brecciated structure of the magnetic pyrites is not very easily accounted
for; that the magnetic pyrites was deposited later than the ordinary pyrites
may be inferred from the fact that broken crystals of the latter are often
found enveloped by the former.
The upper portion of the Segen Gottes deposit differs from the lower, both
in its mineralogical composition and in its habit or facies as a whole. While
in the lower part the general conformity extends down to the minutest details,
the intercalation even of infinitesimally fine ore-bands among the schists
being perfectly regular, and similarly that of tenuous schist-bands among
thick bands of ore, unconformity is often a marked feature of the upper
part. Here the ores not infrequently occur in the form of stringers, which
traverse the schists in different directions, and are plicated and contorted
into an inextricable complex, although sometimes they present the appear-
ance of being conformably intercalated among the schists. Magnetic pyrites,
iron-pyrites, copper-pyrites, zinc-blende, and quartz are all jumbled together,
one or other of these minerals being absent in places. The predominant ore
in these stringers, however, is copper-pyrites, the one mineral of the deposit
that repays working. The occurrence of magnetic pyrites in this connexion
is peculiarly interesting, as it is properly not a vein-mineral, but is generally
found in metamorphic deposits. The chronologfical sequence of the minerals
here cannot be determined; indeed, it rather looks as if they were the out-
come of contemporaneous or practically simultaneous deposition.
The entire deposit, from top to bottom, yields unmistakable evidence of
the action of dynamic agencies, not unrelated, perhaps, to the phenomena of
mountain-building. With regard to its genesis, the author enters into an
elaborate discussion of the theories generally held as to the formation and
alteration of pyrites-deposits. Geologists are generally averse to concede
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682 NOTES OF PAPERS IN COLONIAL AND FOEEIGN
the possibility of a sedimentary origin for such deposits, but he points out
that data which tell in favour of this hypothesis are available; and he draws
attention to the part played in the deposition of pyrites by organic matter,
and even by micro-organisms. In conclusion, he assumes that the lower
portion of the deposit described by him is of sedimentary origin, and that
the upper portion is of epigenetic origin; and that probably both regional
metamorphism and contact-metamorphism are the factors responsible for the
presence of magnetic pyrites. Th« stringers represent the results of the
leaching-out of the origfinal deposit, and there has been a selective enrichment
of the copper-ore in them, owing perhaps to the "smelting" effect of the
intrusive granite.
Dr. Baumgartel publishes some criticisms of this paper in the pages imme-
diately following it, but they do not appear to affect seriously the main facts
and conclusions cited in the foregoing abstract. L. L. B.
TUNGSTEN-ORE DEPOSITS IN SAXONY. *
Ziher ein kiirzlich au/ijeschloftsenes Wolframtrzgangfdd und tinige andere neue
AuficfUiisse in scichsischen Wol/ramerzgruhen. By. B,, Beck. Zeitschrift fiir
praktutche Geologie, 1907, voL xv.y pages 37-45, idth % figures in the text.
Despite the active demand which has grown up of late years for these
•ores, it was not until the summer of 1906 that exploration-work was seriously
inaugurated in the neighbourhood of Tirpersdorf. Yet, as long ago as 1890,
the officers of the Saxon Geological Survey mapped the deposits and described
them in detail, the first discovery having been made in 1889 by Dr. M.
Schroder, an investigator well known for his special acquaintance with the
granite-massifs of the Western Erzgebirge and the Voigtland and their con-
tact-aureoles. The metalliferous lodes in question occur in the immediate
Ticinity of Tirpersdorf, near Olsnitz in the Voigtland; and their outcrops fall
mostly within the outer, but partly within the inner, contact-aureole of the
Bergen and Lauterbach granite-massif, which starts at the Hohe Beuth, some-
where about a mile and a quarter north-north-east of Tirpersdorf. Cambrian
slates, with sills of highly amphibolized diabase, abut here against the
granite, the metamorphic effect of which upon the slates is to convert them
into andalusite-mica rocks, cordierite-bearing cherts, and various forms of
•schist, etc. Wolframite, a little molybdenite, and a pearly-grey mica occur,
in association with druses and long acicular crystals of tourmaline, impr^-
nating veins of a greasy white quartz which traverse the tourmalinized schists
north, east, and south of Tirpersdorf. The wolframite, in view of the high
percentage of iron and the small percentage of manganese that it contains,
must be classed among the tungstates of iron : it is found in broad, tabular,
imperfect crystals measuring up to 4 inches in thickness, or in compact masses.
Occasionally the wolframite is seen to be in process of decomposition into
brown iron-ore, in which case films and aggregates of yellowish wolfram-ochre
are observed to clothe the walls of neighbouring fissures. Tourmalinization
•of the schists, the final stage of the contact-metamorphism, is seen to have
proceeded from the lodes, as well as probably from the granite itself.
When the author visited the Gertrud mine in November, 1906, he found
that three parallel lodes had been opened up, and two more (which have
been since then explored) probably belong to the same group. What is
provisionally termed the "main lode " strikes north 5 to 10 degrees west, dips
east-north-eastward at 35 to 40 degrees, and averages 13 inches in thickness.
About 30 or 33 feet below this is another lode with the same dip, and measur-
ing some 10 inches in thickness ; the remaining parallel lodes lie a little farther
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TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 68B
away to the eastward. All the outcrops occur in the left flank of a lateral
valley of the Elster river^basin, and will be easily worked by means of an
adit; while an abandoned mill at the foot of the slope will be the natural
scene of operations for the treatment of the ores. A m&as of rock-debris
from 3i to 6 feet thick masks the actual outcrops in every case.
With this occurrence the author contrasts the mineralogical associations
of the cupriferous mines of Sadisdorf, near Altenberg, where no tourmaline
is found, while on the other hand wolframite appears in company with lithia-
mica, fluorspar, and apatite. Even the Sadisdorf mines are only just begin-
ning to take rank as tungsten-producers, yielding in 1906 rather over a ton
and a quarter of wolframite and 10^ tons of molybdenite. All other tung-
sten-ore occurrences in Saxony are or have been worked in conjunction with
cassiterite-deposits, and so cannot be compared in any way with the Tirpers-
dorf ores, which, taking everything into consideration, constitute a so far
unique type of lode, with perhaps the single exception of the Germania I. lode
at Deertrail (Washington), U.S.A. The author has received and examined
specimens from Deertrail, which he cannot differentiate from the Tirpersdorf
mineral.
Turning then to the wolfram-tinstone lodes of Zinnwald, which averaged
an annual output of 37 tons of tungsten-ore during the decade and a half
from 1890 to 1905, the author states that a new mine was recently opened up
close to the Bohemian frontier, and in 1905 was already yielding over 12 tons
of wolframite. This mine is a delight to geologists, because it furnishes
capital sections of the contact-zone between the Zinnwald granite and the
Teplitz quartz-porphyry which envelops that rock on all sides. Of these a
detailed description is given, noting by the way that the Hansa lode, the
most productive as yet struck in the mine, is about 18 inches thick and is
accompanied by a parallel stringer of mediocre or little importance. Although
the dip seems to steepen greatly when the lode leaves the granite and cuts
through the quartz-porphyry, the lode actually thickens in places in the latter
rock, attaining a maximum therein of 3^ feet — as far as it has been yet
followed. The Wilhelm lode, on the other hand, higher up the watershed,
shows at first no essential change in thickness or mineralogical composition,
but gradually thins away and becomes impoverished in the quartz-porphyry,
until (at a distance of 65 feet from the granite-boundary) it has dwindled to
3 inches in thickness and no longer repays working. These wolframite-lodes
(so-called "seams"), clearly distinguishable from the narrow, steeply dip-
ping stanniferous veins, are probably of slightly later origin than the latter in
some cases, and practically contemporaneous in others. L. L. B.
GEAPHITE-DEPOSITS IN THE PIEDMONTESE ALPS.
La OrafUe nelle Alpi piemontesi. By Vjttorio Novabese. Atti della Beale
Accademia ddle Science di Torino, 1905| vol, xl., pages 241-254.
The announcement of the recent discovery of graphitic lenticles in the
Pietre Verdi of the Val di Lanzo has induced the author to collect together into
one paper the observations on similar occurrences, recorded by his colleagues
and himself in the course of the geological survey of the Piedmontese Alps.
Taking for granted that Alpine graphites are in many localities, if not
in all, the outcome of the metamorphism of deposits of fossil fuel, the presence
of graphite in a formation may prove to be of fundamental importance in
regard to the determination of the age of the rocks, as well as a considerable
factor in the solution of the stratigraphical and tectonic problems that may
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arise m connexion witn tnat aetermination. itecenx> researcn nas aemon-
strated that the double-zone classification of Gastaldi, which served as a good
working hypothesis in its generation, is at variance with the actual facta,
being in fact too refreshingly simple to square with them. Rocks, formerly
lumped together all into one system, are now recognized to belong to very
different ages, despite lithological and other resemblances.
The graphite of the Ligurian division of the Alps is the result of a local
metamorphism of anthracites of Carboniferous age. It may be noted, by the
way, that in this area the graphite-outcrops are of small importance, in com-
parison with the extent and frequency of the anthracite-outcrops. The con-
verse holds good in the Cottian Alps, to which the author now passes, omitting
the Maritime Alps, where no authentically recorded occurrence of graphite u?
known. In the Cottian Alps, the Alpine graphites assume perhaps their
greatest development, occurring at two widely separated horizons — the lower
being most certainly of Carboniferous age, and the upper belonging to the
Mesozoic formation of the calc-schists. The most important graphitic belt, in
regard both to extent and to industrial value, lies within the Dora-Vamita
gneissose ellipsoid. It waa first described by the author in 1898,* and the obser-
vations made since then have, on the whole, confirmed that description. In
1902-1903, the existence of seams of anthracite was proved in the graphite-belt;
but, as already hinted, it would appear that in these Cottian Alps anthracite
forms the exception and graphite the rule. It has also been ascertained that
the best deposits of the latter mineral occur in the immediate proximity of the
dioritic masses of the lower valley of the Chisone, with which are associated
spotted chiastolite-schists, etc. This leads to the inference that the action
of contact-metamorphism has in this region played some part in the transform-
ation of coal-seams into graphite, the more so that the few known outcrops of
anthracite are the farthest away from the eruptive rocks.
In several localities, but more especially in the little valley of Pramollo,
a phenomenon has been observed identical with that already noted in the
graphite-mine of Isola Grande in the Ligurian Alps. The graphite-bed sends
out ramifications and apophyses which cut clearly across the country-rock;
and the graphite which forms these apophyses, etc., is very much purer than
the mineral of the bed itself. This may be explained as due, either to injec-
tion, conditioned by pressure, of the most bituminous, and consequently most
plastic portion of the original coal-seam, previous to the action of contact-
metamorphism ; or to the immediate effects of that metamorphism, in which
case the graphite, as the result of the distillation of the coal-seam, might hare
been deposited as a sublimate in fissures and other available cavities in the
country-rock. The hypothesis of Dr. Weinschenk, that certain deposits of
talc are derived by pseudomorphosis from graphite, appears to the author
improbable in the highest degree.
The graphite-deposits occurring among the Cottian Alps in Gastaldi'fl
*'zone of the Pietre Verdi " (mostly associated with the Mesozoic caJc-sphists)
are of small industrial value. In the Graian and Pennine Alps, on the other
hand, graphites crop out at five different horizons at least. The belt of
country which the author defines as that of Sesia-Val di Lanzo consists pre-
dominantly of gneisses and mica-schists; these, contrary to the opinion
generally received at one time, have nothing whatever to do with the Pietre
Verdi and the Mesozoic calc-schists. The presence of intrusive rocks of later
date than the great foldings is characteristic, but the age of the Sesia-Val di
Lanzo belt can only be determined by approximation : it is certainly as old
• TraTis, Imt. M. E., 1899, vol. xvi., page 520.
as the Carbonife
Lanzo the plumb;
graphite-schists ;
the graphite occi
carrying big gar
microscope. It s
two different typi
The graphite-
cline are of undc
undoubted Meso:
Pennine Alps.
A brief descri
north-west and sc
graphitiferous kii
the ancient 01iva<
graphite-nodules
AZURITE-DEI
II OiacimeiUo di
Osservazioiii
MiLLOSEVIC
voi, XV. y Be')
The meUllife
western Sardinia
of Alghero, have
unattended with
they present is,
opportunity that
by the Mayor of
of Mara, about
about the centre >
The hills whi
of Miocene limes
later date. In p]
and trachytic ro<
On the north-eai
the old castle of
with a little mal
andesitic tracliyt*
felspathic inclusi*
are represented I
ores, whereas the
true trachytes, a
g^ey trachyte ha
spherulites, with
of hornblende; 1
siliceoufl dyke, a
trachyte.
Although the
siderable quantit
age 8 inches in t
In the upper laye
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686 NOTES OF PAPERS IN COLONIAL AND FOREIGN
of varying size, sometimes conjoined, or in masses of pisolitic appearance;
lower down, where the proportion of clay is smaller, the ore is grouped to-
gether in little seams or in masses presenting a compact mammillated struc-
ture. The lowermost bands, in contact with the underlying pink andesitic
trachyte, have a barytic instead of an argillaceous gangue. The malachite
which is associated with the azurite was evidently deposited at the same time
as the latter. Few specimens of chalcopyrite and bomite have come to light
thus far, but deeper workings will most probably reveal the presence of these
sulphidic ores in greater quantity, especially in the quartzose dyke above
mentioned.
This Sardinian occurrence recalls the Schemnitz and Kramnitz deposits
of Hungary; still more vividly, in the character of the minerals and other
circumstances (geological age excepted), does it recall the deposits of Chessy
and Sain-Bel near Lyons. The Bonvei ore-deposit, all things considered, is
probably older than the Miocene limestones which abut against the trachytic
Castle-rock.
It is well known that soluble salts of copper, originating from deep-seated
sulphidic ores, can react with carbonates (generally with that of lime) to
form the basic carbonates of copper. And this is unquestionably the manner
in which most of such ore-deposits have been formed. But, why should
malachite be of so much more frequent occurrence than azurite, even admit-
ting that the former is a more stable mineral species than the latter? And
why, as at Chessy and Castello di Bonvei, should the usual preponderance be
reversed, azurite predominating so enormously over malachite in both these
localities? The author set himself to answer these questions by means of
experiments directed to the artificial preparation of azurite. He found that
this formed at temperatures lying between 167° and 186° Fahr., by means of
the reaction of cupric chloride with an excess of sodium-carbonate in the
presence of carbonic-acid gas, and he concludes that this excess of carbonate
and the presence of the gas are probably two of the necessary conditions for
the formation of azurite in nature. The propinquity of an argillaceous
stratum and the intermingling of clay with the ore in course of formation,
slacken the reaction, and probably help to prevent the further evolution of
azurite into malachite. L. L. B.
TUNGSTEN-ORES IN THE CAGLIARI DISTRICT, SARDINIA.
Oidcimento di MinercUi di Tungsteno a Genua. QwHu at Limiti/ra Nurri ed Orroli
{Ciigliari). By Domenico Lovisato. Atti delta Beale Accademia del
Linceif series 5, 1907, vol. xvi., Bendicontif pages 632-688.
The occurrence of tungstates of iron and manganese in Sardinia was first
made known in April, 1898, when the author announced the results of his
examination of a few small fragments obtained from the metalliferous mine
of S'Ortu Beciu. In the course of two subsequent visits to the locality, he
ascertained that the amount of wolfram-ore present must be very small, as
on one occasion he found none at all, and on another only a minute quantity
(a very few grammes) of it. Since then tungsten-minerals have been dis-
covered at the Su-Suergiu and Genna-Gurfeu antimony-mines. At the last-
named mine especially does scheclite occur in such abundance and of such
excellent quality, as to induce the author to journey thither in May, 1904,
and February, 1905, for the express purpose of investigating the occurrence
on the spot. For many years past antimony-ores have been worked here, but
no one had suspected the importance which the deposit might assume, par-
ticularly in depth, in regard to its tungsten-ores. The rocks of the immediate
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vicinity are schists, i
ridged up into a seriet
in some cases volcani
disturbed by porph
probably of pre-Pa
of all the antimony-c
The scheelite of
habit much resembl
in Bohemia. In col
ish or greyish ; but i
veins of varying thi<
though perhaps thes
out lenticles. In hi
specific gravity prol:
it to consist of 80'4
0*07 of iron sesquioxj
Molybdenum, prese:
absent from the Get
On his second
quality of scheelite,
compact form, comu
antimony and lead,
externally decompos<
macite (its ordinary
Corr^ae, France, wh
There is no bismutli
macite itself differs
analysis, indeed, wo
tion, there are vari
the ultimate meyma
METALLIFER(
Die geologischen und i
By B. LoTTi.
62-66, loith a n
The geological
Messina is briefly d
or bluish-grey mica
associated towards
sericitic gneisses,
hornblendites, actin^
etc. Among thef
increasingly toward
crystalline limeston<
predominantly of tl
shrinks in places int
most group consists
intercalations of n
large areas by innui
veins are extremely
entirely absent. T
conjecture ; if reliai
Alpine formations.
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they maj date no farther back than the Mesozoic Era. Direct evidence, sncii
as would be furnished by a fossil flora or fauna, is not available.
Ore-deposits have been known, and in part worked, in this region since
the eighteenth century; but this knowledge has been, in the main, restricted
to the lower spurs of the mountains. Recently another series of ore-depoats
has been discovered higher up, in the very heart of the range, although no
actual mining work has been carried out on them as yet. The newly dis-
covered ores occur all but exclusively, like the earlier-known deposits, in the
lowermost schist-formation, and they may be grouped as follows: (1) bedded
iron-ores (magnetites) passing into ferruginous zinc-blende; (2) reef-like or
lenticular quartz-masses with chalcopyritic magnetic pyrite; (3) lead-and-rin^
bearing quartz- veins ; and (4) quartz- veins with f ahlores and chalcopyrite.
The principal outcrops of the first formation occur on the Tyrrhenian side
of the range, on the northern flanks of Monte Maulio and Monte Maorno. With
the ores are invariably associated the bands of crystalline limestone, alreadj
mentioned as being interbedded with the lower schists at various horiions.
The metalliferous deposits assume the form of lenticles of varying thickness—
from an inch or so to 6^ feet, consisting of compact or fine-grained magnetite,
with finely-disseminated particles of zinc-blende and pyrite. The limestone
at the junction is occasionally impregnated with these ores. Chemical analyses
show that there is every grade of passage, from a magnetite with more than
60 per cent, of metallic iron, into a true ferruginous zinc-blende. The ore-
depoeits have been* involved in the movements of plication of the coantrj-
rock and, like it, are greatly dislocated.
A little below the middle limestones, at about the same stratigrapliical
horizon as the magnetites, there occur amid the schists lenticular mases of
vein-quartz with ordinary pyrite and magnetic pyrite: in the central portion
of the lenticles the last-mentioned ore is usually pure and compact, but to-
wards the periphery some chalcopyrite makes its appearance. The immedi-
ately surrounding country-rock is invariably metamorphosed into epidotic
and garnet-bearing biotite-homblendites with superficial iron-staining. It is
possible that these lenticlee are but the dispersed fragments of what were
originally fissure- veins. Analysis of a specimen of magnetic pyrite showed
it to contain 47-2 per cent, of iron; 32*5 of sulphur; 0-7 of copper; 0*2 of nickel
and cobalt; and 15' 1 of insoluble residue.
The lead and zinc-ores, which are the predominant feature of the earber-
known deposits, occur in the area dealt with in two great quartz-reefs, one of
which crops out at the base of Monte Tossazza, near the chalets of Issala, while
the other is seen in the little valley of Sterra, at the foot of the Piwo della
Croce. The Issala reef is of variable thickness, expanding in places to 30 or
40 feet. The country-rock consists of gneisses and mica-schists, which are
traversed by muscovitic and chloritic granite-dykes and associated with ferru-
gfinous limestones. This reef can be followed along the outcrop for 330 yards
or more : the ores, consisting of galena intermingled with black zinc-blende,
take the form of venules or small aggregates disseminated in the quarti. The
very thickness of the reef protected it in some respect from the shattering
and dislocation which overtook deposits of lesser importance ; even so, it 8how^
at the junction with the country-rock certain irregularities that "bear unnuft-
takable witness to dynamic processes connected with erogenic phenomena. 1"*
other quartz-reef contains only galena in compact masses: so far as it has
been opened up, it averages 10 feet in thickness, and seems to be very higWy
mineralized. It is, however, so mantled over by rock-debris and vegetation,
that close study of the outcrop and a reliable estimate of the industrial vaiu
of the occurrence are at present impracticable.
^ I
A little way
venules of fahlon
blende, is seen t
The vein is 2 fee
rather to assume
existing vein wl
processes.
That groups
of no doubt ; but,
pyrite — the autho
molecular substit
probably the sha
with, the beds of
relationship betw
superficial apoph;
already been mei
frequent occurrei
geological and lil
ore-depoeits prob
cynian plication,
Permian. But w
or horst, unaffectc
and the conseque
by the dynamic
and Apennine p\l
tering, and dislo
recall vividly the
have been subjec
at every step gre
BLENDE-
Ol>er die Erzgdnge
fur praJctisi
text.
On the westc
south-western ex
region, a belt of
between the fum
miles, while its I
but the maximuD
mental rocks her
granite with occ;
bands of quartzit
quartzite-stage)
researches amon(
where mining oj
the ore-belt ezte:
the lodes were tr
larger number s
steeply (80 to 85
more important
thicknesses of 15.
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690 NOTES OF PAPERS IN COLONIAL AND FOREIGN
breccia veins, quartz being the predominant infiUing-material. Calcspar ift
of exceptional occurrence^ and fluorspar is conspicuous by its absence. Brec-
ciated fragments of the country-rock, often highly mylonized and chemically
decomposed, occur abundantly in these lodes. The principal ores are zino
blende containing but a small proportion of iron, and galena containing- an
average percentage of 0*05 of silver. In some of the lodes, a little chalco-
pyrifce and pyrites occur, while spathoee iron-ore, occasionally altered into
brown haematite, is found in others. Mining operations were begun a few
years ago, and the greatest depth from the surface so far reached ranges from
200 to 230 feet. The innumerable smaller lodes are poorly mineralized. Of
later age than these quartz-breccia veins, are the diabase-dykes which coin-
cide with them in strike and dip, and alternately course along the footwall
or the hanging- wall, or along the central strip of the lodes, bifurcating some-
times within them.
It seems plain that the order of events was as follows : fissures were torn
in the rocks; these fissures were afterwards infilled with quartz and metal-
liferous ores; at a later date the metalliferous lodes, coinciding with planea
of weakness in the earth's crust, were torn open again, and diabase in the
molten condition was intruded along them. At Styggedalen, the exceptional
occurrence of a later, very drusy, barytes-vein alongside the metalliferoua
quartz-breccia vein is noted.
As the broader lodes offer less resistance to the atmospheric agents of
erosion than the tough, hard, country-rock, the metalliferous outcrops gener-
ally occur along small valleys or swampy tracts, as implied in the very com-
position of the place-name Styggedalen (ugly dale).
The author marshals at some length the evidence for regarding the
above-described lodes as fault-fissures, arising in the course of the great
sagging movement which took place during Devonian time, and was perhaps
continued into the Carboniferous age, in the Christiania region. This region
constitutes a vast graben or fosse, some 143 miles long and in places 50 milea
broad, within which the sunken tract of the earth's crust is broken into in-
numerable fault-blocks thrust one against the other. The work of denudation
since these phenomena took place has been so great, that it is reckoned that
the present surface at Traag lies many thousands of feet— or, say, a couple of
miles below the surface as it was when the lodes were formed. It seema
probable that these lodes, even now extending to a depth of 6,000 feet or 8o>
must have originally had a depth which ran into miles. L. L. B.
GELLIVAARA AND KIIRUNAVAARA IRON-ORES. NORTHERN
SWEDEN.
(I) Die Eisenerzlageratatten bei Kiruna, ^yO. Stutzeb. Zeitwhriftjur praktische
Oeologie, 1906, vol. xiv., pages 65-71, uyith 1 figure in the text.
At the end of August, 1905, the author paid a visit to the deposits of the
Kiirunavaara, Luossavaara, and Tuollavaara, which, probably for brevity's
sake, he describes as the deposits of Kiruna, after the settlement of that name
north of the Arctic circle. The annual output of iron-ore already exceeds
1,500,000 tons, and most of the workings are opencast, affording splendid and
ever-varying exposures for geological study. The Kiirunavaara is a ridge
extending from north to south for about 2^ miles, and rising to an altitude
of 2,460 feet above sea-level; its eastern face is abrupt, while the western
slopes gently downward, and its northern end abuts on the lakelet of Luossa-
jarvi. Across the lake, the Luossavaara (altitude 2,391 feet) is the evident
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continuation of th«
bogun on this noi
by road east of K
worked in the sma
The crest of t
across the lake coi
of both ridges an
porphyry. The p
partly a waste of
the so-called Haul
been proved on th
The author p
rocks, going from
the finer^grained v
L. de Launay's sti
into the latter is
-eastward dip of th
porphyry is term
the former, of a g
variety, which is u
from a distance,
porphyry seems g
passage-belt from
aionally clean-cut
rock. The magni
stals which lie wi
•differentiation ; ai
partly flowed rou]
cleavage-cracks,
impregnation is c
perhaps, in struct
magnetite and the
•cases with a brecc
which are disperse
ultimate member •
consist solely of b
to be found in thi
•country-rock, not :
vaara attains a m
nees varies betwee
the amount of ore
to a depth of 1,000
•attains a combinec
to be got by open
of pure magnetite
67 to 71 per cent,
the weathered sti
ground their way
Tuollavaara v
removed, and rev<
ice-action. A gr
•out amidst the p(
is from south-wes
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692 NOTES OF PAPERS IN COLONIAL AND FOREIGN
the Eebne Eaisse (altitude 7,000 feet), the highest mountain in Sweden. The
annual output of ore from TuoUavaara alone is estimated to reach 70,000 tons.
Besides the ubiquitous apatite and the asbestiform hornblende of the im-
pregnation-zone, other associates of the ore are calcite, rarely quartz, still
more rarely talc, brownspar (chalybite), iron-pyrites, and titanite. The
results of a microscopic examination of the acidic hanging-wall porphyry are
detailed, and they show it to be of later age than the ore-body and the l>asic
footwall-porphyry. The description of the rocks is followed by a very careful
discussion of the various theories put forward in regard to the genesis of these
ore-deposits, and the author assigns at length his reasons for concluding that
the main mass of the ore is of epigenetic-magmatic origin ("a magmatic
differentiate which made its way upward ") ; while the ore of the impregna-
tion-belt may be compared with that of a contact-deposit. It is shown how
the facts fail to fit in with any other explanation.
(*2) Die Eiseiterzlageratdite Oellivare in NotxUckioeden. By 0. Stutzbb. Zeit^chrift
fiir praklische Otologie, 1906, vol, artr,, pages 137-140, toith 2 figures in the
text.
This paper opens with a bibliographical list consisting of 21 entries.
The author, in the course of his journey through Scandinavia in 1905, visited
the celebrated Gellivaara mines among others, and considers that there is no
need to lay stress on their universally-admitted importance; but he points
out that controversy still rages in regard to the genesis of the deposits.
Nothing can end this controversy, short of convincing evidence that the
country-rock is of eruptive origin; meanwhile the author thinks it advisable
to set forth the data upon which he bases his own conclusions.
The ore, consisting, like that of Kiirunavaara, of magnetite and apatite,
but differing therefrom in its granular crumbly texture, is as yet mostly
worked opencast in a small ridge or range of hills rising to an altitude of
2,025 feet above sea-level. The deposit furnishes undoubted evidence of re-
crystallization under pressure, and so does the country-rock, consisting chiefly
of gneisses. Of these, and of the so-called granite and pegmatite, rocks rich
in quartz which traverse the ore-body, a detailed description is given. Both
the ore-deposit and the country-rock have slaty cleavage, and the general
strike is east and west, while the dip is to the south at a very high angle,
approaching indeed the vertical. Inclined as he was at first to regard the
Gellivaara deposit as of sedimentary origin, a closer view induced the author
to change his opinion, and the analogy with Kiirunavaara points to a com-
mon origin for both deposits. The lie of the deposits, the mineralogical char-
acter of the ores, and the nature of the country-rock, all tell in favour of
the epigenetic theory. This may be considered as already proved in the case
of Kiirunavaara, where the ore is a magmatic dyke, the outcome of deep-
seated magmatic differentiation. And the Gellivaara deposit is a metamor-
phosed example of this, associated with very marked lateral impregnation.
(3) Die EisenerzlagerstcUten bei Kiruna. By O.Stutzer, ZeitschriftfflrpraktischB
Geologie, 1906, vol, xiv., pages 140-142, toith 1 figure in the text.
The author describes at some length a hand-specimen of brick-red por-
phyry, encircled successively by pale apatite, a ring of magnetite, and lastly,
pale apatite again, from Luossavaara. He argues that it furnishes additional
proof of the epigenetic (magmatic) origin of the deposits, and that it also
shows that the apatite and magnetite must have simultaneously made their
way upward from their deep-seated birth-place. L. L. B.
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€94 NOTES OF PAPERS IN COLONIAL AND FOREIGN
three varietiea of occurrence: (1) the terrace-gold, in the gravel which covers
the slopes and bottoms of the valleys; (2) the bottom-gold {boUenguld), on
the fissured and uneven surface of the bed-rock underlying the gravel ; and
(3) the bank-gold, in the "banks " (deltas or fans?) deposited by the rivers
at their mouths, as, for example, in the case of the Sotajoki, or at favourable
meanders^ as, for example, in the case of the Ivalojoki. Occasionally the
rivers have cut a new channel through these "banks," and thus repeated the
ore-dressing process. The gold-bearing strata are often discernible by a rusty
•coloration, due to the presence of hydrates of iron. The bank-gold is finer-
grained and more waterworn than the other two varieties; in the actual out-
put from the alluvial diggings the terraoe-gold bulks by far the most larg^ely.
Generally speaking, these auriferous alluvia average some 20 inches in thick-
ness, but in places they attain a maximum of 7 feet or so; in width they
do not much exceed 6 feet, although sometimes a width of 50 feet has been
proved. The tailings consist chiefly of iron-ore, both magnetic and non-mag:-
neticj and gfamet; at some localities monazite and a little ziroon also are
found in them. The biggest nugget ever got in the district, and that not
of pure gold, weighed barely 3 ounces. In the summer of 1905, traces of
platinum were observed in several of the placers ; and thirty years before that^
Dr. G. Svedelius had predicted that the mother-lode would be found not far
from traces of platinum, in these localities where the placer-gold is most
abundant, is coarsest-grained, and at its highest point above river-level. His
predictions have now been verified.
The country-rock of the auriferous lodes may be designated generally as a
granulite, although the type varies from place to place. Taking as an example
the Yahtamaapaa rock^ this is a micalees schistose variety, made up of quartz
and felspar, interspersed with small garnets, the diameter of which sometimes
exceeds an inch. Another variety, rich in biotite, assumes rather the aspect
of a granite-gneiss, while here the garnets diminish or disappear. In some
cases graphite occurs among the accessory minerals. The granulites are inter-
sected by dykes of coarsely-granular pegmatite, which passes little by little
into pure white quartz, and of diabase or basalt. True fissure-dykes of later
age traverse the country for miles : they consist of a red fine-grained quartz-
porphyry, and their genetic connexion with the auriferous lodes is highly
probable. In some localities the pegmatite-quartz dykes have attracted the
attention of prospectors because of the occasional occurrence of pyrite in them,
but in no instance can they be regarded as the mother-lodes of the placer-gold.
Before proceeding to the description of the lodes, the author directs atten-
tion to the climatic difficulties which confront the miner and the explorer in
that far northern wilderness. The heavy winter snowfall, the spring thaws,
and the frequent deluges of rain in summer sweep whole masses of gravel
and sand into the diggings, and drown many an exploration-shaft. Such were
the experiences encountered by the author himself in the summer of 1905.
Full details are given of sixteen lodes, and they may be summarized as follows :
in thickness they average 16 to 20 inches; they strike uniformly north and
south, and dip very steeply (75 to 85 degrees) ecwtward or westward; the struc-
ture is frequently brecciated, but sometimes banded, showing the order of
deposition of the minerals; and the yield in gold is low, averaging less than
31 grains per ton. The lodes consist primarily of quartz, siderite, calcite,
specular iron-ore, magnetite, and pyrite, while magnesite and chalcopyrite are
accessory minerals. There are, further, at the gossan or outcrop such decom-
position-products Qjs limonite and malachite. In general character the aurifer-
ous lodes of Finnish Lapland may be said to differ from any as yet discovered
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elsewhere; their relatiye poverty, as compared with the placers derived from
them, leads to the hypothesis that the placer-deposits are largely the outcome
of a long period of pre-Glacial erosion and concentration of the gold extracted
by natural processes from the lodes. The constitution of the lodes was such
as to favour rapid formation of a gossan, and the zone of decomposed ores
in pre-Glacial times was probably of considerable depth, but the greater part
of it was destroyed by the inland ice during the Glacial period, the gold
being scattered over a wide area of morainic drift. But at places where the
conditions were favourable, near to the valley of a river .... the fragments
of the gossan were transported to a point where in the post-Glacial period
the renewed ore-dressing began, and so contributed to the formation of the
placers. L. L. B.
MANGANIFEROUS AND OTHER ORE-DEPOSITS OP NIZHNE-TAGILSK,
RUSSIA.
(1) Giaements de Manganic du District minier de Nizhne-Tciguilsk. By N.
Yakovlev.
Within the domain of the Nizhne-Tagilsk works, six deposits of manganese-
ore, including the Sapalsky mines, are spread over a distance of some 12^ miles.
The ore is accompanied by brown haematites, and occasionally is found in
immediate contact with the Devonian limestones. It appears to have been
precipitated from solution in the course of a reaction wherein calcium-carbide
was a determining factor. In three of the six deposits the limestones have
been contact-metamorphosed by eruptive ^ocks, and have been so marmorized
as to be practically impermeable to water, with obliteration of bedding-planes
and joints, in such wise as to form less favourable loci for the deposition of
manganese than the unmetamorphosed limestones. The two richest ore-
deposits are connected with limestones that had undergone folding and fissur-
ing such as to favour the circulation of underground waters and the precipita-
tion of the particles of ore. The manganiferous deposits are not always found
near the junction of the Devonian sedimentaries with the hornblendic igneous
rocks (syenite^ etc.), but sometimes quite in the midst of the latter. The
author regards the hornblende as the primary source of the manganese.
(2) Apergu g6ologique du Domaine de TchenwUtofchintk, Arrondissenieni minier de
NijnS-Taguilsk. By A. Krasnopomky. Bvlleiins du ComiU gddogique,
St, Pitershourg, 1904, vd. xxiii,, pages 345-400 and 1 plate (map).
The Chemoistochinsky works are situated south-east of Nizhne-Tagilsk,
near the Chernaya, a left-bank tributary of the Tagil river, and the rocks
of the domain are predominantly crystalline, sedimentary deposits occurring
therein as mere patches. The alluvia along the Tagil are gold-bearing;
platinum occurs along the Chauzhe; magnetite is found among the olivine-
rocks and diallage-bearing peridotites of the south-western portion of the
domain; there are some unimportant traces of copper-ores; and finally, vast
deposits of peat — ^a material of which the future industrial importance is
not perhaps as yet fully realized. L. L. B.
AURIFEROUS DEPOSITS OF SERTIA.
Les Riche^ea min^rales rfc la Serbie : I. Les Gisements aurifires. By Douchan
JovANOViTCH. Paris, 1907, 107 pages, with 55 Jigures in the text and I map.
The author deals with the gold-fields of Pek, Mlava, Porecka and Timok,
all situated in Eastern Servia, and separated one from the other by hill-ranges.
In that region, many traces of the Roman occupation survive, and among
VOL. XXXI1I.-1906-1907. 50
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them those of the ancient gold-workings, and of the mint and goldsmith's
furnaces of Yiminacinm. The history of the mineral-industry hereabouts
is given in some detail, and then in the second chapter of his monograph
the author describes the geology of the area.
The crystalline schists, which may be regarded as the basement-rocks of
the country, form an extensive belt, interrupted in places by outpourings of
eruptive rocks of all ages. In the Pek basin, the Palaeozoic rocks are seen to
overlie directly the crystalline schists, while the most considerable outcrops
of Triassic sedimentaries in south-eastern Servia occur at Yeta; there is some
reason to infer a connexion between the latter and the occurrence of certain
metalliferous ores (copper, etc.). Jurassic and Cretaceous sedimentaries are
also well represented; while, in the Pek and Timok basins (the latter more
especially), the gold-placers consist for the most part of sands and gravels
of Tertiary age. Nevertheless, the Quaternary deposits play a more im-
portant part still among the Servian placers, their wealth in gold being quite
remarkable; and in the Timok basin the great diluvial terraces of loess, gravel,
and sand attain a considerable height. Apart from the placers, there are
several groups of parallel fault-fissures, infilled with gold-quartz, etc., which
are undoubtedly connected with the various periods of vulcanicity through
which the region has passed : these fissure-lodes have, generally speaking, a
north-and-south strike; but their width is variable, ranging from 5 to 100
feet. They do not appear to have been proved, so far, to a greater depth
than 330 feet.
It is more especially to the Tertiary eruptions of the middle period, the
andesites, that the author is inclined to attribute the advent in their greatest
intensity of the metallic sulphides with the concomitant precious metal. The
emanation of auriferous sulphides of copper and iron came to an end in the
third eruptive phase, when perhaps there was a correspondingly more intense
emanation of sulphides of lead, zinc, and antimony, such as those found at
Believina, Bela-Reka, Maidan-Pek, and Eucajna. The products of slow sub-
limation have been concentrated in the cavities of the limestones, especially
at their contact with the andesites ; thus, in the Angelina cavern at Eucajna,
a mass of 247,170 cubic feet of auriferous lead-ore has been found. The author
dwells complacently on the richness of the placer-deposits (sands, gravels, etc.),
the metalliferous particles of which are derived from these fissure-lodes, cavi-
ties, and pockets; and mentions that the three dredges which are in regular
operation at Neresnica, in the Pek valley, are yielding excellent results.
In the third chapter, he gives what he terms a mineralogical synopsis
of the subject. A native amalgam of gold, known to the Servian miners as
Zhivak (from zhiva, mercury), occurs in rounded, whitish grains, in associa-
tion with red granules of cinnabar in the placer-deposits; and, wherever these
twb minerals are found, there also magnetite appears in great quantity. The
alluvial gold of eastern Servia is always more or less argentiferous : it occurs
variously as fine dust, in thin flakes, slender needles, granules, and nuggets
averaging in size that of a hazel-nut. The importance of the association of
gold, in the primary deposits, with the sulphides of copper and iron, has
already been hinted at. In the St. Ann mines of Deli-Iovan, for instance, where
masses of compact iron-pyrites occur, the richness in gold increases concur-
rently with the quantity and hardness of these masses, which indeed are
cemented together by quartz containing native gold. The average yield,
calculated, from a va«t number of assays of samples from these mines, ranges
between 370 and 432 grains per ton. Although the association of chalcopyrite
is perhaps generally of less importance in eastern Servia than that of iron-
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TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 697
pyrites for the occurrence of gold, yet in certain districts it takes the premier
position, as at Majdanpek (an important copper-mining centre), Bor, and Zlot-
Brestovac. The association of the gold with arsenical pyrites, galena, cinna-
bar, calamine, limonite, magnetite, and quarte, respectively, is discussed;
and we then come to the fourth and final chB.pter^ in which the author deals
with the geographical distribution of the gold.
Taking first the Pek basin, after a glance at the auriferous localities of
Leshnica and Eaona, and a hint that the installation of two gold-dredges in
the broad valley of the Pek, between the latter village and Turiya, would pay,
a description is given of the Kucajna mines, situate some 22 miles south of
the river-port of Veliko-Gradiat6 on the Danube. Exploration-work has only
touched here about a tenth of the total area pegged out, and has not been
carried in depth more than 160 feet below the surface; yet there is no question
that the deposits are very rich, and the Pek river here would furnish motive-
power estimated at 60 horsepower. During the short period that was devoted
to mining operations, 270 tons of lead, 33 tons of zinc, 54,687 ounces of silver
and 2,765 ounces of gold were got from these mines. The author describes
at some length the mining operations which are being carried out by a British
company at Neresnica (gold-dredging, as above mentioned) and elsewhere;
and statistics are given of the output obtained by means of the dredges in
the years 1903 to 1905. The Sveta-Varvara (St. Barbara) mines, on which
exploration-work is still in progress, are expected to yield a minimum of 400
grains per ton. The Majdanpek mines, to which allusion has already been
made, are in the hands of a Belgian company.
After a brief survey of the Mlava basin, the author passes on to the
Porecka-Keka basin, where the only important localities for gold so far known
are Cmajka and the neighbourhood of the village of Luka. In regard to the
Crnajka valley, the difficulties of working the deposits would be very great,
otherwise than by a method of combining excavators and dredges, a combina-
tion which has yielded good results in Siberia.
In the Timok basin, the Deli-Iovan deposits, both primary and secondary
(or placer-deposits), have already been mentioned. But the Crna-Reka dis-
trict, where the gold occurs amid the andesites, is of fully equal importance
from the miner's point of view, and in the Timok valley itself auriferous
deposits extend from Vratarnica up to the head-waters of the river.
A Servian-French vocabulary is given of the principal terms in use among
Servian miners, and notice is published that in a second memoir the author
will deal with the cupriferous deposits of the country. L. L. B.
MERCURY ORE-DEPOSITS OF AVALA HILL, SERVIA.
Dh Quecksilber-Lagerstatteji am AfcUa-Berge in Serhien. By H. Fischeb.
Zeitschrijl fur pirakiuche Geologies 1906, vol, xii\y pages 245-256, icith 17
figures in the text.
The Avala hill, some 12^ miles south of Belgrade, is built up of unfossil-
iferous marly limestones of Cretaceous age, traversed at various points by bio-
tite-trachytes. Southward of this hill stretches a serpentine-tract, amid
which crop up at six localities rock-masses essentially consisting of chert or
of a fine-grained brownish-grey, or white quartz intergrown with ferruginous
dolomite (brownspar) and carrying mercury-ores. A characteristic con-
stituent of these rock-masses is the chromiferous potash-mica, described by
Dr. — Lossanitsch under the name of avalite. Rather over half a mile to
the south-west of Mala Stena (one of the six localities just mentioned), along
the Ripanj river, and near the junction between serpentine and limestone, yet
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other dolomitic quartsose rock-maBses are rang^ lineally one behind the
other, characterized by an especially high percentage of dolomite, and carry-
ing at one point a small quantity of galena. The quicksilver-oree are only
found here in the form of rolled pebbles.
The ore>deposits were discovered in 1882, when the Servian railway, from
Belgrade to Nisch, was in course of construction. Up to the year 1887, they
were worked only on a small scale, but thenceforward until about 1891, opera-
tions were conducted on a fairly large scale. Yon Groddeck had, in 1884.
described the quartzose masses as lodes; but the adite driven in the course
of exploration-work through the rocks, showing the avalite-quartz-masses
to be on all sides enveloped by dark-green serpentine, are held to have
disproved this view. There seema, however, to be little doubt that the depositfi
are the outcome of the metamorphic alteration of serpentine by thermal alka-
line springs, containing in solution silica and carbonates and so forth; like
the original serpentine the quartz-masses contain pisotite, chrome-iron-orc,
etc. The adit driven at Schuplja Stena moreover proved the absence of a
distinct junction-line between the serpentine and the avalitic dolomite-quartz
rock ; indeed, the former passes into the latter so gradually, that it was often
impossible to tell in the mine where the one began and the other ended.
The author gives a petrographical description of the serpentine and the
passage-rock (opalinized serpentine), likening the latter to the matrix wherein
the Bohemian garnets occur, with the difference, however, that no olivine
is to be found in the Servian rocks here described. Nevertheless, the mesh-
structure of the serpentine indicates its probable derivation from a peridotite.
The films and granules of cinnabar and the associated specks and crystals
of pyrites found in the quartz are connected with fissures which were evidently
opened up within the quarts-masses after the metamorphic process was com-
plete. These fissures, varying repeatedly from a mere hair's breadth to a
width of 16 inches, are infilled with a gangue of white, coarsely crystalline
quartz and heavy spar, in addition to the ores just mentioned: calcile is of
rare occurrence. In the immediate neighbourhood of the fissures, the quartz
is so strongly impregnated with cinnabar that one may almost speak of pockets
or nests of ore; in the fissures themselves cinnabar occurs in granular or
crystalline compact masses, and encrusting geodes in the form of lustrous
cochineal-red crystals. Calomel, of later formation than the cinnabar, also
occurs; and native mercury, in the form of innumerable little globules, is
a frequent associate of both minerals. The chronological sequence of the
minerals in the fissure-veins would appear to be: (1) quartz, heavy spar>
pyrites; (2) cinnabar, mercury oxychloride (Pkleinite), calomel, native mercury ;
(3) younger quartz, younger baryte; and (4) youngfer cinnabar, younger pyrites.
The hypothesis that an enrichment of the ores would be traced in depth has
been unfortunately falsified: the richest and most extensive ore-bodies were
found at Schuplja Stena at the horizon of the Jerina adit (130 feet below the
surface) and at the third 'tween level; but at the deep-level horizon the quan-
tity of ore and its richness in quicksilver proved to be inferior to what had
been found at higher levels.
The suspension of mining operations is consequently not due to want of the
necessary capital for pursuing exploration- work ; but because the deposits
are in themselves of small extent, and offer no prospect of any improvement
as one goes deeper down. Between 1885 and 1891, it i6 reckoned that 7,796
tons of ore were got, yielding very nearly 176,000 pounds of metallic mercury.
The genesis of these Servian quicksilver-ore deposits is said to be analogous
to that of the Califomian deposits. L. L. B.
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ORE-DEPOSITS OF THE PROVINCE OF ALMERIA, SPAIN.
(1) Varkomnun, Oewinnung und Au/hereitung der Blei- und Kupfererze des Pinar
de Bidar in SOd-SpanUn, By 0. PCtz. Zeitachr\ft fur daa Berg-, Hiitten-
und Salineti'ioesen im preuaaischen St€uUe, 1906, 'vol, liv., Ahkandlungen,
pages 675-683, icilh 10 figures in the text.
The Sierra de B^dar^ in south-eastern Spain, is built up of those crystal-
line schists, belonging to the Middle Archsan division, which play so im-
portant a part in the structure of the Spanish sierras as a whole. They prob-
ably nowhere occur in their original position, but are highly disturbed and
plicated, and often surround masses of foreign rock, into which such bedding
as they exhibit appears to pass. Mica is so enormously abundant in them,
as often of itself alone to cover wide areas containing quartz only in micro-
scopic inclusions. This characteristic occurrence of mica perhaps explains
the absence of actual fissures and overthrusts, whereas plications of every
kind in the Sierra de Bedar are past counting. In good hand-specimens, the
efifects of pressure may be traced into the tiniest venules of the mica. The
most numerous rock-masses included among the schists consist of limestones
of extremely variable texture and composition, and of gneiss generally exhibit-
ing a fibrous structure.
In the neighbourhood of the village of Bedar, a brown haematite-deposit
is worked, which is most probably the decomposition-product of a spathic
iron-ore formed by metasomatic replacement of limestone. In point of fact,
a passage is over and over again distinctly traceable from the partly com-
pact, partly crystalline, dolomitic, marmorized limestone into a brown h»ma^
tite containing 60 per cent, and more of metallic iron. Fine pseudomorphs
of limonite after pyrite and siderite occur in this deposit.
Pinar de B^dar, the locality where the copper- and lead-ores have been
found, lies in the eastern part of the sierra, towards the sea. The exposed
rock consists of highly weathered, occaaionally very crumbly, earthy lime-
stone. It is unfossiliferous, and is undoubtedly of Aj*ch»an age, as proofs of
its intercalation among the crystalline schists are forthcoming. The metall-
iferous ores occur as impregnation-zones in this limestone, sometimes so poorly
mineralized that it takes a very keen eye to detect them. The sole repre-
sentative of the lead-ores is galena, which is of very widespread occurrence,
usually in its well-known cubic crystalline form. The percentage of metallic
lead and silver that it contains is extremely variable. The copper-ores are
not found as sulphides, but as the carbonates, malachite and azurite, which
(like the galena) occur in great abundance and are invariably associated;
structurally, they belong as a rule to the compact and earthy varieties, and
are seen sometimes with the galena, sometimes apart from it. Their genesis,
like that of the brown haematite already mentioned, may be traced to the
upward percolation of thermal waters charged with carbonic and sulphuric
acids, in the moribund phase of comparatively recent volcanic outbursts: the
difference being that, whereas the iron-ore metasomatically replaced portions
of the fissured limestone, the plumbic and cupric precipitates were deposited
in all such cavities and clefts as were available in that rock. From the point
of view of horizon, the copper- and lead-ores cannot be said to occupy a definite
belt, but are somewhat irregularly distributed. Enrichment can, however,
be traced along a general line of strike from north to south. The ores
are not traced deep down in a vertical direction, for the fissuring and "caver-
nosity" of the limestone are but shallow or superficial phenomena, and
with increased depth the limestone becomes mora compact and barren of ore.
These occurrences are hardly such as to admit of mining operations on
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700 NOTES OF PAPERS IN COLONIAL AND FOREIGN
the grand scale; but they are well suited to the system, so beloved of the
Spaniards, of leasing out concessions in small parcels to separate lessees or
partidarios, each of whom works his plot, either with the help of his family
or with that of hired labour, on his own account. Thus a great number of
small shafts and headings are huddled together in a comparatively restricted
area; and winding is performed by means of a wooden hand-winch with
esparto-rope, the ore being brought up in baskets, also woven of esparto-
grass. The miner is conveyed, sometimes down to depths of 160 feet and
more, by the action of the same winch and rope. Boys alone act as hauliers,
carrying the ore-baskets on their backs through the low and narrow working^.
Many mines, however, are worked opencast; and, where not, they are generally
confined to shallow depths and to the looee cavernous limestone. In point
of fact, the percentage of attainable profit would hardly repay an extensiTe
use of blasting-materials.
Quite an infinitesimal proportion of the ore thus brought to the surface
(and then only the copper-ore) is sufficiently pure to be shipped without
further treatment. The overwhelmingly greatest part of the output, includ-
ing all the galena, has to undergo a preparation for the market, which con-
stitutes really the main work of the mining folk. In view of the small scale
on which operations are conducted, this involves, of course, manual labour
pure and simple, and some of the most primitive appliances conceivable. But
the industry, skill, and punctilious carefulness with which that labour is pei^
formed enable the miner to achieve results such as no mechanical appliance
could rival. It is true that the losses involved in washing the ore are suffi-
ciently considerable to enable a partidario frequently to work with profit
over again the tailings or waste-heaps left by his predecessor. The successful
results are perhaps especially due to the unshakable perseverance of these
Spanish miners, in the monotonous repetition of the various stages of tlie
purifying treatment. This treatment is based on the same principles as those
adopted in far larger establishments: hand-picking, trituration, sifting, and
washing in appropriate tanks follow one another in chronological order. As a
general rule, however, the granular condition in which the stuff reaches the
surface precludes hand-picking; and the raw material is thrown at once on
to a sieve, consisting usually of iron rods, between each of which is a space
measuring 0*8 inch. The material that fails to pass through this sieve is
tipped into a circular space some 6^^ to 10 feet in diameter, bounded by large
stones, and two or three boys, wielding iron crushers, go on for hours rhyth-
mically triturating the material, apparently insensible to fatigue and to the
torrid heat of the southern sun. In a few isolated cases, rollers (similar to
those used in some German mines) set in motion by a beast of burthen, are
employed in the tritu ration-process. The crushed material is then placed in a
sieve, which is worked up and down for half a minute to a minute in a wooden
hcLsten containing water, with the result that all the fine particles are pre-
cipitated to the bottom of the hasten or recipient. The coarse ore remaining
in the sieve is raked off, and subsequently resifted as many times as may be
necessary. When sufficient fine ore has collected at the bottom of the hapten
or estanque, the water is drained off, and the ore is accumulated in a heap,
until there is enough of it got together for the process of final washing on
a rimmed plank-fiooring which rests simply on the surface of the ground.
Water is introduced through an opening in the rim, an inch or two above
the floor-level, and the pulverized ore is stirred up in the water which streams
across the slightly inclined floor into a settling-tank by a man wielding a
sort of long-handled hook (rodiUo). Apparently the system is so contrived
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702 NOTES OF PAPERS IN COLONIAL AND FOREIGN
West of the galena-mines of the Pinar de Bedar, lie the neighbouring^
iron-ore workings of Serena, the geological relationships of the latter being
all but identical with those of the former, although there is perhaps more
evidence of disturbance and faulting. The main bed of limestone here aver-
ages 65 to 100 feet in thickness, occasionallj much exceeding this, and some-
times also pinching out to nothing. In places it is overlain bj thin bands
of Triassic limestone and conglomerate, showing here again an analogy to
the Pinar de B^dar occurrence. The limestones intercalated among the
schists are the carriers of the iron-ore, the richest accumulations being usually
at the junction of the two rocks (schist and limestone) ; but this by no means
implies that the contact-zone generally is mineralized. In relation to its
total extent, in fact, the mineralized portion is quite small. Where mining
operations, however, are now in full activity, practically a third of the con-
tact-zone proves to be workable. In the deep-level workings, the thickness
of payable ore varies from 10 to 16^ feet. Apart from the contact-zone, certain
portions of the limestone itself appear to have passed by metasomatosis into
iron-ore. The payable stuff may be defined as consisting of the several
varieties of brown iron-ore, with which are secondarily associated such minerals
as pscudomorphs of limonite after pyrites and siderite, native copper, mala-
chite, barytes, etc. The working is done by pillar-and-stall ; and, on account
of the rotten condition of the roof, a very complete system of packing has
to be resorted to. The ores are carried down by means of a Pohlig cable-
railway, 10 miles in length, to the harbour of Garucha, where they are put
on board ship. The average annual output from 1893 to 1903 inclusive has
been 100,000 tons. The crude ore of the opencast workings assays to 48 per
cent, of metallic iron and 15 per cent, of silica; the normal ore averag«a
58 per cent, of iron and 3 to 5 of silica.
Northward of the Serena mines, lie a vast number of concessions of which
only a portion is worked, the most important being perhaps the Tres Amigos
and La Feria mines.
It seems evident that these brown iron-ores are in almost e^ery case the
decomposed outcrops of deposits of spathic iron-ore, which latter have been
formed by metasomatosis. They are not to be regarded as the ferruginouB
gossans of lead, silver, and copper-ore-deposits ; and it is highly probable that
the singularly uniform belt of iron-ore-deposits, which extends along the
shores of the Mediterranean (eastern coast of Spain and northern coast of
Africa) and along the western coast of France, owes its origin to the upwelling
of thermal ferruginous solutions at an epoch quite distinct from that during
which the other metalliferous ores were formed : yet, although distinct, it was
not perhaps very much earlier.
(3) Cher einige EY^agerstditen der Provinz Almeria in Spanieii. [Part If.] By
Baron F. Fibcks. Zeitachrifl fur praJctiache Oedogity 1906, vol. xiv., pages
233-236, with \ figure in the text.
As in almost every other mining district in Spain, the ancient Bomana
were the first to prospect and work over the ore-deposits of the Sierra Alma-
grera (province of Almeria). After many vicissitudes there has been of late
a revival of the mineral-industry in that neighbourhood, in part owing to the
success with which German engineers have solved the problem of unwatering
the workings. The sierra ranges for over 5^ miles, sensibly parallel with
the coast, to which it presents a steep scarp, and reaches its greatest altitude
(1,200 feet) in the Puntal del Euso. Somewhat less than 2^ miles in breadth,
the sierra is largely built up of phyllites, in part metamorphosed, from among
which rise here and there wall-like reefs of quartz. Banked up against the
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TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 708
Spurs of the sierra are the Tertiary limestonee, marly and sandy clays, sand-
stones, and conglomerates^ while the western flank of the range is character-
ized by a belt of younger eruptive rocks which appear to be the ore-carriers.
The metalliferous lodes all but universally strike north-west and south-east
(the sierra trends from north-east to south-west) with a north-easterly dip,
but their longitudinal extent rarely exceeds a thousand yards or so. In
point of fact, two complexes of lodes can be traced, of which the older is by
far the richest and the most important; while the newer, in many respects,
not least in the low percentage of silver, recalls the sulphidio lead-veins of
Freiberg. The principal ore is a highly argentiferous galena, almost every-
where occxirring in the form of octahedral crystals. Pyrites, blende, and the
fairly abundant bournonite play a secondary part. Nearer the surface native
silver, and its combinations with chlorine and iodine, as also copper-pyrites
and its decomposition-products, are met with. The gangue chiefly consistB
of yellow chalybite, heavy spar, and fragments of the country-rock; caloite
occurs as an accessory. In several mines the chalybite occurs in such quantity
and of so pure a quality, that it pays to work it as an iron-ore and smelt it
for export. In some cases there is so microscopically minute an intermixture
of the chalybite and galena (locally termed molineras)^ that the observer
might well rush to the conclusion that he has before him a new mineral,
hitherto unrecorded. The richest ores, perhaps, have been got at middling
depths, reckoning from 328 feet below the surface to the underground water-
level of the country. The two most important localities in the sierra (from
the miner's point of view) are in the Jaroso valley and in the Franzes valley.
Here are found the highest percentages of silver and the richest lead-ores,
while as one recedes from them the ores are seen to pass into pyrites and
poorer galena, and gradually to disappear altogether. The best lodes occur
on the eastern flank and on the crest of the sierra, while on the seaward
scarp the lodes are few in number and insignificant in quality. The Jaroso
main lode is known to extend over 2,000 feet, it is 33 feet thick, and has
yielded by far the greater portion of the total lead and silver output of the
district.
The iron- and sUver-ore-deposits of Herrerias, situated at the base of the
Sierra Almagrera, are as closely connected with that sierra from the geo-
logical standpoint as they are from the topographical. The phyllites, masked
here by Triassic limestones and shales, these again being mantled over by
Tertiary loams and conglomerates, are struck at Herrerias (1^ miles distant
from the sierra) at a depth of 650 feet below the surface. The principal ore
of this district is an iron-ore remarkable for the high percenttvge of manganese
which it contains. The richer ores, assaying to 50 or 60 per cent, of metallic
iron and 6 per cent, of manganese, are nearly always in a soft, crumbly con-
dition, while the poorer ores, hard and coarse-grained, occur wherever the
compression of the limestone has been incomplete. The ore-deposit, asso-
ciated as it is. with the contact-zone of limestone and shale, is of metasomatio
origin, like most other iron-ore-deposits of the province of Almeria, recalling
indeed those of B^dar, previously described by the author.
The occurrence of rich silver-ores and native silver is of supreme import-
ance for the Herrerias district. Frequently does it happen that an iron-ore
deposit is overlain by loamy beds which are so impregnated with silver-ores
that samples have yielded a minimum of 100 parts of metallic silver per million
(3*2 ounces per ton). The sandy layers are not seldom highly silicified, and
in such cases are particularly rich in silver. The iron-ore itself is seamed
by a number of veins and venules, mostly infilled with heavy-spar, which
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704 NOTES OF PAPERS IN COLONIAL AND FOEEIGN
ramify and nip-out in the overlying loamy beds. The silyer-ores are un-
doubtedly derived from thermal springes similar to those which formed the
Almagrera lodes. The succession of events was probably somewhat as fol-
lows:— Upward percolating ferruginous solutions transformed the limestone
into carbonate of iron, and accessorily into sulphides of iron. This metamor-
phosis was naturally most active where the way lay most open to the ferru-
ginous solutions, that is, at the contact between limestone and shale. The
iron-ore deposit having been formed, further mountain-movement took place
with consequent Assuring. Long fissures were easily opened up in the slates
of the Sierra Almagrera, but encountered another sort of obstacle in the
altered and originally soft deposits of Herrerias; here, therefore » a network
of fragmentary lodes was formed rather than a regular series of big lodes,
although the mineralogical composition of the former is practically identical
with that of the latter. If lodes were formed with difficulty among the
iron-ores and limestones of Herrerias, still more would that be the case with
the overlying loamy deposits: in these no fissures could properly form, and
intimate impregnation with silver-ores was the consequent alternative. At
Herrerias, as in the Sierra Almagrera, evidences of the mining industry of the
ancient Bomans abound. About the middle of the nineteenth century, as
in the case of the Sierra Almagrera, there was an industrial revival which
lasted for several years ; nowadays, however, there is a woeful f alling-off , and but
few mines can boast an output of much importance as regards silver-ores.
In regard to the iron-mines, it is another story altogether — quite a number
produce large quantities of ore, and there are prospects of a still greater
output for many years to come. L. L. B.
HUELVA PYEITES-DEPOSITS, SPAIN.
Beitrdge zur Kenntniss der Hudvaiitr Kitslagerstdtten^ By Bbuno Wetzig.
Zeitschrift fiir praktische Oeologie, 1906, I'd. xiv,, pages 173-186, fvitk 13
figures in the text.
It would seem that the scientific description of these deposits, so far as well-
digested published matter is concerned, has hardly kept pace with the extraor-
dinary activity of the mining operations of which they are the object. So rapidly
are they being worked that the author fears, that in the case of many a
mine, the last shift will have completed its task ere the man of science finds
the opportunity of gleaning his own little harvest of data as to exposures,
etc., therefrom. Much printing-ink has, it is true, been expended on Huelva
(more especially on Bio Tinto), mostly in the form of. traveller's impressions
hurriedly jotted down in the course of a few days' visit. Perhaps the only
solid contributions that have been made to the knowledge of the subject within
the last twenty-five years are the accounts published by Messrs. J. H. L.
Vogt, Klockmann, and Gonzalo y Tarin respectively. The theory of the
sedimentary origin of the deposits enunciated by the second of the above-
mentioned authors appears to have held the field until recently; but now
that the champions of an epigenetic or metasomatic origin have entered the
lists, Mr. Wetzig thinks it incumbent upon him to break a lance with
them. Dight in the full panoply of notes and sketches, amassed in the course
of a quarter of a century's residence in the province of Huelva, during five
years of which he lived at the mines and almost every day was in and about
them in his capacity of engineer, he enters the fray with a justifiable assurance
of victory. He points out that it is rather an advantage that his own obser-
vations bear mostly on the smaller mines, as it is in these smaller mines that
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TRANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 705
the general conditions can best be grasped and studied as a whole. The gigan-
tic scale of everything in the larger mines renders a bird's-eye view of the
subject all but impossible.
The masses of pyritee occur on a plateau consisting chiefly of shales and
apparently-stratified eruptive diabasic rocks, with a little grauwacke, and still
more rarely limestone, rising towards the Sierra de Aracena to an altitude
exceeding 1,300 feet above sea-level. The rocks have been much overthrust
and disturbed^ their general strike is from east to west, and they dip almost
invariably northward. The plateau is a plain of erosion, on the whole un-
dulating with deep-cut river-valleys, while the hills which rise from it like
islands are mostly built up of quartz or jasper, and have thus opposed a stout
resistance to the agents of denudation. Becently, the well-known fossil
Posidonomya Becheri has been found in various localities in the mining field;
and the author regards it as extremely probable that all the rocks date from
the period of the Kulm, although he afterwards says that certain eruptives
rich in quartz which have affected the ore-body at the contact are undoubtedly
of later age than the diabasic sills which have not affected the ore-body. Thus
at San Telmo intrusive porphyries have twisted the strike of the pyrites-
deposits and the neighbouring shales almost right round from east-and-west
to north-and-south ; at the Joya mine the columnar porphyry cuts through
the centre of the ore-body, laying the western portion of it flat and squeezing
the eastern portion into a pillowy mass. At La Caridad in Aznalcollar, the
ore-body, which assumes the character of a seam, is repeatedly fissure-faulted
in its western portion, while in the eastern portion where the porphyry comes
into contact with the ore-deposit, the latter is nipped out or packed into
folds.
The imposing spectacle of the great masses of ore of Bio Tinto and Tharsis,
hundreds of feet thick, is apt to delude the observer into a belief in the
complete unity of character and structure of the deposits. But a closer view
reveals the existence of separate beds and lenticles of ore, alternating with
wedges or lenticles of barren shale (cuHa de esterU). Certain beds of ore are
characterized by a higher percentage of lead and zinc, and some take on quite
a banded structure, owing to the alternation of pyrites, blende, and galena,
these bands being always parallel with the bedding. Other beds are char-
acterized by a high percentage of copper in the form of chalcopyrite, and a
consequently yellow coloration; yet others, on the contrary, consist of a
very compact ore, containing but little copper and a high percentage of sul-
phur. Occasionally the pyrites is so interbanded with fine laminse of shale,
that it assumes all the appearance of the latter, and its true nature is only
revealed by its specific gravity. Sometimes the shale predominates over the
pyrites, such masses being known as azufranes; and there are some ores
which are very difficult to break up, owing to the large amount of quartz
associated with them. All the ore-bodies coincide in strike and dip with
the shales among which they lie; they partake, too, in all the plications and
disturbances to which the latter have, in the course of ages, been subjected.
Particular belts of ore-bodies can be followed along the strike of the shales,
such as that extending over a length of about 3 miles, which is worked in the
mines of Carpio, Cruzadillo, Poytos, and Lomero. The several deposits are
linked one with the other by brown ferruginous shales, which in depth prove
to be impregnated with pyrites, and occasionally exhibit stringers or beds of
massive pure pyrites. The author cites various other examples of similar
ore-belts, and proceeds to point out the hopeleesneee of endeavouring, either
to lay down ruleff as to the relation between the thickness of any of these
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other hand, the enrichment in copper of a given deposit may be gauged from
the thickness of the ferruginous gossan which overlies it, taking also into
account the amount of erosion which that gossan has demonstrably under-
gone. It is shown, too, how the richest copper-ore may be expected to oocnr
rather at the floor, than at the roof, of n. deposit; how, further, enrichment
has sometimes taken place along fissures and clefts, which cut across the de-
posit transversely to the bedding. The miner translates the enrichment
of the upper zones of a deposit which has a ferruginous gossan at the oat^
crop into terms of impoverishment with depth; thus, at Cabezas del Paato»
the ore at the 130-feet level contained on an average 3^ per cent, of
copper, whereas at the 260-feet level it contained only 2 per cent. In the
Caridad mine at AznalcoUar, the ore at the 130-feet level contained from
4 to 5 per cent, of copper, but at the 360-feet level only a half per cent. At
Cuchichon, however, after impoverishment between the depths of 260 and
375 feet, an enrichment of the ore was observed thenceforward down to the
greatest depth reached in the mine,, that is, 500 feet ; but this apparent excep-
tion is explained by a diagram. The author combats strongly the views
of those who do not regard the ferruginous gossan as purely and simply the
decomposition-product of the pyrites. He shows how the nature of the g'ossan
is an index to the character of the underlying ore-body; where the former
is a compact red haematite, the underlying pyrites is compact and poor in
copper; where the gossan is yellow, porous, and ochreous, pyrites rich in
copper may be looked for beneath it.
A deposit known as ioba, bears in appearance an extraordinary resemblance
to the gossan, and is often confused with it. The toha was formed in tliis
way: the iron-sulphate waters, leached out of the original mass of pyrites,
banked up in pools or lagoons, deposited their iron-oxide around pebbles of
quartz and shale on the bottom, and thus a conglomerate with a ferruginous
cement was built up. The gossan, on the other hand, would answer the
description of a breccia of iron-oxides cemented by infiltrated silica. The
toba, as a secondary deposit, does not occur on the spot where its materials
were formed, and naturally coincides neither in strike nor in dip with the
shales. It has been the cause of many erroneous notions as to the geneat
of the ore-deposits. At the Bio Tin to mines, the toba forms a great plateau,
the Mesa de los Pinos, in which remains and impressions of Tertiary planta
are found. In the Caridad mine, the toha is seen to stand up in isolated
reefs among the £k)cene limestones, and is also seen to have been thrust down-
wards by the intrusive porphyry to a depth of 230 feet. At the same mine,
conclusive evidence of the pre-Tertiary age of the ore-body is thus available,
since, apart from what has just been said about the toba, the Eocene horix<»-
tally-bedded limestones overlie unconformably the uptilted ore-beds and shales.
Data are also adduced from the AznalcoUar mines, to show that, in compari-
son with the age of the Huelva pyrites-deposits, the interval of time that
has elapsed since the deposition of the Eocene limestones is of small account,
so small indeed that the progress of the decomposition of the original ore
into oxides of iron is hardly noticeable in that interval.
Recurring to the question of the genesis of the pyrites-deposits, the author
holds that all the facts, of which a synopsis has just been g^ven, constitate
cumulative evidence in favour of the sedimentation-theory. He enumerates
the several particulars which go to prove that the deposits cannot be lodes or
infilled fissures, and then refers to the observed gradation from pure pyrites,
TEAXSACnONS AND PERIODICALS. 707
through more or less impregnated to absolutely barren shales, as further proof
of the sedimentary orig^ of the ores. At the Monte Rubio mine, and near
the hill of the Yirgen de la Pena, at La Puebla de Guzman, the ore-body
consists of shales strongly impregnated with pyrites, alternating with thin
stringers and bands of pure pyrites, none of which exceeds 3 feet in thickness.
The composition of the ore is identical with that of all the other pyrites-
deposits in the province, only the aocumulatdon of the pyrites has not been
carried to the same pitch of concentration. Several simUar instances are
cited, all showing more or less the above-mentioned gradation.
The extraordinary shapes which the deposits occasionally assume, capri-
cious as they were termed in the older text-books, are doubtless due in
part to the subsequent intrusion of eruptive rocks, and in part to the dynamical
effects of pressure and thrust.
In conclusion, the author devotes a few lines to the manganiferous deposits
of Huelva. These occur in the same formation as the pyrites-deposits, and,
like them, are conformably interbedded with the shales. In fact, all the
conditions of their occurrence are remarkably similar, with the difference that
the manganese-ores do not appear to continue in depth much beyond 65 feet
below the surface. Very rarely do they attain a depth of 130 feet, and
in the single instance of the Santa Catalina mine, close to the deep-cut river-
bed of the Guadiana, was manganese-ore still found at a depth of 330 feet.
About' 15 years ago, however, it was discovered that the above-mentioned
exhaustion in depth of the manganiferous deposits in reality applied only
to the oxides of manganese ; but that silicates and carbonates of manganese
(in incomparably greater quantity) occur down to considerable depths, in beds
and lenticles similar in structure and succession to the pyrites-deposits, and
alternating just as these do with the shales. The carbonate and silicate of
manganese are undoubtedly primary deposits of sedimentary origrin^ while
the superficially occurring pyrolusite and the associated jasper are secondary
deposits — the alteration-products indeed, of the others and in a sense com-
parable with the ferruginous gossan of the pyrites-deposits. L. L. B.
ARGENTIFEROUS GALENA OF CADLIMO, SWITZERLAND.
Sid Oiacimento di Galena argeni\fer& dell* Altopiano di Cadlimo. By E. Mabiani.
Giornale di Oeologia pra>tica, 1906, vol. iv., pages 94-98, itnth 1 figure in the
text.
The high alp or Piatto di Cadlimo, lies among the mountains which form
the eastern wing of the St. Gotthard group, in the commune of Quinto, dis-
trict of Leventina, canton Ticino. The rocks hereabouts consist essentially
of gneisses alternating with mica-schists, striking on the whole east and
west, and dipping northward at 46 degrees or so. The galena^eposit occurs
somewhere about the middle of the area described, and prospecting-work was
started on it in the summer of 1904 by an American company, which had
obtained a concession from the cantonal authorities. The existence of the
deposit had long been known, and more or less spasmodic investigations had
been made at various times, but the earlier prospectors were hampered by
the lack of means of transport and easy communication with the main valley
of the Ticino. The spot lies for a great part of the year buried in snow,
and was high up away (until quite recently) from any road that could be regarded
as really suitable for wheeled traffic. Now, however, a good road has been
made up from the Piora valley to the Piatto di Cadlimo, and temporary
dwellings and stores have been constructed for the use of the men who are
to open up the mine.
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708 NOTES OF PAPESS IN COLONIAL AND FOEEIGX
The author visited the spot in September, 1905, under the auspices of
the engineer-in-charge, and had the opportunity of examining a great deal
of material which had been brought to bank in the course of the recent
exploration-work. The gneiss-and-mica-schist complex is hereabouts traversed
hj a number of fissures generally striking from south to north, and narrow-
ing somewhat near the surface ; some of them pitch steeply westward, others
eastward, and yet others are vertical. The argentiferous galena, irregu-
larly intermingled with gangue, fills up these fissures. The gangue appears
to be made up of highly decomposed fragments of the country-rock, with an
argillaceous film. The galena occurs in splendidly lustrous masses showing
well the cubic cleavage, and also in "granular masses," really made up of big
nodules, consisting, in concentric alternation, of bands of galena, mica, and
quartz. Various chemical analyses show that the percentage of metallic
lead in the ore exceeds 77*65, while the amount of silver varies from 7*78 to
10*25 ounces per ton; but the author considers that a much greater number
of samples must be subjected to analysis, before it will be possible to form
a definite idea of the exact industrial value of the deposit. The galena is
also dispersed through the very smallest cracks that radiate from the prin-
cipal fissures, in such wise that the country-rock at many places appears to
be impregnated with the ore. As the veins of galena crop out at many
distinct points, and remain for some distance parallel one with the other,
the idea suggests itself that they converge in depth into one great ore-body.
At an altitude of 8,364 feet above sea-level, mining operations will hardly
prove possible throughout the year, and yet the author thinks that work may
go on there during as many as 300 days out of the 365. L. L. B.
MINEBAL-RESOUECES OF ASIA. MINOR.
(1) Die Oewinnung mUzlmrcr Miiieralien in Kleinasien mihrend des AlterthumJt. By
Fb. Fksi8E. Zeitschr\ft fur praktische Oeologie, 1906, vol. jr»p., pages
277-284.
The colonies founded in Asia Minor by the ancient civilized peoples of
Egypt and Asia were essentially mining colonies, and so the mineral-industry
(including metallurgy), even in very remote ages, attained a high degree of
prosperity in the Levant. Two points are Worth bearing in mind: (1) that
the total quantity of metal in use in those days was infinitesimally small, in
comparison with that required by the necessities of modern civilization, and
consequently mines and sm el ting-works were conducted on a correspondingly
smaller scale; (2) that metals had a far higher value in relation to manual
labour (then mostly slave-labour) than nowadays. Thus it was possible in
ancient times to mine at a profit deposits which would now be absolutely
unworkable, despite the enormous progress that has meanwhile been made in
all the technicalities of mining: since metals are lower, and manual labour
is higher, in value. Tliis consideration should weigh with the modern pro-
spector, when he suggests the resumption of mining operations on deposits
which were formerly remunerative.
The ancients, in hewing out the ores of which they could make use,
left calamine and zinc-blende severely alone, as they were unfamiliar with
the methods of extracting zinc, especially from the latter ore. The mineral-
industry, flourishing under the Lydian kings, the Romans, and the Byzantine
emperors, rapidly declined after the Osmanli conquest, and remained in a
state of paralysis for five centuries, with the exception of the silver-ore min-
ing carried on at Gumiish-Ehane in northern Asia Minor, and the copper-
ore workings of Arghana-Maaden in Kurdistan.
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TRANSACTIONS AND PEBIODICALS. 709
A short general sketch is giYen of the history of the sub-continent, and
then the author enters into details, gleaned from yarious classical writers, as
to the minerals obtained and worked in Phrygia, Mysia, Lydia, Caria, and
Lycia (forming now the vilayets of Ehodawendikjar and Aidin). Thereafter
he glances at the islands lying off the western coast : Lemnos, Lesbos, Samo8,
and Rhodes; and then at the region which practically constitutes the vilayet
of Eonia — the ancient Pisidia, Pamphylia, Lycaonia, and Cilicia, completing
his survey of Asia Minor with the northern portion thereof, including Bithy-
nia, Paphlagonia, Pontus, Gappadocia, and Galatia. He regards Cyprus and
Crete as coming geographically within his purview, and notes that the copper-
ores of the former island originated the very name of the metal {cyprium,
cuprum) in all civilized languages.
(2) Bodemchatze und Bergbau Kleinojiiena. By C. Schmeisssr. Zeitsrhrift filr
praktische Oedogie, 1906, vol. xiv., pages 186-196, icith a map in the text.
Geological investigations in Asia Minor have hardly been pushed far
enough as yet, to permit of an accurate general view of the subject. It is
sufficient for the present to state that samples of the formations of all ages,
from the Archaean down to the most recent, are of more or less extensive
occurrence, but that next to the great crystalline mass (Prof. A. Philippson's
Lydian massif) of the central region, Tertiary deposits predominate over-
whelmingly. Belying for a geographical and geological description of Asia
Minor on one or two lengthy quotations from Prof. Philippson, the author
gives details of the occurrence of useful minerals in the following order: —
Meerschaum is found in a soft tufaceous brecciiform rock, grey to reddish-
brown, at the base of the serpentine-hills which rise south and south-east of
Mount Olympus in the vilayet of Brussa. The mineral is probably an altera-
tion-product of the magnesite which forms a complex network of veins in the
serpentine. In place the meerschaum is grey, soapy, and very soft, but soon
hardens after its extraction (in lumps of the size of about an apple) from the
matrix, and becomes paler in colour. The meerschaum-deposits lie east of
Eskishehir in the Pursak valley, where near the river they attain a maximum
thickness of 233 feet, thinning away towards the hills, and finally nipping-out
altogether. Within an area of barely 2 miles in diameter in that valley,
as many as 4,000 shafts have been sunk; but the method of working is far
from economic, as mining operations are conducted by a great number of
lessees, each employing a very few men. The lessees pay a tax of 15 per
cent, to the Ottoman Government, the annual output of 150 tons or so having
been for many years exported in its entirety to Vienna.
Pandermite, a borate of lime nearly related to borax, has received its
name from the shipping harbour of Panderma on the Sea of Marmora. The
best-known deposit of the mineral occurs some 43 miles south of the sea-
coast and 18i miles north-east of Balikesri, at Sultanchair, in the form of
dazzling white masses, varying in size from a pin's head up to blocks weigh-
ing ^ ton or so, within a bed of gypsiferous clay, some 115 feet thick. The
mineral appears to be of volcanic origin, and to have been brought by means
of springs into an extensive lake-basin. American competition has proved,
of late, highly detrimental : the output, which at one time averaged 200 tons
of 25 to 30 per cent, pandermite daily, sank in 1903 to 6,000 tons for the
whole year. The price, too, has gone down to such an extent that the profits
of working the Sultanchair mines average barely 5 per cent.
Salt is evaporated from rich brines at Giabul in the vilayet of Aleppo,
and from saltings at various points along the sea-coast. It is also got from
the great salt-lake of Tutz-Chollii in Lycaonia. Rock-salt-deposits, 130 feet
710 XOTES OF PAPERS IN COLONIAL AND FOREIGN
or more in thickness, are worked at Tntz-Kidi, near Neyshehir, and three
other localities where the same mineral is worked are mentioned.
Of the numerous deposits of emery, more especially abundant in the
vilayet of Smyrna, comparatively few are being worked at present. The
mineral usually occurs as a secondary deposit in a brecciated form in a reddish-
brown earth, or intermingled with fragments of limestone embedded in earthy
limestone in far-stretching cavities or fissures among the crystalline lime-
stones. The greatest known cavernous deposit of this nature is about 330
feet long, 66 feet wide, and 33 feet high. The mineral is worked both
opencast and underground, and the crude material is sorted by hand : the per-
centage of corundum therein varies between 40 and 57. The annual output
ranges from 17,000 to 20,000 tons, and is mostly absorbed by Great Britain,
the United States, and Germany.
Chrome-iron-ore is the most important iron-ore that Asia Minor can
show: it is said to exist there in quantity sufficient to supply the world's
markets for generations to come. The known deposits may be grouped in
three well-defined areas : (1) the north-western, in the province of Brussa,
in the vicinity of Mount Olympus; (2) the south-western, including the dis-
tricts of Denizly and Makry, and the shores of the Gulf of Adalia; and (3)
the south-eastern, around the Gulf of Alexandretta, in the district of the
same name and in that of Adana. Careful prospecting will no doubt reveal
in time further deposits of the ore in the remoter provinces. In the region
of Brussa, the chromite is, like the meerschaum, associated with serpentine
as its original matrix. It occurs irregularly therein in the form of flattish
lenticles, stringers, pockets, etc., often traversed by faults; more than 120
such occurrences have been recorded, among them that of Daghhardy, 12^
miles south of Chardy, said to be the biggest and richest of the kind in the
whole world. Here about 10 million tons of ore, containing from 51 to 55
per cent, of chromic oxide, are in sight. The export of chrome-iron-ore
from AjBia Minor has in recent years amounted to 40,000 tons per annum,
and the output up till the year 1903, at any rate, equalled that of all other
countries taken together ; but New Caledonia is proving a formidable competitor.
Iron- and manganese-ores are doubtless of widespread occurrence in Asia
Minor, but the economic conditions are such that few of them can be worked
at present, and those chiefly perhaps in the vilayet of Smyrna. At Basheya
in Syria, north of Mount Hermon, the working of the iron-ore-deposite is
facilitated by the occurrence at the same locality of seams of ligfnite. Cinna-
bar and gold and silver-ores have been found, again in the richly-mineralized
vilayet of Smyrna.
In Asia Minor, the oft-repeated axiom that plumbiferous ores need to
be argentiferous as well, in order to repay working, holds good once more.
The lead ores are more especially found in those districts where eruptive rocks
have invaded the sedimentary deposits. Three such areas are distinguish-
able; the eastern, western, and southern. To the first-named belong about
15 deposits between Zara and Karahissar in the vilayet of Sivas ; to the second
the great mines of Balia and Menteshdere; and to the last-named the great
Government mines on the southern flank of the Bulgar-Dagh, besides many
other localities enumerated by the author.
The copper-ores are conveniently grouped in a north-eastern and a south-
western area, whereof the latter is of far less importance than the former.
First and foremost in the north-eastern area may be mentioned the mines
of Arghana Mad^n, between Kharput and Diarbekir, not far from the Lake
of Gioldjik where the Tigris takes its rise: Naumann's description of them
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TRANSACTIONS AND PEEIODICALS. 711
18 quoted^ and the author adds that the mines are most wastefuUy worked
by a number of small capitalists^ who farm them from the Turkish Oovem-
ment. It seems possible that the authorities will refuse to allow this to
continue much longer, and that a chance will be given to syndicates power-
fully backed by a sufficiency of capital to conduct operations economically
on a large scale. The one drawback is the scarcity of fuel. The hinterland
of Trebizonde and Sinope respectively, is also rich in copper-ores. The south-
western group includes the mines of Bulbuder^, Assarli, and Cos in the vilayet
of Smyrna, and the apparently rich deposits of Tokad and Kalabak, near
Balikesri. The total output of Turkish copper-ores for the year 1902 amounted
to 1,118 tons.
Antimony-ores occur in the vilayets of Brussa, Smyrna, and Sivas, and
are in part worked, but the statistics of output, etc., are said to be excep-
tionally unreliable. Arsenical pyrites is largely worked in the vilayet of Smyrna
for the sake of the gold which it contains, rather than for the arsenic. Occur-
rences of calamine, native sulphur, and alum are also enumerated.
The coal-deposits on the shores of the Black Sea are of especial import-
ance for Asia Minor. They extend over a belt of a maximum width of 6^
miles, from Bender Eregli eastward to Amasra. Many of the seams are
from 10 to 13 feet thick, they dip as a rule not more than 10 or 12 degrees,
and crop out at the surface. They are worked by adits following the dip,
until the inflow of water compels the abandonment of these primitive min-
ing operations. The coal is said to be suitable for metallurgical purposes,
' for coking, and for firing boilers. The Turkish Government works that
portion of the coal-field which lies within the Imperial domain, for the supply
of the fleet and the arsenals, and if the authorities could only bring themselves
to lease the remainder to syndicates prepared to work the coal by the most
approved modem methods, an immense development of the mineral-industry
hereabouts would ensue. Few concessionB have been granted up to the
present, the most important being that of the Heraklea company, whose out-
put for the year 1900 amounted to 255,000 tons. The new harbour of Son-
guldac is being built for shipping the coal. About 35 or 40 miles north-
west of Erzerum, a very sandy impure coal is worked by means of adits,
but the quality may be found to improve in depth. Other occurrences are
cited, which lead to the inference that productive coal-measures extend more
or less continuously very nearly to the Persian frontier. At Namrun, 12
hours' camel-ride from Mersina in the province of Adana, coal is being worked
by a German lessee.
Brown coal is of widespread occurrence, and as wood-fuel is scarce on
the high plateaux, the deposits, where sufficiently rich, should prove of more
than local importance. Finally, the author enumerates occurrences of petro-
leum, asphalt, and bituminous limestones (the Bead-Sea region being exten-
sively cited in connexion with all three), phosphates, fullers' earth, soapstone,
lithographic slates, and opal.
There seems to be no question that a systematic geological survey of Asia
Minor would vastly extend the known occurrences of useful minerals. The
economic and legal conditions of the country are, however, at present so un-
favourable, that nothing short of revolutionary changes can effect the com-
plete utilization of its mineral resources. As might be expected from a
writer of the author's nationality, due stress is laid on the importance of the
Baghdad railway as a new factor which makes for progress. Moreover, the
Anatolian Railway Company have been authorized to work any mineral-deposits
which they may discover for 12^ miles on either side of the Baghdad line.
L. L. B.
VOL. XXXIII. -1906-1S07. 5 1
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712 NOTES OF PAPEES IN COLONIAL AND FOREIGN
COAL-BEAKINa BEDS OF FUSHUN, SOUTHERN MANCHURIA.
Fossile Pflanzen au$ den KoMenlagem von Fuachuu in der sudlichen Mnndshurei^
By J. Palibin. Zapufki Imperatorakago S.-Peterburgskago MinerxUogieke^
skago Obtahestva, series 2, 1906, vol. xliv,, pages 419-434, toith 12 figurem in
the text.
This paper is largely devoted to a description of the plant-remains col-
lected by Dr. J. Edelstein in 1903, in one of the richest coal-fields of southern
Manchuria, in the Fushantshun collieries, at the small Chinese town of that
name, situated on the right bank of the Khunho, some 25 miles east of
Mukden. Dr. Edelstein has published the chief results of his researches in the
Russian language.* The ooal-belt to which special reference is here made extends
for some 5 miles along the high left bank of the Khunho, and is cut across
midway by the deep but narrow gorge of the Yanbaipu. The rocks of which
it is composed are: (1) a group of Archaean granites and granitic gneisses,
traversed in places by numerous quartz-dykes varying in thickness from 3^
to nearly 10 feet, and apparently interbanded conformably with the granites,
etc.; (2) the coal-bearing series, resting upon the Archean rocks — an alterna-
tion of thinly-bedded, crumbly, dark-grey, bluish and greenish slates and
shales, medium and fine-grained quartzose and felspathic sandstones, and varie-
gated marls ; and (3) the neo-volcanic eruptive rocks, among which widespread
basalt-flowR, of palpably much later date than the coal-bearing beds, form
a conspicuous feature. So far, two seams of real industrial importance have
been proved in the coal-measures: the upper, or Lokhutai seam, attains
thicknesses varying from 19^ to 28 feet, and has a roof of slate; the lower,
or Alexander seam, varies in maximum thickness from 55| to 62^ feet, and
has a roof of sandstone. But, in the Tshentsintai mines, west of the Yan-
baipu, a continuation of the Lokhutai seam is worked, which exceeds 118 feet
in thickness. Both seams strike conformably with the measures among
which they occur, east and west, and dip almost due north at an angle of
40 degrees. The actual vertical distance between the two seams has not
yet been ascertained, nor has their possible further extension eastward and
westward been determined. The coal lights easily, is non-caking, and makes
a fair amount of ash. The mineral itself and the contiguous shales and sand-
stones are filled with yellow amber-like inclusions, varying in size from a
peppercorn to a pea.
The plants described appear to be of Oligocene age, including such ferns
as Aspidium and Oamunda, conifers such as Glyptostrohus and Sequoia, also
remains of poplar, beech, walnut, etc. The flora coincides very closely with
those of other Tertiary formations elsewhere in Manchuria, in the Amur
region, and in the island of Sakhalin, Fushun being so far the southernmost
locality on the mainland of Eastern Asia where Oligocene plant-remains have
been proved. It is to be inferred, therefore, that the coal-seams are of
Oligocene (Middle Tertiary) age. A further resemblance of this Tertiary
flora is noted, with certain fossil floras of Japan and Alaska. L. L. B.
MINERAL RESOURCES OF KOREA.
RessourcfiH mint^es de la Cor^e, By — Bkbtbauz. Annales des Mines, series^
10, MimoireA, 1907, vof. xi., pages 156- 158.
Some doubt is cast by the author on the accuracy of the statistics of
mineral output of the Korean Empire, published by the Commercial Depart-
• Transactions of the Imperial Russian Geographical Society, 1906, voU
xxxviii., No. 2.
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ment of the Japane
figfurea depend large!
toms officials. It h i
were trebled, they i i
output and export.
The most abund I
of Hpyeng-An ; but t
output of the precioi
thirds of the gold k '
placers. Although 1 >
their jewellery of it
ores have been proves
and native labour to !
the north and in the <
rarely in the central
the Kap-San district
watershed of the peni i
elsewhere, but are no
It does not appe -
coal-fields. Apart fi f
less anthracite, whic
various provinces yie
coal of poor quality.
Rock-crystal of fii
district, province of
also, occurs in variou,
COAL-BEABING : :
Descrifjtion g4ologiqtte i
gSn^rale du Oauve i
Travaux de (a S :
pages 275-505 anc
In the western an I
mountains, consisting <
of the area is an undul i
the deep-cut valley w
the central axis of the
and marmorized limest
coral- and brachiopod-
and these again by 1
and north-eastern part
over by drift-deposits.
The Lower Carbon:
is represented by limes
cuspidata, with subord
exactly with the Tourn
The coal-bearing 1
productive Coal-measui
among which coal-seai
These coal-seams are v
as for instance, one o
21 feet. The quality
kinds (gas-coal, etc.).
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714 NOTES OF PAPERS IN COLONIAJ, AND FOREIGN
Iron-ores occur throughout the productive coal-area, either in the form
of the thin bands preyiously mentioned, or in lenticles and concretions. Thej
include brown iron-ores as well as sphserosiderite. L. L. B.
GOLD-BEARING BEGIONS OF SIBERIA.
<1) Carte g4ologiqtte de la R6gion Auriftrt de la ZHa : Descriptions dea Feuilles III.
2 et III. 3. By E. Ahnkrt. Explorations giologiqnes dans Its Regions
Auriftres de la SiUrie, 1904-1906, pages 1>304 and 1-191, and 2 plates;
<2) Rigion Aurifhrt de la L4na, By A. Gerasimoff aaid P. I. Prbobkazhenskt.
Ibid., livraison Hi., ptiges 1-43 and 45-60, and 2 maps;
<3) Rigion Aurifire de V Amour. By E. Ahkert, M. M. Ivanoff, A. Khlaponim^
P. RiPPAS and V. Yavobovsky. Ihid.^ livraison r., pa^es 1-145 and
5 maps ; and
<4) Carle g6ologique de la Rigion Aurifirt de V Amour: SHimdja, Description de la
Feuille I. By A. Khlafokin. Ibid., pages 1-72 aTid an index-map.
The area dealt with in the two memoirs included under (1) extends from
126° 6' to 127° 6' longitude east of Greenwich, and from 54° 59' to
55° 20' latitude north. It is watered hj ihiee streams (the Unakha, the
Olongro, and the Bess) belonging to the Brianta river-basin, and by some
still smaller streams belonging to the Ghilui river-basin. The country is
undulating, and is traversed near the western limit of the area described,
from north to south by a mountain-range. Along the Unakha and the Dees
and in their vicinity, high scarps, wild ravines, and tumbling rapids attest
the rugged character of the surface-relief in the western portion of the area.
There are, too, marked belts of depression; and, although the main physio-
graphical features are undoubtedly the result of atmospheric and aqueous
erosion, tectonic agencies have also played their part in originating those
features. The predominant rocks are of g^nitic type, including grey plagio-
clase-granite (prevalent in the eastern and less rugged portions of the area) and
pale biotite-grranite ; also plagioclase- and quartz-porphyries, kersantites
of extremely varied composition, trachyte-andesites, dioritic dykes, and a little
peridotite. The gneisses occur in great variety, including grranitic and peg-
matitic gneisses, at least two biotite-gneisses, hornblende-gneisses, etc.
The gneissic rocks are of typically secondary formation, some of them evidently
Originating from massive crystalline rocks which had undergone the com-
plicated process of multiple injection of eruptives along joint-planes and cleav-
age-planes, coupled with recrystallization of their minerals under the influ-
ence of partial solution and great pressure.
The sole imdoubted sedimentary deposits in the area are of the nature
of rubble resulting from the superficial weathering of the rocks just described,
drift, and alluvia; the hill-slopes are mantled by forest-humus or tundra,
the maximum thickness of which is usually dependent on the depth of the
perpetually frozen ground (20 to 40 inches, according to local circumstances).
Gold-bearing solid rocks have been sought for in vain, although clandestine
washings are occasionally conducted in the sands of the river-bed of the Dess.
The author himself found traces of gold on experimenting with some sands
in the gorge of that river; but the alluvia of the Olongro and the Unakha
are barren. Quartz-veins of any consequence have not so far been observed
in the scarps abutting on all these valleys. Chemical analyses have failed
to yield traces of gold in any rocks from the district, except the hornblende-
gneiss and spidotic mica-gneiss, and the porphyrite, all from the Dess valley.
The singular absence of pyrites in all these rocks is noticed, with the sole
exception of the Unakha granites.
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TRANSACTIONS AND PEEIODICALS. 715
The investigations of Mr. A. Gerasimoff were continued in 1902 in the
Olekma division of the Lena region, a rugged country made up of meta-
morphic rocks (schists, phyllites, grits, and quartzites) and sedimentaries
(limestones, dolomites, mottled gypsiferous clays, etc.) of probably Cambrian
age. Recent alluvia are found only along the Lena, and the gold-mining
industry is of scant importance. The Mikhailo-Ivanovsky workings in the
Yacha basin are no better organized than the chance diggings of clandestine
prowlers after gold, and yield barely 650 grains of the precious metal per
ton of material. The Spektralny mine, worked both opencast and by under-
ground galleries, yields 1,234 to 1,390 grains of gold per ton of material. The
Yoskressensky placer is exhausted.
Mr. Preobrazhensky explored the Takhtyga and Anangra river-basins,
immediately to the west of the region just described. It is an extremely
lagged country, the valleys being oriented in every possible direction, in
disregard of the strike of the rocks. These valleys are in the form of broad
marshy troughs in their upper portions, narrow (though occasionally widen-
ing into lakes) in their lower portions. One half of the area is taken up
by granites, the other half by schistose metamorphic rocks. Gold certainly
occurs in the alluvial deposits — there are, however, few outcrops of these,
and they have not been minutely studied as yet. In the two river-basins
there are in all five placer-workings, and those not very actively worked.
The gold is distributed so irregularly in the sands, which are themselves
so inconstant, that the district has acquired an unfavourable reputation from
the point of view of the gold-mining industry — the more so th^t exploration-
work had been of a very inadequate description. However, the barren cover
is of no excessive thickness (from 13 to 33 feet), and all the geological data
concur in assigning to the sands a sufficient quantity of the precious mineral
to justify mining operations which would most probably be remunerative.
Turning now to the Amur region, we find in Mr. Ahnert's description of
his traverses of the Stanovoi mountain-range and of the Zeia and Aldan
basins between which it forms the water-parting, that in 1902 four placers
were being worked in the so-called "Aldan gold-belt," and that requests for
concessions had been put before the Government authorities to work every
watercourse in that area down to the smallest streamlet. But little explora-
tion-work had been done, except in the case of the placers just mentioned.
The amount of gold in these placers depends directly on the nature of the
rock which forms the subsoil in the respective localities. There is reason
to believe that in no case has the gold been transported by water for any
considerable distance.
Researches in the region of the Amgfin (a left-bank tributary of the Amur)
tend to show that along its lower course the presence of g^old is in some way
connected with the crystalline schists; while along the Kolchan (a tributary
of the Kol which flows into the Sea of Okhotsk), the precious metal appears
to be connected with the most recent eruptive rocks, especially the liparites.
The gold-bearing portion of the Little Khingan district is made up
almost entirely of gneisses and granites and crystalline schists, the geological
conditions being much the same as in other gneisso-granitic regions of the
Amur basin. The primary matrix of the gold appears to be predominantly
the dark gneiss, and also the dyke-rocks of the g^ranitic group (pegmatite
and tourmaline-granite). Segregations of hornblende are good indicators,
while the quartz-veins which occasionally seam the gneisses are comparatively
poor in gold. All the placers in the area here described are of post-Pliocene
age, except the Nagorny placer, which lies 260 feet and more above the level
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716 NOTES OF PAPEBS IN COLONIAL AND FOEEIGN
of the Sutar river. Here, the sands, resting upon a bed-rock of fine-grained
granite, include an auriferous layer from 30 inches to 16^ feet thick, the more or
less barren "cover *' varying in thickness from 33 to 100 feet: at many horixons
of this "cover," as much as 15^ g^^ins of gold per ton can be got. The
auriferous layer proper yields anything between 30 and 355 grains per ton,
the average yield of that portion of the placer which was being worked in
1901 exceeding 46 grains per ton. The post-Pliocene sands, whether in situ
or redeposited (remanies), are hardly conspicuous for their wealth in gold, the
normal tenour not exceeding 38^ to 115| grains per ton ; although the yield
occasionally reaches a maximum of 186 grains per ton.
In the Jalinda region west of the Amur, gold-quartz veins undoubtedly
exist; but no practical results have yet been achieved in regard to them, and
the alluvial gold alone is worked. The placers are irregularly dispersed over
the entire area, in groups of small extent; some of them are undoubtedly
derived from the dyke-rocks (pegmatites and aplites), others from the belt
of contact-metamorphism at the junction of the sedimentaries and the gneiaso-
granitic rocks, while others again are genetically associated with pale quaxtz-
ose conglomerates and grits.
Mr. A. Khlaponin, in describing the geology of the Selemja region, assigns
the primary origin of the gold in the placers to the metamorphosed rocke,
and points out that, more especially in the western portion where the effects
of dislocation and erosion have assumed greatest intensity, the prospector
may expect to find auriferous sands rich enough to repay working.
<5) Die Ooldseifen des Amgiin.Oebie.teit {O^sibirische Kuatevprovinz), By Ebkst
Maiibb. ZtiUchriJl fur praJaiHche Geologiey 1906, vol, onr., /?a^e« 101-129,
with 1 1 figures in the text.
In the great belt of auriferous deposits which stretches all across eastern
Siberia from Transbaikalia onwards, those which lie farthest east and are of
most recent origin belong to the gold-placer group of the Amgun river. The
district is topographically defined on the east by the vast depression extend-
ing northward from Khabarovsk through the region of the big lakes (Ovoron,
Chikchagfir, etc.), and on the west by the mountain-range of the Little Khin-
gan. The Amgun itself is a left-bank tributary, some 500 miles in length,
of the great river Amur, into which it debouches about 50 miles above Nikol-
ayevsk. In its middle course it flows through the great lacustrine plain,
while its more important left-bank tributaries (among them, the Eerbi and
the Nilan) take their rise in the northern spurs of the Little Khingan. It
is more particularly in the area defined by the Eerbi and the Nilan that the
gold-placers presently to be described are situated. The Little Khingan
extends through seven degrees of latitude north-eastward to the Sea of
Okhotsk, and is built up of a great variety of rocks, among which the erup-
tives are chiefly represented by a granite-porphyry forming the crest of the
mountains, from altitudes of 3,500 to 4,000 feet or so, while some peaks rise
to a height of 6,400 feet. From its eastern base, the gold-placer district
proper stretches eastward, in the form of a well-wooded undulating country,
which has rather the character of a succession of foot-hills descending evenly
to the Amgun-Amur plain. The Kerbi and the Nilan, already mentioned,
are distinguished by their length, and by the volume and litholog^ of their
alluvial deposits, from all other rivers in that region : they alone carry granitic
debris, while the rivers which intervene between them have perforce confined
their erosive activity to areas of crystalline schists and phylUtes. It is
true that north of the lower course of the Kerbi, a granitic outcrop occurs
which is the sole auriferous deposit that cannot be traced to the phyllites.
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TRANSACTIONS AND PEMODICALS. 717
South-east of the auriferous district great masses of granitic rocks apparently
occur between the upper course of the Amgun and the Amur, and it would
seem that we are dealing ydth an area of gold-bearing slates ringed round
by granite. Quartz is of widespread occurrence, and is seen in the few avail-
able natural exposures to take the form of len tides and nests; consequently,
it furnishes much of the material of the alluTial deposits. Pyrites is also a
yery commonly-occurring mineral in the slates.
The working of the gold-placers was started in 1882 in the upper valley
of the Sulaki, a right-bank tributary of the Eerbi; but the industry only
began to attain real importance in the early nineties, on the discovery of the
placers along the Semi and Sulatkitkan rivers, which have since then fur-
nished by far the largest portion of the entire gold-output of the region. The
official statistics put the production of the Amgun district for the period 1891-
1904 as totalling 739,450 ounces troy, but to this should be added the con-
siderable percentage stolen by the workpeople. The stolen gold was mostly
squandered on smuggled spirituous liquors (a strictly forbidden traffic), and
by secret and devious routes found its way into China. But, of late years,
the Bussian Government have put an end to the temptation to smuggle by
proclaiming free trade in gold; and the most important mining company
in the district having largely replaced manual labour by excavating machinery,
the secret pilfering of the precious metal has become exceedingly difficult.
The author appends a map showing the distribution of the workable
placers, but refrains from indicating those which are still merely in the pro-
specting stage. He finds himself able to state, however, that there is little
hope of discovering in the district any more placers as rich as those of the
Semi and the Sulatkitkan. Apart from the centre formed by these two
rivers, the distribution of the workable placers is irregfular in the extreme;
but traces of gold are everywhere discernible in the alluvial deposits of every
valley in the district without exception. One rule, however, can be stated
in regard to the workable placers: they are not known to occur in valleys
where the stream has a greater fall than 4 per cent., and the most considerable
auriferous deposits are found in valleys where the fall ranges from 1 to as
little as 0*5 per cent. The valleys are almost invariably asymmetrical, one
side being much steeper than the other; and the breadth of the thalweg is
generally considerable, an indication of extraordinarily active erosion. An
essential characteristic of the alluvial deposits is, that the material of which
they are composed is identical with that of the bed-rock and of the rocks now
cropping out in the hillsides. Hence the primary source of the gold that
occurs in the placers may be looked for in those very rocks.
A detailed description (with map and sections) is given of the placers of
the Semi valley and its tributaries, the workable deposits extending over a
total length of 12^ miles or more, while the breadth is found to increase pro-
gressively as one goes down stream. The climatic conditions recall those
of the Klondyke region, but there is at present no adequate evidence of a
former complete glaciation of the district. The most important auriferous
horizons in the placers are the weathered surface-debris of the phyllites (not
immediately above the bed-rock) and the overlying lowermost gravels; but
gold does occur more or less abundantly at every horizon, diminishing from
bottom to top, with the above-mentioned reservation. A certain amount of
gold occurs, occasionally in rich nests, among the bedding-planes of the bed-
rock itself, but so irregularly that the working of it is generally leased out
to Chinamen and Koreans, whose primitive methods of mining can alone make
the stuff payable. An indicator of the presence of gold in the alluvia, etc..
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718 NOTES OF PAPERS IN COLONIAL AND FOREIGN
in fact, the sole visible indicator, is the peculiar clayey "cement" known
to the Russians as primazba, which coats the pebbles and rock-d6briB,
fills up depressions and fissures, and often forms the binding-material of the
detrital deposits. But, although the gold practically never occurs without
the primadba, the latter is sometimes found without any gold. An elaborate
table is given exemplifying the vertical distribution of the precious metal;
and the erosion of the Semi valley, as also the accumulation of its gold-bear-
ing alluvia, is attributed solely to the agency of running water. The author
states that practically all the placers of the Amgfun district are similar in
character and origin to those of the Semi; the material of which they are
built up is exclusively derived from the phyllites and the crystalline schists.
The exception already hinted at, in the case of the Kerbi and Nilan rivers,
must, however, be borne in mind: here the alluvia of more recent date
are formed of granitic debris derived from the granite-ridges of the Little
Shingan. Little exploration-work having been so far accomplished along the
Nilan, the author is perforce restricted to a description of the Kerbi plaoers.
Now, although the Kerbi flows for many a mile through a region of slates
and schists, and only its headwaters are in the granitic area, the mountains
slope so abruptly, the rains are so heavy, and the variations of temperature
so enormous, as to intensify erosion to such an extent that the granitic material
plays the most important part in the detrital deposits along the entire course
of the river. Nevertheless, the gold which occurs in the Kerbi placers is in
every respect similar to that of the Semi, and is evidently derived from the
schist4ind-slate complex. The Yassnyi placer alone, on a tributary which
runs into the Kerbi from the north, contains gold derived from the granites,
easily distinguishable from the slate-derived gold by its fine even granularity
and its crystalline form. A series of great terraces of older alluvium marks
out in some places the ancient course of the Kerbi, and in these also gold
occurs. The probable history of the formation of the placers is sketched out,
and some typical examples are described.
As to the quantity of gold which they contain, this is variable in the
extreme, ranging from mere traces to an ounce, or occasionally over 3 ounces
troy per metric ton. The average output per ton washed has diminished
of late years, but this is (to a great extent) attributable to the fact that, by
the modern methods of mining now in vogfue in the Amgun district, the
poorer stuff is washed as well as the richer. The total output is therefore
increased, although the averages have decreased. The workability of a
placer hereabouts does not, moreover, depend so much on its absolute wealth,
as on the relative thickness of the barren "cover." The gold of the upper
tributaries of the Kerbi (Sulaki) and the Nilan (Sivak) is characterized by
its coarseness of grain; nuggets weighing from 15 to 160 grains (1 to 10
grammes) are common in all the placers, and some weighing from | to
2 ounces (10 to 60 grammes) are occasionally found, but in certain placers
only. Once a nugget weighing over 25^ ounces was discovered. The pre-
cious metal is generally irregular in form, but in several placers crystals that
have undergone very little water-rolling occur, and larger fragments are made
up of crystals, or exhibit a symmetrical structure reminiscent of skeleton-
crystals. Quartz is frequently associated with the g^ld, and other mineral-
associates are pyrites, magnetite, specular iron-ore, brown haematite (forming
a film on the gold-fiakes), stibnite, and very rarely garnet. In regard to its
chemical composition, the gold varies from 910 to 952 fine, the impurities
consisting chiefly of silver with a little copper.
The evidence is detailed, by which the author is led to the conclusion
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TEANSACTIONS AND PERIODICALS. 719
that the entire complex of phyllites and metamorphic schists of the Amgun
district^ together with the quartz and pyrites which they contain, forms the
primary matrix or mother-rock of the gold. Whatever chemical processes
may have taken place within that matrix before its erosion, it is certain
that, dating from the erosion, the formation of the placers was originated
by purely mechanical procesees.
The eternally frozen layer in the subsoil of the district (below the 6 feet
or so of surface-soil which freezes hard every winter and thaws again in the
summer) is of curiously irregular distribution, and does not seem to affect
one way or the other the general regularity of the placers. L. L. B.
MINEBAL EESOUKCES OF THE CHTJKCHEN PENINSULA, EASTEEN
SIBEBIA.
Tschukischenhalhinsel {Ostasien), By J. Korsuchin. Zeitschrtft filr praktische
Geologie, 1906, vol. xiv., pages 377-382, unth 2 ma/w mi the text.
When the world-renowned gold-placers at Gape Nome, on the Seward penin-
sula, were discovered in 1899, it occurred to certain enterprising Bussians
that there was a possibility of finding similar wealth in the soil of the Chuk-
chen peninsula, which faces Cape Nome on the opposite side of Bering
Straits. The exclusive right to search for gold and other useful minerals
over the entire peninsula, in other words, over an area of 38,601 square miles,
was conceded to Mr. W. von Wonliarliarsky, who thereupon sent out several
exploring expeditions in succession to that remote region. The author was
the leader of the expedition that went out in the year 1903, since when (he
believes) no further investigations have been carried out in the Chukchen
peninsula. Although it had been discovered as long ago as 1648, the interior
of the country remained practically unknown as late as the year 1900, when
Prof. Bogdanovich led thither the first Wonliarliarsky expedition. During
the short Arctic summer the professor devoted his attention to the geological
survey of the coast, but scientific work was much hindered, and finally stopped,
by the bickerings which arose among the members of the expedition. A
synopsis is given of such petrographical and geological data as, under these
difficulties. Prof. Bogdanovich was able to accumulate.
In Abolesheff Bay, he found lodes of pyrites traversing felsite-porphyries,
and that the shores of Providence or Plover Bay consist exclusively of crystal-
line igneous rocks, among which biotite-granite plays the chief part. Lime-
stones, mica-schists, calc-schiste, and talcose schists occur between Cape Page-
liau and Koniam Bay, on the northern shore of which they are overlain by
eruptive rocks, chiefiy granites and porphyries; fine-grained, pale-grey sand-
stones were observed in Mechigmen Bay, and the headland of Cape Dezhneff,
which juts out into Bering Straits, is built up in part of limestone and in
part of hornblende-granite.
In the beginning of July, 1903, the steamer carrying the expedition
under the author's command, dropped anchor in Lawrence Bay, in the north-
eastern portion of the Chukchen peninsula, 21 days after leaving Vladivostok.
On the shores of the above-mentioned bay is a trading-station belonging to
the company founded by Mr. W. von Wonliarliarsky. The author utilized
the week during which the expedition was inevitably delayed there to examine
the north-western coast, where it was reported that, shortly before his arrival,
certain American prospectors had struck 'auriferous deposits. This state-
ment, however, appears open to doubt, as the so-called ore-deposits proved
to be very irregular aggregates of quartz containing chalcopyrite and iron-
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720 NOTES OF PAFEBS IN COLONIAL AND FOREIGN
pyritefl, at the contact of hornblende-granite with limestone. No means
on the spot for assaying the quarts being ayailable, the author took hand-
samples away with him ; but these were lost when the steamer was wrecked,
on the return journey, on the coast of northern Japan.
The peninsula is bare of woodlands or even of bush, and thus expedi-
tions are obliged to carry their fuel with them, in the shape of petroleum.
Despite these and many other difficulties, the author contrived to plot out a
geological map of the north-eastern portion of the peninsula, the largest areas
of which are covered by granites and gneisses; there axe also patches of lime-
stone and some clay-slates. The importance of examining carefully the
last-named lay therein, that the occurrence of gold in the Seward peninsula,
on the American side of the Straits, is connected with the metamorphosed
clay-slates or shales. The author reports, in regard to the clay-slates which
he found along the course of the Eolol river, that they are highly contorted
and, so to say, intergrown with ice, which never thaws at any season: they
are overlain by a few feet of loamy rubble, and seamed with venules of quarts.
At one locality only were signs apparent of a quartz- vein of any notable
thickness, and this does seem to be auriferous. Otherwise, the author saw
but very slight traces of gold in the clay-slate area.
South-west of Cape Dezhneff, there is a gold-placer on the Thunilthan,
not far from the trading-station at the mouth of that river. The bed-rock
is a highly-contorted, much metamorphosed clay-slate which almost passes
into mica-schist, and is traversed by a multitude of quartz-venules. The
placer only yields about 7 grains of gold per ton, and is consequently of no
industrial importance.
The author discovered a graphite-deposit on the flanks of the Telgakar
hill, near the headwaters of the river of the same name. The mineral is
of extraordinarily fine quality, and is compared with the very best varieties
•of Ceylon graphite. It occurs in big lenticles, in a belt of graphitic gneiss
striking north-westward and dipping almost at right-angles. The author
traced this belt for a distance of 1^ miles ; he estimates its thickness as being
at the very least 70 to 100 feet ; and reckons the average percentage of graphite
in the gneiss as ranging from 16 to 20 per cent. Not far from this graphite-
deposit, the author came upon a large patch of ground covered with lumps
of brown haematite, which would seem to indicate the occurrence of a deposit
of iron-ore; but he was deprived of the opportunity of looking further into
the matter.
The author is inclined to correlate the rocks of the entire south-eastern
coast of the Chukchen peninsula with the oldest rocks of the Seward peninsula,
classified by the American geologists as the Eigluaik Group. This being
granted, Bering Straits would represent a sunken syncline intervening be-
tween the second anticline of the Seward peninsula and a third anticline
on the Chukchen peninsula, and there are reasons for believing that the 8epara>
tion of the two peninsulas by the sea took place in late Pleistocene times.
The conclusion is reached that the recurrence of the industrially valuable
gold-bearing rocks of' the Nome Group must be looked for in the direction
of Koliutshin Bay and Anadyr Bay on the coasts of the Chukchen peninsula.
It is noticeable that on the Seward peninsula, all tht deep indentations of
the coast, such as Norton Bay, Port Clarence, Eschscholtz Bay, etc., coincide
with the development of this Nome Group. L. L. B.
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TEANSACTIONS ATO) PEKIODICAI^. 721
COPPER, TIN AND GOLD IN KATANGA, CONGO FREE STATE.
\l) Lm Gisementa de Cuivre dn Katanga, By H. Buttobnbach. AnncUe^ de la
SocUU g4olog%que de Belgique, 1906, vol. xxxi., M^noirtu^ pages 515-564,
with 10 figures in the text and 1 plate.
TBe Katanga district, properly so-called, lies in the extreme south-east
of the Congo State, between the tenth degree of latitude south and the water-
parting of the Congo and Zambesi river-basins. It had long been known
as the source whence the natives of the neighbouring regions derived the
copper from which thej made their implements and utensils, and was traversed
by various explorers in the latter half of the nineteenth century. It was
not, however, until 1885 that a European actually examined one of the cuprifer-
ous deposits. In 1902, the author was commissioned to carry out investi-
gations in the district, by a Belgian company which was working in agree-
ment with the Tanganyika Concessions, Limited, and the result of 18 months'
prospecting-work more than confirmed all the expectations that had been
formed. In a word, the Katanga district may be regarded as one of the
richest (if not itself the richest) copper-ore fields in the whole world. And
yet exploration-work was not pushed to a vertical depth greater than 130 feet
or so, because the ore-deposits proved to be so numerous and so extensive
that (for the purpose in view) it was not considered needful to do so. The
deposits are very similar in character, and a detailed description of each
one would involve a monotonous repetition, varied only by statistics as to
area, etc.
The country, as a whole, is a vast undulating tableland, comparable in
some respects with the plateau of the Ardennes, varying in altitude from
4,300 to 4,600 feet, but with some elevations going up to 5,300 feet. The rivers,
which have, in a few cases, cut very deep gorges in this peneplain, are divisible
into two main systems: (l)the aouth-to-north flowing rivers, including the
Lufira, the Lualaba, and their principal tributaries; and (2) the lesser tribu-
taries of the foregoing, which flow in a direction sensibly at right-angles to
that above-mentioned. No eruptive or g^ranitic rocks occur within the mining
district itself; the strata are all sedimentary, sometimes intensely metar
morphosed, and generally dipping at an angle higher than 45 degrees. To-
wards the north these beds are overlain by practically horizontal grits, which
are possibly of lacustrine origfin. In the mining district, the Kazembe and
Kafunda-Mikopo systems of Prof. J. Cornet (Upper Devonian and doubtfully
Carboniferous) are chiefly represented, the predominant rocks being the Upper
Kazembe violet schists. The author indicates on his map no less than sixty-six
distinct cupriferous deposits, but. there are many other localities where strata
impregnated with malachite are known to crop out. The ore-deposits almost
invariably occur on the slopes, or on the brows, of more or less isolated emin-
ences, the barren aspect of which contrasts vividly with the luxuriant forest
amid which they uplift their crests. The copper-salts with which the soil of
these hills is saturated probably account for their sterility. The ore (mala-
chite and chrysocolla) appears to have been precipitated amid all the fissures
and interstices of the strata by metalliferous solutions which percolated
through them. The bands of malachite, even at Kakanda, whence show-
specimens are obtained, hardly ever exceed 2 inches in thickness. The mala-
chite is frequently mammillated, and, in such cases, alternates with chry-
socolla. The average results of assays of ores selected from ten different
deposits show a percentage of 14*21 of metallic copper. Gold and silver are
always present in varying proportions, as is proved by the analysis of more
than 150 samples: in some cases the amount of gold exceeds 45 grains per
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722 NOTES OF PAPERS IN COLONIAL AND FOREIGN
ton, and that of silyer 2^ ounces troy. Pulverulent black oxide of copper^
intermixed with oxides of iron and manganese, is not of uncommon occur-
rence in the Satanga deposits, and is probably derived from the decomposi-
tion of other minerals. Chalcopyrite and cuprite are seldom met with.;
native copper has been found, in rounded grains, among the alluvia, p&rt
of which is formed by the tailings washed down from the upper portion of
the Kambove deposit.
For description, the author selects those deposits which appear to him
to be of the greatest importance or interest. So he describes the Likasi>
Fungurume, Luushia, Eolwezi, and Kambove deposits in some detail. Hie
last-named deposit has been the object of a good deal of exploration-work,
but the shafts have hardly been pushed deep enough to furnish an adequate
idea of the enormous industrial importance which the workings are eventually
destined to assume. On the whole, the author is inclined to think that these
carbonated ores are merely the oxidized gossan of deeper-lying sulphidic ores,
which latter possibly are interbedded with strata of the same age as those
among which the former occur. The wealth of these gossans may be gauged
by his estimate that, in nine localities alone, 1,200,000 tons of copper could
be extracted from them.
(2) La CasfiiUriU du KcUaiiga. By H. Buttobnbach. Annales de ta SoddU
giologique de Belgique, 1906, vol, xxQciiu^ M^moireA, pagtn 49-52, vntk 2
figures in the text.
Within the last year, a belt of stanniferous deposits of considerable im-
portance has been traced in Katanga, ranging parallel with the Upemba
grdben (or fault-valley) and its thermal springs, and to the eastward of it.
These deposits would appear to have been formed during that period of tectonic
dislocation which determined the course taken by the Lualaba river as it
issues from the gorges of Zilo, especially after its confluence with the Lufupa.
The author has in preparation a geological account of the entire region, the
future industrial prosperity of which is undoubted; meanwhile, in connexion
with the description of sundry specimens of cassiterite brought from there, he
draws attention to the massif of pegmatoid granite, a comparatively narrow
belt of highland, but extending over a distance approaching 100 miles north-
eastward from the above-mentioned confluences of the Lualaba and the Lufupa.
On the western flank of this massif tourmaline-quartzites, mica-schists, etc.,
crop out, and it is at the contact of these rocks (more especially the quartzites)
with the granite that the tinstone occurs in practically vertical lodes. It
is to the south of this district, upstream from the Zilo rapids, that the
cupriferous deposits occur, as also the auriferous deposit of Buwe, on the
north-western margrin of the Eazembe plain. The Zilo rapids, which carry
the level of the Lualaba more than 1,300 feet down in the distance of 31 miles,
rush tumultuously over a succession of quartzites, schists, grits, and slates,
invaded in places by eruptive rocks.
The stanniferous area is very rugged, seamed by ravines wherein the
lodes occasionally crop out. Usually, however, the lodes are masked by
gravelly debris of the subsoil, including pebbles of all dimensions, as well
as nodules of tinstone varying in weight from less than an ounce to several
pounds. These placer or gossan-deposits are not seldom of greater industrial
value than the lodes themselves.
Geologically speaking, the Katanga stanniferous deposits differ in nowise
from those of other regions. In the lodes the cassiterite forms in conjunction
with quartz a rock of coarse structure, often cemented by white mica. The
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TRANSACTIONS AND PEMODICALS. 728
quartz appears to have moulded itself on the cassiterite. The "nodules"
of the ore in the soil-debris are generally broken, but they still retain roughly
the external form of the original crystals. They present this peculiarity, that
the faces of the pyramid, which generally surmounts the quadratic prism of
the mineral, are conspicuous both for size and frequent occurrence, and seem
to have resisted best the agents of disintegration.
<3) Quelqiies Fails d propos de la Formation deft Pipitea d'Or: Les venues
mStallifires du Katanga. By H. Buttgenbach. Annales de la SocUU
g^ogique de Belgique, 1906, vol, xxxiii., M&moires, pages 63-70, loith 6
figures in the text.
This memoir is largely based on the investigations which the author has
conducted within the past few years in the Katanga district of the Congo
Free State. Premising that in Venezuela, according to Prof. A. de Lap-
parent, the deposits of native gold are probably the ferruginous gossans
of lodes of auriferous pyrites; and further, that the size of the nuggets in
the Californian gold-placers irresistibly impels the inference that the former
outcrops of the lodes, long ago swept away by erosive agencies, were by far
richer in gold than the deeper-lying portions, the author proceeds to show
how the argument is clinched by the evidence collected in Katanga. There
is reason to believe that the nuggets actually increased in size while the
gossans were in process of denudation, and while the placers were in process
of formation; nor was this growth otherwise than fairly rapid. A sketch-
map shows how widespread is the occurrence of gold in the river-sands of
Katanga, and how widespread also are the cupriferous deposits, in which gold
almost invariably occurs, though in small proportion.
The only important placers thus far investigated are those of Buwe and
Kambove, especially the former. At Kambove it is noticeable (1) that in the
ravines, the heads of which lie in a direction opposite to that of the cupriferous \
deposits, no gold is to be found; (2) that -in the Livingstone ravine, where
auriferous gravels, extending over a length of 2 miles or more, are worked,
no gold occurs up stream of the cupriferous deposit; (3) that outside the
ravines, gold is only found on the plateau down stream of the cupriferous
deposit and drained by the ravines; (4) that the biggest nuggets occur in the
Livingstone ravine, which cuts clean across the cupriferous belt; and (5) that
when the gravel is washed in the pan, the quantity of gold obtained is pro-
portional to the abundance of grains of malachite and. haematite which make
their appearance a little before the end of the operation. Now, as, on
analysis, the cupriferous grits and shales of Kambove invariably reveal the
presence of gold — sometimes as a mere trace, sometimes in such proportions
as 15, 30, or 45 grains per ton — ^it is plain that the placer-gold is derived
from those rocks. On the other hand, as the precious metal never occurs
in them in the visible shape of nuggets or flakes, it is equally plain that
such nuggets or flakes (now found in the placers) must have been formed dur-
ing the denudation of the former outcrops of the cupriferous deposits. This
secondary concentration of gold often takes place (in the tropical legions
to which the author refers) with considerable rapidity, and in this connec-
tion he cites some almost incredible instances from the Likasi and Fungfurume
deposits — a single shower in each case having sufficed to concentrate in flakes
and nuggets the previously invisible gold. It must not be inferred, how-
ever, that all the gold found in the streams of the Katanga district is neces-
sarily derived from the cupriferous deposits. The occurrence of gold quartz-
reefs, especially in the south-western portion of the district, is, to say the
least, extremely probable.
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724 NOTES OF COIX)iaAL AKB FOREIGJT PAPERS,
The author then describes an entirely different order of deposit, that of
Buwe, where gold-nuggets haye been formed at the expense of the gold con-
tained in infinitesimallj minute particles in a sedimentary rock. On the
southern flank of a hill ranging north-east and south-west, a series of friable
grits crop out beneath the stratum of surface-debris. They dip 30 degrees north-
westward, but flatten out in depth. Near the outcrop they carry thin flakes
of gold; in depth, impoyerishment unto barrenness is rapid^ with the excep-
tion of one bed, about 8^ feet thick, which yields a fairly constant assay of :
11 parts of gold, 12 parts of platinum, and 2 parts of palladium per million.
The overlying stratum of surface-debris has been methodically worked for
more than a year, and yields gold-nuggets varying in weight from 31 to 2,470
grains (2 to 160 grammes), the average weight being from 154 to 925 grains
(10 to 60 grammes). Several of these nuggets are figured by the author.
The Buwe grits are the result of deposition, in the prehistoric Kazembe
lake, of the decomposition-products of the belt of ancient rocks which sur-
rounded that lake, while the surface-stratum is in turn the result of the
decomposition of the grits. The nuggets in this stratum are undoubtedly
derived from the gold contained in the platino-auriferous bed previously
described. They never contain platinum or palladium, which would appear
to have remained impervious to the chemical changes that reacted on the
gold and silver (the average composition of the nuggets is 99'53 per cent, of
gold and 0-47 per cent, of silver).
In the course of his memoir, the author inferentially emphasizes more
than once the habit to which gold is subject of concentrating on organic nuclei,
but he states clearly that the presence of organic matter is by no meana
a necessary factor in the process of accretion of nuggets. L. L. B.
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BABO]
BAROMEI
The baromei
permission of tb
some idea of the
intervening disti
this country.
The baromei
sea-level. The
feet above sea-le
barometrical rea
The statistic
annual reports c
the diagrams (
observations.
The times i
equals 0 or 24 h
Table I.— Sdmi
SEVE
Mines-iDspecl
Cardiff ...
Durham ..
Ireland
Liverpool ..
Manchester
Midland ..
Newcastle-i
Scotland, E
Do. yi
Southern ..
Stafford ..
Swansea ..
Yorkshire . .
Tots
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726
BAROMBTEB, THERMOMETER, BTO., READINGS, 1906.
Table I [.-—List of Fatal Explobioks of Fire-damp or Coal-du8t xir
GOLLIEBIES IN THE SEVERAL MlNBB-INSPBCTION DISTRICTS DURniG 1906.
1906.
•Dec.6,
Jan.
Mar.
June
»»
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
n
1905,7-30
5, 615
28, 8-30
22, 8-30
1, 16-0
2, 6-46
8, 14-30
18, 12-30
21, 8-80
1, 8-6
8, 7-30
24, 13-30
14, 23-40
10, 15-10
18, 12-30
12, 10-30
17, 10-35
CoUiery.
Miiie»-1
Newbattlc
Preston links
Polmaise (No. 2 Pit)
Pbceniz Glyncorrwg
Court Herbert ...
Glenboig (fire-clay)
Coneygre (No. 120)
Penygraig
Lingdale mine ...
Portland (No. 2 Pit)
Glangarnant
Dumbreck (No. 2 Pit)
Wingate Grange . . .
Albion
Cefnstylle
Parkhall
Urpeth (Busty Pit)
«a-Iiupectioa
Diatriet.
I
...I Scotland, East
Do.
...I Scotland, West
Swansea
...; Do.
...| Scotland, East
... Stafford
...1 Cardiff
...' Durham
...' Midland
..., Swansea
... Scotland, West
... Durham |
... Cardiff ... I
... Swansea
... Stafford
... Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Naof
Deaths.
PeraoRS
Injured.
1
3
1
0
2
0
1
1
5
4
1
2
1
0
2
0
1
1
1
0
1
3
1
1
26
1
6
0
1
0
1
1
4
'
55
18
♦Included in list for 1906 amongst non-fatal accidents ; the man died, how-
ever, early in 1 906.
Table III.— List of Non-fatal Explosions of Fire-damp or Coal-dust in
Collieries in the several Mines-inspection Districts during 1906.
1906.
OoUiary.
Diatnct.
No. of
Peraons
Injured.
Jan.
2, 15-0 ...
North Walbottle
Newcastle-upon-Tyne
6, 0-30...
Phoenix Glyncorrwg
BowhilJ (No. 2 Pit)
Swansea
6, 9-30...
Scotland, West
>f
12, 1-0 ..
Loch wood (No. 3 Pit) ...
Do.
t)
14, 11-30...
Walkinsbaw (No. 2 Pit) ...
Do.
ii
15. 5-0 ...
Tarbrax (oil-shale)
Scotland, East
1)
16, 130 ...
Carnock(No. 2 Pit)
Scotland. West
)i
18, 9-50...
Victoria (No. 1 Pit)
Do.
18, 17-0 ...
Knowle ...
Stafford
ti
18, 20-40..
Newburgh
Newcastle-upon-Tyne
a
19, 7-30...
Phcenix Glyncorrwg
Swansea
»
24, 30 ...
Blaenavon (Milfraen Pit)...
Southern
M
26, 2-30...
Closyryn
Swansea
It
28, 7-30...
Dumbreck (No. 2 Pit) ...
Scotland, West
28, 21-30...
Exhall
Midland
Feb.
1, 10-30...
Struther (No. 6 Pit)
Scotland, West
6, 8-30...
Manners
Midland
t»
8, 8-10...
Hattonrigg (No. 4 Pit) ...
Scotland, West
}}
10, 80 ...
Stanton (Nadins Pit)
Midland
I)
10, 8-20...
PyeHill
Do.
}}
10, 18-0 ...
Pentre
Cardiff
n
12, 15-0 ...
Gansherrie(Gartclo8sNo. 1
Pit)
Scotland, West
•J
14, 16-0 ...
Rigfoot
Do.
?»
17. 8-30...
Rosehall (No. 14 Pit)
Do.
Digitized by
Google
1906
Feb.
19,
12-46..
)}
25,
230 ..
Mar.
5,
15-46..
}i
8,
15-0 ..
)}
12,
14-30..
11
16,
6-15..
11
19,
7-30..
11
19,
150 ..
11
24.
6-30..
11
24
7-30..
11
28,
19-80..
April
1,
9-30..
11
4,
14-30..
It
9
14-30..
M
13,
7-30..
11
19,
13-0 ..
11
20
13-0 ..
f1
25,
11-50..
If
27
8-0 ..
11
27,
13-30.,
May
1
60 .,
11
1.
7-45..
11
4.
12-30..
11
7,
7-30..
ii
11
14-16..
n
16
4-0 ..
n
22
7-30..
fi
22.
t ..
11
25,
20-0 ..
11
28,
12-15 .
June
1,
0-30..
11
4,
7-30..
M
8,
90 ..
11
11,
190 ..
If
12,
8-30..
11
13,
11-30..
n
18,
17-0 ..
1»
H,
8-30..
11
20,
7-45..
11
25,
12-30..
11
27,
4-30..
11
27,
6-60.,
11
27
12-0 ..
July
3,
12-30..
)f
5,
5-0 ..
11
6,
21-0 ..
11
10,
22-0 ..
ti
14,
10-46..
11
30,
15-0 ..
Aug.
1,
9-0 ..
tj
3,
6-0 ..
»»
3,
10-30..
}•
8,
8-30..
})
8,
150 ..
•1
10,
7-0 ..
13,
7-0 ..
11
13,
13-30..
»
15,
6-20..
▼OL. XXX
III.-1906-
Digitized by
Google
vro
ISAKUJUST£U, TllJSi&JlUMIfiTlSli, KXU., KKAUlMiH, 19U6.
Tablb llL—CoJUinued.
1906.
OoUlMT.
BCiiiM-lonMotion
DittrioJL
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
16, 140 ..
20, 70 ..
27, 150 ..
31, 70 ..
6,21-0 ..
7, 22-0 ..
11, 80 ..
11, 11-30..
15, 1-0 ..
17, 60 ..
21, 7-30..
29, 2-50..
2, 13-30..
3, 140 ..
3, 20-0 ..
6, 19-0 ..
11, 6-15..
16, 7-45..
16, 140 ..
17, 17-30..
26, 7-30..
28, 10-0 ..
2, 7-30..
3, 18-0 ..
6, 8-30..
8, 6-30..
16, 6-15..
19, 210 ..
24, 160 ..
28, 7-80..
29. 110 ..
29, 19-30..
1, 3-0 ..
3, 4-30..
6, 5-30..
5, 8-15..
5, 14-30..
11, 130 ..
13. 9-20..
16, 11-30..
17, 3-0 ..
17, 18-0 ..
22, 12-30..
24, 6-30..
24, 150 ..
Bonvilles Court
Woodhall
Myuydd Newydd
Granville (No. 2 Pit)
Throcklev (Bincher Fit) ...
Portland (No. 2 Pit)
Onllwyn
Gilmilnscroft
Brougbton Moor
Craiglon
Calderbank
St. Helens
Auchincruiye (No. 1 Pit)...
International
Brook Drift
Lanemark (Rigfoot)
North Motherwell
Teversall
Cawdor
North Motherwell
Common (No. 11 Pit)
Goatfoot
Mynydd Newydd
South Moor (William Pit)
Broomrigg (No. 3 Pit) ...
Frestongrange
Devon
Springside (No. 11 Pit) ..,
Foxley(No. 4 Pit)
Gatetide
Dunnikier
Lower Varteg ,
Backworth
Darran
Binchester ,
Sandwell Park
Aachenharvie (No. 6 Pit)
Aitkenhead
Saline
Maesymarchog
Morlais
Polmaise (No. 1 Pit)
Kenmuirhill (No. 2 Pit) ..
Carriden
Govan (No. 6 Pit)
Swansea
Scotland, West
Swansea
Midland
Ne wcastle-upon-Ty ne
Midland
Swansea
Scotland, West
Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Swansea
Scotland, West
Durham
Scotland, West
Swansea
Do
Scotland, West
Scotland, East
Midland
Swansea
Scotland, Bast
Scotland, West
Do
Swansea
Durham
Scotland, West
Scotland, East
Do
Scotland, West
Do
Do
Scotland, East
Southern
Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Swansea
Durham
Stafford
Scotland, West
Do
Scotland, East
Swansea
Do.
Scotland, West
Do
Scotland, East
Scotland, West
167
BAROMETER, THEH.M0.'4BTBK, ETC, READINGS, 1906.
729
Table IV.— Barombtbb, Thermometer, etc., Readings, 1906.
JANUARY, 1906.
kew.
GLASGOW.
Baromstsb.
Tkmpika-
TDUS.
Babomstbb.
Tbmpsba-
TVBB.
^i
&
t
4 A.M. jlO A.M. 4 P.M.
10F.M.
Max
Min.
1
4 a.m.
1 1
10a.m. 4p.m.,10f.m.
Max
Min.
ll
l>d53| 29*896! 29-842
29-827
38-5
29-5
E
1
29-866
29-860
29-762 1 29-705
86*9
30-4
NE
2 29-796 29-774 29-666
29-589
44-4
38-7
SB
2
29-586
29-506
29-514 29-461
44*4
35-8
SE
S 29*495 ; 29-497 29-»2
29-615
501
38-7
tSE
3
29-391
29-382
29-364129-427
43-0
39-8
ENE
4 29-620 29-625 29667
29-572
51-5
46-6
8
4
29-427
29-475
29-470 29-474
46-8
39-9
SE
5 29-693 '29-765 29*869
29-8:J3
51-5
46-9
W
6
29-510
29-604
29-644 1 29-578
44*9
40-3
W
6 29*422 29-268 29-373
29-593
521
43-4
WSW
6
29-338
29-266
29-341,29-487
43*8
38-2
NW
7 29-699 29-687 *29-490
29-160
46-0
37-9
wsw
7
29-491
29-444 129-275 '29-163
42-71 37*4
SW
8 29155 29-248 29-438
29-627
47-3
38-6
WNW
8
29-129
29-211 29-298 , 29-382
40*1 , 36-5
E
9 29-656 29-464 29*338
29-423
61-2
36-7
SSW
9
29*263
28-954128-804 28*848
45-2 37-8
SSW
10 29-455 29-553 29695
29*911
45-2
35-9
W
10
29-022
29-212 , 29-460 ' 29*673
42-9 1 37-7
w
11 30*078 30-176 30115
29*946
460
32-0
WSW
11
29-768
29-753 1 29*486 29306
45-0:36-6
SW
12 29-802 29-906 29-892
29-711
50-7
46-2
SW
12
29-406
29*473
29-466 1 29-405
42-3138 2
SW
13 29-585 29-646 29778
29*825
52-0
39-0
w
13
29-322
29*837
29-367 1 29-449
40-7 > 360
SW
14,29*990 30-130 30-125
30079
48-7
38-0
SW
14
29*571
29*631
29-516 29-377
48-1 36-8, SW
15 30-Oa'i 29-920 29742
29-700
470
420
s
15
29*266
29*314
29 300 1 29-312
48-2138-2 S
16 29.-807 29-909 29-731
29-664
48-6
37-9
SW
16
29-364
29-349
29-247 , 29-239
40-2 34-8 1 SW
17 29*735 29*948 30*039
30*085
46-8
40-4
w
17
29*328
29-481
29-609 29-629
42-6 1 34-3 i W
18 29-885 29*539 29354
29-62J
49-4
39-7
SW
18
29*513
29-389
29-456 29-615
39-9 36-3 NNW
19 1 29-826 30070 30*224
30-414
43-3
35-9
N
19
29*868
30-265
30-334 30*414
40-7 ' 34-2 NW
20 30-5^ 30-567 30-481 1 30265
40-3
30-3
w
20
30-366
30-249
29*966 29-960
47-0 ; 34-0 SW
21 1 30048 30058 30114 ' 30-288
45-3
40-1
N
21
30-022
30*255
30-379 30*479
46-2 37-8 NE
22 30-410 30-487 30503 30570
40-3
33-3
N
22
30*498
30-518
80*501 30*509
39-1 i 31-1 1 NNE
23 30-604 30-663 30-633 1 30621
351
270
8E
23
30-474
30*4S7
30*361 30-305
42 1.1 37-6 SW
24 1 30-574 30-617 30-361 ' 30199
39-8
301
S
24
30*206
30*039
29*688 29*516
47-0 1 40-8 1 8 W
25 29-969 29*763 29-763129-832
49-3
39-8
W
25
29-516
29*535
29*566 29-542
45-7 • 38-5 1 W
26 29-846 29945 39997 30046
52-7
400
WSW
26
29*590
29.722
29-703,29-683 50*2 i 461 i WSW
27 '30059 30-156 30171 i 30-183
51-4
41-8
wsw
27
29-665
29-752
29-770 29-718 60*4 (45-61 W
28
30152 30-146 30-149,30-159
50-1
46-6
WSW
28
29-648
29-720
29-774 29*772
48-8 43-4 1 WSW
29
30-102 30-100 30-099 30-220
51-9
40-4
SW
29
29-720
29-882
29-949 30-024
44-1 ! 38-8 W
SO
30-298 3U-373 30-835 30341
481
3i-8
w
30
30-064
30-094
30*163,30*234 460! 390
w
31
30-352 30-413 30392130-349
46-3
3i-3
w
31 30-223
30-179
30-034 30039 481 1 40*1
SW
FEBRUARY, 1906.
30-279
30-155
29-824
29-902
30-166
30-264
30-218
8 i 30156
9 29-664
10 29-657
11 1 28-856
12 j 29-384
13 29-518
14 29-551
15 129-563
29*567
29*502
29-832
29-751
29-899
30-183
30153
29-607
29-692,
29-4541
29-526 I
29 227
29-627
30*239 ! 30*217
30*090 29-971
29-679 I 29-707
29-977 30-020
30-228 1 30*222
30*287 ; 30*229 <
30*318 30-313
29*913 I 29*668 1
29-775 ! 29*840
29*211 1 28*916
28-917 29 097
29*478 1 29-524
29-468 , 29-434
29-633 29-636
29-604 I 29-693
29-568 '29-582 1
29-603 i 29*672
29-869 29-799 1
29*734 I 29-652
30-041 , 30-084
30*222 ' 30*177
30-101 1 29*955
29*655 , 29-567
29-728 I 29 728
29*4li 129*482
29*464 29-850
29-196 29-251
29-847 29-824
47*1
48*0
42*4
39*7
30*242
29-944
29*814
30*116
30*264 ; 40*6
30-212 ! 37*2
30-315 , 44-1
29-686 45*5
29-838 '37-3
29*858 1 48*7
29*281 43-3
29-565 40-9
29*465 1 39*9
29*641 43-6
29*696 43*4
29-525 1 49-7
29-784 48-2
29-741 1 44-1
29-762 , 46-0
30-175 45-4
30*189 ' 44-3 '
29-790 ' 44*1
29*656 . 38-7
29*710 41-5 I
29*565 48 3
29-313 48-5
*29-405 45-7
29-742 45-0,
40-4
WSW
1
39-81 W
2
37-1; NW
3
34-6 1 N
4
33-0 i N
5
321
NE
6
33*2
NNE
7
321
S^
8
31-8
NW
9
32-3
SW
10
34*6
W
11
30*6
w
12
27*9
s
13
30*3
SW
14
35*6
w
15
40*0
SW
16
39-9
NNE
17
39*5
.NE
18
38*8
S
19
34-7, WNW
20
29-4' NW
21
25*61 SSE
23
31-4 ENE
23
29-9 W
24
37-3 ' W
25
371 1 SW
26
36-0 1 W
27
34-2
NW
28
30-038
29*769
30-070
30-263
30-046
30-151
29-562
29-561
28-846
28-606
29-262
29-266
29-315
29-387
29-048
29-4i4
29-823
29-627
29-842
30119
30-066
29-751
29-565
28-961
29-108
29107
29-662
29-997
29-926
29-856
45-9
41-1
W
29-686
29*721
29-757
43-7
35-5
W
29-733
29-894
30-026
40-4
33-8
NW
30-186
30-240
30-274
37*4
80-9
N
30-231
so-m
30-134
37*4
26-5
NW
30-013
30-066
30-153
45*4
35-5
W
30-186
30-116
29-905
44*8
36-4
W
29-396
29-419
29*460
46*1
30-4
NW
29*681
29-674
29-466
350
26-6
NW
,28*648
28-452
28-420
43*2
30-5
SW
28*920
29-085
29-190
37-9
33-6
WNW
29*346
29-386
29-343
41-1
33-2
W
29*226
29-196
29-236
36-9
29-7
SE
29-382
29-410
29-418
38-1
33-4
8
29*416
29-375
29-138
41-2
33-5
SW
29-231
29*275
29-365
42*5
34-6
W
29-568
29*673
29-792
44-2
34-8
w
29-887
29*681
29-715
42-3
33-8
SE
29*610
29-608
29*738
39-3
33-9
E
29-936
30-018
30-098
43-2
32-6
WNW
30*153
30-126
30-126
42-1
31-5
W
30*013
29-883
29*823
41-0
29-8
NE
29*739
29*668
29-610
39*2
30-9
ENE
29-529
29-445
29-274
37-1
27-0
NW
28*943
29*012
29093
42-5
34-5
Vf
29*121
29-107
29-118
411
33-8
SSW
29*231
29-419
29*631
39-5
33-7
N
29-476
29-370
29-504
46-1
29-9
WSW
Digitized by
Google
780 BAUOMBTEB, THBBXOMETER, ETC., BBADIlfOS, 1906.
MABCH, 1906.
QLASGOW.
Bakomstsk.
TSXPBBA-I ^
10 a.m.
4 p.m.
aO'486
29-487
29-877
30-021
30164
30-145
90'llM
30-054
2&791
29-718
29-844
29-886
29 814
29-650
29-441
29-376
29-507
29-632
29-846
29-724
28-981
28-862
29-523
29-684
29-752
29-747
29-908
29-805
29-326
29-336
29-550
29-452
29-555
29-642
29-853
29-855
30-271
80-327
30-290
30-254
80-302
30-280
30-268
30-098
30-101
30-085
-29-969
29*922
29-924
29-890
29-994
30040
30132
30-142
80134
30-059
30-149
30-137
30-163
30-140
30-254
30-275
1 TURK.
10 P.M. Max
Min.
29-590 411
35-3
30 163 41*0
318
30*189 45-5
31-4
29-981 45 4
42-2
29*804 47-4
41-3
29-938 49*5
45-8
29-672 48*8
44*0
29-369 45 1
34-5
29-814 41-4
35-5
29-632 43-0
31-4
28-988 39-5
82-9
29-756 351
271
29*767 330
•23-9
29-698 36-5
19-3
29-472 49-4
32-6
29-529 60-3
373
29-727 501
43-9
30047 45-2
385
30*398 43*8
36-3
30*265 52-7
330
30-302 47 8
33-8
29-938 46*1
31*2
30074 47*2
367
29-;923 44*8
34-8
29-921 411
34-3
30-094 40-3
33-1
30-184 43-6
331
30-066 50-5
291
30-166 48-4
35-1
30*181 50- 1
38-8
30-825 49-3
38-2
» 1
" 9
w
aw
sw
sw
sw
W8W
NW
s
NNB
NNW
NW
W
8W
8W
^8W
W
N
N
NNE
W
NNK
N
NN15
N£
NITE
W
N
WNW
▲PBIL, 1906.
1
30-369
2
30-488
3
30-396
4
30-255
5
29-876
6
30091
7
30-445
8
30-397
9
30-577
10
30-427
11
30-231
12
30126
13
80015
14
30-296
15
30-558
16
80 894
17
29-964
18
29-727
19
29-640
20
29-920
21
30-023
22
29-839
23
30-015
24
30035
25
29-783
26
29-723
27
29-803
28
29-3H2
29
29-331
30
29-866
30-429
30-519
30*400
30190
29-832
30-276
30-451
30-478
30-573
30-392
30-233
30-104
30-048
30-434
30-572
30-318
29-874
29-701
30*015
29-900
30-093
29-972
29-850
29-618
29-811
29-366
29-343
29-446
30-427 30-479
30-451 30-447
30-324 30-316
30-026 29-963
29-828 29-948
30-334 30-462
30-368 I 30-411
30-483 1 30-573
30-470 I 30-493
30*273 1 30-271
30-139 30-158
3U031 30053
30-027 30-139
30-472 30-558
30-478 30-469
30-148 30-068
29*769 1 29-784
29-656 I 29-687
29-745 1 29-876
-29-969 I 30-021
29-915 1 29-866
29-872 1 29-967
30-067 30*089
29-898 29-843
29-858 I 29-860
29*687 ; 29*729
29-700 29-590
29-342 I 29-348
29-327 I 29-356
29-465 ! 29-543
50-2
45-6
59*6
40-9
35-3
36-6
55-5 1 36-3
61-3 38*9
58-3 I 38-3
60-1 32-0
58-3 ! 40-4
58-1 ; 400
62-2 , 36-2
66-3 40*1
711 ' 40-3
67-9 ! 49*1
52-4 ' 38-9
57 2 1 320
63-4 32-4
59-3 1 380
46-2 < 39-6
49-0 I 34*7
54-9 1 30-6
58-6 1 42-0
55-0 1 40-7
49-5 35-5
48-0 32-4
47-3 I 35-4
510 ' 31-5
54-9 ' 32-4
50-1 ! 35-4
49-7 1 32-3
49-0 35-4
NNE
N£
ESE
BE
S£
NE
E
N
NE
NE
NE
B
8W
NNE
NE
W
NW
NNE
NNE
BW
W
w
NNW
NW
E
S
NW
WNW
8SW
NNE
1 30-346 < 30-.394
I 30-460 30-474
30-427 80-397
, 30-073 29-955
129-714 29-767
30-235
30-3*1
' 30-416
'30-669
'30-489
1 30 301
, 30-091
I 29-875
30-313
I 30-364
I 30-157
,29-938
29-911
, 29-915
29-623
,29-546
,29-492
30-364
30-314
30-572
30-635
30-444
30-277
30043
29-900
3J-395
30-345
30057
29-900
29-948
29 893
29-645
29*488
29-682
30-040 30*065
i 29-969 29-951
29-960 30-008
29-501 '-i9-560
I 29-718 29-602
29-213 1 29-] 79
'29-0541-29-112
29-449 1 29-623
30-406
30-439
30-249
29-795
29-872
30-353
, 30-285
, 30-605 '
30-555
, 30-327
, 30161
{ 29-932
! 30-012
' 30-018
' 80-278
29-903
129-840
29-915
'29-799
' 29-628 '
I 29 506
29-8-22
130-022
I 29-811 1
I 29-893 1
1 29-663
, 29-351
29-156
29-238
'29-547
30-444
49-4 40-9 1
30-437
52-2 1 401
30-187
55-6 H3-5
29-768
66-4:41-5
30075
52*1 ' 43*0
S0-<84
54*4 35-6
30-850
55*9 35*2
30-651
541 44 9
30-543
601136-0
30-329
62-a 1 37-2 1
30-165
61-4 1 36-4 '
29-924
59 6 ' 88-1 1
30-209
54-5 1 401 1
30-426
51-9 1 36-0 1
30-286
52-5 1 42-1
29-935
49-5 1 39-4
29-874
44-5 1 35-6
29*945
47-2 1 35-4
29-746
45-9 1 29*9
29-602
53*4 , 381
29-524
49-61 38 91
29-994
60-6 1 38-6
29-974
45 9i360
29-830
460 1 34-0
•29 676
45*2 33-1
29*761
50-1 ' 381
29*287
47-2 360
29*138
44-4 i 35-0
29-396
47-5 1 34*8
29-610
49-5 ; 33-0
w
s
8
a
NE
8
SW
W
w
N
NE
NE
W
W
SW
S8W
E8E
NNE
NNE
NW
WSW
W
NW
NNW
ESE
NE
SW
WNW
ENE
ENE
Digitized by
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BAliOMBTBa, THKIiMOMETEB, BTC, READINGS, 1906.
MAY»1906.
781
KEW.
GLAflOOW. 1
1
Bakomitib.
Tbmpsba-
TUBB.
it
11
Babombtbb.
Tbmpbba-
TUBB.
1
.
1
1
4 a.m.
IOa.w.
4 P.M.
10 P.M.
MazlMin.
_l_
si
1
4 a.m.
10 a.m.
4 p.m.
10 p.m. Max
1
Min.
II
1
29-569
29636
29-646
29-703
54-4 '34-1
NW
1
29-592
29-579
29-549
29-554 I 49-0
33-3
NW
2
29714
29-748
29-707
29-685
50-6 1 36-9
S
2
29-544
29-509
29-404
29-332 46-4
33-5
S
3
29-707
29-765
29-746
29-773
59-3 47-5
8S\V
3
29-394
29-446
29:447
29-490 ' 52-5
43-2
8
4
29-798
29-895
29-978
30-107
60-0 1 480
SW
4
29-516
29-611
29-789
29-9331 51-1
42-5
W
5
30171
30-196
30-169
30-146
58-7 41-1
SW
6
29-962
29-912
29-794
29-727 1 49-4
36-5
SSE
6
30-083
30-104
30-102
30-131
56-0 500 SW
6
29-656
29-708
29-737
•29-793 ' 57-5
48-9
S8W
7
80123
30-158
30-102
30094
64-7,50-7 saw
7 129-864
29-921
29-947
30-021 , 62-8
48-9
SSW
8
30-043
29-979
29-851
29-854
73-3 1 43-9 NNE
8
30-026
30-018
29-934
29-900 1 58-4
49-1
NW
9
29-783
29-779
29-742
29-777
59-8 48-4 NW
9
29-828
29-824
29-812
29-828 51-0
43-4
NE
10
29-741
29-761
29-724
29-737
49-6 1 45-0
NB
10
29-789
29-732
29-632
29-594 1 51-4
40-8
W
11
29-715
•i9-718
29-680
29-719
58-1 ! 45-0
8
11
29-540
29-534
29-559
29-642 '47-9 39-6
SE
12
29-730
29-804
29-841
29-938
70-0,49-4
SSE
12
29-707
89-807
29-903
30-001 , 58-4
45-2
N
13
29-958
29-996
29-931
2d-971
71-3 ' 50-8
NE
13
30045
30-075
30-035
30036 1 61-0
50-3
NE
14
29-906
29-887
29-865
29-896
63-2.47-0
NNE
14
30-050
30-085
30-028
30017 . 56-3 1 46-2
NB
15
29-815
29-793
29-637
29-602
59-2 1 43-3
N
15
29-869
29-705
29-578
29-499 51-3
41-0
WNW
16
29-637
29-479
29-416
29-471
54-7144-0
WNW
16
29-501
29-546
29-563
29-680 1 49-3
41-5
N
17
29-466
29-495
29-481
29-504
51-0 40-0
NNW
17
29-511
29-440
29-432
29-480 48-7
40-3
N
18
29-512
29-554
29-562
29-620
550 33-1
ENE
18
29-487
29-640
29-701
29-740 61-3
40-6
ENE
19
29-649
29-659
29-626
29-683
6-2-0 40-4' N
19
29-728
29-726
29-729
29-770 48-6
431
NB
20
29-695
29-716
29-735
29-778
49-8 41-9 NW
20
29-818
29-876
29-910
29-982 54-«|39-l
ENE
21
29-769
29-819
29-868
29-907
52-6 . 43-9 N
21
29-952
29-952
29-903
29-888 • 46-4 ' 35-1
W
22
29-897
29-912
29-884
29-861
56-1 i 44-0 E
22
29-881
29-884
29-834
29-888 1 47-5 1 39-3
E
23
29-801
29-770
29-696
29-671
69-0 48*2 B
23
29-866
29-834
29-792
29-755 46-5 139-5
E
24
29-649
29-713
29-784
29-916
647 49-2, SW
24 ' 29 704
29-710
29-668
29-652 48-5 44-0
ENE
25
29-980
30-026
30030
30-077
6-2-5 1 457! SW
25 129-688
29-744
29-728
29-738154-6 458
S
26
30056
29-991
29-915
29-928
60-6 1 47-8
9
26
29-754
29-766
29-752
29-741 , 581 1 42-8
W3W
27
29-894
29-904
29-930
29-999
651 1 53-6
i SW
27
29-710
29-708
29-708
29-708 647148-1
SSW
28
29-954
30036
30-047
30061
71-8 56-3
SW
28
29-694
29-796
29-824
29-806160-4 47-2
NE
29
30-058
30057
30-041
30-074
69-5 53-8
w
29
29-769
'J9-810
29-798
29-776 1 557151-0 1 SW
30
30-050 30-028 I 29"927
29-887
67-3 50-0
w
30
29-751
29-798 , 29-752
29-647 '57-3 148-9; W
31
29-753
,20-677
] 29-645
29-679
62-6 48-7
w
31
29-551
29-515
29-480
29-411
54'2
72
W
JUNE, 1906.
1 29-605
2 29-797
3 30088
4 30-251
5 30-372
6 30-330
7 30-257
8 30-188
9 30-l«7
10 30-249
11 30-225
12 30-179
13 30-047
14 30-107
15 30-023
16 29-935
17 29-953
18 30-095
19 30*213
20 30-329
21 30-320
22 30-177
23 30046
24 29-762
25.30-086
86 < 30-067
27 29-924
28; 29-873
89 29-672
90 '90-197
29-525
29-910
30-157
30-3-21
30-377
30-:530
30-2.J0
30177
30-211
30-252
30-258
30-158
30-092
30113
29-974
29-95<}
29-981
30129
30-248
30-352
30315
30-150
29-980
29-846
30-110
30043
-29-907
29-839
29-876
30176
•29-515 ' 29-665
29-950 : 30-033
30-lSl 30-216
30-338 , 30-378
30-311 ; 30-351
30-267 ' 30-273
30-182 30-193
30-l:J5' 30-182
30-181 ; 30-239
30- 196 I 30-236
30-183 30-195
30-074 1 30-048
30-081130-121
30-079 I 3<J-()82
29-916 , 29-930
29-917 I 29-970
29-989 30-060
30-110 I 30-176
30-231 ' 30-300
30-317 130-329
30-255 , 30-229
30092 1 30-093
29-879 I 29-839
29-921 30031
30-064 1 30-076
29-971
I
29-893
29-775
30-074
90-105*
29-904
29-720
30-181
80081
58-9 46-7,
I 62-3 45-3'
68-3 48-3
160-6 46-91
64-3 41-2
. 68-0 44-5 I
71-2 42-5
1 72-7 47-0 '
69-9 50-4 I
68-6 47-3!
690 , 47-8 I
72-0 I 47-1
' 61-5 48-6 !
I 56-0 48-5 I
157-8 47-51
I 63-1 47-1 1
'68-4 49-21
I 72-1 45-21
I 75-8 51-0 i
,77-5 53-0
I 76-5 58-61
,757 611 1
181-6 57-4 1
, 71-1 1 58-7
701 1 55-6'
'720 1 57-4 I
I 74-0 ; 64-0
I 74-3 56-9
I 59-2 I 47-0
1 65-0 ' 44-3 1
WSW
' 1
29-325
29-415
29-563
29-714
NW
; 2
29-817
29-895
29-949
30-031
NNW
1 3
30-082
30-131
30181
30-216
NE
4
90-262
30-309
30-291
30-328
^B
5
30-327
30-314
30-252
30-252
£
; 6
30-233
30-231
30-199
30-191
NE
' 7
30 176
30-196
30-174
30-189
NE
8
30-193
30-219
30-186
30182
NE
! 9
30-194
30-215
30-199
30-217
NE
10
30-230
30-251
30-227
30-255
NE
11
30-261
30-253
30-182
, 30-183
NE
12
30-164
30-138
30-101
30-146
NNE
13
30138
30-159
30-130
30-144
N
14
30124
30121
30-050
30-082
N
15
30-061
30-072
30-094
30-154
NE
16
30-176
30-136
30-080
30-084
S
17
30081
30-071
30-041 1 30-043
S
:18
30-084
30-079
30-059
30-125
W
19
30145
30164
30-162
30-189
SSW
20
80-180
30-170
30-120
30-134
w
1^1
30-150
30180
30-134
30-094
NW
I22
30-051
30059
30-040
30044
S
23
29-999
29-935
29-844
29-764
WNW
124
29-711
29-730
29-734
29-813
SW
25
29-823
29-782
29-679
29-712
SW
,26
29-724
29-698
29-643
29-629
SW
27
29-609
29-647
29-700
29-744
SW
28
29-759
29-787
29-802
29-915
N
|29
29-995
30051
30-049 1 30-087
W
90
90-047
30-034
29-978
29-970
57-1 44-3
B i
681 ; 48-4
W
63-1 ' 46-9
W
61-5 43-8
NE
63-6 45-1
ENE
66-6 47-3
SW
66-8 52-6
w
69-4 1 50-6
NK
69-5 49-4
w
76-6 , 51-3
E
78-0 ■ 54-3
NE
73-2 52-2
w
67-0 , 51-8
E
60-1 ; 50-6
WSW
59-2 50-1
£
65 3 47-4
NB
58-9 1 51-6
E
66-0 1 51-2
ENE
68-6 ' 48-5
SW
65-6 54-6
SW
65-5 1 57-3
w
67-2 1 571
WSW
66-3.547
NNW
66-8 1 52-7
SW
69-0 1 48-3
S 1
62-4 51-9
SW i
59-9 , 61-0
WSW'
61-5 1 50-8
w
67-8,447
w
57-1 46-2
w
Digitized by
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7d2 BAUOXETEB, THERMOMBTEB, ETC., READINGS, 190C.
JULY, 1906.
KEW.
Bavombtse.
TURI.
ll
i
4a.m.
10 a.m.
4 P.M.
IOf.m.
Mu
Mm.
1
30-062
30-068
30-043
30-062
67-2
47-0
NNW
2
30-062
30-081
30-047
30-080
70-3
49-7
B
3
30*068
30-090
30-070
30-127
69-8
51-2
ENE
4
30110
30092
30-017
30029
740
510
N
6
29-993
29-966
29-914
29-932
76-5
520
NE
6
29-912
29-914
29-897
29-932
72-4
54-6
ws>v
7
29-959
30020
30021
30-092
75-0
55-8
w
8
30105
30142
30-154
30188
76-0
56-7
wsw
9
30-216
30-240
30-212
30-204
72-1
55-2
N
10
30150
30116
30-164
696
530
B
11
30-153
30- 160 30-135
30173
65.9
51-6
N
12
30-172
30-180 30-139
30-154
65-0
51-7
N
18
30-105
30078 30-04 J 30017
66-5
47-0
W
14
29-970
30-015 ; 30-009
30-044
74-9
57-7
w
15
29-987
29-950 ' 29-910
30017
70-7
55-8
wsw
16
30-033
30-008 29-970
30-005
73-1
51-3
w
17
30-<l29
30068 30-019 30-011
78-4
59-7
w
18
29-988
29-946 29-825
JS9-798
80-8
58-3
sw
19
29-776
29-835 , 29-877
29-927
661
54-4
w
20
29-887
29-885 129-813
29-924
68-6
52-4
w
21
29-975
29-977
29-951
29-957
68-1
48-9
8W
22
29-951
29-971
29-954
30-008
78-0
63-8
WNW
23
29-994
29-975
29-903
29-900
80-2
61-6
S
24
29-916
29-979
29-997
30-057
70-9
57-2
NW
25
30-113
.30-144
30-097
30-085
757
49-9
£
26
3i)014
29-939
2»-840
29-830
751
55-8
a
27
29-802
29-817
29-840
29-917
76-1
59-1
NB
28
29-913
29-925
29-895
29-913
74-5
56-1
SW
29
29-910
29-928
29-932
29-947
730
59-2
NNW
80
29-922
29-907
29-881
29-862
80-1
59-2
E
81
29-811
29-880
29-900
30-007
77-7
59-9
W
QLASOOW.
Babomktmr.
TxmrkaI
TOMM. ,
1
4 a.m. 1
1
29-970
2
30-014
3
30-052
4
30-112
5
29-978
6
29-828
7
29-874
8
29-925
9
30-165
10
30-116
11
30-163
12
30182
13
29-956
14
29*875
15
29-564
16
29-750
17
29-790
18
29-659
19
29-434
20
29-610
21
29-768
22
29-757
23
29-849
24
29-827
25
29-tf92
26
29-932
27
29-786
28
29-785
29
29-79*
30
29-902
81
29-783
10 A.]
29-996
30-022
30-074
30-092
29-938
29-817
4 p.m.
29-999
30-074
30030
29-843
30-034 1 30-100
30-177 '30-173
30-121 i 30-112
30-176 30-156
30166
29-896
29-851
29-712
29-624
29-774
29*601
29-516
29-628
29-823
29-763
29-791
29 867
30*039
29-884
29-815
29-728
29-851
29-892
29-766
30-003
29-858
29-833
29-750
29-620
10 P.M
30-019
30031
30-123
30-022
-29*843
29-870
29-892
3O-160
30-136
80-160
80-178
30-062
29-882
29-716
29-812
29-710
29-740 1 29 700
29-489 1 29-399
29-624 29-658
29*688 29*748
29-708 1 29*798
29*708 1 29-873
29-755 29-801
29-887 1 29-949
30*030 I 29-905
29*793 1 29-766
29*843 29-837
29-696
29*861
29*832
29*754
29*759
29*812
29-827
I i
Max.Min-
I ;
59*5 I 441
6i*9 48-8
66*4 i 501
65*9 I 47-2
78-7 50-3
61*3 54*1
64-8 4S1
63*7. 5i*5
62-9 1 49-7
61*9 51*5
61-8 i 45-1
65*9 45-1
62*4 52-8
57*2 ; 48-8
59-1 51-6
59-5 49*2
61*6 51-0
65- 1 54-3
56*2 47-5
57*7, 451
67*0 46*2
67-5 57-0
600 50-4
59-2 49-8
66-1 50-2
73-0 54-8
62-2 53-5
65-8 i 51-9
70*1 53-4
63-4 , 51-9
640 i 56-7
I
SB
' SW
ENB
NE
, W
SW
WSW
vr
w
SW
&w
w
w
SW
SW
w
w
wsw
SW
s
SW
£S£
SE
SE
W8W
£.NE
E
AUGUST, 1906.
30-032 1 30-078 ,
29-977 1 29-912 1
29-699 1 29-760
29-911 29-995
30-188 30-231
30*197 30-200
30-101 , 30-079
30-006 29-963
29-827 29-859
29-803 29-790
29-707 29-754
29-817 29-832
29-705 29-626
29-651 29-657
15 ,29-714 29-750
16 ' 29-810 '29-837
17 29-80* 29-812
18 29-847 29-946
19 30110 30174
20 '30-142 30-118
21 i 30-092 30111
aa 30-044 29-995
83 29-855 29916
84 1 29-955 29*940
85 29-723 29705
86 30-096 30-130
87 30*140 30-188
88 30-382 30-411
88 ,30-302 30*280
80 30-124 30-122
81 130-059 30-069
30-036
29-761
29-787
30-044
30-196
30-143
30-021
29-845
29-840
29-714
29-795
29-816
29*581
29-619
29-730
29-817
29*804
30*001
30153
;W*072
3u*l06
29-896
29*928
1 29-913
29-888
30-100
30-2*20
30-334
30-178
30-047
30-041
30037 76-6
29-636 1 83-1 ,
29-861 1 731
30164 72-5
30-206 75-0
30-129 ' 77*7
30-034 j 80*8
29*816 82-0
29*813 74-3
29*719 70*9
29-829 ' 68-3
29*799 I 69*9
29-626 1 77-9
29-676 71-7
7
67-6
0
29-790
29-»41
29-851
30-091 I 64-6
30-178 ' 66-7
30-090 I 71*6
30 094 I 76-6
29*897 I 86-0
29-988 I 81-1
29*913 75-1
30-043 ' 68-7
30-128 i 72*4
30*345 I 75-5
30-345 I 70-3
30-172 74-6
30-065 83-4
30079 90-9
54-1
SW
58*4
8
59-0
SW
573
WSW
54-9
SW
58-0
wsw
67-7
SW
58-8
s
57-2
w
58-9
SW
56-3
NW
66-0
ssw
60-8
s
67-6
s
55-9
SW
52-9
wsw
53-3
w
50-9
NNW
52-0
NW
50-6
SW
61-6
W
56-4
S
56-9
SW
62*4
SW
56-3
w
54-7
SW
59-0
N
52-3
E
'46-0
ESE
148-6
E
|55-9
S
BAHOMET£R, TH ISRXO>CBTSB, ETO., READINGS, 1906. 788
8EFTEMBEB, 1906.
££W.
>aRA-
UB.
■sg
ll
GLASGOW.
Baboiutsk.
TSMl
TUi
Babombtbe.
Tbmpbra-
TUBB.
Direction of
!_
4 a.m.
10 a.m.
4 p.m.
10 p.m.
Mat
Min.
I
4 a.m.
10 a.m.
4 p.m. ,10 p.m.
Max
Mln.
30041
30-043
29-972
29-987
91-7
60-4
SE
1
29*959
89*959
29-900*29-869
83-5
54-6
NW
29-960
29-958
29-904
29-940
91-7
59-6
SSE
2 29*851
29*848
29-808 29-876
81-7
59-5
NE
29-928
29-932
29-937
30-041
84-9
57*0
SW
3 129*899
29-946
30010 80-064
65-9
53-7
W
30-078
30-101
30-080
30-092
75-8
59-7
N
4 80-090
80-109
80-081 30-051
821
47-2
W8W
30-078
30-117
30-024
30013
70-9
538
N .
5 120-968
29-881
29-669 29-581
58-9
58-5
SW
29-914
29-988
29-952
30-032
72-9
59-5
W
6 29-653
39-767
29-789 29-819
61-0
580
W
7
30-056
30-118
30-068
30071
73-5
59-7
8W
7 1 29*803
29-859
29-869 29-8:^4
620
55-2
SW
8
30-054
30-065
30-058
80-116
77-1
55-4
W
8 2!^-847
29-909
29-964 30085
61-1
52-4
W
9
30156
30-219
80-199
30-255
67-5
53-3
N
9 30-071
30183
30-178 30-221
58-9
49-4
W
10
30-258
30-279
80-250
90-821
64-0
47-8
N
10
30-244
30-279
30-250 30-262
59-2
44-6
SW 1
11
30-818
30-342
80-262
30-267
68-6
42-3
SW
11
30-221
80-168
30-087 , 30-047
635
4*2-4
8
12
30-224
30-906
30-157
30-134
69-0
44-2
S
12
29-984
30-037
30020 29-915
62-2
51-0
w
18
30-050
29-997
29-874
29-791
69-3
54-9
S
18
29-776
29-714
29-658 1 29-638
59-6
50-6
s
U
29-815
29-814
29-745
29721
670
520
8W
14
29-507
29-473
29-494 29-375
57-5
48-0
w
15
29-538
29-597
29-571
29-610
63-0
50-0
W
15
29-273
29-295
29-347 1 29-479
56-2
47-5
SW
16
29-702
29-826
29-908
80-000
58-2
48-6
NW
16
29-624
29-804
29-984 30062
59-9
47-6
NNW
17
29-993
30-066
80157
30-182
64-4
51-4
N
17
30-128
80*223
30-275 80-345
61-8
39-9
W
18
30*045
30160
80-155
80-141
64-0
550
ENE
18
30-889
30-394
30-345 80-837
59-8
46-5
E
19 ;80-lll
30-122
30115
30167
60-6
55*4
N
19
30-290
30-288
80-265 1 30-287
57-7
53-0
NE
90 30-165
30195
30-207
30-261163-3
51-4
N
20
30-286
30-305
30-301 30-339
59-8
50-8
NE
21 '30-274
30-320
30-288
80-829 ' 63-9
50-7
?
21
30-343
80'888
80*379 30-387
60-4
52-1
E
22
30-327
30-865
30-326
30-873 63-7
49-8
N
22
30-874
30-389
30-880 30-439
62-7
45-5
N
23
30-384
30-420
30-392
30-443 59-5
49-6
NNB
28
30-464
30-610
30-484130-518
57-5
47-4
E
24
30-420
30-435
30-417
30-434
61-6
49-0
E
24
30-515
30-498
80-441 ! 80-448
561
40-2
E
25
30-446
80-483
30-474
80-527
59-7
44-7
E
25
30-427
30-443
30-444 1 30-473
58-5
48-2
ssw
26
30-539
30-583
30-548
30-580
61-1
40-8
NE
26
30-488
30*512
30-497 1 30-502
58-3
48-4
wsw
27
30-588
30-601
80-542
30-564
80-383
64*6
38-9
£
27
30-498
30-509
30*471
30-489
59-8
47-9
SW
28
30-582
80-527
30-406
60-0
38-6
SE
88
30-457
30-457
30-377
30-865
59-9
40-5
w
29 ,30-842
30-826
80-241
80-249
60-6
37-4
ENE
29
80-817
30-315
30-225
30-216
62-3
37-6
WSW
80 30-225
80-220
30124
30-130
66-3
41-2
B
80
30180
80-156
30-049
30-040
60-5
36-9; NW
OCTOBER, 1906.
1
30079
30-060
29-978
29-898 68-4 47-3
3
1
29-964
29-917
29-746
29-64Ji6)*0 47-6 SE
2
29-750
29-711
29*439
29-164 62-6 1 58-4
SSW
2
29-566
29-533
29-488
29-568158-7 41*2 WSW
8
29-529
29-787
29-884
29-944
62-1 ; 560
NNW
8
29-640
29-771
29-812
29*869 57-1 48*9 W
4
29-950
29-934
29*856
29*797
61-9 1 51-6
S
4
29-8(i8
29-822
29-708
29*556 1 .57-1 1 490 E
5
29*735
29-745
29*755
29*853
65-2 1 57-4
SSAT
5
29-484
29-510
29-549
29-676,58-8
521. SW
6
29-988
30006 30-012
30015
63-5! 510
SW
6
29-728
29-768 29-730
29-700 1 58-9
46-4. SSW
7
29-976
29-963129-903
29-854
65-2155-6
S
7
29-636 1 29-630 1 29508
29-630 , 63-1
52-3
SSW
8
29-799
29-814! 29-756
29-766
68-5 i 540
S
8
29-561 29-508 29-516
•29-585158-1
51-7
SE
9
29-776
29-8231 29-824
29-819
60-2 151-4
SE
9
29-628 29-742 29-788
29-852 : 59-4
51-0
E
10
29-795
29-819 29-780
29-759
67-2,56-0
ENE
10
29-816 , 29-784 , 29-774
29-750 129-740 29 647
29-778 ' 60-5 j 530
NE
11
29-703
29-743 ! 29-714
29-783
69-3 1 53-2
SSE
11
29-572 , 58-9 1 534
E
12
39-749
29-762:29-718
29-703
62-9 52-7
SW
12
29-500 , 29-540 29-531
29-542 55-6 i 460
W
13
29-595
29-573 129-549
29-641
54-4 42-2
NW
13 ; 2»-539 ' 29-580 1 29-671
29-8'29 1 46-6 | 87*3 N
14
29-740
29-885 1 29-926
29-960 1 51-6 ; 37-9
N
14 129-85 1 i 29-820, 29-637
29-599 ' 52-5 , 326 SSW
15
29*873
29-816 29-726
29-715,59-6' 37-6
SW
15 1 29-465 , 29-439 ' 29409
29-396 , 55-1 ! 452 .S W
16
29*676
29-704
29-687 1 29*757 1 59*5 5J-2
SW
16
29-370 1 29-350 1 29-359
29-380
51-91 42-4 1 SW 1
17
29*743 29-805
29-826 1 29-880 '59-2 50-3 j W
17
29-38i 1 29-454 ; 29526
29-684
49-5
40-0 SW
18
29-821129-769
29-713129-643 161-4 532 S
18
29-742 ; 29-804 1 29-828
29-840
47-3
39-4' NE
19
29-608 29-740
29 773129-824 57-8 4411 SW
19
29-743 1 29-671 1 29518
29-468
42-2
37 9, NW
20
29-847 ; 29-899
29-842 29-813 57-9 37-91 WSW
20
•29-523 1 29-657 ' 29703
29-726
51-7
39-4 1 W 1
21
29-856129-923
29-913129-932,66-5 53-6, 8
21
29-702 ' 29-769 1 29751
29-744
57-4
42-6, NE 1
22
29-893,29-873
29-871 , 29-930
65-8 54-91 SW
22
29-659
29-615
29-504
29-612
59-7
53-5' SSE 1
23
29-929 80-022
30-031 1 30-087
62-3 520 1 SW
23
29-653
29-698
29-724
29-775
58-2
50-1
S
24
80-088130-124
30136
30-245
62-8 '44-6' SW
24
29-860
29-944
30-025
30-118
521
44-0
SW
25
30-304 ' 80-372
30-384
30-405
54-8 38-3 1 N
25
30-189
30-269
30-247
30-157
51-1
391
SSW
26
30-311 180-231
30-080
30-018
56-0 35-0 N
26
29-987
29-809
29-669
29-766
53-2
46-5
s
27
29-949 80041
30-053
30054
53-0,39-4 NW
27
29-833
29-881
29-737
29-578
50-7
40-5
SW
28
29-926 1 29-768
29-5-25
29-507
54-5 39-3 saw
28
29-388
29-226
29-190
29-200
51-5
87-7
WSW
29
29-589129-610
29-522
29-453
51-5 1 40-91 SW
29
29-186
29-176
29-136
29-162
41-8
35-3
SW
80
29-270129-181
29-187
29-216
49-3 43-61 S
30
29-216
29-329
29-333
29-351
43-1
33-1
NE
81
29-337
29-476
29-498
29-471
49-9 41-5
^
31
29-321
29-534
29-595
29-640
53-9
42-1
£
Digitized by
Google
784
BAROMETER, THERMOMETER, ETC., RBADIK08, 1906.
NOVEMBER. 1906.
KEW.
GLASGOW.
B4E0MSTSR.
Tbmpbba
TUA8.
^1
o ^
Bakomstsb.
TSMFSRA- "S i '
TUU. 0 O
^
^
4A.M
10a.m. IP.M.
10 P.M.
M&x
Min.
t*
1
4 a.m.
1
10 a.m. 4p.m.Ii0p.m.
Max Min.) j!|
sl
; 1
1
1
1
29-373
29-314
29 225
29-193
52-7
48-6
N
1 29-569 1 29-494 29-363 1 29-244
49-4 48-0 NB
2
29-180
29-178
29-186
29 256
51-3
11-9
W
2 29-160 29-187 29007 1 28-946
50-2 , 47-9 N E
3
29-263
29-327
29-367
29-393
53-0
40-4
8SW
3 29-058 29-272 29343 , 29377
50-2 44-4 SB
4
29-362
29-279
29089
28-939
48-4
41-0
ESE
4 29-355 \ 29-489 29457 i 29393
50-2141-21 NE
5
29-278
29-518
29-620
29-718
52-9
35-4
SW
5 29-388 29-445 29485 29546
49-1 1 41-1 ' N^ 1
6
29-719
29-681
29-504
29-316
51-3
33-2
NNE
6 29-587129-663 29682 29732
44-4 1 36-8
NNW^
7
29-318
29-383
29-416
29-419
53-5
47-3
SB
7 29-701 ' 29-696 29-656 29672
50-4 1 35-2
NNE
8
29-3*4
29-299
29-244
29-295
52-0
49-9
N
8 29-687 ! 29-729 29786 29852
50-0 44-3
NXB
9
29-398
29-592
29-755
29-917
53-0
46-0
NNE
9 29-902 30034 301051 30231
46-3,39-4
NNE
10
30-022
30-199
30-291
30-422
49-8
41-4
NE
10 1 30-300 30-380 30414 30-430
42-6 , 35-0
N
11
30-448
30-504
30-472
30-488
47-7
31-6
NNE
11 30-420 30-417 30410 1 30400
45-6 37-4
W3W
12
30-482
30-486
30-440
30-453
45-4
29-4
NNE
12 1 30-379 30-397 30376 1 30378
46-2 431
SW
13
30-445
30-458
30-407
30-410
42-0
32-1
NNE
13 ' 30-370 1 30-357 30298 1 30261
46-4 39-4
SW
14
30-369
30-353
30-261
30-203
47-0
39-3
E
14 ' 30-173 i 30-073 29908 29836
48-3 , 42-2
S
15
30077
30006
29-657
29-709
50-7
40-0
SW
15
29-778 29-596 29*563 29704
47-0 39-2
SS8
16
29-881
29-878
29-522
29-500 531
40-5
SW
16
29-678 29-559 29-310,29-248
42-6 38-5
SB
17
29-484 29-394
29-306
29-394 52-2
43-6
8W
17
29098
28-939 28-869 1 28-946
46-2 381
SW
18
29-292:29157
29054
29-112 46-7
34-4
S3W
18
28-963
28-954 28-937 1 28-952
41-7 33-2
SW
19
29125 29-175
29-2-25
29-330 42-7
29-7
SW
19
28-955
28-977 29-022 29-136
42-1 34-2
WNW
ao
29-441 29-623
29-737
29-775 44 1
37-1
WNW
20
29-198
29-350 -29-468 i 29-507
43-4 37-8
w
21
29-632 i 29-680
29-863
30-009 '56-0
41-3
W
21
29-469
29-558 29-622,29-604
45-3 36-51 E
22
30-153 ; 30-299
30-370
30-485 ' 590
49-51 SW
22
29-676
29-822 29-915 30-045
57-3 44-81 SW
23
30-484 1 30-536
30-513
30 535 54-9
44-9
SW
23
30-087
30-129 30-142 30-205 56-7 54-1: SW
24
30-517 30-536
30-514
30-527 51 8
47-4
SSW
24
30-182
30189 30-2)6 30-281 '56-5 50-0 j SiW
25
30-503 30-509
30-500
30-521 50-1
44-6
w
25 30-272
30-279 30-315 30-356 53-2 507 SW
26
30-501 30-463
30-367
30-265 50-4
40-9
SW
26
30-280
30-16^ 30-065 1 29-928 1 53-0 48-3 1 SW
27
30057 30012
30079
30- 165 56-0
43-6
NW
27
29-813
29-878 29-949,29-989 50-0 45-9 1 W
28
30199 30-189
30-149
3 J- 157 52-3
39-5
SW
28
29-89.5
29-822 , 29-797
'29-747 1 53-4 462 i W3W
29
30120 30167
30-101
29-992 55-3
50-9
W8W
29
29-707
29-803 29-590
29-345 55-9 46-3! SW
30
29-873 29-822
29-811
29-848 ! 55-4
1
40-0
NW
30
29-563
29-614 i 29-599
1
29-616 580 37-8; W
1
DECEMB
EB. 1906.
1
29-816
29-977 30143
30-274 45-5 1 34-9 NW
1
29-823
30-036 I3)-113 30050
421
37-2
w 1
2
30-294
30-1721 30 09S
30-110:5-2-0 34-3 SW
2
29-782
29-771 29-765 29-680
52-4
33-7
WSWI
3
30-006
29-912
29-958
30-011 55-0 47-2 W
3
29-576
-29-551 29-602 29-801
52-1
42-6
W 1
4
30-042
30-059
30-020
29-9-26 ' 5t-0 47-2 W
4
29-857
29-88«J ! '29-696 29566
52-4
43-9
W
5
29-735
29-580
29-401
29-242 '531 40-3 WNW
5
29-402
29-199 -28-906 29-454
49-0
36-1
wsw
6
29-485
29-812
29-973
30-1791 46-5 38-6 N
6
29-792
30-lOi 130-249 3'>-3-24
44-6
361
N
7
80-281
30-379
30-319
30-3-25, 41-7 30-2 N
7
30-281
30-223 : 30-082 29-968
46-1
34-9
SW
8
30-22S
30-094
29 88.3
29-749 1 44-5 30-0 SW
8
•29-824
•29-739 29-564 '29-483
47-8
36-0
wsw
9
29-605 29-t>36
29-705
•29-764 1 43-6 32-6 NNW
9
•29-48«3
29-683 1 29-742 39-817
37-7
33-2
w
10
29-791 29-864
29-875
29-893 36-5 282 NW
10
29-854
29-8i»0 '29-839 i 29-786
35-3
30-5
w
11
29-849
29-843
29-774
29-680 45-1 27-4 WSW
11
29-674
29-616 , 29-573 29486
391
33-4
wsw
12
29-602
29-4-46
29-481
29-623 4.5-1 '37-0 W8W
12
29-250
29-145 '-29-214 29-364
41-4
33-6
N 1
13
29-677
29-54H
29-451
29-462 39-3 33-3, SW
13
'29-360
'29-263 1 29-284 29-287
380
31-9
w
14
29-432
29-572129-714
29-849 40-4 3:i-4, WNW
14
29-298
29-476 , 20-666 , 29795
37-4
31-7
w
15
29-949
30-038 30-068
30-111 :i8-0 32-6, SW
15
•29-84^3
29-898 29-903 29-895
36-6
27-1
w 1
16
30-12^1
30-149 130-181
30-268 44-4 350 S
16
•29-835
29-916 , 29-988 30-1)66
50-0
34-0
E I
17
30-312
30-372
30-366
30-372 1 480 428 8
17
30-0i>3
30-136 301*29 30-139
50-7
46-7
SW
18
30-343
30-366
30-366
30-4-20,49-1 43-5, SW
18
30-170
30-228 30-268 30-297
50-8
47-3
SW
19
30-454
30-5-23
30-517
30-557145-1 38-4 ESE
19
30-290
.30-316 30-318 | 30369
48-4
46-0
SW
20
30-595
30-Gll
30-585
30-573 40-3 350 E
20
30-407
30-438 ' 3!)-450 \ 30-403
48-2
43-4
i£ 1
21
30-555
30-566
30-549
30 541140 1,31-9 ENE
21
30-508
30-554 30-542 30528
45-6
43-3
SW
22
30-467
30-437
30-331
30-343,37-8 29-3 NE
22
30-508
30-499 30-390 , 30-316
44-0
360
SW
23
30-3-20
30-341
30-317
30-358 1 30-8 , 27-4 NW
23
:^o-248
30-202 130-115! 30-098
41-7
36-3
SW
24
30-305
30-251
30-054
29S:J8 42-7 i 25-7 W
24
30-049
29-927 29-652 ' 29-828
44-2
33-9
SW
25
29-857
29-910
29-843
•29-688142-4,30-8 NW
25
29-860
29 878 '29-716-29-487
35-0
26-2
NW
26
29-069
•28-957
29-122
29-16S; 35-2 j 23-3, N
26
29-304
29-280 -29-0-22 , 29-175
34-3
21-8
w
27
29-127
29-279
29-351
29-368 1 35-0 1 -24-5 NW
27
•29-263
29-283 , 29-319 , 29451
34-5
28-6
w
28
29-359
29-422
29-411
29-493 i 35-7 279 W
28
29-492
29-623 29-724 29846
34-7
30-3
N
29
29-621
29-757
29-812
29-841 136-0 28-0 ' N
29
29-853
29-823,29-751 29711
33-4
23*9
NW
80
29-784
29-784
-29-684
29-582 35-3 264 ^ S
30
29-636
29-565 1 29-437 29-452
30-6
23-4
NE
81
29-531
29-567
29-495,29olO 41-3 34-5; SW
1 i 1 1
31
29-437
29 368, 29-158 29193
37-4
28-6
ENE
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Itu /nsfifu/irri ■
1906.
JANUARY.
FEBRUARY.
MARCH.
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INDEX TO VOL. XXXIII.
Explanations.
The — at the beginning of a line denotes the repetition of a word ; and in the
case of Names, it includes both the Christian Name and the Surname ; or, in the
case of the name of any Firm, Association or Institution, the full name of such
Firm, etc.
Discussions are printed in italics.
The following contractions are used : —
M. C. — The Midland Counties Institution of Engineers.
M.G. — Manchester Geological and Mining Society.
M. I. — Midland Institute of Mining, Civil and Mechanical Engineers.
N. E.— The North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers.
N. S. — The North Staffordshire Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers.
S. I. — The Mining Institute of Scotland.
S. S. — The South Staffordshire and Warwickshire Institute of Mining
Engineers.
A.
Aasvogelrand, South Africa, quartzites,
dip of, 548.
Abel, Sib Frsderick A., quoted, 308,
326.
Abell, W Prick, improvements required
in iiiland navigation, 364.
Abolesheff bay, eastern Siberia, pyrites
lodes, 719.
Accidents, fatal, coal and gas outbursts,
313.
— , — , — output and, 332.
Accounts, S.L, 154.
Accumulators, Pollak, electric power-
station, Grand Homu, 653.
AcKBOYD, Alfred, electiou, M.G., 290.
Adalia, Asia Minor, chrome-iron -ore, 710.
Adana, Asia Minor, chrome-iron-ore, 710.
Address, presidential, 330.
Advance bore-holes, precaution against
coal and gas outbursts, 317.
Aerolith, liquid air rescue-apparatus, 170.
Agnew electric drill. Gay Coal and Coke
Company, 564.
Ahnert, E., gold-bearing regions of Si-
beria, 714.
Ahnert, E., M. M. Ivanoff, A. Khla-
PONIN, P. Rippas and P. Yavorovsky,
gold-bearing regions of Siberia, 714.
Air, liquid, use in rescue- apparatus, 2,
170.
Air-compression, adiabatic, advantages,
445.
Air-compressors, air-lift pumps, 495.
, electrically-driven, 601.
, — — , economies effected by, 338.
, inbye, advantages, 445.
Air-currents, measuring velocities of, 58
et seq.
Air-lift pumps, 492.
, efficiency, 498, 499.
, limitations, 493.
, water-supplies from bore-holes,
485.
Akmolinsk, Siberia, coal-tields, 526.
Alaska, coal-fields, Manchurian coal-
fields and, 712.
Albion colliery explosion, cause, 185.
Aldan river, Siberia, gold-placers, 715.
AiiDis, W. Steadman, quoted, 568, 596,
625, 631.
Alexandretta, Asia Minor, chrome-iron-
ore, 710.
Alghero, Sardinia, copper-ores, 6^5.
Alison, M. S., quoted, 553.
Allbrton, Lord, quoted, 29.
Almeria, Spain, ore-deposits, 699.
Alps, Piedmontese, graphite -deposits. 683.
— , South Africa and, structural geology
compared, 552.
Altofts collieries, experimental gallery,
205.
, , pneumatogen trial at, 2')1.
, , report on rescue-work, 209,
, explosion, 279.
786
INDEX.
Amalgam, gold, native^ Servia, 696.
Amasra, Asia Minor, coal-fields, 711.
Amgdn river, Siberia, gold-plaoers, 715,
Ammonia, freezing-prooess, Monkwear-
mouth, 276.
— , recovery of, coking-plant, Clay Cross,
396.
— , , from gas-producers, 341.
Ammonia-soda works, Fleetwood, rock-
salt utilised in, 293.
Amur, Siberia, ffold-piacers, 715.
Analyses, coal, Folmaise collieries, 239.
— , — and fire-clay, Siberia, Akmolinsk,
526.
— , coke, bye-product, Clay Cross, 394.
— 9 gypsum, Sussex, 451, 452.
— , magnetic pyrites, 688.
— , schcellte, Sardinia, 687-
Anangra river, Siberia, gold-placers,
715.
Anatolian Railway Company, quoted,
711.
Ancient mining, Asia Minor, 708.
, cost of labour and, 708.
Akdebson, J., quoted, 233.
Andkbson, W., quoted, 546.
Andre, G. G., quoted, 568, 571, 572,
632.
Anemometers, precautions in using, 58,
62, 64.
Angelina cavern, Servia, Kucajna, auri-
ferous deposits, 696.
Anhydrite, artificial formation of, 457,
458.
— , deposition from sea- water, theory
concerning, 458.
— , recovery of sulphur from, 458.
Annual report of council, S.I., 151.
Ansley Hall coUierr, coal-seams at, 515.
, method of working, 515.
Anthracite, graphite derived from,
Liffurian Alps, 684.
— , Korea, Hpyeng-Yang, 713.
~, Polmaise collieries, £39.
.— , , sorting plant, 242,
— , , washing plant, 243.
Antimony -ores, ^ia Minor, 711.
Arghana Maden, Asia Minor, copper-
mine, 710.
Arley colliery, coal-measures at, 264.
, coal-seams, 272.
Armatures, generators. Park Royal
power-station, 636.
Armoub, Jamrs, election, councillor,
S.I., 153.
ASMSTBOKO CoLLBOE, Newcastle-upoD-
Tyne, Daglish travelling fellowship in
mining, 204,
— , , founding of, 669.
Abnold, Thomas, election, K.E., 179.
Aknot, Thomas, heading by longwaU
nuichines, 159.
Arnott, Thomas, election, councillor,
S.I., 153.
Arsenical pyrites, gold associated with,
Smyrna, 711.
Artesian wells, boring of, 480.
, testing of lubes, 483.
, water-supplies, 473.
Ashby-de-la-Zouch coal-field, extensions,
43.
Ashton canal, 352.
ASHWORTH, Jamks, explosion at WingaU
Orangt colliery ^ 192.
Asia Minor, mineral resources, 708.
Askew, Alfbbd'Hill, election, N.£.,2.
Asphalt-deposits, Hesse, Mettenheim,
675.
, — , — , Trinidad deposits compared
with, 676.
Assam, upper, gas-outbursts, 323.
Assarli, Asia Minor, copper-mine, 711.
Associated Portland Cement Manu-
FACTDRBRS (1900), LiMTTKD, Knight,
Bevan & Sturge works, Kent, North-
fleet, 642.
— , quoted, 645.
Atchlby, Charles Atherton, election,
8.1. , 153.
Atherton, H. Stanley, rock-salt de-
posits at Preesall, 300.
Atkinson, J. B., quoted, 4.
Atkinson, J. J., quoted, 123, 568, 569.
Atkinson, W. N., otUburst^ of coal ai«i
gaSf 320.
— , quoted, 4, 310.
Atkinson, W. N., and A. M. Henshaw,
Courri^es explosion. — Discussion, 124,
303, 326.
Auditors, xi.
Austria, Galicia, Boryslaw, ozokerite-
mine, 535.
Avala hill, Servia, mercury-ores, 697.
AvKRY. William Ernest, election,
N.E.,250.
AznalcoUar, Spain, ore-deposits, 705.
Azufrones or shaly pyrites, 705.
Azurite, artificial preparation, tempera-
ture required, 686.
— , Sardinia, Castello di Bonvei, 685.
— , Spain, Almeria, 699.
B.
Babcjock-and- Wilcox boilers, efficiency,
338.
, Park Royal power-station,
639.
Baddeley, H., guides for cages, 116.
Baden, Black Forest, nickeliferous mag-
netic pyrites, 677.
Badqer, William, election, M.I., 89.
Baggeridge bore-hole, coal-measures, 46.
Baghdad railway, mineral resources of
Asia Minor and, 711
Bailey, S., quoted, 263.
Bailey, T. H.. hidden coal-fdds of Mid-
lands, 263.
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INDEX.
787
Bain, Jambs, election, oooncillor, 8. 1.,
153.
Bainbbidos, Bmbrsov, applieatim qf
duplicate Jans to mtnM, 437.
— , notes on bye-product cohe-ovena, 420.
— , preMenttal addreaSy 345.
Balanoe-ropes, Tibration of guide-ropes
lessened oy, 116.
Balia lead-mine, Asia Minor, 710.
Ball-mills, grinding cement-olinker in.
Knight, l^van ft Sturge works. 644.
Bank-gold, placer deposits, Finnish Lap-
land, 694.
Barberton, South Africa, granite-masses,
541.
Barclay, Perkins k CoifPANY, pump,
ing-plant for water-supply. 492.
BA.BMAN, Harry D. D., election, coun-
cUior, S.I., 153.
— , tests of a mine-faUi 59.
Barnaley district, importance of scien-
tific mininff in, 90.
BaRNSLBY I^TT^RALIST AND SciBNTIFIC
Society, quoted, 102.
BM*ometer readings for 1906, 725.
Barraglough coal - washery, coking -
plant, Clay Cross, 390.
Barrett, Victor Holmes McNactghten,
election, S.S., 261.
Barriers, isolation of districts by, 131,
133.
Barrow Hematite Steel Company,
Limited, quoted, 209.
Banrtes, Norway, Traag, 690.
— , Spain, Almeria, copper-ores associated
with, 701.
Bates, Thomas, election, N.E., 180.
Battle water- works, air-compressor, 495.
Bauer, — , quoted, 680.
Baumgartel, B., quoted, 681, 682.
Bavaria, Fichtelgebirge, stanniferous
deposits, 679.
Bayne, J. A. C, election, S.I., 236.
Bbales, Henry Batson, election, M.G.,
170.
Beuns, ferro-concrete, construction. 10.
— , stresses in, 11.
Bbaumont, W. Worry, improvements
required in inland navigation, 373.
Beck, R., quoted, 681.
— , tungsten-ore deposits in Saxony, 682.
B^dar, Spain, iron-ores, 699.
Bedford, canals for drainage purposes,
354.
Bedford Level Corporation, quoted,
354, 355.
Bbdson, p. Phillips, quoted, 184.
Bed worth colliery, thickness of coal at,
263.
Beehive coke-ovens. Clay Cross, 386.
Bekenn, Alexander Richard, election,
N.E., 1.
Bela-Reka, Servia, sulphide-ores, 696.
Belgium, coal-fields, Siberian coal-fields
compared with, 713.
Belnum, depth of coal- workings, 266.
—, Grand Hornn, electric transmission
of power at works and collieries, 647.
Believina, Servia, sulphide-ores, 696.
Belx, William Jambs, election, M.L,
208.
Bell, Sir Lowthian, Bart., memoir,
665.
— , quoted, 428.
Bell Brothers, establishing of firm,
665.
Beluss-and-Morgom engines, electric
power-station. Knight, Bevan and
Sturge cement works, 646.
, , Park Royal, 638.
Bembridffe, Isle of Wight, air-lift pump-
ins in bore-hole for water-supply, 486.
Bender Eregli, Asia Minor, coal-fields,
711.
BsNTLEY, John, election, N.S., 76.
Bering Straits, geology, 720.
Berteaux, — , mineral resources of
Korea, 712.
Bertheix)T-Mahlbr calorimeter, 285.
Birmingham coal-field, extensions, 44.
Bizerta, Tunis, ferro-concrete buildings,
subsidence of, 16.
Black, James, tests of a mine-fan, 6),
155.
Black Forest, Baden, nickeliferous mag-
netic pyrites, 677.
Blackett, W. C, explosion at Wingate
Orange colliery, 188.
— , new apparatus for rescue-ioork in
mines, 180.
Blackwell colliery explosion, cause, 128.
Blake, John, heading by longtcall
machines, 159.
Blast-furnaces, bye-product coke for, 342.
, , Clay Cross, 394.
Blunden, Philip Sidney, election,
N.E.,250.
Blyth, Archibald, election, vice-presi-
dent, S.I., 153.
Board of Trade, quoted, 353, 366, 377,
379, 584, 687.
Bodart, — , quoted, 618.
BooDANOViCH, — , qaoted, 719.
Boiler-ashes, disposal of, electric power-
station. Grand Homu, 650.
, , , Park Royal, 642.
Boiler-flues, Babcock and Wilcox boilers,
Park Royal power-station, 640.
Boilers, Babcock and Wilcox, Park Royal
power-station, 639.
— , and Lancashire, comparison,
338.
— , colliery, improvements in, .338.
— , corrosion, temperature-f actor, 577.
— , electric power-plant, Boryslaw, ozo-
kerite-mine, 536.
— , feed- water for, distillation of, 463.
— , Lancashire, coking-plant. Clay Cross,
388.
— , — , Polmaise collieries, 239, 245,
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788
INDEX.
Boilers, Perkins, Sub-Wealden Gypsum
Company, Limited, 461.
— , semi-tubular, electric power-station,
Grand Homu, 649.
— , strength of, 583.
— for come ry purposes. —Discussion, 167-
Bolton, BL Haroreaves, Jun., elec-
tion, M.G., 277.
BoNTHSON, P., improvements required in
inland navigatioUy 369.
Bor, Servia, gold associated with chal-
copvrite, 697.
Bore-holes, advance, precautions against
coal and gas outbursts, 317.
Boring, artesian wells, 475 et neq.
— , methods available, 480.
— , shot-drilling method, 482, 497 ei seq,
— appliances, bore-holes, freezing-pro-
cess, Monkwearmouth, 275.
Boryslaw, Austria, Galicia, ozokerite-
mine, 535.
BofiwoBTH, — , Quoted, 449.
Bottom-gold, placer-deposits, Finnish
Lapland, 694.
Boyd, Edward Fenwick, quoted, 201.
BoTD, John Black, election, S.I., 52.
Brace, James H., sinking by freezing-
process ^ 197.
Bbadshaw*s canals and navigable rivers
of England and Wales, quoted, 347.
Brakes, electric winding-engines, Grand
Homu colliery, 660.
Brancepeth colliery, coiil-duat treatment,
254.
explosion, report on, 189.
Brandenburg, Prussia, brown-coal de-
posits, 673.
Bricking, shafts, Preesall salt-mine, 293.
Bridges, ferro-concrete applied to con-
struction of, 17 tt KUf.
Brine, pumping of, Preesall, 293, 301.
Briquette- factories, brown -coal, upper
Lausitz, 674, 675.
Briquetting, utilization of small coal by,
138.
Bristol Docks Committek, quoted, 375.
British Bechuanaland, South Africa,
geology, 547.
Broadhurst, Herbert F., water-sup-
plies by means of artesian bored tube-
wells, 473.— Discussion, 497.
Brough, Bennett H., quoted,3.
Brown, Adam, election, councillor, S.I.,.
153.
Brown, JopN, election, N.E., 250.
Brown, John F. K., stretcher for use in
mines, 162.
I Brown, M. Walton, Courriires expia-
sian, 310.
— , memoir of the late John Daglish, 201 .
— , pneumaiogenf 250.
— , sitiking by freezing process, 252.
, Brown-coal, Asia Minor, 711.
: deposits, Silesia, upper Lausitz, 673.
! Browne, J. T., thick coal of Warwick-
I shire, 502. —Discussion, 513.
, Browney colliery, coal-dust treatment,
I 254.
I Brucb, John Collingwood, quoted, 201.
I Brussa, Asia Minor, antimony-ores, 711.
I — , , chrome-iron-ore deposits, 710.
I — , , meerschaum deposits, 709.
Bryan-Donkin calorimeter, 286.
Buckley, F. E., gob- fire in Shropshire
mine, 85.
— , outbursts of coal and gas in Cockshead
seam, Shelton colliery, 313. — Discus-
sion, 320.
Buildings, ferro-concrete, 12 et seq.
— , foundations for, application of ferro-
concrete, 13.
Bulbuder^, Asia Minor, copper-mine, 71 1-
Bumps, Warwickshire collieries, 529.
Burnham water - works, air - pumping
plant, 495.
Burns, Da\T[D, gypsum in SuHnejc, 471.
BURNSIDE boring-machioe, Shelton col-
liery, 317.
Bush veld. South Africa, folding of strata,
544.
— , . , theory, 542.
BuTTGENBACH, H., copper, tin, and gold
in Katanga, Congo Free State, 721.
Bye-laws, xii.
Bye-product coke-ovens, adoption of, 342.
, Clay Cross, 386.
^ notes on, with special refer-
ence to Koppers oven, 398. — Discus-
sion, 416.
Bye-products from coke-ovens, possible
diminution in value, 421.
, yield per ton of coal
coked. Clay Cross, 396.
gas-producers, recovery of, 341.
Cabezas del Pasto copper-mine, Spain,
Huelva, 706.
Cable railway, Spain, Almeria, 702.
Cables, electric power-station, Grand
Homu, 648, 655.
— , , Park Royal, 634.
Cadeby colliery, steel-rail guides at, 114.
Cadlimo, Switzerland, silver - bearing
galena, 707.
I C ADMAN, James Cope, notes on bye-
product coke-ovefiSf 416.
— , outbursts qf coal and gas^ 320.
j Cage-ffuardian, Hanley, 164, 168.
I Cage -lowering tables at New Moss
colliery, 174. — Discussion, 177.
Cages, guides for, deep shafts, 104,.
108.
— , Polmaise collieries, 240.
Digitized by
Google
INDEX.
789
Cagli&ri, Italy, Sardinia, tungsten-ores,
Calabria, Italy, Olivadi graphite- mine,
685.
Caldwell, Jamss, quoted, 63.
Calomel, native, Servia, 698.
Calorific value, coals, Polniaise collieries,
239.
, methods available for determining,
284.
, new form of bomb for determin-
ation of, 283.
, precautions in determining, 287.
as a test for fuels, 287, 288, 289.
Calorimeters, principle of various forms,
286.
Calorimetric bomb, Cook, 283.
Cambridge, university of, quoted, 331.
— water- works, water-supply from tube-
well, 499.
Camerton colliery explosion, cause, 128,
133, 184.
Canal-boats, conveyance by pontoons,
377.
, narrow, difficulties with, 368.
Canals, Birmingham district, costs, 376.
— , connecting manufacturing towns, de-
sirability, 349.
— , decline of, reasons, 370.
— , financial difficulties in suggested im-
provements, 381.
— , form of section, 368.
— , frost and, 371.
— , improvements required in, 347.
— , , methods suggested, 365.
— , maintenance for drainage purposes,
364.
— , mechanical haulage on, 360, 365, 373.
— , , internal-combustion engines,
362, 373, 382.
— , nationalization, 364, 379, 382.
— , water-supply for, 383.
Cannock Chase coal-field, colliery fuel-
consumption, 168.
, extensions, 44, 46, 46.
, faults, 266.
Cantrill, Thomas Cbosbeb, quoted, 28.
Cape C'olony, folding of strata, 644.
— jN'ome gold-placers, eastern Siberia,
719.
Capell, G. M., application of duplicate
fans to mines, 431. — Discussion, 433.
Capell fans, electrically -driven. Grand
Hornu colliery, 662.
, Neumiihl colliery, water-gauge,
344.
, Polmaise collieries, 246.
, tests, 68.
Capels for winding-ropes, 343.
Carbon dioxide, from gob-fire, Shrop-
shire, 79.
, respiratory phenomena, 214, 222.
, test for, 221.
— monoxide, deaths from, after explo-
sions, 6.
Carbon monoxide, pneumonia and, 6.
, respiration in, acclimatization to. 7-
, ^^ effects produced, 6, 7.
Cakey, A&thuk, improvements rtquirtd
' in inland navigationy 372.
Carolina, South Africa, pans, 666.
Carpio copper-mine, Spain, Huelva, 705.
Cabr disintegrator, coal-crushing, Clay
Cross, 388.
Cassiterite, Congo Free State, 722.
—, wolfram associated with. Saxony,
683.
Cast-iron, effects of mine- waters on, 675
et aeq.
tubbing, what is its rational
formula? 567.— Discussion, 617, 664.
Castello di Bonvei, Italy, Sardinia,
azurite-deposit, 686.
Cement, sealing-off objectionable water-
supplies with, 478.
— , setting of, action of moisture and,
646.
— , , fineness of grinding and, 645.
Cement- concrete, back-lining of tubbing
with, 579.
, properties, 10.
Cement manufacture, chemistiy of, 643.
— works, Knight, Bevan & Sturge,
Kent, Northfleet, 642.
Census of production act, quoted, 334.
Central Electric Company, St. John's
Wood, air-lift pump, 499.
Central Rand, folding of strata, 544.
Chain-breast machines, driving headings
with, 67.
Chalcopyrite, Baden, Horbach mine, 677.
— , Servia, gold associated with, 696.
— , Sicily, 688.
— , Spain, Huelva, 705.
Chalk, use in cemeut manufacture.
Knight, Bevan & Sturge works, 642.
Chalybite, Spain, Almeria, associated
with galena, 703.
Chambers, D. M., ozokerite (mineral -
wax) mine of Galizische Kreditbauk,
at Boryslaw, Galicia, Austria, 635.
Chambers, J. E., quoted, 209.
Chance sulphur-recovery process, 468.
Channelling machines, driving headings
with, 66.
Chapman, John Abel, election, N.E..
249.
Chartley, keuper marls at, 42.
Chatham, tube-well at, 479.
Chaudron, — , quoted, 625, 626, 632.
Chemoistochinsky works, Nizhne-Tag
ilsk, 695.
Cheshire coal-field, extensions, 40.
Cheshire Conference on Railwat ani
Canal Rates, quoted, 378.
Chessylite or azurite, Italy, Sardinia
685.
Chimneys, Polmaise collieries, 239, 245.
China, southern Manchuria, Fushun
coal-fields, 712.
>OQle
74U
INBBX.
Ghiflone, Italy, grapbite-depoeits, 684.
CHBians, E. J. H., election, M.C., 120.
Ghrome-iron-ore, Abu Minor, 710.
, , output, 710.
ChromiferouB potash-mioa, Servia, 697.
GhrysocoUa, Congo Free State, 721.
Ghukchen peninsula, eastern Siberia,
mineral resources, 719.
Ghuniespoort, South Africa, folding of
strata, 544.
Cinnabar, Asia Minor, 710.
— and associated minerals, Servia, 698.
Clarence ironworks, establishing of, 665.
Clark, W. F., hidden cocU-JieldH of
Midlands^ 60.
Clarkk, W. J., quoted, 33, 272.
Claud B system, liquid air manufacture,
cost. 2.
Cladohton, G. H., hidden coal-fields of
Midlaiid-H, 60.
Claverley bore-hole, 265.
, StaflfordshireandCoalbrookdale
coal-field extensions and, 47.
Clay, use in cement manufacture, Knight,
Be van & St urge works, 642.
Clav CrosB, bye-product coking-plant,
386.
Cleveland ironstone beds, discovery of,
665.
, phosphorus in, diflBculties due
to, 666.
Clifford, W. quoted, 233.
Clifton and Kersley collieries, cage- dis-
charging devices, 177.
Clivb, Robert, application of dtipliccUe
fans to mineAy 433.
Clyde Trust, quoted, 56.
Clydebank dock, electric power-plant,
flywheel runnins in vacuum, 65.
Coal, analyses, Polmaise collieries, 239.
— •, — , Siberia, Akmolinsk, 526.
— , analysis, sampling for, 283.
— , crushing of, gob-nres caused by, 504,
521.
— , fine, treatment in Elliott washer,
143, 144.
— , inferior, utilization in gas - power
plants, 341.
— , powdered, fuel for cement kilns, 643.
— , quality of, underground fire, Free-
hold colliery, 83, 84.
— , sellinc-price and thickness of seams
workable, 101.
— , small, increasing value of, 138.
— and gas outbursts, Shelton colliery,
313.
Coal-crushing plant. Clay Cross, 388.
Coal-cutting, mecluuiical, in headings and
longwall workings, comparison, 73.
, — , problems of, 445.
machines, bar type, American and
British compared, 67.
, economies eflfected by, 337.
, electric, Gay Coal and Coke
Company, 559, 563.
Coal-catting machines, filling of ooal and
rate of advance, 71.
. lonffwall, heading by, ©5, 155.
, pertormanoe of, 67, 68, 69.
, stable-holes and, 168.
, thin seams and, 93.
, turn-tables for, I .■»9, 160.
Coal^uBt, collieries. United Kingdom
and continental ooontries compared.
130.
, Conrri^res collieries, charmcteris-
tics, 127.
, , quantity, 304.
, explosions and, 309, 333.
, hanlage.roads, character of, 258.
, , increased danger from, 128-
, removal from mines, 187, 188, 190,.
192, 195, 196.
, , by brushing, dangers,.
259.
. , — suction - appUances,
269,311.
, screens, 344.
, steam and, 193.
, treatment of, aboveground and
belowground, 254.
, tub-grease and, 259.
, tubs and, 192.
, utilization as fuel, .339.
, ventilation and, 183, 184, 185.
, Wingate Grange colliery, analyses,
195.
explosions, high explosives and,
310.
, prevention of, 127.
, propagation of, 'effects of air-
splittinff, 124.
, United Kingdom, 1906, sum-
mary, 725.
, Wingate Grange colliery, 183.
Coal-face, conveyors for, sliding- trongh,
198.
, , thin seams, 94 c/ seq,
, hauling arrangements at, 663.
Coal-fields, Asia Minor, 711.
, brown, Silesia, upper Lausitz,^
673.
, extensions limited by depth of
seams, 37, 38.
, Kent, discovery of, 470.
, Korea, 713.
, Midlands, anticlinal divisions, 35.
, — , area of, 37.
, — , hidden, 26.— Discussion, 50,
261.
, — , — , depth of seams, 49.
, — , — , estimated areas, 49.
, — , theory of origin, 34.
, Siberia, Akmolinsk, 526.
, — , Kuznetsk, 713.
, south Yorkshire, Bamsley, work>
able seams, 92.
, southern Manchuria, Pushun, 712.
, Warwickshire, thick ooal-aeam,
502.
INDEX.
741
Goal-handling plant, electric power-
station, Grand Homu, 649.
, , Park Royal, 641.
Goal-measuree, upper Silesia, poeidonia
becheri in, 675.
Coal-measuring boxes, Klein, Park Royal
power-station, 642.
Coal-mines (eight hours) bill, quoted, 335.
regulation act. quoted, 335.
Coal-mming, death-rate per 1,000, United
Kingdom, 334.
Coal output, Asia Minor, Heraklea mine,
711.
, labour employed and, West Vir-
ginia, 564.
and fatal accidents, 332.
Coal-seams, working of, thick and thin,
comparison, 90 et seq.
Coal- washers, theory of action, 138, 141
et seq.
Coal- washing, sizing of coal, 141 e^ neq.
, water required, trough- washers,
147.
Coal-washing-plant, Barraclough, Clay
Gross, 390.
, Polmaise collieries, 242, 247.
Coalbrookdale coal-field, extensions, 47.
, strata, 33.
CocKiN, Geoboe M., hidden coal-fidds of
Midlantla, 268.
CoKB, G. £iiMSLET, sinking and tubbing
at Methley Junction colliery, 120.
— , icater-supplies by tube-wdls, 498.
Coke, bye-product, use in blast-furnaces,
342.
— , Glay Cross, analyses, 394.
— , , output, 393.
— , , quenching, 392.
Coke-oven flues, bye-product coke-ovens.
Clay Cross, 387.
, types compared, 399.
gases. Clay Cross, treatment of,
392.
^ ^ use for illumination, 397.
, Koppers oven, 412.
, regenerators and, 401.
— , surplus, utilization of, 342.
Coke-ovens, beehive, Clay Cross, 386.
, — and bye - product, commercial
considerations, 418.
, bye-product, adoption of, 342.
, , Clay Cross, 386.
, — — , , coal - compressing
plant, 390.
, , , compressed coal for
charging, 387.
, , , course of gases in,
393.
, , combustion, regulation of,
416.
, , commercial results from,
426.
, , essential differences in vari-
ous types, 393.
^ , firebricks for, 420, 426.
Coke-ovens, bye-product, heat lost by
radiation, 400.
, , horizontal and vertical flues
compared, 418 et seq.
— — , , Koppers, 398.
, , — , course'of gases in, 403.
, , — , regenerator, 407.
, , — , — , automatic reversing-
gear, 410.
, , life of, 419, 421.
, , partition walls of, 417, 419,
422 et seq,
, , pre-heating of air for, 401.
, , regenerators for, reason for
adoption, 401.
1 , regulation of working, 401.
, J supporting walls, effect of
temperature on, 410.
, capital invested in, 418.
Coleman, W. H., Cook calorimetric
bomb, 283. —Discussion, 288.
Collieries, Belgium, Grand Homu, elec-
tric transmission of power, 647.
Colliery boilers, 167-
Commandonek, South Africa, monticule
at, 551.
Compressed-air, Preesall salt-mine, 297.
, , tunnelling-machine, 294.
Concrete, effect on iron embedded in, 22.
— , resistance to strains, 1 0.
Condensing plant, electric power-station.
Grand Homu, 651, 655.
, , Park Roval, 638.
Conglomerates, gold - bearing, South
A&ica, Rand, 532.
Congo Free State, Katanga, copper, tin
and gold deposits, 721.
Contact-metamorphism, graphite- depo-
sits, Piedmontese Alps, 6S4.
, manganese ore-deposits, 695.
, nickeliferous magnetic pyrites,
Baden, 678.
Conveyors, coal. Park Royal power-
station, 641.
— at coal-face, adoption of, 338.
, gateways, spacing of, 94.
— , hand-cut faces, 95.
, machine-cutting and, 72.
, sliding-trough, 198.
, sorting of coal in using, 94.
, thin seams and, 93.
Cook calorimetric bomb, 283.— Discus-
sion, 288.
Cooling towers, condensing plant, electric
power-station. Grand Hornu, 656.
CooPBB, James, election, S.I., 153.
Cooper-Hewitt mercury-vapour lamps,
CoppEE, EvENCR, election, N.B., 1.
Copper-ores, Asia Minor, 710.
, , output, 711.
, Congo Free State, Katanga, 721.
, Italy, Sardinia, 065.
, — , — , comparison with French
and Hungarian deposits, 686.
)QQle
742
INDEX.
Oopper-orea, Korea, 713.
, PruBBla, Hease-Nassau, 680.
, Sicily, ft80.
, Spain, Almeria, 699.
, —, — , output, 701.
— — , — , Huelva, 704.
, — , — , enrichment, 706.
Copper pyrites, Saxony, western Erzge-
birge, 681.
CoBDDSR, — , quoted, 310.
Cornet, J., quoted, 721.
Cornish pumping-engines, fuel consump-
tion, 342.
Corrosion of cast-iron tubbing, 570 et sea,
of.
578.
-, electrical phenomena of,
, measurement of, data for,
679.
Corundum, Asia Minor, 710.
— , , output, 710.
Corweiler, I^ussia, metalliferous belt,
680.
Cos, Asia Minor, copper-mine, 711.
Coscojarea, Spain, ore-deposits, 701.
Cottian Alps, graphite-deposits, 684.
CouLSON, F., sinking by freezing process,
251.
— , treatment of dust in mines, 259.
— , water-supplies by tube-wells, 497.
Council, election, S.I., 153.
Councillors, list, x.
Council's annual report, S.I., 151.
Courri^res explosion.— Discussion, 124,
303 326.
,' cause, 125 et seq., 135, 136, 310.
, dead bodies, putrefaction of, 6.
, Giersberg-Shamrock rescue-appa-
ratus at, 215.
Courri^res explosion, rescue-apparatufl
at, 182, 280.
, , death of a wearer, 3, 228,
232.
, rescue- work at, 4, 212.
CowusHAW, W. G., CourrOrts explosion.,
307.
Crawford, Robbrt H., election, S.L,
236.
Crbdnbr, H., quoted, 673.
Cremkr, R. , pneumatogen : self-generat-
ing rescue -apuaratus, compared with
other types. —ODiscussion, 250.
— , quoted, 212.
Cma-Beka sold-fields, Servia, 697.
Crnajka gold-fields, Servia, 697.
Crofton, C. a., explosion at WingaU
Orange colliery, 192.
— , sliding-trough conveyors, 200.
Crombib, R., quoted, 195.
Crombik, Simpson, election, N.£., 179.
Croudacb, Francis Henrt Lambton,
election, N.E., 249.
Croudacb, Sydney, election, N.E., 249.
Crushing-rolls, anthracite coal, Polmaiae
collieries, 243.
Cruzadillo copper-mine, Spain, Huelva,
705.
Cuchichon copper-mine, Spain, Huelva,
706.
Cuna de esteril or barren shale, 705.
CuNTNGHAME, H., quoted, 310.
Cupriferous magnetic pyrites, Sicily, 688.
Cylinders, thin, calculation of thickness
of tubbing and, 569.
— , — , definition, 59i.
— subject to pressures, formula for cal-
culating thickness, 611.
Dachsenhausen, Prussia, metalliferous
belt. 680.
Daghhardy, Asia Minor, chrome-iron-
ore, 710.
Daglism, John, memoir, 201.
Dalgleish, James, election, S.I., 236.
Dam, cast-iron, Methley Junction col-
liery, 120.
Damaraland, South Africa, geology, 547.
Darling calorimeter, 285.
Dartford, tube-well at, 479.
Dartmouth, Earl of, quoted, 263.
Davidson, Allan Arthur, election,
N.E., 179.
Davidson, William, election, S.I., 236.
Daviks, W. H., death of, 76.
Davis, W. A., quoted, 456.
Dawdon colliery, sinking, freezLng-pro-
cess, 197, 251.
Dawkins, VV. Boyd, rock-salt deposits at
Preesall, 299.
De la Beche, Sir Henry, quoted, 278.
De Morgues, — , quoted, 310.
De Range, C. E., quoted, 292.
De Salis, Henry Rodolph, improve-
ments required in inland navigation,
347.— Discussion, 363.
Deacon, M. , Courrieres explosion, 133.
— , electric unnding/or m>ain shafts, 150.
— , improvements required in inland
'naviga>tion, 363.
— , portrait, /roniwptcce.
— , presidential address, 330.
— , quoted, 567.
— , thicJc coal of Wanoickshire, 528.
Dean Lane colliery, cage-guardian teats
at, 164.
Death-rate per 1,000, various occupa-
tions, list, 334.
! Decking-cages, hydraulic, cage-lowering
I tables and, 177>
I Deep mining, extent of royalties, 343.
I , limits, 266.
\ Deertrail, U.S.A., wolframite, 683.
Deli-Iovan, Servia, gold-mines, 696.
' Denbigh coal-field, extensions, 40.
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Dknny, G. a., Neio Band gold-field,
533.
Depth - indicators, electric winding -
engines, Grand Homu colliery, 660.
Derbyshire, south, main coal-seam, pre-
cautions against fires, 514.
Dess river, Iberia, gold-placer-deposits,
714.
Devil disintegrator for grinding coal,
148.
Dbwab, Sm Jambs, quoted, 2.
Diamond boring, 481.
Diamond Rogk-bokino Company, quoted,
449.
Dick, William, election, N.E., 179.
Dickinson, Joseph, neio apparatiia for
rescue-work in mints, 278.
— , rock-salt deposits at PreesaU^ 298.
Diesel intemal-corabustien engines for
mechanical haulase on canals, 382.
Disintegrator, Devil, for coal, 148.
Dixon, J. 8., quoted, 67.
DoBKiNo Grey Stone Limb Company,
quoted, 449.
Dr.£OEB rescue-apparatus, cleaning of,
218.
, efficiency, 225.
, trials, 209.
Dredging of canals, 351.
Dressing, ores, Spain, Almeria, 700.
— , ozokerite, Boryslaw, .'>38.
Drilling, rate of, hand and machine, Pree-
sall saltmine, 295, 296.
Dron, R. W., heading by longtoall
machines, 157.
— , tests of a mine-fan, 63.
Drums, winding-engines, electric, Grand
Homu colliery, 657.
— , , Polmaise collieries, 240, 246.
DuNKERTON, Ernest Chables, election,
N.E., 1.
Duplicate fans, application to mines, 431.
Dust, non-inflammable, dangers from,
306.
— , , explosions and, 308, 326.
Dust-extractor, Hardy, 143.
Dust in mines, treatment of, aboveground
and belowground, 254. — Discussion,
257.
Dwelling - houses, collieries, improve-
ments, 344, 345.
, Polmaise collieries, 244, 248.
Dykes, South Africa, origin of pans and,
554.
Dzwiniacz, Austria, ozokerite, 535.
E.
Eamock colliery, coal-cutting, rate, 159.
Economical Firing Company, Diissel-
dorf, quoted, 649.
EUldlewood colliery, coal-cutting, rate,
159.
Edblstbin, J., quoted, 712.
Education, scientific, advancement, 331.
Edwards air-pump, condensing plant.
Park Royal power-station, 639.
Egerton, C. a., quoted, 449.
Ehr, Prussia, metalliferous belt, 680.
Eibenberg, Saxony, copper-mines, 680.
Eight Hocrs' Day Departmental Com-
mitteb, quoted, 334.
EiNECKE, Gr., Holzappel metalliferous
belt, Hesse-Nassau, 680.
Electric cables, breaking of, explosions
and, 306.
— coal-cutting machines, flywheel effect
in, 447.
, Gay Coal and Coke Company,
559, 563.
Electric Construction Company,
quoted, 636.
Electric fans, advantages, 438.
, difficulties connected with, 432.
, -reasons for adoption, 437.
— haulage, gypsum mines, Sussex, 468.
— lamps, Preesall salt-mines, 297.
— lighting, current for, 634.
— locomotives, Belgium, Grand Homu,
647.
TOi* xzziii—isne-iggr.
Electric power, application to canal
boats, 363.
at collieries, 336, 337.
— power-plant, Boryslaw, ozokerite-
mine, 536.
, Clay Cross, 3S8.
, Polmaise collieries, 240, 246.
— power-station, Belgium, Grand Homu,
649.
, Knight, Bevan & Sturge cement
works, 646.
, Park Royal, 634.
, , auxiliary plant, 636.
— winding, emergency arrangements.
Grand Homu colliery, 653.
— — for main shafts, etc. —Discussion,
150.
— windine-plant, costs, 53.
, Tarbrax, test, 52.
Electrically-driven air-compressors, com-
bined with working of Ingersoll-Ser-
geant heading-machines, etc.— Discus-
sion, 501.
Electrically -ignited safety-lamps, Pol-
maise collieries, 241.
Electricity, generation of, efficiency, 57.
Elemore colliery explosion, 193.
Eley, J. J., guides for cadges, 115.
— , quoted, 209.
Elliott, C. H., guides for cages, 116.
Elliott, George, election, N.E., 250.
Elliott coal- washer, 138.
53
744
INDEX.
Elliott coal-washer, costs of working,
148.
, output, 143.
— drill, Preesall salt-mine, 296.
Elliott's Metal Com pant, Birmingham,
air-compressor, 405.
— , — , air-lift pump, 498, 499.
Emery -deposits, Asia Minor, 710.
Endless-rope haulage, electric, gypsum-
mines, Sussex, 468.
, water-spraying of tubs, 256.
Engines, Belliss-and-Morcom, Park Royal
power-station, 636.
— , , — — , emergency
switch for, 636.
— , electric power-station, Grand Hornu,
650.
— , Perkins high-pressure, 463.
— and boilers (persons in charge) bill,
quoted, 335.
Entbeprises de Constructions db
Fours a Coke et d'1/sines Mktal-
LURGiQuss, quoted, 387.
Equivalent' orifice, duplicate fans and,
434, 435, 440.
Ermelo, South Africa, pans, 555.
Erzgebirge, western, Saxony, pyrites-
deposits, 680.
Estanque or washing tank, 700.
Evans k Company, Richard, Limited,
quoted, 339.
Exciters, generators, Park Royal power-
station, 636.
Explosions, air-pipes in roadways for use
after, 3.
— , coal-dust, panel system of working
and, 124.
-, and, 254, .333.
--, connection of underground workings
and, 129 et seq., 308.
— , Courrieres. —Discussion, 124, 303,
326.
— , effect of broken steam-pipes, 192,
— , fire-damp or coal-dust. United King-
dom, summary, 1906, 725.
- , isolation of districts, 306, 309, 310.
— , , iron-doors for, 133.
— , non-inflammable dust and, 326.
— , propagation through moisture-satu-
rated roadways, 194.
— , renorts on, criticism of oflScial
methods, 189 et seq.
— , rescue work and, 279.
— , ventilation after, 222.
— , watering and, 129.
— , Wingate Grange colliery, 304, 305.
— , # absence of after - damp,
193.
-, , discussion on, 183.
Explosives, Courrieres explosion and,
303, 304.
— , explosions and, 305.
— , high, coal-dust and, 310.
-~, permitted, explosions caused by,
185.
— order, quoted, 128.
Fabry-Linard coke-ovens, Clay Cross,
390.
Fahlores, Sicily, 688.
Fairbairn, Sir William, quoted, 583.
Falls of roof and sides, deaths from.
United Kingdom, 333.
Fan-engines, Polmaise collieries, 246.
, , turbine, 241.
Fan-tests, 58, 155.
Pans, Capell, Neumfihl colliery, water-
gauge, 344.
— , --, Polmaise collieries, 246.
—, Courrieres collieries, not affected by
explosion, 307.
— , (levelopment of collieries and, 432,
436, 437, 438.
— , duplicate, application to mines, 431.
— , electric, Grand Hornu colliery, 662.
— , Polmaise collieries, 241.
Faraday, Michael, quoted, 197.
Faults, coal and gas outbursts at, 313.
— , , reasons for, 319.
— , disintegration of coal at, 323.
".-, Hanley, Deep pit, 313.
Feed - pumps, boilers, electric power-
station. Grand Hornu, 650.
Feed-water, boilers, collieries, 339.
, — , Park Royal power - station,
641
Fellows, Morton & Ci-ayton, Limited,
quoted, 347, 368.
Felspar coal-washers, Polmaise collieries,
243, 247.
Fenwick, Feathkrstonb, election, N.E.,
250.
Ferro- COD Crete and its applications, 10.
beams, construction, 10.
, distribution of stresses in, 10.
coal - hoppers. Park Royal power-
station, 641.
pillars, construction, 11, 12, 13.
Fichtelgebirge, Bavaria, stanniferous
deposits, 679.
FicKLER, — , quoted, 250.
B'iRCKs, Baron F., ore-deposits of pro-
vince of Almeria, Spain, 701.
FiRCKS, Curt, auriferous deposits of
Finnish Lapland, 693.
Fire-bricks, crushing strength of, 425.
Fire -clay, analyses, Siberia, Akmolinsk,
526.
Fire-damp, absence of, working of neigh-
bouring seams and, 88.
, Courrieres explosion, suggested
cause of, 307.
, explosions and, 305.
, non-inflammable dust and explo-
sions of, 326,
Digitized by
Google
INDEX.
746
Fire-damp, oatbnnts, 307.
, — , Shelton colliery, 313.
, Pafi-de-CalaU district, regulations
regarding, 307.
explosions. United Kingdom, 1906,
summary, 725.
Fire-stoppings, Freehold colliery, 82, 87.
Fires, underground, Courri^res collieries,
cause, 303.
— , — , Freehold colliery, cause, 83.
— , — , quality of coal and, 83, 84.
— , — , Shropshire, 78.
— , — , — , sealing-off, 79, 82.
Fischer, H., mercury ore-deposits of
Avala Hill, Servia, 697.
Fischer, calorimeter, 285.
Fleetwood, Preesall, rock-salt deposits,
mining, 291.
Fleetwood Salt Company, Limited,
quoted, 292.
Flintshire coal-field, extensions, 40.
— coal-measures, thickness, 32.
Floors of seams, soft, difficulties due to,
103.
Florsnoe Coal and Iron Company,
Limited, apology to, 664.
Florence colliery, depth of workings, 38.
Flywheels, friction of air and, 55.
— , generators, electric power-station,
Grand Hornu, 652.
Forbes, Urquhart A., improvementy
required in inland navigation, 377.
Forced draught for boilers, economies
effected by, 338.
Fore-winning workings, Warwickshire
thick coal, 507.
Forest of Wyre coal-field, extensions, 47.
Formulas, rational, properties, 573.
Forrest, J. C, Hidden coal-fields of
Midlands, 266.
Forster, T. £., liquid air and its use in
rescue-apparatus, 5.
— , new ' apparatus for rescue-ioork in
mines, 182.
— , quoted, 577.
— , hiding-trough conveyors, 200.
Forth bridge, experiments on wind-
gauges, 62.
Fossils, coal-measures, 268, 273.
— , , Midlands, 31, 33.
— , , Siberia, Akmolinsk, 626.
--, , — , Kuznetsk, 713.
— > > southern Manchuria, Fuahun,
712.
— , , upper Silesia, 675.
— , Purbeck limestones, 471.
— , pyrites-deposits, Spain, Huelva, 706.
FouLis, John Thomas, election, .N.E., 1.
Four Ashes bore -hole, coal-measures,
46.
France, coal output per man, 665.
— , packs, use of stone from quarries at
surface, 516.
Franco- Servian mining glossary, 697.
Franklin, Benjamin, quoted, 457.
Franzes valley, Spain, Almeria, silver-
bearing galena, 703.
Frech, Fritz, quoted, 675.
Freehold colliery, Shropshire, gob-fire,
78.
1 — , section of double seam at, 78.
Freezing-process, sinking, Dawdon col-
liery, 197, 251.
, — , Monkwearmouth, 275.
, — , temperatures used, 251.
Freise, Fr., mineral-resources of Asia
Minor, 708.
Friedrich Anna mine, brown-coal, upper
Lausitz, 675.
Fryar, J. W., application of duplicate
fans to mines, 436.
Fuel consumption at collieries, economies
effected, 338 et seq.
Fungurume, Congo Free State, copper-
ores, 722.
Furnace ventilation, gypsum • mines,
Sussex, 467.
Fushantshun collieries, southern Man-
churia, 712.
Fushun, southern Manchuria, coal-fields,
712.
Futers, T. C, cant -iron tubbing, 619.
— , liquid air and its use in rescue-
apparatus, 9.
— , sliding-trough conveyors, 200.
— , treatment of dust in mines, 258.
G.
Oabbrt, C, quoted, 681.
Galena, argentiferous, Switzerland,
Cadlimo, 707.
— , Norway, Traag, 689.
— , Prussia, Hesse-Nassau, 680.
Galicia, Austria, Boryslaw, ozokerite-
mine, 535.
Gauzische Krbditbank, Austria,
Galicia, Boryslaw, ozokerite-mine, 535.
Galliford, John, election, M.G., 277.
— , new reflector for safety-lamps in
mines, 281.
Galloway, R L., applicaiion of dupli-
cate fans to mines, 444.
Galloway, R. L., quoted, 188.
Galloway, T. Lindsay, effects of accelera-
tion on winding -torques, 52.
— , tests of a mine-fan, 60.
Galloway, W., coAt-iron tubbing, 621.
— , quoted, 121, 12,3, 568, 571, 572, 621.
Garforth, W. £., new apparatus for
rescue-work in mines. — Discussion,
180 277.
— , quoted', 3, 6, 9, 205, 208, 212, 261.
Gas and coal outbursts, Shelton colliery,
313.
Gas-engines, air-lift pump driven by.
494, 496,
Digitized by
Google
746
JUTDEX.
Gas-enffines, electric power and, 415.
, fuel-consaniption and, 340, 341.
— -, Sub-Wealden Gjrpsum Company,
Limited, 464.
, surplus gases from coke-ovens and,
413.
Gas-power plant for electrical power,
costs, 341.
Gas-producers, fuel - consumption and,
340.
Gases in mines, pressures recorded, 322.
Gastaldi, — , quoted, 684.
Gate-roads, machine-mining, 445.
Gay, H. S., single-room system of min-
ing, adaptation of longwall method to
work in thick seams, 558.
Gay Coal and Cokb Company, West
Virginia, quoted, 558.
Gellivaara, Sweden, iron-ores, 690.
Geloxite, permitted explosive, explosion
caused by, 135.
Generators, electric power-plant, Bory-
slaw, ozokerite-mine, 536.
—, , Clay Cross, 388.
— , , Polmaise collieries, 240, 246.
— , — power-station. Grand Homu, 648,
650.
— , , Park Royal, 636.
Geological Society of South Africa,
quoted, 557.
Gkolooical Sitkvey, quoted, 28, 266.
Geological Sfevey, Saxony, quoted,
682.
Geological Survey, South Africa,
quoted, 550.
Geological Survey, Sweden, quoted,
693.
Geology, Austria, Galicia, Boryslaw, 536.
— , China, southern Manchuria, Fushun
coal-fields, 712.
— , Congo Free State, Katanga, 721, 722.
— , Germany, Baden, Black Forest,
nickeliferous magnetic pyrites deposits,
678.
— , — , Bavaria, Fichtelgebirge, stanni-
ferous deposits, 679.
— , — , Hesse, Mettenheim, asphalt-de-
posits, 675.
— , — , Prussia, Hesse- Nassau, Holzappel
metalliferous belt, 680.
— , — , Saxony. Halle-an-der-Saale, kao-
lin-deposits, 676.
— , — , — , tungsten -ores, 682.
— , — , — , western Erzgebirge, pyrites-
deposits, 681.
— , — , Silesia, upper Lausitz, brown-coal
deposits, 673.
— , — , upper Silesia, coal-measures, 675.
- , Italy, Piedmontese Alps, graphite-
deposits, 683.
— , — , Sardinia, copper-ores, 685.
— , — , — , tungsten-ores, 687.
— , --, Sicily, Messina, 687.
— , Midlands, coal-fields, 26.
— , Preesall, rock-salt deposits, 291.
Geology, Serx'ia, Avala hill, merciiry-
ores, 697.
— > — » gold-fields, 696.
— , Shropshire, Freehold colliery, 78-
— , Siberia, eastern, Chukchen penin-
sula, 719, 720.
— » — » eold-bearing regions, 714, 716.
— , — , Kuznetsk, coal- fields, 713.
-, South Africa, 540.
— , , Orange River Colony, NTew
Rand gold field, 530.
— , Spain, Almeria, ore-deposits, 699,
701, 702, 703.
— , — , Huelva, pyrites-deposits, 705-
— , Sweden, northern, Gellivaara, 692.
— , — , — , iron-ore deposits, 691.
— , Switzerland, Cadlimo, galena de-
posits, 707.
— , water-bearing strata, list, 477.
Gerasimoff, a., and P. I. Preobbaz-
HENSKY, gold-bearing regions of Siberisk,
German South-west Africa, geology, 547.
Germany, Baden, Black Forest, nickeli-
ferous magnetic pyrites, 677.
— , Bavaria, Fichtelgebirge, stannif«roius
deposits, 679.
— , coal-output per man, 565.
— , coal- washing, developments in, 149.
— , gas-engines driven by waste-heat,
41.5, 421.
— , Hesse, Mettenheim, aBphalt- deposit,
675.
— , Prussia, Hesse-Nassau, Holzappel
metalliferous belt, 680.
— , Saxony, Halle-an-der-Saale, kaolin-
deposits, 676.
— , — , tungsten-ores, 682.
— , — , western Erzgebirge, pyrites-
deposits, 680.
— , Silesia, coal-measures, posidonia
becheri in, 675.
— , — , upper Lausitz, brown-coal de-
posits, 673.
Gerrard, Johk, liquid air and its t^e in
resell e-apparatujt, 171.
— , new ajtparatwi for resctie-'ioork in
mines, 280.
— , rock-salt deposits at Preesall, 299.
Gertrud mine. Saxony, tungsten-ores,
682.
Giabul, Asia Minor, salt deposits, 709.
Gibbon, W. Duff, election, S.S., 167.
Gibson, John, election, S.I., 236.
Gibson, Walcot, quoted, 28, 30, 31,
269.
Gi KRSBERG -Shamrock rescue-apparatus,
Tankersley rescue-station, 215.
— , , cleaning of, 216.
GiESE, — , quoted, 250.
Gill, J., quoted, 209.
Gill, T., mining in Bamsley district,
103.
Gillespie, Thomas R., election, S.L,
52.
Digitized by
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INBEIC.
7^7
Girders, steel and wood compared, 337.
GiBDLKSTONE, F. S., improvemeiiU re-
quired in inland naviycUion, 375.
Glasgow, barometer, height above sea-
level, 725.
Glauber salts, use in rescue-apparatus,
278.
Gloucester amd Bibmikgham Naviga-
tion Company, quoted, 375.
Gliickauf mine, brown-coal, Silesia, 674.
Gneisenau colliery, pneumatogen trial
at, 250.
Gob-fires, carbon dioiide for extinguish-
ing, 617.
, causes, 521.
, Derbyshire main coal-seam, pre-
cautions against, 514.
, drowninff-out of, 506.
, nature of floor and, 522.
, precautions against, 506.
, Shropshire mine, 78.
, timber in soaves and, 518.
, Warwickshire, thick coal-seam,
504.
, — , , causes, 504.
Gold, minerals associated with, Siberia,
placer- deposits, 718.
— , output, Servia, Kucajna mines, 697.
— , — , Siberia, Amgun, 717.
Gold-dredginff, Servia, 696.
Gold-fields, New Rand, Orange River
Colony, 530.
, Servia, 695.
Gold-ores, Asia Minor, 710.
, Congo Free State, Katanga, 723.
, Finnish Lapland, 693.
, Nizhne-Tagilsk, 695.
, Siberia, 714.
, — , eastern, Chukcben peninsula,
720.
Gold-placers, Calif omian, comparison
with Katanga placers, 723.
— — , Congo Free State, cupriferous de-
deposits and, 723.
, Finnish Lapland, 693.
, Korea, 713.
, river gradients and, 717.
, Siberia, 714.
, — , eastern, Thunilthan river, 720.
Gold quartz reefs, Korea, 713.
GoNZALO Y Tabik, — , quoted, 704.
Gorlitz-Ostritz, Siberia, brown-coal de-
posits, 674.
Gossans, copper-ore-deposits, Congo Free
State, 722.
— , , enrichment in, 706.
Goths or bumps, 313.
GoUPiLLiEBE, Haton de LA, quoted, 622,
623.
Governors, engines, electric power-sta-
tion. Grand Homu, 651.
— , — , , Park Royal, 636.
Grace, William Grace, election, N.E.,
2.
Graham, D. A. L., quoted, 7.
Grahn, H., quoted, 223.
Grand Homu, Belgium, electric trans-
mission of power at works and col-
lieries, 647.
— Junction canal, dredging, 351.
Grand Junction Canal Company,
quoted, 350, 369.
Granite-masses, strike of strata and.
South Africa, 541.
Graphite deposits, eastern Siberia, Tel-
gakar, 720.
, Lapland, 693.
, Piedraontese Alps, 683.
Grashof, — , quoted, 596.
Gravbsend and Rochester Railway
AND Canal Company, quoted, 353.
Gray, F. A., quoted, 233.
Gray, John, election, S.I., 236.
Grayston, F. a., HanJey cage-guardian,
168.
— , hidden coal-fields of Midlands, 50,
261.
— , quoted, 264.
Great Central Railway Company,
quoted, 352.
Great Northern Railway Company,
artesian tube-well, 486.
Great Western Railway Company,
Park Royal power-station, 634.
— , quoted, 353.
Greaves, E., Elliott washer and Hardy
dust-extractor and grinder, 138. — Dis-
cussion, 149.
Greaves, John Henry, election. M.I.,
89.
Greenbow, W. Gordon, election, S.S.,
26.
Greenwell, G. C, quoted, 123, 568, 569,
570, 571, 672, 589, 619, 627, 632.
Gregory, H. E., tuie and care of oxygen-
breathing apparatus, 230.
Gregory, J., Courri^es explosion, 309.
Griesbach, C. L., quoted, 545.
Griff colliery, depth of workings, 529.
, gob-tire caused by crushing of coal,
604. •
, oxidation of pyrites,
605.
, haulage, 511.
Grinder for coal, 148.
Grinding, rock-salt, Preesall salt-mine,
297.
— machinery, cement manufacture.
Knight, Bevan & Sturge works, 644.
Griqualand West, South Africa, geology,
547.
Groddeck, Von, quoted, 698.
Gueritte, T. J., ferro-concrete and its
applications, 10.
GuiBAL, T., quoted, 438.
Guides for cage?, safety, 169.
, steel-rail, 110.
, , costs. 111.
, wire-rope, 104, HI.
, , costs, 112, 118.
Digitized by
Google
748
iNOEl.
Guides for cages, wire-rope, effect of safety
device on, 166.
, , rubber-ropes for use
With, 106, 107.
, wooden, 109.
, — , costs, 110, 118.
, — , disadvantages, IIS et aeq.
for winding from deep shi^ :
1,500 feet and deeper, 104, 108. ^Dis-
cussion, 113.
Gunpowder, black, rock-salt mining, 294.
— , permitted explosives and, 188.
Gurnet, Goldswobthy, quoted, 278.
Gute Hoffnung mine, Hesse - Nassau,
white dykes, 680.
GuTHBiB, J. KsNXBTH, election, M.L,
208.
— , notejf on hye-producl coke-ovens, ^22,
Gypsum, application as manure, 457.
— , Sussex, 449.
— , — , analyses, 451, 452.
— , — , Bden Valley deposits compared
with, 472.
— , — , mode of occurrence, 450.
— , — , varieties of, 450.
— , use in cement manufacture, 645.
— deposits, theory of origin, 471.
Gypsum-mines, longwall workings, 466,
4iS8.
, Tutbury, visit to, N.S., 328.
Habbbshon, M. H., guides for cogent,
114.
— , use and care of oxygen -breathing
apparatus, 212.— Discussion, 222.
Hackney baths, artesian tube-well, 487.
Haobmann, F., use and care of oxygen-
breathing apparatus, 227-
Halbaum, H. W. G., application of
duplicate fans to mines^ 440.
— , cast-iron tubbing : what is its
rational formula, 567. — Discussion,
617, 664.
Haldane, J. S., quoted, 3, 8, 85, 214,
226.
Hall, A. L., quoted, 546, 550.
Hall, Henby, thick coal of War^cick-
shirty 516.
Hall, Robert William, election, N.E.,
249.
Hall, T. Y., quoted, 3.
Ham-Kyeng, Korea, copper-ores, 713.
Hamilton, Ai^xandeb, election, S.I.,
236.
Hamilton, Jambs, election, vice-presi-
dent, S.I., 153.
Hamstead colliery, south Staffordshire,
coal-field extensions, 44.
, , fires at, 513.
, , precautions against fires,
518.
Hanlby, Albbbt, Hanley cage-guardian,
164.— Discussion, 168.
Hanley, Deep pit, coal and gas out-
bursts, 313.
Habdy dust extractor, 143.
Habe, S., explosion at Wingate Grange
collieri/j 191.
Hable, Richabd, treatment of dust in
mines, aboveground and belowground,
254. — Discussion, 257.
Habi^essen, — VON, quoted, 250.
Habpen Collieby, Limited, Dortmund,
quoted, 658.
Habbison, George B., ca^e-lowering
tables, 178.
Hartley colliery, effect of mine-waters
ou iron, 577-
H ASSAM, A., gob'/res in Shropshire mifie,
87.
— , outbursts of coal and gas, 323.
: Hastings and St. Lbonabds Histobical
AND Philosophical Society, quoted,
462.
Haswell colliery explosion, report criti-
cised, 196.
Hatch, F. H., quoted, 543, 548, 549.
Hatfield water-works, pumping-plant.
Haulage, electric, endless-rope, gypsum -
mines, Sussex, 468.
— , — power and, 337.
— , main-and-tail rope. Griff colliery,
511.
— , main. rope, Polmaise collieries, 241,
247.
— , secondary, application of electric
power, 337.
— , — , Griff colliery, 511.
— , — , heading by longwall machines
and, 73.
— , Siberia, Akmolinsk, 527.
— , Warwickshire thick coal workinsn.
610.
— , water-spray for tubs, 255.
Haulage-engine, conveyor-system in thin
seams, 96.
Hauling arrangements at face, 663.
Haunchwood colliery, coal-measures at,
264.
Hawkesbury colliery, thickness of coal
at, 263.
Headgears, design of, wire-rope suides
and, 106.
— , Polmaise collieries, 240, 246.
Heading by longwall machines, 65.
, advantages, 74.
, limitations, 75. .
Heading - machines, compressed - air,
economies effected by, 338.
, rate of progress, rock-salt and coal
compared, 301.
, rock-salt mining, 294.
, types of, 66.
Headings, purposes for which driven, 66.
Digitized by
Google
tMOEX.
^49
Aedlet, a. M., explosion at WingcUe
Change colliery, 195.
Heidelberg, South Africa, granite- masses,
542.
Hbndebson. James, election, S.I., 236.
Hendbbson, Peter, election, S.L, 236.
Hendy, J. C. B., application of duplicate
fa-ns to mines, 434.
Heknebique system, ferro - concrete,
bridges constructed on, 19.
, , reservoirs constructed on,
15.
Henshaw, a. M., gob- fire in Shropshire
mine, 85.
— , outbursts of coal and gas, 322.
— , quoted, 3.
Henshaw, A. M., and W. N. Atkinson,
Courrieres explosion.— Discussion, 124,
303, 326.
Heraklea coal-mine, Asia Minor, 711*
Hebino superheater, boilers, electric
power-station, Grand Homu, 649.
Hermsdorf-Schonbrunn, Silesia, brown -
coal deposits, 674.
Herrerias, Spain, Almeria, iron- and
silver-ores, 703.
Hesse, Mettenheim, asphalt - deposits,
675.
Hesse-Nassau, Prussia, Holzappel metal-
liferous belt, 680.
Hetton colliery, explosion due to under-
ground boilers, 668.
Hewitt, H. R., sinking and tubbing at
Methley Junction colliery, 121.
— , thick coal of Warwickshire, 513.
Hibernia collieries, rescue- work, 213, 228.
HioaiNBOTTOM, H. SuARBOCK, clectioD,
S.S., 261.
Hilgenstock, — , quoted, 422.
Hill, G. Baillie, election, S.S., 261.
Himley collieries. method of working, 515.
Hind, Wheelton, quoted, 28.
Hoang-Hai, Korea, iron-ores, 713.
HoDOES, I., account of sinking and
tubbing at Methley Junction colliery,
etc. — Discussion, 120.
Hodges, I., Courrieres explosion, 130.
— , gypsum in Sussex, 468.
— , note^ on bye-product coke-ovens, 421.
— , quoted, 567, 675, 576, 578, 579, 580,
604, 607, 620.
Hodgson, L. li.,pneumalogen, 251.
Holing, machine-cutting, depth of, 71>
— , , hard ground, 159.
— , —, height of, 445.
Holland, L., thick cocUof WaruHckshire,
519.
HoLUNOwoBTH, G. H., quoted, 568,
671, 572, 632.
Holzappel, Hesse-Nassau, metalliferous
belt, 680.
Hood, Thomas Wighton, election, M.I.,
89.
Horbach mine, Baden, minerals foimd in,
677.
Horbachite, nickeliferous magnetic py-
rites and, 677.
Hobwood-Babrett, Harold, election,
N.E.,249.
How AT, John T., election, councillor,
S.I.. 163.
HowAT, William, election, councillor,
S.I., 153.
Howell, H., quoted, 264.
Howie, Andbew Sneddon, election,
S.L, 153.
HowsoN, Charles, election, N.K., 249.
Hpyeng-Yang coal-fields, Korea, 713.
Huelva, Spain, pyrites-deposits, 704.
HuBSSENBR coke-ovens, cost of repairs,
419, 420, 428.
Hughes, John, quoted, 274.
Hull, Edward, gypsum in Sussex,
470.
— , quoted, 50.
Humic acid, kaolin deposits and, 677.
Hunter, Herbert Stanley, election,
N.E., 2.
Hunter, Jonathan, election, S.S., 167.
Hunter, W. H., quoted, 380.
Hydraulic posts for support of roof,
559.
Igneous rocks, Shropshire, disturbances
in strata adjacent to, 78.
Ingersoll-Seroeant coal-cutting ma-
chines, Preesall salt-mine, 295.
— — heading-machines, electrically -
driven air-compressors combined with,
501.
Inland navigation, difficulties, 358.
, improvements required in, 347.
Inskipp, Dudley James, election, N.E.,
249.
Institution op Civil Engineers,
quoted, 366, 373.
Institution of Mining Engineers,
founding of, 203, 330.
Internal Transport Committee of
Society of Chemical Industry,
quoted, 372.
Iron, effect of concrete on, 22.
Iron-manganese ores, Spain, Almeria,
703.
Iron-ores, Asia Minor, 710.
, Italy, Sicily, 688.
, Korea, 713.
, Lancashire, Fleetwood, search for,
201.
, Russia, Nizhne-Tagilsk, 696.
, Siberia, ewtem, Chukchen penin-
sula, 720.
, — , Kuznetsk, 714.
Digitized by
Google
760
htdex.
Iron-ores, Spain, Almeria, mineralB associ- |
ated with, 702. |
, Sweden, northern, Gellivaara and ,
KiiruDavaara, 690.
1 -, —I output, 690, 692.
Ironstone, Cleveland, discovery of, 665.
— , — , phosphorus in, difficulties due to,
666.
-, Westbury, 470.
Isle of Man, rock-salt deposits, 299.
Ibler k CoMPAiiY, C, London, quoted,
473.
Isola Grande graphite-mine, Liguriaa
Alps, 684.
Issala, Sicily, lead-and-zinc ores, 688.
Italy, Piedmontese Alps, graphite.
deposits, 685.
— , Sardinia, Caatello di Ronvei, aznrite-
deposits, 685.
— , Sicily, mineral deposits, 687.
IvANOFF, M. M., E. Ahnkrt, a.
Khlaponin, p. RiPPAS and P. Yavor-
ovsKY, gold-bearing regions of Siberia,
J.
Ja(;kson, Douglas, election, councillor,
S.I., 163. >
Jackson, W. B. M., bye-product coking-
plant at Chuy Cross, 3S6.
Jacobs, Lionel Asheb, election, N.E.,
179.
Jacobson, Richard, use and care of oxy-
gen-breathing apparatus f 231.
Jagoar, Joseph, election, M.L, 89.
Jalinda, Siberia, gold-deposits, 716.
Jamibson, Andrew, quoted, 596.
Jamieson, Thomas J., election, coun-
cUlor, S.I., 15.3.
Japan, coal-lields, Manchurian coal-fields
and, 712.
Jaroso valley, Spain, Almeria, silver-
bearing ffalena, 703.
Jeppe's hill. South Africa, origin of, 557.
Jerina adit, Servia, mercury-mine, 698.
Jig coal-washing machine, Barraclough,
coking-plant, C!)lay Cross, 390.
Joel, J. £., quoted, 189.
Johannesburg granite-mass, folding of
strata near, 551.
Johannesburg granite - mass, strike of
strata and, 542.
Johnson, Henry, hidden coal-fields of
Midlands, 50.
~, quoted, 28. 274.
Johnson, J. P., quoted, 554.
Johnston. James F. W., quoted, 457.
Johnstone, Hugh, Courri^es exptosunt,
304.
— , election, N.S., 76.
— , thick coal of Warwickshire, 522.
Jones, Daniel, hidden coal-fields of Mid-
lands, 264.
— , quoted, 33.
Jones, Evans, election, N.E., 179.
Jones, St. V. Champion, gob-fire in
Staffordshire mine, 78.— Discussion. 84.
I JoRiSKEN, £., quoted, 541, 542, 543.
Joseph Hermann mine, brown-coal, upper
Lausitz, 674.
JovANOviTCH, DoucHAN, auriferous de-
posits of Servia, 695.
Jukes, J. B., quoted, 28, 264.
Jura, Alps, origin of, 553.
K.
Kalabak, Asia Minor, copper-ores, 711.
Kambove, Congo Free State, copper-ores,
722.
— , , gold-placer, 723.
Kaolin, origin of, 676.
— , , humic acid and, 677.
Kaolin-deposits, Saxony, Halle-an-der-
Saale, 676.
Kap-San, Korea, copper-ores, 713.
Karlik tacheograph, electric winding-
engines. Grand Homu colliery, 661.
Karroo, South Africa, folding of strata,
562.
Karroopoort, South Africa, geology, 547>
Kasten or washing tank, 700.
Katanga, Congo Free State, copper, tin
and gold deposits, 721.
Keeling, G. W., improvements required
in inland navigation, 382.
Kbillar, T. W., election, M.L, 89.
Kemp, W. J., and G. Alfred Lewis,
gypsum in Sussex, 449.— Discussion,
Kendall, Percy Frt, quoted, 28, 39,
39.
Kennedy, A. J., application of duplicate
fans to mines, 438.
— , most suitable form of guides for cages
for winding from deep shafts : 1,500
feet and deeper, 108. — Discussion, 1 13.
Kent, Northneet, Knight, Bevan &
Sturge cement- works, 642.
— coal-field, discovery of, 470.
Kerbi river, Sil)eria, gold -placers, 716.
Kershaw, J. B. C, quoted, 288.
Kew, barometer, height above sea-level,
725.
Khlaponin, A., gold-bearing regions of
Siberia, 714.
Khlaponin, A., E. Ahnert, M. M.
IvANOFF, P. RiPPAS and P. Yavorov-
SKY, gold-bearing regions of Siberia,
714.
Khunho, southern Manchuria, coal-field,
712.
Kiirunavaara, Sweden, iron-ores, 690.
Digitized by
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tSDBX,
761
Killingworth colliery, Fleuss rescue,
appliance at, 182.
Kind-Chaudron tubbing, formula for
thickness, 625, 632.
KiSQ, WiLUAM, election, S.I., 236.
King's Lynn Conskrvators, quoted,
355.
Kinzigites, grapbitiferous, Italy, Cala-
bria, 685.
KiRKBY, R., thick coal of Warivichihiref
520.
KiKKUsT, James, election, N.E., 250.
KiRKUp, Ernest Hodgson, election,
N.K., i80.
KiRKUP, J. P., explosimi at Winga^e
Orange colliery, 188.
KiRKUP, Philip, dcctrically -driven air.
compresjiorffy 501.
— , explosion at Wingate Grange colliery,
J 86.
— , gypsum in SvLssex, 470.
Kiruna, Sweden, iron-ores, 690.
Klein ooal-measuring boxes. Park Royal
power-station, 642.
— cooling - towers, condensing - plant,
Park Uoyal power-station, 639.
Kleinite, mercury oxychloride, Servia,
698.
Klockmann, — , quoted, 704.
Knight, Bevan & Sturge works of Asso-
ciated Portland Cement Manufacturers
(1900), Limited, Northfleet, Kent, 642.
KocHS, A. VicrroR, notes on bye-product
coke-ovens, with special reference to
Koppers oven, 398. — Discussion, 416.
Kolchan river, Siberia, gold-placers, 715.
Kolwead, Congo Free State, copper-ores,
722.
Komatipoort, South Africa, absence of
great fault, 546.
Koppers, Hkinrich, quoted, 398.
KoppKRS bye product coke-ovens, 398.
, distinguishing features of ,
404.
, output from, 415.
, regulation of, 404.
Korea, coal-fields, 7 i 3.
— , mineral deposits, 712.
KoRsucHiN, J., mineral resources of
Chukchen peninsula, eastern Siberia,
719.
Krasnopoiaky, a., mancaniferous and
other ore- deposits of Kizhne-Tagilsk,
Russia, 695.
Kruger, President, quoted, 631.
Kucajna, Servia, gold-mines, 697.
— , — , sulphide ores, 696.
Kuznetsk, Siberia, -coal-fields, 713.
Kyeng-Syang-To, Korea, rock-salt de-
posits, 713.
Kyeng-Tjyon, Korea, rock-salt deposits,
713.
Kyle, William, election, S.I., 52.
Kyn ASTON, H., quoted, 546.
L.
La Caridad, Spain, ore-deposits, 705.
Labour, coke-ovens, Clay Cross, 395.
— , collieries, improvements in condi-
tions of living, 345.
—, South Africa, 533.
Lame, — , quoted, 596, 621, 622, 625, 629.
Lancashire boilers, adoption for colliery
purposes, 338.
, coking-plant. Clay Cross, 388.
, fuel consumption, 167.
, Polmaise collieries, 239, 245.
— coal-field, extensions, 40.
— coal-measures, thickness, 32.
Lancaster canal, 352.
Lapland, Finnish, gold-bearing deposits,
693.
— , — , graphite-deposits, 693.
Lapparent, a. de, quoted, 723.
Lapworth, Charles, hidden coal-fields
of the Midlands, 26. —Discussion, 50,
261.
Lauban, Silesia, brown-coal deposits, 674.
Launay, L. de, quoted, 691.
Lausitz, upper, Silesia, brown-coal de-
posits, 673.
Layerick, J. H. W., thick coal of H ar-
wickshire, 514.
Lawrence, Henry, new apparatus for
resau-tvork in minea, 182.
— , diding-trough conveyors, 200.
Lawton, G. E., gob'fre in Shropshire
mine, 85.
Le Chatelier, H., quoted, 310.
Leach, C. C, app/ication of dujplicatt
fans to mines, 433, 444.
— , explosion aX Wingate Grange colliery,
188.
— , hquid air and its use in rescue-appar-
atns, 5.
— , thick coal of Warwickshire, 517.
— , treatment ofdiist in mines, 258.
Lead, output, Servia, Kucajna mines,
697.
Lead-and-zinc veins, Sicily, 6S8.
Lead-ores, Asia Minor, 710.
, Norway, Traag, 689.
, Spain, Almeria, 699, 701, 703.
i — » — » output, 701.
Leases, mining, subsidence clauses in 336.
Lebotwood coal-field, strata, 33.
Leckie, James, election, S.L, 236.
Leeds and Liverpool canal, dredging, 351.
Leggatt, Robert, election, S.L, 236.
Legislation, affecting mining, 1906, 334.
Leicestershire coal-held, extensions, 42,
43, 44.
, strata, 33.
Lena river, Siberia, gold-placers, 715.
Lens collieries, sliding-trough conveyors,
XoOm
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?62
tNBEJt.
Leopold ine Louise mine, PniBsia, Dorn-
berg, main lode at, 680.
Lethuillisr - PiMEL Safety - appliances,
boilers, electric power-station, Grand
Homu, 649.
Lewis, Gboroe, quoted, 466.
Lewis, G. Alfred, Courriires explosion ,
125.
— , toaler-Aupplies hy tuhe-welhj 497.
Lewi.-*, G. Alfred, and W. J. Kemp,
gypsum in Sussex, 449. — Discussion,
468.
Lewis-Thompson calorimeter, 285.
Leydsdorp, South Africa, folding of
strata, 544.
Lichtenau-Geibsdorf, Silesia, brown-poal
deposits, 674.
Li^ge, Belgium, ferro-concrete bridge, 18.
Liesenfeld, Prussia, metalliferous belt,
680.
Lighting, Boryslaw ozokerite-mine, 538.
— » gypsum-mines, Sussex, 468.
Lignite, Asia Minor, Rasheya, 710.
- , Silesia, upper Lausitz, 673.
Likasi, Congo Free State, copper-ores,
722.
Lilleshall Company, Limited, quoted,
78.
Limestone boulders, Preesall, 293.
Lindsay, Gkorqb A., election, S.I.,
236.
Lineham, W., quoted, 596.
Liquid air, cost of manufacture, 2.
, plant for manufacture, cost, 9,
170.
, respiration and, 6.
and its use in rescue-apparatus. —
Discussion, 2, 170.
Liquid-resistance 'starters, electric wind-
ing-engines. Grand Homu colliery,
658.
Little Khingan, Siberia, gold-placers,
715.
Little WOOD, George Patrick, election,
M.C., 120.
Livingstone ravine, Congo Free State,
gold-placers, 723.
Llewellyn, Owkn J., improvements re-
quired in inland navigati&n, 370.
Lloyd, W. D., use and care of oxygen-
breathing apparatus ^ 225.
Locked-coU ropes for guides for cages,
113.
winding-ropes, vibration of guide-
ropes and, 117>
, Wombwell Main colliery,
116.
; LocKETT, William, Courri^resexplo9iow,
307.
— , outbursts of coed and gas, 321.
Lomero copper- mine, Spain, Huelva, 705.
London, university of, quoted, 331.
London and North Western Rail\%"ay
Company, quoted, 352, 378, 383.
London Fire Biroade, quoted, 170.
LONODBN, G. A., guides for ca^eSt 117-
LoNGRiDOE, James, quoted, 201.
LoNORiDGE, M., Quoted, 584.
I Longwall coal -cutting machines, bar-
type, heading by, 67.
, heading by, 65, 157.
— workings, adoption of, 336.
, coal and gas outbursts, 320.
, filling of coal, rate of advance
and, .72.
, > gob-fires and, 504 et seq.
, gypsum-mines, Sussex, 466.
, , — , subsidence effects, 469.
— , hydraulic posts, replacing timber
at face, 560.
— - , single-room system, adaptation of,
1 to thick seams, 558.
— - J compared with, 565.
, thick coal, difficulties, 519.
, , Warwickshire, 507-
I LossANiTscH, — , quoted, 697.
LoTTi, B. , metalliferous deposits of north-
eastern Sicily, 687.
Locis, Henry, cast-iron ttdtbing^ 623.
! — , liquid air and its use in rescue-appa-
' ratus, 4.
I — , quoted, 567, 571, 622.
\ Louisa mine, brown-coal, Silesia, Nieder-
I Schimbrunn, 674.
I LoviSATO, DoMENico, tungsteu-ores in
Cagliari district, Sardinia, 686.
i Lowenberg, Silesia, brown-coal deposits,
1 674.
I LOWENSTEIN ZU LOWENSTEIN, HaNS VON,
, election, N.E., 180.
I Lubrication, guides, wire-rope, 107.
LuGKON, M., quoted, 552.
Luka, Servia, gold-fields, 697.
Luossajarvi, Sweden, iron-ores, 690, 691.
Luossavaara, Sweden, iron-ores, 690,
691, 692.
LUPTON, A., presidential address^ 345.
— , thick coal of Warwickshire^ 516.
Luushia, Congo Free State, copper-ores,
722.
Lydenburg, South Africa, folding of
strata, 546.
Lyell, Sir Charles, quoted, 196, 262,
269.
M.
Macclesfield canal, 352.
McGuFFiE, H. A., election, S.I., 236.
Machine-mining, practical problems of,
445.
, Preesall salt-mine, 294.
Mackay, Angus, election, S.L, 236.
Mackey, W. McD., u»e and care of
oxygen-breathing apparatus, 223.
Mackintosh, Percy H. M., election,
S.I., 236.
\
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tsnyst.
m
McLucKiE, John, heading by longwall
machinM, 160.
M*Mkekin, Thomas, election, S.I., 153.
M'Nbill, Kibkwood Hkwat, election,
S.I.,52. ^ .
MThail, Jambs, election, councillor,
S.L, 153.
M*Tbusty, John W., election, S.I., 163.
Madeley colliery, coal-field extensions,
47.
Maealiesberg range, South Africa, ongin
0? poorten in, 550.
Magnesia, fire-damp and, explosions, 326.
Magnesium chloride, use in freezing-
process, Monkwearmouth, 276.
Magnetic-locks, safety-lamps, Polmaisc
collieries, 241.
Magnetic-pyrites, analyses, Sicily, 688.
, Germany, Saxony, western Erzge-
birge, 681.
, nickelifcrous, Baden, Black Forest,
677.
Magnetite, graphite associated with,
Lapland, 693.
"-, Russia, Nizhne-Tagilsk, 695.
— , Sicily, 688.
— , Sweden, Kiirunavaara, 691.
Magniette composition for steam pipes,
650.
Mahler calorimeter, 286.
Maidan-Pek, Servia, sulphide ores, 696.
Maisb, Ebnst, gold-bearing regions of
Siberia, 716.
Main-and-tail rope haulage, water-spray-
ing of tubs, 256.
Main-rope haulage, Polmaisc collieries,
241, 247- ^ . ^
Majdanpek, Servia, gold associated with
chalcopyrite, 697.
Makry, Asia Minor, chrome-iron-ore,
710.
Malachite, Congo Free State, 721.
— , Italy, Sardinia, 685.
— , Spain, Almeria, 699.
Malone, Thomas, election, S.I., 236.
Malplat, M., sliding-trough conveyors,
198. —Discussion, 200.
Maltosrova, Lapland, graphite-deposit,
693.
Malvern, shot-drilling boring-plant at,
482.
Manchester ship canal, dredging, 351.
, progress of, 374.
Manchuria, southern, Fushun, coal-
fields, 712.
Manganese-iron- ores, Spain, Almeria,
703.
Manganese-ores, Asia Minor, 710.
, Russia, Nizhne-Tagilsk, 695.
, Spain, Huelva, 707.
Mann, Otto, pyrites-deposits of western
Erzgebirge, Saxony, 680.
Mannesmann rolled steel tubes, rising-
main for pumps, Grand Homu colliery,
662.
Manor pit, coal-measures, 45i
Mara, Sardinia, copper-ores, 685.
Makiani, R., argentiferous galena of
Cadlimo, Switzerland, 707.
Marklissa, Silesia, brown-coal deposits,
674.
Mabshall, Albebt, election, N.S., 303.
Marshall, J. L., mining in Bamdty
district, 101.
Mabtin, Henby Stuart, election, N.E.,
179.
Martin, J. S., gypsum in Sussex, 469.
Mavob, Sam, heading by longwall ma-
chines, 65.— Discussion, 167.
— , practical problems of machine-mining.
— Discussion, 445.
— , tests of a mine-fan, 62.
Maxwell, J. Clerk, quoted, 675.
Meachbm, F. G., quoted, 324.
Mechanical engineering of collieries, im-
provements, 336.
Meerschaum deposits, Asia Minor, 709.
- — , , output, 709.
Mellin's food factory, water-supply for,
479.
Mellob, E. T., quoted, 653, 554.
Menteshder^ lead-mine, Asia Minor, 710.
Menzies, John, election, councillor, S.I.,
153.
Mercury, Servia, gold-bearing, 696.
— , — , output, 698.
Mercury-ores, Asia Minor, 710.
, genesis, Servian and Galifornian
deposits compared, 698.
, Servia, Avala hill, 697.
Mercurj'. vapour electric lamps, Preesall
salt-mine, 297.
Merivale, J. H., explosion at Wingate
Orange colliery, 196.
— , liquid air and its use in rescue appar-
atus, 9.
— , quoted, 568.
— , sinking by freezing -process, 253.
— , sliding-trough conveyors, 200.
— , treatment of dust in mines, 257.
Merbyweather fire-extinguishers, use
in mines, 518.
Messina, Sicily, geology, 687.
Metallurgy, notes of colonial and foreign
papers on, 673.
Methley Junction colliery, shaft-tubbing,
composition for preserving, 580.
, , corrosion, 576, 607.
, sinking and tubbing, 120.
Metropolitan Watbb Board, quoted,
378.
Mettenheim, Hesse, asphalt-deposit, 675.
Meyer, G. A., quoted, 2, 9, 212, 213,
216, 227, 280, 281.
Meyniacite, decomposed scheelite, 687.
Michael, R., posiaonia becheri in upper
Silesian coal-measures, 675.
Midland Institute of Mining, Civil
AND Mechanical Engineers, report
on rescue- Work, Altofts collieries, 209.
Digitized by
Google
764
tKDEX.
Midlands, hidden coal-fields, 26, 261.
— J — ^ depths of seams, 49.
— , , estimated areas, 49.
Mikhailo.Ivanovsky gold -placers, Siberia.
716.
Millar, Robebt, quoted, 99.
MiLiiOSKVicu, F., azurite-deposit of
Castello di Bonvei, Sardinia, 685.
Mineral deposits, Asia Minor, 709.
, Austria, Galicia, Boryslaw, ozo-
kerite, 585.
, Congo Free State, Katanga,
copper, tin and gold, 721.
, Finnish Lapland, gold-bearing,
693.
, , , origin of placers, 695.
, ^, graphite, 693.
, , — , origin, 693.
, Germany, Baden, Black Forest,
nickeliferotis magnetic pyrites, 677.
, — , —, , , genesis.
679.
, — , Bavaria, Fichtelgebirge, tin-
stone, 679.
, — , — , — , — , origin, 679.
, — , Hesse, asphalt, 676.
, — , Prussia, Hesse-Nassau, lead,
silver, zinc and copper -ores, 680.
1 — I Baxony, kaolin, 676.
» — I — , — , origin, 676, 677.
» — » —I tungsten-ores, 682.
, — , — , western Erzgebirge, py-
rites- deposits, 680.
, — , — , , , genesis, 681.
, Italy, Piedmontese Alps, graphite,
683.
, , — , — , origin, 683.
— . — , — , Sardinia, copper-ores, 685.
» — I — , 1 genesis, 686.
, — , — , tungsten-ores, 686.
, — , Sicily, north-eastern, 687.
, — , — , , genesis, 689.
, Korea, 712.
, Lancashire, Preesall, rock-salt,
291.
, Norway, Traag, blende and galena,
689.
-, — , — , , genesis, 690.
— -', Russia, Nishne-Tagilsk, manganese
and other ore-deposits, 696.
, Servia, gold, 695.
-— — , — , — , origin, 696.
, — , mercury -ores, 697.
— —, — , , genesis, 698.
, Siberia, gold, 714.
, — , eastern, 719.
, South Africa, New Rand, gold,
530.
, south of England, recent dis-
coveries, 470.
, Spain, Almeria, 699.
, — , — , ffenesis, 699, 702, 703.
, — , Huelva, pyrites, 704.
, — , — , — , genesis, 704 et atq.
, Sussex, gypsum, 449.
Mineral deposits, Sweden, northern,
iron-ores, 690.
, - , — , , genesis, 691, 692.
— — , Switzerland. Cadlimo, argenti-
ferous galena, 707.
Mines, working of, notes of colonial and
fort ign papers on, 673.
Mining, various branches, death rate per
1,000, 334.
— engineers, training of, 332,
Mitchell, T. W. H., miniiig in Bam^ty
district, 102.
Mlava, Servia, gold-fields, 695, 697.
Moisture in coal, precautions in esti-
mating, 284.
MoLENGBAAPF, G. A. F., quoted, 640,
541, 542, 545, 546, 549, 55.3.
— , structural geology of South Africa^
557.
M0LE8WORTU. Sir Guilford, quoted, 677.
Molybdenite, Saxony, 682.
Monazite, gold-placers, Finnish Lapland,
694.
MoND ^as- power plant for producing
electricity, costs, 341.
Monk SWELL, Lord, quoted, 136.
Monkwearmouth, C pit, 275.
MonmoutUshire canal, Newport, severing
of, 353.
Monmouthshire Railway and Canal
CoMPANT, quoted, 363.
Monte Rubio copper-mine, Spain, Huelva,
707.
— Tossazza, Sicily, lead-and-zinc ores,
688.
Moore, R. T., tfftcts of acceleration on
ioinding-lorqiieit^ 64.
— , election, president, S.I., 153.
— , testM of a mine-fan J 157.
Morgan-Gardner electric coal-cutting
machine. Gay Goal and Coke Company,
559.
Morrow, J., cast-iron tuhbing^ 628.
Morton, J. Chalmers, quoted, 457.
Motors, electric, Belgium, Grand Hornu
colUery, 647, 648, 650, 661, 662.
— , — , coal-cuttuig machines, 446, 447*
— , — , Park Royal power-station, con-
densing-plant, 639.
— , — , , exciter sets, 636.
— , — , Polmaise collieries, haulage, 241,
247.
— , —, , pumps, 240, 242, 247.
— , — , , screening and washing
plant, 243.
— , — , , Sirocco fan, 239.
MoTTRAM, Thomas H., election, vice-
president, S.L, 153.
— , tests of a mine-fan, 61.
Mountain, W. C, commercial possibil-
ities of electric winding for main shafts
and auxiliary work.— Discussion, 150.
Mountain or fold-producing pressures,
geoloey, South Africa, 640.
Muck, Joseph, quoted, 536.
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Google
INDEX.
765
MuBGHisoK, Roderick, quoted, 50.
Murdoch, Adam, election, 8. 1., 52.
MuROUE, D., application of duplicate fans
to mines, 434.
MuRTON, Edward, quoted, 186.
Murton colliery, shaft-tubbing, cement-
concrete lining, 579.
, watering at, 191.
Muskau, Silesia, brown-coal depoBits,
674.
N.
Nagomy placer-mine, Siberia, 715.
Namrun, Asia Minor, coal-field, 711.
Nash, H. B., mining in Barndey district ^
102.
— , quoted, 209.
Nabmith, G. G., quoted, 7.
Natal, strike of strata, .545.
Naumanjt, — , quoted, 710.
Navigation, inland, improvements re-
quired, 347.
Neresnica, Servia, gold-dredging, 697*
Nsss, George, effects of acceleration on
winding-torques, and test of Tarbrax
electrical winding-plant.— Discussion,
52.
Netherfield bore-hole, Sussex, 449, 470.
, — , section of strata, 462.
Neumiihl colliery, ventilation, water-
gauge, 344.
Nevin, John, improvement*! required in
inland naiHgation, 383.
New Moss colliery, cage-lowering tables,
174.
— Rand gold-field, Orange River Colony ,
530. —Discussion, 53 1 .
Newdigate colliery, coal-seams at, 503.
> gob-fires, precautione necessary,
505.
, haulage, 512.
, Warwickshire coal-field exten-
sions, 44.
Nbwtok, Chambers &Compant,Lihit£D,
quoted, 209.
Nicholls, — , quoted, 380.
Nicholson, Thomas Perot, election,
M.C., 120.
Nickeliferous magnetic pyrites, Baden,
Black Forest, 677.
Nilan river, Siberia, gold-placers, 716.
Nizbne-Tag^sk, Russia, manganiferous
and other ore-deposits, 695.
North of England Institdte of Min-
iNG AND Mechanical Engineers,
founding of, 202.
— , quoted, 310.
North Staffordshire canal, dredging,
351.
North Staffordshire Railway Com-
pany, quoted, 352, 371.
North Wales, slate-mining, 516.
Northfleet, Kent, Knight, Bevan &
Sturge cement works, 642.
Norway, Traag, blende- and galena -
deposits, 689.
Nottingham, water-supplies from wells,
498.
Nottinghamshire, east, Thnrgarton bor-
ing, section of strata, 31.
— coal-field, extensions, 38, 39.
, strata, 33.
Novarese, Vittorio, graphite-depostts
in Piedmontese Alps, 683.
0.
Oakgates colliery, coal-field extensions,
47.
Gates, Charles, election, M.C.. 120.
Oberwies, Prussia, metalliferous belt,
680.
O'Donahue, T. a., cast-iron tubbing, 617.
— , quoted, 599.
Officers, election, S.I., 153.
-, 19061907, X.
Oil-separating and filtering, Park Royal
power-station, 639.
Oil-shale partings in coal-seams, gob- fires
and, 506.
Oil-switches, automatic, electric power-
station, Grand Homu, 654.
Oldfield, Wiluam, election, M.G..
282.
Olivadi graphite-mine, Calabria, Italy,
685.
Oliver, Thomas, liquid air and its tise
in rescue-apparatus, 5.
Olsnitz^ Saxony, tungsten-ores^ 682.
Omni-lateral pressure, influence on strata,
South Africa, 543.
Onions, J. T. , boilers for colliery pur-
poses, 167.
Orange River Colony, folding of strata,
544.
, New Rand gold-field, ."530.
Ormrod, Wilson, election, N.E., 1.
Ornsby, R. E., quoted, 677.
Orogenic forces, formation of pans and,
555.
, influence on strata, South Africa,
542.
O'Shea, L. T., notes on bye-product coke-
oi'^ns, 416.
Otto Company, quoted, 422.
Otto-Hoffmann bye-product coke-oven,
features of, 402.
OusE Halino-ways Commissioners,
quoted, 355.
Ousebum culvert, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,
ferro-concrete in construction of, 15,
\oo^i
766
INDEX.
Oatburats of CO&1 and gas in Cockshead
seam, Shelton colliery, 313.— Discus-
sion, 320.
Overwinding, device for preventing,
electric winding-engines, Grand Homn
colliery, 660.
Oxford, university of, quoted, 331.
Oxidation of coal, gob -fires due to,
506.
Oxygen, compressed, nitrogen in, 223,
— , rescue-apparatus, pressure . required,
219.
— , respiratory phenomena, 214.
9n, use in determining calorific
values, 285.
Oxygen-breathing apparatus, greasy snb-
stances prohibitea in, 219.
, rust in, dangers, 219, 226.
, use and care of, 212. — Discos-
sion, 222.
Ozokerite, uses of, 535.
Ozokerite-mine, Austria, Galicia, Bory-
slaw, 535.
, — , — , — , dressing operations,
538.
1 — , —, —I gases, 536.
, — , — , — , output, 539.
P.
Packington bore-hole, coal-measures at,
262, 264, 271, 272.
Packs, thick coal, Warwickshire, 513.
— , use of stone from quarries at surface,
514, 515, 516.
Palapovio, Lapland, graphite, 693.
Palibin, J., coal-bearmg beds of southern
Manchuria, 712.
Palladium associated with gold, Congo
Free State, 724.
Pandermite, borate of lime, Asia Minor,
709.
Panel workings, fiery seams, 519.
Pans, South Africa, origin of, 549, 553,
555.
Papers, subjects for, xviiL
— , working of mines, metallurgy, etc.,
notes of colonial and foreign papers on,
673.
Park, James, election, S.I., 236.
Park Royal power-station. Great West-
em Railway Company, 634.
Parr calorimeter, 285.
Partidarios or lessees, 700.
Past-presidents, list, x.
Patchell, W. H., application of dupli-
catt fails to mints i 437.
Patbrson water-softening plant, Park
Royal power-station, 639.
Peak Forest canal, 352.
Peasegood, W. G., Courriires explosion,
303.
Peat, William, quoted, 186.
Peat, Nizhne-Tasilsk, 695.
Pebworth, H. T., election, N.S., 312.
Pek, Servia, gold-fields, 695.
Pelodze-Audouin tar-separator, coking-
plant. Clay Cross, 396.
Pendleton colliery, depth of workings,
38.
Percussion boring, 480.
Perkin, Herbert, guides for cages y 113.
Perkins engines and boilers, Sub-
Wealden Gypsum Company, Limited,
461.
Peters' cement-works, water-supply,
484.
Petrol-motors for canal-boats, dangers,
Petroleum, associated with ffvpsam,
452.
— , Austria, Galicia, output, 535.
Peyton, J. E. H., quoted, 452.
Philippson, a., quoted, 709.
Phillips, W. G., Oourri^res explosion^
135.
— , Elliott icasher and Hardy dust-ex-
tractor y 149.
— > gypffum in Sussex, 469.
— , sinking and tubbing at Methley Jw/ic-
tion colliery, 124.
— , thick coal of Wartvickshire, 515.
Picking-belts, Polmaise collieries, 242.
Pickquick coal-cutting machines, driving
heskdings with, 67 et seq.
, rate of advamce, 71.
Pietersburg, South Africa, folding of
straU, 544.
Pietre Verdi, Italy, graphite, 683.
PiLKiNOTON, Charles, cageUowering
taUes,m.
— , cast-iron tubbing, 618.
— , Cook c&lorimetric bomb, 288.
— , liquid air and its use in rescue-appa-
ratus, 170.
— , neio apparatus for rescue-work in
mines, 277.
— , quoted, 567, 583.
— , rock-halt deposits a>t Preesall, 301.
Pillar-and-stall workings, iron - ores,
Spain, Almeria, 702.
, single-room system compared
with, 566.
Pillars, abandoned, underground fires
and, 80. 85.
— , single-room system, calculation of
dimensions, 562.
Pinar de B^dar, Spain, copper- and lead-
ores, 699.
PiTOT tubes, measurement of water-
gauges by, 60.
Placer-deposits, gold, Korea, 713.
, — , Siberia, 714.
Plaster, manufacture of, 328, 452.
— , set ing of, chemistry, 456.
— , varieties of, 456.
Plaster-mills, Tutbury, visit to, N.S.,
328,
Digitized by
Google
INDEX.
767
Platinum associated with gold in placer-
deposits, Congo Free State, 724.
, Finnish Lapland,
694.
— placer-deposits, Nizhne-Tagilsk, 695.
Playfair, Lyon, quoted, 278.
Pleasley colliery, duplicate fan experi-
ments, 434.
, guides for cages, 117.
Pneumatogen, applications, 224, 233.
— , cleaning of, 218.
— , defects in, 223.
— , heating of, ignition of indiarubber
pipe, 250.
— , self-generating rescue-apparatus, etc.
— Discussion, &0.
— , Tankersley rescue-station, 215.
Pneumonia, deaths from, after breathing
carbon monoxide, 6.
PoECH, Frakz, quoted, 141.
PoETSCH, H. , quoted, 625.
PoHLio cableway for iron.ores, Spain,
Almeria, 702.
POLIENOV, B. K., coal-bearing beds in
Kuznetsk district, Siberia, 713.
PoLLAK accumulators, electric power-
station, Grand Hornu, 653.
Polmaise collieries, 237.
, section of seams, 244.
, strata, 239.
Pondoland, South Africa, granite-masses,
influence on strata, 546.
Pontoons, conveyance of canal boats by,
376.
Poorten, South Africa, origin of, 549.
Pope & Peabson, Limited, quoted, 205,
208, 209.
Porecka, Servia, gold-fields, 695.
Port St. John, South Africa, granite
masses, influence on strata, 546.
Portland cement works, Knight, Bevan
& Sturge, Kent, Northfleet, 642.
Posen, Prussia, brown-coal deposits, 673.
Posidonia becheri, Spain, Huelva, pyrites
deposits, 705.
, upper Silesian coal-measures, 675.
Power, electric transmission of, at works
and collieries of Grand Hornu, Bel-
gium, 647.
Poytos copper-mine, Spain, Huelva, 705.
Pramollo, Italy, graphite deposits, 684.
Preesall, Fleetwood, rock-salt deposits,
mining, 291.
Preobbazhensky, P. I., and A.
Gerasimoff, gold-bearing regions of
Siberia, 714.
President, x.
— , election, S.L, 153.
Presidential address, 330.
Prbst, J. J., cast-iron tubbing , 627.
— , noten on bye-product coke-ovens, 417.
Preussen II. shaft, Harpen Colliery,
Limited, Dortmund, electric winding,
658.
Pribmel, Kurt, brown-coal deposits of
upper Lausitz, Silesia, 673.
Primazka or binding material of detrital
deposits, 718.
Primus coal washer, Polmaiae collieries,
243.
PRISTER, A., quoted, 553, 554.
Prizes for papers, awards, 329.
, -,isr.s., 77.
Props, hydraulic, longwall workings.
West Virginia, 559.
— , steel and wood compared, 337.
Prussia, Hesse-Nassau, Holzappel metal-
liferous belt, 680.
Pumping, costs, saving effected by dam,
Metbley Junction colliery, 122.
— , electric power and, 337.
— , upper Lausitz, Friedrich Anna mine,
675.
— , , Joseph Hermann mine, 674.
— , , Louisa mine, Nieder Schon-
brunn, 674.
— , water-supplies, 473.
— , , costs, 494, 497.
Pumping-engines, developments, 342.
Pumping-plant, tube-wells, permanent,
488.
Pumps, air-lift, description, 492.
— , electric, Belgium, Grand Hornu col-
liery, 647.
— , — , — , , Riedler, 661.
— , — , Boryslaw ozokerite- mine, 638.
- , - -, Polmaise collieries, 242, 247.
— , — , , water for boilers, 240.
Purbeck marble deposits, 471.
PuRDY, R., guides for cages, 115.
PCtz, O., ore-deposits of province of
Almeria, Spain, 699.
Pjrrites, genesis, organic matter and,
682.
— , gold associated with, Servia, 696.
— , gold-deposits and, Siberia, 714, 717.
— , underground fires and, 83, 85, 505.
Pyrites • deposits, Germany, Saxony,
western Erzgebirge, 680.
, Siberia, eastern, Abolesheff bay,
719.
, Spain, Huelva, 704.
R.
Railway and canal traffic act, 18S8:
returns made to Board of Trade in
respect of canals and navigations in
United Kingdom, quoted, 347.
-^ , quoted, 352, 378, 379.
— companies as canal owners, 351.
Railways, electric, Hammersmith and
City, current, 634.
Raine, Frederick James, election, N.E.,
1.
Ramann, E., quoted, 677.
Ramsay, Sir Andrew C, quoted, 262,269.
Digitized by
Google
758
INDEX.
Ramsat, William Hbnrt, election,
N.E., 249.
Rand gold-field, discovery of, 531.
Rand Mines, Limited, election, snb-
Bcribcn, N.E., 180.
Rankinb, W. J. M., quoted, 601, 603,
631,632.
Rasheya, Asia Minor, iron-ores, 710.
Ratbau, a., quoted, 156.
— , tests of a mine-fan, 69.
Rawxs, F. 6., quoted, 458.
Ratneb, Frank, improvements required
in inla7id itavtf/o/ion, 364.
Reden colliery disaster, rescue-work at,
212.
Rbdmayne, R. a. S., hidden cood-fields of
Midlands, 265.
— , quoted, 577.
Regenerator coke-oven, Koppers, 407.
Regenerators, coke-ovens, reason for
adoption, 401.
Regulation of railways act, quoted, 379.
Reid, Thomas, election, S.I., 236.
Renaud, Paul, quoted, 223.
Report of council, S.I., 151.
— on rescue-work done by men wearing
rescue - apparatus in experimental
gallery at Pope k Pearson's collieries,
Altofte, March 23rd, 1907, 209.
Repose, angle of, loose strata, 60.3.
Rescue-apparatus, applications, 2 et seq,
, cleaning of, 216.
, gob-fires and, 518.
^ helmet and mouthpiece forms com-
pared, 227, 228, 2.30, 231.
, — forms, experiences with, 215.
, improvements eflfected in, 216.
, indiarubber appliances, precautions
necessary, 220.
, injectors, precautions necessary,
219.
, liquid air, use in, 2, 170.
, necessary features of, 2 1 3.
, new form, 180.
, opinions of wearers, 224.
, oxygen charging, precautions
necessary, 219.
, pneumatogen, 250.
, Roberts' early form of, 278.
, use and care of, 212.
, VVeg form, 277.
, , duration of oxygen supply,
278.
Rescue-station, Tyldesley, 277.
Rescue-work in mines, air-pipes along
roads, 3.
, experimental gallery , Altofts
collieries, 205.
, , , report on trials
at, 209.
, new apparatus for, 180, 277.
, training of men, 221.
, voluntary, necessity for, 228.
Reservoirs, application of ferro-concrete
to coiistruction of, 15,
I Respiration, rescue-apparatus and, 213^
I Retarding apparatus, electric wiading-
I engines, Grand Homu colliery, 660.
I RheinpreuBsen collieries, gas-engines for
I electric power plant, 415.
I Rhodes, H., ffuiaesfor coi/es, 115.
• — , mining in Bcamsley district, 101.
Rhodesia, geology, 549.
I Rhone, valley of, origin, 552.
I Riedler pumps, Grand Homu colliery,
I 661.
! Rietkuil, South Africa, brachy-synclixial
I at, 543.
Rio Tinto, Spain, ore-deposits, 705.
I Hippas, p., E. Ahnert, M. M. Ivanoitf,
I A. KuLAPONiN and P. Yavorovsky,
gold-bearing regions of Siberia, 714.
I Ripping, cost of, Bamsley district, 92.
I — , stowage of material in thin ■**— »^.
I 70.
■ Rise coal, method of working, thick
I coal, Warwickshire, 509.
I RiTTiNGER formula for falling particles^
I River - valleys. South Africa, origin,
I 549.
Rivers, Alpine, geological course of , 552.
' Roberts, John, quoted, 278
I RoBKRTs, Norman Samuel, election,
' M.I.,89.
I Robinson, Christopbsr, election, N.EL,
I 180.
Rock-crystal, Korea, Kycng-Syang-To,
1 713.
> Rock-salt deposits, Fleetwood, Pree-
I sail, 291.
' 1 — , — I origin of, 292.
I , — , — , output, 297*
, — , — , thickness, 292.
■ , Isle of Man, 299.
I , theory of origin, 301, 302.
I mining, Ireland, 298.
I Rodillo or long-handled hook, 700.
! RoELOFSEN, J. A., Tiotes on bye-prqduct
I coke-ovens, 418.
Rogers, A. W., quoted, 547.
Roman workings, Servia, gold-fields, 696.
, Spain, Almeria, 704.
Ronaldson, J. M., teAtH of a mine-fan,
62.
Roof, difficulties, longwall working.
West Virginia, 560 et seq.
— , support of, hydraulic posts for, 569.
Rotary heading machines, 66.
— kilns, cement manufacture, 643.
Rotary Photo Company, artesian tube-
well for, 486.
Rothschild, Baron, quoted, 170.
Rotors, (4rand Hornu electric power-
station, generators, 651, 652.
— , , motors, 648.
RouTLEDOE, N. W., most suitable form
of guides for cases for winding from
deep shafts : 1500 feet and deeper, 104.
— Discussion, 113.
Digitized by
Google
INDEX^
759
RoTAL Commission^ ok Accidbnts in
Minks, quoted, 191.
Royal CoMMiasioN on Ganaus, quoted,
365, 366, 367, 369, 372, 373, 381.
Royal Commission on Goal-sufplibs,
quoted, 29, 39, 40, 49, 266.
Royal Commission on Minbs, quoted,
233, 333.
Royalties, thick and thin seams, com-
parison, 91.
Royalties, thick and thin seams, tonnage^
basis, 102.
Rubber-ropes, use with wire-rope guides,
106, 107.
RussBLL, Archibald, Limited, quoted,
235, 237.
Russia, Nizhne-Tagilsk, manganese and
other ore-deposits, 695.
Ruwe, Congo Free State, auriferous de-
posit, 722, 724.
S.
Sadisdorf, Germany, minerals associated
with wolframite, 683.
iSafety -lamps, new reflector for, 281.
, Polmaise collieries, 241, 246.
St. Ann gold-mines, SGrvia,.I)eli-Iovan,
696.
St. Blasius, Baden, nickeliferous mag-
netic pyrites, 677.
Sakhalin coal-field, Manchuria, com-
parison with Fushun coal-field, 712.
Salisbury, Marquis of, quoted, 490.
Salmon Fishkries Commission, quoted,
379.
S almond, James, quoted, 2.35.
Salt-deposits, Asia Minor, 709.
, Fleetwood, Preesall, 291.
, Middlesbrough, discovery of, 666.
Sampling for analysis, coal, 283.
Sandberg, C, notes on structural
geology of South Africa, 510. ~ Dis-
cussion, 556.
Sandwell Park colliery, method of work-
Ing, 516.
, south Staffordshire coal-field
extensions, 44.
-f thick coal-seam at, 502.
Saner, J. A., impi*ovements required in
ifdand namgation, 373.
— , quoted, 366.
Santa Catalina manganese-mine, Spain,
Huelva, 707.
Sapalsky manganese - mine, Nizhne-
Tagilsk, 695.
Sardmia, Italy, Cagliari, tungsten-ores,
686.
— , — , Castello di Bonvei, azurite-
deposit, 685.
Sarlin, E. , quoted, 693.
Satin-spar, occurrence in gypsum, 451,
471.
Sawyer, A. R., New Rand gold-field,
Orange River Colony, 530. —Discussion,
531.
— , quoted, 641.
— , Mriictural geology of South Africa^
557.
Saxony, Halle-an-der-Saale, kaolin-
deposits, 676.
— , tungsten-ores, 682.
— , western Erzgebirge, pyrites deposits,
680.
Schaapplaats, Orange River Colony, bore-
hole, 531.
VOL. ZZXIII.-1SQ6-1907,
Scheelite, Genna-Gur^u antimony-mines,
686.
— , Sardinia, analyses, 687.
Schember, Friedrioh, election, M.G.,
170.
Scheuerloch, Baden, nickel-ore mines,
678.
Schliiffel-und-Eisen III. andlV. collieries,
hauling arrangement at face, 663.
Schlamm, production of, in coal- washers,
145.
Schmeisser, C, mineral-resources of
Asia Minor, 709»
Schmidt, — , quoted, 625.
Schmidt, Albert, stanniferous deposits
of Fichtelgebirge, Bavaria, 679.
Schnabel, Lebbrecht Ferdinand
Richard, election, N.E., 179.
Schonlind, Bavaria, stanniferous lodes,
679.
Schuplja Stena, Servia, adit, mercury
mine, 693.
Schwartzkopff Coal - dust Firing
Syndicate, quoted, 339.
Schweighausen, Prussia, metalliferous
belt, 680.
Scientific mining in Bamsley district,
importance of, 90. — Discussion, 99.
Sclit or slaty coal, 243.
Screening fine coal, difficulties, 143.
Screening-plants, improvements in, 344.
, Polmaise collieries, 242, 247.
Screens, dust from, 254, 344.
— , , Courri^res collieries, 137.
— , hydraulic, for fine coal, 143.
— , — , production of schlamm and, 146.
Seaton, a. F., quoted, 584.
Secretary, xi.
Seehaus, Bavaria, tin -mines, 679.
Seeley, H. G., quoted, 540.
Selemja, Siberia, gold-placers, 716.
Semi river, Siberia, gold-plaoers, 717.
Serena, Spain, Almeria, iron-ores, 702.
Servia, Avala hill, mercury-ores, 697.
— , gold-fields, 695.
Servian -French mining glossary, 697.
Sesia-Val di Lanzo, Italy, graphite-
deposits, 684.
Sevenich, Prussia, metalliferous belt, 680.
Severn and Canal Carrying Com-
pany, quoted, 376.
Sewage Disposal Commission, quoted,
379.
Digitized by
Google
760
INDEX.
Seward peninsula, eastern Siberia, gold-
placers, 719.
Seymour, H. W., note8 on hye-product
coke-ortufiy 422.
Shaft-sinking, freezing-process, 197, 251.
, , Monkwearmouth, 276.
, Polmaise collieries, 237, 244.
, rock-salt deposits, Preesall, 293.
Shaft tubbing, cast-iron, formula for
thickness, 567.
Shafts, Boryslaw ozokeritcmine, 537.
— , brown-coal mines, upper Lausitz, 674,
675.
— , deep, ffuides for cages for, 104.
— , Grand Homu colliery, 656.
— , main, electric winding for, 150.
— , Pleasley colliery, 117.
— , Polmaise collieries, 237, 244.
— , Wearmouth colliery, 276.
— , Wombwell Main colliery, 116.
Shamrock colliery, rescue- work, results
of practices, 213, 229.
Shamrock rescue-apparatus, efficiency,
224.
, improvements, 225.
Sharpness Dock Ck)MFANY, quoted, 383.
Sharpness New Docks, quoted, 375.
Shelton Coal and Iron Compant,
Limited, clamp for guide-ropes, 113.
Shelton colliery, CocKshead seam, coal
and gas outbursts, 313.
Shot-drilling method of boring, 482.
-, loss of shot in fissures,
49S, 499.
Shot-firing, explosions and, 129, 131,
132.
, Midlands, decrease in, 132.
, suggestions regarding, 127, 187,
191.
in main haulage-ways, cause of ex-
plosion, 135.
, dangers, 128, 129, 131,
132, 134.
Shrewsbury coal-field, extensions, 41, 48.
, strata, 33.
Shropshire coal-field, character of seams,
48.
, gob-fire, 78.
, Symon fault, 265.
Siberia, Akmolinsk, coal-fields, 526.
— , gold-bearing regions, 714.
— , Kuznetsk, coal-fields, 713.
Sicily, north eastern, mineral deposits,
6S7.
Sibmens-and-Halske generators, elec-
tric power-plant, Boryslaw, ozokerite-
mine. 536.
Sierra Almagrera, Spain, Almeria, ore-
deposits, 702.
— de Bedar, Spain, geology, 699.
, — , ore-deposits, 701.
Signalling, Preesall salt-mine, 297.
Silesia, upper, coal-measures, posidonia
becheri in, 675.
— , — lAUsitz, brown-coal deposits, 673.
Silver, output, Servia, Kucajna mines,
697.
Silver-bearing galena, Norwav, Traag,
690.
, Spain, Almeria, 699, 701 , 703.
, Switzerlajid, Cadlimo, 707.
Silver minerals, Spain, Almeria, 703.
Silver-ores, Asia Minor, 710.
, Korea, 713.
SiMCOCK, E. 0., Cmirriires explonon, 904.
— , outbursts of coal and gas, 323.
SiMONis, Hknrt, liquid air and iu tc^
in resctte-apparatusj 2.
SiMONis, Otto, liquid air and its use in
rescue-apparatus. —Discussion, 2, 170.
Simplex bye-product coke-ovens. Clay
Cross, 388.
SlMPI^X COKB-OVBN AND EkOINKESINC
Company, Limited, quoted, 387.
Single-room system of mining: adapta-
tion of longwall method to work in
thick seams, 558.
Sinking and tubbing at Methley Junction
colliery.— Discnssion, 120.
— through magnesian limestone and
yellow sand by freesing process, etc —
Discussion, 197, 251.
Sinope, Asia Minor, copper-ores, 711.
Sirocco fan, forced-draught, Polmaise
collieries, 239.
Sivas, Asia Minor, antimony-ores, 711.
Skatamark, Lapland, graphite-deposits.
693.
Slate-minine, north Wales, 516.
Slatkb, Thomas Edward, election,
N.E., 180.
Sliding-trough conveyors, 198. — Discus-
sion, 200.
Smart, Robert, election, N.E., 249.
Smith, Alexander, Hanlty ca^ft-
g^tardian, 169.
— , hidden coal-fields of Midlohd^y 50,
264.
— , thick coal of WartmekAire, 513.
Smith, Angus, quoted, 122, 580, 620.
Smith, Gavin Hildick, election, 8. 8.,
25.
Smith, H. S., thick coal of Warwickshirtj
515.
Smith, Stdnst A., Cook calwrimetric
bomb, 288.
Smith, Thomas, election, S.L, 52.
Smith, T. Lorraine, quoted, 214.
Smithurst, John, election, M.C, 120.
Smyrna, Asia Minor, mineral deposits,
710.
Sneddon, Daniel, election, N.E., 179.
Sneddon, John, election, S.L, 153.
Sneddon, J. Balfour, election, coun-
cillor, S.I., 153.
Sneyd colliery, Cockshead seam, coal and
gas outbursts, 324.
Society of Arts, quoted, 278.
Societt of Chemical Industrt, quoted,
456.
— peroxide, use in determining calorific
values, 285.
Songuldac, Asia Minor, coal-shipping
port, 711.
SoPwiTH, S. F., boilers for collitry pur-
pones, 167.
— , Hamlty cage-ffuardian, 168.
— , hidden coal'Jields of Midlands, 268.
S'Ortu Bcciu mine, Sardinia, tungsten-
minerals, 686.
South Africa, Alps and, structural
geology compared, 552.
> gold-fields, Witwatersrand and
New Rand compared, 634.
, labour question, 5o3.
, Orange River Colony, New Rand
gold-field, 530.
, structural geology, notes on, 540.
, , summary of conclusions,
556.
— Kirkby colliery, wire-rope guides,
clearance, 114.
South Levkl Drain aoi and Navigation
Commissioners, quoted, 354, 355.
South Wales Institute of Engineers,
quoted, 330, 331.
Spaarfeuerungs Gesellsghaft, Dussel-
dorf, quoted, 649.
Spain, .Almeria, ore-deposits, 690.
— , Huelva, pyrites deposits, 704.
Speir, David, election, S.I., 236.
Spektralny gold-mine, Siberia, 715.
bquare-work system of working thick
coal, 520.
Staffordshire, north, coal and gas out-
bursts, 313.
— , — , coal-fields, 30.
--, ~, , extensions, 41, 48.
— , — , coal-measures, divisions, 30, 31.
— , - , underground fiies, 86.
— , south, and east Warwickshire coal-
fields, correlation, 271.
— , — , coal-fields, extensions, 28, 45, 46,
263.
— , — , coal-measures, divisions, 32.
— , — , gob-fires and methods of working,
524.
— , — , ten-yards seam, method of work-
ing, 513.
Stanniferous deposits, Bavaria, Fich-
telgebirge, 679.
Starunia, Austria, ozokerite, 535.
Staton & Company, J. C, quoted,
328.
Stators, Grand Homa colliery, electric
power-station, generators, 651, 652.
— , , winding-motors, 658.
Steam-consumption, collieries, economies
effected in, 339.
Steam - pipes, electric power • station.
Grand Homu, 650.
, , Park Royal, 638.
Steart, F. a., quoted, 550.
Stbavenson, C. H. , treatment of dust in
mines, 258.
Steel props and girders, economies effec-
ted by, 337.
Steel-rail guides for cages, 1 10.
■' — , costs, HI.
Steel rails, basic, use on North-eastern
railway, 666.
Stephenson, George, quoted, 386.
Sterra, Sicily, lead-and-zinc ores, 688.
Stevenson, H., Courri^res explosion, 127.
Stevenson, Thomas, heading by longwall
machines, 159.
Stobbs, J. T., Courriires explosion, 327.
— , outbursts of coal and gas, 320.
— , quoted, 28, 268.
Stokers, mechanical, boilers, electric
power-station. Grand Homu, 649.
—, — , — , , Park Royal, 641.
Stokes, A. H., Courri^res explosion, 128.
—, quoted, 125, 307, 308.
Stone, Tom, election, M.G., 277.
Stour valley coal-field, extensions, water-
bearing strata, 48.
Strafford Collieries Company, Limi-
ted, quoted, 209.
Strahan, Aubrey, quoted, 40.
Strata, loose, angles of repose, 603.
Streetly bore-hole, coal-measures at, 45,
262, 271.
Stretcher for use in mines, 1G2.
Strubbn, H. W., New Band gold- fidd, 531.
Structural geology of South Africa, notes
on, 540.— Discussion, 556.
Strzelecki, Percy, barometer, thermo-
meter, etc., readings for 1906, 7'25.
Stuart, Donald M. D., explosion at
Win gate Grange colliery, 183.
Stutzer, 0., (Jellivaara and Kiiruna-
vaara iron-ores, northern Sweden, 690.
— , graphite-deposits in Lapland, 693.
Styggedalen, Norway, barytes-vein, 690.
Su-ISuergiu antimony- mine, Sardinia, 686.
Sub-Wealden boring, Netherfield, 449,
452.
Sub.Wealden Gypsum Company, Limi-
ted, quoted, 449.
Subjects for papers, xviii.
Subsidence, mining leases and, 336.
— phenomena, gypsum-mines, Sussex,
469.
Suction - gas engines, electric winding
and, 54.
plants, air-lift pumps for water-
supply, 494, 495.
-, working costs, 341.
Sulaki river, Siberia, gold-placers, 717.
Sulatkitkan river, Siberia, gold-placers,
717.
SuLUVAN electric chain coal-cutting
machine, Gay Coal and Coke Company,
563. .
Sulphur, recovery from anhydrite, 458.
^ !
162
iNDEJC.
Saltanchair, Asia Minor, pandermite de-
posits, 709.
Sulzkb-Cabei;s valves, engines, electric
power-station, Grand Homu, 650.
Superheaters, Babcock & Wilcox boilers,
Park Royal power-station, 639.
— , Hering, t>oiIers, electric power-
station, Grand Hornn, 649.
Surface-condensing, advantages, .340.
Surface damages, mining leases and, 336.
— ownership, small holdings, minerals
and, 51.
Sussex, gypsum deposits 449.
SuTCUFFE, R., importance of scientific
mining in Bamsley district, 90. — Dis-
cussion, 99.
— , notes oil bye-product coke-oi'^nH, 421.
— , sinking by freezing- fn-oceJtSf 252.
— , treatment o/dtist in mines ^ 259.
Svappavara, Lapland, graphite-depoaits,
6i(3.
SvEDELius, G., quoted, 694.
SvENONirs, F. v., quoted, 693.
Sveta-Varvara gold-mines, Servia, 697-
SwAUX)w, F. C, boilers for colliery pur-
poses.—Discussion, 167.
— , thick coed of War^rickshirej 617.
Sweden, northern, Gellivaaraand Kiinzn-
avaara iron-ores, 690.
Switchboards, electric power - station ,
Grand Homu, 6.'>4.
—, , Park Royal, 637.
— , Polmaise collieries, 240.
— , , underground, 241, 246.
Switzerland, Gadlimo, silver - bearing
galena, 707.
Synchronizing omnibus.bars, interlock-
ing. Park Royal power-station, 637.
T.
Tacheograph, Karlik, electric winding-
engines. Grand Homu coUierv, 661.
Takhtyga river, Siberia, gold-placers,
715.
Talc-deposits, Korea, 713.
Tallberget, Lapland, graphite-deposits,
693.
Tamarack copper-mines, depth of work-
ings, 266.
Tanganyika Concessions, Limited,
quoted, 721.
Tanoye engine, coal-crushing plant. Clay
Cross, 388.
Tankersley rescue - station, duration -
tests, results, 233.
, experience gained, 212.
, rescue-work trials by men from,
209.
Tantalum electric lamps, Preesall salt-
mine, 297.
Tar, recovery of, coking - plant. Clay
Cross, 396.
Taratan or horse-gin, 527.
Tarbrax electric winding-plant, test, 52.
Tate, W., quoted, 123, 568, 571.
Taylor, Hu«h Frank, election, M.G.,
290.
Taylor, Neil, election, N.E., 179.
Tectonic influences, geology. South
Africa, 540.
Telford, Thomas, quoted, 380.
Temperature rise with depth, 266.
Terrace-gold, placer deposits, Finnish
Lapland, 694.
Teutbnbbrg, William, election, N.E.,
250.
Thames and Medway canal, severing of,
353.
Thames Conservancy Board, quoted,
378.
Thames Valley Drainage Commission-
ers, quoted, 353.
Tharsis, Spain, ore-deposits, 705.
Thermometer readings for 1906, 725.
Thick coal, desiderata in working of,
528.
— — , single-room system of working,
558.
of Warwickshire, 502.— Discussion,
513.
, method of working, 507.
Thin coal, Bamsley district, considera-
tions afiectine working of, 91 el seq,
Thibkell, E. W., mining in Bamsley
district, 99.
Thomas, Gordon, improvements required
in inland navigation, .367.
Thompson, A., electrically-driven air-
compressors combined with working of
Ingersoll- Sergeant heading-machines.
— Discussion, 501.
Thompson, Errington, election, N.E.,
250.
Thompson, Fbedk. J., rock-salt deposits
at Preesall, Fleetwood, and mining
operations therein, 291.— Discussion,
298.
Thompson, (i. R., application of dupii-
cate.fans to mines, 435.
— , quoted, 209.
— , ?M€ and care of oxygen-breathing
apparatus, 222.
Thomson, A. T., guides for cages, 115.
Thomson, John B. , tests of a mine-fan.
— Discussion, 58, 155.
Tho.mson, Thomas, election, vice-
president, S.I., 153.
— , heading by longicall machines, 159.
Thunilthan river, eastern Siberia, gold-
placer, 720.
Tidal variations in water-level, shaft-
sinking, 252.
Timber for guides for cages, 109.
— in goaves, eob-fires and, 518.
Timbering, Boryslaw ozokerite - mine,
537.
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TiMMis, G. H., quoted, 266.
Timok, Servia, gold-fields, 695, 697.
Tiiusbary colliery explosion, cause, 12S,
184, 195.
Tin-ores, Congo Free State, Katanga,
722.
Tinstone, Bavaria, Fichtelgebirge, 679.
Tirpersdorf, Saxony, tungsten-ores, 682.
Toba or ferruginous conglomerate, 706.
Todd, David, quoted, 235.
Todd, J. T., CourrUres explosion, 127.
Todtmoos, Baden, nickel-ore mines, 678.
ToiT, A. L. DU, quoted, 547.
Tokad, Asia Minor, copper-ores, 711.
Torque, coal-cutting machines and, 446.
Traag, Norway, blende- and galena-
deposits, 689.
Trades disputes act, quoted, 334.
Transformers, electric power - station,
Grand Homu, 65.').
Travelling-troughs, haulage at face. 663.
Treasurers, xi.
Trebizonde, Asia Minor, copper-ores,
711.
Tredegar colliery explosion, watering,
effect, 134.
Trent and Mersey canal, 352.
Troitschendorf, Silesia, brown-coal de-
posits, 674.
Trough coal- washers, 139.
Troussart, E., electric transmission of
S»wer at works and collieries of Grand
omu, Belgium. 647.
Truskawiec, Austria, ozokerite, 535.
Tshentsintai coal-mine, southern Man-
churia, 712.
Tubbing, cast - iron, bitumen - asphalt
preservative, 620.
— , — -, casting imperfections, 598.
— , , collapse versus crushing, 584.
— , , composition for preserving,
122, 680.
— , , corrosion, effect of back-lining,
579.
— , , — , rate of, 624.
— , , corrosive energy, 607.
— , , earth-pressures, 600.
— , , formula for thickness, 123,567,
664.
cylmders, 569, 581.
et Heq.
corrosion and, 570
deduction without
calculus, 607.
, life of, 570.
, Methley Junction colliery, 120.
— — , Preesall salt-mine, 293.
, ribs and flanges, 583 et seq.
, variation in strength of raw
material, 571.
, wedging, disadvantages, 691.
, — , iron wedges, use criticised,
628.
and steel compared, 620.
shafts, pressure on, 567.
Tube-mills, grinding cement-clinker in.
Knight, Bevan & Sturge works, 644.
Tube- wells, artesian bored, water sup-
plies, 473.
, driven, 480.
, testing of, 483.
Tubes, artesian wells, 476.
Tubs, difficulties due to non -conformity
in sizes, 96.
— , watering of, 254.
Tungsten-ores, Italy, Sardinia, Cag-
liari, 686.
, Saxony, 682.
Tunnel driving, freezing-process, U.S. A.,
197.
Tuollavaara, Sweden, iron-ores, 690, 691.
Turbine engine, comparison with reci-
procating engines for generating elec-
tricity, 54.
, rolmaise collieries, 240.
, , ventilating fan, 241.
, steam-consumption, 3.39.
Turbine-pumps, Pofmaise collieries, 242.
Turner, Thomas, lesls of a miiie-fan,
58.
Tntbury gypsum -mines and plaster-mills,
vist to, N.S., 328.
Tutz-Chollii, Asia Minor, salt deposits,
709.
Tutz-Kioi, Asia Minor, salt - deposits,
710.
TwEDDBLL, Georoi, election, N.E.,250.
Tyldesley rescue-station, 277.
U.
United Alkali Company, Limited,
Preesall salt-mine, 291.
United Kingdom, coal output, 340.
, - aod fatul ncciUents, 332.
, = y&r muiJ, 5G5.
— — , dc»tiia frotu falls tif roof and side,
333.
, navigable iiiknd wiii4*rwa)^8, 347.
U.S.A., freezing process^ ftpplicatiouit,
197.
U.S.A., Michigan, Tamarack copper-
mine, depth of workings, 266.
— , Pittsburg, coal - output per man,
565.
— , West Virginiti., uuiil- mining, miirketai
566.
— , ^ lougwall workmgSf ailaptatJott
of, 558,
UnwiKj W. C, quoteil, 5^'l, 5S5,
596.
764
INDEX.
Vacha river, Siberia, gold -placers, 715.
Val d'Orco, Italy, graphite • deposits,
685.
Val di Lanzo, Italy, graphite, 683.
Valleys, Alpine, origin of, 552.
Van Khynsdorp, South Africa, geology,
547.
Van *t Hoff, J. H., quoted, 467.
Vena contracta, fan orifices and, 61.
Ventilation, air-splitting, coal-duflt ex-
plosions and, 124.
— , Boryslaw ozokerite-mine, 538.
— , cessation of working and, 444.
— , coal-dust question and, 184.
— , Courri^res collieries, criticism of, 308.
- J duplicate fans, 431.
— , extensive workings, 343.
— , fan-tests, 58, 155.
— , Grand Homu colliery, 662.
— > gypfium-mines, Sussex, 467.
— , Folmaise collieries, 241, 246.
— , Preesall salt-mine, 297.
— , restoration after explosions, 222.
— , reversal by gob-fire, 81.
Vbrnok-Habcoubt, L. F., improvement^t
required in iiilaiid natngcUioHf 365.
Veta, Servia, mineral deposits, 696.
Vice-presidents, election, S.I., 153. .
, list, X.
ViCKEBS, Sons k Maxtm, Limited, Erith,
artesian tube well, 487.
Vimioacium, Roman workings, gold-
fields, Servia, 696.
Virgen de la Pena, Spain, Huelva,
I pyrites-deposita, 707.
Virginiar, West, adaptation of longwall
method of working coal, 558.
VooT, J. H. L., blende- and galena,
deposits of Traag, Norway, 689.
— , quoted, 704.
Voigtland, Saxony, tongsten-ores, 68*2.
VoiT, F. W., quoted, 547.
Vratamica, Servia, gold-fields, 697.
Vredefort granite - mass, denudation,
549.
, influence on strata, 542.
— mountain-land, South Africa, geology,
541.
•W.
Waddle fans, duplicate, experiments
with, 434.
Waghobn, —, quoted, 378.
Wain, E. B., Uourri^es explosion, 303,
326.
Walet, Fbedbrick Gbobge, election,
N.E., 1.
Walkeb, G. Blake, quoted, 215.
Walkeb, Henry, election, N.E., 250:
Walkeb, Sydney F., application of
duplicate fans to mines^ 434.
— , quoted, 578.
-=-, thick coed of Warwickshire^ 517.
Walker, W., ff^uides for cages, 114.
— , tnining in Bamsley district, 102.
-, quoted, 209.
ii^allse
Wallsend colliery, effect of mine-waters
on cast-iron, 577.
Ward, Thomas H., thick coal of War-
wickshire^ 52.3.
Wabdle, Robert, election, N.K., 180.
Warwickshire coal-field, east, and south
Staffordshire coal-fields, correlation,
271, 513.
, extensions, 43, 271.
, strata, 32.
, thick coal-seam, 502.
, , characteristics, 528.
, , method of working,
507.
Washington chemical works, establishing
of, 665.
Wassel Grove colliery, coal-measures, 45.
Waste-gases, coke - ovens, beehive,
utilization, 386.
, , regenerators and, 402, 412.
Waste-heat coke-ovens, Koppers, 403-
VVater, bye- product coking-plant. Clay
Cross, quantity required, 396.
— , cost of, 474.
— , from bore-hole, Lancashire, Preesall,
292.
~, gypsum-mines, difficulties with, 461.
— , shaft-sinking, Polmaise collieries,
238.
— , underground supplies, temperature,
474.
— for boilers, gypsum-mines, distillation,
463.
colliery boilers, 339.
, purification of, costs, 339.
Water - gauges, ventilation!, extensive
areas, 343, 344.
, — , Grand Homu colliery, 662.
, — , measurement by Pi tot tubes,
60.
Water-rights, canal authorities and, 353.
Water-soltening plant, Park Royal
power-station, 639.
Water-sprays, gob-fires and, 518.
Water-supplies, list of strata yielding,
477.
by means of artesian bored tube-
wells, 473. —Discussion, 497.
pumping, 473.
from bore-holes, methods of in-
creasing, 484.
Water-tube boilers, economies effected
by, 338.
Waterhouse, Fbank H., election, M.I.,
208.
Watebhouse, M. W., thick coal of War-
wickshirCf 518.
Watering in mines, 190 e^ seq.
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INDEX.
765
Watering in mines, coal-dnst treatment,
new system, 264.
, effect in hot pits, 188.
, — on roads, 306, 333.
, explosions and, 129, 131, 134,
136.
, injurious effects, 257 et seq.
Waterways, inland, Elngland and Wales,
347.
— , — navigation, classification, 356.
— , , improvements required, me-
thods suggested, 355.
Watson, Edwasd, thick coed of Warxciclc-
nhirty 526.
Watson, Pkbcy Houston Swann, elec-
tion, M.G.,277.
Watson, Thomas, Jun., election, N.E.,
250.
Watts, Hubebt, election, N.E., 250.
Wearmouth colliery, shafts, 275.
Weg rescue-apparatus, trials, 209.
Weinschbnk, E., nickeliferous magnetic
pyrites of Black'Forest, Baden, 677.
— , quoted, 684.
Weissenstadt, Bavaria, tin-mining, 679.
Wells, artesian, 473.
— , surface, contamination of, 473, 475.
Wen KEN BACH, F., quoted, 680.
Werlau, Prussia, Gute Hoffnung mine,
white dykes, 680.
West Ham Cokporation, water-supply
for works, 479.
West Riding collieries, cage-lowering
tables, 174.
, visit to, M.I., 205.
Westinghouse generators, electric
power-station, Knight, Bevan k Sturge
cement works, 646.
Westphalia, coal-measures, posidonia
becheri in, 675.
Wbtzig, Bruno, Huelvapyrites-deposits,
Spain, 704.
Whabncliffe Silkstonb Colliery
Company, Limited, quoted, 209.
White-metal capels for winding-ropes,
343.
White's works, Birmingham, artesian
tube-well, 487.
Whitwood collieries, duplicate Capcll
fans at, 438, 439.
Willesden, air-lift pumping in bore-hole
for water-supply, 485.
WiLLETT, Henry, quoted, 449.
WiUiIAM-Thomson calorimeter, 285.
Williams, Foster, election, N.E., 180.
Williams, Isaac, election, N.E., 179.
Williams, Thomas, election, M.G., 290.
Willis, Henry Stevenson, election,
N.E., 250.
Wilson, J. R. R., mining in Bamdey
district, 99.
— , quoted, 209.
— , use and care of oxygen-breathing
apparattis, 222.
Wilson, William, election, N.E., 250.
! WiNBORN, A. T., use and care ofoxygen-
breaihing apparatus, 223.
Wind-gauges, experiments at Forth
bridge, 62.
Winding, cage-lowering tables. New
Moss colliery, 174.
— , cages, safety device for, 164, 168.
— , deep shafts, 343.
— , electric, determination of accelera-
tion, 657.
— , — , emergency arrangements. Grand
Hornu colliery, 653.
— , — and steam compared, 53 et aeq,
— , Preesall salt-mine, 296.
Winding - engines, Boryslaw ozokerite-
mine, 637.
, electric. Grand Hornu colliery,
656.
, — , safety-appliances, Grand Hor-
nu colliery, 660.
, gas, Sub-Wealden Gypsum Com-
pany, Limited, 465.
, improvements in, 339.
, Polmaise collieries, 240, 246.
Winding.plaut, Grand Hornu colliery.
657.
1 gypaum-mines, Sussex, 467.
, Tarbrax electric, test, 52.
Winding-ropes, deep-mining, 343.
, locked-coil, Wombwell Main col
liery, 116.
, Polmaise collieries, .240, 246.
Winding torques, effect of acceleratioi
on, 52.
Wingate Grange colliery explosion, 130
304, 305, 309.
, cause, 134.
-f discussion on, 183.
Winstanley, G. H., cage-lowering tables
178.
— , liquid air and its use in rescue-appar
atus, 171.
Wire rope guides for cages, 104, 111.
, cost, 112.
, effect of safety-device on
166.
^ — j fixing of, 105.
, , clamp for, 113.
, life, 105, 111. .
, vibration, cause, 115.
Witley colliery, coal-field extensions
266.
Witwatersrand, folding of strata, 552.
— , ffeoloffy, 530.
Wolframite, Saxony, 682.
— , — , minerals associated with, 683.
Wombwell Main colliery, winding-shaft
equipment, 116.
Wonliari.ia»sky, W. von, quoted, 71fl
Wood, E. Seymour, sinking througi
ma^nesian limestone and yellow sant
by freezing process at Dawdon colliery
near Seaham Harbour, county Dui
ham.— Discussion, 197, 251.
— , treaiment of dust in mines, 257.
766
^/^/
INDEX.
Wood, Georob, election, N.E., 180.
Wood, NiCHOijiS, quoted, 201.
Wood, Robert, election, N.E., 179.
Wood, W. O., quoted, 567, 579, 580,
591, 592.
WooDWORTH, B., gob' fire in Shropshire
mine, 84.
Worcester, east, water-works, pumping-
W plant, 492.
0RD8W0RTH, T. H., cage-loweriug
tables at New Moss colliery, 174. —
Discussion, 177.
Working, methods of, Boryslaw ozok-
erite-mine, 5.37.
, Freehold colliery, 79.
, heading by longwall machines,
9.
, iron-ores, Spain, Almeria, 702.
, Lens collieries, No. 7 pit, 198.
, metal-mines, Spain, 700.
, rock-salt, Preesall, 295.
, Siberia, Akmolinsk, 527.
, thick coal of Warwickshire,
507.
Working of mines, notes of colonial and
foreign papers on, 673.
Workmen's clubs, collieries, benefits
arising from, 345.
— compensation act, quoted, 334.
WoRTHisr.TON pumps, feed - water,
boilers, electric power-station. Grand
Homu, 650.
, Polmaise collieries, 2-^, 246.
Wrought iron, effect of mine-water on,
577.
WCsT, EwALD, kaolin-deposits of Halle-
an-der-Saale, Saxony, 676.
Wyken colliery. Ell coal-seam at, 504.
, thick coal-seam at, 502.
, thickness of coal at, 263.
Wynne, F. H., Goun-iiren exjifosion^ 309,
326.
— I gob'firt in Shropshire mifie, 84.
— , outbursta of coal and ga^, 324.
Wynne, George Reynolds, election,
M.G., 282.
Wynne, T. Trafford, quoted, 328, 458,
472.
Yakovlbv, N. , manganif erous and other
ore deposits of Nizhnc-Tagilsk, Russia,
695.
Yassnyi gold-placer, Siberia, 718.
Yavorovsky, p., E. Ahnert, M. M.
IvANOFF, A, Khlaponin and P. Rtppas,
gold-bearing regions of Siberia, 714.
Yorkshire, Barnsley district, mining
in, 90.
— , coal-fields, extensions, 39.
— , south, Barnsley district, workable
seams, 92.
— , — , workablie seams, lower coal-
measures, 9S.
Zeia river, Siberia, gold-placers, 716.
Zell, Prussia, metalliferous belt, 680.
Zhivak or native gold amalgam, 696.
Zinc, output, Servia, Kucajna mines,
697.
Zinc -blende, Norway, Traag, 689.
, Prussia, Hesse-Nassau, 680.
, Saxony, western Erzgebirge, 681.
Zinc-blende, Sicily, 680.
Zinc-ores, ancient mining and, 708.
Zinnwald, Saxony, tungsten -ores, 683.
Zittau, Saxony, brown-coal deposits, 674.
Zlot-Brestovac, Servia, gold associated
with chalcopyrite, 697.
Zwartebergen-poort, South Africa, fold-
ing of strata, 550.
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