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TRANSACTIONS 


THE  FEDERATED  INSTITUTION 


OP 


MINING  ENGINEERS. 


VOL.  V-1892-93. 


Edited  by  M.  WALTON  BROWN,  Secretary. 


(£K© 

NBWCAflTLE-UPON-TyNB :   PUBLISHED  BY   THE   INSTITUTION. 

Pbinted  by  Andbew  Rbid,  Sons  &  Co.,  Newoabtlb-upon-Tynb. 

1893. 

lAU  rights  of  publication  or  tramlation  are  reserved.'] 


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N -8.1^36 


DEC^/1907 


ADVBRTIZBMENT. 

The  Institution  is  not  responsible,  as  a  body,  for  the  statements, 
facts,  and  opinions  advanced  in  any  of  its  publications. 


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CONTENTS  OF  VOL.  V. 


PAOV. 

PAQB. 

Adybbtizement 

...  •     ii 

List  of  Membebs     ... 

XTii 

CONTKNTS            

...    ■  iii 

HoNOBABY  Membebs 

...       xvU 

Bye-Laws        

X 

Membebs         

...       xviii 

0FPICBB8 

xvi 

Non-Fedebated 

...      xWii 

GENBBAL    MBETINaS. 


Fedebated  Inbtitutiok  of  Mining  Enoinbebs. 

PAGB. 

Jpne    l.—Qeneral  Meeting  (London)                1 

Prizes      1 

Presidential  Address ,        2 

Discussion            ...        9 

"  Spontaneous  Combustion  in  Coal-mines.**    By  Joel  Settle      ...  10 

Discussion            18 

"  Mining  in  New  Zealand.    Part  III.— Coal-mining."    By  George 

J.  Binns          SI 

Discnssion            80 

"  Fire-setting :  the  Art  of  Mining  by  Fire."    By  Arthur  L.  Collins  82 

Discussion            88 

**  Notes  upon  a  Practical  Method  of  Ascertaining  the  Value  or 

Price  to  be  paid  for  Zinc  Mineral.**    By  H,  D.  Hoekold     ...  03 

June    2. — General  Meeting  (London)     105 

**  The  Correlation  of  the  Coal-fields  of  Northern  Franoe  and 

Southern  England.**    By  Marcel  Bertrand        106 

Discussion           126 

"  The  Work  of  the  Geological  Survey.**    By  Sir  Archibald  Gdkie  142 

Discussion           167 

-     **  Auriferous  Conglomerates  of  the  Wltwatersrandt.**    By  F.  G. 

Shaw 169 

Discussion                      177 

•*  The  Support  of  Buildings**    By  W.  Spencer       188 

Discussion            197 

*<  Rapid  Traverser.**    By  James  Henderson           199 

«  On  Earth  Pulsations  and  Mine  Gas.**    By  John  Milne 208 

Discussion            ^.  219 

Excursions,  etc.  :— 

The  Westminster  Electric  Supply  Corporation       220 

Gas  Light  and  Coke  Company 227 

Messrs.  Maudslay,  Sons,  k,  Field,  Limited 230 


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IV  CONTENTS. 

PAOS 

Ghbstbbfield  and  Midland  Counties  Institution  of  Enoinbebs. 
1893. 

April    8.— General  Meeting  (Sheffield) 365 

Alteration  of  Bules      366 

Nominations  for  Election  of  Officers           356 

Representatives  on  the  Council  of  the  Federated  Institution  of 

Mining  Engineers 358 

July     1.— Annual  General  Meeting  (Chesterfield)      443 

Report  of  the  Council 444 

Accounts            448 

Discussion 452 

Election  of  Officers,  1893-94 455 

Representatives  on  the  Council  of  the  Federated  Institution  of 

Mining  Engineers 455 

Presidential  Address 457 

Discussion            461 

**A  Safety-lamp  with  Standard  Alcohol-flame  Adjustment,  for  the 
Detection  and  Estimation  of  Small  Percentages  of  Inflammable 

Gas."    By  A.  H.  Stokes       462 

Discussion           468 

•*  An  Improved  Water-gauge.'*    By  A.  H.  Stokes 474 

Excursions,  etc. : — 

Grassmoor  Collieriefl      477 

Memoirs  of  Deceased  Members         480 

Chesterfield  akd  Midland  Counties  Institution  of  Enginbbbs,  and 

Midland  Institute  of  Mining,  Civil,  and  Mechanical  Enginbebs. 
1893. 

April   8.— Joint  Meeting  (Sheffield)        359 

**  Arrangements  for  Sinking  to  the  Whinmoor  Seam  from  the 
Silkstone  Seam  at  the  Tankersley  Collieries.'*    By  W.  Hoole 

Chambers       360 

Discussion  363 

'*  A  Combined  Centre-line  Appiaratus."    By  William  Foulstone  ...        364 

Discussion  366 

Discussion  on  Prof.  F.  Clowes*  paper  on  *' A  Portable  Safety-lamp 
with  Ordinary  Oil  Illuminating  Flame,  and  Standard  Hydrogen 

Flame  for  Accurate  and  Delicate  Gas-testing  " 867 

The  Royal  Commission  on  Royalty  Rents  and  Way  leaves  ...        870 

Excursions,  etc. : — 

Rotherham  Main  Colliery        871 


Midland  Institute  of  Mining,  Civil,  and  Mechanical  Enginbbbs. 
1893. 

April    8.— General  Meeting  (Sheffield) 373 

June  24. — General  Meeting  (Leeds)        374 

Discussion  upon  Prof.  F.  Clowes*  paper  on  "  A  Portable  Safety- 
lamp  with  Ordinary  Oil  Illuminating  Flame,  and   Standard 
Hydrogen  Flame  for  Accurate  and  Delicate  Gas-testing"      ...        374 
Discussion  upon  Mr.  E.  Brown*s  paper  on  **  Experiments  upon 

two  Guibal  Fans  at  St.  John*s  Colliery,  Nonnanton.**         •••        376 
Friction-clutches  378 


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CONTENTS.  V 

PAOB. 

Midland  Inbtitutb  of  Miking,  Civil,  and  Mechanical 
1893.  EiSGlNEKB&.—Cimtiniied. 

July   26.— Annual  General  Meeting  (Barnsley) 483 

The  Ck)uncir8  Annual  Beport 484 

Acoounts...         486 

Discussion 488 

Classification  of  Members       ...  488 

Election  of  Officers      490 

Representatiyes  on  the  Council  of  the  Federated  Institution  of 

Mining  Engineers     491 

Miners*  Safety-lamps 491 


NoBTH  OP  England  Institute  of  Mining  and  Mechanical  Engineers. 
1893. 

June  10.— General  Meeting  (Newcastle-upon-Tyne) 281 

"  The  Gold-bearing  Veins  of  the  Organos  District,  Tolima,  U.S. 

Colombia."    By  Edward  Halse      233 

Discussion  249 

•*  Manometric  Efficiency  of  Fans."    By  the  Rev.  G.  M.  Capell  ...        252 

Discussion  265 

DiscoBsion  upon  Prof.  F.  Clowes'  paper  on  "A  Portable  Safety- 
lamp,  with  Ordinary  Oil  Illuminating  Flame,  and  Standard 
Hydrogen  Flame  for  Accurate  and  Delicate  Gas- testing"     ...        265 
"  The  Choice  of  Coarse  and  Fine-crushing  Machinery  and  Pro- 
cesses of  Ore  Treatment,  Part  III.— Silver."  By  A.  G.  Charleton        271 


NoBTH  Staffoadshibb  Institute  of  Mining  and  Mechanical 
1893.  Snginebbs. 

Mar.  20.— General  Meeting  (S toke-upon-Trent)  419 

"  Electric  Lighting  and  Transmission  of  Power."  By  W.  M.  Mordey        420 

Discussion  422 

April  lO.—General  Meeting  (Stoke-upon-Trent)  424 

Discussion  upon  Mr.  E.  B.  Wain's  paper  on  **The  Longwall 
Method  of  Working  as  applied  to  Seams  of  Moderate  Incli- 
nation in  North  Staffordshire  "     424 

**  The  Lockett  and  Goagh  Direct-acting  Pump."  By  James  Lockett 

and—Gough 431 

Discussion  432 

May     8.— General  Meeting  (Stoke-upon-Trent)  433 

"  The  Use  of  Petroleum,  Paraffin,  and  other  Mineral  Oils  Under- 
ground."   By  W.  N.  Atkinson        434 

Discussion  436 

Discussion  on  Messrs.  Lockett  and  Gough's  paper  on  *'  The 
Lockett  and  Gough  Direct-acting  Pump  "  489 


South  Staffobdshibe  and  East  Wobcbstebshibe  Institute  of 
1893.  Mining  Engineebs. 

April  13. — General  Meeting  (Birmingham)        379 

Revision  of'Rules         379 

*' Notes  on  an  Earth  Explosion  or  *  Bump  *  at  Hamstead  Colliery." 

By  F.  G.  Meachem 381 


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VI 


CONTENTS. 


SouTfl  Staffobdshibb  and  East  Wobgbstbbshibb  Ikstitutb  of 
Mining  ^vQnsKsaB.^Cantinued, 
1893. 
April  13.—**  Engineeriog  Scraps  in  Australian  Coal-mining."  By  W.  £.  Benton       886 

Discussion  ,.       ...        888 

June    8. — (General  Meeting  (Birmingham)        390 

"  Description  of  Mining  Relics  found  at  the  Heath  End  Colliery  "        891 
"The  Spontaneous  Combustion  of  Coal."    By  Herbert  W.  Hughes        392 

July     3. — Special  General  Meeting  (Birmingham)       409 

Discussion  upon  Mr.  H.  W.  Hughes'  paper  on  '*  The  Spontaneous 

Combustion  of  Coal "  .       ...        409 

**  Description  of  the  South  Dyff ryn  and  Abercanaid  Collieries." 

By  B.J.  Bailey  416 


APPENDICES. 
I. — Barometer,  Thermometer,  etc.,  Readings  for  the  Tear  1892. 
Walton  Brown        


By  M. 


II. — Report  of  the  Prussian  Fire-damp  Commission     

II. — Scientific  and  Technical  Enquiries     

.   B.  The  Means  and  Methods  of  Combating  Fire-damp       

I. — Recognition  of  Fire-damp 

II. — Mechanical  or  Chemical  Elimination  of  the  Gases  which 

form  Fire-damp      

III. — Fire-damp  rendered  Innocuous  by  Mechanical  Dilution 

1.  General  Arrangement  of  the  Workings — Opening  up 

of  the  Seams,  Fore-winning,  and  Working 

2.  Ventilation  of  Mines       

I V. — Precautionary  Measures  against  Explosion  s       

1.  General  Observations      

2.  Lighting  of  the  Pit         

3.  Use  of  Explosives 

4.  With  regard  to  Coal-dust  

5.  Other  Measures 

v.— Life-saving  after  an  Explosion      

III. — Practically  Applicable  Conclusions  and  Suggestions  

1.  From  the  Technical  Point  of  View  

Principles  to  be  Observed  in  Fiery  Mines        

2.  From  the  Legal  and  Cognate  Points  of  View      

III. — Notes  of  Papers  on  the  Working  of  Mines,  Metallurgy,  etc.,  from  the 
Transactions  of  Foreign  Societies  and  Foreign  Publications  ... 

**  The  Assaying  of  Antimony  Ores."    By  Ad.  Camot         

"  Fuveau  Lignite  Coal-field,  France."    By  —  Oppermann 

**  The  Deep  Adit-level  in  the  Fuveau  Lignite  Coal-field,  France." 

By — Domage         

*'  The  Valdonne  Collieries  (Fuveau  Basin)."    By  L.  Valla 

**  Peat  in  Transylvania"    By  Georg  Primics  ..,        

"  Italian  Fossil  Fuels."    By  P.  Toso 

**  The  Boleo  Copper-mines,  Mexico."    By  Edouard  Saladin 

*The  Copper  Region  of  Michigan."    By  F.  B.  Phelps       

**  The  Underground  Fire  at  the  Lake  Superior  Mine,  Ispheming, 
Michigan."    By  J.  Parke  Channing 


493 

500 
600 
600 
500 

504 
607 

608 
614 
535 
536 
687 
589 
543 
544 
645 
547 
547 
547 
552 

655 
555 
555 

567 
557 
559 
560 
661 
663 

663 


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CONTENTS.  Vii 

P'AQK 

Appendices.— Continued, 
III. — Notes  of  Papers  on  the  Working  of  Mines,  Metidlurgy,  etc. — Continued, 
"  Ontbursts  of  Carbonic  Acid  Gkts  at  the  Rochebelle  Collieries^ 

France."    By  0.  Lange 564 

*<  Origin  and  Distribution  of  Gold  and   Platinum,  North  Coast 

Beaches,  New  South  Wales."    By  J.  W.  Archibald    566 

« The  Mount  Morgan  Mine,  Queensland"    By  T.  A.  Rickard       ...  565 

"  Infusorial  Earth."    By  G.  Petit       567 

**  Jade  in  Upper  Burma"    By  Fritz  Noetling          567 

"Improvements  in  Copper  Smelting."    By  E.  D.  Peters,  Jud.     ...  667 

"  Manganese  in  the  United  States."    By  R.  A.  F.  Penrose,  Jun. ...  567 

.  '*  The.RusseU  Process  at  the  Sombrerete  Mill."     By  E.  H.  Russell  668 
**  The  Practical  Chlorination  of  Gold-ores,  and  the  Precipitation 

of  Gold  from  Solution."    By  John  E.  Bothwell          670 

•*  The  Chlorination  of  Gold-ores."    By  J.  H.  Burfeind      571 

«  Lead-ores  of  Mazarr6n,  Spain."    Bj  ¥,  B.  Villasante    ...        ...  672 

"  Mica  Mines  of  Carolina,  U.S.A."    By  C.  Hanford  Henderson  ...  573 
"  The  Magnetic  Ore-concentration  Works  at  Maiem,  Tirol."    By 

Josef  BUlek • ...  574 

"The  Conkling  Magnetic  Ore-concentrator."    By  F.  H.  McDowell  576 

**  Magnetic  Concentration  of  Iron-ore."     By  Harvey  S.  Chase    ...  676 

"  The  Treatment  of  Tailings  by  the  Llihrig  System."  By  O.  Bilharz  677 

"  Maros  Washing-table."    By  —  EflE6re         578 

"  Rigaud  Cradle  for  Washing  AUuvials."     By  —  Kff^re 678 

"  Castelnau  System  of  Ore-dressing."    By  F.  Desquiens 579 

"  Recent  Gold-milling   Practice  in   Nova  Scotia."    By  John  E. 

Hardman      579 

*•  Mining  in  Sardinia."    By  —  de  Launay    ...        ^ 580 

•*  Mining  in  Sardinia."    By  — Marx 581 

**  Ore-mining  in  Servia."     By  F.  B.  Pf  eiffer 582 

"  Mining  and  Metallurgy  in  Chili."    By  Ch.  Vattier         683 

**  Progress  of  the  Metallurgy  of  Nickel."    By  D.  Levat     685 

"The  Production  of  Nickel."    By  J.  H.  L.  Vogt     588 

"  Nickel  Mines  of  New  Caledonia."    By  F61U  Benoit       689 

"  Production  of  Nickel  in  the  United  States."     By  W.  R.  Ingalls  590 

"  The  Huanchaca  Mines,  Bolivia."    By  Robert  Peele,  Jun.          ...  691 

"  Phosphates  in  Canada."    By  R.  W.  Ells     692 

"  Phosphates  in  Florida,  United  States  "  :— 

(1)  By  Floyd  B.  Wilson 593 

(2)  By  Walter  B.  M.  Davidson 593 

" Naphtha  in  Austrian  Galicia."     By  Claudius  Angermann         ...  595 

"Petroleum  in  France."    By  P.  Dubreuil  and  J.  de  Clercy        ...  695 
"Geology  of  the  Caucasian  (Baku)  Naphtha  Region."    ByHj. 

Sjogren         696 

"  The  Petroleum  Industry  of  Baku."    By  A,  Leproux       596 

"  Naphtha  in  the  Caucasus."    Anon 599 

•*  Petroleum  in  India": — 

(1)  By  R.  D.  Oldham         600 

(2)  By  Tom  D.  La  louche            600 

0$)  By  Thomas  H.  Holland          601 

(4)  By  Thomas  H.  Holland          601 


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VUl  CX)NTBNTS. 

PAUB. 

AvPEVxyiOES,— Continued. 
Ill, — Notes  of  Papew  on  the  Working  of  Mines,  Metalluigy,  etc. — Continued, 

«' Petroleum  in  Persia."     By  J.  de  Morgan 601 

"  Bafety-catch  for  Pump  Spears."    By  J.  Sprenger 602 

"Buraah  Ruby  Mines."    By  Fritz  Noetling           603 

"Bxperiments  with   Safety-lamps."    By  the  French  Fire-damp 

Commission 603 

"  The  Cuvelier  Lock  for  Safety-lamps.*'    By  Joseph  Goffin         ...  606 

"  Relighting  Safety-lamps  in  Collieries."    By  Joseph  Goffin        ...  607 

*' Tommasl  Electric  Safety-lamp."    By  D.  Tommasi          608 

"TheWolf  Benzine  Safety-lamp."    By  P 608 

"Salt-mining  in  the  Austrian  Alps."    By  August  Aigner 608 

"  Salt  Industry  in  Italy."     By  F.  B 610 

"  The  Salt  Lakes  of  South- Western  Siberia."    By  R.  Helmhacker  61 1 

"  The  Broken  Hill  Mines,  New  South  Wales."    By  E.  F.  Pittman  611 

'*  Drainage  of  Sinking  Shafts  :  Tomson  System."    By  A.  de  V.  ...  612 

**  The  Poetsch  Method  of  Sinking."    By  W.  Schulz            613 

"  Coal-screening  in  the  United  States,"    By  Bckley  B.  Coxe       ...  615 

"  Miners'  Changing  and  Wash-houses."    By  —  Fabian    617 

•*  Sulphur  on  Pit-heaps."    By  A.  Cocheteux            617 

"  The  Sulphur-mines  of  Altavilla-Irpina,  Italy."    By  W.  Deecke  618 

**  Machine  for  Shaping  Mining  Timber."    By  Alfred  Mathien     ...  618 

"  Telethermometers."    By  Hans  Hartl          618 

"Centrifugal  Ventilators."    By  R.  Van  A.  Norris 619 

IV.—"  The  Education  of  Mining  Engineerd."    By  Prof.  J.  H.  Merivale      ...  623 

Appendix. — Educational  Institutions  where  Courses  of  Study  are 

provided  for  Mining  and  Metallurgical  Engineers         625 

I. — Great  Britain  : — 

The  Royal  College  of  Science,  London,  with  which  is  in- 
corporated the  Royal  School  of  Mines           625 

University  College,  Bristol           627 

Camborne  School  of  Mines,  Cornwall 627 

The  Durham  College  of  Science,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne        ...  628 

Sheffield  Technical  School,  Sheffield      630 

The  Yorkshire  CoU^e,  Leeds      631 

II.— Colonies  :— 

Sydney  Technical  College,  Ultimo,  New  South  Wales           ...  631 

University  of  Otago,  Dunedin,  New  Zealand 632 

University  of  King's  College,  Windsor,  Nova  Scotia 633 

Ballarat  School  of  Mines,  Industries,  and  Science,  University 

of  Melbourne,  Ballarat,  Grenville  County,  Victoria           ...  634 

Rchool  of  Mines  and  Industries,  Bendigo,  Victoria      636 

III. — Europe  : — 

Royal  School  of  Mines,  Przbram,  Bohemia       636 

Hainaut  School  of  Mines  and  Industry,  Mons,  Belgium        ...  636 
School  of  Arts,  Manufactures,  and  Mines,  attached  to  the 

University  of  Li^ge,  Li^e,  Belgium 637 

Catholic  University  of  Louvain,  Louvain,  Belgium    637 

The  National  Higher  School  of  Mines,  Paris,  France 638 

Douai  Mine-overmen's  School,  Douai,  France 638 


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OONTENTS. 


IX 


Appendices. — Continvcd. 
IV. — "The  Education  of  Mining  Engineers." — Continued, 

Baint  Etienne  School  of  Mines,  Saint  Etienne,  Loire.  Fi-ance...  639 

Berlin  Royal  Geological  and  Mining  Institute,  Berlin,  Germany  639 

Royal  Technical  College,  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Germany 639 

Royal  School  of  Mines,  Clausthal,  Harz,  Geimany     640 

The  Royal  Saxon  Academy  of  Mining,  Freiberg,  Saxony      ...  641 

Halle  and  Anhalt  Mining  School,  Eisleben,  Saxony 642 

Stockholm  Polytechnic  School,  Stockholm,  Sweden 642 

IV.— Asia  :— 

Toklo  College  of  Engineering,  Tokio,  Japan 642 

V. — America  :— 

University  of  Arizona,  Tucson,  Arizona,  United  States          ...  643 

University  of  California,  San  Francisco,  United  States         ...  644 
Colorado  State  School  of  Mines,  Golden,  Colorado,  United 

States        646 

The    University    of   Illinois,    Urbana,    Champion     County, 

Illinois,  United  Stat^ 647 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  Boston,  United  States  649 

University  of  Michigan,  Ann  Arbor,  Michigan,  United  States  651 
The  Michigan  Mining  School,  Houghton,  Michigan,  United 

States        653 

The  University  of  Minnesota,  Minneapolis.  United  States     ...  654 

University  of  Missouri,  Rolla,  Missouri,  United  States          ...  665 

Washington  University,  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  United  States  ...  657 

College  of  Montana,  Deer  Lodge,  Montana,  United  States    ...  658 

Columbia  College,  City  of  New  York,  United  States 659 

The  Ohio  State  University,  Columbus,  Ohio,  United  States  ...  662 
The  Case  School  of  Applied  Science,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  United 

States        663 

University    of    Pennsylvania,    Philadelphia,    Pennsylvania, 

United  States      664 

The   Lehigh    University,    South    Bethlehem,   Pennsylvania, 

United  States      665 

Lafayette  College,  Baston,  Pennsylvania,  United  States       ...  667 


Index 669 


PAGE. 

a-n 18     ^xii 366 

•^m 80  ^XIII 384 

aV.-VL 124  ^XIV 888 

'Vn.         198  ^XV 432 

'^VIII 202  "XVI 468 

^1X.-X 248  *  XVn.-XX 498 

<XL 

Any  Publication  op  a  Federated  Institute  may  be  placed  at  the  end 
OP  THE  Volume,  i,e,,  "Annual  Repobt,"  "List  op  Members,"  etc.,  etc. 




List  op  Plates:— 

PAOB. 

18 

'  XII. 

80 

^XIII.   ... 

124 

^  XIV. 

198 

^xv. 

202 

^  XVI.   ... 

248 

*  XVII. -XX 

362 

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BYB-LAW8. 


FEDERATED  INSTITUTION  OP  MINING  ENGINEERS. 


BYB-LAWS 
PM9ed  at  Council  Meeting  held  on  May  BSthj  1891. 


I.— Constitution. 

1. — The  Federated  Institution  of  Mining  Engineers  shall  consist  of  all  or  any  of 
the  societies  interested  in  the  advancement  of  mining,  metallurgy,  engineering,  and 
their  allied  industries,  who  shall  from  time  to  time  join  together  and  adhere  to  the 
Bye-Laws. 

2. — The  Institution  shall  have  for  its  objects — 

(a)  The  advancement  and  encouragement  of  the  sciences  of  mining,  metallurgy, 
engineering,  and  their  allied  industries. 

(b)  The  interchange  of  opinions,  by  the  reading  of  communications  from 
members  and  others,  and  by  discussions  at  general  meetings,  upon  improve- 
ments in  mining,  metallurgy,  engineering,  and  their  allied  industries. 

(c)  The  publication  of  original  communications,  discussions,  and  other  papers 

connected  with  the  objects  of  the  Institution. 

(d)  The  purchase  and  disposal  of  real  and  personal  property  for  such  objects. 

(e)  The  performance  of  all  things  connected  with  or  leading  to  the  purpose  of 

such  objects. 

3. — ^The  offices  of  the  Institution  shall  be  in  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  or  such  other 
place  as  shall  be  from  time  to  time  determined  by  resolution  of  the  Ciouncil. 

4. — The  year  of  the  Institution  shall  end  on  July  31st  in  every  year. 

5. — The  affairs  and  business  of  the  Institution  shall  be  managed  and  controlled 
by  the  Council. 

II. — Membership. 

6.— The  original  adherents  or  founders  are  as  follows : — 

(a)  Chesterfield  and  Midland  Counties  Institution  of  Engineers,  Chesterfield. 

(b)  Midland  Institute  of  Mining,  Civil,  and  Mechanical  Engineers,  Barnsley. 

(c)  North  of  England  Institute  of  Mining  and  Mechanical  Engineers,  Newcastle- 

upon-Tyne. 

{d)  South  Staffordshire  and  East  Worcestershire  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers, 
Birmingham. 

7. — ^Written  applications  from  societies  to  enter  the  Institution  shall  be  made 
to  the  Council,  by  the  President  of  the  applying  society,  who  shall  furnish  any 
information  that  may  be  desired  by  the  Council. 

8. — ^A. — If  desired  by  the  Council,  any  of  the  Federated  Institutes  shall  revise 
their  Bye-Laws,  in  order  that  their  members  shall  consist  of  Ordinary  Members, 
Associate  Members,  and  Honorary  Members,  with  Associates  and  Students,  and 
section  B  following  shall  be  a  model  Bye-Law  to  be  adopted  by  any  society  when  so 
desired  by  the  Council. 

B. — **  The  members  shall  consist  of  Ordinary  Members,  Associate  Members,  and 
Honorary  Members,  with  Associates  and  Students  :-  - 


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BYE-LAWS.  XI 

(a)  Bach  Ordinary  Member  shall  be  more  than  twenty-three  yean  of  age,  haye 
been  regularly  educated  as  a  mining,  metallurgical,  or  mechanical  engineer, 
or  in  Bome  other  branch  of  engineering,  according  to  the  usual  routine  of 
pupilage,  and  have  had  subsequent  employment  for  at  least  two  years  in 
some  responsible  situation  as  an  engineer ;  or  if  he  has  not  undergone  the 
usual  routine  of  pupilage,  he  must  have  been  employed  or  have  practised  as 
an  engineer  for  at  least  fiye  years. 

{h)  Each  Associate  Member  shall  be  a  person  connected  with  or  interested  in 
mining,  metallurgy,  or  engineering,  and  not  practising  as  a  mining,  metal- 
lurgical, or  mechanical  engineer,  or  some  other  branch  of  engineering. 

{c)  Bach  Honorary  Member  shall  be  a  person  who  has  distinguished  himself  by 
his  literary  or  scientific  attainments,  or  who  may  haye  made  important 
communications  to  any  of  the  Federated  Institutes. 

(d)  Associates  shall  be  persons  acting  as  under-yiewers,  under-managers,  or  in 
other  subordinate  positions  in  mines  or  metallurgical  works,  or  employed 
in  analogous  positions  in  other  branches  of  engineering. 

(e)  Students  shall  be  persons  who  are  qualifying  themseWes  for  the  profession 

of  mining,  metallurgical,  or  mechanical  engineering,  or  other  branch  of 
engineering,  and  such  persons  may  continue  Students  until  they  attain  the 
age  of  twenty-five  years." 

9. — The  Ordinary  Members,  Associate  Members,  and  Honorary  Members,  Asso- 
ciates and  Students  shall  have  notice  of,  and  the  privilege  of  attending,  the  ordinary 
and  annual  general  meetings,  and  shall  receive  all  publications  of  the  Institution. 
They  may  also  have  access  to,  and  take  part  in,  the  general  meetings  of  any  of  the 
Federated  Institutes. 

10. — The  members  of  any  Federated  Institute,  whose  payments  to  the  Institu- 
tion are  in  arrear,  shall  not  receive  the  publications  and  other  privileges  of  the 
Institution. 

11. — After  explanations  have  been  asked  by  the  President  from  any  Federated 
Institute,  whose  payments  are  in  arrear,  and  have  not  been  paid  within  one  month 
after  written  application  by  the  Secretary,  the  Council  may  decide  upon  its  suspen  - 
sion  or  expulsion  from  the  Institution  ;  but  such  suspension  or  expulsion  shall  only 
be  decided  at  a  meeting  attended  by  at  least  two-thirds  of  the  members  of  the 
Council  by  a  majority  of  three-fourths  of  the  members  present. 

III.— SUBSCBIPTIONS. 

12. — Bach  of  the  Federated  Institutes  shall  pay  fifteen  shillings  per  annum 
for  each  Ordinary  Member,  Associate  Member,  Honorary  Member,  Associate,  and 
Student,  or  such  other  sum,  and  in  such  instalment  or  instalments  as  may  be 
determined  from  time  to  time  by  resolution  or  resolutions  of  the  Council.  Persons 
joining  any  of  the  Federated  Institutes  during  the  financial  year  of  the  Federated 
Institution  shall  be  entitled  to  all  publications  issued  for  that  year,  after  his 
election  is  notified  to  the  Secretary,  and  the  instalment  or  instalments  due  on  his 
behalf  have  been  paid. 

IV.— ELBCTION  of  OFFIGBBS  AND  COUNCIL. 

18. — The  officers  of  the  Institution,  other  than  the  Secretary  and  Treasurer, 
shall  consist  of  Councillors  elected  annually  prior  to  August  in  each  year,  by  and 
out  of  the  Ordinary  Members  and  Associate  Members  of  each  Federated  Institute, 
in  the  proportion  of  one  Councillor  per  forty  Ordinary  Membei-s  or  Associate 
Members  thereof;  of  Vice-Presidents  elected  by  and  from  the  Council  at  their 
first  meeting  in  each  year  on  behalf  of  each  Institute,  in  the  proportion  of  one 


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Xii  BYB-LAWS. 

Vice-President  per  two  hundred  Ordinary  Members  or  Associate  Members  thereof ; 
and  of  a  President  elected  by  and  from  the  Council  at  their  first  meeting  in  each 
year ;  who,  with  the  Local  Secretaries  of  each  Federated  Institute  and  the  Secretary 
and  Treasurer  shall  form  the  Council.  All  Presidents  on  retiring  from  that  office 
shall  be  ex-officio  Vice-Presidents  so  long  as  they  continue  Ordinary  Members  or 
Associate  Members  of  any  of  the  Federated  Institutes.     . 

14. — In  case  of  the  decease,  expulsion,  or  resignation  of  any  officer  or  officers, 
the  Council  may,  if  they  deem  it  requisite,  fill  up  the  vacant  office  or  offices  at  their 
next  meeting. 

v.— Duties  op  Offigabs  and  Council. 

16. — The  Council  shall  represent  the  Institution  and  shall  act  in  its  name,  and 
shall  make  such  calls  upon  the  Federated  Institutes  as  they  may  deem  necessary, 
and  shall  transact  all  business  and  examine  accounts,  authorise  payments  and  may 
invest  or  use  the  funds  in  such  manner  as  they  may  from  time  to  time  think  fit,  in 
accordance  with  the  objects  and  Bye-Laws  of  the  Institution, 

16.— The  Council  shall  decide  the  question  of  the  admission  of  any  society,  and 
may  decree  the  suspension  or  expulsion  of  any  Federated  Institute  for  non-payment 
of  subscriptions. 

17. — The  Council  shall  decide  upon  the  publication  of  any  communications. 

18. — There  shall  be  three  ordinary  meetings  of  the  Council  in  each  year,  on  the 
same  day  as,  but  prior  to,  the  ordinary  or  annual  general  meetings  of  the  members. 

19. — ^A  special  meeting  of  the  Council  shall  be  called  whenever  the  President 
may  think  fit,  or  upon  a  requisition  to  the  Secretary  signed  by  ten  or  more  of  its 
members,  or  by  the  President  of  any  of  the  Federated  Institutes.  The  business 
transacted  at  a  special  meeting  of  the  Council  shall  be  confined  to  that  specified  in 
the  notice  convening  it. 

20. — The  meetings  of  the  Council  shall  be  called  by  circular  letter,  issued  to  all 
the  members  at  least  seven  days  previously,  accompanied  by  an  agenda  paper, 
stating  the  nature  of  the  business  to  be  transacted. 

21. — The  order  in  which  business  shall  be  taken  at  the  ordinary  and  annual 
general  meetings  may  be,  from  time  to  time,  decided  by  the  Council. 

22. — ^The  Council  may  communicate  with  the  Government  in  cases  of  contem- 
plated or  existing  legislation,  of  a  character  affecting  the  interests  of  mining, 
metallurgy,  engineering,  or  their  allied  industries. 

23. — The  Council  may  appoint  Committees,  consisting  of  members  of  the  Institu- 
tion, for  the  purpose  of  transacting  any  particular  business,  or  of  investigating  any 
specific  subject  connected  with  the  objects  of  the  Institution. 

24. — ^A  Committee  shall  not  have  power  or  control  over  the  funds  of  the  Institu- 
tion, beyond  the  amount  voted  for  its  use  by  the  Council. 

25.— Committees  shall  report  to  the  Council,  who  shall  act  thereon  and  make 
use  thereof  as  they  may  elect. 

26.— The  President  shall  take  the  chair  at  all  meetings  of  the  Institution,  the 
Council,  and  Committees  at  which  he  may  be  present. 

27. — In  the  absence  of  the  President,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  senior  Vice- 
President  present  to  preside  at  the  meetings  of  the  Institution.  In  case  of  the 
absence  of  the  President  and  of  all  the  Vice-Presidents,  the  meeting  may  elect 
any  member  of  Council,  or  in  case  of  their  absence  any  Ordinary  Member  or 
Associate  Member  to  take  the  chair  at  the  meeting. 


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BYB-LAWS.  XIU 

28. — ^At  meetings  of  the  Council  six  shall  be  a  qnornm. 

29. — Byery  qnestion  shall  be  decided  at  the  meetings  of  the  Conncil  by  the  votes 
of  the  majority  of  the  members  present.  In  case  of  equal  voting,  the  President, 
or  other  member  presiding  in  his  absence,  shall  have  a  casting  vote.  Upon  the 
request  of  two  members,  the  vote  upon  any  question  shall  be  by  ballot. 

30. — ^The  Secretary  shall  be  appointed  by  and  shall  act  under  the  direction 
and  control  of  the  Council.  The  duties  and  salary  of  the  Secretary  shall  be  fixed 
and  varied  from  time  to  time  at  the  will  of  the  Council. 

31. — The  Secretary  shaU  summon  and  attend  all  meetings  of  the  Council,  and 
the  ordinaiy  and  annual  general  meetings  of  the  Institution,  and  shall  record  the 
proceedings  in  the  minute  book.  He  shall  direct  the  administrative  and  scientific 
publications  of  the  Institution.  He  shall  have  charge  of  and  conduct  all  corre- 
spondence relative  to  the  business  and  proceedings  of  the  Institution,  and  of  all 
committees  where  necessary,  and  shall  prepare  and  issue  all  circulars  to  the 
members. 

32. — One  and  the  same  person  may  hold  the  office  of  Secretary  and  Treasurer. 

S3. — The  Treasurer  shall  be  appointed  annually  by  the  Council  at  their  first 
meeting  in  each  year.  The  income  of  the  Institution  shall  be  received  by  him,  and 
shall  be  paid  into  Messrs.  Lambton  &  Co.*s  bank  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  or  such 
other  bank  as  may  be  determined  from  time  to  time  by  the  Council. 

34. — The  Treasurer  shall  make  all  payments  on  behalf  of  the  Institution,  by 
cheques  signed  by  two  members  of  Council,  the  Treasurer,  and  the  Secretary 
after  payments  have  been  sanctioned  by  Council. 

35. — The  surplus  funds  may,  after  resolution  of  the  Conncil,  be  invested  in 
Government  securities,  in  railway  and  other  debenture  shares  such  as  are  allowed 
for  investment  by  trustees,  in  the  purchase  of  land,  or  in  the  purchase,  erection, 
alteration,  or  furnishing  of  buildings  for  the  use  of  the  Institution.  All  investments 
shall  be  made  in  the  names  of  Trustees  appointed  by  the  CounciL 

36. — The  accounts  of  the  Treasurer  and  the  financial  statement  of  the  Council 
shall  be  audited  and  examined  by  a  chartered  accountant,  appointed  by  the  Council 
at  their  first  meeting  in  each  year.  The  accountants*  charges  shall  be  paid  out  of 
the  funds  of  the  Institution. 

37. — The  minutes  of  the  Councirs  proceedings  shall  at  all  times  be  open  to  the 
inspection  of  the  Ordinary  Members  and  Associate  Members. 

YL— Gbkjebal  MEBTiiras. 

38. — An  ordinary  general  meeting  shall  be  held  in  February,  May,  and  Sep- 
tember, unless  otherwise  determined  by  the  Council;  and  the  ordinary  general 
meeting  in  the  month  of  September  shall  be  the  annual  general  meeting  at  which  a 
report  of  the  proceedings,  and  an  abstract  of  the  accounts  of  the  previous  year 
ending  July  81st,  shall  be  presented  by  the  Council.  The  ordinary  general  meeting 
in  the  month  of  May  shall  be  held  in  London,  at  which  the  President  may  deliver  an 
address. 

39. — Invitations  may  be  sent  by  the  Secretary  to  any  person  whose  presence  at 
discussions  shall  be  thought  desirable  by  the  Council,  and  persons  so  invited  shall  be 
permitted  to  read  papers  and  take  part  in  the  proceedings  and  discussions. 

40. — Discussion  may  be  invited  on  any  paper  published  by  the  Institution,  at 
meetings  of  any  of  the  Federated  Institutes,  at  which  the  writer  of  the  paper  may 
be  invited  to  attend.  Such  discussion,  however,  shall  in  all  cases  be  submitted  to 
the  writer  of  the  paper  before  publication,  and  he  may  append  a  reply  at  the  end  of 
the  discussion. 


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XIV  BYE-LAWS. 

VII.— Publications. 
41. — ^The  publications  may  comprise: — 

(a)  Papers  upon  the  working  of  mines,  metallurgy,  engineering,  railways  and 

the  varions  allied  indnstries. 

(b)  Papers  on  the  management  of  industrial  operations. 

(c)  Abstracts  of  foreign  papers  upon  similar  subjecta 

(^)  An  abstract  of  the  patents  relating  to  mining  and  metallurgy,  etc. 

(e)  Notes  of  questions  of  law  concerning  mines,  manufactures,  railways,  etc. 

42. — Each  paper  (with  complete  drawings,  if  any,  to  scale),  to  be  read  at  any 
meeting  of  the  Institution  or  of  any  of  the  Federated  Institutes  shall  be  placed  in 
the  hands  of  the  Secretary  at  least  fourteen  days  before  the  date  of  the  meeting  at 
which  the  paper  is  to  be  read,  and  shall,  subject  to  the  approral  of  the  Gouncil,  be 
printed,  together  with  any  discussion  or  remarks  thereon. 

48. — ^The  Council  may  accept  communications  from  persons  who  are  not  members 
of  the  Institution  and  allow  them  to  be  read  at  the  ordinary  or  annual  general 
meetings. 

44. — No  paper  which  has  already  been  published  (except  as  provided  for  in  Bye- 
Law  41)  shall  appear  in  the  publications  of  the  Institution. 

45.^A  paper  in  course  of  publication  cannot  be  withdrawn  by  the  writer. 

46. — Proofs  of  all  papers  and  reports  of  discussions  forwarded  to  any  person  for 
revision  must  be  returned  to  the  Secretary  within  seven  days  from  the  date  of  their 
receipt,  otherwise  they  will  be  oonsideretl  correct  and  be  printed  off. 

47.— The  copyright  of  all  papers  accepted  for  printing  by  the  Council  shall  become 
vested  in  the  Institution,  and  such  communications  shall  not  be  published  for  sale  or 
otherwise  without  the  written  permission  of  the  Council. 

48. — Twenty  copies  of  each  paper  and  the  accompanying  discussion  shall  be 
presented  to  the  writer  free  of  cost.  He  may  also  obtain  additional  copies  upon 
payment  of  the  cost  to  the  Secretary,  by  an  application  attached  to  his  paper. 
These  copies  must  be  unaltered  copies  of  the  paper  as  appearing  in  the  publication 
of  the  Institution,  and  the  cover  shall  state  that  it  is  an  **  Excerpt  from  the 
Transactions  of  the  Federated  Institution  of  Mining  Engineers." 

49. — The  Federated  Institutes  may  receive  copies  of  their  own  portion  of  the 
publications  in  respect  of  such  of  their  members  as  do  not  become  members  of  the 
Federated  Institution,  and  shall  pay  10s.  per  annum  in  respect  of  eveiy  copy  so 
supplied ;  and  similar  copies  for  exchanges  shall  be  paid  for  at  cost  price. 

50. — The  Local  Secretary  of  each  Federated  Institute  shall  prepare  and  edit  all 
papers  and  discussions  of  such  Institute,  and  promptly  forward  them  to  the 
Secretary,  who  shall  submit  proofs  to  the  Local  Secretary  before  publication. 

51. — A  list  of  the  members,  with  their  last  known  addresses,  shall  be  printed  in 
the  publications  of  the  Institution. 

52.— The  publications  of  the  Institution  shall  only  be  supplied  to  members,  and 
no  duplicate  copies  of  any  portion  of  the  publications  shall  be  issued  to  any  member 
or  Federated  Institute  unless  by  order  of  the  Council. 

53. — ^The  annual  volume  or  volumes  of  the  publications  may  be  sold,  in  the  com- 
plete form  only,  at  such  prices  as  may  be  determined  from  time  to  time  by  the 
Council ;  to  non-members  for  not  less  than  £8 ;  and  to  members  who  are  desirous  of 
completing  their  sets  of  the  publications,  for  not  less  than  15s. 

54. — The  Institution  as  a  body  is  not  responsible  for  the  statements  and  opinions 
advanced  in  the  papers  which  may  be  read  or  in  the  discussions  which  may  take 
place  at  the  meetings  of  the  Institution,  or  of  the  Federated  Institutes. 


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BYE-LAWS.  XV 

VIII.— Medals  and  othbb  Bewabds. 

55. — ^The  Oouncil  may  award  annoally  the  sam  of  twenty  poands,  in  the  form 
of  medalB  or  other  rewards,  to  the  authors  of  papers  published  by  the  Institution. 

IX. — Pbopebtt. 

66. — The  capital  fund  shall  consist  of  such  amounts  as  shall  from  time  to  time  be 
determined  by  resolution  of  the  Council. 

57. — ^The  Institution  may  make  use  of  the  following  receipts  for  its  expenses  : — 
(a)  The  interest  of  its  accumulated  capital  fund ; 
(()  The  .annual  subscriptions ;  and 
(0)  Beceipts  of  all  other  descriptions. 

58.— The  Institution  may  form  a  collection  of  papers,  books,  and  models. 
,59. — Societiea  or  members  who  may  have  ceased  their  connexion  with  the 
Institution  shall  have  no  claim  to  participate  in  any  of  its  properties. 

60.— All  donations  to  the  Institution  shall  be  acknowledged  in  the  annual  report 
of  the  ConnciL 

X.— Alteration  of  Bye-Laws. 

61. — No  alteration  shall  be  made  in  the  Bye-Laws  of  the  Institution,  except  at  a 
special  meeting  of  the  Council  called  for  that  purpose,  and  the  particulars  of  every 
such  alteration  shall  be  announced  at  their  previous  meeting,  and  inserted  in  the 
minutes,  and  shall  be. sent  to  all  members  of  Council  at  least  fourteen  days  previous 
to  such  special  meeting,  and  such  special  meeting  shall  have  power  to  adopt  any 
modification  of  such  proposed  alteration  of  the  Bye-Laws,  subject  to  confirmation 
by  the  next  ensuing  Council  meeting. 


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XVl  LIST  OF  XBMBER8. 


THE  FEDERATED  INSTITUTION  OF  MINING  ENGINEERS. 


OFFICERS,  1892-93. 


I>rc0i^ent 

O.  LEWIS,  Esq.,  Imperial  Chambers,  Albert  Street,  Derby. 

W.  AbmbtbohOi  Jun.,  Esq.,  WiDgate,  Co.  Durham. 

W.  CocHBANB,  Esq.,  St.  John^s  Chambers,  Grainger  Street  West,  Newcastle- 

npon-Tyne. 
*T.  W.  Bmblbton,  Esq.,  The  Cedars,  Methlej,  Leeds  (Bz-officio),  Past-President. 
W.  E.  Gabfobth,  Esq.,  West  Riding  CoUierj,  Normanton. 
a.  C.  Obbenwbll,  Esq.,  Elm  Tree  Lodge,  Duffield,  Derby. 
W.  Heath,  Esq.,  Sneyd  House,  Burslem,  Stoke-apon-Trent. 
H.  Lewis,  Esq.,  Anuesley  Colliery,  Nottingham. 
J.  A.  Longdbn,  Esq.,  Stan ton-by- Dale,  Nottingham. 
J.  B.  SiMPSOW,  Esq.,  Hedgefiekl  House,  Blaydon-upon-Tyne. 
A.  SOFWITH,  Esq.,  Cannock  Chase  Collieries,  near  Walsall. 

CounciL 

W.  Aemstbong,  Esq.,  Pelaw  House,  Chester-le-Street. 

E.  Baikbbidoe,  Esq.,  Nunnery  Colliery  Offices,  Sheffield. 

Sib  Lowthian  Bell,  Babt.,  Rounton  Grange,  Northallerton. 

T.  J.  Bewick,  Esq.,  Broad  Street  House,  Old  Broad  Street,  London,  B.C. 

M.  Walton  Brown,  Esq.,  Westmorelauds,  Low  Fell,  Gateshead-upon-Tyne. 

A.  M.  Chambers,  Esq.,  Thomcliffe  Collieries,  near  Sheffield. 

W.  F.  Clark,  Esq.,  Qlenthorn,  Holyhead  Road,  Hands  worth,  Birmingham. 

G.  E.  Coke,  Esq.,  15,  Corporation  Street,  Chesterfield. 

R.  Heath  Cole,  Esq.,  Endon,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

J.  Daglish,  Esq.,  Rothley  Lake,  Cambo,  R.S.O.,  Northumberland. 

D.  Dale,  Esq.,  West  Lodge,  Darlington. 

T.  Douglas,  Esq.,  The  Garth,  Darlington. 

G.  B.  Forster,  Esq.,  3,  Eldon  Square,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

J.  KiOHARD  Haines,  Esq.,  Adderley  Green  Collieries,  Stoke-upon -Trent. 

W.  F.  Howard,  Esq.,  15,  Cavendish  Street,  Chesterfield. 

J.  Jackson,  Esq.,  Stubben  Edge,  Chesterfield. 

H.  Johnson,  Esq.,  Trindle  Road,  Dudley,  Worcestershire. 

H.  Lawrence,  Esq.,  Grange  Iron  Works,  Durham. 

G.  May,  Esq.,  Hart6n  Colliery  Offices,  near  South  Shields. 

Prop.  J.  H.  Merivalb,  2,  Victoria  Villas,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

M.  H.  Mills,  Esq.,  15,  Corporation  Street,  Chesterfield. 

J.  Mitchell,  Esq.,  Hegent  Street,  Bamsley. 

T.  W.  H.  Mitchell,  Esq.,  Mining  Offices,  Bamsley. 

M.  W.  Pabrington,  Esq.,  Wearmouth  Colliery,  Sunderland. 

*  Daoeaaed. 


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U8T  OF  U  EMBERS.  XVU 

O.  B.  Rhodes,  Kbq.,  Aldwarke  Main  and  Car  House  Collieries,  Rotherham. 

F.  SiLVBSTEB,  Esq.)  Thistlebniy,  Newcastle,  Staffordshire. 

Alex.  Smith,  Esq.,  Colmore  Chambers,  .3,  Newhall  Street,  Birmingham. 

W.  Spbkcee,  Esq.,  Southfields,  Leicester. 

A.  L.  Steavbnson,  Esq.,  Durham. 

John  Stbick,  Esq.,  Bar  Hill,  Madeley,  Staffordshire. 

Rdwabd  B.  Wain,  Esq.,  Whitfield  Collieries,  Norton-le-Moor,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Lindsay  Wood,  Esq.,  The  Hermitage,  Chester-le-Street. 

(Treadutet* 

Reginald  Quthbie,  Esq.,  Nerille  Hall,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Secretary* 

M.  Walton  Brown,  Esq.,  Neville  Hall,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 


LIST   OF   MEMBERS. 


f)onorati2  Aembers. 

Federated  Institution  of  Mining  Mhngineert, 

J.  B.  Atkinson,  Esq.,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  Glasgow. 

W.  N.  Atkinson,  Esq.,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  Newcastle,  Staffordshire. 

W.  Bbattie-Scott,  Esq.,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  Great  Barr,  near  Birmingham. 

Thomas  Bell,  Esq.,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  Durham. 

C.  Lb  Neve  Foster,  Esq.,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  Llandudno. 

John  Qebraed,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  Worsley,  near  Manchester. 

Henry  Hall,  Esq.,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  Rainhill,  Prescott. 

J.  L.  Hedley,  Esq.,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  22,  Hawthorn  Terrace,  Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne. 

J.  S.  Mabtin,  Esq.,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  Clifton. 

Joseph  T.  Robson,  Esq.,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  Swansea. 

J.  M.  RoNALDSON,  Esq.,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  44,  Athole  Gardens,  Glasgow. 

A.  H.  Stokes,  Esq.,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  Greenhill,  Derby. 

Fbank  N.  Wabdell,  Esq.,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  Wath-upon-Dearne,  near 
Rotherham. 

Ckegterfield  arid  Midland  Counties  Institution  of  Engineers, 

Prof.  Frank  Clowes,  University  College,  Nottingham. 
Rev.  J.  M.  Mello,  Mapperley  Vicarage,  near  Derby. 

Midland  Institute  of  Mining,  OivH^  and  Mechanical  Engineert. 

Pbof.  G.  F.  Abmstbono,  The  University,  Edinburgh. 
Pbof.  a.  H.  Gbbbn,  137,  Woodstock  Road,  Oxford. 
Pbof.  L.  C.  Miall,  Yorkshire  College,  Leeds. 
Pbof.  Ebbinoton  Ruckeb,  Clapham  Park,  London. 
R.  Russell,  Esq.,  Sea  View,  St.  Bees,  Carnforth. 

Pbof.  T.  E.  Thobpe,  Science  and  Art  Department,  South  Kensington,  London, 
S.W. 

VOL.  Y.-U01 ».  ^ 


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ZVIU  LIST  OF  MEMBERS. 

North  of  England  Institute  of  Mining  and  Afeehanical  Engineers, 
The  Right  Honourable  the   Earl   op   Ravenswobth,  Ravensworth  Castle, 

Gatcsheacl-upoii-Tyne. 
Prop.  P.  Phillips  Bedson,  Durham  College  of  Science,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne 
Prop.  G.  8.  Brady,  Durham  College  of  Science,  Newca8tle-uix)n-Tyne. 
Dr.  Brassert,  Berghauptmann,  Bonn-am- Rhein,  Prussia. 
Jos.  Dickinson,  Esq.,  South  Bank,  Pendleton,  Manchester. 
Prop.  William  Garnett,  13,  Spring  Gardens,  London,  S.W. 
Prof.  A.  S.  Herschel,  Observatory  House,  Slough,  Bucks. 
The  Vert  Rev.  Dr.  Lake,  Dean  of  Durham. 

Prop.  G.  A.  Lebour,  Durham  College  of  Science,  Xewcastle-upon-Tyne. 
J.  A.  LONQRIDQE,  Esq.,  GrSve  d'Ayett6,  Jereey. 
Prof.  H.  Stroud,  Durham  College  of  Science,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Ai.  E.  VuiLLEMiN,  Mines  d*Aniche,  Nord,  France. 

North  Staffordshire  Institute  of  Mining  and  Meehanioal  Engineers, 

M.  JuLiEK  Debt. 

Hugh  R.  Makepeace,  Esq.,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  Newcastle.  Staffordshire. 
R.  P.  W.  Oswald,  Esq.,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  Hensingham,  Whitehaven. 
Henrt  Skipfington  Poole,  Esq.,  Acadia  Coal  Company,  Ltd.,  Stellarton, 

Nova  Scotia. 
A.  R.  Saw  ITER,  Esq.,  c/o  Thompson,  Watson,  &  Co.,  Cape  Town,  South  Africa. 
C.  M.  Stuart,  Esq.,  St.  Dunstan's  College,  Lewisham. 

South  Staffordshire  and  East  Worcestershire  Institute  of  Mining 
Engineers. 

W.  J.  Lancaster,  Esq.,  Colmore  Row,  Birmingham. 
Prop.  C.  Lapworth,  Ma^n  College,  Birmingham. 
Ralph  Moore,  Esq.,  Glasgow. 
G.  H.  Morley,  Esq.,  Mason  College,  Birmingham. 
Prop.  J.  H.  Poynting,  Mason  College,  Birmingham. 
Prop.  R.  H.  Smith,  Mason  College,  Birmingham. 
Prop.  W.  A.  Tylden,  Mason  College,  Birmingham. 


Aembers. 

*DeoeaMd. 
Aburbow,  Charles,  Box  5,  Post  Office,  Johannesburg,  Transvaal. 
ACKROYD,  A.,  Morley  Main  Collieries,  Leeds. 
AcKROYD,  Wm.,  Morley  Main  Collieries,  Morley,  near  Leeds. 
Adams,  Charles,  Whitfield  Collieries,  Norton-le-Moors,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Adams,  J. 

AoNiKL,  S.,  Mines  de  Vicoigne  (Nord),  Noeux  (P.  de  C),  France. 
Aitkin,  Henry,  Falkirk,  N.B. 
Allan,  George,  Comgreaves  Hall,  Birmingham. 
Allan,  John  F.,   c/o  Messrs.  Caldwell  and  Watson,    109,  Fenchnrch  Street, 

London,  E.C. 
Allan,  T.  A.,  c/o.  Messrs.  Gibbs,  Bright,  &  Co.,  Melbourne,  Australia, 
Allen,  Reuben,  Birch  Coppice  Colliery,  Polesworth,  near  Tamworth. 
Allkn,  W.  S.,  Woodhead  Hall,  Cheadle,  Staffordshire. 


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LIST  OF  MEMBERS.  XIX 

Allhuskn,  Alfred,  Musgrave  House,  Gateshead-npon-Tyne. 

AI4LISON,  J.  J.  C,  Woodland  Collieries,  Butterknowle,  R  S.O.,  Co.  Durham. 

Allsop,  Samuel,  Marehay  Collieries,  Derby. 

Almond,  Edwaed  Ebnest,  Park  Hall  Colliery,  Cheadle,  Staffordshire. 

Alsop,  a.  B.,  Pinxton  Collieries,  Alfreton. 

Alsop,  Samuel,  Pool  Close,  Pinxton,  Alfreton. 

Andsuson,  C  W. 

Andbbson,  R.  S.,  Elswick  Colliery,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Andrews,  George  Murray,  Broomhill  Colliery,  Northumberiand. 

Andrews,  Hugh,  Swarland  Hall,  Felton,  Northumberiand. 

Andrews,  Thomas,  Wortley  Iron  Works,  near  Sheffield. 

Angus,  Jambs,  Radcliffe,  Acklington,  Northumberland. 

Anley,  Jambs  P.  B.,  Bradley  Green,  near  Congleton. 

Archer,  Joseph,  Queen  Insurance  Buildings,  Church  Street,  Sheffield. 

Archer,  T.,  6,  Park  Terrace,  Gateshead-upon-Tyne. 

Archer,  William,  Victoria  Garesfield,  Lintz  Green. 

Armson,  Jesse,  Coleorton  Colliery,  Ashby-de-la-Zouch. 

Armstrong,  Lord,  C.B.,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.,  Cragside,  Rothbury. 

Armstrong,  Ht.,  Chester-le-Street. 

Armstrong,  J.  H.,  St.  Nicholas*  Chambers,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Armstrong,  T.  J.,  Hawthorn  Terrace,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Armstrong,  Wm.,  Pelaw  House,  Chester-le-Street. 

Armstrong,  W.,  Jun.,  Wingate,  Co.  Durham. 

Arnold,  T.,  Castle  Hill,  Greenfields,  Lianelly. 

Ashington  Colliery,  Owners  op,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Ashton,  J.  H.,  Waleswood  Colliery,  near  Rotherham. 

ASHWIN,  G.  H.,  Charity  Colliery,  Bed  worth,  near  Nuneaton. 

Ashworth,  Thomas,  Pratt  Street,  Fenton,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Askew,  EL  G.,  Riddings,  Alfreton. 

Asquith,  T.  W.,  Harperley,   Lintz  Green,   Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Aston,  J. ,  Blowers  Green,  Dudley,  Worcestershire. 

Atkins,  S.  8.,  Fence,  Rotherham. 

Atkinson,  A.  A.,  Barrow  Collieries,  Bamsley,  Yorkshire. 

Atkinson,  C.  W.,  The  Electrical  Coal  Cutting  Contract  Corporation,  Limited,  2, 

St.  Nicholas'  Buildings,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Atkinson,  Fred.  R.,  Lawton  Hall,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Atkinson,  G.  B.,  Maritime  Buildings,  Quay,  Newcastle-upon-Tjme. 
Atkinson,  J.  W.,  Stemdale  Road,  Millhouscs,  Sheffield. 
Atkinson,  L.  B.,  Messrs.  W.  T.  Goolden  &  Co.,  Woodfield  Works,  Harrow  Road, 

London. 
.  Atkinson,  W.  N.,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  Newcastle,  Staffordshire. 
Aubrey,  R.  C,  The  Midland  Coal,  Coke,  and  Iron  Co.,  Limited,  Halmerend  near 

Newcastle,  Staffordshire. 
AUDUS,  T. ,  Mineral  Traffic  Manager,  North  Eastern  Railway,  Newcastle-upou-Tyne. 
Austin,  T.  W.,  Grassmoor,  Chesterfield. 
AusTiNB,  John,  Cadzow  Coal  Co.,  Glasgow. 

Ayton,  Ernest  F.,  El  Bote  Mining  Negociacion,  Zacatecas,  Republic  of  Mexico. 
Ayton,  Henry,  122,  Rye  Hill,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Bailbs,  E.  T.,  Wingate,  Ferryhill. 

Bailes,  G.  M.,  Coton  Road,  Nuneaton. 

Bailes,  T.,  Jesmond  Gardens,  Newcastle-upon-Tv  ne. 


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ZX  LIST  OF  MEICBEBB. 

Bailes,  William. 

Bailey,  E.  J.,  30,  Waterloo  Street,  Binninghani. 

Bailey,  Samuel,  30,  Waterloo  Street,  Birmingham. 

Bain,  B.  Doxald,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  85,  Pembroke  Road,  Clifton,  Bristol. 

Bainbridoe,  Emesson,  Nunnery  Colliery  Offices,  Sheffield. 

Bakeb,  Godfrey,  Lowe's  Hill,  Ripley,  Derby. 

Baker,  James  L. 

Bakewell,  James  G.,  Newcastle,  Staffordshire. 

Ball,  Alfred  F.,  14,  Lansdowne  Terrace,  Gosforth. 

Ball,  George,  Blackwell  Collieries,  Alfreton. 

Ball,  Josiah,  Teversal  Collieries,  Mansfield. 

Bancroft,  Robert  E.,  8,  St  James'  Square,  Manchester. 

Banks,  Thomas,  60,  King  Street,  Manchester. 

Barber,  Thomas,  Lamb  Close  House,  Eastwood,  Notts. 

Barnes,  Alfred,  Ashgate  Lodge,  Chesterfield. 

Barnes,  A.  G.,  Grassmoor  Collieries,  Chesterfield. 

Barnes,  A.  T.  H.,  Grassmoor  Collieries,  Chesterfield. 

Barnes,  A.  W.,  Sutton  Rock,  Chesterfield. 

Barraclough,  Samuel,  Union  Foundry,  Bamsley. 

Barrass,  M.,  Tudhoe  Colliery,  Speunymoor. 

Barrett,  C.  R.,  WhitehiU  HaU,  Chester-le-Street. 

Barrow,  J.  B.,  Ringwood  Hall,  Chesterfield. 

Bartholomew,  C,  Castle  Hill  House,  Ealing,  London,  W. 

Bartholomew,  C.  W.,  Blakesley  Hall,  near  Towcester. 

Barwell,  W.  H.,  Mill  House,  Treeton,  Rothcrham. 

Bateman,  James  T.,  Messrs.  Lever  Brothers,  Limited,  Port  Sunlight,  near 
Birkenhead. 

Bates,  Sidney,  The  Grange,  Prudhoe-npon-Tyne. 

Batey,  John,  Newbury  Collieries,  Coleford,  Bath. 

Batty,  W.,  Darley  Grove,  Worsbro'  Dale,  Bamsley. 

Baumgartner,  W.  0.,  2,  Ash  Place,  Newcastle  Road,  Monkwearmouth,  Sunder- 
land. 

Baxter,  Henry,  Copeland  Street,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Bayldon,  Daniel  Hy.,  3,  Drapers'  Gardens,  London,  E.C. 

Bayley,  Thomas,  M.P. 

Beanlands,  Arthur,  Palace  Green,  Durham. 

Bbdson,  Prof.  P.  Phillips,  Durham  College  of  Science,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Beech,  Noei.  Tench,  Muxton  House,  near  Newport,  Salop. 

Bell,  B.  T.  A.,  Secretary  of  General  Mining  Association  of  the  Province  of 
Quebec,  Ottawa,  Canada. 

Bell,  C.  E.,  Park  House,  Durham. 

Bell,  J.,  Wardley  Colliery,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Bell,  Sir  Lowthian,  Bart.,  D.C.L.,  Rounton  Grange,  Northallerton. 

Bell,  Thos.  Hugh,  Middlesbrough-upon-Tees. 

Bell,  Walter,  23,  Windsor  Terrace,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Bennett,  Alfred  H.,  Dean  Lane  Collieries,  Bedminster,  Bristol. 

Bennett,  A.  W.,  Laneside,  Tong  Road,  Famley,  Leeds. 

Bennett,  J.,  Langwith  Colliery,  near  Mansfield. 

Bennett,  J.  T.,  Featherstone  Main  Colliery,  Pontefract. 

Benson,  J.  G.,  12,  Grey  Street,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Benson,  T.  W.,  11,  Newgate  Street,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Benson,  W.  A.,  Silverdale,  Staffordshire. 


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LIST  OF  MEMBEBS.  Xxi 

Bentham,  Josiah,  Thomhill,  near  Wigan. 

Bknton,    W.    £.,    Midland   Coal,   Coke,   and  Iron  Co.,   Apedale,   Newcastle, 

Staffordahire. 
Bkbkley,  C,  Marley  Hill,  Swalwell,  KS-O.,  Co.  Durham. 
Bkbkuet,  Fbedbbick,  Lumley  Thicks,  Fence  Houses. 
Berkley,  R.  W.,  Marley  Hill,  Swalwell,  R.S.O.,  Co.  Durham. 
Bebby,  Thomas,  Bagnall's  Houses,  Swalwell,  R.S.O. 
Beswick,  Robkbt,  Chell  Collieries,  Tunstall,  Staffordshire. 
Bewick,  T.  J.,  Broad  Street  House,  Old  Broad  Street,  London,  E.C. 
Beynok,  J.  C.  S.,  P.O.  Box  1364,  Johnannesburg,  Transvaal 
Bigoe,  D.  Selby,  27,  Mosley  Street,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
BiooE,  Edward  Ellison,  General  Mining  Association,  Limited,  Blomfield  House, 

London  Wall,  London,  E.C. 
BiGLAND,  J.,  Henknowle,  Bishop  Auckland. 
BiLOBAMi,  Syed  Ali  Shamsul  Ulama,  Director-General  of  Mines,  Hyderabad, 

Deccan,  India. 
BiNNS,  G.  J.,  Netherseal  Colliery.  Burton-upon-Trent. 
BiBAM,  B.,  Waterloo  Port,  Carnarvonshire. 
BiBTLEY  Ibon  Company,  Birtley. 

Bishop,  James,  Grey  Valley  Coal  Co.,  Brunnerton,  Greymouth,  New  Zealand. 
BiTZOs,  N.  J.,  c/o  A.  G.  Sourlas,  Balouk  Bazaar,  Constantinople. 
Black,  W.,  Hedworth  Villa,  South  Shields. 

Blackbubn,  W.  Stevenson,  Aive  Villas,  Astley,  Woodlesford,  near  Leeds. 
Blackett,  W.  C,  Jun.,  Acorn  Close,  Sacriston,  Durham. 
Blakbley,  a.  B.,  Soothill  Wood  Colliery,  Batley. 
Blakemore,  W.,  Jun.,  Alderidge,  Walsall. 
Blenkiron,  J.  B.,  3,  Albert  Terrace,  Middlesburgh. 
Blood,  John,  HucknaU  Huthwaite,  near  Mansfield. 
Bloor.  John,  Newton,  near  Alfreton. 

BoLAM,  Philip,  North  Walbottle  Colliery,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Bolton,   Edoab    Ormbrod,  Executor    of   Col.    Hargieaves,    Colliery    Office, 

Burnley. 
Bolton,  H.  H.,  Newchurch  Collieries,  near  Manchester. 
BoNSER,  Edward,  New  HucknaU  Colliery,  Mansfield. 
BoNSOR,  Harold,  30,  Finsbnry  Road,  Leeds. 
Booth,  Aaron,  B  Winning,  Black  well  Colliery,  Alfreton. 
Booth,  J.  T.,  Longstile,  Talke,  near  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Bott,  Samuel,  The  Villas,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Boucher,  A.  S.,  P.O.  Box,  53,  BLrugersdorf,  South  African  Republic. 
BouLTON,  William,  Burslem,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Bourne,  John,  Jun.,  The  Manor  House,  HUderstone,  near  Stone,  Staffordshire. 
BowEN,  J.,  Broad  Street,  Bilston. 
Bowes,  Thomas,  Pontop  Colliery,  Lintz  Green  Station. 
Boyd,  Wm.,  North  House,  Longbenton,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 
Bradford,  George,  Witton  Park,  Darlington. 
Bradley,  Richard,  Victoria  Foimdry,  Wakefield. 
Brady,  Prof.  G.  S. ,  Durham  College  of  Science,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Braggb,  G.  S.,  Granville  Colliery,  Swadlincote,  Burton-upon-Trent. 
Bramley,  George,  Clay  Cross  Works,  Chesterfield. 
Bramley,  William,  Marlpool,  near  Derby. 

Bbamwell,  Hugh,  Great  Western  Colliery,  near  Pontypridd,  Glamorganshire. 
Brassert,  Dr.,  Berghauptmann,  Bonn  am  Rhein,  Prussia. 


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XXU  LIST  OF  MEMBERS. 

Brkakkll,  Th  iMAS,  Brassington,  near  Derby. 

Brbckon,  J.  R.,  63,  John  Street,  Sunderland. 

Brewis,  George,  Boythorpe  Colliery,  Chesterfield. 

Bridgett,  William,  Bucknall,  Stoke-upou-Trent. 

Bridgewater  Trustees,  c/o    Clifford    Smith,  Bridgewater   Offices,    Walkden, 

Bolton-le-Moors,  Lancashire. 
Bribrley,  W.,  Roche  Colliery,  Batley. 

Broja,  Richard,  Koeniglicber  Oberbergrath,  35,  Fri^drich  Strasse,  Halle,  a/S. 
Bromley,  Oliver,  Florence  Colliery,  Longton,  Staffordshire. 
Brooke,  Ed.,  Edgerton,  near  Huddersfield. 
Brouoh,  Ben'nett  H.,  5,  Robert  Street,  Adelphi,  London,  W.C. 
Brouoh,  Thomas,  New  Seaham  Colliery,  Sunderland. 
Brough,  William,  Silverdale,  Staffordshire. 
Broughall,  J.,  Bushbury,  Priestwood  Road,  Wolverhampton. 
Brown,  E.,  St.  John's  Colliery,  Norraanton. 

Brown,  M.  Walton,  Westmorelands,  Low  Fell,  Gateshead-upon-Tyne. 
Brown,  Robert  M.,  Norwood  Colliery,  via  Darlington. 
Brown,  R.  O.,  Elswick  Collieries,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Brown,  Thomas,  Westport  Coal  Co.,  Millerton,  Westport,  New  Zealand. 
Brown,  Thos.  Forster,  Guildhall  Chambers,  Cardiff. 
Brown,  Westoarth  F.,  Alston  House,  Cardiff. 

Browne,  Sir  Benjamin  C,  Westacres,  Ben  well,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Browne,  Hugh,  Aspley  Cottage,  Nottingham. 
Browne,  R.  J.,  Barakar  East  India  Railway,  Bengal. 
Bruce,  John,  Port  Mulgrave,  Hinder  well,  R.S.O.,  Yorkshire. 
Brunt,  Ishmael,  Ubberley  Colliery,  Bucknall,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Brunt,  James,  Park  Road,  Fenton,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
•Bryham,  William,  Rosebridge  Colliery,  Wigan. 
Bryham,  W.,  Jun.,  Douglas  Bank  Collieries,  Wigan. 
Buckley,  Frank  Ernest,  Liverpool  Road,  Kidsgrove,  Staffordshire. 
BuoLASS,  John,  Stobswood,  via  Acklingbon,  Northumberland. 
BuixocK,  J.,  Pelsall,  Wallsall. 
Bulman,  E.  H.,  Shincliffe  Rectory,  Durham. 

BuLMAN,  H.  F.,  Byer  Moor,  Bumopfield,  near  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
BuNKELL,  H.  B.,  P.O.  Box  962,  Johannesburg,  Transvaal. 
BuNNiNG,  C.  Z.,  c/o  The  Borax  Co.,  Limited,  2,  Macri  Khan,  Constantinople. 
BuRDON,  A,  E.,  Hartford  House,  Cramlington,  Northumberland. 
Burls,  Herbert  T  ,  Box  76,  Barberton,  Transvaal,  South  Africa. 
Burn,  F.  H.,  West  Cliff,  Elmfield  Road,  Gosforth,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Burn,  Jambs,  28,  Fawcett  Street,  Sunderland, 
Burnley,  G.  J.,  Birthwaite  Hall,  Darton,  Barnsley. 
Burns,  David,  Canal  Bank,  Carlisle. 
Burns,  J.  B.,  The  Oaklands,  Rugeley. 

Burrows,  J.  S.,  Yew  Tree  House,  Atherton,  near  Manchester. 
Butcher,  H.  T. 

Butcher,  William,  Chesterton,  Staffordshire. 
Bute,  Marquess  of,  Bute  Estate  Office,  Aberdare,  South  Wales. 
Butterknowle  Colliery  Co,  ,  Limited,  Darlington. 
Buxton,  German,  Moira  Colliery,  Ashby-de-la-Zouch. 

Cadman,  James  C,  Silverdale  Collieries,  Newcastle,  Staffordshire. 
Calderwood,  Robt.,  Fifeshlrc  Miin  Collieries,  Limited,  Oakley,  Dunfermline. 


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LI8T  OF  MlilMBEBS.  XXiu 

Callxar,  B.,  21,  Chnrch  Road,  Gosley,  Bilston. 

Candlsb,  T.  E. 

Gapell,  Rev.  G.  M.,  Passenham  Rectory,  Stony  Stratford. 

Gabxes,   GhaUles  Spearman,   Hutfcon  Henry  Colliery,   Wingate,  R.S.O.,  Co. 

Durham. 
Gakb,  Robert,  Usworth  Colliery,  Washington,  R.S.O. 
Garr,  Wm.  Cochran,  Benwell  Colliery,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Carrington,  Arthur,  Warney  Lee,  Darley  Dale,  Matlock  Bridge. 
Garrinoton,  T.,  Kiveton  Park  Colliery,  Sheffield. 
Garter,  R.,  Spring  Bank,  Harrogate. 
Ghadwick,  S.  R.,  Eckington  Collieries,  Rotherham. 
Ghallinor,  Charles,  Basford  Hall,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Chalmers,  George,  Superintendent  of  the  St.  John  del  Rey  Mining  Co ,  28, 

Tower  Chambers,  Flnsbury  Pavement,  London,  E.C. 
Chambers,  Alfred,  Eastwood,  Notts. 
Chambers,  A.  M.,  Thomcliffe  Collieries,  near  Sheffield. 
Chambers,  Granville,  Digby  Collieries,  Gilt  Brook,  Newthorpe,  Notts. 
Chambers,  Henry,  Tinsley  Collieries,  Sheffield. 
Chambers,  Isaac,  Watnall  Colliery,  Nottingham. 
Chambers,  J.  E.,  Tinsley  Collieries,  Sheffield. 
Chambers,  J.  E.  F.,  The  Hurst,  Alfreton. 
Chambers,  William,  Brinsley  Colliery,  Eastwood,  Notts. 
Chambers,  Wm.  Ht.,  Conisborough,  Rotherham. 
Chambers,  W.  Hoole,  Tankersley  Colliery,  near  Bamsley. 
Chandler,  N.,  Hednesford,  Staffordshire. 
Chandley,  Charles,  Aberdare,  South  Wales. 
Chapman,  A.  C.,  29,  St.  Nicholas'  Buildings,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Charleton,  a.  G.,  c/o  G.  P.  Charleton,  Dovercourt,  Essex. 
Charlton,  W.,  Linares,  Provincia  do  Jaen,  Spain. 
Charlton,  W.  A.,  Ravens  wood,  Uddington.  near  Glasgow. 
Charlton,  William,  Alpine  Villas,  Bloxwich  Road,  Walsall. 
Cheesman,  E.  T.,  Shire  Moor  Colliery,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Chessman,  Herbert,  Hartlep  jol. 

Cheesman,  I.  T.,  Throckley  Colliery,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Chessman,  W.  T.,  Hartlepool. 
Chester,  P.  M.,  Oakwell  Colliery,  Ilkeston. 
Chicken,  Lancelot  W.,  Boldon  Colliery,  Co.  Durham. 
Childe,  Henry  S.  ,  Wakefield. 

Chrystle,  Thomas,  Florence  Colliery,  Longton,  Staffordshire. 
Clamp,  Elijah,  Birch  Coppice  Colliery,  near  Tamworth. 
Clare,  Henry,  Birchen  wood  Colliery  Company,  Limited,  Kidsgrove,  Scoke-upon- 

Trent. 
Clark,  C.  F.,  Garswood  Goal  and  Iron  Co.,  Limited,  near  Wigan. 
Clark,  John,  The  Grove,  Aldercar,  Langley  Mill,  Notts. 
Clark,  R.  B.,  Springwell  Colliery,  Gateshead-upon-Tyne. 
Clark,  Thomas,  Dipton  Colliery,  Lintz  Green  Station. 
Clark,  \V.  F.,  Glenthom,  Holyhead  Road,  Handsworth,  Birmingham. 
Clarke,  C.  R.,  Stone,  Staffordshire. 
Clarke,  E.  B.,  38,  Norfolk  Street,  Sheffield. 
Clarke,  George,  Estate  Office,  New toii-le- Willows,  Lancashire. 
Clarke,  James  A.,  Ayr  Colliery,  Annbank,  N.B. 
Clarke,  T.  B.  A.,  Belground,  Tankersley,  Barnsley. 


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XXIV  LIST  OF  MEMBERS. 

Claughton,  G.  H.,  The  Priory,  Dudley,  Worcestershire. 

Clat,  8.  £.,  Trebovir,  Alexandra  Road,  Oipsey  Hill,  London,  S.E. 

Clay,  Zachakiah,  New  Watnall,  Nottingham. 

Clayton,  C.  D.,  Doncaster. 

Clayton,  W.  W.,  c/o  Messrs.  Hndswell,  Clarke,  &  Co.,  Loco.  Builders,  Leeds. 

Cliffe,  Albert,  7,  Knowsley  Road,  vSt.  Helen's,  Lancashire. 

Clough,  James,  Willow  Bridge,  Cboppington,  Morpeth. 

Clowes,  Prof.  F  ,  University  College,  Nottingham. 

CoBBOLD,  C.  H.,  Wentworth  Castle,  Barnsley. 

Cochrane,  B.,  Aldin  Grange,  Durham. 

Cochrane,  C.  ,  Green  Royde,  Pedmore,  near  Stourbridge. 

Cochrane,  Henry  Heath,  Eshwood  Hall,  Durham. 

Cochrane,  Napier,  Aldin  Grange,  Durham. 

Cochrane,  R,  D.,  Hetton  Colliery  Offices,  Fence  Houses. 

Cochrane,  W.,  St.  John's  Chambers,  Grainger  Street  West,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Cochrane,  William  Percy,  6,  Tankerville  Terrace,  Newcastle- upon  Tyne. 

CooKiN,  T.  H.,  Tinsley  Park  Colliery,  Sheffield. 

Cob,  W.  S.,  22:),  Birchfield  Road,  Birmingham. 

Coke,  G.  £.,  15,  Corporation  Street,  Chesterfield. 

Cole,  C.  E.,  Pensnett,  Dudley,  Worcestershire. 

Cole,  John  H.,  Elnypersley,  Biddulph,  near  Congleton. 

Cole,  Robert  Heath,  Endon,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Collins,  Arthur  Launcelot,  14  and  15,  Broad  Street  Avenue,  London,  E.C. 

CoLLis,  W.  B.,  Swinford  House,  Stourbridge,  Worcestershire. 

Colquhoun,  T.,  West  Stanley  Colliery,  Co.  Durham. 

Cook,  J.,  Washington  Iron  Works,  Washington,  Co.  Durham. 

Cooksey,  J.  H.,  West  Bromwich. 

Cooper,  R.  W.,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Corbett,  V.  W.,  Chilton  Moor,  Fence  Houses. 

CoRBiTT,  M.,  Teams,  Gateshead -upon-Tyne. 

CoRLETT,  G.  S.,  Rowbottom  Square,  Wigan. 

CoRNETT,  J.  p..  Ford  Paper  Works,  Hylton,  Sunderland. 

CoTTEREix,  O.  J.,  16,  Bank  Street,  Sheffield. 

CouLflON,  Frank,  10,  Victoria  Terrace,  Durham. 

Coulthard,  Francis,  Minas  del  Penoncillo,  Marbella,  Provincia  de  Malaga,  Spain. 

Cowlishaw,  W.  G.,  Etruria,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

CowPEN  Coal  Co.,  Limited,  F.,  King  Street,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Cox,  J.  H. ,  10,  St.  George's  Square,  Sunderland. 

Cox,  L.  C. ,  Swannington  Colliery,  Ashby-de-la-Zouch. 

Cox,  S.  Herbert,  13,  St.  Helen's  Place,  London,  E.C. 

CoxE,  E.  B.,  Drifton,  Jeddo,  P.O.  Luzerne  Co.,  Pennsylvania,  U.S.A. 

CoxoN,  M.  R.,  Mining  Offices,  Barnsley. 

Cradock,  G.,  Rope  Works,  Wakefield. 

Craio,  Ernest,  Brynkinalt  Colliery,  Chirk,  North  Wales. 

Craig,  W.  Y.  .  Milton  House,  Alsager,  Cheshire. 

Craik,  T.,  Church  Street,  Barnsley. 

Craven,  Hiram,  Jnn.,  Mechanical  Engineer,  Sunderland. 

Craven,  John,  Westgate  Common,  Wakefield. 

Crawshaw,  C.  B.  ,  The  Collieries,  Dewsbury. 

Creswick,  a.  J.,  Gatefield,  Sheffield. 

Creswick,  W.,  Sharlestone  Colliery,  Normanton. 

Criohton,  John,  20,  Exchange  Buildings,  St.  Mary's  Gate,  Manchester. 


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LIST  OF  MEMfiERS.  XZV 

Cbomfton,  Geokok,  Stanton  Hall,  Nottingham. 

Cboke,  E.  W.,  Forest  Hall,  near  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Cronb,  J.  R.,  Tudhoe  House,  via  Spennymoor. 

Cboke,  S.  C,  Forest  Hall,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Cbookes,  Arthur,  The  Mount,  Eckington,  Rotherham. 

Gross,  John,  77,  King  Street,  Manchester. 

Croudage,  G.  J.,  Bettisfield  Golliery  Go.,  Limited,  Bagillt,  North  Wales. 

Groudace,  John,  West  House,  Haltwhistle. 

Groudace,  Thomas,  Lambton  Lodge,  Lambton,  Newcastle,  New  South  Wales. 

Curry,  W.  Thos.,  Thornton  House,  Serpentine  Road,  Newport,  Monmouthshire. 

Daores,  Thomas,  20,  Princess  Street,  Bishop  Auckland. 

Daolish,  John,  Rothley  Lake,  Gambo,  R.S.O.,  Northumberland. 

Bakers,  W.  R.,  The  Loggins,  Tudhoe  Golliery,  via  Spennymoor. 

Dale,  David,  West  Lodge,  Darlington. 

Dangar,  J.  H. 

Darling,  Fen  wick.  South  Durham  Golliery,  Darlington. 

Darlington,  James,  Black  Park  Golliery,  Ruabon,  North  Wales. 

Davby,  Henry,  3,  Princes  Street,  Westminster,  London,  S.W. 

Da  VIES,  Lt.-Gol.  Jasper  G.  S.,  Marton,  Middlesbrough. 

Davibs,  John,  Hartley  House,  Goundou,  Bishop  Auckland. 

Davies,  J  Hubert,  P.O.  Box  455,  Johannesburg,  Transvaal.     Transactions  to  c/o 

Messrs.  F.  A.  Robinson  and  Go.,  69,  Gornhill,  London,  E.G. 
Davies,  T.  J.,  Balls  Hill,  West  Bromwich. 

Davibs,  Watkin,  Renishaw  Foundry  and  Engineering  Works,  Ghesterfield. 
Davies,  W.  J.,  Bradley,  Bilston. 
Davis,  Henry,  All  Saints  Works,  Derby. 
Davis,  Kenneth  McRae,  Dudley  Golliery,  Northumberland. 
Davy,  G.  H.,  Eckington  Goliieries,  Rotherham. 
Dawbarn,  a.  6.,  60,  Gracechurch  Street,  London,  E.G. 
Dawson,  6.  J.  Grosbie,  Newcastle-under-Lyme,  Staffordshire. 
Day,  J.  H.,  The  Laurels,  Bull  Bridge,  Ambergate,  Derby. 
Deacon,  Maurice,  Blackwell  Goliieries,  Alfreton. 
Dean,  Arthur,  Waterloo  Road,  Burslem,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Dban,  Frank,  Railway  Foundry,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Dean,  Samuel  W.,  240,  Waterloo  Road,  Burslem,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Dean,  William,  Orrell  Goliieries,  Wigan. 
Dearden,  Jos.,  Victoria  Golliery,  Heckmondwike. 
Dkby,  Julien. 

Dees,  J.  Gibson,  Floraville,  Whitehaven. 
Dees,  R.  R.,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Dennis,  Henry,  Ruabon,  North  Wales. 
Denniston,  Robert  B.,  Stuart  Street,  Dunedin,  New  Zealand. 
Devonshire,  The  Duke  of,  K.G.,  Ghatswortb,  Baslow,  Derbyshire. 
DiAMom),  James,  Pye  Bridge,  Alfreton. 
Dickenson,  Gharles,  Northenden,  Manchester. 
Dickinson,  George  W.,  Clay  Gross  Collieries,  Chesterfield. 
Dickinson,  Joseph,  South  Bank,  Pendleton,  Manchester. 
Dickinson,  R.  E.,  Bowling  Iron  Co.,  Ld.,  Bradford,  Yorks. 
Dixon,  D.  W.,  Lumpsey  Mines,  Brotton,  R.S.O.,  Saltbum-by-tho-Sea. 
Dixon,  James  S.,  97,  Bath  Street,  Glasgow. 
Dixon,  R.,  10,  Glaremont  Terrace,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 


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XXVl  LIST  OF  MSMBEBB. 

Dixon-Bbown,  a.  D.,  27,  Mosley  Street,  Newcaatle-upon-Tyne. 

DoBiNSON,  Lanoelot,  Victoria  Coal  Company,  Park  Hills  Colliery,  Wakefield. 

DoDD,  B.,  Bearpark  Colliery,  near  Durham. 

DoDi),  Ctril  H.,  St.  Helens  Colliery,  Bishop  Auckland. 

DoDD,  M.,  Bumcroft,  Hexham. 

DoDDS,  A.  P.,  13,  Dean  Street,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

DoNKiN,  W.,  17,  Havelock  Place,  Shelton,  Stoke-npon-Treut. 

Douglas,  A.  S.,  Hacknall  Torkard  Collieries,  Nottingham. 

Douglas,  C.  P.,  Parliament  Street,  Conaett,  Co.  Durham. 

Douglas,  David. 

Douglas,  John,  Seghill  Colliery,  Dudley,  Northumberland. 

Douglas,  M.  H.,  Usworth  Colliery,  Washington,  R.S.O.,  Co.  Durham. 

Douglas,  T.,  The  Garth,  Darlington. 

DowDKSWELL,  H.,  Butterknowlc  Colliery,  %na  Darlington. 

DoTLE,  Patkick,  Indian  Kngineering,  19,  Lall  Bazar,  Calcutta,  India. 

Draper,  W.,  New  Seaham  Colliery,  Sunderland. 

Dunbar,  C.  .  Houghton  Main  Colliery,  Bamsley. 

Dunn,  Geo.,  Netherton  Worcestershire. 

Durham,  Earl  of,  Lambton  Offices,  Fence  Houses. 

Durnford,  H.  St.  John,  Whamcliffe  Silkstone  Colliery,  Bamsley. 

DuTSON,  John,  Orgreave  Colliery,  near  Sheffield. 

Dyson.  W.  H.,  Eckington  Collieries,  Rotherham. 

Eames,  W.,  Netherseal  Colliery,  Burton -upon -Trent. 
Eardlet,  Edwin,  7,  Wilson  Street,  Derby. 
Eardlkv,  J.  W.,  The  Grove,  Alfreton. 

Bardlet,  Samuel,  Stone  Villas,  Mow  Cop,  Stokc-upon-Trent. 
Eastlake  a.  W.,  Balham,  London. 
Eastwood,  Edward,  Railway  Wagon  Works,  Chesterfield. 
Eastwood,  G.  A.,  Tap  ton  Villa,  Chesterfield. 
Eaton,  John,  Cliff  House,  Clown,  Chesterfield . 
Eden,  C.  H.,  c/o  Messrs.  Vivian  and  Sons,  Swansea. 
Edge,  J.  H.,  Coalport  Wire  Rope  and  Chain  Works,  Shifnal,  Salop. 
Edge,  John  Wilcox,  Burslem,  Stoke- upon-Treut. 
Edwards,  F.  H.,  Forth  House,  Bewick  Street,  Nowcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Edwards,  W.,  Bryn  End,  Ruabon,  North  Wales. 
Elge,  George,  Clay ton-le- Moors,  Accringtou,  Lancashire. 
Elge,  James,  Holly  House,  Dosthill,  Taiiiworth. 
EIley,  J.  J. ,  Snydale  Collieries,  near  Pontef ract. 
•Elliot,  Sir  George,  Bart.,  17,  Portland  Place,  London,  W. 
Elliott,  J.  W.,  Kirkby  Colliery,  Kirkby-in-Ashfield,  Motts. 
Elliott,  William,  Blackwell  Collieries,  Alfreton. 
Ellis,  W.  R.,  Wigan. 
Ellison,  C.  C,  Nunnery  Colliery,  Sheffield. 
Elsdon,  Robert,  The  Highlands,  Burnt  Ash  Hill,  Lee,  Kent. 
Elstone,  Roland,  18,  Sheffield  Road,  Barjisley. 
Elswick  Coal  Company,  Limited,  N?wca8tle-upon-Tyne. 
Elwen,  Thomas  Lek,  Littleburn  Colliery,  near  Durham. 
♦Embleton,  T.  W.,  The  Cedars,  Methley,  Leeds. 
Embleton,  T.  W.,  Jun.,  The  Cedars,  Methley,  Leeds. 
Eminson,  J.  B.,  Londonderry  Offices,  Seaham  Harbour. 
Evans,  William,  Cliffe  Vale,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Everard,  J.  B. ,  6,  Millstone  Lane,  Leicester. 


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LIST  OF  MEMBERS.  XXVU 

Faiblet,  James,  Craghcad  and  Holmside  Collieries,  Chester-le-Street. 

Fairlet,  W.,  Beau  Desert,  Rugeley. 

Faragher,  Louis,  Cape  Copper  Co.,  Ltd  ,  O'okiep,  Namaqualand,  South  Africa. 

Farmer,  A.,  Seaton  Carew,  near  West  Hartlepool. 

Farn WORTH,  W.,  Swindon,  Dudley,  Worcestershire. 

Faulder,  Joseph,  Bolton  Colliery,  Mealsgate,  via  Carlisle. 

Favell,  Thomas  Mtlnes,  Etruria,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Fawcett,  Edward,  Walker  Colliery,  Walker-upon-Tyne. 

Fearn,  J.  W.,  Devonshire  Street,  Chesterfield. 

Fenwick,  Barnabas,  84,  Osborne  Road,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Fen  wick,  P.  J.,  New  Hucknall  Colliery,  Mansfield. 

Fenwick,  T.  E.,  Mayfield,  Wolsingham,  near  Darlington. 

Ferens,  Frederick  J.,  Silksworth  Colliery,  Sunderland. 

Ferguson,  D.,  The  Persian  Bank  Mining  Rights  Corporation,  Limited,  6,  Drapers' 

Gardens,  London,  E.C. 
Field,  J.,  Hill  Top,  West  Bromwich. 
FiNCKEN,  C.  W.,  Hoyland  Silkstone  Collieries,  Bamsley. 
Firth,  J.,  Hunslet  New  Road,  Leeds. 
*FiRTH,  W.,  Water  Lane,  Leeds. 
Fisher,  Henry,  Clifton  Colliery,  Nottingham. 
Fisher,  T.  T.,  Walsall. 

FisuwiCK,  Robert,  Binchester  Colliery,  Co.  Durham. 
FiTTON,  George,  Wortley,  near  Leeds. 
FiTTON,  W.  H.,  6,  Bersham  Road,  Wrexham. 

Fleming,  C.  E.,  Messrs  Black,  Hawthorn,  and  Co.,  Gat^shead-upon-Tyne. 
Fletcher,  George,  69,  Wilson  Street,  Derby. 
Fletcher,  Herbert,  The  Hollins,  Bolton. 
Fletcher,  John,  Gill  House,  Ulverstone. 
Fletcher,  Lancei^ot,  Brigham  Hall,  Carlisle. 
Fletcher,  W.  ,  Brigham  Hall,  via  Carlisle. 

FoGOiN,  W.,  North  Biddick  Colliery,  Washington  Station,  Co.  Durham. 
Foooo,  W.,  Brereton  Collieries,  Rugeley. 

FoGGO,  Watson,  Messrs.  Mowle  and  Meacock,  Egerton  Iron  Works,  Chester. 
Ford,  C.  F.  V. ,  Marehay  Main  Colliery,  Ripley,  near  Derby. 
Ford,  Jas.  ,  Hotel  Street,  Coalville,  near  Leicester. 
Forrest,  J.  C,  Holly  Bank  Colliery,  Essington,  Wolverhampton. 
Forster,  G.  B.,  3,  Eldon  Square,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
FORSTER,  G.  W. 

Forster,  J.  R.,  Water  Company's  Office,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Forster,  J.  T.,  Bumhope  Colliery,  near  Lanchester,  Co.  Durham. 
Forster,  T.  E.  ,  3,  Eldon  Square,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Foster,  George,  Osmondthorpe  Colliery,  Leeds. 
Foster,  Geo.,  Lyme  House,  Rotherham. 

Foster,  J.  W.,  24,  Silksworth  Terrace,  New  Silksworth,  Sunderland. 
Foster,  T.  J.,  Coal  Exchange,  Scranton,  Pennsylvania,  U.S.A. 
Fowler,  George,  Basford  Hall,  Nottingham. 
Fowler,  W.  C,  Beeston,  Notts. 
Fox,  Samson,  Grove  House,  Harrogate. 
Francis,  Matthew,  Halkyn  Lead-mines,  Flintshire. 
Frost,  William,  Sneyd  Colliery,  Burslem,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Fryar,  J.  W.,  Seghill  Colliery,  Seghill,  Northumberland. 


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ZZVIU  LIST  OF  MEMBERS. 

Fryab,  Mabk,  Denby  Colliery,  Derby. 

Fbtkb,  Thomas,  Knutton  Forge,  Knutton,  Newcaatle-under-Lyine. 

GALiiOWAT,  T.  Lindsay,  Argyll  Colliery,  Campbeltown,  N.B. 

Gallowat,  W.,  Cardiff. 

Gallwbt,  a.  Payne,  Box  138,  Post  Office,  Johannesburg,  Z.A.R. 

Gabforth,  W.  E.,  West  Riding  Colliery,  Normanton. 

Garnbtt,  Prof.  Wm.,  13,  Spring  Gardens,  London,  S.W. 

Gasooynb,  Rowland,  P.O.  Box  1382,  Johannesburg,  South  Africa 

Gater,  Enoch,  Oak  Tree  Cottage,  Talke,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Gbddbb,  Geobob  H.,  142,  Princes  Street,  Edinburgh. 

Geb&abd,  James,  11,  Meek's  Buildings,  Wigan. 

Gbreasd,  John,  H  M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  Worsley,  Manchester. 

Gibbons,  J.  L.,  Ellowes  Hall,  Sedgley,  Staffordshire. 

GiBBS,  HuBBBT,  Rookery  Road,  Handsworth,  Birmingham. 

Gnx^HRiST,  J.  R.,  Garesfield  Colliery,  Lintz  Green,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

GUiL,  Thomas,  TroweU  Moor  Colliery,  near  Nottingham. 

GnxETT,  L.  F.,  163,  Osmaston  Road,  Derby. 

GiLLorr,  J.  W.,  Summer  Lane,  Barnsley. 

GiLROY,  G.,  Mayfield,  Orrel,  Wigan. 

GiLROY,  S.  B.,  3,  Abercrombie  Street,  Chesterfield. 

Gjebs,  John,  3,  Southfield  Villas,  Middlesbrough. 

Glennie,  W.  U.,  10,  Oxford  Road,  Erdington,  Birmingham. 

GrOODALL,  E.  M. ,  £^kington  Collieries,  Rotherham. 

Goodwin,  G.  A.,  Roodeport,  Witwatersrandt,  South  Africa. 

Goodwin,  William  H.,  Park  Hall  Collieries,  Longton,  Staffordshire. 

GooLDEN,  Walter  T.,  28,  Westbourue  Park,  London,  W. 

GowEB,  G.  G.  Levbson,  M.P.,  14,  South  Audley  Street,  London. 

Grainoeb,  James,  Wollaton,  Nottingham. 

Gbatton,  R.  T.,  Knifesmith  Gate,  Chesterfield. 

Gbaves,  H.  G.,  5,  Robert  Street,  Adelphi,  London,  W.C. 

Gbayston,  F.  a..  White  Lodge,  Glascote,  Tamworth. 

Gbazebbook,  a.  W.,  Queen's  Cross,  Dudley,  Worcestershire. 

Gbeatbach,  Geokoe  H.,  Great  Fenton  Collieries,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Gbeavks,  J.  O. ,  St.  John's,  Wakefield. 

Green,  A.  T. ,  Aldwarke  Main  Colliery,  Rotherham. 

Green,  J.  T.,  Ty  Celyn,  Abercame,  Newport,  Monmouthshire. 

Gbeeneb,  Henry,  South  Pontop  Colliery,  Annfield  Plain. 

Gbkeneb,  T.  Y.,  West  Lodge,  Crook,  Darlington. 

Gbeknsmith,  Johnson,  Newstead  Colliery,  Nottingham. 

Green  WELL,  G.  C,  Elm  Tree  Lodge,  Dufficld,  Derby. 

Gbeenweu^,  G.  C,  Juu..  Poynton,  near  Stockport. 

Gbeenwood,  Prof.  W.  H.,  21,  Portland  Road,  Edgbaston,  Birmingham. 

Gbegory,  Aubrey,  Dhadka  Colliery,  Asansol,  E.I.R.,  India. 

Gregory,  H.  E.,  Cartonwood  Colliery,  Barnsley. 

Gregory,  John,  Sneyd  Colliery,  Burslem,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Gresley,  W.  S.,  Erie,  Pennsylvania,  U.S.A. 

Grey,  C.  G.,  20,  Northbrook  Koad,  Leeson  Park,  Dublin. 

Gbifkith,  Ed.,  Brjmibo  Colliery,  Wrexham,  North  Wales. 

Griffith,  N.  R.,  Plasnewydd,  Ruabon,  North  Wales. 

Griffiths,  F.,  Pensnett,  Dudley,  Worcestershire. 

Grimshaw,  E.  J.,  23,  Hardshaw  Street,  St.  Helen's,  Lancashire. 


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LIST  OF   MSHBSaS.  XXIZ 

Gbindlet,  W.  H.,  Newfield  Works,  Tanstall,  Staffordshire. 
Guthrie,  James  K.,  Eltringham  Colliery,  Prudhoe,  R.S.O. 
Guthrie,  Reginald,  Neville  Hall,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Habkrshon,  M.  H.,  Thomcliffe  Colliery,  near  Sheffield. 
Haddock,  W.  T.,  Jun. 

Hadfield,  R.  a.,  Hecla  Steel  Foundry,  Sheffield. 
Haooie,  D.  H.,  Wearmouth  Patent  Rope  Works,  Sunderland. 
Haooie,  F.  W.,  Gateshead-upon-Tyne. 
Haooie,  G.  A.,  Wearmouth  Ropery,  Sunderland. 
Haooie,  Peter  Sinclair,  Gateshead-upon-Tyne. 
Hague,  Ernest,  Castle  Dyke,  Sheffield. 

Haines,  J.  Richard,  Adderley  Green  Collieries,  Stoke-npon-Trent. 
Halder,  Albert  H.,  Pietersburg,  Transvaal 
Hall,  Edgar,  Whamcliffe  Silkstone  Colliery,  Bamsley. 
Hall,  Fred.  W.,  Haswell  Lodge,  Sunderland. 

Hall,  George,  The  Bengal  Iron  and  Steel  Company,  Barrakar,  Bengal,  India. 
Hall,  John,  Sheepbridge  Works,  Chesterfield. 
Hall,  J.  C,  Pegswood  Colliery,  near  Morpeth. 
Hall,  L.  J.,  Fumess  Vale,  Stockport. 
Hall,  M.,  Lofthouse  Colliery,  Wakefield. 
Hall,  M.  S.,  8,  Victoria  Street,  Bishop  Auckland. 
Hall,  R.  O.  Db  K.,  Treeton,  Rotherham. 
Hall,  Tom,  Ryhope  Colliery,  via  Sunderland 
Hall,  W.  F.,  Haswell  Colliery,  Haswell,  via  Sunderland. 
Hallas,  G.  H.,  Wigan  and  Whiston  Coal  Co.,  Limited,  Prescot. 
Hai^k,  Edward,  15,  Clarendon  Road,  Notting  Hill,  London,  W. 
Hamilton,  E.,  Rig  Wood,  Saltbum-by-the-Sea. 

Hamilton,  G.,  c/o  Messrs.  B.  S.  Lloyd  and  Co.,  78,  Queen  Victoria  Street,  Lon- 
don, KC. 
Hamilton,  J.  P.,  Loscoe  Brook,  Codnor,  Derby. 
Hancock,  Thomas,  Bagnall  House,  Nottingham. 

Hancock,  William,  51,  Alexander  Road,  Normacot,  Longton,  Staffordshire. 
Hann,  Edmund,  Aberaman,  Aberdare. 
Hardwtck,  Francis  W.,  Firth  College,  Sheffield. 
Hardwick,  Frederick,  Eckington  Collieries,  Rotherham. 
Hare,  Samuel,  Bedlington  Collieries,  Bedlington,  R.S.O.,  Northumberland. 
Hargrkaves,  J.,  Roth  well  Haigh  Colliery,  Leeds. 
Hargreaves,  Walter,  Robin  Hood  Collieries,  Wakefield. 
Hargreaves,  William,  Rothwell  Haigh  Colliery,  Leeds. 
Harker,  Wm.,  17a,  Great  George  Street,  Westminster,  London,  S.  W. 
Harle,  Peter,  Pagebank  Colliery,  Co.  Durham. 
Harle,  Richard,  Browney  Colliery,  Durham. 
Harle,  William,  Pagebank  Colliery,  near  Durham. 
Harp,  Ralph,  Bucknall,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Harper,  H.,  63,  Pitt  Street,  Sydney,  New  South  Wales. 
Harper,  J.  P.,  All  Saints'  Chambers,  Derby. 
Harris,  W.  S.,  Kibblesworth,  Gateshead-upon-Tyne. 
Harrison,  George,  High  Park  Colliery,  Greasley,  Nottingham. 
Harrison,  G.  B.,  West  Hunwick  Colliery,  Hun  wick,  R.S.O.,  Co.  Durham 
Harrison,  G.  D.,  Waterworks,  Hanley,  Staffordshire. 
Harrison,  W.  B.,  Brownhills  Collieries,  near  Walsall. 


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XXZ  LIST  OP  MSXBEBS. 

Harbup,  J.  A.,  Westminster  Collieries,  Wrexham. 
Hassam,  A&thur,  Oldfield  CoUieiy,  Fenton,  Stoke-upon-Treiit. 
Hassam,  Wilmot  J.,  Lane  End  Works,  Fenton,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Haswkix  Coal  Ck>.,  Haswell  Colliery,  Haswell,  via  Sunderland. 
Hawkes,  J.,  Heathfield  Road,  Handsworth,  Birmingham. 
Hay,  J.,  Jun.,  Widdrington  Colliery,  Acklington. 
Hay,  T.  Y.,  Whitwick  Colliery,  Coalville,  Leicester. 
Hay,  William,  Koetell  Colliery,  Wakefield. 
Hay,  W.,  Jan.,  Wood  View  House,  Stanton,  Burton-npon-Trent. 
Haynks,  Frank,  Birley  Collieries,  Sheffield. 
Haywabd,  W.  J.,  West  Bromwich. 
Head,  Jeremiah,  Queen's  Square,  Middlesbrough. 
Heath,  A.  S.,  Adderley  Green  Collieries,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
HeatA,  Jambs,  Clayton  Hall,  Newcastle,  Staffordshire. 
Heath,  John,  Sneyd  Colliery,  Burslem,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Heath,  Robert,  Biddulph  Valley  Iron  Works,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Heath,  Robert,  Jun.,  Biddulph  Valley  Iron  Works,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Heath,  Wilj^iam,  Sneyd  House,  Burslem,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Heathcote,  C.  H.,  Newstead  Colliery,  Nottingham. 
Hedley,  Chas.,  Black  Park  Colliery,  Chirk,  Ruabon. 
Hedley,  E.,  Rainham  Lodge,  The  Avenue,  Beckenham,  Kent. 
Hedley,  J.  Hunt,  John  Street,  Sunderland. 
*Hedley,  J.  J.,  Derwent  Cote  House,  Lintz  Green  Station. 
Hedley,  Sept.  H.,  Bank  Chambers,  Wakefield. 
Hedley,  W.  H.,  Medomsley,  R.S.O.,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Henderson,  C.  W.  C,  The  Riding.  Hexham. 
Henderson,  H.,  Pelton  Colliery,  Cheater-le-Street. 
Henderson,  J.  J.,  Khewra,  Sind  Sagar  S.  Railway,  Punjab,  India. 
Henderson,  J.  J.,  U.S.  Engineer's  Office,  Kingsbridge,  New  York,  U.S. A. 
Hendy,  J.  C.  B.,  Colliery  Office,  Etherley,  by  Darlington. 
Henshaw,  a.  Mayon,  Talk-o'-th'-Hill  Colliery,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Henzell,  Robert,  Close,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Hepburn,  T.,  Langley  Park,  Durham. 
Heppell,  T.,  Leafield  House,  Birtley,  Chester-le-Street. 
Hepplewhite,  W.  H.,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  Roscius  House,  Corporation 

Oaks,  Nottingham. 
Herschel,  Prof.  A.  S.,  Observatory  House,  Slough,  Bucks. 
Heslinoton,  Alfred,  New  Tupton,  Chesterfield. 

Heslop,  C,  Upleatham  and  Lingdale  Mines,  Upleatham,  R.S.O.,  Yorkshire. 
Heslop,  Grainger,  Deptford  Hall,  Sunderland. 
Heslop,  James,  The  Elms,  Arnold,  Nottingham. 
Heslop,  Thomas,  Storey  Lodge  Colliery,  Cockfield,  via  Darlington. 
Hetton  Coal  Company,  Fence  Houses. 
Hewitt,  C.  R.,  London  Road,  Derby. 
Hewitt,  George,  Castle  Gresley,  Burton-upon-Trent 
Hewitt,  G.  C.  ,  Coal  Pit  Heath  Colliery,  near  Bristol. 
Hewitt,  H.  R.,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  47,  Hartington  Street,  Derby. 
Hewitt,  John  Bichardson,  Derby. 
Hewitt,  Joseph,  Heron  Cross,  Fenton,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Hewitt,  T.  P.,  Swadlincote  and  Cadley  Hill  Collieries,  Burton-upon-Trent. 
Hewlett,  A.,  Haseley  Manor,  Warwick. 


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LIST  OF  MEMBERS.  XXXI 

Hickman,  B.,  Stone  Quarries,  Bilston. 
Hicks,  Prof.  W.  M.,  Firth  College,  Sheffield. 

HiGOiNS,  Samuel,  Weston  Coyney  Road,  near  Longton,  Staffordshire. 
HiosoN,  Jacob,  Crown  Buildings,  18,  Booth  Street,  Manchester. 
HiGSON,  John,  Crown  Buildings,  18,  Booth  Street,  Manchester. 
Hill,  Thomas,  Codnor  Park,  Alfreton. 

Hill,  William,  Carterthome  Colliery  Offices,  Witton-le-Wear. 
Hill,  William,  Manor  Street  Foundry,  Fenton,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Hilton,  J.,  67,  Hawkshead  Street,  Southport. 
Hilton,  T.  W.,  Wigan  Coal  and  Iron  Co.,  Limited  Wigan. 
HiNGHLiFFK,  J.,  Bullhouse  Colliery,  Penistone,  near  Sheffield. 
HntST,  G.  F.,  Aldwarke  Main  Colliery,  Rotherham. 

HoBBS,  William  L.,  Whitfield  Collieries,  Norton-in-the-Moors,  Stoke-npou-Trent. 
Hodges,  Isaac,  Sheepbridge  Works,  Chesterfield. 
HoDGKiNSON,  Albert,  The  Laurels,  Wollaton,  Nottingham. 
Hodgson,  E.,  Black  Boy  Colliery,  Bishop  Auckland. 
Hodgson,  J.,  Edmondsley  Colliery,  Chester-le-Strcet. 
HoDSON,  James,  Brintirion,  Prestatyn,  North  Wales. 
HoDSON,  James  £.,  Belgrave  Terrace,  Normacot,  Longton,  Staffordshire. 
HoLB&ooK,  John,  Langley  Colliery,  Marlpool,  Derby. 
Holding,  William,  Cossall  Colliery,  Nottingham. 
HoLDSWORTH,  Thomas,  Clay  Cross,  Chesterfield. 
Holford,  W.  D.,  Whittington,  Chesterfield. 
HoLLiDAY,  Martin  F.,  Langley  Grove,  Durham. 
HuLLiDAT,  RosLYN,  Fcatherstone  Manor  Colliery,  Pontefract. 
HoLLiDAT,  T.,  West  Ardsley  Collieries,  Tingley,  near  Wakefield. 
HoLLiNS,  G.,  High  Street,  Wolstanton,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
HoLLis,  Henry  Wm.,  Whitworth  House,  Spennymoor. 
Holmes,  C,  Grange  Hill,  near  Bishop  Auckland. 
*HoMER,  Charles  J.,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
HoMSR,  J.  Edward,  Ivy  House,  Hanley,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Hood,  A.,  6,  Bute  Crescent,  Cardiff. 

Hooper,  £d.  ,  c/o  J.  H.  Hooper,  College  Precincts,  Worcester. 
Hopkins,  Edward,  13,  Harrington  Gardens,  London,  S.W. 
HoPKiNSON,  Henry,  Station  Street,  Nottingham. 
Hopkinson,  John,  Inglewood,  St.  Margaret's  Road,  Bowden,  Cheshire. 
Hopper,  J.  L,  Tyne  Dock,  South  Shields. 
HosKOLD,  H.  D.,  Inspector-General  of  Mines  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  and 

Director  of  the  National  Department  of  Minos  and  Geology,  Casilla  Correos, 

900,  Buenos  Ayres. 
HoiTFTON,  Charles,  Heathfield  Villas,  Garforth,  Leeds. 
HouFTON,  J.  P.,  Bolsover  Colliery,  Chesterfield. 
Huulgatb,  J.  Kerr,  69,  Lowther  Street,  Whitehaven. 
Howard,  W.  F.,  15,  Cavendish  Street,  Chesterfield. 
HowDEN,  Thomas,  Wakefield. 
Howe,  Wm.,  CUy  Cross,  Chesterfield. 
Howes,  Frank  T.,  Singareni  Collieries,  Hyderabad  Deccan  Co.,  Secunderabad, 

India. 
Howl,  E.,  The  Quarries  Dudley,  Worcestershire. 
HuBBERSTY,  H.  A.,  Burbage,  Buxton. 
Hughes,  H.  W,,  Priory  Farm  House,  Dudley,  Worcestershire. 


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XXXll  LIST  OF  MEMBEBS. 

Hughes,  Jambs,  Midland  Coal  and  Iron  Co.,  Minnie  Pit,  Halmorend,  Newcastle, 

Staffordshire. 
Hughes,  J.,  Dudley,  Worcestershire. 
Hughes,  Thomas  George,  Blackwell,  Alfreton. 
Hughes,  Wiluam,  Springwood,  Chesterton,  Staffordshire. 
HuLSE,  W.  W.,  Longton  Gas  Works,  Longton,  Staffordshire. 
Humble,  Joseph,  Markham  Collieries,  Duckmanton,  Chesterfield. 
Humphbeys-Davies,  G.,  8,  Laurence  Pountney  Hill,  Cannon  Street,  London,  E.C. 
HuNTEK,  Chbistofheb,  FroomhiU  Colliery,  Acklington,  Northumberland. 
Hurst,  George,  58,  Eldon  Street,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
HuTTON  Henry  Coal  Company,  Limited,  7,  Bondgato,  Darlington. 
Hyslop,  G.  p.,  Mossfield  Colliery,  Longton,  Staffordshire. 

Irvine,  Joseph  B.,  Hendon  Ropery,  Sunderland. 

Jackson,  Alfred,  Park  Hall  Collieries,  near  Longton,  Staffordshire. 

Jackson,  Andrew,  Collins  Green  Collieries,  Newton-le- Willows,  Lancashire. 

Jackson,  John,  Stubben  Edge,  Chesterfield. 

Jackson,  W.  B.  M.,  Clay  Cross  Hall,  Chesterfield. 

Jackson,  W.  G.,  Hicklam  House,  Aberford,  near  Leeds. 

Jarratt,  J.,  Houghton  Main  Colliery,  Bamsley. 

Jeffoock,  C.  E.,  Birley  Collieries,  Sheffield. 

Jeffcock,  T.  W.,  18,  Bank  Street,  Sheffield. 

Jenkins,  W.,  Ocean  Collieries,  Treorky,  Glamorganshire. 

Jenkins,  Wm.,  Consett  Iron  Works,  Consett,  Durham. 

Jepson,  H.,  20,  The  Avenue,  Durham. 

Jepson,  W.  W.,  Portland  Colliery,  Selston,  Alfreton. 

Jeudwine,  W.  W.,  Walton  Lodge,  Chesterfield. 

Jobling,  T.  E.,  Croft  Villa,  Blyth,  Northumberland. 

Johnson,  J.,  Carlton  Main  Colliery,  Bamsley. 

Johnson,  M.  G.,  Talk-o'-th'-HUl  Colliery,  Talke,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Johnson,  W.,  Abram  Colliery,  Wigan. 

Johnson,  Wm.,  Framwellgate  Moor,  Durham. 

Johnson,  Wm.,  Radcliffe  Colliery,  Acklington,  Northumberland. 

JoiCEY,  J.  G.,  Forth  Banks  West  Factory,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

JoiOEY,  James  John,  Sunningdale  Park,  Berks. 

JoiOEY,  W.  J. ,  Sunningdale  Park,  Berks. 

Jones,  D.  L,,  Shelton  Steel  Co.,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Jones,  F.  J.,  Bother  Vale  Collieries,  Treeton,  Rotherham 

Jones,  George,  The  Hall,  Bloxwich. 

Jones,  Joh.v,  Shire  Oaks  Colliery,  Worksop. 

Jones,  J.  A  ,  Gijon,  Asturias,  Spain. 

Jones,  Jacob  Carlos,  Bellambi,  New  South  Wales. 

Jones,  Lloyd,  Ruabon,  North  Wales. 

Jones,  K  Enos,  Whitwell  Colliery,  Whitwell,  Chesterfield. 

Jones,  Thomas  E.,  Shelton  Bar  Ironworks,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

EIayll,  a.  C,  Gosforth,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Keep,  R.  S.,  Messrs.  Horsley  and  Co.,  Tipton,  Staffordshire. 

Kell,  G.  j.,  Park  Road,  Bamsley. 

Kellet,  M.  H.,  6,  Elm  Street,  South  Moor,  Chester-le-Stroet. 

Kbllett,  William,  Portland  Bank,  Southport. 


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LIST  OF  XEMBEBS.  XXXiu 

Kendall,  J.  D.,  Fozhouaes  Road,  Whitehaven. 

Kbnrick,  John  P.,  8,  St.  James'  Square,  Manchester. 

Kent,  Geobge  C,  Longton,  Staffordshire. 

Kestbyen,  Frank,  Monckton  Main  Colliery,  Bamsley. 

KiDSON,  E  ,  Lester  Street,  Bilston. 

Kino,  Feed.,  Cramlington  Colliery,  R.S.O.,  Northumberland. 

KiRKBT,  J.  W.,  Kirkland,  Leven,  Fife. 

KiEKUP,  Austin,  Murton  Colliery,  Sunderland. 

KntKUP,  Fred.  0.,  Button  Henry  Colliery,  Wingate,  R.S.O.,  Co.  Durham. 

KiRKUP,  J.  P.,  5,  Albert  Edward  Terrace,  Whitley. 

KiRKUP,  Philip,  Cornsay  Colliery  Office,  Esh,  near  Durham. 

KiRTON,  Hugh,  Kimblesworth  Colliery,  Chester-le-Street. 

Knighton,  Herbert,  High  Park  Colliery,  Greasley,  Notts. 

Knighton,  H.  A.,  Bagworth,  Leiooster. 

Knowlbs,  John,  Weetwood,  Pendlebury,  Manchester. 

Knowlbs,  Robert,  Ednaston  Lodge,  near  Derby. 

Lake,  The  Very  Rev.  Dr.,  Dean  of  Durham. 

Lake,  Georoe,  PenkhuU,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Lamb,  George,  Butterley  Park  Collieries,  Alfreton. 

Lamb,  R.,  Troughton  House,  Qeator  Moor,  via  Camforth. 

Lamb,  Richard  W.,  29,  Great  Cumberland  Place,  London,  W. 

Lancaster,  John,  Anfield  House,  Leamington. 

Lancaster,  John,  Heathfield,  Lesmahagow,  N.B. 

LANDAiiE,  A.,  Comely  Park  Place,  Dunfermline. 

Laporte,  H.,  57)  Rue  de  la  Concorde,  Brussels. 

Lapworth,  Prof.  C,  Mason  College,  Birmingham. 

Larmouth,  William,  Hareoastle  and  Woodshutts  Colliery,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Layerick,  J.  H.  W.,  Riddings  Colliery,  near  Alfreton. 

Laveriok,  Jas.,  East  Gawber  Colliery,  Bamsley. 

Layerick,   John  Wales,    Tow  Law  Colliery  Office,  Tow  Law,  R.S.O.,  Co. 

Durham. 
Layerick,  Robt.,  West  Rainton,  Fence  Houses. 
Lawlet,  J.,  Cradley  Heath,  Staffordshire. 
Lawrence,  H.,  Grange  Lron  Works,  Durham. 

Lawrence,  H.  L.,  3,  Maxilla  Gardens,  North  Kensington,  London,  W. 
Laws,  W.  G.,  Town  Hall,  Newcastle-upon-Tyi^®* 
Lawton,  G.  E.,  Shelton  Collieries,  Hanley,  Staffordshire. 
Lawton,  T.  a.,  Brynkinalt  Collieries,  Chirk,  North  Wales. 
Lawton,  Wm.,  98,  Kirkmanshulme  Lane,  Longsight,  Manchester. 
Lea,  H.,  38,  Bennett's  HUl,  Birmingham. 
Leach,  C.  C,  Seghill  Colliery,  Northumberland. 
Lebour,  G.  a.,  Durham  College  of  Science,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Lee,  John,  Whitfield  Collieries,  Norton-le-Moors,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Lee,  John  F.,  Sheepbridge  Iron  Works,  Chesterfield. 
Lees,  T.  G..  Clifton  Colliery,  Nottingham. 
Lewis,  George,  Imperial  Chambers,  Albert  Street,  Derby. 
Lewis,  Henrt,  Annesley  Colliery,  Nottingham. 
Lewis,  Sir  Whjjam  Thomas,  Mardy,  Aberdare. 
LiDDELL,  J.  M.,  3,  Victoria  Villas,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
LiNDAY,  Jambs,  Bishop  Auckland. 
LiNDLEY,  Edward,  Eastwood,  Nottingham. 

YOL.  Y.-ISMM.  C 


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XXZIY  LIST  OF  MEMBERS. 

LiNDOP,  J.,  lime  Tree  House.  Bloxwich,  WalsalL 

LiNSLET,  R.,  Crarolington  Colliery,  Northaroberland. 

LiNSLET,  S.  W.,  Whitburn  Colliery,  Soath  Shields. 

LisuMAN,  R.  R.,  Durham  Main  Colliery,  Durham. 

LiSHMAN,  T.,  Hetton  Colliery,  Hetton-le-Hole,  R.S.O. 

LiSHMAN,  Wm.,  Bunker  Hill,  Fence  Houses. 

LiSHMAN,  Wm.,  Holly  House,  Witton-le-Wear. 

LiSTJS,  J.,  The  Ottos  Kopje  Diamond  Mines,  Limited,  Ottos  Kopje  Chambers 

P.O.  Box  381,  Kimberley,  South  Africa. 
LiYKiNO,  E.  H.,  52,  Queen  Anne  Street,  Cavendish  Square,  London,  W. 
LiYKitfKDOB,  W.  6.,  Norfolk  Road,  Sheffield. 
LiVBSBT,  C,  Bradford  Colliery,  near  Manchester. 
LiYXSKT,  T.,  Bradford  Colliery,  near  Manchester. 
Llbwellin,  David  Moboan,  Glanwem  Offices,  PontypooL 
LLSWKLTtr,  F.  W.,  Shelton  Bar  Iron  and  Steel  Works,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
LooKBTT,  James,  Holly  Villas,  Kidsgrove,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
LooKETT,  William,  25,  North  Road,  Longsight,  Manchester. 
LooAN,  William,  Langley  Park  Colliery,  Durham. 
Londonderry,  Marquess  of,  c/o  V.  W.  Corbett,  Londonderry  Offices,  Seaham 

Harbour. 
LoNOBOTHAM,  J.,  Barrow  Collieries,  Bamsley,  Yorkshire. 
Longbotham,  R.  H.,  15,  Westgate,  Wakefield. 
LoNODEN,  J.  A.,  Stanton-by-Dale,  Nottingham. 
LoNORiDOE,  J.,  Coxlodge  Colliery,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
LuNORiDOE,  J.  A.,  GrSve  d'Ayett^,  Jersey. 

LoNOSDALB,  Nigel,  Harecastle  and  Woodshutts  Colliery,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Louis,  D.  A.,  77,  Shirland  Gardens,  London,  W. 
LovBKiN,  Emanuel,  Tunstall,  Staffordshire. 
LowDEN,  T.,  Hamsteels,  near  Durham. 
LowRANCE,  T.  B.,  Pitt  Street,  Barnsley. 

LuoAS,  Robert,  Biddulph  Valley  Iron  Works,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Lucas,  Samuel,  Dronfield  Foundry,  Dronfield,  Sheffield. 
LuPTON,  Prof.  A.,  6,  De  Grey  Road,  Leeds. 
Lt!VAM,  H.  M.,  Shelton  Collieries,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Lyon,  J.,  Walsall  Wood,  WalsalL 
Lton,  J.  W.,  The  Firs,  Annesley,  Nottingham. 

Maoalpinb,  G.  W.,  Altham  and  Great  flarwood  Collieries,  near  Aocrington. 

MacArthur,  J.  S.,  12,  Knowe  Terrace,  Pollokshields,  Glasgow. 

MacCabe,  H.  O.,  Russell  Vale,  Wollongong,  New  South  Wales. 

McCarthy,    E.    T.,  c/o.    Colonel   Pigott,  Archer  Lodge,   Charles   Road,    St. 

Leonards-on-Sea. 
McCreath,  J.,  208,  St.  Vincent  Street,  Glasgow. 
McCuLLOCH,  David,  Beech  Grove,  Kilmarnock,  N.B. 
MoGowAN,  John,  Harecastle  and  Woodshutts  Collieries,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
MoGowAN,  John,  Jun.,  Harecastle  and  Woodshutts  Collieries,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Macintosh,  T.,  Waterloo,  Bljrth. 
Mackinlay,  E.,  East  Stanley  Colliery,  Co.  Durham. 
McLaren,  B.,  Heddon  Coal  and  Fire  Brick  Co.,  Wylam-upon-Tyne. 
McMurtrie,  G.  E.  J.,  Foxes  Bridge  Colliery,  Cinderford,  Gloucestershire. 
McMurtrie,  J.,  Radstock  Colliery,  Bath. 
Maddison,  Thos.  R.,  Dirtcar  House,  near  Wakefield. 


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LIST  OF  KBMBERS.  ZZZV 

Maddison,  W.  H.  F.,  The  Lindens,  Darlington. 

Makspeacs,  H.  R.,  H.M.  Lispector  of  Mines,  NewoMtle,  Staffordshire. 
Makefeacb,  R.  R.,  Newcastle,  Staffordshire. 
Mauko,  G.  T.,  Ellison  Place,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Mamuatt,  J.  E.,  St.  Andrew's  Chambers,  Leeds. 
Mann,  Enoch,  Blakeley  House,  Dilhome,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Markham,  C.  P.,  Broad  Oaks  Iron  Works,  Chesterfield. 
Markham,  6.  E.,  Coundon,  Bishop  Auckland. 
Makley,  J.  W.,  Thomfield,  Darlington. 
Makbiott,  Joseph,  Jun.,  Acres,  Pilsley,  Chesterfield. 
*Mabsh,  F.  S.,  Freasley,  near  Tamworth. 
Mabsh,  T.  G.,  2,  Priory  Street,  Dudley,  Worcestershire. 
Marshall,  J.  L.,  Monk  Bretton  Colliery,  Bamsley. 
Marshall,  W.,  Liversedge  Colliery,  Liversedge,  via  Normanton. 
Marshall,  W.  B.,  Richmond  Hill,  Edgbaston,  Birmingham. 
Marten,  £.  B.,  Pedmore,  near  Stourbridge. 
Martin,  C.  W.,  Murton  Colliery,  via  Sunderland. 
Martin,  Gilson,  Edensor,  Chesterfield. 
Martin,  R.  F.,  Mountsorrel,  Loughborough. 
Martin,  Tom  Pattinson,  Allhallows  Colliery,  Mealsgate,  Carlisle. 
Mascall,  W.  H  ,  c/o  Mrs.  Race,  South  Church,  near  Bishop  Auckland. 
Mason,  Benj.,  Bnmopfield,  R.S.O.,  Durham. 
Mathibson,   Alexander,   Hetton  Colliery,  Carrington,  near  Newcastle,  New 

South  Wale  p. 
Matthews,  J.,  Messrs.  R.  and  W.  Hawthorn,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Matthews,  R.  F.,  Harehope  Hall,  Alnwick. 
Mauohan,  J.  A.,  Government  Central  Provinces  Collieries,  Umaria,  via  Katni, 

India,  C.P. 
Mawson,  R.  Bryham,  Brick  House,  Westleigh,  Manchester. 
May,  G.  ,  Harton  Colliery  Offices,  near  South  Shields. 
May,  T.  H.,  Dronfield,  Sheffield. 
Maydsw,  Benj.,  Lyme  House,  Whiston,  Prescott. 
Mayes,  G.  R.,  Dukinfield  Collieries,  Dukinfield,  near  Manchester. 
Meachsm,  F.  G.,  Hillside  Cottage,  Hamstead  HiU,  Handsworth,  Birmingham. 
Meaghem,  Isaac,  Jun.,  Batmans  Hill  House,  Bradley,  Bilston. 
MsiN,  Jambs,  South  Normanton  Colliery,  Alfreton. 
Mbllino,  Wm.,  South  Leicestershire  Colliery,  Coalville,  Leicestershire. 
Mello,  Rev.  J.  M.,  Mapperley  Vicarage,  near  Derby. 
Mellor,  Herbert  W.,  5,  Tithebam  Street,  Liverpool 
Mellors,  James,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  Outwood,  Wakefield. 
Melly,  E.  F.,  Griff  Colliery,  Nuneaton. 

Merivals,  Prof.  J.  H.,  2,  Victoria  Villas,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Mertvale,  W.,  The  Deanery,  Ely. 
Meyer,  G.  A.,  Shamrock  Collieries,  Westphalia. 
Mbysey-Thomfson,  a.  H.,  Sun  Foundry,  Leeds. 
Middleton,  Francis  Ed.,  Lofthouse,  Wakefield. 
MiDDLETON,  Robert,  Sheep  Scar  Foundry,  Leeds. 

Miles,  Wm.  Hy.,  23,  Bamato  Buildings,  Johnannesbnrg,  Transvaal,  South  Africa. 
Miller,  N. 

MiLLEBSHiP,  J.  H.,  Watnall  Colliery,  Watnall,  Notts. 
MiuJNOTON,  Wm.  Wyatt,  Herdman's  House,  Holliugwood,  Lancashire. 


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XIXVl  LIST  OP  MEMBERS. 

Miuj9,  M.  H.,  15,  Corporation  Street,  Chesterfield. 

MiLUB,  William  A.,  Jasmine  Villa,  Newcastle,  Staffordshire. 

MiLNX,  Prof.  John,  University  of  Tokio,  Japan. 

MiNTO,  Gborok  W.,  Chapel  Row,  Ouston,  Chester-le-Street. 

Mitchell,  Chas.,  Jesmond,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Mitchell,  Clayton  E.  J.,  West  Highlands,  Winchester. 

Mitchell,  John,  Swaithe  Hall,  Bamsley. 

Mitchell,  Joseph,  Regent  Street,  Bamsley. 

Mitcheij:^  T.  W.  H.,  Mining  Offices,  Bamsley. 

MrroHESON,  G.  A.,  Market  Place,  Longton,  Staffordshire. 

MiTCHESON,  Habbt,  Dresden,  Longton,  Staffordshire. 

Mitohinson,  R.,  Pontop  Colliery,  Lintz  Green  Station,  Co.  Dnrham. 

MiTTON,  A.  Dtheit,  Marlpool  House,  near  Derby. 

MoLLEB,  W.  A.,  o/o  Chrys.  Moller,  Sioux  City,  Iowa,  U.a  A. 

MoNKHOUBS,  Jos.,  QUorox,  Carlisle. 

MooRB,  R.  T.,  156,  St.  Vinoent  Street,  Glasgow. 

MooBB,  R.  W.,  Somerset  House,  Whitehaven. 

MooRB,  WiUJAM,  Loftns  Mines,  Loftus-in-Cleveland,  R.S.O. 

MoBDf,  W.,  Shelton  Iron,  Steel,  and  Coal  Co.,  Ltd.,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Mobbing,  C.  A.,  Broad  Street  House,  Old  Broad  Street,  London,  E.C. 

MoBOAN,  C.  R.,  Hurst  Lodge,  Alfreton. 

MoBOAN,  Thomas,  Birch  Coppice  Colliery,  near  Tamworth. 

MoBisoN,  John,  New  battle  Collieries,  Dalkeith,  N.B. 

MoBBis,  W.,  Waldridge  Colliery,  Chester-le-Street. 

MoBTON,  H.  J.,  2,  Weetboume  Villas,  South  Cliff,  Scarborough. 

MosBT,  George,  Eckington  Collieries,  Rotherham. 

Moss,  Henbt,  223«  Derby  Road,  Nottingham. 

Mould,  Enoch,  White  Bam  Colliery,  Newcastle,  Staffordshire. 

MouLTON,  Levi,  Chesterton,  Stoko-upon-Trent. 

Mountain,  William  C,  Forth  Banks,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Muibhead,  James,  Grove  Road,  Fenton,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

MuLHOLLAND,  M.  L.,  West  Comforth,  R.S.O.,  Co.  Durham. 

MuNDLE,  Abthub,  St.  Nicholas*  Chambers,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

MuNBO,  Donald,  Fairfield,  Manchester. 

MuNBOE,  Prof.  H.  S.,  School  of  Mines,  Columbia  College,  New  York  City,  U.S.A. 

Mubton,  Chas.  J.,  Delaval  Benwell  Colliery,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

MuscHAMP,  Pebcival,  Warren  Grove,  Sheffield  Road,  Bamsley. 

MusGBAVE,  Henbt,  Havercroft  Main  Colliery,  Roystone,  near  Bamsley. 

Myatt,  Jacob,  Newcapel,  Tunstall,  Staffordshire. 

Nash,  H.  B.,  Clarke's  Old  Silkstone  Colliery,  Bamsley. 

Nasse,  Rudolph,  Geheimerbergrat,  Domsbergstrasse,  6,  Berlin,  W.,  Germany. 

Natlob,  John,  Cotes  Park  Colliery,  near  Alfreton. 

Nevin,  John,  littlemoor  House,  Mirfield. 

Newbould,  T.,  Low  Stubbin  Colliery,  Rawmarsh,  Rotherham. 

Nbwey,  J.  W.,  Welliagton  Road,  Dudley,  Worcestershire. 

Newton,  James,  Whitehaven  Colliery,  Whitehaven. 

Newton,  John,  Longport,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Nichol,  Wm.,  De  Beers  Mine,  Kimberley,  South  Africa. 

Nichoi^son,  a.  D.,  Lane  Ends,  Hetton-le-Hole,  R.S.O.,  Co.  Durham. 

Nicholson,  J.  H.,  Cowpen  Colliery  Office,  Blyth,  Northumberland. 


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LIST  OF  MEMBERS.  XXXVU 

NiOHOiiSOir,  Marhhall,  Middleton  Colliery,  Leeds. 

Nixon,  John,  Stafford  Coal  and  Iron  Co.,  Stoke -upon-Trent 

NoBUB,  Thomas  Geobob,  Sacriston  Colliery,  Durham. 

North,  F.  W.,  Rowley  Hall  Colliery,  Dudley,  Staffordshire. 

NoBTH  Bbancepsth  Coal  Co.,  Limitkd,  Crown  Street  Chambers,  Darlington. 

North  Hstton  Colliery,  Owners  of.  Fence  Houses. 

NowsLL,  William,  Haunchwood  Colliery,  Nuneaton. 

Oakbs,  C.  H.,  Holly  Hunt,  Alfreton. 

Oatks,  Robert  J.  W.,  Rajdoha  Mining  Co.,  Limited,  via  Kandra  P.O.,  Bengal 
Nagpor  Railway,  Bengal,  India. 

Offer,  Stephen,  Cheadle  Park  Colliery,  Cheadle,  Staffordshire. 
*OoDEN,  J.  M.,  40,  West  Sunniside,  Sunderland. 

Ogilvis,  a.  Graeme,  8,  Grove  End  Road,  St.  John's  Wood,  London. 

Oldham,  George,  25,  Western  Hill,  Durham. 

Oliysr,  C.  J.,  Spring  Vale,  Spital,  Chesterfield. 

Ormerod,  Edward,  Atherton,  Manchester. 

Ornsbt,  R.  E.,  Seaton  Delaval  Colliery,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

O'Shsa,  L.  T.,  Firth  College,  Sheffield. 

Oswald,  R.  P.  W.,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  Hensingham,  Whitehaven. 

Ottewsll,  Draper,  The  Gardens,  Osmaston  Road,  Derby. 

Overend,  James,  Mining  Offices,  Bamsley. 

Owen,  William,  Bucknall,  Stoke-upou-Trent. 
*OxiiET,  Joshua,  Wombwell  Main  Colliery,  Barnsley. 

Page,  F.  W.,  Black  well  Collieries,  Alfreton. 
Pauier,  A.  S.,  Highfield  House,  Gateshead-upon-Tyne. 
Palmer,  C.  B.,  Usworth  Colliery,  Washington,  R.S.O. 
Palmer,  Sir  Chas.  Mark,  Bart.,  M.P.,  Quay,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Palmer,  Henry,  East  Howie  Colliery,  near  Ferryhill. 
Pamelt,  C,  21,  Morgan  Street,  Pontypridd,  South  Wales. 
Panton,  F.  S.,  Silksworth  Colliery,  Sunderland. 
Parker,  Henrt,  Etruria  Hall,  Hanley,  Staffordshire. 
Parkin,  J.,  Rylands  Main  Colliery,  Bamsley. 
Parkin,  L.  C,  Rylands  Main  Colliery,  Bamsley. 
Parkinson,  W.,  6,  Ivy  Terrace,  South  Moor,  Cheater -le-S tree t. 
Parrinoton,  M.  W.,  Wearmouth  Colliery,  Sunderland. 
Parrt,  D.  E.,  Norton  Cannock  Colliery,  Bloxwich,  Walsall. 
Parry,  Evan,  Wharaoliffe  Woodmoor  Colliery,  Bamsley. 
Parsons,  Hon.  Charles  Algernon,  Elvaston  Hall,  Ryton-upon-Tyne. 
Parton,  Arthur,  Willenhall,  Wolverhampton. 
Pasfield,  T.,  5,  Victoria  Terrace,  Dudley,  Worcestershire. 
Patrick,  J.  A.,  West  Pool  Villas,  Saltergate,  Chesterfield. 
Patterson,  Thomas,  Craghead,  Chester-le- Street. 
Patterson,  Wm.,  Front  Street,  Tynemouth. 
Pattison,  Wm.,  Morley  Main  Colliery,  Morley,  near  Leeds. 
Payton,  Edmund,  Yew  Tree  House,  Morleston  Street,  Derby. 
*Peace,  M.  W.,  King  Street,  Wigan,  Lancashire. 
Peacock,  Thomas,  Shelton  Collieries,  Brook  Street,  Hanley. 
Peacock,  W.  F.,  Horsley  Collieries,  Tipton. 
PsAKE,  H.  C,  Walsall  Wood  Colliery,  WalsalL 


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XXZViil  LIST  OF  MEMBERS. 

Peaks,  John  Nash,  Tunstoll,  Staffordshire. 
Peakx,  R.  C,  Cumberland  House,  Redboum,  Herts. 
p£ABSOH,  Alexander,  Parkhouse  Colliery,  Chesterton,  Staffordshire. 
PsAESON,  James,  Brampton  Manor,  Chesterfield. 
Peabson,  Johnson,  The  Red  House,  Whittington,  Chesterfield. 
Pearson,  Joseph,  Hugglescote,  Ashby-de-la-Zouch. 
Pease,  Arthur,  Darlington. 

Pease,  Sir  J.  W.,  Bart.,  M.P.,  Hutton  Hall,  Guisbrough,  Yorkshire. 
Peasoood,  W.  G.,  Leycett,  Newcastle,  Staffordshire. 
Pedeltt,  SiM'tN,  Clara  Vale,  Ryton-upon-Tyne. 
Peel,  Robert,  New  Brancepeth  Colliery,  Durham. 
Peils,  William,  Croft  Hall,  Moresby,  Whitehaven. 

Pendleton,  W.  B.,  Harris  Road,  Five  Dock,  near  Sydney,  New  South  Wales. 
Perciyal,  Charles,  Linton,  Burton-upon-Trent. 
PsBCiVAL,  Joseph,  Netherseal  Colliery,  Burton-upon-Trent. 
Percy,  R.  F.,  6,  Birkland  Avenue,  Nottingham. 
Perot,  W.  R.,  Rock  House,  Bamsley. 
Perkins,  Charles,  Gallowhill  Hall,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Phillips,  John,  West  Bromwich. 

Phillips,  W.  G.,  Ansley  Hall  Colliery,  Atherstone,  Warwickshire. 
Pickup,  P.  W.,  71,  Preston  New  Road,  Bkkckbum. 

PiooFORD,  Jonathan,  Stanton  Ironworks  (Limited)  Co.'s  Collieries,  near  Mans- 
field. 
Plowbioht,  Robert,  Brampton  Ironworks,  Chesterfield. 
Plummer,  John,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  Bishop  Auckland. 
Pollard,  John,  Central  Chambers,  King  Street,  Wakefield. 
Poole,  Henry,  279,  Edge  Lane,  Liverpool 

Poole,  H.  Skiffinoton,  Acadia  Coal  Company,  Limited,  Stellarton,  Nova  Scotia. 
Poole,  P.  G.,  Klerksdorf,  South  African  Republic. 
Pope,  Philip  Henry,  Basford,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
PoPHAM,  J.  L.,  c/o  Messrs.  Hewitt  and  Bobart,  London  Road,  Derby. 
Potter,  Addison,  C.B.,  Heaton  Hall,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Potter,  A.  M.,  Riding  Mill-upon-Tyne. 
Potter,  C.  J.,  Heaton  Hall,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Prest,  J.  J.,  Shelton  Iron,  Steel,  and  Coal  Co.,  Limited,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Prestwick,  J.,  IrwoU  Park,  Eccles,  Manchester. 
Price,  John,  6,  Osborne  Villas,  Jesmond,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Price,  J.  H.,  Rowley  Regis,  Dudley,  Worcestershire. 

Price,  S.  R.,  c/o  Messrs.  Forster  Brown  and  Rees,  Guildhall  Chambers,  Cardiff. 
Priestley,  J.  G.,  Glass  Houghton  Colliery,  Castleford. 
Prime,  Enoch,  Skegby  Colliery,  Mansfield. 
Prinolb,  Edward,  Choppington  Colliery,  Northumberland. 
Prinole,  Hy.  Geo.  ,  Tanfield  Lea  Colliery,  lintz  Green  Station,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Pbingle,  T.,  Tanfield  Lea  Colliery,  Lintz  Green. 
Prior,  Edward  G.,  Victoria,  British  Columbia. 
Proctor,  J.  H.,  29,  Side,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Pughe,  W.  a.,  Scarsdale  House,  Loscoe,  Codnor,  Derby. 
PuRCELL,  S.,  Monck  HiU,  Pontefract. 

Ramsay,  J.  A.,  Sherbum  and  Littletown  Collieries,  near  Durham. 
Ramsay,  J.  G.,  Page  Bank  Colliery,  Willington,  Co.  Durham. 


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LIST  OF  MEMBERS.  XXXIX 

Rakbat,  W.,  Turadale,  Co.  Durham. 

Kangslkt,  W.  H.,  Stafford  House,  Chesterfield. 

Ratclifvr,  Hknby,  Bryukinalt  Colliery,  Chirk,  North  Wales. 

KATCLirFE,  William,  Apedale,  near  Newcastle,  Staffordshire. 

RAYfNswoiiTH,  The  EUbl  of,  Ravensworth  Castle,  Gateshead -upon-Tyne. 

Rbdmaynb,  R.  a.  S.,  Seaton  Delaval  Colliery,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Rkes,  Habbt,  Normacot,  Longton,  Stoke  upon-Trent. 

Rkid,  Alexander,  Caergwrle,  Wrexham. 

Rbid,  Andrew,  Printing  Court  Buildings,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Rbid,  Francis,  13,  Railway  Arches,  Westgate  Road,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Rbid,  P.  S.,  20,  John  Street,  Adelphi,  London,  W.C. 

Rbnshaw,  W.  R.,  Phoenix  Foundry  and  Boiler  Works,  Stoke- upon-Trent. 

Rhodes,  C.  £.,  Aldwarke  Main  and  Car  House  Collieries,  Rotherham. 

Rhodes,  Jeremiah,  Shirland  Colliery,  Alfretou. 

Rich,  Wm.  ,  Minas  de  Rio  Tinto,  Provincia  de  Huelva,  Spain. 

Richardson,  A.  M.,  44,  Victoria  Road,  Leeds. 

Richardson,  H.,  Backworth  C-oUiery,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Richardson,  R.,  Blaydon  Main  Colliery,  Blaydon-upon-Tyne. 

Richardson,  Ralph,  Whitburn  Colliery,  South  Shields. 

Richtsr,  F.,  Osborne  Villas,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Ridley,  G.,  16,  Dean  Street,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Ridley,  G.  D.,  Tudhoe  Colliery,  Spennymoor. 

Ridley,  J.  C,  3,  Summerhill  Grove,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Ridley,  Sir  Matthew  White,  Bart,  M.P.,  Blagdon,  Northumberland. 
RiDYARD,  J.,  Bridgewater  OfGlces,  Walkden,  near  Bolton-le-Moors,  Lancashire. 

RiOBY,  Frank,  AUager,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Rrson,  J.  R.,  Jcsmond  Gardens,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

RiTSON,  U.  A.,  Queen  Street,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

RiTSON,  W.  A.,  Crumpsall,  Manchester. 

Roberts,  J.  H.,  Woodroyd,  Qonley,  Huddersfield. 

Roberts,  Samuel,  Park  Grange,  Sheffield. 

Roberts,  Thomas,  BrownhlUs  Colliery,  Tunstall,  Staffordshire. 

Robertson,  D.  A.  W.,  Metropolitan  Colliery,  Helensburgh,  near  Sydney,  N.S.  W. 

Robertson,  Dr.  J.  R.  M.,  Linton,  Mitsons'  Point,  Sydney,  N.S.W. 

Robertson,  W.,  123,  St.  Vincent  Street,  Glasgow. 

Robinson,  F.  K.,  EUistown  Collieries,  near  Leicester. 

Robinson,  G.  C,  Brereton  and  Hayes  Colliery,  Rugeley,  Staffordshire. 

Robinson,  Gboroe  L.,  Adderley  Green,  near  Longton,  Staffordshire. 

Robinson,  Greenwood,  High  Street,  Birstal,  Leeds. 

Robinson,  J.  G. 

Robinson,  John  Thomas,  Beechburn  Colliery,  Crook,  R,S.O.,  Co.  Durham. 

Robinson,  R,  Howlish  Hall,  near  Bishop  Auckland. 

Robinson,  R.  H.,  Mundy  Street,  Heanor,  Nottingham. 

Robinson,  Thomas,  7,  Carlisle  Street,  Dresden,  Longton,  Staffordshire. 

RoBSON,  D.  W.,  Eighton  Lodge,  Low  Fell,  Gateshead-upon-Tyne. 

RoBSON,  J.  S.,  Butterknowle  Colliery,  via  Darlington. 

RoBSON,  Thomas,  Wigan  and  Whiston  Coal  Co. ,  Limited,  Proscott. 

RoBSON,  T.  O.,  Chowdene  Cottage,  Low  Fell,  Gateshead-upon-Tyne. 

EoBSON,  William,  Walker  Colliery,  Walker-upon-Tyne. 

Rochkster,  W.,  River  View,  Blaydon-upon-Tyne. 

Rogers,  D.,  Dudley  Road,  Tipton,  Staffordshire. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


Zl  LIST  OF  HEMBBRS. 

RooEHSoK,  John,  Croxdale  Hall,  Durham. 

RoN'ALDSON,  J.  H.,  Mount  Kembla  Colliery,  WoUongong,  New  South  Wales. 
RoNTREB,  T.,  South  Boldon,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Roper,  T.,  Barbors  Field,  Bilston. 

RosGAMP,  J.,  Shilbottle  Colliery,  Lesbury,  R.S.O.,  Northumberland. 
Ross,  Hugh,  Croxdale  Cjlliery  Office,  Durham. 
RossER,  W.,  Rhydyrhelig,  Sketty,  Swansea. 
RoTHWELL,  R.  P.,  27,  Park  Place,  New  York,  U.S.A. 
RouTLEDOE,  Jos.,  Greeubank,  Chester-le-Street. 
RouTLBDOE,  J.  L.,  Waterloo  Main  Colliery,  near  Leeds. 
RouTLEDOE,  R.,  Garforth  Colliery,  Leeds. 
RouTLEDOE,  W.  H.,  The  Rhyd,  Tredegar,  Monmouthshire 
Rowan,  James,  Inspector  of  Collieries,  WoUongong,  New  South  Wales. 
RusooE,  John,  Hyde,  near  Manchester. 
RussBLL,  RoBT.,  Coltness  Iron  Works,  Newmains,  N.B. 
Rutherford,  W.,  South  Derwent  Colliery,  Annfield  Plain,  lintz  Green. 
Ryder,  W.  J.  H.,  Messrs.  Mills  and  Sons,  Collingwood  Street,  Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne. 
Ryhopb  Coal  Company,  Ryhope  Colliery,  near  Sunderland. 

Sadler,  F.  C,  Oldland  Colliery,  Oldbmd  Common,  near  Bristol 

Saint,  G.,  Vauxhall  Colliery,  Ruabon,  North  Wales. 

Saise,  Walter,  E.I.R.  Collieries,  Giridi,  Bengal,  India. 

Salmond,  Walter,  Pinxton  Collieries,  Alfreton. 

Samborne  John  Stctkely  Palmer,  The  Llandyry  Anthracite  Colliery  Company, 

Limited,  near  Kidwelly,  South  Wales. 
Sankby,  W.  H.,  Morley  Hall,  Derby. 
Savage,  A.  T.  C,  Tibshelf  Collieries,  Alfreton. 
Sawyer,  A.  R.,  c/o  Messrs.  Thompson,  Watson,  and  Co.,  Cape  Town,  South 

Africa.     Transactions  to  40,  Brompton  Square,  London,  S.W. 
Saxton,  I.  H.,  Hasland  Green,  Chesterfield. 
SoARTH,  W.  T.,  Raby  Castle,  Staindrop,  Darlington. 
Sohofield,  C.  J.,  Clayton,  near  Manchester. 
SCHOLBFIELD,  JoHN,  Hcmsworth,  Wakefield. 

SCHRAM,  RiOHARD,  17a,  Great  George  Street,  Westminster,  London,  S.W. 
ScoTT,  Andrew,  Broomhill  Colliery,  Acklington. 
ScoTT,  C.  F.,  Grove  Cottage,  Leadgate,  Co.  Durham. 
SooTT,  E.  Charlton,  Rainton  Colliery,  Fence  Houses. 
Scorr,  Ernest,  Close  Works,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Scott,  F.  W.,  Atlas  Wire  Rope  Works,  Reddish,  Stockport. 
Soott,  J.  S.,  Trimdon  Hall,  Trimdon  Grange,  R.S.O.,  Co.  Durham. 
Scjorr,  Wm.,  Thomhill  Collieries,  near  Dewsbury. 
SooTT,  William,  Hanley,  Staffordshire. 
SoouLAR,  G.,  Cleator  Moor,  via  Carnforth. 

ScRAOO,  William,  The  Hanley  CoUiery  Co.,  Hanley,  Staffordshire. 
Scrivener,  Edward  £.,  The  Cedars,  Brampton,  Newcastle,  Staffordshire. 
ScURFiELD,  George  J.,  Hurworth-upon-Tees,  Darlington. 
Sbely,  Charles,  Shemt'ood  Lodge,  Arnold,  Notts. 
Sbbly,  C.  H.,  Sherwood  Lodge,  Arnold,  Notts. 
Sbohill  Colliery,  Owners  of,  Seghlll,  Northumberland. 
Selby,  Atherton,  Leigh,  near  Manchester. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


UgT  OF  MBMBSBS.  zli 

Sblkikk,  J.  6.,  Dalton-in-Fnmen. 

Sbmiob,  a.,  Birk  Honae,  Bftrnaley. 

Settle,  Joel,  Madeley  Coal  and  Iron  Co.,  Newcaaile,  Staffordshire. 

Settle,  Miles,  Daroy  Lever  GoUieriee,  near  Bolton. 

Skybrn,  Thomas,  Clifton  Colliery,  Nottingham. 

Skybbs,  Wm.,  Beamish  View,  via  Chester-le-Street 

Setmouil,  L.  Irving,  Be  Beers  Consolidated  Mines,  Kimberley,  South  Africa. 

Sbaw,  Charles,  Jan.,  26,  West  Parade,  Mount  Pleasant,  Stoke-npon-Trent. 

Shaw,  Edgar  H.,  Adderley  Qreen  Collieries,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Shaw,  G.,  Wath  Main  Colliery,  Rotherham. 

Shaw,  John,  Cramlington  Colliery,  Northumberland. 

Shaw,  John,  Darriagton  Hall,  Pontefract. 

Shaw,  J.  Leslo,  Somerset  House,  Whitehaven. 

Shaw,  Savills,  Durham  College  of  Science,  Newoastle-npon-Tyne. 

Shaw,  W.,  Wellington  Cast  Steel  Foundry,  Middlesbrough. 

Sheldon,  John,  Bastwood,  Nottingham. 

Shxnton,  Jambs,  80,  Broadwell  Road,  Oldbury. 

Shenton,  John,  Silverdale,  Staffordshire. 

Shiel,  John,  Framwellgate  Colliery,  Co.  Durham. 

Shiplet,  T.,  Castle  Eden  CoUiery,  Castle  Eden  Station. 

Shone,  Isaao,  Great  George  Street  Chambers,  Parliament  Square,  London,  S.  W. 

Shore,  Thomas,  Ireland  Colliery,  Staveley,  Chesterfield. 

Shore,  Thomas,  Shelton,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Shore,  Wm.  Martin,  Kaitangata  Railway  and  Coal  Co.'s  Collieries,  Otago,  New 

Zealand. 
Short,  W.,  Lambton  Colliery,  Newcastle,  New  South  Wales. 
Shufflebothan,  Daniel,  Biddulph  Valley  Collieries,  Stoke-up  on-Trent. 
SiDEBOTHAM,  J.  N.,  1,  Princcss  Street,  Albert  Square,  Manchester. 
Silvester,  Fred.,  Thistleberry.  Newcastle.  Staffordshire. 
Silvester,  Harbt,  Castle  Hill  Foundry,  Newcastle,  Staffordshire. 
Silvester,  J.  C,  Castle  Hill  Works,  Newcastle,  Staffordshire. 
SiMPKiN,  J.  W.,  Midsomer  Norton,  Bath. 

Simpson,  C.  L.,  Engine  Works,  Grosvenor  Road,  Pimlico,  London. 
Simpson,  F.  L.  G.,  Mohpani  Coal  Mines,  Gadawarra,  C.P.,  India. 
Simpson,  F.  R.,  PeUall  Colliery,  near  WalsalL 
Simpson,  J.,  Heworth  Colliery,  Felling,  R.S.O.,  Co.  Durham. 
Simpson,  J.  B.,  Hedgefield  House,  Blaydon-upon-Tyne. 
Simpson,  Nelson  Ashbridqe,  Hedgefield  House,  Blaydon-upon-Tyne. 
Simpson,  R.,  Moor  House,  Ryton-upon-Tyne. 
Skinner,  Samuel,  Throapham  Manor,  Rotherham. 
Slaok,  J.,  Rockingham  Colliery,  Bamsley. 

Sladden,  Harry,  65,  Bamato  Buildings,  Johannesburg,  So  uth  Africa. 
Slinn,  T.,  Plashetts  Colliery,  Falstone,  Northumberland. 
Smallman,  Reuben,  Camp  Hill  Grange,  Nuneaton. 
Smith,  Alexander,  Colmore  Chambers,  3,  Newhall  Street,  Birmingham. 
SmTH,  C.  Sebastian,  Shipley  Collieries,  Derby. 
Smith,  Eustace,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Smith,  G.  E.,  68,  Mapperley  Road,  Nottingham. 
Smith,  H.,  Hull. 

Smith,  Joseph,  26,  St.  James*  Street,  Nottingham. 
Smith,  J.  B.,  Newstead  Colliery,  Nottingham. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


Xlii  LIST  OF  MBMBEB& 

Smith,  R.  Cliffobd,  Ashford  Hall,  BakewelL 

Smith,  Sydney  A.,  1,  Princes  Street,  Albert  Square,  Manchester. 

Snbll,  Albion  T.,  Brightnde,  Salisbury  Road,  Brondesbury,  London,  N.W. 

Snow,  Charles,  Glapwell  Colliery,  near  Chesterfield. 

Snowball,  Franois  John,  Seaton  Bom  House,  Dudley,  Northomberland. 

Soar,  Charles,  Granville  Colliery,  Burton-upon-Tront. 

SoFWiTU,  Arthur,  Cannock  Chase  Collieries,  near  Walsall. 

South  Hbtton  and  Murton  Collieries,  Owners  of,  50,  John  Stoeet,  Sunderland. 

Sodthall,  a.  B.,  Monckton  Main  Colliery,  Bamsley. 

SouTHALL,  William,  Park  Hall  Colliery,  Cheadle,  Staffordshire. 

Southern,  E.  0.,  Ashington  Colliery,  near  Morpeth. 

Southern,  J.,  Heworth  Colliery,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Southern,  R.,  Burleigh  House,  The  Parade,  Tredegarville,  Cardiff. 

Southern,  T.  A.,  Ill,  Rose  Hill  Street,  Derby. 

SouTHWORTH,  Thos.,  Hindley  Green  Collieries,  Wigan. 

Sparkbs,  J.,  Jnn.,  Chester  Park,  Fishponds,  BristoL 

Spence,  R.  F.,  Backworth,  R.S.O.,  Northumberland. 

Spenobr,  F.  H.,  Robinson  Gold  Mining  Company,  Witwatersrand,  Z.A.R. 

Spencer,  George,  Stanley  Lodge,  West  Hallam,  near  Derby. 

Spencer,  J.,  Globe  Tube  Works,  Wedneebury. 

Spencer,  John,  Westgate  Road,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Spencer,  T.,  Ryton,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Spencer,  William,  Southfields,  Leicester. 

Spooner,  Georoe,  Cortonwood  Colliery,  Bamsley. 

Spruce,  Samuel,  Beech  House,  Tamworth. 

Spruce,  Titus,  Lennox  Road,  Florence,  Longton,  Staffordshire. 

Spry,  John,  Murton  Colliery,  Co.  Durham. 

Standlky,  William,  Nuneaton. 

Stanikr,  Francis,  Peplow  Hall,  Salop. 

Stanley,  Reginald,  Nuneaton  Colliery,  Nuneaton. 

Stansfeld,  Harold  Sinclair,  Flockton  Manor,  Wakefield. 

Stanton,  Philip,  Throckley  Colliery,  near  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Statham,  William,  Field  House,  Chesterton,  Newcastle,  Staffordshire. 

Stear,  J.,  Strafford  Colliery,  Bamsley. 

Steayenson,  a.  L.,  Durham. 

Steavenson,  C.  H.,  Brotton  Mines,  Brotton,  R.S.O.,  Yorks. 

Stechert,  G.  £..  30,  Wellington  Street,  London,  W.C. 

Steele,  Richard,  Hanley,  Staffordshire. 

Stella  Colliery,  Owners  of,  Hedgefield,  Blaydon-upon-Tyne. 

Stephenson,  G.  R.,  9,  Victoria  Chambers,  Westminster,  London,  S.  W. 

Stephenson,  W.,  Garesfield  Colliery,  Lintz  Green. 

Stevens,  A.  J. ,  Uskside  Iron  Works,  Newport,  Monmouth. 

Stevenson,  Henry,  Portland  Collieries,  Kirkby-in-Ashfield,  Nottingham. 

Stobart,  F.,  Biddick  Hall,  Fence  Houses. 

Stobart,  H.  T.,  Wearmottth  Colliery,  Sunderland. 

Stobart,  W.,  Pepper  Arden,  Northallerton. 

Stobart,  W.  R.,  Etherley  Collieries,  Co.  Durham. 

Stobbs,  J.  T.,  Walker  Colliery,  Walker-upon-Tyne. 

Stoker,  Arthur  P.,  Birtley,  near  Chester-le-Street. 

Stoker,  Henry,  5,  Argyll  Mount,  Mansfield. 

Stones,  George  B.,  Dale  View,  Conisbro',  Rotherham. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


LIST  OF  MBMBEBS.  xliii 

SiORET,  Thos.  E.,  Longton  Hall  Collieries,  Longton,  Staffordshire. 

Steachan,  Alexandeb,  131,  Station  Street,  Burton-upon-Trent. 

Stkakbr,  J.  H.,  Howdea  Dene,  Corbridge-upon-Tyne. 

Stratton,  T.  H.  M.,  Cramlington  House,  Northumberland. 

Stbsatfieijd,  Hugh  S.,  Ryhope  Colliery,  near  Sunderland. 

Street,  Joh^,  High  Street,  Silverdale,  Staffordshire. 

Stbick,  John,  Bar  Hill,  Madeley,  Staffordshire. 

Strick,  R.  J.,  Cossall  Colliery,  Nottingham. 

Strtok,  Thomas  Shephard,  Bar  Hill,  Madeley,  Staffordshire. 

Stroud,  Prof  H.,  Durham  College  of  Science,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Stuart,  C.  M.,  St.  Dunstan's  College,  Lewisham. 

Stubbs,  Thomas,  Aldwarke  Main  Colliery,  Rotherham. 

Sutton,  William,  Kinsley,  Hemsworth,  Wakefield. 

Swallow,  J.,  Bushblades  House,  Lintz  Green,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Swallow,  J.  F.,  Mosboro'  Hill  House,  Eckington,  Rotherham. 

SwAUiOW,  R.  T.,  Wardley  Hall,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Swan,  H.  F.,  North  Jesmond,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Swan,  J.  G.,  Upsall  Hall,  near  Middlesbrough. 

Swan  IT,  Frank,  Annesley,  Nottingham. 

Sword,  J.  G. 

Stkes,  Frank  K.,  Springwell  Villa,  Bishop  Auckland. 

Sykjs,  Thomas,  Soho  Iron  Works,  Pollard  Street,  Manchester. 

Tate,  Henry,  Talk-o*-th'-Hill  Colliery,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Tate,  Simon,  Trimdon  Grange  Colliery,  Co.  Durham. 

Tate,  William,  West  Ardsley  Collieries,  Wakefield. 

Taylor,  Hugh,  King  Street,  Quay,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Taylor,  J.  A.,  Spa  House,  Treeton,  Rotherham. 

Taylor,  John  Hy.,  Borough  Sur>'eyor,  Bamsley. 

Taylor,  Joseph,  134,  Leek  New  Road,  Hanley,  Staffordshire. 

Taylor,  Joseph  H.,  61,  Attwood  Street,  Kidsgrove,  Staffordshire. 

Taylor,  T.,  Quay,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Taylor,  William,  libberton  Grange,  Newport,  Salop. 

Taylor-Smith,  Thomas,  Broadwood  Park,  Lanchester,  Co.  Durham. 

Teale,  W.  E.,  Swinton,  near  Manchester. 

Teasdale,  T.,  Middridge,  via  Heighington,  R.S.O. 

Telford,  W.  H.,  Hedley  Hope  Collieries,  Tow  Law,  R.S.O.,  Co.  Durham. 

Tellwrioht,  William  A.  M.,  The  Beeches,  Wolstanton,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Tennant,  William,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Tebry,  S.  H.,  17,  Victoria  Street,  Westminster,  London,  S.  W. 

Thirkell,  E.  W.,  Oaks  Colliery,  Bamsley. 

Thomas,  R.,  Bloxwich,  Walsall. 

Thomas,  W.,  Penelvan,  Camborne,  Cornwall 

Thompson,  Charles  Lacy,  Farlam  Hall,  Milton,  Carlisle. 

Thompson,  Edward,  Norton  Collieries,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Thompson,  Ernest  A.,  13,  Wellington  Terrace,  South  Beech,  Blackpool. 

Thompson,  Joseph,  38,  Church  Street,  Murton  Colliery,  Sunderland. 

Thompson,  Matthew  E.,  Chatterley  Iron  Works,   Chatterley,   near  Tunstall, 

Staffordshire. 
Thompson,  R.,  Jun.,  19,  The  Crescent,  Gateshead-upon-Tyne. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


Zliv  LIST  OF  MBMBBBS. 

Thompson,  W.,  Roos  Buildings,  Charters  Towers,  North  Queensland,  Australia. 

Thoicson,  John,  Eston  Mines,  by  Middlesbrough. 

Thomson,  Jos.  F.,  Manvers  Main  Colliery,  Wath-upon-Deame,  Rotherham. 

Thornewhx,  Robert,  Engineering  Works,  Burton-upon-Trent. 

Thbooklet  Colliery,  Owners  of,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Tinker,  J.  J.,  Hyde,  Manchester. 

TiNN,  Jos.,  Ashton  Iron  Rolling  Mills,  Bedminster,  Bristol. 

Todd,  Jambs,  Elvet  Bridge,  Durham. 

Todd,  John  T.,  Bedford  Lodge,  Bishop  Auckland. 

Todd,  W.  G.,  Nunnery  CoUiery  Offices,  Sheffield. 

ToMLiN,  John,  GranvUle  Colliery,  Burton-upon-Trent. 

ToMUNSON,  John,  Pilsley  Colliery,  Clay  Cross,  Chesterfield. 

ToFLET,  Wm.,  28,  Jermyn  Street,  London,  S.W. 

TouzEAU,  E.  M.,  Leadenhall  Buildings,  Leadenhall  Street,  London,  E.C. 

TowNSEND,  Hy.  Geo.,  St.  John's  Colliery,  Normanton. 

Trbolown,  C.  H.,  Wretham  Road,  Handsworth,  Birmingham. 

Tbelease,  W.  Henwood,  Pestarena,  Vail  Anzasca,  Novara,  Italy. 

TuRBUTT,  W.  G.,  Ogston  Hall,  Alfreton. 

TuRNBULL,  Robert,  South  Kirkby  Colliery,  Wakefield. 

Turner,  D.  N.,  c/o  Messrs.  Hewitt  and  Bobart,  London  Road,  Derby. 

Turner,  G.  R.,  Langley  Mill,  Nottingham. 

Turner,  John,  Moira  Colliery,  Ashby-de-la-Zouch. 

Turner,  William  Jepson,  The  Cedars,  Stanley,  Derbyshire. 

Twioo,  R.,  East  Cannock  Colliery,  Hednesford. 

Tyas,  a.,  Swaith,  near  Bamsley. 

Tyers,  John  E.,  Nerbudda  Coal  and  Iron  Company,  Limited,  Mohpani  Coal 

Mines,  via  Gadawarra,  C.  Provinces,  India. 
Tyzack,  D.,  71,  Westgate  Road,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Varley,  John,  Park  View,  Hill  Top,  Eastwood,  Notts. 
Varty,  Thomas,  Skelton  Park  Mines,  Skelton,  R.S.O.,  Cleveland. 
Vaughan,  Cedric,  Hodbarrow  Iron  Ore  Mines,  Millom,  Cumberland. 
Victoria  Garesfield  Colliery,  Owners  of,  c/o  George  Peile,  Shotley  Bridge, 

Co.  Durham. 
YiQOJkSSf  Benjamin  D.  ,  Hope  Cottage,  Downing  Street,  Silverdale,  Staffordshire. 
ViooARS,  Matthew  Henry,  Knutton  Farm,  Newcastle,  Staffordshire. 
ViTANOFF,  Geo.  N.,  Sophia,  Bulgaria. 
Vivian,  John,  Vivian's  Boring  and  Exploration  Co. ,  Ltd. ,  42,  Lowther  Street, 

Whitehaven. 
VuiLLEBHN,  E.,  Mines  d'Aniche,  Nord,  France. 

Waddle,  H.,  Llanmore  Iron  Works,  Llanelly,  South  Wales. 
Wade,  R.  A.,  Pinxton  CoUiery,  Alfreton. 
Wadham,  E.,  Millwood,  Dalton-in-Fumess. 

Wain,  Edward  B.,  Whitfield  Collieries,  Norton-le-Moors,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Wain,  Joseph,  The  Chatterley  Iron  Co.,  Bucknall  Collieries,  Bucknall,  Stoke- 
upon-Trent. 
Wain,  Joseph,  Hulrae  Colliery,  near  Longton,  Staffordshire. 
Wain,  J.  R.,  Chatterley  Iron  Co.,  Tunstall,  Staffordshire. 
Wain,  Wm.  Holt,  56,  Stoke  Road,  Shelton,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Wainwright,  GEO.,Sladderhill,  Chesterton,  Staffordshire. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


LIST  OF  MSMBBBB.  zlv 

Wales,  H.  T.,  104,  St.  Mary  Street,  Cardiff. 

Wauceb,  G.  Btakb,  Whamcliffe  SUkstone  Colliery,  Bamaley. 

Walker,  J.  S.,  Pagefield  Iron  Works,  Wigan,  Lanoashire. 

Walker,  Sydney  Ferris,  196,  Severn  Road,  C4uiton,  Cardiff. 

Walker,  W.,  Hawthonu,  Saltbnm-by-the-Sea. 

Walker,  William,  Forest  View,  St.  George's  Hill,  Coleorton,  Ashby-de-la- 

Zouch. 
Walker,  Wm.,  Jan.,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  Durham. 
Walker,  W.  E.,  Dudley,  Worcestershire. 
Walker,  William  Edward,  Lowther  Street,  Whitehaven. 
Wall,  George,  South  Church,  Bishop  Auckland. 
Wallace,  Henry,  Trench  Hall,  Gateshead-upon-Tyne. 
Wallace,  J.,  King  Street,  Wigan. 

Wallau,  Jacob,  Messrs.  Black,  Hawthorn,  and  Co.,  Gateshead-upon-Tyne. 
Walters,  Hasoraye,  Birley  Collieries,  Sheffield. 
Walters,  J.  T.,  Babbmgton  Collieries,  Nottingham. 
Walters,  R.  G.,  Shirtcliff  House,  Woodhouse,  Sheffield. 
Walton,  James,  23,  Queen  Street,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Walton,  J.  Coulthard,  Writhlington  CoUiery,  Radstock,  via  Bath. 
Walton,  M.,  Dearham  Colliery,  Carlisle. 

Walton,  W.  W.,  Croft  Cottage,  Ferryside,  near  Carmarthen,  South  Wales. 
Warburton,  J.  S.,  49,  New  Road,  Greys,  Essex. 
Ward,  F.  L.,  Unstone  Colliery,  Sheffield. 
Ward,  H.,  Rodbaston  Hall,  near  Penkridge,  Stafford. 
Ward,  T.  H.,  Burma  Coal  Co.,  Letkobin,  Ihingadaw  Circle,  Shwebo,  Upper 

Burma,  East  Indies. 
Ward,  W.,  Churwell  Colliery,  Leeds. 
Wardell,  S.  C,  Doe  Hill  House,  Alfreton. 
Wardle,  Richard,  Dunsil  House,  Fackley,  Mansfield. 
Wardle,  W.,  West  Cannock  Colliery,  Hednesford. 
Waring,  G.  W.,  Green  Hill,  Longshaw,  Billinge,  near  Wigan, 
Warrington,  Henry,  Berry  Hill  Works,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Warrington,  Jambs  Henry,  Berry  Hill  Works,  Stoke-upon-Trcnt. 
Washington,  W.,  Mitchell  Main  Colliery,  Bamsley. 
Waterhouse,  M.  W.,  Glass  Houghton  Colliery,  Castleford. 
Waterman,  Wm.  John,  Manchester  Road,  Sheffield. 
Watkyn-Thomas,  W.,  Mineral  Office,  Cockermouth  Castle. 
Watson,  Edward,  19,  Bloomfield  Terrace,  Gateshead-upon-Tyne. 
Watson,  John,  19,  Bloomfield  Terrace,  Gateshead-upon-Tyne. 
Watson,  Simeon,  New  Hucknall  Colliery,  Mansfield. 
Watson,  T.,  Trimdon  Colliery,  Trimdon  Grange. 
Watts,  John,  Edensor  Street,  Chesterton,  Staffordshire. 
Wearmouth  Colliery,  Owners  of,  Sunderland. 
Webster,  H.  Ingham,  Morton  House,  Fence  Houses 
Weeks,  J.  G.,  Bedlington,  R.S.O.,  NorthumberLmd. 
Weeks,  R.  L.,  Willlngton,  Co.  Durham. 
Weightman,  Percy  O.,  Garforth  Collieries,  near  Leeds. 
Wells,  W.  E.,  Eckington  Collieries,  Rotherham. 
Wbstmaoott,  p.  G.  B.,  ELswick  Ironworks,  Newcastle-upon-TS^e. 
Westport  Coal  Co.,  Limited,  Manager,  Dunedin,  New  Zealand. 
Wheatley,  Samuel,  Nailstone  Colliery,  Leicester. 
Whbatly,  Samuel  W.,  Butterton,  Newcastle,  Staffordshire. 


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Xlvi  LIST  OF  KSMBKBg. 

White,  C.  E.,  Hebbani  Colliery,  Hebbitm-apon-Tyiie. 

White,  H.,  Walker  Colliery,  Newcafltie-npon-Tyne. 

White,  L  W.  H.,  Woodlesford,  near  Leeds. 

White,  J.  F.,  Weetgate,  Wakefield. 

White,  J.  H.  R.,  The  Elms,  Thringstone,  Coalville,  Leicester. 

Whitehead,  James,  Brindle  Lodge,  near  Preaton,  Lancashire. 

Whitehead,  John,  Jun.,  Penworthan  Priory,  Prestxm. 

Whitehead,  John  James,  Arden  Lea,  Heaton,  near  Bolton,  Lancashire. 

Wdttehouse,  James.  Burnt  Tree,  Tipton,  Staffordshire. 

Whttehouse,  W.  H.,  Brownhills,  WalsalL 

Whitelaw,  John,  118,  George  Street,  Edinborgh. 

Whittem,  Thomas  S.,  Wyken  Colliery,  near  Coventry. 

WiDDAS,  C,  North  Bitchbam  Colliery,  Howden,  Darlington. 

Wight,  Edwd.  S.,  Hetton  Colliery,  Carrington,  near  Newcastle,  New  Sooth 

Wales. 
WiOHT,  W.  H.,  Cowpen  Colliery,  Blyth. 
Wilbbaham,  Aabon,  Mexboro'  Colliery,  Selstone,  Alfreton. 
Wilde,  William,  Brockett  House,  Sharrow,  Sheffield. 
Wilkes,  John,  Pelsall  Foundry,  Walsall,  Staffordshire. 
Wilkinson,  Horace,  Black  well  Collieries,  Alfreton. 
Wilkinson,  J.  R.,  Spark  Lane,  Mapplewell,  Bamsley. 
Wilkinson,  Thomas,  Tinsley,  near  Sheffield. 

Williams,  Edmund  W.,  Henshall  House,  Goldenhill,  Stoke-upcm-Trent. 
Williams,  Ernest,  P.O.  Box  965,  Bettelheim  Buildings,  Simmonds  Street, 

Johannesburg,  Z.A.R. 
Williams,  Herbert  Ionatius,  Alsager,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
WiLUAMS,  J.,  115,  Wellington  Road,  Dudley,  Worcestershire. 
Williamson,  J.,  Cannock  and  Rugeley  Collieries,  Hednesford,  Staffordshire. 
WnjiiAMSON,  J.  H.,  Henshall  House,  Goldenhill,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Williamson,  J.  T.,  Brownhills  Colliery,  Walsall. 
Williamson,  R.,  Park  Hill  Colliery,  Wakefield. 

Williamson,  R.  S.,  Cannock  and  Rugeley  Collieries,  Hednesford,  Staffordshire. 
Williamson,  Thomas,  West  Hallam  Collieries,  Hkeston. 
Willis,  Henrt  Stevenson,  Sacriston,  Durham. 

WiLBON,  A.  P.,  Mansion  House  Chambers,  Queen  Victoria  Street,  London,  E.C. 
WnjBON,  Benjamin,  Florence  Colliery,  Longton,  Staffordshire. 
WiLBON,  Jaoob,  Hucknall  Huthwaite,  Mansfield. 
WnjBON,  J.  B.,  Wingfield  Iron  Works  and  Colliery,  Alfreton. 
WiLBON,  J.  D.,  Ouston  House,  Cheeter-le-Street. 
Wilson,  John  Robinson,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  Leeds. 
WiusoN,  Josh.  M.,  St.  John's  Colliery,  Normanton. 
WiusoN,  Robert,  Flimby  Colliery,  Maryport. 
Wilson,  R.  G.,  Pelton  Colliery,  Chester-le-Street 
Wilson,  W.  B.,  Thomley  Colliery,  by  Trimdon  Grange,  Co.  Durham. 
Wilson,  W.  E.  C,  Snibston  Collieries,  Coalville,  near  Leicester. 
WiNSTANLET,  Petsr,  Shaw  Cross  Colliery,  near  Dewsbury. 
Winbtanlet,  Robt.,  28,  Deansgate,  Manchester, 
Winter,  T.  B.,  Grey  Street,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
WiNTERBonoM,  W.,  Toversal,  Mansfield. 
*  Withers,  Samuel,  26,  Westgate,  Mansfield. 


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LIST  OF  MBMBEBS.  xlvii 

WiTTT,  H.  Stkss,  Denaby  Main  Colliery,  Mexboro',  near  Rotherham. 
WousTKNHOLME,  M.,  Bestwood  Pbrk,  Bulwell,  Notts. 
Wood,  G.  L.,  Freeland,  Forgandenny,  Perthshire. 
Wood,  Ernest  Setmouk,  South  Hetton,  Sunderland. 
Wood,  Johk,  Coxhoe  Hall,  Coxhoe,  R.S.O.,  Co.  Durham. 
Wood,  Lindsay,  The  Hermitage,  Chester-le-Street. 

Wood,  Thomas,  North  Hetton  Colliery  Office,  Moorsley,  Hetton-le-Hole,  R.S.O. 
Wood,  T.  P.,  Market  Phuse,  Chesterfield. 
Wood,  W.  H.,  Coxhoe  Hall,  Coxhoe,  Co.  Durham. 
Wood,  W.  O.,  South  Hetton,  Sunderland. 
WooDUKAD,  AiiF.,  Low  Moor  Ironworks,  Bradford. 
WooDHKAD,  L.,  Beeston  Colliery,  Leeds. 
Woods,  Richard,  Jessop  Street,  Codnor,  Derby. 
WooDWOBTH,  Benjamin,  Heron  Cross,  Fenton,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
WooLUSOROVT,  Frederiok,  St.  Peter's  Chambers,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Wordsworth,  Robert,  Warora  Colliery,  Central  Provinces,  India. 
Wordsworth,  T.  H.,  West  Riding  Collieries,  Normanton. 
Wormald,  C.  F.,  May  field  Villa,  Saltwell,  Gateshead-npon-Tyne. 
Worth,  F.  G.,  British  Water  Gas  Syndicate,  Park  Row,  Leeds. 
*WoRTHiNOTON,  J  AMES,  11,  Foley  Place,  Fenton,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 
Wra7,  C,  fiO,  Grantham  Road,  Bradford. 
Wrioht,  Fitz-Herbert,  The  Hayes,  Swanwick,  Alfreton. 
Wriqht,  Joseph,  Arboretum  Street,  Nottingham. 
Wrightson,  T.,  Stockton-upon-Tees. 
Wrob,  James,  Lidgett  Colliery,  Tankersley,  Bamsley. 
Wroe,  Jonathan,  Wharncliffe  Silkstone  Colliery,  Bamsley. 
Wynne,  R.  H.,  19,  Marsh  Road,  Newcastle,  Staffordshire. 
Wynne,  T.  Trafford. 

Taxes,  John,  c/o  MacVlillian,  6,  Church  Lane,  Calcutta,  India. 

Yeoman,  T.,  Willington  Colliery,  Co.  Durham. 

TouNO,  John  A.,  7,  Tyne  Vale  Terrace,  Gateshead-upon-Tyne. 

Zumbuixwlon,  G.  C,  3,  Astardji  han,  Grand  Bazaar,  Constantinople. 


fton^yederated. 

Armstrong,  Prof.  G.  F.,  The  University,  Edinburgh. 

Blaikib,  John,  White  Bam  Colliery,  Newcastle-under-Lyme. 

Buix,  James,  Cliffe  Vale  Ironworks,  Stoke-upon-Trent 

CiJVE,  Robert  C,  Clan  way  Colliery,  Tunstall,  Staffordshire. 

Freeman,  T.,  Jun.,  200,  Phoenix  Street,  St.  Pancras  Station,  London,  N.W. 

Green,  Prof.  A.  H.,  137,  Woodstock  Road,  Oxford. 

Hayes,  William  Prime,  St.  Mary's  Place,  Bury. 

HoLUS,  H.  W.,  Thomville  House,  Darlington. 

Homer,  C.  J.,  Ivy  House,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

LoNOBOTTOM,  L.,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Lucas,  Jamss,  Shelton  Collieries,  Stoke-upon-Trent. 


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Zlviii  LIST  OF  MEXBBBS. 

MiALL,  Prof.  L.  C,  Yorkshire  College,  Leeds. 

Osborne,  Chablis,  72,  Piccadilly,  Hanley,  Stsflfordshire. 

Platt,  Samukl  R.,  Oldham. 

RucKEB,  Prof.  Ekbimoton,  Claphain  Park,  London. 

RussBLL,  R.,  Sea  View,  St.  Bees,  CamfcNrth. 

Thobpb,    Prof.    T.    K,    Science   and   Art   Department,    South    Kensinnitou, 

London,  S.W. 
Tbbglown,  G.  H.,  2,  St.  John's  Place,  Wretham  Road,  Haadsworth. 
WooDALL,  WiLUAM,  Bleak  House,  Burslem,  Stoke-npon-Trent. 


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TEANSACTIONS 

OF  THB 

FEDERATED   INSTITUTION 

OF 

MINING   ENGINEERS. 


FEDERATED  INSTITUTION  OF  MINING  ENGINEERS. 


GENERAL  MEETING, 

Held  in  thb  Rooms  op  the  Institution  op  Civil  Engineers,  25,  Gbeat 
GEOBaB  Street,  Westminster,  Thursday,  June  1st,  1893. 


Mb.  GEORGE  LEWIS,  President,  in  the  Chair. 


PRIZES. 

The  Secretary  announced  that  the  President's  prize  of  books  had 
been  awarded  for  the  paper  on 

"  Mining  in  New  Zealand."    By  Mr.  G.  J.  Binns. 

The  SsoRETARY  farther  announced  that  the  Council  had  awarded 
prizes  of  books  to  the  writers  of  the  following  papers : — 

'<  Obseryatlona  on  Petiolenm  in  Eastern  Europe,  and  the  Method  of  Drilling 

for  it."    By  Mr.  A.  W.  Bastlake. 
"A  General  Description  of  the  South  Staffordshire  Coal-field,  south  of  the 

Bentley  Fault,  and  the  Methods  of  Working  the  Ten  yard  or  Thick  Coal." 

By  Messrs.  W.  F.  Clark  and  H.  W.  Hughes. 
"  An  Enquiry  into  the  Cause  of  the  Two  Seaham  Explosions,  1871  and  1880, 

and  the  Pochin  Explosion,  1884."     By  Mr.  T.  H.  M.  Stratton. 


The  President  then  read  his  address,  as  follows  : — 


VOL.  y^WML 


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PBESIDBN^TIAL  ADDRESS. 


PRESIDENTIAL  ADDRESS 


By  Mb.  GEORGE  LEWIS. 


Following  the  precedent  of  previous  years  when  your  Presidents  have 
addressed  you,  it  is  with  pleasure  that  I  purpose  following  in  their  footsteps ; 
presuming  that  I  may  hope,  to  some  extent,  to  be  able  to  interest  you. 

The  gentlemen  who  have  preceded  me  in  the  office  of  President  are  well 
known  as  having  gained  their  position  by  being  men  of  sound  judgment 
and  ability  ;  and  I  fully  appreciate  the  great  honour  of  being  associated 
with  them  in  the  office  to  which  you  have  been  good  enough  to  elect  me. 

The  federation  of  the  mining  institutes  of  this  country  is  only  yet  in 
its  infancy,  but  we  have  had  during  the  three  years  of  its  life,  proof  of  its 
desirability  in  every  stage  of  its  progress.  It  fully  bears  out  the  adage  of 
"  unity  is  strength,"  even  to  a  greater  extent  than  we  could  possibly  have 
supposed  ;  and,  looking  forward  to  the  future,  the  time  does  not  appear  to 
me  far  distant  when  every  local  institution  of  the  country  will  have  seen 
the  desirability  of  union,  and  become  federated  with  us.  There  is  every 
reason  why  this  should  be  so  ;  and  we  may  point  with  pardonable  pride 
in  support  of  this  to  our  publications.  I  venture  to  say  that  never  in 
the  history  of  mining  in  this  country  has  such  progress  before  been  made, 
neither  have  more  reliable  records  been  published  than  during  the  short 
period  of  our  existence,  and  this  more  particularly  during  the  past  year. 
There  is,  as  you  are  perfectly  aware,  a  good  reason  for  this ;  and  how 
much  more  preferable  it  must  be,  surely,  that  a  paper  upon  which  the 
writer  would  have  to  spend  much  valuable  time  and  care  should  be 
published,  not  for  the  benefit  alone  of  a  small  section  of  the  mining 
community,  but  by  an  institution  that  would  secure  its  publicity  over  the 
whole  of  the  United  Kingdom  and  in  many  districts  beyond  the  sea  where 
the  members  are  located.  Surely,  I  repeat,  this  is  desirable,  the  object 
being  worthy  of  our  attention  and  continued  exertions. 

I  need  scarcely  point  out  to  you  what  our  objecl  is,  or  at  least  my 
reading  of  it,  for  unless  we  have  a  definite  object  in  view,  and  federate 
with  the  fiill  intention  of  carrying  out  that  object,  we  shaU  gradually, 
although  possibly  slowly,  as  an  institution  cease  to  exist  or  accept  a 
subordinate  position.  I  maintain,  however,  we  have  an  object,  and  that 
we  are  endeavouring  to  the  best  of  our  ability  to  further  it.  The 
improved  education  of  all  who  are  connected  with  the  conduct  of  mines 


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PRESIBBNTIAL  ADDHESR.  3 

of  this  oonnfciy  is  onr  wish  and  intention ;  not  alone  the  younger 
branches,  but  those  also  who  have  passed  from  the  tutored  to  the 
totorial  stage,  and  must  act  on  their  own  judgment  and  discretion.  I 
maintain  that  to  each  one  of  these  the  publications  of  the  Institution 
are  of  value ;  and  I  venture  to  submit  that  they  are  frequently  con- 
solted  not  only  by  the  junior  members  of  the  Institution,  but  also  by 
those  who  have  had  considerable  experience  in  matters  pertaining  to 
mining  work  generally. 

We  are  informed  through  the  Transactions  of  the  progress  made  in 
mining  engineering,  of  the  new  forces  brought  to  bear  upon  the  working 
of  mines,  of  the  various  applications  of  machinery  for,  if  not  altogether 
novel  purposes,  at  least  novel  in  character,  and  of  new  ideas  applied  to 
the  working  or  development  of  mines ;  in  addition  to  diffusing  through 
our  Institution  a  general  geological  knowledge  of  the  various  mining 
districts  of  the  world. 

This  I  maintain  is  a  work  of  considerable  magnitude  and  importance, 
and  one  which  is  becoming  more  appreciated  daily,  and  within  a  very 
short  period  will,  I  venture  to  hope  and  think,  embrace  every  person  in 
the  United  Kingdom  connected  with  the  supervision  of  mines. 

The  education  of  the  mining  engineer  of  the  future  must  of  necessity 
be  of  greater  importance  than  in  the  past,  when  the  mines  of  this  country 
were  worked  only  from  the  outcrop  or  from  shallow  pits.  It  is  of  neces- 
sity that  he  should  be  cognizant  of  the  fullest  and  latest  information  in 
reference  to  the  path  in  life  he  has  chosen  to  follow.  When  we  come  to 
consider  the  importance  of  the  positions  occupied,  the  large  invested 
capital  of  which  they  have  chaise,  the  lives  which  practically  are 
entrusted  to  mining  engineers,  it  appears  to  me  that  we  as  a  body  should 
not  only  suggest  but  insist  that  a  most  liberal  curriculum  be  accorded 
to  their  education.  It  does  not  appear  to  me  that  any  practical 
difficulty  presents  itself,  and  provided  men  of  ability  and  education  are 
to  be  drawn  into  the  work  (which  to  my  mind  is  most  desirable)  ;  they 
must  upon  entering  it  be  assumed  to  occupy  at  least  a  position  amongst 
the  learned  professions. 

Within  the  last  twenty  years  the  amount  of  capital  necessary  to  win 
and  work  coal  at  any  given  colliery  has  increased  very  considerably,  and 
this  will  still  more  be  the  case  as  the  mines  at  the  outcrop  become 
exhausted — a  probability  which  applies  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  to 
all  the  mining  of  this  country.  Presuming,  therefore,  that  a  modem 
colliery  with  all  the  necessary  machinery  and  other  appliances,  both 
sorface  and  underground,  would  cost,  say,  £100,000  (and  there  are  many 


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4  PBESIDENTIAL  ADDRESS. 

that  have  had  expended  upon  them  a  smn  equal  to  more  than  twice  that 
amount),  surely  the  person  that  has  to  expend  this  should  have  had 
the  advantage  of  a  most  liberal  training.  To  economically  spend  this 
money  to  commercial  advantage  he  must  have  had  experience  not  only  in 
mining,  but  also  be  well  versed  in  mechanical  engineering.  The  winding, 
ventilating,  and  hauling  power  necessary  must  be  well  considered,  and  for 
this  purpose  a  good  mechanical  knowledge  is  absolutely  indispensable. 

I  need  scarcely  point  out  that  in  the  near  future  the  whole  or  pretty 
nearly  so  of  the  collieries  working  coal  at  the  outcrop  will  be  exhausted, 
and  their  places  can  only  be  filled  by  sinking  to  greater  depths  and  under 
very  different  circumstances  both  as  r^ards  capital,  expenditure,  and  the 
diflficulties  that  would  in  aD  probability  be  met  with.  Although  we  are 
not  called  upon  to  build  a  Tay  bridge,  still  we  are  expected  to  be  able  to 
bore  either  a  Channel  or  a  Severn  tunnel.  Such  works  as  these  are  being 
daily  carried  out  by  some  one  or  other  of  our  members,  and  under  circum- 
stances equally  as  trying,  and  requiring  for  their  satisfactory  completion 
considerable  mining  experience.  I  maintain  that  many  of  the  modem 
sinkings,  of  which  the  greater  number  of  us  have  had  some  experience, 
are  more  difficult  in  their  conception,  arrangement,  and  successful  com- 
pletion, than  the  Continental  railway-tunnels  that  have  of  late  years 
attracted  so  much  notice  in  the  engineering  world. 

When  we  come  to  consider  the  immense  amount  of  capital  invested 
and  the  interests  involved,  I  shall  be  able,  I  imagine,  to  show,  not  only 
that  we  ought  to  be  able  to  conduct  mining  operations  with  due  know- 
ledge, but  also  that  our  employers  have  a  right  to  demand,  and  the 
public  also,  that  the  working  of  mines  should  be  conducted  upon  lines 
that  have  been  carefully  thought  out. 

When  speaking  of  the  amount  of  capital  invested  in  mining  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  I  am  perfectly  aware  that  I  am  treading  upon  debatable 
ground,  and  so  far  as  I  know  there  are  no  published  official  statistics 
upon  the  question.  I  am,  however,  of  opinion  that  no  less  a  sum  than 
£1.50,000,000  is  invested  in  mining,  without  taking  into  consideration 
the  rolling-stock  required  to  convey  the  produce  to  its  destination,  or  in  fact 
anything  beyond  the  money  expended  upon  and  at  the  mines  themselves. 

The  Mining  Royalties  Commission,  who  have  just  issued  their  report, 
give  us  some  valuable  information,  as  it  is  now  known  that  by  the  work- 
ing of  mines,  royalties  were  paid  during  the  year  1892  to  the  amount  of 
£4^667,048. 

I  find  that  the  number  of  persons  employed  in  or  about  the  mines  of 
the  United  Kingdom  during  the  year  1892  was  721,808,  and  according 


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FEESIDEKTUL  ADDRESS.  5 

to  my  previous  informaiit  (the  Mining  Royalties  Commission)  that 
daring  the  year  1890,  £43,000,000  was  estimated  to  have  been  paid 
in  wages  to  persons  employed  about  them. 

Taking  these  figures  as  a  basis  we  may,  I  consider,  assume  that 
upwards  of  3,000,000  people  in  the  United  Kingdom  are  directly 
dependent  upon  the  mining  industry  for  a  livelihood. 

This  enormous  industry,  if  I  may  so  term  it,  is  a  larger  employer  of 
labour  than  all  the  railways  of  this  country  combined,  which  I  believe  only 
employ  directly  upon  the  lines  themselves  about  400,000  men,  or  only 
about  one-half.  This  may  possibly  not  apply  to  those  indirectly  employed 
by  them,  in  the  building  of  rolling-stock,  locomotives,  etc.,  neither  do 
the  mining  statistics,  because  this  part  of  the  necessary  work  is  carried  out 
by  independent  firms  who  make  a  speciality  of  the  manufacture  of  the 
articles  required. 

I  think  these  figures  alone  make  out  a  case  for  our  Institution,  whose 
members  have  the  practical  control  of  this  immense  capital,  and  also  the 
care  of  the  lives  of  over  700,000  workmen.  The  time  cannot  be  far 
distant  when  our  federation  will  be  complete,  and  I  am  suificiently 
sanguine  that  my  successor  in  office  will  be  able  to  report  that  we  consist 
of  every  mining  institute  in  the  three  kingdoms. 

In  saying  this  I  would  like  to  point  out,  that  in  my  opinion  it  would 
be  very  undesirable  for  any  Institute  to  lose  its  individuality ;  and  I  feel 
tolerably  certain  that  all  the  objects  we  wish  to  obtain  may  be  brought 
about  without  having  removed  from  them  their  old  names  and  other 
distinctive  marks  of  originality.  To  these  several  Institutes  our  thanks 
as  a  body  are  especiaUy  due,  they  having  for  years  piloted  us  through 
rough  water,  a  labour  of  which  we  are  now  reaping  the  advantage  in 
various  ways. 

The  men  who,  to  a  great  extent,  are  responsible  for  the  lives  of  the 
workmen  employed  at  their  respective  mines,  appreciate  their  responsibility 
and  are  anxious  for  their  welfare  and  safety.  The  number  of  fatal 
accidents  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  persons  employed  has  been 
decreasing  for  some  years,  and  this  I  am  inclined  to  suggest  does  not 
arise  from  the  mines  being  less  dangerous  to  work,  or  less  inflammable 
gas  being  found  in  them,  but  from  a  cause  otherwise  explained,  viz.,  a 
higher  standard  both  of  men,  supervision,  and  discipline.  There  is  no 
other  means  of  obliterating  in  the  future  that  great  blot  on  our  escutcheon 
— the  explosions  which  periodically  occur,  a  blot  which,  I  am  sure,  is  the 
wish  and  endeavour  of  each  one  of  us,  as  far  as  we  are  able,  to  remove. 
That  such  a  consummation  may  ultimately  be  brought  about  is  our 
sincere  desire. 


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6  PRESIDENTIAL  ADDEESS. 

I  need  only  refer  my  hearers  to  the  continaons  strides  that  have 
during  the  past  generation  been  made  in  the  education  of  the  masses  in 
this  country,  as  a  precedent  for  what  we  should  seek  to  accomplish  among 
ourselves.  The  education  of  the  mining  engineer  should  conform  itself 
to  the  spirit  of  the  times  in  which  we  live,  a  spirit  which  is  certainly 
progressive.  The  idea  originally  was  that  only  just  sufficient  educa- 
tion was  necessary  as  to  admit  of  its  owner  being  able  to  discharge 
the  ordinary  duties  of  his  profession;  but  looking  to  the  marvellous 
advance  of  science,  more  particularly  as  applied  to  mining,  he  must  be 
prepared  to  take  advantage  of  every  point  that  may  probably  be  useful 
in  the  work  which  lies  before  him. 

After  some  little  experience  of  the  manner  of  holding  the  examina- 
tions for  colliery  managers^  certificates,  and  the  result  from  what  I  may 
term  the  point  of  view  of  an  interested  party,  I  do  not  consider  them  on 
the  whole  satisfactory.  In  saying  this  I  do  not  wish  to  be  misunderstood, 
for  I  allude  only  to  the  system  upon  which  the  examinations  are  conducted, 
and  my  remarks  do  not  in  the  slightest  degree  apply  to  the  different 
boards  of  examiners  or  to  the  examiners  themselves.  You  are  aware  that 
these  boards  are  not  in  the  first  place  agreed  as  to  the  age  at  which  the 
aspirant  should  be  allowed  to  hold  a  first-class  certificate  of  competency. 
This  appears  to  me  very  undesirable :  the  difference  in  age  is  two  years, 
the  Lancashire  district  being  of  opinion  that  at  the  age  of  21  the  mining 
student  is  competent,  while  in  the  Midlands  the  prescribed  a^e  is  23. 
Now,  supposing  each  district  had  the  power  of  refusing  to  allow  the 
holder  of  a  certificate  whose  examination  took  place  where  the  age  of 
21  was  sufficient,  to  take  charge  of  a  colliery  in  that  district  where  the 
minimum  limit  of  age  was  23, 1  could  understand  there  might  be  some 
good  reason  for  it,  but  in  reality  no  such  power  exists.  There  are 
also  other  points  upon  which  the  examinations  differ,  when  the  object 
is  very  clearly  stated  to  be  for  the  same  purpose,  and  it  appears  to  me 
eminently  desirable  that  there  should  be  uniformity  in  every  particular. 

The  two  classes  of  certificates  may  for  a  moment  appear  to  constitute 
a  difficulty,  but  this  in  reality  is  not  so,  the  second  class  being  fas  always) 
intended  to  include  men  of  a  very  much  lower  grade,  acting  under  the 
instructions  of  the  holder  of  the  first-class  certificate. 

The  result  of  the  working  of  the  Coal  Mines  Regulation  Act  of  1873 
has  been  of  great  service  in  this  respect,  for  it  has  done  good  if  by  only 
fixing  the  responsibility ;  but  it  has  accomplished  far  more  than  this. 
We  have  certainly  found  that  men  of  a  superior  grade  have  been  intro- 
duced, and  with  that  a  general  reduction  in  the  ratio  of  accidents  as 
compared  with  the  number  of  persons  employed. 


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P&BSrDENTIAL  ADDRESS.  7 

I  would  snggest  that  a  central  board,  whose  offices  should  be  in 
London,  have  the  control  of  all  certificates  of  the  first  class,  and  that  the 
examinations  for  these  take  place  in  London,  The  constraction  of  the 
board,  I  would  suggest,  should  be  upon  the  same  lines  as  at  present, 
but  the  number  of  members  reduced,  and  each  inspection  district  should 
be  represented. 

The  examiners  should,  as  under  the  present  Act  of  Parliament,  be 
appointed  by  the  board,  but  I  would  so  far  alter  the  present  arrangement 
as  to  appoint  professors  of  the  various  subjects,  instead  of  as  at  present 
mining  engineers,  who  examine  upon  all  of  them. 

The  examiners  should  consist  of  the  following,  each  taking  their  own 
special  work,  and  should  report  as  under  the  present  Act  to  the  board  : — 
(1)  a  professor  of  mechanical  engineering  ;  (2)  a  professor  of  chemistry ; 
(8)  a  professor  of  electricity;  (4)  a  professor  of  mining  engineering; 
(5)  a  board  of  mining  engineers,  consisting  of  one  from  each  inspecting 
district  comprised  under  the  Coal  Mines  Regulation  Act,  to  examine  upon 
the  technical  subjects  which  may  be  desirable  for  the  practical  mining  of 
his  particular  district ;  and  (6)  the  chief  inspectors  of  mines. 

The  boards,  as  at  present  constituted,  should  be  empowered  to  grant 
certificates  of  the  second  class,  and  the  candidates  for  these  might  be 
examined  at  the  local  centres  as  now  arranged. 

It  will  have  occurred  to  most  of  us,  in  the  past  twenty  years 
during  which  the  progress  of  mining  has  made  such  rapid  strides,  how 
absolutely  necessary  it  is  for  those  having  the  conduct  of  mines  that  they 
should  be  fully  recognized  as  holding  a  position,  in  which  not  only  the 
workmen  themselves  but  the  public  also  have  confidence.  The  increased 
depths  from  which  coal  is  now  being  brought,  and  in  the  future  must  still 
more  be  so,  together  with  the  large  number  of  employes  engaged  in  a 
mine,  render  it  imperative  that  such  works  should  be  under  the  control  of 
men  of  known  ability.  The  distances  which  coal  is  now  being  brought 
to  the  shafts  fix)m  the  faces  of  underground  works  is  considerable  and 
increasing  (in  some  cases  reaching  three  miles)  rendering  it  absolutely 
necessary  for  the  supervising  engineer  to  have  a  knowledge  of  science 
as  regards  engineering  and  chemistry,  which  was  unnecessary  a  few  years 
ago ;  and  then  only  in  a  few  cases  would  the  possessor  of  this  knowledge 
have  had  an  opportunity  of  making  it  of  any  practical  value. 

As  an  Institution  comprising  the  mining  engineers  of  this  country  it 
is  our  duty,  and  one  I  am  sure  we  shall  not  shrink  from,  to  point  out  the 
way  not  only  by  which  their  status  should  be  improved,  but  also  as  a 
profession  show  ourselves  equal  to  the  task  imposed  upon  us. 


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8  PRESIBSNTIAL  ADDRESS. 

I  may  saj,  without  fear  of  contTadiction,  that  there  is  no  profefsion 
upon  which  such  a  grave  responsibility  rests  as  ours,  and  of  this  we  have 
daily  experience.  Not  only  are  immense  numbers  of  men  working  daily 
under  the  surface  of  the  ground,  each  one  of  which  carries  a  responsibility 
to  us ;  not  only  have  we  daily  to  lower  them  from  the  surface  but  also 
to' raise  them,  and  this  by  means  of  machinery  under  the  guidance  of  men 
who  are  not  infallible.  Surely  that,  gentlemen,  is  a  position  that  we  all 
appreciate  to  the  utmost,  and  our  great  wish  is  to  reduce  so  iar  as  we  are 
able  the  loss  of  life  that  I  am  afraid  I  must  say  is  almost  inherent  in 
mining.  Much  of  late  has  been  done  to  improve  the  ventilation  of  mines, 
and  without  entering  into  details,  one  may  say  it  has  been  a  great  relief  to 
many  of  us  interested  in  the  conduct  of  fiery  mines,  and  if  our  Institution 
had  only  been  the  means  of  reducing  the  loss  of  life  by  explosions, 
we  should  not  have  federated  in  vain. 

We  have  much  more  than  this,  however,  on  our  agenda-paper,  and  our 
duty  lies  in  educating  our  profession  so  that  not  only  do  they  fully 
recognize  the  sacredness  of  human  life,  but  that  the  surroundings  of  the 
workmen  also  during  the  period  of  their  employment  should  be  such  as  to 
raise  them  as  far  as  possible  above  the  depressing  influences  that 
exhausting  labour  naturally  brings  with  it.  After  every  possible  effort 
has  been  made  in  this  direction,  we  then  have  to  consider  the  reasons  for 
which  capital  has  been  invested  in  the  working  of  our  mines ;  and  our 
object  also  should  be  to  make  a  return  to  the  investors  equivalent  to  the 
risk  for  the  capital  expended.  I  maintain  that  the  two  principles  run 
hand  in  hand,  for  I  find  in  well-conducted  mines,  in  mines  which  are 
being  worked  on  carefully  thought-out  lines,  that  there  also  we  find  the 
investors  have,  as  a  rale,  received  the  best  interest  on  theii*  outlay. 

Our  Institution  has  a  great  future  before  it,  and  it  only  remains  for 
those  who  are  responsible  for  its  conduct  to  guide  it  upon  such  lines  as 
shall  lead,  not  only  its  own  members,  but  the  mining  industry  as  a  whole, 
to  look  upon  its  teachings  with  respect.  We  must  not  keep  altogethtJ 
to  the  beaten  tracks,  but  move  onwards,  otherwise  we  shall  be  looked 
upon  as  a  clog  to  the  wheel,  instead  of  what  we  should  be,  and  have 
the  power  to  be,  the  recognized  leaders  of  those  natural,  scientific,  and 
mechanical  forces  that  may  be  brought  to  the  assistance  of  mining 
engineering  in  every  branch  of  its  work. 


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DISCUSSION — PRESIDENTIAL  ADDRESS.  9 

Mr.  John  Daolish  (Newcastle-upon-Tyne)  proposed  a  vote  of  thanks 
to  the  President  for  his  excellent  address,  which  contained  matter  of 
interest  to  all  and  would  be  of  still  greater  interest  when  printed.  He 
(Mr.  DagUsh)  hoped  in  the  course  of  time  that  the  whole  of  the  mining 
and  metallurgical  institutes  of  Great  Britain  would  federate  with  them ;  he 
understood  that  there  was  a  probability  of  the  federative  movement 
extending  to  the  Colonial  institutes.  The  mining  industry  was  so  great 
that  it  was  possible  there  would  ere  long  be  a  federation  of  all  the  mining 
institutions  of  the  British  Empire.  If  he  might  venture,  not  to  take 
objection  to  anything  contained  in  the  address,  but  to  make  a  remark 
thereon,  he  would  like  to  refer  to  the  question  of  examinations  for  mine 
managers.  Having  filled  the  office  of  examiner  for  twenty  years  he  might 
naturally  be  expected  to  know  something  about  it,  and  having  retired  from 
that  position  he  had  no  further  direct  interest  in  it,  but  he  should  deprecate 
very  greatly  the  introduction  of  any  collegiate  element  into  the  examina- 
tions for  mine  managers.  These  examinations  were  for  efficiency  only, 
they  were  not  to  test  the  ultimate  knowledge  of  a  candidate,  as  with 
collegiate  examinations,  but  for  a  certain  amount  of  knowledge  sufficient 
to  entitle  him  to  the  management  of  colliery  works,  and  especially  in  the 
practical  department.  He  ventured  to  think  that  object  could  only  be 
obtained  by  the  examination  of  candidates  t*iva  voce  by  practical  men. 

Mr.  M.  H.  Mills  expressed  his  pleasure  in  seconding  the  vote  of 
thanks. 

The  President  acknowledged  the  vote.  Far  from  joining  issue  with 
Mr.  Daglish  he  would  say  that  gentleman  was  quite  correct.  He  was  of 
the  same  opinion,  namely,  that  no  professor  could  examine  in  the  details 
of  mining,  but  he  did  think  that  the  other  subjects  ought  to  come  under 
the  supervision  of  professors.  He  hoped,  whether  that  was  brought  about 
or  not,  that  the  great  object  they  all  had  in  view — the  raising  of  the 
standard  of  capacity  of  the  persons  who  had  the  supervision  of  the  mines 
of  this  country — would  be  attained.  It  mattered  little  in  which  way  it 
was  done,  but  it  occurred  to  him  that  the  examiners  ought  to  be  men 
.who  had  not  only  a  thorough,  practical  but  a  scientific  knowledge. 


Mr,  JoBL  Settle  read  the  following  paper  on  **  Spontaneous  Com- 
bustion in  Coal-mines  " : — 


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10  SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  IN  COAL-MINES. 


SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  IN  COAL-MINES. 


By  JOEL  SETTLE. 


Introduction. 

Having  experienced  considerable  difficulties  in  sealing  off  gob- fires  at 
the  Leycett  collieries,  the  writer  thought  that  a  paper  dealing  with  descrip- 
tions of  some  of  these  fires  and  the  present  mode  of  working  would  be  of 
interest  to  the  members  of  this  Institution. 

The  gob-fires  which  have  been  dealt  with  and  illustrated  in  the  follow- 
ing paper  have  occurred  in  the  BuUhurst  seam,  at  the  Fair  Lady  pits, 
Leycett  coDieries,  North  Staffordshire,  the  property  of  the  Madeley  Coal 
and  Iron  Company  Limited. 

Gob-fires  have  occurred  in  almost  every  form  of  working  which  has 
been  tried  with  the  object  of  preventing  them.  Whenever  a  gob-fire 
commences  the  sooner  the  sealing-off  is  completed  the  better,  in  order  to 
exclude  the  air  from  the  goaf,  to  prevent  it  breaking  into  flame  and 
igniting  any  accumulation  of  gas.  As  the  BuUhurst  seam  gives  little 
indication  except  the  stink,  which  is  very  quickly  followed  by  fire,  and 
88  the  seam  gives  off  carburetted  hydrogen  freely,  an  explosion  is  likely 
to  occur  should  the  fire  burst  into  flame. 

It  must  be  understood  that  gob-fires  can  arise  from  a  variety  of  causes : 
some  have  their  origin  in  coal  becoming  crushed  and  powdered  in  breaks 
or  cleats  in  pillars,  subjected  to  great  pressure.* 

Occasionally  there  are  small  pillars  of  coal  which,  in  consequence  of 
the  thickness  of  the  seam  and  the  steep  inclination,  cannot  possibly  be 
got  with  safety  and  are  left,  becoming  a  source  of  danger,  as  they  may 
heat. 

Occasional  discharges  of  water  from  faults,  etc.,  and  moisture  are 
conducive  to  the  heating  of  the  hussle  or  floor  of  the  seam,  consisting  of 
a  soft  carbonaceous  shale  intermixed  with  streaks  of  coal  and  pyrites. 
That  hussle,  as  well  as  coal,  is  Uable  to  spontaneous  combustion  is  proved 
by  several  dirt-heaps  which  have  fired  on  the  surface. 

Fires  of  this  description  can  be  abated  by  a  coating  of  sand  2  feet 
thick  to  exclude  the  air,  but  the  fire  still  remains  in  a  dormant  condition, 

*  The  writer  produced  a  ^mple  of  dust  or  small  coal  out  of  a  break  or  cleat. 


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SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  IN  COAL-MINES.  11 

and  should  the  sand  be  removed,  the  heat  which  the  heap  contains  would 
by  the  admission  of  air  again  revive  into  fire  and  give  off  a  very  nauseous 
smell. 

Mines  which  give  off  carburetted  hydrogen  are  exceedingly  dangerous 
when  gob-fires  take  place,  and  require  constant  attention. 

The  thermometer  should  be  constantly  observed,  but  should  not  be 
relied  upon,  as  gob-fires  have  frequently  occurred  without  any  perceptible 
change  in  temperature — ^suddenly  bursting  into  fire.  It  is,  however,  very 
desirable  that  the  temperature  of  the  return  air  should  be  daily  observed, 
and  any  increase  must  be  taken  as  an  indication  that  the  goaf  is  heating. 

Generally  speaking,  the  temperature  of  the  Bullhurst  return  from  the 
drift  or  goaf  is  78  degs.  Fahr.  With  one-half  of  the  district  heading* 
out  and  the  other  half  drifting-back  the  main  return  is  74  degs.  Faht. 
with  little  variation. 

The  Bullhurst  seam  lies  at  a  depth  of  about  500  yards,  with  a  section 
consisting  of : — 

Rock  roof.                                                        Ft.  In.  Ft  Iiu 
Bass       2    0 


Coal,  Tops 

Middles  .., 
Wall  coal... 
Billies 

Hussle    .. 
Ro«k  floor. 


3  9 
8  0 
6    0 

2    0 

13     9 

..2    0 


The  tops  and  billies  are  high-class  steam  coal ;  the  middles  and  wall  coal 
a  superior  quality  of  gjis-coal  and  a  very  good  house-coal;  the  slack 
produced,  being  of  a  bituminous  nature,  makes  high-class  furnace-coke. 

The  levels  are  driven  in  the  middles  and  wall  coals,  the  tops  and 
billies  being  got  when  drifting-back. 

The  inclination  of  the  Bullhurst  seam  is  very  irregular  and  contorted, 
varying  from  15  to  70  degrees.  The  seam  produces  much  fire-damp,  and 
is  very  dry  and  dusty.  There  is  practically  no  shot-firing,  as  the  coals 
can  be  got  without  blasting. 

Top-RANGK  Bang-up,  North  Side  (Fig.  1,  Plate  I.). 

In  deciding  what  distance  to  leave  against  a  sealed-off  goaf,  the  dip 
of  the  mine  must  be  taken  into  consideration,  as  shown  by  the  following 
case: — 

A  very  extensive  fire,  extending  from  A  to  B  (Fig.  1,  Plate  I.), 
took  place  and  was  sealed  off  in  October,  1888.  Seven  years  after,  a  piece 
of  coal  was  taken  out  below,  leaving  50  yards  of  barrier  between  it  and 


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12  SPONTANEOUS  OOKBUSTION  IN  COAL-lflNSS. 

the  old  workings ;  this  was  considered  sufficient  support,  but  proved  to 
be  inadequate.  The  angle  of  the  seam  being  55  degs.,  the  coal  slipped 
down  until  it  thirled  or  communicated  with  the  old  workings  lying  above. 
A  charred  post  which  was  found  among  the  loose  coals  in  the  drift  proved 
this  conclusively.  There  was  no  indication  of  gas  or  gob  stink,  but  the 
district  was  sealed  off  promptly  by  three  permanent  stoppings  at  C. 
Drifting  was  then  recommenced  with  the  customary  temporary  stoppings 
erected  at  D  (which  will  be  described  later  on). 

Gob  stink  was  detected  at  E,  and  the  district  was  sealed  off  on  January 
18th,  1891,  with  stoppings  at  D,  and  further  temporary  stoppings  were 
put  ill  at  F ;  it  was  most  fortunate  that  this  had  been  done,  as  an  explosion 
occurred  and  blew  out  the  stoppings  at  D  five  days  afterwards. 

It  was  thought  that  the  No.  8  or  top  stopping  at  0  had  become  un- 
capped, allowing  the  air  to  pass,  resuscitating  the  old  fire  at  A  and  igniting 
an  accumulation  of  gas.  Luckily  no  one  was  injured,  the  explosion  having 
occurred  on  Saturday  night,  January  18th,  1891,  and  was  discovered, 
during  the  Sunday  morning's  examination,  by  the  damage  it  had  done, 
and  a  strong  smell  of  after-damp.  Prompt  action  was  taken  and  the 
sealing-off  of  the  temporary  stoppings  farther  back  at  F  was  completed 
by  2  p.m.  of  the  same  day.  Tliis  was  not  a  moment  too  soon,  as  during 
the  time  of  sealing  off  there  were  several  suctions  of  air,  indicating  that 
slight  explosions  were  occurring  in  the  goaf,  and  showing  that  the  fire  was 
still  supplied  with  sufficient  air  to  maintain  its  combustion.  These  ex- 
plosions would  no  doubt  in  time  have  become  larger  and  larger,  and  to 
prevent  the  air  from  going  in  to  feed  them  required  80  yards  of  sand- 
packing  along  the  three  levels,  all  well  pounded  in,  with  brick-and-mortar 
stoppings  intervening,  as  shown.  Not  only  did  the  danger  show  itself  in 
the  workings  at  E,  but  the  heat  was  revived  at  the  point  B,  which  is  the 
main  return  airway,  and  extra  strong  work  of  brick-and-mortar  was 
erected  and  the  floor  concreted. 

The  temperature  taken  in  a  2  inches  pipe  at  B,  5  feet  below  the  floor, 
in  sand,  remained  at  125  degs.  Fahr.  for  a  very  long  time,  and  at 
present  it  is  102  degs.,  showing,  when  a  fire  takes  place,  that  the  goaf 
retains  the  heat,  and  should  it  be  able  to  get  a  further  supply  of  air  it 
would  be  speedily  revived. 

Top-range  Bullhuest  (Fig.  2,  Plate  I.). 

Fig.  2  shows  workings  in  which  the  places  were  being  worked  in 
descending  order.  Upon  several  occasions  small  pillars  of  coal  were  found 
to  be  heating,  and  were  loaded  out  as  quickly  as  possible. 


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8P0NTANB0US  COMBUSTION  IN  COAL-MINBS.  18 

On  Noyember  80th,  1891,  at  7  a.m.,  a  haze  or  steam  with  a 
slight  smell  of  gob  stink  was  perceived  in  the  working-places  of  this 
district  at  the  point  6  coming  off  the  goaf,  and  after  careful  examination 
it  was  decided  to  take  out  all  materials  at  once  and  complete  the  temporary 
stoppings  at  the  points  marked  1,  2,  and  8,  the  other  four  stoppings  having 
been  previously  completed  with  permanent  packing. 

We  thought  we  were  justified  in  making  arrangements  to  draw  out  the 
materials,  but  were  unable  to  do  so.  At  12  o'clock  noon,  a  dense  smoke 
appeared  coming  from  the  goaf,  and  the  completion  of  the  stoppings  was 
pushed  forward  with  all  possible  speed  and  completed  by  8  p.m  of  the 
same  day,  bricks  and  mortar  being  in  readiness  at  each  stopping.  These 
stoppings  were  not  relied  upon  and  were  further  strengthened  with  sand- 
and-dirt  packing. 

It  will  be  observed  that  there  is  a  considerable  distance  from  the  goaf 
to  where  the  temporary  stoppings  were  erected,  whereby  much  coal  was  lost; 
but  in  consequence  of  the  angle  of  the  seam  being  55  degs.  and  the 
pillars  being  broken,  there  was  no  alternative  but  to  erect  the  stoppings 
at  the  points  2  and  8,  where  the  seam  was  practically  level. 

Temporary  stoppings  had  been  erected  for  sealing  off  this  district  at 
the  points  marked  H,  and  were  never  allowed  under  any  circumstances  to 
be  disturbed  until  another  course  of  temporary  stoppings  had  been  substi- 
tuted at  a  lower  point. 

This  is  the  largest  area  of  BuUhurst  coal  that  has  been  wrought 
before  taking  fire. 

BOTTOM-RANGB  BULLHUEST  (Pig.  8,  Plate  I.). 

Another  principle  of  working  the  Bullhurst  and  other  seams  subject 
to  spontaneous  combustion  was  introduced  some  years  ago  by  Mr.  Prank 
Eigby  at  the  Bunkers  Hill  collieries,  which  has  proved  very  advantageous, 
and  enabled  them  to  be  wrought  with  considerable  success,  and  entire 
freedom  from  gob-fires  up  to  the  present  time 

In  this  system  the  coal  is  wrought  in  descending  order,  and  as  each 
pillar  of  coal  is  worked  out  on  the  rise  a  stopping  is  put  into  the  level  to 
prevent  the  ventilation  circulating  through  the  goaf ;  the  next  level  below 
becomes  then  the  return  airway,  and  the  goaf  above  becomes  charged  with 
gas,  only  allowing  sufficient  ventilation  to  pass  to  keep  the  edges  of  the 
goaf  and  working-places  free  from  gas. 

Pig.  8  shows  the  district  where  this  principle  was  first  adopted  at  the 
liCyoett  collieries;  and  as  the  drifts  were  finished  permanent  stoppings 
were  put  in,  consisting  of  brick  and  mortar,  and  sand  well  packed. 


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14  SPONTANEOUS  OOMBUSTION  IN  COAL-KINBS. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  object  of  this  system  is  to  keep  the  yenti- 
lation  o£f  the  goaf,  by  only  allowing  sufficient  air  to  enter  to  ventilate  the 
edges  of  the  goaf  and  to  keep  the  working-places  free  from  gas,  while  the 
higher  portion  of  the  goaf  is  undoubtedly  charged  with  gas.  When  it 
was  safe  to  examine  the  internal  parts  of  the  goaf,  gas  was  always  found, 
but  was  not  of  an  explosive  character,  about  3  per  cent,  being  found  on 
the  edge  of  the  goaf,  showing  that  in  this  instance  the  principle  worked 
very  satisfactorily. 

The  temperature  at  No.  6  stopping  registered  84  d^.  Fahr.,  which 
was  always  the  temperature  of  the  return  from  this  goaf. 

The  whole  of  the  district  was  worked  out  successfully,  and  six  stop- 
pings were  completed,  as  shown  in  Fig.  tS.  The  district  appeared  to  have 
a  little  haze  or  steam  on  the  return  from  the  goaf  on  several  occasions, 
and  it  was  always  concluded  that  if  the  internal  part  of  the  goaf  had  been 
ventilated  it  would  have  taken  fire. 

Turning  to  another  portion  of  Bottom-range  Bullhurst,  where  only  two 
drifts  had  been  worked  back,  and  the  place,  on  account  of  the  inclination  of 
the  seam  running  irregular  (Fig.  4,  Plate  I.),  had  caused  some  little  water 
to  accumulate,  which  was  pumped  out.  In  a  very  short  time  (on  Novem- 
ber 12th,  1892)  a  peculiar  gas,  without  gob  stink,  was  observed  to  be 
given  off,  and  stoppings  were  put  in,  treating  it  as  a  gob-fire.  This  gas 
was  constantly  given  off  without  gob  stink,  and,  so  long  as  it  continued, 
the  strengthening  of  the  stoppings  by  dirt  packs  was  extended.  The 
stoppings  then  appeared  to  have  almost  stopped  the  gas  from  coming  off. 

At  7'BO  a.m.  on  December  13th,  1892,  a  great  rush  of  wind  occurred 
in  the  district,  which  was  observed  at  the  bottom  of  the  downcast  shaft, 
some  900  yards  distant. 

An  examination  showed  that  there  had  been  an  explosion  in  the 
internal  part  of  the  old  workings  where  the  gas  had  been  given  off,  and 
smoke  was  found  issuing  freely  from  the  drifts.  There  was  no  smell  of 
after-damp,  but  a  slight  smell  of  gob  stink,  and  the  gas  given  off  was  of  a 
heavy  nature,  no  doubt  deadened  by  the  smoke  emitted,  and  about  3  per 
cent,  of  gas  was  indicated;  upon  the  Mueseler  lamp. 

The  customary  precautions  had  been  taken  by  erecting  temporary  brick- 
and-mortar  stoppings  at  the  entrance  to  the  district ;  and  sufficient  bricks 
were  at  hand,  only  requiring  mortar  to  seal  off  the  same  in  case  of  emer- 
gency, so  that  the  district  was  closed  by  12  o'clock  noon  of  the  same  day. 

From  time  to  time  since  it  was  sealed  off  this  work  has  given  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  trouble.    It  has  always  been  the  writer's  ezperienoe 


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8P0NTANB0US  COMBUSTION  IN  COAL-MINES.  16 

that  whenever  a  district  gets  on  fire  there  is  a  very  great  tendency  to  draw 
in  air,  and  extraordinary  lengths  of  packing  are  required  to  prevent  it ; 
but  if  the  district  can  be  sealed  off  before  it  breaks  into  flapie  short 
lengths  of  packing  will  suffice. 

Bang-up  Bullhubst,  South  Side  (Fig.  5,  Plate  II.). 

The  principle  of  working  with  the  goaf  charged  with  gas  in  the 
Bottom-range  BuUhurst  having  proved  successful,  enabling  the  whole  of 
the  district  to  be  worked  out,  it  was  decided  to  apply  the  principle  to 
another  district  called  Bang-up  BuUhurst. 

When  the  coal  was  got  above  the  No.  5  level  the  first  stopping  was  put 
in  at  No.  5,  bringing  the  return  air  through  No.  4  level.  This  stopping 
is  22  yards  in  length  of  sand,  pounded  in  on  the  level  with  two  brick-and- 
mortar  stoppings  of  three  feet  thick. 

As  the  district  gave  off  a  large  quantity  of  gas  the  goaf  was  rapidly 
chai^ged,  and  even  with  all  this  length  of  packing  gas  was  emitted  very 
freely  from  No.  6,  the  top  stopping  ;  the  temperature  of  which  was  84 
degs.  Fahr.  for  a  considerable  time. 

When  the  drifts  were  worked  out  lower  No.  4  stopping  was  inserted, 
consisting  of  two  brick-and-mortar  stoppings  and  22  yards  of  sjmd-pack- 
ing.  No.  3  level  now  being  the  return,  and  the  temperature  78  degs., 
which  increased  in  about  two  months  to  84  degs.,  and  when  the  district 
was  sealed  off  it  was  86  degs.  Fahr. 

Temporary  stoppings  were  put  in  at  Nos.  1,  2,  and  8  levels,  consisting 
of  8  feet  of  brick  and  mortar  with  tub  roads  through  them,  and  in  all 
cases  sufficient  bricks  were  left  at  each  stopping  to  close  the  district  off 
promptly  in  case  of  emergency,  all  that  remained  to  be  done  being  to  get 
mortar  to  each  stopping,  and  build  up  the  openings  or  tub  roads. 

It  was  calculated  that  it  would  take  four  hours  at  the  outside  to  seal 
off  the  district,  strengthening  the  same  afterwards  by  more  permanent 
work  of  lengthened  sand-packing,  etc. 

The  district  had  been  worked  out  to  the  position  shown,  when  it  gave 
rise  to  great  anxiety  and  careful  watching,  the  temperature  rising  to  88 
d^.  at  No.  5  in  front  of  the  stopping  and  96  degs.  against  the  coal. 
No.  4  also  began  to  give  off  gas,  the  temperature  being  84  degs:  Fahr. 

The  gas  at  No.  5  stopping  had  a  peculiar  odour,  and  was  very  explo- 
sive.   About  8,000  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute  was  passing  this  stopping. 

A  Uttle  haze  appeared  upon  the  ventilation  at  I,  and  as  this  had 
hitherto  been  an  indication  of  gob-fire,  the  district  was  sealed  off  without 
delay. 


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16  SPONTAKEOUB  COMBUSTION  IN  COAL-MfNBS. 

The  temperatare  at  No.  5  stopping  increaBed,  commencing  at  78  d^a. 
and  terminating  at  88  degs.  againat  the  pack  and  96  degs.  against  the 
coal  on  the  head  aide  of  the  level.  The  day  after  the  district  was  sealed 
off  the  temperature  at  No.  5  stopping  registered  80  degs.,  gradnallj  falling 
within  one  week  to  76  degs.,  and  it  hus  remained  at  the  same  temperature 
ever  since. 

Althongh  the  district  was  sealed  off  on  December  28th,  1892,  No.  5 
stopping  gives  off  gas  freely  to  this  day,  Nos.  1  and  4  slightly,  while  Nos. 
2  and  8  do  not  give  off  any  gas. 

It  will  be  gathered  from  these  remarks  that  Bang-up  Bullhurst  varied 
from  the  working  of  Bottom-range  Bullhurst.  When  worked  upon  the 
same  principle  it  caused  great  anxiety,  in  consequence  of  the  large  quantity 
of  gas  given  off  from  the  stoppings  and  the  temperature  reaching  96  degs., 
whereas  the  district  (Pig.  3)  worked  on  the  same  principle  gave  off  very 
little  gas,  and  the  temperature  remained  constant  at  84  degs. 

Outside  this  district  (Fig.  5)  drifting  was  again  commenced,  and  after 
some  little  time  the  hussle  or  floor  was  found  to  have  heated  very  much, 
and  would  speedily  have  been  on  fire.  Oreat  difficulty  was  experienced 
in  clearing  it  out,  as  the  heat  had  risen  from  the  hussle  into  the  pillar  of 
coal.  This  heat  arose  in  a  piece  of  troubled  ground  which  might  be 
termed  more  accurately  a  roll  of  dirt  than  a  fault. 

The  writer  mentions  this  circumstance  because  the  origin  of  this  heat- 
ing was  clearly  traceable  to  the  hussle  or  floor. 

Gbnbbal  Conclusions. 

The  greater  the  number  of  stoppings  to  be  completed  when  a  gob-fire 
takes  place  the  greater  will  be  the  risk,  as  every  delay  adds  to  the  danger 
and  cost.  The  adoption  of  temporary  stoppings  will  be  found  of  the  greatest 
possible  advantage  and  to  afford  great  additional  security. 

There  should  not  be  more  than  three  openings  to  seal  off.  It  is  even 
better  if  only  two  can  be  arranged,  that  is,  an  intake  and  a  return  only. 

The  temporary  arrangements  which  the  writer  recommends  for  work- 
ing the  Bullhurst  seam  are,  to  put  in  3  feet  of  brick-and-mortar  stoppings 
cut  to  a  solid  bed  all  round,  that  is  passing  all  breaks  in  the  coal  and 
surrounding  strata.  Sufficient  openings  are  left  in  the  stoppings  for  the 
horse  and  journey  to  pass  through.  A  sufficient  number  of  bricks  should 
be  placed,  close  at  hand,  to  complete  the  stoppings  in  case  any  symptoms 
of  gob-fire  are  discovered.  The  only  material  required  will  be  mortar,  and 
in  case  of  emergency  such  stoppings  can  be  completed  in  three  or  four 
hours  at  the  very  most. 


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SPONTAKBOUS  COMBUSTION  IN  COAL-MINES.  17 

Brick-and-mortar  stoppings  must  only  be  considered  as  temporary,  and 
after  the  withdrawal  of  the  men  and  allowing  safiScient  time  to  elapse 
(that  is  in  case  the  gob-fire  has  shown  serions  symptoms)  before  an 
examination  is  made,  so  that  the  internal  part  of  the  workings  sealed-o£f 
may  become  so  charged  with  gas  that  there  would  have  been  an  explosion 
if  such  danger  existed.  The  result  of  the  examination  of  the  stoppings 
will  be  a  guide  as  to  what  course  is  next  to  be  adopted ;  generally,  it  will 
be  found  that  explosive  gas  is  being  given  off  at  the  highest  stopping,  the 
lower  or  bottom  one  at  the  same  time  taking  in  air,  to  prevent  which  the 
defective  parts  should  be  plastered  with  mortar  at  the  time  of  inspection. 

After  this  examination  it  may  be  advisable  to  allow  a  further  time  to 
elapse  before  commencing  to  pack  with  sand  or  small  dirt  against  the  brick- 
and-mortar  stoppings,  but  this  should  not  be  pressed  forward  too  hastily, 
as  the  packing  will  sink,  no  matter  however  well  pounded  in.  These 
temporary  arrangements  will  be  less  costly  if  they  are  carried  out,  and 
the  materials  conveyed  to  the  places  determined  upon,  during  working 
hours. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  have  less  than  30  yards  in  length  of  packing 
against  the  temporary  stopping  along  the  level  of  a  sealed-o£f  district,  to 
prevent  the  fire  from  sucking  in  air,  and  to  complete  the  end  of  such  pack 
by  a  brick-and-mortar  stopping  not  less  than  2  feet  thick,  and  plastered 
over  with  mortar  to  make  any  weakness  more  perceptible.  This  work  may 
seem  to  be  extraordinarily  strong,  but  it  will  be  required  to  prevent  the 
goaf  sealed-off  from  being  disturbed  when  drifting  is  again  commenced. 

As  the  Bullhurst  seam  m  of  great  thickness  (13  feet  9  inches)  it  is 
surprising  what  large  falls  take  place  when  drifting  or  bringing  back 
pillars,  and  there  might  be  breaks  in  the  roof  which  would  allow  gas  to 
escape  from  the  internal  goaf  sealed-off.  If  that  should  be  the  case,  the 
same  goaf  would  take  in  air  and  give  off  gas  alternately  at  one  and  the 
same  point,  that  is,  making  an  intake  and  return  of  the  same  place, 
causing  danger  to  arise  unawares. 

With  a  view  of  leaving  as  little  coal  as  possible,  drifting  is  sometimes 
commenced  in  too  close  proximity  to  the  sealed-oflf  goaf,  thereby  disturb- 
ing or  uncapping  the  old  stoppings  and  reviving  the  old  gob-fire.  It  is 
probable  that  more  accidents  arise  from  this  cause  than  any  other. 

Pig.  6,  Plate  II.,  illustrates  a  method  of  economically  and  success- 
fully working  the  Bullhurst  seam  in  panels  on  the  pillar-and-stall  principle 
by  which  only  two  stoppings  are  required  to  seal  oflf  the  district,  and  a  new 
district  may  be  headed  out  ready  for  drifting  when  the  one  adjoining  is 
finishing. 

VOL.  v.-ww-w.  2 


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18  DISCUSSION — SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  IN  OOAL-MINBS. 

Fig.  7,  Plate  II.,  illustrates  a  method  of  working  seams  on  the  long- 
wall  principle,  but  it  is  not  applicable  to  the  Bullhuist  seam,  on  account 
of  its  thickness,  inclination,  etc. 

The  principle  recommended  for  working  a  mine  subject  to  spontaneous 
combustion  with  safety  is  not  to  open  out  too  large  an  area  of  coal  in  one 
district,  so  as  to  enable  the  same  to  be  worked  and  sealed-off  before  it 
even  gives  indication  of  gob-stink ;  it  also  gives  further  advantages,  as  the 
workings  can  approach  closer  to  sealed-off  districts  with  greater  safety  if 
they  have  not  taken  fire,  and  the  loss  of  coal  will  be  considerably  less. 

Levels  should  be  driven  to  the  boundary,  and  the  panels  worked  back 
in  all  cases,  so  as  to  leave  the  sealed-off  goaves  behind. 

A  piece  of  coal  100  yards  on  the  level  by  80  yards  on  the  rise  is  pro- 
bably the  safest  and  most  convenient  size  for  working  in  thick  seams  of 
steep  inclination,  subject  to  spontaneous  combustion. 

In  thin  seams  a  larger  area  of  coal  might  be  determined  upon  according 
to  circumstances. 

The  following  fundamental  principles  should  be  observed : — 
(fl)  Do  not  try  to  work  out  too  large  a  district  at  once. 
(6)  Districts  should  be  worked  out  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  sealed 
off  when  finished,  whether  they  have  taken  fire  or  not. 

(c)  Leave  sufficient  support  of  coal  so  as  not  to  disturb  sealed-off 

districts. 

(d)  Preparatory  or  temporary  stoppings  should  always  be  erected. 

(e)  The  quality  of  gas  given  off  from  a  goaf  should  be  carefully 

noticed. 
(/)  Note  any  change  in  temperature  from  the  goaves. 
Of)  Do  not  pass  more  ventilation  through  a  district  than  is  sufficient 
to  keep  the  working-places  and  gob-edges  free  from  gas. 
The  writer  particularly  desires  to  mention  that  Mr.  Atkinson,  H.M. 
Inspector  of  Mines,  has  taken  great  interest  in  the  working  of  this  mine, 
and  has  seen  all  the  districts  referred  to. 


Mr.  E.  B.  Wain  (Stoke-upon-Trent)  wrote  that  the  special  point  in 
this  paper  was  the  exceptional  circumstances  described  under  which  the 
gob-fires  had  been  dealt  with.  The  paper  was  especially  interesting  as 
following  that  on  the  same  subject  read  at  the  last  Federated  Meeting,* 
in  which  Prof.  Lupton  gave  a  general  description  of  the  manner  of 
occurrence  and  methods  of  dealing  with  fires  under  what  may  be  termed 

*  TraTU.  Fed.  Inst.,  vol.  iv.,  page  481. 


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DISCUSSIOir — SPONTAKBOUS  OOMBTTSTION  IN  COAL-MINBP.  19 

ordinary  circnmstances,  in  Derbyshire,  Leicestershire,  and  Warwickshire, 
where  the  easy  gradients  and  small  volumes  of  fire-damp  rendered  the  opera- 
tions, in  dealing  with  such  outbreaks,  comparatively  simple.  Mr.  Settle, 
however,  takes  up  the  question  of  dealing  with  fires  which  have  occurred 
under  most  exceptional  circumstances,  where  the  heavy  gradients  (up 
to  70  degrees),  the  fiery  nature  of  the  seams,  and  the  thickness  of  the  coal 
rendered  the  operations  much  more  difficult;  and  the  greatest  possible 
credit  is  due  to  Mr.  Settle  for  the  thorough  manner  in  which  he  had 
dealt  with  the  outbreaks  he  had,  from  time  to  time,  had  to  contend  with 
at  the  Leycett  collieries.  Notwithstanding  the  exceptional  difficulties 
under  which  the  work  had  been  done,  it  had  been  carried  out  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  reduce  the  danger  to  a  minimum ;  and  although,  some  years 
ago,  before  Mr.  Settle  had  charge  of  the  colliery  in  question,  serious  loss 
of  life  had  resulted  from  explosions  arising  from  gob-fires,  the  methods 
which  he  had  originated  and  carried  out  had  proved  to  be  thoroughly 
successful  in  preventing  similar  disasters.  In  considering  the  subject, 
however,  it  is  impossible  not  to  feel  regret  that  it  should  be  necessary  to 
sacrifice  so  large  a  quantity  of  most  valuable  coal  in  pillars  and  barriers, 
in  districts  closed  from  fire,  as  a  safeguard  for  future  workings ;  and  one 
was  led  to  ask  the  question,  whether  some  means  could  not  be  devised  by 
which  such  loss  might  be  avoided  ?  The  system  which  had  been  adopted 
at  some  of  the  collieries  in  the  Warwickshire  district,  and  which  was 
briefly  mentioned  in  Mr.  Lupton's  paper,*  appeared  to  be  particularly 
applicable  to  such  circumstances  as  those  which  the  paper  under  consider- 
ation referred  to.  If  a  number  of  dip  headings  were  driven  down  to  the 
deep  boundary,  and  so  arranged  that  one  engine  might  draw  out  of  several 
of  them,  and  the  coal  was  worked  out  with  a  longwall  face  advancing 
from  dip  to  rise,  any  water  there  might  be  in  the  mine  would  fill  up  the 
workings  as  the  face  advanced  and  effectually  prevent  any  spontaneous 
combustion  in  the  goaf.  Even  if  there  were  no  water  in  the  workings, 
they  could  easily  be  flooded  if  any  danger  from  fire  was  apprehended, 
without  in  any  way  interfering  with  the  progress  of  the  coal-getting. 
Another  distinct  advantage  of  such  a  system  would  be  the  absolute  avoid- 
ance of  any  danger  arising  from  fire-damp,  as  the  numerous  dip  headings 
from  which  the  coal  was  drawn  would  effectually  drain  any  gas  produced 
at  the  working-face*  At  first  sight  it  would  appear,  from  the  numerous 
engine-brows,  that  the  hauling  arrangements  would  be  unnecessarily 
complicated,  but  this  would  not  be  so.  The  writer  has  seen,  in  the 
Nottinghamshire  coal-field,  somewhat  simUar  arrangements  working  very 

•  Trans,  Fed,  Inst.,  vol.  iv.,  page  484. 


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20  DISCUSSION — SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  IN  COAL-MINES. 

satisfactorily :  the  only  difference  being  that,  instead  of  the  face  advancing 
from  dip  to  rise  as  proposed,  and  the  coal  being  drawn  through  the  solid 
roads,  the  workings  were  advancing  with  a  dipping  face  and  packed  roads. 
An  engine-brow  was  taken  down  the  centre  of  the  work  with  cross-gates 
driven  from  it  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  and  branch-gates  parallel  to  the 
centre  gate-road  turned  off  the  cross-gates  at  suitable  intervals.  By  this 
arrangement  the  trams  were  worked  to  and  from  the  actual  coal-face  by  the 
plane-rope,  and  one  engine  and  rope  served  twelve  or  more  stalls.  In  the 
plan  proposed  for  working  up-bank  through  solid  roads  similar  arrange- 
ments might  be  used,  or  the  main-plane  and  cross-gates  could  be  worked 
by  an  endless-rope,  and  drums  driven  by  friction-gear  from  a  belt-rope 
used  to  draw  single  tubs  up  the  branch  roads  to  supply  the  main-rope. 
The  plan  had  many  features  to  conmiend  itself ;  absolute  freedom  from 
gob-fires,  no  danger  from  fire-damp,  and  the  cost  of  hauling  and  main- 
taining the  roads  reduced  to  a  minimiim.  The  only  apparent  drawback 
was  the  large  initial  expense  in  driving  out  dip  headings  to  the  boundary, 
but  this  would  be  more  than  repaid  by  the  reduced  cost  of  working,  and 
the  greater  safety  ensured. 

Mr.  Samuel  Spruce  (Tamworth)  wrote : — As  one  would  expect  from 
the  author,  this  paper  was  highly  interesting  and  instructive,  as  showing 
the  methods  adopted  to  get  quit  of  the  gob-fire  in  the  Bullhurst  seam  at 
Leycett  colliery.  There  were,  no  doubt,  peculiarities  attaching  to  this 
colliery,  in  the  thickness  of  the  Bullhurst  seam  and  the  high  pitch  of  the 
mines :  one  perhaps  was  the  very  wide  rib  which  appeared  to  have  been 
rendered  necessary  on  account  of  the  angle  of  the  seam  being  as  high  as 
55  degrees.  He  (Mr.  Spruce)  did  not  know  an  instance  where  so  large  a  rib 
had  been  permanently  left  on  account  of  gob-fire ;  but  he  had  known 
cases  in  which  a  whole  district  required  to  be  dammed  off— because  the 
excessive  heat  prevented  a  nearer  approach  to  the  part  on  fire — and  left 
for  a  year  or  two,  or  even  more,  before  again  approaching  it ;  and 
possibly  had  the  same  plan  been  practicable  in  this  case,  and  the  district 
remained  closed  a  sufficient  length  of  time,  a  rib  of  less  width  might  have 
sufficed  ultimately.  Apart  from  this  question,  however,  there  were  some 
points  in  common,  as  regards  gob-fires,  with  other  seams  in  other  parts 
of  North  Staffordshire  and  other  places;  he  was,  generally  speaking,  in 
agreement  with  the  author  of  the  paper,  though  in  some  respects  he 
differed  slightly.  The  methods  adopted  with  regard  to  the  stoppings 
at  Leycett  colliery  appeared,  so  far  as  he  understood  them,  similar  to 
those  adopted  and  used  in  nearly  all  kinds  of  seams,  thick  and  thin,  both 
in   Shropshire,  Staffordshire   (North  and  South),  Worcestershire,  and 


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DISCUSSION — SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  IN  COAL-MINBS.  21 

WarwickBhire,  to  hia  knowledge  during  the  past  fifty  years  and  more, 
where  gob-fires  have  occurred  ;  except  that  he  had  never  known  it  neces- 
sary to  put  in  the  great  length  of  stopping  mentioned  in  the  paper  of 
"  30  yards  of  sand-packing  along  the  three  levels,  all  well  pounded  in,  with 
brick-and-mortar  stoppings  intervening,  as  shown."  He  would  like  to  know 
whether  this  was  not  an  extremely  exceptional  case,  even  in  these  steep 
mines  ?  and  he  would  like  to  learn  also  what  kind  of  strata  there  were  above 
the  coal,  to  the  extent  of  about  three  times  the  thickness  of  the  seam  ? 
He  noticed  it  particularly  as  being  "  on  the  level,"  as  this  would  appear  to 
assume  that  an  unusually  thick  rib,  from  dip  to  rise,  was  also  necessary  to 
support  these  30  yards  of  stoppings,  at  least  as  wide  as  the  length  of 
the  stoppings  themselves;  and  also  whether,  in  the  experience  of  the 
author,  a  50  yards  rib  was  necessary  if  the  panels  were  worked  in 
ascending  order  ?  He  entirely  agreed  with  Mr.  Settle  that  "  whenever 
a  gob-fire  commences  the  sooner  the  sealing-oflF  is  completed  the 
better."  He  (Mr.  Spruce)  affirmed  in  his  paper  on  "Pit  Fires," 
read  before  the  members  of  the  North  Staffordshire  Institute  of  Mining 
and  Mechanical  Engineers,  in  June,  1885,*  that  beyond  a  certain  limit 
"atmospheric  air  is  the  greatest  promoter  of  gob-fire  which  can  be 
found,"  and  that  it  is  necessary  "in  the  first  place  as  early  as  con- 
venient "  to  "  exclude  from  the  gob-heaps  atmospheric  air  entirely  ;  "  but 
he  also  expressly  pointed  out  at  the  same  time  that  this  was  a  totally 
different  thing  from  crippling  or  even  reducing  the  general  ventilation 
of  the  working-places  of  the  mine,  with  which  some  people  appear  to 
confound  it.  He  did  not  know  whether  the  writer  of  the  paper  had  been 
moved  to  some  of  his  remarks  in  consequence  of  what  was  said  at  the 
Derby  meeting,  where  the  notion  appeai*ed  again  to  crop  up  that  ventilation 
would  cure  gob-fires ;  but  his  observations  came  in  very  appropriately.  He 
(Mr.  Spruce)  had  no  doubt  that  the  writer  did  not  put  in  any  of  the  dams 
referred  to  in  the  paper,  with  the  object  of  turning  a  current  of  air  upon 
the  gob-fire  with  the  view  of  curing  it.  Was  it  not  somewhat  singular 
that  however  often  this  notion  of  curing  gob-fire  by  ventilation  might 
come  to  the  front,  as  it  had  done  from  time  to  time  for  many  years  past, 
it  was  advanced  only  as  a  speculative  proposal,  and  never,  so  far  as  he 
was  aware,  had  it  been  accompanied  by  proof  from  actual  experiment  that 
any  extensive  gob-fire  had  really  been  subdued  by  that  method.  Nor  was 
it  at  all  made  clear  by  any  well-authenticated  case  that  increased  ventila- 
tion had  ever  prevented,  or  even  retarded,  a  real  gob-fire  of  any  important 
dimensions.  A  small  fire,  such  as  could  be  loaded  out,  might  be  got  rid 
•  Trans.  A'orth  Staff,  Inst,,  vol.  viii.,  page  38. 


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22  DISCUSSION — SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  IN  COAL-MINES. 

of  by  being  brought  into  the  open,  where  it  would  either  be  extinguished 
from  separation  or  burn  itself  out.  He  had  known  instances  in  which 
heating  gob,  or  rather  the  slack  improperly  left  as  gob,  taken  out  before 
it  had  actually  caught  fire,  had  (on  being  loaded  out)  broken  into  flame 
on  its  passage  to  the  surface.  He  (Mr.  Spruce)  had  known  actual  fire 
prevented  in  the  Thick  Coal  seam,  when  imminent,  by  temporarily 
cutting  off  the  ventilation,  from  the  side  of  work  or  panel  in  which  it 
occurred,  for  three  nights  and  two  days,  generally  at  the  end  of  each  week 
for  several  weeks,  until  the  extensively  worked  side  was  entirely  cleared 
out  in  safety  and  with  comparative  comfort  on  the  remaining  days,  guided 
by  the  sense  of  smell  on  the  part  of  the  manager,  or  someone  else  who 
had  that  sense  sufficiently  developed,  and  in  whom  reliance  could  be 
placed  as  to  when  to  work  and  when  to  cease  working.  This  fact  related 
to  a  side  nearing  its  completion,  but  he  had  also  known,  in  the  Thick  Coal 
seam,  the  same  thing  to  occur  on  a  very  much  larger  scale,  in  which  a  large 
side  of  work  had  indicated  imminent  gob-fire — known  by  the  same  means 
as  well  as  by  the  increasing  temperature  of  the  heating  slack  ;  and  here 
it  was  well  known  there  was  nothing  else  but  the  slack  left  therein  that 
could  fire,  there  being  an  underclay  floor,  no  parting  in  the  coal  saving 
7  inches  of  sandstone  known  as  "  hard  stone,"  the  upper  coal  still  hang- 
ing, therefore  no  roof  had  fallen,  and  the  loose  wrought  coals  being  all 
drawn  out.  The  side  of  work,  being  as  designed,  70  yards  by  90  yards 
in  about  mid-working,  was  closely  sealed  up,  and  kept  so  for  a  period  of 
three  months,  and  then  again  opened,  when  all  apprehension  of  fire  and 
gob-stink  was  entirely  gone,  and  the  work  resumed  as  usual  and  carried 
to  a  successful  end.  But  such  a  result  as  this  must  not  be  looked  for 
if  the  gob  had  passed  the  stage  of  "  fire-stink,"  and  actual  fire  had  once 
got  a  good  hold  of  the  slack.  He  (Mr.  Spruce)  had  known  seven  years 
of  close  sealing  insufficient  to  be  quit  of  this,  that  is  to  say,  it  would 
quickly  revive  into  active  fire  on  the  re-admittance  of  atmospheric  air. 
Of  all  the  ineffective  measures  for  dealing  with  real  gob-fires,  or  gobs 
readily  given  to  fire,  that  of  using  clay  in  "  wax  walls,"  as  it  is  called,  was 
— speaking  always  within  his  (Mr.  Spruce's)  experience — the  worst.  He 
thought  it  ought  rather  to  be  regarded  as  a  fire-promoter  than  a  fire- 
preventer  ;  at  any  rate  any  gob  that  would  do  with  it  would  do  equally 
well  without  it.  Just  thirty-five  years  ago  he  became  acquainted  with  this 
process  in  a  Warwickshire  colliery,  in  the  Seven  Feet  and  Deep  Coal  seams 
worked  by  longwall,  where  the  fires  in  each  seam  were  so  extensive  under 
this  system  that  the  colliery — while  not  half  worked  out — was  on  the 
point  of  abandonment  af fer  nearly  ruining  its  ownera,  who  offered,  and 


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DISCUSSION — SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  IN  COAL-MINES.  23 

were  only  too  glad,  to  part  with  it  and  all  the  plant— raising  over  2,000 
tons  weekly — for  an  insignificant  sum.  A  gentleman,  well  versed  in 
colliery  working,  and  who  had  had  large  experience  in  gob-fires,  and 
knew  generally  how  to  deal  with  them,  was  ready  enough,  indeed  was 
anxions,  to  embrace  the  offer  and  to  purchase.  But  he  hesitated  to  do  so  on 
account  of  these  tantalizing  and  ruinous  fires,  of  which  it  is  not  too  much 
to  say  that  for  hundreds  of  yards  along  the  return  air-courses  and  some 
gateways  livid  fire  was  at  intervals  visible,  only  kept  in  partial  abeyance 
by  this  clay-dabbing,  on  which  from  17  to  25  men  and  boys  had  for  a 
long  period  been  constantly  engaged  in  daily  and  nightly  work  called 
"  waxing  the  carvings."  It  was  only  by  the  strongest  assurances  that  the 
whole  system  could  be  changed  in  a  month  or  so  without  further  danger 
and  at  little  expense,  that  he  did  ultimately  purchase.  The  system  was 
accordingly  changed,  but  still  working  longwall,  and  from  that  day  to 
this — ^f or  the  colliery  was  still  going,  and  would  continue  for  many  years — 
not  a  pound  of  clay  had  been  used  for  that  purpose,  nor  had  there  been 
any  bat  the  most  insignificant  of  gob-fires,  only  just  sufficient  to  show 
that  such  fires  would  still  prevail  if  permitted.  Here  and  elsewhere  there 
were  thousands  of  yards  of  gob-roads  ;  one  pit  in  one  seam  had  now  over 
3  miles  of  gob-roads  open,  and  no  clay  had  ever  been  used  or  needed,  and 
never  would  be.  He  (Mr.  Spruce)  thought  there  would  never  be  found  in 
any  seam  worked  by  longwall  any  gob-fire  (using  this  term  in  the  proper 
sense),  so  long  as  not  less  than  1,400  tons  of  coal  for  every  statute  acre 
for  each  foot  of  thickness  of  the  entire  seam  was  extracted  and  sent  out 
of  the  mine. 

Mr.  0.  J.  BiNNS  (Netherseal)  asked  whether  bituminous  or  non- 
bituminous  coals  were  the  more  active  in  causing  spontaneous  combustion  ? 
It  seemed  to  those  managing  mines  in  which  spontaneous  combustion 
was  rife,  and  in  which  gas  was  infrequent,  to  be  a  dangerous  state  of 
things  to  have  so  much  gas ;  he  supposed,  however,  that  in  the  district 
Mr.  Settle  represented  they  were  used  to  it.  He  had  found  that  clay 
stoppings — though  not  in  the  form  of  wax  walls — in  place  of  brick  stop- 
pings gave  way  without  breaking  under  pressure,  which  rendered  the 
brick  stoppings  useless. 

Mr.  W.  N.  Atkinson  (H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  Newcastle-under- 
Lyme)  said  the  spontaneous  combustion  of  coal  in  mines  was  of  special 
interest  in  North  Staffordshire,  because  in  that  coal-field  such  combustion 
frequently  occurred  in  seams  producing  much  fire-damp  and  very  dusty  ; 
so  that  in  addition  to  danger  from  the  fire  itself  there  was  risk  of  serious 
explosions.    The  BuUhurst  seam  at  Leycett  colliery,  in  which  the  gob-fires 


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24  DISCUSSION — ^SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  IN  COAL-MINES. 

described  by  Mr.  Settle  took  place,  was  both  gassy  and  dusty,  and  its 
liability  to  spontaneous  combustion  was  therefore  a  source  of  great  anxiety, 
and  the  successful  way  in  which  Mr.  Settle  had  dealt  with  a  number  of 
gob-fires  had  only  been  accomplished  by  very  great  vigilance  and  care. 
Spontaneous  combustion  in  mines  was  until  recently  most  frequently 
attributed  to  the  presence  of  iron  pyrites  in  the  coal,  but  it  was  now 
understood  to  be  due  to  the  oxidation  of  the  coal  itself,  or  of  carbonaceous 
matter  associated  with  coal,  and  the  presence  of  iron  pyrites  might  be 
favourable  to  spontaneous  combustion,  but  it  was  not  a  necessary  element. 
There  are,  however,  no  means,  except  experience,  of  telling  whether  any  par- 
ticular seam  of  coal  would  be  liable  to  gob-fires,  nor  why  some  seams  were 
extremely  liable  to  gob-fires,  others  slightly  so,  and  others  not  at  all.  In 
North  Staffordshire  spontaneous  combustion  occurred  under  varying  condi- 
tions. The  great  majority  of  fires  began  in  the  gob,  but  cases  were  known 
where  they  had  broken  out  on  roads  or  in  pillars  of  coal.  They  gave 
warning  of  their  presence  first  by  the  characteristic  gob-stink,  and  then  by 
emitting  vapour  and  smoke ;  but  in  some  cases  these  warnings  were  so 
slight,  or  of  such  short  duration,  that  they  were  not  observed  until  the 
combustion  has  arrived  at  the  stage  of  actual  fire.  In  other  cases 
indications  of  incipient  combustion  were  observed  for  several  days  or 
weeks  before  there  was  red  heat  or  fiame,  and  sometimes  the  heating 
abated  without  reaching  the  stage  of  incandescence.  Certain  conditions 
were  generally  held  to  be  conducive  to  gob-fires  in  seams  liable  to  spon- 
taneous combustion.  One  of  these  was  the  presence  of  coal  in  the  gob ; 
this  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible,  but  it  was  often  impractic- 
able to  get  the  whole  of  the  coal  or  to  prevent  coal  being  left  in  the  gob. 
Impure,  disturbed,  or  faulted  coal  in  some  seams  was  supposed  to  be 
peculiarly  liable  to  spontaneous  combustion.  Water  or  moisture  was  some- 
times held  to  be  an  exciting  cause.  One  gob-fire,  which  came  under  his 
(Mr.  Atkinson's)  notice,  occurred  a  few  months  after  the  use  of  water  was 
adopted  in  the  district  for  damping  dust,  so  that  gunpowder  shots  might 
be  fired,  but  several  gob-fires  occuiTed  in  the  same  seam  at  a  neighbour- 
ing colliery  without  such  an  exciting  cause.  It  was  sometimes  supposed 
that  pressure  or  friction  caused  spontaneous  combustion  in  mines ;  beyond 
that  by  crushing  and  pulverizing,  the  coal  was  rendered  more  liable  to 
spontaneous  combustion  from  other  causes,  he  failed  to  see  that  pressure 
or  friction  had  any  effect.  There  appeared  to  be  some  difference  of 
opinion  with  regard  to  the  effect  of  ventilation  on  gob-fires.  Some 
engineers  were  in  favour  of  strong  ventilation  and  others  advocated  as 
feeble  a  ventilation  as  practicable.     By  acting  as  a  cooling  agent,  venti- 


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DISCUSSION — SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  IN  COAL-MINES.  25 

latioD  might  prevent  spontaneous  combustion,  but  the  majority  of  gob-fires 
occurred  in  inaccessible  situations  where  the  ventilation,  however  strong, 
could  not  act  as  a  cooling  agent,  and  the  stronger  the  ventilation  the  more 
difficult  it  was  to  prevent  feeble  currents  passing  through  the  gob,  and  this 
appeared  to  be  one  of  the  most  common  exciting  causes  of  gob-fires.  He 
might  mention  the  case  of  a  colliery  where  the  Bullhurst  seam  was  worked 
for  several  years  with  a  comparatively  feeble  ventilation  without  any 
gob-fires  occurring ;  a  large  fan  was  then  erected  at  the  downcast  shaft, 
which  was  made  the  upcast.  For  some  months  the  fan  ran  at  a  reduced 
rate  owing  to  its  shaft  heating,  but  nine  months  after  it  started,  the  first 
gob-fire  was  discovered  in  the  pit  and  there  had  since  been  several  serious 
gob-fires.  The  debriB  round  the  top  of  the  shaft  and  fan-drift  also  took 
fire,  probably  owing  to  air  being  drawn  through  it  into  the  shaft  and  fan- 
drift,  the  brickwork  of  which  was  not  airtight.  The  Royal  Commission 
on  Spontaneous  Combustion  of  Coal  in  Ships  condemned  the  attempts 
which  had  been  made  to  ventilate  the  bulk  of  the  cargo,  alleging  that 
such  ventilation  as  could  be  applied  for  that  purpose  was  conducive  to 
spontaneous  combustion,  no  doubt  for  the  same  reason  that  slight  currents 
of  air  passing  through  a  goaf  were  favourable  to  gob-fires.  The  idea  of 
excluding  air  from  the  goaf  was  the  basis  of  the  system  practised  by 
Mr.  Rigby,  at  Bunker's  Hill  colliery.  When^the  goaf  was  to  the  rise  it  was 
allowed  to  fill  with  gas,  and  when  it  was  to  the  dip  it  could  be  filled  with 
water.  It  might  appear  objectionable  purposely  to  allow  a  goaf  to  become 
charged  with  fire-damp,  but  if  it  prevented  gob-fires  it  would  be  more  of  a 
safeguard  than  a  danger,  and  it  must  be  remembered  that  it  was  often 
impossible  to  prevent  a  goaf  becoming  charged  with  gas.  By  adequate 
ventilation  the  working-places  ;might  be  kept  free  from  gas,  and  if  shot- 
firing  was  not  allowed  the  risk  was  reduced  to  a  minimum.  In  the  case  of 
the  Bang-up  Bullhurst,  south  side,  at  Leycett  collieries,  the  system  was 
a  partial  failure,  as  indicated  by  the  temperature  of  96  degs.  Fahr.  ob- 
served at  No.  5  stopping,  but  in  this  case  it  was  possible  that  the  heating 
had  begun  before  the  air  was  prevented  from  passing  through  the  goaf. 
The  usual  method  of  dealing  with  gob-fires  in  North  Staffordshire  was  to 
isolate  the  places  where  they  occurred  by  airtight  stoppings.  It  was  seldom 
possible  to  dig  the  fire  out,  and  except  in  rare  cases  it  would  be  dangerous 
to  try  to  do  so.  The  stoppings  should  be  made  as  tight  as  possible,  and 
afterwards  strengthened  by  stowing,  so  as  to  resist  an  internal  explosion 
should  such  occur.  The  preparatory  stoppings  described  by  Mr.  Settle 
and  the  restriction  of  the  number  of  openings  required  to  be  stopped  were 
of  the  greatest  assistance  in  dealing  with  a  gob-fire. 


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26  DISCUSSION— SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  IN  COAL-MINBS. 

Sir  George  Elliot,  Bart.,  said  the  subject  was  a  very  interesting  one, 
and  perhaps  they  could  discuss  nothing  with  more  advantage  to  the 
Institution  or  mining  engineering  practice  generally.  He  had  been 
connected  with  coal-mining  in  the  particular  district  referred  to,  for  the 
past  thirty  years  at  Harecastle  colliery,  drawing  perhaps  1,600  tons  per 
day,  and  they  had  had  many  gob-fires ;  the  coal  lay  at  various  angles  and 
the  BuUhurst  seam  varied  from  5  to  14  feet  in  thickness.  Gob-fires  were 
a  great  expense,  and  a  great  nuisance ;  but  mining  engineers  got  into  the 
way  of  trying  to  understand  them  as  time  went  on,  and  he  was  glad  to  say 
they  had  not  suflFered  very  much  recently,  owing  to  clear  and  distinct  atten- 
tion being  given  to  the  early  symptoms  which  arose  by  smoke  and  smell — 
which  should  be  dealt  with  promptly.  The  system  they  had  practised  for  the 
past  twenty  years  had  been  the  entire  exclusion  of  the  atmosphere :  his  long 
experience  and  great  practice  had  led  him  to  direct  this  to  be  done  with  the 
assistance  of  the  very  competent  engineers  he  had  under  him  (Mr.  Craig, 
Mr.  McGowan,  and  other  clever  men),  and  he  thought  it  would  be  right  for 
him  to  state  that  he  thought  Mr.  Settle  had  done  well  to  bring  this  subject 
before  the  Institution.  At  the  present  time  he  was  rather  largely  concerned 
in  an  extensive  colliery  near  Halifax  in  Nova  Scotia.  The  manager 
came  from  North  Staffordshire,  the  mine  was  on  fire  from  spontaneous 
combustion,  and  he  would  be  very  well  satisfied  if  the  cost  of  the  difficulty 
did  not  exceed  £40,000  or  £50,000.  He  supposed  the  fire  would  be 
mastered  eventually,  the  difficulty  was  that,  when  it  was  believed  to  have 
been  overcome,  the  atmospheric  air  seemed  to  be  let  in  too  early  and  fired 
the  whole  place  again.  He  would  impress  upon  all  concerned  in  like 
difficulty,  to  deal  with  the  matter  promptly  and  to  exclude  the  air  as  effect- 
ually as  possible.  The  remedy  which  had  been  suggested  of  taking  out 
1,400  tons  of  coal  from  every  foot  thick  per  acre  would,  he  thought,  be  a 
good  one,  for  if  they  could  work  this  quantity  he  thought  there  would  be 
none  left,  but  he  had  known  spontaneous  combustion  to  occur  where 
practically  no  coal  had  been  left.  In  the  Harecastle  district  there  was  an 
oil-shale  in  the  vicinity  of  the  BuUhurst  seam,  and  he  had  known  fires 
started  by  spontaneous  combustion  after  the  coal  had  befen  removed.  The 
evil  they  had  to  deal  with  was  the  constant  lighting  up,  and,  he  believed, 
the  sovereign  remedy  was  careful  watching,  and  to  work  their  districts, 
if  possible,  in  panels  so  as  not  to  have  too  large  an  area  exposed. 

Mr.  G.  E.  Coke  said  he  had  lately  had  the  opportunity  of  tracing  the 
source  of  an  underground  fire  in  a  rather  unusual  way.  In  a  colliery  with 
which  he  was  connected,  the  deputy,  in  his  morning  inspection,  found 
smoke  coming  out  of  the  returns,  and  on  following  it  to  its  source  he 


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DISCUSSION — SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  IN  COAL-MINES.  27 

foand  that  a  shot  had  been  fired  the  previous  night,  and  the  dust  had 
taken  fire  and  been  burning  all  night.  When  the  deputy  got  to  the  place 
he  found  that  the  coal  was  incandescent,  and  if  this  discovery  had  been 
delayed,  the  consequences  would  have  been  most  serious.  This  might 
afterwards  have  been  put  down  as  a  gob-fire,  and  he  mentioned  the  case 
with  the  view  of  asking  whether  it  were  not  likely  that  other  supposed 
gob-fires  might  sometimes  be  traced  to  similar  causes  ? 

Mr.  T.  A.  Southern  (Derby)  supposed  Mr.  Coke  did  not  infer  that 
all  gob-fires  were  due  to  such  causes. 

The  President  mentioned  that  he  had  had  a  precisely  similar  experi- 
ence in  South  Wales. 

Mr.  6.  E.  Coke  said  he  had  only  mentioned  the  case  as  showing  the 
importance  of  being  able  to  trace  the  source  of  fire. 

Mr.  H.  W.  Hughes  (Dudley)  said  he  did  not  wish  to  say  anything  at 
length  on  this  subject  now,  as  the  South  Staffordshire  Institute  had 
arranged  to  start  a  special  discussion  on  the  subject,  and  he  had  written 
an  introductory  paper  dealing  with  the  various  theories  to  which  spon- 
taneous combustion  was  supposed  to  be  due.  However,  he  would  like 
briefly  to  confirm  Mr.  Settle's  final  conclusions,  and  to  say  that,  broadly 
speaking,  the  majority  of  them  were  supported  by  the  experience  they 
had  gained  in  working  the  Ten  Yards  coal  in  the  South  Staffordshire 
district.  There  was  no  question  in  South  Staffordshire  as  regards  a  and  ft, 
that  they  were  proper  precautions,  and  especially  that  which  recommended 
the  districts  being  sealed  when  finished.  He  agreed  that  sufficient  coal 
support  should  be  left  ;  but  he  also  agreed  with  Mr.  Spruce  that  it  had 
never  been  found  necessary  to  leave  ribs  so  strong  as  50  yards  wide.  He 
considered  the  case  Mr.  Settle  cited  to  be  an  exceedingly  exceptional  one, 
the  seam  being  practically  vertical,  with  the  result  that  the  weight  and 
cracks  might  pass  over  the  barrier  and  affect  workings  very  much  farther 
to  the  dip  than  if  the  seam  had  been  only  slightly  inclined.  He  thought 
everyone  who  had  actually  worked  Thick  Coal  admitted  that  up  to  a 
certain  point  the  more  air  they  could  get  into  the  workings  the  better. 
Mr.  Spruce  was  an  old  South  Staffordshire  mining  engineer,  and  therefore 
he  was  surprised  at  that  gentleman  expressing  a  contrary  opinion.  No  one, 
of  course,  would  be  so  foolish  as  to  say  that  the  best  way  to  put  out  a 
gob-fire  was  to  put  on  more  air.  It  might  be  true  in  a  literal  sense  that 
ventilating  a  gob  would  prevent  fire,  but  he  supposed  it  was  practically 
impossible  to  ventilate  any  gob,  as  they  could  not  get  in  enough  air  to 
cool  it.  They  could  supply  sufficient  oxygen  to  assist  the  oxidization  of 
the  organic  constituents  of  the  coal,  but  not  enough  air  to  cool  down  the 


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28  DISCUSSION — SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  IN  COAL-MINES. 

heating.  Mining  engineers,  in  speaking  of  "  solid  coal,"  broadly  applied 
the  term  to  any  coal  which  was  not  in  process  of  working  ;  consequently, 
pillars  of  50  or  60  yards  square  were  spoken  of  as  solid  coal.  Such  pillars 
did  fire,  and  there  were  many  instances  of  such  occurrences  ;  but  at  the 
same  time,  when  they  did  fire  fissures  were  always  found.  He  did  not 
think  there  was  any  question,  so  far  as  their  practice  went,  that,  supposing 
it  possible  to  introduce  enough  air,  if  they  did  so  they  would  probably  put 
out  the  fire.  There  were  no  instances  on  record  of  coal  ever  having  fired 
in  the  solid,  literally  so  called ;  of  course  he  spoke  in  a  literal  sense,  and 
by  "solid"  he  meant  to  say  coal  which  was  not  cracked.  Mr.  Binns 
asked  for  information  as  to  whether  a  highly  bituminous  coal  was  more 
likely  to  fire,  or  whether  steam-coal  and  coal  of  that  class  was  more 
subject  to  outbursts.  From  his  own  experience  he  could  not  say,  but, 
with  the  exception  of  one  author,  every  one  who  had  written  on  the 
subject  from  the  time  of  Dr.  Percy  (thirty  years  ago)  to  the  present  day, 
considered  that  coals  which  contained  a  large  quantity  of  oxygen  were  most 
liable  to  spontaneous  combustion.  Of  all  the  known  coal-seams  those 
most  liable  to  spontaneous  combustion  contained  a  large  quantity  of 
bituminous  matter;  coking-coals  were  more  free,  if  not  entirely  free, 
from  such  action  ;  and  there  was  no  instance  on  record  of  an  anthracite- 
mine  ever  taking  fire  spontaneously. 

The  President  said  that  Mr.  Settle  had  given  in  his  paper  actual 
cases  of  gob-fires,  and  detailed  how  he  had  dealt  with  them,  which  was 
an  advance  in  the  right  direction.  He  was  personally  in  agreement  with 
Mr.  Settlers  views,  and  he  thought  no  man  would  take  a  large  volume  of 
air  and  force  it  into  such  workings  as  described  in  the  paper.  He  had 
seen  mines  which,  under  natural  circumstances,  were  very  hot,  and,  when 
cooled  down  by  ventilation,  the  danger  would  pass  away,  whereas  in  other 
collieries  a  large  volume  of  air  would  quickly  cause  a  serious  underground 
fire.  He  was  sorry  that  Mr.  Spruce  was  not  present  to-day  to  follow  up 
the  remarks  which  the  Secretary  had  read  respecting  wax  walls.  He 
had  worked  out  large  districts  of  coal,  subject  to  spontaneous  combustion, 
by  using  wax  walls  ;  but  their  value  depended  entirely  on  how  tliey  were 
applied.  He  did  not  quite  follow  Mr.  Spruce  in  his  remark  as  to 
taking  out  1,400  tons  to  the  foot  per  acre  reducing  the  liability  to  fire. 
He  might  mean,  as  they  had  already  been  told,  that  they  were  to  take 
out  all  the  coal,  and  so  leave  no  liability  to  spontaneous  combustion  ;  but 
this  did  not  agree  with  his  (the  President's)  experience,  for  combustion 
was  not  always  due  to  small  coal  being  left  in  the  mine.  One  could 
not  help  thinking  that  the  only  proper  way  to  work  a  seam  which  was 


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DISCUSSION — SPOirrANBOUS  COMBUSTION  IN  OOAL-MINBS.  29 

liable  to  spontaneous  combustion  was  to  work  it  so  that  should  a  fire 
arise  they  were  in  a  position  to  dam  off  any  affected  district.  Engineers 
were  not  immaculate,  and  could  not  possibly  look  after  every  detail 
which  might  be  considered  necessary  in  the  workings  of  a  mine  liable 
to  spontaneous  combustion ;  but  he  could  not  too  highly  endorse  Mr. 
Settlers  recommendation  not  to  try  to  work  too  large  a  district  at  once. 
Mr.  Settle  had  placed  facts  before  them  in  a  way  in  which  they  had  not 
been  presented  to  them  previouslyy  and  he  suggested  that  the  paper  should 
be  referred  to  the  local  Institutes  for  further  discussion. 

Mr.  T.  B.  FoBSTER  (Newcastle-upon-Tyne)  asked  Mr.  Settle  to  give 
a  section  of  the  rock-roof  above  the  seam  of  coal,  whether  any  seams  of 
coal  lay  immediately  above  it,  what  amount  of  coal  was  extracted,  was 
the  whole  of  the  coal  filled,  or  was  the  small  coal  cast  back  into  the  gob, 
and  what  amount  of  coal  was  lost  ? 

Mr.  M.  H.  Mills  (Nottingham)  asked  if  there  had  been  any  serious 
endeavour  to  work  out  the  entire  seam  ? 

Mr.  Joel  Settle,  replying  to  the  discussion,  said  that  in  working  the 
BuUhurst  seam  at  Leycett  collieries  they  had  no  other  course  but  to  work 
out  small  districts.  Mr.  E.  B.  Wain  suggested  that  the  winnings  might 
be  driven  to  the  dip  and  the  coal  worked  upwards,  filling  the  gob  with 
water.  The  suggestion  was  a  good  one,  but  could  not  be  applied  to  the 
cases  described  in  his  paper,  as  the  mine  was  so  irregular  in  its  inclination 
that  it  would  be  impossible  to  make  one  main  engine-dip.  Mr.  Spruce 
had  taken  exception  to  50  yards  of  barrier-coal  being  left  to  support  the 
sealed-off  goaf.  He  should  take  into  consideration  that  the  angle  where 
the  coal  was  left  was  55  degs.,  and  they  had  absolute  proof  on  the  table 
before  them  that  even  there  a  charred  post  had  come  through  the  barrier, 
proving  it  to  be  insuflScient.  If  they  did  not  leave  sufficient  coal  they 
would  be  subject  to  unknown  dangers  ;  the  fires  would  be  resuscitated, 
and  no  doubt  explosions  would  occur  in  internal  parts  of  the  goaf ;  then 
as  time  went  on  the  difficulty  would  be  increased,  and  they  would  not  be 
able  to  get  their  men  to  approach  such  workings.  When  he  went  to 
Leycett  collieries  there  had  been  so  many  accidents  from  gob-fires  and 
so  many  lives  lost,  that  when  a  gob-fire  arose  every  man  ran  out  of  the  pit. 
The  first  gob-fire  he  sealed  required  nineteen  stoppings,  and  if  they  had  to 
attend  these  personally  it  made  them  consider  the  matter  seriously.  After 
a  deal  of  thought,  and  knowing  that  he  ran  a  great  amount  of  danger, 
he  concluded  that  the  only  safe  way  to  reduce  the  danger  was  to  reduce  the 
number  of  stoppings  to  two  or  three,  and  by  adopting  this  course  he  had 
been  able  to  seal-off  a  district  in  about  three  or  four  hours  from  the  first 


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80  DISCUSSION — SPONTANBOUS  COMBUSTION  IN  COAL-MINES. 

discovery  of  the  fire.  With  reference  to  the  nature  of  the  coal  he  might 
say  that  the  Bullhnrst  seam  was  of  a  bitmninous  nature,  and,  regarding 
Mr.  Binns'  objection  to  the  fundamental  principle,  g  ("  do  not  pass  more 
ventilation  through  a  district  than  is  sufficient  to  keep  the  working-places 
and  gob-edges  free  from  gas "),  he  hoped  it  was  explicit  enough  to  all 
that  they  were  not  working  with  the  colliery  full  of  gas ;  no  doubt  all  the 
reports  from  the  foremen  that  morning  would  be  that  they  were  free  from 
gas.  By  working  the  seam  in  descending  order  a  slight  show  of  gas 
would  be  generally  fomid  at  tlie  edge  of  the  goaf,  while  the  gas  in  the 
internal  part  of  the  goaf  would  extinguish  light  without  exploding.  He 
was  very  pleased  that  Sir  George  Elliot,  who  had  a  large  interest  at 
stake,  generally  approved  of  the  suggestions  contained  in  his  paper. 
He  knew  several  instances  of  coal  having  been  found  on  fire  in  pillars, 
and  Mr.  W.  H.  Wain  would  confirm  his  statement.  He  would  be 
very  pleased  to  attend  any  of  the  local  institutes  if  the  discussion  on  his 
paper  could  be  held  on  a  day  convenient  to  himself.  He  might  say  that 
the  rock-roof  above  the  coal  was  of  great  thickness ;  the  next  seam  of 
coal  (the  Eight  Feet)  was. 50  yards  above,  and  it  also  had  a  very  hard 
roof,  with  the  exception  of  about  2  feet  of  bass,  which  lay  at  the  top. 
All  coal  possible  was  extracted,  and  all  slack  was  sent  to  the  surface  and 
used  for  coking  purposes. 

A  unanimous  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Settle  was  passed. 


Mr.  Binns  read  the  following  paper  on  "  Mining  in  New  Zealand"  :- 


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MIKINa  IN  NEW  ZEALAND.  31 


MmiNG  IN  NEW  ZEALAND.— (Continued).* 


By  GEORGE  J.  BINNS. 


Part  III. — OoAL-MiNiNG.f 

Richly  as  the  colony  of  New  Zealand  has  been  endowed  with  metal- 
liferous ores,  and  plentiful  as  the  natural  stores  of  hydraulic  power 
undoubtedly  are,  a  great  want  would  have  existed  had  the  deposits  of 
mineral  fuel  been  either  deficient  in  quantity  or  quaUty,  or  so  situated  as 
to  be  approximately  inaccessible.  This  latter  point  is  not  perhaps  of  so 
great  importance,  for  while  poor  quality  and  small  quantity  are  defects 
which  can  never  be  overcome,  means  of  transport  can  always  be  devised. 
And  this  is,  in  the  present  case,  fortunate,  for  while  the  coal-fields  near 
the  populated  districts  contain  usually  the  inferior  class  of  fuel,  viz., 
the  pitch  coals,  brown  coals,  and  lignites,  the  true  coals  are  found  only  on 
the  inhospitable  west  coast  of  the  South  Island,  to  which  reference  has 
already,  in  a  former  portion  of  this  paper,  been  made.  The  dangerous 
rivers  and  rough  topography  of  this  locality  have  greatly  retarded  progress, 
even  in  the  case  of  metaUiferous  mining  (where  such  comparatively  small 
quantities  of  material  have  usually  to  be  dealt  with) ;  and  in  the  case  of 
coal-mining  (where  a  great  bulk  must  be  moved  to  render  the  industry 
profitable),  the  hindrance  has  been  even  greater.  Still,  notwithstanding 
the  great  natural  obstacles,  and  in  spite  of  the  cheapness  of  imported 
supplies,  the  coals  of  New  Zealand  are  slowly  but  surely  making  their  way, 
and  establishing  in  the  colony  a  healthy,  steady  trade,  not  subject  to  the 
violent  fluctuations  and  vicissitudes  of  gold-mining,  but  growing  and 
strengthening  year  by  year. 

In  this  paper  the  following  order  will  be  observed : — 
1. — Geology  and  distribution. 
2. — General  notes  on  the  coal-fields. 

(1)  Auckland  coal-fields.  ^    -^t    ,1^  t  ,     -, 
)^x  -.ir  1           1  /.  u  !"   North  Island. 

(2)  Mokau  coal-fields.  J 

(8)  Picton  coal-field. 

(4)  Collingwood  and  Takaka  coal-fields. 

(5)  West  Coast  coal-fields.  .     o^  f i»  t  i 

(6)  Canterbury  coal-fields. 

(7)  Otago  coal-fields. 

(8)  Southland  coal-fields. 

•  Tran.  Fed,  Ifut,  vol  iii.,  page  644,  and  vol.  iv.,  page  69. 
+  7Wd.,  vol.  iv.,  plate  VII. 


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82  MINING   IN  NEW   ZEALAND. 

3. — Methods  of  working. 
4. — Machinery. 
5. — Legislation. 
6. — Accidents. 

7. — Total  consumption,  output,  imports  and  exports,  etc. 
8. — Quantity  of  existing  coal. 

9. — Wages,  strikes,  benefit  clubs,  condition  of  the  miners,  etc. 
10. — Conclusion. 

1.— Geology  and  Distribution. 
The  geology  of  New  Zealand  is  both  interesting  and  complex,  and 
although  the  Director  of  the  Geological  Survey  (Sir  Jas.  Hector,  F.R.S.) 
has,  with  the  small  staff  at  his  disposal,  done  wonders,  it  cannot  be 
expected  that  in  an  exceedingly  rough  country  like  the  one  under  discus- 
sion, anything  like  the  detail  of  the  British  maps  should  have  been  attained. 
As  the  age  of  the  coal-beds  has,  at  various  times,  been  disputed,  it  will 
perhaps  be  better  to  give  the  Director's  own  words  on  this  important 
question : — 

"  The  Lowee  Gebensand  and  Crbtaceo-Tbeti abt  Formations  (Ceetace- 
ous  system  op  bocks). — The  true  and  almost  only  coal-bearing  formations  of  New 
Zealand.  It  is  no  doubt  true  that  there  are  valuable  deposits  of  fossil  fuel  occurring 
in  various  parts  of  the  colony  that  have  been  variously  referred  to  different  geologi- 
cal periods  during  the  past  history  of  the  Geological  Survey,  and  the  age  of  which 
is  not  yet  satisfactorily  determined.  Some  of  these  are  now  known  to  be  of  younger 
date  than  the  Cretaceo-Tertiary  period,  viz.,  various  deposits  of  lignite  in  the 
Wellington  district  of  North  Island,  and  possible  occurrences  of  the  same  material 
in  the  Nelson  and  Westland  district  of  the  West  Coast  of  the  South  Island ;  also  a 
deposit  of  the  same  nature  found  at  Castlehill  station  in  the  Trelissick  basin, 
Canterbury,  and  a  bed  of  lignite  overlying  the  marine  beds  of  Miocene  age  within 
the  watershed  of  the  Upper  Pareora,  South  Canterbury. 

More  doubtfully  to  the  same  period  must  be  referred  the  lignites  or  inferior 
brown  coals  of  the  Hakateramea  and  Waitaki  valleys,  45  to  60  miles  inland  from 
Oamaru. 

There  are  also  the  thick  deposits  of  fossil  fuel  occupying  or  found  within  the 
interior  lake-basins  of  Central  Otago,  which  have  been  generally  referred  to  the 
Tertiary,  sometimes  to  the  late  Tertiaiy,  period  ;  but  the  evidence  is  by  no  means 
clear  that  all  the  known  occurrences  of  such  should  be  so  referred.  Again  there  are, 
farther  to  the  south,  in  the  Taieri,  Clutha,  and  Mataura  valleys  various  and  some- 
times very  thick  deposits,  in  some  places  a  mere  lignite,  in  others  a  second  or  third- 
rate  brown  coal,  which  are  usually  considered  as  belonging  to  the  Miocene  period, 
but  which,  in  more  than  one  instance,  will  in  the  future  have  to  be  placed  in  the 
Cretaceo-Tertiary  formation.  There  is  even  now  no  decisive  evidence  that  the 
Mataura  lignite  near  the  railway-line  opposite  the  township  of  that  name  is  not  of 
Cretaceo-Tertiary  date,  and  it  is  certain,  from  the  abundance  of  ambrite  (derived 
from  a  coniferous  tree  closely  allied  to  the  Kauri  of  the  North  Island,  but  which  has 
long  since  disappeared  from  the  South  Island)  occurring  in  the  deposit,  that  the 
vegetable  matter  composing  it  differed  but  little  from  that  which  formed  the  coal- 
seams  of  Green  Island  and  Shag  Point.    The  same  remarks  will  apply,  and  with  even 


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MINING  IN  NBW  ZEALAND.  88 

g^ieater  force,  to  the  country  north- west  of  Matanra,  and  flanking  the  Hokonui  hills 
within  the  watershed  of  the  Makarewa  stream. 

Exceedingly  modem-looking  deposits  of  lignite  are  found  along  the  eastern  shore 
of  New  Harbour,  between  Invercargill  and  the  Bluff,  but  the  very  modern  date 
which  has  been  assigned  to  these  deposits  rests  on  no  further  authority  than  the  but 
slightly  compressed  condition  (comparatively  speaking)  and  inferior  quality  of  the 
lignite. 

The  brown-coal  formation  farther  to  the  north-west  at  the  Nightcaps,  Morley 
Greek,  and  Centre  Hill,  there  can  scarcely  be  any  question,  belongs  to  the  Cretaceo- 
Tertiary  period  ;  but  there  are  farther  deposits  more  to  the  west,  and  on  the  coast- 
line towards  Riverton  and  Orepuki,  respecting  the  age  of  which  there  may  justly  be 
a  difference  of  opinion,  as  the  geology  of  this  district  has  been  worked  out  in  the 
light  of  recent  discoveries. 

But,  besides  in  these  localities  named,  it  has  been  contended  that  the  North 
Island  coals  wholly,  and  those  of  Nelson  and  the  west  coast  of  the  South  Island  in 
part  (excepting  the  bituminous  coals),  together  with  all  the  coals  of  the  east  coasts 
saving  those  found  in  the  Malvern  Hills  (Canterbury),  at  Shag  Point  (Otago),  and 
at  Mount  Hamilton  (in  the  Southland  district),  should  all  be  referred,  not  to  the 
Secondary  epoch,  nor  to  a  Cretaceo-Tertiary  formation,  but  to  some  part  of  the 
Tertiary  period. 

Practically,  it  matters  not  whether  we  consider  our  coal-fields  to  be  Tertiary  or 
Cretaceous,  as  regards  the  period  when  the  coal-seams  were  deposited  ;  but  it  is  of 
the  very  greatest  importance  whether  they  belong  to  one  or  two  or  more  periods, 
and  It  is  this  that,  under  guise  of  a  controversy  as  to  the  age  and  nomenclature  of 
the  beds,  is  the  point  at  issue,  and  it  is  to  prove  the  identity  of  the  principal  coal- 
formations  of  the  colony  that  the  Geological  Survey  has  laboured  during  the  past 
fifteen  years.  Indeed,  so  far  as  my  own  views  on  the  subject  are  concerned,  they 
have  ever  been  what  they  are  now — that  we  must  regard  all  the  great  coal-deposits 
of  New  Zealand  as  belonging  to  one  sequence  of  strata,  or  otherwise  involve  any 
systematic  consideration  of  them  in  inextricable  difficulty."* 

For  convenience  of  classification  and  reference,  the  coals  of  New 
Zealand  have  been  divided  by  Sir  Jas.  Hector  as  follows  : — 

I. — Hydrous  (coal  containing  10  to  20  per  cent,  of  permanent  water). 

(a)  Lignite. — Shows  distinct  woody  stracture,  laminated,  or  shows 
that  structure  on  desiccation  ;  very  absorbent  of  water. 

(b)  Brown  Coal, — Rarely  shows  vegetable  structure.  Fracture 
irregular,  conchoidal,  with  incipient  lamination ;  colour,  dark 
brown;  lustre,  feeble;  cracks  readily  on  exposure  to  the 
atmosphere,  losing  5  to  10  per  cent,  of  water,  which  is  not 
re-absorbed ;  bums  slowly ;  contains  resin  in  large  masses. 

(c)  Fitch  Goal. — Structure  compact ;  fracture  smooth,  conchoidal, 

jointed  in  large  angular  pieces ;  colour,  brown  or  black ;  lustre, 
waxy ;  does  not  desiccate  on  exposure,  nor  is  it  absorbent  of 
water ;  bums  freely,  and  contains  resin  disseminated  throughout 
its  mass. 

•  Report  of  Geological  Explorations  during  1886-87.  (Sir  Jas.  Hector,  K.C.M.G., 
M.D.,  F.R.S.,  Director),  pages  xxxii-xxxiv. 

YOU  Vw-iaw-se.  3 


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84  MINING   ]N  NEW  ZEALAND. 

11. — Anhydroufl  (ooal  containing  less  than  6  per  cent,  of  water). 

(a)  Glance  Coal. — Non-caking,  massive,  compact  or  friable; 
fracture  cuboidal,  splintery;  lustre,  glistening  or  metallic; 
structure  obviously  laminated ;  colour,  black ;  does  not  form  a 
caking  coke,  but  slightly  adheres.  This  variety  is  chiefly 
brown  coal  altered  by  igneous  rocks,  and  presents  every  inter- 
mediate stage  from  brown  coal  to  anthracite. 

(d)  Semi'Utuminoiis  Coal. — Compact,  with  laminae  of  bright  and 
dull  coal  alternately;  fracture,  irregular;  lustre,  moderate; 
cakes  moderately  or  is  non-caking. 

(c)  Bituminous  Cba/.-^Much  jointed,  homogeneous,  tender  and 
friable ;  lustre,  pitch-like,  glistening,  often  iridescent ;  colour, 
black,  with  a  purple  hue ;  powder,  brownish ;  cakes  strongly, 
the  b^t  varieties  forming  a  vitreous  coke,  with  brilliant  metallic 
lustre. 

Although  it  is  only  the  anhydrous  coals  which  are  of  value  for 
purposes  of  export,  the  pitch  and  brown  coals,  and  even  the  lignites  are, 
for  local  purposes,  when  their  greater  bulk  is  not  an  insuperable  obstacle, 
very  important  factors  in  the  prosperity  of  a  district. 

Bituminous  coal  is  found  almost  exclusively  on  the  west  coast  of  the 
South  Island,  at  the  base  of  a  great  marine  formation  underlying  lime- 
stone, clay,  and  sandstone.  The  whole  series  has  a  thickness  of  several 
thousand  feet,  and  contains,  wherever  it  is  found  in  contact  with  the  older 
rocks,  which  are  much  metamorphosed  and  of  indeterminate  age,  valu- 
able seams  of  coal.  As  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  the  quaUty  of  the 
New  Zealand  seams  appears  to  vary  very  much,  according  to  the  amount 
of  disturbance  and  dislocation  that  they  have  suffered  since  their  deposi- 
tion. Thus  the  lignites  and  inferior  brown  coals  are  comparatively  free 
from  faults ;  the  pitch  coals  and  glance  coals  have  been  more  disturbed, 
and  the  true  coals  have  been  in  some  cases  subjected  to  great  changes  and 
dislocation. 

Lignites  occur  in  many  places,  principally  in  the  South  Island,  where 
they  are  found  occupying  the  ancient  rock-basins.  They  contain  large 
fragments  of  wood,  sometimes  almost  indistinguishable  from  recent 
specimens,  and  although  they  burn  slowly,  and  with  a  somewhat  un- 
pleasant odour,  are  of  the  greatest  possible  local  value  in  the  interior, 
where  the  great  height  above  the  sea  renders  the  climate  exceedingly 
rigorous,  and  timber  exists  either  sparingly,  or  not  at  all.  Deposits  are 
also  found  in  .the  Lower  Waikato  basin  and  near  Raglan,  both  in  Auckland 
Province,  and  in  Wellington  and  North  Canterbury. 


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MINING   IN  NEW  ZEALAND.  85 

Brown  ooal  is  widely  distributed,  and  is  found  on  the  Waikato  river 
in  the  province  of  Auckland,  at  Kaitangata  in  Otago,  and  also  in  South- 
land, as  well  as  in  considerable  profusion  in  Canterbury. 

Pitch  coal,  which  is  a  really  excellent  fuel  for  local  use,  has  been  found 
at  West  Wanganui  and  Reefton  in  Nelson  Province,  at  Shag  Point  in 
Otago,'  on  the  Waikato  river,  and  at  Wangaroa  in  Auckland,  and  also 
in  Southland. 

It  will  be  hardly  practicable  to  consider  in  detail  the  deposits  of  the 
colony  in  any  other  than  their  geographical  order,  commencing  at  the 
north. 

2.  General  Notes  on  the  Coal-fields. 

NoBTH  Island. 

(I)  Auckland  Coal-fields, 

The  province  of  Auckland,  which   exhibits  such   a  profiision   of 

metalliferous  ores,  is  but  poorly  provided  with  coal,  for  while  the  deposits 

are  Mrly  numerous,  the  quality,  except  in  the  cases  of  Kawakawa  and 

Hikurangi  is  inferior,  and  even  in  these  two  instances,  it  cannot  be 

described  as  actually  first-class.    There  are  five  districts ;  in  the  extreme 

north  Wangaroa  and  Mongonui,  next  Kawakawa  at  the  Bay  of  Islands, 

with  Hikurangi  between  that  area  and  the  Whangarei  field.    Lastly  Drury 

and  Waikato,  including  Miranda. 

The  Wangaroa  and  Mongonui  fields  do  not  at  present  require  notice, 
for  although  the  coal  at  the  former  place  is  of  fair  quahty,  it  has  not 
been  worked. 

The  E[awakawa  coal-field  is  on  a  different  footing,  as  the  output  has 
been  largely  used  by  ocean-going  steamers.  The  pit  is  now  on  the  eve  of 
exhaustion.  Plucky  efforts  have  been  made  to  discover  either  an  extension 
of  the  seam,  or  fresh  deposits,  by  the  aid  of  the  diamond  drill,  but  to  no 
effect,  and  the  output  has  decUned  to  28,254  tons  in  1891,  raised  by  70 
men.  The  total  since  the  conunencemeut  is  787,249  tons,  in  twenty-six 
years,  during  which  time  the  concern  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  been  a 
commercial  success. 

The  coal  is  brought  to  bank  by  an  engine-plane,  and  the  pumping  is 
(or  was,  for  the  writer  fancies  it  is  now  stopped)  carried  on  by  means  of 
heavy  pumping-gear  in  a  shaft  to  the  dip.  The  seam  was  originally 
13  feet  thick,  but  varies  much,  and  the  workings  were  pillar-and-stall. 
The  roof  is  bad,  and  the  slack  very  prone  to  spontaneous  combustion. 
The  port  of  shipment  is  8  miles  from  the  mine,  and  the  produce  is  con- 


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36  MIKING   IN   NEW  ZEALAND. 

veyed  on  a  Government  railway,  which  cost  £86,288.  The  seam  was 
originally  found  in  1868  by  a  person  in  search  of  Kauri  gum,  and  it  is 
a  matter  of  deep  regret  that  a  good  coal,  worked  by  an  enterprising 
company,  under  capable  management,  should  not  have  brought  a  better 
reward.    Two  samples  of  the  coal  gave  on  analysis  : — 


Per  Cent 

Per  Cent. 

Fixed  carbon 

57-20 

55-59 

Hydrocarbons     ... 

36-00 

38-10 

Water       

4-60 

4-19 

Ash           

2-20 

2-12 

100-00        ...      100-00 

The  Hikurangi  coal-field  has  been  known  for  many  years,  but  it  was 
opened  out  only  in  1890.  In  1891,  two  mines  were  on  the  list,  but  as  the 
railway  was  not  then  finished,  the  output  had  only  a  local  sale,  and  was 
very  limited.  In  fact,  one  mine  put  out  nothing  at  all,  and  the  other 
576  tons.  The  pit  in  operation  was  worked  by  an  adit  and  horse  haulage, 
and  employed  no  machinery.  The  seam  is  6  to  11  feet  thick,  and  gives  the 
following  analysis : — 

Per  Cent.  Per  Cent. 

Fixed  carbon      42-70  ...  44-12 

Hydrocarbons     44-46  ...  46-89 

Water      5-93  ...  639 

Ash           6-91  ...  2-60 


100-00        ...       100-00 

The  area  of  the  field  is  stated  to  be  10  square  miles,  and  no  doubt 
when  railway  communication  is  established,  the  output  will  be  considerable. 

The  Whangarei  district  has  the  advantage  of  a  railway  leading  to  a 
port  from  which  the  coal  can  be  shipped,  and  has  been  worked  for  about 
twenty-eight  years. 

The  Cretaceo-Tertiary  rocks  which  lie  unoonformably  on  the  slates,  are 
much  obscured  by  newer  volcanic  formations.  Formerly  two  mines  were 
at  work,  but  one  of  these  is  now  closed,  and  the  Kamo  mine  has  the  whole 
trade.  This  concern  put  out  in  1891,  15,652  tons,  which  was  a  decrease 
from  the  amount  raised  in  former  years :  the  reason  appears  to  have  been 
that  during  that  year  a  creep  extended  over  the  workings,  and  caused  a 
cessation  of  work. 

The  seam  consists  of  a  lustrous  black  coal,  and  is  found  to  range  up  to 
14  feet  in  thickness  :  a  little  explosive  gas  is  found,  and  the  slack  takes  fire 
spontaneously.  The  shaft  is  240  feet  deep,  and  the  cage  is  fitted  with 
safety-catches  and  detaching-hooks.  The  system  employed  in  working  is 
bord-and-pillar.    The  analyses  of  a  few  samples  are : — 


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MINING  IN  NEW  ZEALAND.  87 


Per  C«Mit. 

Percent. 

Percent 

Fixed  carbon    .., 

52-63 

49-08 

50-01 

Hydrocarbons    .., 

34-30 

87-57 

37-67 

Water     

8-91         .„           »-24 

9-01 

Ash          

4-16 

4-11 

2-69 

10000        ...      100-00        ...      100-00 

To  the  south  of  Auckland  city,  and  situated  both  on  the  large  river 
Waikato  and  on  the  railway  which  skirts  it  for  so  many  miles,  is  the 
Waikato  coal-field,  which  is  likely  in  the  future  to  play  an  important  part 
in  the  commercial  history  of  the  colony. 

The  ooal  produced  is  clean-looking,  black  and  lustrous,  suitable  either 
for  household  use  or  steam  purposes.  It  is,  however,  of  low  specific 
gravity,  and  desiccates  so  rapidly  on  exposure  to  the  air  that  it  is  useless 
for  storage.    In  the  mines  it  is  subject  to  spontaneous  combustion. 

The  seams  were  originally  worked  where  they  crop  out  on  the  banks 
of  the  Waikato  river,  and  are  found  from  6  to  65  feet  in  thickness.  In 
1891,  five  mines  were  in  operation,  which  yielded  a  total  of  55,859  tons, 
and  employed  164  men.  This  number  includes  the  Miranda  mine.  Two 
are  worked  by  shafts,  the  others  by  adit  level.  At  the  Taupiri  Extended 
mine  the  shaft  recently  sunk  was  put  down  with  considerable  diflSculty, 
as  it  was  necessary  to  force  down  iron  cyUnders,  which  met  with  obstacles 
in  the  form  -of  driftwood.  Before  the  second  shaft  was  sunk  a  circle 
of  boreholes  was  made,  to  see  if  any  similar  obstruction  existed. 
The  cast-iron  segments  were  then  lowered,  and  the  sand  and  drift 
removed  by  a  dredge,  without  any  water  being  pumped.  The  Taupiri 
Reserve  mine,  which  turned  out  in  1891,  17,221  tons,  worked  under 
Lake  Kimihia.  By  boring,  the  cover  over  the  seam  was  found  to  be 
from  48  to  77  feet  thick,  mostly  strong  fireclay.  The  bords  are  14  feet 
wide,  and  the  pillars  21  feet,  and  of  the  18  feet  total  thickness  of  the  seam 
5  feet  is  left  for  a  roof.  It  thus  appears  that  laterally  40  per  cent,  of  the 
support  is  removed,  and  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  by  flaking  of  sides 
and  driving  of  cross-cuts  another  10  per  cent,  will  be  lost.  Tliis  makes 
the  spaces  and  pillars  equal,  which  seems  rather  risky. 

At  Maramarua  creek,  near  the  Miranda  Redoubt,  a  mine  was  for  some 
time  worked  on  a  seam  54  feet  in  thickness,  or  even  more,  but  it  was 
closed  in  1890,  after  a  somewhat  disastrous  career.  The  output  for  that 
year  was  228  tons  and  the  total  20,G68  tons.  The  pit  was  sunk  on  the 
edge  of  the  Maramarua  creek,  a  tributary  of  the  Waikato  river,  and  a  canal 
costing  £1,800  was  cut  to  bring  the  coal  to  the  main  stream,  by  which  it 
was  brought  down  in  punts  to  the  railway  siding  at  Mercer,  where  steam 


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38  MINING  IN  NEW  ZEALAND. 

cranes  raised  the  boxes  from  the  punts  and  emptied  them  into  the  railway 
trucks.  The  lease  consists  of  abput  1,000  acres,  and  the  coal  is  of  good 
quality ;  but  the  mine  appears  to-have  been  injudiciously  worked,  or  else  it 
should  have  done  better.  Water,  too,  constituted  a  considerable  drawback, 
and  in  1887  it  was  necessary  to  draw  water  for  16  hours  out  of  the  24. 
This  work  and  the  small  sheaves  which  were  used  wore  the  winding  rope 
out  in  two  months.     The  following  is  an  analysis  of  Waikato  coal : — 

Per  Cent. 

Fixed  carbon  4708 

Hydrocarbons         38'24 

Water  17*60 

Ash 2-08 


10000 

(2)  Mokau  Coal-fields. 

In  the  Mokau  district,  which  is  situated  at  Taranaki,  coal-seams  have 
been  known  for  upwards  of  fifty  years,  but  the  opening  of  the  field  was 
for  many  years  retarded  by  the  native  ownership  of  the  soil,  and  by  the 
inaccessible  position  of  the  outcrops,  which  are  on  the  Mokau  river, 
24  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  far  from  railway  communication.  The  tide 
ascends  the  river  for  about  24  miles,  and  small  steamers  carrying  25  to 
100  tons  go  up  to  the  mine.  The  coal  is  of  fair  quality,  with  the  follow- 
ing composition : — 

Per  Gent 

Fixed  carbon  62*68 

Hydrocarbons         31*67 

Water  12*15 

Ash 8*60 

100*00 
but  containing  a  good  deal  of  sulphur. 

The  seam  worked  at  the  Mokau  mine  is  8  feet  thick,  with  a  band 
of  shale  in  the  centre,  from  2  to  8  feet  in  thickness,  but  gradually 
decreasing  as  the  seam  is  followed  into  the  hill.  Another  mine,  called  the 
Co-operative,  is  stated  to  be  in  liquidation.  In  1891  the  two  undertakings 
put  out  3,713  tons. 

Remarks  on  North  Island  Collieries. 

Until  population  becomes  sufficient  to  render  the  trade  in  Whangarei 
and  Waikato  coal  much  larger — and  with  these  must  be  included  the 
Hikurangi  district,  which  is  as  yet  hardly  touched — the  output  from  the 
North  Island  will  be  small.  In  1891,  the  yield  was  104,064  tons,  or  16*5 
per  cent,  of  the  total  colonial  output.     This  shows  a  decrease  of  11,853 


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WININQ  IN  NSW  ZEALAND.  39 

tons  on  the  oatpat  for  1890,  which  was  the  largest  annual  production 
known.  In  1878,  the  percentage  of  the  whole  colony  was  86'8,  but  this 
proportion  has  almost  uniformly  declined  ever  since,  owing  to  the  superior 
quality  of  the  fuel  obtainable  elsewhere. 

South  Island. 

Although  the  deposits  of  the  North  Island  have  proved  of  great  benefit 
in  the  past,  and  will  no  doubt  as  settlement  progresses  become  still  more 
valuable  in  the  future,  it  cannot  be  expected  that  by  their  aid  any  great 
export  trade  will  be  established.  In  the  South  Island,  however,  the 
case  is  different.  On  the  west  coast  are  seams,  the  produce  of  which 
can  hold  its  own  with  that  of  any  existing  mines,  and  nothing  is 
required  but  cheap  methods  of  working  and  transport  to  enable  these  coals 
to  compete  successfully  in  the  great  markets  of  the  world. 

Before  passing  to  these  busy  and  successful  centres  it  will  be  requisite 
to  take  a  passing  look  at  the  coal-fields  of  the  northern  part  of  the  South 
Island,  the  first  of  which  is  that  of  Picton. 

(8)  Picton  Coal-field, 

On  account  of  its  unrivalled  harbour  and  geographical  position,  the 
presence  of  coal  at  this  place  caused  great  excitement  and  resulted  in  the 
formation  of  a  company.  Unfortunately  the  geological  features  of  the 
locality  were  utterly  unfavourable,  for  the  coal  exists,  so  far  as  is  known, 
only  in  a  triangular  patch  cut  off  by  faults  on  all'  sides,  and  containing  an 
area  of  about  half  a  square  mile.  In  all  700  tons  of  coal  were  raised,  of 
excellent  quality,  but  much  faulted  and  crushed,  and  the  works  were  soon 
abandoned,  not,  however,  before  a  considerable  sum  of  money  had  been 
lost  in  an  undertaking,  which,  had  the  oft-repeated  advice  of  the  Geological 
Survey  Department  been  followed,  would  never  have  been  commenced. 
The  analysis  of  the  coal  was  as  follows  : — 

Per  Cent. 

Fixed  carbon  63*21 

Hydrocarbons         31"06 

Water  4*32 

Ash 1-41 


100-00 


(4)  Colling  wood  and  Takaka  Coal-fields. 
A  small  coal-field  exists  at  Takaka,  on  the  shores  of  Golden  bay, 
but  it  was  for  many  years  unworked,  as  the  coal  is  of  poor  quality. 
The  total  output  for  1891,  when  two  mines  (both  opencast)  were  at  work. 


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40  MINING  IN  NEW  ZEALAND. 

was  410  toDS.  The  seam  contains  a  band  of  sand  21  inches  in  thickness 
between  two  layers  of  coal,  which  measure  respectively  2  feet  and  2  feet 
6  inches  in  thickness. 

The  Collingwood  coal-fields  proper  may  be  divided  into  an  eastern  and 
a  western  portion,  the  latter  known  under  the  name  of  the  West  Wanganui 
coal-field.  On  the  western  side  of  the  inlet  bearing  this  name,  which  is  of 
considerable  extent,  but  almost  devoid  of  water*  when  the  tide  is  out,  are 
found  seams  of  coal  which  dip  into  the  hills  between  the  inlet  and  open 
water.  Natural  facilities  for  working  are  not  great,  and  the  coal  is  not 
of  the  very  best  quality,  so  the  place  has  been  neglected  for  many  years. 
The  analyses  of  two  samples  of  coal  from  the  locality  are  : — 


Percent 

Percent. 

Fixed  carbon 

45-00 

5010 

Hydrocarbons    ... 

38-90 

37-10 

Water      

4-80 

8-60 

Ash          

11-30 

4-20 

100-00  100-00 

On  the  eastern  side  of  the  range  is  the  Collingwood  coal-field,  which 
comprises  the  Lower  Coal-measures,  containing  bituminous  coal,  while  the 
upper  beds  contain  the  pitch  coal  of  West  Wanganui.  In  the  lower  beds 
the  seams,  though  of  fine  quaUty,  are  mostly  thin,  and  contain  numerous 
intercalations  of  bituminous  shale.  The  lease  of  the  one  mine  working 
in  1891  contains  990  acres,  held  direct  from  the  Crown  at  an  annual  rent 
of  £16,  and  a  royalty  (tlie  writer  believes)  of  6d.  per  ton. 

The  seams  dip  1  in  10  into  the  hill  and  are  worked  long  wall,  the  out- 
put being  delivered  by  an  adit  level  which  cuts  the  seams.  Two  of  these 
were  worked  in  1891,  each  having  a  thickness  of  2  feet  6  inches,  but  not 
of  clean  coal.  The  workings  are  mostly  to  the  rise,  but  a  small  dip  area 
is  drained  by  syphons.  The  total  output  up  to  the  end  of  1891  was  39,704 
tons,  and  the  output  for  1891  was  2,918  tons,  produced  by  twelve  men. 
Analyses  of  two  samples  of  coal  are : — 


Percent 

Percent. 

Fixed  carbon 

53-29 

57-31 

Hydrocarbons     ... 

38-18 

35-84 

Water      

2-06 

1-95 

Ash          

6-47 

4-90 

10000         ...       100-00 


The  field  is  principally  remarkable  for  the  number  of  seams  and  their 
small  vertical  extension  when  compared  with  others  in  the  colony.  The 
harbour  at  present  is  fitted  only  for  the  smallest  class  of  vessels,  and  the 


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MINING   IN  NEW  ZEALAND.  41 

coal  trade  of  the  district — which  contains  some  of  the  most  valuable 
minerals  found  in  New  Zealand — is  small  and  apparently  stationary.  In 
the  northern  poition  of  the  field  are  some  further  outcrops  which  have 
received  attention.  The  locality  is  known  as  Seaford,  and  the  including 
strata  are  very  much  the  same  as  those  at  Collingwood,  that  is  to  say, 
brown  micaceous  sandstones  with  pebble  and  grit-bands,  all  resting  on  a 
massive  conglomerate.  Two  seams  are  known,  the  upper  2  feet  in  thick- 
ness, resting  on  a  soft  sandy  clay,  and  the  other  as  follows  : — 

Ft.  In. 

Coal 0    8 

Shale 0    6 

Coal 2    0 

As  indicating  to  some  extent  the  conditions  of  mining  in  this  neigh- 
bourhood, it  may  be  interesting  to  reproduce  an  estimate  which  was  made 
in  1887  on  the  subject  of  working  these  seams  : — • 


Ootfiperion. 

•.    d. 

Capital,  £10,000  at  7  per 

cent,  interest  « 

£700,  on  an 

output  of, 

say,  28,000  tons 

per  annum 

... 



0     6 

Sinking  fund,  £500  per  annum 

0     4i 

Royalty 

0     3 

Mining 

6     0 

Haulage 

0    r, 

Outside  labour 

0     6 

Inside        „ 

1     6 

Management 

1     0 

Cost  of  coal  per  ton  on  wharf       10    7 J 

The  analyses  of  two  samples  of  coal  are  : — 


Upper  Seam    ^ 

Lower  Beam. 

Fixed  carbon 

51-37 

51-79 

Hydrocarbons     ... 

39-72 

36-18 

Water       

4-38 

402 

Ash           

4-53 

8-01 

100-00        ...       100-00 

(5)  West  Coast  Coal-fields. 

These  actually  extend,  in  broken  masses,  all  the  way  from  Collingwood 
to  Jackson's  Bay,  but  the  first-named  district  has  already  been  dealt  with. 
The  West  Coast  proper  has  two  great  coal-mining  centres  :  Westport  on 
the  BuUer  river  and  Greymouth  on  the  River  Grey.  A  small  outlying 
district  at  Reefton  may  also  be  referred  to. 

*  Hector,  Report  of  Geological  Explorations^  1887-88,  pages  12  and  13. 


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42  MINING  IN  NEW  ZEALAND. 

The  Buller  coal-field  extends  from  the  river  of  that  name  on  the  south, 
where  the  seams  occur  principally  at  an  elevation  of  1,800  to  8,000  feet 
above  the  sea,  to  the  Mokihinui  river  on  the  north,  where  they  descend 
to  sea-level.  The  only  exceptions  to  the  elevated  position  of  the  southern 
portion  of  the  field  are  some  detached  masses  of  crushed  and  faulted  coal 
oocuring  at  the  Waimangaroa  and  Ngakawau  rivers.  This  is  geologically 
interesting,  but  of  small  commercial  value,  as  the  product  is  so  soft  and 
incoherent  as  to  be  considerably  lowered  in  value.  Notwithstanding  this 
defect,  the  Waimangaroa  mines  yielded  8,865  tons  in  1891,  but  that  at 
Ngakawau  (which  is  owned  by  a  Sydney,  New  South  Wales,  company) 
did  not  turn  any  coal  at  all,  the  reason  given  being  that  the  seam  has,  in 
the  dip,  decreased  in  thickness  to  such  an  extent  as  to  be  unworkable. 
This  seam  was  some  years  ago  16  to  18  feet  in  thickness,  of  which  8  feet 
was  worked,  the  haulage  being  performed  by  a  6  inches  double-cylinder 
engine.  There  is  said  to  be  a  lai^e  area  of  high-level  coal,  to  reach  which 
will  require  very  extensive  and  costly  works.  The  pit  was  worked  many 
years  ago  without  profit,  indeed  at  a  very  heavy  loss,  and  remained  idle 
for  a  long  time,  but  has  been  recently  revived  by  the  Westport  Ngakawau 
Coal  Company,  whose  object  was  partly  to  make  coke  for  shipment  to  New 
South  Wales  for  the  Broken  Hill  mines,  and  partly  to  erect  smelting 
works  at  Westport,  to  which  silver  ore  from  New  South  Wales  might  be 
brought  as  return  freight. 

The  writer  is  unaware  to  what  extent  these  intentions  have  been 
carried  out,  but  fears  that  the  proposal  to  use  New  Zealand  coke  as  fuel 
has  not  been  a  commercial  success.  This  view  is  induced  by  the  following 
extract  from  the  annual  statement  for  1892  of  the  Minister  of  Mines  for 
New  Zealand  (the  Hon.  R.  J.  Seddon,  M.H.R.)?— 

In  reference  to  our  bituminous  coal-fields,  it  is  deplorable  to  see  the  waste  of 
coal  that  is  carried  on  at  some  of  the  mines.  It  will  be  recollected  by  some 
honourable  members  that  when  Mr.  Kennedy,  the  managing  director  of  the 
Brunner  colliery,  was  giving  his  evidence  last  year  before  the  Gold-fields  Committee 
on  some  of  the  measures  of  the  Coal  Mines  Act  which  was  passed  last  session,  he 
stated  that  about  500  tons  of  slack  was  emptied  into  the  Grey  river  every  month 
from  the  Brunner  mine  alone,  which  ought  to  be  utilized  and  converted  into  a 
marketable  commodity.  There  is  a  large  market  for  coke  of  good  quality  in  the 
Australian  colonies,  and  by  a  proper  system  of  manufacture  the  slack  from  the  mines 
on  the  West  Coast  would  make  the  finest  coke  in  the  world.  I  called  attention  to  this 
in  my  last  statement,  and  the  fact^  arc  fully  borne  out  by  the  statements  in  a  letter 
addressed  to  the  Hon.  John  Lee,  the  treasurer  of  New  South  "Wales,  by  the  secretary 
of  the  Broken  Hill  Proprietary  Company,  which  has  been  published.  In  this  letter 
it  is  asserted  that  the  Broken  Hill  Company  is  using  1,000  tons  of  coke  per  week, 
but  that  all  the  colonial  coke  that  has  been  tried  is  far  inferior  to  that  of  either 
English  or  German  manufacture,  on  account  of  the  slack  not  being  washed, 


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MINING   IN  NEW  ZBALAND.  43 

prepared,  dressed,  and  burned,  ao  as  to  make  it  more  dense  and  hard.  Colonial 
coke  is  foand  to  contain  aboat  6  per  cent,  more  ash  than  English  coke,  and  this  is 
stated  to  be  equal  t-o  usinj?  80  tons  more  of  the  colonial  than  the  English  article 
every  week,  re  lucing  the  capacity  of  the  furnaces  by  70  tons  of  ore  per  week,  and 
also  necessitating  70  tons  more  flux  l)eing  nsed  for  the  same  period,  or,  as  the 
secretary  states  :  "  The  use  of  colonial  coke  instead  of  English  would  mulct  the 
company  in  the  sum  of  £645  weekly,  made  up  as  follows:  80  tons  at  £5,  £400; 
profit  on  70  tons  of  ore  at  £2  lOs.  per  ton,  £175 ;  70  tons  of  flux-iron  and  lime, 
£70."  The  secretary  to  the  company  cstimato.^  the  loss  with  English  coke  at  7  per 
cent.,  and  colonial  coke  13  per  cent.,  while  he  states  that  most  of  the  colonial  coke 
can  stand  no  burden,  but  crumbles  up  quickly  in  the  furnace,  and  fills  the  space 
around  the  tuyeres  with  fine  coke,  causing  large  losses  in  lead  and  silver,  both 
chemically  and  mechanically.  He  further  states  that  they  find  it  inferior  to  such  a 
degree  that  its  use  to  a  great  extent  is  entirely  out  of  the  question,  and  leaves  no 
other  course  open  to  the  company  but  to  use  either  the  English  or  Continental 
manufacture. 

The  whole  of  the  blame  must  not  in  this  ease  be  borne  by  the  New 
Zealand  coals,  for  the  New  South  Wales  seams  are  exceedingly  prolific  in 
ash,  as  may  be  seen  on  reference  to  the  papers  by  Messrs.  G.  Blake 
Walker  and  S.  H.  Cox.* 

The  Mokihinui  coal-field,  on  the  north,  was  many  years  ago  the  scene 
of  an  attempt  to  work,  but  the  river  is  not  a  sufficiently  good  port  for  any 
large  trade  to  be  established,  and  it  was  only  when  the  Government 
recognized  the  necessity  of  extending  the  railway  from  Ngakawau,  a 
distance  of  7  miles,  that  the  future  of  the  place  began  to  look  more 
bright.  Two  seams  are  known,  one  23  feet  thick,  and  the  other  less ;  in 
1 891  the  output  was  4,540  tons.  The  Mokihinui  Coal  Company  has  been 
to  considerable  expense,  having  spent,  among  other  things,  £25,000  on 
a  railway  from  the  port  to  theii*  mine.  This  is  comparatively  useless 
until  the  connecting  link  with  the  Government  line,  which  will  cost 
£86,600,  shall  have  been  completed.  The  analysis  of  a  sample  of  coal 
gives  the  following  composition  : — 

Per  Cent. 

Fixed  carbon  56*01 

Hydrocarbons  37*17 

Water 2-60 

Ash      4-22 


100-00 


OoalhrooMaU  Colliery. — To  the  average  British  mining  engineer  this 
coal-field  would  perhaps  be  the  most  interesting  in  the  colony,  not  only  on 
account  of  the  splendid  quality  and  great  thickness  of  the  seams,  but  on 
account  of  the  wonderful  situation  of  the  mine.  Two  thousand  feet  above 
the  sea,  on  the  top  of  a  bald  bleak  plateau  of  coarse  quartzose  grit, 

*  Trans.  Fed,  Ingt.^  vol.  ii.,  pages  268  and  321. 


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44  MINING  IN  NEW  ZEALAND. 

covered  only  by  thick  moss  and  scattered  mountain  scrab,  and  inter- 
sected by  vertical  ravines  of  enormous  depth,  round  which  the  seams  crop 
out,  is  a  large  and  flourishing  colliery  village,  with  large  hotels,  a  school 
of  mines,  library,  offices  of  the  miners'  union,  bakeries,  stores,  and 
schools.  The  history  of  the  Westport  Coal  Company,  Limited,  who  own 
this  mine,  offers  an  example,  if  not  of  rich  returns  and  uninterrupted 
prosperity,  at  least  of  extraordinary  persistence  and  perseverance  in  the 
face  of  great  natural  difficulties.  Commenced  about  the  beginning  of 
1878,  several  years  elapsed  before  the  works  were  in  a  state  of  completion. 
Bad  weather,  an  excessively  rough  country,  and  numerous  other  obstacles 
retarded  operations.  Eventually  coal  was  sent  down,  and  then  the  pros- 
perity, which  was  to  have  poured  in,  was  for  some  time  delayed  by  the 
defects  in  the  Westport  harbour,  by  the  unsuitability  of  machinery,  by 
faults  and  changes  in  the  seams,  and  by  a  hundred  other  unforeseen  sources 
of  trouble  and  loss.  In  order  to  meet  the  difficulties  it  was  agreed  to 
write  off  a  certain  amount  of  the  capital,  and  the  concern  now  may  be 
said  to  be  doing  moderately  well.  In  January,  1892,  the  chairman  stated 
that  during  the  preceding  ten  years  the  company  had  worked  1,000,000 
tons  of  coal,  had  expended  £850,000,  while  the  dividends  paid  had  been 
£83,260,  or  a  little  less  than  2  per  cent,  per  annum  on  the  capital.  It  is 
gratifying  to  note  that  for  1892  the  profit  was  £22,043,  which  added  to 
£6,358  brought  forward  from  the  previous  year,  was  sufficient  to  pay 
a  dividend  and  bonus  amounting  to  about  10  per  cent. 

The  existence  of  coal  in  this  district  was  known  to  the  early  settlers, 
but  nothing  systematic  was  done  until  the  year  1874,  when  a  detailed 
topographical  and  geological  survey  was  undertaken  by  the  Government, 
and  carried  out  at  a  cost  of  over  £5,000.  The  result  of  this  was  to  prove 
the  existence  of  coal-seams  over  a  large  area,  which  is,  however,  very 
much  cut  up  by  enormous  denudation.  The  deposits  occur  principally  at 
an  altitude  of  1,800  to  8,000  feet ;  but  towards  the  north,  as  has  been 
mentioned,  they  come  down  to  sea-level,  and  dip  below  it.  The  mapping 
of  coal  areas  was  unusually  simple  work,  for  numerous  gullies  and  ravines 
caused  the  outcrops  to  be  readily  traceable.  On  receiving  the  reports  of  the 
Geological  Survey  Department  the  Colonial  Government  at  once  decided 
to  proceed  with  the  construction  of  a  railway  from  Westport  along  the 
coast  northwards  to  the  Ngakawau  river,  a  distance  of  nearly  19  miles, 
and  also  to  improve  the  harbour,  the  average  depth  of  which  on  the  bar 
in  1879-80  was  only  12^  feet.  At  the  same  time  private  enterprize  was 
not  dormant.  Numerous  leases  were  taken  up,  many  by  speculators  without 
the  means  to  work  them.      Finding,  in  1877,  that  no  effort  was  made  to 


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MININa  IN  NEW  ZEALAND.  45 

develop  the  field,  the  Government  took  steps  to  force  the  hands  of  the 
lessees,  in  order  that  the  groand  taken  up  might  be  either  worked  or 
relinquished.  Many  of  the  leases  were  then  amalgamated,  and  a  new  pro- 
prietary, known  as  the  Westport  Colliery  Company,  took  over  the  leases 
and  liabilities  of  several  of  the  original  holders,  and  guaranteed  to  spend 
in  two  years  £10,000  and  produce  a  minimum  output  of  20,000  tons. 
In  August,  1880,  coal  was  brought  into  the  market,  and  since  that  date 
the  works  have  been  so  energetically  carried  on  that  in  1892  working 
single  shift  no  less  than  198,000  tons  was  put  out  from  the  Coalbrookdale 
mine.  This  required  a  total  of  302  men,  which  gives  637'7  tons  per  man, 
or  counting  the  underground  staff  only  (238  men),  an  output  per  man  of 
809  tons  per  annum.  Unfortunately,  there  is  no  means  of  ascertaining 
on  how  many  days  the  pit  worked,  but  presuming  this  to  have  been  five 
days  per  week,  or  260  days,  the  daily  output  per  man  for  a  mine  with 
exceptionally  lengthy  haulage  would  be  8  tons  2  cwts.  1  qr.,  or  taking  it 
at  4  days,  8  tons  17  cwts.  3  qrs. 

Finding  the  original  capital  insufficient  the  company  was  some  years 
ago  re-formed,  with  a  nominal  capital  of  £400,000,  and  although  the 
return  has  not  been  so  great  as  the  shareholder  deserved,  yet  prosperous 
times  seem  now  to  have  dawned.  This  is  in  great  measure  due  to  the 
increased  depth  of  water  on  the  harbour  bar,  which  averaged  23  feet  in 
1892. 

The  coal  is  a  free-burning,  lustrous,  fuel,  good  for  steam  or  household 
use,  and  the  following  analysis  shows  its  purity  in  a  striking  degree : — 

Per  Cent. 

Fixed  carbon 63-81 

Hydrocarbona 31-88 

Water 308 

Ash        1-23 


100-00 

It  is  largely  used  for  war  vessels,  and  has  great  steaming  power.  The 
late  Sir  Jno.  Coode,  in  his  presidential  address  in  1889,  before  the 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  said :  "  The  bituminous  coal  found  on  the 
west  coast  of  the  South  Island  is  declared  by  engineers  ...  to  be 
fully  equal  to,  if  not  better  than,  the  best  descriptions  from  any  part  of 
the  world.  The  wonderful  escape  of  H.M.S.  'Calliope'  during  the  hurri- 
cane at  Samoa,  when  her  engines  were  tried  to  the  very  uttermost,  has 
been  attributed  by  her  captain  and  the  people  of  New  Zealand,  apparently 
with  good  reason,  to  the  superior  quality  of  this  coal,  which  was  being 
used  at  the  time."* 

*  Proo,  Irut,  Civil  Bng.,  vol.  xcix.,  page  23. 


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46  MINING    IN  NEW  ZEALAND. 

The  company  owns  two  leases — one,  the  Coalbrookdale  and  Kawatiri 
of  2,479  acres,  in  which  the  present  mines  are  worked  ;  and  a  new  lease, 
as  yet  untouched,  known  as  Granity  Creek,  and  comprising  2,951  acres. 
The  term  is  ninety-nine  years,  and  the  royalty  6d.  per  ton  on  large  and 
small  coal.  The  minimum  rent  merges  in  the  royalty,  but  the  company 
has  a  large  dead  rent  to  pay  on  the  Granity  Creek  holding.  Wages  are 
high,  and  the  men  make  a  good  deal  of  money.  In  1889  the  price  for 
getting  coal,  large  and  small  together,  was  2s.  lOd.  per  ton,  and  day  wages 
were  10s. 

The  writer  is  unaware  whether  any  important  alterations  have  been 
recently  introduced  into  the  haulage  arrangements  of  the  Coalbrookdale 
colliery,  but  as  a  detailed  account  of  the  appliances  at  work  in  1890  was 
published  by  Mr.  T.  J.  Waters,  F.R.G.S.,  managing  engineer  at  that  time,* 
a  short  abstract  may  be  included. 

The  general  system  of  mine  haulage  is  endless-rope,  which  replaced  an 
endless-chain  formerly  used  and  abandoned  because  of  its  frequent  break- 
ages, sometimes  thirty  in  a  day.  The  main  plane  is  (these  data  refer  to 
the  early  part  of  the  year  1890)  1  mile  60  chains  in  length,  {ind  is  worked  by 
a  3 J  inches  circumference  plough  steel- wire  rope,  of  Lang  lay,  travelling 
at  2^  miles  an  hour.  The  engine  has  one  cylinder  20  inches  in  diameter  by 
48  inches  stroke,  and  the  driving  wheel  is  6  feet  8  inches  in  diameter,  and 
lagged  with  cast-steel  segments.  The  road  varies  much  in  gradient,  the 
steepest  being  1  in  10,  and  the  diflference  in  level  is  90  feet  against  the  load. 
Two  branch  systems  are  worked  with  separate  engines,  one  known  as  the 
iron-bridge  road,  opening  up  the  field  to  the  south-east,  is  worked  by  a  pair 
of  6  inches  cylinder  engines,  and  has  a  total  grade  of  146  feet  against  the 
load,  with  a  maximum  of  1  in  5.  The  Coalbrookdale  section  is  worked  by  a 
single  6^  inches  cylinder  engine,  and  runs  in  daylight  up  the  bed  of  a 
creek,  with  the  coal  cropping  out  on  each  side,  and  numerous  adits  along 
its  course.    The  rope  travels  at  a  speed  of  1  mile  per  hour. 

Chains  are  used  instead  of  clips,  which  were  difficult  to  accommodate  to 
the  curves  and  gradients.  Mr.  Waters  designed  a  very  useful  arrangement 
(Figs.  1,  2,  and  8,  Plate  III.,)  for  attaching  the  chain,  by  means  of  which 
the  attendants  are  enabled  to  hang  the  tubs  on  as  conveniently  when 
the  rope  is  moving  as  when  it  is  at  rest.  His  description  of  the 
arrangement  is  as  follows : — "  It  consists  of  a  short  length  of  chain,  on 
one  end  of  which  is  welded  a  ring,  and  on  the  other  a  hook.  At  each 
hanging-on  place  a  pair  of  light  steel  springs  are  bolted  to  a  cross  sleeper. 

*  Proceedings  of  New  Zealand  and  South  Seas  Exhibition  Mining  Conference^ 
1890,  G.  J.  BinnB,  Hon.  Sec. 


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MINING  IN  NEW  ZEALAND.  47 

The  loose  ends  of  these  springs  are  made  to  fit  the  rope  and  embrace  it 
when  pressed  together.  The  hanger-on  passes  the  chain  three  times  round 
these  springs  where  they  embrace  the  rope,  which  slips  between  them  as  it 
runs,  without  imparting  any  motion  to  the  chain  clip ;  hence  the  hanger- 
on  is  enabled  to  pass  the  hook  end  through  the  ring  on  the  chain,  and 
make  it  fast  to  the  truck  at  his  leisure.  At  the  proper  time  the  truck  is 
pushed  forward  a  few  inches  by  hand,  when  the  chain-clip  slips  off  the 
steel  springs  and  holds  fast  on  to  the  travelling-rope,  drawing  the  truck 
with  it." 

The  trucks  are  made  of  galvanized  steel,  22  cubic  feet  in  capacity,  with 
cast-steel  wheels  of  24  inches  gauge.  The  rails  are  25  lbs.  per  yard  on  the 
full  side,  and  18  lbs.  on  the  empty,  with  fished  joints.  The  curve-rollers 
are  of  cast-steel  2  feet  in  diameter,  placed  at  an  angle  of  80  degs.  from  the 
horizontal,  so  that  the  outside  of  the  pulley  is  under  the  inner  rail. 

The  surface-inclines  are  on  a  large  scale  and  have  been  very  successful. 
As  the  mine  mouth  is  about  2,000  feet  above  the  sea,  gravity  is  sufficient 
to  lower  the  output,  but  the  country  is  of  an  excessively  rough  nature,  and 
great  expense  was  incurred  in  making  a  road  to  accommodate  railway 
wagons  containing  6^  tons  of  coal,  and  having  a  gross  load  of  11  tons. 
The  total  length  of  the  incline  is  1^  miles,  and  the  fall  1,800  feet  to  the  level 
of  the  railway  at  the  foot  of  the  hills.  The  upper  incline — for  there  are  two 
— is  38  chains  long  horizontally,  with  a  drop  of  884  feet  in  that  distance ; 
the  maximum  grade  is  1  foot  in  1  foot  4  inches.  The  drums  are  10  feet 
6  inches  in  diameter,  with  cranks  keyed  on  to  the  ends  of  the  shafts,  and 
attached  by  connecting-rods  to  two  12  inches  pistons  working  in  cylinders 
fitted  with  cataract-governors.  This  is  found  to  be  infinitely  superior  to 
the  hand  brakes  formerly  used,  giving  a  much  greater  approach  to  safety, 
and  a  longer  life  to  the  ropes  used  by  nearly  100  per  cent.,  besides  which 
the  hand-brakes  repairs  amounted  to  over  £300  per  annum.  The  lower 
incline  is  50  chains  long,  with  a  drop  of  864  feet  and  a  maximum  grade 
of  1  in  2.  The  time  occupied  in  running  is  2  minutes  for  the  upper 
and  2 1  minutes  for  the  lower  section,  but  both  are  run  simultaneously. 
The  road  is  3  feet  6  inches  gauge,  laid  with  40  lbs.  or  42  lbs.  rails. 

The  Granity  Creek  inclines  will  be  on  the  endless-rope  principle,  and 
are  estimated  to  cost  £50,000,  which,  with  another  £50,000  for  rolling 
stock  and  opening  up  the  mine,  will  make  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  million 
sterling  spent  in  haulage  and  works.  The  mine  tubs  will  come  right 
down  to  the  foot  of  the  hill,  and  two  inclines  will  be  employed ;  the  upper 
one  70  chains  long  with  a  fall  of  700  feet,  and  the  lower  one  51  chains 
long  with  a  fall  of  960  feet.     Hydraulic  brakes  will  be  employed.    It  is 


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48  HIKING  IN  NBW  ZEALAND. 

expected  that  coal  will  come  down  about  the  end  of  the  current  year,  and 
the  total  output  from  the  mines  worked  by  this  Company  at  Westport  will 
shortly  be  probably  nearly  half  a  million  tons  per  annum. 

About  equidistant  from  Westport  and  Greymouth  is  the  Reefton  coal- 
field, situated  on  the  Inangahua  river.  This  area  is  limited  in  extent,  and 
lies  in  patches  on  the  upturned  edges  of  the  Maitai  (Carboniferous)  Slates, 
The  coal  is  of  very  excellent  quality,  being  in  some  cases  bituminous. 

The  following  analyses  will  give  some  idea  of  its  quality : — 


No.            Locality. 

Nature 
of  Coal. 

Fixed 
Oarbon. 

Hydro- 
carbon. 

Water. 

Aiih. 

1.  New  Durham  Mine  . 

..  Bituminous    . 

..     6409  . 

.  37-64  . 

.     4-36  . 

..  8-91 

2.          „             „ 

..  Brown 

..     4802  . 

.  35-57  . 

.  14-21  . 

.  2-20 

3.  Lankey's  Creek 

..  Altered 

..     5801  . 

.  33-19  .. 

.     6-79  . 

.  201 

4.  Murray  Creek 

..  Bituminous     . 

..     53-96  . 

.  35-87  . 

.     8-18  . 

..  1-99 

6.  Dudley  Mine 

..  Brown 

..     48-10  . 

.  35-88  .. 

.  14-21  . 

.  1-81 

During  the  year  1891,  thirteen  mines  were  at  work,  employing  20  men, 
and  yielding  4,566  tons,  most  of  which  was  consumed  by  the  quartz- 
crushing  machinery  attached  to  the  adjacent  gold  mines.  The  seams 
vary  capriciously  in  thickness  and  dip. 

Other  outcrops  are  known  in  the  Upper  BuUer  district,  but  they  have 
been  only  locally  worked  to  a  very  small  extent. 

OreymotUh  District — The  next  district  to  consider  is  the  Greymouth 
coal-field,  second  in  importance  only  to  that  of  Westport,  and  while  the 
seams  at  the  latter  place  are  mainly  far  above  the  sea,  and  are  therefore 
worked  level-free,  those  at  the  former  lie  to  the  dip,  and  are  approached 
by  shafts  or  dip  drives.  It  is  true  that  the  Brunner  coal-mine,  which  is 
the  oldest  in  the  district,  and  has  furnished  by  far  the  largest  output,  was 
for  many  years  worked  above  water-level,  but  the  bulk  of  the  field  will 
undoubtedly  require  haulage. 

The  seams  occur  in  grits  and  conglomerates,  dipping  in  a  westerly 
direction  at  1  in  8,  and  the  field  is  a  good  deal  cut  up  by  faults.  The 
principal  seam  is  18  feet  thick,  and  is  exposed  in  the  upper  gorge  of  the 
Grey  river,  where  it  was  originally  worked  and  whence  the  coal  was  brought 
down  the  river  in  barges.  At  the  present  time  the  Government  Eailway, 
which  is  8  miles  in  length,  takes  the  output  from  the  mines  to  the 
port  of  Greymouth,  where  there  is  a  fairly  good  harbour. 

At  one  time  there  were  four  mines,  but  they  became  merged  into 
one  company,  and  in  1892,  for  convenience  in  working,  only  two  were 
open,  viz.,  the  Brunner  and  the  Coalpit  Heath,  which  are  practically  one 
mine. 


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MIKING  IN  NBW  ZEALAND.  49 

The  Branner  colliery  has  been  at  work  fcwenty-uine  yeara,  and  had 
yielded  to  the  end  of  1891, 868,072  tons.  The  workings  in  1891,  when  the 
ontpat  was  75,729  tons  were  confined  chiefly  to  the  extraction  of  pillars,  and 
the  ventilation  was  prodnced  by  a  8chiele  fan,  a  16  feet  Grnibal  fan  formerly 
employed  having  proved  insufficient.  The  engine-plane  is  fitted  with  a 
pair  of  14  inches  cylinder  engines  with  18  inches  stroke,  and  an  electric 
hanlage-plant  is  in  operation,  but  of  this  latter  the  writer  has  no  details. 
There  is  also  a  rope-driven  pump  with  a  pair  of  9  inches  by  24  inches  double- 
acting  rams  which  raises  the  water  170  feet.  The  surface-works  comprise 
a  large  brick  and  tile  plant,  where  very  excellent  firebricks  and  gas  retorts 
are  manufactured,  which  find  a  ready  sale  not  only  in  New  Zealand  but  in 
Australia. 

A  slack-washing  and  briquette  plant  has  been  erected,  and  it  was 
intended  to  use  the  bye-products  of  the  coke  in  the  manufacture  of 
briquettes,  which  are  also  made  by  the  company  at  Christchurch  on  the 
east  coast.  In  the  early  part  of  1892,  the  demand  for  this  class  of  fuel 
was  stated  to  be  very  brisk,  and  the  output,  which  was  then  6  tons  per  day, 
was  said  to  be  finding  a  ready  sale. 

In  1889,  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Representatives  took  evidence  on 
these  mines,  and  among  other  details  the  following  facts  were  elicited : — 
The  average  number  of  days  worked  was  8J  to  4  per  week,  and  the 
minimum  wage  was  128.  per  day. 

The  Coalpit  Heath  colliery,  which  was  originally  in  private  hands,  has 
now  become  the  property  of  the  Grey  Valley  Coal  Company,  Limited,  half 
of  which  belongs  to  the  Westport  Coal  Company,  Limited.  The  workings 
lie  to  the  dip  of  the  Brunner  colliery,  and  the  coal  is  raised  by  the  hauling- 
engine  attached  to  that  mine.  At  one  time  a  rectangular  shaft  measuring 
10  feet  by  6  feet  and  280  feet  deep  was  used  with  a  single  (18  inches  by 
3  feet)  cylinder  engine.  But  the  whole  arrangement  was  crude  and  incon- 
venient. The  seam  is  18  feet  in  thickness,  and  of  excellent  quality.  The 
workings  were  laid  out  on  the  bord-and-pillar  system,  and  the  pillars  have 
to  a  great  extent  been  removed.  In  1891,  the  output  was  69,592  tons,  and 
since  the  commencement  429,991  tons  have  been  raised.  The  workings  are 
ventilated  by  a  Schiele  fan,  and  the  pumping  appears  to  be  heavy,  as  there 
are  on  the  published  list  no  less  than  seven  engines  for  this  purpose  vary- 
ing from  10  inches  ram  and  4  feet  stroke,  to  4  inches  ram  and  12  inches 
stroke. 

On  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  to  the  Coalpit  Heath  mine  is  the 
Greymouth  Wallsend  colliery,  now  standing.  It  is  a  matter  of  great 
regret  that  this  pit  should  have  been  set  down,  as  it  is  no  doubt  the  most 

YOU  y^~-iaoM8  i 


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50  HIKING  IK  KEW  ZEALAND. 

advanced  example  of  mining  in  the  colony.  The  shafts  are  circnlar, 
11  feet  and  14  feet  in  diameter.  The  downcast,  which  was  sunk  in  1885, 
was  lined  for  some  distance  with  concrete  blocks,  grouted  in  with  cement, 
instead  of  with  cast-iron  tubbing.*  The  winding-engine  consists  of  a  pair 
of  80  inches  cylinders  with  60  inches  stroke  working  a  16  feet  cylindrical 
drum  fitted  with  steam  brake  and  steam  starting-gear.  The  boilers  are  of 
steel,  30  feet  by  7  feet,  and  of  the  Lancashire  type,  working  at  60  lbs. 
pressure ;  head  gear  of  iron,  lattice  girders  68  feet  to  centre  of  pulleys, 
which  are  14  feet  in  diameter.  A  80  feet  Guibal  fan  airs  the  workings, 
and  there  is  a  small  air-compressing  engine  for  rock  drills.  The  last  out- 
put appears  to  have  been  raised  in  1890,  when  26,690  tons  was  the 
amount.  Altogether  only  205,539  tons  has  been  raised  from  this  fine  pit, 
a  large  proportion  of  which  must  be  credited  to  a  small  engine  which 
worked  a  single  shaft  many  years  ago.  When  the  coal  trade  expands, 
this  property  will  be  able  to  assume  a  worthy  position. 

A  small  pit  known  as  the  Tyneside  colliery,  to  the  rise  of  the  Grey- 
mouth  Wallsend,  has  been  abandoned  for  some  years. 

Farther  up  the  Grey  river,  and  some  distance  from  it  on  the  north 
side,  is  the  Blackball  colliery  belonging  to  a  company  recently  floated  on 
the  London  market ;  there  are  two  seams  4  feet  6  inches  and  12  feet  thick 
respectively,  and  a  cross-measures  drift  1 ,232  feet  long  has  been  constructed 
to  cut  them.  In  1891,  only  30  tons  of  coal  was  produced,  but  the  works 
are  not  yet  connected  with  the  railway.  In  a  colonial  newspaper  of  recent 
date,  the  company  is  stated  to  be  making  fair  progress  with  an  aerial  tram- 
way, presumably  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  the  coal  across  the  Grey  river. 
A  bridge  47  chains  in  length  was  originally  proposed  for  this  purpose, 
but  the  former  method  seems  to  have  been  preferred ;  the  first  cost  will 
no  doubt  be  less,  but  whether  it  will  prove  an  economical  method  for  the 
purpose  is  a  matter  of  opinion. 

The  following  average  analyses  of  Greymouth  coal  may  be  given : — 


Per  Cent. 

Percent. 

Per  Oent. 

Percent. 

Fixed  carbon 

53-26     . 

..     53-50     . 

..     59-38     . 

..     5308 

Hyclrocarbons 

38-73     . 

..     41-28     . 

..     34-48     . 

..     41-95 

Water 

1-48     . 

..       1-41     . 

..       1-05     . 

•99 

Ash     

6-45     . 

..       3-81     . 

..       4-09     . 

..       3-98 

100-00    100-00    100-00    100-00 


On  comparing  these  figures  with  the  previously  given  analyses  of  the 
Westport  coal,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  latter  contains  less  ash,  and  is 

♦  "  CSoal-mining  in  New  Zealand,"  by  G.  J.  Binns,  Trang,  N,E,  Intt,,  vol.  xxxv., 
page  194. 


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KINIKG  IK  NBW  ZEALAND.  51 

poorer  in  hydrocarbona.  On  accounb  of  its  richness  in  the  latter  respect 
the  Greymouth  coel  has  been  lai^ely  nsed  for  gas-making,  and  for  many 
years  it  commanded  7s.  to  8s.  per  ton  more  than  that  from  Newcastle, 
New  South  Wales,  bnt  a  very  good  gas-coal  was  recently  found  at 
Stockton,  New  South  Wales,  which  ousted  the  Greymouth  coal  from  the 
Australian  markets. 

A  yet  undeveloped  coal-field  occurs  at  Point  Elizabeth,  on  the  sea 
coast,  a  few  miles  north  of  the  Grey  river.  The  harbour  at  that  place  is 
variously  stated  as  being  the  best  in  New  Zealand,  and  as  being  utterly 
unsafe.    The  writer  has  no  personal  knowledge  of  the  locality. 

Owing  to  the  uncertainty  of  the  harbour  at  Greymouth  the  pits  work 
very  irregularly,  not,  it  is  stated,  averaging  4  days  per  week.  Mr.  M. 
Kennedy,  managing  director  of  the  Grey  Valley  Goal  Company,  recently 
stated  that  12s.  was  the  minimum  earnings  for  a  day  of  7  hours. 

After  leaving  Greymouth  the  known  areas  of  coal  on  the  West  Coast 
are  scattered  and  comparatively  small.  Near  Hokitika  an  attempt  was 
made  to  work  some  thin  seams,  but  without  success,  and  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Haast  river  outcrops  are  found,  but  in  such  a  rough  and 
inaccessible  position  that  any  prospect  of  working  them  is  remote. 

(6)  CanUrhury  Goal-fields, 

Although,  as  has  been  stated,  the  West  Coast  coal-fields  alone  supply 
coal  of  first-class  quality,  there  is  much  fuel  of  a  valuable  nature  to  be 
found  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  great  axial  range  of  mountains  known  as 
the  Southern  Alps. 

In  the  Province  of  Canterbury  the  principal  development  in  this 
direction  has  been  in  the  Malvern  district,  where  the  following  four  classes 
of  coal  are  found: — 

1.  Anthracite. 

2.  Altered  brown  coals,  in  which  the  percentage  of  water  is  not  high. 

3.  Altered  brown  coals  in  which  the  percentage  of  water  is  high. 

4.  Brown  coals. 

The  working  of  the  first  class  is  confined  to  a  small  pit,  whence  the 
supply  for  a  sheep  station  is  obtained,  and  the  output  from  which  has 
averaged  only  10  tons  per  annum  since  the  pit  started,  the  return  for 
1891  being  nil.  The  locality  is  geologically  interesting  as  the  anthracitic 
quality  of  the  coal  is  directly  traceable  to  a  dolerite  flow,  which  overlies 
the  seam.  The  analyses  given  vary  very  much,  fixed  carbon  being 
letomed  as  constituting  from  65*8  to  88*91  per  cent,  of  the  total,  and 
ash  up  to  24*25  per  cent. 


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52  MIKING  IN  NEW  ZEALAND. 

Of  the  second  claas  the  output  has  ceased,  as  the  seams  formerly  worked 
dipped  at  very  high  angles,  and  were  soon  exhausted  to  water-level,  below 
which  it  did  not  pay  to  follow  them.    The  analysis  shows : — 

Per  Cent. 

Fixed  carbon  63*29 

Hydrocarbons         32'04 

Water  12*65 

Ash 202 

100-00 
but  the  composition  probably  varies  very  much. 

Of  the  third  class,  a  little  has  been  raised  for  the  requirements  of  a 
sheep  station. 

The  brown  coals  which  constitute  the  fourth  class  were  at  one  time 
largely  mined,  but  the  trade  seems  to  have  greatly  fallen  off,  and  in  1891 
the  production  was  only  11,710  tons  from  6  mines,  whereas  in  1884  it 
was  more  than  double.  The  following  analyses  of  the  Springfield  coal 
may  serve  as  an  example  of  the  quality  : — 


Percent 

Percent. 

Percent. 

Percent. 

Fixed  carbon 

47*90     . 

..     60-60     . 

..     65-60     . 

..     63*20 

Hydrocarbons 

41-80     . 

..     38-80     . 

..     30*90     . 

..     23*60 

Water 

6*30     . 

..       7-80     . 

4*20     . 

..       8*20 

Ash     

4-00     . 

..       2*80     . 

9*40     . 

..     10-00 

100-00  100*00  100-00  100*00 

Though  there  are  in  the  southern  portion  of  Canterbury  sundry  small 
mines,  none  of  them  merit  much  attention,  and  it  must  be  allowed  that 
the  mineral  resources  of  this  province  are  but  poor.  Fortunately,  the 
natural  agricultural  advantages  are  so  great  as  to  amply  compensate  for 
mineral  poverty,  and  a  judicious  and  elaborate  irrigation  scheme  has 
materially  assisted  agriculture. 

(7)  Otago  Goahfields. 

There  were  in  Otago,  in  1891,  no  less  than  80  coal-mines  on  the 
official  list,  of  which  20  did  not  produce,  or  at  any  rate  were  not  returned 
as  producing,  any  coal.  The  total  yield  was  164,870  tons,  or  11,558  tons 
less  than  in  the  preceding  ycjir,  but  of  this  total  110,042  tons  came  from 
5  mines,  leaving  64,828  tons,  or  an  average  of  731  tons  each  for  the 
remaining  55  working  pits.  Many  of  these  are  mere  opencast  excava- 
tions, into  which  carts  are  driven,  and  where  the  fuel  is  got  as  cheaply 
as  it  is  probably  ix)Rsible  for  it  to  be  obtained  under  any  circumstances. 

There  are,  however,  several  collieries  which  have  attained  an  output 
of  more  respectable  dimensions,  and  at  which  the  appliances  are  of  a 


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MINING   IN  NEW  ZEALAND.  63 

saperior  chaiacter.    Continning  the  southward  course  adopted,  the  first 
of  these  is  Shag  Point  colliery,  situated  on  the  seashore,  about  40  milesf 
north  of  the  city  of  Dunedin,  and  close  to  the  main  line  of  railway,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  a  short  branch.    The  coal  is  of  very  excellent 
qnality,  for  a  pitch  coal,  and  has  the  following  percentage  composition: — 


Percent 

B 

Percent. 

Fixed  carbon 

61-38     .. 

55-00 

HydrocarboiiB 

22-78     .. 

.     24-83 

Water 

19-92     .. 

.     13-89 

Afih      

5-69     .. 

6-28 

99-77  10000 

The  measures  dip  E.S.E.,  at  10  degs.,  below  the  sea,  where  they  have 
been  explored  to  a  small  extent,  and  where  in  all  probability  a  very  large 
area  exists.  Rising  to  the  west  they  form  an  anticlinal  arch,  which  is 
terminated  westward  by  a  syncline,  from  the  base  of  which  they  again 
rise,  at  high  angles,  into  the  hill  known  as  Puke  Ivitai.  In  1880,  the 
output  was  86,066  tons,  but  it  has  since  considerably  fallen  off,  and  in 
1891,  only  7,814  tons  was  raised,  making  4,298  tons  less  than  the  pre- 
ceding year,  and  a  total  of  228,242  tons  since  the  opening  of  the  workings. 
Two  seams  are  mined,  with  a  thickness  varying  in  one  case  from  2 
to  12  feet,  and  in  the  other  from  1  foot  to  4  feet.  The  output  is  raised 
partly  by  a  shaft  measuring  16  feet  6  inches  by  6  feet  and  200  feet  deep — 
(lately,  the  writer  believes,  this  has  been  deepened) — and  the  water  in 
tanks  which  automatically  fill  and  empty  themselves.  The  workings  are 
free  from  gas,  but  the  slack  is  remarkably  subject  to  spontaneous  com- 
bustion, and  great  trouble  and  expense  have  resulted  from  this  fact.  The 
roof  also  is  very  bad. 

In  the  same  district,  but  in  the  trough  of  the  syncline  to  which 
reference  has  been  made,  is  the  AUandale  coal -mine,  commenced  about  the 
year  1887.  This  seems  already  to  have  outstripped  the  older  mine  in 
output,  for  in  1891,  the  production  was  10,785  tons.  The  seam  is  7  feet 
in  maximum  thickness,  and  is  worked  by  a  dip  drive,  up  which  a  small 
fixed  engine  draws  the  wagons.  By  now  the  pit-mouth  is,  presumably, 
connected  with  the  railway  by  a  tram  road. 

The  extension  of  the  coal-measures  beneath  the  Palmerston  flat  is  a 
matter  of  conjecture,  but  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  this  may  prove  to  be  the 
case,  for  the  coal  at  this  locality  is  of  good  quaUty  and  the  situation 
favourable. 

No  further  important  deposit  is  known  until  the  city  of  Dunedin  is 
passed,  about  6  miles  from  which  centre,  on  the  main  south  line,  is  the 


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54  MINING  IN  NEW  ZEALAND. 

Green  Island  coal-field.  The  coal  here  produced  is  of  inferior  qaality,  but 
the  seam  (only  one  is  worked)  is  ]  9  feet  thick,  and  the  measures  consist 
of  sands,  clays,  ferruginons  gravels,  shales,  and  fireclays,  resting  onoon- 
formably  upon  the  upturned  edges  of  highly  metamorphosed  rocks  of 
unknown  age,  and  dipping  to  the  north-east  at  an  angle  of  1  in  10  beneath 
a  thick  sandstone  of  Tertiary  age,  which  is  again  overlain  by  the  volcanic 
rocks  of  the  Dunedin  basin. 

The  field  has  been  opened  for  about  thirty-three  years,  and  very 
numerous  pits  have  been  commenced,  many  of  which  have  been  lost  owing 
to  spontaneous  fires,  which  are  very  rife.  The  tenure  of  the  land  is  free- 
hold, and  the  royalty  usually  Is.  per  ton.  A  very  large  proportion  of  the 
seam  is  lost,  as  only  7  feet  to  8  feet  is  worked  in  the  first  place  by  the 
room-and-rance  system,  and  3  feet  more  is  got  in  coming  back.  In  1891, 
eight  mines  were  at  work,  employing  188  men,  who  turned  out  50,318 
tons,  a  considerable  amount  less  than  the  output  in  some  former  years. 

Of  these  eight  mines  only  three  were  connected  with  the  raQway, 
and  one  (Abbotsroyd  colliery)  has  private  telephonic  conmiunication  with 
Dunedin.  The  produce  of  this  field  has,  when  first  got,  a  lustrous 
appearance  and  dark  brown  colour,  but  desiccates  rapidly  on  exposure  to 
the  air.  It  bums  freely  with  a  slightly  unpleaaant  smell,  and  leaves  a 
bulky  incandescent  ash.  Notwithstanding  these  defects,  it  is  a  fairly 
popular  second-rate  fuel  in  and  about  Dunedin. 

The  mines  are  entirely  free  from  explosive  gas,  and  accidents  of  any 
kind  are  rare. 

The  analyses  are  as  follows : — 

Fixed  carbon 

Hydrocarbons 

Water 

Ash      ...        ... 

Sulphur         

The  Clutha  coal-field,  which  next  comes  under  consideration,  is  of 
large  area,  extending  from  the  Clutha  river  on  the  south  to  9  miles  north 
of  the  Tokomariro  river,  a  distance  of  20  miles. 

The  formation  consists  of  conglomerates,  sandstones,  clays,  and  shales, 
with  coal-seams,  forming  ranges  of  hills  700  feet  high  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Kaitangata,  and  of  less  altitude  to  the  north  where  they  rise 
again  on  the  flanks  of  Mount  Misery,  which  is  composed  of  schists. 

The  first  mine  was  opened  in  1858,  and  although  enjoying  the 
advantage  of  financial  assistance  from  the  Provincial  Government,  was 
not  a  success. 


Percent. 

Per  Gent. 

Percent 

40-84 

...     86-00     . 

..     36-70 

36-67 

...     42-50     . 

..     39*80 

18-67 

...     19-00     . 

..     23-10 

3-92 

...       0-90     . 
...     98-40    . 

..       1-40 

100-00 

..  100-00 

... 

...      0-90     . 

..      3-66 

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MINING  IN  NEW  ZEALAND.  55 

In  1891,  thirteen  mines  were  at  work,  but  if  the  output  from  the 
Kaitangata  Railway  and  Coal  Company's  mine  (58,945  tons)  be  deducted, 
the  remainder  is  under  10,000  tons.  The  mine  belonging  to  this  company 
is  a  good  example  of  a  successfully-managed  Colonial  colliery,  at  which 
the  coal  is  by  no  means  first-class,  but  the  working  of  which  has  been 
for  many  years  highly  profitable.  Originally  two  companies  held  rival 
interests,  but  in  1880  the  Kaitangata  Railway  and  Coal  Company  bought 
out  the  neighbouring  proprietors,  and  have  since  worked  the  whole  area. 

The  workable  seams  are  four  in  number,  the  uppermost  3  feet  6  inches 
in  thickness,  and  about  250  feet  below  this  is  a  9  feet  seam  which  has  not 
been  worked  At  a  further  depth  of  250  feet  is  the  main  seam,  upwards 
of  35  feet  in  thickness.  From  the  small  seam  about  7,000  tons  was 
taken  in  1876-77,  but  it  has  been  for  many  years  abandoned.  About 
150  feet  below  the  main  seam  is  another,  19  feet  in  thickness,  which  was 
discovered  by  chance  in  1889,  but  this  enterprising  company  would  appear 
not  to  be  contented  with  even  these  quantities  of  coal,  for  the  recent 
Dunedin  papers  state  that  they  have  purchased  a  diamond  drill,  capable  of 
boring  2,000  feet,  in  order  to  prove  the  lower  measures.  The  main  seam 
is  a  good  deal  broken,  and  in  places  highly  incUned ;  the  roof  is  a  hard 
quartzose  conglomerate,  70  feet  thick,  and  auriferous,  though  not  suffi- 
ciently so  to  be  workable.  The  floor  is  moderately  hard.  In  the  original 
mine  the  seam  dipped  at  1  in  7,  and  on  approaching  the  dip  took  a  plunge 
at  45  degs.  Inclines  were  driven  on  the  full  angle  and  levels  on  the 
strike  close  to  the  roof  ;  from  these  levels  bords  were  driven  to  the  floor. 
These  workings  eventually  were  closed,  owing  to  a  very  heavy  weight 
which  came  on.  In  the  flat  portion  of  the  lease,  the  system  was  ordinary 
bord-and-pillar.  About  8  feet  of  coal  was  got  at  fii-st,  and  afterwards 
as  mnch  of  the  top  coal  as  possible.  It  will  readily  be  understood  that 
during  this  operation  the  working-places  were  of  enormous  height,  and 
hence  some  change  became  necessary,  when  the  following  system  was  tried. 
At  the  first  operation  about  10  feet  vertically  was  taken,  and  sufficient 
laterally  to  bring  on  a  weight  which  crushed  the  pillars  into  the  floor ; 
the  whole  area  was  allowed  to  settle,  and  the  upper  portion  of  the  already 
partially-worked  bords  was  then  taken  out.  Of  course,  an  enormous 
proportion  of  the  seam  was  sacrificed  by  this  system,  but  this  appears 
unavoidable  in  cases  of  so  thick  a  deposit.  The  coal  is  raised  by  an 
engine-plane  1,076  feet  long  and  9  feet  wide  by  6  feet  6  inches  high, 
dipping  1  in  5  through  the  conglomerate  and  measures.  This  road, 
which  is  very  hard  in  places,  and  in  which  some  water  was  met  with,  was 
oonstmcted  by  means  of  rock  drills  driven  by  compressed  air,  in  six 
months. 


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56  MININa   IN  NEW  ZEALAND. 

The  seam  gives  off  some  explosive  gas,  and  the  slack  ignites  very 
readily.  In  a  paper  read  in  1890,  Mr.  Shore,  the  manager,  gives  some 
interesting  details  on  this  point,  one  of  which  may  be  reproduced : — 

A  few  years  ago  an  incident  occurred  having  a  remarkable  bearing  on  the  rapid 
generation  of  spontaneous  combustion  under  favourable  circumstances.  Pending 
the  erection  of  air-compressing  machinery,  steam  was  temporarily  conveyed  along  a 
dip  tunnel  for  pumping  purposes ;  3  inches  pipes  enclosed  in  a  12  inches  by  12  inches 
wooden  box  filled  with  sand  were  used.  The  loaded  trucks  by  accident  left  the 
tram  rails.  Anxious  to  get  operations  started,  the  men  turned  one  of  the  trucks, 
loaded  with  wet  dross,  over  on  top  of  the  b^  containing  the  steam-pipe.  The 
temperature  of  the  tunnel,  which  was  used  as  an  upcast,  was  74  degs.  Fahr. 
Twenty-two  hours  from  being  turned  over  the  truck  was  found  to  be  on  fire.  When 
removing  the  truck  the  dross  (about  7  cwt.)  had  the  appearance  of  newly-prepared 
asphalte. 

The  machinery  at  this  mine  is  very  complete,  and  the  following  may 
be  given  as  an  example  of  what  is  used.  In  1886,  the  shaft-engines  which 
were  used  only  for  drawing  water,  consisted  of  a  pair  of  9  inches  by  14 
inches  cylinders,  while  the  coal  was  raised  by  a  pair  of  9  inches  by  12 
inches  engines  geared  to  a  12  feet  drum.  In  case  of  accident  to  this 
engine,  the  haulage  could  be  carried  on  by  a  single  20  inches  by  54  inches 
engine  used  for  compressing  air  in  an  18  inches  cylinder.  Prom  this 
compressor,  at  that  date,  two  Tangye  pumps  were  worked,  one  1,800  feet 
distant,  and  the  other  1,000  feet.  In  the  mine  waa  a  pair  of  12  inches 
by  24  inches  hauling-engines,  also  to  be  worked  by  compressed  air,  if 
required.  A  Harrison  coal-cutter  had  been  tried,  but  the  writer  believes 
that  it  has  not  been  subsequently  much  used.  Since  that  date  the 
company  appear  to  have  been  extending  their  operations,  for  so  lately  as 
February  9th,  1893,  a  notice  appeared  in  the  Dunedin  papers  of  the 
purchase  of  a  compressed-air  pumping-engine,  manufactured  in  that  city 
by  Messrs.  A.  &  T.  Burt.  This  engine  seems,  from  the  description,  to 
consist  of  a  20  inches  air  cylinder  with  24  inches  stroke,  coupled  tandem 
on  to  a  double-acting  5^  inches  ram,  and  is  to  deliver  10,000  gallons  per 
hour  to  a  vertical  height  of  700  feet.  It  appears  that  this  would  give  a 
somewhat  excessive  speed,  but  probably  a  pair  of  rams  are  used.  The 
purchase  of  this  pump  has  been  necessitated  by  the  deepening  of  the  shaft 
which  has  been  continued  from  400  feet  to  700  feet.  In  1891,  the  output 
was  58,945  tons,  and  the  undertaking  has  produced  629,051  tons  in  fifteen 
years.  The  means  of  transport  is  furnished  by  a  private  railway  4 
miles  in  length,  on  which  the  company  spent  £26,000,  and  the  bulk  of 
the  coal  is  sold  in  Dunedin,  which  is  about  50  miles  distant  from  the 
pit's  mouth,  where  it  is  a  great  favourite.  It  is  black  and  glossy,  with  a 
conchoidal  fracture  and  clean  to  the  touch ;  it  bums  freely  with  a  cheerful 


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MINIKG  IN  NEW  ZEALAND. 


A. 
Par  Cent 

B. 
Percent. 

0. 

Percent. 

41-96 

39-42 

41-47 

35-49 

39-01 

37-28 

15-85 

16-71 

17-48 

6-69 

4-76 

3-76 

99-99 

99-99 

99-99 

0-838 

1141       . 

1-071 

blaze,  forming  a  hot  fire,  and  leaving  a  bulky  incandescent  ash.  The 
following  analyses  were  made  in  1890  by  the  writer  after  the  coal  had 
been  for  some  time  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  :— 


Fixed  carbon 
Hydrocarbons 
Water 
Ash 


Salphnr 

In  addition  to  the  property  described  above,  the  company  owns  a 
freehold  coal-bearing  estate  of  2,200  acres  near  Tokomariro,  41  miles 
from  Dunedin. 

The  working  of  the  Kaitangata  colliery  has  been  for  many  years  very 
free  from  accident,  but  in  1879,  before  the  enforcement  of  mining 
regulations  by  (Jovemment,  a  disastrous  explosion  occurred,  which  killed 
8  persons,  and  left  the  81  remaining  in  the  mine  to  die  of  after- 
damp. In  a  few  weeks  the  sum  of  £15,878  waa  subscribed  in  the 
colony  for  the  benefit  of  the  widows  and  orphans,  £10,000  of  this  sum 
being  raised  in  Otago  alone.  In  the  beginning  of  1890,  £14,681  had 
been  paid  in  direct  alimony  and  £563  in  expenses;  and  notwithstanding 
this  large  disbursement,  there  was  £11,645  left  to  the  credit  of  the  fund. 
The  writer  gathers  from  the  Colonial  newspapers  that  legislative  action 
has  been  taken,  and  that  the  capital  has  been  placed  in  the  hands  of 
trustees  as  a  fund  for  general  mining  accidents. 

Near  the  Kaitangata  Railway  and  Coal  Company's  mine,  a  company 
known  as  the  Castle  Hill  Coal-mining  Company  has  of  late  years  been 
engaged  in  sinking  a  shaft.  Some  time  ago  a  borehole  proved  the 
coal  at  400  feet,  and  a  small  shaft  was  put  down,  striking  a  good  seam. 
Since  then  a  18  feet  circular  shaft  has  been  commenced,  which  was  to  cut 
the  coal  at  600  feet.  Brickworks  were  established  and  a  railway  built  to 
connect  with  the  existing  private  line.  Unfortunately  a  great  deal  of 
water  and  running  sand  was  met  with,  which  overpowered  the  pumping 
appliances,  and  when  the  sinking  was  resumed,  after  standing  for  some 
time,  the  sides  were  found  to  be  damaged.  Information  under  date 
February,  1898,  is  to  the  effect  that  the  shaft  is  abandoned,  and  the 
workings  will  be  approached  by  a  cross-measure  drift  dipping  1  in  4^. 

Scattered  throughout  the  interior  of  Otago  are  numerous  small 
mines,  many  of  them  openwork,  and  employing  only  a  man  or  two  for 
a  short  time. 


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58  MINING  IN  NEW  ZEALAND. 

(8)  Southland  Coal-fields, 
The  coal-fields  situated  in  the  province  of  Southland  are  mostly  only 
of  local  importance.  Exception  to  this  may  perhaps  be  made  in  favour 
of  the  Nightcaps  Coal  Company's  freehold  mines  which  produced  14,485 
tons  in  1891.  There  appear  to  be  three  separate  mines  close  together, 
working  seams  varying  from  8  feet  to  15  feet  in  thickness  and  employing 
83  men.  The  fuel  is  bright,  black,  clean-looking,  burning  well  and 
containing — at  any  rate  as  regards  one  seam — much  fossil  resin.  The 
analysis  is  as  follows : — 

Percent 

Fixed  carbon  47*81 

Hydrocarbons         21'04 

Water  2924 

Ash 1-91 


100-00 

8.  Methods  of  Working. 

The  almost  universal  system  of  working  is  by  bord-and-pillar,  or  the 
Scottish  room-and-rance,  which  is  very  similar.  Generally  the  pillars 
are  left  much  too  small,  but  sometimes  the  plan  is  properly  laid  out  and  a 
fair  proportion  recovered.  The  roofs  vary  very  much :  on  the  westeni  coast 
of  the  South  Island,  hard  gritty  rock;  in  the  Kaitangata  mines,  hard 
coarse  conglomerate;  at  Kawakawa,  sandstone;  in  the  Waikato  and 
in  many  of  the  brown-coal-mines,  running  sand. 

There  are  on  the  oflScial  list  161  coal-mines,  but  of  these  20  are 

dormant,  and  the  remaining  141  may  be  classified  as  below.     In  some 

parts  of  the  oflScial  reports  two  or  more  pits  are  occasionally  grouped, 

which  accounts  for  the  discrepancy  noticeable  between  this  table  and 

that  given  on  page  78. 

Worked  by  shafts — 

Steam-power  used 8 

Horse-power  used 6 

Hand-power  used 2 


Total  worked  by  shafts 

,,, 

16 

Worked  by  adits— 

Engine-power  used  .. 

17 

Horse-power  used    .. 

25 

Hand-power  used    .. 

... 

31 

Not  stated    

4 

Total  worked  by 

adits 

•  a. 

77 

Opencast 

... 

... 

42 

Method  not  stated 

...        ... 

... 

6 

Total      141 


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MINIKa  IK  NEW  ZEALAHB.  59 

4.  Maohinert. 

Of  the  New  Zealand  coal-mines,  only  twenty-five  in  1891  utilized 
engine-power  for  raising  the  mineral,  and  this  is  accounted  for  by  the 
fact  that  so  much  outcrop  coal  is  found  level-free,  and  at  present  horse  or 
hand-power  is  usually  found  suflScient.  In  a  few  cases  good  winding  and 
hauling-engines  are  employed.  As  regards  ventilation,  it  appears  that 
there  are  three  fans,  five  furnaces,  one  steam-jet,  one  steam-jet  and 
furnace  combined,  while  two  mines  owe  their  ventilation  to  steam-pipes 
in  the  upcast  shaft.  Compressed  air  is  occasionally,  but  seldom,  employed; 
electricity  as  a  motive  power  in  the  one  case  already  noted.  Electric 
signals  are  common.  A  Harrison  coal-cutter  was  tried  at  Eaitangata, 
where  also  power  rock-drills  were  very  successfully  introduced.  Mechanical 
Btokers  were  tried  at  Greymouth  and  abandoned.  Telephones  are  very 
largely  utilized. 

5.  Legislation. 

In  many  respects  the  law  for  r^ulating  collieries  in  New  Zealand 
(The  Coal-mines  Act,  1891)  is  similar  to  that  at  present  in  force  in  G^reat 
Britain,  but  as  the  minerals  are  in  almost  every  case  Crown  property,  the 
subject  of  leases  forms  a  not  unimportant  portion.  The  valuable  coal-fields 
of  Westport  and  Greymouth  are  under  the  control  of  the  Harbour  Boards 
established  for  these  places,  and  although  leases  may  be  granted  by  the 
Minister  of  Mines,  the  application  must  first  come  before  the  local  body 
interested,  and  (apparently  to  guard  against  a  monopoly)  any  proposed 
amalgamation  of  leases  may  be  vetoed  by  the  Legislative  Assembly. 

The  following  are,  shortly  stated,  the  usual  terms  of  lease.  (1)  Term 
not  to  exceed  sixty-six  years ;  (2)  area  not  to  exceed  2,000  acres,  and  dead 
rent  to  be  not  less  than  Is.  or  more  than  6s.  per  acre ;  (8)  royalty  to  be 
not  less  than  dd.  or  more  than  Is.  per  ton  on  all  coal  raised ;  (4)  when  the 
royalty  exceeds  the  dead  rent,  the  latter  ceases ;  (5)  no  wayleave  or  surface 
rent  is  paid,  but  only  such  surface  as  is  actually  required  shall  be  taken ; 
(6)  any  person  requiring  "free  access,  egress,  and  regress"  upon  the  land 
leased  for  the  purpose  of  constructing  any  adit  or  tunnel,  shall  have 
power  to  do  so,  on  obtaining  the  sanction  of  the  Minister  of  Mines  (on 
the  reoonunendation  of  a  Warden  or  Commissioner  of  Crown  Lands),  but 
coal-mining  is  not  to  be  interfered  with;  (7)  all  timber  required  for 
mining  purposes  may  be  cut,  but  otherwise  timber  on  leases  is  reserved  to 
the  Grown ;  (8)  all  minerals  other  than  coal  are  excepted  ;  (9)  power  is 
reserved  to  the  Crown  to  resume  possession  on  paying  compensation; 
(10)  in  case  of  neglect  on  the  part  of  lessees  to  work  during  three 


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60  MINING   IN  NEW  ZEALAND. 

months,  notice  may  be  given  to  resmne:  if  this  be  neglected  for  an 
additional  three  monihs,  the  lease  may  be  determined,  and  ''the  Qneen, 
the  Governor,  or  the  Minister  may  enter  on  the  demised  premises  and 
take  possession  of  all  buildings  and  improvements  thereon."  The  next 
clause,  however,  states  that  the  lessee  shall  be  allowed  two  months  to 
remove  plant,  but  not  buildings.  (11)  If  at  any  time  "  the  lessee  neglects 
or  refuses  to  pump  the  water  out  of  any  underground  working  for  three 
days  after  the  inspector  has  given  the  lessee  notice  in  writing  to  do  so, 
the  inspector  may,  if  it  shall  appear  that  such  neglect  or  refusal  to  pump 
the  water  is  likely  to  be  prejudicial  to  the  safety  of  any  adjoining  mines, 
or  to  the  prejudice  of  the  Crown,  as  proprietor,  enter  upon  the  mine  and 
take  possession  of  the  pumping  machinery,  and  employ  men  to  work  such 
machinery  for  pumping  out  the  said  workings,  at  the  cost  of  the  lessee ; 
and  any  costs  so  incurred  shall  be  deemed  a  debt  due  to  Her  Majesty  by 
the  lessee."  (12)  The  lessee  is  bound,  if  so  required,  when  the  mine 
is  being  worked,  to  supply  the  Government,  or  any  private  railways, 
or  any  steamships  with  coal  at  current  rates,  each  railway  or  vessel  with 
not  more  than  seven  days'  supply — strikes  excepted. 

Inspectors  are  to  be  appointed,  every  one  of  whom  is  to  be  the  holder 
of  a  first-class  certificate,  and  the  clauses  relating  to  the  appointment  of 
managers  are  similar  to  those  in  the  British  Act. 

A  board  of  examiners  is  appointed  by  the  Government,  and  the 
examination  fee  is  £1,  which  enables  the  candidate,  in  case  of  failure,  to 
have  a  second  try,  within  three  months.  The  questions  set  by  the 
examiners  are  reasonably  easy  (see  Appendix  A).  There  are  two 
grades  of  certificates,  three  in  fact,  as  in  case  of  a  mine  employing  six 
men  or  less,  a  "permit  from  the  inspector"  is  required.  Not  only  for 
managers  are  certificates  requisite,  but  also  for  engine-drivers,  who  raise 
men  either  in  a  shaft  or  plane.  Due  provision  is  made  for  certificates 
of  service  in  both  cases.  "Any  person  of  good  repute  producing  a 
certificate  of  competency  from  any  duly  constituted  and  recognized 
authority  outside  the  colony "  can  obtain  a  certificate  either  as  manager 
or  eugine-driver. 

No  female  and  no  boy  (that  is,  under  13)  shall  be  employed  in  or 
about  any  mine,  and  the  next  section  enacts  that  "no  boy  or  youth  (that 
is,  under  18)  shall  be  employed  for  more  than  forty-eight  hom*s  in  any 
one  week,  exclusive  of  the  time  allowed  for  meals,  or  more  than  eight 
hours  in  any  one  day,  except  in  cases  of  emergency.  But  no  person 
shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  an  offence  against  this  Act  for  a  contravention 
of  that  part  of  this  section  relating  to  the  time  for  which  persons  shall 


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MINING  IN  NEW  ZEALAND.  61 

not  be  employed  below-ground,  if  he  prove  before  any  two  justices,  not 
being  interested  in  any  mine  in  which  such  person  or  persons  are 
employed,  that  there  were  special  circumstances  to  render  such  contra- 
vention necessary  for  the  proper  working  of  the  mine ;  and  that  such 
contravention  was  not  injurious  to  the  workmen  employed  in  the  mine." 

Section  29  enacts  that  no  person  under  18  is  to  have  chaise  of  an 
engine  used  for  lowering  or  raising  persons,  but  this  is  somewhat  super- 
fluous, as  Creneral  Rule  21  forbids  any  person  under  21  to  have  chaise 
of  any  steam-engine  or  boiler  used  in  the  working  of  any  mine. 

No  person  in  charge  of  steam  machinery  shall  work  for  more  than 
eight  consecutive  hours,  exclusive  of  the  time  used  in  raising  or  exhausting 
steam  and  of  meal  times,  and  of  ^^  any  time  in  which  such  person  is 
employed  in  case  of  breakage  or  other  emergency." 

Section  31  provides  for  the  usual  registers  of  "boys  employed  in 
connexion  with  the  mine,"  but  as  section  27  directly  prohibits  the 
employment  of  any  boy  **  in  any  capacity,"  these  registers  will  not  be 
largely  used,  and  the  numerous  references  to  this  class  of  labour  might 
well  have  been  left  out. 

Section  82  contains  the  General  Rules,  which  are  prefaced  by  the 
"  reasonably  practicable  "  clause. 

General  Rule  1  defines  the  "  adequate  amount  of  ventilation  to  be  not 
less  than  100  feet  of  pure  air  per  minute  for  each  man  and  youth,  and 
horse,  pony,  donkey,  or  mule,  which  shall  sweep  undiminished  along  the 
airway  through  each  working-place." 

By  General  Rule  15  cage  covers  are  defined  as  "constructed  of  iron 
not  less  than  one  quarter  part  of  an  inch  thick,  and  shall  be  securely  hung 
on  hinges  and  fitted  with  sloping  sides,  so  as  to  be  readily  lifted  upwards 
by  persons  within  the  cage." 

General  Rule  20  requires  ropes  and  chains  to  be  tested  "to  carry 
twice  the  weight  of  the  ordinary  load"  before  being  used,  and  also, 
where  men  are  raised  and  lowered,  a  similar  test  is  to  be  applied  once 
in  every  three  months. 

Boilers  have,  according  to  General  Rule  32,  to  be  subjected  to  a 
hydraulic  test  once  in  every  six  months.  It  may  be  mentioued  that 
inspectors  under  "The  Inspection  of  Machinery  Act,  1882,"  make  regular 
examinations  of  all  steam-boilers,  and  grant  a  certificate,  beyond  the 
pressure  stated  on  which  the  boiler  is  not  to  be  worked.  A  charge  is 
made  for  this  certificate,  exceeding — (the  writer  speaks  from  memory) — 
very  considerably  the  premium  paid  in  England  by  boiler-insurance  com- 
panies for  examination  and  insurance. 


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62  MINING  IN  NEW  ZBALAND. 

In  mines  liable,  "  in  the  opinion  of  an  inspector,"  to  an  inundation  or 
inburet  of  water,  such  escape  roads  as  may  be  prescribed  by  the  Minister 
of  Mines  are  to  be  constructed,  and  also  provision  for  the  safety  of  the 
men  during  the  period  of  any  inundation  or  inburst  of  water  in  such  mine. 

General  Rule  41  contains  the  "two  hours  before  commencing  work" 
examination  clause. 

General  Rule  44. — All  safety-lamps  are  to  be  of  a  pattern  approved 
by  the  inspector. 

Special  rules  are  not  framed  as  in  Great  Britain,  but  are  contained 
in  an  appendix  to  the  Act.  There  is,  however,  power  for  framing  any 
additional  rules  which  may  be  advisable. 

Section  44. — It  is  compulsory  on  the  inspector  to  immediately  investi- 
gate any  complaint  from  a  miner. 

Section  45. — Every  mine  where  there  are  underground  workings — 
(N.B. — In  1891  there  were  ten  mines  on  the  list,  all  with  underground 
workings,  and  furnishing  a  total  output  of  869  tons,  or  under  37  tons 
each  per  annum) — is  required  to  keep  a  plan,  which  must  be  made  up 
every  six  months  by  a  certificated  manager,  a  duly-qualified  mining 
engineer,  or  a  surveyor  authorized  as  such  by  the  Surveyor-General,  A 
copy  to  be  sent  to  the  inspector,  who  may,  if  he  thinks  fit,  have  a  check- 
survey  made,  and  if  the  original  plan  should  prove  to  be  incorrect  the 
inspector  can  recover  the  cost  of  the  check.  Power  is  reserved  for  the 
cancellation  or  suspension  of  certificates. 

Section  52  provides  that  "Any  accident  occurring  in  a  mine  shall 
be  prifna  facie  evidence  that  such  accident  occurred  through  some 
n^ligence  on  the  part  of  the  owner." 

Section  53  provides  for  compensation  of  employes  injured  through 
non-observance  of  the  Act,  and  may  best  be  given  in  extenso: — "  If  any 
person  employed  in  or  about  any  mine  suffer  any  injury  in  person,  or  be 
killed,  owing  to  the  non-observance  in  such  mine  of  any  of  the  provisions 
of  this  Act,  such  non-observance  not  being  solely  due  to  the  negligence  of 
the  person  so  injured  or  killed,  or  owing  in  any  way  to  the  negligence  of 
the  owner  of  such  mine,  his  agents  or  servants ;  the  person  so  injured,  or 
his  personal  representatives,  or  the  personal  representatives  of  the  person 
so  killed,  may  recover  from  the  owner  compensation  by  way  of  damages 
as  for  a  tort  conmiitted  by  such  owner ;  and  the  amount  of  such  compen- 
sation with  the  costs  of  recovering  the  same  when  determined,  shall 
constitute  a  charge  on  the  mine  and  mining  plant,  in  or  about  which  such 
person  was  so  employed,  and  all  charges  arising  under  the  provisions  of 
this  section  shall,  as  between  themselves,  be  paid  rateably. 


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MINING  IN  NEW  ZEALAND.  68 

Such  compenaation  may  be  recovered  under  the  provisions  of  *  The 
Deathfiby  Accident  Compensation  Act,  1880,'  or  'The  Employers'  Liability 
Act,  1882,'  which  shall  respectively  be  applicable,  according  to  the  circum- 
sfcances  of  each  particular  case ;  subject,  however,  that  notice  of  injury 
having  been  sustained  may  be  given  under  the  last-mentioned  Act  at  any 
time  within  three  months  from  the  occurrence  of  the  accident  causing  the 
injury,  instead  of  within  six  weeks  as  in  the  said  Act  mentioned. 

Nothing  in  this  section  contained  shall  take  away  from  any  person 
any  right  to  take  proceedings  in  respect  of  a  claim  for  compensation  for 
injury  or  death  by  accident,  which  he  may  have  under  any  other  Act 
other  than  this,  if  he  prefer  to  proceed  under  such  Act,  but  in  such  case  he 
shall  forfeit  any  right  he  may  have  to  take  proceedings  under  this  section. 

Notices  of  accidents  and  the  provisions  of  coroners'  inquests  are  as 
usual,  but  as  distances  are  so  great  the  Minister  of  Mines  may  authorize 
some  person  to  act  for  the  inspector.  The  writer  remembers  a  case  when  a 
police-constable,  who  acted  in  this  capacity,  reported  that  the  evidence 
*' disclosed  no  blame  to  the  Mines  Department."  Where  practicable  one- 
half  the  jurors  are  to  be  miners. 

Section  59  deals  with  the  resumption  of  land  for  mining  purposes,  and 
has  an  important  bearing  on  the  question  of  mineral  rights.  The  pro- 
visions are  as  follows : — 

(1)  All  lands  which,  previous  to  the  commencement  of  this  Act, 
have  been  alienated  or  agreed  to  be  alienated  from  the  Crown, 
whether  by  way  of  absolute  sale,  or  lease,  or  for  any  lesser 
interest,  shall,  with  the  consent  of  the  owner  or  occupier 
thereof  respectively ;  and 

(2)  All  lands  which,  after  the  commencement  of  this  Act,  may  be  so 
alienated,  or  agreed  to  be  so  alienated,  from  the  Crown,  but  not 
expressly  for  coal-mining  purpose,  shall,  without  the  consent  of 
owners  or  occupiers  thereof  respectively ;  and 

(8)  All  native  lands  which  have  been  alienated  since  the  dOth  day 
of  August,  1888,  or  which  hereafter  may  be  alienated  by  the 
native  owners  thereof,  to  any  person  other  than  Her  Majesty, 
except  lands  alienated  expressly  for  mining  or  coal-mining 
purposes; 

Shall  be  liable  to  be  resumed  by  Her  Majesty  for  coal-mining  purposes 

on  paying  full  compensation  to  the  owner  and  occupier  thereof  for  the 

value  of  the  land  and  improvement  so  resumed. 

Section  60  enables  the  Governor,  on  behalf  of  Her  Majesty,  to  contract 

with  the  owner  or  lessee  of  any  coal-mine  either  in  native,  private,  or 


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64  MINING   IN  NEW  ZEALAND. 

Grown  lands  for  the  acqoisition  of  such  mine,  "  Provided  that  resamption 
and  acquisition  under  this  and  the  preceding  section  shall  not  be  complete 
nor  take  effect  until  a  resolution  of  the  Legislative  Council  and  the  House 
of  Representatives  shall  have  been  passed  sanctioning  the  same.  Any 
land  so  resumed  or  acquired  may  be  worked  by  the  Minister  on  behalf  of 
Her  Majesty,  unless  the  Legislative  Council  and  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives shall  by  resolution  otherwise  determine." 

Section  61  deals  with  the  question  of  access  to  and  wayleave  through 
lands  required,  and  is  of  great  interest  as  bearing  on  the  recommendations 
of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Mining  Royalties,  whose  report  has  recently 
been  published,  "Where,  for  the  purpose  of  working  any  mine,  it  is 
required  to  carry  any  work  on,  or  over,  or  under  any  private  land,  or  to 
take  any  such  land,  or  any  part  thereof,  for  mining  works  in  connexion 
with  such  mine,  the  Governor,  on  the  application  and  at  the  proper  cost 
and  charges  of  the  owner  of  the  said  mine,  may  take  such  land,  or  any 
part  thereof,  under  *The  Public  Works  Act,  1882,'  as  for  a  public  work 
within  the  meaning  of  such  Act.  All  provisions  of  the  said  Act  shall 
apply  accordingly  for  the  purpose,  but  the  effect  of  the  Proclamation 
taking  the  land  shall  be  to  vest  such  land  in  the  applicant  instead  of  in 
Her  Majesty,  and  all  proceedings  after  the  aforesaid  Proclamation  in 
respect  of  compensation  and  otherwise  in  respect  of  complying  with  the 
said  Act  shall  be  had  against  the  applicant,  who  shall  be  deemed  to  be  the 
respondent,  and  shall  be  liable  in  respect  of  such  taking  in  the  same 
manner  and  to  the  same  extent  as  Her  Majesty  or  the  Minister  for  Public 
Works  would  be  in  respect  of  taking  land  for  a  Government  work  under 
the  said  Act." 

Section  63.  (Encroachment.)  This  section  authorizes  the  Minister 
of  Mines,  on  affidavit  of  any  person  claiming  to  be  legally  or  equitably 
interested  in  any  mine,  to  authorize  the  inspector,  together  with  a  "  mining 
surveyor  or  experienced  miner,"  to  enter  and  survey,  but  the  complainant 
is  first  to  deposit  a  sum  not  exceeding  £100  as  security. 

Section  65  deals  with  the  flooding  of  adjoining  mines,  and  enables  any 
owner  of  a  mine,  who  shall  have  left  a  barrier  not  less  than  83  yards 
thick  along  his  entire  rise  boundary,  to  recover  from  his  neighbour,  who 
may  wilfully  or  negligently  allow  any  water  to  overflow  or  percolate,  a 
proportionate  amount  of  the  cost  of  pumping  such  water. 

Section  68  requires  the  usual  annual  returns  and  also  "any  other 
imformation  connected  with  the  mine  the  Minister  may  from  time  to 
time  require,"  and  it  authorizes  the  Minister  to  publish  the  result  of  such 
returns. 


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lUSVSQ  IN  NBW  ZEALAND.  65 

Section  69  is  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  provision  in  the  Act.  It 
is  a  direct  and  heavy  tax  on  a  particular  industry,  and  goes  beyond  the 
contract  entered  into  between  the  Crown  and  the  lessees,  opening  up  a 
question  of  the  gravest  importance.  As  an  attempt  to  relieve  distress  it 
is  no  doabt  admirable,  but,  as  was  expressed  by  a  leading  mining  man 
in  New  Zealand  in  a  recent  letter  to  the  writer,  "  The  principle  of  such 
a  fund  I  do  not  object  to,  but  I  think  it  should  be  subscribed  to  by 
all  parties  concerned,  starting  with  the  lessor  and  ending  with  the  men.'* 

Its  provisions  are,  shortly  stated,  as  follows : — The  owner  of  every  coal- 
mine shall  contribute  one  halfpenny  per  ton  on  the  output  of  bituminous 
mines  and  one  farthing  per  ton  on  any  JUignite  sold,  during  the  preceding 
three  months,  and  shall  pay  this  into  the  Post  Office  Savings  Bank  to  the 
credit  of  a  fund  to  be  called  the  "  Sick  dtid  Accident  Fund"  in  connexion 
with  the  miners*  associiatiou  pf  the  district.  In  case  of  there  being  no 
miners*  association  the  money  is  to  be  paid  to  the  credit  of  a  fund  known 
as  "The  Coal  Miners'  Relief  Fund.*'  These  moneys  are  to  be  operated 
upon  ''only  by  the  persons  appointed  in  that  behalf  by  the  miners* 
association  of  the  district,  in  accordance  with  regulations  to  be  from  time 
to  time  made  by  the  Governor,**  and  where  no  such  association  exists  the 
Minister  of  Mines  and  the  Public  Trustee  are  to  act.  The  inspectors  of 
mines  are  empowered  to  examine  colliery  accounts  in  order  to  see  if  the 
owners  pay  up  regularly,  and  the  penalty  for  not  doing  so  (which  goes  to 
the  credit  of  the  fund)  is  two  pounds  for  every  pound  or  fraction  of  a 
pound  not  paid.  There  is  one  redeeming  feature.  In  case  of  damages 
for  injury,  the  amount  to  which  a  workman  may  be  entitled  from  the 
accident  fund  is  to  be  taken  into  account. 

The  final  section  in  the  Act  provides  that  no  contract  for  the  supply 
of  coal  shall  be  binding  in  case  of- a  strike. 

6.  Accidents. 

As  will  be  observed  on  reference  to  the  following  tables,  coal-mining 
in  New  Zealand  is  subject  to  approximately  the  same  proportion  of 
accidents  as  occur  in  other  countries,  but  owing  to  the  limited  number  of 
men  employed,  the  death-rate  per  thousand  is  very  variable  (Fig.  4, 
Plate  III.).  Many  of  the  fatalities  have  occurred  in  small  mines,  where 
the  owners  have  neither  sufficient  capital  to  provide  proper  appliances, 
nor  in  many  cases  the  skill  requisite  for  using  them,  were  they  at  hand. 
Thus,  in  1888,  when  there  were  four  deaths,  half  this  number  took  place 
in  two  mines,  with  a  joint  output  of  30  tons. 

VOL.  V.-1MI-8B.  5 


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66 


MINING  IN   NEW  ZEALAND. 


Prior  to  1879,  statistics  of  mining  accidents  were  not  kept,  and  the 
following  table  therefore  commences  with  the  year  1880 : — 


Table  op  Number  op  Deaths  peb  1,000  Persons  Employed  in 
New  Zealand  Coal  and  Lignite  Mines. 


Year. 

Deaths  par  1.000. 

1880 2-50 

1881     

,,        ,,,         ,,, 

1-04 

1882     

.*        *•. 

1-91 

1883     

1884     

1-60 
2-34 

1886 

••        ••• 

206 

1886     

000 

1887     

..         ..« 

2-66 

1888     

,,         ,,, 

2-36 

1889     

2-37 

1890    

••         ••• 

4-33 

1891     

.. 

2*86 

Average  from  1879  inclusive  (but  not  connt- 
ing  the  Eaitangata  explosion,  which 
occarred  prior  to  the  enforcement  of 
mining  r^ulations)  to  the  end  of  1891 


233 


The  following  tables  show  the  classification  of  accidents  to  the  end  of 
1887  :— 

Table  op  Pebcentage  op  Total  Accidents  in  Coal-mines,  New  Zealand^ 

1879  to   1887  INCLUSIVE  (NOT  COUNTING  THE  KAITANOATA  EXPLOSION). 


Above- 

PerOeat 

Falls  of  ground 

1-23 

Trucks     

1-86 

Powder 

1-23 

Miscellaneous     

5-55 

Below— 

Falls  of  roof  and  sides 

...       66-79 

Trucks     

...       14-81 

Explosions  of  powder 

4-32 

„           „  fire-damp 

4-94 

Falls  of  timber 

4-32 

Miscellaneous     

1-23 

8haft«— 

Falls  down         

0-62 

In  shafts 

3-08 

986 


86-41 


3-70 


99-97 


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MINING  IN  NEW  ZEALAND. 


67 


Of  deaths  alone  the  percentage  for  that  period  was  as  follows : 


Canse 
Explosion  of  gas 

Falls  below  ground 

Tracks  below 

Shafts :        

Falls  of  gravel  above  ground 
Asphyxiated  in  shafts 


Per  Gent 
4-51 

68-18 
908 
4-54 
9-08 
4-54 

99-96 


Thus  77*26  per  cent,  of  the  total  fatalities  is  due  to  falls  of  ground. 

The  average  number  of  men  employed  per  life  lost  from  1879  to  1891 
(inclusive)  was  428'7,  and  the  average  tonnage  raised  per  life  lost  was 
149,524  tons. 

7.  Total  Consumption,  Outpxtt,  Imports  and  Exports,  btc. 

With  only  one  very  small  exception,  the  total  consumption  of  coal 
has  gone  on  from  year  to  year  steadily  increasing,  as  will  be  seen  on 
reference  to  the  following  table  and  to  Fig.  5,  Plate  III. : — 

Table  of  Total  Consumption  op  Coal,  New  Zealand. 


Year. 

QiuQtIlyiB 
Tom. 

IncreMe. 

DeoTOMe. 

Peroentace 
iDoraMe. 

DeereaM. 

1877 

294.980 









1878 

832,445 

37,466 

— 

12-7 

— 

1879 

382,099 

49,654 

— 

1409 

— 

1880 

416,200 

34,101 

— 

8-4 

— 

1881 

460,598 

44,398 

— 

10-6 

— 

1882 

503,609 

43,011 

— 

8-5 

— 

1883 

538,132 

34,523 

— 

6-41 

— 

1884 

622,921 

84,789 

— 

16-7 

- 

1885 

638,894 

15,973 

— 

2-56 

— 

1886 

651,364 

12,470 

— 

1-96 

— 

1887 

652,899 

1,535 

— 

0-20 

— 

1888 

687,658 

84,659 

— 

5-30 

— 

1889 

675,218 

— 

12,340 

— 

1-79 

1890 

714,932 

89,714 

— 

6-88 

— 

1891 

765,019 

50,087 

— 

6-64 

— 

The  total  output  (Fig.  5,  Plate  III.)  also  shows  a 
except  in  the  year  1889. 


increase. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


68 


HINIMO  IN   NEW  ZEALAKD. 


Table  op  Coal  Outputs,  New  Zealand. 

Y«w. 

QnanUtyin 
Too., 

laermac. 

DeoTOMe. 

^ssssr! 

Decrease. 

1877 

138,984 

•      __ 

_ 

1 

__ 

1878 

162,218 

23,234 

— 

16-71       1 

— 

1879 

231,^18* 

69,000 

— 

42-5 

— 

1880 

299.923 

68,705 

— 

29-7 

— 

1881 

837,262 

37,339 

-^ 

12-4 

— 

1882 

378,272 

41,010 

— 

;    10-8 

— 

1883 

421,764 

43,492 

— 

10-5 

— 

1884 

480,831 

59,067 

— 

'      140 

— 

1885 

511,063 

30,232 

— 

1        6-3         1 

— 

1886 

634,353 

23,290 

— 

4-5         1 

— 

1887 

658,620 

24,267 

— 

4-5         1 

— 

1888 

613,896 

55,275 

— 

1       9-9        , 

— 

1889 

586,445 

— 

27,460 

— 

4-4 

1890 

637,397 

60,952 

— 

1       8-7        ' 

— 

1891 

668,794 

31,397 

— 

4-6         1 

— 

Imparts.— The  imports  of  coal  into  New  Zealand  will  probably  never 
entirely  cease,  for  though  the  native  coal  is  plentiful  and  good,  New 
South  Wales  fuel  will  always  command  a  market.  This  arises  mainly 
from  the  fact  that  the  latter  colony  is  a  very  large  customer  for  New 
Zealand  farm  produce,  and  the  vessels,  rather  than  come  back  empty, 
bring  coal  as  a  return  freight.  The  following  table  and  Fig.  6,  Plate  III., 
show  the  history  and  position  of  the  trade  : — 

Table  op  Imposts  op  Coal  into  New  Zealand. 


Year. 

Qiumtityln 

T0D8. 

Inoreaae. 

Dccreaoo. 

Incpoaae. 

Peroenta«e 
Deoreaae. 

1877 

155,996 

_ 

_ 

_ 

1878 

174,148 

18,162 

— 

11-6 

— 

1879 

158,076 

— 

16,072 

— 

9-2 

1880 

123,298 

— 

34,778 

— 

220 

1881 

129,962 

6,664 

— 

512 

— 

1882 

129,582 

— 

380 

— 

0-2 

1883 

123.640 

— 

6,042 

— 

4-66 

1884 

148,444 

24,904 

— 

201 

— 

1885 

130,202 

— 

18,242 

— 

12-28 

1886 

119,873 

— 

10,329 

— 

7-93 

1887 

107,230 

— 

12,643 

— 

10-65 

1888 

101,341 

— 

5,889 

— 

6-49 

1889 

128,063 

26,722 

— 

26-37 

— 

1890 

110,939 

— 

17,124 

— 

13-87 

1891 

125,318 

14,379t 

— 

12-96 

— 

•  The  abnormal  increase  of  the  year  1879  over  that  preceding  is  due  to  the  &ct 
that  a  large  number  of  coal-mines  which  had  not  previously  received  official  notice 
were  at  that  time,  owing  to  the  enforcement  of  legislation  relating  to  mining,  added 
to  the  list.     By  this  means  the  number  on  the  record  was  raised  from  30  to  90. 

t  This  increase  was  caused  to  some  extent  by  the  strikes  in  New  Zealand,  which 
caused  foreign  coal  to  be  poured  in.  For  instance,  one  line  of  steamers  imported 
4,621  tons  from  Europe. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


MINING  IN  NEW  ZEALAND. 


69 


Betusn  Showing  the  Quantity  and  Value  of  Coal  Impobted  into 
New  Zealand  dubino  the  Yeae  ending  Dsgembee  81st,  1891. 

Oountries  whence 
Imported. 

United  Kingdom       

Victoria  

New  South  Wales     

Queensland     


Quantity 

Value. 

in  Tons. 

£. 

962 

1,030 

1,246 

1,304 

120,775 

..       116,320 

2,335 

1,768 

Total 


125,318 


£120,422 


Exports. — In  considering  the  exports  of  coal  from  the  colony,  it  is 
necessary  to  distinguish  between  that  which  is  actually  exported  to  a 
foreign  country  there  to  be  consumed,  and  that  which  is  put  on  board 
the  direct  steamers  to  be  burned  on  the  voyage.  In  Table  A,  this 
quantity  is  counted,  where  obtainable,  as  consumed  within  the  colony ; 
and  in  table  B,  it  is  treated  as  export.    (See  Fig.  6,  Plate  III.) 


Table  A.— Expobts  op  CtoAL  fbom  New  Zealand  (Counting  Dibect 
Steamer. Consumption  as  Consumed  in  the  Colony). 


Year. 

Quantity  in 
Tons. 

Increaae. 

Decreaoe. 

PerotfUtage 
Increase. 

Feroentage 
Deoreaie. 

1878 

3,921 

^^ 



" 



1879 

7,195 

3,274 

..  — 

83-5 

— 

1880 

7,021 

— 

174 

— 

2-4 

1881 

6,626 

— 

395 

— 

5-6 

1882 

4,245 

—  . 

2,381 

— 

36-9 

1883 

7,172 

2,927 

— 

68-9 

— 

1884 

6,354 

— 

818 

— 

11-4 

1885 

2,371 

— 

3,983 

— 

62-6 

1886 

• 

~ 

— 

— 

— 

1887 

12,951 

— 

— 

— 

— 

1888 

23,783 

10,832 

— 

83-6 

1 

1889 

39,290 

16,507 

— 

65-2 

— 

1890 

33,404 

6,886 

— 

— 

14-9 

1891 

29,003 

4,311 

— 

— 

12-9 

*  The  figures  for  1886  ai-e  not  obtainable.    This  has  destroyed  the  continuity  of 
the  table. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


70 


MINING   IN  NEW  ZEALAND. 


Table  B.— Expobts  of  Coal  fbom  New  Zealand  feom  1884,  with  the 
DiBECT  Steam f.b  Consumption  tbbated  as  Expobt. 


Yen. 

QiunUtyin 
Tods. 

InoreMO. 

DeonMe. 

PeroenUge 
InoTOMe. 

Peroentace 
DeereMo. 

1884 

6,354 









1886 

45,493 

89,139 

— 

— 

— 

1886 

47,037 

1,544 

.  — 

3;39 

— 

1887 

44,129 

— 

2,908 

— 

6-18 

1888 

68,087 

23,968 

— 

64-29 

— 

1889 

82,670 

14,683 

— 

21-4 

— 

1890 

76,388 

— 

6,282 

— 

7-6 

1891 

99,464 

23,076 

— 

30-2 

— 

The  following  table  gives  details  of  the  countries  to  which  the  above 
amounts  for  1891  were  sent : — 

Bbtubn  Showing  the  Quantity  and  Value  of  Coal  Ezfobts  fbom 
New  Zealand  dubing  the  Teas  ending  Degembeb  31st,  1891. 


OoantriM  (o  which 
Exported. 
United  Kingdom*      ... 

Quantity 

iuTona. 

70,371 

Vftlue. 
78,060 

Victoria           

167 

102 

New  South  Wales      ... 

8,952 

8,269 

Qaeensland     

70 

81 

South  Australia 

7,701 

3,360 

Western  Australia     ... 

89 

46 

Tasmania        

19 

22 

Norfolk  Island 

74 

80 

Fiji  Islands     

3,421 

2,602 

U.S.  America  (East  Coast) 

2 

2 

Chili 

407 

609 

South  Sea  Islands     ... 

8,201 

7,636 

Total 

99,464 

£100,668 

Of  this,  2,968  tons,  valued  at  £3,848,  was  foreign  coal,  the  rest  was 

New  Zealand  produce. 

Table  of  Pbopobtion  of  Impobted  Coal  to  Total  Consumption, 
New  Zealand.    (See  Fig.  7,  Plate  III.) 

Peroentaceof 


1878 
1879 
1880 
1881 
1882 
1883 
1884 


Imported  Goal 

to  Total 
Oonsumpiion. 

52-3 

1886 

41-4 

1886 

29*6 

1887 

28-21 

1888 

26-7 

1889 

22-9 

1890 

23-8 

1891 

Percentage  of 
Imported  Coal 

to  Total 
Oonsomption. 

20-3 
18-4 
16-4 
14-7 
18-9 
16*6 
16-37 


^  For  direct  steamers. 


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MINING  IN  NEW  ZEALAND. 


71 


The  following  tableB,  and  Fig.  5,  Plate  III.,  show  the  ontput  of  coal 
and  percentage  increase  or  decrease  per  annum  for  each  island  : — 

Output  op  Coal,  Nobth  IbiiAnd,  Nbw  Zealand. 


Yen. 

Ontpotln 

IncreaM. 

Deoreaw. 

Peroentoge 
InoroMe. 

Peroeatace 
DeoreMe. 

1878 

58,900 

^ 



__ 

1879 

75,070 

16,170 

— 

27-4 

— 

1880 

96,346 

21,275 

— 

28-3 

— 

1881 

90,734 

— 

5,611 

— 

618 

1882 

96,151 

5,417 

— 

5-9 

— 

1883 

92,762 

— 

3,389 

— 

3-5 

1884 

103,903 

11,241 

— 

10-81 

— 

1885 

111,734 

7,831 

— 

7-63 

— 

1886 

104,794 

— 

6,940 

— 

6-2 

1887 

98,710 

— 

6,084 

— 

5-8 

1888 

108,538 

9,828 

9-9 

— 

1889 

94,255 

^ 

14,283 

— 

13-16 

1890 

115,917 

21,662 

— 

22-9 

— 

1891 

104,064 

— 

11,863 

— 

10-2 

Output  of  Goal,  South  Island,  Nkw  Zealand. 


Yev. 

C^ta 

InoreMe. 

DMT6M0. 

Poroentace 
Increaae. 

Peroeotogo 
I>«oraaae. 

1878 

103,318 

^ 







1879 

156,148 

52,830 

— 

51-1 

— 

1880 

203,248 

47,100 

~ 

301 

— 

1881 

246,529 

43,281 

— 

21-2 

— 

1882 

282,121 

35,592 

— 

14-4 

— 

1883 

329,002 

46,881 

— 

13-07 

— 

1848 

376,828 

48,826 

— 

14-8 

— 

1885 

899,829 

22,452 

— 

5-9 

— 

1886 

429,559 

30,230 

— 

7-57 

— 

1887 

469,910 

30,351 

— 

7-06 

— 

1888 

505,367 

45,447 

— 

9-87 

— 

1889 

492,190 

— 

13,167 

— 

2-6 

1890 

521,480 

29,290 

— 

5-9 

— 

1891 

564,730 

43,250 

— 

8-29 

— 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


72 


MINING   IN  NEW  ZEALAND. 


The  following  tabfe  indicates  more  clearly  how  the  ratio  of  increaae  in 
the  South;  Island  exceeds  that  in  the  North : — 


Table  Showing  Pkbcentagb  op  Total  Output  op  Coal  Contbibutbd 

BY  THE  NOBTH  ISLAND,  NBW  ZEALAND. 

Peroentaffe 
Contrfbuted  by 
North  iBluid. 
21-8 
21-8 
17-67 
17-6 
16-07 
18-18 
15-5 


1878        

Peroentogo 

North  iBluid. 
36-3 

1885 

1879        

32-46 

1886 

1880         

23-1 

1887 

1881         

26-9 

1888 

1882         

25-4 

1889 

1883        

17-2 

1890 

1884        

21-6 

1891 

The  following  table  gives  some  details  of  the  outputs  of  the  various 
districts  for  the  years  1890  and  1891,  and  the  approximate  total  output 
since  records  have  been  kept : — 

Table  showing  the  Output  op  Coal  pbom  the  vabious  Mining  Distbicts, 

AND  the  INCBEASE  OB  DECBEASB  POB  THE  TEABS  1890  AND  1891,  TOGBTHEB 

WITH  THE  Total  Appboximate  Quantity  op  Coals  Pboduced. 


DisMct 

Output. 

Inoreaae. 

Decrease. 

Approxliiiate 

Total  Output 

toDecSlst, 

1891. 

1890. 

1891. 

Kawakawa 

30,367 

28,264 

_ 

2,113 

769,246 

Whangarei 

19,633 

16,228 

— 

3,406 

265,860 

Waikato 

64,729 

56,869 

— 

8,860 

696,629 

Mokau      

1,188 

3,713 

2,526 

— 

4,901 

Pelorus  (Picton)  ... 

— 

— 

— 

— 

711 

West  Wanganui 
and  CoUingwood 

4,092 

3,328 



764 

40,114 

Westport 

170,406 

206,184 

35,778 

— 

1,191,867 

Reefton    

6,010 

4,666 

— 

1,464 

47,740 

Greymouth 

118,847 

146,361 

26,604 

— 

,1,622,030  ! 

Malvern 

15,083 

14,775 

— 

308 

274,328  1 

Timani     

1,430 

1,488 

68 

— 

5,442 

Otago        

176,428 

164,870 

— 

11,558 

2,218,982 

Southland 
Totals 

29,184 

24,178 

— 

5,006 

194,236 

637,397 

668,794 

64,865 

33,468 
V'" — — — — ^ 

7,131,986 

Net  increj 

we,  81,397 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


MINIKO  IN  N£W  ZBALAKD. 


78 


The  following  table  classifies  the  diJSFerent  varieties  of  coal : — 

Tablk  showing  the  Difpebent  Classes  of  Coal  fbom  the  Mines  in 

New  Zealand. 


Nam«ofOoaL 

Ontpat  of  OoftL 

InoreMe. 

DeoreMe. 

Approximate 

ToUI  Outpat 

toDecSUi, 

1881. 

1890. 

1891. 

Bituminoas 

323,712 

387,839 

64,127 

— 

8,531,749 

Pitch         

124,598 

96,979 

— 

27.614 

1,112,966 

Brown      

171,725 

161»904 

— 

9,821 

2,275,364 

Lignite     

Totals 

17,367 

22,072 

4,705 

— 

211,908 

637,397 

668,794 

68,832 

37,436 

7,131,986 

Net  increase,  31,397 

The  following  table  gives  an  indication  of  the  relative  number  of  men 
employed  and  average  output  per  man  in  the  different  sized  mines.  It 
supports  what  the  writer  has  mentioned  relative  to  the  inconstant  employ- 
ment and  consequent  small  output  of  the  very  small  pits  : — 

Table  showing  the  Numbeb  of  Coal-mines  in  Opebation,  the  Numbeb 
OF  Men  Employed,  and  the  Output  of  Coal  peb  Man. 


Number 
ofMUnas 
Working. 

Number  of  Miners 
Employed  in  each  Mine. 

Total 

Number 

of  Men 

Employed. 

Output  of 

Goal  During 

1881. 

Arerage 

96 

16 

6 

16 

1  to    4  men  in  each 

5  to  10    „ 
11  to  20    „ 
21  men  and  upwards 

Totals 

196 

107 

96 

1,295 

Tom. 
49,416 

30,587 

22,141 

566,650 

Ton*. 
252 

285 

233 

437 

133 

1,693          668,794 

395 

The  discrepancy  between  the  number  of  mines  given  above  and  that 
given  in  the  table  on  page  58  has  been  akeady  explained. 

8.  Quantity  of  Existing  CoAii. 

The  diflficulty  of  determining  the  total  quantity  of  coal  contained  in 
any  country  has  been  well  exemplified  in  the  case  of  Great  Britain,  and 
it  is  obviously  impossible  in  a  place  like  New  Zealand  to  make  even  an 
approximate  estimate.  Sir  James  Hector,  however,  whose  knowledge  of 
the  coal-fields  is  unequalled,  has  published  his  opinion  on  this  point,*  as 
follows : — 

♦  Report  of  WesUand  Coal-Jieldt  CommUtee,  1889,  page  104. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


74  MINING   IX   NBW  ZBiJiAND. 

Rough  Estimate  of  the  Pbobable  Area  and  Quantities  Contained 
IN  the  New  Zealand  Coal-fields. 


Acreage  of 

No. 

Name. 

CoAl-measnrea. 

Ton^. 

1 

Kawakawa 

19,200 

11,360,000 

2 

Waikato 

64,000 

51,200,000 

3 

Mokau 

16,800 

32,720,000 

4 

Collingwood    ... 

46,000 

16,000,000 

5 

Karamea 

13,400 

6,360,000 

6 

Wangapeka 

12,800 

6,520,000 

7 

Matiri 

10,800 

4.700,000 

8 

BuUer 

...       115,200 

138,240,000 

9 

Reef  ton 

12,800 

5,120,000 

10 

G^rey      

44,800 

53,760,000 

11 

Clarence 

6.400 

2,560,000 

12 

Malvern 

9,600 

7,680,000 

13 

Somers 

1,920 

768,000 

14 

Kakahu 

3,200 

1,280,000 

16 

Bhag  Point 

19,200 

8,600,000 

16 

Green  Island  ... 

9,600 

11,280,000 

17 

Clutha  

32,000 

51,000,000 

18 

Winton 

16,000 

12,800,000 

19 

Nightcaps 

32,000 

25,000,000 

Total          

.      443,948,000 

9.  Wages,  Strikes,  Benefit  Clubs,  Condition  of  the 
Miners,  etc. 

Wages  have  already  been  referred  to,  and  vary  from  about  12s.  per 
day  on  the  West  Coast,  where  living  is  expensive,  to  78.  below  ground  and 
6s.  above  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  South  Island. 

The  following  are  some  prices  for  contract  work  in  1890 : — Stone- 
drift,  6  feet  by  6  feet,  mostly  conglomerate,  dipping  1  in  7,  haulage 
supplied  by  owners,  otherwise  the  price  includes  labour  and  explosives,  £3 
lOs.  6d.  per  yard  ;  drifting,  6  feet  by  6  feet  in  coal  shales,  including  tim- 
bering, £1  19s.  per  yard ;  coal-heading,  4s.  to  7s.  6d.  per  yard,  and  4s. 
per  ton  for  coal,  and  Is.  for  slack  ;  coal-getting  (in  Canterbury),  8s.  per 
ton  for  all-over  1  inch  riddle,  regular  work. 

It  is  always  difficult  to  calculate  the  earnings  of  miners,  especially 
when  the  number  employed  is  somewhat  variable,  as  is  the  case  in  New 
Zealand.  The  method  employed  in  the  last  Mines  Department  report  of 
the  colony  is  as  follows : — The  total  quantity  of  coal  raised  in  tons  is 
multiplied  by  six  shillings,  which  is  supposed  to  represent  the  average  cost 
in  wages  of  getting  a  ton  of  coal.  This  gives  £200,638,  and  as  1,693 
men  were  employed  (1,277  below  and  416  above  ground)  the  average 
earnings  of  each  is  £118  lOs.  2d.  per  annum,  a  very  large  sum,  but  one 
which,  when  the  cost  of  living  is  taken  into  account,  must  be  heavily  dis- 
counted before  being  compared  with  the  remuneration  in  Great  Britain. 

Strikes  unfortunately  are  not  unheard  of,  and  have  been  carried  to  a 
pitch  unknown  in  England.    An  institution  known  as  the  ^^  complete 


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MINING   IN  NEW   ZEALAND.  75 

boycott "  has  been  established,  which  requires  some  explanation.  A  and 
B  (say)  own  a  coal  mine,  and  also  a  woollen  factory.  A  is  also  a  partner 
in  a  merchant's  business.  The  men  at  the  colliery  strike  or  are  locked  out. 
The  labour  leaders  give  notice  that  A  and  B  are  to  be  boycotted.  No 
member  of  any  carriers'  union  is  to  touch  a  bale  bound  for  the  factory  or 
a  package  from  the  store.  No  railway  or  steamship  is  to  carry  a  single 
article  bearing  the  name  of  either  the  woollen  company  or  the  merchant's 
business,  under  penalty  of  an  immediate  cessation  of  work  on  the  part  of 
all  hands.  This  desperate  style  of  warfare  which  involved  workmen  who 
had  nothing  whatever  to  do  with  the  matter  under  dispute,  and  simply 
amounted  to  a  display  of  strength,  wrought  its  own  cure,  and  ended  in  a 
bitter  disappointment  to  the  men — ruin  in  fact  to  many — enormous  loss 
of  trade  to  the  Colony,  and  great  privation  for  women  and  children. 
The  capitalists  at  once  rose  to  the  occasion  and  worked  their  undertakings 
with  "  free  labour." 

On  the  West  Coast  of  the  South  Island  in  1891,  it  became  necessary  to 
employ  non-union  men,  working  under  police  protection,  and  housed  and 
fed  on  the  works.  In  order  to  ensure  their  safe  transit  from  the  railway 
train  to  the  mine,  special  constables  were  enrolled  and  the  somewhat 
unusual  course  was  adopted  of  swearing  in,  as  temporary  guardians  of  the 
peace,  about  100  of  the  most  prominent  union  men,  who  were  accordingly 
drawn  up  in  line  to  preserve  order,  while  those  who  were  coming  to  take 
their  work  marched  between. 

Benefit  societies  and  sick-and-accident  clubs  were  conmion  at  all  the 
larger  works,  but  the  direct  taxation  of  the  owners  to  provide  for  require- 
ments of  this  nature  will  presumably  have  checked,  if  it  has  not  kiUed, 
these  organizations. 

As  regards  wages,  money  is  tolerably  plentiful,  and  men  can,  if  they 
like,  save.  The  West  Coast  is  wet  and  rough,  and  living  is  expensive ; 
houses  too,  as  in  all  new  countries,  are  at  a  premium,  but  land  can  easily 
be  obtained,  and  the  style  of  dwelling  considered  in  the  colonies  sufficient 
for  a  small  family  does  not  take  long  to  run  up,  and  is  easily  sold.  In 
the  agricultural  districts,  the  colliers  frequently  have  a  piece  of  ground 
and  often  keep  a  horse,  while  shooting  and  fishing  are  in  places  to  be  had 
at  very  small  cost.  Free  education  for  children  is  usually  at  hand,  but  if 
not,  and  there  should  be  a  railway,  they  travel  free  to  the  nearest  station 
where  there  is  a  school.  Libraries  and  reading  rooms,  schools  of  mines, 
and  other  means  of  passing  the  time  profitably  are  plentiful,  and  there 
are  so  many  local  bodies  that  a  considerable  amount  of  attention  is  taken 
up  with  what  may  be  called  "parish  politics." 


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76  MINING  IN   NEW  ZEALAND. 

While  colliery  working  in  some  parts  of  New  Zealand  is  an  operation 
requiring  great  perseverance  and  large  capital,  there  are  many  places 
among  the  brown  coals  and  lignites  where  a  pick  and  shovel,  with  a  few 
days'  or  weeks'  labour,  will  suffice  to  open  what  is  undoubtedly  a  coal- 
mine. Nearly  all  over  the  interior  of  Otago  are  patches  of  lignite,  some- 
times hidden  by  the  surface-soil  and  vegetation,  and  sometimes  exposed  in 
the  beds  of  watercourses.  When  these  seams  penetrate  deep  into  the 
soil  an  adit  is  required  instead  of  a  simple  opencast  working ;  and  then, 
in  addition  to  the  actual  tools  required  for  breaking  ground,  comes  the 
necessity  for  the  purchase  of  a  truck,  a  little  sawn  timber  for  rails,  and 
some  prop-wood,  which  is  very  dear  in  places,  costing  as  much  as  Is.  per 
foot  for  a  6  or  6  feet  prop.  Even  in  this  case  the  requisite  outlay  is  not 
large,  and  for  men  who  have  a  love  of  independence,  an  undertaking  of 
this  nature,  even  though  it  may  not  hold  out  any  prospect  of  riches,  ofifers 
the  inducement  of  freedom  with  frequently  a  comfortable  living.  Many 
proprietors  of  these  small  concerns  get  the  coal,  tram  it  out,  and  cart  it 
to  the  consumer.  This  system  dispenses  entirely  with  the  middleman, 
and  brings  to  the  fore  a  class  of  self-reliant  hard-working  men  who 
occasionally  are  fortunate  enough  to  escape  over-competition,  and  by  dint 
of  perseverance  and  labour  attain  a  competency. 

As  years  go  on  the  opportunities  of  working  without  capital  will  grow 
less  plentiful,  and  as  railways  increase  the  trade  will  fall  into  the  hands  of 
the  larger  companies. 

10.  Conclusion. 

The  writer  trusts  that  in  the  foregoing  pages  he  has  given  an  impartial 
and  faMy  accurate  account  of  coal-mining  in  New  Zealand.  The  figures 
dealt  with  are  in  many  cases  small,  as  compared  with  the  armies  of  work- 
men and  stupendous  output  of  the  mother  country,  but  the  colony  is 
equipped  with  stores  of  mineral  fuel  which  will  some  day  materially  help 
it  to  assume  its  proper  position  among  the  nations  which  are  springing  up 
under  the  old  flag.  As  an  integral  part  of  this  great  empire  its  future 
prospects  cannot  be  without  interest  to  those  who  desire  to  see  English- 
speaking  miners  and  mining  engineers  supreme  in  all  quarters  of  the 
globe. 

Part  IY.  Kauri-gum. 
As  a  fossil  resin  dug  from  the  earth  kauri-gum  has  undoubtedly  a 
place  among  the  mineral  productions  of  the  colony,  and,  as  will  be  seen 
from  the  following  table,  it  forms  a  by  no  means  unimportant  article  of 
export.  It  is  the  fossil  turpentine  of  the  Kauri  (Dammar a  australis)^ 
which  is  still  found  growing  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  colony,  and 


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MIKING  IN  NEW  ZEALAND.  77 

occurs  as  far  sonth  as  Taranaki.  Though  used  principally  in  the  manu- 
facfcure  of  varnish,  it  is  stated  to  be  employed  as  a  substitute  for  amber, 
which  it  very  much  resembles.  As  the  method  of  mining  for  kauri-gum 
is  very  simple — nothing  more  is  required  than  a  spear  with  which  to  find 
it,  a  spade  to  dig  it  out,  and  a  sack  to  carry  it  away  in — it  is  a  frequent 
refuge  for  people  who  have  not  suflBcient  capital  to  embark  in  any  other 
industry,  who  are  not  over-fond  of  work,  but  like  a  free  and  open-air  life, 
and  who  desire  to  obtain  something  which  is  readily  convertible  into 
cash.  As  the  climate  of  the  region  where  it  occurs  is  very  mild,  and  the 
country  comparatively  open,  but  little  hardship  need  be  encountered  by 
the  "  gum-digger." 

Table,  showing  Export  of  Kaubi-gum  fob  the  tkabs  1890  and  1891, 

AND    ALSO    THE    TOTAL    AMOUNT    EXPORTED    FROM    JANUARY    21 8T, 

1853,  TO  December  31st,  1891. 

Toni.  Value. 

1890 7,438  ...        £378,563 

1891 8,388  ...        £437,066 

From   January,    1853,    to 

December  Slat,  1891     ...         143,018^  ...     £5,831,743 

Apropos  of  kauri-gum,  the  mineral  ambrite  may  be  mentioned,  though 
it  has  not  as  yet  been  commercially  utilized.  It  occurs  plentifully  in  many 
places,  and  has  been  described  by  Dr.  von  Hochstetter,*  as  follows : — 
''  Fossil  resin  embedded  in  the  coal,  sometimes  in  pieces  from  the  size  of 
a  fist  to  that  of  a  man^s  head,  but  usually  only  in  smaller  groups.  It  is 
transparent,  very  brittle,  and  has  a  conchoidal  and  quite  glossy  fracture. 
Colour  changes  from  a  bright  yellow  to  dark  brown ;  is  easily  ignited, 
much  more  so  than  kauri-gum,  burns  with  a  steady  iast-sooting  flame, 
and  develops  a  bituminous  rather  than  an  aromatic  smell.  Mr.  Richard 
Maly  found  as  a  mean  of  three  chemical  analyses  of  this  fossil  resin  : — 

Carbon  

Hydrogen       

Oxygen  

Ash       

10000 

yielding  the  formula  C*"  H"  0*.    It  shows  great  indifference  to  solvents  ; 

by  friction  it  becomes  electric  ;  hardness,  2  ;  specific  gravity,  1*034  at  12 

degrees  Beamur.    It  is  sufficiently  characterized  to  deserve  a  special  name, 

but  it  comes  so  near  to  real  amber  in  composition  that  it  deserves  the 

name  of  ambrite." 


Computed. 

76-63 

76-65 

10-58 

10-38 

— 

12-78 

0-19 

0-19 

The  writer  has  now  to  conclude  with  a  word  of  explanation  what  has 
been  to  him  a  congenial  labour.  The  colony  of  New  Zealand  is  an  exten- 
sive and  varied  tract  of  country,  embracing  every  variety  of  topography, 

*  New  Zealand,  1863,  English  edition,  page  79. 


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78  MINING  IN  NEW  ZEALAND. 

a  complex  and  representative  geology,  and  a  very  large  number  of  mineral 
products.  In  endeavouring  to  lay  before  this  Institute  an  account  of  the 
present  condition  of  mining  in  that  colony  the  greatest  difficulty  ex- 
perienced has  been  not  in  obtaining  materials  for  a  paper,  but  in  choosing 
from  the  great  mass  available,  sufficient  to  give  an  idea  of  the  mineral 
riches  and  methods  of  working  them,  without  drifting  into  prolixity  and 
superabundant  detail.  The  writer  has  had  perpetually  before  him  the 
fear  of  incurring  reproach  by  referring  in  too  eulogistic  terms  to  the 
future  prospects  of  New  Zealand  mining  enterprise,  while  it  has  been  his 
constant  endeavour  to  do  justice  to  the  resources  of  the  country  in  which 
he  lived  and  laboured  for  so  many  years. 

To  the  small  but  intrepid  army  of  geological  and  mining  workers,  of 
whose  publications  he  has  made  full  use,  he  begs  to  make  every  acknow- 
ledgment, and  to  the  Agent-General  in  London  for  New  Zealand  (Mr. 
W.  B.  Perceval),  he  desires  to  return  his  most  cordial  thanks  for  informa- 
tion courteously  and  freely  rendered. 


APPENDIX  A. 
Examinations  fob  Mine  Makagebs*  Certificates  under  "The  Coal 

Mines  Act,  1891,"  of  New  Zealand. 
The  examinations  last  four  days,  and  there  were  in  1892  ninety-one  written 
questions,  as  well  as  an   oral  examination  on  the  provisions  of  the  Act.    The 
following  are  examples  of  the  questions  : — 

(1)  Describe  your  operations  in  detail  in  sinking  through  the  following  strata: 
Surface  clays  and  gravel,  12  feet ;  strong  sandstone,  60  feet ;  soft  clay,  40  feet ; 
strong  sandstone,  20  feet ;  conglomerate,  40  feet.  (This  is  one  of  seven  questions 
occupying  together  three  hours.) 

(2)  How  would  you  work  a  coal-seam  12  feet  thick,  with  good  roof  and  pave- 
ment lying  at  1  in  20  ?  Give  all  dimensions,  and  state  what  percentage  of  coal  you 
consider  you  could  win. 

(3)  What  area  would  you  have  supported  on  timber  in  working  the  pillars  in  a 
6  feet  thick  seam  of  hani  coal  with  an  ordinary  sandstone  roof?  Explain  when 
and  how  you  would  draw  the  props. 

(4)  An  upcast  20  fathoms  deep  has  a  chimney  60  feet  high  added  to  it :  what 
is  the  difference  in  water-gauge  and  volume  of  air  circulating  if  5,000  cubic  feet 
was  passing  at  first? 

(5)  What  is  the  condition  in  the  character  of  a  coal  that  renders  it  liable  to 
spontaneous  combustion,  and  what  condition  of  the  mine  is  chiefly  instrumental  in 
allowing  this  property  in  the  coal  to  come  into  action  ? 

(6)  Explain  the  method  of  using,  and  give  sketch  of,  the  clip  yon  prefer  in  endless- 
rope  haulage. 

(7)  Does  the  workable  coal  of  New  Zealand  occur  in  one  or  more  positions  in  the 
coal-formation  ? 

(8)  Give  the  composition  of  an  average  lignite  and  of  a  brown  coal.  What  is 
their  distinguishing  feature  from  a  bituminous  coal,  apart  from  caking? 

(9)  The  candidate  must  produce  a  plan  showing  the  style  of  workings  in  a 
colliery,  with  the  surface  taken  up  for  at  least  twenty  acres  in  the  vicinity  of  the  shaft, 
and  the  underground  workings  in  different  coloured  ink.     He  must  describe  how  be 


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MININO  IN  NEW  ZEALAND. 


79 


woald  connect  them  with  the  surface  in  the  event  of  there  being  only  one 
shaft.  The  levels  and  main  heading  must  have  assumed  traverse  calculated  in 
detail,  and  showing  latitude  and  departure  for  each  bearing. 

(10)  10  degs.,  200  links ;  4  degs.,  700  links ;  S  degs.,  200  links ;  all  rising  at  an 
angle  of  80  degs.;  thence  a  drive  runs  186  degs.,  100  links,  also  rising,  and  at  an 
angle  of  10  dega.:  what  are  the  vertical  and  horizontal  distances  between  start  and 
finish?  

(11)  What  is  the  ^130421  and  the  ^29791 1 


APPENDIX  B. 
As  Parts  I.  and  II.  of  this  paper  do  not  bring  the  exports  up  to  the  end  of  1891, 
the  following  table  is  given  as  showing  the  total  mineral  production  of  the  colony, 
to  the  latest  date  available : — 

Table  Showing  the  Quantity  and  Value  op  Gold  entbbbd  fob  Expobta- 

TION,    AND    also    THE    QUANTITY    AND    VALUE    OP    OTHEB    MlNEBALH 
PBODUCED,  fob  THE  TEAB   1891,  AND  ALSO  THE  TOTAL  QUANTITY  AND 

Value  since  Januaby,  1853. 


Name  of  Ifetal  or  Mineral 

For  the  year  ending 
December  31st.  im. 

^S£Sntes2;\s,"^ 

Quantity. 
Oza. 

.   Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

PreclouBMetali. 

£ 

Oza. 

£ 

Gold       

251,996 

1,007,488 

12,070,217 

47,433,117 

Silver 

28,023 

5,151 

582,633 

140,148 

Totel  Gold  and  SUver    ... 

280,019 

1,012,639 

12,662,860 

47,573,265 

Mineral  Prodnoe.  indliuSlnx  Kauri 
gam. 

Tone. 

£ 

Tone. 

£ 

Copper  ore       

^ 

4 

1,394* 

17,866 

Chrome  ore      

— 

— 

5,666 

37,367 

Antimony  ore 

413 

4,950 

2,786 

41,140 

Manganese  ore 

1,163 

2,634 

16,4564 

63,925 

Haematite  ore 

A 

1 

52« 

226 

Mixed  minerals          

2 

6 

14,068 

69,041 

Coal  exported 

91,664 

91,173 

510,364 

506,958 

Coke  exported 

2,544 

8,668 

11,486 

17,899 

Coal  output  of  mines  in  colony 

677,130 

288,565 

6,468,181 

3,234,090 

Kauri-gum      

Total  quantity  and  value  of 
minerals 

8,388 

437,056 

148.018^ 

5,831,743 
9,810,266 

681,294^ 

828,047 

7,173,47214 

Value  of  gold  and  silver  as 
above           

Total  value  of  minerals  pro- 
duced, indnding  gold  and 
silver            

1,012,639 

47,673,265 

1,840,686 

57,383,520 

CORRIGENDA. 
TraM.  Fed.  lutt.,  vol.  iv.,  page  81,  line  13,  for  "  check  "  read  "  cause.*' 


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80  DISCUSSION — MINING  IN  NEW  ZEALAND. 

Mr.  T.  E.  FoRSTBB  said  he  had  had  the  pleasure  of  seeing  one  of  the 
New  Zealand  coal-mines,  by  the  assistance  of  Mr.  Binns,  who  was  kind 
enough  when  he  (Mr.  Forster)  was  in  Dunedin  to  show  him  the  Kaitangata 
colliery  mentioned  in  the  paper.  He  was  interested  by  the  ingenious 
way  in  which  the  manager  had  contrived  to  overcome  many  of  the 
difficulties.  He  would  like  to  ask  Mr.  Binns  whether  all  the  coal  on  the 
West  Coast  was  capable  of  being  made  into  coke.  He  gathered  from  the 
paper  that  the  proposal  to  supply  New  Zealand  coke  to  Broken  Hill  had 
not  been  a  success  ;  if  the  coal  was  so  free  from  ash^  as  stated,  it 
seemed  strange  that  it  had  not  been  able  to  compete  with  English  coke. 
Mr.  Binns  showed  how  the  Colonial  Government  took  over  and  resumed 
land  for  the  purpose  of  colliery-railways  or  mining-works.  The  law  was 
practically  the  same  in  Australia  so  far  as  railways  were  concerned,  but  it 
most  be  remembered  that  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  country  are 
very  different  from  those  existing  at  home.  Everything  which  gave 
empbyment  in  Australia  was  considered  as  a  matter  of  public  utility,  but 
that  standard  of  excellence  had  not  been  yet  attained  in  this  country. 

Prof.  Hull  said  Mr.  Binns'  paper  seemed  to  contain  a  most  valuable 
synopsis  of  the  coal-fields  of  New  Zealand,  in  which  the  writer  had  gathered 
into  a  very  small  space  a  large  amount  of  useful  information.  It  was  a 
remarkable  fact,  notwithstanding  the  proximity  of  the  two  countries,  that 
the  coal-fields  of  New  Zealand  should  be  geologically  of  much  more  recent 
date  than  those  of  Australia.  The  great  coal-bearing  tracts  of  Australia 
were  either  of  the  same  Carboniferous  age  as  the  coal-fields  of  the  British 
islands,  or  very  nearly  verging  thereon,  but  those  in  New  Zealand  were 
very  much  more  recent,  being  of  the  period  on  the  borderland  between 
the  Secondary  and  Tertiary  rocks,  consequently  they  could  not  expect  the 
coals  to  be  so  highly  mineralized  as  they  were  in  Australia,  in  the  British 
Isles,  or  in  America.  He  would  not  have  considered  the  Westport  coal 
to  be  a  good  steam  coal,  and  it  was  remarkable  that  it  should  have  given 
such  excellent  results  as  were  indicated  on  page  45.  He  was  going  to 
ventui'e  on  a  generalization  which  he  hoped  might  not  be  considered 
out  of  place.  It  was  to  the  effect  that  wherever  the  Anglo-Saxon 
race  had  colonized,  whether  in  America,  in  Australia,  or  in  New  Zealand, 
that  race  always  seemed  to  find  at  hand  the  materials  necessary  for  the 
development  of  its  industries  to  the  highest  degree.  These  coal-fields  in 
New  Zealand  might  have  lain  for  incalculable  ages  useless  in  the  hands  of 
the  Maoris,  for  many  years  would  have  passed  before  they  would  have 
developed  a  steam-engine  or  sunk  a  shaft. 


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MINING  IN  NEW  ZEALAND.  81 

The  President  moved  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Biniis  for  his 
excellent  paper,  which  was  an  exceedingly  valuable  contribution  to  the 
Transactions^  and,  he  thought,  would  form  a  useful  work  of  reference  in 
connexion  with  the  working  of  mines  in  New  Zealand. 

Mr.  T.  E.  Forster  seconded  the  motion,  which  was  cordially  adopted. 

Mr.  BiNNS  said  he  was  exceedingly  obliged  to  the  President  for  pro- 
posing, and  to  the  members  for  carrying,  the  vote  of  thanks.  He  thought 
it  a  sufficient  privilege  to  be  allowed  to  publish  what  little  he  knew  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  Institution,  without  being  specially  thanked  for  it. 
The  West  Coast  coal  made  very  good  coke,  but  the  freedom  from  ash  was 
not  always  the  same  as  in  the  Westport.  Greymouth  coal  contained  from 
8'81  to  6'45  per  cent,  of  ash,  and  that  seam  was  made  into  coke  to  a  large 
extent,  but  it  did  not  appear,  from  the  recent  report  of  the  Minister  of 
Mines,  to  have  been  a  success. 


Mr.  G.  E.  Collins  read  the  following  paper  by  Mr.  Arthur  L.  Collins 
on  "Fire-setting :  The  Art  of  Mining  by  Fire  ": — 


VOL.  v.— ifioa^. 


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82  FIBB-SBTTING :  THE  ART  OF  linriKO  BY  FIRB. 


FIEE-SETTING:  THE  ART  OF  MINING  BY  FIRE. 


By  ARTHUR  L.  COLLINS. 


In  olden  times,  before  the  invention  or  common  use  of  explosives,  the 
best  method  available  for  mining  through  the  hardest  kind  of  rock,  snch 
as  resisted  the  use  of  hammer  and  wedge,  was  by  means  of  fire.  It  is  true 
that  other  methods  were  probably  known ;  thus  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  the  Egyptians  possessed  tools  capable  of  boring  holes  into  the  hardest 
rocks,*  and  commonly  split  off  huge  blocks  by  driving  wedges  into  a  series 
of  such  holes,  just  as  granite  is  often  split  by  plug-and-feather  at  the 
present  day.  It  is  also  possible  that  the  northern  nations  were  able  to  break 
rocks  by  allowing  water  to  freeze  in  similar  tightly-plugged  holes,  but 
each  of  these  processes  would  be  more  applicable  to  quarrying  than  to  real 
mining  underground.  The  ancients  generally  seem  to  have  avoided 
working  in  the  hardest  rocks :  thus  the  extensive  rock-cut  temples  and 
tombs  of  Syria,  Egypt,  and  India  are  mostly  excavated  in  soft  sandstone 
or  limestone — they  seem  indeed  often  to  be  merely  natural  caverns, 
enlarged  and  chiselled  by  man.  Where  masses  of  exceptionally  hard  rock 
were  met  with,  work  was  either  suspended  or  the  ground  loosened  by 
previous  heating. 

Nothing  is  more  natural  than  that  the  effect  of  fire  on  rocks  should 
have  been  known  at  a  very  early  period ;  no  one  who  has  lighted  a  fire  on 
rock  can  help  noticing  the  rending  effect  of  the  heat.  The  same  thing 
would  be  seen  after  any  natural  forest  fire ;  several  examples  on  a  very 
extensive  scale  have  recently  come  under  the  writer's  notice  in  Australia, 
where  bush  fires  of  great  extent  are  frequent,  and  all  the  rock  cropping  out 
at  the  surface  is  seen  to  be  cracked  and  split  over  great  areas.  Similar 
forest  fires  were  supposed  to  have  led  to  the  discovery,  by  some  Phoenician 
sailors,  of  silver  in  the  Pyrenees,  according  to  Diodorus.t 

The  fire-setting  process  seems  to  have  been  known  to  the  JewsJ  and 
to  the  Greeks;  while  Diodorus  describes  its  use  in  the  gold-mines  of 
Arabia  and  Ethiopia,  where  gold  seems  to  have  occurred  in  white  shining 
veins  of  quartz,  glistening  with  all  sorts  of  other  bright  metals.  He  says : 
"  The  earth  which  is  hardest  and  full  of  gold  they  soften  by  putting  fire 

•  The  coffer  in  the  Great  Pyramid  shows  marks  of  jewel-tipped  boring-tools, 
according  to  Mr.  Flinders  Petrie. 

f  Diodoras  Sicalus,  book  t.,  chap,  ii.,  page  320  of  Booth's  translation.  See 
also  LacretiuB,  Creech's  translation,  vol.  ii.,  page  572. 

I  Jeremiah,  chap,  xziii.,  verse  29. 


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FIBS-SJBTTINa:  THE  ABT  OF  ULISXNQ  BY  FIBB.  88 

under  it,  and  then  work  it  out  with  their  hands.''*  In  describing  the  gold 
mines  in  Spain^  Pliny  says :  "  In  mining  either  by  shaft  or  by  gallery 
barriers  of  sUex  are  met  with,  which  have  to  be  driven  asunder  by  the  aid 
of  fire  and  vinegar  ....  which  method  fills  the  galleries  with  suffocating 
vapours  and  smoke."t  According  to  Pliny,  vinegar  poured  upon  the 
heated  rocks  in  considerable  quantities  has  the  effect  of  splitting  them, 
when  the  action  of  fire  alone  has  been  unable  to  produce  any  effect ;  j:  and 
according  to  Livy,  Hannibal  appears  to  have  used  a  similar  method  for 
removing  rocks  during  his  passage  of  the  Alps.  This  use  of  vinegar  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  tried  in  later  times,  although  water  has  often  been 
used  to  suddenly  cool  the  heated  rock. 

For  many  centuries  after  the  breaking  up  of  the  Boman  power,  mining 
seems  to  have  fallen  to  a  very  low  ebb  throughout  Europe ;  but  already  in 
the  eleventh  century  it  appears  that  mines  of  argentiferous  galena  were 
re-opened  in  Sardinia  by  the  Pisans,  and  shafts  sunk  to  a  depth  of  600  feet 
by  fire-setting  ;§  and  as  early  as  1359  it  was  used  in  Germany  on  the 
fiammelsberg ;  |  indeed,  it  seems  to  have  been  the  usual  mining  process 
for  very  hard  rock  during  the  Middle  Ages.  Agricola,  writing  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  gives  a  complete  explanation  of  the  method  then  in  use, 
with  rude  drawings  illustrating  the  process.!  According  to  Serlo,  its  use 
was  retained  at  Mansfeld  up  to  1721,  and  at  the  Rammelsberg  mines  up 
to  1878,  about  250  years  after  the  introduction  of  powder  for  blasting 
purposes ;  for,  as  will  presently  be  shown,  it  was  not  because  of  the  superior 
efficiency  of  powder  that  the  fire-setting  method  was  discontinued,  but 
lather  because  of  the  increasing  cost  of  firewood  and  labour,  and  a  growing 
regard  for  the  health  of  the  workpeople. 

It  does  not  appear  that  the  process  was  ever  much  used  in  Cornwall ; 
it  is  not  mentioned  by  either  Carew  or  Pryce,  although  T.  Tonkin,  who 
added  notes  to  an  edition  of  the  former  writer  in  1783,  says:  "  When  they 
meet  with  rocks  and  very  hard  ground,  ....  with  such  as  require  not 
only  three  weeks  but  three  months  to  hew  so  many  feet  through  the  same, 
they  formerly  burnt  furze  and  faggots,  etc.,  to  break  the  rocks ;  but  that 
proving  insufficient,  and  very  often  fatal  to  the  workmen  by  the  sudden 
change  of  wind,  which  drove  down  the  smoke  upon  them  and  suffocated 
them,  they  of  late  had  recourse  to  gunpowder."**  All  the  earliest  workings 
in  Cornwall  seem  to  have  been  stream  works,  or  open  cuttings  on  the 

♦  Diodoras  Siculug,  book  iii.,  chap,  i.,  page  158  of  Booth's  translation.  f  ^^^^7j 
Natural  History,  book  xziii.,  chap.  ^.  of  Bostock  and  Riley's  translation. 
X  Ihid.j  book  xxiii.,  chap,  xxvii.  §  Karsten,  Sygtem  der  Metallurgies  Berlin, 
1831.  g  Serlo,  Leitfaden  zur  Berghauliunde,  1884,  page  326.  ^  Georgii  Agri- 
cola,  De  Re  Metallica,  Basileae,  1567,  page  80 ;  and  the  same  writer's  Bergwerch 
Bach,  1621.        •  ♦  R.  Hunt,  British  Mining,  page  67. 


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84  FIRB-SBTTING  :  THE  AfiT   OP  MINING  BY   FIRB. 

backs  of  the  lodes,  which  are  generally  fairly  soft  in  their  richest  parts ; 
90  that  fire-setting  would  have  been  unnecessary.  In  later  times,  when 
deep  mining  became  more  frequent,  the  increasing  scarcity  of  suitable 
timber  would  have  prevented  any  wide  use  of  the  method;  for  the  forests 
which  had  originally  covered  the  country  were  almost  entirely  destroyed 
to  supply  the  various  tin-smelting  works,  as  lamented  by  Pryce,  in  1778.* 
There  is  however  much  evidence  of  fire-setting  having  been  largely 
used  in  other  parts  of  the  British  Isles.  Thus  Hunt  quotes  from  Mr. 
Weston,  of  Machynlleth  (1858),  who  had  opened  up  an  ancient  shaft 
about  50  feet  deep,  where  an  iron  pick  and  other  tools,  supposed  to  be 
Roman,  were  found,  "  We  find  at  the  bottom  of  our  work  much  burnt 
wood,  and  it  is  evident  they  had  recourse  to  fire  as  an  agent — ^whether  to 
soften  the  rock,  or  to  heat  it  for  the  purpose  of  throwing  water  on  it  to 
crack  it,  I  am  not  skilled  to  say,  but  that  fire  was  used  is  certain."t 
Again,  on  page  166,  Hunt  quotes  a  paper  by  Mr.  John  Taylor,  in  the 
IVansacti^ns  of  the  Oeological  Society  of  Duhlin^  from  which  it  appears 
that  when  the  Milltown  lead  mine  in  Clare  was  re-opened,  they  found, 
besides  wooden  and  iron  tools,  "  the  remains  of  fires  which  had  evidently 
been  made  use  of  to  crack  and  loosen  the  masses  of  calcareous  spar  and 
carbonate  of  lime,  in  which  the  ore  of  this  mine  is  chiefly  embedded." 
The  Cumberland  miners,  in  1282,  claimed  a  right  to  take  any  wood  near 
their  mines,  and  to  use  it  for  burning,  dispersing,  and  smelting.J  An 
ancient  charter  illustrating  the  mode  of  working  in  the  Mendips  (about 
1 480)  gives  a  rude  attempt  at  representing  fire-setting,  with  "  This  is  a 
fire"  written  under  it ;  and  clause  lOof  the  charter  itself  ("The  Lawes  of  ye 
Myne  deeps  ")  provides  for  the  burial  of  the  bodies  of  men  killed  under- 
ground by  accident,  or  by  stifling  with  fire.  §  The  old  laws  regulating  mining 
in  Derbyshire,  dating  from  1601,  provide  that  fires  may  only  be  set  in  a  rake 
or  vein  after  working  hours  (4  p.m.),  and  that  due  notice  must  be  given  to 
neighbours ;  also  that  when  two  veins  are  divided  by  a  thin  parting,  which 
may  be  mined  by  firing  (t.^.,  fire-setting)  at  one  side  only,  they  shall  be 
workable  by  one  miner ;  ||  thus  clearly  showing  that  the  process  was  in 
common  use.  The  mode  of  working  the  narrow  Derbyshire  veins  is  clearly 
explained  in  Farey's  Derbyshire  (1811).  "Previous  to  the  use  of  gun- 
powder in  mining,  fires  of  dry  wood  were  made  against  the  forefield  of  the 

vein,  which,  owing  to  the  heat,  loosened  and  slappeted  off By 

means  of  these  fires  it  is  surprising  to  see  what  narrow  veins,  mere  *  serins,' 
the  old  men  contrived  to  work  for  great  distances  into  the  rock,  using 

•  W.  Pryce,  Mineralogiu  Cornuhiensis^  book  v.,  chap,  iii.,  page  281.  f  ^'  Hunt, 
British  Mining^  page  40.  %  Tbid.^  page  148.  §  Ihid.^  pages  134  and  137. 
II  J.  Mander,  Derbyshire  yfiner's  Glossary ^  1824,  pages  100  and  129. 


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FIRB-SKTTIKG  :  THE  ART  OF  MINING  BY  FIRE.  85 

long-handled  rakes  or  hoes  to  draw  out  the  loosened  ore  and  spar."* 
Altogether,  Hunt  seems  himself  to  supply  ample  evidence  to  refute  his 
own  conclusion  (page  568)  that  "  it  is  only  under  the  most  peculiar  cases 
that  it  (i>.,  the  application  of  fire)  is  ever  used." 

Fire-setting  has  also  been  employed  by  the  Indians  of  New  Mexico 
from  time  immemorial  in  the  mining  of  turquoises  at  Los  Cerillos,t  and 
other  places  in  America ;  and  according  to  Prof.  H.  S.  Munroe,  it  is  still 
used  very  largely  for  driving  long  tunnels  in  Japan.J 

Many  of  the  old  iron-mines  of  Sweden  and  Norway  were  once  largely 
worked  by  the  fire-setting  process  ;  the  rocks  being  generally  extremely 
hard  and  fairly  dry,  and  firewood  being  very  abundant.  These  mines  can 
generally  be  easily  identified,  by  the  absence  of  boreholes,  the  frequency 
of  rounded  or  conchoidal  cavities  in  the  roof  where  the  flame  has  played 
fiercely  upon  it ;  and,  more  characteristically  still,  by  the  waste-heaps  or 
"  burrows  "  being  composed  of  thin  flakes  of  split-off  rock,  sometimes  as 
much  as  a  square  foot  in  area,  with  a  thickness  of  less  than  an  inch. 
During  the  past  summer  the  writer  had  occasion  to  visit  some  of  the 
old  iron-mines  near  Arendal,  in  Norway,  where  the  three  processes  of 
fire-setting,  blasting  with  powder  in  large  holes,  and  with  dynamite  in 
small  holes,  have  been  successively  in  use  ;  and  the  difference  in  general 
appearance  of  the  levels  and  waste-heaps  would  be  obvious  to  the  most 
casual  observer. 

The  use  of  fire-setting  has  not  been  by  any  means  confined  to  the 
sinking  of  shafts  and  the  drivage  of  levels :  it  is  even  better  adapted  for 
working  stopes  and  rises,  from  the  better  upward  action  of  the  flames, 
and  the  absence  of  water.  Cancrinus,  writing  in  1767,  says  that  at 
Rammelsberg,  when  the  walls  of  the  vein  were  strong,  most  of  the  ore 
was  stoped  by  fire-setting,  and  gives  an  illustration  showing  how  the 
"  deads "  were  built  up,  and  wood  placed  on  the  top,  just  under  the 
ground  to  be  stoped,  so  that  the  fire  could  act  with  the  best  effect ;§  and 
Gallon  reproduces  an  old  figure  from  Delius,  showing  that  lengths  of  40 
yards  or  more  of  stope  were  lit  up  and  attacked  by  fire  at  one  operation.! 
When  working  on  this  scale,  the  wood  would  naturally  be  fired  at  the  end 
of  the  week,  so  as  to  be  burnt  out  when  the  miners  were  ready  to  begin 
the  next  week's  work.  It  is  possible  that  the  origin  of  the  modem 
method  of  "overhand  stoping" — so  early  developed  in   Germany — is 

•  R.  Hunt,  British  Mining^  page  144.        f  Report  of  the  United  States  Census 
Office^  Joum,  Soc,  Arts,  vol.  xxxix.,  page  821.  %  H.  S.  Drinker,  Blasting,  etc., 

New  York,  1883.  §  Franz  Ludwig   Cancrinus,  Besrhreibvng  der  Bergwerhe, 

Frankfurt,  1767,  page  95,  et  seq.  ||  Gallon,  Mining,  translated  by  Messrs.  Foster 
and  Galloway,  vol.  i.,  page  176,  also  figs.  121  and  122. 


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86  FIRE-SETTING:   THE  AET   OF  MINING  BY  FIRE. 

traceable  to  this  extensive  use  of  fire-setting  in  overhead  stopes,  by  the 
old  German  miners. 

The  great  trouble  with  fire-setting  seems  always  to  have  been  the  heat 
and  smoke  produced — the  latter  being  often  strongly  sulphurous,  where 
the  ore  contained  pyrites  or  other  sulphides.  Nearly  all  the  old  writers 
mention  this  trouble :  thus  Lohneyss  says  that  "  the  miners  suffered 
terribly  from  the  fumes ;  and  that  at  the  St.  Georg  mines  the  heat  was 
BO  great  that  melted  silver  is  said  to  h^ve  flowed  from  the  working- 
faces,"*  and  other  instances  have  already  been  mentioned.  It  is  easy  to 
see  that  this  would  have  been  a  great  obstacle,  when  the  means  of 
artificial  ventilation  were  so  imperfectly  understood ;  but  it  applies  far 
less  at  the  present  day.  Indeed,  by  a  proper  system  of  ventilation  with 
upcast  and  downcast  shafts,  it  need  be  no  more  objectionable  than  the 
ventilating-f umaces  still  used  in  some  collieries ;  and  at  Kongsberg  silver- 
mine  in  Norway,  the  system  is  still  used  occasionally  for  driving  levels, 
mainly  on  account  of  the  great  improvement  in  ventilation  which  it 
causes  throughout  the  mine. 

The  writer  has  recently  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing  the  process  at 
work  in  the  Kongsberg  mine,  and  as  it  is  perhaps  the  only  place  of  import- 
ance in  Europe  where  it  still  survives,  a  few  details  of  the  mode  of  working 
may  be  of  interest. 

The  process  is  now  confined  to  the  occasional  drivage  of  levels  in  hard 
siliceous  gneiss — ^it  having  been  found  that  the  mica-schist  and  other 
micaceous  rocks,  which  also  occur  at  Kongsberg,  are  far  less  favourable 
for  fire-setting.  A  short  piece  of  level  is  driven  at  first  in  the  ordinary 
manner,  to  get  room  to  start  the  process;  and  wood — mainly  logs  of 
white  fir  and  red  pine,  dry  and  split — is  closely  piled  up  so  that  the  fire 
plays  against  the  "  face ; "  waste  wood  or  old  timbers  from  the  mine 
being  often  piled  against  the  freer-burning  fir,  to  concentrate  the  heat. 
When  the  pile  is  lit,  smoke  fills  the  level,  and  the  men  leave  it,  but  in 
two  or  three  hours  it  is  generally  burnt  out,  and  as  soon  as  the  men  can 
come  in,  the  broken  stone  which  has  split  off  is  cleared  away,  and  all  that 
is  suflBiciently  loose  is  broken  down.  The  fire  sets  stronger  on  the  roof 
and  sides  than  on  the  sole,  so  that  the  levels  have  a  constant  tendency  to 
slope  upwards.  This  can  partly  be  prevented  by  better  arrangement  of 
the  fuel,  putting  long  pieces  at  the  bottom  and  covering  the  upper  part ; 
but  sometimes  the  sole  has  to  be  blasted.  The  ordinary  speed  of  driving 
is  from  5  feet  to  20  feet  per  month. 

Prof.  Hellandf  states  that  fire-setting  kept  its  place  as  the  common 

•  Lohneyss,  Beri^ht  torn  Bergwerck  (1617). 

t  A.  Helland,  Orubedrift,  Kristiania,  vol  i.,  page  86. 


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FIRE-SETTING:  THE  ART  OF  MINING  BY   FIRE.  87 

method  at  Eongsberg  so  long  as  double-handed  boring,  iron  borers,  and 
powder  were  used  ;  but  that  on  the  introduction  of  single-handed  boring, 
steel  borers,  and  dynamite  or  other  high  explosives,  the  use  of  the  old 
method  rapidly  died  out.  He  gives  the  following  figures,  showing  the 
relative  cost  of  driving  a  level  6  feet  6  inches  high  by  5  feet  wide,  for 
each  fathom  of  length  : — 

DUBINQ    1860-1864,   WITH    POWDBH. 

Wagen  per  Man 
Da/awork.    Materlala.       Smithing.         Wages.  TotaL  per  Shift. 

£b.     d.  B.d.         £s.d.        £    B.     ±         B.d. 

Hand-boring        47^        18    6        10    2        7  12    6        9  11     1        3    0 
Fire-8etting .        34J        4    3    4  —  3    7    0        7  10    4        1  lOJ 

DuBiNQ  1881-1885,  WITH  Dynamite. 
Hand-boring        16^        2    0    8  6     1        3    9     1        5  15  10        4    4) 

Fire-setting         38|        3  17    2|  —  4    6    4        8    2    6)      2     4 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  1864,  fire-setting  was  both  cheaper  and  quicker 
than  the  old  method  of  blasting  with  powder  in  large  holes ;  but  on  the 
introduction  of  dynamite  and  small  holes,  things  were  entirely  reversed  ; 
not  only  did  the  new  method  effect  a  great  saving  in  time  and  cost,  but 
fire-setting  became  actually  dearer  than  before,  owing  to  the  increasing 
wages.  It  should  be  added  that  at  Eongsberg  suitable  wood  is  very 
cheap — an  important  point,  when  it  is  remembered  that  about  9  parts 
(by  volume)  of  wood  are  required  for  1  part  of  rock,  and  that  much  less 
skilled  labour  is  employed  for  the  fire-setting — as  is  indeed  shown  by  the 
rate  of  wages  paid.  There  seems  to  be  little  reason  to  believe  that  fire- 
setting  is  very  unhealthy  for  the  men  employed,  when  care  is  taken  to 
ensure  efficient  ventilation.  No  doubt  the  great  heat  developed  is 
prejudicial ;  but  perhaps  not  more  so  than  the  dynamite  smoke,  the 
constant  jar  to  the  system  in  beating  the  drill,  and  the  fine  sharp  dust 
often  inhaled,  incidental  to  the  more  modern  process. 

Attempts  have  been  made  at  various  times  to  improve  the  fire-setting 
method^  by  using  turf  at  the  Rammelsberg  mines  in  the  Harz,  and 
brown  coal  in  the  tin  stockwerks  at  Altenberg ;  but  neither  were 
successful.  Better  results  were  obtained  with  coke  at  the  St.  Christoph 
mine  near  Breitenbrunn  in  Saxony.*  At  Felsobanya  in  Hungary,  the 
method  is  improved  by  the  firewood  being  held  in  an  iron  framework  on 
1^  or  wheels  ("  pregelkatze  "),  which  concentrates  the  fire  and  improves 
the  draught. 

According  to  Serlo,  Hugon  has  used  a  small  furnace,  mounted  on 
wheels,  supplied  with  a  blast  to  urge  the  flame  direct  on  to  the  rock,  at 
the  Challanges  mine  in  France.     Burning  small  coals,  this  apparatus  in 

*  Serlo,  Berghaukunde,  page  326. 


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88  DISCUSSION — FIRE-SETTING  :  THE  ART  OP  MINING  BY  FIRE. 

65  hours  drove  an  end  4  feet  wide  and  6  feefc  high  a  distance  of  5  feet ; 
whilst  two  men  with  the  usual  explosives  would  only  drive  the  same  end 
from  5  feet  to  6^  feet  in  a  month.  If  this  were  done  at  a  reasonable  cost, 
it  would  be  a  very  fine  result,  but  as  to  relative  economy  Serlo  gives  no 
particulars. 

As  to  the  possible  future  of  the  fire-setting  method,  it  is  unlikely  that 
it  will  ever  again  come  into  use  to  any  important  extent ;  for,  although  it 
could  hold  its  own  under  suitable  conditions  against  blasting  with 
powder,  yet  the  modem  improvement  in  high  explosives  and  boring 
machinery,  which  have  deprived  mining  through  the  hardest  rock  of  all 
its  terrors,  have  done  away  with  any  necessity  for  the  old  process.  In 
exceptional  cases,  however,  where  machinery  and  skilled  labour  are  not 
available,  where  fuel  is  cheap,  and  the  rock  very  hard  and  siliceous — condi- 
tions which  occasionally  confront  the  mining  engineer  in  semi-civilized 
countries — it  would  be  worth  while  to  reconsider  its  many  advantages. 
By  making  proper  arrangements,  the  ventilation  of  the  workings  need  give 
no  serious  trouble,  while  the  ore  extracted  would  be  more  or  less  thoroughly 
roasted — an  important  gain  in  most  smelting  operations,  or  where  the  ore 
has  to  be  subsequently  crushed ;  and  with  tin  or  gold  ores,  the  destruction 
of  the  pyrites  and  other  sulphide  minerals  would  render  the  subsequent 
dressing  more  easy  and  perfect.  Indeed,  in  the  case  of  refractory  gold  ores, 
the  advantages  of  a  preliminary  roasting,  in  making  more  of  the  gold  free- 
milling,  would  often  compensate  for  a  good  deal  of  extra  expense  in 
mining  underground  ;  it  is  certain  that  the  early  gold-miners  were  quite 
alive  to  the  advantages  of  roasting  gold  ores  before  crushing,  and  it  is 
possible  that  in  many  cases  a  return  to  the  ancient  practice  would  be 
attended  by  great  benefit. 

It  has  been  suggested*  that  fire-setting  might  be  profitably  used  to 
enlarge  a  tunnel  in  hard  rock,  where  a  "  bottom  heading  "  had  already 
been  driven  along  the  sole.  But  here  the  weakening  of  the  roof  and 
sides,  owing  to  the  great  heat,  would  probably  tell  strongly  against  the 
method.  It  is  also  possible  that  where  w^aste  fuel  is  cheap,  or  where 
natural  gas  is  available,  the  gas  blow-pipe,  urged  by  an  air-blast,  might 
prove  of  service.  Such  a  jet  would  produce  a  very  intense  heat,  which 
could  be  very  precisely  directed  ;  but  the  idea  does  not  seem  ever  to  have 
been  tried  in  practice. 


Dr.  C.  Le  Neve  Foster  (Llandudno)  wrote  that  Mr.  A.  L.  Collins' 
paper  would  ser\'e  to  remind  miners  of  the  present  day  that  the  almost 

*  H.  S.  Drinker,  Blasting,  etc.    New  York,  1883. 


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DISCUSSION— FIRE-SETTING  :  THE  ART  OF  MINJKG  BY  FIRK.  89 

forgotten  process  of  fire-setting  had  done  great  service  in  its  time.  He 
might  have  added  that  it  was  still  in  use  in  Burmah  for  quarrying  jade,  and 
in  some  parts  of  India  for  quarrying  building-stone,  as  well  as  in  Korea 
for  gold-mining.  With  reference  to  the  supposed  use  of  vinegar,  had  not 
some  one  suggested  that  the  Latin  word  was  wrongly  transcribed  or 
wrongly  translated,  and  that  the  true  meaning  was  "  axe  "  or  "  pick-axe  ?  " 
In  Italian  nowadays  the  word  "accetta"  was  used  for  axe.  When  he 
(Dr.  Foster)  visited  the  Kongsberg  mine  in  1875,  he  found  that  ample  pro- 
vision was  made  for  carrying  away  the  smoke,  so  that  it  was  only  the  very 
end  of  the  level  which  was  filled  with  fumes.  In  one  case,  a  large  oval  iron 
pipe  (2  feet  by  1^  feet)  was  put  in  near  the  roof,  and  the  smoke  was  led 
away  to  a  separate  compartment  of  the  shaft,  partitioned  off  by  a  brick 
wall.  In  another  instance,  a  channel  for  the  smoke  was  made  by  building 
an  arch  near  the  roof  of  the  level.  He  (Dr.  Foster)  must  confess  that  he 
was  somewhat  sceptical  about  the  advantages  of  fire-setting  as  furnishing 
a  preliminary  roasting  of  the  ore,  as  suggested  by  Mr.  Collins,  who  over- 
rates the  amount  of  oxidizing  action  which  would  take  place ;  the  fragments 
of  ore  might  occasionally  become  glazed  over,  in  which  case  the  process 
would  be  the  reverse  of  beneficial  if  amalgamation  had  to  follow.  It  might 
be  interesting  to  point  out,  in  conclusion,  that  fire  was  used  by  prospectors 
in  Siberia  for  sinking  shafts  through  frozen  gravel  in  order  to  reach  gold- 
bearing  alluvia. 

Mr.  Bennett  H.  Brough  (London)  wrote  that  the  subject  of  fire- 
setting  was  a  particularly  fascinating  one,  even  to  the  dullest  mining 
student.  This  was  evident  in  a  Science  and  Art  Department  examination- 
paper  which  he  remembered  having  an  opportunity  of  seeing  some  years 
ago.  At  that  time,  attention  was  being  directed  to  the  use  of  lime-cart- 
ridges in  collieries,  and  the  question  the  examiner  asked  was :  "  What 
methods  are  employed  for  breaking  down  coal  when  blasting  cannot  be 
applied?"  To  this  a  candidate  replied  that  no  method  would  be 
found  better  than  the  ancient  method  of  fire-setting,  in  which  large  fires 
were  lit  against  the  surface  of  the  coal,  causing  it  to  split  in  all  direc- 
tions. History  does  not  relate  whether  this  candidate  subsequently 
obtained  a  manager's  certificate.  In  order  to  see  the  process  of  fire- 
setting  in  operation,  some  years  ago  he  (Mr.  Brough)  visited  the 
Kongsberg  mines  in  Norway,  the  Rammelsberg  mine  in  the  Hartz,  and 
some  of  the  Hungarian  mines.  Only  in  the  first  was  he  successful,  and 
he  could  confirm  the  accuracy  of  Mr.  Collins'  description.  In  the  paper 
there  was  one  omission  from  the  very  full  bibliographical  notes,  that  is,  a 
reference  to  a  complete  account  of  "this  good   and  antient   way  of 


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90  DISCUSSION — FIRB-SETTING  :  THE  ABT  OF  MINING  BY  FIBB. 

workmanship"  in  that  very  scarce  work,  A  Miner* 8  Dictionary ^  written 
by  William  Hooson,  a  Derbyshire  miner  (Wrexham,  1747).  Cnriously 
enough,  the  process  of  fire-setting  stDl  survived,  according  to  R.  Hehn- 
hacker,  in  Siberia,  where  it  was  used  in  alluvial  gold-mining  in  combination 
with  a  sort  of  natural  Poetsch  process  for  sinking  shafts  in  the  watery 
strata.  These  shafts  are  sunk  by  the  aid  of  fire  in  winter  when  the 
ground  is  frozen  to  a  considerable  depth,  the  wall  of  ice  serving  to  support 
the  excavation. 

Mr.  SouTHEBN  asked  if  Mr.  Collins  could  give  any  instances  as  to 
how  far  heat  would  penetrate  into  rocks  ?  Of  course  he  could  see  that  it 
would  vary  according  to  the  nature  of  the  rock  and  the  intensity  of  the 
fire. 

The  Pbbsibent  thought  the  thanks  of  the  meeting  were  due  to 
Mr.  Collins,  for  he  had  evidently  worked  up  the  subject,  and  gave  them 
an  insight  into  the  ancient  methods  adopted.  He  had  pleasure  in  pro- 
posing a  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Collins  for  his  interesting  and  valuable 
paper. 

Mr.  Southern  seconded  the  vote,  and  said  the  paper  treated  the 
subject  in  a  most  exhaustive  manner. 

Mr.  G.  E.  Collins  said  he  was  sure  his  brother  would  be  gratified  to 
hear  of  the  vote  of  thanks  accorded  to  him.  He  was  afraid  he  could  not 
answer  Mr.  Southem^s  question,  nor  did  he  think  it  was  a  matter  of 
much  importance,  as  the  farther  the  heat  went  into  the  stone  the  less 
advantage  it  was.  They  wanted  the  heat  to  be  at  the  surface,  if  the 
sudden  cooling  was  to  crack  it  off.  It  was  impossible  for  a  paper  of  this 
kind  to  include  all  the  regions  in  which  fire-setting  had  been  used,  and 
Dr.  Foster  had  been  able  to  add  others.  In  a  recent  part  of  the 
TransactianSy  fire-setting  was  mentioned  in  regard  to  gold-mining  in 
Brazil,*  and  he  heard  from  his  brother  that  there  were  extensive  traces 
of  its  use  in  the  Hindu  Kush.  The  process  was  illustrated  in  nature 
by  the  scaling  which  took  place  in  rocks  subjected  to  sudden  variations  of 
temperature,  and  in  some  instances  this  was  a  very  important  factor  in 
atmospheric  denudation. 

Mr.  M.  Walton  Bbown  wrote,  that  in  the  Deccan,  the  process  of  stone 
burning  was  performed  by  a  tribe  called  stone  Waddahs,  who  are  very 
skilful  at  it.  They  light  fires  of  brushwood  over  the  flat  or  convex  surface 
of  the  nearly  horizontal  rock  that  crops  up  everywhere  around,  and  a  flake 
of  varying  thickness  begins  to  crack  off  very  soon.  They  follow  the 
progress  of  the  crack  by  listening  to  the  sound  arising  when  they  tap  the 

•  Vol.  iT.,  page  220. 


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DISCUSSION — FIBE-SBTTINa  :  THE  ABT  OF  MINING  BY  FIRE. 


91 


sorfaoe  wiiJi  a  stone,  and  keep  moving  their  fires  backwards  along  the 
sorface  as  the  crack  develops.  With  a  good  class  of  gneiss  stone  like  that 
found  at  the  Satnapilli  quarries  they  can  get  out  slabs  of  10  or  12  feet  by 
4  or  5  feet  by  a  foot  thick ;  but  the  usual  size  for  coursed  rubble  masonry 
is  about  2^  feet  by  1^  feet  by  |  foot,  only  of  course  not  in  so  regular  a 
shape  as  a  parallelogram.  Much  of  the  stone  used  is  only  4  inches  thick. 
It  comes  out  beautifully  parallel  and  flat-bedded.  A  large  stone  burning 
business,  say  three  or  four  train  loads  per  day,  requires  a  very  extensive 
hmdohust  in  carts  for  fetching  in  brushwood  from  all  over  the  country. 
The  quarries,  too,  are  widely  scattered,  places  the  size  of  a  dinner  table  or 
as  large  as  a  moderate  room,  scattered  perhaps  in  scores  over  40  or  50 
square  miles  of  country.  Until  taught  how  to  do  it,  by  the  aid  of 
imported  Waddahs,  the  natives  of  the  Eistna  District  had  never  heard  of 
stone  burning ;  and  the  very  numerous  and  extensive  remains  of  ancient 
religious  dynasties  which  are  to  be  found  freely  scattered  about  the  country 
show  the  whole  of  their  stone  to  have  been  either  dressed  boulders,  or 
extracted  from  the  quarry  by  the  slow  process  of  wedging.  The  thickness  of 
the  stone  to  be  burnt  out  by  the  Waddah  burners  is  not  wholly  a  matter  of 
luck.  They  can  begin  at  any  desired  thickness  by  wedging  a  small  crack 
at  the  desired  depth,  and  this  keeps  cracking  off  fairly  parallel,  with, 
usually,  a  tendency  to  thin  off  somewhat.  It  is  difScult  to  bum  a  good 
thick  stone  off  the  rock  table  in  very  hot  weather.  The  cracking  appar- 
ently depends  on  the  destructive  stress  engendered  at  the  plane  where  the 
heat  of  the  fire  finds  itself  unable  to  penetrate  further,  and  where  the 
difference  of  expansion  of  neighbouring  layers  is  greatest.  In  the  cold 
winter  mornings  and  during  the  rains  the  result  is  more  satisfactory. 
The  quarries  are  all  of  gneiss  stone,  and  the  following  are  the  results  of 
experiments  made  by  Prof.  Unwin  : — 


DoMrfpUon  of  Stone. 

Onuhinc  Load  per 
Square  Inch. 

Weight  per 
OttbicFoot. 

Minimum. 

KondapiUi,  wedged 
„         burnt 

Satnapilli,  burnt 

Eammamet,  burnt 

Tons. 
9-580 
13-400 
9-210 
7-240 

Tons. 
9-480 
6-471 
7-470 
4-680 

Lb0. 
196 
165 
166 

178 

The  gneiss  is  susceptible  of  fine  dressing  and  takes  a  superior  polish. 
The  Kondapilli  stone  is  got  out  in  rougher  beds  than  the  Satnipilli  burnt 


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92  DISCUSSION — FIBB-SBTTING  :  THE  ART  OF  MINING  BY  FIRE. 

stone.  The  light  grey  Santapilli  gneiss  weighs  about  165  pounds  per 
cubic  foot.  It  may  usually  be  expected  to  crush  under  a  load  of  8  to  9 
tons  per  square  inch.  The  darker  burnable  Kondapilli  stone  was  only 
crushed  at  13*4  tons  per  square  inch  in  an  unexceptionally  good  specimen. 
The  hard  unbumable  Kondapilli  stone,  which  was  wedged,  is  of  much 
greater  weight,  and  its  resistance  to  crushing  is  much  higher.* 


Mr.  H.  D.  Hoskold's  "Notes  upon  a  Practical  Method  of  Ascertaining 
the  Value  or  Price  to  be  paid  for  Zinc  Mineral "  was  taken  as  read. 


*  Indian  Engineering,  yoI.  ziii.,  page  473. 


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VALUE  OP  ZING-OBBS.  93 


NOTES  UPON  A  PRACTICAL  METHOD  OP  ASCERTAINING 
THE  VALUE  OR  PRICE  TO  BE  PAID  FOR  ZINC 
MINERAL.  

By  H.  D.  HOSKOLD. 

The  objecfc  of  this  brief  paper  is  not  to  give  a  history  of  zinc-mining 
as  carried  on  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  the  amount  of  produce,  metal- 
lurgical processes,  or  the  geology  of  the  rocks  in  which  this  class  of 
mineral  occurs,  but  merely  to  indicate  and  to  place  on  record  the  practical 
methods  followed  in  ascertaining  the  value  or  price  which  may  be  paid 
for  zinc  mineral. 

When  in  Spain  some  years  ago,  the  writer  had  an  opportunity  of 
thoroughly  investigating  the  question  and  analysing  the  various  formula 
used  by  the  different  purchasers  of  zinc  mineral,  and  in  order  to  facilitate 
such  determinations  of  price  as  were  of  constant  occurrence,  he  devised 
various  rules,  and  also  produced  a  series  of  tables  based  upon  the  EngUsh 
formula,  indicating  at  a  glance  whether  any  or  what  price  could  be  paid 
for  zinc  mineral  to  yield  a  profit  under  certain  given  conditions. 

It  is  not  to  be  understood  that  anything  new  or  novel  will  be  intro- 
duced ;  still  it  has  occurred  to  the  writer  that  what  he  found  to  be  of  great 
service  to  himself  may  also  prove  of  some  value  to  those  who  may  have 
occasion  to  study  the  question  of  zinc-mining  for  commercial  purposes. 

When  it  has  been  determined  that  a  sufficient  quantity  of  calamine  or 
blende  mineral  exists  to  justify  a  regular  exploitation,  some  of  the  more 
important  considerations  will  involve  the  question  of  cost  of  production  and 
the  assay  percentage  of  the  mineral.  If  it  should  be  necessary  to  inspect 
mines  situated  in  isolated  parts  of  Spain,  India,  North  America,  Canada, 
etc.,  an  inspection  occupying  a  considerable  period  of  time,  and  at  a  con- 
siderable distance  from  centres  of  population  and  civilization,  it  would  be 
convenient  to  carry  a  few  simple  chemical  implements  in  order  to  practise 
any  assays  which  may  be  necessary,  according  to  the  Schaffner  process 
by  the  humid  way,  using  a  solution  of  sulphide  of  sodium  as  a  reagent 
in  determining  the  assay  percentage  of  zinc ;  and  also  oxide  of  iron,  as 
an  indicator  to  ascertain  when  the  process  is  concluded,  or  when  all  the 
zinc  has  been  precipitated.  It  is  unnecessary  to  give  the  full  details  of 
this  process,  but  the  writer  has  found  in  practice  that  the  most  convenient 
strength  for  a  sulphide  of  sodium  solution  is  about  70  cubic  centimetres  to 
0*5  gramme  of  zinc.    It  is  also  interesting  to  note  that  if  iron  oxide  be 


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94  VALUE  OF  ZIKO-OBES. 

snflpended  in  pure  distilled  water,  about  0*6  cubic  centimetre  of  sulphide  of 
sodium  solution  will  be  required  for  every  100  cubic  centimetres  of  water 
to  colour  the  iron  black ;  therefore  0*6  cubic  centimeti-e  for  every  100 
of  sodium  solution  is  deducted  from  the  total  number  of  cubic  centimetres 
of  sulphide  of  sodium  used  in  the  assay  operation. 

The  Vieille  Montague  Company  produces  a  very  considerable  quantity 
of  zinc  mineral  from  its  mines  situated  in  the  Picos  de  Europa,  Spain, 
and  the  formula  adopted  in  determining  the  price  to  be  paid  to  other 
zinc-mineral  producers  is  as  follows: — 

V  =  (R-E)(P-T)  +  ^^^:^^, 
in  which 

V  =  the  value  of  a  ton  of  mineral. 

R  =s  percentage  of  the  mineral  per  volumetric  assay. 

E  =  discount  of  the  anterior  percentage  for  the  loss  which  takes 
place  in  the  treatment  of  the  mineral  in  the  furnace,  which 
is  11  per  cent,  in  the  crude  mineral,  15  in  the  calcined,  and 
17  when  the  quantity  of  silicate  exceeds  15  per  cent. 

P  =  price  of  1  kilogramme  of  zinc  when  the  current  price  is  45 
francs  per  100  kilogrammes. 

T  =  expense  of  the  metallurgical  treatment  per  ton  of  mineral, 
which  is  fixed  at  80  francs. 

D  =  difference  between  the  price  of  45  francs  per  100  kilogrammes 
of  zinc  which  we  have  supposed  and  the  value  which  it  has 
when  the  calculation  is  made,  with  the  understanding  that 
the  value  of  1  kilogramme  has  always  to  be  taken. 

A  second  formula,  employed  by  the  intermediate  agents  or  Antwerp 
buyers,  is  as  follows  : — 

V  =     ^  ""  S    (P  -  2-50)  -  60, 
\    10    / 
and  is  thus  practically  illustrated : — 

Supposing  that  the  price  of  spelter  in  London  is,  say,  £18  per  ton, 
and  the  exchange  at  the  rate  of  25'20  francs. 

Francs. 

Then  £18  x  35-20       -     45360 

Less  I'o  per  cent,  to  redace  ton  of  1,015  kilos  to  1,000  kilos      -         6*80 


Per  1,000  kilogrammes          -  44680 

Per  100        „ -  44-68 

Less  2*50  francs           >-  2*60 

Per  100  kilos     -  42*18 


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YALITE  OF  ZIKO-OBES.  95 

SappoBing  the  ore  to  contain  50  per  cent.,  this,  less  \j  aocording  to 
the  formula,  would  leave  : — 

Fnunot. 
4096  X  42-18  francs  .-«    „ 

10 -168  72 

Deduct  cost  of  smelting        —    60-00 

Value  of  1,000  kilogrammes  of  ore— cost,  insurance,  and  )  ^  io8-72 
freight — delivered  ex  ship  Antwerp  J  * 

The  following  formula  is  also  employed  on  the  Continent  by  agents 
purchasing  zinc  ores : — 

V  =(^m^)  (P  -  5  ^)  «  65  francs. 

In  order  to  obtain  a  profit  from  the  sellers  and  also  from  the  smelters 
of  zinc  mineral,  the  intermediate  purchasing  agents  have  the  practice  of 
varying  some  of  the  elements  constituting  the  formulae,  but  it  is  obvious 
that  the  best  price  would  be  obtained  when  the  mining  producers  sell 
their  crude  mineral  direct  to  the  smelters. 

When  blende  ores  contain  less  than  5  per  cent,  of  lead  the  smelter's 
charge  is  raised  from  65  to  85  francs  per  ton  for,  as  it  is  termed,  ^'  return 
charges  "  for  the  reduction. 

The  principal  purchasers  of  zinc  mineral  in  Swansea  employ  the 
following  rule  in  estimating  the  price  which  may  be  paid  per  ton  for 
such  ores: — 

Rule — From  100  deduct  the  calcination-loss  and  divide  the  assay, 
less  1  unity,  by  the  result.  From  the  answer  deduct  i  +  1.  Multiply 
the  remainder  by  the  London  quotation  price  for  spelter  per  ton,  less 
£1,  and  divide  by  160.  Deduct  return  charges  for  smelting,  or  £2  10s., 
also  deduct  calcination-percentage  or  loss  value,  and  also  5s.  per  ton,  cost 
of  calcination. 

Thus,  supposing  calamine  ore  would  assay,  say  40  per  cent,  with  a 
calcination-loss  of  say  80  per  cent.,  spelter  being  at  the  rate  of  £17  per 
ton  in  London,  we  should  have:— 

100-30-  70%;  and  40-1  -39%; 
Also  —^  -  66-7  %  ;  then  56-7  -  i  =  44-6  -  1  -  .43-6  %. 
.     ,  43-6  X  £16 

^°^       100  

Less  letum  charges 

Calcination  loss  at  80  %  of  £4.9s.  6dl      

Deduct  cost  of  calcination  per  ton 

Total  value  or  price  per  ton  of  crude  calamine,  ew  )      «  a2  17    8 
ship  at  Swansea,  dry  weight  j      -  *^  i' 


£6  19 
2  10 

6 

0 

4    9 
1     6 

6 
10 

3    2 
0    5 

8 
0 

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96  VALUE  OP  ZINC-OEBS. 

Taking  the  preceding  assay  and  loss  due  to  calcination,  and  if  it 
were  required  to  determine  the  total  weight  of  calamine  necessary  to 
make  up  one  ton  of  calcined  ore  at  the  rate  of  57'1428  per  cent., 
we  should  have: — 

20X100  OOK-I.! 

— — — =  28-5714  cwts. 
The  proof  of  the  percentage  of  the  calcined  mineral  is: — 

40     X     100  r^.,.oo 

—  =  67*1428  per  cent. 

70  ^ 

The  excess  of  the  percentage  due  to  the  extra  weiglit  of  8*5714  cwts. 

of  crude  mineral  would  be: — 

57-1428x80       ,„,,,, 

j^g =  17-1428  per  cent. 

and  40  ^  +  17-1428  %  =  57-1428  ^,  as  previously  indicated. 

If  it  were  required  to  ascertain  what  percentage  of  crude  mineral 
would  produce  57*1428  per  cent,  under  the  above  conditions,  we  should 

also  have 

57*1428  X  70      „^  ,^,^^ 

j^^ =  89-99999  per  cent, 

or  practically  40  per  cent,  as  proposed. 

It  may  be  observed,  under  the  conditions  proposed,  that  28*5714 
cwts.  of  crude  ore  at  40  per  cent,  would  produce  20  cwts.  of  calcined 
mineral  at  the  rate  of  57*1428  per  cent.;  but  the  price  of  20  cwts.  at  40 
per  cent.,  excluding  the  cost  of  calcination,  is  £3  28.  8d.  per  ton  for  crude 
mineral,  and  28*5714  cwts.  at  £3  28.  8d.  per  ton  would  be  worth  a  gross 
sum  of  £4  9s.  6jd.,  and  deducting  7s.  l^d.  for  calcination,  would  leave 
the  net  price  £4  2s.  4|d.,  but  these  conditions  refer  to  a  sale  of  the 
mineral  in  a  crude  condition.  Then  the  question  arises  whether  the 
difference  between  the  cost  of  transport  of  28*5714  cwts.  against  20  cwts. 
of  calcined  mineral,  and  the  cost  of  calcination,  would  be  sufficient  to 
justify  the  calcining  operation  being  carried  on  at,  or  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  mines.  Naturally,  this  would  involve  a  consideration  of  the  facilities 
afforded  and  the  cost  of  labour  and  fuel,  which  may  vary  under  different 
circumstances  ;  but,  supposing  that  the  calcination  be  carried  on  by  the 
proprietor  of  the  mine  in  one  place  and  also  by  the  purchaser  of  the 
mineral  in  another  under  similar  conditions  of  cost,  the  mining  proprietor 
would  appear  to  gain  nothing  by  the  calcination,  but  only  the  difference 
in  the  cost  of  transporting  28*5714  cwts.  of  crude  mineral,  as  against 
20  cwts.  of  calcined  mineral,  because  there  is  no  more  metal  in  the 
20  cwts.  of  calcined  ore  at  57-1428  per  cent,  than  existed  in  the  28*5714 
cwts.  at  the  rate  of  40  per  cent.     For: — 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


VALUE  OP  ZINC-ORBS.  97 

£  B.     d.      £  B,  d. 
The  groBB  selling  price  of  28*6714  cwts.  crude  ore 

at  40  per  cent,  is 4  9  6^ 

Deducting  pnrcbaser'g  cost  for  calcination           ...  0  7  1^ 


Price  paid  for  20  cwts.  of  calcined  mineral  yielding 

at  the  rate  of  67-1428  per  cent 4    2    4| 

Extra  price  allowed  and  paid  by  purchaser  to 
mining  proprietor  for  the  calcination  of 
28*5714  cwts.  of  crude  ore         0    7    IJ 


4     2    4f 


Total  price  paid  by  the  purchaser           ...     4    9    6^ 
But  the  sum  of  7s.  1^.  has  to  be  expended  by  the 
mining  proprietor  for  the  calcination  of  the 
mineral — therefore,  deducting  it  0    7     IJ 


4    2     4i 

Difference  in  selling  price nil 

proving  that  under  the  circumstances  the  price  received  in  the  two  cases 
is  the  same. 

Supposing  the  freight  and  insurance  on  delivery  in  Swansea  is  12s.  9d. 
per  ton,  the  price  paid  in  Spain  in  1881,  the  cost  of  28*5714  cwts.  of 
erode  ore  would  be  17s.  4id.,  or  a  difference  in  favour  of  reducing  the 
weight  by  calcination  of  4s.  7^i.  per  ton,  so  that  it  would  appear  that  a 
mineral  which  could  not  be  extracted  from  a  mine,  at  a  profit,  if  sold  in 
the  erode  condition,  may  be  made  to  do  so  if  calcined  at  a  cost  equal  to, 
or  not  much  in  excess  of,  that  allowed  by  the  purchaser  for  the  same 
operation. 

Naturally,  the  mineral  should  be  delivered  in  a  dry  condition,  but  if 
it  is  otherwise  it  may  be  subjected  to  a  reduction  for  humidity. 

When  there  are  a  very  large  number  of  assays  and  resulting  calcula- 
tions to  be  made  by  the  inspecting  engineer  when  examining  the  mines, 
or  at  the  nearest  convenient  point  to  them,  it  would  be  advantageous  to 
collect  all  the  details  as  exhibited  in  the  following  tabular  form. 

The  elements  contained  in  columns  Nos.  2  and  3  consist  of  a  portion 
of  a  long  series  of  assays  made  by  the  writer  when  in  Spain  in  1879. 

The  calculated  quantities  in  columns  Nos.  4,  5,  6,  and  7  respectively 
were  determined  by  the  foregoing  roles,  and  were  employed  in  another 
clafls  of  computations  required  for  the  determination  of  the  commercial 
present  value  of  the  zinc  mines  then  under  consideration. 

VOL.  V^l»M».  7 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


98 


TALUB  or  ZUrC-OBES. 


Calculated  Details. 

i 

'^1 

1% 

•8    g 

Weight  of  Grade 

Ore 

required  to 

make  up  1  Ton  of 

Calcined  Ore. 

Weight  of  Calcined 

Ore 

derived  from 

Weight  in  Column 

No.  4. 

Weight  of  Metol 

in  eTei7  90  Owte.  of 

Calcined  Ore. 

Total 

of  Mt^ 
in  the  Ore 

after 
Calcination. 

1 

2 
3 
4 
6 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

3413 
42-66 
43-20 
46-93 
46-93 
43-20 
43-20 
44-80 
41-60 
50-66 

26-70^ 
30-10^ 
29-78  J 
25  00^ 
31-60^ 
30  9oi 
28 -90  J 
30 -95  J 
28 -75  J 
32-50  J 

Owte.  to.     Lbfc 
20      0      0 
7      0      2-912 

Owte.  Qrfc     Lbs. 
14       3       5-600 
5      0    22-315 

2      1 

Lba. 

5-60 

15-55 

3413 
11-94 

27      0      2-912 

19      3    27-915 

9      0 

21  15 

46-07 

20      0      0 
7      0      2-912 

14      3      5-600 
5      0    22-315 

8      1 
2      3 

16 
22-603 

42 
14-70 

27      0      2-912 

19      3    27-915 

11      1 

10-503 

56-70 

20      0      0 
8      0    18-816 

14      0    22-400 
5      3      4-556 

8      0 
3      2 

18-816 
1-370 

-43 
17-56 

28      0    18-816 

19      3    26-956 

11      2 

20-186 

60-56 

20      0      0 
6      2    18-592 

15      0      0 
4      3    27  944 

9      1 
3      0 

16-800 
14-898 

47 
15-66 

26      2    18-592 

19      3    27-944 

12      2 

3-698 

62-66 

20      0      0 
8      3    26-208 

13      3      5  60 
6      0    22-348 

9      1 
4      0 

16-80 
24-917 

47 
21  11 

28      3    26  208 

19      3    27-948 

13      2 

13-717 

68-11 

20      0      0 
8      3    26-208 

13      3      5-60 
6      0    22-284 

8      2 
3      3 

11-200 
12-669 

43 
19-31 

28      3    26-208 

19      3    27-884 

12      1 

23-869 

62-31 

20      0      0 
8      0    18-816 

14      0    22-40 
5      3      5-520 

8      2 
3      2 

11-200 
1-371 

43 
17  56 

28      0    18-816 

19      3    27-920 

12      0 

12-571 

60-56 

20      0      0 
8      3    25-21 

13      3      5-600 
6      0    21-595 

9      0 
4      0 

0 
4  345 

45 
20-19 

28      3    25-21 

19      3    27-195 

13      0 

4345 

6519 

20      0      0 
7      3      2-912 

14      1     16-800 
5      2    11056 

8      0 
3      0 

22-400 
22-074 

41 
16-02 

27      3      2-912 

19      3    27-856 

11       1 

16-474 

57-02 

20      0      0 
9      1     17-92 

13      2    11-20 
6      1     16-67 

10      0 
4      2 

0 
22-96 

60 
23-62 

29      1     17-92 

19      3    27-87 

14      2 

22-96 

73-52 

The  following  tables  are  a  portion  of  a  series  calcalated  according  to 
the  principles  laid  down  in  the  English  formnla,  and  would  be  of  con- 
siderable service,  supposing  the  conditions  are  now  the  same  as  they  were 
when  the  tables  were  constructed ;  if  not  they  may  serve  as  a  model  for 
the  construction  of  others  when  the  variable  elements  employed,  such  as 
the  price  of  spelter,  cost  of  exploitation  and  transport  have  been 
determined. 

Under  the  conditions  of  Table  No.  1  there  would  appear  to  be  very 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


VALUE  OP  ZINC-ORES.  99 

little  or  no  profit  upon  mineral  of  less  than  M  per  cent,  with  a  calcina- 
tion loss  of  26  per  cent.  It  wonld,  however,  be  a  question  for  the  exploiters 
of  a  mine  to  ascertain  for  themselves  whether  they  would  be  satisfied  with 
a  profit  to  be  derived  from  a  less  percentage  of  ore  presented  under  the 
conditions  exhibited  in  the  tables  from  No.  1  to  No.  9. 

It  was  not  considered  of  importance  or  advantage  to  introduce  the 
remaining  series  of  tables  of  this  class  in  the  possession  of  the  writer. 

When  2dnc  mines  are  situated  at  a  long  distance  from  centres  of 
population  and  railway  communication,  in  elevated  places  like  the  Picos 
de  Europa  and  others,  in  Spain,  and  the  roads  are  long,  tortuous,  and 
difficult,  the  transport  of  the  mineral  from  such  mines  to  calcining-kilns 
at  lower  levels,  the  unloading,  reloading  after  calcination  with  probably 
extra  transport  from  the  kilns  to  store-houses  at  the  nearest  shipping-place, 
becomes  very  costly.  Such  expenses  are  included  in  the  sums  which 
form  column  No.  5  of  the  tables. 

Taking  for  example  the  first  table  under  No.  16,  and  assuming  that 
the  cost  of  extracting  the  ore  is  no  more  than  lid.  per  cwt.  Column  3 
with  an  assay-produce  of  49  per  cent,  of  metal  and  35  per  cent,  calcina- 
tion-loss, the  total  cost  of  extraction  amounts  to  18s.  4d.  per  ton,  which 
deducted  from  £2  4s.  in  column  5  leaves  £1  5s.  8d.  per  ton,  to  cover  all 
expenses  and  contingencies  due  to  the  transport  of  the  mineral  to  a  place 
of  shipment. 

The  same  conditions  would  exist  whether  a  zinc-raining  proprietor 
were  to  sell  his  ore  direct  to  the  smelters  or  foreign  purchaser,  or  to  an 
intermediate  purchasing  agent,  with  a  probable  result  that  he  may  gain 
more  by  the  former  than  the  latter  plan.  However,  in  the  latter  case,  it 
is  assumed  that  a  profit  would  be  included  in  the  lid.  per  cwt.  or  what- 
ever other  price  may  be  agreed  upon.  If,  however,  it  did  not  exist,  then 
the  intermediate  purchasing  agent's  net  profit  of  £1  6s.  6^d.  per  ton, 
colunm  8,  would  have  to  be  reduced  to  suit  the  circumstances  or  demand 
of  the  mining  proprietor. 

The  calculated  net  profit  of  £1  6s.  6jd.  per  ton  proves  that  it  would 
be  exceedingly  inconvenient  and  injurious  to  the  original  mineral  producer 
to  allow  the  intervention  of  an  intermediate  purchasing  agent,  who,  in 
such  a  case  would  become  a  speculator  on  the  bounty  and  possibly 
ignorance  of  the  original  miner  or  ore-producer. 

When  small  mines  are  worked  with  inadequate  capital,  and  only  at 
intervals,  and  the  production  is  very  limited,  and  the  owner  has  no 
personal  knowledge  of,  or  confidence  in,  foreign  smelting  purchasers, 
small  parcels  of  zinc  ore  used  to  be  sold  to  local  agents  in  the  manner 
indicated,  and  doubtless  the  custom  is  still  continued. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


100 


YALinS  OF  ZINC-OBBS. 


Caloitlatiovs  upon  Cbttdb  CALAKorB  Obb. 

Spelter— £16  in  Swansea,  £17  in  London.     Weight  to  be  112  lbs.  per  English  owt 
Freight  and  Inanrance,  12s.  9d.  per  ton. 


Tablb  No. 

1. 

Ko. 

oeutage 
of  Ore. 

Lo«aby 

Cald' 

Cost  per 

ToUl  Cost 

ToUlOort 

Gron  Value 

NetFtoM 

nation. 

Engliah 
Owt. 

on  Board. 

atSwanaea. 

per  Ton. 

per  Too. 

d. 

£     t.    d. 

£     t. 

d. 

£    s.      d. 

£    t.     d. 

1 

84 

26 

7k 

19    0 

2     1 

9 

2     0     14 

♦0     1     71 

2 

85 

26 

7i 

19    0 

2    1 

9 

2    2     8 

0    0  11 

8 

36 

26-5 

7i 

19    0 

2     1 

9 

2    6    61 

0    8     8{ 

4 

37 

26 

n 

19    0 

2     1 

9 

2    8    3f 

0    6    6i 

6 

88 

27-5 

7i 

19    0 

2     1 

9 

2  11    If 

0    9    4i 

6 

89 

28 

7i 

19    0 

2     1 

9 

2  18  114 

0  12    24 

7 

40 

286 

7i 

19    0 

2     1 

9 

2  16    91 

0  16    0^ 

8 

41 

29 

7i 

19    0 

2     1 

9 

2  19    74 

0  17  104 

9 

42 

29 

7i 

19    0 

2    1 

9 

8    2    24 

1     0    61 

10 

43 

30 

7^ 

1  10    0 

2    2 

9 

8    6    84 

1    2    64 

11 

44 

31 

8 

1  12    0 

2    4 

9 

8    8    44 

1    8    74 

12 

45 

32 

8J 

1  14    0 

2    6 

9 

3  11    6i 

1    4    84 

13 

46 

33 

9 

1  16    0 

2    8 

9 

3  14    61 

1    6    91 

14 

47 

33 

n 

1  18    0 

2  10 

9 

3  17    14 

1    6    41 

15 

48 

35 

lOJ 

2    2    0 

2  14 

9 

4    0    81 

1    6  llf 

16 

49 

35 

11 

2    4    0 

2  16 

9 

4    8    84 

1    6    64 

17 

50 

35 

Hi 

2    6    0 

2  18 

9 

4    6  114 

1    7    24 

18 

61 

35 

12 

2    8    0 

8    0 

9 

4    8    6 

17    8 

1 

Fablr  No. 

2. 

1 

34 

26 

7i 

1  10    0 

2    2 

9 

2    0    11 

•0    2    7f 

2 

85 

26 

74 

1  10    0 

2    2 

9 

2    2    8 

♦0    0    1 

3 

36 

266 

74 

1  10    0 

2    2 

9 

2    6    5| 

0    2    8f 

4 

37 

27 

74 

1  10    0 

2    2 

9 

2    8    8f 

0    6    6f 

5 

38 

27-6 

74 

1  10    0 

2    2 

9 

2  11    If 

0    8    4| 

6 

39 

28 

7i 

1  10    0 

2    2 

9 

2  18  114 

0  11   24 

7 

40 

28-6 

74 

1  10    0 

2    2 

9 

2  16    94 

0  14    04 

8 

41 

29 

74 

1  10    0 

2    2 

9 

2  19    74 

0  16  104 

9 

42 

29 

74 

1  10    0 

2    2 

9 

8    2    21 

0  19    64 

10 

43 

30 

7i 

1  11    0 

2    8 

9 

8    6    3i 

1    1    64 

11 

44 

81 

81 

1  13    0 

2    6 

9 

3    8    44 

1    2    74 

12 

45 

82 

81 

1  15    0 

2    7 

9 

8  11    54 

1    8    84 

13 

46 

33 

9i 

1  17    0 

2    9 

9 

8  14    6f 

1    4    91 

14 

47 

83 

91 

1  19    0 

2  11 

9 

3  17    14 

1    6    41 

15 

48 

86 

101 

2    3    0 

2  16 

9 

4    0    8| 

1    4  111 

16 

49 

35 

11* 

2    6    0 

2  17 

9 

4    8    3i 

1    6    64 

17 

60 

86 

111 

2    7    0 

2  19 

0 

4    6  111 

1    6    24 

18 

51 

85 

12i 

2    9    0 

3    1 

9 

4    8    5 

16    8 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


VALUE  OF  ZINC-OBES. 


101 


CALOUiATioirB  UPON  Cbitdb  Calaminb  Obb. — Continued. 

Spelter — ^£16  in  Swansea,  £17  in  London.    Weight  to  be  112  lbs.  per  English  cwt. 
Freight  and  Insurance,  12b.  9d.  per  ton. 


Tablb  No.  8. 

Ha 

Per- 
oentase 
of  Oie. 

Oalol/ 
nation. 

Oortmr 

ToUlOost 

Total  Oort 

Orofla  Value 

Net  Profit 

EogUah 

Cwt. 

on  Buard. 

aiSwanoMk 

per  Ton. 

per  Ton. 

d. 

£     ■.    d. 

£    t. 

d. 

£    I.      d. 

£    t.     d. 

1 

84 

26 

n 

1  11     0 

2    3 

9 

2    0    li 

•0    3     71 

2 

85 

26 

7i 

1  11     0 

2    3 

9 

2    2    8 

•Oil 

3 

36 

26-5 

7} 

1  11     0 

2    3 

9 

2    6    5} 

0    1     8f 

4 

87 

27 

7i 

1  11     0 

2    3 

9 

2    8    31 

0    4    6} 

5 

88 

27-5 

7i 

1   11     0 

2    3 

9 

2  11     If 

0    7    4} 

6 

89 

28 

n 

1  11     0 

2    3 

9 

2  13  11^ 

0  10    2J 

7 

40 

285 

7i 

1  11     0 

2    3 

9 

2  16    9i 

0  13     0^ 

8 

41 

29 

71 

1  11     0 

2    3 

9 

2  19    7i 

0  15  lOJ 

9 

42 

29 

71 

1  11     0 

2    3 

9 

3    2    21 

0  18    61 

10 

43 

30 

8 

1  12    0 

2    4 

9 

3    5    3^ 

1    0    6.^ 

U 

44 

31 

8i 

1  14    0 

2    6 

9 

3    8    4^ 

1    1    7J 

12 

45 

32 

9 

1  16    0 

2    8 

9 

3  U    hk 

I    2    81 

13 

46 

33 

9i 

1  18    0 

2  10 

9 

3  14    6| 

13    9} 

14 

47 

33 

10 

2    0    0 

2  12 

9 

3  17     11 

1    4    41 

15 

48 

85 

11 

2     4    0 

2  16 

9 

4    0    8} 

1     3  11} 

16 

49 

85 

11* 

2    6    0 

2  18 

9 

4    8    3i 

14    6^ 

17 

50 

35 

12 

2    8    0 

3    0 

9 

4    5  HI 

1     5    21 

18 

51 

35 

12J 

2  10    0 

3    2 

9 

4    8    5 

16    8 

Tablb  No.  4. 

1 

34 

26 

8 

1  12    0 

2    4 

9 

2    0    11 

♦0    4    7} 

2 

35 

26 

8 

1  12    0 

2    4 

9 

2    2    8 

.♦0    2    1 

3 

36 

26-5 

8 

1  12    0 

2    4 

9 

2    6    5} 

0    0    8i 

4 

37 

27 

8 

1  12    0 

2    4 

9 

2    8    3f 

0    3    6f 

5 

38 

27-5 

8 

1  12    0 

2    4 

9 

2  11    If 

0    6    4| 

6 

39 

28 

8 

1  12    0 

2    4 

9 

2  13  UJ 

0    9    2i 

7 

40 

28-6 

8 

1  12    0 

2    4 

9 

2  16    9^ 

0  12    0^ 

8 

41 

29 

8 

1  12    0 

2    4 

9 

2  19    7i 

0  14  10^ 

9 

42 

29 

8 

1  12    0 

2    4 

9 

3    2    21 

0  17    5i 

10 

43 

30 

81 

1  13    0 

2    6 

9 

8    6    3i 

0  19    6i 

11 

4^ 

31 

8i 

1  15    0 

2    7 

9 

3    8    4i 

1    0    7i 

12 

45 

32 

n 

1  17    0 

2    9 

9 

3  11    5i 

1     1     8i 

13 

46 

33 

91 

1  19    0 

2  11 

9 

3  14    6J 

1     2    92 

14 

47 

83 

lOi 

2    10 

2  13 

9 

3  17    11 

1     3    41 

15 

48 

35 

lU 

2    5    0 

2  17 

9 

4    0    81 

1     2  111 

16 

49 

35 

iif 

2    7    0 

2  19 

9 

4    a    3^ 

1  3  oi 

17 

50 

35 

i^i 

2    9    0 

3     1 

9 

4    5  111 

1     4    21 

18 

51 

35 

121 

2  11    0 

3     3 

9 

4    8    5 

14    8 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


102 


VALUE  OF  ZINC-OEES. 


Calculations  upon  Ceudb  Calamine  Obb. — Contimted, 

Spcltor— £16  in  Swansea,  £17  in  London.    Weight  to  bo  112  lbs.  per  English  cwt. 
Freight  and  Insurance,  128.  9(1.  per  ton. 


Tablb  No.  6. 

No. 

Per- 
centage 
of  Ore. 

Louhj 

Calci- 
nation. 

OoBtpor 

113  Iba. 

Engliih 

Cwt 

Total  Coet 
on  Board. 

TntalOort 
at  Bwnniea 

Gross  Value 
per  Ton. 

Net  Proat 
per  Tun. 

d. 

£     •.    ± 

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61 

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13    8 

Tablb  No.  6. 

1 

34 

20 

8i 

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2     6 

9 

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2 

35 

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8 

41 

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0  12  104 

9 

42 

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11 

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91 

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12 

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Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


VALUE  OF  ZINC-OBBS. 


103 


Caloitlationb  upon  Crudb  Calaminb  Ori. — ConHnmed. 

Spelter— £16  in  Swansea,  £17  in  London.    Weight  to  be  112  Ibi.  per  English  oirt 
Freight  and  Insarance,  12s.  9d.  per  ton. 


Tablb  No.  7. 

No. 

of  ^ 

Lou  by 

Oalci- 

CkMtMr 

ToUlCofI 

TnUlOort 

aroMTalQa 

Vet  Proflk 

Bnglkh 
Owt. 

OD  Buard. 

atBwaoatM. 

par  Ton. 

per  Ton. 

<L 

£     >.    d. 

£     t. 

d. 

£    a      d. 

£    a     d. 

1 

84 

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81 

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118 

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Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


104 


VALUE  OP  ZINC-OEBS. 


Calculations  upok  Cbudb  Calamine  Obx.— Continued. 

Spelter — £16  in  Swanaea,  £17  in  London.    Weight  to  be  112  lbs.  per  English  cwt 
Freight  and  Insurance,  12s.  9d.  per  ton. 


Tablb  No. 

9. 

Per- 

LosBby  ' 
Oalci. 
nation. 

1 

Cost  per 
112  Iba. 

Total  Cost 

Total  Ooet 

QrosB  Value 

Net  Profit 

No. 

centage 
of  Oie. 

EnsliBh 

on  Board. 

at  Swansea. 
£     n.    d. 

per  Ton. 

per  Ton. 

d. 

JE      B.     d. 

;e     B.      d. 

;e     B.      d. 

1 

84 

26 

9i 

1  17    0 

2    9 

9 

2     0     li 

♦0    9    71 

2 

85 

26 

9i 

1  17    0 

2    9 

9 

2    2     8 

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3 

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... 

... 

... 

... 

11 

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31 

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9 

3    8    4i 

0  15    7i 

12 

45 

32 

... 

13 

46 

33 

11 

2    4    0 

2  16 

9 

3  14    61 

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14 

47 

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2    6    0 

2  18 

9 

3  17     H 

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15 

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2  10    0 

3     2 

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4    0    81 

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16 

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17 

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3     8 

9 

4    8    5 

0  19    8 

»L088. 


The  meeting  then  adjourned. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


TBAN8A0TI0NS.  105 


FEDERATED  INSTITUTION  OF  MINING  ENGINEERS. 


GENERAL  MEETING, 

Hblb  in  the  Booms  of  thb  Institution  of  Civil  Enoineebs,  25,  Gbbat 

Geobgb  Stbeet,  Westminbtbb,  June  2nd,  1898. 


Mb.  GEOBGE  lewis,  Pbbsidbnt,  in  the  Chaib. 


The  following  paper,  by  M.  Marcel  Bertrand,  was  read  on  "The 
Correlation  of  the  Coal-fields  of  Northern  France  and  Southern 
England":— 


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106  THE  COBRBLATION  OP  THE  COAL-FIELDS  OF 


THE  CORRELATION  OF  THE  COAL-FIELDS  OF  NORTHERN 
FRANCE  AND  SOUTHERN  ENGLAND.^ 


By  MARCRL  BERTRAND,  Chief  Enoineeb  of  Mines,  Pbofessob  of 
Geology  in  the  Fbench  School  of  Mines. 


I.  Introductory  Remarks. 

The  discovery  of  coal  at  Dover,  apart  from  its  industrial  importance, 
is  of  commanding  interest  from  the  geological  point  of  view.  It  amply 
confirms  the  truth  of  the  ideas  to  which  Godwin- Austen  gave  expression 
in  1855,  and  the  conclusions  of  many  British  geologists  who  followed  in 
his  footsteps.  The  principle  from  which  Godwin-Austen  proceeded  is 
summed  up  in  the  axiom  that  recent  folds  are  formed  along  the  same  lines 
as  ancient  folds.  The  correctness  of  this  axiom  once  established,  an 
attentive  study  of  the  surface  of  a  given  area  will  enable  the  observer  to 
trace  out  and  follow  the  axis  of  the  ancient  folds  or  convolutions,  even 
when  they  are  masked  by  more  recent  and  unconformable  strata.  In 
particular  are  we  thus  enabled  to  determine  along  what  lines  we  had  best 
look  for  the  continuation  of  known  coal-basins.  It  may  be  well  to  add 
that  the  continuations  of  these  basins  will  not  necessarily  yield  coal,  for 
they  may  be  more  or  less  extensively  denuded ;  but  we  can  at  any  rate 
affirm  that  along  the  axis  of  these  basins  lie  the  most  promising  localities 
for  the  search  of  the  mineral. 

The  Somerset  coal-basin  is  limited  southward  by  the  arch  of  the 
Mendips,  which  itself  sinks  eastward  beneath  the  Jurassic  rocks.  These 
in  turn  form  an  arch,  a  gentler  arch,  which  is  prolonged  still  eastward 
south  of  London  and  Dover,  into  the  Cretaceous  rocks,  and  is,  so  to 
speak,  emphasized  by  the  ridge  of  the  North  Downs.  Hence  the 
conclusion  seemed  reasonable  that  the  continuation  of  the  Somerset  coal- 
basin,  if  such  a  contmuation  existed,  should  be  found  forward  of  that  line ; 
and  now  the  hypothesis  is  confirmed  by  the  results  of  the  Dover  boring. 

Godwin-Austen  had  further  remarked  that  the  axis  of  the  North 
Downs  was  continued  on  the  other  side  of  the  English  Channel  by  the 
axis  of  Artois,  that  is,  by  the  anticlinal  arch  of  Cretaceous  rocks  which 

*  Translated  by  L.  L.  Beliufante,  B.  Sc. 


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KOBTHBRN  FRANCE  AND  SOUTHERN  ENGLAND.  107 

forms  the  southern  limit  of  the  Franco-Belgian  coal-basin.  Therefore 
it  was  concladed  that  the  Somerset  basin  and  its  presumed  continua- 
tions formed  the  direct  prolongation  of  the  Belgian  coal-lBield.  But  the 
study  of  the  rocks  of  Boulonnais  has  long  since  led  French  geologists  to 
express  doubts  as  to  the  validity  of  that  conclusion.  Coal-measures 
occur  at  Hardinghen  and  Ferques;  but  if  these  restricted  outcrops  be 
regarded  as  continuing  the  Pas-de-Calais  basin  (Lens,  Auchy-au-Bois, 
Fl^hinelle),  the  Ime  thus  traced  out  would  run  far  south  of  Dover.  In 
which  case  the  result  of  the  Dover  boring  would  prove  that  in  this  area 
there  are  at  least  two  distinct  synclinal  folds,  both  of  which,  over  some 
extent  of  their  course,  yield  coal. 

The  facts  now  ascertained  enable  us  to  enter  more  fully  into  the 
question  than  was  at  all  possible  thirty  years  ago.  On  the  one  hand,  they 
furnish  fresh  arguments  in  favour  of  Godwin- Austen^s  principle ;  and  on 
the  other,  they  certainly  tend  to  show  that  there  are  in  all  probability 
three  distinct  synclinal  folds,  along  whose  track  coal  is  locally  known,  and 
along  which  one  may  well  hope,  therefore,  to  find  the  mineral  again  and 
again. 

These  folds  may  be  enumerated  as  follows : — Firstly,  that  of  Dover 
corresponding  to  the  Somerset  basin,  and  perhaps  also  to  the  northern 
part  of  the  Belgian  coal-basin.  Secondly,  that  of  Hardinghen,  corre- 
sponding to  the  northern  part  of  the  Pas-de-Galais  coal-basin;  and 
thirdly,  a  more  southerly  fold,  corresponding  to  the  southern  part  of 
the  Pas-de-Galais  coal-basin,  and  the  outcrops  of  Auchy-au-Bois  and 
FlechineUe. 

On  this  hypothesis  the  Belgian  coal-basin  branches  out  westwards 
into  a  series  of  other  basins,  some  of  which  at  least  (Dover  and  Harding- 
hen) are  only  here  and  there,  as  it  were  momentarily,  unproductive. 

II.  Godwin-Austen's  Principle— Recurrence  op  Folds  along 

THE  BAKE  LiNES. 

(jodwin-Austen's  principle  did  not  fiash  entirely  unawares  upon  the 
geological  mind  in  his  1855  paper.  Murchison  had  already  remarked 
that  ''  other  parallel  outbursts  and  upheavals  have  naturally  taken  place 
along  the  same  lines  .  .  .  (those  of  least  resistance)  ....  at 
subsequent  epochs.''*  Dana,  and  in  his  train,  many  geologists  among 
his  fellow-countrymen,  generalized  the  idea  so  as  to  make  of  it  the  basis 
of  their  conceptions  of  American  geology ;  while  in  France,  where  ifelie 
de  Beaumont  himself  had  time  and  again  appealed  to  the  principle  of 
♦  Geology  of  Russia,  page  469. 


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108  THE  CORRELATION  OF  THE  COAL-FIELDS  OF 

recurrenoes,  M.  Jonrdy  as  early  as  1871,  based  on  the  same  idea 
(re-christened  for  the  nonce  "law  of  position")  the  theory  which  he 
brought  forward  in  opposition  to  the  famous  "pentagonal  system"  [sub- 
division of  the  earth^s  surface].  Nevertheless,  Godwin- Austen^s  name  is 
deservedly  attached  to  the  above-mentioned  principle,  for  he  was  the  first 
to  enunciate  the  axiom  in  terms  sufficiently  precise  to  make  of  it  an 
instrument  of  research.  One  is  fain  to  admit,  however,  that  his 
arguments  were  far  from  adequate  for  the  final  settlement  of  the  question. 
They  are  confined  to  the  study  of  the  anticlinal  fold  which  forms  the 
southward  limit  of  the  coal-basins.  In  Prance  the  axis  of  Artois  con- 
tinues the  Palaeozoic  axes  of  the  Northern  Ardennes,  while  in  England 
the  axis  of  the  North  Downs  continues  that  of  the  Mendips :  so  much 
for  the  main  idea.  The  original  appellation  has  been  extended  to  the 
various  tectonic  phenomena  (or  geological  "features")  noted  at  different 
points  of  that  chain  of  axes,  without  sufficiently  considering  the  evidence 
for  their  continuity.  In  fact  we  are  here  only  dealing,  as  it  were, 
with  a  preUminary  sketch,  whereas  we  look  for  a  complete  outline.  And 
moreover  the  bearing  of  Godwin- Austen's  remarks  on  the  thickening,  or, 
as  the  case  may  be,  the  thinning  away  of  the  Cretaceous  or  the  Tertiary 
strata  opposite  the  points  where  the  coal-band  becomes  thicker  or  thinner, 
is  at  any  rate  rather  questionable.  When,  therefore,  Godwin-Austen 
concludes  that  between  the  older  line  of  disturbance  and  the  newer  there 
is  not  only  a  general  coincidence  of  direction,  but  a  close  resemblance 
in  various  geological  features  and  structural  details,  his  conclusion  must 
be  regarded  as  premature.  The  coincidence  was,  as  Mr.  Gosselet  has 
recently  said,  amply  sufficient  to  demonstrate  the  probability  of  the  main 
hypothesis ;  but  it  would  be  by  no  means  sufficient  to  convert  that  proba- 
bility into  an  absolute  certainty,  although  the  case  is  strengthened  by  the 
results  of  the  Kentish  Town  and  Dover  borings. 

III.  General  Concordance  of  the  Systems  of  Ancient  and 
Recent  Polds. 

But  in  our  day  a  change  has  come  over  the  scene,  and  the  merely 
probable  hypothesis  has  been  experimentally  confirmed  at  so  many  points, 
that  the  cumulative  mass  of  evidence  may  be  considered  as  constituting 
an  irrefutable  proof. 

In  the  first  place,  a  new  argument  of  capital  importance  has  been 
brought  to  the  front,  thanks  to  a  more  exhaustive  study  of  Palaeozoic 
folds  and  Tertiary  undulations. 

Por  many  a  long  year  observers  were  accustomed  to  examine  separately 


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NOBTHBBN  FRANOB  AND  SOXTTHBRK  ENGLAND.  109 

the  various  Palaeozoic  massifs,  while  the  possibility  of  correlating  over 
great  distances  the  folds  which  they  saw  in  these  massifs  never  entered 
their  heads.  Devonshire  and  Britanny,  the  Central  Plateau  of  France 
and  the  Ardennes,  the  Yosges  and  the  Harz,  and  the  Bohemian  mountains 
were  looked  upon  as  so  many  individual  units,  and  the  only  relationship 
which  it  was  sought  to  establish  between  them  was  that  of  the  com- 
position of  the  different  strata.  Suess,  the  brilliant  Vienna  professor, 
was  the  first  to  show  that  these  now  isolated  massifs  are  the  solitary 
remnants  of  a  single  great  chain  which  ranged  right  across  Central  and 
Western  Europe  till  the  end  of  the  Primary  epoch.  It  was  formed,  like 
the  Alps  of  our  time,  by  a  series  of  minor,  roughly  parallel  ranges ;  or,  in 
other  words,  by  a  series  of  folds  whose  axes  followed  each  other  at  short 
intervals,  keeping  a  parallel  alignment  in  the  fairly  rectilinear  portions, 
or  concentric  one  within  the  other  in  the  curvilinear  portions. 

If  we  traced  out  on  the  map  of  Europe  the  known  remaining  vestiges 
of  these  axes  we  should  gain  a  very  clear  idea  of  the  general  plan  of  the 
whole.  Thus,  in  "Western  Europe,  the  South  of  England  corresponds  to 
the  Ardennes ;  the  folds  of  Southern  Britanny  and  Vendfe  widen  out  in 
the  Central  Plateau  of  France,  then  curve  up  south-eastwards  so  as  partly 
to  rejoin  the  Vosges  and  the  Black  Forest.  True  that  the  gaps  are  too 
great  to  permit  of  our  following  up  with  absolute  certainty  any  given  fold 
along  the  whole  length  of  the  Great  Chain,  but  we  are,  at  all  events,  in  a 
position  to  determine  the  trend  of  an  average  or  mean  axis,  which  all  the 
other  axes  doubtless  follow  at  greater  or  less  intervals. 

The  principle  thus  ascertained  is  of  enormous  value,  however  incom- 
plete and  shadowy  it  may  appear  at  first  sight.  We  may  fairly  say  that 
it  has  revolutionized  our  methods  of  interpretation  of  the  Palaeozoic 
geology  of  Europe.  And  then — a  point  which  concerns  more  nearly  the 
matter  with  which  we  are  dealing — it  allows  of  a  generalized  comparison 
with  the  whole  system  of  newer  folds.  These  may  be  studied  at  those 
very  localities  where  the  Palaeozoic  folds  are  hidden  beyond  all  chance  of 
observation.  Of  course,  such  a  study  is  no  child's  play.  To  begin  with, 
as  we  all  know,  these  folds  are  so  slight  that  one  would  be  almost  entitled 
to  assert  that  the  word  "fold"  is  improperly  applied  to  such  undulations  of 
strata  as  those  which,  with  few  exceptions,  hardly  betray  to  the  eye  any 
divergence  from  the  original  horizontality.  And  then,  from  beneath  the 
covering  of  vegetation  and  surface-soils,  rock  in  place  peeps  out  only  here 
and  there ;  finally,  the  general  uniformity  of  the  Chalk,  for  vast  thicknesses, 
and  the  comparative  scarcity  of  fossils,  enable  one  only  with  great  difficulty 
to  recognize  in  it  and  follow  up  any  definite  horizons.    All  these  obstacles. 


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110  THE  OORBELATION  OF  THB  OOAT^FIBLDB  OF 

however,  have  been  overcome ;  a  triumph  for  which  we  have  largely  to 
thank  that  indefatigable  worker,  the  late  Prof.  Hubert.  Moreover,  it  is  just 
three  years  since  M.  DoUfus,  of  the  French  Geological  Survey,  embracing 
the  question  as  a  whole,  published  for  the  first  time  in  a  justly  celebrated 
memoir  a  map  on  the  16  miles-to-the-inch  scale  Goooooo)  giving  a  general 
plan  of  the  undulations  of  the  Chalk  in  the  Paris  Basin.*  Comparing 
this  scheme  of  the  newer  undulations  of  the  Paris  Basin  with  that  of  the 
Palaeozoic  folds  recognized  outside  its  borders,  we  at  once  perceive  that 
the  Tertiary  axes  follow  exactly  the  directions  along  which  one  would  be 
disposed  to  join  up  the  Palaeozoic  folds.  Eastward,  the  axes  sweep  in 
curves  which  are  concave  towards  the  north,  and  which  surround  con- 
centrically the  similar  curve  of  the  coal-basins.  This  curve  in  its  turn 
reproduces  in  an  attenuated  form  the  curve  of  the  Palaeozoic  folds  which 
southward  surround  the  Central  Plateau.  Towards  Britanny,  the  general 
westerly  trend  of  the  folds  is  not  recognizable  on  M.  Dollfus's  map, 
because  it  has  not  yet  been  possible  to  trace  out  exactly  the  undulations 
in  the  Cretaceo- Jurassic  region  which  borders  the  Western  Palaeozoic 
massif.  In  England,  however,  where  the  undulations  of  the  Cretaceous 
and  Tertiary  strata  have  been  studied  with  quite  as  much  care  as  in 
France,  their  general  strike  is  known  to  be  east-and-west  and  parallel  to 
that  of  the  ancient  folds  of  the  coast.  Everywhere,  then,  there  is  close 
interdependence  betwixt  older  and  newer  folds — old  and  new,  they  all 
belong  to  one  and  the  same  tectonic  system.  The  recognition  of  this  fact, 
its  application  not  only  to  one  fold,  but  to  a  whole  series  of  them,  vastly 
increases  the  balance  of  probabilities  in  favour  of  Godwin-Austen's  law. 

If  we  wished  to  go  farther,  we  should  need  to  do  in  the  case  of  each 
fold  what  Godwin- Austen  was  enabled  to  accomplish  in  the  case  of  the 
North  Downs,  namely,  follow  it  up  to  the  Palaeozoic  boundary  and  prove 
that  it  is  there  in  contact  with  and  joins  on  to  a  fold  of  the  older  strata 
running  in  the  same  direction.  Unfortunately,  the  demonstration  is  in 
most  cases  a  matter  of  great  difSculty.  The  Jurassic  rocks  which  crop 
out  at  the  junction  with  the  Palaeozoic  swerve  sharply  westward,  and 
thereby  mask,  as  a  rule,  the  effects  of  the  folding.  One  exception, 
however,  may  be  noted :  the  Merlerault  Tertiary  axis,  one  of  the  most 
considerable  folds  in  the  north  of  the  D^partement  de  la  Sarthe,  has  been 
recently  shown  by  M.  Lecornu  to  be  an  unmistakable  prolongation  of  a 
Palaeozoic  axis.t 

If  we  sum  up  what  precedes,  limiting  ourselves  to  such  points  as  are 

♦  Bull  des  8erv,  de  la  Carte  GSol.  de  France,  July,  1890,  No.  14,  vol.  ii. 
t  Bull.  Sue.  Linn,  de  Norm.y  1889,  series  4,  vol.  ii. 


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KOBTHBEN  FRANCE  AND  SOUTHERN  ENGLAND.  Ill 

beyond  dispute,  we  find  that  (1)  the  Bystem  of  Tertiaiy  folds  is  arranged 
parallel  to  the  main  strike-lines  {lignea  directrices)  of  the  older  folds, 
following  all  their  inflections ;  (2)  in  the  case  of  the  only  two  anticlinal 
folds  which  have  as  yet  been  traced  up  to  the  Palaeozoic  boundary,  there 
is  at  the  junction  absolute  coincidence,  in  position  and  in  direction, 
with  an  anticlinal  fold  of  the  Primary  rocks. 

IV.  The  Bearing  of  Marine  denudation  on  the  Question 
OF  THE  Folds. 

Yet  another  series  of  arguments  may  be  drawn  from  the  study  of 
ancient  surfaces  of  marine  denudation  produced  by  the  successive  returns 
of  the  sea  in  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  times.  This  study  in  fact  shows 
that  there  have  been  considerable  movements,  both  in  the  comparatively 
short  interval  of  time  which  separates  the  latest  Jurassic  deposits  from 
the  earliest  Cretaceous,  and  in  that  which  separates  the  latest  Cretaceous 
from  the  earliest  Tertiary.  In  some  areas,  at  any  rate,  the  movements 
produced  in  those  intervals  may  be  isolated  from  all  others  and  studied 
quite  independently :  thus  we  find  that  though  slight,  the  movements 
under  consideration  have  given  rise  to  true  folds,  and  the  axes  thus  formed 
coincide  absolutely  either  with  those  of  more  recent  folds,  or  with  the  axes 
which  result  from  the  superposition  of  all  these  movements. 

The  possibility  of  such  a  study  is  based  on  the  fact  that  the  sea  in  its 
gradual  advance  eats  away  the  shore-Une  and  planes  down  the  old  surface 
of  the  land,  substituting,  for  the  hills  and  valleys  formed  by  older  move- 
ments or  carved  out  by  atmospheric  erosion,  the  practically  horizontal 
surface  of  a  plain  of  marine  denudation.  The  new  sea-bottom,  if  it  could 
then  be  examined,  would  show  almost  a  horizontal  section  of  the  older 
deposits ;  and  a  geological  map  of  this  sea-bottom  would  enable  us  to 
form  a  fair  idea  of  the  main  features  of  the  strata  of  which  it  is  made  up. 
The  anticlinal  folds  would  be  marked  by  bands  of  outcrop  of  the  more 
ancient  rocks,  or  by  noticeable  indentations  of  their  contours  ;  conversely, 
the  synclinal  folds  would  be  marked  by  bands  of  newer  rocks  ;  and  lastly, 
supposing  that  the  beds  were  not  folded  previous  to  marine  denudation, 
but  simply  bent  up  in  one  mass  towards  some  prominent  massif  corre- 
sponding to  the  ancient  shore-line,  the  outcrops  would  occur  in  parallel 
bands  whose  contours  would  follow  that  shore-line  in  parallel  order.  If 
we  wished  to  retrace  such  geological  maps  of  the  ancient  sea-bed,  it  would 
evidently  suffice  to  distinguish  and  to  limit  each  of  the  surfaces  along 
which  the  overlapping  strata  rest  upon  the  various  older  rocks.* 

*  "  Continuity  du  Ph^nom^ne  de  Plissement  dans  le  Bassin  de  Paris,"  Bull, 
Soe.  QSol.  France^  1892,  vol.  xx.,  page  118. 


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112  THE  CORRELATION  OV  THE  COAL-FIELDS  OF 

V.  The  Folds  in  Boulonnais. 

To  take  the  district  of  Boulonnais  as  an  instance,  if  we  glance  at  the 
present  geological  map,  we  notice  at  once  that  the  Lower  Cretaceous  (Weal- 
den)  rests  indifferently  upon  all  the  Jurassic  horizons,  and  that  the  Upper 
Portlandian  is  its  immediately  succeeding  substratum  in  two  small  areas 
only,  north  and  south  of  Boulogne  respectively.  The  very  insignificance 
of  these  areas  proves  how  restricted  was  the  outcrop  of  the  Upper  Port- 
landian on  the  Cretaceous  sea-bed. 

So  too,  in  ascertaining  the  localities  where  the  Cretaceous  rests  upon 
the  Lower  Portlandian,  we  see  that  the  contour  of  the  newer  series 
enveloped  that  of  the  preceding  series,  repeating  analogous  sinuosities. 
Going  thus  backwards  by  successive  series  we  find  ourselves  in.  a  position 
to  trace  out  the  geological  map  of  the  bed  of  the  ancient  Cretaceous  sea 
(Fig.  1,  Plate  IV.).  The  very  form  of  the  contours  shows  that  their 
irregularities  could  not  possibly  correspond  with  old  valley-bottoms; 
they  point,  therefore,  to  undulations  of  the  sea-bed  already  existing 
when  the  sea  returned,  and  thus  afford  evidence  of  pre-Cretaceous  folding 
of  the  rocks. 

If  we  are  desirous  of  comparing  these  movements  with  those  which 
the  same  surface  has  undergone  since  that  epoch,  we  need  only  plot  out 
(Fig.  2,  Plate  IV.)  the  contour-lines  (courbes  ds  niveau)  of  the  base  of 
the  Cretaceous,  as  it  now  is.  These  contour-lines  demonstrate,  firstly, 
the  existence  of  two  median  protuberances,  one  of  which  corresponds  to 
the  Palaeozoic  massif  of  Ferques,  and  the  other  to  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Forest  of  Boulogne;  but  apart  from  this  simultaneous  movement  (of 
which  there  was  no  sign  before  Cretaceous  times),  we  notice  that  the 
contour-lines  describe  around  the  central  dome  a  series  of  indentations 
and  prominences  which  indicate  that  a  set  of  parallel  undulations  ranged 
across  the  whole  area.  The  axes  of  these  post-Cretaceous  undulations 
coincide  with  those  previously  observed  in  the  case  of  the  pre-Cretaceous 
undulations,  and  we  therefore  conclude  that  it  is  precisely  on  the  site  of 
the  last-named  that  the  later  folds  have  been  formed. 

The  verification  of  these  facts  in  Boulonnais  is  especially  important 
from  the  point  of  view  of  those  who  search  for  the  continuation  of  the 
Coal-measure  synclinals,  for  it  is  precisely  around  that  area  that  we 
should  look  for  these  synclinals  to  be  continued. 

As  to  the  foldings  included  between  the  Cretaceous  and  the  Tertiary, 
the  work  of  M.  Cayeux  has  enabled  the  writer  to  complete  an  analogous 
verification  in  the  P^ronne-St.  Quentin  area,  to  the  south  of  Arras 
(Fig.  8,  Plate  IV.). 


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NOBTHBRN  PRANCE  AND  SOUTHERN  ENGLAND.         113 

The  same  method  is  applicable  in  the  south  and  west  of  the  Paris 
Basin,  and  in  the  west  of  the  London  Basin  ;  and  it  leads  to  the  same 
resalts.  Armed  thus  with  so  many  examples  which  confinn  one  another, 
we  cannot  possibly  be  taxed  with  reliance  on  mere  fortuitous  coincidences. 
During  the  whole  duration  of  Secondary  and  Tertiary  time,  the  crumplings 
of  the  surface  in  our  part  of  the  world  have  recurred  again  and  again 
along  the  same  lines. 

VI. — The  Folds  in  the  Nord  Coal-basin  (Plate  V.). 

The  interest  of  the  subject  gains  by  extending  a  similar  method  of 
study  to  an  area  where  Cretaceous  overlie  Palfeozoic  strata.  The  coal- 
basins  of  the  North  of  France  offer  peculiar  advantages  in  this  respect, 
for  there  the  underground  workings  necessarily  connecttMi  with  mining, 
make  known  to  us  both  the  appearance  of  the  older  rocks  and  that  of  the 
surface  upon  which  rests  the  Cretaceous  Series. 

One  might,  however,  question  the  applicability  to  the  present  case  of 
the  idea  of  a  plain  of  marine  denudation;  and,  indeed,  the  deposits 
which  overlie  the  Palaeozoic  in  this  urea  are  not  everywhere  exactly 
contemporaneous.  Moreover,  if  we  remembered  that  these  strata  are 
generally  tough  and  long-resisting,  we  might  expect  that  the  ocean  waves 
would  hardly  have  succeeded  in  all  places  in  breaking  down  the 
irregularities  of  the  ancient  land-surface,  we  might  expect  that  some 
protuberant  island-like  masses  would  have  withstood  their  efPorts,  and 
that  some  traces  of  old  valleys  would  have  been  preserved.  But,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  contour-lines  which  have  been  recorded,  betray  no 
irregularities  such  as  would  remind  us  of  the  topographical  relief  due  to 
the  carving-tools  of  subaerial  denudation,  and  such  as  we  should  expect  if 
marine  denudation  had  been  hindered  in  its  differently  destructive  work. 
Then,  too,  in  the  case  of  old  valleys,  we  ought  to  find  fluviatile  deposits 
at  the  base  of  the  Cretaceous,  or  at  least,  we  ought  to  find  an  increased 
thickness  of  basement-beds  at  these  points.  Such  is  the  case  in  the  Anzin 
"wash-out"  (torrmt  (T Anzin),  but  that  is,  so  far  as  known,  an  unique 
occurrence  in  this  area. 

As  to  the  difference  of  age  or  non-contemporaneity  of  the  basement- 
beds,  the  sole  error  thereby  made  possible  is  due  to  the  movements  which 
may  have  taken  place  between  the  various  phases  of  denudation.  If  these 
were  folding  movements,  then  it  matters  little ;  for,  as  we  have  seen 
above,  we  have  merely  to  deal  with  a  superposition  of  movements  along 
the  same  lines.  If  they  were  movements  of  a  different  nature,  the  part 
which  they  played  can  be  determined  just  Jis  easily  if  they  preceded  as  if 

VOI«  V.-181«.M.  8 


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114  THE  CORRELATION  OF  THE  COAL-FIELDS  OF 

they  succeeded  the  process  of  marine  denudation.  The  real  problem 
that  has  to  be  solved  is — the  recognition,  amid  the  inequalities  of  the 
contour-lines,  of  those  which  are  due  to  folding.  It  is  often  difficult, 
sometimes  impossible,  to  arrive  at  a  perfectly  certain  solution ;  but  the 
same  difficulties  await  us  in  connexion  with  the  topographic  surface  of 
any  stratum  whatsoever  as  with  that  of  the  Primary  land.  The  important 
point,  in  both  cases,  is  to  have  contour-lines  which  are  exact,  and  fairly 
close  to  one  another. 

We  are  then  justified  in  holding  that  the  interpretation  of  the  contour- 
lines  of  the  surface  of  Primary  rocks  is  likely  to  emphasize  the  existence 
of  crumpling  phenomena,  and  will  allow  of  our  comparing  these  more 
recent  "puckcrings"  with  the  folds  of  the  Coal-measures. 

The  contour-lines  of  the  Primary  land-surface  were  plotted  out  by  M. 
Potier  on  the  geological  ^77^757^  or  1 J  inch  map,  at  equal  distances  of  50 
metres  (164  feet).  A  glance  at  these  contour-lines  reveals  at  the  two 
extremities  of  the  French  northern  coal-field  the  exact  coincidence  of 
the  younger  depressions  with  the  Coal-measure  basin.  North-east  of 
Valenciennes,  the  crowding  up  together  of  the  contour-lines  points  to  a 
very  deeply-hollowed  basin,  to  which  M.  Olry  gives  the  name  of  "Valley 
of  Vicq ;"  the  difference  of  level  between  the  rim  of  that  basin  and  the 
central  hollow  exceeds  500  feet.  It  can  be  followed  in  an  easterly 
direction  to  beyond  Mons,  and  coincides  along  its  whole  course  with  the 
Coal-measure  basin.  Moreover,  south  of  this  basin,  another  inflection  of 
the  contour-lines  is  noticeable  around  Quarouble:  here  the  secondary 
basin  is  superposed  on  the  small  Coal-measure  basin  of  Dour. 

Westward,  a  very  strongly-marked  inflection  of  the  contour-line  ( —  50 
metres,  that  is,  —  164  feet,)  (Plate  VI.)  points  to  a  similar  synclinal 
undulation  of  the  surface,  situated  exactly  over  the  spot  where  the  Coal- 
measure  band  thins  away,  between  Bruay  and  Fl^hinelle.  But  between 
these  extreme  points,  the  contour-lines,  which  are  164  feet  apart,  fail  to 
demonstrate  the  existence  of  a  series  of  parallel  undulations :  the  Primary 
land-surface  thus  apixjars  to  be  an  irregular,  hummocky,  but  not  a 
folded  area.  \VTience  we  can  only  conclude  that  the  undulations,  if 
they  do  exist,  are  too  slight  to  be  noticed  in  plotting-out  contour-lines 
which  are  so  far  apart  as  164  feet.  The  facts  at  our  command  are 
now  sufficient  to  allow  of  drawing  contour-luies  only  82J  feet  apart; 
a  glance  at  the  map  thus  obtained  then  shows  at  onct;  that  the 
surface  is  folded.  We  notice  first,  in  the  central  portion,  a  great  line 
of  depression  (the  Vicoigne  fold)  which  is  everywhere  below  the  262 
feet  level :  it  starts  from  the  deep  basin  of  Vicq,  and  runs  south  of  the 


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NOETHBBN  FBINCB  AND  SOUTHEBN   BNGLAND.  116 

Vicoigne  mining  property.  In  the  Anzin  mining  property,  relative 
depressionfl  rarely  exceed  65  feet,  but  three  are  arranged  in  a  remarkable 
way  parallel  to  the  rim  of  the  basin  (Aniche  fold,  Denain  fold,  and 
Azincoart  fold).  The  rim  corresponds  to  a  sort  of  "swelling"  or 
bulging  out,  which  follows  it  right  along  from  the  Belgian  frontier 
to  Douai.  Lastly,  farther  south,  though  the  available  data  are  less 
numerous,  we  believe  that  another  synclinal  fold  may  be  traced  almost 
continuously :  its  presence  was  betrayed  near  Dour,  as  already  observed, 
thanks  to  the  contour-lines  drawn  by  M.  Potier.  We  have  here,  then,  with- 
out taking  into  account  the  mining  areas  of  Fresnes  and  Bruille,  no  less  than 
five  distinct  synclinal  folds  which  may  be  followed  right  across  the  map. 

It  now  remains  to  be  seen  what  is  the  relation  between  the  position  of 
these  folds  and  the  position  of  the  folds  of  the  older  rocks.  To  begin 
with,  the  general  trend  is  much  the  same  as  that  of  the  Coal-measure 
basin,  but  the  conformity  goes  deeper  yet,  and,  deep  as  it  goes,  will  still 
be  found  remarkably  close. 

Begiiming  with  the  north,  the  synclinal  fold  of  Vicoigne  occurs  only 
in  that  mining  property  above  the  underground  workings ;  and  there  a 
triplicate  synclinal  fold  has  been  observed,  the  southern  flanks  of  which 
are  pushed  abruptly  upwards  and  even  slightly  turned  over  (Fig.  4, 
Plate  IV.).  The  recent  fold  coincides  in  jx)sition  and  strike  with  the 
southernmost  of  these  folds  ;  above  the  two  others  is  an  area  where  it  has 
hitherto  been  impossible  to  determine  the  contour-lines  with  suflScient 
precision  to  ensure  trustworthy  data. 

The  next  fold,  that  of  Aniche,  occurs  westward  near  Aniche,  and  east- 
ward near  Anzin,  north  of  the  Cran  de  Retour  ("doubling-baok")  fault ; 
somewhere  between  those  two  localities  it  runs  south  of  that  fault.  If  we 
consult  the  map  of  the  different  zones  of  the  coal-field,  published  by  M. 
Zeiller,*  we  notice  that  that  contour  follows  almost  exactly  the  boun- 
dary of  zones  B*  and  B*  (lower  and  middle  regions  of  the  middle  zone), 
restoring  that  part  of  the  zone  which  is  cut  off  by  the  Cran  de  Retour. 

Now,  in  the  Palaeozoic  rocks,  there  are  signs  of  a  synclinal  fold 
corresponding  to  the  north  of  the  Cran .  de  Retour.  These  may  be 
observed  in  the  workings  of  the  Thiers  pit  and  the  St.  Louis  pit  (mim'ng 
property  of  Raismes).  Farther  westward,  the  fold,  if  it  be  continued,  is 
thrown  deeper  by  the  Cran  de  Retour,  but  reappears,  well-marked  and 
easily  recognizable,  in  the  workings  of  the  Douai  and  Escai'pelle  area. 
Besides  affecting  the  same  group  of  beds  as  elsewhere,  it  coincides  in  that 

*  Bassin  houiller  de  Valenciennes.  Description  de  la  Flore  Fossile^  p&ge  692, 
Fig.  46. 


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116  THE  CORRELATION  OF  THE  COAL-FIELDS  OF 

area  with  the  Tertiary  fold.  It  is  feir,  then,  to  say  that  the  coincidence 
is  interrupted  by  the  fealt  only,  that  fault  not  having  moved  or  worked 
back  at  the  same  time  as  the  folds. 

The  next  two  folds,  that  of  Deuain  and  that  of  Azincourt,  correspond 
to  the  southern  part  of  the  basin.  It  would  be  useless  to  attempt  to  seek 
a  precise  coincidence  with  one  or  other  of  the  numerous  folds  of  this 
portion  of  the  coal-basin,  the  more  so  that  the  Azincourt  fold  can  only 
be  traced  with  certainty  in  the  mining:  property  of  that  name,  where 
it  remains  outside  the  limits  of  the  basin.  The  last  mentioned  circum- 
stance is  perhaps  explicable  if  we  consider  that  the  older  fold  is  there 
turned  over  (coucM),  and  Devonian  and  Carboniferous  strata  overlie 
the  centre  of  the  coal-basin.  All  we  can  look  for  is  a  general  coinci- 
dence, and  so  much  is  an  undeniable  fact.  The  Denain  and  Azincourt 
folds  correspond  in  strike  with  the  zone  B'  of  M.  Zeiller  (upper  division 
of  the  middle  zone). 

It  is  noticeable  that  the  Aniche  and  Denain  folds  cross,  and  follow  the 
middle  portion  of,  the  wash-out  (torrent)  of  Anzin.  The  sands  to  which 
this  name  has  been  given  date,  as  we  know,  from  the  Lower  Cretaceous; 
they  are  probably  fluviatile,  and  are  in  any  case  anterior  to  the  period  of 
the  final  return  of  the  Cretaceous  sea  to  that  region.  That  these  sands 
were  more  likely  laid  down,  and  more  easily  preserved,  in  a  synclinal 
depression  seems  sufficiently  obvious. 

Lastly,  as  to  the  fifth  fold,  that  of  Dour,  its  coincidence  on  the  west 
side  with  the  little  Secondary  basin  of  the  same  name  has  already  been 
noted  in  these  pages.  Towards  Douai  it  unites,  outside  the  limits  of  the 
coal-basin,  with  the  western  branch  of  the  deep  depression  of  Douai. 

The  result  of  the  foregoing  considerations  tends  then  to  show  that 
there  is  a  coincidence  between  ancient  folds  and  recent  folds  ;  that  this 
coincidence  appears  to  extend  to  minute  details,  and  to  exceed  in  pre- 
cision all  that  one  might  have  expected  from  phenomena,  which,  owing  to 
the  complex  nature  of  the  resistances  that  come  into  play  at  every  point, 
can  hardly  be  adjusted  to  geometrical  laws.  The  confirmation  of  our 
principle  is  so  convincing  as  to  admit  of  no  doubt. 

The  accompanying  section  (Fig.  4,  Plate  IV.)  enables  us  to  compare  the 
features  of  the  strata  which  are  now  being  worked  for  coal,  with  those  of  the 
land-surface  of  Primary  rocks  (tlie  heights  of  which  are  exaggerated  thirty 
times).  The  section  shows  that  repetition  of  folds  along  the  same  lines 
does  not  result  in  the  formation  of  similar  surface-reliefs,  where  the  newer 
system  of  folds  reproduces  on  a  smaller  scale  the  older  one.  One  reason 
is  that  there  is  no  projwrtionality  in  the  relative  accentuation  of  the 


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NORTHEBK  FRANCE  AND  BOUTHEBN  ENGLAND.  117 

various  folds  which  are  superposed  one  upon  the  other.  Moreover,  the 
Yicoigne  depression  has  all  the  look  of  belonging  to  another  order  of 
phenomena ;  it  is  in  fact  the  rim  of  the  Yicq  depression,  where  a  local 
subsidence  is  superposed  on  folding,  and  where  four  out  of  our  IGive  folds 
unite  and  mei^  into  one- another.  We  conclude  then,  that,  over  a  con- 
siderable area,  the  general  inclination  of  the  more  recent  strata  is  the 
reverse  of  the  inclination  of  the  older  beds,  wherefore  there  is  absolute 
divergence  between  the  two  profiles.  The  influence  of  the  folding  action 
is  none  the  less  marked  in  the  general  trend  of  the  contour-lines,  and  this 
is  chiefly  owing  to  the  parallelism  of  the  undulations. 

VII.  The  Folds  in  the  Pas-de-Calais  Coal-basin.    (Plate  VL). 

It  would  be  interesting  to  studj  from  a  similar  standpoint  the  Pas-de- 
Galais  area.  Meanwhile,  by  the  mere  inspection  of  the  curves  plotted  out 
by  M.  Potior,  some  not  unimportant  conclusions  as  to  the  geology  of  the 
coal-field  may  be  arrived  at.  Even  on  small-scale  maps  (of  France,  say, 
^  ^^  icooooo>  9^  ^^  miles  to  the  inch)  it  will  be  seen  that  the  northern 
rim  of  the  coal-basin  shows  numerous  sinuosities,  as  for  example  near  St. 
Anumd,  Annoeulin,  and  B^thune.  The  localities  where  the  Carboniferous 
Limestone  thus  protrudes  intx)  the  coal-field  evidently  denote  remnants  of 
anticlinal  folds  of  the  older  strata — at  least,  such  is  the  case  if  we  admit 
that  the  Primary  land  surface  (or  surface  of  erosion)  was  formerly 
horizontal ;  conversely,  the  areas  where  the  Coal-measures  form  promon- 
tories projecting  into  a  mass  of  older  strata,  correspond  to  synclinal 
folds.  Now,  in  the  D6partement  du  Nord,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  map 
(Plate  v.),  the  synclinal  fold  which  occurs  north  of  Vicoigne,  in  other 
words,  the  fold  of  Vieux  Cond6  (to  which  the  writer  has  not  hitherto 
referred)  terminates  near  St.  Amand,  issuing  from  the  coal-basin  precisely 
on  the  site  of  one  of  these  synclinals.  Similarly,  the  northernmost  of  the 
two  folds  which  was  mentioned  as  corresponding  to  the  Vicoigne  fold, 
issues  from  the  coal-basin  near  Marchiennes,  in  the  second  of  these 
synclinal  creeks.  The  track  (so  far  as  yet  known)  of  the  southernmost 
of  these  two  folds,  if  continued  into  the  Pas-de-Calais,  leads  one  to  infer 
that  after  passing  by  Ostricourt  it  issues  from  the  basin  at  Annoeulin, 
while  the  Aniche  fold  issues  therefrom  south  of  B^thnne. 

Here,  again,  then,  we  have  a  series  of  coincidences,  the  importance  of 
which  can  hardly  be  overlooked.  And  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
tectonic  structure  of  the  coal-basin  an  instructive  conclusion  may  be 
drawn,  viz.,  that  this  basin  does  not  correspond  to  a  single  fold,  but 
to  a  set  of  folds,  slightly  oblique  to  the  mean  strike  of  the  coal-bearing 


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118  THE  CORBEIxA^TIOK  OF  THE  COAL-FIELDS  OF 

band,  a  conclusion  which  throws  a  new  light  on  the  overlap  of  the  coal- 
bearing  strata,  and  to  which  M.  Potier  long  ago  drew  attention.* 

In  fact,  if  we  combine  the  foregoing  data  with  the  results  attained 
by  M.  Zeiller's  map,  we  shall  see  that  the  Vieux-Cond6  fold,  or  rather  the 
anticlinal  fold  which  limits  it  to  the  south,  practically  corresponds  with 
the  boundary  of  the  anthracitic  group  (A^  of  Zeiller) ;  the  Vicoigne  fold 
with  that  of  the  Nord  close-burning  coal  group  (A*);  while  the  Aniche 
fold,  which  may  be  regarded  also  as  that  of  B^thune,  corresponds  (as 
already  remarked),  with  the  boundary  of  the  zones  B*  and  B*.  In 
other  words,  the  very  folds  with  which  we  have  been  previously  dealing, 
foreshadowed  or  dimly  outlined  before  the  Coal-measure  upheaval,  have 
successively  checked  the  progressive  southward  advance  of  the  Coal- 
measure  lagoons.  Wherefore,  if  at  a  given  locality  we  know  by  fossil 
evidence  the  age  of  the  Coal-measure  horizon  which  rests  upon  the  Car- 
boniferous Limestone,  or  at  any  rate  upon  the  latest  unquestionably  marine 
strata,  we  may,  to  some  extent  and  with  some  chance  of  probability,  con- 
clude which  is  the  fold  uix)n  whose  prolongation  that  locality  is  situated. 

The  information  would  be  valuable,  for  instance,  in  the  case  of  the 
district  of  Boulonnais,  but  unfortunately  no  precise  data  have  as  yet  been 
obtained  from  the  coal-flora  of  that  area.  It  may  be  as  well  to  add, 
however,  that  in  no  case  could  such  a  conclusion  be  accepted  unreservedly, 
because  a  fold  which  constitutes  a  shore-line  along  part  of  its  course  does 
not  necessarily  continue  so  along  its  whole  course.  But  one  conclusion  we 
may  at  all  events  bear  in  mind,  and  that  is,  that  over  the  North  of  France 
coal-field,  the  recent  folds  are,  as  it  were,  moulded  upon  the  older  folds. 

VHI.  Summary  of  conclusions  drawn  from  the  evidence  in 
THE  North  of  France. 

To  sum  up,  the  arguments  which  may  be  invoked  in  favour  of 
Godwin- Austen's  princii)le  are  the  following  : — General  concordance  in 
the  "  scheme  "  of  the  Palaeozoic  folds  and  that  of  the  recent  folds.  Exact 
superposition  in  the  various  phases  of  the  later  folding.  Unbroken 
junction  at  their  common  extremities  of  several  folds  belonging  to  both 
series  {eu/,^  Meiidip  Hills  and  Merlerault).  Complete  and  continuous 
coincidence  of  both  scries  above  the  coal-basin  of  the  Departement  du 
Nord. 

One  may  be  inclined  to  generalize  from  these  results,  or  the  reverse ; 
one  may  seek  to  reserve  the  possibility,  at  any  rate,  of  important  exceptions 
to  the  rule;  but  there  is  now  no  doubt  that,  so  far  as  the  North  of  France 
and  the  South  of  England  are  concerned,  the  observer  may  be  guided  by 

•  Asmw,  Frang.p.  VAv.  den  Scienceii,  3"™*  session,  Lille,  1884. 


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NORTHERN  FRANCE  AND   SOUTHERN  ENGLAND.  119 

the  nndnlations  of  mor^  reoent  strata  in  looking  for  the  axes  of  the 
Palaeozoic  folds.  It  is  no  less  certain  that  in  a  search  of  that  kind  the 
observer  may  take  as  a  basis  the  contour-lines  of  the  surface  of  any 
particular  bed  in  the  series  or  of  any  surface  whatsoever  of  ancient 
marine  denudation.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  rule 
necessarily  loses  much  of  its  precision  in  those  cases  where  the  ancient 
folds  are  "  dissymetric  "  or  overfolded,  because  a  single  line  drawn  along 
the  surface  is  hardly  suflScient  to  define  the  site  of  an  *'  overf old "  {pU 
coucM), 

IX.  Application  op  the  principle  to  the  Coal-basins  of  the 
Pas-db-Oalais,  the  Boulonnais,  and  Dover. 

The  first  problem  which  demands  solution  is  to  join  up  the  known 
folds  (near  the  extremity  of  the  Pas-de-Calais  coal-basin)  and  those  which 
have  been  already  determined  for  Boulonnais.  The  data  available  in 
the  intervening  area  unfortunately  are  so  far  inadequate.  We  can  only 
make  use  (Plate  VI.)  of  the  contour-lines  of  the  surface  of  Primary 
rocks,  plotted  out  by  M.  Potier  in  his  detailed  geographical  map,  and 
farther  westward  the  contour-lines  of  the  base  of  the  Chalk- with-ifwras/^- 
brevijmrus^  obtained  from  a  recent  work  by  M.  Parent.* 

In  examining  the  surface  of  the  ancient  rocks  one  is  struck  by  the 
island-like  protuberances  which  run  higher  than  the  164  feet  contour. 
Southward  runs  the  long  saddle  [ridge]  of  Fauquembergue  and  Vimy, 
with  the  subsidiary  promontory  which  juts  out  westward  of  Fruges  towards 
Hucqueliers  ;  farther  north  lies  the  little  prominence  of  R^bergues  (where 
the  Devonian  crops  out),  and  lastly,  the  massif  of  Ferques,  north  of 
Boulonnais.  Putting  aside  for  a  moment  the  protuberance  of  Hucqueliers, 
it  seems  natural  to  assume  that  the  line  of  Ferques-R^bergues-Fauquem- 
bergue  represents,  despite  some  depressions  along  its  course,  an  anticlinal 
axis,  northward  of  which  the  continuation  of  the  Coal-measure" synclinal 
should  be  sought.  Such  was  thfe  solution  favoured  by  Godwin-Austen  and 
recently  maintained  by  Dollfus.f  But  the  writer  firmly  believes  that  an 
attentive  study  of  the  contour-lines  will  entail  its  immediate  rejection. 
To  begin  with,  this  line  does  not  present  everywhere  the  same  character- 
istics. True,  that  from  Ferques  to  Rebergues,  the  Primary  land-surface 
sinks  on  either  side  of  the  line  ;  and  the  same  statement  holds  good  east 
of  Fauquembergue,  but  in  the  intervening  space  the  conditions  are 
different.  The  base  of  the  Cretaceous,  which,  from  Flanders  onwards, 
rises  continuously  towards  that  line,  continues  to  rise  on  the  other  side 

♦  Annates  Soc.  OSol.  Nord,  vol.  xx.,  page  304. 

t  Bull-  des  Serv,  Carte  Oeoh  France,  vol.  ii.,  No.  14.  page  49. 


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120  THE  COEBBLATION  OF  THE  COAL-FIELDS  OP 

of  it  towards  the  centre  of  Boulonnais.  The  line,  for  a  distance  of  12 
miles,  ceases  to  mark  the  separation  between  two  declivities — it  loses  the 
character  of  an  anticlinal  axis.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  well- 
marked  anticlinal  axis  south  of  St.  Omer,  which  runs  thence  a  little  above 
Lumbres.  Lower  down  a  parallel  synclinal  fold  is  equally  well-marked 
between  Aire  and  Eemilly.  These  two  folds  are  oblique  to  the  R^bergues- 
Fauquembergue  line,  and  denote  the  true  direction  of  the  whole  system. 
We  may  add,  as  was  long  ago  observed  by  M.  Gosselet,  that  the  Artois 
axis  (or  axis  of  Condros)  has  everywhere  to  the  east  formed  the  northern 
shore-line  of  the  Lower  Devonian  sea.  The  absence  at  Ferques  of  rocks 
of  that  age  being  amply  proved,  the  inference  is  obvious  that  this  locality 
lies  north  of  the  prolongation  of  the  fold.  And  thus  we  are  supplied  with 
yet  another  argument  for  concluding  that  the  Artois  axis  does  not  run  up 
to  the  north  of  Boulonnais 

Another  solution  which  appears  to  offer  itself  quite  naturally  is  the 
joining  up  of  the  Pas-de-Calais  coal-basin  (Auchy-au-Boisand  Flechinelle) 
with  that  of  Boulonnais.  As  a  help  to  this  solution  we  may  recall  the 
existence  of  a  great  overturned  fold  south  of  both  coal-basins.  M.  Breton* 
objects,  on  the  score  of  the  difference  of  composition  of  the  Coal-measures 
in  the  Pas-de-Calais  and  Boulonnais  respectively.  The  contour-lines 
offer  no  obstacle  to  the  solution,  but  they  indicate  os  more  probable  the 
correspondence  of  the  Hardinghen  "  system  "  with  the  Secondary  synclinal 
of  Bethune. 

Lastly,  M.  Parent  has  shown  that  the  depression  which  limits 
Boulonnais  southwai^d,  between  Neufchatel  and  Ergny,  was  prolonged 
north-eastward  towards  Delette  by  a  less  strongly-marked  depression,  and 
appeared  thus  to  join  up  with  the  Flechinelle  synclinal.  But  an  attentive 
study  of  the  contour-lines  shows  that  in  reality  the  depression  bifiircates, 
and  the  branch  which  runs  down  towards  Frages  alone  corresponds  to  the 
general  scheme  of  the  system  of  folds.  Perhaps  the  diverging  ramification 
of  Delette  is  neither  more  nor  less  than  the  tag  (amorce)  of  a  circum- 
ferential depression  around  the  central  dome  of  the  Forest  of  Boulogne. 
Neither,  therefore,  does  the  Artois  axis  run  south  of  Boulonnais. 

Its  continuation  should  at  aU  events  be  looked  for  within  Boulon- 
nais itself,  but  the  insufficiency  of  the  data  at  present  available  only 
enables  us  to  infer  its  termination  north  or  south  of  Wimille.  The 
Flechinelle  synclinal  axis  would  then  on  one  hypothesis  debouch  at  Cape 
Oris  Nez,  on  the  other  near  Wimille.  The  vmter  may  add  that,  indepen- 
dently, five  anticlinal  and  synclinal  folds  have  been  determined  near 
Bethune,  and  five  similar  folds  in  Boulonnais ;  further,  that  the  junction  of 
*  J  nn.  iSoc.  Giol  du  Xord,  vol.  xix.,  page  24. 


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NORTHERN   FRANCE  AND   SOUTHERN   ENGLAND.  121 

the  extreme  folds  of  the  double  series  has  been  ascertained,  and  that  conse- 
quently there  is  a  great  balance  of  probability  in  favour  of  the  junction 
pair  by  pair  of  the  intermediate  folds.  Thus  the  axis  of  Artois  is 
correlated  with  the  fold  of  La  Cr6che,  so  well  marked  in  the  Jurassic 
diffs  north  of  Boulogne.* 

X.  The  Evidence  from  Borings. 

Comparatively  few  borings  have  been  made  in  central  and  southern 
Boulonnais.  M.  Rigaux,  in  his  very  complete  memoir  on  that  districtt 
says,  with  due  reservation,  that  old  borings  are  supposed  to  have  struck 
the  Silurian  rocks  at  Mont  des  Boucards  and  Le  Wast.  MM.  du  Souich 
and  Delanoue  refer  to  the  Silurian  shales  which  have  been  met  with  in 
a  boring  at  Lottinghen.  These  somewhat  doubtful  results  would,  if 
confirmed,  indicate  the  existence  of  an  old  anticlinal  below  the  recent 
anticlinal  of  the  upper  valley  of  the  Liane. 

Borings  between  R^bergues  aud  EscoeuiUes  have  struck  the*Carboni- 
ferous  Limestone,  limited  north  and  south  by  the  Devonian ;  therefore,  the 
old  synclinal  of  Hardinghen  passes  just  at  the  spot  whither  we  have  traced 
the  newer  synclinal.  Two  borings,  at  Moulin-des-Moines  and  Basse 
Falaise,  south  of  Hardinghen,  have  struck,  one  the  Carboniferous  Lime- 
stone below  790  feet  of  Devonian  slates,  the  other  Coal-measure  shales  (82 
feet  only)  below  633  feet  of  Carboniferous  Limestone  and  265  feet  of 
Devonian  slates.  The  prolongation  southward  of  the  overturned  fold 
serves  to  explain  why  the  recent  synclinal  is  there  carried  some  distance 
south  of  the  outcrop  of  the  older  synclinal. 

Unfortunately,  however,  farther  south,  just  where  information  would 
be  most  interesting,  very  few  borings  have  been  made.  That  of  Desvres, 
at  768  feet,  struck  clay-slates,  on  the  age  of  which  M.  Rigaux  offers  no 
opinion,  while  M.  Gosselet  is  tempted  to  refer  them  to  the  Lower  Coal- 
measures.  A  more  recent  boring,  the  exact  results  of  which  are  unknown 
to  the  writer,  seems  to  have  confirmed  that  supposition,  and  it  would  in 
fact  agree  with  the  known  existence  of  a  recent  synclinal  at  Desvres. 

Lastly,  a  boring  has  been  carried  on  at  Boulogne  itself  at  the  factory 
of  Montataire.  The  boring  was  at  first  stopped  at  777  feet  in  a  very  tough 
Oolitic  limestone,  regarded  as  Carboniferous  Limestone.  Thereafter  the 
boring  was  deepened  by  197  feet,  the  whole  thickness  of  which  cousisted 

*  Since  the  paper  was  written  M.  Parent  has  sent  the  writer  some  new  observa- 
tions which  modify  the  geological  information  and  maps  upon  which  this  conclnsion 
was  based.  The  writer  is  now  induced  to  admit  that  the  Artois  axis  passes  to  the 
sonth  of  Boulonnais.  Practically,  however,  this  does  not  affect  the  other  conclusions 
of  this  paper. 

t  Notice  OSol,  tur  le  Beu  Boulomutu^  Mew.  Soc,  de  Bovlogne^  1892. 


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122  THE  COBRBLATION  OF  THE  COAL-FIELDS  OF 

of  white  sands  and  lignite-bearing  clays ;  these  represent,  beyond  any 
possibility  of  doubt,  the  base  of  the  Jurassics  of  that  district.  So  that  the 
Oolitic  limestone,  erroneously  attributed  to  the  Carboniferous,  is  really 
Bathonian  [Great  Oolite].  The  boring  was  not  continued  beyond  981 
feet,  and  though  at  that  depth  it  had  not  yet  struck  the  PaldBOzoic  rocks, 
it  must  have  been  close  upon  them. 

XI.  Application  of  the  Preceding  Considerations  to  the 
Dover  Basin. 

Prom  the  foregoing  considerations  we  are  enabled  to  conclude  that  the 
Pas-de-Calais  coal-basin,  whether  or  not  ramifying  into  two  distinct 
branches  in  Boulonnais,  does  not  debouch  on  the  coast  anywhere  north  of 
Cape  Oris  Nez.  The  anticlinal  fold  which  forms  the  northern  boundary 
of  Boulonnais  corresponds  to  that  which,  near  Folkestone,  forms  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  Weald.  We  are  therefore  led  to  the  further 
conclusioh  that  the  newly-discovered  coal-basin  of  Dover  is  distinct  from 
the  Pas-de-Calais  coal-basin. 

In  looking  for  the  prolongation  of  the  Dover  coal-basin  we  notice  that 
the  contour-lines  of  the  base  of  the  Glauconitic  Chalk  [Chloritic  Marl] 
Indicate  near  the  coast  the  existence  of  a  series  of  undulations  sensibly 
parallel  to  the  shore-line.  These  undulations  are  moreover  parallel  to 
those  which  furrow  the  neighbouring  sea-bed  of  the  North  Sea  and  the 
Straits  of  Dover.  Clearly,  they  make  up  a  system  which  is  transverse 
and  practically  perpendicular  to  the  system  of  principal  folds  which  run 
across  the  Straits,  and  therefore  they  provide  us  only  with  indirect 
guidance  as  to  the  axes  that  we  ought  to  follow  up. 

But  this  does  not  hold  good  of  the  contour-lines  carried  along  beneath 
the  Straits  by  MM.  Potier  and  de  Lapparent.  These  give  evidence  of  a 
sudden  drop  of  the  strata  northwards,  which  is  sufficient  to  mark,  if  not 
the  exact  position,  at  all  events  the  average  direction,  of  the  fold  which 
starts  at  Folkestcme.  Bearing  in  mind  that  this  sudden  drop  of  the 
strata  is  paralleled  by  the  raj)id  downward  plunge  of  the  Aptian  Beds 
[Lower  Greensaiid,  and  Atherfield  Clay-beds],  observed  on  the  French  coast 
near  Wissant,  we  are  enabled  to  plot  out  approximately  the  actual  axis 
of  the  fold,  whereby  we  gain  the  conviction  that  it  ultimately  joins  up 
with  the  saddle  of  Ferques.  And  the  line  thus  traced  is  found  to  be  very 
nearly  perpendicular  to  the  great  furrows  of  the  sea-bed. 

We  are  acquainted,  moreover,  with  a  small  Secondary  saddle  on  the 
Kentish  coast  between  the  Folkestone  fold  and  the  Dover  coal-basin. 
The  submarine  outcrops  here  also  enable  us  to  follow  for  several  miles  the 


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NORTHERN  FRANCE  AND  SOUTHERN  ENGLAND.         123 

axis  of  this  Secondary  fold  which  bends  rapidly  eastward  and  even  north- 
eastward.    So  we  have  one  more  valuable  junction-tag. 

If  we  wish  to  follow  still  farther  these  tags  or  remnants,  our  one 
remaining  resource  is  to  study  the  contour-lines  of  the  present  sea-bed. 
This  bed,  like  that  of  the  ancient  seas,  is  a  surface  of  marine  denudation, 
and  the  same  conclusions  are  here  applicable  as  there.  True,  that  in  the 
case  of  our  recent  seas  the  objections  urged  in  another  portion  of  this 
paper  seem  to  acquire  additional  strength.  In  the  North  Sea  the  aocum-  ♦ 
ulation  of  glacial  detritus,  and  in  the  Straits  of  Dover  the  part  played 
by  the  sea-currents  appear  amply  sufficient  to  vitiate  our  conclusions; 
and  yet,  despite  the  intervention  of  causes  of  error  so  undeniable,  the 
general  scheme  of  the  folds  has  not  been  obliterated.  The  contour-lines, 
both  in  the  North  Sea  and  the  English  Channel,*  make  strikingly 
manifest  a  double  system  of  rectangular  furrows,  which  join  up  with  the 
folds  already  known  on  either  shore.  We  make,  therefore,  no  very  rash 
assumption  if  we  presume  that  the  study  of  these  contour-hnes  will  in  this 
particular  case  provide  us  with  some  useful  data.  No  doubt  the  indications 
thus  obtained  will  be  merely  approximate ;  because,  for  one  thing,  the 
transverse  furrows  alone  are  well  marked  in  the  Straits,  and  for  another, 
the  sinuosities  of  the  contour-lines  around  these  furrows  are  both  too 
minute  and  too  numerous  to  allow  of  our  plotting-out  the  second  system 
with  anything  like  precision.  In  point  of  fact,  for  the  purposes  of  that 
scheme,  we  are  led  to  rely  on  the  condition  of  perpendicularity  (of  one 
system  to  the  other),  and  this  is,  and  can  only  be,  a  matter  of  approxima- 
tion. The  only  well-known  fold  on  the  English  coast,  besides  those 
mentioned  above,  is  the  Thanet  axis,t  of  which  one  might,  perhaps, 
place  the  termination  at  Ostend  (where  boring  has  proved  the  Silurians 
at  984  feet) ;  the  Hougham  Fold,  starting  immediately  south  of  Dover, 
terminates  near  Calais  (Fig.  5,  Plate  IV.). 

It  is  therefore  between  those  two  points  that  we  ought  to  look  for  the 
continuation  of  the  Dover  coal-basin.  Whether  intermediate  undulations 
occur  between  the  Isle  of  Thanet  and  Dover  is  unknow^n ;  nor  do  we  know 
whether  Dover  is  near  to  or  far  from  the  axis  of  the  Coal -measure  synclinal. 
All  that  we  can  say,  as  the  result  of  the  application  of  our  method,  is  that 
the  homologous  point  of  Dover  would  in  France  lie  a  little  east  of  Calais. 
If  the  Dover  coal-basin  does  reach  into  France,  its  continuation  must 
therefore  be  sought  east  of  Calais,  between  that  town  and  Dunkirk. 

*  Bv-U,  8oc,  OSol.  France,  vol.  xx.,  page  156. 

t  M.  BaiTois  considers  that  the  Thanet  axis  is  a  tran verse  fold;  but  I  am 
unable  to  agree  with  him  herein,  for  it  appears  to  me  that  the  Thanet  axis  is 
evidently  continued  by  the  outcrops  of  Chalk  mapped  along  the  Thames. 


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124  THE  COEBBLATION   OP  THE  COAL-FIELDS  OP 

The  writer  would  add  one  remark  which  seems  to  him  important  from 
the  theoretical  point  of  view :  if  the  folds  of  the  Nord,  as  he  has  said, 
ran  slightly  oblique  to  the  Coal-measure  band  and  debouch  in  the 
successive  creeks  of  the  rim  of  the  coal-basin,  it  becomes  highly  probable 
that  it  is  the  Vicoigne  fold  that  has  been  met  with  at  Dover.  Whence 
we  would  infer  that  the  coal-basin  of  the  Nord  branches  out  westward 
into  a  series  of  ramifications,  some  of  which,  at  all  events,  only  inter- 
mittently cease  from  being  productive. 

It  is  known  that  a  boring  was  formerly  undertaken  at  Calais,  but 
unfortunately  the  results  are  doubtful  and  much  disputed.  The  boring 
was  stopped  at  a  depth  of  about  1,150  feet,  after  having  below  the 
Greensands  passed  through  about  35  feet  of  a  foetid,  sub-Oolitic  limestone, 
regarded  by  some  as  PalsBOZoic.  M.  Laurent,  who  directed  the  boring 
operations,  hints  at  Coal-measures,  an  assertion  which  seems  hardly 
tenable,  ^lie  de  Beaumont,  who  saw  the  specimens  brought  from  the 
bottom,  assigned  them  to  the  Carboniferous  Limestone,  and  that  appears 
the  most  likely  view.  On  the  other  hand,  the  oolitic  character  of  the 
rock  has  led  observers  to  suppose  that  here,  as  at  the  Montataire  factory, 
Jurassic  limestone  had  possibly  been  confounded  with  Carboniferous. 
The  specimeiTs  which  passed  through  the  hands  of  ^ie  de  Beaumont  have 
not  been  traced,  in  spite  of  the  search  made  by  M.  Potier,  and  there  is 
reason  to  fear  that  this  doubtful  point  will  never  be  settled,  unless  a  new 
boring  be  made.* 

The  \iTiter  has  already  mentioned  the  Ostend  boring,  which  proved  at 
984  feet  the  Silurians  immediately  below  Tertiary  strata.  Three  other 
borings  (near  Guines  and  St.  Omer)  have  also  proved  very  ancient  rocks, 
probably  Devonian  and  Silurian.  None  of  these  data,  however,  help  to 
solve  the  problem, 

XII,— General  Conclusions. 
The  object  of  this  memoir,  a  purely  geological  piece  of  work,  is  not 
and  could  not  be,  the  prediction  of  the  occurrence  of  Coal-measures  at 
such  and  such  a  spot.  The  method  we  have  adopted  simply  enables  us  to 
follow  at  the  surface  the  axes  of  known  coal-basins.  But  we  should  also 
require  to  know  whether  Coal-measures,  in  the  area  we  have  studied, 
were  laid  down  along  the  whole  extent  of  these  basins.  The  westward 
overlap  of  the  different  divisions  of  the  Coal-measure  series  shows  that  the 
shore-line  of  the  Coal-measure  lagoons  lay  to  the  west,  and  the  occurrence 
of  coal  at  Hardinghen  leads  us  to  infer  that  this  shore-line  was  situated 

*  The  CalaiB  boring  If.  tuljed,  and  may  be  deepened  at  any  time. 


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S^irSouJthmi  Enghmdi 


Vol.  Y.  Flats  V, 


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raiice  Jl  Southern  England/ 


Vol.  V Plate  W, 


FiG.7. 
Map  of  the  Cbbtacbous  and  Tertiary  Uxdui.ations 


Pas-de-Calais. 


REFERENCES. 


OONTOUR  LINES  OF  THE  SURFACE  OF 
PRIMARY    ROCKS.     INTERVALS  OF 
164   FEET. 
ANCIENT  ROCKS  ABOVE   164  FIET. 
„^^  CONTOUR  LINES  OF   THE  BASE  OF  THE 

CHALK  WITH  Micraster  breviporua. 


..CONTOUR    LINES   OF  THE  BASE  OF 

THE       CRETACEOUS       (wEALDEN 
INTERVALS   OF   SS  FEET. 

.._._ SYNCLINAL  AXIS. 

,^^^  ANTICLINAL  AXIS. 

COAL   BASIN  (tOURTIA  OUTCROp). 


•.aaimiil] « 


Scale -5^oVo5 


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NORTHERN   FRANCE  AND  SOUTHERN   ENGLAND.  125 

beyond  the  area  of  Boulonnais.  So  much  is  very  probable.  But  the 
mere  occurrence  of  Ooal-meaBures,  granted  that  it  be  proved,  does  not 
necessarily  imply  the  occurrence  of  coal. 

We  should  further  require  to  know  at  what  points  of  the  basin 
Goal-measures  have  been  preserved,  and  at  what  points  they  have  been 
denuded  away ;  and  that  we  cannot  possibly  predict.  All  we  could  say 
would  be  that  there  are  considerable  chances  that  the  basin  is  deeper 
where  it  is  crossed  by  great  transverse  depressions.  The  Straits  of  Dover 
are  unquestionably  one  of  these  transverse  depressions,  and  one  of  very 
ancient  origin.  Yet  the  data  at  our  disposal  on  this  point  do  not  carry 
us  back  beyond  the  Jurassic  period.  Very  likely  the  coal  had  a  better 
chance  of  being  preserved  along  the  edges  of  this  depression,  but  the 
statement  amounts  purely  to  a  supposition. 

The  conclusions  which,  to  the  best  of  the  WTiter's  belief,  sum  up  the 
state  of  our  knowledge  on  this  question,  and  which,  at  any  rate,  lay 
down  the  bases  of  all  possible  discussion,  are  as  follows : — 

The  undulations  of  Secondary  and  Tertiary  time  have  always  recurred 
along  the  same  lines,  and  not  only  do  these  lines  follow  the  general 
direction  and  even  the  principal  inflections  of  the  Palaeozoic  folds,  but 
also  (wherever  study  of  the  evidence  has  been  possible)  are  proved  to 
coincide  exactly  with  the  axes  of  those  folds.  This  is  borne  out  in  the 
coal-field  of  the  Nord  with  an  exactness  which  extends  to  minute  details. 

Our  principle  enables  us  to  trace  out  the  ancient  folds  by  the  mere 
study  of  the  surface-rocks;  the  application  of  the  method  is  attended 
with  some  diflBculty,  partly  on  account  of  the  slightness  of  the  undulations 
which  are  the  object  of  our  search,  partly  because  of  the  local  upheavals 
and  subsidences  which  mark  the  original  folding. 

We  may,  however,  aflBrm  that  the  Dover  coal-basin  is  distinct  from 
that  of  the  Pas-de- Calais,  and  that  the  axis  of  Northern  Boulonnais 
(saddle  of  Ferques)  is  not  the  prolongation  of  the  axis  of  Artois.  Two 
directions  are  fairly  presumable  for  the  continuation  of  the  Lens- 
Fltehinelle  basin :  one  abuts  a  little  north  of  Boulogne,  near  Wimille ; 
the  other,  keeping  more  to  the  northward,  merges  in  the  little  coal-basin 
of  Hardinghen,  which,  on  the  first  hypothesis,  would  only  be  a  branch  of 
the  principal  basin. 

The  prolongation  of  the  axis  of  the  Dover  basin  lies  hidden  beneath 
the  waves ;  and,  judging  from  an  inspection  of  the  isobathymetrical  lines 
(curves  of  equal  depth)  this  axis  debouches  on  the  French  coast,  a  little 
to  the  eastward  of  Calais. 


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126  DISCUSSION — ^THB  CORRELATION  OP  THE  COAL-FIELDS 

Mr.  LuDOVic  Breton  (managing  engineer  of  the  works  of  the  Sub- 
marine Railway  between  England  and  France)  stated  his  belief  that 
the  Dover  coal-.ba8in  was  independent  of  the  other  English  coal-basins, 
and  independent  also  of  the  French.  In  England  there  was  a  tendency 
to  connect  it  with  the  Somerset  coal-field,  but  he  must  point  out  that  of 
the  eleven  fossil  plants  hitherto  found  in  the  Dover  boring  and  deter- 
mined by  Mr.  Zeiller,*  four  only  are  common  to  the  coal-basing  of  Somerset 
and  Dover.  These  are  :  Nmrapteria  Scheuchzeri^  N.  rarinervis,  Leptdo- 
dendron  acideatiwi,  and  Sti<jmariu  ficmdes^  but  as  the  two  last-named 
plants  occur  in  Coal-measures  everywhere,  they  cannot  be  used  as  terms 
of  comparison.  As  to  the  other  carbonaceous  impressions  of  plants  from 
Dover,  Neuropteris  tenuifolia,  Maryopteris  splienopferaides,  Lepidost7'obu8 
vartabilis,  CdlamophijUites  Ompperti^  Gycloptei^is^  Lqmhdendron  lycopo- 
dioideSi  and  Oardiocurpus,  they  are  so  far  unknown  in  the  Somersetshire 
coal-field.  Nor  does  the  Dover  coal-basin  resemble,  in  its  flora,  that  of 
Lower  Boulonnais  :  of  the  eleven  fossil  plants  found  at  Dover,  three  only 
are  found  to  recur  in  Lower  Boulonnais.  They  are  the  inevitable  two 
Lepidodendron  aculeatum  and  SWjmaria  firoides,  the  third  being  Lepido- 
dendron  lycopodioides.  The  different  kinds  of  rocks  occur  in  very 
dissimilar  proportions  in  the  two  basins  thus  : — 


Coal. 

Shales. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Percent. 

Dover  boring      

2-20 

55-60 

42-20 

Providence  pit,  Hardinghen    . . 

5-86 

UOO 

80-14 

Fig.  8  is  the  vertical  section  of  the  Dover  boring,  and  Fig.  9  that  of  the 
Providence  pit,  at  Hardinghen.  The  observer  is  supposed  to  be  stationed 
in  England,  having  the  Dover  boring  on  his  left,  and  on  his  right  the 
Providence  pit,  of  Hardinghen,  with  its  coal-seams  dipping  18  degs.  to 
20  degs.  north,  and  the  fault  which  separates  the  Coal-measures  from  the 
overlying  Carboniferous  Limestone  dipping  1 1  degs.  north.  The  analyses 
which  have  been  made  at  the  National  School  of  Mines  in  Paris  show 
the  following  results  for  Hardinghen  coal : — 

Volatile  matter 35-4  to  38-6  percent. 

Fixed  carbon        61*8   ,,  57*8        „ 

Ash 2-8   „     3-6        „ 

100-0      100-0 

This  is  what  in  France  is  termed  a  "  long-flame  dry  coal."  It  is  of  more 
recent  formation  than  the  Dover  coal,  where  the  highest  seams  yield  no 

*  Trathit.  Manchester  Geolg.  Soc,  vol.  xxii.,  page  55. 


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OF  NORTHERN   FRANCE  AND   ROTJTHERN  ENGLAlfD. 


127 


coal  oontaining  more  than  25  per  cent,  of  volatile  matter.  In  a  paper  on 
the  Carboniferous  formation  of  Lower  Boulonnais,  he  (Mr.  Breton)  had 
given  his  reasons  for  not  believing  that  the  Hardinghen  coal-basin  dates 
from  the  same  period  as  the  Pas-de-Culais  coal-basin.  He  was  just  as 
incredulous  with  regard  to  the  correlation  of  the  Dover  coal-basin  with 
that  of  the  Pas-de-Calais.  Let  ns  take,  for  instance,  a  centrally-situated 
mining  property,  that  of  Bully-Grenay,  where  the  study  of  Coal-measure 
fossils  has  been  most  diligently  pursued.  There,  of  80  fossil  plants 
described  by  Abb6  Boulay,  two  only  are  common  to  the  Dover  boring  : 
they  are  Stigmaria  Jicoides,  found  ,• 

*ovid#n( 


Dovvr  boring     pb^tm 


Pt*ovid#ncaPif 

CAW— WIMKOO*  LIMkSTttHB 


everywhere  in  the  roof  and  floor 
of  the  seams,  and  Lepidoden- 
dron  nculeatum.  Thus  78  fossil 
species  are  not  found  at  Dover, 
a  dissimilarity  of  flora  which 
seemed  to  the  speaker  hardly 
capable  of  being  exceeded.  Of 
course,  it  was  true  that  a  careful 
search  throughout  the  entire 
range  of  coal-fields  of  the  Pas- 
de-Calais,  the  Xord,  and  Bel- 
gium, would  reveal  the  occur- 
rence of  representatives  of  the 
Dover  coal-flora  ;  but  one  plant 
would  be  found  at  Maries, 
another  at  Bruay,  a  third  at 
Noeux,  and  so  on.  That  is  not, 
however,  the  sort  of  occurrence 
suflicient  to  bring  conviction  to 
the  mind  of  anyone  who  believes  that  fossil-plants  constitute  a  highly 
important  factor  in  the  correlation  of  two  coiil-basins.  And  now,  how 
and  where  does  the  Dover  coal-basin  pass  into  France  ?  Nobody  will 
deny  that  it  does  extend  thither.  But  it  is  not  at  G  nines,  where  two 
borings  have  struck  Devonian  rocks  ;  and  the  hypothesis  of  a  geological 
disturbance,  like  that  which  limits  to  the  south  the  Coal-measure  zone 
of  the  Pas-de-Calais,  would  be  the  only  way  of  accounting  for  Coal- 
measures  being  overlain  by  more  ancient  rocks.  If  the  limestone  found 
at  the  bottom  of  the  Calais  boring  be  Carboniferous,  we  sliould  have 
to  invoke  the  same  reasons  as  at  G nines  to  allow  of  the  Dover  coal- 
basin  continuing  across  to  Calais ;  that  is,  a  repetition  of  geological 


COALi   4    O 

FIG. 8. 


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128  DISCUSSION — ^THE  COKBBLATION  OP  THE  COAL-FIELDS 

disturbances  affecting  the  Hardinghen  coal-basin,  which  itself  lies  below 
Carboniferous  Limestone,  except  at  the  eastern  outcrop.  In  his  summaiy 
of  conclusions,  Mr.  Marcel  Bertrand  says  that  probably  the  axis  of  the 
Dover  coal-basin  debouches  on  the  French  coast,  a  Uttle  to  the  eastward 
of  Calais.  This  question  will  have  to  be  settled  by  means  of  the  borings, 
which  will,  no  doubt,  shortly  be  undertaken.  It  would  be  seen  that  in 
France  they  hastened  slowly,  when  one  remembered  that  coal  was  struck  at 
Dover  on  February  15th,  1890. 

Mr.  E.  Keumaux  (Lens)  T^Tote  that  Mr.  Bertrand's  conclusions  were 
not  yet  supported  by  a  sufficient  number  of  well-established  facts,  but 
his  work  was  of  an  entirely  original  character,  and  he  enunciated,  with  new 
arguments,  a  system  which  may  well  be  received  at  some  fiiture  date. 

Prof.  GosSELBT  (Lille)  wrote  that  Mr.  Bertrand's  paper  was  well 
worthy  of  careful  consideration.  He  agreed  with  him  as  to  the  continuity 
of  the  phenomena  of  the  folds  of  the  earth's  crust,  which  he  demonstrated 
so  clearly.  But  he  (Prof.  Gosselet)  was  less  convinced  of  the  absolute 
exactitude  of  Godwin-Austen's  principle,  which  did  not  appear  to  him 
to  be  proved,  that  the  undulations,  synclinals  and  anticlinals,  affecting 
the  Secondary  and  Tertiary  rocks  are  always  superposed  exactly  over 
the  folds  of  the  PaUeozoic  rocks.  As  to  the  connexion  of  the  Dover 
coal-basin  with  that  of  the  Nord  (Valenciennes  and  Pas-de-Calais),  he 
(Prof.  Gosselet)  did  not  accept  Mr.  Bertrand's  views  in  their  entirety. 
Two  suppositions  appeared  possible : — (a)  The  Dover  coal  might  belong 
to  a  basin  similar  to  that  of  Warwickshire  and  Worcestershire,  lying 
unconformably  upon  the  extension  of  the  Silurian  schists  found  at 
Caffiers  and  Ostcnd;  {b)  the  coal  at  Dover  might  be  an  extension 
of  the  Pas-de-Calais  coal-field,  whose  western  extension  might  be 
found  near  Bristol  and  in  South  Wales.  He  (Prof.  Gosselet)  preferred 
the  second  of  these  theories,  without  deciding  that  the  first  was  impossible. 
This  basin  underwent,  between  Boulonnais  and  Dover,  a  cast  to  the  north, 
similar  to  that  which  it  experiences  near  Douai.  He  (Prof.  Gosselet) 
considered  that  the  Hardinghen  (Boulonnais)  coal  did  not  occur  (as  Mr. 
Bertrand  thought)  in  a  different  synclinal  trough  from  that  of  the  great 
Valenciennes,  etc.,  coal-field ;  but  that  it  was  a  portion  of  the  same  coal- 
field thrown  northward  by  a  series  of  very  oblique  faults. 

Mr.  G.  C.  Gbebnwell  (Derby)  wrote  with  respect  to  the  horizontality 
of  the  strata  bored  through  at  Dover,  that  he  had  examined  a  specimen  of 
the  core,  where  passing  through  blue  shale  (now  exhibited  in  the  Natural 
History  Museum),  which  did  not  seem  to  show  horizontality  of  the  beds. 
There  are  sufficient  boring-tool-marks  to  show  the  vertical  axis  of  the 


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OF  NOBTHBBIir  FRANCE  AND  SOUTHBRN  ENQLAND.  129 

specimeiiy  but  the  flat  leaves  of  Neuropteris  indicated  that  the  plane  of  the 
stratum  was  inclined  at  an  angle  of  at  least  45  degs.  from  the  horizontal. 
Mr.  T.  V.  Holmes  (Greenwich)  wrote  that,  while  recognizing  with 
Mr.  Bertrand  a  strong  tendency  to  the  recurrence  of  geological  folds  along 
the  same  general  lines,  it  seemed  to  him  that  to  say  that  "the  principle 
from  which  Godwin- Austen  proceeded  is  summed  up  in  the  axiom  that 
recent  folds  are  formed  along  the  same  lines  as  ancient  folds,"  is  decidedly 
to  over-estimate  his  belief  in  their  identity.  Godwin- Austen  pointed  out 
that  the  Pala3ozoic  ridge  of  the  Mendip  Hills  was  in  all  probability  con- 
tinaous  (beneath  the  Secondary  and  Tertiary  rocks  of  South-eastern 
England)  with  the  Palaeozoic  ridge  south  of  the  coal-fields  of  Namur  and 
Oharleroi,  and  that,  alike  in  Belgium  and  in  Somerset,  the  coal-fields 
were  north  of  the  Palaeozoic  ridge.  But  he  contented  himself,  as  regarded 
South-eastern  England,  with  saying  that  "we  have  strong  a j!?wn  reasons 
for  supposing  that  the  course  of  a  band  of  coal-measures  coincides  with, 
and  may  some  day  be  reached  along  the  line  of  the  valley  of  the  Thames, 
while  some  of  the  deeper-seated  coal,  as  well  as  certain  overlying  and 
limited  basins,  may  occur  along  beneath  some  of  the  longitudinal  folds  of 
the  Wealden  denudation."*  This  reference  to  the  "deeper-seated  coal" 
arose  from  his  belief,  when  the  paper  was  written  (1855),  that  the  coal-field 
of  Namur  was  not  on  the  same  geological  horizon  as  that  of  Hardinghen  in 
Boulonnais,  a  belief  which  he  afterwards  abandoned.  However,  what 
he  (Mr.  Holmes)  wished  to  call  attention  to  was  that  Godwin-Austen  by 
no  means  attempted,  by  a  detailed  examination  of  the  course  of  the  various 
folds  visible  at  the  surface  of  South-eastern  England,  to  predict  the  course 
of  the  ancient  Palaeozoic  ridge  and  its  associated  coal-basins  beneath  the 
surface.  Indeed,  the  way  in  which  he  refers  to  possible  coal-fields  in  the 
valley  of  the  Thames,  a  river  which,  from  Windsor  eastwards,  flows  through 
the  midst  of  a  broad  synclinal  fold  of  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  rocks,  and 
to  other  possible  coal-fields  beneath  the  broad  anticlinal  of  the  Weald, 
seems  to  imply  reliance  chiefly  on  the  general  direction  of  the  Palseozoic 
ridge,  and  but  little  trust  in  the  evidence  of  surface-features.  Naturally, 
therefore,  he  confined  himself  to  broad  and  general  statements  as  to 
direction.  Indeed,  the  uncertainty  of  surface-indications  as  guides  to  the 
greater  or  less  depth  of  the  Palaeozoic  rocks  under  South-eastern  England 
is  very  strikingly  illustrated  by  the  results  of  the  deep  borings  in  that 
region.  The  boring  at  Battle  was  begun  in  the  lowest  rocks  visible  at 
the  surface  east  of  Marlborough  Downs,  Salisbury  Plain,  and  the  New 
Forest,  and  in  the  centre  of  the  great  surface-anticlinal  of  the  Weald, 
*  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Geological  Society,  vol.  xii.,  page  73. 
yoi*.  v.-i8n-08.  ^ 


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130  DISCUSSION — ^THB  CORRELATION  OP  THE  COAL-FIELDS 

Judging,  therefore,  from  these  circumstances,  it  might  have  been  antici- 
pated, on  the  hypothesis  that  the  newer  anticlinal  was  practically  identical 
with  the  older  one,  that  the  Palaeozoic  ridge  would  be  met  with  in  that 
locality  unusually  near  the  surface.  Similarly,  it  might  have  been  expected 
that  the  borings  in  and  near  London,  at  Meux's  brewery,  Kentish  Town, 
Turnford,  Wai-e,  Crossness,  Streatham,  and  Eichmond,  in  the  broad 
synclinal  fold  of  the  London  basin,  would  show  Palseozoic  rocks  at  a 
considerably  greater  depth.  But,  as  is  generally  known,  the  results  of 
these  borings  have  lent  no  weight  whatever  to  supporters  of  the  practical 
identity  of  ancient  and  more  recent  geological  folds.  The  Sub-Wealden 
boring  near  Battle,  though  begun  in  Upper  Oolitic  rocks,  ended  in  Oxford 
Clay  (Middle  Oolite)  at  a  depth  of  1,905  feet.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
borings  in  the  synclinal  of  the  London  basin,  after  passing  through  an 
average  thickness  of  about  1,000  feet  of  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  beds,  all 
ended  in  either  Paleozoic  or  Triassic  rocks  at  that  or  a  slightly  greater 
depth,  the  latter  appearing  either  directly  beneath  the  Cretaceous  beds,  or, 
in  two  cases,  beneath  thicknesses  of  87  feet  and  64  feet  of  Oolites  in  addi- 
tion. Thus,  under  the  broad  synclinal  of  the  London  basin,  the  Palaeozoic 
rocks  are  unusually  near  the  surface,  and  the  Oolites,  which  would  be 
naturally  expected  beneath  the  Cretaceous  beds,  were  almost  entirely  absent. 
While,  in  the  centre  of  the  Weald  anticlinal,  the  enormous  thickness  of 
the  Upper  and  Middle  Oolites  alone  prevented  the  boring,  though  almost 
twice  the  depth  of  the  average  of  those  near  London,  from  showing  the 
full  thickness  of  the  Oolite  formation.  Nothing  can  more  strikingly 
illustrate  the  danger  of  undue  reliance  on  surface-features  as  an  index  to 
the  position  of  much  more  ancient  subterannean  folds  in  South-eastern 
England,  whatever  may  be  the  case  in  northern  France.  In  conclusion, 
it  occurred  to  the  speaker  to  remark  that,  judging  of  the  unseen  parts  of 
the  Palaeozoic  ridge  and  its  associated  coal-basins  from  what  is  visible, 
alike  in  England  and  in  Belgium,  one  must  not  expect  regularity  either 
in  the  breadth  or  direction  of  the  ridge,  or  in  the  size  and  occurrence  of 
the  coal-basins.  For  in  the  Palaeozoic  ridge  one  had  an  ancient  rugged 
mountain-chain,  while  the  coal-fields  probably  vary  both  in  size  and  in 
their  relations  to  this  chain,  at  least  as  much  as  do  those  of  Bristol,  the 
Forest  of  Dean,  and  South  Wales  with  the  Mendip  Hills  and  their 
continuation  in  Pembrokeshire  and  Glamorganshire. 

Prof.  Boyd-Dawkins,  F.R.S.  (Manchester),  said  the  Institution  was  to 
be  congratulated  on  having  received  from  one  of  the  greatest  authorities  on 
mining  in  France  a  paper  based  upon  his  own  special  knowledge  of  that 
part  of  the  country  which  joined  immediately  to  our  own,  and  he,  too,  felt 
to  some  extent  fortunate  because  Mr.  Bertrand's  conclusion  as  regards  the 


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OF  NOBTHEBN  YRASCE  AKD  SOUTHEBN  ENGLAKB.  181 

coal-field  of  Dover  and  SomerBetshire  was  one  which  entirely  coincided 
with  the  view  he  communicated  to  the  Royal  Institution  in  1890.*  In 
that  paper  he  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  in  all  probability  the  Dover 
coal-field  continued  to  Calais  and  extended  indefinitely  eastward  in  the 
same  direction.  He  would  like  to  say  a  few  words  before  discussing  the 
question  of  folds,  as  to  Godwin- Austen's  meaning  of  the  axis  or  ridge  of 
Artois.  He  did  not  mean  one  anticlinal,  but  the  complicated  series  of 
anticlinals  and  synclinals  which  with  the  faults  form  a  line  of  weakness 
in  the  earth's  crast,  and  which  he  traced  all  the  way  from  the  south  of 
Ireland,  through  South  Wales  to  the  region  of  the  Mendip  Hills,  and  as 
far  to  the  east  as  the  region  of  Westphalia,  and  he  pointed  out  that  all 
along  the  great  ridge  of  Artois,  as  he  called  it,  workable  coal-fields  were 
to  be  found.  Then  he  insisted  upon  another  thing  ;  he  pointed  out  that 
this  great  line  of  weakness  formed  a  ridge,  and  that  that  ridge  formed  a 
barrier  against  which  the  Secondary  rocks  were  gradually  thinned  away. 
He  also  pointed  out  that  this  great  barrier  was  marked  by  the  line  of  the 
North  Downs  and  by  the  arch  which  is  represented  by  the  Chalk  of 
Wiltshire.  Now,  it  seemed  to  him  (Prof.  Boyd-Dawkins)  that  in  both 
these  points  Godwin-Austen's  conclusions  were  amply  and  utterly  proved 
to  be  true.  Godwin- Austen's  ideas  were  those  which  led  in  the  first  place 
to  that  very  interesting  boring  at  Netherfield  which  revealed  the  enormous 
thickness  of  the  Secondary  rocks — they  were  1,905  feet,  and  when  he  said 
that  the  boring  ended  merely  in  the  Oxford  Clay  he  was  giving  proof 
that  the  Palaeozoic  rocks  in  that  region  (far  away,  as  they  would  remem- 
ber, from  Godwin-Austen's  line  or  ridge)  were  deeply  buried  beneath 
the  Secondary  rocks.  The  minimum  depth  at  which  the  old  Palaeozoic 
plateau  was  buried  in  that  region  was  certainly  not  less  than  2,000  feet, 
and  it  might  be  considerably  more  than  double  that.  Supposing  they 
now  turned  to  the  second  result  of  Godwin-Austen's  principle.  In  1886, 
as  the  result  of  Godwin-Austen's  work  and  principles,  he  (Prof.  Boyd- 
Dawkins)  was  led  to  select  the  site  of  the  present  boring  at  Dover — the 
boring  which  had  been  carried  on  by  Sir  Edward  Watkin  under  his 
advice,  and  under  the  able  management  of  Mr.  Brady,  and  which  had  also 
at  a  later  time  the  advantage  of  the  advice  and  consultation  of  some  of 
the  leaders  of  mining  in  this  country :  he  alluded  more  particularly  to 
Mr.  McMurtrie  and  some  other  gentlemen  who  were  now  present. 
What  then  should  he  say  regarding  the  Dover  boring  as  to  the  thickness 
of  the  Jurassic  rocks  in  that  place  ?  We  find  that  instead  of  1,906  feet 
(the  thickness  of  the  Jurassic  rocks  in  the  district  of  Battle)  they  were 

*  Proe.  Royal  Ifut.f  1890,  vol.  xiii.,  page  175,  and  Trans,  Manchester  Geol,  Soc,^ 
1891,  vol.  XX.,  page  502,  and  1892,  vol.  xxi.,  page  456. 


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132  DISCUSSION — THE  COKRBLATION  OP  THE  COAL-FIELDS 

here  Bomething  over  600  feet ;  in  other  words,  the  Secondary  rocks,  as 
they  go  from  the  direction  of  Hastings  towards  Dover,  gradually  thin  off 
as  Godwin- Austen  said  they  would  against  this  great  ridge.  The  coal  was 
struck  exactly  where  Godwin-Austen  said  it  was  likely,  where,  by  the 
thinning  of  these  Secondary  beds  against  the  ridge  in  question,  the  coal 
existed  at  a  workable  depth  beneath  the  surface.  With  regard  to  "  work- 
able depth  " — 1,100  feet  as  they  all  knew  was  not  very  much,  and  when 
they  knew  that  the  Coal-measures  were  struck  at  1,118  feet  below 
sea-water  mark,  they  were  of  course  dealing  with  Coal-measures  which 
were  well  within  the  limit.  The  extent  of  Godwin- Austen's  ridge  of  the 
Coal-measures  somewhere  along  the  line  of  the  North  Downs  and  the  &ct 
that  the  Secondaiy  rocks  thinned  off  against  that  ridge  were  proved 
beyond  all  doubt  by  the  boring  near  Battle  and  the  boring  at  Dover 
carried  on  by  the  Channel  Tunnel  Company.  The  boring  at  Calais  was 
made  in  1850,  and,  according  to  the  account  which  was  given  a  few  years 
afterwards  by  Mr.  Prestwich  and  that  given  by  some  other  eminent 
geologists,  the  Coal-measures  were  discovered  and  struck  at  a  depth  close 
to  the  depth  at  which  they  were  struck  at  Dover.  In  the  present  paper, 
Mr.  Bertrand  follows  Mr.  Gosselet  in  saying  that  there  was  no  evidence 
that  the  Coal-measures  were  struck  in  that  boring ;  unfortunately,  the 
specimens  were  lost  after  the  Paris  Exhibition,  but  happily  Mr.  Prestwich, 
who  examined  them  with  the  late  !^lie  de  Beaumont,  had  no  doubt 
that  the  specimens  in  question  implied  the  existence  of  Coal-measures  at 
Calais.  The  Calais  boring  then  proved  most  satisfactorily  the  continua- 
tion of  the  South-eastern  coal-field,  as  they  might  call  it,  from  Dover  and 
right  under  the  channel  in  the  direction  of  Calais.  It  was  an  undoubted 
fact  that  when  they  had  great  lines  of  disturbance,  which  were  lines  of 
weakness  in  the  earth's  crust,  they  would  have  the  rocks  which  were 
folded  afterwards  and  which  rest  upon  those  rocks  tending  to  be  crumpled 
parallel  to  the  lines  of  fold.  He  ventured  to  think  Mr.  Bertrand  had  not 
clearly  proved — at  all  events  he  would  like  to  have  a  great  deal  more 
evidence  on  the  point  before  accepting  it— that  the  folds  in  the  superficial 
rocks,  taking  it  as  a  general  principle,  were  identical  in  superposition  with 
the  folds  which  existed  in  the  Palaeozoic  rocks  ;  and  still  less  so  when  he 
knew  that  the  Coal-measures  and  the  Upper  Carboniferous  rocks  which 
formed  the  ancient  floor  beneath  the  Secondary  rocks  were  for  the  most 
part  planed  off  to  one  dead  level,  composed  of  anticlines  and  synclines, 
and  constituting  practically  one  horizontal  sunken  plateau.  He  could  not 
recognize  that  superficial  folds  on  the  surface  gave  any  clue  whatever  to 
those  foldings  which  were  presented  by  the  rocks  which  were  buried  and 
had  been  eroded  and  water-worn.    This  was  not  Godwin-Austen's  view. 


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OF  NORTHERN  FRANCE  AND  SOUTHERN  ENGLAND.  133 

All  he  inBisted  on  was  the  existence  of  the  general  principle.  The  line  in 
question  consisted  not  of  one  anticlinal  or  synclinal  but  it  related  to  that 
grand  series  of  plicated  anticlinals  and  synclinals  and  folded  rocks  which 
constituted  the  axis  of  Artois,  and  which  Godwin-Austen  traced  on  the 
one  hand  from  the  Mendip  region,  under  the  Chalk  in  the  North  Downs 
until  ultimately  it  reappeared  in  its  proper  position  to  the  south  of 
the  Franco-Belgian  coal-fields.  He  did  not  wish  to  detain  them  longer 
than  he  could  help  in  discussing  this  veiy  interesting  and  important 
paper,  but  if  they  took  the  principles  of  the  folds  laid  down  in  it  and 
applied  them  to  the  well-ascertained  facts  in  this  country  he  was  bound 
to  say  these  principles  did  not  work  so  far  as  he  knew  the  rocks  in  the 
south  of  England.  There  were  no  less  than  four  axes,  anticlinals  and 
synclinals,  massed  together  under  the  name  of  the  axis  of  the  Mendip  Hills. 
Was  there  any  indication  in  the  rocks  which  cover  up  the  eastern  flanks  of 
the  Mendip  Hills  and  cover  the  coal-fields  too  of  any  corresponding  folds, 
anticlines,  synclines,  and  others?  He  had  no  hesitation  whatever  in 
saying  as  far  as  he  knew  that  country  (and  he  knew  it  very  minutely) 
that  it  was  impossible  to  trace  the  complicated  anticlines  and  synclines  by 
corresponding  folds  in  the  rocks  which  cover  them.  Take  another  case. 
The  area  of  London  was  a  synclinal  area ;  according  to  Mr.  Bertrand's 
principle  they  ought  to  have  a  syncline  corresponding  with  the  synclinal 
area  down  below.  What  did  they  find  ?  There  was  clear  and  absolute 
proof  from  the  district  of  Richmond,  from  the  series  of  observations  taken 
as  far  north  as  Ware,  that  there  were  older  rocks  than  Carboniferous,  that 
is  to  say  Devonian  and  Upper  Silurian  rocks.  It  was  clear,  therefore,  that 
it  was  not  a  synclinal  but  an  anticlinal  fold,  an  anticlinal  from  which  the 
Carboniferous  rocks  had  been  denuded,  and  in  which  merely  the  axis  of 
older  rocks  were  shown.  With  regard  to  these  crucial  points,  they  must 
have  more  evidence  of  the  truth  of  the  coincidence  of  the  folds  in  the 
newer  rocks  with  those  of  the  older  before  they  could  apply  them  for 
practical  purposes  in  this  country.  It  remams  now  to  consider  the  present 
position  of  the  (luestiou  of  the  buried  coal-fields  in  southern  England : — 

(1)  Tlie  coal  discovered  at  Dover  was  a  good  blazing  coal,  with  lozenge- 
shaped  cleat  (the  result  of  slight  deformation  by  pressure  of  the  original 
cubes).  It  was  distributed  in  nine  seams  over  1  foot  in  thickness,  of  which 
the  thickest  was  4  feet,  and  presenting  a  total  thickness  of  20  feet  11  inches. 

(2)  These  seams  were  associated  with  sandstones  and  shales  dipping  at  an 
angle  of  1  in  28,  and  constituting  measures  1,109  feet  thick.  This  gentle 
dip  may,  as  he  (Mr.  Boyd-Dawkins)  had  pointed  out  in  1892,  be  the  result 
of  the  boring  l)eing  in  the  centre  of  a  syncline.  (3)  The  few  casts  of 
Calamites,  of  Lepidodendra  and  ferns  were  too  imperfect  to  allow  of  the 


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134  DISCUSSION— THE  COBRBLATION  OF  THE  COAL-FIELDS 

horizon  of  the  coals  being  identified  by  the  fossil  flora.  We  still  lacked  the 
evidence  necessary  to  establish  the  zones  of  vegetable  life  in  the  British  coal- 
fields which  would  admit  of  such  an  identification.  (4)  The  south-eastern 
coal-field  to  which  they  belong  was,  in  his  opinion,  in  the  saine  relation 
to  the  ridge  of  Artois  as  the  Somerset,  South  Wales,  and  Franco-Belgian 
coal-fields,  on  the  northern  side.  It  was  probably  continued  eastwards 
under  the  Channel,  in  the  direction  of  Calais  and  Belgium,  and  its  westward 
prolongation  in  the  direction  of  Somersetshire  remains  to  be  proved,  along 
Godwin- Austen's  line  of  the  North  Downs.  (5)  It  was  probably  bounded 
to  the  south  by  the  highly-faulted  and  folded  older  rocks,  possibly  con- 
taining locally  small  troughs  of  Coal-measures  similar  to  those  of  Boulounais, 
which  pass  southwards  under  increasing  thicknesses  of  Jurassic  rocks  as  at 
Battle  in  Sussex,  and  in  the  district  south  of  the  Mendip  Hills.  In  this 
latter  district  there  were  a  series  of  large  east-and-west  faults  which  threw 
down  the  Coal-measures,  to  the  south,  and  which  were  represented  by  the 
smaller  faults  traversing  the  newer  rocks.  (6)  The  Silurian  strata  proved 
under  the  newer  rocks  at  Ostend,  and  the  Devonian  and  Silurian  rocks 
struck  in  the  lower  valley  of  the  Thames  and  along  a  line  reaching  from 
Richmond  to  the  south,  to  Ware  on  the  north,  show  that  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  south-eastern  coal-field  is  to  be  sought  somewhere  south 
of  a  line  connecting  Ostend  with  Richmond.  (7)  The  plateau  of  buried 
rocks,  including  Coal-measures,  lies  in  south-eastern  England  in  the  area 
of  Dover  and  London,  at  about  the  same  horizon  from  900  to  1,100  feet 
below.  Ordnance  datum,  and  the  anticlines  and  synclines  of  which  it  is 
composed  can  only  be  ascertained  by  experiment.  It  was  simply  a  question 
of  fishing.  (8)  The  discovery  of  the  south-eastern  coal-field  is  of  great 
economic  importance.  It  offers  the  long-wanted  base-line  for  further 
exploration.  It  will  probably,  in  the  near  future,  convert  the  chalk  cliffs 
into  "studies  in  black  and  white,"  and  turn  the  purely  agricultural 
districts  of  Kent  and  Sussex  into  centres  of  busy  industry  like  Li^ge. 
Down  to  the  days  of  Elizabeth  the  sound  of  the  forge  echoed  through  the 
Weald  of  Kent  and  Sussex,  and  enormous  cinder-heaps  were  formed,  now 
grass-grown,  or  covered  with  trees.  It  will  be  a  curious  result  of  the 
whirligig  of  time,  if,  with  coal  for  smelting  near  at  hand,  the  old  iron 
industry,  which  dates  back  as  far  as  Roman  times,  should,  through  this 
discovery,  again  be  revived. 

Mr.  P.  S.  Reid  (London)  said,  having  made  two  journeys  to  the 
Continent  with  the  late  Mr.  Godwin-Austen,  and  having  also  been 
accompanied  by  the  late  Prof.  Bonamy  Price  on  one  of  them,  who  was 
strongly  impressed  at  that  time  by  the  opinions  of  Sir  Roderick  Murchison 
as  to  the  futiUty  of  searching  for  coal  in  South-eastern  England,  he  might 


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OF  NOETHBRN  FRANCE  AND   SOUTHERN   ENGLAND.  185 

have  some  slight  claim  to  a  knowledge  of  Mr.  Godwin-Austen^s  idea  on 
the  subject.  He  never,  however,  understood  Mr.  Godwin- Austen's  theory  to 
hinge  upon  a  supposed  series  of  folds  more  than  chat  these  so-called  folds 
were  evidences  of  seismic  changes  on  the  earth's  surface,  which  produced 
the  curious  form  of  coal-fields  extending  as  it  does  from  Dortmund  in 
Prussia  into  Belgium  and  thence  into  France,  passing  under  the  Straits  of 
Dover  and  ending  in  the  Badstock  and  Bristol  coal-fields.  In  short,  if  he 
understood  anything  of  Mr.  Godwin-Austen's  ideas  on  this  point,  it  was 
clear  to  him  that  these  coal-formations  were  originally  horizontal,  and  that 
the  curious  state  of  squeeze,  overlap,  and  disruption  was  entirely  brought 
about  by  overwhelming  seismic  changes  on  the  earth's  surface.  He  might 
add  that  Mr.  Price,  impressed  no  doubt  by  a  knowledge  of  Sir  Roderick 
Murchison's  views  on  this  subject,  did  his  best  during  a  week's  journey  on 
the  Continent  to  turn  Mr.  Godwin- Austen's  views  into  ridicule,  prompted 
by  his  intimate  knowledge  of  his  old  college  friend,  who  took  all  his  banter 
in  very  good  part.  He  never  heard  Mr.  Godwin-Austen  allude  to  the 
existence  of  an  arch  in  the  Oolitic  or  Cretaceous  rocks,  further  than  to 
express  an  opinion  that  the  Coal-measures  would  be  found  below  them,  in 
the  shape  of  a  crushed  basin  unknown  in  the  North  of  England,  and 
dissimilar  to  any  other  of  the  coal-basins  of  England,  with  the  exception 
of  that  of  Radstock.  The  revelations  of  the  coal-field  at  Dover,  as  shown 
by  the  boring  carried  on  by  the  Channel  Tunnel  Company,  do  not  show 
us  such  a  crushed  basin,  and  the  first  touch  of  the  Coal-measures  there,  as 
well  as  the  latest  boring,  whose  cores  may  be  seen  at  South  Kensington, 
reveal  the  fact  of  an  almost  horizontal  coal-field,  with  a  complete  absence 
of  crush.  This  would,  in  his  (Mr.  Reid's)  opinion,  resemble  more  the 
existence  of  a  coal-field  similar  to  that  of  Yorkshire  or  Durham,  than  any 
accideuted  coal-field  like  that  of  Radstock  or  the  Continental  coal  areas 
extending  from  Calais  to  Dortmund.  The  Coal-measures  at  Dover  were 
cut  into  at  1,113  feet  from  the  surface,  and  the  first  coal-seam  was  passed 
through  at  1,189  feet,  and  from  this  point  eleven  seams  were  passed 
through  terminating  in  the  lowest  at  a  depth  of  2,181  feet,  which,  he 
estimated  from  information  he  possesses,  would  be  found  with  a  thickness 
of  4  feet  of  excellent  coal.  Of  the  other  seams,  he  considered  nine  of  them 
would  be  found  workable  with  varying  qualities  of  coal,  but  all  of  a  class 
that  would  bear  comparison  with  any  of  the  seams  of  the  known  English 
coal-fields.  This  boring  would  have  ended  with  a  diameter  of  7  inches  had 
it  not  been  tormented  at  the  depth  of  1,900  feet  by  a  plastic  clay  which  was 
melted  by  the  attrition  of  the  water  in  the  hole  until  they  were  forced  to 
diminish  the  size  of  the  cores  to  4  inches  at  the  lower  part  of  the  hole,  as 
the  difficulty  of  cleaning  out  was  great,  and  the  cost  of  re-tubing  the  hole 


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186  DISCUSSION — THE  COBRBLATION  OP  THE  COAL-FIELDS 

looked  formidable.  He  considered  the  discussion  of  Mr.  Bertrand's  paper 
at  the  present  time,  dealing  as  it  did  with  much  nebulous  matter,  as 
premature,  and  liable  to  misconception  in  an  Institution  like  this,  and 
certainly  would  prefer  its  being  adjourned  to  such  time  as  more  solid 
information  could  be  brought  forward. 

Mr.  James  McMubtrib  (Bath)  said  the  views  first  expressed  by  Dr. 
Buckland,  and  afterwards  by  Mr.  Godwin-Austen,  Prof.  Prestwich,  and 
others,  had  been  abundantly  verified,  and  some  amongst  our  own  members 
who  had  expressed  similar  views  long  ago,  were  also  entitled  to  be  con- 
gratulated on  the  results.  He  would  especially  mention  one  name  in 
connexion  with  this,  one  of  the  oldest  members  and  one  of  the  late 
Presidents  of  the  North  of  England  Institute  of  Mining  and  Mechanical 
Engineers,  Mr.  6.  C.  Greenwell,  who  in  1862,  on  his  return  from  an 
inspection  of  the  Belgian  coal-field  with  Mr.  Dickinson  (H.M.  Inspector 
of  Mines),  expressed  a  decided  view  in  favour  of  the  theory  held  by  these 
other  geologists^  and,  putting  a  pencil  mark  on  a  map  in  his  possession 
immediately  opposite  Dover,  said  to  him  personally,  *'If  ever  coal  is 
found  in  the  South  of  England,  that  is  where  it  will  be  found."  It  was 
remarkable  that  this  opinion  expressed  in  1862  should  have  been  so  abund- 
antly verified  by  the  results  of  the  Dover  boring,  and  he  thought  Mr. 
Greenwell,  too,  was  to  be  congratulated  on  the  result.  Having  him- 
self visited  the  Belgian  coal-field,  he  was  interested  in  this  question,  and 
was  glad  last  year  to  have  the  opportunity  of  inspecting  in  London  and 
Dover  the  whole  of  the  cores,  with  which  he  was  much  impressed,  for  the 
discovery  of  nine  seams  had  proved  the  reality  of  that  coal-field,  and  this 
was  still  further  emphasized  by  the  discovery  of  a  thicker  seam — 4  feet  in 
thickness,  which  undoubtedly  proved  the  existence  of  a  valuable  coal- 
field there.  The  promoters  were  also  to  be  congratulated  on  the  almost 
perfect  horizontality  of  the  strata,  for,  having  examined  core  after  core, 
he  was  unable  to  detect  any  evidence  whatever  of  confusion  or  distortion. 
There  seemed  to  be  no  evidence  of  folds  amongst  the  strata,  the  beds  were 
as  level  as  the  leaves  of  a  book,  a  point  of  great  importance  to  the  future 
working  of  that  coal-field.  Although  he  had  carefully  perused  Mr. 
Bertrand's  paper,  he  was  unable  to  grasp  all  the  points  raised.  It  would 
require  a  lengthened  consideration  of  the  contour-lines  and  levels  on  both 
sides  of  the  Channel  before  the  members  could  form  an  adequate  opinion 
as  to  the  facts  brought  before  them.  Two  leading  ideas  seemed  to  be 
brought  forward  in  the  paper,  one  was  the  principle  of  the  recurrence  in 
the  Secondary  rocks  of  the  folds  and  other  effects  which  existed  in  the 
older  rocks  beneath ;  the  second  point  appeared  to  be  that  the  Belgian 
coal-field  in  coming  westward  divided  into  a  series  of  troughs  or  basins 


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OP  NOETHBRN  FRANCE  AND  SOUTHJBRN  ENGLAND.  187 

separated  from  each  other  by  elevations  of  the  older  rocks.  Taking  the 
first  of  these  points,  there  could  be  no  doubt  that  Mr.  Godwin-Austen's 
main  theory  was  quite  correct,  viz.,  that  the  elevations  of  the  older  rocks 
which  existed  -on  the  southern  side  of  the  South  Wales  and  Somerset 
basin  and  on  the  southern  side  of  the  Belgian  and  French  coal-fields  were 
identical,  and  he  thought  Mr.  Oodwin-Austen's  view  was  also  correct  (in 
a  broad  and  general  way)  that  the  North  Downs  might  be  a  later  exten- 
sion of  the  same  range.  But  when  they  came  to  trace,  by  the  more 
minute  folds  which  Mr.  Beitrand  in  his  paper  had  endeavoured  to  make 
out,  the  history  of  the  older  rocks  which  lay  beneath,  they  would  agree  with 
Prof.  Boyd-Dawkins,  and  say  that  the  case  had  not  been  made  out  to 
their  satisfaction,  and  that  they  should  reserve  their  opinion  until  the 
matter  had  been  further  investigated.  There  could  be  no  doubt  that 
ancient  disturbances  did  act  along  certain  lines  at  recurring  periods; 
evidence  of  this  was  shown  in  the  lines  of  disturbances  which  had  come 
down  to  modem  times.  These  seemed  to  follow  in  successive  periods,  and 
to  indicate,  as  Prof.  Boyd-Dawkins  had  said,  a  line  of  weakness  in  the 
earth's  crust,  and  it  was  reasonable  to  expect  that  in  the  Secondary  rocks 
of  the  South  of  England  similar  results  might  be  found.  In  the  French 
and  Belgian  coal-fields  there  was  reason  to  believe  that  there  were  ancient 
elevations  which  preceded  the  Coal-measures ;  that  in  the  Silurian  and 
Devonian  periods  elevations  took  place  which  had  the  effect  of  creating  a 
series  of  basins  in  which  the  Coal-measures  were  afterwards  deposited  uncon- 
formably ;  so  that  the  upheavals  which  elevated  the  Coal-measures  was  not 
the  first  which  had  occurred  but  the  second,  the  second  being  coincident  with 
the  first.  And  it  would  be  not  unnatural  that  in  the  Secondary  period,  in  a 
lesser  degree  possibly,  there  might  be  some  evidence  of  a  third  elevation, 
but  speaking  from  the  Somersetshire  side  of  the  question,  he  was  bound 
to  say  they  had  little  evidence,  if  any,  in  that  direction.  Having  read 
this  paper,  he  had  turned  his  thoughts  to  the  Mendip  Hills,  where 
evidence  might  be  souglit  for,  but  only  two  indications  occurred  to  his 
mind.  One  existed  on  the  northern  flank  of  the  Mendip  Hills,  in  a  ridge 
known  locally  as  Chew  Down.  Here  there  was  a  fold  in  the  l^ias  exactly 
parallel  with  the  Mendip  Hills,  probably  indicating  that  there  was  some 
continuation  of  the  folding  action  in  the  Secondary  period.  The  other 
instance  was  at  Old  Down,  where  there  was  a  synclinal  fold  which 
Prof.  Boyd-Dawkins  was  well  acquainted  with,  and  which  he  (Mr. 
McMurtrie)  believed  to  be  approximately  parallel  to  the  Mendip  Hills, 
and  this  also  seemed  to  indicate  the  same  thing.  But  when  they  turned 
attention  to  Frome,  where  the  Mendip  Hills  were  lost  beneath  the 
Secondary  rocks,  there  was  no  evidence  of  folding  whatever,  the  ridge 


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138  DISCUSSION— THE  CORRELATION  OF  THE  COAL-FIELDS 

simply  passing  beneath  the  other  Secondary  rocks.  There  was  one  effect 
produced  by  this  ancient  range  which  ought  to  be  mentioned :— At  the 
close  of  the  Coal-measures  the  ridge  of  the  Mendip  Hills  had  existed 
apparently  as  a  ridge  partially  covered  with  water,  some  of  its  higher 
points  being  out  of  the  water ;  but  for  the  most  part  it  had  existed  as 
a  sunken  ridge,  the  water  rising  high  up  the  hill-sides ;  and  these 
Secondary  rocks  appeared  to  have  been  deposited  round  the  edges  of  the 
hills.  On  some  of  the  lower  elevations  thin  deposits  were  found  of  New 
Red  Sandstone  at  one  point,  Lias  at  another,  and  at  Frome  a  thin 
coating  of  Oolite,  the  great  mass  of  the  Secondary  deposits  being  to  the 
north  and  south  of  that  range,  but  there  was  no  folding.  He  doubted 
very  much  when  they  examined  deposits  as  recent  as  Chalk,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Calais  and  Dover,  whether  they  would  find  any 
physical  results  of  the  existence  of  that  deep-seated  ridge.  With  regard 
to  the  second  theory  advanced  by  Mr.  Bertrand,  that  the  Belgian  coal- 
field was  split  up  into  a  series  of  basins  extending  westward  towards 
Calais,  he  (Mr.  McMurtrie)  had  turned  attention  to  the  Somerset  field  to 
see  if  there  were  any  indications  of  similar  results,  and  he  was  bound  to 
say  that  at  present  he  knew  of  none.  If  the  Belgian  coal-field  broke 
westward  into  a  series  of  parallel  basins  one  would  expect  to  find  traces 
of  simDar  action  in  Somerset,  and  this  might  be  found  in  other  coal-fields 
lying  to  the  south  of  the  Mendip  Hills  ;  there  was  reason  to  believe  such 
might  be  found,  but  at  present  they  did  not  know  of  any.  The  Coal- 
measures  on  the  northern  flank  of  the  Mendip  Hills  were  so  fully 
developed,  and  the  seams  so  thick  and  numerous,  that  they  presented  no 
indication  that  they  were  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Coal-measures ; 
on  the  contrary,  they  were  such  as  to  lead  them  to  hope  for  a  continuance 
of  those  measures  on  the  southern  side  of  the  hirs.  It  was  said  that  a 
small  piece  of  coal  was  once  found  m  the  neighbourhood  of  Wells,  but  it 
was  not  conclusively  proved,  and  all  they  cguld  say  at  present  was  that 
there  was  no  geological  reason  why  a  repetition  of  the  field  should  not  be 
found  there.  He  would  congratulate  the  Institution  on  having  such  a 
valuable  paper,  which,  however  they  might  look  at  it  or  differ  from  it, 
contained  a  large  amount  of  infonnation  which  would  lead  to  good 
results  hereafter. 

Prof.  Hull  said  he  had  read  the  paper,  and  was  glad  to  find  this 
subject  (with  which  Mr.  Godwin-Austen's  name  was  so  closely  connected) 
was  treated  from  the  French  side  of  the  Channel.  The  author  had  grasped 
Mr.  Godwin-Austen's  ideas  very  clearly,  and  endeavoured  to  illustrate  them 
by  reference  to  the  structure  of  the  country  on  both  sides  of  the  English 
Channel.     He  fully  concurred  that  the  lines,  the  great  axes  of  folding,  of 


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OF  NORTHERN  FRANCE  AND  SOUTHERN  ENGLAND.        189 

different  periodfl  had  been  often  repeated  and  particularly  in  the  case  of 
the  Cretaceous  period,  the  flexures  which  undoubtedly,  in  the  South  of 
England,  followed  the  lines  that  were  originally  marked  out  (so  to  speak) 
at  the  close  of  the  Carboniferous  period,  probably  of  the  Permian; 
because  he  held  that  the  east-and-west  foldings  were  of  pre-Permian  age, 
that  is  to  say,  were  immediately  produced  at  the  close  of  the  Carbonifer- 
ous period  and  followed  by  a  vast  amount  of  denudation  before  the 
Permian  rocks  were  deposited ;  while  the  north-and-south  foldings 
(which  traverse  the  great  South  Wales  and  Somersetshire  and  the  Forest 
of  Dean  coal  districts,  causing  them  to  assume  basin-shaped  forms)  was 
of  later  date — after  the  Permian  period  and  before  the  Trias.  He 
thought  they  had  now  sufficient  ground  for  believing  that  the  Palaeozoic 
rocks  below  the  London  basin  and  southward  really  followed  each  other 
in  successive  order.  He  had  felt  recently  very  strongly  that  we  ought  to 
have  all  the  borings  that  had  been  made,  and  that  were  being  made  from 
time  to  time,  in  the  east  and  south-east  of  England  laid  down  on  maps, 
so  far  as  they  threw  light  on  the  structure  of  the  pre-Secondary  rocks. 
So  that  ultimately  we,  or  those  who  succeed  us,  may  be  able  to  construct 
a  geological  map  of  the  south,  south-east  and  centre  of  England,  such  as 
would  appear  if  all  the  Secondary  rocks  were  stripped  away. 

The  President  said  their  thanks  were  especially  due  to  Mr.  Bertrand 
for  having  written  this  paper,  and  he  was  sure  the  discussion  had  been 
such  that  all  of  them  must  have  enjoyed  it.  Although  they  were  not 
probably  quite  alive  to  the  whole  of  the  details,  he  thought  it  must  have 
been  very  interesting  to  them.  He  was  afraid  the  state  of  the  coal 
trade  did  not  warrant  more  capital  being  brought  into  it.  Posterity  was 
to  be  congratulated,  and  he  thought  a  time  would  come  when  coal  in  the 
South  of  England  would  be  worked ;  but  its  value  had  yet  to  be  tested. 
A  seam  of  coal,  4  feet  in  thickness  was,  as  they  all  knew,  as  regards 
thickness,  very  valuable  ;  in  fact  they  were  working  seams  not  more  than 
half  that  thickness  at  present,  consequently  a  4  feet  seam  of  coal,  of  the 
quality  that  had  been  stated,  was  a  very  valuable  find.  He  thought  they 
had  a  good  deal  more  to  learn  with  reference  to  the  coal  of  the  South  of 
England,  and  that  this  paper  would  materially  assist  them.  He  proposed 
a  very  hearty  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Bertrand  for  his  very  valuable  paper. 

Mr.  McMurtrie  expressed  his  pleasure  in  seconding  the  motion, 
which  was  carried  with  acclamation. 

Mr.  Marcel  Bertrand  wrote  that  he  wished  in  the  first  place  to 
thank  the  Federated  Institution  of  Mining  Engineers  for  the  insertion  of 
his  paper  in  their  Transactions^  and  to  thank  the  members  present  at  the 


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140  DISCUSSION — ^THB  CORRELATION  OF  THE  COAL-FIELDS 

meeting  for  their  kindly  and  oonrteoos  reception  of  his  oommnnication. 
He  considered  it  a  great  honour  that  his  views  should  have  been  the 
subject  of  a  discussion  so  brilliant  and  searching.  He  was  by  no  means 
surprised  at  the  objections  which  had  been  raised,  or  at  the  reservations 
which  had  been  made  with  regard  to  his  conclusions.  He  remembered  the 
words  of  Lyell  in  the  Antiquity  of  Man  to  the  effect  that  these  are  difficult 
subjects,  concerning  which  no  man  should  write  unless  he  is  prepared  to 
make  mistakes  sometimes.  He  would  wish,  however,  mainly  for  the 
purpose  of  defining  his  views,  to  answer  two  of  the  objections  which  were 
raised  by  Mr.  McMurtrie  and  Prof.  Boyd-Dawkins.  Firstly,  as  regards 
the  fan,  opening  westwards,  formed  by  the  various  secondary  synclinal 
folds  of  the  Valenciennes  coal-basin  (the  most  northerly  folds  ceasing  to 
contain  coal  before  the  more  southerly  fold  of  the  Pas  de  Calais).  If  that 
view  were  recognized  as  correct,  it  would  in  no  wise  imply  that  a  similar 
phenomenon  should  recur  symmetrically  in  Somersetshire.  And  after  all 
it  is  a  matter  of  merely  secondary  importance.  The  same  thing  cannot  be 
asserted  of  the  objection  founded  on  the  London  basin,  which  is  a  synclinal 
basin  superposed  upon  an  anticlinal  ridge  of  the  older  strata.  But  in  his 
(Mr.  Bertraud's)  view  the  contradiction  is  more  apparent  than  real,  for 
the  London  Tertiary  basin  is  not  a  single  synclinal  fold,  but  a  composite 
depression,  succeeded  longitudinally  by  a  whole  series  of  folds.  Doubtless 
these  folds  are  so  slight  that  it  is  quite  possible  to  deny  their  existence, 
and  in  any  case  one  can  hardly  plot  them  out  definitely.  And  yet  it  is 
just  these  folds  that  one  ought  to  know  and  to  discuss  for  the  purpose  of 
applying  the  principle  as  he  (Mr.  Bertrand)  understands  it.  Similarly  the 
subjacent  Palaeozoic  ridge  is  a  composite  one,  not  a  single  anticlinal  fold ; 
the  Secondary  folds  which  furrow  it  no  doubt  correspond  to  the  folds  (more 
or  less  obliterated)  of  the  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  strata,  independently  of 
the  fact  that  the  former  underwent  altogether  a  movement  of  uplift  after 
Palaeozoic  times,  while  the  latter  underwent  a  movement  of  depression 
after  Tertiary  times.  If  these  vertical  movements  (compared  elsewhere 
with  secular  oscillations)  be  not  carefully  separated  from  folding  move- 
ments, the  principle  that  has  been  enunciated  becomes  indefensible,  and 
its  untrustworthiness  can  then  be  demonstrated  by  appealing  to  scores  of 
examples.  It  is  just  herein  that  he  (Mr.  Bertrand)  has  modified,  as  was 
so  well  said  by  Messrs.  P.  S.  Eeid  and  McMurtrie,  the  theory  first  set  forth 
by  Godwin-Austen :  he  (Mr.  Bertrand)  claims  that  it  is  not  the  movements 
as  a  whole,  of  the  earth's  crust,  movements  which  vary  unceasingly  and  yet 
are  always  complex,  which  are  similarly  reproduced  along  the  same  lines, 
but  only  the  folding  movements.     The  fold,  which  is  the  tectonic  unity 


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OF  NOKTHBBN  PRANCE  AlO)  SOUTHERN  ENGLAND.       141 

reoognized  in  mountain  chains,  would  then  have  just  as  great  an  indica- 
tory value  in  plain  country  where  its  prominence,  however,  is  often  slight, 
as  where  it  is  masked  by  other  movements.  If,  instead  of  considering  an 
individual  fold,  we  consider  a  group  of  folds,  forming  a  basin  such  as  the 
London  basin  or  a  dome  such  as  the  Weald,  we  shall  of  course  find  that 
our  rule  will  not  work,  because,  despite  the  coincidence  of  each  several 
pair  of  unities,  the  subjacent  group  taken  as  a  whole  does  not  correspond 
to  the  superjacent  group  as  a  whole.  If  instead  of  Ariadne's  thread  for  a 
clue,  you  take  a  rope  to  guide  you,  'twill  scarce  help  you  out  of  the 
labyrinth. 


Sir  Archibald  Gbikib  read  the  following  paper  on  "The  Work  of 
the  Geological  Survey": — 


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142  THE  WORK  OF  THB  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 


THE  WORK  OF  THE  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 


By  Sib  ARCHIBALD  GBIKIE,  F.U.S.,  Dibectob-General. 


Before  geology  became  organized  into  a  definite  branch  of  science, 
men  had  begun  to  perceive  that  one  fundamental  requisite,  as  a  ground- 
work for  the  study  of  the  rocks  of  the  earth's  crust,  alike  in  their 
theoretical  and  industrial  aspects,  lay  in  the  delineation  of  the  respective 
areas  of  these  rocks  upon  maps.  At  first  the  maps  so  constructed  were 
merely  rough  representations  of  the  general  distribution  of  the  mineral 
masses.  They  were  mineralogical,  or  as  they  were  called  then,  geognostical, 
that  is,  they  only  aimed  at  an  indication  of  the  relative  positions  of  the 
rocks  at  the  surface.  They  made  no  attempt  to  show  the  structure  and 
sequence  of  the  various  formations.  It  was  not  until  the  time  of 
"William  Smith  that  geology  was  supplied  with  the  means  of  determining 
the  true  succession  of  the  stratified  rocks,  apart  from  mere  lithological 
characters  which  had  previously  been  the  only  guide.  Well  may  we 
look  back  upon  that  great  pioneer  as  the  father  of  English  geology.  In 
every  department  of  the  science  we  may  trace  the  direct  or  indirect 
influence  of  his  fruitful  labours.  But  in  no  branch  of  investigation  has 
this  influence  been  more  profound  than  in  geological  map-making,  and  in 
the  assistance  which  geological  maps  have  furnished  to  the  onward  pro- 
gress of  the  science.  The  earliest  truly  geological  map,  as  distinguished 
from  its  geognostical  or  mineralogical  predecessors,  was  the  famous  map 
of  England,  laboriously  constructed  by  Smith  himself  after  years  of  patient 
investigation,  and  published  in  1815-1819.  The  appearance  of  this  map 
marks  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  science.  It  showed  for  the  first  time 
how  the  successive  stratified  formations  of  the  earth's  crust  could  be 
recognized  and  traced,  apart  altogether  from  their  varying  mineral 
characters,  and  how  the  geological  structure  of  one  country  could  be 
logically  compared  with  that  of  other  countries.  In  fulness,  accuracy, 
and  artistic  delineation,  an  enormous  advance  has  been  made  during  the 
last  three  generations  in  the  construction  of  geological  maps,  but  the 
initial  impetus  of  this  advance  must  unquestionably  be  traced  to  the  early 
surveys  of  William  Smith. 


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THE  WORK  OP  THE  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY.  148 

We  are  all  more  or  less  familiar  with  the  important  share  which  this 
country  has  taken  in  the  development  of  modem  geology.  It  is  perhaps 
not  so  generally  recognized  how  much  the  science  has  been  aided  here  by 
the  early  delineation  of  the  geological  features  of  these  islands  upon  maps. 
What  William  Smith  did  for  England  and  Wales,  Macculloch  did  for 
Scotland,  and  Griffith  for  Ireland.  Macculloch's  map,  published  in 
1832,  though  less  original  than  Smith's,  and  bearing  more  evident  trace 
of  the  influence  of  the  older  geognostical  school  of  observers,  was  a 
remarkable  achievement  for  a  single  observer,  in  a  region  so  complicated  in 
its  geological  structure  and,  in  the  early  decades  of  this  century,  so 
difficult  to  traverse.  Griffith  had  the  advantage  of  coming  later  into  the 
field,  when  geological  methods  of  observation  had  made  considerable 
progress.  His  great  map  of  Ireland,  published  in  1846,  is  consequently 
much  more  modem  in  its  treatment  of  the  subject.  It  will  ever  remain  a 
monument  of  extraordinary  industry,  sagacious  observation,  and  felicitous 
inference,  employed  in  the  investigation  of  a  country  where,  save  in  a  few 
detached  areas,  he  was  practically  the  first  great  pioneer. 

But  it  was  not  only  in  the  British  Isles  that  the  necessity  for  geological 
maps  was  recognized  as  a  basis  for  scientific  progress  in  the  investigation 
of  the  earth's  history.  I  need  only  refer  to  the  first  sketch  of  a  geological 
map  of  France,  Belgium,  etc.,  by  J.  d'Omalius  d'Halloy  (1822),  to  the 
excellent  map  of  France  by  DufWnoy  and  !^lie  de  Beaumont,  1840-42, 
and  to  the  early  maps  of  Desmarest,  Dumont,  Von  Dechen,  Naumann, 
and  other  cartographers  in  different  parts  of  Europe. 

Even  the  best  of  these  early  maps  were  confessedly  mere  outlines. 
Their  scale  was  small,  and  their  topography  often  meagre  and  even 
inaccurate.  For  geological  research  they  were  inadequate,  while  for 
industrial  purposes  they  were  entirely  insufficient  and  even  in  some  degree 
misleading.  The  connexion  between  geological  investigation  and  many 
practical  affairs  in  daily  life  had  now  begun  to  be  perceived.  In  this 
country  the  first  geologist  who  devoted  himself  to  the  development  of  this 
connexion  was  Henry  Thomas  de  la  Beche — a  name  which  we  regard  with 
pride  and  affection  as  that  of  one  of  the  greatest  leaders  of  the  science 
whom  Britain  has  produced.  Having  begun  to  study  the  geological 
stracture  of  Devon,  Cornwall,  and  West  Somerset,  he  became  greatly 
interested  in  the  many  problems  which  the  rocks  of  that  region  present. 
He  saw  that  an  accurate  delineation  of  the  courses  of  the  mineral  veins, 
elvans,  and  faidts  through  the  masses  of  killas  and  granite  could  not  but 
be  of  the  utmost  service  in  the  prosecution  of  the  mineral  industry  on 
which  the  prosperity  of  the  country  so  largely  depended.   Accordingly, 


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144  THE  WORE  OF  THE  GEOLOaiOAL  BUBVEY. 

supplying  himself  with  the  Ordnance  maps  on  the  scale  of  1  inch  to  a 
mile,  he  began,  with  a  few  assistants  and  at  his  own  charges,  to  map  the 
details  of  the  geology.  Impressed  with  the  national  importance  of  the 
work  which  he  had  undertaken,  he  made  application  to  the  Government  of 
the  day  for  assistance  and  recognition.  In  the  year  1882  he  obtained  a 
small  Parliamentary  grant  in  aid,  and  in  successive  years  he  succeeded  in 
so  influencing  the  official  mind  in  favour  of  the  views  which  he  advocated 
that  in  the  end  he  had  the  gratification  of  establishing  a  Geological 
Survey  of  the  kingdom  as  one  of  the  scientific  undertakings  of  the  nation, 
with  an  affiliated  School  of  Mines,  a  Museum  of  Practical  Geology,  and  a 
Mining  Record  Office.  His  aim  was  to  conduct  the  whole  establishment 
on  the  basis  of  strictly  scientific  investigation,  but  to  afford  in  every 
possible  direction  all  the  aid  which  geology  could  furnish  to  mining 
industry,  engineering  works,  agricultural  progress,  and  other  practical 
affairs.  This  design,  broadly  conceived  by  him,  was  efficiently  carried 
into  execution.  The  Geological  Survey  which  he  founded  grew  under 
his  fostering  care  and  that  of  his  successors,  and  became  the  parent  and 
model  of  other  national  surveys  which  have  since  been  organized  so 
plentifully  both  in  the  Old  World  and  in  the  New. 

Without  attempting  to  give,  even  in  outline,  a  history  of  the  progress 
of  our  Geological  Survey,  I  propose  to  lay  before  you  on  the  present 
occasion  some  details  as  to  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  work  that  is  now 
carried  on  by  the  Survey.  The  designs  so  ably  planned  by  Sir  Henry 
de  la  Beche  were  extended  by  his  successor.  Sir  Roderick  Murchison,  and 
were  further  improved  by  my  predecessor.  Sir  Andrew  Ramsay.  Since 
my  own  appointment  as  Director-General  in  1881, 1  have  been  enabled  to 
introduce  other  modifications  that  tend  to  still  greater  efficiency.  But 
essentially  the  organization  and  methods  remain  as  they  were  planned  by 
the  first  founder  of  the  service. 

The  Geological  Survey  is  now  divided  into  three  distinct  branches,  one 
for  each  of  the  three  kingdoms,  but  united  and  kept  in  organic  connexion 
under  one  Director-General.  Each  staff  has  its  separate  organization,  but  its 
members  may  be  interchanged.  It  consists  of  two  grades :  (a)  district- 
surveyors,  geologists,  and  assistant-geologists,  whose  chief  duty,  under  the 
superintendence  of  their  director,  is  the  preparation  of  the  maps,  sections, 
and  memoirs,  and  (b)  collectors  who,  under  the  supervision  of  the  other 
officers,  search  for  fossils  and  collect  specimens  of  minerals  and  rocks  for 
determination  and  for  exhibition  in  the  museums.  There  is  an  office  and 
likewise  a  museum  in  London,  Edinburgh,  and  Dublin.  Each  branch 
has  thus  its  own  headquarters  with  a  small  resident  staff,  the  head  office 


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THE  WOBK  OP  THE  GBOLOaiCAL  SUBVBT.  145 

for  the  whole  Survey  being  the  establiahment  at  Jermyn  Street.  The 
total  strength  of  the  service  in  the  United  Kingdom,  including  the  offices 
engaged  in  museum  work,  is  at  present  60.  As  the  duties  are  practically 
the  same  in  each  branch  of  the  Survey,  I  shall  treat  the  whole  as  one 
service  and  describe  its  work  under  the  following  heads : — 1st,  mapping ; 
2nd,  petrographical  determination  ;  drd,  palaeontological  determination ; 
4th,  the  collecting  of  rocks,  minerals,  and  fossils ;  5th,  the  preparation  of 
maps,  sections,  and  memoirs  for  publication ;  6th,  museum  work ;  7th, 
general  administration ;  and  8th,  relations  of  the  service  to  other  Govern- 
ment departments  and  to  the  general  public,  as  regards  the  furnishing  of 
geological  information. 

I.  MAPPiNa. 

The  first  and  most  important  duty  of  the  Survey  is  to  map  in  detaU 
the  geological  structure  of  the  country.  When  this  task  was  first  under- 
taken by  De  la  Beche  and  his  associates  they  employed  the  Ordnance 
Survey  maps  on  the  scale  of  1  inch  to  a  mile  (^^^inr)  which  had  then  been 
published  for  Cornwall  and  Devon.  These  early  Ordnance  sheets,  however, 
were  imperfect  and  incorrect  in  their  topography,  having  been  among  the 
first  undertakings  of  the  Ordnance  Survey,  before  methods  of  surveying 
had  been  brought  to  the  perfection  that  has  since  been  attained.  The 
connexion  between  the  Geological  and  the  Ordnance  Surveys  was  at  first 
so  intimate  that  the  former  was  instituted  as  a  subsidiary  branch  of  the 
latter.  The  geologists  belonged  to  the  "  Ordnance  Geological  Survey," 
and  though  they  were  never  under  military  orders  they  wore  a  uniform. 
The  only  surviving  relics  of  that  connexion  are  some  of  the  waistcoat 
buttons,  which  on  festive  occasions  continued  to  be  worn  after  the  rest  of 
the  raiment  had  disappeared.  But  from  the  first,  and  up  to  the  present 
day,  the  Ordnance  maps  have  been  the  basis  on  which  all  the  geological 
work  has  been  conducted.  We  have  heard  much  in  the  last  few  years  of 
the  inaccuracies  and  imperfections  of  these  maps.  But  the  experience  of 
the  Geological  Survey  does  not  bear  out  this  charge.  I  do  not  suppose 
that  the  maps  have  ever  been  put  to  a  severer  test  than  by  the  oflicers  of 
the  Geological  Survey,  who  have  carried  them  into  every  nook  and  corner 
of  the  country,  from  coast-line  to  mountain-top,  and  have  checked  them 
in  many  ways  while  fixing  the  positions  of  geological  lines.  It  is,  of 
course,  admitted  that  the  old  1  inch  maps  are  unequal  in  value,  and 
frequently  imperfect  or  even  inaccurate  in  their  topography.  But  since 
the  Ordnance  Survey  was  plotted  on  a  large  scale,  the  accuracy  attained 
has  been  so  great  and  so  invariable  as  to  fill  my  colleagues  and  myself 

VOL.  ▼— lew-B.  10 


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146  TH£  WORK  OF  THE  GEOLOOIOAL  SURVBT. 

with  admiration.  It  is  on  these  most  excellent  mape  that  onr  geological 
lines  are  traced  npon  the  ground,  and  on  which  they  are  ultimately 
engraved  and  published.  So  that  although  the  old  outward  bond  of 
connexion  between  the  two  surveys  has  long  been  severed,  the  relationship 
between  them  remains  as  intimate  and  cordial  as  it  has  ever  been. 

All  the  mapping  of  the  Geological  Survey  is  now  conducted  upon  the 
Ordnance  maps  on  the  scale  of  6  inches  to  1  mile  (njTTTr)-  These  maps 
were  not  available  in  England  and  Wales  until  about  two-thirds  of  the 
country  had  been  surveyed  geologically,  and  it  was  only  in  the  northern 
counties  that  they  could  be  adopted.  In  Ireland,  however,  and  in  Scotland, 
they  were  obtainable  from  the  commencement  of  the  geological  operations, 
so  that  the  whole  of  the  work  has  been  conducted  with  them  as  a  basis.  It 
is  impossible  to  over-estimate  the  gain,  both  in  completeness  and  accuracy, 
from  the  substitution  of  a  large-scale  map  in  the  general  investigation  of 
a  complicated  geological  region.  For  example,  no  more  admirable  piece 
of  geological  mapping  had  ever  been  achieved  when  the  Geological  Survey 
maps  of  North  Wales,  by  Ramsay  and  his  colleagues,  were  published. 
That  difficult  region  was  surveyed  on  the  1  inch  scale,  and  excellent 
though  the  work  still  is,  it  is  far  inferior  to  what  the  same  band  of 
intrepid  mountaineers  could  have  accomplished  had  they  had  the  good 
fortune  to  be  furnished  with  6  inches  maps.  Occasionally,  when  the 
structure  becomes  excessively  complicated  and  when  its  details  require  to 
be  mapped  out  clearly  to  be  intelligible,  maps  on  the  scale  of  25  inches  to 
a  mile  (yrxnr)  ^^  rnsAe  use  of.  Ultimately,  however,  all  the  work  is 
reduced  to  the  1  inch  scale,  this  being  the  scale  on  which  the  general 
geological  map  of  the  United  Kingdom  is  published. 

Let  me  say  a  few  words  about  the  actual  methods  of  geological  survey- 
ing. The  question  is  often  asked  of  us,  do  we  bore  or  dig  ?  and  when 
we  answer  in  the  negative,  an  incredulous  smile  may  often  be  seen  on  the 
face  of  the  enquirer,  who  evidently  at  once  begins  to  doubt  the  trust- 
worthiness of  any  surmises  we  may  make  as  to  what  lies  concealed 
beneath  the  surface.  In  reality,  however,  a  trained  geologist  can  generally 
teU,  with  a  close  approximation  to  accuracy,  the  character  and  arrangement 
of  the  rocks  underneath  his  feet.  There  are  many  indications  to  guide  him 
which  do  not  strike  the  eye  of  the  ordinary  observer.  So  far  from  being 
guess-work  his  conclusions  are  often  based  upon  such  an  array  of  observed 
facts  as  to  be  irresistible.  The  first  experience  of  a  recruit  who  joins  the 
service  is  to  be  trained  in  the  practice  of  searching  for  geological  evidence. 
He  soon  learns  how  unobservantly  he  had  walked  about  before,  and  in  how 
many  ways  he  may  detect  indications  of  how  geological  boundaries  run, 


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THE  WORK  OF  THB  GEOLOGICAL  SUEVBT.  147 

even  when  the  rocks  themselves  may  generally  lie  out  of  sight.  He  finds 
that  moles  and  rabbits  help  him  greatly  by  throwing  up  the  snbsoD  for  his 
inspection.  The  farmer  assists  him  as  he  plonghs  and  drains  the  land. 
He  is  even  indebted  now  and  then  to  the  grave-digger.  Every  ditch 
and  cutting  may  be  made  serviceable  for  his  purposes.  Wells,  quarries, 
pits,  railway-cuttings,  in  short,  every  natural  and  artificial  exposure  of  the 
rocks  or  of  their  detritus  may  Aimish  him  with  the  information  he 
requires.  It  does  happen  now  and  then  that,  after  fairly  exhausting  the 
evidence,  he  has  to  confess  himself  puzzled.  He  cannot  be  quite  sure 
how  the  rocks  exactly  lie  and  how  his  boundary-lines  should  be  made  to 
run.  In  such  cases  we  have  sometimes  recourse  in  the  Survey  to  the 
boring-rod,  and  by  its  means  we  have  been  able  in  one  or  two  localities  to 
prove  the  existence  of  formations  of  which  no  superficial  evidence  could  be 
obtained. 

A  member  of  the  Geological  Survey  may  start  fully  accoutred  for  his 
work  in  the  field  without  betraying  by  any  outward  visible  token  what  is 
his  handicraft.  His  maps  are  carried  in  a  portfolio  which  slips  into  his 
pocket  or  hangs  by  a  strap  inside  his  coat.  His  hammer  goes  into  a 
sheath  and  belt  round  his  waist.  His  clinometer,  compass,  notebook,  lens, 
pencils,  and  other  small  items  are  easily  stowed  away  among  his  numerous 
and  capacious  pockets.  Thus  lightly  equipped  he  may  make  his  way  over 
any  kind  of  ground,  and  can  spend  a  long  day  in  the  prosecution  of  his 
work. 

Not  only  by  minute  observations  of  superficial  detritus  but  by  measure- 
ments of  the  dip  of  rocks,  where  these  are  exposed  at  the  surface,  the 
observer  may  form  tolerably  accurate  conceptions  of  the  nature  and 
arrangement  of  the  rocks  underneath  and  of  the  depth  at  which  any  given 
stratum  may  be  expected  to  be  reached.  Thus  in  questions  of  water-supply 
he  may,  from  such  superficial  observations,  predict  with  some  confidence 
the  distance  to  which  a  boring  must  be  sunk  before  a  certain  water-bearing 
stratum  will  be  reached. 

(a)  Drift  Survey. — Geology  had  made  considerable  progress  in  the 
study  of  the  solid  rocks  before  much  attention  was  paid  to  the  looser 
superficial  deposits.  The  Geological  Survey  in  this  respect  followed  the 
general  rule,  and  for  many  years  made  no  systematic  attempt  to  represent 
the  numerous  and  often  complex  accumulations  of  superficial  materials. 
Some  of  these  indeed  were  shown  on  the  maps,  such  as  tracts  of  blown  sand 
and  river-alluvium.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  the  south- 
western counties,  where  the  Geological  Survey  began  its  work,  and  in  those 


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148  THE  WORK  OF  THB  GBOLOGICAL  SUBYBY. 

wheie  for  many  sabseqaent  years  this  work  was  contmued,  saperficial 
deposits  are  of  such  trifling  extent  and  importance  that  they  were  not 
nnnatnrally  ignored.  Only  after  most  of  the  southern  half  of  England 
had  been  completed  was  it  determined  to  map  the  surface-deposits  with 
as  much  care  and  detail  as  had  been  expended  on  the  older  formations 
lying  beneath  them.  It  had  been  discovered  that  this  course  was 
necessary  both  on  scientific  and  practical  grounds.  In  the  first  place, 
these  superficial  accumulations  contained  the  records  of  the  later  geological 
vicissitudes  of  Britain,  and  were  beginning  to  reveal  a  story  of  the  pro- 
f  oundest  interest,  inasmuch  as  it  dovetaUed  with  the  history  of  the  human 
occupation  of  the  country.  In  the  second  place,  it  was  recognized  that 
in  many  various  ways  these  surface-deposits  had  a  direct  and  vital 
influence  upon  the  welfare  of  the  population.  In  agriculture,  in  water- 
supply,  in  questions  of  drainage,  and  of  the  location  of  dwellings,  it  was 
seen  that  a  knowledge  of  the  soils  and  subsoils,  and  of  the  formations 
from  which  these  are  derived,  was  of  the  utmost  practical  importance.  It 
was  therefore  determined  that  thenceforth  the  Geological  Survey  should  not 
only  pourtray  the  lineaments  of  the  solid  earth,  but  trace  out  the  drifts 
and  other  surface-deposits  which,  like  a  garment,  overspread  and  conceal 
them.  It  was  impossible  at  first  to  go  back  over  the  ground  where  the 
surface-geology  had  been  omitted.  But  it  was  arranged  that  when  the 
whole  country  had  once  been  mapped  those  tracts  should  be  re-examined 
wherein  the  superficial  deposits  had  not  been  surveyed.  And,  in  the  mean- 
time, over  all  new  areas  the  survey  was  made  complete  by  the  tracing  out 
both  of  the  surface-deposits  and  of  the  older  rocks  below  them. 

No  one  who  has  not  given  some  personal  study  to  the  complicated 
details  of  surface-geology  can  realize  the  amount  of  labour  which  the 
mapping  of  them  often  involves.  The  distinctions  between  the  various 
superficial  deposits,  though  real,  are  sometimes  slight,  and  as  sections  are 
frequently  few  and  wide  apart,  and  the  deposits  so  often  occur  in  irregular 
patches,  the  ground  has  to  be  traversed  with  a  detailed  sci*utiny  which  is 
generally  not  required  for  the  older  rocks  underneath.  Viewed  broadly, 
the  superficial  accumulations  are  grouped  and  mapped  by  the  Survey  in 
two  leading  series.  First  come  those  which  have  resulted  from  the  decay 
of  rocks  in  situ^  and  then  those  of  which  the  materials  have  been  trans- 
ported into  their  present  positions. 

1.  The  first  of  these  two  series,  in  so  far  at  least  as  it  is  capable  of 
being  mapped,  is  mainly  confined  to  the  extreme  southern  fringe  of 
England.    All  over  the  three  kingdoms^  indeed,  the  weathering  of  rocks 


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IHB  WOR^  OF  THE  GKOLOGICAL  StJEVBY.  149 

has  for  ages  been  in  progress,  and  here  and  there,  especially  in  the  upland 
apd  monntainoas  districts,  accnmnlations  of  rotted  rock  may  be  observed 
at  the  foot  of  the  crags  and  on  the  slopes.  Bat  what  can  there  be 
observed  is  only  what  has  accnmnlated  since  the  last  glaciers  and  ice-sheets 
scraped  the  loose  detritus  off  the  surface  to  form  parts  of  the  great  group 
of  glacial  deposits.  South  of  a  line,  however,  drawn  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Severn  to  the  mouth  of  the  Thames,  this  country  seems  never  to  have 
^ain  under  a  mantle  of  moving  land-ice,  nor  beneath  a  sea  covered  with 
drifting  ice,  though  fragmentary  sheets  of  old  marine  gravels  cap  many 
of  the  plateaux  and  traces  of  probable  ice-transport  are  found  on  the  south 
coast.  The  surface  in  this  southern  tract  has  thus  been  left  undisturbed 
for  a  great  length  of  time.  Its  rocks  have  slowly  decayed  and  their  dibris 
have  gradually  accumulated  above  them,  with  only  such  slight  transport  as 
may  have  been  due  to  the  washing  of  rain  and  the  sifting  of  wind.  We 
see  the  results  of  this  prolonged  waste  in  the  bhck-earths,  clay-with- 
flints,  and  other  deposits,  that  form  so  marked  a  feature  on  the  Chalk 
Downs.  From  the  Chalk  districts  westward  across  the  Jurassic,  Devonian, 
and  older  formations,  even  to  the  farthest  headlands  of  Cornwall,  every 
rock  is  more  or  less  buried  under  a  covering  or  "head"  of  its  own 
decayed  material.  Sometimes,  as  on  the  Oolitic  strata  of  Dorset  or  the 
killas  of  Cornwall,  this  upper  decayed  layer  may  be  traced  as  a  yellow  or 
orange  band,  varying  from  a  few  inches  to  many  feet  in  thickness,  con- 
forming to  the  shape  of  the  surface,  and  presenting  a  singular  contrast  to 
the  black  horizontal  shales  of  the  one  coast  and  the  purple  vertical  slates 
of  the  other.  In  the  interior,  where  natural  or  artificial  exposures  of  the 
rock  are  sometimes  scarce,  the  spread  of  this  mantle  of  disintegrated 
material  is  a  serious  impediment  to  the  mapping  of  what  lies  underneath  it. 

2.  But  it  is  the  second  or  transported  series  of  surface-deposits  which 
chiefly  engages  the  attention  of  the  Survey.  In  mapping  it  an  effort  has 
been  made  to  discriminate  each  of  its  members,  to  trace  out  their  relations 
to  each  other,  and  to  ascertain  the  connected  geological  history  of  which 
they  .are  the  records.  At  the  same  time,  regard  has  been  had  to  the 
practical  applications  of  the  enquiry,  the  connexion  between  soil  And  sub- 
soils has  been  kept  in  view,  pervious  and  impervious  deposits  have  been 
distinguished,  and  an  endeavour  has  been  made  to  collect  and  embody  on 
the  maps  as  much  information  as  possible  regarding  the  practical  bearings 
of  the  surfece-geology. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  detail  into  which  the  mapping  in  this  depart- 
ment has  been  carried,  I  may  mention  that  under  the  single  term 


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150  tHE  WOBK  OF  THE  (^fiOLOGIOAL  SUBVSt. 

"alluvium"  we  now  discriminate  and  indicate  by  separate  signs  and 
colours  a  large  number  of  distinct  deposits.  Thus,  there  is  a  group  of 
freshwater  alluvia,  beginning  with  the  present  flood-plains  of  the  rivers 
and  rising  by  successive  terraces  to  the  highest  and  oldest  fluviatile  plat- 
forms. Deposits  of  peat  are  separately  traced,  and  tracts  of  blown  sand 
are  likewise  mapped.  Then  there  is  another  series,  of  marine  alluvia 
ranging  in  position  and  age  from  the  mud  of  modem  estuaries  and  the 
sands  of  flat  shores  exposed  at  low  water,  through  a  succession  of  storm- 
beaches  and  raised  beaches,  up  to  the  highest  and  most  ancient  marine 
terraces  100  feet  or  more  above  the  present  level  of  the  sea.  Begarding 
the  origin  of  some  of  the  high-level  gravels,  there  is  stiU  much  uncer- 
tainty, but  the  Survey  has  taken  the  first  necessary  step  for  their  ultimate 
explanation  by  carefully  tracing  their  distribution  on  the  ground. 

But  the  most  abundant  and  complex  group  of  superficial  deposits  is 
4)hat  which  may  be  classed  under  the  old  name  of  Glacial  Drifts.  These 
have  been  mapped  by  the  Survey  in  detail,  and  much  of  the  progress  of 
glacial  geology  in  this  country  has  been  due  to  the  sedulous  investigation 
thus  required.  The  ice-strise  on  the  solid  rocks  have  been  observed 
over  so  much  of  the  country,  that  maps  may  now  be  constructed  to  show 
both  the  march  of  the  main  ice-sheets  and  the  position  of  the  later  valley- 
glaciers.  The  various  boulder-clays  have  been  mapped,  likewise  the 
«ands  and  gravels,  the  esker-drifts,  the  marine  shelly-clays,  and  the 
distribution  of  erratic  blocks.  A  vast  amount  of  information  has  thus 
been  collected  regarding  the  history  of  the  Ice  Age  in  most  parts  of  the 
country.  Even  in  the  southern  or  non-glaciated  fringe  which  I  have 
already  referred  to,  one  of  the  members  of  the  staff  has  been  able  to 
.detect  interesting  evidence  that  though  beyond  the  limits  of  the  northern 
ice-sheets,  this  southern  tract  nevertheless  had  its  frozen  soil  and  its  rafts 
of  coast-ice.  In  the  north  of  Scotland  proofs  have  been  obtained  of  the 
long-lingering  of  the  ice-fields  in  that  region ;  while  in  all  the  mountainous 
districts  the  gradual  retreat  of  the  valley-glaciers,  as  the  climate  grew 
milder,  has  been  shown  by  mapping  the  successive  crescents  of  moraines, 
one  behind  the  other,  up  to  the  very  base  of  the  crags  that  supplied  their 
materiaL 

The  survey  of  the  superficial  deposits  thus  combines  a  wealth  of 
geological  interest  with  a  great  deal  of  practical  value.  The  geologist 
may  find  in  it  the  solution  of  some  problems  and  the  presentation  of 
many  more.  While  the  farmer,  the  water-engineer,  the  builder,  and  the 
sanitary  inspector  may  each  in  turn  gain  some  practical  information  from 
it  for  their  guidance. 


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Xttfi  WOBK  OF  THB  GEOLOGICAL  SUEVBY.  151 

(b)  Solid  Oeohgy  Swrvey, — By  way  of  distinction,  the  mapping  of 
the  formations  of  eveiy  age  that  lie  beneath  the  recent  superficial  deposits 
is  known  as  the  survey  of  the  "  solid  geology.'*  The  object  in  this  part 
of  the  work  is  to  represent  on  the  maps  the  exact  area  which  every 
formation  or  group  of  rocks  occupies  at  the  surface,  together  with  all 
indications  that  can  be  obtained  of  its  structure,  such  as  its  variations  of 
inclination,  its  changes  of  lithological  character,  and  the  dislocations  by 
which  its  outcrop  is  affected.  While  the  basis  of  the  work  is  rigorously 
geological,  an  effort  is  made  to  ascertain  and  record  any  facts  which  may 
have  an  industrial  bearing,  such  as  the  presence  of  useful  minerals,  or 
the  depth  and  variations  in  thickness  of  water-bearing  strata.  The  large 
scale  on  which  the  Survey  is  conducted  aUows  much  local  detail  to  be 
inserted  on  the  maps  both  of  a  scientific  and  a  practical  nature. 

In  those  districts  of  the  country  where  the  rocks  have  long  been 
well-known  and  where  the  geological  structure  is  simple,  the  duties 
of  the  surveyor  are  comparatively  light,  though  it  often  happens  there 
that  the  simplicity  of  the  solid  geology  is  compensated  for  by  a  great  com- 
plexity in  the  overlying  "  drifts.*'  Yet  even  among  formations  that  have 
long  been  familiar,  the  diligent  surveyor  may  generally  glean  new  facts, 
or  be  able  to  throw  new  light  on  fects  which  were  already  well-known. 
Thus  only  a  few  years  ago,  even  in  a  formation  so  well  worked  out  as  the 
Chalk,  one  of  the  members  of  the  Survey  detected  the  existence  of  a 
phosphatic  deposit  like  those  which  have  long  been  worked  in  the  Chalk  of 
Belgium  and  France. 

It  is  where  the  rocks  are  varied  in  character  and  complicated  in 
structure  that  the  full  working  power  of  the  Survey  is  called  out.  Take, 
for  example,  such  a  tract  as  that  of  the  North-west  Highlands  of  Scotland. 
In  that  region  the  mere  physical  difficulties  of  the  ground  are  great. 
With  a  topography  of  exceeding  ruggedness  and  sometimes  of  great 
elevation,  with  a  climate  wetter  and  more  boisterous  than  almost  any 
other  to  be  met  with  in  these  islands,  and  with  quarters  often  of  the 
most  uncomfortable  description,  the  geological  surveyor  needs  all  his 
enthusiasm  and  ardour  to  carry  him  bravely  through  these  preliminary 
obstacles.  But  when  he  comes  to  unravel  the  structure  of  the  rocks 
he  finds  it  almost  incredibly  complex.  Day  after  day  he  may  be  seen 
traversing  the  same  face  of  cliff,  creeping  from  crag  to  crag,  hammer  in 
hand,  heedless  of  the  eagle  that  sweeps  out  from  its  nest  above  him  or 
the  red  deer  that  breaks  from  its  covert  in  the  rocks  below,  his  eye  intent 
on  the  &ce  of  each  scar  and  cleft  as  he  pauses  to  take  his  measurements  or 
.  SQt  down  his  notes  on  map  and  notebook.    He  encounters  varieties  of 


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152  THE  WOBK  OF  THE  GEOLOGICAL  SUBYEY. 

rock  which  he  may  be  unable  to  identify  by  any  of  the  simple  tests  that 
can  be  applied  in  the  field.  He  takes  chips  of  these  home  with  him, 
and  if  they  still  offer  diflBculties  he  sends  Ihem  up  to  the  ofiBce,  where 
they  are  cut  into  thin  slices  and  examined  with  the  microscope,  or  are 
chemically  analysed,  and  a  report  embodying  the  results  of  the  examination 
is  returned  to  him  for  his  guidance,  while  he  may  himself  study  the 
slides  and  verify  or  check  the  observations  which  the  petrographer  has 
inade  upon  them.  Again,  he  may  detect  in  other  rocks  traces  of  organic 
remains,  the  importance  of  which  he  at  once  perceives.  Such  specimens 
as  he  can  himself  collect  are  sent  up  to  the  head  ofSce  for  determination 
by  the  palaeontologists,  and  upon  their  decision  may  depend  the  name 
to  be  assigned  to  the  f  ossilif  erous  rock  and  the  colour  and  sign  whereby  it 
is  to  be  designated  on  the  published  maps. 

The  complication  of  the  "solid  geology"  in  these  north-western 
regions  is  enough  to  tax  to  the  utmost  the  capacity  and  the  energy  of  the 
surveyor.  But  he  has  besides  all  this  to  keep  his  eye  ever  open  to  all 
the  varying  problems  presented  by  the  superficial  deposits.  The  ice-striae 
on  the  rocks,  the  scratched  stones  high  on  the  mountain-sides  that  mark 
where  the  till  once  lay,  the  varieties  of  boulder-clay,  the  sand  and  gravel 
«skers,  the  scattered  erratic  blocks  and  the  detection  of  their  probable 
sources  of  origin,  the  moraine  mounds  fringing  or  filling  the  bottom  of 
the  glens,  the  sheets  of  flow-peat  and  the  rugged  peaty  mantle  that  hangs 
down  from  the  cols  and  smoother  ridges,  the  recent  alluvia  and  the 
successive  stream-terraces,  the  lines  of  raised  beach  and  the  estuarine 
sUts — all  these  and  more  must  be  noted  by  him  as  he  moves  along  and 
must  be  duly  chronicled  on  his  map  and  among  his  notes. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  progress  of  a  surveyor  in  such  ground  cannot  be 
rapid.  If  the  work  is  worth  doing  at  all,  it  should  be  well  done,  and  if 
well  done,  it  must  be  done  slowly  and  carefully.  It  is  evident  also  that 
the  total  area  surveyed  in  a  year,  if  given  in  square  miles,  affords  no 
guidance  whatever  as  to  the  amount  of  labour  involved.  There  may  be  a 
hundredfold  more  exertion,  physical  and  mental,  required  to  complete  a 
single  square  mile  in  some  districts  than  to  fill  in  ten  square  miles  in 
others.  It  is  customary  in  the  service  to  estimate  not  only  the  area 
annually  sm'veyed  by  each  officer  in  square  miles,  but  also  the  number  of 
miles  of  boundary-line  which  he  has  traced.  The  ratio  between  these  two 
figures  affords  some  measure,  though  an  imperfect  one,  of  the  comparative 
complexity  or  simplicity  of  the  work.  In  simple  ground  a  surveyor  need 
have  no  difficulty  in  mapping  from  70  to  100  square  miles  in  a  year, 
each  square  mile  including  from  3  to  6  linear  miles  of  boundary.    But  in 


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THE  WOllK  OF  THE  GEOLOGICAL  SUHVET.  158 

more  ragged  and  difficult  districts  it  is  often  impossible  to  accomplish 
half  of  that  amount  of  area.  In  these  cases,  however,  the  ratio  between 
area  and  boundary-lines  usually  rises  to  a  high  proportion.  Thus  last 
year,  in  Argyllshire,  the  average  number  of  linear  miles  of  boundary-lines 
was  as  much  in  one  district  as  17  miles  in  every  square  mile  surveyed. 

In  mining  districts  an  endeavour  is  made  to  express  on  the  maps 
the  positions  of  the  outcrops  of  all  seams  and  lodes,  the  line  of  every 
important  fault  and  dyke,  with  the  place  of  such  faults  at  the  surface, 
and  where  they  cut  diflFerent  seams  underground.  For  the  information 
necessary  to  record  these  data  we  are  mainly  indebted  to  the  owners  and 
lessees  of  the  mines  and  pits,  who,  as  a  rule,  most  generously  give  us  every 
assistance.  Details  as  far  as  possible  are  inserted  on  the  6  inches  Ordnance 
sheets.  Oopies  are  taken  of  borings  and  pit-sections,  and  notes  are  made 
regarding  variations  in  the  character  of  the  seams  or  lodes  from  one  part 
of  a  mineral  field  to  another.  At  the  same  time  the  district  is  surveyed  in 
the  usual  way,  and  by  exhausting  the  surface-evidence  the  surveyor  is  not 
infrequently  able  to  supply  important  additional  information  beyond  what 
can  be  obtained  from  the  mining-plans. 

It  is  the  necessary  fate  of  all  geological  maps  to  become  antiquated. 
For,  in  the  first  place,  the  science  is  continually  advancing,  and  the  systems 
of  arrangement  of  the  rocks  of  the  earth's  crust  are  undergoing  constant 
improvement,  so  that  the  methods  of  mapping  which  satisfied  all  the 
requirements  of  science  thirty  years  ago  are  found  to  be  susceptible  of 
modification  now.  In  the  second  place,  in  the  progress  of  civilization, 
new  openings  are  continually  being  made  in  the  ground,  wells,  roads, 
drains,  railways,  and  buildings  are  being  constructed,  whereby  fresh  light 
is  obtained  as  to  the  rocks  below.  Geological  lines  which  were  traced  with 
imperfect  evidence  can  thus  be  corrected,  and  new  lines  which  perhaps 
were  not  suspected  can  be  inserted.  If  this  kind  of  obsoleteness  overtakes 
geological  maps  even  where  only  superficial  openings  are  concerned,  still 
more  does  it  affect  those  which  depict  the  structure  of  mineral  fields 
still  actively  worked.  The  geological  maps  of  Devon,  Cornwall,  and 
South  Wales,  made  more  than  half  a  century  ago  by  De  la  Beche  and 
his  associates  were  for  their  time  admirable  in  conception  and  excellent  in 
execution.  Nothing  approaching  to  them  in  merit  had  then  been  pro- 
duced in  any  part  of  the  world.  But  the  mineral  industry  of  the  country 
has  not  been  standing  stiU  all  these  years.  Enormous  progress  has  been 
made  in  working  the  ores  of  the  western  counties,  and  in  developing  the 
;.great  South  Welsh  coal-field.     Yet  the  maps  remain  as  they  were 


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154  TfiB  WO&t  Ot  1?HB  GEOLOGICAL  SUBVlElf. 

originally  published.  The  Geological  Survey  has  of  itself  no  power  to 
undertake  revision,  and  much  as  we  would  like  to  see  all  the  mineral  fields 
re-surveyed  and  brought  up  to  date,  we  cannot  go  faster  than  Parliament 
will  sanction  or  the  Treasury  will  authorize.  Two  years  ago,  in  response 
to  an  important  memorial  from  South  Wales,  we  received  instructions  to 
commence  the  re-survey  of  that  coal-field,  and  the  work  is  now  in  active 
progress.  I  trust  the  day  may  not  be  distant  when  similar  revisions  will 
be  made  of  the  other  mineral-fields  which  were  surveyed  many  years  ago 
on  imperfect  1  inch  maps. 

The  re-surveys  of  the  mineral  districts  can  now  be  carried  out  on 
the  6  inches  scale  with  a  completeness  and  accuracy  unattainable  when  the 
original  surveys  on  the  1  inch  scale  were  made.  In  some  cases  the  maps 
of  mining  districts  have  been  published  on  the  6  inches  scale,  but  where 
the  sale  is  likely  to  be  small,  instead  of  incurring  the  heavy  expense  of 
engraving  the  6  inches  sheets,  we  issue  manuscript  copies  of  these  sheets  at 
the  cost  of  manual  transcription.  As  an  illustration  of  the  kind  of  work 
undertaken  by  the  Survey  in  the  mining  districts,  I  may  refer  to  the  Maps, 
Sections,  and  Memoir  of  the  Yorkshire  coal-field.  There  is  no  reason, 
save  one  of  expense,  why  all  the  mining  districts  of  the  country  should 
not  be  similarly  treated. 

Though  systematic  re-surveys  are  not  undertaken  by  the  Survey 
without  express  sanction,  it  is  customary  to  make  minor  corrections  which 
from  time  to  time  may  be  required  in  the  published  maps.  Those 
counties  in  the  south  and  south-west  of  England  of  which  the  superficial 
deposits  were  not  originally  mapped  are  now  undergoing  revision  for 
the  "Drift  Survey,"  and  advantage  is  taken  of  the  re-examination  of  the 
ground  for  the  insertion  of  the  surface-geology  to  make  any  needful  altera- 
tion in  the  lines  of  the  solid  geology. 

II.  Petrographical  Woek. 

In  the  earlier  days  of  the  Geological  Survey  each  member  of  the  staff 
determined  for  himself,  by  such  tests  as  he  could  apply,  the  various  rocks 
encountered  by  him  in  the  field.  Only  in  rare  cases  were  chemical 
analyses  made  for  him.  The  study  of  rocks  had  fallen  into  neglect  in  this 
country,  being  eclipsed  by  the  greater  attraction  of  the  study  of  fossils. 
The  introduction  of  the  microscope  into  geological  investigation  has, 
however,  changed  this  apathy  into  active  interest.  It  is  now  recognized 
that  apart  from  mere  questions  of  nomenclature,  rocks  contain  materials 
for  the  solution  of  some  of  the  most  important  problems  in  physical 
geology.     Accordingly,  microscopic  enquiry  has  in  recent  years  been 


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.<rHB  WORK  OF  THE  GBOLOGlCAL  SURVEY.  166 

organized  as  one  of  the  branches  of  the  Geological  Survey,  and  now  affords 
constant  and  material  aid  in  the  progress  of  the  mapping.  Chemical 
analyses  are  likewise  made,  so  as  to  afford  all  available  information  as  to 
the  composition  of  the  mineral  masses  encountered  in  the  field. 

When  an  officer  engaged  in  mapping  meets  with  rocks  which  present 
difficulties,  either  as  to  their  classification  or  as  to  their  bearings  on  the 
stmcture  of  the  ground,  he  takes  specimens  of  them  which  he  numbers 
consecutively  and  sends  up  to  the  petrographer  at  the  office,  who  enters 
them  in  a  book  under  the  name  of  that  officer,  and  keeps  a  record  of  the 
destination  of  each.  Those  specimens  which  are  selected  to  be  sliced  are 
numbered  consecutively  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  cut,  and  are 
entered  in  books  kept  for  the  purpose.  When  they  have  been  micro- 
scopically studied,  described,  and  named,  they  are  again  entered  in  two 
distinct  catalogues,  one  of  which  is  arranged  according  to  the  sheets  of 
the  1  inch  map  and  the  other  accordiug  to  petrographical  types.  Every 
sliced  specimen  is  thus  entered  four  times,  and  every  specimen  sent  up  for 
examination  (whether  sliced  or  not)  can  at  once  be  found.  A  report  is 
made  out  by  the  petrographer  and  sent  back  to  the  officer,  who  is  thus  put 
in  possession  of  all  the  details  which  can  be  furnished  to  him  regarding 
the  rocks  about  which  he  needed  assistance.  In  many  cases  the  thin 
slices  are  also  sent  to  the  surveyor,  who  often  spends  his  evenings  in  their 
study. 

The  original  specimens  from  which  the  thin  slides  have  been  prepared 
are  carefully  kept  in  cabinets,  so  that  if  any  accident  should  befall  a  slide 
a  new  slice  can  at  once  be  cut.  The  mounted  slides  are  arranged  in 
separate  cabinets.  A  large  number  of  such  slides  have  now  been  accumu- 
lated. From  Scotland  alone  upwards  of  5,000  have  been  determined,  and 
are  ready  for  reference  at  any  moment. 

But  besides  assisting  the  field-work,  the  petrographers  are  engaged  in 
determinations  required  for  the  arrangement  of  rock-specimens  in  the 
museums  at  Jermyn  Street,  Edinburgh,  and  Dublin.  The  collectors  are 
employed  under  the  supervision  of  the  surveying  officers  to  make 
illustrative  series  of  specunens  of  the  rocks  of  each  district.  These  are 
sent  up  to  the  office  for  examination  and  for  insertion  in  the  museum. 
In  the  course  of  the  research  thus  imposed  on  them,  the  petrogi-aphers 
are  from  time  to  time  enabled  to  make  important  original  contributions 
to  petrographical  science.  Moreover,  they  confer  in  the  field  with  the 
officers  who  are  engaged  in  mapping,  and  sometimes  in  concert  with  them 
make  observations  which  are  embodied  in  conjoint  memoirs  on  the 
geology  of  the  several  districts. 


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166  THE  WOBK  OP  TEt  GEOLOGICAL  SUEVElT. 

III.   PAL.ffi!ONTOLOGI0AL  WORK. 

In  a  oonntiy  where  the  geological  formations  are  to  a  large  extent 
fossiliferons,  it  is  necessary  to  pay  close  attention  to  the  organic  remains 
found  in  the  rocks,  to  collect  specimens  of  them,  to  determine  these 
specifically,  and  to  regulate  thereby  the  geological  boundary-lines  upon 
the  maps.  The  duty  of  examining  and  reporting  upon  the  fossils  is 
entrusted  to  the  palasontologists,  who  occasionally  visit  the  field,  but  are 
mainly  engaged  at  the  museums.  With  reference  to  the  exigencies  of  field- 
work  a  somewhat  similar  system  is  followed  with  regard  to  fossil  evidence 
as  in  the  case  of  the  petrography,  though  the  same  minute  detail  is  not 
necessary.  The  ofScer,  when  in  doubt  about  any  species,  the  names  of 
which  are  needful  in  separating  formations  and  drawing  their  mutual 
boundary-lines,  collects  specimens  of  them  and  sends  them  up  to  the  office 
for  identification.  They  are  compared  by  the  palaeontologist  with 
published  descriptions  and  named  specimens,  and  a  list  of  their  specific 
names  (as  far  as  they  can  be  made  out)  is  supplied  to  the  surveyor. 

Besides  such  specimens  as  may  require  to  be  identified  in  the  course 
of  the  mapping,  full  collections  from  the  formations  of  each  important 
district  are  made  by  the  collectors  under  the  guidance  of  the  officers  by 
whom  the  district  has  been  surveyed.  Every  specimen  is  numbered  and 
registered  in  the  collector's  book,  so  that  its  source  and  destination  can  at 
once  be  found.  Lists  of  the  fossils  are  drawn  up  by  the  palaeontologists 
for  insertion  in  the  published  memoirs.  A  selection  of  the  best  specimens 
is  placed  in  the  cases,  drawers,  or  cabinets  of  the  Museum.  Fortunately 
in  the  case  of  the  palaeontologists  also,  though  much  of  their  work  is 
necessarily  of  a  routine  official  chaiucter,  opportunities  are  afforded  to 
them  of  making  interesting  and  important  additions  to  palaeontological 
science.  It  was  from  this  department  of  the  Survey  that  Edward  Forbes 
produced  some  of  his  best  work,  that  Salter  made  his  fame  as  a 
palaeontologist,  and  that  Professor  Huxley  enriched  geological  literature 
with  his  memoirs  on  Silurian  Crustacea,  Old  Red  Sandstone  fishes,  and 
Triassic  reptiles.  Within  the  last  few  months  fresh  distinction  has  been 
won  by  one  of  the  staff  of  the  same  department  from  the  investigation 
and  restoration  of  a  series  of  remarkable  reptiles  from  the  Elgin  Sand- 
stones. 

IV.  Collecting  Wobk. 

From  what  I  have  already  said  it  will  be  seen  that  systematic 
collection  of  the  minerals,  rocks,  and  fossils  of  the  country  is  an  essential 
part  of  the  operations  of  the  Geological  Survey,  and  is  made  to  aid  the 
progress  of  the  mapping  and  the  completion  of  the  illustrations  of  British 


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THB  WOBK  OF  THE  GlBOTiOGICAL  SUEVBT.  157 

geology  in  the  musemns.  Each  branch  of  the  Survey  has  its  collector, 
who  moves  from  district  to  district  as  his  services  are  required.  When 
he  b^ins  work  in  any  area,  he  is  supplied  with  a  map  on  which  the  field- 
officer  who  surveyed  it  has  marked  every  locality  that  should  be  searched, 
and  also  with  a  list  of  these  localities,  giving  local  details  as  to  the  rocks 
to  be  specially  examined  and  the  kind  of  specimens  to  be  looked  for  and 
collected.  When  necessary  the  surveyor  accompanies  the  collector  to  the 
ground  and  starts  him  on  his  duties.  Every  specimen  which  the  collector 
sends  up  to  the  offioe  has  a  number  affixed  to  it,  and  is  entered  in  the  lists, 
which  are  also  at  the  same  time  transmitted  to  headquarters.  The 
specimens  are  then  unpacked  and  treated  by  the  palesontologists  or 
petrographers,  as  the  case  may  be,  in  the  manner  already  indicated. 

V.  Preparation  op  Maps,  Sections,  and  Memoirs  for 
Publication. 

The  results  obtained  by  the  CJeological  Survey  are  made  public  in 
three  forms :  Maps,  Sections,  and  Memoirs,  to  which  may  be  added  the 
arrangement  of  specimens  in  the  three  museums,  with  their  diagrams, 
handbooks,  and  other  explanatory  matter,  and  also  the  original  papers, 
which  lying  often  beyond  the  scope  of  the  Survey's  publications,  are 
prepared  by  members  of  the  staff  and,  with  the  consent  of  the  Director- 
General,  are  communicated  by  them  to  scientific  societies  or  journals. 

(a)  Maps. — Every  surveying  officer  is  responsible  for  keeping  his 
6  inches  field-maps  inked-in  and  coloured-up,  so  that  if  required  to  be 
exchanged  with  his  colleagues  they  shall  be  clear  and  intelligible.  He  is 
likewise  required  to  prepare  duplicate  copies  of  these  field-maps,  which 
when  completed,  are  transmitted  to  the  office  and  are  kept  there  for  con- 
sultation by  the  public. 

As  I  have  already  stated,  6  inches  maps  of  some  of  the  mineral-fields 
have  been  published.  These  have  been  prepared  by  the  officers  who 
surveyed  them,  the  geological  work  being  put  on  a  dry  impression  from 
the  plate  of  the  Ordnance  map,  which  is  then  sent  to  the  Ordnance  Office 
to  be  transferred  to  an  electrotype  of  the  plate.  In  a  few  cases,  also,  maps 
on  this  scale,  where  the  geology  is  of  special  interest  or  complexity,  have 
been  prepared  and  published.  But  for  the  country  at  large  it  is  not 
desirable  to  publish  maps  on  so  large  a  scale  as  that  of  6  inches  to  a  mile. 
Over  all  the  counties  which  have  been  surveyed  on  that  scale,  MS.  copies 
of  the  6  inches  maps  can  be  obtained  by  the  public,  at  the  mere  cost  of 
manual  transcription  from  the  duplicate  copies  retained  in  the  office. 


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158  THB  WOEK  OF  THE  GEOLOGICAL  BTTRVET. 

The  work  Burveyed  by  an  officer  on  the  6  inches  scale  is  reduced  by  him 
npon  a  dry  impression  of  the  1  inch  Ordnance  map.  A  single  1  inch 
sheet  may  comprise  the  work  of  half  a  dozen  surveyors,  and  in  that  case 
the  sheet  is  passed  from  one  to  another,  each  adding  his  own  share.  The 
completed  dry  proof  is  then  checked  at  the  office  and  is  sent  to  the 
Ordnance  Survey  to  be  engraved  on  an  electrotype  copperplate  specially 
prepared  for  the  purpose  from  the  original  Ordnance  plate.  After  the 
final  corrections  have  been  made  in  the  engraved  map  and  the  scheme  of 
signs  and  colours  has  been  engraved  on  the  margin,  a  copy  of  this  map  is 
coloured  as  it  is  to  appear  on  publication,  each  surveyor  again  taking 
the  portion  for  which  he  is  personally  responsible.  The  scrutiny  involved 
in  this  process  serves  generally  to  detect  any  errors  that  may  have 
previously  escaped  notice.  This  original  coloured  copy  remains  as  the 
standard  to  which  all  subsequent  copies  of  the  same  edition  of  the  map 
are  made  to  conform. 

When  finally  checked  and  approved,  the  original  coloured  copy  is  sent 
to  the  colourists,  who  colour  all  the  maps  by  hand,  the  work  being  done 
by  women.  Experiments  were  tried  some  years  ago  as  to  the  feasibility 
of  producing  the  Geological  Survey  maps  by  colour-printing.  But  with 
our  system  of  engraving  it  was  found  impossible  at  the  Ordnance  Survey 
Office  to  ensure  sufficiently  accurate  registration,  and  there  was  the  further 
practical  difficulty  that  so  large  an  impression  of  each  sheet  would  require 
to  be  printed  off  that  a  large  stock  would  remain  on  hand,  and  new 
editions  and  alterations  of  the  maps  would  be  impracticable  for  many 
years.  The  original  system  has  therefore  been  retained.  It  has  this 
great  advantage,  that  by  keeping  the  supply  of  copies  of  each  sheet  just 
sufficient  to  meet  the  demand  of  the  public,  we  are  enabled  to  make  any 
alteration  of  a  map  which  from  time  to  time  may  be  found  to  be 
necessary,  without  the  loss  involved  in  cancelling  a  large  stock  of  copies. 

Some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  nature  of  the  colouring  work  of  the 
Survey  maps  from  the  fact  that  upwards  of  180  different  tints  and  com- 
binations are  employed  to  denote  the  various  kinds  of  rocks  separately 
discriminated  on  the  maps.  It  is  difficult  to  find  colours  distinct  from 
each  other,  yet  harmonious,  and  that  will  not  fade  on  exposure.  To  guard 
as  far  as  possible  against  the  risk  of  fading,  every  colour  is  also  distin- 
guished by  its  own  symbol,  which  is  legibly  engraved  where  the  colour 
occurs  on  the  map. 

Two  editions  of  the  maps  of  England  and  Wales  are  now  issued  for 
those  districts  of  which  the  Drift  survey  has  been  completed.  One  of 
these  editions  shows  all  the  superficial  deposits,  and  only  so  much  of  the 


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THE  WOBK  OP  THE  GEOLOGICAL  SUBVBT.  159 

underlying  formationB  as  lies  bare  at  the  sarface.  The  other  edition 
presents  the  underlying  formations  as  these  would  appear  if  the  superficial 
aocumulations  could  be  stripped  ofiF.  Each  of  these  editions  has  its 
value  for  special  purposes.  In  all  questions  of  sanitation,  water-supply, 
agriculture,  and  building,  it  is  obviously  the  Drift  edition  that  should  be 
consulted,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  where  the  information  desired  has 
reference  to  what  lies  deeper  beneath  the  surface,  as  in  the  sinking  of 
deep  wells  and  mines,  it  is  the  Solid  edition  that  will  be  most  usually 
consulted.  The  difference  between  the  two  is  merely  one  of  colouring, 
for  they  are  printed  from  the  same  copperplate,  and  as  fai*  as  the 
engraving  goes  are  exact  duplicates. 

The  prices  of  the  maps  are  regulated  by  H.M.  Stationery  Office,  and 
are  fixed  according  to  the  amount  of  colouring  work  upon  them.  In 
England  and  Wales,  full  sheets  usually  range  from  ds.  to  8s.  6d.  and 
quarter-sheets  from  Is.  6d.  to  8s.  In  Scotland  and  Ireland,  the  sizes  of 
the  maps  are  different,  but  their  prices  are  calculated  on  the  same  scale, 
being  in  Scotland  from  4s.  to  6s.,  and  in  Ireland  (where  the  sheets  are 
similar  in  size  to  the  English  quarter-sheets)  from  Is.  6d.  to  8s.  In  some 
cases  the  price  at  which  a  map  is  sold  is  less  than  the  cost  of  colouring, 
but  it  is  estimated  that  the  excess  of  selling  price  beyond  that  cost  in 
other  cases  will  compensate  for  this  loss. 

The  total  number  of  6  inches  maps  published  by  the  Geological 
Survey  up  to  the  present  time  is  for  England  and  Wales,  217  sheets; 
Scotland,  180  sheets;  Ireland,  10  sheets.  The  number  of  1  inch  whole- 
sheets  and  quarter-sheets  published  for  England  and  Wales  amounts  to 
258 ;  142  of  these  are  as  yet  published  only  as  "  solid  "  maps ;  89  are 
issued  in  two  editions,  "solid"  and  "drift;"  of  28  only  the  "drift" 
edition  is  published.  Four  quarter-sheets  of  the  map  of  England  yet 
remain  to  be  published,  but  will  be  issued  this  year.  The  number  of 
sheets  published  of  Scotland  is  48,  and  of  Ireland  205.  The  whole  of 
Ireland  has  been  completed  and  published.  Every  effort  is  now  being 
made  to  complete  at  as  early  a  date  as  possible  the  survey  of  Scotland, 
but  the  extraordinary  complication  of  the  geological  structure  of  the 
Highlands,  being  far  greater  than  was  ever  anticipated,  renders  the 
progress  less  rapid  than  could  be  wished. 

The  desirability  of  having  a  general  geological  map  of  the  country  on 
a  smaller  scale  than  that  of  1  inch  to  a  mile  has  long  been  recognized. 
When  the  mapping  of  England  was  completed,  advantage  was  taken  of  the 
existence  of  an  index  Ordnance  Survey  map  on  the  scale  of  4  miles  to 
an  inch.    This  map,  based  on  the  old  1  inch  maps,  had  been  laid  aside 


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160  THE  WORK  OF  THE  GEOLOGICAL  8UBVBT. 

incomplete  by  the  Ordnance  Sarvey,  bnt  it  was  likely  to  be  bo  naef ul  f or 
geological  parpoees  that  at  my  reqnest  it  was  finished  at  Sonthampton. 
The  work  of  the  Geological  Survey  is  now  being  reduced  upon  this  map, 
of  which  there  are  in  England  and  Wales  15  sheets.  Four  of  these  sheets 
have  now  been  published  with  the  geology,  embracing  the  east  of  York- 
shire and  the  southern  counties,  from  Essex  to  Torquay.  Other  sheets 
are  in  progress,  and  the  map  when  completed  will  present  at  a  glance  a 
clear. and  vivid  picture  of  the  geological  structure  of  the  whole  country. 

The  value  of  reduced  index-maps  for  geological  purposes  was 
recognized  long  ago  by  the  preparation  of  a  general  map  of  Wales. 
When  the  Geological  Survey  of  the  Principality  was  finished  the  whole 
work  was  reduced  to  the  scale  of  4  miles  to  an  inch  and  engraved  in 
six  sheets,  which  include  parts  of  the  West  of  England.  This  map  has 
been  on  sale  for  many  years. 

(b)  Sections. — A  geological  map  can  for  the  most  part  express  only 
what  lies  at  the  surface,  though  it  may  afford  information,  more  or  less 
definite,  as  to  what  lies  below.  To  supplement  the  map  it  is  needful  to 
construct  sections  to  show  the  arrangement  of  the  rocks  beneath  the 
surface.  A  complete  and  detailed  map  should  contain  sufficient  data  to 
allow  of  such  sections  being  plotted  in  outline,  but  these  details  can  usually 
be  filled  in  only  from  the  notes  of  the  sections  examined  in  the  course 
of  the  mapping.  Two  kinds  of  sections  are  prepared  and  published  by 
the  Geological  Survey — vertical  and  horizontal.  They  are  drawn  to 
scale,  and  engraved  and  published  in  sheets  measuring  8  feet  by  2  feet. 
But  besides  these,  numerous  measured  and  also  diagram-sections  are 
inserted  into  the  text  of  the  printed  Memoirs. 

The  Vertical  Sections  are  drawn  usually  on  the  scale  of  40  feet  to  1  inch, 
and  are  prepared  almost  entirely  to  illustrate  the  succession  of  strata  in 
the  coal-fields.  Each  sheet  generally  contains  more  than  one  section. 
The  materials  for  the  plotting  of  these  sections  are  sometimes  obtained  by 
actual  measurements  taken  by  the  surveyor  himself,  but  more  commonly 
are  supplied  by  the  lessees  or  managers  of  the  collieries.  Sometimes 
tables  of  comparative  sections  are  giveu,  in  illustration  of  variations  in 
character  and  thickness  between  the  seams  of  coal,  ironstone,  or  limestone 
in  different  parts  of  the  same  mineral  field. 

Occasionally,  where  a  group  of  strata,  though  of  little  industrial 
importance,  possesses  great  geological  interest,  a  vertical  section  of  it  has 
been  constructed  and  published  in  the  same  style  as  the  coal-field  sections, 


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THE  WORK  OF  THE   GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY.  161 

In  this  way  we  have  issued  some  useful  secfcious  of  the  Jurassic  rocks  in 
Eastern  Yorkshire,  of  the  Lower  Lias  and  Khaetic  rocks  in  the  West  of 
England,  of  the  Tertiary  strata  in  fche  Isle  of  Wight,  and  of  the  Purbeck 
group  in  Dorset. 

Altogether  87  sheets  of  Vertical  Sections  have  been  published  for  the 
three  kingdoms.    The  price  of  each  sheet  is  3s.  6d. 

The  Horizontal  Sections  have  always  been  an  important  feature  in  the 
work  of  the  Geological  Survey.  De  la  Beche,  recognizing  the  practical 
disadvantages  arising  from  the  construction  of  sections  without  any  regard 
to  the  proportion  between  height  and  distance,  instituted  the  practice  of 
drawing  them  on  a  true  scale.  He  adopted  the  scale  of  6  inches  to  a 
mile,  and  invented  a  system  of  patterns  for  the  different  kinds  of  rock, 
which,  as  he  was  himself  an  artist,  are  appropriate  and  effective,  for  they 
represent  in  no  small  measure  the  general  structure  of  the  rocks.  The 
institution  of  such  sections,  in  lieu  of  the  distorted  diagrams  too  generally 
employed,  was  of  great  service  to  the  Survey  itself  and  also  to  the  progress 
of  geology ;  for  it  served  to  correct  the  evil  influences  of  distorted  drawing, 
with  regard  not  only  to  geological  structure  but  to  the  true  forms  of  the 
ground. 

When  &  line  of  section  was  chosen  and  drawn  on  the  1  inch  map,  it 
had  to  be  measured  on  the  ground  with  chain  and  theodolite.  This  was 
the  invariable  practice  until  the  6  inches  contoured  Ordnance  Survey  maps 
came  into  use.  With  these  maps  as  a  basis,  the  laborious  process  of 
chaining  the  sections  is  no  longer  required.  The  section-lines  are  drawn 
on  these  maps  and  the  sections  are  plotted  from  them.  The  contour-lines 
and  bench-marks  allow  the  line  of  the  surface  to  be  traced  with  a  close 
approximation  to  accuracy.  But  in  order  to  ensure  final  correctness  of 
detail,  the  ground  is  gone  over  with  the  section  in  hand  and  each  little 
feature  is  then  put  in. 

The  sections  start  from  Ordnance  datum  (mean  sea-level),  but  where 
the  ground  is  low  and  there  is  consequently  not  room  to  express  what  is 
known  of  the  geological  structure  above  that  datum,  the  lines  are  prolonged 
below  it.  The  same  practice  is  also  followed  in  mining-districts.  An  effort 
is  made  to  illustrate  every  great  district  of  the  country.  Each  geological 
formation,  as  it  varies  from  one  point  to  another,  is  crossed  by  lines  of 
section,  so  that  by  comparing  these  the  changes  in  that  formation  from 
district  to  district  can  at  once  be  seen.  The  length  of  each  section  varies 
indefinitely  with  the  nature  of  the  ground,  many  of  them  being  upwards 
of  100  miles  in  length.    Thus  a  series  of  sections  runs  from  Anglesey 

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162  THE  WORK  OF  THE  GBOLOaiOAL  SURVET. 

and  the  coast  of  Merionethshire,  across  the  mountainous  ground  of  North 
Wales,  to  the  plains  of  the  Midlands.  Another  group  crosses  from  the 
central  counties  to  the  South  Coast.  A  connected  chain  of  sections 
traverses  the  breadth  of  the  island  from  Liverpool  to  the  coast  of 
Yorkshire. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  character  of  these  sections  and  their  useful- 
ness in  correcting  popular  misconceptions  as  to  geological  structure  and 
form  of  the  ground,  I  may  refer  to  that  which  runs  from  Leicestershire 
to  Brighton  and  passes  through  London  (sheet  79).  What  is  called  the 
"London  basin"  is  by  many  people  regarded  as  a  deep  trough  of  clay, 
with  the  Chalk  rising  steeply  from  under  it  both  to  the  south  and  north, 
and  we  may  see  this  conception  embodied  in  actual  diagrams  in  text- 
books and  elsewhere.  But  in  reality  both  the  London  Clay  and  the  Chalk 
are  so  nearly  flat  that  their  inclination  can  hardly  be  detected  except  by 
careful  measurement.  And  the  section,  accurately  plotted  from  borings 
and  well-sections,  shows  them  apparently  horizontal,  though  on  further 
inspection  we  find  that  their  line  of  junction,  which  is  well  above  the 
datum-line  at  either  end,  lies  some  way  beneath  it  in  the  centre. 

The  Horizontal  Sections  are  engraved  on  copper  and  published  in 
sheets,  each  of  which,  if  the  ground  be  low,  may  include  six  lines  or 
86  miles  of  section.  The  same  continuous  line  of  section  may  thus 
extend  over  several  sheets.  Small  explanatory  pamphlets  are  published 
with  these  sheets,  giving  general  information  as  to  their  formations  and 
their  local  peculiarities.  Each  sheet  of  horizontal  sections  is  published 
at  the  price  of  5s.  In  all  191  sheets  of  such  sections  for  the  United 
Kingdom  have  been  issued. 

Besides  the  usual  horizontal  sections  on  the  scale  of  6  inches  to  a 
mile,  occasional  sections  on  a  larger  scale  are  prepared  to  illustrate  the 
geological  structure  of  particular  localities.  In  this  way  the  coast-line  of 
Cromer  and  Yarmouth  has  been  represented  in  detail,  and  its  numerous 
features  of  geological  interest  have  been  inserted  so  as  to  exhibit  a  kind 
of  picture  of  the  arrangement  of  the  strata  in  these  changing  cliffs. 
Portions  of  the  coast-line  of  Dorset  and  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  have  been 
similarly  treated. 

(c)  Memoirs. — Obviously,  in  the  course  of  a  geological  survey,  a 
large  amount  of  detailed  information  is  collected  which  cannot  find  a 
place  either  on  the  Maps  or  the  Sections.  This  material  embraces  much 
local  detail  and  a  large  body  of  evidence  which  is  of  importance  in 
general  geological  enquiry.      It  can  only  be  properly  used  by  being 


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THE  WORK  OF  THE  GEOLOGICAL  SITBVEY.  168 

arranged,  condensed,  and  printed.  The  issue  of  Memoirs  of  its  work  has 
been  from  the  beginning  one  of  the  chief  occupations  of  the  Geological 
Survey  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  form  in  which  these  publications 
have  appeared  has  varied.  De  la  Beche's  plan  was  to  publish  volumes  of 
General  Memoirs  embracing  descriptions  of  particular  regions  and  also 
essays  on  special  branches  of  geological  enquiry.  His  own  memoir  on 
the  geology  of  Cornwall,  Devon,  and  West  Somerset  is  an  admirable 
example  of  his  method,  and  has  long  taken  its  place  among  the  classics  of 
English  geology.  There  were  practical  difficulties,  however,  in  the  way 
of  continuing  his  method  when  the  staff  increased,  and  the  literary 
labour  had  to  be  shared  by  a  nimiber  of  observers,  who  were,  in  many 
cases,  more  willing  to  wield  their  hammers  than  their  j^ens.  When 
Murchison  succeeded  to  the  charge  of  the  Survey,  he  sought  to  avoid 
these  difficulties  by  instituting  the  practice  of  accompanying  every  sheet 
or  quarter-sheet  of  the  1  inch  map  with  an  explanatory  pamphlet,  giving 
the  chief  data  on  which  the  map  had  been  constructed,  with  references  to 
the  best  sections,  lists  of  minerals  and  fossils,  and  information  as  to  the 
geological  structure  of  the  ground.  These  pamphlets,  containing  essential 
details  only,  were  to  be  eventually  condensed  and  collated  by  the  Local 
Director,  so  as  to  form  a  generalized  view  of  each  important  geological 
region.  This  scheme  was  well  conceived,  and  with  some  modifications 
rendei-ed  necessary  by  the  progress  of  the  Survey,  has  been  carried  out 
ever  since.  It  is  not  always  possible  or  desirable  to  prepare  a  separate 
explanation  for  each  sheet  or  quarter-sheet,  for  much  reduplication  of 
geological  information  would  thereby  be  involved.  Several  quarter-sheets 
or  sheets  may  be  described  together  in  a  single  Memoir. 

Each  surveying  officer  is  expected  to  contribute  the  account  of  the 
area  mapped  by  him.  Where  more  than  one  surveyor  has  been  engaged 
on  a  map  or  district,  the  accounts  furnished  by  the  several  officers  are 
collated  and  edited  in  the  office,  and  are  published  generally  in  paper 
wrappers  and  at  a  low  price. 

Occasionally  these  Memoirs,  when  dealing  with  an  important  district, 
have  been  expanded  beyond  the  limits  of  mere  Sheet  Explanations,  and 
have  taken  the  form  of  thick  octavo  volumes.  Such,  for  instance,  are  the 
Memoirs  on  the  Yorkshire  Coal-field,  on  North  Wales,  on  the  geology  of 
the  Weald,  on  the  geology  of  London,  and  on  the  Isle  of  Wight. 

The  chief  literary  work  on  which  the  staff  of  the  Survey  are  now  en- 
gaged is  the  preparation  of  the  General  Memoirs  or  Monographs  to  which 
the  Sheet  Explanations  were  designed  to  be  preparatory.  It  appeared 
to  me  that  the  most  generally  useful  plan  on  which  these  could  be 


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164  THE   WORK  OF  THE  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 

prepared  was  to  make  them  fuudamentallj  stratigraphical,  in. other  words, 
to  devote  them  to  a  description  of  the  various  geological  systems  which 
are  embraced  within  the  British  Isles,  and  to  show  not  only  what  has  been 
done  by  the  Survey  in  each  of  these  systems,  but  what  has  been  ascertained 
by  others.  Each  monograph  should  thus  be  a  compendium  of  all  that  is 
known  of  its  subject  up  to  the  date  of  its  publication.  The  information 
obtained  by  the  Survey  in  its  progress  is  necessarily  scattered  through ' 
many  maps,  sections,  and  memoirs.  The  work  of  the  service  would  be 
incomplete  and  diflBcult  of  consultation  if  it  were  left  in  this  disseminated 
state.  It  needs  to  be  gathered  together,  arranged,  and  put  into  connected 
form,  so  afl  to  present  an  intelligible  account  of  the  geology  and  mineral 
products  of  these  islands.  The  task  is  a  heavy  one  and  cannot  be  speedily 
finished.  But  satisfactory  progress  is  being  made.  We  have  published  a 
Monograph  on  the  Pliocene  dei)osits  of  England,  and  two  volumes  of 
another  on  the  Jurassic  rocks,  while  a  third  volume  is  in  the  press. 
Another  Monograph  on  the  Cretaceous  rocks  is  in  preparation.  Each 
monograph  will  embrace  one  system  or  group  of  rocks,  and  may  consist  of 
a  number  of  volumes  according  to  the  importance  of  the  system  and  the 
area  which  it  occupies  in  the  country. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  memoirs,  and  for  museum  purposes,  much 
assistance  is  now  derived  from  photography.  Several  members  of  the 
staflF  have  become  expert  photographers,  and  a  large  number  of  views  of 
geological  sections,  coast-cliflFs,  and  other  natural  or  artificial  exposures  of 
rock  have  been  taken.  These  serve  as  illustrations  for  the  Memoirs, 
and  some  of  them  are  mounted  to  accompany  the  specimens  in  the 
museums. 

Besides  the  geological  Memoirs,  the  Survey  has  published  a  series  of 
Decades  of  British  organic  remains,  with  plates  and  descriptions,  also 
Monographs  of  important  genera  or  groups  of  fossils,  including  Professor 
Huxley's  essays  on  Pteryyotm^  the  BelemniiidcB,  the  crocodiles  of  Elgin, 
and  Mr.  Newton's  memoirs  on  Cretaceous  fishes  and  Pliocene  vertebrates. 

VI.  Museum  Work. 

For  the  complete  illustration  of  the  geology  of  a  country  it  is  necessary 
not  only  to  construct  geological  maps  and  sections,  and  to  publish 
printed  descriptions,  but  also  to  collect  and  exhibit  specimens  of  its 
minerals,  rocks,  and  organic  remains.  Each  branch  of  the  Geological 
Survey  has  from  the  beginning  kept  in  view  the  gathering  of  such 
specimens,  and  the  galleries  of  the  museums  in  London,  Edinburgh,  and 


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THE    WORK   OF  THE   GEOLOGICAL   SURVEY.  165 

Dublin  may  be  appealed  to,  as  evidence  of  the  manner  in  which  the  duty 
has  been  dischai^ed. 

The  Museum  in  Jermyn  Street  is  intended  to  be  primarily  illustrative 
of  the  minerals,  rocks,  and  fossils  of  England  and  Wales,  but  as  far  as 
space  will  admit  an  endeavour  is  made  to  exhibit  what  is  specially 
characteristic  of  the  other  two  kingdoms.  For  the  more  detailed 
illustrations  of  Scottish  geology  recourse  must  be  had  to  the  Museum  at 
Edinburgh,  and  for  those  of  Irish  geology  to  the  Museum  in  Dublin. 

The  portions  of  the  Jermyn  Street  Museum,  more  especially  connected 
with  the  work  of  the  Survey,  are  the  collection  of  fossils,  the  series  of 
rock-specimens,  and  the  remarkably  fine  and  complete  suite  of  ores  and 
their  accompaniments  from  the  mines  of  the  British  Isles  and  those  of 
the  Colonies.  The  Museum  was  organized  to  illustrate  the  practical 
applications  of  geology.  As  an  example  of  the  manner  in  which  this 
design  has  been  carried  out,  I  may  refer  to  the  section  in  which  the 
connexion  between  raw  material  and  finished  pottery  is  displayed.  Our 
British  ceramic  collection  was  one  of  the  earliest  formed,  and  is  still 
perhaps  the  most  illustrative  in  the  country. 

The  Fossils  are  arranged  stratigraphically,  and  furnish  the  basis  on 
which  the  Survey  maps  of  the  fossilif  erous  formations  have  been  constructed. 
Every  important  subdivision  of  the  Palaeozoic,  Secondary,  and  Tertiary 
systems  is  represented  by  a  full  series  of  its  characteristic  fossils  gathered 
from  the  various  districts  in  the  British  Ides  wherein  it  is  developed. 
These  are  arranged  and  tableted  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  readily  accessible  to 
the  public.  Those  who  wish  to  follow  out  the  palaeontological  details 
of  the  Survey  maps  and  memoirs,  or  to  study  general  text-books  of  the 
science,  have  thus  the  fullest  opportunities  afforded  to  them. 

The  palaeontologists  with  their  assistants  are  continually  engaged  in 
arranging  and  retableting  the  collections  to  make  room  for  fresh  material 
received  from  the  officers  in  the  field,  from  donations  or  from  purchase. 
Catalogues  of  the  fossils  in  several  departments  have  been  prepared  and 
published. 

The  Rock-collections  have  in  recent  years  been  greatly  increased  and 
entirely  re-arranged  so  as  to  bring  them  abreast  of  modern  petrography. 
That  in  the  Jermyn  Street  Museum  includes  a  collection  of  rock-forming 
minerals  in  illustration  of  the  characters  of  the  more  important  minerals 
that  enter  into  the  composition  of  rocks ;  a  series  of  typical  rocks,  named, 
classified,  and  so  arranged  close  to  the  eye  that  the  visitor  may  have  no 
difficulty  in  observing  their  general  external  characters ;  a  section  devoted 
to  illustrations  of  various  geological  structures  such  as  cleavage,  jointing. 


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166  THE   WORK  OF  THE   GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 

foliation,  plication,  the  structures  of  igneous  rocks,  the  effects  of  contact- 
metamorphism,  the  markings  made  hj  glacier  ice,  and  the  results  of 
weathering  in  different  rocks.  But  the  chief  part  of  the  collection  is  a 
series  of  British  rocks  arranged  in  stratigraphical  order  from  the  oldest 
gneisses  up  to  the  most  recent  shell-sand.  Not  only  are  the  sedimentary 
rocks  represented  in  this  series,  but  a  large  suite  of  igneous  rocks  is 
included,  so  that  the  student  of  vojcanic  history  may  see  samples  of  the 
lavas  and  tuffs  which  have  been  ejected  at  each  of  the  periods  of  volcanic 
activity  in  the  geological  annals  of  Britain.  Diagrams  and  maps  are 
placed  near  the  specimens  to  show  the  geology  of  the  districts  from  which 
the  latter  were  taken.  Illustrations  are  likewise  given  of  the  more 
important  microscopic  structures  met  with  in  rocks  and  especially  among 
those  of  Britain.  A  handbook  is  being  prepared  to  this  part  of  the 
Museum  which  it  is  hoped  may  prove  to  be  a  useful  aid  to  students  of 
petrography. 

The  Geological  Survey  collections  in  the  Museums  in  Edinburgh  and 
Dublin  are  arranged  on  similar  lines.  They  have  been  arranged  strati- 
graphically  to  elucidate  the  maps,  sections,  and  memoirs,  and  furnish  a 
tolerably  full  series  of  specimens  in  illustration  of  the  geology  of  each 
kingdom.  A  handbook  for  the  Edinburgh  gallery  is  published,  and  one 
for  that  of  Dublin  is  nearly  ready. 

VII.  General  Administration. 

I  have  already  spoken  of  the  organization  of  the  staff.  The  collectors 
are  placed  under  the  direction  of  the  field-oflBcers.  The  assistant- 
geologists  are  promoted,  as  vacancies  occur,  to  the  ranks  of  the  geologists. 
Over  these  officers  come  the  district-surveyors,  who  supervise  the  work  of 
a  number  of  geologists  or  assistant-geologists  in  a  wide  district.  The 
district-surveyors  report  to  their  director,  who  takes  general  charge  of  the 
work  in  his  own  kingdom.  The  Director-General  is  the  head  of  the  whole 
organization  and  is  responsible  for  its  conduct.  He  personally  visits  the 
officera  in  the  field  in  each  of  the  three  countries,  and  is  thus  enabled  to 
see  that  the  work  is  being  everywhere  conducted  on  the  same  lines,  and 
that  the  results  obtained  harmonize.  It  is  his  duty  to  bring  the  experience 
gained  in  one  kingdom  to  the  elucidation  of  difficulties  met  with  in 
another,  and  to  decide  from  time  to  time  when  the  surveyors  of  one  branch 
may  usefully  be  sent  to  see  the  work  in  progress  by  another  branch.  It 
will  be  understood  that  to  these  duties  in  the  field  are  added  the  general 
correspondence  and  administration  of  the  whole  service,  and  editorial 
labour  connected  with  the  issue  of  the  various  publications. 


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DISCUSSION— THE  WORK  OP  THE  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY.  167 

VIII.  Relations  to  other  Government  Departments 
AND  the  Public. 

From  the  beginning  of  its  existence  the  Survey  has  been  continually 
refeired  to  by  all  branches  of  the  Government  service  for  information 
regarding  questions  in  which  a  knowledge  of  geology  is  required.  The 
sinking  of  wells,  the  choice  of  sites  for  forts  and  Government  buildings, 
the  placing  of  graveyards,  the  selection  of  materials  for  buildings  or  roads, 
the  nature  of  soils  and  subsoils  with  reference  to  matters  of  drainage — 
these  and  many  other  subjects  have  been  reported  on.  Nor  has  the 
general  public  been  backward  in  application  for  similar  information. 
The  offices  of  the  Survey  are  always  open,  and  every  assistance  which 
can  be  rendered  to  enquirers  is  placed  freely  at  their  service. 


The  President  said  the  work  of  the  Geological  Survey  was  one  of 
special  interest  to  mining  engineers.  As  a  body  they  had  occasion  very 
frequently  to  refer  to  their  maps;  and  he  had  been  struck  with  the 
accm'acy  with  which  the  strata  and  faults  were  mapped  out.  Their 
thanks  were  due  to  Sir  Archibald  Geikie  for  having,  as  he  might  say, 
revealed  the  secrets  of  their  work,  and  he  had  pleasure  in  proposing  a 
hearty  vote  of  thanks  to  him. 

Prof.  Hull  said  he  was  very  pleased  to  be  permitted  to  second  the 
vote  of  thanks.  Having  been  for  forty  years  connected  with  the  Geological 
Survey  and  employed  upon  it  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  he 
appreciated  the  very  complete  outline  Sir  Archibald  Geikie  had  given  of 
its  operations,  which  had  recently  been  very  largely  extended.  He  would 
only  take  this  opportunity  of  stating  what,  in  his  own  opinion,  was  the 
work  which  the  Survey  was  most  urgently  called  upon  to  finish.  Of  course 
they  all  sympathized  with  Sir  Archibald  Geikie  in  his  desire  to  make  the 
Geological  Survey  of  the  country  as  complete  as  possible,  both  as  regards 
the  superficial  deposits  and  the  solid  geology ;  but  when  they  considered 
that  there  were  numbers  of  large  coal-fields  at  present  only  published  on 
the  1  inch  scale  (which  was  of  an  entirely  insufficient  scale  to  allow  of  the 
proper  representation  of  the  geological  details),  he  was  pretty  safe,  in  this 
company  at  any  rate,  in  stating  that  the  most  important  future  work  for 
the  Survey  was  the  re-survey,  on  the  6  inches  scale,  of  the  coal-fields  which 
had  not  been  surveyed  on  that  scale.  He  had  had  experience  of  the  sur- 
veying of  coal-fields  on  both  scales.  He  surveyed  Leicestershire  on  the 
1  inch  scale,  and  he  was  perfectly  aware  that  it  required  revision.    It 


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168  DISCUSSION — THE   WORK  OF  THE  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 

was  some  thirty  or  thirty-five  years  since  it  was  surveyed,  and  the  now 
completed  6  inches  Ordnance  map  would  admit  of  its  being  undertaken 
on  that  scale  immediately,  if  the  oflBcers  of  the  Survey,  the  number  of  the 
staff,  were  sufficient  to  admit  of  it.  Sir  Archibald  Geikie  had  stated  that 
the  6  inches  scale  survey  of  the  great  South  Wales  coal-field  had  been 
commenced  and  was  in  progress;  but  was  the  number  of  gentlemen 
employed  on  that  work  anything  like  adequate  to  the  amount  of  work  to 
be  done?  He  was  very  fer  from  disparaging  the  work  of  superficial 
geology,  for  he  was  one  of  the  first  to  commence  it  in  Lancashire  and 
Cheshire ;  but  it  seemed  to  him  that  it  would  be  more  to  the  benefit  of 
mining  enterprise  in  this  country,  if  some  of  the  staff  engaged  on  that 
work  were  put  upon  the  coal-fields  in  order  that  these  might  be  re- 
surveyed  and  brought  up  to  date  on  the  6  inches  scale.  He  hoped  this 
suggestion  would  be  received  as  not  in  the  least  degree  intended  to 
criticize  the  work  of  the  Survey,  but  for  those  in  authority,  for  he  was 
aware  it  was  a  matter  for  the  Treasury  to  supply  the  means ;  the  men 
were  ready  and  the  work  would  be  undertaken,  if  the  means  were 
supplied  for  that  important  work. 

The  vote  of  thanks  was  cordially  adopted. 

Sir  Archibald  Geikie,  in  acknowledging  the  vote,  thanked  the 
members  for  the  kind  way  in  which  they  had  listened  to  his  paper. 
No  one  was  more  convinced  than  he  of  the  desirability  of  revision, 
and  no  one  would  be  more  pleased  to  see  all  the  coal-fields  which  were 
now  drawn  on  the  1  inch  re-surveyed  on  the  6  inches  scale.  It  was  not 
want  of  will  on  their  part  that  had  led  to  that  work  being  delayed,  but 
their  staff  was  not  large  and  there  were  certain  definite  pieces  of  work 
to  finish.  He  might  say  that  the  question  of  the  re-survey  of  the  coal- 
fields must  be  determined  by  the  Science  and  Art  Department  and  the 
Treasury.  The  work  of  re-8ur\ey  had  been  conunenced  in  South  Wales 
owing  to  a  very  strong  memorial  presented  to  the  Science  and  Art 
Department,  and  he  fancied  that  the  same  procedure  must  be  followed  as 
regards  the  other  coal-fields. 


Mr.  F.  G.  Shaw  then  read  the  following  paper  on  "  Auriferous  Con- 
glomerates of  the  Witwatersrandt": — 


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AURIFEROUS  OONQLOMERATBS  OF  THE  WITWATERSRANDT.  169 


AURIFEROUS  CONGLOMERATES  OP  THE 
WITWATERSRANDT. 


By  F.  G.  SHAW,  Assoc.  M.  Inst.  C.E. 


In  ventariug  to  introduce  certain  theories  as  to  the  manner  in  which 
the  auriferous  conglomerates  of  the  Witwatersrandt  have  been  formed, 
and  in  which  the  gold  (now  found  crystallized  in  the  matrix  of  these 
conglomerates)  has  been  deposited,  the  author  hopes  the  members  will 
grant  him  their  indulgence  should  he  not  make  his  ideas  sufficiently  clear. 

The  auriferous  conglomerates  of  the  Witwatersrandt  were  first  worked 
in  1887,  near  Johannesburg  in  the  Transvaal,  280  miles  from  Delagoa 
Bay,  440  miles  from  Durban,  and  1,013  miles  from  Cape  Town.  By  the 
term  "  Witwatersrandt  conglomerates,"  the  author  alludes  to  those  in  the 
basin  or  syncline  now  being  worked  and  forming  an  isolated  part  of  the 
extensive  conglomerates  which  are  common  to  the  sandstones  of  South 
Africa.  The  basin  has  an  east-and-west  length  of  about  50  miles  and 
a  supposed  breadth  of  about  40  miles.  The  east  and  west  ends  are 
very  much  dislocated  and  faulted.  The  dip  of  these  conglomerates 
appear  to  be  governed  by  masses  of  plutonic  rock,  which  run  parallel 
to  the  northern  and  southern  outcrops,  and  have  elevated  the  edges  of 
the  beds  to  angles  varying  from  12  degs.  to  60  degs. 

These  seams,  the  author  expects,  will  assume  a  horizontal  position  at 
comparatively  short  distances  from  the  tilted  outcrops,  save  where  locally 
displaced  by  the  intrusive  masses  of  igneous  rocks  which  are  occasionally 
seen  cropping  out.  Although  no  deep  borings  have  proved  the  existence  of 
these  beds  in  the  middle  of  the  syncline,  the  continuity  of  their  upturned 
edges  and  the  regularity  of  their  disposition,  together  with  their  known 
extent  over  South  Africa,  have  impressed  geologists  with  the  conviction 
of  their  existence,  and  from  2,000  to  15,000  feet  have  been  assumed  as 
the  probable  depth  reached  by  the  lowest  levels  of  this  syncline 

The  assumption  is,  that  these  beds  of  conglomerate  exist  over  an  area 
of  nearly  2,000  square  miles  ;  the  regularity  of  their  width  and  character 
is  well  proved  ;  and  the  gold  up  to  the  present  time  appears  to  be  regularly 
distributed  through  the  reefs.  The  importance  of  this  field  can  be  best 
understood  by  the  output  of  gold  which  was  for  its  sixth  year,  1892, 
1,210,868  ounces,  a  greater  output  than  any  other  single  field  of  similar 


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170  AUETPBROUS  CONGLOMBBATES  OF  THE  WITWATERSRANDT. 

age  in  the  world.  During  the  first  year  of  its  history,  1887,  this  field 
produced  23,115  ounces,  an  amount  equalled  by  the  present  weekly  output. 

The  conglomerates  of  the  high  veldt  of  South  Africa,  the  manner  in 
which  they  were  spread  over  so  vast  an  extent  of  country,  and  the  pre- 
cipitation of  gold  in  them  combine  to  form  a  most  interesting  subject ; 
but  as  the  main  reef  seam  at  Johannesburg,  with  the  attendant  parallel 
seams,  are  the  most  interesting  from  their  auriferous  character,  this 
paper  will  be  to  a  certain  extent  confined  to  them. 

Up  to  the  present  time,  geologists  and  mining  engineers  have  alluded 
to  these  conglomerates  as  being  a  sedimentary  or  sub-aqueous  deposit  and 
the  gold,  if  they  mention  it  at  all,  as  being  of  an  alluvial  character  and 
mechanically  deposited.  On  this  latter  point  Mr.  C.  J.  Alford  is  perhaps 
one  of  the  exceptions.  In  his  book  on  The  Geological  Features  of  the 
Transvaal^  he  says,  "  it  appears  certain  that  the  gold  was  not  trans- 
ported to  its  present  position  in  the  form  of  native  gold  by  the  action 
of  the  water  ;"  and  again  he  says,  "  its  origin  is  a  curious  and  interesting 
problem." 

With  reference  to  the  conglomerates  themselves,  the  terms  "sedi- 
mentary" and  "sub-aqueous"  are  both  too  indefinite,  and  the  author 
prefers  to  assume  that  these  conglomerates  have  been  spread  over  the 
large  surface  in  which  they  now  exist  and  with  the  regularity  which  is 
one  of  their  notable  features,  by  a  sea-beach  action.  The  general 
assumption  has  been  that  they  have  been  thus  spread  over  the  sand- 
stones in  which  they  are  conformably  interbedded  by  the  action  of 
rivers,  or  currents  in  the  seas,  at  the  bottom  of  which  they  are  supposed 
to  have  been  deposited  :  the  author  will  briefly  discuss  these  two  theories. 

While  the  action  of  rivers  undoubtedly  accounts  to  a  great  extent 
for  the  transportation  and  collection  of  pebbles,  gravels,  etc.,  in  all 
parts  of  the  world,  no  river  action,  that  the  writer  has  any  knowledge  of, 
could  have  so  regularly  spread  over  so  large  an  area  the  seams  of  pebbles 
now  forming  these  conglomerates.  Even  if  these  conglomerates  existed  only 
in  the  basin  of  the  Witwatersrandt,  a  river  at  least  45  miles  wide  and  of 
most  peculiar  character  would  have  had  to  exist,  which  for  a  certain 
period  would  have  had  to  deposit  over  its  entire  bed  a  uniform  depth  of 
pebbles,  and  then  have  had  to  deposit  over  the  same  extent  a  layer 
of  sandstone  for  even  a  longer  period,  this  action  again  being  followed 
by  the  deposition  of  another  layer  of  pebbles,  then  by  another  layer  of 
sandstone,  and  so  on,  until  these  numberless  layers  of  conglomerates, 
sandstones,  etc.,  had  been  deposited.  He  knows  of  no  analogous  phe- 
nomena in  any  river-bed,  and  even  were  such  phenomena  known  on  a 


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AURIPBROUB  OONaLOMBBATBS  OF  THE  WITWATBRBRANDT.  171 

small  scale,  he  can  conceive  of  no  river  whose  bottom  would  be  so  regular 
and  uniform  as  the  sandstones  on  which  these  conglomerates  lie,  especially 
when  the  more  violent  action  of  rivers  and  currents  in  those  days  are 
considered. 

These  facts  should  dismiss  the  river-bed  theory  to  the  realm  of 
improbability,  and  enable  the  writer  to  turn  to  the  action  of  currents 
existing  in  a  sea,  by  the  aid  of  which  pebbles  brought  to  the  edge  would 
be  spread  evenly  over  an  immense  distance  on  its  bottom.  Such  a 
regular  layer  of  pebbles,  which  marine  research  has  not  yet  discovered, 
would  take  a  considerable  number  of  years  to  form,  and  would  have  to 
be  followed  by  a  total  cessation  of  pebble- deposit,  a  layer  of  sandstone- 
detritus  taking  its  place  and  being  deposited  in  the  same  ocean ;  these 
would  then  have  to  be  followed  in  successive  order  by  pebble  and  sand- 
stone-deposits until  the  parallel  seams  now  found  had  been  formed. 
This  view  would  necessitate  a  current  in  the  ocean  so  regular  in  its 
strength  and  action  as  to  carry  these  pebbles  smoothly  and  evenly  over 
the  greater  part  of  South  Africa.  No  such  current  action  is  known  at 
present  in  the  ocean,  the  general  tendency  being  to  form  banks  and 
to  heap  up  such  coarse  detritus  as  pebbles,  instead  of  laying  them 
evenly  over  the  floor  of  the  sea,  and  certainly  no  river  flowing  into 
an  ocean  would  by  its  own  action  be  able  to  spread  its  burden  except  in 
the  vicinity  of  its  mouth. 

The  writer  cannot  therefore  accept  either  of  these  theories  as  being 
reasonable  and  common-sense  explanations  of  the  distribution  of  these 
conglomerates,  and  he  prefers  to  assume  a  progressive  sea-beach  action, 
which  gradually  spread  the  pebbles  brought  down  by  the  rivers,  etc., 
from  the  probably,  at  that  time,  highlands  of  Central  Africa,  over  the 
then  low-lying  ground  of  the  South  African  continent. 

In  the  science  of  geology,  a  thinker  to  be  able  to  understand  the 
difficult  phenomena  of  the  present  must  know  the  past,  and  from  that 
knowledge  he  may  be  able  to  draw  fair  and  common-sense  views  of 
existing  phenomena,  and  thus  knowing  the  present  he  may  calculate  as  to 
the  future.  The  failure  of  many  men  to  grasp  the  theories  of  the 
present  is  due  to  their  inability  to  take  a  retrospective  view  of  the  past : 
the  only  laws  they  know  of,  or  will  admit,  are  the  laws  governing 
the  present  period,  and  they  assume  that  the  quiet  beat  of  every-day 
life  on  this  staid  and  sober  sphere  has  been  the  history  of  its  past,  not 
calculating  on  the  turbulent  energy  of  its  youth,  its  bounding  pulse  and 
the  restless  energy  of  its  younger  days,  or  on  its  eventful  change  from  a 
molten  mass  to  its  present  state. 


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172  AURIFEROUS  CONGLOMERATES  OF  THE  WITWATERSRANDT. 

The  author  wishes  therefore  for  a  moment  to  go  back  to  the  time  when 
our  sphere  was  in  a  molten  state,  surrounded  by  an  enormous  thickness 
of  atmosphere  containing  in  suspension  all  the  minerals,  etc.,  whose 
point  of  evaporation  was  below  that  of  the  atmosphere,  and  gradually  losing 
by  radiation  a  portion  of  its  heat.  The  formation  of  a  film  or  crust  would 
be  the  first  real  change  on  its  surface,  and  as  this  crust  became  sufficiently 
thick  to  resist  for  some  time  the  ebullition  of  the  molten  mass  below  it,  the 
exterior  portion  would  gradually  become  sufficiently  cool  to  allow  of  the 
condensation  of  these  various  gases,  minerals,  etc.  Many  ages  would  pass 
during  which  gigantic  igneous  eruptions  would  take  place,  upsetting  and 
distorting  the  existing  rocks  until  at  last  the  crust  was  continuous  and 
strong  enough  to  bear  a  certain  superincumbent  mass.  As  soon  as  the 
temperature  would  allow,  seas  would  rest  on  this  crust,  eruptions  would 
still  take  place  and  hydrothermal  phenomena  would  still  be  common  ;  but 
the  land  would  gradually  begin  to  be  of  a  permanent  character.  The 
erupted  rocks  would  harden  into  hills,  etc.,  upheavals  would  remain 
permanent  and  depressions  would  become  greater,  and  the  early  hydro- 
thermal  rocks  would  begin  to  appear,  so  that  in  course  of  time,  low 
continents  would  exist  as  dry  land,  and  the  early  sedimentary  rocks, 
mudstones,  shales,  clays,  etc.,  would  be  formed. 

As  South  Africa  is  the  continent  to  which  our  attention  is  drawn,  it 
must  be  assumed  that  its  existence  at  this  period  was  such  as  has  just  been 
described,  the  sandstones  being  formed  with  their  attendant  conglo- 
merates, etc.,  and  lying  horizontally  a  little  above  or  below  the  then 
sea-level.  These  sandstones  are  found  over,  the  whole  of  South  Africa 
in  unbroken  layers  on  the  high  veldt,  with  traces  of  their  existence  in 
and  over  the  low  veldt,  and  it  may  be  assumed  that  the  same  phenomenon 
has  been  responsible  for  their  existence,  and  that  the  land  about  the  time 
of  their  creation  was  subjected  to  the  same  laws.  These  sandstones  were 
undoubtedly  deposited  under  sea-action  and  it  must  be  assumed  that  the 
then  elevation  of  the  tongue  of  land  of  South  Africa  was  very  small,  and 
that  it  probably  existed  as  a  low  land  lying  to  the  south  of  the  tropical 
parts  of  Africa,  whose  rivers  would  carry  down  the  vast  amount  of  pebbles, 
now  spread  over  and  amongst  the  sandstones,  by  the  retreating  action  of  the 
sea-beach  belonging  to  the  same  ocean  which  deposited  the  sandstones. 

The  most  generally-accepted  theory  is  that  the  sandstones  were  formed 
at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  (which  the  few  fossil-remains  found  in  them 
confirm),  and  that  the  material  fonning  the  coal-measures  have  been 
formed  by  the  tropical  growth  of  vegetation.  The  operations  of  an 
advancing  sea  over  such  low-lying  lands,  fed  as  it  would  be  by  rivers 


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AURIFEROUS  CONOLOMKRATBS  OF  THE  WITWATER8RANDT.  173 

bringing  down  pebble- detritus,  slowly  creeping  over  the  land,  followed 
by  long  periods  of  total  submersion,  and  succeeded  by  a  retreating  sea- 
beach  action,  would  surely  be  accompanied  with  that  of  settling  the 
light  detritus  brought  into  it,  as  a  sandstone- deposit,  and  the  spreading 
out  on  its  edges  of  a  uniform  layer  of  pebbles  (now  turned  into  con- 
glomerates by  the  subsequent  infiltrating  action  of  siliceous  waters). 
In  those  places  in  which  the  inflowing  rivers  travelled  through  countries 
luxuriant  with  vegetable  growth,  bringing  down  in  their  waters  an 
immense  quantity  of  vegetable  matter  and  gradually  laying  it  down 
as  a  beach-line  in  the  retreating  course  of  the  sea,  making  it  (com- 
paratively speaking)  a  level  bed  rich  with  vegetable  seeds  and  with 
every  facility  for  bringing  forth  the  luxuriant  growth  from  which  coal- 
seams  have  been  derived  (until  the  return  of  the  again  advancing  sea- 
beach  line  many  thousands  of  years  afterwards)  during  which  time  would 
be  formed  one  of  those  non-continuous  lenticular  betls  of  various  horizons, 
which  would  under  the  pressure  of  the  superincumbent  mass  of  sandstone 
be  turned  into  the  coal  and  shale  seams  now  found. 

The  theory  which  might  account  for  such  an  encroaching  and 
retreating  sea  would  probably  be :  gnidual  elevations  of  tlie  land,  followed 
by  subsequent  depressions,  leaving  the  land  at  one  time  exposed  to  the 
air,  and  afterwards  covered  by  the  ocean.  Mr.  S.  Herbert  Cox  in  his 
excellent  book  on  Mines  ami  Minerals  assumes  this  to  have  been  the 
method  by  which  the  coal-seams  and  sandstones  of  Newcastle  (New  South 
Wales),  were  formed,  and  the  theory  is  one  easily  understood  and  not  at  all 
diflBcult  to  accept,  where  the  known  alternate  elevations  and  depressions  of 
the  land  over  vast  continents  are  an  accepted  fact. 

Whatever  was  the  cause.  South  Afriai  has  undoubtedly  been  alternately 
covered  by  sea- water  and  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  and  whether  the  land 
was  alternately  elevated  and  depressed,  or  otherwise,  the  sea  must  have 
come-and-gone  and  a  sea-beach  action  been  thus  initiated.  The  appearance 
of  the  low  veldt  bears  ample  testimony  to  this  fact,  the  mountain-ranges 
bordering  the  high  veldt  plateau  of  South  Africa  showing  by  their  great 
denudation  the  erosive  action  of  the  advancing  and  retreating  ocean, 
noticeably  towards  the  De  Kaap  valley — the  Makonga  range  being 
denuded  of  all  its  sandstones,  and  the  overturned  edges  of  its  clays  and 
quartzites,  etc.,  on  which  the  sandstones  and  conglomerates  of  the  high 
veldt  are  elsewhere  uncomformably  deposited  alone  remaining;  thus 
indicating  great  aqueous  action.  Mr.  C.  J.  Alford,  in  his  geology  of  the 
Transvaal,  alluding  to  this  action  says,  "  There  is  every  indication  that  at 
one  time  a  great  rush  of  water  cleared  out  the  De  Kaap  valley  and  carried 
away  to  the  eastward  to  the  Indian  Sea  whatever  deposit  once  overlaid  it." 


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174  AXJRIFBROtJS  OOiraLOMBRATBfi  OF  THB  WITWATBBSRANDT. 

From  a  residenoe  there  of  nearly  a  year,  and  a  close  study,  the  anthor 
is  inclined  to  think  that  a  succession  of  retreating  waters  had  performed 
the  work  evidently  done  here,  as  well  as  elsewhere  on  the  borders  of  this 
high  plateau  and  this  is  what  we  might  expect  as  a  consequence  of  the 
theory  he  has  advanced. 

The  next  and  most  interesting  point,  is  the  manner  in  which  the  gold 
has  been  deposited  in  the  conglomerates.  The  author  has  in  his  possession 
two  pebbles  taken  from  these  conglomerates,  which  each  contain  a 
"colour"  of  metallic  gold.  These  pebbles  prove  that  from  whatever 
source,  and  from  whatever  distance  brought,  some  at  least  were  gold- 
bearing;  therefore,  a  certain  amount  of  free  gold  would  be  mechanically 
deposited  in  these  seams  derived  from  the  broken  matrix  of  the  more 
friable  and  smaller  pebbles,  by  the  grinding  action  of  such  a  sea-beach  as 
just  described.  Such  a  class  of  gold  would  be  fairly  well  distributed  and 
would  present  the  rounded  appearance  of  alluvial  gold.  Certain  investi- 
gators at  Johannesburg  have  microscopic  slides  showing  such  a  class  of 
alluvial  gold  ;  it  may  therefore  be  taken  for  granted,  both  by  assumption 
and  evidence,  that  a  certain  amount  of  the  gold  now  in  the  conglomerates 
was  mechanically  deposited  in  the  way  just  mentioned,  through  dififering 
from  ordinary  alluvial  deposits  of  gold  in  the  manner  in  which  it  is  spread 
through  the  conglomerates,  in  its  extreme  fineness,  and  by  its  not  lying  on 
the  top  or  bottom  of  the  seams,  not  having  being  carried  there  so  much  in 
the  form  of  free  gold,  but  deposited  more  or  less  in  situ  from  the  destruction 
of  friable  matrix. 

The  gold,  however,  which  is  thus  accounted  for,  forms  but  a  small 
proportion  of  that  carried  in  the  reef.  Mr.  Alford  says  in  his  work  just 
quoted,  that  so  far  as  he  has  noticed  "  the  gold  is  almost  invariably  in  a 
more  or  less  crystalline  form,  the  cube  in  its  derived  forms  being  more  or 
less  detectable."  He  has  also  observed  it  in  "  the  cleavage-planes  of  the 
pyrites  in  the  form  of  minute  plates  and  scales,"  and  he  also  says  "  it 
appears  certain  that  the  gold  was  not  transported  to  its  present  position 
in  the  form  of  native  gold  by  water,"  and  again  "  its  origin  is  a  curious 
and  interesting  problem."  The  result  of  the  author's  investigations  has 
been  to  confirm  those  of  Mr.  Alford,  and  led  him  to  a  careful  study  of  this 
subject,  and  it  was  only  after  a  diligent  search  that  he  became  convinced 
that  the  character  of  the  matrix  now  holding  the  pebbles  together  had 
altered  since  those  pebbles  were  originally  deposited,  and  that  the  siliceous 
matrix  now  in  the  conglomerates  was  pseudomorphic  in  character. 

He  is  therefore  inclined  to  believe  that  the  original  matrix,  whether 
argillaceous,  calcareous,  felspathic  etc.,  must  have  been  displaced  and 
and  a  pseudomorphic  matrix  carrying  gold,  sulphur,  iron,  etc.,  has  taken 


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AURIFEROUS  OONOLOMBRATES  OF  THE  WITWATBRSRANDT.  175 

its  place,  and  his  reasons  for  thinking  so  are  as  follows  : — In  the  oxidized 
as  well  as  the  unoxidized  portions  of  these  conglomerates  the  pebbles  are 
held  apart  by  a  distinctly  crystalline  matrix  of  silica.  Now,  in  whatever 
manner  these  beds  were  spread  over  so  large  an  area,  it  cannot  be  imagined 
that  the  pebbles  themselves  sank  into  a  firm,  jelly-like  mass  of  silica  and 
remained  more  or  less  suspended  in  it,  even  if  oxide  of  silicon  ever 
assumed  so  consistent  and  glutinous  a  character.  It  is  probable  that  an 
after-crystallization  of  the  matrix  must  have  taken  place,  together  with  a 
deposition  of  its  containing  minerals,  and  may  be  accounted  for  in  the 
following  manner.  After  the  gradual  laying  down  of  these  conglomerates, 
etc.,  intrusion  of  igneous  rocks  took  place,  and  the  vast  horizontal  beds  of 
sandstones,  etc.,  were  in  some  places  broken  up  and  tilted,  as  in  the 
Witwatersrandt  basin,  and  so  acquiring  a  dip  would  either  form  natural 
drains  for  infiltrating  surface-waters  or  funnels  through  which  the  under- 
ground thermal-waters,  laden  with  their  store  of  minerals,  would  force  their 
way  upward  (through  the  fissures  dislocating  these  seams  and  caused  by 
the  upward  action  of  trappean  rocks)  and  reach  the  surface.  In  either 
case  the  silico%  contained  in  these  waters  would  crystallize  in  its  passage 
through  the  conglomerates,  and  form  the  matrix  that  contains  the  minerals 
now  found.  It  can  easily  be  understood  that  an  argillaceous  or  other 
matrix  would  soon  be  eaten  away  by  such  an  action,  and  so  the  succeeding 
matrix  would  become  pseudomOrphic  in  character.  The  contained 
minerals  of  such  an  infiltrated  solution  would  even  penetrate  to  some 
distance  into  the  hanging  and  foot-wall  of  the  containing  sandstones, 
which,  so  far  as  the  author  can  observe,  it  certainly  seems  to  have  done. 

What  then  is  the  likelihood  of  such  solutions  containing  gold  ?  It  is 
well  known  that  gold  is  held  in  solution  in  salt-water  at  the  present  time, 
and  probably  much  more  existed  in  solution  in  the  early  days.  Mr. 
Sonstadt  has  calculated  that  one  ton  of  salt-water  contains  one  grain,  or 
about  two  pennyworth  of  gold.  Taking  Mr.  John  Murray's  estimate  of  the 
quantity  of  salt-water  on  the  earth,  this  will  give  an  enormous  mass  of 
gold  considerably  over  a  cubic  mile  in  bulk  which  was  held  in  solution.* 
The  infiltrating  powers  of  such  an  overhead  sea  can  be  easily  imagined, 
and  a  certain  amount  of  this  gold  would  be  crystallized  by  chemical  action 

*  Mr.  John  Murray  estimates  the  volume  of  salt  water  on  the  earth  to  be  eqaal 
to  an  envelope  2  miles  deep,  and  taking  the  diameter  of  the  earth  at  8,000  miles, 
this  volume  wiU  be  (8,000'»  x  3*1416  x  2  =  )  402,124,800  cubic  miles.  If  there  be  1 
grain  of  gold  in  each  ton  of  water  the  ratio  of  the  weight  of  the  gold  to  the  weight 
of  the  sea-water  will  be  as  1  to  16,680,000  ;  and  the  ratio  of  the  bulk  of  the  gold  to 
the  bulk  of  the  sea-water  (taking  the  weight  of  gold  as  being  20  times  heavier  than 
water)  will  be  as  1  to  313,600,000.  Therefore  the  volume  of  gold  in  the  sea-water 
will  be  (402,124,800  cubic  miles -I- 3 13,600,000-)  1-28  cubic  miles. 


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176  AURIFEROUS  CONGLOMERATES  OP  THE  WITWATBRSRAITDT. 

and  to  a  certain  extent  deposited  in  the  reef.  But  even  if  the  gold  held 
in  solution  in  salt-water  has  not  been  the  active  means  of  enriching  these 
and  other  reefs  (and  the  author  certainly  believes  strongly  in  its  being 
responsible  for  part  of  the  gold  found  in  them)  it  must  be  remembered  that 
after  the  gradual  deposition  of  these  sandstone  measures,  which  must  have 
taken  immense  periods  of  geological  time,  this  part  of  the  earth's  crust  was 
gradually  elevated,  as  the  earth  cooled  and  contracted,  until  marine 
invasion  was  a  thing  of  the  past.  Then  the  continuous  downfalls  of  rain 
and  great  geyser  visitations  would  form  shallow  thermal  seas  containing 
large  amounts  of  minerals  in  solution,  and  the  tilted  conglomerates  would 
become  natural  drains,  carrying  the  waters  of  these  seas  to  the  fissures 
(caused  by  the  trappean  eruptions)  penetrating  their  systems  and  thence 
taking  it  to  some  subterranean  cavity,  perhaps  to  be  thrown  up  again 
bearing  more  mineral.  The  result  of  these  streams  carrying  as  they  would 
a  large  amount  of  silicon  would  be  the  eating  away  of  the  matrix  and  the 
crystallization  of  the  silicon  in  its  place,  probably  filling,  at  different  parts 
of  the  conglomerates,  the  fissures  caused  by  the  intrusive  action  of  the 
trappean  rock. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  matrix  and  containing  minerals  were  formed 
by  the  action  of  an  upward  flow  from  some  thermal  spring  containing 
siliceous  and  other  matters  in  solution,  entering  the  conglomerates  at  points 
where  the  intrusive  trappean  rock  had  cut  them  off,  then  the  remarkable 
affinity  for  gold  which  these  trappean  rocks  seem  to  possess  should  be 
remembered.  They  are  in  this  country  frequently  associated  with  gold, 
which  they  might  communicate  to,  or  take  from,  such  thermal  springs 
and  by  thus  imparting  the  gold  to  the  water  in  their  vicinity,  or  only 
depriving  it  of  the  certain  quantities  of  such  gold,  have  allowed  this  gold 
or  the  residue  of  the  gold  to  become  crystallized  in  the  siliceous  matrix  of 
the  conglomerates,  and  thus  deposited  in  a  crystalline  form  in  the  reef. 

If  the  author's  theory  as  to  the  pseudomorphic  character  of  the 
matrix  of  the  Witwatersrandt  reefs  be  correct,  it  is  also  probable  that 
reefs  will  be  found  of  considerable  value  and  extent  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
intrusive  dykes,  which  have  broken  through  the  sandstones ;  and  his  theory 
will  certainly  warrant  a  greater  faith  in  the  continuity  of  gold  in  these 
reefs  than  when  it  was  thought  to  be  of  an  alluvial  character  and 
mechanically  deposited.  In  the  latter  case  it  would  like  all  alluvial 
deposits  become  uncertain  and  erratic  ;  while  in  the  former  case  it  would 
be  identical  with  the  matrix  holding  the  pebbles  together  in  all  parts  of 
the  auriferous  conglomerate. 


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DISCUSS  rON — ^AUBIPBBOUS  COKGLOMBRATBS,  ETC.  177 

Mr.  Edwaed  Halse  (London)  said  they  were  all  very  much  indebted 
to  Mr.  Shaw  for  his  very  interesting  paper,  and  he  hoped  he  might  be 
allowed  to  remark  that  such  papers  were  of  especial  value  because  they 
promote  discussion.  With  regard  to  the  supposed  fluviatile  origin  of  the 
Transvaal  bankets,  are  not  certain  large  rivers  constantly  changing  their 
beds,  and  is  not  this  especially  the  case  in  a  river- valley  having  a  small 
fall  ?  The  old  bed  of  some  of  the  larger  rivers  in  South  America,  for 
instance,  can  be  traced  for  a  good  many  miles  on  either  side  of  their 
present  bed.  It  may  interest  members  to  know  that  an  auriferous  con- 
glomerate-deposit is  now  being  formed  along  the  bottom  of  the  Ancobra 
river  which  runs  into  the  sea  a  little  north  of  Axim,  on  the  West  Coast  of 
Africa.  Here  divers  have  proved  that  the  present  bottom  in  places  is 
composed  of  several  feet  thick  of  a  very  compact  mixture  of  small  pebbles, 
broken  quartz,  and  white  sand,  below  which  are  large  pebbles  buried  in 
auriferous  whitish  clay.*  He  (Mr.  Halse)  was  not  advocating  a  river 
theory  for  the  origin  of  banket-formations  in  general,  but  was  merely 
showing  that  it  was  not  impossible.  Some  probably  have  been  built  up 
at  the  bottom  of  an  inland  lake,  lagoon,  or  sea,  or  possibly  at  or  near  its 
margin  by  some  sort  of  sea-beach  action.  It  was  very  questionable  whether 
enough  was  yet  known  about  the  South  African  bankets  to  say  how  they 
were  laid  down.  According  to  one  geologist!  the  beds  have  been  subjected 
to  great  lateral  pressure,  folds  and  repetitions  are  very  frequent ;  the 
matrix  shows  evidence  of  having  been  squeezed  round  the  pebbles,  and 
exhibits  a  schistose  structure,  the  pebbles  themselves  are  very  much 
broken,  and  moreover  the  whole  of  the  beds  have  been  thrust  into  their 
present  position  over  the  older  strata  below  them.  With  regard  to  the 
uniformity  of  the  conglomerates,  as  a  matter  of  fact  he  believed  that  they 
were  not  of  uniform  thickness,  they  sometimes  wedged  out  entirely,  and  in 
certain  of  them  the  pebbles  were  of  a  much  larger  size  than  in  others.  If 
the  gold  had  come  from  sea- water  containing  it  in  solution,  as  suggested, 
would  it  not  be  reasonable  to  expect  all  the  conglomerates  of  this  area  to 
be  auriferous?  but  in  point  of  fact  some  of  them  contain  little  or  no 
gold.  About  two  years  ago,  he  (Mr.  Halse)  had  an  opportunity  of  exam- 
ining and  working  banket  deposits  on  the  Oold  Coast  of  West  Africa.^ 
They  seem  to  throw  some  light  on  those  of  the  Transvaal,  although  they 
are  probably  of  much  more  recent  age.  They  consisted  of  layers  of 
talcose  and  titaniferous  iron-sandstone,  alternating  with  true  conglomerate 
beds,  also  showing  talc  and  iron-sand.    The  whole  seam  was  auriferous, 

•  7}ran8,  Fed,  Lut.y  vol.  ii.,  page  83.      f  ^«^-  Journ,  Oeol,  Soc,  vol.  xlviii., 
pages  404-433.      J  ^/'O'ns,  Fed,  InH.,  vol.  ii.,  pages  69-84. 

VOL  v.*iaw.e8.  12 


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17^  DISCU8SI0JI — ^AUBIPEROUS  COSOLOIIERATRS 

but  the  gold  increased  in  richnefls  towards  the  floor  of  the  deposit,  the 
bottom  layer  consisting  either  of  highly  titaniferons  iron-sandstone  rich 
in  allavial  gold,  or  of  rich  banket.  In  the  latter,  as  in  the  Transraal,  the 
gold  rarel  J  occurred  in  the  pebbles,  but  was  found  in  the  cenoenting  material 
or  matrix,  and  was  often  collected  roond  the  pebbles.  The  gold  was 
mostly  water-worn  and  in  fine  plates  or  grains,  distinct  crystals  being  rare. 
A  large  proportion  of  it  too,  as  in  Sonth  Africa,  occurs  in  an  exceedingly 
fine  state  of  division.  The  bankets  of  the  West  Coast  of  Africa  exhibit 
little  or  DO  metamorphism,  faults  are  rare,  and,  although  the  beds  dip  at 
an  angle  of  from  SO  degs.  to  nearly  vertical,  no  volcanic  rocks  occur  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  to  account  for  this  tilting.  The  cementing-mate- 
rial  was  always  siliceous  and  generally  of  very  loose  texture,  crumbling 
readily  in  the  hand,  although  in  some  parts  a  very  hard  banket  is  found, 
probably  as  hard  as  anything  occurring  in  the  Transvaal.  He  (Mr.  Halse) 
would  suggest  that  the  South  African  bankets  were  once  true  alluvial 
conglomerates  similar  to  those  of  the  Gold  Coast,  and  after  consolidation 
and  upheaval  they  were  subjected  to  great  and  long-continued  metamor- 
phism.  Being  of  a  porous  nature,  and  more  or  less  steeply  inclined,  they 
were  subject  to  the  same  influences — chemical  and  other — as  have  helped  to 
form  the  present  structure  of  a  true  fissure-vein.  A  large  portion  of  the 
alluvial  gold,  together  with  the  associated  iron-sand,  were,  it  is  suggested, 
dissolved  and  were  subsequently  crystallized  out  as  auriferous  iron  pyrites 
and  free  gold.  In  addition  a  re-arrangement  of  the  gold  contents  appears 
to  have  resulted  from  the  leaching  action,  as  the  ore  in  some  of  the  bankets 
has  been  found  to  occur  in  distinct  shoots.  Iron  pyrites  exists  in  the 
diorites  of  the  district,  and,  by  some,  these  rocks  have  been  r^arded  as  the 
source  of  the  iron  pyrites  in  the  conglomerates.  The  bankets  have  pro- 
bably been  enriched  by  their  means,  but  it  is  very  questionable  whether 
the  whole  or  even  the  greater  portion  of  the  auriferous  iron  pyrites  has 
come  from  that  source. 

Mr.  Walcot  Gibson  (London)  pointed  out  that  if  the  beds  ever 
assumed  a  horizontal  position  within  so  short  a  distance  of  their  outcrop, 
as  stated  by  Mr.  Shaw,  it  would  greatly  increase  the  value  of  deep- 
level  properties,  while  those  situated  on  the  outcrop  would  ultimately 
loose  their  reefs.  But  it  was  certain  that  the  beds  never  assumed  a 
horizontal  position,  as  the  southernmost  reefs  always  possess  a  dip  not 
much  less  than  15  degs.  to  the  south.  The  paralleb'sm  of  the  beds  as 
represented  by  Mr.  Shaw  as  occurring  at  the  Ginsberg  mine  was  mislead- 
ing. The  beds  on  the  Randt,  taken  collectively,  were  really  lenticular  in 
character,  as  could  easily  be  seen,  as  the  beds  are  traced  east  and  west  of 


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OF  THE   WITWATBBSRANDT.  179 

Johannesburg.  The  ooontrj  rock,  as  well  as  the  conglomerates,  contained 
iron  pyrites ;  but  the  gold  was  chiefly  restricted  to  the  conglomerates, 
though  the  pyrites  of  the  country  rock,  judging  from  assays,  contained  a 
small  percentage  of  gold.  The  age  and  origin  of  the  conglomerates  was 
uncertain,  and  Mr.  Shaw  produced  no  evidence  of  their  being  of  marine 
origin.  The  connexion  of  the  gold-bearing  conglomerates  and  the  igneous 
rocks  was  not  settled.  The  richness  of  the  reefs  seemed  to  have  no  con- 
nexion with  their  proximity  tb  the  igneous  masses  or  dykes.  The  tilting 
and  dislocating  of  the  strata  was  prior  to  the  igneous  intrusions.  The 
future  prosperity  of  the  Witwatersrandt  gold-fields  was  fully  established, 
and  was  independent  of  any  theories  which  may  be  proposed  to  account 
for  the  origin  of  the  gold  or  of  the  conglomerates. 

Mr.  S.  H.  Cox  (London)  said  he  considered  Mr.  Shaw's  paper  to  be  a 
very  interesting  and  important  one.  The  paper  seemed  to  cover  such  n 
lot  of  ground,  commencing  with  the  earliest  period  of  geological  history 
to  the  present  time,  that  to  abtempt  to  discuss  it  would  be  impossible. 
He  scarcely  agreed  with  Mr.  Shaw's  contention  that  a  river  could  not 
deposit  conglomerates  such  as  those  described.  He  knew  of  places — the 
Canterbury  plains  for  instance,  in  New  Zealand,  about  90  miles  long 
and  50  wide,  shingly  plains  deposited  by  the  rivers.  Mr.  Shaw's  statement 
as  to  the  source  of  the  gold  rather  appealed  to  him  as  likely  to  be  correct  in 
some  cases.  He  did  not  believe  that  the  infiltration  of  sea-water  had 
deposited  gold,  for  if  it  had  been  able  to  deposit  gold  at  all  the 
deposition  would  have  been  world-wide,  and  wherever  they  had  marine 
conglomerates  they  would  get  deposits  of  gold.  But  he  thought  Mr. 
Shaw  had  pointed  out  that  infiltration  of  waters  charged  with  gold  had 
to  a  certain  extent  altered  the  matrix  of  the  conglomerates,  and,  in 
altering  it,  had  met  with  something  to  precipitate  the<gold,  and  from 
that  point  of  view  he  thought  Mr.  Shaw  had  certainly  given  them  some- 
thing new.  He  might  mention  that  in  New  South  Wales  there  was  a 
deposit  known  as  the  Junction  Eeefs  at  Belubula,  where  in  about  90  feet 
of  strata  there  were  50  feet  of  auriferous  material  alternating  with  slates. 
The  thickest  of  the  auriferous  beds  being  18  feet  and  the  thinnest  2  or 
S  feet ;  and  these  gave  ^  ounce  of  gold  to  the  ton  in  crushing  ;  the  beds 
consisted  of  sand,  they  were  not  conglomeratic  in  any  form  but  were 
impregnated  with  free-gold  and  interstratified  with  beds  of  slate.  If  one 
attempted  to  go  into  the  theories  of  past  times  he  took  rather  a  different 
view  from  Mr.  Shaw,  who  thought  they  would  require  an  accurate  know- 
ledge of  the  past  to  know  the  present ;  for  he  thought  they  should  have 
an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  present  to  know  the  past. 


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180  DISCUSSION— AUEIFKR0U8  C0NGL0MERATK8 

Mr.  0.  J.  BiNNS  (Netherseal)  said  Mr.  Cox,  in  the  last  portion  of 
his  remarks,  had  anticipated  what  he  was  going  to  say ;  he  was  sorry 
for  it,  but  he  would  cap  his  observations  by  a  quotation.  8ir  A.  Geikie 
in  one  of  his  books  says  ^*  that  the  present  affords  a  key  with  which  to 
unlock  the  secrets  of  the  past."  Perhaps  everybody  present  except  Mr. 
Shaw  would  acknowledge  that,  and  that  if  they  were  to  abstain  from 
drawing  conclusions  in  geology  until  the  Survey  had  finished,  what 
might  be  called  the  pre-pre-pre-Cambrian  rocks  of  the  Western  Highlands 
of  Scotland,  they  would  have  to  wait  a  long  time. 

Mr.  D.  A.  Louis  (London)  said  that  judging  simply  from  a  study 
of  the  characters  of  the  conglomerate  rocks,  as  exhibited  in  samples  to 
which  he  had  had  access,  it  seemed  highly  probable  that  they  should  be 
of  river-formation;  he  did  not  think  it  possible  that  they  could  have 
been  formed  in  the  sea,  without  including  some  fossils  iadicative  of 
such  an  origin.  What  had  been  said  by  Mr.  Halse  and  Mr.  Cox  iu  refer- 
ence to  extensive  shingly  deposits  formed  by  rivers  was  also  evidenced 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  upper  reaches  of  the  Missouri  river  in  America. 
There,  vast  beds  of  auriferous  and  ferruginous  gravels  are  found  deposited 
on  the  bed-rock,  and  above  them  huge  deposits  of  river  sand,  varying 
from  50  to  100  feet  in  thickness,  and  above  that  again  beds  carrying 
gold  are  sometimes  encountered.  These  deposits  are  quite  loose  at  or 
near  the  surface,  but  lower  down  are  frequently  conglomerated,  but  are 
in  no  way  metamorphozed.  There,  however,  appears  to  be  no  lack  of 
existing  proof  of  the  fact  that  rivers  are  or  have  been  capable  of  covering 
extensive  areas  with  gravel-deposits.  Specimens  of  Transvaal  conglo- 
merates iu  his  (Mr.  Louis')  possession  vary  in  character  from  masses  of 
very  coarse  gravel  and  fine  sand  loosely  cemented  together,  with  each 
grain  visible  up  to  masses  very  closely  resembling  in  character  solid 
quartzite  in  which  even  the  larger  pebbles  are  scarcely  discernible, 
indicatiog  that  these  deposits  have  undergone  varying  degrees  of  meta- 
morphism.  In  the  less  metamorphozed  specimens,  the  gold  is  generally 
found  in  the  cementing  or  fine  material  surrounding  the  larger  pebbles, 
and  is  associated  with  pyrites;  and  this  under  the  microscope  appears 
generally  in  small  rounded  grains  and  but  rarely  in  well-defined  crystals. 
Inasmuch  as  the  reader  of  the  paper,  like  others  who  have  seen  much  of 
these  conglomerates,  admits  that  the  pebbles  sometimes  contain  gold  and 
pyrites,  thus  proving  the  existence  of  these  substances  in  the  original  rocks, 
and,  moreover,  as  a  deposit  of  coarse  pebbles  like  those  met  with  in  these  con- 
glomerates would  provide  most  favourable  conditions  for  the  settlement 
and  concentration  of  small  grains  of  heavy  material  brought  down  by  the 


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OF  THE   WITWATBRSRANDT.  181 

river,  it  seems  feasible  that  these  minerals  might  have  come  from  the 
same  rocks  as  the  pebbles  or  some  other  ancient  auriferous  strata.  The 
specimens  examined  by  the  speaker  did  not  present  the  usual  charac- 
teristics of  minerals,  complex,  deposited  from  infiltering  solutions,  although, 
of  course,  any  liquid  or  solution,  auriferous  or  otherwise,  would  necessarily 
trickle  through  such  a  deposit,  and  the  passage  of  a  simple  siliceous  or 
calcareous  solution  would  be  sufficient  to  account  for  the  cementation. 
The  subsequent  metamorphozing  and  tilting  and  other  such  agencies 
might  account  for  the  fine  condition  in  which  most  of  the  gold  was 
found ;  and  with  reference  to  the  crystalline  character  of  the  gold,  some 
of  the  gold  from  the  Missouri  river  deposit,  previously  alluded  to,  was, 
under  the  microscope,  crystalline,  although  water-worn,  and  therefore  not 
sharply  crystalline. 

Mr.  FiLBY  (London)  said  the  quantity  of  gold  contained  in  the  sea 
was  estimated  at  a  cubic  mile.  This  was  a  curiously  definite  statement, 
and  it  would  be  interesting  to  know  how  the  calculation  had  been  made 
The  paper  gave  evidence  of  Mr.  Shaw's  deep  attention  to  the  subject,  and 
be  was  sure  they  all  appreciated  his  ability. 

Mr.  Henry  Louis  (Singapore)  wrote  that  he  must,  in  the  first 
instance,  draw  attention  to  the  fact  that  Mr.  Shaw  is  decidedly  mis- 
representing the  views  of  mining  engineers  who  have  previously  studied 
the  banket  beds  of  the  Witwatersrandt,  and  that  he  was  in  error  in  stating 
that  they  had,  up  to  the  present,  represented  the  gold  in  them  as  being 
"of  an  alluvial  character  and  mechanically  deposited.**  The  true  facts  of 
the  case  were  exactly  the  opposite.  The  first  information  about  the 
geological  characters  of  this  district  is  contained  in  a  few  brief  notes 
communicated  by  himself  (Mr.  Louis)  to  the  Mining  Journal^  and  pub- 
lished in  that  paper  on  November  13th,  1886*.  In  this  communication 
he  (Mr.  Louis)  distinctly  stated  that  he  had  found  the  gold  to  be  partly 
contained  in  the  cementing-material  of  the  banket,  and  that  it  was  of  a 
highly  micro-crystalline  character,  and  he  further  suggested  that  it  might 
have  been  deposited  in  situ  subsequently  to  the  formation  of  the  beds  by 
the  infiltration  of  gold  in  solution.  So  far  as  he  knew  this  opinion  had 
never  been  controverted  since  that  time,  but  had,  on  the  other  hand,  been 
corroborated  by  numerous  independent  writers  on  the  subject,  so  that  the 
theory  now  put  forward  by  Mr.  Shaw  was  in  reality  first  promulgated  by 
himself  (Mr.  Louis)  seven  years  ago,  or  a  year  before  these  conglomerates 
were  worked,  according  to  Mr.  Shaw.  Of  course,  at  the  time  when  he 
wrote  those  notes,  very  little  work  had  been  done  on  the  banket  beds  and 
that  only  of  a  most  superficial  nature,  but  the  results  of  subsequent 

♦  Page  1325. 


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182  DISCUSSION — AURIFEROUS  CONGLOMERATES 

explorations  had  only  tended  to  confirm  and  amplify  the  general  broad 
theories  then  put  forward,  however  much  it  may  have  modified  their 
details.  No  one,  so  far  as  he  (Mr.  Louis)  knew,  had  seriously  sug- 
gested the  opinion  which  Mr.  Shaw  here  tilts  against,  viz.,  that  these 
beds  were  originally  river-gravels.  He  looked  upon  them  as  marine 
beds ;  this  may  be  so,  but  he  (Mr.  Louis)  preferred  his  original  theory — 
also  propounded  in  the  above  notes  in  the  Mining  Journal — to  the  eflFect 
that  they  were  of  lacustrine  origin.  He  (Mr.  Louis)  based  this  view  upon 
the  absence  of  fossils,  such  as  would  be  expected  in  marine  beds,  upon  the 
comparatively  limited  area  which  they  occupy,  and  upon  their  general 
character.  Mr.  W.  Gibson's  view  that  the  coal-beds  above  them  are  of 
lacustrine  origin,  may  be  held  to  support  this  view  to  some  extent.  He 
(Mr.  Louis)  believed  that  the  area  now  occupied  by  these  beds  was  once  an 
inland  lake  into  which  mountain  streams  emptied  themselves — descending 
from  a  range  consisting  largely  of  quartzites  and  quartz,  some  of  which 
were  auriferous,  the  lake-bottom  meanwhile  undergoing  marked  oscillations 
of  level.  He  thought  it  possible  that  the  mountain-range  in  question  may 
have  occupied  the  site  of  the  Drakensberg  range,  the  strata  of  which  are 
distinctly  older  than  and  unconf  onnable  under  the  banket-beds.  Assuming 
this  to  have  been  previous  to  the  date  of  the  deposition  of  these  banket-con- 
glomerates, the  entire  theory  looks  very  plausible,  as  the  known  formations 
of  the  Drakensberg  with  its  auriferous  formations  might  well  furnish  the 
qtiartzose  pebbles  of  the  banket.  Of  course  he  (Mr.  Louis)  might  be 
wrong  in  the  alwve  assumption  as  to  the  date  of  upheaval  of  this  range ; 
if  so,  some  other  mountain-chain  must  have  existed,  the  degradation  of 
which  furnished  the  pebbles.  So  little  is  known  definitely  of  the  geology 
of  South  Africa  that  all  theories  must  be  more  or  less  tentative.  The 
pebbles  are  so  thoroughly  rounded  and  so  comparatively  uniform  in  size 
that  they  must  evidently  have  travelled  long  distances,  and  probably  by 
rapid  mountain  streams  before  being  deposited  in  this  inland  lake,  where 
they  alternated  with  layers  of  sand,  the  beds  of  gravel  thinning  out  here 
and  there  and  discontinuing  in  places  to  reappear  again  in  others,  oscilla- 
tions of  the  level  of  the  lake-bottom  accounting  probably  for  these  alterna- 
tions of  gravel  and  sand,  whilst  ultimately  a  further  rise  may  have  produced 
the  conditions  which  have  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  coal-deposits. 
The  upheaval  of  these  gravels  and  sands  and  their  subsequent  more  or 
less  complete  consolidation  has  produced  the  banket  beds  as  at  present 
found  with  their  intercalated  beds  of  sandstone,  forming  a  trough  synclinal 
in  general  aspect.  Mr.  Gibson  has,  however,  pointed  out,  and  has  fairly 
well  established  his  case  (although  the  evidence  adduced  by  him  has  been 


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OF  THK   W1TWATER8RANDT.  183 

ignored  by  Mr.  Shaw),  that  this  is  not  a  simple  basin  but  that  these  strata 
show  excessive  faulting,  reversed  faulting,  dislocation  and  folding,  and 
all  the  other  phenomena  attending  the  disruption  of  strata  by  violent 
volcanic  action.  The  cemen  ting-material  which  binds  the  pebbles 
together  is  mainly  siliceous  ;  it  also  carries  mica  and  much  iron  pyrites, 
although  the  latter  has  been  completely  decomposed  down  to  very  con- 
siderable depths.  This  cement  also  contains  finely-divided,  highly 
crystalline  gold  disseminated  through  it.  Some  of  the  pebbles,  moreover, 
are  themselves  auriferous.  The  deposition  of  the  gold  was  effected  after 
the  formation  of  the  beds  and  probably  after  their  partial  consolidation 
and  uptilting.  The  evidence  in  proof  of  this  statement  is  the  highly 
crystalline  nature  of  most  of  the  gold,  the  very  small  proportion  of  water- 
worn  gold,  the  fineness,  the  uniform  distribution  throughout  the  beds  of 
conglomerate,  and  the  absence  of  nuggets.  Had  the  gold  been  deposited 
simultaneously  with  these  thoroughly  rounded  pebbles  and  by  the  same 
agencies,  it  would  all  have  been  in  well-rounded  water-worn  grains,  vary- 
ing in  size  from  flour  gold  to  nuggets,  and  would  have  been  most  abundant 
in  the  bottom  layers  of  the  conglomerate.  Instead  of  this  we  find  the 
gold  in  very  sharp-edged  crystals,  finely  divided,  and  evenly  disseminated 
throughout  each  bed  of  banket.  He  (Mr.  Louis)  held  that  the  banket 
beds  were  percolated,  after  their  upheaval,  by  subterranean  waters  carry- 
ing in  solution  gold  and  iron  pyrites,  or  a  substance  capable  of  producing 
the  latter.  In  a  paper  read  recently  before  the  Mineralogical  Society, 
he  (Mr.  Louis)  ventured  to  propound  a  theory  to  the  effect  that  the 
solvent  of  gold  in  nature  had  been  alkaline  and  not  acid  as  generally 
supposed,  and  this  view  would  accord  well  with  the  siliceous  character  of 
the  cement  binding  the  pebbles  together.  In  fact  the  deposition  of 
pyrites  and  gold  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  stage  of  the  metamorphism 
which  has  transformed  the  layers  of  loose  gravel  into  the  conglomerates 
of  to-day.  Of  course  the  solution,  which  could  percolate  readily  through 
the  conglomerate-beds,  would  also  find  its  way  to  some  extent  through 
the  denser  sandstones ;  hence  we  should  expect  to  find,  and  we  do  find, 
that  these  sandstones  are  slightly  auriferous  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
banket-beds.  The  deposition  of  the  gold  from  its  solution  was  deter- 
mined, either  by  the  chemical  action  of  the  iron  pyrites,  or  was  caused 
by  the  same  reducing  action  which  produced  the  latter  mineral.  Either 
theory  will  account  for  the  fact  that  so  large  a  proportion  of  gold  is  free 
even  at  great  depths,  where  iron  pyrites  forms  a  considerable  proportion 
of  the  cementing-material.  A  similar  action  has  no  doubt  produced  the 
crystalline  gold  of  the  Devil's  Kantoor  and  some  parts  of  the  Pilgrim's 


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184  DISCUSSION— AUUIFBROUB  C0NGL0MBEATB8 

Rest  district,  which  also  owes  its  orip:iii  to  chemical  action,  and  is  not 
alluvial,  although  sometimes  spoken  of  by  that  term.  It  is  possible, 
though  by  no  means  yet  proved,  that  this  gold  was  formed  simul- 
taneously with  and  by  the  same  agencies  as  the  gold  in  the  banket- 
beds.  He  (Mr.  Louis)  might  briefly  recapitulate  his  ultimate  views  as 
to  these  banket  beds  as  follows : — That  the  banket  series  of  the  Witwaters- 
randt  forms  an  iri^egular,  much  faulted,  trough  of  alternating  sandstones 
and  conglomerates  which  were  originally  of  lacustrine  origin,  and  had 
been  uptilted  through  violent  eruptive  action  to  their  present  steep  angles 
of  dip ;  that  the  gold  contained  in  these  deposits  is  partly  in  the  pebbles 
themselves,  to  a  very  small  extent  is  water-wora  gold  contemporaneously 
deposited,  but  it  is  principally  crystalline  gold  occurring  in  the  cementing- 
material,  deposited  by  chemical  action  in  the  interstices  between  the  pebbles 
of  the  banket,  after  the  upheaval  and  partial  consolidation  of  the  latter. 

Mr.  F.  G.  Shaw  stated  that  he  was,  however,  very  pleased  to  observe 
the  general  acceptance  of  the  two  theories  by  Mr.  Halse  and  by  Mr.  Cox, 
and  could  only  hope  that  they  would  be  enabled  to  visit  South  Africa,  as 
he  felt  convinced  they  would  then  be  able  to  concur  fully  in  his  theory. 
He  (Mr.  Shaw)  thought  that  from  whatever  source  the  gold  came,  it  would 
not  be  likely  to  be  deposited  evenly  in  all  places ;  where  it  encountered 
chemicals  likely  to  crystallize  it  from  solution,  it  would  there  be  deposited. 
The  precipitation  of  gold  from  salt  water  would  depend  on  the  mineral 
filling  the  veins,  or  in  their  vicinity,  through  which  it  percolated.  Although 
the  existence  of  gold  in  the  conglomerates  on  the  Gold  Coast  of  West  Africa 
was  an  interesting  fact,  this  region  was  so  distant  from  the  Witwaters- 
randt  district,  and  of  so  entirely  a  different  geological  character  that  a 
comparison  could  hardly  be  made,  especially  as  Mr.  Halse  admitted  their 
much  more  recent  age.  He  (Mr.  Shaw)  had  clearly  pointed  out  in  his  paper, 
that  many  conglomerate  formations  were  due  to  river  action,  and  that 
nearly  every  alluvial  gold-field  had  been  thus  created ;  but  the  remarkable 
parallelism,  uniformity  of  thickness,  evenness  of  footwall,  and  extent  of 
the  Witwatersrandt  beds  precluded  the  idea  of  their  fomlation  being  due 
to  river  action.  Had  Mr.  Halse  visited  the  Witwatersrandt  gold-fields,  he 
would  undoubtedly  be  the  first  to  admit  that  neither  river  action  nor  that 
of  currents  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  would  satisfactorily  account  for  the 
spreading  of  these  conglomerates  so  evenly  and  with  such  a  perfect  footwall 
over  so  large  an  area.  Mr.  Halse  had  endeavoured  to  show  that  the  matrix 
of  the  conglomerates  was  due  to  metamorphic  and  not  to  jDseudomorphic 
action ;  but  he  (Mr.  Shaw)  jwinted  out  that  this  was  not  at  all  probable  5 
the  smallest  pebbles  showed  no  sign  of  metamorphic  action,  and,  as  the  peb- 


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OF  THE   WITWATBRSliANDT.  186 

bles  and  the  matrix  were  of  the  same  mineral,  what  altered  one  would  affect 
the  other.  Mr.  Binns'  inability  to  understand  the  meaning  of  the  simile 
advanced  in  the  paper,  that "  a  thinker  to  be  able  to  understand  the  difficult 
phenomena  of  the  present  must  know  the  past,"  could  be  best  met  by  the 
following  quotation  from  Sir  Charles  Lyell: — "It  would  be  endless  to 
attempt  to  reply  to  all  objections  urged  against  those  who  would  represent 
the  course  of  nature  at  its  earliest  periods,  as  resembling  in  all  essential 
circumstances  the  state  of  things  now  established  "•  and  the  words  of  Sir  A. 
Geikie's  quotation,  just  quoted  by  Mr.  Binns,  "that  the  present  affords  a  key 
with  which  to  unlock  the  secrets  of  the  past,"  and  with  the  knowledge  so 
obtained  to  explore  the  mysteries  of  the  present  and  acquire  the  treasures 
now  hidden.  He  (Mr.  Shaw)  stated  in  his  paper  that  "these  seams,  the 
author  expects,  will  assume  a  horizontal  position  at  comparatively  short 
distances  from  the  tilted  outcrops"  which  is  undoubtedly  proved  by  com- 
paring the  dip  of  the  reefs  at  their  outcrop  with  the  records  of  the  dip  at  the 
deep-level  boreholes.  In  stating  that  it  was  certain  "  that  the  beds  never 
assumed  a  horizontal  position,"  Mr.  Gibson  spoke  without  the  slightest 
evidence  to  corroborate  his  assertion ;  and  he  was  entirely  mistaken  when 
he  said,  "that  the  southernmost  reefs  always  possess  a  dip  not  much  less 
than  15  degs.  He  (Mr.  Shaw)  had  surveyed  the  Meyer  and  Lebe  gold- 
mine, and  found  that  the  southernmost  reefs  (only  4  miles  from  the  main 
reef)  had  a  constant  dip  of  6  degs.,  and  that  the  whole  of  the  black  reef 
series  was  equally  flat  even  at  its  northern  edge.  It  was  incorrect  to  say 
that  the  section  of  the  Ginsberg  mine  was  misleading,  as  the  drawing  was 
an  exact  section  of  the  reef  as  it  existed.  He  (Mr.  Shaw)  did  not  state 
that  the  conglomerates  were  of  marine  origin,  and  considers  that  Mr. 
Gibson  should  confine  himself  to  a  criticism  of  such  statements  as  he  (the 
author)  had  advanced  in  his  paper.  What  he  said  was  that  the  pebbles, 
etc.,  brought  down  by  rivers,  were  spread  by  the  action  of  a  receding  or 
advancing  sea-beach.  The  auriferous  reefs  have  not  been  yet  followed  down 
to  the  igneous  rocks,  and  Mr.  Gibson  has  no  right  to  assume  that  the  gold  in 
the  reef  is  unconnected  with  trap  rocks.  He  (Mr.  Shaw),  referring  to  the 
supposition  that  faults  had  been  the  means  of  throwing  the  seams  of 
conglomerate  towards  the  surface,  contended  that  the  evidence  of  the 
various  boreholes  proved  that  the  seams  were  absolutely  dipping  at  a  less 
angle,  instead  of  being  tilted  at  a  greater  angle,  as  they  would  have  been  if 
they  had  been  thrown  up  by  faults,  and  he  thought  it  would  be  pre- 
ferable for  the  reefs  to  assume  a  less  dip  than  to  be  cut  off  by  a  fault.  He 
(Mr.  Shaw)  was  surprised  at  the  tone  of  Mr.  Henry  Louis'  remarks  which 

*  Principles  of  Geology ^  page  511. 


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186  DISCUSSION — ^AUBIFBEOUS  CONGLOMERATES 

did  not  allow  him  to  be  right  in  any  instance  and  attached  theories  to  him 
which  he  had  not  advanced,  and  yet  endeavoured  to  claim  his  (Mr. 
Shaw's)  theories,  the  originality  of  which  had  not  otherwise  been  ques- 
tioned. As  to  his  (Mr.  Shaw's)  tilting  against  the  theory  of  conglomerate 
beds  being  originally  river-gravels,  his  paper  did  not  even  suggest  that 
they  had  been  so  deposited.  Mr.  Louis  claims  to  have  advanced  state- 
ments in  a  November  number  of  the  Mining  Journal  of  1886*,  which  he 
says  have  never  been  controverted,  that  the  conglomerates  of  the  Wit- 
watersrandt  had  been  formed  by  streams  depositing  in  a  lake  the  detritus 
derived  from  surrounding  mountains.  On  this  point  he  is  one  of  those 
who  have  advanced  the  usually  accepted  theory  for  the  formation  of  all 
conglomerates,  namely,  that  of  a  sedimentary  or  subaqueous  origin.  He 
(Mr.  Shaw)  considered  this  to  be  (in  the  case  of  these  conglomerates)  a  too 
general  term — as  both  these  words  have  a  wide  and  not  a  precise  enough 
meaning — and  he  therefore  advanced  the  theory  of  a  retreating  or  advanc- 
ing sea-beach  action  as  being  more  definite.  As  regards  this  theory,  he 
(Mr.  Shaw)  was  very  pleased  to  find  that  Prof.  A.  H.  Green,  who  had  arrived 
at  the  same  conclusion  regarding  the  Dwyka  conglomerates  of  the  Cape 
Colony,  says  in  his  Geology  and  Physical  Geography  of  Gape  Colony^ 
with  reference  to  the  Dwyka  conglomerates,  "the  notion  I  formed  as 
to  the  origin  of  this  rock  was  that  it  was  a  coarse  shingle  formed  along  a 
receding  coast  line."t  This  he  (Mr.  Shaw)  considered  coming  from  so 
high  an  authority  as  confirming  the  views  he  separately  formed  as  to  the 
formation  of  the  Witwatersrandt  conglomerates  wliich,  as  he  had  stated, 
show  most  clearly  how  unsatisfactory  a  river  or  lake  ac^tion  theory  is  in 
accounting  for  their  present  appearance.  His  (Mr.  Shaw's)  statements  on 
this  point  are  not  therefore  inaccurate,  nor  do  they  misrepresent  the  views 
of  mining  engineers  but  are  corroborated  by  his  (Mr.  Louis)  evidence. 
No  mountains  exist  or  have  existed  near  these  conglomerate  beds,  and  no 
lake  action  would  account  for  the  spreading  of  these  conglomerate  beds 
over  South  Africa,  and  for  alternately  laying  the  parallel  beds  of  sandstones 
and  conglomerates  as  they  now  exist.  Crystalline  gold  was  found  and 
recognized  almost  from  the  first  in  these  conglomerate  beds  by  most 
mining  engineers,  and  he  (Mr.  Shaw)  had  quoted  Mr.  Alford's  remarks 
on  the  subject  in  his  paper.  He  certainly  was  not  aware  that  Mr.  Louis 
had  written  on  this  question,  as  appears  to  be  the  case,  in  the  short  com- 
munication which  he  addressed  to  the  Mining  Journal  in  1886.  Mr. 
Louis'  words  in  this  letter  were  : — "  Or  whether  their  auriferous  contents 
are  not  due  to  the  deposition  of  gold  in  sitn,  subsequently  to  the  formation 
of  the  deposits,  owing  to  the  infiltration  of  gold  in  solution  from  the  surface." 
*  Page  1325.  f  Quarterly  Journal  Geolog.  ifoc,  vol.  xliv.,  page  243. 


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OF  THE   WITWATBE8RANDT.  187 

Surely  Mr.  Tiouis  does  not  claim  this  to  be,  at  that  time,  a  new  idea,  or  one 
calculated  to  excite  any  surmise  or  comment ;  he  supposed  if  any  one  had 
wished  to  controvert  such  a  widely  accepted  and  well-known  theory  they 
would  have  started  at  least  in  the  days  of  Agricola,  who  wrote  in  the 
sixteenth  century  regarding  the  minerals  found  in  veins,  which  he  con- 
siders had  resulted  from  precipitation  from  aqueous  solutions  filtering 
through  veins,  to  say  nothing  of  having  to  deal  with  Werner  who  wrote  in 
the  year  1791,  and  proved  the  deposition  theory  from  overhead  solutions. 
Yet  Mr.  Ijouis  in  his  small  and  by  no  means  original  communication 
claims  to  have  advanced  views  which  he  had  not  since  seen  any  reason  to 
seriously  modify,  namely,  that  conglomerate  beds  have  been  formed  by 
river  and  lake  action,  and  that  crystalline  gold  has  been  deposited  from 
solutions  as  in  the  case  of  these  conglomerate  beds.  Mr.  Louis  contro- 
verted his  (Mr.  Shaw's)  statement,  that  the  history  of  this  field  commenced 
with  1887 ;  what  he  said  was,  that  in  the  first  year  of  its  (crushing)  history, 
this  field  produced  28,115  ounces  of  gold,  and  no  practical  mining  engineer 
would  have  misunderstood  his  statement.  He  might  remind  Mr.  Louis 
that  the  views  he  had  advanced,  and  on  which  tlie  interest  of  the  paper 
centred,  related  to  the  origin  and  mode  of  consolidation  of  the  conglomerate 
beds  in  their  present  form,  bringing  forward  (firstly)  a  sea-beach  and  sea 
action  to  account  for  the  spreading  of  the  alternate  layers  of  conglomerates 
and  sandstones  (a  portion  of  his  (Mr.  Shaw's)  paper  which  has  not,  so  far, 
been  upset,  or  seriously  attacked) ;  and  (secondly)  the  pseudomorphic  char- 
acter of  the  matrix  to  satisfactorily  account  for  the  comparatively  simul- 
taneous crystallization  of  the  silica,  sulphides,  and  gold.  The  real  difficulty 
with  scientific  observers  has  been  the  apparently  wonderful  manner  in  which 
these  minerals  are  associated  and  combined  together  in  a  sedimentary 
deposit,  and  no  difficulty  could  have  been  experienced  in  determining  how 
the  gold  and  sulphides  found  in  a  crystalline  state  were  deposited.  Mr. 
Louis  had  certainly  not  been  able  to  disprove  tlie  originality  of  the  ideas 
advanced  in  his  (Mr.  Shaw's)  paper,  to  which  he  was  led  by  the 
"mechanical  deposits  of  the  conglomerates  having  been  altered  into  the 
characteristics  of  an  ordinaiy  fissure  vein,"  as  pointed  out  in  Engine&ring 
of  June ■9th,  1893.* 

The  President  proposed  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Shaw  for  his  paper. 

Mr.  W.  F.  HowAED  (Chesterfield)  had  pleasure  in  seconding  the 
President's  proposal. 

Mr.  Shaw  acknowledged  the  vote. 

Mr.  Spencer  read  the  following  communication  on  "  The  Support  of 

Buildings"  : — 

•  Page  814. 


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188  THB  8UPP0BT  OF  BUILDINGS. 


THE  SUPPORT  OF  BUILDINOa 


By  W.  spencer. 


Probably  nothing  connected  with  mining  has  given  rise  to  so  mnch 
litigation  as  the  question  of  damage  to  buildings  on  the  surface  by 
underground  workings  and,  so  far  as  the  writer  knows,  the  subject  has 
not  hitherto  been  brought  before  any  mining  institute.  In  undertaking 
to  read  a  short  paper  on  this  subject  the  writer  thought  that  it  would  at 
least  form  a  nucleus  for  additional  facts,  which  would  probably  be  added 
by  other  members,  and  that  ultimately  a  large  amount  of  valuable  inform- 
ation would  be  recorded  in  the  Transactions,  The  writer  wishes  at  the 
outset  to  state  that  he,  from  the  first,  contemplated  obtaining  information 
from  friends  in  diflFerent  parts  of  the  country  ;  but  he  did  not  fully  realize 
the  hesitation  that  might  be  felt  in  some  cases  in  giving  such  information 
from  fear  of  possible  legal  proceedings,  even  although  the  name  of  the 
person  and  the  locality  might  be  withheld.  For  this  reason  the  cases 
recorded  are  fewer  than  he  expected  to  be  able  to  give. 

No  doubt  many  people  have  been  struck  in  travelling  through  different 
parts  of  the  country  with  the  number  of  buildings  of  diflFerent  kinds 
which  they  have  seen  cracked,  more  or  less,  in  localities  where  it  was  quite 
certain  that  no  underground  operations  had  ever  been  carried  on.  If 
similar  effects  are  observed  in  districts  where  mineral  is  being  worked, 
such  damage  is,  as  all  are  unpleasantly  aware,  immediately  attributed  to 
such  workings. 

The  first  examples  of  subsidence  are  taken  of  cases  occurring  in 
Leicestershire,  and  a  section  of  the  strata  in  that  county  is  given  in 
Appendices  B  and  C.  The  measures  rise  to  the  west,  aboiit  1  in  14. 
The  surface  is  almost  level  over  the  areas  referred  to.  In  this*  district 
the  coal  is  entirely  taken  away  and  the  roads  are  made  through  the  gob ; 
if  any  coal  is  left  for  the  support  of  buildings,  it  is  left  as  a  solid  block, 
and  not  in  the  form  of  pillars,  as  in  other  districts. 

Fig.  1,  Plate  VII.,  shows  the  position  of  a  number  of  houses,  under 
varied  circumstances,  none  of  which  are  damaged,  with  one  single  excep- 
tion (A).    The  circumstance  is  remarkable,  seeing  that  some  of  these 


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THB  SUPPORT  OF  BUILDINGS.  189 

honBes  are  in  positions  in  which  it  is  generally  considered  that  injary 
is  most  likely  to  occur,  i>.,  partly  on  solid  coal  and  partly  on  the  gob. 
The  only  bnilding  damaged  (A),  and  that  not  to  a  great  extent,  is  standing 
on  whole  coaL  It  is  a  house  of  two  storeys  high,  with  a  large  attic 
running  the  length  of  the  house.  No  coal  had  been  worked  within  about 
90  feet  of  it,  except  on  one  side  only.  The  contention  of  the  owner  was 
that  it  had  been  damaged  in  consequence  of  the  underground  workings, 
and  a  claim  for  compensation  was  made.  On  the  contrary,  the  lessees  of 
the  colliery  contended  that  the  damage  was  due  to  the  withdrawal  of  water 
from  the  foundations,  which  were  built  upon  a  gravel  bed.  This  conten- 
tion was  supported  by  the  fact  that  a  cottage  on  a  similar  foundation  and 
also  a  large  farmhouse,  of  similar  construction  to  the  first-named,  cracked 
simultaneously  with  it,  although  the  latter  were  too  far  away  to  be 
affected  by  underground  workings,  the  last-named  farmhouse  being 
about  two  miles  distant.  It  was  thought  that  there  was  a  good  defence, 
but  having  in  view  "  the  glorious  uncertainty  of  the  law  "  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  certainty  of  expense  either  at  law  or  of  arbitration  on  the 
other,  the  matter  was  settled  by  the  lessees  paying  the  greater  part  of  the 
amount  claimed. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  greater  the  height  and  weight  of  a  building,  the 
greater  the  likelihood  of  its  being  damaged,  although  a  case  is  recorded 
where  a  thick  seam  was  worked  within  60  feet  of  a  large  and  high 
building  without  damage,  while  a  small  house  near  was  considerably 
injured. 

As  proving  the  effect  of  the  withdrawal  of  water,  a  house,  from  under 
which  the  whole  of  a  thick  coal-seam  had  been  removed,  was  entirely 
uninjured  until,  owing  to  underground  workings  many  hundreds  of  feet 
away,  the  well  was  drained,  and  the  house  immediately  cracked. 

The  preceding  cases.  Fig.  1,  and  those  shown  in  Figs.  2,  8,  and  4, 
Plate  VII.,  show  a  very  marked  contrast  to  each  other,  under  circum- 
stances, so  far  as  known,  precisely  similar  in  every  respect ;  in  one  set  of 
cases  no  damage  was  done,  while  in  the  other  the  houses  were  damaged  to 
a  considerable  extent,  although  at  no  time  rendered  uninhabitable.  The 
buildings  shown  in  Figs.  2,  8,  and  4  are  a  little  more  than  a  mile 
from  those  shown  in  Fig.  1,  nearly  on  the  water-level  line  of  the  Coal- 
measures,  and  on  a  level  surface. 

The  following  cases  occurred  in  the  county  of  Durham,  and  were 
kindly  given  to  the  writer  by  his  friend,  Mr.  Thomas  Douglas,  of  Dar- 
lington.   See  Figs.  6  to  16,  Plate  VII.,  and  Appendix  A. 


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190  THE   SUPPORT  OF  BUILDINGS. 

In  another  case,  fche  Main  Goal  seam  wastes  lying  at  a  depth  of  150 
feet  were  filled  with  water.  The  Harvey  seam  at  a  depth  of  420  feet 
and  the  Brockwell  seam  at  660  feet  were  worked  out  below  for  an  area 
of  about  20  acres,  and  no  water  came  down. 

One  of  the  most  eminent  mining  engineers  in  the  North  of  England 
prescribed  the  following  conditions  to  secure  the  support  of  an  important 
railway  viaduct*: — A  width  of  60  feet  of  solid  coal  shall  be  left  on  every 
side,  and  a  further  width  of  33  feet  of  pillars  containing  60  per  cent,  of 
the  whole  coal. 

In  another  case  where  the  coal,  3^  feet  thick  at  a  depth  of  540  feet, 
was  found  about  level — 60  feet  of  solid  coal  were  left  from  the  centre  of 
the  river  Wear,  and  a  further  width  of  132  feet  was  left  in  pillars. 

In  another  case  all  the  coal  was  taken  out  beyond  a  distance  of  96 
feet  from  a  large  house,  and  pillara  containing  64  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
coal  were  left  under  the  house  without  damage  being  done.  The  depth 
of  the  coal-seam  was  480  feet,  about  8^  feet  thick,  and  lying  nearly  level. 

For  the  support  of  a  church  there  were  left  on  each  side  respectively 
75  feet,  90  feet,  99  feet,  and  135  feet  of  solid  coal.  The  depth  to 
the  coal-seam,  3^  feet  thick,  was  420  feet,  the  strata  being  nearly  level. 

The  manager  of  a  colliery  in  Chili  informed  the  writer  that  the  waves 
of  the  sea  could  be  heard  in  the  workings.  The  coal-seam  was  about 
6  feet  thick,  and  was  dipping  rather  rapidly  under  the  sea. 

My  friend,  Mr.  A.  L.  Steavenson,  of  Durham,  writes  that — 

"  He  found  the  injury  from  a  goaf  depended :  (a)  on  the  depth,  (ft)  on  the  thick- 
ness of  the  seam,  and  (<;)  veiy  largely  upon  the  nature  of  the  surface,  whether 
rocks  or  clay,  or  sand  with  water.  Then  we  have  to  consider  the  support  derived 
from  adjoining  strata  if  the  country  is  level.  In  Durham,  as  you  know,  we  have 
the  wash  or  drift,  which  makes  a  very  uncertain  foundation.  My  house  is  480  feet 
above  the  Brockwell  coal-seam,  3  feet  thick,  with  40  feet  of  clay — this  made  any 
calculation  doubtful,  but  I  left  as  a  support  a  width  equal  to  half  the  depth,  or  240 
feet,  and  worked  round  three  sides  of  it,  the  result  being  that  the  building  has  moved 
rather  than  cracked,  and  doors  have  required  to  be  cut  and  re-hung ;  there  is  no 
important  injury,  and  the  well  from  which  we  get  drinking  water  is  not  affected." 

"  At  the  Skelton  mines  in  Cleveland,  at  a  depth  of  240  feet  with  20  or  30  feet 
of  clay,  we  have  taken  out  10  feet  of  ironstone.  The  agent's  house,  760  feet  distant, 
is  badly  cracked,  the  whole  hiUside  seems  to  have  slidden  away  (the  rocks  being  the 
mild  shales  of  the  district).  On  the  other  hand,  with  the  strong  rocks  in  Durham 
and  a  house  standing  on  freestone,  I  have  taken  out  all  the  coal,  4^  feet  thick,  at  a 
depth  of  600  feet  within  66  feet  of  a  farmhouse  and  outbuildings,  without  damage 
being  done  (Fig.  17,  Plate  VII.).  Twenty  years  ago,  damages  were  paid  for  a 
house  in  Bishop  Auckland :  the  coal  was  4^  feet  thick,  lying  at  a  depth  of  720  feet, 
and  the  workings  came  within  132  feet  of  the  house.  I  believe  this  did  not  really 
rlo  the  damage,  which  was  caused,  I  think,  by  the  water  being  withdrawn  from  a 

•  The  coal-seam,  3^  feet  thick,  at  a  depth  of  610  feet  was  lying  nearly  level. 


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THE  SUPPORT  OP  BUILDINGS.  191 

sandbed  by  the  town-drains.  The  case  went  to  the  Assizes  and  the  jury  gave  a 
verdict  against  the  colliery  owner.  Water  in  sandstone  is  a  frequent  cause  of 
damage  to  houses,  and  at  law  (if  it  can  be  proved  that  it  is  owing  to  the  withdrawal 
of  the  water)  the  colliery  owner  is  not  liable." 

"  I  should  say  that  at  and  over  500  feet  in  depth,  with  good  rock  only  to  deal 
with,  there  is  very  little  fear  of  the  removal  of  any  seam  in  the  county  of  Durham 
doing  much  damage." 

The  writer  was  present  at  the  arbitration  in  the  case  of  "  Bonomi 

versus  Backhouse/'  which  has  often  been  referred  to  as  a  test  case,  and 

the  following  is  an  extract  from  a  report  which  appeared  in  the  Golliery 

Ouardian  of  August  24th,  1861 : — 

"  The  house  was  shown  to  have  been  erected  above  forty  years,  that  the  colliery 
lessees  had  worked  the  coal-mines  under,  and  contiguous  to,  the  plaintiffs  property 
in  the  usual  manner,  viz.,  by  taking  away  a  portion  of  the  coal  and  leaving  the  residue 
standing  as  pillars  to  support  the  roof  of  the  mine.  The  pillars  so  left  were 
proved  to  be  quite  sufficient  for  the  support  of  the  superincumbent  strata  if  all  other 
portions  of  the  mine  had  been  worked  in  a  similar  manner,  but  in  the  course  of 
their  workings  the  defendants  in  the  year  1848,  worked  the  coal  from  4^  acres, 
purchased  of  a  Mr.  Simpson,  leaving  pillars,  and  in  the  following  year  removed  the 
pillars  from  about  two  acres.  As  soon  as  these  pillars  were  removed,  the  roof  of 
the  mine  which  they  supported  fell  in,  and  produced  a  goaf,  called  Simpson^s  goaf. 
As  this  increased  the  pressure  on  the  adjoining  pillars,  there  was  produced  what 
is  known  amongst  miners  as  a  ^'  thrust,"  the  natural  effect  of  which  was  to  crush 
and  knock  down  the  pillars  in  the  vicinity  of  Simpson's  goaf,  and  as  the  thrust 
gradually  extended  the  roof  of  the  mine  fell  in,  the  strata  above  were  disturbed, 
and  the  buildings  on  the  surface,  including  a  great  part  of  West  Auckland,  were 
cracked  and  injured.  In  the  year  1854,  the  thrust  in  its  injurious  consequences 
began  to  operate  on  the  plaintiffs  premises,  which  were  distant  over  380  yards 
from  the  point  where  the  pillars  were  first  removed  under  Simpson's  land.  The 
pillars  supporting  the  roof  in  this  portion  of  the  mine  were  in  turn  thrown  down, 
and  consequently  the  foundations  of  the  plaintiff  were  disturbed  and  subsided 
in  such  manner  as  in  December,  1854,  to  cause  a  portion  of  the  damage  complained 
of.  In  1856,  the  premises  were  still  further  damaged,  and  on  May  20th  in  that  year 
the  plaintiff  brought  this  action.  The  arbitration  further  found  that  the  working 
of  the  pillars  under  Simpson's  land  was  the  sole  cause  of  the  damage  complained 
of  by  the  plaintiff.  On  these  facts  being  found,  the  case  was  first  argued  before  the 
Court  of  the  Queen's  Bench,  and  it  was  contended  by  the  counsel  for  the  defendant, 
the  present  Mr.  Justice  Hill,  that  the  plaintiff's  right  to  recover  damages  was  barred 
by  the  Statute  of  Limitations,  which  limits  the  time  for  bringing  an  action,  in  a 
case  like  the  present,  to  six  years  next  after  the  cause  of  such  action  arises  and  not 
after.  The  cause  of  action,  it  was  contended,  was  that  which  the  arbitrator  had 
found  to  be  the  sole  cause  of  the  plaintiff's  damages,  viz.,  the  working  of  the 
pillars  in  1849  which  caused  the  thrust.  The  plaintiff,  on  the  other  hand,  contended 
that  the  cause  of  action  did  not  arise  till  damage  was  done,  and  as  the  effects  of  the 
thrust  did  not  manifest  themselves  till  1854,  the  Statute  was  no  bar.  The  judges 
of  the  court,  including  the  late  Lord  Campbell,  decided  in  favour  of  the  defendant's 
contention,  on  the  somewhat  technical  ground  that,  as  one  of  the  ordinary  rights  of 
proi)erty  is  that  it  shall  be  supported  by  the  strata  under  and  adjoining  it,  and  as 
the  pillars  left  under  Simpson's  land  were  essential  for  the  support  of  the  plaintiff's 
house  their  removal  in  1849,  was  depriving  the  plaintiff  of  his  right  of  support  and 
therefore  gave  him  a  cause  of  action — six  years  had  elapsed  since  such  cause  of 


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192  THE  SUPPORT  OF  BUILDINGS. 

action  arose,  and  the  Statute  was  consequently  a  bar.  From  this  decision  the 
plaintiff  appealed  to  the  Court  of  Exchequer  Chamber,  which  reversed  the  judgment 
of  the  Court  of  the  Queen's  Bench,  and  this  latter  decision  the  House  of  Lords  has 
just  now  affirmed." 

In  concluBion,  the  writer  feels  that  with  so  many  instances  where, 
nnder  apparently  similar  circnmstances,  the  results  were  so  different,  it 
seems  impossible  to  come  to  any  definite  conclasion  as  to  general  principles, 
and  that  therefore  each  case  must  be  decided  after  consideration  of  its 
special  characteristics.  In  cases  where  the  buildings  are  not  of  great 
value  he  is  of  opinion  that,  generally,  the  wisest  course  is  to  work  the 
minerals  and  let  the  buildings  take  their  chance,  as,  even  if  they  are 
damaged,  a  slight  outlay  will  in  most  cases  probably  make  them 
practically  as  good  as  before,  while  the  value  of  the  minerals  to  be  left 
would  in  many  cases,  both  to  lessor  and  lessee,  far  exceed  that  of  the  cost 
of  repairs.  In  such  cases  the  owner  of  a  house,  especially  if  damaged  by 
the  working  of  his  own  minerals,  ought  not  to  be  too  exacting  and  expect 
a  new  house  in  place  of  an  old  one,  thus  adding  to  the  already  heavy 
burden  of  the  colliery  lessee. 

In  a  recent  case,  in  which  the  writer  was  interested,  between  three  and 
four  acres  were  left  for  the  support  of  a  farmhouse  which  might  not  have 
been  damaged  at  all  if  the  coal  had  been  worked,  and  probably  at  the 
outside  £50  would  have  paid  for  the  injury,  if  any.  The  value  to  the 
lessors  of  the  coal  left  was  about  £450. 

In  any  department  of  knowledge  an  accumulation  of  facts  can  scarcely 
be  without  value,  and  the  writer  trusts  that  the  present  paper  may  not  prove 
an  exception  to  the  rule. 

APPENDICES. 
A.— Descbiption  op  Illustbations,  Plate  VII. 

Fig.  1. — The  rise  of  the  seams  worked  was  at  the  rate  of  1  in  14  to  the  west, 
while  the  surface  was  nearly  level.  The  goaf  in  the  upper  (5  feet)  seam,  at  a  depth 
of  780  feet,  and  the  goaf  in  the  lower  (6  feet)  seam,  at  a  depth  of  960  feet,  is  shown 
by  the  dotted  shadings.  The  house  A,  standing  on  unwrought  coal,  was  damaged  ; 
all  the  other  houses  were  undamaged,  including  the  house  B,  under  which  both 
seams  had  been  entirely  wrought. 

Fig.  2.— The  goaf  in  the  Upper  Main  seam,  6  feet  thick,  at  a  depth  of  780  feet, 
and  the  goaf  in  the  Roaster  seam,  6^  feet  thick,  at  a  depth  of  990  feet,  is  shown  by 
the  dotted  shadings.  A  £ault,  dipping  south  6^  feet,  is  shown  by  a  strong  con- 
tinuous line.    The  buildings  between  the  points  A  and  B  were  considerably  damaged. 

Fig.  3.— The  Roaster  seam,  6^  feet  thick,  at  a  depth  of  990  feet,  was  entirely 
wrought  out,  and  the  buildings  were  considerably  damaged. 

Fig.  4.— The  goaf  in  the  Upper  Main  seam,  6  feet  thick,  at  a  depth  of  780  feet, 
and  the  goaf  in  the  Roaster  seam,  6\  feet  thick,  at  a  depth  of  990  feet,  is  shown  by 
the  dotted  shadings.    The  houses  were  slightly  damaged. 

Fig.  6. — The  Main  Coal  seam,  3^  feet  thick,  at  a  depth  of  180  feet,  was  left 


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THE  SUPPORT  OP  BUILDINGS. 


19d 


nnwToaght  under  the  building,  and  was  entirely  surrounded  by  goaf.  The  buildings 
were  not  damaged. 

Fig.  6. — ^The  Main  Coal  seam,  3  feet  10  inches  thick,  at  a  depth  of  132  feet,  was 
wrought  in  bords  and  walls,  leaving  624  V^^  <^^^»  ot  the  coal  un wrought  in  the 
pillars.    The  buildings  were  undamaged. 

Fig.  7. — ^The  Main  Ck)al  seam,  8^  feet  thick,  at  a  depth  of  510  feet,  was  left  un- 
wrought  under  the  buildings,  which  were  partly  surrounded  by  goaf.  A  fault  is 
shown  by  a  strong  continuous  line.    The  buildings  were  not  damaged. 

Fig.  8. — The  Main  Coal  seam,  3  feet  2  inches  thick,  at  a  depth  of  390  feet,  was 
wrought  in  bords  and  walls,  leaving  62J  per  cent,  of  the  coal  unwrought  in  the 
pillars.    The  building  was  undamaged. 

Fig.  9. — The  Main  Coal  seam,  3  feet  4  inches  thick,  at  a  depth  of  360  feet,  was 
wrought  in  bords  and  walls,  leaving  65  per  cent,  of  the  coal  unwrought  in  the 
pillars.    Some  damage  was  caused  to  the  buildings. 

Fig.  10. — The  Main  Coal  seam,  3  feet  8  inches  thick,  at  a  depth  of  90  feet,  was 
left  unwrought  under  the  buildings,  which  were  surrounded  by  goaf  upon  three 
sides.    The  building  was  not  damaged. 

Fig.  11. — The  Brockwell  seam,  3  feet  8  inches  thick,  at  a  depth  of  480  feet,  was 
wrought  in  bords  and  walls,  leaving  64  per  cent,  of  the  coal  unwrought  in  the 
pillars.    The  buildings  were  undamaged,  although  surrounded  by  goaf  on  all  sides. 

Fig.  12. — The  Main  Coal  seam,  3  feet  4  inches  thick,  at  a  depth  of  360  feet,  was 
wrought  in  bords  and  walls,  leaving  55  per  cent,  of  the  coal  unwrought  in  the  pil- 
lars.   The  buildings  were  not  injured,  although  goaf  was  closely  adjacent  at  each  side. 

Fig.  18. — The  Main  Coal  seam,  3  feet  4  inches  thick,  at  a  depth  of  420  feet,  was 
wrought  in  bords  and  walls,  leaving  62J  per  cent,  of  the  coal  unwrought  in  the 
pillars.  The  buildings  stand  on  a  steep  hill,  inclining  heavily  to  the  south.  The 
principal  damage  to  buildings  occurred  at  the  point  A. 

Fig.  14. — The  Main  Coal  seam,  3  feet  2  inches  thick,  at  a  depth  of  300  feet,  was 
wrought  in  bords  and  walls,  66  per  cent,  of  the  coal  being  left  unwrought  in  the 
pillars.  The  buildings  stand  on  a  steep  hill  and  were  not  damaged,  although 
.  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  goaf. 

Fig,  16. — The  Main  Coal  seam,  2  feet  10  inches  thick,  at  a  depth  of  feet,  was 
wrought  in  bords  and  walls,  leaving  64  per  cent,  of  the  coal  unwrought  in  the 
pillars.  The  buildings  were  undamaged,  although  surrounded  with  goaf ;  the  pillars 
were  afterwards  removed,  and  the  buildings  were  only  slightly  damped. 

Fig.  16.— The  Main  Coal  seam,  3  feet  4  inches  thick,  at  a  depth  of  192  feet,  dips 
eastward  at  1  in  12.  The  workings  were  on  the  bord-and-wall  system,  leaving 
60  per  cent,  of  unwrought  coal  in  the  pillars.  Faults  are  shown  by  strong  con- 
tinuous lines.  A  small  area  of  goaf  was  made,  and  the  buildings  marked  A,  B, 
C,  D,  E,  and  F  were  seriously  damaged. 

Fig.  17. —The  seam,  4 J  feet  thick,  at  a  depth  of  720  feet,  was  wrought  in  bords 
and  walls,  and  goaves  formed  on  all  sides  of  the  buildings,  which  were  not  damaged. 


B.— Section  op  a  Shaft  Sunk  thbough  the  New  Red  Mabls  and  Eeupeb 
Sandstones  into  Coal-meabukes,  Refebred  to  in  Fig.  1,  Plate  VII. 


No.    Deioription  ot  StnU. 
I  Red    marls,    with 


Thick- 
neaaof 
Strata. 
Ft.    In. 


thin  bands  of  grej 
shale  and  fine- 
grained sand- 
stones (skerries)..  143    0 


Dexyth 

from 

Surface. 

Ft.    In. 


143     0 


No.    Dosoription  of  Strata. 

2  Sandstone 

3  Red  marl 

4  Sandstone 

6  Red  marl 

6  Sandstone 


Thiok- 

Strata. 

Ft.  In. 

3  0 

21  6 

2  3 

36  0 

18  0 


VOL.  v.-iaoa* 


Deptb 
from 
Soxface. 
Ft.  In. 
146  0 
167  6 
169  9 
205  9 
223     9 

13 


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194 


THE  SUPPOBT  OF  BUILDINGS. 


Appendix  'R.— Continued, 


Thiok- 

Depth 

Thiok- 

Depth 

nevof 

nesa 

of 

from 

No  DeMripUon  of  Stnta. 

StMto. 

Surfaoe. 

No.  DeBeripttonoCStnUk 

BtnU. 

Saifaoe. 

Pt.   In, 

Pt. 

In. 

Pt.   In. 

Ft.   In. 

7  Reel  marl 

15     0 

238 

9 

54  Bind        

0 

9 

617     3 

8  Sandstone 

3     0 

241 

9 

55  White  sandstone.. 

0 

6 

617     9 

9  Red  marl 

72     0 

313 

9 

56  Fireclay 

0 

6 

618    8 

10  Sandstone 

3    0 

316 

9 

57  COAL    

3 

4 

621     7 

11  Bind        

7     6 

324 

8 

68  Clunch  or  under- 

12  COAL    

1     4 

325 

7 

clay      

4 

9 

626    4 

13  Fireclay  or  ander- 

69  Stony  bind 

9 

6 

635  10 

clay     

6    0 

330 

7 

60  Dark  bind 

24 

6 

660    4 

14  Bind        

11     0 

341 

7 

61  Fireclay 

0 

6 

660  10 

16  Grey  sandstone... 

10    0 

351 

7 

62  COAL 

4 

6 

665    4 

16  Blue  bind 

20    0 

371 

7 

63  Clunch     

9 

0 

674     4 

17  COAL    

4    0 

376 

7 

64  Black  bind 

9 

6 

683  10 

18  Bat          

0    9 

376 

4 

65  Stony  bind 

16 

3 

699     1 

19  COAL    

1     7 

377 

11 

66  Sandstone 

4 

9 

703  10 

20  Blue  bind 

42    8 

420 

7 

67  Bind,  with  a  part- 

21 Shale       

0    4 

420  11     i 

ing  (1  foot)  of 

22  COAL 

7    0 

427 

11 

sandstone 

6 

0 

709  10 

23  Hard    clunch    or 

68  COAL 

0  10 

710    8 

clay      

5    0 

432 

11 

69  Fireclay 

0 

3i 

710  llj 

24  Soft  bind 

26    0 

458 

11 

70  COAL  —  Uppef 

26  COAL 

6    0 

463 

11 

Main  Seam     ... 

5 

0 

715  m 

26  Bat          

0    6 

464 

5 

71  Fireclay 

5 

3 

721     2j 

27  COAL    

4    6 

468 

11 

72  Bind,    containing 

28  Clunch  or  under- 

nodules  of  iron- 

clay       

2    0 

470 

11 

stone    

11 

3 

732    5^ 

29  Bind  and  clunch 

28    0 

498 

11 

73  Fireclay  with  iron- 

30 Bed,    with    fossil 

stone   

1 

6 

733  lU 

shells 

1     0 

499 

11 

74  Stony  bind 

4 

6 

738     5 

81  Hard  sandstone... 

2     6 

502 

5 

75  Bind         

20 

6 

758  11 

82  Stony  bind 

4    6 

506  11 

76  Fireclay 

0 

6 

759     6 

33  Bind  and  shale  ... 

9     6 

516 

5 

77  COAL    

2 

0 

761     6 

34  COAL  (soft)      ... 

1     0 

517 

5 

78  Fireclay 

10 

0 

771     5 

36  Fireclay 

6    0 

522 

5 

79  Bind        

6 

0 

776     5, 

36  Bind        

7    6 

629 

11 

80  Sandstone 

4 

6 

780  11 
805  11 

37  Bat          

0    5 

630 

4 

81  Stony  bind 

25 

0 

38  COAL    

1     6 

631 

10 

82  Bind        

10 

6 

816     5 

39  Sandstone 

6    0 

536  10 

83  Bat          

1 

0 

817     6 

40  Bind        

9    0 

545 

10 

84  COAL    

4 

6 

821  11, 

41  Fireclay 

1     3 

547 

1 

85  Fireclay 

4 

0 

825  11 

42  COAL    

2    3 

549 

4 

86  Sandstone 

15 

0 

840  11 

43  Bat          

0    2 

549 

6 

87  Shale       

4 

0 

844  n 

44  COAL    

1     8 

551 

2 

88  Fireclay 

0 

3 

845     2r 

45  Fireclay 

2    6 

653 

8 

89  COAL    

3 

3 

848     5: 

46  Clunch  and  bind, 

90  Fireclay 

9 

0 

857     5, 

with  ironstone... 

1     6 

555 

2 

91  COAL 

3 

1 

860     6i 

47  Blue    bind,    with 

92  Stony  bind 

16 

6 

877  o; 

courses  of  iron- 

93 Sandstone 

9 

0 

886     0 

stone    

20    0 

575 

2 

94  Stony  bind 

3 

0 

889     0 

48  White  sandstone.. 

6    0 

580 

2 

95  Sandstone 

1 

8 

890     8 

49  COAL    

2  10 

583 

0 

96  Bind        

19 

0 

909     8 

60  Clunch,  with  courses 

97  Shale       

1 

0 

910     8X 

of  ironstone    ... 

4     6 

687 

6 

98  COAL 

3 

7 

914     3| 
923     9i 

51  Bind,  with  courses 

99  Fireclay 

9 

6 

of  ironstone    ... 

1     6 

589 

0 

100  COAL  —  Lower 

62  Stony  bind 

8    6 

597 

6 

Main  or  Roaster 

53  Sandstone 

19    0 

616 

6 

Seam 

8 

8 

932    0} 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


THE  BUPPOBT  OF  BUILDIHQS. 


196 


C— Section  of  a  Shaft  Sunk  thbouoh  Mabls  and  Kbupeb  Sandstones 
INTO  the  Coal-mbasubeb,  Rbfebbbd  to  in  Fig.  2,  Plate  YII. 


TUok. 

J}0!^ 

Tblok- 

Depth 

mm 

lOf 

tmm 

IMMOf 

from 

NaDMoripfeioiiofSfenite. 

Stnta. 

SoifMe. 

No.  DeBeriptkni  of  StnU. 

etnte. 

Sniteoe. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft  " 

En. 

Ft 

In. 

Ft  In. 

1  Soil,     marl,    and 

66  Clunch  with  iron- 

akerry  

190 

0 

190 

0 

stone  balls 

3 

4 

427     2 

2  Skerries 

I 

0 

191 

0 

67  COAL    

6 

0 

432    2 

8  Marl        

4 

8 

196 

3 

68  Bat          

1 

0 

438    2 

4  Skerry     

1 

0 

196 

3 

69  COAL    

2 

9 

436  11 

6  Marl        

8 

9 

205 

0 

60  Bat          

0 

4 

486    8 

6  Skerry     

1 

0 

206 

0 

61  Fireclay  ... 

1 

0 

437    8 

7  Skerry     

5 

0 

211 

0 

62  Bind        

1 

6 

438    9 

8  Marl        

22 

9 

233 

9 

63  Rock        

8 

6 

442    3 

9  Sandstone  rock  ... 

1 

0 

234 

9 

64  Bind        

3 

0 

446     8 

10  Marl        

6 

0 

239 

9 

66  Rock        

6 

3 

451     6 

11  Skerry     

1 

0 

240 

9 

66  Bind        

4 

7 

456    1 

12  Marl        

6 

0 

245 

9 

67  Rock        

1 

1 

457    2 

13  Marl  and  skerry... 

10 

0 

256 

9 

68  Bind        

1 

2 

468    4 

14  Marl        

0 

7 

266 

4 

69  Rock        

0  10 

469    2 

15  Skerry     

1 

0 

257 

4 

70  Bind        

2 

9 

461  11 

16  Sandstone  rock  ... 

6 

2 

263 

6 

71  Rock        

2 

11 

464  10 

17  Marl        

1 

2 

264 

8 

72  COAL    

6 

8 

471     6 

18  Marl  and  skerry... 

5 

6 

270 

2 

73  Bind        

21 

8 

493     2 

19  Skerry     

1 

0 

271 

2 

74  Stone  bind 

1 

0 

494     2 

20  Marl        

8 

9 

279  11     1 

75  Bind        

3 

0 

497    2 

21  Skerry     

1 

0 

280 

11 

76  Ironstone  balls  ... 

0 

6 

497     8 

22  Marl        

4 

0 

284 

11 

77  Bind        

3  10 

601     6 

23  Sandstone  rock  ... 

6 

3 

290 

2 

78  Ironstone 

0 

2 

601     8 

24  Marl        

2 

6 

292 

8 

79  Bind        

0 

3 

601  11 

26  Marl        

7 

0 

299 

8 

80  Ironstone 

0 

2 

602     1 

26  Conglomerate    ... 

27  Marl        

8 

4 

308 

0 

81  Bind        

4 

4 

606    6 

3 

6 

311 

6 

82  Ironstone 

0 

2 

606     7 

28  Rock        

7 

7 

319 

1 

83  Bind        

0 

6 

607     1 

29  Bind        

4 

0 

323 

1 

84  Ironstone 

0 

n 

607    a 

80  Bat          

1 

7 

824 

8 

85  Bind        

0 

r 

607  11 

31  COAL    

0 

4 

326 

0 

86  Ironstone 

0 

u 

608     1 

82  Clunch    

6 

6 

331 

6 

87  Bind        

0  10 

508  11 

33  Bind        

1 

6 

333 

0 

88  Dark  bind 

0  10 

609    9 

34  Clunch    

4 

1 

337 

1 

89  Bind        

2 

0 

511     9 

36  Whinstone  rock... 

25 

8 

362 

9 

90  Ironstone 

0 

2 

511  11 

86  Bat          

1 

6 

364 

3 

91  Bind        

6 

4 

617    8 

37  Clunch    

7 

9 

372 

0 

92  COAL    

6 

0 

622    3 

88  COAL    

0 

6 

372 

6 

93  Bat          

1 

4 

623     7 

89  Fireclay 

1 

6 

374 

0 

94  COAL 

6 

2 

628     9 

40  Bat          

0 

4 

374 

4 

95  Clunch    

8 

1 

631  10 

41  Clunch    

9 

6 

383 

10 

96  Bind        

4 

6 

536    8 

42  COAL 

1 

6 

385 

4 

97  Ironstone 

0 

2 

536    6 

43  Fireclay 

1 

3 

386 

7 

98  Bind        

1 

0 

537    6 

44  Sandstone  rock  .,. 

3 

6 

390 

0 

99  Ironstone 

0 

2 

537    7 

46  Ironstone 

0 

4 

390 

4 

100  Bind        

0 

2 

537     9 

46  Rock        

7 

1 

397 

5 

101  Ironstone 

0 

2 

537  11 

47  Peldon 

1 

0 

398 

5 

102  Bind        

3 

0 

540  11 

48  Bind        

1 

9 

400 

2 

103  Ironstone 

0 

3 

641     2 

49  Fireclay 

0 

6 

400 

8 

104  Bind        

1 

8 

642  10 

60  Rock        

3 

6 

404 

2 

105  Ironstone 

0 

3 

643     1 

51  Ironstone 

0 

2 

404 

4 

106  Bind         

2 

0 

645     1 

62  Bind        

11 

0 

416 

4 

107  Bat          

0 

4 

545     6 

63  Ironstone 

0 

2 

415 

6 

108  Clunch    

2 

0 

647     6 

64  Bind        

2 

0 

417 

6 

109  Bind        

2 

0 

549     6 

66  Bind       

6 

4 

428 

10 

110  Stone  bind 

6 

4 

656    9 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


196 


THS  SUFPOBT  OF  BUILDUTOfi. 


Appendix  C-^-Continued. 


Thick. 

Depth 

neoi 

lOf 

ffoin 

No.  DeaoripUoii  of  Stnto. 

StnU. 

SorfacD. 

Ft. 

In. 

Ft.  In. 

Ill  Cank        

0 

8 

556     5 

112  Bind        

13 

0 

669     5 

113  Dark  bind 

2 

3 

571     8 

114  COAL 

1 

6 

573     2 

116  Bat          

0 

8 

673  10 

116  Clunch 

10 

11 

584    9 

117  Rock        

0 

9 

585     6 

118  Bind        

1 

3 

586     9 

119  Bat          

0 

6 

587     3 

120  Bind        

4 

3 

591     6 

121  Bat          

2 

9 

594     3 

122  Bind        

3 

3 

697     6 

123  Bat          

0 

9 

598     3 

124  COAL 

1 

0 

599     3 

125  Bind        

8 

0 

607    3 

126  Cank        

2 

0 

609    3 

127  Bind        

10 

6 

619     9 

128  COAL 

5 

0 

624     9 

129  Clunch    

1 

8 

626     5 

180  Fireclay 

3 

2 

629     7 

131  COAL 

0 

2 

629     9 

132  Bind        

6 

6 

636     3 

133  Stone  bind 

1 

9 

638     0 

134  Bind        

6 

3 

643    3 

136  Bind        

2 

9 

646    0 

136  Rock        

4 

9 

650    9 

137  Bind        

2 

3 

653    0 

138  Bind        

10 

6 

663    6 

139  COAL 

2 

4 

665  10 

140  Bat          

0 

6 

666     4 

141  COAL 

0  10 

667     2 

142  Fireclay 

9 

0 

676    2 

143  Sandstone  rock  ... 

11 

0 

687     2 

144  Bind        

9 

2 

696    4 

145  COAL 

1 

6 

697  10 

146  Bat          

0 

6 

698    3 

147  CANNELCOAL 

2 

2 

700    5 

148  Sloom      

0 

5 

700  10 

149  Bind        

3 

6 

704     3 

160  Rock        

9 

4 

713     7 

161  Bind        

3  10 

717     6 

162  Stone  bind 

13 

6 

730  11 

163  COAL    

6 

6 

736    5 

164  Clunch    

3 

5 

739  10 

166  Smut       

1 

7 

741     5 

166  Bind        

4 

6 

745  10 

157  Sandstone  rock  ... 

6 

8 

752     6 

158  Sandstone  rock  ... 

3 

4 

755  10 

169  Bind        

8 

4 

7r»4     2 

160  Bock        

1 

10 

766     0 

Thlok- 

Depth 

neai 

of 

from 

Na  DeMripikmofBtnitA. 

Strata. 

Snrfaoe 

Pt. 

In. 

Ft  In. 

161  Bind         

3 

7 

769    7 

162  COAL  —  Upper 

Main  Seam     ... 

5 

6 

775     1 

163  Fireclay 

1 

6 

776    7 

164  Bind        

8 

7 

785    2 

165  COAL 

1 

4 

786     6 

166  Fireclay 

1 

3 

787     9 

167  Clunch 

2 

5 

790    2 

168  Ironstone  balls  ... 

1 

0 

791     2 

169  Bind        

5 

3 

796    6 

170  Bind        

8 

0 

804    5 

171  Ironstone  balls  ... 

1 

0 

805     5 

172  Bind        

7  10 

813     3 

173  Rock        

0 

6 

813    9 

174  Bind        

3 

2 

816  11 

175  Cank        

2 

0 

818  11 

176  Bind        

6 

0 

824  11 

177  Kock        

3 

6 

828     6 

178  Bind        

3 

0 

831     6 

179  Stone  bind 

12 

0 

843     5 

180  COAL 

3 

6 

846  11 

181  Bat          

3 

0 

849  11 

182  CANNEL  COAL 

2 

3 

852     2 

183  Clunch    

1 

6 

853    8 

184  Bind        

5 

6 

859     2 

185  Bind        

8 

0 

867    2 

186  Shale       

5 

0 

872     2 

187  COAL 

3 

0 

875     2 

188  Fireclay 

6 

0 

881     2 

189  Bat          

6 

0 

887    2 

190  Clunch 

1 

0 

888    2 

191  COAL     

3 

6 

891     8 

192  COAL  and  l?at... 

1 

2 

892  10 

193  Fireclay 

2 

8 

895     6 

194  Sloom      

0 

8 

896    2 

195  Bind    with    iron- 

stone  balls 

7 

4 

903    6 

196  Bind        

16 

4 

919  10 

197  Bind        

17 

2 

937    0 

198  Bind        

11 

8 

948     8 

199  Bat          

0 

8 

949    4 

200  COAL 

3 

9 

953     1 

201 'Fireclay 

6 

10 

958  11 

202  COAL  —  Loner 

Main  or  Boaster 

Seam 

9 

2 

968     1 

203  Fireclay 

11 

8 

979     9 

204  Bat          

1 

4 

981     1 

205  Bind        

10 

0 

991     1 

206  Rock        

6 

1 

997     2 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


DI8CTT8ST0K — ^THB   SUPPORT  OP  BUILDINGS.  197 

Mr.  T.  A.  Southern  (Derby)  said  the  paper  was  an  interesting  one 
on  an  important  subject.  A  case  was  mentioned  of  a  pillar  of  a  different 
width  on  each  side  being  left  to  support  a  church ;  it  would  be  well  to 
have  some  explanation  of  the  circumstances.  In  the  remarks  of  Mr. 
Steavenson  embodied  in  the  paper  certain  conditions  were  enumerated 
upon  which  an  injury  depended.  He  thought  to  tliat  should  be  added 
the  structure  and  form  of  the  surface.  If  the  beds  were  at  an  inclination 
the  gradient  should  be  given. 

The  President  said  general  laws  had  been  laid  down  in  reference 
to  the  area  of  pillars  required  for  the  support  of  builings,  out  in  his 
opinion,  whenever  practicable,  it  was  desirable  to  take  out  the  wnole  of 
the  ooal.  Some  lessors  objected  to  this  course,  and  he  thought  it  was 
practically  impossible  to  do  so  without  causing  slight  damage.  It  was 
known  that  a  seam  of  coal  could  not  be  worked  without  causing  subsidence 
of  the  surface,  which  might  affect  buildings  contrary  to  their  expectations, 
sometimes  causing  damage  where  very  little  had  been  anticipated.  He 
wished  Mr.  Spencer  had  recorded  his  views  as  to  the  area  of  pillars  he 
would  suggest  should  have  been  left  under  the  circumstances  mentioned 
in  his  paper,  mining  engineers  have  previously  done  this,  but  possibly  he 
may  have  other  views  on  the  subject.  He  proposed  a  vote  of  thanks  to 
Mr.  Spencer  for  the  trouble  he  had  taken  in  preparing  his  paper. 

Mr.  A.  Sopwith  (Cannock  Chase)  seconded  the  vote  of  thanks.  He 
agreed  that  it  was  difficult  to  lay  down  rules  for  leaving  pillars  under 
buildings,  but  a  valuable  addition  would  be  made  to  the  Transactions  if 
they  could  obtain  from  the  different  mining  districts  actual  facts  as  to 
subsidences  and  what  the  damage  was.  It  was  possible  to  lower 
the  surface  8  or  9  feet  without  damage,  but  a  great  deal  depended  on 
faults  and  other  conditions,  more  especially  with  regard  to  the  surface- 
strata  and  the  surface-soil.  He  had  seen  buildings  as  much  damaged 
by  drainage  of  water  as  by  coal-workings ;  this  was  notably  the  case 
in  his  own  district  where  a  surface-drain  was  put  in.  The  colliery- 
workings  were  about  200  yards  from  the  building  which  sustained  con- 
siderable damage,  which  was  undoubtedly  caused  by  the  water  being 
drained  away. 

The  vote  of  thanks  was  carried  unanimously. 

Mr.  W.  Spencer  acknowledged  the  compliment,  and  said  he  agreed 
with  all  the  remarks  that  had  been  made.  In  reply  to  Mr.  Southern,  he 
regretted  he  could  not  give  reasons  for  the  different  widths  of  coal  left  on 
different  sides  of  the  church — he  gave  the  information  as  it  had  been 
supplied  to  him,  and  supposed  it  was  in  consequence  of  the  dip  of  the 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


198  DISCUSSION— THE  SUPPORT  OF  BUILDINGS. 

measures  or  the  configaration  of  the  sorf  aoe.  The  dip  of  the  measares 
in  the  other  cases  could  be  supplied  afterwards ;  it  was,  however,  in  all  the 
cases,  very  moderate.  He  hoped  other  members  would  give  their 
experience  where  the  strata  or  the  surface  or  both  were  steep,  such  records 
would  be  valuable. 


Mr.  Hbndbrson  exhibited  and  explained  the  instrument  described  in 
the  following  paper  on  a  "Kapid  Traverser"  ; — 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


TVtuu 


^  or Biuldinas: 


Vol.  VPlat£  VR, 


El^  FI6J4, 


GOAF 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


AQd1»J*/<»4*'^i4«w    li#»ti'lt 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


&APID  TtlAVERSl!^.  1^9 


RAPID  TRAVERSER. 


Bt  JAMES  HENDERSON,  M.  Inst.  C.E. 


The  rapid  traverser  instrument  is  based  on  what  is  known  as  the 
plane-table  system  of  surveying,  and  by  its  means  enclosed  and  open 
traverses,  both  at  the  surface  and  underground,  can  be  accomplished  and 
subsequently  laid  down  on  paper  with  very  great  rapidity  and  accuracy. 

Unlike  the  plane-table,  however,  it  is  not  intended  that  the  rapid 
traverser  should  be  used  for  plotting  the  survey  in  the  field,  a  process 
involving  many  great  objections,  but  this  is  done  afterwards  in  the 
drawing  ofiSce,  with  the  aid  of  a  parallel  rolling-ruler  and  scale,  and  the 
result  is  highly  satisfactory  in  every  respect. 

The  traverser  (Fig.  1,  Plate  VIII.)  may  briefly  be  described  as  a  circular 
metal  table  of  about  10  inches  in  diameter,  mounted  on  an  ordinary  tripod 
stand  with  the  usual  adjusting  screws,  having  a  brass  alidade  with  an 
ordinary  sight  at  each  end  revolving  round  a  fixed  centre-pin.  The  leading- 
sight  a,  and  the  back-sight  h  are  attached  to  the  lower  frame  of  the  alidade. 

Upon  the  face  of  the  table  a  disc  e  of  celluloid,  Willesden  waterproof 
paper,  or  other  suitable  material,  is  secui'ely  attached  by  means  of  several 
small  brass  screw-nuts  and  bolts/,  and  a  brass  holding-down  plate  ^,  over 
which  the  alidade  by  means  of  a  groove  can  travel  freely.  Celluloid  is  to 
be  preferred  to  any  other  material,  as  it  requires  no  protection  from  the 
weather,  and  does  not  buckle  under  the  effects  of  rain  or  water. 

This  disc  is  divided  into  five  concentric  rings  slightly  scratched  or 
grooved  on  the  oelluloid,  and  the  fiducial  edge  of  the  alidade  is  also  thus 
divided  with  a  small  notch  c  at  each  annulus  for  the  purpose  of  figuring 
or  lettering  the  line  observed  and  pencilled  on  the  disc. 

The  object  of  these  concentric  rings  is  not  only  to  allow  of  separate 
sur\'eys  being  accomplished  on  one  disc,  but  also  to  avoid  overcrowding  of 
direction-lines  in  any  particular  spot  in  the  disc. 

The  quadrant  can  be  attached,  when  required  by  the  screws  d^  d. 

By  means  of  the  usual  clamping-screws  the  table  carrying  the  celluloid 
disc  can  be  clamped  to  the  stand  and  the  alidade  with  the  sights  attached 
to  the  table  when  required. 


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200  RAPID  TRAVERSER. 

The  rapid  traverser  is  worked  as  follows  : — The  iiistniment  is  set  on 
its  stand  in  the  usual  way,  and  levelled  by  means  of  a  small  portable  spirit- 
level  or  by  a  level  fixed  to  the  alidade,  and  the  alidade  is  sighted  (by  a 
back  sight)  on  the  starting  point  of  the  survey,  and  both  the  alidade  and 
the  table  are  securely  fixed  by  their  respective  clamps. 

The  direction  of  this  first  line  of  the  survey  is  then  marked  with  a 
finely  pointed  H  H  pencil  on  the  selected  annulus  of  the  disc  at  two  points 
equidistant  from  the  centre,  and  duly  lettered  or  figured  within  the  notch 
cut  in  the  fiducial  edge  of  the  alidade  for  this  purpose. 

The  alidade  is  then  undamped  and  sighted  to  the  forward  stand  or 
tripod,  and  clamped  (three  tripods  being  recommended  for  properly  con- 
ducting a  traverse),  and  the  direction  of  the  second  line  of  the  survey 
marked  on  the  annulus  as  before. 

The  traverser  is  then  removed  from  its  stand,  and  fixed  with  the 
alidade  still  clamped,  on  the  forward  stand,  and  sighted  back  to  the  tripod 
it  formerly  occupied,  and  clamped. 

This  done  the  alidade  is  undamped,  sighted  to  another  forward  stand ; 
it  is  again  clamped  and  the  direction  of  the  third  line  of  the  survey  duly 
marked  and  figured  on  the  disc,  and  so  on,  for  the  remainder  of  the 
traverse,  the  surveyor  only  recording  in  his  book  the  lengths  of  the  several 
lines,  with  offsets  as  in  the  ordinary  way. 

The  magnetic  meridian  is  taken  at  any  convenient  spot  in  the  course 
of  the  traverse  by  means  of  a  trough  compass  placed  temporarily  against 
the  back  edge  of  the  alidade,  and  the  line  thus  given  pencilled  on  the  disc, 
establishing  the  polarity  of  the  whole  of  the  survey. 

The  same  disc  on  its  table  can  be  used  on  any  disconnected  part  of  a 
survey  by  again  placing  the  trough  compass  against  the  alidade  clamped 
on  the  previously  pencilled  north  line,  the  table  being  moved  until  the 
needle  points  to  the  north. 

The  leading  direction  of  each  line  is  given  by  simply  marking  a  half- 
arrow  against  the  line  before  moving  the  alidade  (Fig.  2),  thereby  showing 
the  course  or  direction  of  each  line. 

The  fiducial  edge  of  the  alidade  should  always  be  to  the  surveyor's 
right  hand,  he  facing  in  the  direction  of  the  next  traverse-line,  not  only 
thereby  affording  greater  facility  for  drawing  and  figuring  the  lines  on  the 
disc,  but  also  preventing  any  chance  of  misplacing  the  guiding  half -arrow 
referred  to. 

In  order  to  use  the  traverser  on  hilly  ground  the  sights  at  each  end  of 
the  alidade  are  marked  in  degrees  up  to  25,  so  that  by  looking  over  ihe 


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RAPID  TRAVER8EB.  201 

top  of  the  back  sight  and  getting  the  forward  object  in  line  with  one  of  the 
divisions  the  angle  of  declination  can  be  at  once  read  and  reooi-ded. 

Where  greater  accuracy  in  vertical  angles  is  required,  such  as  in 
diagonal  shafts  of  a  mine,  a  quadi-ant,  or  properly  speaking,  a  semicircle, 
is  attached  to  the  alidade,  and  the  angles  read  to  minutes,  as  in  the 
ordinary  theodolite  or  miner's  dial. 

The  method  of  using  the  traverser  having  now  been  explained,  it  only 
remains  to  describe  its  application  in  the  drawing  oflBce.  One  or  more 
meridian  lines  having  been  drawn  on  the  intended  plan,  the  disc  (Fig.  2, 
Plate  VIII.)  is  removed  from  its  circular  table  and  placed,  with  the  north 
line  already  marked  on  it  in  the  field,  in  its  proper  position  and  kept  theife 
by  a  weight  or  two.  A  heavy  metal  rolling  parallel-ruler  is  then  applied  to 
each  line  of  the  survey  in  succession,  as  shown  on  the  disc,  and  correctly 
marked  ofif  on  the  plan.  In  a  large  survey  the  disc  can  be  moved  to  any 
one  of  the  meridian  lines  as  required.  In  short,  the  disc  becomes  a 
protractor  of  great  accuracy,  and  errors  in  misplotting  can  seldom  occur, 
the  actual  lines  drawn  in  the  field  being,  if  carefully  figured  or  numbered, 
represented  in  counterpart  on  the  plan. 

Fig.  2,  Plate  VIII.,  is  a  reduced  facsimile  of  the  disc,  used  in  the 
survey  of  Carnon  Estate,  parish  of  Feock,  county  of  Cornwall ;  and  Fig.  8, 
shows  the  draft  lines  of  the  survey  produced  from  the  disc. 

For  future  reference  the  disc  itself  may  be  kept,  the  name  and  date  of 
the  survey  being  recorded  thereon,  or  the  magnetic  bearings  of  the  lines 
may  be  read  off  with  facility,  and  the  same  entered  in  the  field  or  survey 
book,  when  the  celluloid  disc  can  be  cleaned  with  soap  and  water  or  by 
means  of  india-rubber  and  rendered  quite  fit  for  the  next  occasion. 

A  convenient  method  of  reading  off  the  bearings  is  to  place  the  disc  in 
the  centre  of  an  ordinary  cardboard  protractor,  which  has  been  cut  out  for 
the  purpose,  both  being  pinned  to  the  board.  A  central  metal  spill 
projects  from  the  board,  and  by  means  of  an  alidade  constructed  so  as  to 
work  on  this  spill  the  bearings  are  read  off  with  ease  and  rapidity. 

The  inventor  of  the  rapid  traverser  has  used  this  instrument  with 
great  success  both  underground,  in  mines,  and  in  surface  surveys.  Its 
simplicity  will  be  at  once  seen  and  recognized  by  the  professional  surveyor, 
who,  when  he  knows  that  all  his  survey  lines  are  being  truthfully  registered 
with  the  very  least  degree  of  trouble  to  himself,  will  no  doubt  appreciate 
its  merits. 

The  inventor  was  at  first  apprehensive  that  the  wet  and  dirt  to  which 
the  instrument  would  be  exposed  when  used  in  mines  would  be  a  serious 
drawback  to  its  application,  but  from  experience  he  is  able  to  say  that 


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202  RAPID  TRAVBBSER. 

oelluloid  discs  are  not  liable  to  injury  underground.  A  dash  of  dean 
water  applied  at  any  time  will  eflFectually  remove  any  dirt,  without  the 
slightest  obliteration  of  the  pencil  marks,  which  can  be  made  as  readily 
and  as  permanently  when  the  disc  is  under  a  film  of  water  as  when  it  is 
perfectly  dry. 

The  rapid  traverser  can  be  readily  used  for  setting  out  in  the  field, 
lines  at  right  angles,  or  at  any  required  angle,  the  necessary  lines  on  the 
disc  being  drawn  in  the  office  beforehand.  For  rapid  triangulation-work 
the  traverser  now  described  can  be  used  with  great  advantage.  A  suitable 
base-line  having  been  measured,  it  only  needs  to  set  up  the  traverser  at 
each  end  in  succession,  when  the  bearings  of  all  required  distant  points  can 
be  noted  on  the  disc,  and  the  work  subsequently  plotted  in  the  office  to 
any  scale. 

The  instrument  being  very  portable,  requiring  no  skilled  manipula- 
tion, no  reading  of  angles,  and  no  subsequent  calculation,  should  be  found 
most  useful  for  military  purposes.  It  could  be  worked  with  rapidity  in  all 
weathers,  and  the  salient  points  of  the  country,  the  position  of  the  enemy, 
etc.,  subsequently  mapped  with  speed  and  accuracy. 

The  traverser  could  also  be  used  as  a  range-finder  and  with  a  previously 
measured  base-line,  traversers  worked  simultaneously  from  both  ends, 
the  range  of  even  a  moving  object  could  be  discovered  with  an  accuracy 
approximate  enough  to  be  of  considerable  advantage. 


On  the  motion  of  the  Pbebidekt  a  vote  of  thanks  was  accorded  to 
Mr.  Henderson  for  his  paper. 


The  following  paper,  by  Mr.  John  Milne,  "On  Earth  Pulsations  and 
Mine  Gas,"  was  read,  and  a  tromometer  was  kindly  exhibited  and  explained 
Mr.  Horace  Darwin  :— 


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^'"'^  Traverser 


Vol,  Y.Plate  VDl, 


FIG.  3 


Skeleton  Map  OF^T^Ay^RSE  LmESpigi^i^^^  ^y GoOqIc 
As  Ruled  off  from  Adjacent  Disc  ^ 


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ON  BABTH  PULSATIONS  AND  MIKE  GAS.  208 


ON  EARTH  PULSATIONS  AND  MINE  GAS. 


By  JOHN  MILNE,  P.R.S.,  F.O.S. 


1.— Inteoduction. 

In  the  following  pages  the  writer  chiefly  refers  to  the  resolt  of  his 
own  observations  in  Japan  to  which  is  added  a  short  critical  examination 
of  work  carried  out  in  Italy. 

A  description  of  the  observations  made  during  the  last  twelve  months 
is  here  given  for  the  first  time,  while  work  undertaken  by  the  author 
during  previous  years  will  be  found  in  the  following  publications : — 

1.  "Observations  of  Tremors,  etc.,  in  Takashima  Colliery,"  Ja^n 

OttzettBy  January  12th,  1884. 

2.  "Earth  Tremors,"  Transcictions  of  the  Seismoloffical  Society  of 

Japan,  1888,  vol.  vii.,  page  1. 
8.  "  Earth  Tremors  in  Central  Japan,"  Transactions  of  the  Seis- 
mological  Society  ofJapan^  1887,  vol.  xi.,  page  1. 

4.  "  Earth  Tremors  in  Central  Japan,"  Transactions  of  the  Sets- 

mological  Society  of  Japan,  1888,  vol.  xiii.,page  7. 

5.  "Earth  Tremors  and  the  Wind,"  Journal  of  the  Royal  Meteoroh- 

gical  Society,  1888,  vol.  xiv.,  page 

6.  "Reports  of  Committee  on  the  Earthquake  and  Volcanic  Pheno- 

mena of  Japan,"  Reports  of  the  British  Association,  1881,  page 

200 ;  1882,  page  205  ;  1888,  page  211 ;  1884,  page  241 ; 

1885,  page  862 ;  1886,  page  418  ;  1887,  page  212 ;  1888, 

page  422 ;  1889,  page  295 ;  1890,  page  160 ;  1891,  page 

128  ;  and  1892,  page  98. 

In  the  investigations  detailed  in  the  above  papers,  notwithstanding 

the  fact  that  tables  were  given  to  show  that  tromometric  movements 

followed  barometric  gradients,  the  author  attributed  the  occurrence  of 

tremors  to  local  or  distant  winds  which  might  be  the  result  of  these 

gradients.    Investigations  carried  on  during  the  last  year,  having  thrown 

a  clearer  light  on  the  nature  of  these  motions,  the  writer  no  longer 

regards  them  as  rapidly  recurring  elastic  vibrations,  usually  called  earth 


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204  ON  EARTH  PULSATIONS  AND  MINE  GAS. 

tremors,  but  rather  as  comparatively  slow  wave-like  undulations  of  the 
soil,  which,  rather  than  being  a  secondary  effect  of  barometric  fluctuations 
may  be  an  immediate  consequence  of  such  changes. 

Movements  of  this  character  may  have  a  direct  connexion  with  the 
escape  of  gas  from  the  coals  of  fiery  mines,  they  may  influence  the  results 
arrived  at  in  pendulum  experiments,  they  may  affect  the  accuracy  of  an 
ordinary  chemical  balance,  and  may  have  a  relationship  to  many  astro- 
nomical and  physical  investigations ;  in  the  following  pages  the  author 
proposes  to  give  an  outline  of  various  researches  bearing  on  these 
imperfectly  understood  phenomena. 

2.— On  the  Escape  of  Mine  Gab  in  Relation  to  Earth 
Pulsations. 

To  determine  whether  the  escape  of  gas  at  a  coal-mine  had  any 
relationship  to  earth  movements,  in  1883  the  writer  prepared  a  number 
of  instruments  to  be  used  at  the  Takashima  colliery  near  Nagasaki  in 
Japan:  the  workings  of  which  are  partly  beneath  the  bed  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  The  movements  to  be  looked  for  were  the  so-called  earth 
tremors — which  are  motions  altogether  different  in  character  from  earth- 
quakes—  and  from  disturbances  due  to  the  bending  of  superincumbent 
strata  by  the  rising  and  falling  of  the  tide.  Every  facility  was  given  by 
the  mine-owners  for  the  establishment  of  an  under-ground  observatory — 
benches  were  cut  in  an  old  working,  while  a  tromometer,  a  microphone, 
a  specially-designed  apparatus  to  measure  and  record  yielding  of  the  roof, 
a  seismograph,  and  other  instruments  were  set  up.  A  few  weeks  later  a 
fall  occurred,  and  the  instruments  have  remained  buried  ever  since.  It 
may  be  here  remarked  that  the  seismographs  then  employed,  belowground 
and  also  on  the  surface,  were  installed  not  because  it  was  supposed  that 
they  would  give  records  showing  any  connexion  with  the  issue  of  mine  gas 
but  more  for  the  purpose  of  measuring  the  difference  between  motion 
recorded  underground  and  that  which  was  felt  on  the  surface.  They 
were  of  a  very  old  type,  designed  by  the  writer,  and  practically  identical 
with  a  seismoscope  used  at  Mai*sdcn.* 

In  consequence  of  the  fact  that  Takashima  is  some  700  miles  distant 
from  Tokio,  where  the  writer  resides,  but  more  especially  in  consequence 
of  the  death  of  Mr.  John  Stoddart,  the  resident  engineer  at  the  mine, 

♦  Trant»  N,  U,  Tngt,  Min.  Mg,  (Seismometer  used  at  MarsdeD).  voL  zzxvii, 
Plate  VIII. 


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ON   SABTH  PULSATIONS  AND  MINE  GAB.  205 

who  had  undertaken  chaise  of  the  instraments,  no  attempt  has  been 
made  to  re-establish  them..  Beference  is  made  to  these  investigations 
which  had  bnt  a  bare  commencement,  in  a  paper  by  Mr.  M.  Walton 
Brown  "On  the  Observation  of  Earth-shakes  or  Tremors,  in  order  to 
Foretell  the  lasue  of  Sudden  Outbursts  of  Fire-damp,"*  in  a  report 
to  the  British  Association  on  the  ''Volcanic  Phenomena  of  Japan," 
Beport  for  1886,  page  418,  and  again  by  M.  6.  Chesneau  in  the  Annales 
des  Minesy  1888,  series  8,  vol  xiii,  page  889. 

In  Mr.  M.  Walton  Brown's  paper  he  gives  a  comparison  between  the 
frequency  of  earthquakes  in  Great  Britain  and  the  fatal  explosions  of  gas 
in  collieries,  showing  that,  roughly  speaking,  earthquakes  have  been  more 
frequent  during  the  winter  months  when  gas  explosions  have  been 
frequent.  Although  Mr.  Brown  distinctly  points  out  that  there  may  be 
nndulatory  and  vibratory  motions  in  the  earth's  crust  which  may  be 
related  to  the  outflow  of  gas,  in  the  report  of  the  committee  appointed 
to  enquire  into  the  observations  of  earth  tremors  in  mining  district8,t  we 
only  find  the  records  of  instruments  which  could  record  the  occurrence  of 
earthquakes. 

In  France,  however,  at  Douai,  the  liberation  of  fire-damp  in  connexion 
with  the  movements  of  tromometers  has  received  careful  attention,  and 
the  results  first  obtained  are  indicated  in  the  Annales  des  Mines.X  A 
fuller  account  of  these  investigations  is  given  in  the  paper  already 
referred  to  by  M.  Chesneau.  By  means  of  a  Pieler  lamp  the  gas  in  the 
returns  was  measured  daily  at  6  a.m.,  at  which  time  on  account  of  work 
ceasing  at  5*80  ajn.,  the  quantity  of  gas  was  as  far  as  possible  inde- 
pendent of  the  quantity  of  coal  being  extracted. 

Barometric  observations  were  made  on  the  surface  and  underground. 
The  tromometric  records  were  obtained  from  a  'Hromom^tre  normal" 
consisting  of  a  pendulum  1*50  metres  long,  the  style  of  which  was 
observed  with  a  microscope  containing  a  micrometric  scale. 

The  results  obtained  were  briefly  as  follows : — 

I.  Microseismic  Disturbances  and  Fire-damp. — The  curves  agreed  in 
direction  on  81  days ;  the  curves  disagreed  in  direction  on  46  days ;  the 
curves  practically  followed  a  horizontal  line  on  51  days;  total,  178  days. 

II.  Barometrical  Fluctuations  and  Fire-damp, — The  curves  disagreed 
in  direction  on  76  days;  the  curves  agreed  in  direction  on  61  days; 
the  curves  practically  follow  a  horizontal  line  on  54  days ;  total,  180  days. 

*  Trans,  N,  E.  Irut.  Min,  Eng.,  vol.  xzxiii.,  page  179. 
t  Ihid,t  vol.  xxxvii.,  page  55. 
t  Vol.  is.,  ISSe,  page  25S. 


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206  OH  BABTH  PULSATIONS  AND   MINE  GAS. 

III.  Mieroseismic  Movements  and  the  Appearance  of  Fire-damp  within 
at  least  24  hours. — ^When  microeeisms  have  exceeded  1  division,  the  curves 
agreed  7  times  and  disagreed  4  times ;  when  microfieisms  have  been  between 
\  and  1  division,  the  curves  agreed  18  times  and  disagreed  7  times ;  when 
microseisms  have  been  0,  fire-damp  has  decreased  9  times  and  increased  or 
been  constant  4  times.  For  maxima  or  minima  of  fire-damp  not  included 
in  the  above,  there  were  9  cases  of  concordance  and  2  of  discordance. 

IV.  Comparison  of  Percentage  of  Fire-damp  and  Tremors. — ^When 
fire-damp  has  exceeded  0*6  per  cent.,  movements  were  always  observed, 
that  is  on  four  occasions.  When  fire-damp  has  been  below  0'5  and  above 
0*25  per  cent.,  movements  have  been  observed  thirteen  times,  and  seven 
times  they  were  not  observed. 

V.  BaromeOe  Variations  and  Fire-damp. — When  there  has  been  a  rise 
and  fall  of  20  millimetres  or  more  within  twenty-four  hours,  fire-damp 
has  been  observed  twice  and  not  observed  once.  With  a  variation  of 
15  millimetres  to  20  millimetres,  it  has  been  observed  four  times  and  not 
observed  once.  With  a  variation  of  16  millimetres  to  10  millimetres,  it 
has  been  observed  five  times  and  not  observed  on  seven  occasions. 

VI.  Percentage  of  Fire-damp  and  Barometric  Fluctuation. — When  fire- 
damp during  twenty-four  hours  has  exceeded  0*5  per  cent.,  in  three  cases 
there  has  been  agreement  with  barometric  movements  and  in  two  cases 
disagreement.  When  fire-damp  has  been  between  0*5  and  0*25  per  cent., 
there  have  been  eleven  cases  of  agreement  with  barometric  fluctuations. and 
thirteen  cases  of  disagreement. 

In  the  discussion  of  results  M.  Chesneau  points  out  that  mieroseismic 
movements  are  more  clearly  related  to  the  escape  of  gas  than  barometric 
movements.  On  some  occasions  this  relationship  between  the  three 
phenomena  has  been  extremely  well  marked,  as  for  example  on  December 
8th,  1886. 

A  point  in  connexion  with  this,  which  although  not  referred  to  by 
M.  Ohesneau,  can  hardly  have  escaped  his  attention,  is  that  although  the 
increase  in  mieroseismic  movements,  the  increase  in  gas,  and  the 
barometric  fall  commenced  simultaneously,  the  mieroseismic  movements 
reached  a  maximum  about  six  hours  before  the  gas  reached  a  maximum, 
whilst  the  lowest  point  of  the  barometric  curve  occurred  even  twelve 
hours  later,  or  eighteen  hours  after  the  maxima  of  the  tromometric  move- 
ments. 

To  know  whether  these  earth  movements  or  even  their  maxima 
are  always  somewhat  in  advance  of  the  escape  of  fire-damp  is  a  matter 
for  future  experiments  and,  in  the  writer's  opinion,  can  only  be  deter- 


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ON  EABTH  PULSATIONS  AND  MINE  GAS.  207 

mined  by  the  use  of  iiistruinents  yielding  a  continnous  antomatic  record, 
a  form  of  which  is  described  in  this  paper.  The  only  other  work  with 
which  the  writer  is  acquainted  bearing  on  the  matter  now  under  con- 
sideration is  a  comparison  between  the  monthly  curves  of  microseismic 
activity  in  Italy  and  a  number  of  explosions  of  fire-damp  recorded 
in  Germany.  The  latter,  which  are  arranged  as  a  monthly  curve,  show 
a  close  relationship  with  the  microseismic  curve. 

8. — Observations  op  Earth  Pulsations  in  Japan. 

As  the  results  at  which  the  writer  has  arrived  in  Japan  are  in  several 
respects  very  different  from  those  arrived  at  in  Italy ;  these  will  be  briefly 
enumerated:  the  object  being  to  compare  the  conditions  accompanying 
the  appearance  of  tremors  with  what  we  know  respecting  the  escape  of 
fire-damp. 

The  instruments  employed  by  the  writer  have  been  various,  one  of  the 
first  being  similar  to  the  normal  tromometer  of  Bertelli  and  Rossi.  As 
it  often  happened  that  the  pendulums  showed  deflections  of  the  vertical, 
for  several  years  records  were  taken  of  a  pair  of  good  astronomical  levels. 
At  the  time  of  a  typhoon,  when  there  are  sudden  changes  in  barometric 
pressure,  it  was  observed  that  the  bubbles  of  these  instruments  would 
intermittently  pulsate  through  a  range  of  say  1  millimetre,  conveying  the 
idea  that  the  column  on  which  they  stood  was  being  rapidly  raised  and 
lowered.  This  was  the  first  indication  obtained  by  the  writer  that  the 
ground  might  at  times  be  subjected  to  rapidly-recurring  tilts.  As 
indicators  of  gradual  changes  in  level,  notwithstanding  all  ordinary  pre- 
cautions being  taken  to  eliminate  effects  due  to  change  of  temperature, 
the  writer  arrived  at  the  conclusion,  reached  a  long  time  previously  by 
M.  d'Abbadie,  that  records  obtained  from  these  instruments  were  untrust- 
worthy. For  example,  it  was  found  that  with  two  levels  placed  parallel  to 
each  other  the  bubble  of  the  one  might  move  to  the  right,  whilst  the 
bubble  of  the  other  crept  towards  the  left. 

Other  instruments  of  the  pendulum  type  were  short  pendulums  con- 
sisting of  a  shot  suspended  by  a  fibre  inside  a  vacuum  tube.  These 
pendulums  were  from  2  to  6  inches  in  length.  Other  pendulums,  which 
will  record  elastic  vibrations  like  those  produced  by  a  passing  carriage, 
were  essentially  very  small  plates  or  cylinders  suspended  near  their  upper 
edges.  Their  movements  were  observed  by  means  of  a  microscope  or  by 
watching  a  spot  of  light,  reflected  by  a  mirror  which  they  carried, 
move  backwards  and  forwards  across  a  scale.  For  a  long  period  earth 
movements  were  observed  by  instruments  similar  in  type  to  the  mirror- 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


208 


ON  EABTH  PULSATIONS  AND  MINE  GAS. 


pendulimi  arrangement  employed  by  Messrs.  0.  and  H.  Darwin  in 
their  well-known  experiments  on  lunar  attraction  in  the  Cavendish 
laboratory. 

One  instrument,  which  was  used  very  successfully  for  several  years 
and  which  gave  automatic  records,  consisted  of  a  heavy  pendulum  about 
8  feet  in  length,  the  movements  of  which  were  amplified  by  the  motion 
of  a  long  multiplying  pointer.  In  general  appearance  this  was  not 
unlike  the  author's  form  of  seismoscope  employed  at  Marsden,  but 
instead  of  the  pointer  multiplying  the  relative  motion  of  the  pendulum 
and  the  ground  say  ten  times,  it  multiplied  the  motion  about  one  hundred 
times.  By  a  clock-work  arrangement  and  an  induction  coil,  sparks  were 
discharged  every  five  minutes  from  the  end  of  the  pointer  which  per- 
forated two  bands  of  paper  moving  at  right  angles  beneath.  When  there 
were  no  tremors,  the  records  consisted  of  a  series  of  holes  following  each 
other  in  a  straight  line  about  J  inch  apart ;  but  when  there  were  tremors, 
the  paper  was  perforated  by  a  series  of  holes  in  all  directions  round  the 
normal  position  of  the  tip  of  the  pointer.  From  the  position  of  the  holes, 
and  the  breadth  of  paper  over  which  they  were  distributed,  the  duration  of 
"  tremor  "  storms  and  their  relative  intensity  was  clearly  determinable. 

Although  many  of  the  author's  conclusions  were  based  on  a  com- 
parison of  these  records  with  the  tri-daily  weather  maps,  he  recognized 

that,  on  account  of    the  natural 
period    of 
chronizing 

with  the  period  of  the  impulses 
called  tremors  and  from  its  inertia 
which  kept  it  swinging  when  earth- 
motions  might  have  ceased,  to  study 
the  nature  of  these  movements  more 
closely,  a  totally  different  type  of  in- 
strument was  required.  The  form 
adopted  is  essentially  an  exceedingly 
light,  and  at  the  same  time  sensitive 
pair  of  conical  pendulums  which  are 
constructed  as  follows : — a  6  is  an 
aluminium  wire  supported  in  an  hori- 
zontal position  by  the  silk  fibre  a  e. 
A  small  galvanometer-mirror  is  attached  at  a,  while  the  needle  tipped  point 
of  the  wire  rests  on  an  agate  pivot  at  b.  By  means  of  the  levelling-screws 
de/the  pendulum  may  be  arranged  to  have  any  degree  of  stability.    The 


the     pendulum    syn- 
or    non-synchronizing 


Fig.  1. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


ON  KABTH  PULSATIONS  AND  MINE  GAS.  209 

adjastment  given  by  the  writer  is  such  that  a  h  swings  with  a  period 
of  abont  five  seconds.  The  less  stability  given  to  the  system  the  more 
sensitive  does  it  become  to  a  change  of  level.  A  beam  of  light  from  a 
small  kerosene  lamp,  having  passed  through  a  vertical  slit  and  then  a  lens, 
impinges  on  the  mirror  and  is  reflected  back  upon  a  scale  about  3  feet 
distant,  where  it  is  seen  practically  as  a  vertical  line  of  light,  and  this  is 
always  more  or  less  in  motion.  By  turning  a  screw  of  the  support,  so  that 
the  bedplate  is  tilted  to  say  1  in  900,  the  image  of  light  is  displaced 
about  9  inches,  and  as  the  readings  are  to  millimetres,  a  tilt  of  1  in 
200,000  is  easily  noted.  When  the  image  is  practically  steady  at  any 
particular  point  on  the  scale,  and  the  mirror  is  caused  to  swing,  in  a  few 
minutes  it  returns  to  its  normal  position.  A  spirit  lamp  burning  outside 
but  close  to  the  glass  cover,  produces  no  appreciable  change.  In  a  com- 
plete apparatus,  two  of  these  instruments  are  placed  so  that  their  planes 
of  swing  are  at  right  angles  and  both  may  reflect  portions  of  the  same 
beam  of  light.  By  lifting  the  scale — ^which  is  movable — on  which  the 
readings  are  noted  the  vertical  beam  crosses  a  horizontal  slit  opening  into 
a  box,  in  which  there  is  a  photographic  plate  moving  slowly  by  clock- 
work. For  ordinary  work  the  plates  used  moved  at  the  rate  of  12  inches 
in  twenty-hours,  but  for  a  few  special  experiments  they  were  caused  to 
move  rapidly,  so  that  each  vibration  was  recorded  separately,  and  from 
the  resulting  diagram  the  period  and  amplitude  of  these  could  be 
measured. 

To  economize  space,  the  plate  is  now  replaced  by  a  drum  carrying  a 
photographic  fihn,  so  arranged  that  the  apparatus  can  be  used  in  an 
ordinary  room,  the  box  containing  the  roll  can  be  removed  to  a  dark  room 
in  daylight,  and  at  any  moment  during  the  day  or  night  the  movements 
being  recorded  can  be  watched  and  measured.  From  observations  and 
from  photographs  we  know  that  when  the  mirrors  are  caused  to  swing 
their  period  is  constant,  while  when  they  are  moving  during  a  tremor 
storm  their  period  is  variable.  The  slowly-moving  plates  show  that 
during  a  microseismic  storm  that  maximal  disturbances  occur  at  intervals 
of  from  four  to  eight  minutes.  If  two  of  these  instruments  are  placed  side 
by  side  to  record  the  same  component  of  motion,  we  see  that  they  invariably 
start  at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same  direction,  and  it  is  diflicult  to 
escape  from  the  conclusion  that  they  have  been  simultaneously  tilted. 
They  do  not  commence  gently,  but  suddenly,  as  if  the  column  on  which 
they  stand,  which  is  a  massive  stone  structure  built  many  years  ago  to 
carry  an  equatorial  telescope,  had  been  tilted  by  a  wave.  During  a 
given  storm  the  direction  of  these  impulses  are  fairly  constant. 

VOL.  y,~1892-8.  14 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


210  ON   EAKTH  PULaATIONR  AlTD  MINE  GAS. 

After  one  or  two  swiDgs  the  two  may  disagree  in  phase  of  motion, 
diowing  that  the  recorded  motion  is  compounded  of  the  motion  of  the 
earth  and  the  natural  period  of  the  pendulamB.  These  instroments  do 
not  show  the  effects  due  to  elastic  vibrations,  such  as  might  be  caused  by 
a  person  jumping  on  a  pathway  some  yards  distant  from  the  column. 

Short  pendulums  with  mirrors  show  such  movements,  but  probably 
because  they  are  not  sufficiently  sensitive  to  change  of  level  they  do  not 
record  these  undulatory  disturbances.  From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be 
gathered  that  it  is  the  writer's  opinion  that  the  motions  under  considera- 
tion are  not  elastic  vibrations,  which  might  be  implied  by  the  word 
*^  tremor,^'  nor  are  they  microseismic.  On  the  contrary,  they  are  pulsatory 
motions  which  are  irregular  in  period,  they  cause  tilting,  and  in  their 
general  character  may  resemble  the  swell  of  the  ocean.  They  succeed 
each  other  at  intervals  of  from  one  to  two  seconds,  and  their  maximum 
slopes  recorded  have  reached  about  1  in  40,000.  We  must,  however, 
remember  that  because  the  mirror,  light  as  it  is,  in  all  probability  over- 
swings  its  mark,  the  slope  may  be  less  than  that  now  stated.  Ordinary 
tremors  may  indicate  dopes  of  1  in  200,000.* 

Italian  writers  who,  as  far  as  the  writer  is  aware,  have  not  attempted 
to  define  the  character  of  these  movements,  usually  divide  them  into  baro- 
seismic  or  those  due  to  barometrical  influences  relieving  internal  forces, 
which  occur  with  barometric  depression,  and  volcano-seismic,  which  are 
directly  due  to  eSoiia  at  volcanic  centres  and  which  agree  with  periods  of 
high  pressure.  Even  if  these  movements  are  seismic,  from  their  magnitude, 
they  should  rather  be  called  megaseismic  than  microseismic.  But  as  it 
is  the  writer's  opinion  that  their  origin  may  be  traced  to  fluctuation 
in  barometric  pressure  over  considerable  areas  of  an  elastic  crust,  even 
the  term  seismic  might  be  dismissed.  For  want  of  a  better  term,  the 
writer  calls  them  earth  pulsations. 

4.  Distribution  of  Earth  Pulsations  in  Space  and  Time. 

In  the  writer's  publications  relating  to  earth  pulsations,  prior  to  the 
use  of  instruments  which  have  given  an  insight  into  the  character  of  these 
movements,  their  existence  was  shown  to  be  in  the  majority  of  cases 
coincident  with  the  occurrence  of  a  local  or  distant  wind ;  that  is  to  say, 
even  if  it  was  calm  at  the  observing  station  and  pulsations  were  recorded, 

*  As  the  instnunents  used  by  the  writer  are  but  poorly  oonstructed,  and  there- 
fore not  capable  of  accurate  calibration,  these  measurements  of  slope  must  for  the 
present  only  be  regarded  as  rough  approximations. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


ON  EARTH  PULSATIONS  AND  MINB  GAS.  211 

it  would  be  found  that  within  200  or  300  mQes  a  heavy  gale  was  blowing. 
The  suggestion  was  then  made  that  these  movements  were  vibratory  in 
character  and  had  their  origin  in  gusts  of  wind  acting  against  mountain- 
ranges,  and  on  the  surface  of  the  country  over  which  they  passed,  and 
were  then  transmitted  through  the  surface  of  the  earth  to  distant  localities 
which  it  might  often  happen  that  the  wind  itself  never  reached.  It  was 
also  shown  that  tremors  occurred  almost  always  whenever  the  point  of 
observation  was  crossed  by  a  steep  barometric  gradient,  and  although  the 
Italian  observations  had  not  been  examined  either  in  connexion  with 
distant  winds  or  barometrical  gradients,  what  was  true  for  Japan  appeared 
to  be  equally  true  for  the  Italian  Peninsula. 

In  the  following  smnmary  respecting  the  distribution  of  earth  pulsations 
with  regard  to  space  and  time,  a  few  of  the  writer's  observations  during 
the  past  eight  years  will  again  be  taken,  but  instead  of  considering  the 
records  as  effects  due  to  vibratory  motions  of  an  elastic  medium,  they  will 
be  regarded  as  pulsatory  wave-like  motions  in  the  earth's  crust,  and  the 
reasons  for  thus  regarding  them  have  been  already  stated. 

1.  Tromometric  disturbances  throughout  a  large  area  (in  Italy  at 
least)  when  plotted  in  curves  to  show  monthly  distribution  apparently 
agree  in  the  time  of  their  maxima  and  minima. 

2.  The  greater  frequency  occurs  during  the  winter  months.  This  is 
true  for  Japan  and  Italy,  and  it  is  at  this  season  that  we  have  the  greater 
frequency  of  earthquakes,  and  speaking  generally  for  Germany  and 
England  the  greater  number  of  colliery  explosions.  From  an  analysis  of 
the  investigations  described  by  M.  Ohesneau,  the  writer  would  say  that 
for  the  particular  collieries  where  the  percentage  of  gas  in  the  returns 
was  measured  from  June  to  the  end  of  October,  the  gas  seldom  reached 
1  per  cent.,  whilst  in  November,  December,  February,  and  March  it  has 
usually  been  above  1  per  cent.  For  the  other  months,  January,  April, 
and  May,  no  returns  are  given.  The  data,  such  as  exist,  are  sufficient  to 
show  that  at  this  particular  mine  the  escape  of  gas  followed  the  winter 
rule.  Whether  this  is  a  general  rule  it  is  not  easy  to  determine. 
Another  phenomenon  following  the  winter  rule  suggested  to  the  writer  by 
his  late  colleague,  Dr.  0.  G.  Knott,  is  that  during  the  winter  months 
many  areas  in  the  northern  and  southern  hemispheres  are  crossed  by 
steeper  barometric  gradients  than  in  summer.  For  Central  Japan  at  least 
this  is  very  marked.  For  example,  reckoning  the  gradients  in  millimetres 
per  2  d^s.  of  latitude  or  120  geographical  miles,  the  following  gradients 
are  found  across  Central  Japan: — 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


212  ON   EARTH  PULSATIONS  AND  MINE  GAS. 


January,    6 

..     April,!  to  4.. 

July,             0 

...     October,      2 

February,  5*6     . 

..     May,    0       ... 

Au^nist,        0 

..    November,  8 

March,       5       . 

..    June,  0 

September,  0 

...     December,  8 

The  above  gradients  are  calculated  from  weather  maps  showing  the 
monthly  means  in  1885.  Prom  Berghau's  Physikalisclcer  AtlaSy  as 
measured  between  London  and  Faroe  for  July,  there  was  a  gradient  of 
0*9  millimetre,  whilst  for  December  it  was  2*0  millimetres.  For  the  Bame 
times  the  east-and-west  gradients  across  France  and  Germany  were 
respectively  0*6  millimetre  and  2*0  millimetres,  and  generally  it  is  evident 
from  the  manner  in  which  isobars  are  crowded  together,  especially  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  in  winter,  and  opened  out  in  summer,  that  baro- 
metrical stresses  acting  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  are  much  greater  in 
the  former  than  in  the  latter  season. 

8.  The  stronger  the  wind  the  more  likely  are  we  to  observe  pulsations. 
Inasmuch  as  a  strong  wind  follows  a  steep  gradient,  this  is  little  more 
than  a  corollary  following  the  remarks  respecting  gradients. 

4.  If  a  strong  wind  occurs  and  there  are  no  tremors,  it  has  usually 
been  local,  of  short  duration,  or  blowing  in  from  the  ocean. 

5.  When  there  was  little  or  no  wind  in  Tokio  and  yet  movements 
have  been  observed,  it  was  found  that  there  had  been  a  strong  wind  in 
other  parts  of  Japan — that  is  to  say  there  has  been  a  steep  barometric 
gradient.  Often  a  tremor-instrument  announces  a  wind  from  the 
south  and  south-west  many  hours  before  its  arrival.  With  no  wind  and 
no  tremors,  in  651  cases  the  writer  observed  that  there  was  a  general 
calm  throughout  Japan. 

6.  From  75  to  80  per  cent,  of  the  tromometric  storms  have  accom- 
panied local  or  distant  winds,  and  these  winds  may  be  assumed  to  be  due 
to  steepness  in  barometric  gradient. 

7.  The  only  connexion  between  earthquakes  and  tromometric  motions 
observed  in  Central  Japan  is  that  they  are  both  more  frequent  during  the 
winter  season. 

6.  Tromometric  Movements  in  relation  to  Barometric 
Conditions. 

The  following  tables  refer  to  observations  made  by  the  author  between 
January  I6th,  1885,  and  May,  1886. 

I.  The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  times  when  pulsations 
were  observed  when  the  barometer  stood  above  its  monthly  mean,  and 
when  it  was  below  that  mean. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


ON  BABTH  PULSATIONS  AND  MINE  GAS. 


213 


High  Buomator. 

Low  Barometer. 

1885. 

PalutionB. 

No 
Polntions. 

PulsaUonB. 

No 
PulaatiODs. 

Total 
PoIsalioDS. 

January  (from  16th)... 

6 

6 

8 

0 

14 

February      

6 

6 

7 

9 

13 

March           

6 

...       10 

..       11 

4 

17 

April 

4 

...       11 

6 

9 

10 

May 

4 

...       13 

6 

9 

9 

June 

4 

9 

0 

...       17 

•4 

July 

1 

...       16 

3 

...      11 

4 

August          

2 

...       13 

4 

...       12 

6 

September    

3 

...       13 

6 

8 

9 

October         

5 

...       12 

5 

9 

10 

November     

3 

...      12 

8 

7 

11 

December     



— 





— 

1886. 

January  (from  20th).. 

1 

2 

4 

2 

5 

February       

3 

...       10 

...       13 

1 

16 

March           

6 

8 

8 

3 

14 

April 

.      13 

2 

...       13 

2 

26 

May 

5 

8 

4 

1 

9 

Totals 


72 


150 


105 


104 


177 


II.  Occurrence  of  tromometric  movements  in  relation  to  barometric 
gradient.  The  gradients  are  indicated  in  millimetres  per  120  geogra- 
phical miles,  this  being  a  convenient  distance  to  measure  on  the  weather 
maps. 


Qradlent. 

PolsaUoDS. 

No  Pulsations. 

Peroenta«o  of  times 

when  Pulsations 

were  obaenred. 

0 

2 

8 

20 

1 

28 

21 

67 

2 

42 

62 

44 

3 

40 

40 

60 

4 

22 

3 

88 

5 

20 

8 

71 

6 

5 

0 

100 

7 

3 

0 

100 

9 

1 

0 

100 

These  records  embrace  a  period  between  January  20th  and  the  end  of 
May,  1886. 

From  Table  I.  we  see  that  tromometric  movements  have  been 
most  frequent  during  the  winter  months,  and  although  it  has  often 
happened  that  with  a  low  barometer  there  were  no  pulsations,  yet  pulsa- 
tions are  more  frequent  with  a  low  than  with  a  high  barometer.  From 
Table  II.  we  see  that  with  a  very  high  gradient  pulsations  always 
occur,  and  generally  they  are  proportionately  more  frequent  as  the  gradient 
rises. 

*  The  barometer  ofteD  very  low,  but  no  pulsations. 


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214  OK  EABTH  PULSATION»  AND  MINE  GAS. 

To  this  may  be  added  the  observation,  that,  for  all  intensities  of  wind 
(the  scale  being  from  0  to  6 — 6  being  a  hurricane)  the  average  gradient 
was  steeper  when  pulsations  occurred  than  when  they  were  absent. 
Further,  it  may  be  added,  that  for  low  gradients  when  pulsations 
occurred,  the  movements  were  always  very  small,  and  it  often  happened 
that  the  low  gradient  was  immediately  preceded  or  followed  by  a  high 
gradient.  On  the  other  hand,  for  high  gradients  the  pulsations  were 
always  more  violent. 

Although  pulsations  appear  to  be  closely  related  to  the  wind,  that 
they  are  more  closely  related  to  the  gradient  will  be  seen  by  comparing 
the  following  table  with  the  Table  IL,  both  tables  referring  to  the 
same  group  of  observations. 


Wind, 

Polmtioiu. 

Ko  PolBaUoDfl. 

PeroentaceofUmea 

PoImUodb 

won  obserrcd. 

0 

10 

16 

38 

1 

53 

47 

53 

2 

64 

49 

53-4 

3 

37 

16 

70 

4 

12 

1 

92 

As  confirming  the  results  here  given,  reference  may  be  made  to  the 
observations  extending  over  longer  periods  of  time,  published  by  the 
author  in  vol.  ix  of  the  Transactions  of  the  Seismological  Society^  and 
especial  attention  is  drawn  to  a  table  which  shows  that  tremors  are  at  a 
maximum  in  the  Italian  Peninsula  when  the  barometric  gradient  is  steep, 
no  matter  whether  the  barometer  be  high  or  whether  it  be  low. 

Another  investigation  connecting  tromometric  disturbances  with 
barometrical  fluctuations,  has  revealed  the  fact  that  whenever  there  is  a 
barometrical  change  of  or  more  than  6  millimetres  in  8  hours  (which 
usually  occurs  with  a  falling  barometer),  pulsations  are  pronounced — 
earth  pulsations  may  therefore  be  connected  with  the  rate  at  which 
pressure  changes. 

When  seeking  a  connexion  between  the  wind,  barometric  gradients 
and  ground  movements,  an  observation  that  escaped  the  writer's  attention 
until  the  present  year  is  the  fact  that  the  velocity  of  the  wind  is  often  far 
from  being  proportional  to  the  gradient.  For  example,  with  a  gradient  from 
S.E.  to  N.W.  of  5*45  millimetres  in  Tokio  and  Central  Japan,  generally 
the  wind  may  be  indicated  as  0,  1  or  2  (velocities  of  zero  to  3'5  metres 
per  second),  while  with  a  N.W.  to  S.E.  gradient  of  8  millimetres,  there 
may  be  wind  in  Tokio  and  in  Central  Japan  of  8  (velocities  from 
6  to  10  metres  per  second).  Similar  observations  have  been  made  in 
other  countries,  but  the  writer  is  not  aware  that  the  differences  observed 
are  so  pronounced. 


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ON  EARTH  PULSATIONS  AND  MINE  GAS.  216 

Although  many  years  have  been  spent  in  investigating  earth  pulsa- 
tions, much  has  yet  to  be  done  before  we  shall  be  able  to  formulate  all  the 
laws  connected  with  these  phenomena.  Their  occurrence  is  apparently 
more  closely  connected  with  the  steepness  of  the  barometric  gradient 
than  with  any  other  phenomenon  ;  but  just  as  atmospheric  disturbances 
depend  upon  the  forms  of  isobars,  the  direction  of  their  advance,  the 
steepness  of  the  gradient  and  the  like,  so  may  the  varying  disturbances  of 
the  earth's  crust  be  explained  by  a  similar  complexity  of  causes. 

6.  Theoretical  Aspect  op  the  Question. 

Because  the  differences  in  barometrical  pressure  are  long-continued 
and  are  greater  in  winter  than  in  summer,  and  also  on  account  of  the 
greater  frequency  of  marked  fluctuations  in  these  stresses  in  the  former 
rather  than  in  the  latter  season,  it  does  not  seem  unreasonable  to  determine 
whether  variation  in  barometric  pressure  is  not  sufficient  to  account  for 
the  frequency  of  tromometric  movement  and  escapes  of  mine  gas,  which, 
from  the  little  information  the  author  has  been  able  to  collect,  appear  to 
have  their  maxima  at  the  same  period. 

Fortunately  this  question  has  already  been  partially  answered  by 
Prof.  George  Darwin,  F.R.8.,  in  his  report  to  the  British  Association  on 
the  Measurements  of  the  Lunar  Disturbance  of  Gravity.  One  phenomenon 
affecting  the  measurements  of  this  quantity  is  distortion  of  the  earth's 
surface  due  to  barometrical  loads.  Assuming  a  modulus  of  rigidity  for 
the  earth's  surface  at  3  x  10®  (in  grammes  weight  per  square  centimetre) 
and  a  maximum  barometric  grade  of  6  centimetres  or  nearly  two  inches  in 
1 ,600  miles,  Prof.  Darwin  finds  that  the  ground  would  be  9  centimetres  or 
about  8^  inches  higher  under  the  barometric  depression  than  under  the 
elevation. 

As  the  modulus  of  rigidity  of  the  earth's  surface  is  in  all  probability 
less  than  that  of  glass  (or  3  x  10®)  it  is  likely  that  the  value  9  centi- 
metres or  3i  inches  is  very  much  too  small.  Further,  because  the  wave 
is  long,  even  if  the  deflection  amounted  to  double  this  amount,  as  Prof. 
Darwin  suggests,  its  effects  would  be  equally  great  in  the  deepest  mines. 
This  result  certainly  accords  with  the  results  of  observations,  which  show 
that  pulsatory  movements  are  quite  as  clearly  marked  deep  underground 
as  they  are  upon  the  surface.  As  to  whether  this  general  bending  of 
strata  is  likely  to  cause  an  outflow  of  gas  is  another  consideration. 

The  complete  solution  of  the  problem  is  an  extension  of  Prof. 
Darwin's  work.  Instead  of  determining  the  effects  of  a  statical  load,  we 
wish  to  know  the  effects  of  a  barometrical  load  which  is  moving,  first 
with  a  velocity  equal  to  that  of  the  progression  of  a  given  isobar,  and 


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216  ON  EARTH  PULSATIONS  AND  MINE  QAS. 

secondly  with  an  intermittent  progression  corresponding  for  example  to 
the  intervals  between  the  gusts  of  wind  in  a  gale. 

After  looking  at  a  number  of  maps  showing  the  tracks  of  barometrical 
depressions  in  England  and  Europe,  it  appears  that  an  average  rate  at 
which  a  depression  travels  is  about  20  geographical  miles  per  hour,  or  say 
84  feet  per  second.  Although  the  rate  is  high,  it  is  probable  that  a 
uniform  surface  with  the  rigidity  of  glass  would  quickly  adjust  itself  to 
the  load  as  it  passed  across  the  surface.  If  however  the  load  is  irregularly 
applied  upon  the  surface,  and  the  surface,  owing  to  the  varying  character 
of  its  strata,  is  not  uniformly  elastic,  it  does  not  seem  unlikely  that  the 
surface  should  be  broken  up  into  a  series  of  irregular  waves.  It  seems 
however  unlikely  that  the  ordinary  rise  and  fall  of  the  tide  could  do 
more  than  produce  a  general  bending. 

7.  The  Escape  of  Fiee-damp  in  Relation  to  Babombtbical 

Pbessube. 

The  following  few  extracts  epitomized  from  the  writings  of  M, 
Chesneau  and  the  Report  of  the  Austrian  Fire-damp  Commission,  the 
writer  assumes  to  be  fairly  representative  of  the  experiences  of  those  who 
have  investigated  the  relationship  between  the  escape  of  fire-damp  and 
fluctuations  in  barometric  pressure. 

M.  Chesneau,  in  the  paper  already  referred  to,  gives  an  interesting 
summary  of  observations  which  have  been  made  on  the  relationship 
between  the  escape  of  fire-damp  and  atmospheric  pressure. 

M.  Le  Chatelier,  after  a  critical  examination  of  the  investigations 
made  by  Galloway  between  1868  and  1873,  arrives  at  the  conclusions  that 
it  is  doubtful  if  variations  in  atmospheric  pressure  have  any  relationship 
with  the  escape  of  gas. 

Mr.  Schondorf,  who  made  observations  in  the  Saar  Basin,  concluded 
that  barometric  fluctuations  directly  affected  the  escape  of  gas  from  the 
goaf.  M.  Nasu,  by  carefully  examining  the  gas  issuing  from  a  particular 
bed,  found  that  it  increased  with  a  barometric  fall;  but,  as  pointed  out  by 
M.  Chesneau,  it  is  likely  the  increase  may  have  been  solely  due  to  a  greater 
escape  from  the  area  enclosed  by  stoppings  rather,  than  an  increased  rate 
of  distillation  from  the  coal. 

The  experiments  of  M.  Hilt  led  to  the  conclusion  that  gas  increased 
with  a  barometric  fall,  and  mce  versd^  but  the  examination  of  M.  Hilt's 
results  by  Messrs.  Mallard  and  Le  Chatelier  showed  that  great  barometric 
falls  only  correspond  with  the  appearance  of  small  quantities  of  gas,  whilst 
in  regions  cut  off  from  goaf  the  correspondence  was  barely  evident. 


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ON  EARTH   PULSATIONS  AND  MINE  GAS.  217 

In  the  case  of  one  considerable  fall,  at  one  mine  the  gas  decreased 
while  at  another  it  increased. 

The  conclusions  arrived  at  by  Mr.  Eohler  at  certain  mines  in  Silesia 
were  as  follows : — 

1.  The  quantity  of  gas  diminishes  with  a  iise  of  the  barometer,  and 

vice  versd, 

2.  The  quantity  increases  proportionately  to  the  rate  at  which  the 

barometer  falls,  and  rnce  versd. 
8.  The  quantity  of  gas  disengaged  is  not  absolutely  dependent  on 

the  height  of  the  barometer. 
4.  If  the  barometer  rises  rapidly  and  after  that  very  gently,  or 
remains  steady  at  its  maximum,  a  small  increase  of  gas  takes 
place ;  inversely  if  it  falls  rapidly,  and  then  gently  rises  or 
remains  long  at  a  minimum,  a  diminution  in  the  quantity  of 
gas  commences. 
The  quantity  of  gas  was  determined  by  chemical  analysis. 
The  closest  agreements  between  barometric  fluctuations  and  the  dis- 
engagement of  gas  occur  at  the  mines  where  the  old  workings  cover  an 
extensive  area.    Mr.  K5hler  also  made  experiments  by  hermetically  sealing 
the  downcast  and  producing  a  depression  by  the  revolutions  of  a  fan,  with 
the  result  that  the  quantity  of  gas  was  considerably  increased,  even  when 
there  wafi  no  communication  with  the  goaf. 

From  the  researches  of  the  Austrian  Fire-damp  Commission,  in  five 
districts  not  containing  old  workings,  practically  no  connexion  was 
observed  between  the  liberation  of  fire-damp  and  fluctuations  in  barometric 
pressure.  It  was,  moreover,  shown  by  experiment  that  the  gas  was  con- 
tained in  the  coal  under  considerable  pressure  (in  one  case  as  high  as  9*2 
atmospheres),  from  which  it  might  be  inferred  that  slight  barometric 
changes  would  produce  no  sensible  effect  upon  the  escape  of  gas.  It 
was  also  observed  that  the  volumes  of  gas  collected  from  boreholes  did 
not  vary  with  atmospheric  pressure. 

The  gas  coming  from  old  workings  closely  followed  the  barometric 
curve.* 

Conclusions. 

The  facts  of  chief  importance  now  before  us  are  as  follows : — ^As  a  result 
of  observations  made  with  exceedingly  light  tromometers  and  delicate 
levels,  and  other  instruments,  like  delicate  balances,  the  writer  concludes 
that  areas  of  the  earth's  surface  are  at  times  thrown  into  a  series  of  flat 

*  Trans.  Fed,  Inst.,  vol.  iii.,  page  534. 


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218  Oy  EARTH  PULSATIONS  AND   MINE  GAS. 

wave-like  undulations.  These  disfcurbances  are  frequent  in  the  winter 
months.  They  may  occur  either  with  a  high  or  low  barometer,  but 
they  nearly  always  accompany  a  steep  gradient.  Theoretical  considera- 
tions indicate  that  such  disturbances  might  arise  from  fluctuations  in 
barometric  pressure  exerted  over  extended  areas.  From  the  little  informa- 
tion at  the  author's  command  it  appears  likely  that  fire-damp  escapes 
in  greatest  quantity  when  earth  pulsations  are  most  frequent,  but  as 
to  whether  the  compression  and  extension  by  repeated  bendings  which 
are  slight  in  depth  but  great  in  length,  influence  the  escape  of  gas  is  a 
matter  for  speculation.  From  the  last  quotations,  which  may  be  ampli- 
fied by  appealing  to  the  results  obtained  by  other  investigators  we  may 
conclude : — 

1.  That  a  local  barometric  fall  is  directly  connected  with  the 

escape  of  gas  from  old  workings  and  goaf. 

2.  That  local  barometric  changes  have  at  least  in  the  majority  of 

cases  but  little,  if  any,  appreciable  effect  on  the  escape  of  gas 
from  coal. 

One  means  of  testing  the  writer's  views  would  be  to  determine  whether 
the  escape  of  gas  from  the  coal  at  any  mine  shows  a  relationship  to  the 
barometric- gradient  existing  at  the  time  of  observation  across  the  district 
in  which  the  mine  is  situated. 

Assuming  the  author's  investigations  should  meet  with  confirmation, 
it  would  seem  that  our  coal-mining  districts  should  have  the  same 
facilities  for  quickly  determining  barometric  gradients,  the  varying  forms 
of  isobars  and  the  like,  as  are  afforded  to  the  seaports.  Each  mine  should 
be  able  to  ascertain  at  any  moment  the  gradient  and  its  direction, 
measured  over  a  length  of,  say  200  miles  ;  and  in  addition,  a  tromometer 
which  will  at  any  time  show  not  only  the  range  of  the  resulting  pulsatory 
motions,  but  their  direction  should  be  consulted. 

Neither  earthquake  instruments  nor  ordinary  tromometers  which 
continue  swinging  by  their  own  inertia,  and  may  show  maxima  of  motion 
when  the  actuating  cause  is  at  a  minimum,  and  which  naturally  tend  to 
change  their  planes  of  oscillation,  should  be  employed.  The  instrument 
recommended,  although  by  no  means  perfect,  is  the  one  described  in  this 
paper,  which,  having  extremely  little  inertia,  roughly  measures  the  tilting 
and  also  indicates  the  direction  from  which  the  displacement  approaches. 


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DISCUSSION—ON  EABTH  PULSATIONS  AND  MINE  GAS.  219 

Mr.  C.  Davison  (Binningham)  wrote,  it  appeared  to  him  that  there 
were  many  facilities  in  England  for  carrying  out  the  observations  suggested 
by  Prof.  Milne,  and  it  was  extremely  desirable  that  advantage  should  be 
taken  of  them.  The  instrument  described  by  Prof.  Milne  was  simple  and 
could  probably  be  made  at  small  cost,  but  his  remark  that,  after  one  or 
two  swings,  two  of  these  instruments  may  disagree  in  phase,  showed  that 
their  indications,  though  useful,  could  not  be  entirely  trusted.  Possibly, 
however,  this  defect  might  be  remedied  to  a  considerable  extent  by 
inmiersing  the  instrument  in  paraffin  oil.  He  (Mr.  Davison)  believed 
that  the  instrument  most  suited  for  the  purpose  would  be  either  Dr.  E. 
von  Rebeur-Paschwitz's  horizontal  pendulum  or  Mr.  Darwin's  new  form 
of  pendulum  with  double-suspension  mirror.  The  latter  will  be  described 
in  the  report  of  the  British  Association's  Earth  Tremor  Committee  for 
the  present  year.  Dr.  von  Rebeur-Paschwitz  has  given  an  account  of  his 
horizontal  pendulum  and  of  the  results  which  have  so  iar  been  obtained 
with  it  in  his  valuable  memoir,  "Das  Horizontalpendel,  etc."*  Both 
instruments  are  of  great  delicacy,  and  their  employment  in  mines,  where 
creeping  has  ceased  to  be  perceptible,  could  hardly  fail  to  lead  to  results 
of  great  value,  and  possibly  of  important  pi-actical  application. 

The  Presidbnt  proposed  and  Mr.  Spencer  seconded  a  vote  of  thanks 
to  the  author  of  the  paper  and  to  Mr.  Horace  Darwin  for  his  kindness  in 
attending  and  explaining  the  use  of  the  tromometer. 

The  vote  was  accorded  unanimously. 


The  President  said  they  must  pass  a  hearty  vote  of  thanks  to  the 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  for  the  use  of  their  rooms,  and  to  the 
owners  and  managers  of  the  works  which  had  been  so  kindly  thrown  open 
to  their  inspection  during  the  meeting. 

Mr.  A.  SoPWiTH  (Cannock  Chase)  seconded  the  proposal,  which  was 
heartily  approved. 

Mr.  Henry  Lawrence  (Durham)  proposed  a  cordial  vote  of  thanks 
to  the  President  for  his  services  in  the  chair. 

Mr,  F.  6.  Shaw  (London)  seconded  the  motion,  which  was  cordially 
adopted. 

•  Nova  Acta  der  Ktl.  I^eop,  Carol.  Deutsehen  Ahademie  der  Naturfortehor, 

vol.  Ix.,  No.  1. 


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220  THE  WESTMINSTER  ELECTRIC  SUPPLY  CORPORATION, 

The  President  said  he  was  obliged  to  the  members  for  their  vote, 
but  they  had  heard  so  much  of  him  during  the  last  two  days  that  he  would 
not  say  more  now  than  that  this  had  been,  so  far  as  he  oould  see,  a  most 
successful  meeting. 

The  meeting  then  terminated. 


The  following  notes  record  some  of  the  features  of  interest  seen  by 
visitors  to  works,  which  were,  by  kind  permission  of  the  owners,  open  for 
inspection  during  the  course  of  the  London  Meeting  on  June  2nd  and  8rd, 
1893  ;— 

THE  WESTMINSTER  ELECTRIC  SUPPLY  CORPORATION. 

The  area  served  by  the  Westminster  Electric  Supply  Corporation, 

Limited,  extends  from  the  Thames  to  Oxford  Street,  and  from  Whitehall 

westward  across  Belgrave  Square.    The  district  is  served  from  three 

stations,  marked  by  small  black  blocks  on  the  annexed  map.    These  are 

situated  respectively  in  Millbank  Street,  on  the  river  and  just  south  of  the 

Houses  of  Parliament;   in  Eccleston  Place,  near  Buckingham  Palace 

Road ;  and  in  Da  vies  Street,  near  Oxford  Street,  and  midway  between 

Regent  Street  and  Park  Lane.    The  capacities  of  these  stations,  stated  in 

8  candle-power  lamps,  are  as  follows  : — 

Davies  Street  84,000 

Eccleston  Place        42,000 

Millbank  Street        60,000 


Total  186,000 

The  number  of  lamps  connected  to  each  station  may  now  (May,  1893) 
be  stated  approximately  as  : — 

Davies  Street  ...         55,600 

Eccleston  Place        32,100 

Millbank  Street        21,000 

Although  the  area  is  served  from  three  centres,  all  the  stations  are 
connected  to  the  general  network  of  mains,  and  in  slack  times  two  stations 
may  be  shut  down,  leaving  one  to  undertake  the  load. 

The  system  adopted  is  low-tension  direct-current  distribution,  with  a 
third  wire  connected  to  a  battery,  which  not  only  aids  the  regulation,  but 
also  supplies  current  in  the  night  when  the  engines  are  stopped.  The 
dynamos  are  wound  to  give  a  cun*eut  of  220  volts  pressure,  and  their 
terminals  are  connected  across  the  outer  mains.  The  current  is  distributed 
to  the  various  parts  of  the  network  by  means  of  feeder  mains  at  a  pressure 
of  102  volts,  and  of  100  to  101  volts  in  the  distributing  mains. 


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THE  WBSTMIKSTBR  BLECTEIO  SUPPLY  CORPORATION. 


221 


The  street  mains  are  laid  wherever  possible  upon  the  Kennedy  system. 
The  culverts  are  formed  of  concrete.  The  carriers  are  of  earthenware,  and 
are  let  into  the  concrete,  which  is  covered  with  bitumen  to  prevent  damp. 
Copper  strips  are  laid  upon  the  supports,  which  are  placed  at  intervals  of 
6  feet,  so  that  no  straining  devices  are  needed  as  with  the  Crompton 
system.  "Where  it  is  impossible  to  use  culverts,  Callender-Webber  conduits, 
or  cast-iron  casings,  are  used,  and  where  this  is  impossible  iron-pipes  are 
employed,  into  which  the  cables  are  drawn. 


The  price  charged  for  the  current  was  originally  8d.  per  Board  of 
Trade  unit.  This  was  reduced  to  7d.  in  1892,  and  since  March,  1893, 
has  been  further  reduced  to  6d.,  with  a  rebate  to  large  consumers. 


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222  THE  WESTMIN8TBB  BLBCrTRIO  SUPPLY  OOEPOBATION. 

Prof.  A.  B.  W.  Kennedy,  M.  Inst.  O.B.,  is  the  engineer-in-chief  to 
the  Corporation,  and  has  designed  the  three  stations,  to  which  Mr.  0. 
Stanley  Peadi,  John  Street,  Adelphi,  has  acted  as  architect. 

Davies  Stbket  Station. 

The  bnilding  in  Davies  Street  is  of  a  handsome  appearance,  and  is 
several  storeys  in  height,  the  ground  floor  being  utilized  for  shops  and  the 
flats  for  residential  chambers.  Between  these  blocks  of  buildings  is  an 
open  space  in  which  is  situated  the  engine-room,  covered  with  a  light 
roof.  The  chimney  passes  up  the  central  space,  independent  of  the  walls 
of  the  building. 

Oreat  care  was  given  to  the  construction  of  the  engine-block  which 
consists  of  concrete,  10  feet  thick,  isolated  by  18  inches  space  from 
surrounding  walls,  and  carries  the  entire  range  of  engines  and  dynamos. 
Its  lower  surface  is  arched,  and  the  rounded  spaces  are  filled  with  sand  to 
prevent  the  block  from  rocking.  The  chimney-base  is  at  a  lower  level 
than  the  engine-base. 

The  ten  dynamos  are  each  driven  directly  by  a  Willans  compound 
engine.  Two  are  Crompton  dynamos,  each  giving  450  amperes-  at  120 
volts  pressure,  and  driven  by  G  Gr  Willans  engines.  These  machines  are 
two-poled,  and  are  used  for  balancing.  When  the  loads  on  the  two  sides 
of  the  system  are  unequal,  and  there  is  a  considerable  current  on  the 
central  or  third  wire,  one  of  these  machines  is  employed  to  redress  the 
difference,  and  produce  a  balance.  The  two  next  dynamos  are  four-pole 
machines,  built  by  the  Electric  Construction  Corporation,  each  giving  .800 
ampires  at  220  volts  pressure.  They  are  driven  by  H  H  Willans  engines, 
having  low-pressure  cylinders  17  inches  in  diameter  by  12  inches  stroke, 
and  running  at  the  slow  speed  of  175  revolutions  per  minute.  The  four 
adjacent  dynamos  are  two-pole  machines,  also  built  by  the  Electric  Con- 
struction Corporation  ;  they  are  driven  by  II  Willans  engines,  running  at 
850  revolutions  per  minute,  the  output  being  500  amperes  at  220  volts 
pressure.  The  two  remaining  dynamos  are  of  the  Crompton  four-pole 
type,  and  of  112  kilo-watt  capacity.  A  large  steam  dynamo,  by  Messrs. 
Latimer,  Clark,  &  Muirhead,  giving  1,000  amperes  at  220  volts  will  be 
added  during  the  summer. 

The  boilers  are  of  a  modified  marine  type,  four  being  constructed  by 
Messrs.  Davey,  Paxman,  &  Co.,  of  Colchester,  and  two  by  Messrs.  Eraser 
&  Eraser,  of  Bow.  Each  boiler  is  8  feet  in  diameter  by  12  feet  long,  and 
contains  two  furnaces  2  feet  8  inches  in  diameter,  crossed  by  two  Gkdloway 
tubes.    There  is  a  dry  combustion-chamber  at  the  back  of  the  boiler,  into 


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THE  WB8TMIN8TEB  BLECTBIO  SUPPLY  CORPOEATION.  228 

which  the  gases  are  delivered  previously  to  their  passing  through  the  92 
8  inches  tnbes^  which  lead  them  back  to  the  smoke-box  over  the  furnace 
fronts.  The  gases  then  flow  into  capacious  side  and  bottom-flues,  and 
thence  into  the  main  flue,  which  runs  underground  between  the  two  rows 
of  boilers.  This  flue  delivers  into  the  chimney,  which  is  180  feet  in  height 
from  the  firing  level.  There  are  six  boilers  already  installed,  a  seventh 
will  be  put  in  during  the  summer,  and  space  is  left  for  three  others. 
One  special  advantage  of  this  type  of  steam  generator  arises  from  its 
shortness,  which  enables  it  to  be  got  into  and  out  of  cramped  premises 
with  comparative  ease,  and  it  can  be  used  in  circumstances  where  the 
Lancashire  boiler  would  be  quite  inadmissible. 

The  boilers  are  fed  by  two  Peam  quadruple-acting  pumps  with  8}  inches 
plungers,  and  one  with  4^  inches  plungers.  The  feed  is  pumped  through 
two  Berryman  heat^  situated  at  the  end  of  the  row  of  engines,  where  the 
temperature  is  raised  to  200  degs.  Fahr. ;  and  the  exhaust  steam  can  be 
directed  entirely  up  the  chimney,  or  wholly  through  the  feed-heaters,  or  in 
any  proportion  desirable,  by  one  large  sluice-valve  situate  in  the  mean 
exhaust  pipe.  The  exhaust  pipe  is  led  up  the  centre  of  the  chimney  to 
within  a  few  feet  of  the  top.  To  guard  against  the  machines  being 
damaged  by  lightning  passing  down  this  pipe,  there  are  two  lightning  con- 
ductors, and  the  pipe  itself  is  most  carefully  connected  to  earth,  so  that  a 
flash  may  pass  off  innocuously,  and  not  damage  the  coils  of  the  dynamos. 
The  8  inches  steel  steam-pipes  are  in  duplicate  in  the  boiler-house,  and  the 
engine-room  steam-pipes  will  soon  be  complete  in  a  ring.  By  this  arrange- 
ment leaky  joints  can  be  dealt  with  at  any  time,  without  stopping  the 
engines.  The  coal  enters  by  the  roadway,  and  there  is  considerable  storage- 
room  for  it  in  cellars  under  the  pavement  and  adjoining  the  boDer-house. 
A  small  tramway  is  provided  for  its  distribution. 

There  is  a  voltmeter  between  each  pair  of  engines  to  regulate  the  pres- 
sure, connected  to  a  distant  feeder.  Supposing  one  engine  to  be  running 
and  the  demand  to  be  increasing,  the  regulator  is  opened  wider  and  wider  to 
keep  up  the  pressure  until  the  full  power  of  the  engine  is  reached.  Then 
the  second  engine  is  started,  and  the  same  plan  followed  until  it  is  fully 
loaded.  The  third  engine  is  then  started,  and  so  on.  When  the  load  is 
decreasing,  the  engines  are  slowed  down,  and  stopped  one  by  one  in  the 
inverse  order.  From  the  distant  end  of  each  pair  of  feeders,  wires  are  led 
back  to  voltmeters,  to  show  the  pressure  in  various  parts  of  the  network. 

Automatic  cut-outs  are  used  to  prevent  the  battery  discharging  back 
through  a  dynamo,  in  case  the  engine  should  stop.  By  means  of  magnetism 
induced  by  the  current  flowing  through  a  coil,  a  heavy  handle  is  held  up ; 


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224  THB  WESTMINSTEB  BLBCTBIC  SUPPLY  CORPORATION. 

if  the  cnrrent  dies  away  the  handle  is  released  and  falls,  and  in  so  doing 
operates  a  switch  to  break  the  drcait. 

It  is  barely  two  years  since  the  station  was  first  started,  and  already  it  is 
so  sncoessful  that  10,000  lamps  have  been  fed  from  it  at  one  time. 

Mr.  LI.  Foster,  Assoc.  M.  Inst.  C.E.,  is  the  resident  engineer. 

EccLBSTON  Place  Station. 

The  site  of  the  station  at  Eccleston  Place  is  the  largest  of  the  three 
generating-centres ;  it  is  situated  near  Victoria  Station,  and  a  little 
north  of  Buckingham  Palace  Road.  The  Underground  Railway  passes 
the  block,  and  the  necessity  of  building  part  of  the  station  over  the 
tunnel  added  considerably  to  the  difficulties  of  both  architect  and  engineer. 
The  store-rooms  are  all  placed  upon  the  ground-floor  and  basement  at 
this  end  of  the  building,  and  the  upper  floors  are  occupied  by  the  ofiices  of 
the  company,  and  the  rooms  of  the  resident  engineer  Mr.  C.  0.  Grimshaw. 

The  total  area  which  belongs  to  the  company  measures  approximately 
224  feet  long  by  101  feet  wide,  and  of  this  rather  more  than  half  is  now 
covered  by  buildings.  Two  main  entrances  are  provided,  so  that  coal-carts 
will  enter  at  one  door,  pass  on  to  a  weighbridge,  the  coal  wUl  then  be 
discharged  into  the  stores  in  the  basement,  and  the  empty  carts  will  pass 
out  by  the  second  door.  Tram-lines  are  laid  in  all  the  passages,  so  that 
the  coal  is  easily  brought  to  the  boiler-house.  It  is  possible  to  store  at 
least  800  tons  at  one  time. 

The  boiler-house  is  below  the  ground  level,  and  at  present  four  boilers 
are  installed ;  three  are  of  the  marine  type,  built  by  Messrs.  Davey,  Pax- 
man,  &  Co.,  of  Colchester,  two  are  12  feet  long  by  8  feet  in  diameter, 
the  third  is  10  feet  8  inches  long  by  9  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  fourth  is 
by  Messrs.  Praser  &  Eraser,  also  of  the  marine  type,  13  feet  long  by  9 
feet  in  diameter.  The  smoke-box  front  of  the  latter  is  not  provided  with 
doors,  but  opposite  each  tube  is  placed  a  plug,  which  can  easily  be 
removed  so  as  to  allow  of  the  tubes  being  cleaned  if  necessary  without 
stopping  the  boiler.  The  working  pressure  of  all  the  boilers  is  150  lbs., 
and  the  average  coal  consumption  per  unit  generated  during  the  last 
quarter  has  been  5^  lbs.  of  Welsh  coal,  working  condensing. 

"Water  is  supplied  to  the  boilers  by  two  Peam  feed-pumps,  which  take 
their  water  from  the  condenser  hot-well  or  from  tanks  placed  over  the 
pump-room  and  pump  it  through  two  Green  economisers  placed  in  the 
main-flue.  The  feed-water  is  thus  heated  to  about  150  degs.  Fahr. 
The  water  consumption  is  measured  by  a  Kennedy  water-meter  placed 
between  the  pumps  and  the  economisers. 


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THB  WB8TMINSTBB  BLBOTBIO  SUPPLY  CORPORATION.  225 

The  engine-room  is  very  lofty,  and  the  walls  are  of  white  glazed  brick, 
which  give  it  a  fine  appearance.  The  office  is  placed  in  one  corner,  and 
next  to  it  is  a  small  testing-room.  At  one  end  of  the  room  there  are  two 
Willans  triple-expansion  engines  of  the  1 1  size,  developing  200  indicated 
horse-power  at  a  speed  of  850  revolutions  per  minute,  and  each  of  these 
drives  direct  a  Crompton  four-pole  shunt-wound  dynamo,  developing  500 
amperes  at  225  volts.  The  armatures  of  the  dynamos  are  wound  with 
stranded  cable  pressed  into  a  suitable  rectangular  form.  Both  of  these 
engines  are  fitted  with  the  Willans  and  Robinson  special  cooling  apparatus, 
consisting  of  pipes  placed  inside  the  crank-chamber  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  allow  of  cold  water  being  passed  through  them,  and  it  is  possible  to  run 
the  engines  constantly  without  overheating  the  bearings.  Nearer  the 
centre  of  the  room  are  placed  two  sets,  each  consisting  of  a  Windsor  high- 
speed vertical  compound  engine  of  the  inverted  open  type,  by  Messrs. 
Davey,  Paxman,  &  Co.,  of  Colchester,  and  a  dynamo.  They  are  fitted 
with  a  Paxman  patent  automatic  expansion-gear  and  adjustable  high- 
speed governor,  by  means  of  which  the  cut-off  can  be  varied  from  zero  to 
five-eighths  of  the  stroke.  A  heavy  fly-wheel,  6^  feet  diameter,  and 
weighing  two  tons,  is  placed  upon  the  end  of  the  shaft  opposite  to  the 
dynamo.  The  dynamos  are  of  the  Crompton  four-pole  type  alluded  to 
above,  and  develop  250  amperes  at  220  volts.  Two  other  small  sets  are 
placed  in  the  comer  of  the  engine-room ;  each  consists  of  a  Willans  com- 
pound engine  of  the  G  G  size,  giving  80  indicated  horse-power  at  430 
revolutions,  with  steam  at  150  lbs.  pressure.  These  drive  direct  two 
Siemens  dynamos,  each  developing  400  amperes  at  100  volts,  but  they 
can  be  run  at  a  higher  speed,  and  give  300  amperes  at  135  volts  for 
battery  charging.     These  small  dynamos  are  used  for  balancing. 

A  new  dynamo  of  500  amperes  and  225  volts,  by  the  Electric  Con- 
struction Corporation,  coupled  to  an  I  I  Willans  engine  will  be  added 
during  the  summer. 

The  cables  are  carried  from  the  machines  inside  bent  gas-pipes 
embedded  in  the  foundations,  and  thence  up  the  walls. 

The  foundations  for  all  the  sets  consist  of  one  large  concrete  block 
10  feet  thick,  which  is  perfectly  free  from  the  walls  of  the  building,  so  as 
to  prevent  vibration  of  the  structure.  A  6  tons  overhead  crane  serves 
the  whole  of  the  engine-room. 

The  steam-pipes  will  eventually  be  arranged  upon  the  ring  system 
entirely  round  the  engine-room,  and  at  present  are  provided  with  stop 
valves,  so  as  to  cause  as  little  hindrance  as  possible  in  case  of  accident* 
The  spindles  of  the  valves  are  vertical,  with  hand-wheels  below,  and  the 

VOL.  Y.— 1809-06.  1^ 


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226  THB  WSSTVIFSTER  ELBCTBIC  SUPPLY  CORPORATION. 

latter  are  cast  in  the  form  of  a  bowl,  so  that  aU  the  leakage  is  oollected 
and  may  be  nm  off  hj  means  of  a  small  cock.  The  main  steam-pipes,  of 
steel,  8  indies  in  diameter,  are  fitted  with  wronght-iron  screwed  flanges. 
The  copper  branch-pipes  are  5  inches  in  diameter. 

The  exhanst  steam  from  the  engines  can  either  escape  np  the  chimney, 
which  is  150  feet  in  height,  having  a  21  inches  cast-iron  exhanst-pipe  np 
the  centre,  or  can  be  condensed.  A  large  snr&ce  condenser,  constructed 
at  the  Central  Marine  Works,  Hartlepool,  is  placed  in  a  space  between 
the  engine-block  and  the  wall,  aboat  10  feet  below  the  engine-room  level. 
It  has  1,940  three-quarter  inch  tubes,  10  feet  6  inches  long,  giving  about 
4,000  square  feet  of  cooling  surface.  The  air-pump  has  a  plunger  18 
inches  in  diameter  and  20  inches  stroke,  working  horizontally,  and  driven 
by  a  connecting-rod  from  a  compound  vertical  engine,  with  cylinders  6^ 
inches  and  17  inches  in  diameter  and  15  inches  stroke. 

The  switch-board,  constructed  by  Messrs.  Crompton  &  Co.,  consists 
of  nine  slate  panels,  and  is  a  plug  board.  The  regulating  switches  for 
controlling  the  charge  and  discharge  of  the  cells  are  designed  in  a  circular 
form.  Each  panel  carries  connexions  for  three  machines  and  four  feeders. 
That  at  the  centre  has  at  the  top  a  pair  of  balancing  switches,  so  that  either 
of  the  100  volt  machines  may  1^  connected  to  either  side  of  the  three- 
wire  system.  Underneath  these  are  placed  two  voltmeters,  that  on  the  right 
giving  the  volts  at  the  terminals  of  each  battery  separately  by  means  of 
wall-plug  connexions,  that  on  the  left  giving  the  total  volts  of  the  two 
batteries  in  series.  The  plugs  at  each  side  connect  the  dynamos  to  the 
batteries.  There  are  two  voltmeters  below  for  the  small  machines,  two 
ammeters,  two  field-magnet  resistance-switches  for  the  small  machines, 
and  two  automatic  gravity-switches  for  breaking  circuit  to  the  batteries 
when  the  dynamos  are  slowing  down. 

The  next  panel  on  the  left,  which  is  the  negative  side,  carries  a  large 
regulating-switch  at  the  bottom  for  a  battery  of  fifty-six  cells,  and  above 
it  a  large  ordinary  switch.  The  next  panel  to  the  left  carries  three  auto- 
matic gravity-switches  at  the  bottom,  and  an  ampere-meter  for  each 
machine  next  above.  The  bars  above  these  instruments  contain  plug 
holes,  and  are  connected  to  the  omnibus-bars  at  the  back  of  the  board. 
Four  voltmeters  for  the  pilot  wires  are  above  these,  then  the  feeder-bars, 
and  higher  up  the  four  ammeters  for  the  feeders,  each  reading  up  to  500 
amperes,  while  at  the  top  are  placed  the  main  fuses,  consisting  of  ten 
wires  soldered  to  copper  ends;  and  duplicate  fuses  are  so  arranged  that  in 
case  one  is  melted  another  can  be  instantly  switched  into  the  circuit.  The 
next  panel  is  similar.    The  panels  upon  the  right  of  the  centre  carry  the 


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QAS  LIGHT  AND  COKE   COMPANY.  227 

positive  terminals,  and  are  duplicates  of  those  at  the  left,  except  that  at 
the  bottom  are  placed  the  field-magnet  i*esistance-switohes,  and  above  these 
the  three  voltmeters  for  the  difference  of  potential  between  the  tenninals 
of  the  dynamos.  The  joints  are  oval  flanges  of  gun-metal,  screwed  and 
brazed  upon  the  copper  bars  forming  the  mains.  The  flanges  are  carefully 
faced,  and  drawn  together  by  bolts  and  nuts.  Throughout  the  station  the 
negative  wires  are  all  coloured  red,  the  positive  black,  and  the  intermediate 
wires  black  and  red  in  alternate  rings.  This  colouring  is  the  contrary  of 
that  used  by  some  other  companies,  but  Wilkes  pole-finding  papers  are 
used  for  testing,  and  as  these  turn  red  when  touched  by  the  ends  of  the 
negative  wire,  it  is  easier  to  remember  which  is  the  positive  and  which  the 
negative  main. 

The  main  conductors  in  the  engine-room  consist  of  round  copper  bars, 
which  are  carried  along  the  walls  and  supported  upon  wooden  brackets, 
and  glass  insulators  and  supports  of  notched  fibre.  Two  Aron  electricity- 
meters,  with  the  Miller  reversing  arrangement,  are  placed  in  the  battery 
mains.  An  ordinary  Aron  meter  is  used  for  the  station-lighting  circuit, 
supported  away  from  the  wall,  hexagon  unions  being  used  for  the  joints  of 
the  conductors.  Each  dynamo  is  provided  with  an  Aron  meter.  The 
engine-room  is  lighted  by  two  Edison-Swan  lamps  of  200  candle-power, 
and  small  lamps  are  used  for  the  switchboard. 

The  battery-room  is  upon  the  first  floor  over  the  boiler-house,  contain- 
ing two  batteries  of  the  Crompton-Howell  type,  each  consisting  of  fifty-six 
cells  containing  sixty-one  plates.  They  have  been  discharged  at  the  rate 
of  800  amperes  per  half -hour,  although  their  stated  capacity  is  only  500 
ampere-hours.  The  cells  are  supported  upon  wooden  shelves  resting  upon 
iron  columns,  and  the  floor  is  of  asphalte.  Four  «xtra  cells  in  each 
battery  are  used  as  milking  cells,  in  order  to  rectify  any  extra  loss  in  other 
cells. 

The  third  central  station,  situated  in  Millbank  Street,  "Westminster, 
supplies  the  Houses  of  Parliament  and  the  important  district  including 
the  Government  Buildings  in  Whitehall,  and  Victoria  Street  as  far  as 
Victoria  Station. 


GAS  LIGHT  AND  COKE  COMPANY. 

Beckton,  or  "  Beck  Town  "  (so  called  in  honour  of  a  former  governor 

of  the  Gas  Light  and  Coke  Company,  the  late  Mr.  Simon  Adams  Beck)  is 

situated  in  the  Essex  marshes  at  a  point  towards  the  lower  end  of  Galleons 

Beach  of  the  River  Thames,  and  about  ten  miles  east  of  London.    The 


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228  GAB  LIGHT  AND  OOKE   COMPANY. 

oompany'B  old  works,  Ijing  almost  in  the  heart  of  London,  did  not  admit 
of  extension ;  and  when  larger  premises  became  necessary,  it  was  con- 
sidered that  the  cost  of  coal  delivery  might  be  greatly  reduced  if  the  works 
were  removed  some  distance  lower  down  the  river,  so  as  to  avoid  the 
expense  of  barging  and  cartage ;  while  at  the  same  time,  by  having  plenty 
of  land,  there  would  be  ample  space  for  the  storage  of  such  residuals  as 
coke,  tar,  and  ammoniacal  liquor.  The  present  site  having  been  secured, 
the  first  pile  of  the  new  works  was  driven  on  November  19th,  1868,  in  an 
uninhabited  marshy  swamp ;  the  works  were  put  in  operation  on  November 
25th,  1870;  and  with  the  extensive  additions  made  since  that  date 
Beckton  may  now  be  described  as  a  town  in  reality,  as  well  as  in  name. 

The  pier  forming  the  approach  to  the  works  from  the  river  is  a 
wrought-iron  structure  supported  on  cast-iron  cylinders,  having  a  frontage 
parallel  to  the  river  of  800  feet,  and  projecting  forwards  400  feet  from 
the  shore  into  the  river.  It  affords  berthing  acconmiodation  for  four 
steam-colliers  of  the  largest  size ;  and  for  discharging  their  cargoes  each 
berth  is  provided  with  three  steam  or  hydraulic  cranes  and  a  movable 
steam-crane :  the  unloading  power  being  fully  equal  to  12,000  tons  in 
twenty-four  hours.  There  are  two  jetties,  and,  in  addition,  ample  quay 
accommodation  for  smaller  craft.  An  additional  pier,  with  connecting 
viaducts  and  railways,  equal  in  size  and  capacity  to  the  existing  one,  is  in 
course  of  erection. 

On  reaching  the  shore,  the  pier  joins  a  viaduct  on  the  same  level  and 
forming  a  continuation  of  it.  At  the  point  of  junction  four  branches 
start  from  the  main  viaduct,  two  running  along  the  right-hand  side 
through  a  series  of  six  retort-houses,  and  two  along  the  left-hand  side 
through  a  similar  set  of  six  retort-houses.  The  main  viaduct,  which  has 
a  double  line  of  rails,  runs  along  the  whole  length  of  the  space  between 
the  two  sets  of  retort-houses,  a  distance  of  three-quarters  of  a  mile  from 
the  river  to  the  end. 

The  retort-houses  are  all  very  much  alike.  The  largest  is  510  feet 
long  by  100  feet  wide,  and  is  capable  of  producing  5^  million  cubic  feet 
of  gas  per  day.  Running  through  the  house  on  either  side  are  high  and 
low-level  railways  of  standard  gauge ;  the  high-level  railway  is  used  for 
conveying  coals  from  the  steamers  alougside  the  jJier  to  the  coal-stores 
within  the  house,  aud  the  low-level  railway  is  used  for  taking  away  the 
coke  drawn  fix)m  the  retorts.  Locomotives  and  iron  wagons  are  employed 
on  these  railways.  In  the  largest  house  there  are  forty-five  beds,  each 
containing  nine  fireclay  retorts  of  20  feet  length,  making  a  total  of  405 
retorts.     £ach  retort-house  has  a  complete  set  of  purifying  and  other 


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GAS  LIGHT  AND  00KB  OOMPANY.  229 

plant  attached  to  it ;  so  that  the  Beckton  works  may  be  said  to  be  made 
up  of  fourteen  complete  gas  works,  the  smallest  of  which  is  of  no  mean 
calibre. 

The  coals  are  delivered  into  stores  which  are  conveniently  placed  in  the 
retort-house,  so  that  the  retorts  may  be  readily  charged  from  them.  Each 
retort  is  charged  with  about  6  cwts.  of  coal  every  six  hours.  The  mouth- 
pieces of  the  retort  are  securely  closed  up  with  iron  lids.  The  gas  as  it  is 
distilled  from  the  coal  passes  up  through  vertical  pipes,  fixed  at  each  end 
of  the  retort,  into  a  long  wrought-iron  vessel,  rectangular  in  section,  placed 
on  the  top  of  the  retort-beds,  called  the  hydraulic  main ;  its  principal 
purpose  is  to  serve  bs  a  self-acting  valve  for  shutting  off  the  gas  when  the 
mouthpieces  are  opened  for  charging  and  discharging  the  retorts ;  and  it 
is  also  here  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  tar  is  thrown  down,  and  some 
ammoniacal  liquor.  When  a  charge  is  burnt  off,  the  lids  are  opened,  and 
the  remaining  coke  is  drawn  out  and  deposited  on  the  floor  beneath  the 
charging-stage.  A.  portion  of  the  coke  is  used  for  keeping  up  the  heat  of  the 
retorts,  and  the  remainder  is  loaded  into  wagons  and  taken  away  for  sale. 

The  gas  is  withdrawn  from  the  hydraulic  main  by  exhausters,  and  is 
next  passed  through  a  series  of  horizontal  cast-iron  pipes  12  inches  in 
diameter,  called  condensers,  around  which  the  air  is  allowed  to  circulate 
freely.  In  this  apparatus  the  tar  and  ammonia  travelling  with  the  gas 
from  the  retort-house  are  condensed,  and  are  run  off  into  storage-tanks. 

The  gas  issuing  from  the  condensers  is  still  very  foul,  for  although 
nearly  all  the  tar  is  eliminated,  it  still  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of 
anmionia,  carbonic  acid,  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  To  absorb  these  it 
must  be  propelled  through  washing  or  scrubbing-vessels.  The  scrubbers 
are  generally  in  the  form  of  circular  towers,  about  60  feet  high,  con- 
structed of  cast-iron  plates,  and  filled  with  coke  broken  to  a  convenient 
size ;  brushwood  is  placed  on  the  top  to  act  as  a  distributor  for  the  liquid. 
The  foul  gas  entering  at  the  bottom  of  the  scrubbing  tower  and  ascending 
through  the  coke  is  met  by  weak  ammoniacal  liquor  or  clean  water  per- 
colating through  the  fine  interstices  of  the  brushwood,  whereby  the  whole 
of  the  ammonia  remaining  in  the  gas  is  absorbed ;  and  the  combination  is 
ammoniacal  liquor,  with  which  some  carbonic  acid  and  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  are  also  taken  up. 

The  gas  has  next  to  pass  through  eight  purifying  vessels  in  the  follow- 
ing order : — First,  through  two  vessels  containing  clean  carbonate  of  lime, 
which  removes  the  whole  of  the  carbonic  acid  left  in  the  gas;  next 
through  two  vessels  containing  oxide  of  iron,  which  cleanses  it  of  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen ;  thirdly,  through  two  vessels  of  lime  that  has  been 


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230  MESSRS.  MAXJBSLAT,  SONS,  AND  FIELD,  LIMITED. 

previously  sulphuretted,  which  removes  the  greater  part  of  the  bi-sulphide 
of  carbon ;  and  finally  through  two  more  vessels  charged  with  clean  lime, 
by  which  all  traces  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  are  eliminated.  The  gas 
being  now  as  pure  as  it  is  possible  to  make  it,  and  of  the  required  illumin- 
ating power,  is  in  a  fit  state  to  be  delivered  for  consumption ;  but  before 
this  is  done,  it  is  first  measured  through  large  station-meters,  and  stored 
in  gas-holders,  from  which  it  is  pumped  out  as  required.  For  this 
purpose  there  are  nine  gas-holders  at  Beckton,*  from  which,  by  means  of 
twelve  large  Beale  rotary  gas-exhausters  (eight  capable  of  pumping  260,000 
cubic  feet,  and  four  350,000  cubic  feet  per  hour,  making  a  total  of 
3,400,000  cubic  feet  per  hour),  the  gas  is  propelled  along  two  cast-iron 
mains  48  inches  in  diameter,  from  Beckton  to  Westminster,  picking  up 
from  other  stations  on  its  way,  and  filling  up  other  gas-holders  along  the 
line  of  route. 

It  may  be  mentioned  that  the  company  have  eleven  manufacturing 
stations  in  all,  situated  in  various  parts  of  the  metropolis  and  suburbs ; 
and  the  quantity  of  coal  carbonized  annually  is  about  2  millions  of  tons, 
of  which  about  one-half  is  consumed  at  Beckton  alone. 


MESSRS.  MAUDSLAY,  SONS,  &  FIELD,  LIMITED. 

The  following  work  was  seen  in  progress : — 

Single-screw  engines  for  H.M.S.  "Monarch,"  of  8,000  indicated 
horse-power,  having  a  high-pressure  cylinder  49  inches  in  diameter, 
intermediate  74  inches  in  diameter,  and  low-pressure  112  inches  in 
diameter,  and  4J  feet  stroke. 

Twin-screw  triple-expansion  engines  of  3,500  indicated  horse-power 
for  H.M.S.  "  Dryad,"  building  at  Chatham,  having  cylinders  22,  34,  and 
51  inches  in  diameter,  and  If  feet  stroke. 

Twin-screw  triple-expansion  engines  of  5,000  indicated  horse-power, 
for  the  Russian  cruiser  "  Admiral  OusbakofF,"  building  at  the  Baltic  iron 
shipbuilding  yard  at  St.  Petersburg.  The  cylinders  are  31,  46,  and  68 
inches  in  diameter  and  2J  feet  stroke. 

Three  sets  of  single-screw  engines  for  first-class  torpedo-boats,  built 
by  Mr.  White,  of  Oowes,  for  the  Admiralty. 

Single  air-compressors  for  compressing  air  for  the  torpedo  service  on 
shipboard. 

Also  sundry  small  engines  and  gear  in  connexion  with  the  foregoing 
work. 

*  The  largest  of  .which  ia  of  a  capacity  of  8  million  cubic  feet. 


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TEAN8ACTI0NB.  281 


NORTH  OF  ENGLAND  INSTITUTE  OP  MINING  AND 
MECHANICAL  ENGINEERS. 


GENERAL   MEETING, 

Held  in  the  Wood  Memobial  Hall,  Nbwoabtle-upon-Ttnb, 

June  10th,  1893. 


Mb.  J.  B.  SIMPSON,  Pbebidemt,  in  the  Chaib. 


The  Sbcbetaby  read  the  minutes  of  the  last  General  Meeting,  and 
reported  the  proceedings  of  the  Council  at  their  meetings  of  May  27th 
and  of  that  day. 

The  Secretaby  read  the  Balloting  List  for  the  election  of  officers  for 
the  year  1898-94. 

The  following  gentlemen  were  elected,  having  been  previously 
nominated : — 

Membebs— 

M£  H.  M.  Becheb,  Mining  Engineer,  9,  IKAlmeida  Street,  Singapore. 

Mr.  J.  C.  S.  Bbynon,  Civil  and  Mining  Engineer,  P.O.  Box  1S64,  Johannes- 
burg, TransTaal. 

Mr.  Geoboe  Davey,  Mining  Engineer  and  Metallurgist,  Ferro-carril  Michoa- 
can  J  Pacifico,  Marayatio,  Mexico. 

Mr.  Stanley  H.  Fobd,  Mine  Agent,  Stolzenfels,  Great  Namaqualand,  South 
Africa. 

Mr.  Thomas  Gilohbist,  Mining  Engineer,  Manor  House,  Penshaw. 

Mr.   Geobge  Linday,  Colliery   Manager,  Blackett    Colliery,    Haltwhistle, 
Northumberland. 

Mr.  William  Ebnest  Lishman,  M.A.,  Viewer,  Bunker  Hill,  Fence  Houses. 

Mr.  J.  S.  QniBK,  Metallurgist,  St.  Helens  Lead  Smelting  Works,  St.  Helens, 
Lancashire. 

Mr.  F.  Geobge  Shaw,  Mining  Engineer,  London. 

Mr.  Edmund  Spabgo,  Mining  Engineer,  3,  Cable  Street,  Liverpool. 

Mr.  Chables  Robebt  Westebn,  Engineer,    Broadway   Chambers,  West- 
minster, London,  S.W. 

Mr.  Joseph  Henby  Wooloock,  Civil  and  Mining  Engineer,  49,  Lowther 
Street,  Whitehaven. 

Associate  Membebs — 
Mr.  G.  A.  Febguson,  Editor  of  the   Mining    Journal,    18,    Finch    Lane, 

London,  E.C. 
Mr.  Henby  M.  James,  General  Manager,  Colliery  OflSce.  Whitehaven. 
Mr.  Habby   Page    Woodwabd,    Government   Geologist,    Perth,    Western 

Australia. 


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232  TEANSACTIONS. 

Associates— 

Mr.  Jambs  Batnbbidob,  Under  Manager,  North  Walbottle  Colliexy, 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Mr.  RoBEBT  Embbson,  Engineer,  Tudhoe  Colliery,  Spennymoor. 

Mr.  Alezakdeb  A.  Jambs,  Under  Manager,  Croxdale,  near  Durham. 

Mr.  John  W.  Thompson,  Colliery  Surveyor,  Backworth  Colliery,  Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne. 

The  following  gentlemen  were  nominated  for  election  : — 

HONOBABY    MbMBEB — 

Professor  John  Hebman  Mbbivalb,  Professor  of  Mining,  Durham  College  of 
Science,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Membebs— 

Mr.  Abghibald  Thomas  Bbown,  Mining  Engineer,  372,  Flinders  Lane,  Mel- 
bourne. 

Mr.  Westoabth  Fobsteb  Bbown,  Mining  Engineer,  Alston  House,  Parade, 
Cardiff. 

Mr.  RiCHABD  ECK,  Mining  Engineer,  Beaconsfield,  South  Africa. 

Mr.  Joseph  Qouldie,  Mining  Engineer,  Rimberley,  South  Africa. 

Mr.  Joseph  Habobeaves,  Colliery  Manager,  Gwaun  Cae  Gurwen  Collieries, 
Brynamman,  B.S.O. 

Mr.  John  Holt,  Jun.,  Civil  and  Mining  Engineer,  The  Hollies,  Heywood, 
Lancashire. 

Mr.  Edwabd  Hoppeb,  Engineer,  c/o  Messrs.  Lewis  &  Marks,  Coal  Mines, 
Yereeneging,  Transvaal. 

Mr.  John  Wilson  Richmond  Lee,  Mining  Engineer,  Potes,  Proyincia  de 
Santander,  Spain. 

Mr.  J.  B.  Robinson,  Mining  Engineer,  Hedley  Hill  Colliery,  Waterhouses. 

Mr.  Walteb  Rowley,  Mining  Engineer,  20,  Park  Row,  Leeds. 

Mr.  Thomas  Bibch  Fbeeman  Sam,  Mine  Manager,  Adjah  Bippo,  West  Coast, 
Africa. 

Mr.  Joseph  Scott,  Mining  Surveyor,  Newcastle  Street,  Stockton,  near  New- 
castle, New  South  Wales. 

Associate  Membeb— 
Mr.  Gbobge  Thomas  Duncan,  Engineer  and  Agent,  110,  Dilston  Road,  New- 
castle-upon-Tyne. 

Associates— 
Mr.  Evan  Cockbubn,  Back  Overman,  Page  Bank  Colliery,  via  Willington, 

Co.  Durham. 
Mr.  William  Hendbbson,  Engineer,  Wheatley  Hill  Colliery,  via  Trimdon 

Grange. 
Mr.  Moses  Hobson,  Under  Manager,  Shildon,  via  Darlingtod. 


Mr.  Edward  Halse  read  the  following  paper  on  "The  Gold-bearing 
Veins  of  the  Organos  District,  Tolima,  U.S.  Colombia." 


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ORGANOS  DISTRICT,  TOLIMA,  U.S.  COLOMBIA.  288 


THE  GOLD-BEARING  VEINS  OP  THE  ORGANOS  DISTRICT, 
TOLIMA,  U.S.  COLOMBIA. 


By  EDWARD  HALSB. 


Introduction. 


Organos  is  a  small  Indian  village  lying  in  a  valley  near  the  pass  of 
Chifldn,*  one  long  day's  mule-ride  south-west  of  Aipe,  and  about  the 
same  distance  north-west  of  Neyva — ^both  towns  on  the  upper  Magdalena 
river.  Savanilla  is  the  port  for  this  river,  which  runs  between  the  eastern 
and  central  Cordilleras  of  the  Andes  northward  to  the  Caribbean  Sea.  The 
Magdalena  river  is  navigable  for  light-draught  steamers  as  far  as  Honda 
(650  feet  above  the  sea),  where  the  first  rapids  are  met  with,  a  distance 
of  about  550  miles  from  the  coast.  Above  Honda  smaller  steamers  ascend 
to  Girardot,  the  port  for  the  capital,  Santa  F^  de  Bogotd  (8,800  feet)  on 
the  eastern  side,  and  for  Ibagu6  (4,800  feet)  on  the  western  side ;  and, 
during  the  wet  season,  to  Neyva  (1,200  feet),  about  700  miles  in  the 
interior. 

The  Andes  in  Colombia  are  divided  into  three  ranges  or  Cordilleras. 
These  are  spread  out  considerably  northward,  but  run  close  together  to 
the  south.  The  central  cordillera  is  far  excellmcey  the  metalliferous  one. 
The  mines  of  the  Organos  district  are  situated  on  its  eastern  flank.  To 
reach  these  from  the  Magdalena  river  one  has  to  cross  the  Chifl6n  Pass 
over  a  singularly  bold  and  serrated  range  running  north-and-south  to  the 
west  of  Aipe  and  Neyva.  The  range,  rising  from  7,000  to  8,000  feet  above 
sea-level,  is  composed  of  highly-inclined  beds  of  a  hard  red  conglomerate 
alternating  with  sandstone,  whose  trend  is  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the 
range,  and  whose  dip  is  eastward.  The  formation  is  said  to  be  of  Triasaic 
age. 

Owing  to  the  hardness  of  the  rocks  and  the  steepness  of  the  mountain- 
sides, the  road  over  the  Chifl6n  Pass  is  one  of  the  worst  in  Colombia,  bad  as 

*  A  ehijldn  is  (1)  stagnant  water  into  which  a  stream  faUs  with  noise ;  (2)  a 
wooden  pipe  or  flnme ;  (8)  a  mining  term,  trahajar  chifldn,  is  work  making  way  in 
length  and  depth. 


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284  ORGANOS  DISTRICT,  TOLIMA»  U.S.  COLOMBIA. 

the  roads  of  that  country  generally  are ;  and  mules  laden  with  cargoes  not 
infrequently  slip  down  the  western  slope,  and  are  lost  in  the  ravines  below. 
Prom  the  top  of  the  Chifl6n  Pass  a  splendid  view  of  the  surrounding 
country  is  obtained.  Eastward  one  looks  down  the  forest-clad  side  of  the 
mountain,  dotted  below  with  magnificent  royal  palms  {palmas  reales)  and 
other  tropical  trees,  across  wide  plains  down  the  centre  of  which  the  Mag- 
dalena  river  winds,  until  the  eye  rests  upon  the  eastern  Andes,  blue  and 
hazy  in  the  distance.  Westward  the  topography  is  entirely  different.  In 
this  direction  one  looks  upon  a  sea  of  almost  treeless  hills,  backed  by  forest- 
clad  mountains  towering  one  above  the  other,  the  whole  forming  part  of 
the  eastern  flank  of  the  central  cordillera.  The  hills  in  the  foreground, 
covered  only  with  grass  and  small  shrubs  (except  in  the  valleys  and  gullies, 
the  lower  portions  of  which  are  more  or  less  densely  clothed  with  vegeta- 
tion) form  steep  and  narrow  ridges,  trending  north  and  south,  flanked  by 
knife-edged  cordons  or  ribs  (cuchillos)  oblique  or  perpendicular  to  them, 
which  in  their  turn  are  strongly  ribbed  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to 
their  length.  Thus  between  the  ranges  are  narrow  winding  valleys  or 
canadas,  down  the  moderately-sloping  bottom  of  which  a  river  or  strong 
stream  of  water  usually  courses,  and  between  the  lateral  cordons  are  steep 
gullies  or  quehrados  opening  into  the  valleys  on  either  side,  down  which 
torrents  of  water  flow  in  the  wet  season. 

The  formation  consists  of  crystalline  eruptive  rocks  and  metamor- 
phosed schists.  Of  the  former  granophyre,*  felsite,  and  hornblende- 
dolerite,  in  bedded  masses  and  in  dykes,  predominate.  The  granophyre 
and  felsite  are  generally  moderately  hard,  and  of  a  pale  green  colour. 
They  are  in  places  stained  red  with  oxide  of  iron,  and  are  frequently 
altered  to  a  soft  white  clay  resembling  kaolin.  The  dolerite  is  usually 
very  hard,  and  of  a  darker  green — in  places  this  rock  too  is  soft  and 
decomposed,  but  it  usually  retains  its  colour.  Wherever  observed  it  is 
strongly  charged  with  iron  pyrites.  It  is  chiefly  from  the  rapid  erosion 
of  some  of  the  beds  that  the  hills  derive  their  peculiar  topography. 

The  metamorphic  rocks,  usually  consisting  of  chloritic  schists  and  slates, 
are  seen  at  the  base  of  some  of  the  hills,  and  form  the  major  portion  of 
others. 

The  schistose  rocks  in  the  State  of  Tolima  have  been  variously  described 

*  A  mixture  of  orthoclase-felspar  and  quartz  which  have  simultaneouslj  con- 
solidated. These  rocks  in  the  Organoe  district  were  formerly  called  sandstone. 
Sections  cut  of  typical  specimens  of  the  country  have  been  examined  and  named  by 
a  well-kown  petrologlst.  Some  exhibit  beautiful  examples  of  the  structure  known  as 
granophyric. 


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ORGANOS  DISTRICT,  TOLIMA,  U.S.  COLOMBIA.  285 

as  of  Silurian,  Oambro-Silarian,  and  Laurentian  age.  These  and  the  erup- 
tive rocks  overlying  them  are  most  probably  Pateozoic,  but  so  far  in  suf- 
ficient data  have  been  collected  to  determine  their  exact  age.  It  appears 
that  when  the  central  cordillera  was  upheaved  at  the  close  of  the  Triassic 
or  commencement  of  the  Jurassic  epoch,  these  beds,  breaking  through  the 
Triassic  sandstones  overlying  them,  were  forced  up  to  the  surface,  and  were 
considerably  contorted  during  the  process.  The  formation  in  places 
exhibits  evidence  of  a  good  deal  of  confusion  ;  the  strike  and  dip  of  the 
beds  vary  considerably,  and  at  short  intervals  ;  they  are  also  much  jointed 
and  fissured,  and  are  moreover  permeated  by  felsitic  dykes. 

Here  and  there  in  the  eruptive  rocks  are  lenticular  masses  of  schistose 
rocks,  and  the  former  appear  to  merge  imperceptibly  into  the  latter,  so 
that  possibly  the  rocks  called  eruptive  are  the  result  of  extreme  metamor- 
phism  of  sedimentary  rocks  brought  about  by  long-continued  pressure, 
heat,  and  aqueous  action. 

A  number  of  veins  have  been  found  traversing  the  rocks  in  various 
directions— the  prevalent  one  being  nearly  east  and  west — and  containing 
quartz  with  visible  gold  associated  with  manganese  and  oxide  of  iron  near 
the  surface,  and  with  iron  pyrites,  galena,  etc.,  below.  The  gold  above 
the  water-level  is  extremely  patchy,  and  visible  gold  is  by  no  means 
the  sign  of  a  rich  vein,  for  it  is  seen  here  and  there  in  veins  whose 
average  only  runs  a  few  pennyweights  to  the  ton.  Some  of  the  veins 
run  into  and  continue  through  the  schistose  rocks,  and  appear  to  be  of 
more  stable  nature  therein.  Some  veins  are  very  rich,  especially  at  and 
near  the  surface,  carrying  gossan  with  from  one  to  several  ounces  of  gold 
to  the  ton  for  a  certain  distance,  which  seldom  amounts  to  many  yards 
either  in  length  or  depth,  and  then  a  fresh  vein  has  to  be  sought  elsewhere. 
Mining  in  this  will-o'-the-wisp  style  was  carried  on  for  some  years,  and 
has  only  recently  given  place  to  something  approaching  to  system ;  but  as 
the  water-level  has  not  yet  been  reached,  the  problem  has  still  to  be 
solved  whether  the  veins  are  sufficiently  auriferous  to  be  worked  profitably 
for  any  long  period  of  time. 

So  far  as  the  writer  is  aware,  a  description  of  this  district  has  never 
yet  been  published.  Sefior  Vicente  Restrepo,  in  his  very  interesting 
work*  on  the  Colombian  mines,  mentions  only  the  fact  that  numerous 
gold  and  silver  veins  occur  here,  and  that  in  Constancia  one  only  was 
then  being  worked  containing  rich  ore,  but  scarce. 

*  Egtudio  wbre  las  mintu  de  oro  y  plata  de  Colombia^  second  edition,  1888,  page  99. 
Translations  of  this  work  have  appeared  in  English  and  French. 


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236  OR6AXOS  DISTRICT,  TOLIICA,  TA,  COLOXBUL 

The  Teins  may  be  classified  as  follows  : — 

1.  Bedded  or  Begregated  veins  {Lagergantj^)  of  rich  amiferoos 

quartz  or  goasaiu 

/^FsnaDy  of  shallow  depth 

2.  (a)  Veins  of  rich  anriferoos  gossan  \      and    nncertain    length  : 
(b)  Veins  of  rich  anriferoos  quartz  i      ther    mar    be    termed 

snperficial    fisEnie-Tdns. 

3.  Anriferons  fincanj  joints. 

4.  Quartz  fissore-Teins  carrying  free-gold  near  the  surface,  and 

anriferons  pyrites  below. 
Classes  1,  2,  and  8  generaUy  occur  in  the  eruptive  rocks  only,  while 
daas  4  occurs  both  in  the  eniptive  and  sedimentary  rocks  beneath  or 
adjacent  to  them. 

1. — AuBiFKBOUs  Bedded  Vbixs  or  Seams. 

Typical  veins  of  this  class  are  seen  at  the  Chorro  working  of  the 
Gonstancia  mine,  where  a  big  open  cat  has  exposed  several  of  them,  and 
from  which  a  fair  quantity  of  gold  has  been  raised.  Fig.  1,  Plate  IX., 
is  a  section  of  one  of  these  auriferous  quartz-seams  which,  at  the  point 
examined,  is  from  6  to  18  inches  thick,  and  suddenly  changes  in  dip 
from  almost  horizontal  to  nearly  vertical.  It  appears  to  be  in  reality  a 
somewhat  complex  case  of  a  saddle-reef.  The  country  here  is  decom- 
posed granophyre  stained  with  iron  and  manganese,  some  of  whose  layers 
are  seen  to  end  abruptly  against  one  wing  or  leg  of  the  saddle.  Such 
contortions  are  local  in  character,  and  the  veins  much  more  frequently 
have  the  appearance  of  Figs.  2  and  3,  Plate  IX.  In  the  former  case  the 
vein  is  about  1  foot  wide,  consisting  of  quartz  in  two  layers  lying  on  a 
thin  stratum  of  rock  veined  with  quartz,  oxide  of  manganese,  and  ochre. 
The  true  floor  is  altered,  ochre-stained  granophyre,  while  the  roof  is 
still  softer,  being  composed  of  ochieous  and  manganiferous  clay. 

The  quartz-layers  are  apt  to  merge  suddenly  on  either  side  into 
rock,  leading  to  the  inference  that  they  were  formed  by  replacement. 
The  quartz  contains  iron  pyrites  in  its  cavities,  and  sometimes  clay  and 
gold,  as  well  as  blende  and  galena  stained  with  oxide  of  iron.  The  gold 
in  these  seams  is  generally  visible,  and  sometimes  coarse.  It  is  irregularly 
distributed,  and  some  very  rich  specimens  can  be  found. 

The  bedded  veins  run  from  nearly  east  and  west*  to  a  little  west  of 
north,  and  dip  about  60  degs.  south  or  west  respectively  (variation  48  d^. 

*  All  bearings  magnetic,  1888. 


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OBQANOS  DI8TBI0T,  TOLIMA,  U.S.  COLOMBIA.  287 

to  70  degs.).  The  direction  of  one  bed  here  is  north  35  degs.  east  to 
south  85  degs.  west  (dip  south-east  48  degs.),  which  is  nearly  normal  as 
regards  both  strike  and  dip. 

A  slickenside  joint  clearly  marked,  being  stained  with  black  oxide  of 
manganese,  is  sometimes  visible  in  the  clay  forming  the  roof  (Fig.  8, 
Plate  IX.).  It  was  noted  that  the  lines  are  not  parallel  with  the  dip, 
but  make  an  angle  of  about  10  degs.  with  it,  and  also  that  in  places  there 
is  a  want  of  parallelism  among  the  lines  themselves.  The  seams  are 
crossed  perpendicularly  by  some  joints  also  showing  slickensides.  As  will 
be  seen  from  the  section  (Fig.  8)  the  country  adjacent  to  or  separating 
the  quartz-layers  is  decompQsed  to  a  clay. 

In  places  the  rock  shows  evidence  of  a  schistose  structure,  but  this 
matter  will  be  referred  to  again  when  treating  of  veins  of  class  2. 

At  the  Silencio  mine  at  least  two  bedded  auriferous  quartz-veins  are 
seen  to  crop  out  on  the  face  of  a  very  steep  hill.  The  lower  one  is  the 
richer  and  can  be  traced  for  about  100  yards  along  the  surface.  The 
outcrops  as  exposed  on  the  hillside  form  an  angle  of  about  25  degs.  with 
the  horizon.  The  chief  bedded  vein  rune  about  north  8^  degs.  west  to  south 
8^  degs.  east,  and  dips  west  80  degs.  to  48|  degs.,  or  against  the  hill. 
The  average  width  of  the  vein  is  2  feet,  but  the  rich  auriterous  quartz- 
leader  is  seldom  more  than  6  inches  thick,  the  rest  of  the  vein  being 
composed  of  smaller  layers  of  quartz  divided  by  country.  The  quartz 
varies  in  structure  from  solid  to  sugary,  and  is  spotted  with  iron  pyrites, 
manganese,  oxide  of  iron,  clay,  etc.  Visible  gold  is  of  common  occurrence 
in  certain  parts  of  the  outcrop.  In  a  piece  of  highly  auriferous  quartz  a 
single  crystal  of  haematite  was  found.  The  vein  was  sunk  upon  in  one 
place — the  dip  changed  from  30  degs.  at  the  surface  to  48 J  degs.  below — 
the  quartz  quickly  wedged  out  a  few  yards  from  the  surface  and  with  it 
the  gold,  giving  place  to  a  clay  or  flucan.  The  latter  was  followed  down  to 
a  depth  of  about  100  feet  on  the  dip,  when  the  sinking  was  stopped,  as  no 
further  ore  had  been  met  with.  The  veins  vary  in  richness  from  about 
8  dwts.  to  3  ounces  of  gold  to  the  ton,  and  are  usually  rich  or  poor  on  the 
same  horizon. 

At  the  Socorro  mine  a  bedded  vein  has  been  partially  worked,  which 
in  one  place  has  the  section  shown  in  Fig.  4,  Plate  IX.  It  appears  to 
be  a  trough  or  inverted  saddle-reef.  The  quartzose  seam  merges  in  places 
into  ferruginous  rock,  and  some  layers  of  the  country  with  thin  seams  of 
quartz  end  abruptly  against  one  wing  or  leg  of  the  trough.  In  neither 
of  the  peculiar  contortions  figured  is  there  evidence  of  a  saddle  or  trough- 
joint. 


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2S8  ORGANOS  DISTRICT,  TOLIMA,  U.S.  COLOMBIA. 

2.— (a)  Veins  of  Auriferous  Gossan. 

At  the  Te  Encontr^*  workings  of  the  Constancia  mine  there  are  several 
examples  of  this  class  of  vein  in  quartz-felsite.  They  are  remarkable  for 
their  very  singular  appearance  (Figs.  6  to  10,  Plate  IX.).  They  trend 
usually  a  few  degrees  north  of  east,  and  dip  south,  and,  as  a  rule,  are 
auriferous  to  no  great  extent  either  horizontally  or  vertically.  They 
appear  to  be  especially  auriferous  when  crossing  certain  manganiferous, 
ferruginous,  and  ochrey  layers  of  the  country  (Figs.  5  and  6),  which 
strike  a  little  west  of  north,  or  perpendicular  to  the  veins,  and  against 
certain  wedges  or  horses  of  schistose  rock  found  in  the  felsite  (Figs.  7 
and  10). 

The  ore  is  generally  gossan  or  earthy  brown  oxide  of  iron,  which 
frequently  contains  visible  gold.  The  centre  of  the  vein  is  sometimes 
composed  of  crystalline  quartz.  The  precious  metal  is  also  found  in  the 
manganiferous  and  ochrey  layers  on  the  sides  of  the  vein,  and  even  for 
some  little  distance  therefrom.  These  veins  are  extremely  irregular,  having 
no  defined  walls,  although  generally  a  southerly  dip  is  roughly  traceable. 

Immediately  above  the  section  shown  in  Fig.  7  is  a  layer  of  soft 
manganiferous  rock  1  foot  thick.  In  Fig.  8  the  vein  consists  of  a  rich 
auriferous  band  of  gossan  from  12  to  15  inches  thick.  It  is  nearly 
vertical,  the  south  wall  being  defined  by  a  thin  seam  of  clay  or  flucan, 
while  no  joint  occurs  on  the  north  side.  The  vein  in  all  has  three  nearly 
vertical  seams  of  clay  crossing  others  dipping  fiatly  to  the  south ;  the  latter 
appear  to  have  slipped  down  a  little  on  the  south  wall  of  the  vein. 

The  felsite  country  rock  often  has  a  brownish  mottled  appearance. 
Under  the  microscope  it  is  seen  to  be  traversed  by  minute  stringers  of 
quartz. 

At  the  Socorro  mine  some  thin  but  extremely  rich  veins  of  this  class 
have  been  met  with,  consisting  of  a  few  inches  of  light  brown  gossan 
showing  visible  gold  in  the  broken  surfaces  and  assaying  50  ounces  of 
gold  to  the  ton  and  upwards. 

At  the  Silencio  mine  several  veins  of  the  same  class  occur  in  grano- 
phyre.  One  trends  on  an  average  east  13^  degs.  south  to  west  18^  degs. 
north,  and  dips  south  66  degs.  to  68  degs.  At  the  surface  it  is  about 
1  foot  thick,  with  from  2  to  4  inches  of  brown  gossan  on  the  hanging-wall, 
the  rest  of  the  vein  being  soft  altered  granophyre  with  hard  lumps  of 
quartz,  country,  and  oxide  of  iron  here  and  there.  Ten  feet  down  the 
vein  shows  iron  pyrites,  with  oxide  of  iron,  and  quartz  in  lumps.    It  was 

*  Literally,  **  I  have  found  thee  !  "  the  exclamation  of  the  miner  who  discovered 
the  first  rich  vein  in  this  district. 


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ORGANOS  DISTRICT,  TOLIMA,  U.S.  COLOMBIA.  289 

proved  by  a  cross-cut  driven  in  20  feet  vertically  below  the  outcrop. 
When  cut  it  was  found  to  be  disordered  by  a  slide,  and  consisted  of  gossan 
and  quartz  with  well-defined  walls  having  a  regular  dip.  The  mineral 
showed  visible  gold,  and  gave  an  excellent  colour  in  the  batea.  West- 
ward it  was  split  into  two  branches  by  a  horse  of  rock — the  branches 
together  made  8  inches  of  rich  gossan  (Fig.  9).  In  this  instance  the 
country  was  intersected  by  joints  more  or  less  parallel  to  the  vein,  and 
dipping  in  the  same  direction  at  an  angle  of  45  degs.  The  ore  in  one 
spot  made  against  a  bed  of  dark  stained  rock  (altered  schist  ?)  as  in 
the  Constancia  mine  (see  Fig.  10,  and  compare  Fig.  7).  Westward  the 
vein  was  cut  out  24  feet  from  the  cross-cut ;  eastward,  although  the  joint 
was  straight  and  well-defined,  the  vein  20  feet  from  the  cross-cut  consisted 
only  of  4  inches  of  auriferous  gossan.  A  second  cross-cut  was  run  in  from 
the  surface  in  order  to  ascertain  if  the  vein  went  down.  But  nothing  was 
cut,  not  even  a  pronounced  joint,  and  yet  the  vein  was  traceable  on  the  sur- 
face for  about  100  feet  in  length. 

2.—{b)  Veins  of  Auriferous  Quartz. 

At  the  same  mine,  a  vein  believed  to  belong  to  this  class  intersects  the 
bedded  veins  of  gold-bearing  quartz  already  described  as  running  north 
8J  degs.  west,  and  dipping  west.  The  vein  trends  north-east  to  south- 
west, dips  south-east  from  80  degs.  to  60  degs.,  and  consists  of  what 
is  known  locally  as  formacion,  or  country  altered  to  a  clay  (the  cascajo  of 
Venezuelan,  the  mullock  of  Australian,  and  the  hUff  of  American  miners). 
At  the  junction  it  was  1  foot  wide,  and  when  driven  on  into  the  hill  in  a 
south-westerly  direction  the  vein  was  double  in  size,  and  had  much  improved 
in  value.  Fig.  11,  Plate  IX.,  shows  the  appearance  of  the  vein  some  little 
way  in.  The  fortnacion  here  consists  of  decomposed  granophyre,  mottled 
red,  yellow,  white,  and  brown,  and  containing  native  gold  in  crystals. 
The  quartz  was  fairly  spangled  with  gold,  almost  every  stone  broken 
showing  the  precious  metal ;  but  very  loose,  and  in  exceedingly  thin  plates 
and  fine  grains.  The  gold  was  easily  shaken  out  of  the  specimens,  and 
appeared  to  have  been  deposited  quite  recently.  A  sample  taken,  not 
showing  visible  gold,  gave  1  oz.  8  dwts.  of  gold  to  the  ton.  The  decom- 
posed rock  in  the  vein  gave  a  good  colour  in  the  batea. 

Farther  in  the  vein  showed  a  tendency  to  split  up  (Fig.  12,  Plate  IX.), 
and  was  less  rich.  However,  the  vein  has  since  been  driven  on  for  a 
length  of  65  feet,  the  formacion  carrying  gold,  and  increasing  in  width 
with  stringers  of  ore.    A  rise  was  put  up  43  feet  to  the  surface ;  for  28  feet 


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240  OBGANOS  D18TBICT,  TOLIMA,  U.S.  COLOMBIA. 

the  vein  was  very  rich  in  gold,  and  from  2J  to  4^  feet  thick,  the  last 
16  feet  consisting  of  fonnacion  carrying  gold  and  intersected  with  stringers 
of  quartz  to  within  a  few  feet  of  the  surface. 

The  vein  was  sunk  on  26  feet,  the  lode,  including  formacion,  was  from 
8  to  8  J  feet  wide  with  solid  quartz  from  1  to  2  feet  wide.  For  a  time 
the  lode  improved  in  depth;  every  stone  broken  showing  visible  gold. 
Nevertheless  the  writer  believes  that  eventually  the  vein  gave  out  both  in 
length  and  depth. 

This  vein,  consisting  as  it  does  of  quartz  and  altered  rock  (formacion), 
and  containing  little  or  no  gossan,  seems  to  form  a  class  of  its  own. 

8. — AuBrpEBous  Flucant  Joints. 

The  only  auriferous  joints  observed  by  the  writer  in  this  district  are  a 
few  at  the  Socorro  mine.  These  run  east  19  degs.  north  to  west  19  degs. 
south,  and  are  vertical,  or  dip  sharply  to  the  south.  The  joints  bear  clay 
and  native  gold,  but  are  auriferous  to  only  a  very  limited  extent.  They 
possess  features  of  no  particular  interest. 

4. — AUBIFEBOUS    QUABTZ    FiSSUBE-VBINS. 

These  veins  are  found  traversing  the  eruptive  and  metamorphic  rocks 
indiscriminately.  Two  veins  of  this  class  cross  the  bedded  veins  of  Chorro, 
one  trends  north-west  with  a  high  dip,  is  27  inches  thick,  and  consists  of 
quartz,  and  red,  yellowish,  and  black-stained  rock ;  the  other  vein  strikes 
east  22^  d^s.  south  to  west  22  J  degs.  north,  and  in  one  portion  is  filled 
with  clay  and  oxide  of  iron  rich  in  gold,  while  in  another  it  is  2  feet 
wide,  and  is  filled  with  quartz,  clay,  and  iron  pyrites. 

At  the  Socorro  mine  one  vein  which  has  been  proved  near  the  sur&ce 
for  about  200  feet  in  length  occurs  in  more  or  less  altered  granophyre. 
The  average  run  of  the  lode  is  east  26  degs.  north  to  west  26  degs.  south, 
the  average  dip  south  72  degs.,  and  the  average  width  8  feet.  The  strike 
varies  from  east  16 J  degs.  north  to  east  85 J  degs.  north,  the  dip  from 
62  degs.  to  82  degs.,  and  the  thickness  from  4  inches  to  6  feet.  In  the 
granophyre  the  contents  are  chiefly  auriferous  oxide  of  iron  and  quartz  in 
leaders,  separated  by  more  or  less  altered  rock  (Fig.  18,  Plate  IX.). 

About  100  feet  below  the  outcrop  the  lode  passes  into  hard  homblende- 
dolerite — ^possibly  an  altered  schist;  the  dip  changes  from  72  degs.  to 
82  degs.,  and  the  lode  is  characterized  by  bands  of  iron  pyrites,  galena, 
quartz,  and  hard  country  rock — the  latter  either  dead,  or  with  some 
calcite,  quartz,  and  iron  pyrites.  Each  wall  is  marked  by  a  well-defined 
ferruginous  joint,  but  without  any  clay  selvage.    Fig.  14,  Plate  IX.,  shows 


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OBGANOS  DISTRICT,  TOLIMA,  U.S.  COLOMBIA.  241 

the  structure.  A  joint  or  bedding-plane  striking  north-west,  dipping 
south-west,  and  crossing  the  lode  near  the  hanging-wall,  is  probably  the 
feeder  of  the  lode  at  this  point.  The  country  next  to  this  tirall  is  sprinkled 
with  iron  pyrites,  and  contains  calcite  in  large  crystals. 

The  mineral  from  this  portion  of  the  lode,  hand-picked,  yielded  6 
ounces  of  gold  to  the  ton  and  upwards,  and  paid  to  export  to  Swansea. 

The  trend  of  the  lode  in  the  moderately  hard  rock,  and  where  rich,  is 
east  17  degs.  north — ^this  is  the  useful  bearing  of  the  lode — but  in  very 
hard  rock  met  with  farther  west  the  trend  becomes  more  northerly  or  east 
85  degs.  north  (angle  of  horizontal  bending  =  19^  degs.),  the  dip  changes 
to  north  80  degs.  (angle  of  vertical  bending  =  18  de^s.),  and  the  lode  is 
impoverished.  Furthermore,  a  cross-joint  is  met  with  here,  which  has  the 
effect  of  cutting  off  the  mineral  contents  almost  entirely.  Harder  rock  is 
met  with  in  the  stopes  also  in  this  direction,  and  the  lode  is  poorer;  but  a 
few  hundred  feet  farther  west  some  rich  quartz  from  1  to  2|  feet  in  width 
is  found  in  the  lode  near  the  surface  (rock :  decomposed  granophyre),  where 
the  trend  and  dip  correspond  to  that  of  the  richer  portion  of  the  lode  in 
the  dolerite. 

A  cross-cut  driven  north-west  through  the  country  in  this  part  of  the 
mine  discloses  purple  beds  of  quartzose  schists  trending  north-west  to 
south-east  and  dipping  south-west,  followed  by  a  dyke  of  hard  dolerito 
dipping  northward,  which  is  succeeded  by  altered  granophyre.  Here 
and  there  also  in  the  schists  occur  patches  of  the  latter  rock. 

At  Te  Encontr^,  a  lode  has  been  proved  for  about  600  feet  in  length 
and  182  feet  in  depth  in  quartz-felsite.  The  average  run  of  the  lode 
is  east  9  degs.  north  to  west  9  degs.  south,  and  the  average  dip  south 
68  degs.  The  angle  of  total  divergence  in  strike  is  81^  degs ,  and  in  dip 
49  degs  The  average  width  was  5  feet,  varying,  however,  from  6  inches 
up  to  6  feet.  In  the  No.  1  and  No.  2  levels,  the  rock  is  quartz-felsite, 
often  much  altered,  and  the  vein  consists  of  ferruginous  quartz  with  free- 
gold.  In  the  No.  8  level,  however,  the  rock  is  dolerite,  which  becomes 
very  soft  in  the  No.  4  or  bottom  level. 

In  No.  8,  where  the  rock  is  moderately  hard  dolerite,  the  lode  is  about 
6  feet  thick,  half  of  this  being  well  impregnated  with  galena  and  iron 
pyrites,  the  latter  being  scattered  all  through  the  lode.  The  galena  is 
argentiferous  and  carries  some  gold,  but  the  iron  pyrites  is  much  more 
auriferous.  The  effect  of  a  flucan  crossing  the  lode  in  one  of  the  stopes 
is  to  flatten  it  considerably  (Fig.  1 5,  Plate  X.).  At  a,  the  vein  was  con- 
tinued inside  the  day  flucan  itself,  as  an  irregular  mass  of  auriferous 

16 


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242  ORGANOS  DISTRICT,  TOLIMA,  U.S.  COLOMBIA. 

and  ferruginouB  quartz.  In  the  No.  4  level,  or  182  feet  from  the  surface 
(measured  vertically),  a  cross-course  has  thrown  the  lode  110  feet  to  the 
north.  On  the  west  of  the  cross-course,  the  lode  is  4^  feet  wide  in  a  soft 
green  rock  with  joints  having  polished  surfaces  (altered  dolerite)  sparsely 
sprinkled  with  iron  pyrites.  The  dip  is  south  79  degs.  The  lode  to 
the  east  of  the  cross-course  is  quartzose,  from  12  inches  to  2  feet  thick, 
and  poor  in  gold. 

About  12  feet  south  of  the  western  portion  of  the  lode  in  No.  S,  a  vein 
of  quartz  2  feet  wide  and  dipping  south  is  seen  on  the  walls  of  the 
cross-course,  and  24  feet  farther  south  is  another  vein  of  quartz,  somewhat 
auriferous.  As  these  veins  pass  through  the  cross-course  they  would 
appear  to  be  of  more  recent  date  than  the  latter. 

Hence  in  this  mine  we  appear  to  have  evidences  of : — 

1.  An  older  east  and  west  fissure. 

2.  A  newer  north  and  south  cross-course. 

3.  Newer  east  and  west  fissures. 

About  200  yards  east  of  this,  a  parallel  vein  was  discovered  of  2  feet 
of  white  sugary  and  friable  quartz,  showing  here  and  there  minute  specks 
of  native  gold.  Notwithstanding  the  favourable  appearance  of  the  quartz, 
the  yield  was  only  a  few  pennyweights  to  the  ton.  It  was  considered  likely 
that  most  of  the  gold  had  quite  recently  been  leached  out  of  the  vein. 

At  Silencio,  a  vein  of  this  class,  traceable  for  600  feet  along  the 
surface,  has  been  worked  400  feet  in  length  at  a  depth  of  about  100  feet 
vertical  from  the  surface.  The  average  strike,  dip,  and  width  are 
east  29  degs.  south  to  west  29  d^.  north,  south-west  62*5  degs.,  and 
2  feet  respectively.  The  rock  on  the  100  feet  level  is  in  the  main  hard 
granophyre.  The  lode  was  widest  (4  to  6  feet)  and  richest  when  the 
strike  was  north  42^  degs.  west  or  north-west  nearly,  but  to  the  north  of 
this  point  a  branch  falls  into  the  lode  on  the  hanging  wall,  and  near  the 
centre  of  the  run  of  ground,  a  non-auriferous  quartz- vein  trending  nearly 
east  and  west  and  dipping  south,  crosses  it  obliquely.  The  lode  was  formed 
of  one  or  more  layers  of  quartz  sprinkled  with  iron  pyrites  and  galena, 
and  showing  here  and  there  crystals  of  blende.  The  quartz  was  generally 
of  somewhat  transparent  crystalline  structure,  occasionally  sugary,  and 
frequently  stained  red  in  the  joints.  It  was  colourless,  or  had  a  brownish 
tinge.  Sometimes  the  quartz  was  light  bluish.  Here  and  there  it  con- 
tained visible  gold,  but  the  latter  was  no  real  indication  of  richness.  The 
gold  contents  varied  from  a  few  grains  to  several  ounces  to  the  ton,  A 
milling  test  of  several  hundred  tons  yielded  about  4  dwts.  to  the  ton. 


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0RGAN08  DISTEICrr,  TOLIMA,  U.S.  COLOMBIA.  248 

and  as  1  dwt.  was  found  in  the  tailings,'  the  average  gold  contents  were 
only  j;  ounce  to  the  ton. 

Just  beyond  the  point  where  the  lode  was  widest  it  split  up  into  two 
branches :  that  on  the  southern  side  consisted  only  of  a  few  inches  of 
unproductive  quartz,  while  the  northern  branch  consisted  of  about  6 
inches  of  auriferous  and  pyritic  quartz.  The  hanging-wall  appeared  to 
be  a  schistose  rock,  the  footwall  being  brown  granophyre.  In  some  points 
the  schistose  rock  was  on  the  footwall,  but  it  was  more  generally  on 
the  hanging  wall.  The  leader  sometimes  lay  on  the  hanging  wall,  but  it 
was  more  of  ten  a  little  distance  from  it,  and  sometimes  having  a  much 
flatter  dip,  it  gave  the  lode  a  wedge-shaped  appearance  as  seen  in  section. 
Pigs.  16  to  20,  Plate  X.,  represent  the  appearances  assumed  by  the  lode 
in  this  part  of  its  course.  By  comparing  Pigs.  16  and  17  (the  latter  is 
from  a  point  about  1  foot  north  of  the  former)  it  will  be  seen  that  a  band 
of  rock  highly  charged  with  iron  pyrii^es  has  become  a  band  of  quartz 
charged  with  the  same  mineral ;  this  appears  to  be  an  instance  of  local 
replacement. 

It  has  been  observed  that  in  certain  distncts  galena  is  a  good  indi- 
cation for  gold.*  In  order  to  ascertain  whether  the  galena  contained  the 
precious  metal,  the  writer  made  (1)  an  assay  of  the  quartz  "well  spotted 
with  this  mineral,  the  result  was  9  dwts.  of  gold  to  the  ton ;  (2)  an  assay 
of  galena  carefully  picked  out  from  the  quartz  resulted  in  45  ounces  of 
silver  and  2  dwts.  of  gold  to  the  ton.  As  the  concentrated  sulphides  in  the 
vein  yielded  nearly  16  ounces  of  gold  to  the  ton,  the  result  was  arrived  at 
that  the  major  portion  of  the  gold  is  present  in  the  pyrites,  while  some  is 
undoubtedly  free  at  and  near  the  surface. 

A  long  cross-cut  was  driven  in  to  strike  this  lode  at  a  depth  of  about 
200  feet  from  the  surface. 

In  the  cross-cut,  three  hard  bands  of  homblende-olivine-dolerite  were 
cut  bearing  iron  pyrites  alternating  with  granophyre  varying  from  moder- 
ately hard  to  soft.  The  rocks  appeared  to  be  in  beds  from  8  to  20  inches 
thick,  trending  east  10  degs.  south  and  dipping  south  86  degs.  to  58  degs. 
A  few  joints  cut  these  beds  striking  north  22^  degs.  west  to  north-west,  and 
dipping  south  54  degs.  Others  ran  east  and  west  to  east  22^  degs.  south, 
dipping  north  51  degs.  to  62  degs. 

•  **  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  in  this  mine  (Latham  and  Watson's  quartz  mine,  on 
Hustler's  Reef,  Sandhurst)  the  gold  is  aggregated  in  cavities  with  the  softer  sulphides, 
such  as  galena,  and  is  rather  sparingly  diffused  in  the  laminae  which  enclose  iron 
pyrites." — R.  Brough  Smyth,  Gold  Fields  and  JMineral  I>ijftncU  of  Victoria.^  1869, 
page  329 ;  see  also  footnote  on  same  page.  Galena  is  often  associated  with  free-gold 
in  the  New  Morgan  gold-mine  of  Wales. 


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244  0BGA.N08  DISTRICT,  TOLIMA,  U.S.  COLOMBIA. 

According  to  recently  published  reports,  highly  contorted  ground  has 
been  met  with  just  where  the  lode  was  expected  to  be  cut,  consisting  of  9 
feet  of  blue  auriferous  quartz  and  15  feet  of  limestone-deposits  {sic)^  the 
latter  also  carrying  some  gold. 

In  the  north-western  portion  of  the  mine,  the  rock  has  a  brownish 
mottled  appearance ;  examined  through  a  microscope  it  is  seen  to  be 
granophyre  spotted  with  chlorite  (probably  after  biotite).  In  this  section 
the  veins  bear  very  little  gold. 

In  the  same  mine,  a  pyritous  quartz-vein  coursing  through  chloritic- 
schist  was  proved  for  about  185  feet  in  length.  It  trended  on  an  average 
east  84  degs.  south  to  west  84  degs.  north.  The  filling  was  18  inches  of 
white  quartz,  well  charged  with  iron  pyrites,  but  the  average  assay  value 
was  only  about  10  dwts.  of  gold  to  the  ton. 

On  the  opposite  side  of  the  river  Chiquili,  several  veins  are  seen 
trending  through  clay-slate  rocks,  some  of  which  have  been  worked  to  a 
certain  extent.  In  the  bottom  of  the  Arroyo  del  Muerto,  separating  the 
La  Reina  from  the  La  Union  claims,  two  veins  appear  to  form  a  junction, 
V-shaped  in  plan.  The  easternmost  of  these  consists  of  8  inches  of  quartz 
sprinkled  with  sulphides.  In  a  level  80  feet  above,  both  the  quartz  and 
the  country  are  loose  in  texture.  The  quartz  is  white,  and  in  one  leader 
8  inches  thick  below,  7  inches  in  the  middle,  and  8  inches  at  the  top  of 
the  level.  The  vein  trends  north-west  and  dips  south ;  outside  the  level, 
the  vein  is  split  up  and  disordered.  Higher  up  the  hiU  eastward  are 
two  outcrops  which  appear  to  be  continuations  of  the  western  branch  of 
the  same  vein.  The  first  and  lower  one  is  9  inches  thick  of  brown  quartz 
dipping  south  24  degs. ;  the  second  and  higher  one  of  similar  quartz 
6  inches  wide  and  dips  south  89  degs.  A  sample  from  these  out-crops 
gave  9  dwts.  of  gold  to  the  ton. 

The  westernmost  vein  nins  east  10  degs.  south  to  west  10  degs.  north, 
and  dips  south  50  degs.  on  an  avenge.  The  vein  is  traceable  along  the 
slope  of  the  hill  for  a  length  of  800  feet,  corresponding  to  a  height  of 
1 60  feet  vertical.  At  the  top  working,  the  vein  consists  of  6  inches  of  solid 
quartz  dipping  south  78  degs.;  50  feet  below  this  point,  the  dip  changes  to 
south  47  degs.,  and  the  vein  averages  10  inches.  The  bedding-planes 
trend  a  little  north  of  east,  and  dip  south  62  degs.,  so  that  the  vein  forms 
an  acute  angle  with  them.  25  feet  farther  down,  the  vein  consists  of  white 
quartz  sharply  curved  in  a  double-cleaved  or  jointed  rock  (Fig.  21, 
Plate  X.).  The  average  dip  is  south  30  degs.  In  the  lowest  working 
(100  feet  below  the  first)  the  dip  is  south  51  degs.,  and  the  thickness  is 
2  feet  of  white  quartz  strongly  cleaved  and  jointed.    Samples  from  the 


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0RGAK08  DISTRICT,  TOLIMA,  U.S.  COLOMBIA.  245 

Borface-workings  averaged  5  dwts.  of  gold  to  the  ton.  Old  workings 
exist  under  this  vein  which  were  inaccessible  at  the  time  of  the  writer^s 
visit. 

A  tunnel,  600  feet  above  the  river  Chiquili,  and  a  little  west  of  these 
workings,  has  cut  two  veins.  The  first  was  cut  60  feet  from  the  mottth, 
it  trends  north  22J  degs.  west,  and  dips  west  about  46  degs.  For  some 
distance  the  lode  was  auriferous,  consisting  of  21  inches  of  white  and 
comparatively  tender  quartz  sprinkled  with  iron  pyrites.  Southward  the 
lode  takes  a  sharp  turn  east,  and  here  the  lode  is  much  flatter,  consisting 
of  whitish  quartz  sprinkled  with  a  little  iron  pyrites.  The  rock  is  bluish 
clay-slate.  The  vein  averages  6  to  6  dwts.  of  gold  to  the  ton ;  northward 
it  is  soft  and  worthless.  About  20  yards  farther  west  another  vein  or 
branch  runs  north-east  and  south-west,  and  dips  south  46  degs.,  consisting 
of  one  foot  of  white  quartz  of  very  favourable  appearance  sprinkled  with 
iron  pyrites.  It  averages  10  dwts.  (extremes,  6  dwts.  and  8|  ounces)  of 
gold  to  the  ton.  It  must  form  a  junction  with  the  first  vein  to  the  south, 
and  is  said  to  have  done  so  in  one  of  the  stopes  above,  where  rich  mineral 
was  found. 

Near  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  La  Virginia  claim,  a  quartzose  vein, 
1 6  inches  thick,  is  seen  crossing  the  Arroyo  north  86  degs.  west  to  south 
36  degs.  east  in  clay-slate  country.  The  vein  has  been  proved  super- 
ficially along  the  slope  of  the  hill  for  a  length  of  360  feet,  corresponding 
to  a  vertical  height  of  126  feet.  At  the  top  working,  the  vein  is  seen  to 
be  a  red  and  yellow-stained  dyke  of  felsite  with  a  little  gossan  and  quartz 
3  feet  thick  in  hard  clay-slate  rock  (Fig.  22,  Plate  X.).  30  feet  below 
this,  the  vein  courses  north-west,  and  dips  south  72 1  degs.  in  a  simi- 
lar hard  country.  The  vein-formation  is  3^  feet  thick,  the  auriferous 
quartz  consisting  of  a  single  layer  lying  near  the  footwall  (Fig.  23, 
Plate  X.).  Divisional  planes  are  traceable  here  trending  east  and  west, 
and  dipping  south  76  degs.  70  feet  below  the  last  working,  the  vein 
consists  of  only  2  inches  of  quartz  spotted  with  iron  pyrites.  The  beds 
of  the  country  here  run  east  85  degs.  south  to  west  36  degs.  north,  and 
dip  to  south  61  degs.  An  average  sample  of  the  whole  vein  gave  only  a 
few  pennyweights  of  gold  to  the  ton.  The  country  here  is  clearly  uncon- 
genial, and  the  vein  is  pinched  below. 

At  the  California  mine,  an  auriferous  quartz- vein  is  traceable  for  about 
360  feet  on  the  slope  of  a  hill,  corresponding  to  a  vertical  height  of  160 
feet.  The  lode  strikes  east  20  degs.  south  to  west  20  degs.  north,  and 
dips  from  north  68^  degs.  to  south  58  degs.  At  the  top  working,  the 
vein  is  6  feet  wide,  consisting  of  2^  feet  of  hard  quartzose  gossan  with 


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246  ORGANOB  DISTRICT,  TOLIMA,  U.S.  COLOMBIA. 

iron  pyrites  on  the  hanging  side,  the  rest  being  gossany  clay  (Fig.  24, 
Plate  X.).  The  pyritous  quartz  assayed  2  ounces  13  dwts.  8  grains  of 
gold  to  the  ton,  while  the  gossany  clay  only  yielded  about  ^  ounce.  In 
the  croppings  below  the  vein  is  very  thin,  consisting  of  quartz,  gossan,  and 
iron  pyrites  from  2  to  9  inches  thick,  the  assays  varying  from  1^  to  9 
dwts.    In  one  place  the  quartz  is  white  and  non-mineralized. 

At  El  Dorado,  about  126  feet  above  the  stream,  a  vein  crops  out 
trending  north  32|  degs.  west,  and  dipping  south-west  68  degs.  It 
consists  of  ribs  of  quartz  separated  by  layers  of  rock,  and  with  gossan 
on  the  footwall.  Samples  from  here  have  yielded  from  9  dwts.  to  upwards 
of  6  ounces  of  gold  to  the  ton.  About  200  feet  above  this,  another  vein 
crops  out  bearing  east  11  degs.  south  to  west  11  degs.  north,  and  dip- 
ping south  42^  degs.,  from  12  to  18  inches  thick  of  solid  quartz  sprinkled 
with  iron  pyrites.    Assays  from  here  gave  only  from  4  to  8  dwts. 

At  Concepcion,  a  vein  trending  east  21^  degs.  south  and  dipping  south 
44  degs.,  is  seen  cropping  out  in  a  qvsbrado ;  it  consists  of  20  inches  of 
hard  quartz,  with  iron  pyrites  and  galena.  The  hanging-wall  appears  to 
be  hard  granophyre,  and  the  footwall  hard  homblende-dolerite.  A  few 
feet  above,  the  vein  thins  away  to  9  inches,  while  about  18  feet  higher  up, 
it  appears  only  as  2  inches  of  soft  green  clay  charged  with  two  iron  pyrites. 

The  prevalent  direction  of  the  veins  in  this  district  appears  to  be  a 
few  degrees  from  east  and  west  with  a  southerly  dip.  Several  veins  trend 
in  a  north-westerly  direction,  dipping  south-west.  A  north-easterly 
direction  appears  to  be  exceptional,  as  does  also  a  northerly  dip  (Fig.  25, 
Plate  X.). 

Leaving  the  segregated  veins  out  of  account,  which  usually  follow  the 
bedding-planes,  no  well-defined  system  of  fissure-lodes  has  as  yet  been 
discovered  in  this  district. 

The  veins  run  in  various  directions,  and  individually  many  of  them  are 
very  variable  in  strike.  The  beds  of  the  country  appear  to  vary  consider- 
ably in  strike  also.  At  the  Chorro  workings,  some  of  the  beds  appear  to 
run  north  85  degs.  east  and  to  dip  south  48  degs.,  while  others  trend  mostly 
a  few  degs.  north  of  east  and  dip  south  62  degs. ;  at  La  Beyna,  about 
10  miles  farther  south,  some  beds  are  seen  coursing  and  dipping  the  same 
as  the  latter,  but  in  the  same  mine  other  beds  strike  east  85  degs.  south 
and  dip  south  51  degs.  At  Silencio,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river, 
some  beds  appear  to  run  east  10  degs.  south  and  to  dip  south  86  degs.  to 
58  degs. ;  while  at  Socorro  some  beds  trend  north-west  and  dip  south- 
west.   The  rocks  are  frequently  so  altered  as  to  have  their  bedding-planes 


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ORGANOS  DISTRICT,  TOLIMA,  U.S.  COLOMBIA.  247 

obliterated — ^the  complicatioii  is  increased  when,  as  is  often  the  case,  the 
rocks  exhibit  divisional  planes  running  in  various  directions. 

The  fissure  veins  are  evidently  of  later  date  than  the  schistose  and 
eruptive  rocks,  as  they  pass  indiscriminately  through  both. 

It  is  extremely  probable  that  all  the  veins  have  been  filled  by  lateral 
secretion,  i.e.,  the  mineral  contents,  including  the  precious  metals,  have 
come  in  from  the  adjacent  rocks.  Certain  bands  of  the  metamorphic  rocks 
as  well  as  of  the  eruptive  dykes  are  strongly  charged  with  iron  pyrites,  and 
this  mineral  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  main  source  of  the  gold  in  the 
veins.  At  and  near  the  surface,  the  well-known  decompositions  have  taken 
place,  resulting  in  the  production  of  earthy  brown  oxide  of  iron  (gossan) 
and  the  setting  free  of  the  gold. 

The  association  of  manganese  with  gold  has  frequently  been  noticed. 
In  this  district  the  gossany  veins  are  often  characterized  by  the  presence 
of  this  ore,  and,  in  certain  instances,  they  are  specially  auriferous  when 
crossing  bands  of  oxide  of  iron,  manganese,  and  clay. 

It  should  be  noted  that  in  some  countries — ^Venezuela  for  example — 
manganese  is  looked  upon  as  a  sign  of  poverty.* 

In  some  gold  veins  the  presence  of  galena  is  regarded  as  a  fevourable 
indication.  This  appears  to  be  the  case  in  this  district,  although  the 
galena  itself  carries  little  gold. 

Gossan  containing  visible  gold  is  usually  regarded  as  a  favourable 
feature  for  the  precious  metal  occurring  in  depth,  but,  speaking  generally, 
this  is  certainly  not  the  case  in  this  district.  The  gossany  veins  die  out 
rapidly  in  depth,  while  the  quartz  fissure- veins  seldom  carry  gossan  at  the 
surface. 

Some  of  the  quartz  fissure-veins  appear  to  widen  while  others  seem  to 
pinch  out  in  depth — but  the  latter  may  only  be  a  temporary  thinning  due 
to  hard  and  uncongenial  rock. 

Although  the  quartz  fissure-veins  sometimes  follow  the  direction  of 
the  bedding-planes,  they  more  frequently  cut  them  at  an  acute  angle, 
obliquely,  or  at  right  angles ;  they  sometimes,  too,  follow  the  lines  of 
contact  between  the  sedimentary  and  eruptive  rocks,  and  sometimes  follow 
the  dykes  for  a  certain  length,  as  well  as  the  divisional  planes. 

Mr.  John  C.  F.  Randolphf  says  that  no  true  fissure-veins  have  yet  been 
discovered  in  Tolima,  and  they  are  all  classed  by  him  under  the  head  of 
bedded-veins.     His  observations,  however,  do  not  appear  to  have  been 

*  Les  Filons  A' Or  de  la  Ouyane  Frangaue,  L.  F.  Viala,  1886,  page  36. 
t  "  Notes  on  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  S.A.,"  Trans.  Aw,  Inst,  Min,  Eng.^  vol. 
xviii.,  pages  205-213. 


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248  OBQANOS  DISTRICT,  TOLIMA,  U.S.  COLOMBIA. 

extended  bo  far  south  as  Organos.  Even  with  regard  to  other  diBtricts 
this  is  a  sweeping  assertion  to  make,  and  the  writer  believes  it  is  not  borne 
out  by  facts. 

Quartz  appears  to  be  the  only  true  gangne  in  these  veins,  and  the 
metalliferous  species  are  extremely  few  in  number,  being  confined  abnost 
entirely  to  auriferous  iron  pyrites,  auriferous  and  argentiferous  galena, 
blende,  the  oxides  of  iron  and  manganese  (secondary),  and  a  mineral  not 
yet  determined. 

In  the  quartz  fissure-veins  the  band  of  quartz,  which  is  generally 
found  on  or  near  the  hanging-wall,  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  filling  of 
the  original  fissure  ;  other  bands  frequently  occur  adjacent  to  or  near  this, 
filling  subsidiary  fissures,  or  are  the  result  of  replacement  of  the  country- 
rock. 

The  rock  on  either  side  of  the  original  fissure  is  often  decomposed  and 
mineralized,  and  frequently  exhibits  joints  or  fissure-planes  parallel 
thereto.  These  were  probably  produced  contemporaneously,  and  those 
that  limit  the  mineral  contents  may  be  regarded  as  the  hanging  and 
footwalls  of  the  vein. 

The  country  within  the  lodes  may  be  looked  upon  as  altered  or  un- 
altered rock  in  situ;  and  the  original  fissures  were  probably,  in  the  first 
instance,  mere  cracks  in  the  country  rock. 

In  places  there  is  evidence  of  strong  local  disturbance  in  the  rocks,  due 
probably  to  great  lateral  pressure,  which  has  produced  local  movements  of 
one  bed  over  another,  resulting  sometimes  even  in  fracture  (Figs.  1  and  4, 
Plate  IX.). 

Finally,  the  behaviour  of  the  quartz  fissure-veins  may  generally  be 
said  to  be  irregular,  and  its  peculiarities  are  as  follows : — 

1.  The  thickness  varies  considerably,  and  sometimes  at  short  dis* 
tanccs,  both  horizontaUy  and  vertically,  from  a  mere  joint-plane  to  about 
6  feet,  the  latter  being  rarely  exceeded.  The  average  would  appear  to  be 
about  2  feet. 

2.  The  dip  also  varies  considerably,  although  its  general  direction  is 
nearly  always  south  or  south-west,  according  as  the  vein  runs  in  an 
east  and  west  or  north-westerly  and  south-easterly  direction  respectively. 
The  dip  is  rarely  northerly  or  easterly,  and  when  so  the  lode  is  usually 
marked  by  poverty. 

3.  The  strike  is  still  more  variable,  and  although  some  of  the  veins 
appear  to  follow  the  law  of  average  bearing,*  others  appear  very  capricious 
in  this  respect. 

*  Moissenct,  Parties  riches  desJUons. 


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IPS  District/,  if.  S.  Colombicv 


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IPS  District.  U.  S.  Coloifthutyl 


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REFERENCE. 

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DISCUSSION — OBOANOS  DISTRICr,  TOLIMA,  U.S.  OOLOMBU,  249 

4.  The  walls  are  sometimefi  ill-defined,  especially  in  the  eruptive 
rocks.  In  Figs.  16  to  20  a  fiiirly  well-defined  hanging- wall  is  observable, 
while  the  quartz  leader,  which  we  may  regard  as  a  f ootwall,  is  often  flat 
and  irregular. 

AuBiFBROUs  Impregnations. 

In  addition  to  the  deposits  described  in  the  paper  there  is  another  class 
in  the  district  whidi  may  be  termed  auriferous  impregnations.  They 
occur  in  highly  kaolinized  granophyre,  and  run  as  a  rule  very  irregularly, 
and  appear  to  possess  no  walls  or  joints. 

At  the  Silencio  mine,  a  deposit  of  this  class  has  been  opened  near  the 
sur&x;e.  It  deemed  to  run  roughly  north-east  to  south-west,  and  to  dip 
flatly  to  the  south-east.  The  rock  appeared  to  have  been  subjected  to  the 
action  of  thermal  waters  from  which  hydrated  oxide  of  iron  and  native 
gold  had  crystallized  out.  The  mineral  bore  a  great  resemblance  to 
specimens  from  the  famous  Mount  Morgan  niine  of  Queensland,  but 
unfortunately  it  was  not  found  in  any  quantity.  Specimens  occur  rich  in 
visible  gold,  but  the  average  does  not  probably  run  more  than  half  an 
ounce  to  the  ton.  It  is  believed  that  most  of  the  gold  occurs  in  the 
mineral  in  a  very  highly  divided  condition. 

Veins  crossing  these  gold-impregnated  beds  would  probably  be  found 
to  be  highly  enriched  therein. 

The  gold  in  the  Organos  district  contains  a  good  proportion  of  silver, 
and  is  only  about  650  fine. 


The  President  asked  whether  the  mines  were  worked  to  any  great 
extent,  what  was  the  quantity  of  gold  produced,  the  number  of  workmen, 
etc.  ? 

Mr.  E.  Halse  replied  that  a  large  quantity  of  gold  was  not  produced 
at  present  in  the  district  described ;  the  value  might  perhaps  be  put  down 
roughly  at  from  £10,000  to  £15,000  sterling  per  annum.  The  mines 
were  being  extended,  and  new  veins  were  being  opened  out,  so  that  in 
future  the  district  might  become  a  much  more  important  one  than  it  was 
at  present. 

Mr.  W.  Cochrane  asked  whether  the  district  was  likely  to  become 
competitive  with  other  gold-bearing  districts  of  other  parts  of  the  world  ? 

Mr.  Halse  said  at  .present  it  could  not  be  considered  as  an  important 
district,  but  he  could  not  say  what  it  might  become  with  inrther  develop- 
ment. 


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250  DISCUSSION — ORGANOS  DISTRICT,  TOLIMA,  U.S.  COLOMBIA. 

OORRESPONDENCE. 

Mr.  David  Burns  wrote  that  the  Organos  mining-field  seemed  cal- 
culated to  intensify  the  mystery  that  surrounded  the  origin  of  veins, 
rather  than  to  afiPord  material  for  a  solution  of  the  problem.  The  features 
recorded  are  pretty  much  what  obtain  when  veins  occur  in  extremely 
metamorphic  rocks,  save  that  the  veins  appeared  to  be  of  a  specially  weak 
and  fragmentary  character,  but  probably  more  extended  operations  and 
deeper  working  would  show  a  greater  continuity  than  now  appears 
probable.  It  is  abundantly  clear  from  this  paper  and  from  many  other 
observations,  that  the  contents  of  the  bedded  veins  were  to  a  great  extent 
determined  by  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  that  consequently  they  were 
filled  when  the  surface-configuration  was  approximately  what  it  is  now. 
This  is  proved  by  the  contents  of  the  veins  altering  in  depth,  and  in  most 
cases  disappearing  altogether.  The  conversion  of  pyrites  into  gossan 
is  easily  explained  by  atmospheric  influences,  but  the  displacement  of 
auriferous  quartz  by  flucan,  as  greater  depth  is  attained,  admits  of  no 
such  solution.  Neither  does  the  segregation  idea  help  us  at  all.  Let 
us  suppose  that  a  limited  amount  of  intensely  heated  and  highly  fluid 
mineral  substances  was  escaping  from  the  interior  along  contact-planes 
as  being  the  planes  of  least  resistance.  So  long  as  these  substances 
remained  perfectly  fluid,  they  would  allow  the  rift  between  the  rocks  to 
close  behind  them,  but  when  they  began  to  cool  down  and  became  viscous, 
they  would  begin  to  clog  up  the  vent,  those  with  the  lowest  melting-point 
getting  nearest  the  surface.  This  assumption  explained  why  such  veins 
so  frequently  disappear  in  depth  and  present  a  distinct  succession  of 
mineral  in  depth.  It  was  inconceivable  that  pyrites  and  quartz  could 
traverse  the  planes  of  bedding  of  the  country-rock  by  any  other  agency 
than  galvanic  action.  If  galvanic  action  had  caused  the  segregation, 
would  not  the  metals  of  the  veins  be  found  in  continuous  ribs,  and  the 
metals  in  the  metallic  form  instead  of  as  ores  ?  Metalliferous  veins  are 
generally  found  intersecting  dykes  and  cross-courses  and  are  thus  proved 
to  be  of  later  age,  and  they  may  be  of  a  much  later  period  than  has 
hithei'to  been  suspected.  Mr.  Halse  says  "  the  rock  oil  either  side  of  the 
original  fissure  is  often  decomposed  and  mineralized,  and  frequently 
exhibits  joints  or  fissure-planes  parallel  thereto,"  but  this  feature  was  well 
explained  by  the  theory  of  the  eruption  of  vein-stuff  from  below,  and  not 
at  all  by  the  author's  theory  of  secretion.  Much  of  the  quartz  and  clay  in 
the  veins  may  be  the  country  rock  completely  metamorphosed  by  the  hot 
erupted  vein-matter,  whereas  the  rocks  just  referred  to  have  been  less 
altered.    The  fissure-veins  that  appeared  to  widen  in  depth  are  probably 


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DI8CUS8I0N— -ORGAKOS  DISTRICT,  TOLIMA,  U.S.  COLOMBIA.  251 

stronger  or  have  had  more  cover  than  those  that  narrow  downwards  ;  and 
those  that  widen  in  depth  will  ultimately  narrow  if  followed  far  enough ; 
their  fluids  having  been  able  to  expend  most  of  their  energies  before 
reaching  the  surfeoe,  while  those  that  are  widest  at  the  outcrop  have  not. 
Mr.  E.  Halse  wrote  that  Mr.  David  Burns  appeared  to  think  that 
veins  were  filled  by  mineral  substances  ascending  them  in  a  more  or  less 
molten  condition.  This  seems  an  extraordinary  view  to  take,  and  one  to 
which  the  writer  believes  the  present  structure  of  veins  lends  no  support 
whatever.  On  the  contrary,  all  the  evidence  seems  to  show  that  the 
mineral  substances  were  deposited  from  chemical  solution  (presumably 
from  heated  waters,  but  not  necessarily  so  in  all  cases).  The  writer  has 
advanced  no  new  theory  in  his  paper,  but  he  has  taken  the  most  generally 
accepted  one,  that  of  lateral  secretion — first  outlined  by  Delius  in  1770, 
and  in  recent  years  propounded  with  much  scientific  evidence  by  Fridolin 
Sandbei^er,*  and  largely  suppoited  by  such  keen  observers  as  Emmons, 
Curtis,  Becker,  and  others— as  explaining  best  the  mode  of  filling  of  at 
least  the  superficial  veins  of  the  district  described.  No  single  theory  will 
explain  all  the  phenomena  connected  with  mineral  veins,  nor  can  it  be 
expected  to  do  so,  for  the  structure  is  often  extremely  complicated,  owing 
probably  to  the  veins  having  undergone  many  physical  and  chemical 
changes  since  the  first  filling. 


The  President  proposed  a  vote  of  thanks  to  the  writer  of  the  paper. 
Mr.  M.  Walton  Brown  seconded  the  vote  of  thanks,  which  was 
cordially  adopted. 


The  Rev.  G.  M.  Capell  read  the  following  paper  on  the  "Manometric 
Eflficiency  of  Fans"  :— 

♦    Untersuchitngen  iiber  Srz(fatige,  1882,  1885. 


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252  MAKOMETRIC  EFFICIENCY  OF  FANS. 


MANOMETRIO  EPPICIENCY  OP  FANS. 


By  THE  Rev.  O.  M.  CAPBLL. 


It  is  now  about  ten  years  sinoe  the  term  ^^manometric  efficiency" 
was  brought  prominently  forward  by  Mr.  Daniel  Murgue,  and  the  term  is 
one  not  generally  understood.  It  refers  simply  to  the  relation  of  the 
water-gauge  to  the  speed  of  the  blade-tips  of  a  fan,  and  has  no  necessary 
relation  to  the  useful  effect  of  a  fan. 

Mr.  6.  Herbst,  in  speaking  of  fan  tests,  specially  remarks  that  high 
manometric  effect  does  not  necessarily  imply  high  useful  effect.  In  fact 
the  evidence  of  tests  by  Pan  Commissions  prove  the  exact  contrary,  as 
will  be  shown  later  on.  When  we  consider  that  the  water-gauge  and 
volume  represent  two  sides  of  a  balance,  of  which  the  water-gauge 
represents  the  longer  arm,  it  seems  natural  to  expect,  if  the  water- 
gauge  be  reduced,  that  the  volume  of  air  will  be  increased,  and  with  it  the 
useful  effects  at  a  given  speed.  With  high  manometric  effect,  the  fan  is 
not  working  on  a  full  flow  of  air,  and  consequently  is  wasting  power  in 
creating  the  high  vacuum  implied  in  a  maximum  water-gauge  with  a 
minimum  quantity  of  air  passing. 

In  the  trials  of  Guibal  fans  by  the  Committee  of  the  North  of  England 
Institute  of  Mining  and  Mechanical  Engineers,*  the  50  feet  Ouibal  fan 
at  St.  Hilda  colliery  showed  a  useful  effect  of  42*09  per  cent.,  while  the 
manometric  effect  was  64*1  per  cent. ;  the  40  feet  Guibal  fan  at  Pemberton 
colliery  showed  a  useful  effect  of  62-96  per  cent.,  with  a  manometric 
effect  of  52*1  per  cent. ;  the  Guibal  fan  at  Cannock  Wood  colliery  showed 
a  useful  effect  of  47"95  per  cent.,  with  a  manometric  effect  of  66  per 
cent.;  and  the  Waddle  fan  at  Celynen  colliery,  with  a  useful  effect  of  50*5 
per  cent.,  gave  a  manometric  effect  of  45'7  per  cent. 

Another  consideration  comes  in  next,  that  is  the  position  of  the  end 
of  the  water-gauge  tube.  In  all  the  early  Guibal  fans  the  water-gauge 
tube  was  placed  either  in  the  centre  of  the  inlet  over  the  bearing  or  in 
the  fan  case.  Now  this  makes  a  considerable  difference  in  the  calculation 
of  the  manometric  effect.    If  another  water-gauge  were  placed  on  the 

•  Traru,  N.  B,  IjuL,  vol.  autx.,  page  273. 


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MANOMBTBIO  BPPIOIKNCY  OP  PANS.  263 

drift,  20  feet  from  the  fan  inlet,  another  and  a  lower  reading  would  be 
shown.  There  is  an  instructive  example  in  the  trials  of  the  80  feet  Guibal 
fan  at  Staveley  colliery  by  Mr.  Robert  Howe,*  at  56  revolutions  of  the  fan 
the  water-gauge  in  the  inlet  was  2*52  inches,  with  a  manometric  effect  of 
73  per  cent. ;  but  the  water-gauge  in  the  drift  was  2*10  inches,  with  a 
manometric  effect  of  60*3  per  cent.  There  is  a  difference  of  about  13  per 
cent,  in  the  manometric  effect,  obtained  by  changing  the  water-gauge  from 
a  position  at  the  fan-inlet  to  the  drift-door,  which  was  close  to  the  fan- 
inlet.  At  a  distance  of  20  feet,  the  manometric  effect  would  have  been 
much  less. 

In  recent  trials  of  fans  by  a  private  commission  in  Belgium,  there  ifl 
an  interesting  series  of  diagrams  showing  the  position  of  fan-inlets  and 
the  water-gauges  at  various  points.  At  the  Rieu-du-Cceur  colliery,  a  Rateau 
fan  has  been  erected,  and  this  fan  is  said  to  show  a  manometric  effect  of 
80*2  per  cent.,  with  a  useful  effect  of  from  35  to  47  per  cent.  The 
position  of  the  water-gauge  tube  was  peculiar.  The  conical  adjutage, 
joining  the  fan  to  the  drift,  is  of  small  diameter,  not  above  4J  feet,  and 
the  water-gauge  tube  is  placed  in  it.  With  59,488  cubic  feet  of  air  passing, 
the  velocity  would  be  4,210  feet  per  minute  in  the  tube,  and,  by  Dr. 
Hutton's  rule,  the  water-gauge  due  to  that  velocity  would  be  1'70  inches, 
representing  a  very  large  deduction  from  the  4*29  inches  shown,  had  the 
gauge  been  taken  on  the  door  of  the  large  drift,  from  which  the  fan  was 
drawing.  Yet  a  comparison  is  made  of  the  manometric  effect  of  that  fan, 
with  its  water-gauge  tube  in  the  position  described,  with  that  of  a  Capell 
fan  at  the  Prosper  colliery,  with  the  water-gauge  tube  placed  about  90 
feet  from  the  double  inlets  of  the  fan,  in  a  drift  of  55  square  feet  area, 
the  water-gauge  showing  6*10  inches. 

If  manometric  effects  are  to  be  of  any  use  in  comparisons,  the  con- 
ditions of  taking  them  should  be  settled,  as  they  become  misleading  when 
made  under  wholly  different  conditions.  In  the  report  of  the  Belgian 
Commission,  only  the  Guibal  fans  appear  to  have  been  tested  under 
similar  manometric  conditions. 

Another  point  is  worthy  of  notice,  that  a  very  small  fan  pa^ising  a 
large  volume  of  air  has  to  raise  that  air  to  a  high  velocity ;  and  velocity 
means  work  done,  and  it  is  fair  to  measure  the  work  done,  remembering  that 
the  static  water-gauge  (t.e.,  the  water-gauge  taken  out  of  the  air-current  in 
the  fan-drift)  is  the  water-gauge  which  should  be  effective  for  the  ventila- 
tion of  a  mine.  That  water-gauge  can  always  be  ascertained  by  taking  a 
reading  on  the  outer  door  of  the  fan-driil,  the  inner  door  being  open.    If 

•  Drans,  Chesterfield  InsU^  vol.  i.,  page  46. 


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254  MANOMBTRIC  EPPIOIBNCY  OF  FANS. 

all  water-gauges  were  taken  thus,  the  nsefnl  effects  would  become  less,  as 
at  present  calculated,  but  the  real  efFective  work  of  fans  would  become 
clearer. 

The  writer  has  found  that  the  highest  useful  effects  in  fans  of  the 
double  centrifugal  type  is  obtained  between  47  per  cent,  and  54  per  cent, 
of  manometric  effect.  This  agrees  with  the  results  of  the  Committee  of 
the  North  of  England  Institute  on  Guibal  fans,  and  brings  the  useful 
effects  of  Guibal  fans  down  to  the  level  of  fans  placed  on  Belgian  mines 
by  Mr.  Guibal.  The  position  of  the  water-gauge  tube  in  fan  tests  deter- 
mines not  only  the  manometric  ef&ciency,  but  the  mechanical  efi&ciency  ; 
and  the  reduction  of  the  mechanical  eificiency  becomes  a  serious  matter 
in  a  case  where,  with  one  fan,  the  water-gauge  tube  is  placed,  say,  60  feet 
away  from  the  inlet  of  the  fan,  while  with  the  other  fan  the  water-gauge 
tube  is  placed  in  or  close  to  the  inlet.  It  follows,  that  in  such  calculations, 
some  fixed  distance  from  the  inlet  should  be  settled  for  the  water-gauge 
tube  end,  so  as  to  avoid  conclusions  which  are  misleading  and  inaccurate. 

Another  point  of  discussion  is  whether  the  water-gauge  effect  on  the 
mine  ventilation  is  the  same  with  a  double-acting  as  with  a  single-acting 
centrifugal  fan.  Experiments  with  two  fans  acting  in  succession,  t.g., 
one  fan  discharging  into  the  inlet  of  another,  show  that  the  effect  is 
not  the  same  as  with  only  one  fan  acting  on  the  mine  at  a  given  speed. 
The  writer  believes  fully  in  the  difference,  and  this  is  a  point  which 
would  at  once  raise  a  question  as  to  the  real  worth  of  exceptionally  high 
manometric  effects. 

The  manometric  rule  of  Mr.  Murgue  shows  a  theoretical  gauge  double 
of  that  given  by  Mr.  Guibal  h  =  u^  -i-  g;  whOe    Mr.  Guibal  used 

A  curious  point  comes  out  in  examining  these  water-gauges  and 
manometric  effects.  If  a  fan  gives  80  per  cent,  of  manometric  effect, 
then  the  speed  of  the  air  flowing  into  the  vacuum,  formed  by  the 
revolving  blade-tips,  is  greater  than  the  velocity  of  the  actual  circum- 
ference of  the  fan.  Take  the  case  of  a  fan  9*2  feet  in  diameter, 
giving  80  per  cent,  of  manometric  effect  at  228  revolutions  and  4*29 
inches  of  water-gauge.  The  velocity  due  to  a  depression  of  4*29  inches, 
calculated  by  the  following  formula:  v  =  >/A  x  66  1,  is  136"7  feet 
per  second  or  8,202  feet  per  minute,  while  the  periphery  speed  of  the 
fan  is  only  6,573  feet  per  minute.  It  is  extremely  probable,  if  a  lower 
velocity  of  blade-tip  speed  can  raise  a  depression  producing  a  higher  speed 
of  air,  that  there  are  some  deeper  problems  underlying  the  action  of 
centrifugal  fans  than  have  been  thought  of,  and  the  whole  theory  of  fan 
action  may  have  to  be  revised. 


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DISCUSSION — MANOMKTRIC  EFFIOIBNOY  OP  PANS.  255 

The  object  of  the  writer  of  this  paper  is  to  shoV  that  high  manometric 
effect  does  not  necessarily  imply  high  useful  effect,  and  also  to  point  out 
the  need  of  some  accepted  rules  for  testing  fans,  to  avoid  unsafe  results 
in  manometric  effect  and  useful  effect  in  comparing  fans,  where  the 
water-gauge  has  been  placed  under  entirely  different  conditions. 

Further  trials  were  made  on  May  23rd  last,  of  the  Guibal  and  Capell 
fans  at  the  Maries  collieries,  in  the  north  of  France.    The  results  were : — 

Fan,  diameter  (feet)     

Reyolutions  per  minute,  engine 

Do.  do.,  fan 

Water-gange,  near  inlet  (inches) 

Do.  in  main  drift  in  a  recess, 

and  common  to  both  fans  (inches)  ... 

Volume  of  air  per  minute  (cubic  feet) 

The  difference  of  0*45  inch  between  the  inlet  and  static  water-gauge 
in  the  case  of  the  Guibal  fan  is  very  large,  while  the  difference  between 
the  inlet  and  static  water-gauge  in  the  case  of  the  Capell  fan  is  only  0*75 
inch.  The  efficiency  of  the  Guibal  fen  is  very  low,  being  only  39  per 
cent,  of  the  inlet  water-gauge. 


QnlbalFan. 

GapeUFan. 

23 

12i 

76 

68 

75 

306 

1-40 

910 

0-96 

8-35 

72,559 

203,328 

The  Presidbnt  said  he  thought  it  would  be  desirable  in  discussing 
this  paper,  to  take  at  the  same  time  the  discussion  on  the  following 
papers : — "Observations  on  Fans  of  Different  Types  Working  on  the  same 
Upcast  Shaft,"  by  the  Rev.  6.  M.  Capell;*  and  "Experiments  upon  a 
Waddle  Fan  and  a  Capell  Fan  Working  on  the  same  Mine  at  Equal 
Periphery  Speeds  at  Teversal  Colliery,"  by  Mr.  J.  C.  B.  Hendy.f 

Mr.  W.  Cochrane  said  he  would  like  Mr.  Capell  to  make  his  meaning 
perfectly  clear  as  regards  the  manometric  efficiency.  In  the  paper  it  was 
said  to  refer  "simply  to  the  relation  of  the  water-gauge  to  the  speed  of  the 
blade-tips  of  the  fan,  and  had  no  necessary  relation  to  the  useful  effect  of 
the  fan."  Did  this  mean  that  the  manometric  efficiency  was  the  water- 
gauge  (irrespective  of  where  it  was  taken)  compared  with  the  theoretical 
water-gauge  ?  If  so,  it  was  simply  the  relation  of  the  indicated  water- 
gauge  (the  water-gauge  itself,  measured  and  seen)  to  the  theoretical 
water-gauge ;  and  he  wanted  to  know  whether  the  latter  was  based  upon 
^  =  tt*  -r  ^  or  A  =  w*  -f-  2^  ? 

Mr.  A.  L.  Stbavenson  referred  to  the  same  paragraph  as  to  the 
manometric  efficiency  in  which  Mr.  Capell  said  "  it  refers  simply  to  the 

♦  Trans,  Fed,  Ifut,^  vol.  iv.,  page  208.  f  ^^id.,  page  474. 


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256  DISCUSSION — MANOMBTRia  KFFICIBNCY  OF  FANS. 

relation  of  the  water-gange  to  the  speed  of  the  blade-tips  of  a  fan,  and 
has  no  necessary  relation  to  the  useful  effect  of  a  fan/'  If  they  took 
any  ventilator  and  found  that  some  part  of  its  work  was  performed 
more  eflSciently  than  in  any  other  fan,  it  followed  that  the  useful  effect, 
all  things  being  equal,  would  also  be  higher.  Mr.  Thomas  Bell  (H,M. 
Inspector  of  Mines)  and  Mr.  Cooke  were  the  first  to  make  observations 
upon  the  pseudo  water-gauge,  and  they  noted  that  the  water-gauge  in  the 
case  of  the  Guibal  fan  had  in  all  cases  exceeded  %?  -r-  2^,  which,  he 
thought,  was  accounted  for  by  the  action  of  the  6vas^e  chimney.  Un- 
doubtedly the  6vas^e  chimney  entirely  altered  the  conditions  under  which 
the  speed  of  the  blade-tips  governed  the  theoretical  water-gauge.  The 
general  law  of  the  manometric  eflSciency  of  fans  was  now  so  well 
established  that  it  could  not  be  resisted ;  in  fact,  Mr.  CapeU  had  recog- 
nized the  advantage  of  the  6vas6e  chimney,  and  now  used  it  in  the  con- 
straction  of  his  fan.  The  only  question  now  in  dispute  was  the  position 
of  the  water-gauge.  He  thought  the  proper  position  was  at  such  a 
distance  from  the  fan  that  it  was  not  affected  by  the  speed  of  the  fan, 
say,  for  instance,  at  the  bottom  of  the  pit. 

Prof.  J.  H.  Mebivalb  said  he  understood  Mr.  Capell  to  say  that  it 
should  be  taken  as  near  to  the  fan  as  possible,  and  where  the  air  was 
practically  at  rest.    The  best  position  would  be  in  the  fan-chamber. 

Mr.  Capell  said  with  regard  to  the  question  of  the  higher  manometric 
efficiency  necessarily  implying  a  higher  useful  effect,  his  own  experience 
was  diametrically  opposed  to  such  a  conclusion,  and  in  the  recent  experi- 
ments at  Maries  colliery,  carefully  conducted  by  capable  engineers,  they 
arrived  at  a  result  which  was  a  startling  surprise. 

Mr.  W.  CocHEANB  asked  the  meaning  of  "  double  centrifugal  type  of 
mine-ventUator,"  and  whether  it  applied  to  others  than  the  Capell  fan  ? 
Would  he  call  the  Guibal  or  Waddle  fans  "  double  centrifugal "  ? 

Mr.  Capell  said  they  were  single-centrifugal  fans,  but  the  Pelzer  and 
Eateau  fans  were  of  the  double  centrifugal  type. 

Mr.  W.  Cochrane  referred  to  Mr.  Capell's  statement  that  "some 
fixed  distance  from  the  inlet  should  be  settled  for  the  water-gauge  tube- 
end,  so  as  to  avoid  conclusions  which  are  misleading  and  inaccurate.'*  If 
he  (Mr.  Cochrane)  remembered  rightly,  Mr.  Capell  argued  in  a  previous 
discussion*  that  the  principle  of  the  Capell  and  similar  fans  was  such 
that  they  carried  back  (for  the  same  velocity  of  blade-tip)  a  water-gauge 
very  much  farther  into  the  mine  than  any  other  kind  of  fan  ;  therefore, 
if  at  the  surface,  a  distance  of  20  feet  or  so  away,  were  settled  as  a 
•  Tran9,  Fed,  Irut*,  vol.  Iv.,  page  204. 


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DISCUSSION — MANOMBTRIO  BPFICIBNOY  OP  FANS.  257 

suitable  position  for  the  water-gauge,  an  advantage  would  be  claimed  in 
all  cases  for  Capell  fans  and  those  of  similar  type ;  that  is,  that  they 
•would  be  able  to  indicate  a  higher  water-gauge  at  a  distance  of  20  feet 
from  the  fan  than  any  other  fan.  The  Guibal  fan  at  Maries,  which 
produced  72,559  cubic  feet  at  0*95  inch  water-gaage,  in  the  fan  drift 
would  produce  203,000  cubic  feet  in  the  same  mine  at  7'486  ioches  of 
water-guage.  It  seemed  to  him  that  the  Capell  fan  indicated  a  higher 
water-guage  to  circulate  this  volume  than  the  Guibal  fan,  but  such 
higher  water-guage  was  not  required,  and  ought  to  yield,  if  utilized,  a 
much  larger  volume  of  air  than  203,000  cubic  feet  per  minute. 

Mr.  Capell  asked  what  would  have  been  the  water-gauge  of  the 
Guibal  fan  when  circulating  203,000  cubic  feet  per  minute  ? 

Mr.  Cochrane— In  the  proportion  of  72* :  208*  =  0*95  :  7-486 
inches. 

Mr.  A.  L.  Stbavenson  said  that  if  they  took  the  experiment  on  the 
Guibal  fan  and  used  the  formula  u^  -f-  2^,  they  got  an  efficiency  exceed- 
ing 100  per  cent.,  which  was  impossible.  It  was  necessary  to  recognize 
the  effect  of  the  6vas^  chimney,  and  the  square  of  the  speed  of  the 
periphery  should  be  divided  by  g  and  not  2^. 

Mr.  T.  H.  M.  Stratton  said  he  would  leave  the  scientific  part  of  the 
discussion  to  Mr.  Cochrane,  but  he  thought  Mr.  Capell  was  under  a 
mistake  if  he  assumed  that  tbe  manometric  efficiency  had  anything  to  do 
with  the  useful  effect.  If  they  had  a  fan  perfectly  suitable  to  the  size 
of  the  mine,  running  at  a  certain  speed,  and  with  its  outlets  and  intakes 
adapted  to  that  mine,  they  obtained  a  high  useful  effect,  but  they  could 
not  predict  the  proper  size  of  fan  to  put  up  unless  they  knew  the  area  of 
the  orifice  of  the  mine. 

Mr.  W.  C.  Blackett  said  he  was  in  considerable  doubt  as  to  what 
Mr.  Capell  meant  to  convey  by  his  paper,  more  especially  as  to  water- 
gauges.  From  his  use  of  the  term  "  static  "  as  applied  to  a  water-gauge 
in  one  part  of  his  remarks,  and  in  another  to  some  mysterious  influence 
"  thrown  back  from  the  fan,"  he  (Mr.  Blackett)  was  not  able  to  say 
whether  the  difference  was  due  to  this  mysterious  influence  "thrown 
back,"  or  to  the  dynamical  effects  of  the  air-currents.  As  Mr.  Capell 
used  the  word  "static  '^  he  thought  he  had  in  mind  the  dynamic  effects 
of  air-currents  passing  the  open  mouth  of  a  tube  connected  with  the 
water-gauge ;  this  was  one  thing,  but  this  influence  "  thrown  back " 
from  the  fan  was  another,  and  he  (Mr.  Blackett)  could  not  quite  under- 
stand whether  in  speaking  of  having  to  be  careful  against  the  static  gauge 
they  were  to  be  careful  to  get  out  of  this  mysterious  influence  or  to  get 

17 


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268  DISCUSSION — ^MANOMETUIO  EFFICIENCY  OF  FANS. 

out  of  the  influence  of  the  dynamic  effects  of  air-currents.  In  the  latter 
case,  he  did  not  see  how  putting  the  water-gauge  on  the  second  of  the 
separation-doors  got  over  the  difficulty,  as  in  that  case  they  simply, 
altered  the  shape  and  length  of  what  might  be  called  equivalent  to  the 
tube  of  the  water-gauge.  He  understood  Prof.  Merivale  to  say  that  it 
was  not  necessary  for  the  air  in  connexion  with  the  water-gauge  to  be 
perfectly  at  rest,  but  Mr.  Capell  considered  that  it  should  be  at  rest.  But 
he  (Mr.  Blackett)  took  it  that  in  all  water-gauges  connected  by  the 
fan-drift  with  the  tube,  the  air  in  the  tube  was  at  rest,  and  merely  altering 
the  shape  of  the  end  of  the  tube  and  expanding  it  into  a  passage  at 
right  angles — or  any  other  angle — to  the  fan-drift  did  not  provide  them 
with  air  not  in  motion,  and  he  thought  in  fact  the  widening  out  of  the 
tube  and  placing  the  widened  mouth  against  the  air-current  might  prevent 
them  getting  much  water-gauge  at  all.  About  fifteen  years  ago  he  made 
some  experiments  upon  a  Schiele  fan  with  the  special  object  of  getting  to 
know  the  influence  of  the  position  and  direction  of  the  pipe  upon  the 
readings  of  the  water-gauge,  in  relation  to  the  air -current  and  the  orifice 
of  the  fan,  and  he  was  able  to  get  from  O'SO  inch  with  the  pipe-mouth 
facing  the  current  to  over  2  inches  where  the  pipe  was  reversed,  and 
there  was  at  the  same  time  about  0'50  inch  registered  on  the  drift  doors. 
Although  Mr.  Cochrane  might  be  in  doubt  as  to  which  theoretical  water- 
gauge  ought  to  be  accepted,  there  was  considerably  more  doubt  as  to  how 
they  were  to  measure  the  practical  water-gauge,  and  he  had  not  heard 
anyone  yet  give  any  rule  as  to  taking  a  water-gauge  that  would  be 
equally  applicable  to  any  fan-drift.  He  thought  they  would  always  have 
differences  in  their  observations — one  gentleman  on  one  side  doubting 
the  veracity  of  another  gentleman  on  the  other  side  as  to  the  results 
produced  from  their  respective  fans — unless  they  could  hit  upon  some 
contrivance,  be  it  simple  or  otherwise,  for  getting  a  water-gauge  free 
from  all  influence  of  air  in  motion,  and  especially  free  from  that 
mysterious  influence  which  Mr.  Capell  said  was  capable  of  being  "  thrown 
back  "  from  the  fan. 

Mr.  A.  L.  Steavenson  said  he  thought  he  could  elucidate  the  matter. 
The  water-gauge  decreased  as  they  got  farther  away  from  the  fan,  until 
they  reached  a  point  at  which  it  became  practically  constant.  If  a  fan 
created  a  vacuum  giving  more  air  than  the  fan  could  contain,  they  would 
get  a  pseudo  water-gauge.  A  large  fan  of  40  or  50  feet  in  diameter 
produced  no  pseudo  water-gauge ;  but  a  small  fan  running  on  a  large 
mine  produced  great  pseudo  water-gauge,  because  the  vacuum  produced 
more  air  out  of  the  mine  than  the  fan  could  swallow. 


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DISCUSSION— MANOMBTRIC  EFFICIENCY  OF  FANS.  269 

Mr.  W.  C.  Blackbtt  rejoined  that  Mr.  Steavenson's  statement 
proved  that  he  was  more  influenced  by  the  mysterious  influence  of  the 
fan  '^  throwing  back "  than  by  the  dynamical  effects  of  the  air-current, 
and  he  (Mr.  Blackett)  was  still  in  as  much  doubt  as  ever  as  to  which 
should  have  the  more  importance  attached  to  it. 

Mr.  Oapell  said  that  in  order  to  avoid  all  dynamic  influence  of  the 
current  on  the  water-gauge,  he  had  tried  the  experiment  of  using  a  sharp 
pointed  tube,  which  he  drove  into  a  ball  of  worsted  where  nothing  could 
get  at  it.  For  practical  use  a  tube  of  perforated  zinc  placed  on  the  end 
of  the  water-gauge  tube,  and  covered  with  cotton-wool  and  then  wrapped 
over  with  several  layers  of  flannel  was  equally  efficient. 

Mr.  T.  H.  M.  Stratton  said  that  roughly  speaking,  they  might  put 
the  manometric  efficiency  of  the  Guibal  fan  at  0*64  and  the  Waddle^ 
Schiele,  and  Oapell  at  0-46. 

Mr.  Ferrier  said  he  did  not  think  the  manometric  efficiency  affected 
the  mechanical  efficiency,  for  the  highest  manometric  efficiency  was 
obtained  when  the  mine  was  shut  off,  when  the  mechanical  efficiency 
was  nil.  He  did  not  see  how  the  dynamic  effects  could  very  readily  be 
produced  in  a  substance  of  such  small  density  as  air ;  in  hydraulic  experi- 
ments they  had  a  very  great  effect  on  the  pressure  at  a  particular  point  along 
the  pipe  through  which  the  water  was  passing,  but  he  thought  this  was 
very  different  to  what  the  effect  would  be  on  a  substance  of  such  small' 
density  as  air.  The  energy  must  be  very  small  in  consequence  of  the 
small  weight  of  air,  and  it  was  difficult  to  see  how  the  dynamic  effect 
could  produce  an  appreciable  effect  on  the  water-gauge.  They  might 
suppose  that  the  pressure  would  form  rapidly  as  it  went  along  the  drift  to 
the  end  of  the  fan,  but  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  at  what  part  it  would 
be  best  to  place  the  water-gauge  ;  it  would  depend  largely  on  the  passage 
through  which  the  air  was  moving ;  the  larger  the  area  through  which 
the  air  was  passing  the  less  the  pressure  required  to  drive  it  through. 

Mr.  Capell  said  if  they  took  a  glass  tube  3  feet  long  and  blew  across 
its  end  they  would  get  a  water-gauge  of  14  or  15  inches,  and  this  was 
exactly  what  happened  in  a  tube  placed  in  a  very  high  velocity  of  air- 
current  ;  the  air  whistling  past  its  end  raised  the  observed  water-gauge  to 
a  higher  point  than  the  static  water-gauge  would  be. 

Mr.  J.  0.  B.  Hendy  said  that  he  agreed  with  Mr.  Capell's  remarks  as 
to  the  dynamic  results  observed  in  the  drift.  The  dynamic  water-gauge 
would  be  due  to  the  velocity  or  impulse  of  the  air  passing  the  orifice  of  the 
tube  ;  that  is  to  say,  if  the  orifice  of  the  water-gauge  tube  was  uncovered 
in  one  instance  and  covered  in  another,  there  would  probably  be  a 


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260  DISCUSSION — ^MANOMBTRIC  EFFICIENCY  OF  FANS. 

difference  in  the  water-gauge,  and  that  difference  would  be  due  to  the 
dynamic  effect.  He  understood  Mr.  Oapell  to  say,  in  the  paper  he  had 
just  read,  that  a  fan  might  have  a  very  high  manometric  eflSciency  and  at 
the  same  time  a  low  mechanical  efficiency,  and  that  one  machine  might  be 
a  better  ventilator  with  a  high  manometric  efficiency  and  a  low  mechanical 
efficiency,  than  another  macliine  which  gave  a  comparatively  low  mano- 
metric efficiency  and  high  mechanical  efficiency.  This  raised  the  question 
as  to  whether  they  were  to  judge  the  fan  and  engine  as  a  whole^  or  one 
machine,  or  to  separate  the  two  and  simply  judge  the  fan  from  its  mano- 
metric efficiency  and  the  volume  of  air  it  produced.  No  doubt  the  fan 
might  suffer  in  the  comparison  if  driven  by  a  badly  constructed  or 
inefficient  engine,  but  on  the  other  hand  they  ought  to  know  which  fan 
required  the  most  engine  power,  and  he  thought  that  experiments  ought 
to  be  made  so  as  to  obtain  such  data  as  would  enable  them  to  make  a  fair 
all-round  comparison.  In  most  of  the  cases  quoted  by  Mr.  Oapell  where 
a  Guibal  or  other  lai^e  fan  had  been  replaced  by  a  Capell  fan,  it  should 
not  be  forgotten  that  the  former  had  been  replaced  by  a  Oapell  fan  designed 
to  give  a  much  larger  volume  of  air  than  the  old  fan  was  capable  of 
exhausting,  and  (in  the  comparisons  he  makes)  he  gives  the  calculated 
water-gauge  required  for  the  old  fan  against  the  actual  water-gauge 
obtained  with  the  new  fan.  He  did  not  think  it  was  right  to  compare  the 
calculated  water-gauge  from  a  fan  designed  to  produce  say  50,000  cubic 
feet  per  minute  with  the  actual  water-gauge  given  by  a  new  fan  designed 
to  produce  120,000  or  150,000  cubic  feet  per  minute.  What  they  wanted 
was  a  comparison  between  fens  each  designed  for  the  same  duty  and 
working  under  the  same  conditions,  and  so  far  as  he  could  remember  Mr. 
Oapell  had  not  quoted  any  such  instance. 

Mr.  M.  Walton  Beown  said  that  Mr.  Guibal  (many  years  ago) 
showed  that  in  either  a  cased  or  open-running  fan  a  force  equal  to  that 
induced  by  the  velocity  of  the  circumference  was  wasted,  and  he  further 
proved  that  the  ideal  centrifugal  fan  should  be  provided  with  an  expand- 
ing-chimney  or  similar  apparatus  which  would  utilize  the  work  remaining 
in  the  air  on  its  issue  from  the  fan.  If  that  adjunct  was  of  infinite 
dimensions,  Mr.  Guibal  showed  that  the  water-gauge  would  be  doubled, 
and  it  had  not  been  found  difficult  in  practice  to  make  a  centrifugal  fan, 
provided  with  an  expanding-chimney,  produce  80  to  88  per  cent,  of  the 
theoretical  yield  calculated  by  the  formula  w*  -h  g.  In  other  words,  Mr. 
Guibal  accepted  «*  -f-  2^  as  the  value  of  the  theoretical  water-gauge 
produced  by  either  cased  or  open-running  centrifugal  fans ;  and  in  the 
case  of  the  ideal  centrifugal  fan  provided  with  sliding-shutter  and  expand- 
ing-chimney, he  proved  that  this  value  of  the  theoretical  water-gauge  was 


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DISCUSSION — ^HANOMBTBIO  BFFICIBNCY  OP  PANS. 


261 


doubled,  or  2  {ifl  -f-  2^)  =  w«  ^  ^,  which  agrees  with  Mr.  Murgue's 
fonnula.  H«  (Mr.  Brown)  could  not  accept  Mr.  Capell'g  view  that  the 
manometric  efficiency  of  any  type  of  fan  could  be  considered  as  having  a 
constant  fixed  value,  irrespective  of  the  conditions  of  the  mine.  The 
following  table  records  the  work  of  the  old  single  open-running  inlet  fan 
at  Birch  Coppice  colliery,*  together  with  certain  calculated  results  deduced 


OboerratioDa. 


11 

hi 


162 
120 
137 
137 
152 


OnbioFt. 
70,280 
60,000 
73,000 
73,000 

118,498 


Ins. 

MO 

0-70 

0-90 

0-86 

0-45 


Oaloolated  Besolta  at  106*1 
BeTolntions  per  Minute. 


Sq.Ft 
24-75 
26*53 
28-47 
29-30 
65-35 


Oubio  Ft. 
49,057 
53,050 
56,535 
66,535 
82,714 


Indhei. 
0-636 
0-547 
0-539 
0-509 
0-219 


Sonaraiof 
V<diime. 


2,406,699,249 
2,814,302,500 
3,198,206,225 
3,198,206,225 
6,841,605,796 


Water-gauce. 


Ins. 
0-577 
0-644 
0-613 
0-513 
0-216 


8  I 
1^ 


Ins. 
-0-041 

0-003 

0-C 
-0-004 

0-003 


0-269 
0-275 
0-271 
0-256 
0110 


therefrom.  If  a  diagram  be  made  with  the  squares  of  the  volumes  (v*)  as 
abscissae,  and  the  observed  water-gauges  (K)  as  ordinates,  a  straight  ILue 
could  be  drawn  approximately  through  the  five  points,  having  for  its 
equation  h  =  0-773  inch  —  0-000,000,000,081,5  v*.  The  calculated 
water-gauges  (h')  are  obtained  from  this  formula,  and  the  difference 
ih  —  h')  shows  the  apparent  errors.  These  differences  are  slight,  except 
in  the  case  of  No.  1  experiment,  and  may  be  set  down  to  errors  of  obser- 
vation. Taking  the  initial  water-gauge  (0-773  inch)  and  the  observed 
water-gauge  (A),  it  will  be  seen  that  the  manometric  efficiency  is  not 
constant  for  the  Birch  Coppice  fan,  and  that  it  varies  from  0-462  at  the 
initial  water-gauge,  to  0-110  in  No.  5  experiment.  Mr.  Capell,  in  a 
previous  paper,!  alleges  that  there  is  "a  different  water-gauge  in  the 
Guibal  fan  when  passing  the  same  volume  of  air  as  the  small  Capell  fan," 
and  "the  lower  gauge  for  a  given  work  in  air  shows  itself  wherever  the 
Capell  fan  has  replaced  a  Guibal  fan."  The  statement  is  not  borne  out  by 
the  experiments  recorded  in  Mr.  Capell's  paper,  as  the  comparison  is  made 
by  calculation  of  the  results  of  the  Guibal  fan  at  a  low  peripheral  speed 
with  those  of  the  Capell  fan  at  a  much  higher  peripheral  speed,  and  not  by 
direct  comparisons  of  the  water-gauges  of  both  fans  when  actually  passing 
the  same  large  volume  of  air.  Thus  at  Prosper  I  collieries,  the  Guibal  fan 
producing  a  volume  of  59,340  cubic  feet  is  compared  by  calculation  with 

♦  Trans.  South  Staffs,  Inst.  Min.  Ung,,  vol.  xi.,  page  74. 
t  TraTu.  Fed,  Inst,,  vol.  iv.,  page  203. 


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262 


DISCUSSION — ^MANOMETRIC  EFFICIENCY  OF  FANS. 


the  Oapell  fan  volume  of  127,574  cubic  feet  per  minute ;  and  at  Maries, 
the  Guibal  fan  exhausting  72,559  cubic  feet  is  compared  with  a  Capell  fan 
producing  208,328  cubic  feet  per  minute.  The  manifest  unfairness  of 
such  comparison  of  the  results  obtained  by  one  fan  with  those  produced 
by  another  fan  running  at  a  much  higher  peripheral  speed  is  clearly 
evidenced  by  a  comparison  of  Nos.  1  and  5  experiments  upon  the  Capell 
(12^  feet  double-inlet)  fan  at  Silverhill  colliery,*  as  follows  :— 

Revolutions  of  fan  per  minute 

Volume  of  air  per  minute  (cubic  feet)  ... 
Water-gauge  in  fan-drift  (inches) 

Taking  No.  1  experiment  of  110,920  cubic  feet  under  1*40  inches  of  water- 
gauge,  the  Capell  fan  would  n^quire  not  less  than  4*50  inches  of  water-gauge 
instead  of  4*10  inches,  actually  observed  in  No.  5  experiment.  These 
experiments  show  that  a  fan  (in  certain  cases)  yields  better  results  than 
a  fan  running  at  a  lower  speed,  and  that  such  an  unfavourable  comparison 
at  a  low  speed  occurs  equally  in  the  case  of  the  Capell  fan  as  in  any  other 
fan.  He  (Mr.  Brown)  had  considered  the  experiments  made  upon  the 
Capell  and  Waddle  fans  at  Teversal  collieries,  and  he  thought  that  the 
following  experiments  were  worthy  of  comparison : — 


No.  1 
Experiiuent. 
123 

No.  5 
Experiment 
215 

110,920 
1-40 

..        199,660 
4-10 

Description 
of  Fan. 

No.  of 
Experi- 
ment. 

Dia- 
meter. 

No.  of 
ReTolu- 

Volume 

of  Air 

perBfinute. 

Water- 
gau«e. 

Keferenoe. 

Cai)en       ... 

Waddle     ... 
Capell       ... 
Waddle     ... 
CapeU       ... 
WadcUe     ... 

A. 
A. 

B, 

Feet. 
16 

30 
16 
30 
16 
30 

113 

52 
131 

65 
135 

70 

OuWoFt. 
88,046 

87,729 
101,747 
103,381 
116,494 
114,309 

Inches. 
1-40 

1-00 
1-90 
1-95 
2-20 
215 

Trans,  Fed.  Inst,— 

vol.  iv.,  page  476. 

voLiv.,    „      477. 

vol.  iv.,    „      476. 

vol.  ii.,    „      543. 

vol.  iv.,    „      477. 

vol.  ii.,    „      643. 

The  volumes  in  the  above  table,  when  reduced  to  a  peripheral  speed  of  fan 
of  6,000  cubic  feet  per  minute,  show  the  following  comparative  results : — 


No.  of 

CapeUFan. 

Waddle  Fto. 

A 
B 
C 

Cubic  Feet. 
93,000 
92,700 

103,000 

OuWoFeet. 
107,400 
101,200 
103,900 

Mean     ... 

96,200 

104,200 

•  Trans,  Fed,  Inst.,  vol.  ii.,  page  549. 


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DISCUSSION — MANOMKTRIC  EFFICIENCY  OF  FANS.  263 

These  experiments  also  prove  that  the  Waddle  fan  produced  practically 
the  same  volnme  of  air  at  a  much  less  water-gauge  than  the  Capell  fan  at 
Teversal  collieries. 

Mr.  Capell  said  that  in  considering  the  output  of  fans,  the  cubic 
contents  of  the  fan  and  the  output  per  revolution  should  not  be  forgotten. 
The  Oapell  fan  at  Maries  collieries  had  more  than  double  the  output  per 
revolution  of  the  Guibal  fan.  Working  under  the  very  high  water-gauge 
required  at  Maries  collieries,  he  calculated  that  208,000  cubic  feet  would 
be  exhausted  at  810  revolutions  per  minute  under  9  inches  of  water- 
gauge,  and,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  at  306  revolutions  the  quantity  of  air 
was  208,328  cubic  feet  per  minute  under  9*10  inches  of  water-gauge,  which 
was  very  near  to  the  difficult  guarantee  which  he  had  given.  The  rule 
for  calculating  the  theoretical  water-gauge  referred  to  in  his  paper  was 
Mr.  Murgue's  rule,  A  =  m*  -j-  g.  On  the  Continent,  this  rule  is  now 
universally  acknowledged,  and  the  manometric  efficiency  is  measured  by 
its  results.  He  (Mr.  Capell)  did  not  advocate  taking  the  water-gauge 
close  to  the  fen,  as  it  was  then  influenced  by  local  effects.  Where 
practicable,  it  should  be  taken  at  a  distance  of  20  feet,  and  in  a  recess. 
He  was  questioned  with  regard  to  higher  manometric  efficiency  implying 
higher  useful  effect;  in  the  December  (1892)  tests  of  the  Maries  fan,* 
the  manometric  effect  with  a  less  volume  of  air  than  was  obtained  in  May 
last  was  0'647,  with  a  mechanical  efficiency  of  0*578.  A  new  form  of 
shutter  had  been  placed  in  the  fan,  and  the  chimney  water-gauge  had  been 
decreased  by  its  use.  The  result  showed  a  corresponding  decrease  in  the 
manometric  effect,  as  in  the  last  trials  it  was  only  0*5109,  but  the  useful 
effect  rose  to  0*591.  The  rise  being  about  the  same  as  the  decrease  in  the 
manometric  efficiency.  The  12  feet  single  inlet  fan,  to  which  Mr.  Brown 
refers,  was  the  second  Capell  fan  used  on  a  colliery,  and  was  an  open  fan 
of  a  type  now  discarded,  and  its  results  were  not  constant.  The  fan  was 
an  experimental  one,  from  which  useful  deductions  for  future  work  were 
obtained.  He  (Mr.  Capell)  strongly  protested  against  there  being  any 
unfairness  towards  a  fan  of  40  feet  diameter  and  10  feet  wide  at  Prosper 
colliery  being  compared  with  a  fan  12  feet  6  inches  in  diameter  and  6 
feet  wide,  or  a  fan  23  feet  in  diameter  at  Maries  colliery  being  compared 
with  another  12  feet  6  inches  in  diameter.  The  comparison  is  fair,  as  the 
large  fens  working  on  low  water-gauges  get  the  advantage  of  natural 
ventilation,  which  passes  away  when  producing  water-gauges  of  6  inches 
to  11  inches.  The  unfairness,  if  any,  seemed  to  be  all  the  other  way. 
Two  independent  observers  have  made  tests  of  the  Teversal  fans,  Mr. 
•  Trans,  Fed,  Inst.,  vol.  iv.,  page  215. 


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264  DISCUSSION — ^MANOMBTRIO  BFPICIBNCY  OP  PANS. 

"W.  Piggford  and  Mr.  Maurice  DeacoD.    They  have  both  proved  the 
abnormal  resistance  required  to  get  the  air  to  the  Capell  fan  inlet.    Both 
of  them  have  found  that  at  the  same  water-gauge  taken  on  the  same 
water-gauge  pipe  for  both  fans  on  the  drift,  and  in  spite  of  the  resistance 
between  drift  and  inlet,  the  Capell  fan  has  the  advantage  both  in  volume 
and  useful  effect.    The  water-gauge  to  get  the  air  to  the  inlet  from  the 
drift  is  work  done  needlessly,  and  with  a  better  arrangement  the  Capell 
fan  would  use  that  water-gauge  in  getting  large  volumes  of  air.    As  so 
much  discussion  had  been  raised  over  the  trials  of  the  fans  at  Teversal 
collieries,  he  hoped  it  might  be  possible  to  test  the  fans  under  nearly  the 
same  conditions  by  placing  a  temporary  arrangement  in  the  drift  (if  per- 
mission could  kindly  be  given) ;  but  it  would  be  quite  impossible  to  get 
exactly  the  same  conditions  owing  to  the  peculiar  position  of  the  Capell 
&n  which  is  laid  across  the  drift.    Mr.  Cochrane  in  his  calculation  had 
taken  the  static  water-gauge  as  the  water-gauge  of  the  Ouibal  fan,  instead 
of  the  inlet  water-gauge,  and  had  left  out  the  effects  of  an  important 
factor,  the  natural  ventilation  of  the  mine,  which  would  come  into  action 
very  strongly  at  the  low  water-gauge  of  1*40  inches,  in  reducing  the  pro- 
portion between  the  inlet  water-gauge  and  static  water-gauge,  but  would 
not  influence  the  high  water-gauges.    As  a  matter  of  fact  there  was  a 
natural  ventilation  of  about  16,000  cubic  feet  per  minute  at  Maries 
colliery,  and  those  who  have  studied  the  recent  paper  of  Mr.  T.  A. 
Southern*  will  at  once  recognize  how  unsafe  it  is  merely  to  rely  on  the 
squaring  of  the  air-volume  to  get  the  water-gauge  required  for  a  large 
increase  of  the  ventilation,  unless  natural  ventilation  is  allowed  for  and  a 
corresponding  proportion  of  water-gauge  added  to  the  direct  calculation 
from  the  squares  of  the  volumes.    In  the  Maries  experiments,  the  23  feet 
Quibal  fan  gave  a  useful  effect  of  89  per  cent,  on  the  water-gauge 
measured  in  the  inlet  of  the  fan,  and  27*9  per  cent,  on  the  static  water- 
gauge  taken  in  a  deep  recess  in  the  wall  of  the  main-drift,  which  was  140 
square  feet  in  area.      Hence,  naturally,  the  static  water-gauge  useful 
mechanical  effect  of  the  &n  had  not  been  noticed  in  previous  trials  of  this 
Guibal  fan.    The  Guibal  fan  produced  in  round  figures  72,000  cubic  feet 
per  minute  at  a  water-gauge  of  1*40  inches  in  the  inlet  to  the  fan ;  the 
static  water-gauge  for  203,000  cubic  feet  by  calculation  is  obtained  thus : 
As  72,000*  :  203,000*  =  1*40  :  11-109  inches.    The  horse-power  in  the 
air  is  found  to  be :   203,000  x  1*40  x  5*20  H-  88,000  =  355-5  horse- 
power ;  and  at  89  per  cent  of  useful  effect,  the  Guibal  fan  would  have 
required  355-5  x  100  -=-  89  =  911  horse-power  to  have  produced  208,000 
*  Trans.  Fed.  InsL,  vol.  iv.,  page  460. 


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DISCUSSION— HYDROGEN-OIL  SAFETY-LAMP.  265 

cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute.  The  Capell  fan  results  previously  recorded 
show  291*5  horse-power  in  the  air  by  water-gauge  near  inlet,  and  of 
267*5  in  the  air  by  the  static  water-gauge ;  the  engine  being  indicated  at 
495*0  horse-power;  the  useful  effects  being  59*1  per  cent,  by  the  water- 
gauge  taken  near  inlet,  and  64  per  cent,  by  the  static  water-gauge.  The 
contrast  thus  worked  out  is  very  clear,  and  the  efficiency  of  the  Guibal 
fan,  worked  out  both  on  the  inlet  water-gauge  and  the  static  water- 
gauge,  is  also  evident.  The  manometric  efficiency  of  the  Guibal  fan  at  75 
revolutions,  taking  the  inlet  water-gauge,  is  88*5  per  cent.,  and  taking 
the  static  water-gauge  it  is  26*12  per  cent.  The  Capell  fan,  at  806 
revolutions,  gives  on  the  water-gauge  near  the  inlet  51*09  per  cent,  of 
manometric  efficiency,  and  on  the  static  water-gauge  gives  46*8  per  cent, 
of  manometric  efficiency. 

The  President  said  the  discussion  would  now  be  adjourned,  but  in 
the  meantime  he  thought  their  hearty  thanks  were  due  to  Mr.  Capell  for 
endeavouring  to  enlighten  them  on  these  difficult  problems. 

The  proposal  was  cordially  adopted. 

Mr.  Capell  responded  to  the  vote  of  thanks. 


DISCUSSION  UPON  PROP.  P.  CLOWES'  PAPER  ON  "A  PORT- 
ABLE  SAFETY-LAMP,  WITH  ORDINARY  OIL  ILLUMINAT- 
ING FLAME,  AND  STANDARD  HYDROGEN-FLAME,  FOR 
ACCURATE  AND  DELICATE  GAS-TESTING."* 

In  the  absence  of  Prof.  Clowes,  Mr.  Palmer  exhibited  and  explained 
the  use  of  the  hydrogen-oil  safety-lamp. 

The  President  asked  if  the  lamp  was  in  actual  use  ? 

Mr.  Palmer  replied  that  it  had  been  in  actual  use  for  some  months 
at  the  West  Riding  collieries. 

Mr.  A.  L.  Steavenson  suggested  that  if  the  appliance  would  give 
equal  results  in  ordinary  coal-gas  they  might  see  some  experiments  with 
it  now. 

Mr.  Palmer  said  this  was  not  practicable,  owing  to  the  absence  of  a 
test-chamber. 

Mr.  M.  Walton  Brown  emphasized  the  remarks  he  made  when  the 
lamp  was  shown  at  Derby,!  and  said  that  he  would  like  information  on 

*  Tram,  Fed,  Irut,,  vol.  iv.,  page  441.        f  Ibid.j  page  456. 


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266  DISCUSSION — ^HYDROGBN-OIL  SAFETY-LAMP. 

the  following  points  : — {a)  Was  there  any  danger,  when  filling  the  hand 
cylinder  with  hydrogen  from  the  large  cylinder,  of  an  explosive  mixture 
being  formed  ?  If  the  valve  of  the  hand  cylinder  was  left  open  it  might 
be  filled  with  air,  which  would  become  explosive  if  mixed  with  hydrogen 
from  the  large  cylinder,  after  the  pressure  had  been  reduced  by  repeated 
chargings  of  the  hand  cylinder.  (J)  The  risk  of  the  hydrogen  being 
turned  into  the  lamp  at  full  pressure,  and  burning  a  hole  in  the  gauze  or 
cracking  the  glass,  {c)  The  risk  of  the  passage  of  flame  through  the 
pipe  used  for  the  introduction  of  the  hydrogen  gas  from  the  hand 
cylinder.  Prof.  Clowes  stated  that*  "It  should  be  noted  that  the 
hydrogen-fiame  can  be  set  to  its  standard  height  in  the  presence  of  the 
gas  in  measuring  the  fiame-caps,  and  that  the  test  can  therefore  be  at 
once  made  in  the  air  to  be  examined  without  previously  placing  the  lamp 
in  gas-free  air."  He  thought  that  if,  say,  1  per  cent,  of  gas  was  mixed 
with  the  air,  the  bulk  of  the  hydrogen-flame  would  be  enlarged  accord- 
ingly, and  it  seemed  to  him  impossible  to  adjust  the  hydrogen-flame  to  its 
standard  height  in  such  a  mixture  of  gas  and  air.  He  thought  the  use  of 
the  lamp  might  be  greatly  simplified,  if  the  gas  could  be  produced  chemi- 
cally by  an  attachment  to  the  lamp.  He  had  used  the  hydrogen  produced 
in  a  Dobereiner  lamp  as  a  test-flame  for  fire-damp,  and  suggested  that 
Prof.  Clowes  might  with  advantage  adopt  a  similar  system. 

Mr.'PALMBB,  referring  to  the  question  of  air  being  left  in  the  cylinder, 
said  that  no  harm  would  result,  and  two  or  three  chargings  would  entirely 
remove  it.  He  thought  the  lamp  would  be  safe  if  the  hydrogen  were 
suddenly  turned  on  at  full  pressure ;  the  flame  would  simply  shoot  to  the 
top  of  the  lamp,  but  he  did  not  think  it  would  burn  a  hole  through  the 
gauze  before  being  reduced. 

Prof.  Mbeivale  observed  that  this  point  could  be  easily  settled  by 
experiments. 

Mr.  Palmer,  continuing,  said  the  hydrogen-flame  was  always  of  the 
same  height,  and  there  was  a  clear  line  of  demarcation  between  the 
hydrogen-flame  and  the  gas-cap,  which  were  perfectly  distinct. 

Correspondence. 

Dr.  P.  P.  Bedson  wrote  regretting  his  absence  during  the  discussion 
on  the  hydrogen-flame  lamp,  for  he  would  have  wished  to  express  his 
admiration  of  the  ingenuity  displayed  in  the  construction  of  the  lamp. 
At  the  same  time,  he  (Dr.  Bedson)  must  confess  to  a  feeling  of  disappoint- 

•  Trans.  Fed,  Inst.,  vol.  iv.,  page  45 J. 


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DISCUSSION— HYDHOGBN-OIL   SAFETY-LAMP.  267 

ment  at  the  indications  yielded  in  low  percentage  mixtures  of  fire-damp 
and  air ;  in  fact,  in  those  ranges  where  an  indication  is  most  needed.  The 
difference  in  the  length  of  flame  in  J  per  cent,  mixture  and  ^  per  cent, 
mixture  is  practically  useless  as  a  means  of  gauging  the  amount  of  gas 
present,  and  does  not  compare  at  all  favourably  with  the  results  of 
experiments  with  the  Pieler  lamp,  made  by  the  Austrian  Fire-damp 
Oommission,  or  of  those  conducted  by  Dr.  Brookmann  for  the  Prussian 
Fire-damp  Commission.  Dr.  Brookmann  states  the  difference  in  height 
of  flame  to  be  2  centimetres  (0*79  inch),  which  is  about  twenty  times  the 
difference  in  height  of  the  hydrogen-flame.  The  Austrian  Commission 
found  a  similar  difference  in  the  height  of  the  flame,  when  experimenting 
with  mixtures  of  Rossitzer  ga?,  Segen  Oottis  mine,  corresponding  to  4 
and  i  per  cent,  of  marsh  gas ;  whilst  with  other  natural  gases — ^the  same 
difference  in  amount  of  marsh  gas — ^the  flames  differed  in  height  by 
1  centimetre  (0*89  inch),  which  is  still  ten  times  greater  than  the  differ- 
ence observed  with  the  hydrogen-flame.  These  facts  show  the  hydrogen- 
lamp  cannot  for  such  low  percentages  compare  for  delicacy  with  the  Pieler 
lamp  as  an  indicator  of  fire-damp.  He  (Dr.  Bedson)  would  like  to  have 
asked  Prof.  Clowes  how,  when  the  lamp  has  once  given  an  indication  of 
gas,  it  is  possible  to  set  it  without  again  bringing  the  lamp  into  an 
atmosphere  free  from  gas.  He  (Dr.  Bedson)  understood  that  one  of  the 
disadvantages  under  which  the  Pieler  lamp  labours  arises  from  the 
volatility  of  the  alcohol;  but  the  construction  of  the  hydrogen-lamp 
requires  the  presence  of  a  volatile  oil,  which  is  a  factor  of  danger,  just  as 
alcohol  is  with  the  Pieler  lamp.  It  would  appear  desirable  that  experi- 
ments with  all  such  lamps  should  be  made  not  only  with  marsh  gas, 
prepared  in  the  laboratory,  but  with  gas  collected  in  the  mine,  for^  as 
shown  in  the  experiments  of  the  Austrian  Commission,  considerable 
differences  may  be  observed,  and  it  would  be  useful  to  know  how  these 
fire-damp  indicators  behave  in  different  samples  of  fire-damp. 

Dr.  Clowes  wrote  that  he  fully  endorsed  the  replies  given  by  Mr. 
Palmer.  In  practice  the  small  cylinder  was  found  to  be  freed  sufficiently 
from  air  by  charging  it  once  with  hydrogen,  and  allowing  this  to  blow 
off.  Those  who  had  used  the  lamp  for  some  time  underground,  made  no 
complaint  of  any  difficulty  in  r^ulating  the  supply  of  hydrogen  so  as  to 
avoid  the  production  of  an  unduly  large  flame.  The  passage  of  flame 
outwards  from  the  interior  of  the  lamp  through  the  hydrogen  tube  had 
been  proved  by  many  experiments  to  be  impossible.  Great  importance 
is  attached  to  the  fact  that  in  measuring  the  cap-heights,  the  hydrogen 
flame  was  always  set  to  its  standard  height  in  air  containing  the  known 


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268  DISCUSSION — HTDROGBN-OIL  SAFETY-LAMP. 

percentage  of  gas.  It  is  therefore  unnecessary  to  remove  the  lamp  to 
air  free  from  gas  in  order  to  adjnst  the  standard  hydrogen-flame. 
Unfortunately  the  chemical  generation  of  hydrogen  gas  from  materials 
within  the  lamp  had  been  long  ago  proved  to  be  an  impossibility.  The 
flame  of  the  gas  chemically  produced  could  not  be  regulated,  and  the 
metallic  parts  of  the  lamp  were  constantly  corroded  by  the  chemicals  used. 
An  experimental  lamp,  with  which  the  attempt  was  made,  never  left  the 
chemical  laboratory.  On  the  other  hand,  the  present  lamp,  in  which  the 
hydrogen  was  prepared,  and  then  applied  in  a  compressed  state,  had, 
after  lengthy  trial  worked  very  satisfactorily.  He  (Dr.  Clowes)  regretted 
that  Dr.  Bedson  had  not  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing  the  hydrogen-oil 
lamp  exposed  to  low  percentages  of  gas  in  the  test-chamber  and  in  the 
pit.  If  this  opportunity  had  been  afforded  (and  Dr.  Clowes  was  now 
prepared  to  offer  it  in  any  convenient  way  or  time),  no  doubt  would  have 
been  expressed  as  to  the  indications  furnished  by  the  lamp  in  }  and  even 
in  i  per  cent,  of  gas.  It  would  be  seen  that  the  cap-heights  for  these 
low  percentages  of  gas  (^  and  J)  were  practically  equal,  but  that  the 
caps  were  distinguishable  even  by  a  novice  without  the  slightest  hesita- 
tion. The  i^  per  cent,  cap  is  hazy,  pale,  and  indefinite  in  outline,  but 
perfectly  visible,  and  the  ^  per  cent,  cap  is  much  less  pale,  and  is  com- 
paratively well-defined.  The  caps  are  not  distinguishable  by  dififerenoe 
in  height,  but  a  glance  serves  to  distinguish  them  by  their  appearance. 
As  regards  the  distinction  of  the  different  percentages,  from  ^  to  6, 
no  difficulty  has  presented  itself  either  in  the  laboratory  tests  in  the  test- 
chamber  or  underground,  in  the  hands  of  officials.  It  is  true  that  the 
caps  are  all  smaller  than  those  shown  by  the  Pieler  lamp,  but  they  are 
quite  large  enough  to  give  easily  appreciable  differences  to  the  unaided 
eye,  and  when  viewed  against  the  special  gauge  in  this  lamp  they  can  be 
noted  with  certainty  by  any  one.  The  Pieler  caps  are  unnecessarily 
large,  and  are  very  seriously  hindred  from  being  properly  seen  by  the  fact 
that  they  are  viewed  through  metallic  gauze^  and  with  a  most  unsuitable 
gauze  background ;  whereas  in  the  hydrogen-oil  lamp  the  caps  are  viewed 
through  transparent  glass  against  a  dead-black  and  most  suitable  back- 
ground. The  standard  hydrogen  lamp  could  be  set  to  its  standard  height 
with  absolute  certainty  in  any  part  of  the  pit,  and  did  not  require  to  be 
taken  into  fresh  air  for  adjustment.  This  had  been  secured  by  always 
Betting  the  flame  to  its  standard  height  in  the  presence  of  the  gas  in  the 
test-chambers,  and  then  reading  the  cap-height  which  was  registered  on 
the  gauge  and  the  scale-card  for  use  in  the  pit.  For  low  percentages  of 
gas  this  was,  however,  unimportant,  since  the  hydrogen-flame,  when  set 


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DISCUSSION — ^HTDROGBN-OIL  SAFETY-LAMP.  269 

in  air  free  from  gas,  did  not  appreciably  increase  in  size  until  more  than 
3  per  cent,  of  gas  was  present  in  the  air.  For  detecting  percentages  of 
gas  above  8,  the  use  of  the  reduced  oil-flame  (also  set  in  the  presence  of 
the  gas)  was  recommended.  Dr.  Bedson  was  in  error  in  stating  that  a 
volatile  oil  was  used  in  the  hydrogen-oil  lamp.  The  oil  burnt  was 
a  mixture  of  colza  with  water-white  paraflSn  ;  the  latter  was  not  volatile, 
and  was  considered  to  be  a  perfectly  safe  oil  in  any  form  of  lamp.  The 
paraffin  was  introduced  to  prevent  charring  and  crusting  of  the  wick,  and 
thus  to  improve  the  burning  and  the  ease  of  reduction  of  the  flame  by 
drawing  down  the  wick,  it  also  improved  the  light  of  the  flame.  As 
regards  the  testing  of  the  lamp  in  mine-gas  as  well  as  in  artificially 
prepared  marsh-gas,  it  should  be  remembered  that  in  the  preparation  of 
a  scale  for  the  lamp,  known  percentages  of  marsh-gas  must  be  employed, 
and  this  is  most  readily  and  certainly  secured  by  mixing  methane  with 
air  in  known  proportions.  Carbonic  acid  is  the  only  gas  likely  to  affect 
the  cap,  and  special  experiments  in  the  test-chamber  have  shown  that 
even  5  per  cent,  of  carbonic  acid  does  not  affect  the  cap.  The  precau- 
tion, however,  has  been  taken  of  making  tests  side  by  side  in  the  main 
return  airway  with  the  hydrogen-oil  lamp,  the  Pieler  lamp,  -and  the 
Liveing  indicator,  with  the  result  that,  in  percentages  of  gas  ranging 
from  J  to  2,  the  indications  of  the  three  instruments  were  absolutely 
identical.  Dr.  Clowes  wished  further  to  state  that  in  comparative  tests 
in  low  percentages  of  gas  made  with  the  hydrogen  lamp  and  with  the 
Pieler  lamp,  the  caps  were  easily  read  in  the  hydrogen  lamp,  but  they 
were  not  readable  in  the  Pieler  lamp  furnished  by  an  English  firm. 
This  defect  was  partly  due  to  the  luminosity  of  the  large  alcohol  flame, 
but  largely  to  the  interference  caused  by  the  metallic  gauze.  The  brass 
gauze  partly  acted  by  impeding  the  passage  of  the  light  of  the  faint  caps, 
but  mainly  by  its  reflecting  power.  Some  improvement  was  noticed 
when  the  gauze  was  blackened.  But  only  on  the  removal  of  the  bonnet 
and  gauze  were  the  tall  caps  satisfectorily  seen  in  then*  full  dimensions. 


The  President  proposed  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Palmer  for  attend- 
ing to  explain  the  use  of  the  testing-lamp.     He  hoped  something 


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270  DISCUSSION — HYDBOOEN-OIL  8AFETY-LAMP. 

practicable  would  before  long  result  from  the  various  instruments  which 
were  brought  forward  from  time  to  time,  and  this  lamp  certainly  seemed 
to  tend  towards  the  object  thej  wished. 

The  vote  of  thanks  was  unanimously  adopted. 


The  following  paper  was  taken  as  read  :— "  The  Choice  of  Coarse  and 
Fine-crushing  Machinery  and  Processes  of  Ore  Treatment,"  by  Mr.  A. 
G.  Charleton. 


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PKOCESSBS  OF  ORB  TREATMENT.  271 


THE  CHOICE  OF  COARSE  AND  FINE-CRUSHING  MACHIN- 
EEY  AND  PROCESSES  OP  ORE  TREATMENT/ 


By  a.  G.  CHARLETON. 


Part  III.— Silver. 

Wet  and  Dry  Pan-amal0amation  and  Lixiviation. 

Pan-amalgamation,  as  applied  to  silver  ores,  is  always  preceded  by 
stamping  the  ore  in  a  battery.  If  conducted  wet,  the  pulp  is  collected 
in  tanks,  from  which  it  is  shovelled  into  the  pans  (an  arrangement  which 
might,  the  writer  thinks,  be  improved  upon),  or  else,  if  arranged  on  the 
Boss  system  (much  in  fashion  lately  owing  to  the  saving  in  labour  and 
other  advantages  claimed  for  it)  the  pulp  is  run  straight  through  a  series 
of  pans  without  any  intermediate  settling.  If  conducted  dry,  the  ore  is 
taken  direct  from  the  cooling-floor  of  the  roasting  furnace  (which  forms 
an  essential  part  of  the  plant),  and  is  charged  into  the  pans  afterwards. 

Pan-amalgamation  is  most  extensively  used  in  the  Western  States  of 
America  for  the  extraction  of  silver  from  its  ores,  and  with  such  excep- 
tions as  have  been  or  will  be  alluded  to,  is,  the  writer  thinks,  likely  to 
retain  its  position  for  some  time  to  come. 

It  broadly  divides  itself,  as  will  be  presently  seen,  into : — 

1.  The  Washoe  process,  in  which  the  ores  go  direct  from  the  tanks 
to  the  pans  wet,  the  amalgamation  being  generally  assisted  by 
the  use  of  chemicals,  chiefly  salt  and  bluestone. 
3.  The  Reese  River  process,  in  which  the  ore  must  be  first  dried :  (a) 
on  a  drying-floor  heated  by  waste-steam  or  furnace  gas  ;  or  (5) 
in  revolving  drying-cylinders  or  shelf -kilns,  which  are  steadily 
coming  more  into  fashion.  Roasting  (usually  with  salt,  which 
is  mixed  in  the  battery,  or  between  it  and  the  furnace)  follows 
drying,  and  the  ore  is  ground  in  pans  in  the  same  way  as  in 
the  wet  process. 
3.  The  continuous  Boss  process. 

♦  Trans,  Fed,  Inst,,  vol.  iv.,  pages  233  and  851. 


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272  pbocesseb  of  ore  treatment. 

The  Washoe  Process. 

In  an  ordinaiy  wet-crashing  silver  mill,  the  ore  is  brought  in  cars  to 
the  top  of  the  mill-building,  where  it  is  dumped  over  the  top  of  the  inclined 
grizzley  or  screen  on  to  the  crusher-floor.  All  the  small  pieces  pass  through 
the  grizzley  into  the  ore-bins  below.  The  coarse  rock  is  shovelled  into 
the  jaws  of  the  rock-breaker,  which  are  on  a  level  with  the  crusher-floor. 
The  ore  crushed  to  walnut  size  in  passing  through  the  rock-breakers  falls 
into  the  ore-bins,  and  thence  goes  to  the  automatic  feeders  (behind  the 
stamps),  passing  through  inclined  shoots  controlled  by  gates.  The  auto- 
matic feeders  being  kept  full,  ensure  a  uniform  supply  of  stone  being  fed 
to  the  stamps  as  fast  as  needed. 

The  finely  stamped  ore,  known  technically  as  pulp,  suspended  in  water, 
flows  into  large  settling-tanks,  where  the  excess  of  water  is  drawn  ofif, 
whUe  the  thick  pulp  remaining  is  shovelled  in  regular  charges  into  a  row 
of  amalgamating-pans,  in  which  it  is  ground  for  several  hours,  first  with 
salt,  blucstone,  and  other  chemicals,  and  afterwards  amalgamated  with 
mercury,  with  the  mullers  raised.  The  contents  of  the  pans  are  run  into 
large  settlers  (when  the  previous  operation  is  finished)  placed  below,  and 
in  front  of  the  pans,  in  which  the  pulp  is  thinned  by  additions  of  water 
and  gentle  agitation,  and  all  the  quicksilver  with  the  precious  metals  in 
the  form  of  amalgam,  settles  to  the  bottom.  The  pulp  is  gradually  drawn 
off  from  the  settlers  (through  holes  fitted  with  plugs  at  different  levels  in 
the  side)  and  flows  to  waste.  The  amalgam  is  strained  from  the  excess 
of  quicksilver,  Retorted  to  drive  off  what  remains,  and  the  resulting  gold 
and  silver  cake  is  melted  into  bars.  The  gold  and  silver  contained  in 
the  sulphides,  which  will  not  yield  to  the  above  treatment,  is  sometimes 
caught  by  concentrators  (Prue  or  Embrey)  which  receive  the  waste  pulp- 
tailings  from  the  settlers.  A  clean-up  pan  generally  forms  part  of  the 
plant. 

The  old  method  usually  employed  in  silver-milling  was  to  crush  coarse 
in  the  battery  and  grind  fine  in  the  pan,  but  as  this  involves  greater 
power,  greater  wear  of  castings,  greater  loss  of  mercury,  and  not  always 
better  results,  the  system  of  crushing  fine  in  the  battery  (keeping  the 
shoes  barely  off  the  dies)  has  lately  come  into  practice.  By  this  means 
more  gold  and  silver  will  sometimes  be  extracted,  since  ore  will  naturally 
break  where  there  is  most  mineral,  and  the  fine  comminution  in  the  battery 
will  generally  disengage  most  of  it,  the  consequence  being,  that  as  quick- 
silver has  a  preference  for  gold  and  silver,  it  will  amalgamate  with  them, 
rather  than  take  up  base  metals  (which  render  it  inactive),  which  it  is 
forced  to  do  by  excessive  grinding. 


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PHOOBSSES  OF  OBB  TREATMENT.  273 

The  modern  amalgamating-pan  is  a  growth  from  the  old  arrastra,  and 
though  its  construction  is  quite  simple  it  presents  a  variety  of  forms.  The 
pan  holds  from  1  and  1 J  to  2  tons  of  pulp,  and  generally  revolves  at  about 
60  revolutions  per  minute;  the  gearing  underneath  is  open  and  plain, 
the  muUer  is  raised  by  a  left-hand  screw  qu  top,  the  hand-wheels  of  which 
should  be  large  (the  jam-wheel  being  no  smaller  than  the  screw-wheel),  as 
it  frequently  requires  a  greater  application  of  muscle  than  the  latter,  and 
when  the  machinery  is  in  fast  motion  it  is  inconvenient  to  adjust  a  small 
wheel  under  a  large  one.  The  most  important  feature  of  the  pan  is  the 
pulp-current,  which  often  receives  but  little  attention,  and  though  simple 
in  principle  is  not  always  understood,  and  its  neglect  may  cause  serious  loss. 

These  currents  must  be  uniform  and  regular  to  ensure  uniform  work, 
and  strong  enough  at  the  bottom  of  the  pan  to  carry  the  quicksilver. 
The  motion  of  the  muller  makes  a  current  by  throwing  the  pulp  to  the 
outside  as  it  advances,  which  then  rolls  up  at  the  side  and  falls  over 
towards  the  centre,  and  down  through  the  central  opening,  in  and  under 
the  muller,  to  be  thrown  outwards  again  from  the  bottom.  This  so  far 
cannot  be  improved  upon,  but  the  wings  are  needed,  to  give  the  pan 
capacity  (by  preventing  the  pulp  from  running  too  high  up  at  the  side),  to 
accomplish  which,  they  should  have  the  shape  of  an  inverted  ploughshare. 

Having  naturally  a  good  current  above  the  muller,  we  have  only  to 
work  in  unison  with  that  underneath  it,  which  will  depend  on  the  design 
of  the  muller  and  setting  of  the  dies. 

The  pans  vary  in  diameter  from  4  feet  to  5  feet  6  inches,  and 
have  generally  a  cast-iron  flat  bottom  with  wooden  sides.  They 
ordinarily  hold  1,200  to  1,300  lbs.  of  ore,  and  three  is  the  usual 
number  allowed  per  battery  of  five  stamps,  but  sometimes  two  will 
be  found  suiBcient.  Each  pair  of  pans  requires  one  settler.  In  some 
districts  copper  plates  are  introduced  into  the  pan,  and  much  of  the 
amalgam  is  found  attaching  to  these,  but  the  more  usual  system  is  to 
employ  settlers  entirely  for  the  collection  of  the  quicksilver  and  amalgam, 
after  the  pans  are  discharged.  While  the  pulp  is  being  worked  in  the 
pans,  which  usually  takes  6  to  8  hours,  steam  is  introduced  to  heat  the  mass 
and  promote  the  chemical  reactions ;  sometimes  live  steam  is  introduced 
direct  from  the  boilers  into  the  charge,  but  more  commonly  the  pan  is 
furnished  with  a  false  steam-bottom,  and  heated  with  the  exhaust  from 
the  engine.  The  bottom  of  the  pan  is  protected  by  cast-iron  dies,  and 
the  muller  is  furnished  with  adjustable  shoes,  so  that  the  wearing  surfaces 
are  renewable  if  it  be  necessary  to  grind  the  ore.  The  shoes  and  dies  can 
be  brought  together  when  grinding  by  means  of  the  hand-wheel,  and 

VOL.  V.-4WS-W.  ^® 


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274  PBOGESSES  OF  0KB  TREATMENT. 

screws  on  top  of  the  spindle,  or  the  mailer  can  be  raised  above  the  dies 
for  circulation  and  mixing  only. 

The  screw  on  the  settler-driver,  should,  unlike  the  pans,  be  right- 
handed,  for  besides  being  more  convenient  in  case  of  a  belt  slipping,  the 
power  applied  to  turn  the  screw,  helps  the  muUer  to  revolve.  A  settler 
should  never  be  allowed  to  foul  by  an  accumulation  of  heavy  matter  at 
the  bottom,  it  is  a  positive  preventive  of  good  work.  It  is,  however, 
easier  to  advocate  this  than  to  do  it.  An  apparently  natural  remedy,  viz., 
a  liberal  use  of  water,  tends  rather  to  aggravate  the  difficulty  ;  there  is  a 
point  in  the  thinning  when  the  quicksilver  will  be  precipitated,  but  the 
heavy  sand  be  held  in  suspension. 

If,  after  the  charge  is  run  out  (which  should  leave  about  8  inches  of 
pulp  in  the  settler),  a  pan  is  drawn  and  no  water  is  added  for  half  an 
hour,  the  warm  charge  will  gather  and  carry  the  heavy  sand ;  now  enough 
water  only  is  added  to  reduce  it  to  the  appearance  of  still  some  thickness, 
and  this  is  all  the  water  that  is  used  in  the  charge.  A  horn  spoon  will 
show  its  success  in  advance  of  results. 

Settlers  are  generally  made  with  wooden  sides  8  feet  in  diameter 
inside  the  staves,  an  automatic  syphon-tap  being  provided  for  the  dis- 
charge of  the  quicksilver  and  amalgam.  Around  the  bottom  a  groove  is 
cut,  starting  from  nothing  on  one  side,  and  gradually  deepening  to  the 
syphon-tap  opposite,  in  which  all  the  quicksilver  is  carried  to  the  outlet. 

The  muller-plate  attached  to  the  driver-arms,  is  shod  with  wooden 
plough-shoes,  which  are  sometimes,  however,  attached  direct  to  the  arms 
themselves.  The  speed  of  the  settler  is  generally  about  16  revolutions  per 
minute.  Concentrators  for  a  silver-mill  must  of  necessity  be  simple  and 
capacious.  Good  agitators  (shovelled  out  often)  are  profitable.  In  some 
cases  sand  sluices  are  very  effective,  consisting  of  a  broad  sluice  20  to  24 
inches  wide,  in  which  at  intervals  of  8  or  10  feet  vertical  strips  are  fixed 
at  the  side  to  hold  movable  riffles.  The  riffles  (battens  of  wood)  are  laid 
in,  and  the  sands  run  over  them  for  a  time  (say  one  or  two  hours),  when 
another  coarse  of  riffles  |  inch  thick  or  less  is  laid  on  the  first  ones. 

This  is  repeated  until  the  sluice  is  full,  when  it  is  shovelled  out, 
meantime  allowing  the  sands  to  run  through  a  duplicate  sluice,  at  the 
side.  Such  sluices  should  have  a  grade  of  about  8^  inches  per  rod  to 
keep  them  under  control,  as  by  starting  with  a  thin  riffle  at  the  bottom 
a  strong  current  may  be  produced,  whereas  the  introduction  of  a  thidc 
riffle  will  give  a  deadened  current. 

These  sluices  are  an  advantage  where  blankets  are  profitable,  and  if 
followed  by  blankets  relieve  the  latter  from  much  coarse,  heavy  material. 


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PROCESSES  OF  ORB  TREATMENT.  276 

A  blanket  sluice  should  have  a  grade  of  about  8  inches  in  7  feet.  The 
stock  of  mercury  in  a  silver-mill  should  be  large  to  begin  with.  In  a 
dry-crushing  silver-mUl  the  loss  is  usually  from  J  to  |  lb.  per  ton  of  ore. 
A  10  stamp  mill  usually  requires  from  200  to  250  lbs.  of  mercury  per 
month  to  make  up  the  loss.  The  quantity  needed  in  stock  depends  on  the 
richness  of  the  ore,  but  is  approximately  1,500  lbs.  in  the  pans,  1,500  lbs. 
in  the  settlers  and  in  circulation,  and  1,500  lbs.  locked  up  in  amalgam, 
so  that  a  total  stock  of  2  to  3  tons  would  be  necessary  for  starting  with. 

KoASTiNQ  MiLLmG. — Thb  Kbesb  ErvER  Process. 

After  passing  the  rock-breaker,  the  ore  is  dried  by  passing  through  a 
continuous  revolving-drier  or  shelf  dry- kiln  beneath  the  breaker,  the  dried 
ore  being  taken  by  car  or  else  run  through  shoots  (lined  with  sheet  iron 
and  regulated  by  gates)  to  the  automatic  feeders,  if  the  fall  admits  of  it. 
The  stamps  are  fed  while  the  ore  is  still  hot,  the  pulverized  product 
being  conveyed  to  the  elevator,  by  which  it  is  carried  to  the  iron  storage- 
hopper  of  the  roasting-fumace.  In  the  furnace  the  ore,  with  the  addition 
of  common  salt,  is  desulphurized  and  chloridized,  thus  preparing  it  for  the 
pans  and  settlers.  After  roasting,  the  ore  is  spread  on  a  cooling-floor,  and 
is  taken  in  cars  as  required  to  the  pans.  Amalgamation  follows  on  the 
same  plan  as  in  wet  crushing-mills.  In  old  type  mills  it  was  formerly  the 
practice  to  employ  drying-floors  of  boiler  or  cast-iron,  from  which  the  ore 
was  shovelled  to  the  stamps,  in  place  of  the  more  modem  arrangement  of 
an  automatic  revolving-drier. 

The  Boss  Process. 

This  process  marks  a  new  epoch  in  the  milling  of  silver  ores  in  the 
United  States  and  in  Mexico,  as  it  presents  claims  to  superiority  in 
many  respects  over  the  old  system  of  pan-amalgamation.  The  large 
saving  in  labour  and  fuel,  increased  cleanliness,  reduced  wear  and  tear,  and 
other  features  that  will  be  mentioned  later  on,  combine  to  make  it  a 
favourite  with  mill-men.  It  does  away  with  the  large  pulp  settling-tanks 
and  consequent  shovelling  and  handling  of  the  pulp,  which  is  a  serious 
item  of  cost  in  ordinary  wet  treatment ;  it  saves  the  erection  of  the  tanks 
and  the  space  they  occupy ;  and  no  slum-pump  or  agitators  are  required. 

The  buildings  and  cost  of  erection  for  a  continuous  mill  are  less 
expensive  than  for  an  ordinary  one,  as  they  require  less  grading  and 
retaining-walls  and  cover  less  area.  The  ore  passes  through  the  grizzley 
and  crusher  in  the  usual  manner  and  down  the  automatic  feeders  to  the 
stamps.     The  pulp  flows  from  the  battery  through  pipes  to  the  special 


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276  PROCESSES  OP  ORB  TREATMENT. 

grinding-pans  (the  product  of  ten  stamps  passing  through  two  in  succes- 
sion). The  pulp  is  then  conveyed  by  pipes  to  the  first  amalgamating-pan, 
and  flows  continuously  through  the  lines  of  pans  and  settlers.  The  tail- 
ings are  run  off  and  led  over  concentrators.  A  special  feature  of  this 
process  is  that  the  pulp  in  the  amalgamating-pans  is  always  kept  thin, 
instead  of  being  about  the  consistency  of  thick  cream,  as  usual  in  the 
ordinary  pan  process.  The  quicksilver  is  charged  to  the  pans  by  means 
of  pipes  from  the  distributing-tank,  and  the  amalgam  flows  direct  to  the 
strainer.  The  chemicals  are  supplied  to  the  pans  by  two  chemical-feeders. 
Steam  syphons  are  provided  for  cleaning  out  the  pans,  and  for  conveying 
the  pulp  past  any  pan  when  it  is  necessary  to  cut  it  out  of  the  series  for 
repairs.  The  main-line  shafting  runs  directly  under  the  pans  and  settlers, 
each  of  which  is  driven  from  it  by  a  friction-clutch.  This  arrangement 
of  separate  clutches  for  each  pan  and  settler  is  very  convenient,  as  any 
number  or  any  one  pan  and  settler  can  be  stopped  in  case  of  accident  for 
cleaning  out,  without  having  to  stop  the  whole  line. 

All  the  water  from  the  batteries  must  pass  through  the  pans,  so  that 
all  the  slimes  are  treated ;  there  m  less  loss  of  mercury  and  a  true  sample  of 
the  tailings  can  be  obtained,  a  matter  of  much  greater  difficulty  with  the 
old  method.  Heating  by  exhaust  steam  is  stated  to  be  one  of  its 
economical  features,  obviating  any  strain  upon  the  pan,  which  is  heated 
indirectly  through  the  hollow  steam-bottom.  Where  changes  were  made 
from  live  to  exhaust  steam  in  some  mills  it  is  said  to  have  saved  as  much 
as  £2  10s.  Od.  to  £3  2s.  6d.  per  day  for  cord  wood.*  By  using  special 
grinding-pans,  the  ore  can  be  crushed  through  a  coarser  screen  in  the 
battery,  and  the  finer  grinding  can  be  afterwards  accomplished  in  the 
pans,  thus  obtaining  increased  capacity. 

Though  it  does  not  pretend  to  cope  with  rebellious  ores  which  ar« 
unsuited  to  such  treatment,  the  Boss  process  is  without  doubt  a  great 
improvement  over  ordinary  pan-amalgamation  in  tanks.  If  the  latter 
process  be  employed,  the  tanks  are  filled  in  succession ;  the  pulp  being 
conveyed  to  them  through  a  launder,  by  means  of  which  the  supply  is  cut 
off  as  each  vat  becomes  full.  Arrangements  should  be  made  to  settle  as 
much  of  the  mineral  as  possible  by  allowing  the  water  to  circulate  through 
the  empty  tanks  before  passing  to  the  slum-pit  outside,  the  escape  or 
tailings  water  being  turned  into  each  tank  after  emptying  it  of  sand. 
Each  tank  in  turn  thus  receives  the  water  after  passing  through  the  other 
tanks,  and  becomes  the  final  one  of  the  series.  In  some  mills  a  certain 
number  of  tanks  are  kept  employed  in  settling  the  sands,  while  the 

*  Messrs.  Fraser-Chalmers,  Catalog^ie.  No.  4,  page  82. 


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PEOCESSES  OP  ORB  TREATMENT.  277 

remainder  are  used  up  for  the  slimes ;  in  others  the  capacity  of  the  vats 
is  large  enough  to  settle  the  sands  and  slimes  together.  Before  charging 
the  pulp  into  the  pans  it  is  usually  shovelled  into  heaps  on  the  platform 
in  front  of  the  pans,  which  is  slightly  inclined  towards  the  tanks  to  drain 
the  water  back  into  them.  In  the  pan-treatment  a  proper  consistency  of 
the  pulp,  a  proper  degree  of  heat,  and  clean  quicksilver,  are  matters  of  the 
chiefest  importance. 

While  charging  the  pan  the  muller  for  grinding  is  kept  revolving  and 
lowered,  water  having  been  previously  run  in  so  as  to  fill  the  pan  to 
within  12  to  18  inches  of  the  edge,  and  heated  with  steam.  Some  mill-men 
favour  direct  heating  with  live  steam,  others  by  means  of  a  jacket  or  false 
bottom.  The  chaise  must  be  heated  nearly  to  boiling-point  by  turning 
on  steam  again  during  the  grinding.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
grinding  the  pulp  is  thin,  but  after  a  couple  of  hours  it  will  acquire  the 
proper  consistency  for  receiving  the  quicksilver,  which  becomes  diffused 
(by  the  heat  and  grinding)  in  small  globules  through  the  mass.  The  pulp 
should  be  thick  enough  to  cling  to  a  wooden  paddle  dipped  in  to  test  it, 
showing  particles  of  mercury  evenly  disseminated  through  it,  so  that  the 
charge  will  carry  the  quicksilver  in  suspension.  The  salt  (say  about 
10  lbs.)  is  added  as  soon  as  the  pan  is  charged,  and  2  lbs.  of  sulphate  of 
copper  (or  whatever  proportion  is  used),  half  an  hour  later.  After  the 
pulp  is  heated  to  about  180  degs.  Fahr.  steam  is  cut  off,  and  the  muller 
should  be  lowered  gradually  during  the  progress  of  grinding.  When 
finished  (after  about  2  hours),  some  200  lbs.  of  mercury  are  added  to  a 
1,200  lbs.  charge  of  pulp.  The  grinding  is  then  sometimes  continued  for 
another  half-hour  or  an  hour,  when  the  muller  is  raised  and  the  pan  run 
with  the  muller  up,  for  3  hours  more.  There  is,  however,  less  chance  of 
flowering  if  the  bulk  of  the  mercury  is  not  added  until  the  grinding  is 
entirely  finished.  A  quarter  of  an  hour  before  drawing  the  charge,  suffi- 
cient water  is  added  to  fill  up  the  pan,  thinning  the  pulp  thoroughly,  so 
that  it  will  flow  readily  out  of  the  pan,  and  cooling  it. 

The  work  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  charge  and  discharge  a  pan 
every  6  hours,  which  gives  it  a  capacity  of  about  2^  tons.  The  pans  should 
be  discharged  in  succession,  not  all  simultaneously ;  that  is  to  say,  as  soon 
as  one  or  two  pans  have  been  discharged  and  refilled,  after  a  certain 
interval  (depending  on  the  number  of  pans  in  the  mill)  the  next  pan  or  two 
should  have  completed  their  6  hours'  work,  and  be  ready  to  undergo  the 
same  process. 

When  discharged,  a  stream  of  water  should  be  directed  into  the  pans, 


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278  PEOCBSSBS  OF  ORE  TREATMENT. 

to  rinae  them  out  thoroughly.  Everything  thus  flows  to  the  settlers,  and 
through  the  partial  dilution  of  the  pulp,  the  quicksilver  settles  to  the 
bottom,  and  is  collected  in  the  syphon.  During  the  discharge  of  the  pans 
the  settler  arms  are  kept  revolving,  and  after  a  short  interval  a  spray  of 
water  is  turned  on,  and  allowed  to  run  till  the  settler  is  full.  It  is  then 
turned  off  and  the  muller  is  allowed  to  revolve  for  an  hour.  This  allows 
the  quicksilver  to  collect  and  settle.  An  abundant  stream  of  cold  water 
is  then  let  in  and  the  settler  is  allowed  to  discharge  through  the  different 
plug-holes,  commencing  with  the  top  one,  the  operation  being  timed  so 
that  the  bottom  hole  is  reached  just  in  time  to  receive  the  next  charge. 
Once  a  week  or  of  tener  the  settlers  should  be  cleaned  out,  and  the  coarse 
sand  and  sulphides  accumulating  in  the  bottom  are  re-worked  in  the 
pans.  Generally  two  settlers  discharge  into  one  agitator,  and  a  constant 
stream  of  water  should  run  into  them.  They  collect  some  coarse  sand 
containing  a  little  quicksilver,  amalgam,  sulphides,  and  a  quantity  of  iron 
which  is  worked-up  in  the  clean-up  pan.  The  floors  should  be  kept  as 
clean  and  free  from  dirt  as  possible.  All  drains  should  lead  into  the 
agitators,  and  unless  the  weather  is  too  cold  the  quicksilver  floor  should 
be  sluiced  down  with  a  hose  daily. 

Betorting  Amalgam. 

The  retorts  for  retorting  silver  bullion  are  generally  cylindrical  or 
square  with  the  comers  rounded  off,  and  containing  shelves  for  several  iron 
dishes.  They  should  be  heated  to  a  bright  cherry-red  he:\t  before  com- 
mencing the  retorting,  otherwise  it  is  difficult  to  drive  off  the  last  traces 
of  quicksilver.  A  serious  loss  is  entailed  by  a  retort  bursting,  not  an 
uncommon  occurrence  even  with  the  greatest  care.  They  must  therefore 
not  be  fired  too  strongly,  and  must  be  strongly  made  and  well  braced. 
The  mercury  fumes  are  condensed  by  condensers  acting  on  the  Liebig 
principle,  the  quicksilver  being  caught  in  a  bucket  of  water,  into  which 
the  end  of  the  pipe  from  the  retort  dips ;  care  being  taken  that  the  water 
is  not  able  to  run  up  into  the  retort  as  it  cools  by  the  end  of  the  pipe  being 
too  deep  under  water.  After  the  retorting  is  finished  it  is  advisable  to 
leave  the  retorts  to  stand  for  several  hours  before  withdrawing  the  bullion. 

For  cleaning  quicksQver  from  impurities,  which  become  mechanically 
mixed  with  it,  the  quicksilver  strainer  invented  by  Mr.  H.  H.  Oakes  is 
recommended  by  Mr.  Eissler  and  is  described  by  him  in  detail* 

•  Metallurgy  of  Silver ^  page  159. 


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PROCESSES  OF  ORE  TREATMENT. 


279 


General  Bemares,  Ores,  etc. 

The  ores  of  silver  which,  can  be  successfully  treated  by  the  Washoe 
process  are  those  in  which  the  metal  occurs  in  a  condition  which  will  be 
acted  on  by  quicksilver,  assisted  by  heat,  agitation,  and  certain  chemicals 
(chiefly  salt  and  sulphate  of  copper),  which  produce  a  certain  quantity  of 
sub-chloride  of  copper,  through  the  secondary  action  of  the  metallic  iron 
present.  The  chloride  and  sub-chloride  of  copper  (both  of  which  arc 
liable  to  be  formed),  tend  to  reduce  any  sulphides  of  silver  present,  by 
exercising  a  chloridizing  influence  upon  them,  and  at  the  same  time 
decompose  the  sulphides  of  lead  and  zinc.  The  sulphate  of  copper, 
moreover,  enhances  the  amalgamating  energy  of  the  mercury  by  tending 
to  expel  the  lead,  and  by  causing  the  formation  of  a  small  quantity  of 
copper  amalgam. 

A  list  of  the  chief  ores  and  minerals  containing  silver  would  comprise 
the  following : — 


Name. 

when  Pure, 

Nanmannite      

Ag,Se 

73-2 

Bnkairite           

Ca,Se  +  Ag,8e          

43-1 

Hessite 

Ag,Te 

62-8 

Petzite 

(AuAg),Te 

41-8 

Sylvanite           

(AuAg)Te, 

10  to  15 

Argentite  (silyer-glance) 

Ag,S     

87-1 

Stromeyerite     

Ag^  +  Cu,S 

531 

Stembergite      

AgFe^.            

34-2 

Miargyrite         

Ag^  +  SbA 

86-7 

Pyrargyrite        

3Ag^  +  Sb,S, 

59-8 

ProuBtite            

3Ag.S  +  A8,S.            

65-4 

Stephanite         

5Ag,S  +  Sb,8,           

68-6 

Brogniardite      

PbS  +  Ag^S  +  Sb,S,           

261 

Polybasite          

9(Ag,Cu)S  +   (SbA8),S, 

68-0 

Tetrahedrite  (Pahlerz)... 

(CuAg),8  +  (SbA8Bi),8,  +  (Fe  ZnHg)S 

variable. 

Xanthoconite    

(3Ag.S,A8,S.)  +  2(3Ag,8,A8,8^... 

6400 

Fire  btende        

AgSb8  

62-3 

Freieslebenite 

Pb.Ag.SbA     

23-8 

Cerargyrite  (horn-gilver) 

AgCl     

75-33 

Bromyrite          

AgBr 

57-40 

Embolite            

Ag(ClBr)      

61  to  71 

lodyrite 

Agl       

46 

Native  silver     

... 

100-00 

Arquerite  (native  amal- 

gam)    

AgHg 

34-8 

Electram  (native  alloy  of 

gold  and  silver) 



27  to  32-7 

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280  PROCESSES  OF  ORE  TREATMElfT 

Minerals,  etc.,  often  containing  silver  in  small  quantity  : — 

Galena PbS 

Blende ZnS 

Pyrite FeS, 

Chalcopyrite CuFeS, 

Erubescite        CugPeS, 

Mispickel  FeS,  +  FeAa, 

Altaite PbTe 

Clausthalite     PbSe 

Nagyagite         (Pb  AuAg)  (Te,  8), 

Chivialite  (Cu,Pb)  S  +  iBi,S, 

Dufrenoyslte PbS  +  Ag,S, 

Bnargite  8Cu,S  +  A&,S, 

Cupel  bottoms,  droBS  litharge  sweepings,  etc. 
Slags,  etc. 

The  presence  of  sulphides  of  iron,  copper,  lead,  zinc,  and  antimony, 
interferes  with  the  success  of  the  amalgamation  process  in  several  ways. 
They  foul  the  amalgam  and  check  the  reactions  of  the  chemicals  on  the 
free-milling  minerals,  and  carry  off  in  their  refractory  combinations  a 
portion  of  the  silver  which  the  latter  contain.  It  often  happens  that  while 
the  upper  decomposed  surface-ores  of  a  vein  are  free-milling,  as  depth  is 
attained  (beyond  the  decomposing  action  of  the  air  and  surface  waters) 
they  change  in  character,  through  sulphides  and  base  metals  making 
their  appearance  in  the  ore. 

Occasional  natural  deposits  of  chloride  of  silver  and  some  rare 
instances  of  native  silver,  unaccompanied  by  sulphides,  form,  with 
certain  decomposed  ores,  the  chief  types  adapted  to  fi-ee-milling;  though 
the  process  being  cheaper  than  roasting-milling,  ores  are  sometimes 
worked  by  it,  which  should  properly  be  roasted,  but  the  percentage  saved 
in  such  cases  is  correspondingly  low.  Ores  carrying  quite  a  large  per- 
centage of  base  minerals  may  be  worked  by  roasting-milling,  but  in  many 
cases  it  is  more  profitable  (when  the  conditions  admit  of  it)  to  treat  such 
ores  by  concentration  and  smelting.  The  presence  of  certain  minerals  in 
combination  may  render  the  chloridizing  roasting  of  an  ore  extremely 
difficult.  The  Silver  King  mine  in  Arizona  may  be  cited  as  an  instance 
of  this,  as  mentioned  by  Mr.  Aaron.* 

The  ore  in  question  consisted  largely  at  one  time  of  fahlerz,  chlorides, 
bromides,  and  oxides,  in  a  gangue  of  quartz  and  heavy  spar,  and  being  of 
high  grade  it  proved  well  adapted  to  treatment  by  the  Kiss  lixiviation 
process,  for  which  it  had  to  undergo  a  preliminary  chloridizing  roasting. 

It  was  found  that  this  ore  sustained  a  serious  loss  of  silver  by  volati- 

*  Report  of  the  Director  of  the  United  States  Mint. 


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PROCESSES  OF  OKE  TREATMENT.  281 

lization  during  roasting  ;  an  extra  draught  produced  by  opening  both  ends 
of  the  fireplace  somewhat  mitigated  the  difficulty,  but  it  was  only  finally 
overcome  by  introducing  steam  into  the  furnace  (as  originally  suggested 
by  Dr.  Percy)  which  successfully  met  the  difficulty ;  the  volatile  metal 
chlorides  (to  which  the  volatilization  of  the  silver  is  mainly  owing)  being 
decomposed  and  converted  into  oxides,  with  the  instantaneous  production 
of  hydrochloric  acid.  Unfortunately,  however,  as  depth  was  reached  in 
the  mine  the  character  of  the  ore  changed.  The  proportion  of  chloride 
and  tetrahedrite  fell  off,  and  zinc  blende  and  galena  became  more  abundant, 
and  this  led  to  far  more  serious  difficulties. 

The  roasting  became  alow  and  tedious ;  while  previously  a  charge  of  5 
tons  could  be  well  roasted  in  14  to  16  hours,  converting  about  95  per  cent, 
of  the  contained  silver  into  chloride.  The  percentage  of  soluble  silver  in 
the  roasted  ore  decreased  also  somewhat,  causing  richer  tailings,  and  as 
the  grade  of  the  ore  likewise  fell  off,  a  serious  diminution  in  the  output 
of  bullion  ensued.  The  ore,  moreover,  developed  a  tendency  to  ball 
and  form  crusts  on  the  furnace  walls.  The  balls  were  peculiar,  being 
perfectly  spherical  and  of  all  sizes  from  a  pin's  head  to  a  marble,  extremely 
hard,  and  consisting  of  concentric  layers.  The  ore  being  crushed  wet  and 
received  into  settling-pits,  no  doubt  operated  disadvantageously  in  this 
instance. 

When  the  ore  was  by  no  means  at  its  worst,  analysis  showed  it  to 
contain  12  per  cent,  of  zinc — equivalent  to  about  18  per  cent,  of  blende, 
6  per  cent,  of  lead  as  galena,  a  good  deal  of  antimony,  a  little  arsenic,  a 
very  little  iron  and  copper,  and  trifling  quantities  of  cadmium,  selenium, 
tellurium,  and  bismuth.  The  conjunction  of  antimonial  and  plumbiferous 
minerals  with  zinc  blende  tends  in  fact  to  make  roasting  difficult.  The 
character  of  the  gangue  also  exercises  a  great  influence  on  the  roasting. 
The  presence  of  quartz  is  advantageous,  spar  or  gypsum  is  not  troublesome, 
but  earthy  carbonates  are  detrimental,  and  magnesia  bad. 

At  one  time  the  ore  contained  less  quartz  and  spar  than  formerly,  and 
more  of  the  so-called  porphyry  of  the  district,  which  contains  magnesia 
in  abundance. 

In  the  case  of  ore  which  balls  in  the  furnace  when  roasted  with  salt, 
the  usual  practice  is  to  roast  without  salt,  to  a  certain  stage  when  the  salt 
is  added  and  the  heat  increased;  but  the  presence  of  metallic  silver  and  the 
absence  of  a  fair  proportion  of  iron  rendered  this  method  inapplicable. 

The  next  idea  tried,  that  of  roasting  to  complete  oxidation  without  salt, 
and  then  chloridizing  by  an  addition  of  calcined  copperas  and  salt,  has  been 
used  with  a  slight  modification  on  some  of  the  worst  ores  with  good  results. 


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282  PROCESSES  OP  ORB  TREATMENT. 

Another  successful  plan  was  to  mix  a  certain  proportion  of  sand,  about 
7  per  cent.,  with  the  charge.  The  sand  used  contained  a  little  silver,  being 
the  coarser  portion  of  a  pile  of  rather  rich  tailings  from  previous  concen- 
tration. The  addition  of  one-third  of  clean  quartzose  silver-ore  was  found 
to  act  favourably,  95  per  cent,  of  the  chloride  being  got  out  in  24  hours 
with  3  ton  charges. 

Mr.  Stetefeldt  has  lately  introduced  the  plan  of  drying  and  roasting 
ore  with  gas,  at  the  Holden  mill.  Aspen,  Colorado,  and  at  the  Marcac 
mill,  Park  City,  Utah,  where  lixiviation  is  employed  for  the  treatment 
of  the  ore.  The  former  plant  was  put  in  operation  in  November,  1891, 
and  consists  of  four  double  shelf-driers,  with  one  6  feet  diameter  Taylor 
revolving-bottom  producer,  and  one  lai^e  Stetefeldt  furnace,  with  a  Taylor 
producer,  also  7  feet  in  diameter.  Mr.  Morse,  the  general  manager  of 
the  Holden  works,  states  that,  on  a  recent  run  of  4,631  tons  of  ore,  96'4 
lbs.  of  coal  were  used  per  ton  of  ore  roasted,  costing  14*45  cents.  The 
coal,  consisting  of  a  mixture  of  about  equal  proportions  of  Colorado  New- 
castle and  Sunshine  coal,  costing  3'00  dols.  per  ton  delivered  at  the 
mill.    The  composition  of  these  coals  are  : — 


Fixed 
Carbon. 
Per  Cent. 

VolatUe 
Matter. 
Percent. 

Aflh. 
Per  Cent. 

Water. 
Percent 

Colorado  Newcastle     ... 

...        I.  55-9     .. 

..     85-9        . 

6-4     . 

..      — 

»i               ij 

...      11.  48-6     . 

..     37-95     . 

..     11-6     . 

..     1-7 

„        Sunshine 

...   III.  480     . 

..     4.S-0       . 

..       7-6     . 

..      — 

»               »»            ••• 

...    IV.  371     . 

..     36-3 

..     23-8     . 

..     2-8 

This,  Mr.  Stetefeldt  states,  is  the  cheapest  drying  and  roasting  on  record 
in  any  silver-mill,  and  the  introduction  of  the  system  of  employing  gas 
producers  is  making  rapid  progress  in  silver-milling.  Full  details  of  the 
cost  of  drying  and  roasting  at  Aspen  on  a  run  of  12,000  tons  of  ore  are 
given  in  the  The  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal^  New  York,  of  June 
26th,  1892.* 

When  ores  contain  a  very  large  percentage  of  sulphur  :  »>.,  are 
exceptionally  heavy.  Mechanical  roasting  furnaces  cannot,  as  a  rule, 
compete  with  the  old-fashioned  reverberatory  furnace,  but,  with  a  mode- 
rate amount  of  sulphur,  many  of  them  give  excellent  results.  The  cost 
of  roasting  (chloridizing)  in  the  Stetefeldt  furnace  is  said  to  vary  from 
16s.  to  £1  Os.  lOd.,  and  the  furnace  is  said  to  cost  £625  to  buQd.  A 
Bruckner  fiimace,  which  is  a  favourite  in  small  mills,  will  treat  from 
3  to  4  tons  (in  exceptional  cases  10  tons;  in  24  hours.  The  cost  of  roast- 
ing in  it  varies  from  lOs.  to  £1  per  ton.  An  improved  form,  with  double 
cylinders  set  tandem,  is  estimated  to  roast  20  to  40  tons  of  refractory  ore 
(in  inverse  proportion  to  the  percentage  of  sulphur  it  carries)  at  a  cost 

♦  Page  660. 


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PROCESSES  OF  ORE  TREATMENT.  288 

of  £4  88.  4d.  per  day,  f.^.,  2s.  Id.  to  4s.  2d.  per  ton.  Mr.  Briickner's 
estimate  of  the  cost  of  a  double-cylinder  plant  is  £2,255  erected. 

In  many  of  the  best  modern  mills  where  dry-crushing  is  practised 
the  furnaces  are  placed  at  the  extremity  of  the  battery  line,  a  little  be- 
hind it,  and  not  in  front,  as  they  used  to  be. 

Mechanical  furnaces  of  the  improved  Bruckner  and  Howell- White 
type  (a  modification  of  a  Hocking  and  Oxlands  calciner),  and  the  Stete- 
feldt  and  O'Harra  are  amongst  those  in  most  general  use. 

If  the  ore  requires  roasting,  dry  stamps  are  invariably  used,  the 
mortars  being  covered  in  with  a  wooden  housing,  to  which  exhaust  fans 
are  attached  to  draw  off  the  dust  into  pockets  (emptied  at  intervals), 
and  the  dry  ore  is  moved  by  screw-conveyors  or  horizontal  endless-belt 
tables  to  the  feed-pocket  of  an  elevator,  which  raises  it  to  the  hopper  of 
the  furnace  if  a  mechanical  roaster  be  employed.*  When  the  ore  is 
roasted  a  chlorination  assayt  must  be  made  of  every  charge. 

The  floors  of  modem  wet-crushing  mills  are  laid  slightly  inclined 
towards  a  reservoir  connected  with  the  pulp-tanks,  double-planked  and 

•  tarred,  and  the  mill  supply  of  quicksilver  is  almost  always  handled 
mechanically  by  a  mercury  pump.  It  is  imperative,  however,  that  it 
should  be  of  first-class  make,  as  a  poor  device  for  handling  quicksilver  is 
more  extravagant  than  hand  labour. 

The  variations  in  the  details  of  the  plant  and  method  of  manipulation 
are  capable  of  so  great  a  number  of  permutations  that  it  would  be  use- 
less to  attempt  to  go  into  the  subject  fully  in  this  paper.  The  author 
should,  however,  state  that  the  fineness  to  which  the  ore  can  be  reduced 
is  to  no  small  extent  determined  by  the  capacity  of  the  settlers  to  work 
off  the  coarse  sands  without  loss  of  mercury. 

Although  it  has  been  found  by  experience  that  some  ores  roast  as  well 
if  crushed  through  a  80  as  they  would  through  a  40  mesh  screen  ;  some 

*  heavy  ores,  ue.,  those  that  contain  a  great  deal  of  sulphur,  give  a  low 
chlorination  and  extraction,  unless  crushed  finer,  say  to  a  50  mesh.  The 
limit  of  coarseness  to  which  it  is  ordinarily  practicable  to  carry  crushing 
with  stamps  is,  the  author  believes,  about  80  mesh. 

*  A  new  form  of  elevator  and  conveyor  made  by  the  Jeffrey  Manufacturing  Co., 
of  Columbus,  Ohio  (a  description  of  which  is  given  In  The  Engmterlng  and 
Mining  Journal,  New  York,  of  March  4th,  1893,  page  201),  consisting  of  a  steel 
cable,  to  which  a  number  of  iron  diaphragms  of  suitable  shape  are  attached  at 
intervals,  which  travel  in  a  trough  of  corresponding  shape,  would  seem  to  be  par- 
ticularly applicable  to  this  purpose. 

t  The  method  of  doing  this  is  excellently  described  by  Kust^l,  Bocuting  of  Gold 
and  Silver  Ores^  second  edition,  1880,  page  32,  et  seq. 


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284  PB0CE88E8  OF  OBB  TREATMENT. 

It  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized  that  one  of  the  most  important 
points  in  pan-amalgamation  is  cleanliness  about  the  works,  and  the  use 
of  clean  quicksilver ;  though  order  and  neatness,  with  the  polish  that 
comes  of  the  use  of  elbow-grease,  are  factora  of  economy  that  ought  to 
be  naturally  looked  for  in  all  mining  plant. 

Bichloride  of  copper  is  supposed  to  be  the  active  agent  in  the  Washoe 
process  in  the  reduction  of  sulphide  of  silver;  just  as  bichloride  of 
mercury*  attacks  gold  and  amalgamates  with  it  when  ordinary  quick- 
silver will  not  touch  the  yellow  metal. 

If  it  is  worth  while  putting  up  a  well-constructed  mill  building  (which 
cannot  be  done  without  corresponding  expense)  it  is  worth  while  keeping 
it  in  first-class  repair. 

The  cost  of  an  ordinary  20  stamp  dry-crushing  plant,  including 
rock-breaker,  mechanical-drier  and  roasting-fumaoe,  cooling-floors  and 
elevators,  with  stamps  and  conveyors,  and  the  necessary  pans,  settlers, 
sluices,  etc.,  with  a  quicksilver-tank  system,  will  not,  in  most  cases,  fall 
far  short  of  £7,100,  in  Ijondon,  exclusive  of  local  freight  and  erection 
charges.     It  would  weigh  about  234  tons. 

The  cost  of  a  20  stamp  wet-crushing  silver-mill  plant,  with  rock- 
breaker,  automatic-feeders,  stamps,  pulp-tanks  and  pans,  settlers,  etc., 
will  not  generally  come  to  less  than  £6,525,  and  weigh  about  186  tons. 

The  cost  of  treatment,  milling  ores  wet,  varies  from  12s.  6d.  to  £1  178. 
6d.,  employing  the  Washoe  process.  A  high  avenge  being  about  18s. 
9d.  per  ton. 

The  cost  of  treatment,  milling  ores  dryt,  varies  from  £1  5s.  to  £2  lis., 
and  when  the  ore  requires  roasting  it  will  average  from  £1  13s.  4d  to 
£8  2s.  6d.,  and  sometimes  as  high  as  £5  16s.  8d.  per  ton. 

The  great  variations  in  silver  ores,  conditions  of  working,  and  methods 
of  extraction  make  it  impossible  to  give  more  than  very  general  estimates 
of  cost,  as  it  fluctuates  frequently  in  the  same  district,  with  differences 
in  price  of  fuel,  labour,  freight,  chemicals,  etc. 

♦  The  DesignoUe  process. 

t  The  writer  alludes  here  to  a  modification  of  the  Reeee  River  process,  which 
dispenses  with  roasting ;  as  examples  of  which,  we  have  the  Bberhardt  at  White 
Pine,  and  the  Lancaster  mill  at  Tuscarora.  It  is  practised  on  the  grounds  that  a 
much  higher  percentage  is  saved,  if  the  ore  contain  chlorides,  as  the  finely  divided 
horn-silver  is  likely  to  be  lost  if  crushed  wet,  although  the  slimes  are  thin.  It  is 
applicable  also  to  some  ores  which  produce  an  excessive  amount  of  slime,  which 
escapes  the  settling-tanks. 


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PBOOESSES  OF  QBE  TBEATMBNT. 


285 


A  26  stamp  wet-cruflhing  silver  mill,  running  24  hours,  generally  needs 
the  following  crew  of  men  : — 


2  Tock-bFeakermen. 
2  battery  feeders. 
2  amalgamators. 
2  engineers  (and  in  some  cases  * 
firemen). 


1  mechanic. 

1  foreman  and  assayer. 

2  assistant  amalgamators. 
8  tank-men. 


The  Grand  Prize*  (a  20  stamp  dry-crushing  and  chloridizing  mill) 
employs : — 

No.  of 
Men. 

2  amalgamators 

2  „         helpers 

2  chloridizers       , 

2  „  helpers , 

2  battery  feeders  (tenders) 

2  engineers  (drivers)      

4  firemen , 

1  melter  and  retorter     

6  dry-kilnmen      • , 

1  blacksmith       

4  labourers  , 


H^' Shift? 
JB    8.      d. 

at   1    0  10 

...     „    0  16    8 

..,.10  10 

..     „    0  16    8 

..,,10  10 

..,,10  10 

..     „    0  16    8 

..     „    0  16    8 

..     „    0  16    8 

..,,10  10 

..     „    0  16    8 

The  Lancaster*  (a  10  stamp  diy-crushing  raw-amalgamating  mill) 
employs : — 


No.  of 
Men. 

Hours  Shift. 
£  B.    d. 

2  amalgamators 

at    1     0  10 

2             „        helpers    

„    0  16    8 

2  battery  tenders           

„    0  16    8 

2  engine  drivers 

„     1    010 

8  firemen 

„    0  16    8 

2  dry-kilnmen     

,    0  16    8 

3  labourers           

„    0  16    8 

16 

Examples  of  the  Washoe  Process. 

The  ores  of  Mineral  Hill,  Nevada,  consist  of  chloride  of  silver,  bromide 
of  silver,  argentite,  polybasite,  stephanite,  carbonate  and  molybdate  of  lead, 
carbonate  of  copper,  and  some  manganese,  occurring  in  a  limestone-forma- 
tion in  irregular  deposits.  Mr.  Eisslert  states  that,  being  of  a  complex 
character,  they  were  originally  treated   by  roasting  milling,   but  he 

♦  Bgleston,  Metallurgy  of  Silver^  page  437.    f  The  Metallurgy  of  Silver^  page  166. 


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286  PROCESSES  OF  OBB  TBEATMENT. 

subsequently  worked  them  successfully  on  the  Washoe  principle  by  dry- 
crushing  and  amalgamation  (the  modification  of  the  Reese  River  process, 
before  alluded  to). 

A  point  of  special  interest  is  the  presence  of  bin-oxide  of  manganese  in 
the  ore.  This  mineral  appears  to  have  a  deleterious  effect  on  the  amalga- 
mation, its  presence  being  indicated  in  the  settlers  by  a  thick  froth,  which 
in  spite  of  dilution  with  water,  carried  off  flowered  quicksilver;  The 
charge,  Mr.  Eissler  states,  which  gave  the  best  results,  was  found  to  be 
1,500  lbs.  of  ore  mixed  in  the  pans  with  15  to  20  lbs.  of  salt  and  8  to  5  lbs. 
of  bluestone.    Treating  18  tons  per  diem,  the  cost  was  as  follows : — 


Superintendent,  who  also  acted  as  assayer        

Master  mechanic     

Carpenter 

Two  engineers  at  £1  Os.  lOd.,  1  day  and  1  night 

Two  men  tending  rock-breaker  at  16s.  8d.         

One  man  at  dry-kiln,  and  to  take  battery  samples,  1  day 

and  1  night  

Two  battery-feeders,  1  day-and  1  night  at  18s.  9d. 

Two  pan-men  during  the  day    • 

Two  pan-men  and  one  retorter  at  night 

400  lbs.  of  salt  at  3d 

8  cords  of  wood  at  £1  5s 

Loss  of  mercury,  30  lbs.  at  5s 

Wear  and  tear  of  iron,  and  repairs  

Oil  and  incidentals,  sulphate  of  copper    and    assay 

materialB 


£       8. 

d. 

2     1 

8 

1     5 

0 

1     5 

0 

2     1 

8 

1  13 

4 

1  13 

4 

1  17 

6 

1  13 

4 

2  10 

0 

5    0 

0 

10    0 

0 

7  10 

0 

4    8 

4 

3    2 

6 

Cost  per  ton,  £2  lOs.  lid. 


£45  16    8 


The  ores  of  Pioche,  Lincoln  County,  Nevada,  which  contain  on  the 
average  8  to  5  per  cent,  of  lead  (cerussite  and  galena)  have  been  treated 
successfully  by  the  ordinary  Washoe  process,  the  ore  being  worked  up  to 
over  82  per  cent. ;  when  assaying  £27  Is.  8d.  per  ton  and  yielding  bullion, 
the  average  fineness  of  which  was  somewhat  below  700,  containing  lead 
and  some  copper. 

To  extract  the  greater  part  of  the  lead,  the  quicksilver  and  amalgam 
after  leaving  the  settlers  was  strained  in  sacks  suspended  in  a  large  box 
filled  with  water,  heated  with  steam  by  a  ^  inch  pipe.  Lead  amalgam 
at  the  temperature  of  boiling  water  remains  liquid,  and  will  therefore 
strain  through  with  the  excess  of  quicksilver.  As  a  certain  amount  of 
silver  and  copper  amalgam  also  passes  through,  the  mercury  is  run  into 
a  smaller  box  oooled  with  water,  and  when  cold  strained  in  the  usual  way, 


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PB00BSSE8  OF  QBE  TREATMENT.  287 

leaving  an  amalgam  of  lead  containing  a  small  amount  of  the  other  metals. 
This  lead  amalgam,  when  retorted,  gave  bullion  containing  6  to  20  per 
cent,  of  silver,  very  little  copper,  and  only  a  trace  of  gold.  The  amalgam 
in  the  first  sacks  gave  bullion  from  550  to  680  fine  in  silver,  and  finer  in 
inverse  proportion  to  the  amount  of  copper  in  the  ore. 

The  amalgam  from  the  second  straining  of  the  quicksilver,  with  ore 
of  normal  character,  gave  bullion  60  to  200  fine.  When  the  ore  was 
amalgamated  without  chemicals  the  bullion  was  300  to  350  fine,  and  when 
amalgamated  with  salt  and  bluestone,  but  not  strained  in  hot  water,  400  to 
460  fine.  The  ore  contains  on  an  average  £1  Os.  lOd.  in  gold  to  over 
£20  16s.  8d.  worth  of  silver,  this  proportion  remaining  very  constant. 
45  to  55  per  cent,  of  this  gold  is  extracted.  The  bullion  contains  0*0003 
to  0*0015  parts  of  gold,  and  occasionally  as  high  as  0*0030  parts.  With 
bullion  500  to  600  fine  (after  passing  through  the  hot-water  straining 
process)  the  loss  of  quicksilver  amounted  to  4|  lbs.  per  ton  of  ore,  due 
probably  to  the  formation  of  chloride  of  lead  and  the  subsequent  formation 
of  sub-chloride  of  mercury.  Another  source  of  loss  was  the  formation  of 
floured  lead-amalgam,  which  had  the  dujl  appearance  of  lead  and  floated 
off  in  flakes  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  chloride  of  copper  formed 
rapidly  destroyed  the  castings  of  the  pans.  The  proportion  of  retorted 
bullion  to  amalgam  in  working  the  Comstock,  White  Pine,  and  Idaho  ores 
is  as  1  to  5  i  to  6  :  in  amalgam  containing  a  large  amount  of  copper  as  1 
to  7  to  7^ ;  and  in  very  base  amalgam  as  1  to  4.* 

The  ores  of  the  Silver  Reef  in  the  Harrisburg  district,  Utah,  are  of  a 
remarkable  character,  consisting  of  chocolate-coloured  sandstone  with  fine 
chloride  of  silver  disseminated  through  its  mass,  and  where  organic  remains 
(such  as  leaves  and  stems  of  trees)  are  found  embedded  in  it,  the  silver  is 
present  in  a  pure  metallic  state.  In  the  Stormont  mine,  the  ore  is  found 
in  a  zone  10  to  100  feet  thick,  often  associated  with  fossil-remains,  etc., 
and  is  bounded  by  red  sandstones  above  and  white  sandstone  below.  The 
ore  is  very  easily  crushed  and  disintegrated,  a  750  lbs.  stamp  putting 
through  7  to  8  tons  per  24  hours'  crushing  through  a  40  mesh  screen,  so 
that  5  to  10  stamps  will  more  than  supply  12  pans,  working  1^  tons  pan 
charges.  Oonsidering  the  size  of  the  mills,  the  cost  of  milling  is  in  con- 
sequence extremely  low.  The  ore  averages  £6  5s.  per  ton.  The  tailings 
vary  greatly  in  richness,  according  to  the  character  of  the  ore.  With 
sandstone  ore,  they  will  often  carry  12s.  6d.  per  ton,  while  with  shaly 
ore  they  may  run  £2  Is.  8d.  or  more. 

*  Eissler,  Metallurgy  of  Silver ^  page  133. 


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288  paooESSBS  of  obb  treatment. 

Mr.  R.  P.  Rothwell  gives  the  cosb  of  a  year's  working  at  three  of  the 
mills  of  the  district  as  follows : — 


Ohrinty  M.  and 
Mff.  Co. 

PertoaofS.00011».                             14.Si9tons. 

Stormont                 Leeds  Co. 

Co.            In  1878             In  1879 
9.963  tons.     13.064  tons.      4.679  tons. 
^     s.     d.     £      s.    d.       £     s.     d. 

Labour  &8alarie8                      0  11  10^ 

0  12     4^    0     9     2 

— - 

Bluestone         ..    (2*1    lbs.)  0    1    3^ 

(If 

lbs.)  0     1     1  1 

Mercury          ...     (  1-22  lbs.)  0    2    6 

(  1-13  lbs.)  0    2    4^1 

Salt        (25-8    lbfl.)0    2     IJ 

(20-00  lb8,)0     1     21^0  13     5 

Fuel      0    5     54 

0   1  lor 

General  supplies                        0    3    7J 

0     1  lOi 

Incidentals     ...                        0    1    8^ 

0    0    6 

£18    6 

£1     1     4    £1     2    7 

£0  17    2 

Hauling  ore  to  mill                  0    3    0^ 

0    8    4      0     14 

0    1  04 

In  parts  of  Mexico,  silver  ore  which  fells  below  £6  5s.  per  ton  is  not 
available  for  the  Washoe  or  patio  processes,  owing  to  the  excessive  cost 
of  transport,  and  fuel.  At  Guanajuato,  for  example,  packing  on  mules 
costs  14s.  7d.,  and  treatment  of  the  ore  £2  78.  lid.,  whilst  mining, 
pumping,  hoisting,  etc.,  add  a  further  charge  of  £2  10s.  Wood  costs 
£2  Is.  8d.  and  coal  £4  lis.  8d.  per  ton.  The  district,  however,  is  said 
to  be  a  rich  one,  one  group  of  mines  north  of  the  city  of  Guanajuato 
being  credited  with  a  production  of  812,860,000  dollars  between  1548 
and  1889,  out  of  a  total  of  650,000,000  dollars  worth  of  silver  obtained 
from  the  district. 

Mr.  W.  L.  Austin  gives*  the  subjoined  particulars  of  the  cost  of 
running  a  wet-crushing  silver-mill  in  the  Tombstone  district,  stating 
however  that,  owing  to  the  arrangement  of  the  plant,  which  works  under 
some  disadvantages  consequent  upon  its  alteration  from  dry-chloridizing 
to  wet-crushing  and  other  reasons,  a  reduction  of  20  per  cent,  in  the  cost 
of  milling  could  be  effected  under  more  fevourable  circumstances. 

A  novel  feature  to  be  noticed  is  that  the  shoots  leading  from  the  ore- 
breaker  to  the  bins  are  not  only  provided  with  the  ordinary  grizzleys,  the 
bars  of  which  are  set  f  inch  apart,  but  the  bottom  of  the  shoot  itself  is 
fitted  with  a  shaking-frame  covered  with  screens  of  the  same  mesh  as 
those  used  in  the  battery. 

This  relieves  the  batteries  materially,  and  decreases  the  amount  of 
slimes,  increasing  the  capacity  of  the  mill  5  per  cent,  or  more,  depending 
on  the  fineness  of  the  o/e  and  its  percentage  of  moisture,  as  the  ore  fine 
enough  to  pass  the  screens,  goes  direct  to  the  pans  without  passing 
through  the  battery  at  all. 

•  "  Silver  Mining  in  Arizona."     Tram.  Am,  Inst,  Min,  Eng,^  vol.  xi.,  page  91. 


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PR00BS8B8  OF  OEB  TREATMENT. 


289 


The  average  gross  weight  of  the  stamps  is  between  750  and  800  lbs. 
The  shoes,  weighing  120  lbs.,  have  an  average  life  of  one  month,  when 
worn  down  to  about  85  lbs. 

Hendy  Challenge  feeders  are  used,  and  the  stamps  crushed  2*9  tons  of 
medium  hard  rock  in  24  hours  for  the  first  six  months  they  were  in 
operation,  using  a  80  mesh  screen. 

After  4  hours'  grinding  in  the  pans,  the  average  extraction  was  found 
to  be  about  81'04  per  cent.,  and  nothing  material  was  gained  by  prolong- 
ing the  treatment,  but  by  the  use  of  salt  and  bluestone  87  per  cent,  could 
be  got  out  of  the  ore,  which  contained  only  7  per  cent,  of  its  silver  as 
chloride. 

So  long,  however,  as  coarse  crushing  was  adhered  to  in  the  battery, 
the  buUion  was  much  debased.  The  remedy  was  found  to  be  to  crush 
finer,  using  35  mesh  screens  and  amalgamating  without  grinding  in  the 
pans,  by  which  means  the  bullion  was  kept  at  '970  fine  without  sacrificing 
the  milling  percentage.  The  ore  contains  about  8s.  4d.  in  gold,  and  43 
per  cent,  of  this  was  also  recovered.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  the 
debasing  of  the  bullion  was  chiefly  due  to  lead,  which  lowered  it  down  to 
•200  and  '300,  and  whenever  wulfenite  appeared  in  the  ore  this  was 
remarked  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  when  the  lead  was  in  the  form 
of  cerussite  or  galena. 

The  average  cost  of  milling  for  five  months  was  with  20  stamps : — 


£     8.       d. 

Labour 

..      0  10     6 

Fuel 

...        .. 

...     0     4     4^ 

ChemicalB  and 

mercury 

...     0     S     2J 

Lubrication 

... 

...     0    0     2 

Illumination 

...     0     0     li 

Castings      ... 



...     0     1     4i 

Supplies 



...     0    0    8 

Per  ton 


.£1     0    6 


The  cost  of  labour  (subdivided)  treating  1,730  tons,  based  on  one 
month's  work  waa  estimated  to  be : — 


B.     d. 

Crushing          

.     2    2 

Amalgamating            

2     94 

Power-pumps,  etc 

1  in 

Foremen,  etc 

3    74 

Tailings-pits 

0     5i 

Per  ton        

U     0 

VOL.  V.-18W  88. 

19 


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290  PROCESSES  OF  ORE  TBEATMENT. 

The  loss  of  mercury  averaged  about  58.  5d.  per  ton,  and  about  0*11 
cordfl  of  wood,*  and  1,200  gallons  of  water,  were  consumed  per  ton  milled. 

Mr.  Austin  also  gives  another  instance  of  the  cost  of  wet-crushing  in 
Arizona,  estimated  on  2,643  tons  crushed  in  a  20-stamp  battery,  fur- 
nished with  a  rock- breaker  and  automatic  feeders,  separating  the  coarse 
sands  in  hydraulic  sizing-tanks,  and  working  each  sand-class  by  itself, 
for  which  the  ore  alluded  to  was  particularly  suitable,  being  entirely  free 
from  base  metals  with  a  gangue  of  light  specific  gravity. 

The  stamps  weighed  800  lbs.,  and  put  through  on  an  average  6  tons 
per  head  in  24  hours. 

Cyanide  and  lime,  in  the  proportion  of  14  lbs.  of  the  former  chemical 
and  120  lbs.  of  the  latter  per.  100  tons  of  ore,  were  used  in  the  pan 
treatment.    The  mercury  was  pumped  through  the  mill  for  distribution. 

The  motive  power  was  a  200  horse-power  horizontal  engine  (42  inches 
by  20  inches  cylinders,  run  at  60  revolutions  per  minute),  and  the  boilers, 
which  were  tubular,  15  feet  6  inches  by  54  inches,  carrying  85  lbs.  steam 
pressure,  burnt  16  cords  of  wood  irrespective  of  the  boiler  for  the  pump, 
which  burnt  8  cords  per  week.    The  cost  per  ton  of  ore  was : — 

£    8.     d. 

Labour  0    5     IJ 

Supplies        0    7    7 

Assaying       0    4    6i 


0  17    2 


The  cost  for  labour  as  given  above  is  thus  subdivided : — 

£      8.       d. 

Crushing        Oil 

Amalgamation         0    0  10 

Power,  pumps,  and  repairs  0    1    8 

Foreman,  melter,  etc 0    1     6^ 


0    6    1^ 
The  cost  of  material  as  given  above  is  thus  subdivided  :— 

£      8.       d. 

Mercury        0  19 

Chemicals      0  0    3^ 

Castings        0  1     2i 

Illumination  and  lubrication        0  0    3} 

Fuel,  including  pump         0  3    3 

Supplies        ..  0  0    9J 

0    7     7 

♦  This  includes  pumping  the  water  supply  200  yards  (with  a  lift  of  100  feet 
vertical);  7  cords  of  mixed  wood  (black  oak,  white  willow,  and  pine),  costing 
£1  17s.  6d.  per  cord,  were  used  on  the  average  per  day.  The  mill  engine  was  pro- 
vided with  a  Meyer  cut-ofE. 


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PROCBSSBS  OF  OEB  TREATMENT.  291 

The  consumption  of  wood  per  ton  of  ore  was  0*15  cords,  and  of 
mercniy  0*96  lbs. 

The  bullion  averaged  -995  fine. 

Stated  in  gallons,  the  quantity  o£  water  used  per  boiler  in  a  silver- 
mill  is  7J  gallons  per  horse-power  per  hour.  For  each  stamp,  72  gallons 
per  hour ;  for  each  pan,  120  gallons  per  hour;  and  for  each  settler,  60 
gallons  per  hour. 

The  consumption  of  wood  (not  including  that  used  for  roasting)  in  a 
dry-crushing  mill  is  put  by  Prof.  Bgleston  at  about  ^  cord  per  ton. 

The  power  required  for  a  Bruckner  roasting-cylinder  is  estimated  at 
about  2  horse-power,  and  for  the  Ho  well- White  1 J  horse-power. 

The  ore  according  to  its  baseness  loses  3  to  15  per  cent,  by  weight  in 
roasting. 

The  value  of  stock  on  hand  necessary  to  run  a  dry  or  wet-crushing 
silver-mill,  including  wood,  mercury,  castings,  chemicals,  etc.,  is  very 
variable. 

Examples  op  Roasting  Milling  Treatment. 

The  ore  of  the  Ontario  mine  is  a  very  base  one,  being  composed  of 
zinc,  lead,  and  silver  sulphides  and  silver  chloride  in  a  quartz  gangue. 
This  becomes  baser  with  the  increasing  depth  of  the  workings.  The 
bullion  obtained  runs  about  600  fine  and  contains  no  gold.  The  average 
grade  of  the  ore  treated  is  100  to  180  dollars  per  ton,  and  the  amount 
treated  varies  from  60  to  55  tons  per  day,  though  formerly  (when  it  was 
less  base)  65  tons  were  handled  daily.  The  ore  is  roasted  in  Stetefeldt 
furnaces  with  the  addition  of  about  16  per  cent,  (dry  weight)  of  salt. 

After  leaving  the  furnace  the  ore  goes  to  the  cooling-floor,  where  it 
remains  piled  up  for  18  hours.  This  increases  the  chlorination  from  8  to 
8  per  cent.  After  being  damped  it  is  run  to  the  pan-room.  Each  pan- 
charge  of  ore  weighs  2,500  lbs.,  to  which  1  per  cent,  of  salt  is  added,  and 
the  pulp  made  up  with  the  addition  of  hot  water  to  proper  consistency. 
The  muUer  makes  about  65  revolutions  per  minute,  and  is  held  1  inch 
above  the  pan-bottom  so  that  it  does  not  grind.  About  1  lb.  of  zinc 
and  800  lbs.  of  mercury  are  added  to  the  pan  after  it  has  run  1  hour 
(and  is  hot),  and  amalgamation  is  continued  for  7  hours.  From  the  pans 
the  pulp  is  drawn  into  settlers,  which  run  4  hours,  making  40  revolutions 
per  minute,  and  after  running  for  1  hour  cold  water  is  let  in,  and  the 
overflow  discharging  the  tailings  is  set  running.  The  mill  is  worked  up  to 
from  88  to  92  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the  ore,  that  being  counted  as  the 
amount  chlorinated.    The  tailings  carry  off  8  to  12  per  cent,  of  the  silver. 


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292 


PROCESSES  OF  OBE  TREATMENT. 


The  cost  of  treatment  on  a  production  of  50  tons  per  day  was  stated 
as  follows* : — 


No.  of 
Men. 

PerDfty. 
DoUan. 

Per  Ton. 
£     8.      d. 

1        ... 

Foreman... 

... 

... 

..       10-00       ... 

0 

0  10 

1        ... 

Assayer   ... 

... 

... 

6-00       ... 

0 

0    6 

3        ... 

Machinists 

at  1400 

12-00       ... 

0 

1     0 

2       ... 

Carpenters 

at 

4-00 

800       ... 

0 

0    8 

2       ... 

Blacksmiths 

at 

4-00 

8-00       ... 

0 

0    8 

2       ... 

Engineers 

at 

4-00 

8-00 

0 

0    8 

2       ... 

Foremen 

at 

3-50 

7-0(»      ... 

0 

0    7 

9       ... 

Dry-floormen 

at 

3-50 

...      31-50       ... 

0 

2    7i 

3      ... 

Batterjmen 

at 

4-00 

...       12-00       ... 

0 

1     0 

6       ... 

Roasters 

at 

400 

...      24-00      ... 

0 

2    0 

12      ... 

Cooling-floormen  at 

400 

...       48-00      ... 

0 

4    0 

4 

Carmen 

at 

4-00 

...       16-00       ... 

0 

1     4 

4       ... 

Amalgamators      at 

4-50 

...       18-00       ... 

0 

1     6 

1 

Retorter 
Melter 

at 
at 

4-00  \ 
4-00/ 

8-00      ... 

0 

0    8 

4       ... 

Labourers 

at 

2-50 

...       10-00      ... 

0 

0  10 

4       ... 

Watchmen 

at 

3-00 

...       12-00       ... 

0 

1     0 

2       ... 

Ore-floormen 

at 

3-50 

7-00       ... 

0 

0     74 

3       ... 

Clerks 

at 

4-00 

...       12-00      ... 

0 

1     0 

66 

1267-50 

£1 

1     6 

SuppiieB. 

Per  Day.   . 

DolUn. 

Per  Ton. 
£    8.     d. 

Salt,  10  tons              at  $8'00 

... 

...       80-00       ... 

0 

6    8 

Quicksilver,  175  lbs.  at 

0-50 

..■ 

...       87-60      ... 

0 

7    34 

Wood,  15  cords          at 

4-50 

... 

...       67-50  J 
...      99-00)    "■ 

0 

14    84 

Coal,  12  tons             at 

8-25 

Castings 

... 

... 

...        ... 

0 

6    3 

Oil  and  waste 

... 



0 

1     04 

Sandries,  chemicals,  etc 

... 

... 

;,.            .,, 

0 

2    1 

Haaling 

From  mine  ... 

... 

... 

...            ...             ... 

0 

2    04 

Charcoal, 

assaying,  and 

melting 



0 

1    04 

£2    1     14 
Total  cost  per  ton,  £8  28.  T^d.,  exclusive  of  office  expenses,  general 
superintendence,  repairs,  and  insurance. 

The  report  of  the  Granite  Mountain  Company,  Phillipsburg,  Montana, 
one  of  the  largest  dry  chloridizing  roasting-crushing  plants  in  America 
(running  153  stamps),  gives  the  following  particulars  of  working  for  the 
year  ending  July  81st,  1891 : — 

Ore,  tons  crushed,  wet,  72,623  =  dry  weight,  68,860 
Salt,  „  „       10,807  -  „  10,645 

Total         83,480  79,496 

Average  moisture  in  the  ore,  5-2  per  cent. ;  average  moisture  in  salt,  1-5  per  cent. 

•  R.  P.  Rothwell,  TrtJM.  Am,  Ituft.  of  Min,  En^.,  vol.  viii.,  page  557. 


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PROCESSES  OF  ORE  TBEATMEKT.  298 


The  salt  and  ore  are  mixed  before  croshiBg. 

The  ore  averaged  60*69  omioes  of  silver,  and  the  cost  of  milh'ng  was 
£2  Is.  8d.  per  dry  ton,  divided  as  follows  : — 


Labour  and  saperintendence 

Salt      ... 

Fuel     ... 

Mercury 

Castings 

Chemicals 

Water  ... 

MiscellaneouB 


£2    ]     8 

Equal  to  £1  198  S^d.  per  wet  ton. 

The  company's  three  mills,  of  20,  43,  and  90  stamps  respectively  are 
known  as  A,  B,  and  0,  and  have  cost,  with  improvements  np  to  date, 
£146,843  17s.  9  Jd.,  as  shown  by  the  trial  balance  sheet.  The  cost  varied 
from  £1  16s.  7id.  in  mill  0,  which  crushed  42,153*  wet  tons,  to 
£2  lis.  lOd.  in  mill  A,  which  crashed  9,934t  wet  tons. 

The  saving  of  silver  amounted  to  90*7  per  cent. 

The  report  of  the  Elkhom  Company,  of  Montana,  for  1891,  affords 
another  excellent  illustration  of  close  saving  and  business-like  manage- 
ment. 

The  mill,  which  crushed  11,646  tons  (dry)  during  the  12  months 
ending  December  81st,  1891,  saved  93*78  per  centj  of  the  silver  contents 
of  the  ore  at  a  cost  of  (9*226  dollars)§  £1  18s.  b^d,,  a  close  approxi- 
mation to  the  figures  just  given. 

Tailings  Mills. 

Silver-mill-tailings  are  generaDy  concentrated  on  concentrators,  or  on 
blankets,  in  sand-sluices,  and  either  leached,  or  treated  in  pans  on  the 
Oomstock  system  (using  chemicals)  ;  which  has  given  rise  to  what  are 
known  as  tailings,  or  auxiliary  mills. 

Tailings  from  silver  mills  can  in  fact  often  be  treated  profitably  by 
storing  them  in  dams,  leaving  time,  air,  and  chemical  agency  to  effect 
their  oxidation,  and  then  treating  them  raw  in  pans,  no  drying  or  chlor- 
idizing  being  required. 

The  chief  drawbacks  against  this  method  are  the  uncertainty  as  to  the 
time  necessary  for  complete  oxidation  of  the  minerals  present,  which  may 
be  taken  from  2  to  4  years,  and  the  necessity  of  constructing  large 
storage  dams. 

♦  Representing  40,067  dry  tons.  t  Representing  9,318  dry  tons, 

t  In  1890,  86-88  per  cent,  was  saved,  the  increase  In  1891  is  attributed  to  using 
extra  salt.  §  For  analysis,  see  Appendix. 


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294  PROCESSES  OP  ORE  TREATMENT. 

Mr.  Eifisler  states*  that,  in  some  establishments  of  this  kind  in 
Nevada,  the  quantity  of  sulphate  of  copper  supplied  to  the  pans  with  this 
system  of  treatment  varies  from  3  to  6  lbs.  per  ton  of  tailings,  while  the 
salt  amounts  to  20  or  30  lbs.  The  pans  are  covered,  and  supplied  with 
steam  at  a  high  temperature. 

He  places  the  yield  at  about  60  per  cent.,  dealing  with  an  ore  worth 
£3  to  £3  lOs.  per  ton,  and  gives  the  current  cost  as  follows  : — 


Laboar    

0    6    0 

Quicksilyer  lost 

0    4    0 

Salt          

0    8    0 

Sulphate  of  copper 

0    2     6 

Fuel         

0     6    0 

Castings 

0    0    6 

Total        £1     1     0 

In  Avery's  tailings-mills  in  Washoe  valley,  where  wood  is  £1  48. 
per  cord,  the  cost  per  ton  is  stated  to  have  been  14s. 

It  is  usual  in  Nevada  for  two  sets  of  samples  to  be  taken  as  a  basis 
upon  which  to  determine  the  value  of  the  ore,  when  it  is  treated  at  customs 
establishments.  One  of  these  samples  is  taken  from  the  waggon  conveying 
the  ore  from  the  mine  to  the  mill,  the  other  from  the  mill  after  the  ore 
has  been  crushed.  The  waggon  sample  is  obtained  by  drawing  from  each 
waggonload  of  ore  a  sample  of  rock,  and  mixing  the  total  number  of 
samples  of  the  loads  sent  to  any  one  mill  at  the  end  of  the  day.  This 
bulk  sample  is  then  quartered  down,  the  mill  being  charged  with  the 
weight  of  ore,  and  the  amount  of  gold  and  silver  represented  by  assay. 
The  mill  sample,  which  is  to  serve  as  a  check  on  the  waggon  sample,  is 
taken  by  allowing  the  crushed  ore  as  it  comes  from  the  battery  to  run  into 
a  pail,  held  at  the  end  of  the  trough  leading  to  the  tanks. 

A  sample  of  this  kind  is  taken  in  most  mills  every  hour,  in  some  every 
half-hour,  aad  the  accumulated  samples  are  well  mixed,  dried,  and  reduced 
to  a  sufficient  quantity  for  assay. 

The  pail  or  vessel  in  which  the  crushed  ore  is  caught  must  not,  of 
course,  be  allowed  to  overflow. 

In  some  mills  the  samples  are  taken  from  the  tanks  after  the  sand  has 
deposited  itself  in  them,  either  from  the  surface  or  preferably  with  a 
tube  sampler. 

Strange  as  it  may  seem  the  waggon  samples  and  mill  samples  generally 
differ  in  yield,  and  the  former  is  usually  the  highest. 

This  was  proved  in  the  late  celebrated  suit  tried  before  Judge  Hebbard, 
Fox  versiis  the  Hale  and  Norcross  Co.  In  practice,  therefore,  both  assays 
are  duly  considered,  and  an  adjustment  arrived  at. 

•  The  Metallurgy  of  Silver,  page  114. 


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PBOCESSBS  OF  OBE  TBEATHVKT.  295 

A.  D.  Hodges,  in  an  interesting  paper  on  pan-amalgamation,*  esti- 
mating on  46,500  tons  of  Oomstock  tailings  treated  at  Drayton,  Nevada, 
calculates  the  cost  of  treating  them  as  follows  : — 

a.    d. 


Preparing  and  hauling 

Milling 

Qeneral  expenses 


1  3| 
8  l| 
0  10} 


Total  per  ton        ...  10    3} 

Some  of  the  sand  so  treated  seems  to  have  ran  about  15s.  3^.  in 
silver,  and  4s  S^d.  in  gold,  total  £1,  and  yielded  in  bullion  75*8  per 
cent,  of  the  silver,  and  25  per  cent,  of  the  gold,  total  68*8  per  cent., 
whilst  some  of  the  slimes  averaged  £2  15s.  8d.  silver,  and  9s.  6^.  gold, 
total  £3  48.  8fd.,  and  yielded  85'8  per  cent,  of  the  silver,  and  42*5  per 
cent,  of  the  gold,  total  79  5  per  cent. 

The  loss  of  quicksilver,  treating  sands  at  Drayton,  ran  under  ^  lb., 
and  with  slimes  from  |  to  1  lb.  per  ton. 

The  buUion  from  the  treatment  of  the  sands  did  not  run  over  150 
fine,  and  with  the  richer  slimes  the  best  results  were  got  when  it  was 
from  200  to  250  fine. 

In  Dakota,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  with  free-milling  gold  ores,  it 
cost  4d.  for  mill  labour,  to  produce  4s.  2d.  worth  of  gold. 

In  Nevada,  on  the  other  hand,  though  over  five  times  as  much  work 
is  required  per  ton  treated,  it  costs  only  about  3^.,  but  this  seeming 
contradiction  is  explained  by  the  higher  grade  of  the  Nevada  ores. 

A  20  pan  mill,  without  any  special  arrangement  for  catching  mercury 
working  on  tailings,  made  a  gain  of  700  lbs.  of  mercury  in  6  weeks,  which 
was  but  a  small  part  of  the  mercury  actually  contained  in  the  slimes. 

In  view  of  these  losses  it  generally  pays  to  employ  concentrators  to 
work  up  the  mill-tailings  Sometimes  a  machine,  known  as  a  Yamey 
amalgamator,  is  set  in  the  tailings-sluice. 

As  battery  slimes  require  no  grinding  it  would  seem  most  advantageous 
to  charge  the  quicksilver  direct  into  the  pan,  but  experience  has  shown 
that  better  results  are  obtained  by  charging  the  chemicals  with  the 
slimes  and  thoroughly  mixing  them  for  about  two  hours  with  the  muller 
up,  and  then  adding  the  mercury,  as  the  slimes  form  a  pasty  mass  which 
might  hold  and  carry  off  the  finely  divided  quicksilver.  In  treating  such 
material  one-half  its  bulk  in  sand  (tailings  from  the  pans),  and  sometimes 
more,  is  added  to  the  charge. 

In  many  so-called  free-milling  ores  of  silver,  or  silver  and  gold  com- 
bined, there  are  small  quantities  of  sulphides  of  the  base  metals,  not 

•  Trans.  Am.  Irut.  Miii.  Eng.,  vol.  xix.,  page  231. 


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296  PROCESSES  OF  ORE  TREATMENT. 

sofScient  in  quantity  or  value  to  make  the  ore  suitable  for  roasting,  yet 
enough  to  prevent  a  high  extraction  by  free-milling,  besides  increasing  the 
cost.  Such  ores  can  be  best  treated  by  the  combined  process  of  con- 
centration and  amalgamation. 

Stamping  the  ore  wet,  passing  it  over  copper  plates,  concentrating  in 
vanners,  and  then  amalgamating  the  tailings  by  the  continuous  process, 
lessens  or  dispenses  with  grinding  in  the  pans,  decreasing  the  wear  of 
castings  and  fuel  consumption  ;  decreases  the  losses  of  quicksilver ; 
increases  the  capacity  of  the  battery  by  permitting  coarser  crushing ; 
raises  the  percentage  of  extraction,  and  gives  higher  grade  bullion. 

The  Montana  Company  by  adopting  this  process  obtained,  it  is  said, 
an  increased  saving  over  ordinary  pan  treatment  of  from  £1  13s.  4d.  to 
£2  Is.  8d.,  decreased  the  loss  of  mercury  to  |  lb.  per  ton  of  ore,  and 
increased  the  tenure  of  the  bullion  from  "500  to  '900  fine.  The  cost  of 
the  process  is  from  12s.  6d.  to  £2  Is.  8d.  per  ton,  and  less  water  is  re- 
quired than  with  ordinary  pan-amalgamation. 

It  is  sometimes  more  expedient  (depending  on  the  base  metals  present, 
and  the  way  the  ore  breaks)  to  crush  finer  in  the  battery  and  grind  less, 
as  before  mentioned. 

Since  ore  will  break  naturally  where  there  is  most  mineral,  by  dis- 
engaging it  as  far  as  possible  in  crushing,  as  mercury  h<is  a  greater  affinity 
for  the  precious  than  for  the  base  metals,  there  is  less  likelihood  of  its 
becoming  foul  and  inactive  through  taking  up  lead  and  other  things 
which  grinding  tends  to  make  it  do. 

In  Arizona  the  loss  in  melting  bullion  averaging  '988  fine  (from 
volatilization  and  skimmings)  is  stated  by  Mr.  Egleston  to  be  7"56  per  cent. 

Ores,  like  some  of  those  of  the  Oomstock,  that  contain  their  gold 
and  silver  more  or  less  free,  will  mill  from  60  to  80  per  cent,  by  the 
Washoe  process  and  in  exceptional  cases,  like  those  of  White  Pine  (Nevada)/ 
and  Silver  Reef  (Utah)  to  even  86  per  cent.  Roasting  milling,  on  the 
other  hand,  gives  an  extraction  of  from  80  to  93  per  cent.,  and  in  excep- 
tional cases  94  per  cent. 

The  combined  process  yields  often  76  to  86  per  cent. 

The  Patio  Process. 

This  very  ancient  and  interesting  process  cannot  be  passed  by  without 
comment,  as  Mexico,  which  ia  its  home,  so  to  speak,  is,  it  must  be  recol- 
lecterl,  the  second  largest  silver  producer  in  the  world,  and  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  three-fourths  to  seven-eighths  of  the  silver  it  returns  is  obtained  by 
the  patio  process. 


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PROCBSSES  OF  ORE  TREATKIiNT.  297 

The  practice  at  San  Dimas  (State  of  Dnrango)  may  be  considered 
typical,  and  is  excellently  described  by  Mr.  R.  E.  Ohism,*  whose  paper 
contains  detailed  information  on  the  subject.  Englishmen  and 
Americans  alike  have  gone  into  Spanish  America  from  time  to  time 
expecting  to  revolutionize  this  time-honoured  system  by  introducing  more 
modem  metallurgical  methods^  but  in  most  cases  they  would  appear  to 
have  failed  in  doing  so,  leaving  abandoned  reduction  works  all  over  the 
country  as  monuments  of  their  errors.  If  we  look  for  an  explanation,  it 
is  to  be  found  in  the  neglect  of  local  conditions  on  which  the  success  or 
failure  of  every  process  more  or  less  depends. 

The  patio,  with  its  cheap  plant  and  fairly  close  extraction  in  Mexico, 
where  saving  of  time  is  a  secondary  consideration,  where  transportation 
is  difficult,  where  the  ores  are  rich,  and  where  animal  power,  space,  and 
labour  are  cheap,  whilst  fuel  and  other  necessaries  are  dear  (Central 
America  possessing  a  suitable  climate,  and  labour  accustomed  to  the  work 
from  time  immemorial)  can,  in  fact,  hold  its  own  for  the  treatment  of 
ores,  which  do  not  contain  more  than  a  trace  of  lead  and  zinc,  where  other 
processes  would  fail. 

The  silver,  which  the  patio  yields,  is  almost  free  from  impurities  and 
baser  metals.  An  assay  of  several  bars  showed  an  average  fineness  of 
0*994  silver  and  0*035  gold.  Mr.  Ohism  gives  the  cost  of  treatment  in  a 
large  hacienda  where  the  tahonas  were  in  two  groups,  and  were  worked  by 
gear  connected  with  an  over-shot  waterwheel,  where  the  breaking  was 
done  by  wooden  stamps  shod  with  iron  (also  driven  by  a  waterwheel), 
and  where  the  washing  was  done  by  a  water-power  washer,  working  a 
trilla  of  19  tons,  as  follows : — 

Breaking,  grinding,  and  cost  of  tools 

Amalgamator's  wages 

Scraping  tahonas      

Carrying  and  washing  scrapings 

Concentrating  tailings  of  scrapings 

Carrying  slime  from  tahona  to  patio 

Mules  and  keep         

Labour,  spreading  trilla  and  male  driving 

Labour,  washing  trilla         

Charcoal,  for  retorting  silver 

Concentrating  tailings  of  trilla      

Materials- 
Salt.  600  lbs.  at  4d 

Sulphate  of  copper,  125  lbs.  at  Is.  OJd. 
Precipitated  copper,  25  lbs.  at  2r.  9d. . . . 
Quickailver,  133  lbs.  at  2a.  T^d. 

Total  cost £5  12     IJ 

♦  Trans.  Am.  Inst.  Min.  Btig.y  vol.  xi.,  page  61. 


... 

Cost 

per  Ton  of  S.OOO  lbs. 
iS    B.     d. 

.17     9 

.     0     6   11 

.008 

.     0     0     5i 

.     0     0     3i 

.019 

.     0  15     6 

.068 

.024 

.     0     1  114 

.087 

10 

8. 
0 

0     .. 

.     0  10    6^ 

6 
3 

17 

10 
8 
6 

2i  .. 
9     .. 
4     . 

.     0     6  104 
,.     0    3     7i 
..     0  18    2^ 

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298  PBOCBSSBB  OP  ORB  TRBATMBNT. 

The  cost  to  the  owners  would  probably  not  exceed  £5  4s.  2d.,  as  the 
above  costs  include  a  certain  charge  for  profit. 

At  works  where  the  tortas  are  of  small  size  (about  10  tons)  and  the 
ore  is  broken  without  the  aid  of  water-power,  inclusive  of  superintendence 
and  interest  on  plant,  the  cost  is  said  to  be  £5  14s.  lid. 

The  concentrates  obtained  from  the  planilla-treatment  and  washing  in 
the  boliche  are  shipped  and  smelted  in  Germany. 

From  70  to  75  per  cent.,  and  in  some  few  cases  perhaps  80  per  cent., 
of  the  assay  value  of  the  ore  in  silver  is  saved  by  the  patio  process,  72 
per  cent,  being  probably  about  the  average;  whilst  of  the  gold  present  40 
per  cent,  is  lost,  20  per  cent,  of  the  remainder  goes  with  the  silver, 
and  the  rest  is  recovered  from  the  tailings  or  is  caught  in  the  tahona. 

The  process  from  start  to  finish  takes  from  23  days  to  7  weeks. 

In  The  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal^  New  York,  of  May  7th, 
1892,*  Mr.  E.  du  B.  Lukis  describes,  what  he  claims  to  be,  a  recent 
improvement  on  the  patio  system  specially  applicable  to  ores  containing 
antimonial  and  arsenical  sulphides  of  silver,  together  with  ordinary 
sulphides  and  some  chlorides. 

The  ore,  instead  of  going  direct  to  the  patio  after  crushing,  is  first 
roasted  for  10,  12,  or  20  minutes.  The  object  of  this  roasting  is  merely 
to  give  a  quick  start  to  the  process,  and  while,  owing  to  its  rapidity,  it  is 
said  not  to  entail  a  loss  of  over  1^  to  2^  per  cent,  of  the  silver  by 
volatilization ;  comparative  trials  have,  it  is  asserted,  proved  the  benefit  to 
be  derived  therefrom. 

It  is  not  desirable  to  roast  sweet,  but  only  to  break  up  the  molecular 
affinity  of  the  particles  of  the  mineral  by  heat,  so  as  to  hasten  the  progress 
of  the  after-chemical  process  with  a  view  to  save  labour  and  time. 

The  most  important  part  of  the  modification  in  treatment,  however, 
lies  in  the  use  of  hyposulphite  of  soda,  for  if  roasted  ore  be  treated  by  the 
ordinary  patio  method  it  will  not  work,  the  quicksilver  gets  hot  at  once, 
and  nothing  can  be  done  with  it. 

It  is  also  claimed  that  it  is  now  possible  to  arrive  at  the  quantity  of 
sulphate  of  copper  that  will  be  required  to  beneficiate  the  cake  from  the 
start,  reducing  the  treatment  nearly  to  a  certainty.  To  avoid  the  usual 
loss  of  quicksilver,  the  amalgamation  is  stopped  before  the  difficulty  of  the 
patio  treatment  commences  (when  in  fact  the  free  silver  ores  have  been 
amalgamated),  the  amalgam  is  then  washed  out  in  the  usual  way,  and  the 
more  refractory  silver  minerals  are  concentrated.  The  results  are  stated 
to  have  been  satisfactory,  showing  an  extraction  of  92  per  cent,  of  the 
value. 

♦  Page  496. 


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FROGESBES  OF  OBE  TRBATMEKT.  299 

The  ores  taken  for  trial  were  of  a  mixed  class.  One-third  of  the  silver 
being  antimonial  or  niby  silver,  the  remainder  mostly  silver  glance,  but 
with  pyritiferous  silver  ore  and  some  chlorides.  The  assay  value  was  60 
dollars  per  ton.  The  heavy  minerals  amounted  to  about  10  or  15  per 
cent,  of  the  whole. 

The  ores  were  stamped  dry  to  pass  a  60  mesh  screen,  and  roasted  in 
an  ordinary  reverberatory  furnace  with  a  hearth  measuring  8  feet  by  6 
feet.  The  temperature  was  raised  to  a  good  red  heat.  Charges  of  400 
lbs.  were  mixed  with  2^  per  cent,  of  salt,  spread  over  the  hearth  and 
kept  gently  stirred  with  a  rabble.  Eight  minutes  after  charging,  a  sample 
was  taken  out  and  washed  in  the  tentadura  or  assay  horn  to  show  the 
.  colour  of  the  concentrates.  It  is  by  the  colour  that  the  calciner  knows 
when  to  stop  roasting.  When  suflSciently  roasted,  which  does  not  in  any 
case  take  more  than  20  minutes,  the  charge  is  quickly  withdrawn,  and  a 
fresh  one  introduced. 

The  hot  ore  is  allowed  to  remain  in  a  pile  until  next  day,  when  it  is 
spread  on  the  patio,  moistened  with  water,  and  trodden  into  a  soft  pulp, 
with  an  addition  of  ^  per  cent,  of  salt.  This  being  done  in  the  morning, 
sulphate  of  copper  can  be  added  three  or  four  hours  later.  The  required 
quantity  can  only  be  ascertained  by  experiment,  but  in  the  case  cited 
4|  ounces  per  26  lbs.  were  found  the  right  quantity.  After  this  addition 
the  pulp  is  again  trodden  and  left  till  next  day. 

Early  next  morning  a  guide  \b  taken  from  the  cake  by  a  peofi  who 
walks  across  it  in  two  diagonal  lines  taking  small  portions  of  the  pulp 
here  and  there,  and  accumulating  a  sample  as  near  as  can  be  guessed  of 
about  100  lbs.  This  is  placed  in  a  corner  of  the  patio,  and  divided  into 
four  portions  of  26  lbs.  each,  to  each  of  which  different  quantities  of 
sulphate  of  copper  are  added,  say  1,  2,  and  4  grammes  (16,  30,  and  60 
grains)  respectively.  Assays  of  each  are  taken  in  turn  (conmiencing 
with  the  pulp  of  the  cake  itself),  and  mixed  up  with  a  globule  of  mercury 
in  the  tentadura  and  washed,  when  the  action  of  the  sulphate  on  the 
mercury  will  be  seen  by  its  colour.  It  ought  to  remain  bright  and  quick, 
and  sulphate  can  be  added  in  small  quantities  to  the  guide  until  the 
mercury  shows  a  trace  of  heat,  i.e.,  becomes  discoloured  and  leaden  in 
tone,  which  indicates  that  a  gramme  (15  grains)  too  much  per  25  lbs. 
has  been  added. 

The  amalgamator  now  knows  that  he  may  add  1,  8,  or  6  grammes 
(16,  45,  or  76  grains)  as  the  case  may  be  per  25  lbs.  of  cake.  Done  with 
care  and  patience,  this  should  be  a  sure  guide  as  to  the  total  quantity  of 
sulphate  the  cake  can  stand. 


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300  PROCESSES  OF  ORB  TREATMEKT. 

If  the  process  were  now  continaed,  as  with  raw  ores,  the  mercury 
would  become  very  hot  by  next  day,  and  soon  not  work  at  all,  that  is  to 
say  become  dirty  in  appearance  and  cease  to  form  silver  amalgam.  To 
avoid  this  trouble,  hyposulphite  of  soda  has  been  used  and  found  to  work 
successfully,  whilst  it  helps  to  hasten  the  process.  It  must,  however,  be 
employed  with  great  care,  the  quantity  being  found  by  trial  for  determined 
mixtures  of  ore,  and  upon  this  depends  its  success.  Roughly  speaking,  ^ 
ounce  per  100  lbs.  of  pulp  wiU  be  sufficient,  more  would  destroy  the 
mercury. 

Having  decided  upon  the  additional  quantity  of  sulphate  of  copper 
that  can  be  added  on  this  the  second  day,  and  having  trodden  it  into  the 
pulp  thoroughly,  the  hyposulphite  of  soda  may  be  added  and  trodden  < 
in  the  same  way,  and  immediately  afterwards  the  mercury  should  be 
sprinkled  over  the  cake  and  trodden  in,  in  such  proportion  as  to  take  up 
by  amalgamation  two-thirds  of  the  assay  value,  or  4  ounces  of  mercury 
per  ounce  of  silver  present. 

The  following  or  second  day  after  incorporating  the  mercury,  treadii^ 
with  horses,  spading  over,  and  taking  assays  will  be  all  that  is  needed, 
unless  it  is  found  that  a  guide  of  25  lbs.  can  stand  an  addition  of  sulphate 
of  copper.  This  should  not  be  necessary  if  the  quantity  be  properly 
determined  before  adding  the  hyposulphite.  More  than  half  the  mercury 
will  be  converted  into  amalgam  by  the  evening. 

The  following  or  third  day  after  incorporating,  the  same  work  is 
required,  paying  more  attention  to  the  assays,  and  if  necessary  adding 
more  sulphate  of  copper,  and  by  evening  more  than  three-quarters  of  the 
mercury  will  be  taken  up. 

The  fourth  day,  the  treading,  etc.,  go  on,  and  by  evening  the  mercury 
should  all  be  converted  into  silver  amalgam,  and  should  be  bright  and 
dry,  and  free  from  a  straw-colour  that  indicates  loss.  The  next  morning 
the  bafio  or  bath  is  added,  consisting  of  1 J  ounces  of  mercury  per  ounce 
of  silver  in  the  cake,  which  collects  the  fine  amalgam. 

This  has  to  be  done  quickly,  and  the  washing  of  the  pulp  follows 
immediately.  The  amalgam  is  collected,  pressed,  retorted,  and  the  bullion 
in  due  course  melted  down. 

This  treatment  extracts  that  portion  of  the  silver  which  cannot  be 
concentrated,  and  it  is  found  easy  to  concentrate  the  remainder  on 
vanners,  or  other  machines,  obtaining,  if  necessary,  two  grades,  the  first 
assaying  1,500  ounces  or  over  per  ton,  and  the  second  40  to  60  ounces. 
The  waste  is  then  too  poor  to  treat  further. 

These  trials  were  made  with  an  average  temperature  of  70  degs.  Fahr. 
in  the  shade. 


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PROCESSES  OF  ORB  TREATMENT.  301 

The  loss  of  mercury,  including  the  consumido  and  mechanical  loss 
is  said  to  be  about  18  ounces  for  every  16  ounces  of  silver,  as  compared 
with  22  to  24  ounces  lost  in  the  ordinary  patio.  The  gold  is  collected, 
if  present,  partly  in  the  amalgam  and  partly  in  the  high-grade  concen- 
trates. The  cost  of  working  a  ton  of  ore  assaying  50  dollars  is  estimated 
at  £1  5s.  lOd.,  extracting  85  per  cent,  of  the  silver. 

The  Fondo  and  Tina  Processes. 

In  South  America,  the  patio  process  seems  to  have  been  used  up  to 
about  1830,  when,  in  consequence  of  the  large  quantities  of  negros  or 
sulphide  ores,  which  began  to  be  found  there,  *  it  was  superseded  by  the 
fondo  or  calderon  method,  with  variations  known  as  the  tina,  Francke- 
tina,  etc.*  The  original  fondo  process  was  invented,  it  is  believed,  in 
Chili,  in  the  year  1609,  by  a  priest,  Albaro  Alonzo  Barba,t  and  was  used 
for  rich  surface-ores,  chlorides,  bromides,  and  oxides,  which,  if  not  rich 
enough,  required  to  be  concentrated  in  the  planilla,  but  it  was  on  the 
whole  a  very  slow  process. 

The  tina  process  in  a  modified  form}  is  applicable  to  all  ores  of 
silver  except  argentiferous  sulphides  of  copper,  galena,  or  blende,  and  to 
ores  which  contain  more  than  1  per  cent,  of  free  arsenic,  which  causes 
great  losses  of  mercury.  The  inventor  is  not  known,  but  it  has  been  in 
constant  use  about  Copiapo  since  1862. 

Prof.  Egleston  §  says  of  it : — "  The  whole  operation  is  very  simple, 
quicker  with  much  less  loss  than  the  barrel,  more  certain  in  its  reactions 
than  the  patio,  and  is  applicable  to  almost  all  the  ores  found  in  Chili.  It 
is  even  cheaper  under  some  circumstances  than  the  lead-fusion." 

The  cost  of  treating  a  ton  of  £8  6s.  8d.  ore,  not  including  interest 
on  sinking  fund,  working  8  tons  a  day,  is  about  £1  8s.  T^d. 

The  process  now  used  in  Bolivia,  a  modification  of  the  tina  and  fondo 
processes,  seems  to  be  an  advance  on  the  former  methods,  as  it  includes 
many  of  the  best  points  of  the  tina  and  pan  processes,  and  may  be  used 
for  base  as  well  as  docile  ores  of  a  great  variety  of  yield. 

It  is  closely  related  to  the  Francke-tina  method,  which  has  been 
described  by  Mr.  Edgar  P.  Rathbone  ||  and  Mr.  Arthur  F.  VVendt.  T 

Mr.  Wendt  says  of  the  Bolivian  method,  "  That  large  losses  of  silver 
were  experienced  through  volatilization  when  the  ore  was  roasted  with 

•  Egleston,  Metallurgy  of  Silver ^  page  312. 

t  Percy,  Metallurgy  of  Gold  and  Silver ,  part  I.,  page  656. 

J  B&tme  Universelle  des  MimJt^  series  1,  vol.  xzxi.,  page  493. 

§  Metallurgy  of  Silver^  page  323. 

II  Proo,  Inst,  Mech,  Eng.,  1884,  page  257. 

^  Trans,  Am,  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  vol.  xix»,  page  74. 


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802  PBOCESSES  OF  QBE  TBEATMENT. 

salt  in  revolving  mechanical  fdrnaoes,  and  these  conld  only  be  obviated 
by  an  oxidizing  roasting  in  reverberatories  (following  lump  roasting  in 
kilns),  adding  the  salt  after  complete  oxidation  has  taken  place.*' 

The  extraction  remains  practically  the  same,  whether  the  chloridiza- 
tion  of  the  ores  is  20  or  90  per  cent.  This  is  so  entirely  different  from 
the  generally  conceived  notion  of  silver-milling  in  the  United  States  that 
too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  laid  on  this  point. 

AU  classes  of  ores  can  be  worked  by  the  process,  not  even  excepting 
galena,  although  the  extraction,  with  the  latter  and  when  blende  is 
present,  is  of  course  reduced.  The  bullion  obtained  is  generally  '900  fine 
or  over,  alloyed  principally  with  copper.  Treating  crude  ore  which 
carries  75  to  80  ozs.  the  tailings  average  about  10  ozs. 

The  use  of  bluestone  in  pan-amalgamation  with  the  object  of  produc- 
ing a  sub-chloride  of  copper,  which  is  an  active  agent  in  the  pan  process, 
has  been  commented  upon  before,  but  when  an  iron  pan  is  used  this  sub- 
chloride  is  being  constantly  destroyed.  When  a  copper  or  bronze  vessel, 
however  (like  the  tina),  is  used,  the  sub-chloride  is,  on  the  other  hand, 
being  constantly  regenerate i,  and  this  is  the  essential  difference  between 
the  two  methods,  although  of  course  the  same  results  ciu  b3  obtained  at 
the  expense  of  extra  bluestone  in  the  pan  in  dealing  with  base  ores. 

The  choice  between  the  tina  and  the  iron  pan  process  must,  therefore, 
Mr.  Wendt  thinks,  depend  on  the  relative  price  of  sulphate  of  copper  and 
iron-castings  as  compared  with  copper,  to  which  must  be  added  the  extra 
refining  charges,  carriage,  etc.,  on  more  or  less  coppery  bullion. 

The  cost  at  the  Real  Ingenio  Potosi  is  stated  to  be  90  Bolivians  (£4 
18s.  9d.)  per  cajon  of  5,000  lbs.,  or  about  £1  17s.  6d.  per  ton,  treating 
8  tons  per  day,  but  this  is,  of  course,  no  criterion  of  what  could  be  done 
with  cheaper  freight  and  better  labour  in  works  of  large  capacity. 

The  process  gives  an  extraction  of  80  to  85  per  cent,  in  Bolivia,  and 
probably  on  rich  chloride  ores  like  those  of  Caracoles  (worked  by  the 
Kroehnke  process)  it  would  yield  returns  running  up  to  92  to  96  per  cent., 
as  the  extraction  on  roasted  ores  averages  90  per  cent. 

The  Leaching  or  Lixiviation  Process. 

This  process  consists  in  first  roasting  the  ore  with  salt  to  convert  the 
silver  into  chloride,  then  dissolving  the  chloride  of  silver  in  a  solution  of 
hyposulphite  of  soda  and  precipitating  it  with  sulphide  of  lime  or  soda 
(as  a  sulphide  of  silver)  and  refining  this  latter  product.  The  Russel 
process  is  a  modification  of  this,  consisting  in  the  use  of  what  is  known 


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PROCESSES  OF  OBB  TBEATMElTr.  303 

as  extra  solation  (prepared  by  adding  a  certain  percentage  of  sulphate  of 
copper  to  the  ordinary  hyposulphite  solution)  after  the  ordinary  solution 
has  extracted  all  the  silver  it  will  take  out. 

Lower  cost  of  plant  and  in  some  cases  less  expense  in  treatment  are 
advantages  which  are  claimed  for  leaching  treatment,  but  against  these 
must  be  set  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  men  with  practical  experience  and 
chemical  knowledge  necessary  to  conduct  the  process,  and  the  fact  that 
the  reactions  involved  are  often  obscure,  and  sudden  disturbances  in 
working,  may  be  introduced  by  changes  in  the  character  of  the  ore. 

Since  lixiviation  was  introduced  into  Mexico  by  Mr.  Ottokar  Hof  mann, 
in  1868,  it  has  become  extensively  used,  and  has  risen  to  a  position  of 
importance  in  some  parts  of  America  for  the  treatment  of  refractory 
silver  ores.  AH  silver  ores  are  capable  of  being  treated  by  it  with  a 
certain  amount  of  success,  except  those  which  contain  so  much  lead  that 
they  are  classed  as  smelting  ore,  or  which  on  account  of  a  clayey-calcareous 
or  talcose  gangue,  do  not  permit  of  free  filtration.  This  latter  objection 
can,  however,  be  overcome,  if  other  circumstances  admit  of  it,  by  a  previous 
slight  concentration.  The  ore  must  first  be  pulverized  to  fit  it  for  the 
process,  and  though  this  is  purely  a  mechanical  operation  it  does  not 
follow  that  the  machine  which  will  crush  the  largest  amount  of  ore  at  the 
least  cost  is  necessarily  the  best  to  select.  One  has  to  consider  as  well  in 
this  connexion,  the  physical  condition  in  which  the  ore  leaves  the 
machine,  as  on  this  depends  to  a  great  extent  a  most  important  part  of  the 
process — ^the  roasting.  Ores  which  contain  a  considerable  amount  of 
argentiferous  galena  or  zinc-blende  require  to  be  pulverized  very  fine  in 
order  to  ensure  a  satisfactory  chlorination,  while  a  coarser  pyritic-pulp 
(whether  consisting  of  iron  or  copper  pyrites)  will  chloridize  well.  In 
selecting  machinery  for  the  purpose  attention  must  therefore  be  paid  (as 
in  every  other  process)  to  the  nature  of  the  ore. 

The  choice  of  crushing  machinery,  for  an  ore  requiring  leaching,  lies 
mainly  between  rolls  and  stamps.  The  former  produce  a  much  more 
uniform  grain  than  the  latter  (the  ore  and  gangue-particles  being  of 
more  even  size),  which  is  of  distinct  advantage  for  concentration,  but 
may  be  the  exact  opposite  for  roasting.  The  most  suitable  condition  of 
the  pulp  for  roasting  in  dealing  with  ore  of  the  kind  described,  is,  in 
fact,  a  mixture  of  fine  ore-particles  in  a  coarse  gangue,  a  condition  of 
pulp  which  is  promoted  by  dry-crushing  with  stamps.  This  is  explained 
by  the  fact  that  the  ore,  as  a  rule,  having  a  higher  specific  gravity  than 
the  gangue  cannot  so  readily  escape  comminution  as  the  lighter  particles 
of  rock,  and  is  only  discharged  from  the  screen  when  reduced  to  a  condi- 


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804  PROCESSES  OF  OBE  TBEATME5T. 

tion  of  comparatively  fine  palp,  while  the  lighter  gangae  is  expelled  when 
much  coarser. 

BoasUnq. 

In  roasting,  the  ore  undergoes  a  chemical  decomposition,  and  this 
can  frequently  be  better  accomplished  if  the  ore-particles  are  of  fine  size. 
The  fine  condition  of  the  pnlp  does  not  serionsly  interfere  with  the 
subsequent  lixiviation,  because  most  ore  after  a  chloridizing-roasting 
(chlorination)  becomes  sandy,  and  will  filter  freely  if  the  gangue  is  not  of 
a  clayey  nature.  In  order  to  convert  the  silver  into  chloride,  as  before 
mentioned,  the  ore  must  be  roasted  with  salt ;  and  to  roast  success- 
fully, a  sufficient  percentage  of  sulphides  must  be  present,  as  they 
produce  by  their  decomposition  sulphuric  acid  (which  acts  on  the  salt  and 
liberates  the  chlorine  necessary  for  the  formation  of  silver  chloride).  The 
base  metals  in  the  ore  are  converted  into  oxides,  chlorides,  and  sulphates. 
The  requisite  amount  of  salt  (depending  on  the  character  of  the  ore) 
varies  from  4  to  10  per  cent.  The  salt  is  either  added  to  the  ore  before 
it  enters  tho  furnace,  or  after  it  has  reached  a  certain  stage  of  oxidizing- 
roasting.  The  selection  of  the  proper  roasting-furnace  to  employ  is  a 
matter  of  great  importance :  this  was  proved  by  Mr.  Hofmann  in  Mexico, 
in  experiments  made  on  the  San  Francisco  del  Oro  ore,  in  1888. 

It  is  to  be  remarked  in  favour  of  the  Stetefeldt  roasting  furnace  that 
it  requires  less  salt  than  any  other  for  chloridizing-roasting  sOver  ores :  the 
decomposition  of  the  salt  is  very  perfect,  the  chlorine  and  chlohdizing 
gases  emanating  from  the  roasted  ore  at  the  bottom  of  the  shaft,  acting 
on  the  falling  ore.  Ores  which  are  free  from  lime  and  magnesia,  can  be 
chloridized  in  this  furnace  with  a  minimum  of  salt,  and  it  seems  to  be 
specially  adapted  to  roasting  ores  containing  copper.  Mr.  Aaron  states 
that  at  the  Surprise  Valley  mill,  California,  an  average  chlorination  of  92 
to  98  per  cent,  was  obtained  during  a  nine  months*  run,  roasting  silver  ores 
of  £15  12s.  6d.  assay  value,  with  only  2^  to  3  per  cent,  of  salt.  Generally, 
5  to  8  per  cent,  of  salt  is  required  in  the  Stetefeldt  furnace,  if  the  ore 
carries  lime  and  magnesia  or  a  larger  percentage  of  base  sulphides.  The 
chlorination  varies  with  the  character  of  the  ore,  and  the  attention  with 
which  the  furnace  is  managed;  results  as  h^h  as  97  per  cent,  have 
been  obtained,  while  they  generally  range  from  87  to  93  per  cent.  Ores 
free  from  sulphur,  or  with  only  a  slight  percentage,  should  be  mixed 
with  1  or  2  per  cent,  of  iron  pyrites,  otherwise  the  salt  cannot  be  decom- 
posed. Oxidized  ores  carrying  peroxides  of  manganese  and  iron,  which 
give  off  oxygen,  can  be  successfully  chloridized  by  themselves.  The  best 
results  are  obtained  by  mixing  oxidized  with  sulphide  ores,  more  parti- 


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PR0CB88ES  OP  ORB  TREATMENT.  806 

cularly  if  the  former  contain  peroxide  of  manganese.  The  presence  of 
copper  is  very  favourable  for  the  chlorination  of  the  silver,  and  if  the  ore 
is  of  such  a  character  that  it  will  bear  a  high  heat  without  sintering,  the 
chloride  of  copper  formed  in  the  upper  part  of  the  shaft  can  be  almost 
entirely  decomposed,  and  very  fine  bullion  produced  by  amalgamation. 
At  the  Surprise  Valley  mill,  for  example,  the  ore  roasted  at  a  low  tem- 
perature gave  bullion  only  300  to  400  fine  by  amalgamation,  the  base 
metal  being  copper.  By  roasting  at  a  high  temperature  the  bullion  was 
almost  freed  from  copper,  its  average  fineness  being  980,  mtining  for  nine 
months.  All  antimonial  ores  are  chloridized  with  great  facility,  and 
with  a  good  system  of  dust-chambers,  the  loss  of  silver  by  roasting  is 
hardly  perceptible.  The  same  is  the  case  with  zinc-blende.  In  roasting 
ores  entirely  free  from,  or  with  a  small  percentage  of,  sulphides,  the 
want  of  sulphuric  acid  must,  as  before  remarked,  be  remedied  by  adding 
another  substance.  A  cheap  substitute  for  pyrites  is  found  in  green 
vitriol  (sulphate  of  iron)  of  which  1^  to  8  per  cent,  is  added  when  8  to  10 
per  cent,  of  salt  is  used.  The  copper  is  first  calcined  to  drive  off  its  water 
of  crystallization  by  a  gentle  heat,  and  the  above  percentage  of  the  calcined 
material  is  taken.  The  sulphate  then  acts  on  the  salt  as  if  it  were  created 
in  roasting ;  copperas  may  also  be  added  to  arsenical  ores  free  from 
sulphurets.  If  there  is  a  great  deal  of  lime  in  the  ore,  it  takes  up 
sulphuric  acid,  forming  sulphate  of  lime,  which  remains  undecomposed  ; 
ores  containing  lime  require,  therefore,  a  larger  proportion  of  copperas  or 
iron  pyrites,  sufficient  to  transform  all  the  Ume  into  sulphate.  At  the 
same  time,  lime  assists  in  decomposing  the  base  metal  chlorides  in  roast- 
ing (5  to  6  per  cent,  being  sometimes  added  to  base  ores  in  a  pulverized 
condition),  whilst  it  does  not  attack  the  silver  chloride ;  but  too  much 
must  not  l)e  added  if  the  ore  is  to  be  amalgamated  afterwards.  The  lime 
should  be  added  towards  the  end  of  the  roasting,  introducing  2  per  cent. 
to  commence  with,  and  well  mixing  it  with  the  ore. 

Usually,  ores  containing  not  more  than  8  per  cent,  of  sulphur  roast 
well  in  the  Stetefeldt  furnace,  but  in  operating  on  the  San  Francisco  del 
01*0  ore  the  results  turned  out  unsatisfactory.  This  ore  contained  26'5 
per  cent,  of  zinc,  11*56  per  cent,  of  lead,  and  21  per  cent,  of  sulphur,  and 
proved  too  refractory  for  the  Stetefeldt  process.  The  ore  (when  sifted  into 
the  furnace)  created  by  the  sudden  combustion  of  the  sulphides  an  ex- 
tremely high  temperature  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  shaft,  which  caused 
the  suspended  ore-particles  to  slag  to  globules  (a  coating  of  silicates  being 
formed  immediately  around  them),  which  prevented  their  further  oxidation 
and  chlorination.   An  analysis  showed  that  8'48  per  cent,  of  the  sulphur,  in 

VOL.  v.-  160a-98.  20 


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806  PBOGESSER  OF  ORE  TBEA.TMENT. 

fact,  remained  unozidized.  It  was  found  also  that  a  separation  of  the  ore 
took  place  in  the  furnace,  the  shaft  receiving  the  portion  carrying  most  of 
the  lead,  while  the  lighter  portion,  containing  most  of  the  iron  pyrites,  was 
carried  over  into  the  descending-flue,  where,  owing  to  this  circumstance, 
combhied  with  the  high  temperature,  that  particular  portion  of  it  was  better 
chloridized  than  the  bulk  which  passed  through  the  shaft.  An  excess  of 
salt  lowered  the  chlorination,  and  12  per  cent,  was  found  to  give  the  best 
results  (60*8  per  cent,  chlorination)  in  the  descending-flue.  Another  bad 
feature  was  the  formation  of  lumps  and  crusts  in  the  upper  region  of  the 
shaft,  and  choked  the  lower  side  of  the  feeding-screen. 

An  ore  of  the  class  operated  upon  requires  to  be  submitted  to  a  long 
and  gradually  increasiug  temperature  before  the  salt  is  added  ;  and  as  the 
principle  of  the  Stetefeldt  furnace  is  just  the  reverse  of  this,  the  results 
could  not  but  be  unsatisfactory.  Heavily  sulphide  ores,  especially  if  they 
carry  zinc,  require  more  draught  in  roasting  than  lighter  sulphide  ores ; 
and  this  is  particularly  the  case  when  they  are  exposed  for  such  a  short 
time,  as  in  the  Stetefeldt  furnace,  to  the  action  of  air  and  heat.  Mr. 
Hofmann^s  experiments  in  roasting  the  ore  of  the  San  Francisco  del  Oro 
mine  in  a  Stetefeldt  furnace  go  to  show  : — 

1.  An  incomplete  oxidation  of  the  sulphide  minerals,  the  main 

portion  of  the  ore  stUl  containing  8*48  per  cent,  unoxidized 
sulphur  when  roasted  with  salt,  and  7*6  per  cent,  when  roasted 
without  salt. 

2.  An  insufficient  chlorination  of  the  silver.    The  highest  chlorina- 

tion of  the  ore  in  the  shaft  was  only  16*9  per  cent.,  and  as  62*5 
per  cent,  of  the  whole  volume  dropped  into  the  shaft,  the  some- 
what higher  results  obtained  in  the  descending-flue  could  not 
much  improve  the  average. 

3.  That  the  principle  of  the  Stetefeldt  furnace  is  contrary  to  the  con- 

ditions, the  maintenance  of  which  are  so  essential  to  roasting 
ores  containing  much  zinc  blende  and  galena. 

4.  That,  on  acount  of  the  sudden  exposure  of  the  raw  ore-particles 

to  such  a  high  temperature,  they  melt  to  minute  globules,  which 
make  the  ore  unfit  for  further  treatment. 

5.  That  a  concentration  of  the  lead  minerals  takes  place  in  the 

shaft,  which  is  disadvantageous. 

6.  That  about  25  per  cent,  of  the  ore,  when  passing  thi'ough  the 

furnace,  is  changed  into  hard  lumps  of  almost  raw  ore. 

7.  That  the  lower  side  of  the  feed-screen  becomes  rapidly  encrusted 

and  the  holes  obstructed,  requiring  frequent  changes  of  screens. 


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PROCESSES  OF  ORB  TREATMENT.  807 

The  ore  after  passing  through  the  shaft  of  the  famaoe  had  a  dark, 
abnost  black  coloar,  and  continued  to  emit  volnmes  of  snlphnrous  acid  gas 
when  discharged,  and  for  some  days  after,  but  no  chlorine.  Mr.  Hofmann 
next  tried  re-roasting  the  partly  roasted  ore  from  the  Stetefeldt  in  a 
modified  Howell  furnace.  Having  previously  ascertained  that  this  ore 
contained  only  1*3  per  cent,  of  salt,  6  to  8  per  cent,  more  was  added,  and 
the  feed  regulated  so  as  to  put  through  from  5  to  9  tons  per  24  hours. 
The  average  of  thirty-three  charges  worked  thus  gave : — average  of 
re-roasted  ore,  8 1*42  ounces  of  silver  per  ton ;  average  of  leach-tailings, 
17*55  ounces  per  ton  ;  average  of  chlorination,  44'2  per  cent. 

It  is  a  point  to  note  that  the  consumption  of  wood  in  re-roasting 
proved  to  be  much  greater  than  in  roasting  raw  ore.  This  is  accounted 
for  by  the  main  portion  of  the  sulphur,  combined  with  the  pyrites,  having 
been  burnt  oflf  in  the  Stetefeldt  furnace.  During  the  second  roasting,  the 
furnace  was  deprived  of  the  heat  of  combustion  derived  from  this  source, 
so  that  additional  extraneous  artificial  heat  had  to  be  furnished.  To 
re-roast  in  this  manner  8'8  tons,  it  took  26  cargas  of  wood  (12  cargas 
=  1  cord),  while  it  took  only  16  cargas  to  roast  10  to  11  tons  of  raw 
ore.  The  roasting  capacity  of  the  furnace  was  also  diminished.  By 
dumping  the  red-hot  ore  from  the  Stetefeldt  direct  into  a  reverberatory 
hearth,  the  extra  consumption  of  wood  during  the  finishing  roasting  could 
doubtless  have  been  materially  lessened ;  but  what  made  this  plan  imprac- 
ticable was  the  change  the  ore  underwent  in  passing  through  the  Stetefeldt 
furnace,  which  interfered  with  attempts  to  obtain  a  high  chlorination 
result  afterwards. 

The  re-roasted  ore  was  of  a  red-brown  colour,  smelled  of  chlorine  and 
did  not  emit  any  sulphurous  acid  gas,  but  it  still  consisted  principally  of 
the  little  globules,  of  which  mention  has  been  made,  quite  a  large  number 
of  which  remained  black,  no  matter  how  long  the  ore  was  kept  in  the 
furnace.  Some  were  magnetic,  but  the  majority  were  not.  Between  the 
fingers,  the  re-roasted  pulp  felt  sharp,  like  powdered  glass.  The  tempera- 
ture was  kept  at  a  proper  degree,  and  there  was  an  abundant  draught,  the 
dust-chambers  and  furnace  having  been  previously  cleared.  Still  it  was 
impossible  to  obtain  more  than  44*2  per  cent,  of  chlorination,  owing 
undoubtedly  to  the  silicates  formed  during  the  roasting  in  the  Stetefeldt 
furnace.  A  jet  of  steam*  introduced  into  the  reverberatory  hearth 
attached  to  the  modified  Howell  furnace  considerably  improved  the 
results,  but  still  did  not  give  sufficient  satisfaction. 

*  The  introduction  of  steam  through  the  bridge  of  the  furnace  generally  increases 
the  fuel  consumption. 


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308  PBOCB88BS  OF  OBB  TBEATXElTr. 

The  average  of  thirteen  charges  showed: — average  of  re-roasted  ore, 
81-0  ounces  per  ton ;  average  of  leach-tailings,  10'37  oonces  per  ton ;  aver- 
age of  chlorination,  66*6  per  cent.  The  ore  still  contained  a  considerable 
number  of  globules,  but  they  had  changed  their  colour  to  red-brown,  and 
between  the  fingers  the  ore  felt  soft  and  not  so  sharp  and  glassy  as  when 
roasted  without  steam.  The  Howell  furnace  alluded  to  above  was  not  a 
regular  Howell,  but  consisted  of  a  revolving  cylinder  of  uniform  diameter 
with  a  shell  of  boiler-plate  lined  with  bricks  throughout  its  length  (the 
principle  on  which  it  works  is  identical,  however,  with  the  Howell  furnace), 
and  had  a  reverberatory  hearth  in  front,  attached  at  the  end. 

The  Howell,  like  the  Stetefeldt  furnace,  requires  the  salt  to  be  mixed 
with  the  ore  before  entering  the  furnace.  With  some  ores  this  is 
immaterial,  but  it  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  importance  for  the  del  Oro 
ore.  If  the  salt  is  previously  added  the  ore  becomes  sticky,  encrusts  the 
furnace  rapidly,  and  leaves  the  furnace  mostly  in  lumps  imperfectly 
chloridized.  If  the  ore  is  charged  without  salt  it  remains  dry  and  sandy, 
but  a  very  annoying  separation  takes  place.  The  fine  particles  are  carried 
by  the  draught  into  the  dust  chambers,  and  only  the  coarse  sand  passes 
through  the  furnace  without  being  sufficiently  desulphidized.  If,  then, 
salt  be  added  in  the  drop-pit,  only  a  small  percentage  of  silver  becomes 
chloridized.  The  best  results  gave  only  29  per  cent,  of  chlorination.  In 
order  to  diminish  the  separation,  2  per  cent,  of  salt  was  added  to  the  ore 
in  the  battery.  This  small  percentage  of  salt  made  the  ore  sticky  enough 
to  diminish  considerably  the  dusting,  without  causing  the  formation  of 
lumps  or  too  heavy  encrustations. 

By  this  method,  the  chlorination  improved  considerably,  the  average  of 
three  days'  run  being  67  per  cent.,  but  Mr.  Hofmann  convinced  himself 
notwithstanding,  that  the  Howell  furnace,  as  such,  could  not  roast  the  del 
Oro  ore.  The  results  were  not  suflSciently  uniform  and  reliable ;  and 
though  the  roasted  ore  was  left  in  a  good  condition,  the  average  could  not 
be  brought  above  67  per  cent.  An  alteration  being  apparently  required, 
which  would  give  the  ore  more  roasting  time  and  allow  of  a  better  regula- 
tion of  the  temperature,  Mr.  Hofmann  made  the  following  changes.  In 
front  of  the  furnace,  he  constnicted  a  shallow  drop-pit  and  a  fireplace,  and 
on  one  side  of  the  drop-pit,  communicating  with  it,  he  built  a  small  rever- 
beratory hearth,  6  feet  by  8  feet,  the  bottom  of  both  being  on  the  same  level. 

The  reverberatory  hearth  contained  one  working-door  and  a  24  inches 
fireplace.  When  enough  ore  had  accumulated  in  the  pit  to  make  a  charge 
for  the  reverberatory  hearth,  it  was  pushed  in  with  a  hoe,  each  charge 
consisting  of  about  1,400  lbs.     When  starting  the  furnace,  a  strong  fire 


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PBO0ESSB8  OF  ORE  TREATMENT.  309 

was  kept  up  in  both  fireplaces,  bnt  after  the  process  was  in  operation  the 
fire  in  front  of  the  cylinder  was  much  lowered ;  in  fact  so  much  so,  that 
half  the  grate  bars  remained  bare  of  wood.  Only  now  and  then  a  thin 
stick  of  wood  was  added,  just  enough  to  prevent  the  drop-pit  getting 
chilled.    Two  per  cent,  of  salt  was  added  to  the  ore  in  the  battery. 

If  the  roasting  be  properly  conducted,  the  blue  flame  of  the  ignited 
pyrites  can  be  observed  in  the  back  part  of  the  cylinder.  Next  to  it,  and 
reaching  beyond  the  middle  of  the  cylinder,  the  ore  assumes  a  higher 
temperature,  forming  a  belt  of  bright  red  heat.  The  part  of  the  furnace 
next  the  fire  (nearly  one-third  of  the  whole  length)  should  look  dark,  The 
furnace  is  mostly  heated  by  the  combustion  of  the  sulphides,  and  receives 
but  little  supply  from  the  fireplace  and  reverberatory  hearth ;  in  fact  the 
ore  in  the  cylinder  should  be  left  as  much  as  possible  to  roast  in  its  own 
heat.  This  is  a  very  important  condition  to  maintain,  the  object  being  to 
convert  as  much  as  possible  of  the  galena  and  zinc-blende  into  sulphates 
and  oxides  before  generating  chlorine,  and  to  avoid  until  then  as  much 
as  possible  the  decomposition  of  the  iron-salts.  This  can  only  be  done 
by  maintaining  a  low  heat  after  the  combustion  of  the  pyrites. 

An  excess  of  heat  is  invariably  connected  with  an  excessive  loss  of 
silver  by  volatilization  and  by  a  low  chlorination.  Galena  and  zinc-blende 
roast  quicker  and  better  in  a  low  than  a  high  temperature.  When  the 
ore  leaves  the  cylinder  and  drops  into  the  pit,  it  should  be  of  a  dull  red 
heat,  while  the  colour  after  cooling  should  be  dark  yellow-brown.  If 
the  temperature  be  so  kept,  neither  the  odour  of  chlorine  nor  much  of 
sulphurous  acid  can  be  detected.  At  an  increased  heat,  sulphurous  acid 
is  again  evolved  strongly,  showing  that  the  oxidation  is  not  yet  completed. 
As  the  temperature  in  the  cylinder  is  mostly  produced  by  the  combustion 
of  the  sulphides,  the  chief  means  of  regulating  the  same  is  the  feed.  If 
too  much  ore  enters  the  furnace,  the  belt  of  bright  red  heat  increases, 
advancing  more  and  more  towards  the  front,  and  finally  the  whole 
furnace  assumes  this  temperature.  The  ore  dropping  into  the  pit  is  very 
hot,  emits  heavy  fumes  and  overheats  the  pit.  If  it  be  then  removed  into 
the  reverberatory  hearth,  it  takes  a  very  long  time  to  finish,  necessitating 
an  interruption  in  the  feed  of  the  cylinder. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  insufficient  ore  be  charged,  the  belt  of  bright  red 
heat  gets  smaller  and  moves  towards  the  back  end  of  the  furnace.  When 
the  properly-prepared  ore  enters  the  reverberatory  hearth,  the  salt  is  added 
and  the  temperature  increased.  It  commences  to  fume,  and  swells  without 
forming  more  lumps  than  an  ordinary  ore.  In  the  b^inning,  strong 
fumes  of  sulphurous  acid  are  emitted,  but  soon  cease  and  chlorine  appears. 


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310 


PROCESSES  OF  ORE  TREATMENT. 


The  charge  is  finished  if  the  fumes  assame  a  mild  and  sweetish  smell 
of  chlorine ;  as  long  as  they  smell  strong,  roasting  must  be  continued. 

Mr.  Hofmann  made  a  series  of  experiments  to  ascertain  the  smallest 
amount  of  salt  practicable,  and  found  that  4,  6,  8,  and  10  per  cent,  gave 
about  equal  results ;  12  per  cent,  commenced  to  make  the  ore  too  sticky 
and  produces  less  chlorination;  3  per  cent,  was  sufficient  if  the  i*oasting  were 
very  carefully  conducted,  but  then  only  1  per  cent,  had  to  be  added  in  the 
battery  and  2  per  cent,  in  the  furnace ;  4  per  cent.,  however,  was  safer,  for 
then  the  result  did  not  depend  so  much  on  the  skill  and  goodwill  of  the 
labourers.  The  roasting  capacity  of  the  furnace  proved  much  less  for 
the  del  Oro  than  for  ordinary  ore.  The  cylinder  was  only  24  feet  long, 
which  could  not  roast  more  than  8 J  tons  per  24  hours ;  but  even  with  a 
82  feet  cylinder,  Mr.  Hofmann  states  he  did  not  expect  to  roast  more 
than  12  tons  per  day. 

Each  charge  had  to  remain  2  hours  on  the  reverberatory  hearth. 
Though  the  ore  was  roasted  in  the  reverberatory  hearth  at  a  somewhat 
increased  heat,  it  could  not  be  raised  beyond  duU  red  without  losing  too 
much  silver  by  volatilization. 

If  the  silver-bearing  minerals  of  an  ore  be  not  of  great  density  and 
decrepitate  in  the  heat,  the  ore  can  be  crushed  coarse  without  endangering 
the  subsequent  roasting,  but  if  the  principal  silver-bearing  mineral,  like 
the  zinc-blende  in  the  del  Oro  ore,  be  of  great  density  and  does  not 
decrepitate,  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  crush  fine. 

A  series  of  experiments  was  made  by  Mr.  Hofmann  with  ore  crushed 
through  No.  20  and  No.  40  screens.  He  found  that  the  ore  crushed 
through  No.  20,  required  a  much  longer  time  and  was  27  per  cent,  less 
chloridized  than  the  ore  crushed  through  No.  40  screen.  The  material 
which  passes  through  a  battery-screen  of  a  certain  number,  is  much  finer 
than  the  size  of  the  meshes.  Heavy  ore  makes  a  much  finer  pulp 
through  the  same  screen  than  lighter  ore.  The  pulp  of  the  del  Oro  ore 
obtained  by  crushing  through  battery-screens  Nos.  20  and  40,  when 
sieved  through  sieves  of  different  fineness,  showed  the  following 
results: — 


Battery  Pulp 

when  Hifted 

through  Sieve. 

30 
40 
60 
60 
90 


Crushed  through 
Battery  Screen 

No.  ao.  Peroent- 
age  of  Material 

paifliug  through 
the  Sieve. 

93-8 
87-3 
78-8 
71-2 
671 


Crushed  throogh 
Battery  Screen 

No.  40.    Percent- 
age of  Material 

passfng  through 
the  8ieT& 

100 
100 

98-95 

93-80 

90-50 


Gnuhed  through 
Battery  Screen 
No.  29.    Percent- 
age of  Material 
remaining  on 
the  Sieve. 

6-2 
12-7 
21-2 
28-7 
32-9 


Oruflhed  through 
Battery  Screen 
No.  40.    Percent- 
age of  Material 
remaining  on 
the  Sieve. 

0-0 

0-0 

1-06 

6-20 

9-60 


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PROCESSES  OF  ORB  TREATMENT.  811 

These  figures  show  how  exceedingly  fine  a  heavy  ore  is  crushed  (dry)  in  a 
battery,  even  through  a  screen  with  comparatively  coarse  meshes.  Though 
67"  1  per  cent,  of  the  material  crushed  through  screen  No.  20  was  finer 
than  sieve  No.  90,  the  average  chlorination  of  quite  a  number  of  compara- 
tive roastings  was  27  per  cent,  less  than  that  of  ore  crushed  through  a 
No.  40  screen.    This  indicates  how  essential  it  is  to  crush  such  ores  fine. 

Mr.  Hofmann  found  that  in  order  to  chloridize  the  del  Oro  ore  well, 
it  had  to  be  crushed  through  a  No.  40  battery-screen,  which  furnished 
a  pulp  of  which  only  9^  per  cent,  was  coarser  than  sieve  No.  90.  To 
produce  such  a  fine  pulp  with  rolls,  would  require  such  exceedingly  fine 
screens  that  their  use  would  be  here  impracticable.  The  crushing  capacity 
of  the  battery  was  not  much  diminished  by  using  No.  40  screen  instead  of 
No.  20,  principally  because  the  ore  was  so  heavy. 

For  comparison,  Mr.  Hofmann  ran  5  stamps,  12  hours,  crushing 
through  No.  20,  and  5  stamps  through  No.  40,  and  found : — 

No.  Lbfl.  of  Pulp. 

20  with  salt  famished 8,100 

40  with  4  per  cent,  salt  furnished    ...        7,488 

Difference  in  fayour  of  No.  20  screen  612  Ibe.,  or  7^^  per  cent. 

A  very  small  reduction,  if  the  great  advantage  gained  for  roasting  is 
considered.  Some  ores  gain  much  in  chlorination  of  the  silver,  if  left  hot 
in  a  pile  for  several  hours;  this  is  mostly  the  case  when  an  ore  is 
insufficiently  roasted,  or  when  the  nature  of  an  ore  is  such  as  to  reqnire 
long  roasting  at  low  heat. 

Additional  chlorination  can  be  produced  by  moistening  the  ore  and 
leaving  it  for  several  hours  in  the  pile ;  this  is  usually  the  case  if  the  ore 
contains  copper.  Roasted  ore  containing  caustic  lime  should  not  be  left 
moist  on  the  cooling-floor,  hence  the  del  Oro  ore  could  not  be  wetted  on 
the  cooling-floor  without  decomposing  some  of  the  silver  chloride.  Mr. 
Hofmann  remarks  that  the  most  important  additional  chlorination  takes 
place,  however,  during  base-metal  leaching. 

In  the  Silver  King  ore,  Arizona,  this  additional  chlorination  amounted 
to  nearly  6  per  cent.  Mr.  Hofmann  therefore  filled  the  Vat  before  charging 
about  one-third  with  water  and  dumped  the  ore  hot  into  it,  thus  producing 
a  hot  base-metal  solution,  and  made  the  observation  that  by  it  not  only 
the  decomposition  of  the  silver  chloride  was  avoided,  but  that  a  considerable 
increase  in  the  silver  chlorination  took  place,  amounting  in  some 
instances  to  12*9  per  cent.  If  the  original  chlorination  was  75  per  cent, 
or  more  the  increase  was,  however,  much  less.  By  adding  some  oupric 
chloride  to  the  water  in  the  vat  before  dumping  in  the  ore,  badly  roasted 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


^12  PBOGESSBS  OF  ORE  TBEATMEin'. 

charges  gained  as  mnch  as  84  to  88  per  cent,  (see  charges,  Nos.  9,  15, 
and  16  in  annexed  table).  These  are  very  important  obeervations,  and 
give  the  operator  a  means  of  correcting  badly  roasted  charges. 

The  following  table  is  a  carefnl  record  of  the  •  results  obtained  in 
roasting  the  San  Francisco  del  Oro  ore  in  the  Howell  furnace  modified  by 
Mr.  Hofmann,  representing  a  two  weeks'  run.  As  each  tank-charge  con- 
tained the  whole  ore  of  24  hours'  roasting  it  offered  a  good  opportunity  of 
following  each  charge  through  the  process  from  the  condition  of  raw  ore 
to  tailings,  and  of  ascertaining  for  each  the  loss  by  volatilization,  etc. 

Taking  the  average  of  the  results  we  find  the  silver  chlorination  when 
the  ore  left  the  furnace  was  68*4  per  cent.;  the  additional  chlorination  was 
13'8  per  cent.;  or  a  total  of  81*7  per  cent.  The  low  average  chlorination 
of  the  ore  when  leaving  the  furnace,  was  caused  by  the  three  badly-roasted 
charges  9,  15,  and  16.  The  other  eleven  charges  gave  an  average  of 
about  75  per  cent. 

Mr.  Hofmann  remarks — "The  total  or  actual  chlorination  of  81*7  per 
cent,  may  seem  to  be  low,  but  if  we  consider  that  the  ore  is  of  low  grade, 
averaging  only  28*85  ounces  per  ton,  and  that  1  per  cent,  represents  only 
0'28  ounce  of  silver,  and  also  consider  that  the  ore  contains  about  87  per 
cent,  of  zinc-blende,  and  13  to  19  J  per  cent,  of  galena,  which  carry  all 
the  silver,  and  that  the  ore  was  pronounced  as  being  too  refractory  for 
chloridizing-roasting,  we  have  to  count  the  work  done  by  the  modified 
Howell  furnace,  as  very  satisfactory." 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  loss  of  silver  by  volatilization  we  have  first 
to  ascertain  the  loss  in  weight  which  the  ore  sustains  during  roasting. 
This  can  be  done  by  the  muffle  test  described  by  Mr.  Hofmann  in  The 
Enginemmj  and  Minimj  Journal^  New  York,  of  April  23rd,  1887.*  "Ten 
grammes  of  the  raw  pulp  containing  salt  are  placed  in  a  roasting  dish 
and  roasted  in  the  muffle  for  half  an  hour  or  an  hour,  then  the  sample 
is  removed  from  the  muffle,  allowed  to  cool,  weighed,  placed  back  in  the 
muffle,  and  roasted  again  for  half  an  hour,  then  weighed  again.  This  is 
repeated  till  two  weighings  are  alike,  or  till  in  the  last  half  hour  of 
roasting,  the  ore  does  not  lose  more  than  2  or  8  milligrames.  The  differ- 
ence between  the  original  weight  and  that  of  the  last  weight  expressed  in 
percentage  gives  the  highest  possible  loss  which  the  raw  ore  can  sustain." 

Ten  grammes  of  a  sample  of  roasted  ore  corresponding  with  the  sample 
of  raw  pulp  are  placed  in  a  roasting  dish,  and  also  roasted  in  the  muffle 
until  two  weighings  agree  or  differ  after  half  an  hour's  additional  roasting 
not  more  than  2  or  3  milligrammes.  The  difference  between  the  first 
weighing  and  the  last  (expressed  in  percentage)  gives  the  weight  which  the 

•  Page  293. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


PB00BSSE8  OF  ORE  TREATMENT. 


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Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


314  PROCESSES  OF  ORE  TREATMENT. 

roasted  ore  is  still  capable  of  losing  if  subjected  to  prolonged  roasting. 
If  we  dednct  this  last  loss  from  the  highest  possible  loss,  we  obtain  in  per- 
centage the  loss  in  weight  by  volatilization  which  the  ore  has  suffered 
during  roasting  in  the  furnace. 

Owing  to  a  great  part  of  the  lead  and  zinc  sulphides  being  converted 
into  sulphate,  the  San  Francisco  del  Oro  ores  lose  but  a  small  percentage 
of  their  weight  during  roasting.  The  tests  showed  a  loss  of  2^  to  3^  per 
cent.  With  these  figures  and  the  assay  value  of  the  raw  and  roasted  ore, 
the  loss  of  silver  by  volatilization  was  calculated.  The  extremes  were  1*7 
and  15*5  per  cent.,  and  the  table  illustrates  how  variable  this  loss  is. 
Mr.  Hofmann  says  he  found  the  del  Oro  ore  more  sensitively  disposed  for 
such  losses  than  many  others,  even  antimonial  ores.  The  least  increase  of 
temperature  above  dull  red  causes  a  heavy  loss,  even  if  this  increase  of 
temperature  lasts  only  for  a  very  short  time.  Two  or  three  thin  sticks  of 
wood  thrown  on  the  fire  before  they  are  needed  may  materially  increase 
the  loss.  The  loss  by  volatilization  is  not  in  direct  proportion  to  the 
percentage  of  chloridized  silver.  In  proof  of  this  Mr.  Hofmann  instances 
the  results  of  roasting  Las  Yedras  ore  at  high  and  low  temperatures  in 
Bruckner  furnaces : — 

High  temperature,  averages  of  31  consecutive  working-days,  January 
13th  to  February  12th,  1887. 


Funuuw  No.  3. 
Par  Cent. 

FaraaoeNo.  4. 
Per  Gent 

Arenwe  of  both 
FnrnnoeB. 
Percent. 

Chlorination 

71-3 

74-2 

72-7 

Loss  by  volatilization 

18-3 

17-6 

17-9 

Low  temperature,  averages  of  30  consecutive  days,  June  1st  to  July 
1st,  1887. 

Average  of  both 
Famaoe  No.  3.       FomMe  No.  4.  Fumaoee. 

Per  Gent.  Per  Oent.  Per  Cent. 

Chlorination 81*7        ...        81-8        ...        81*5 

Loe8  by  volatilization  ...  1-7        ...  0*7        ...  1*2 

By  comparing  these  average  results  we  find  an  increase  of     Per  oeDt 

chlorination,  in  favour  of  low  heat,  of  8*8 

A  decrease  of  loss  by  volatilization  caused  by  low  heat      ...        16*7 

Total  increase  of  production      25'6 

The  roasted  ore  contained  only  a  small  percentage  of  lumps,  not  hard, 
but  porous,  which  fall  to  powder  if  kept  in  contact  with  water  for  some 
time.  If  the  ore  be  left  dry  in  a  pile,  it  hardens.  If  left  undisturbed  for 
a  week  or  two,  it  becomes  so  hard  HbaJb  a  pick  is  necessary  to  loosen  it.  In 
water,  however,  it  softens  easily  again.    The  colour  is  usually  red-brown. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


PR00B8SES  OF  ORE  TREATKENT.  815 

bat  occasionallj,  if  the  ore  contain  less  iron  pyriteB,  it  is  yellow-brown. 
The  heavy  metals  in  the  Yedras  ore  are  principally  converted  into  snl- 
phates,  and  only  a  small  proportion  are  present  as  chlorides. 

The  following  is  an  analysis  of  the  unassorted  ore  after  roasting  with 
5  per  cent,  of  salt : — Gold,  traces  ;  silver,  0'09  per  cent. ;  lead,  9*00  per 
cent.;  iron,  6 '00  per  cent. ;  zinc,  22'46  per  cent. ;  caustic  lime,  5*65  per 
cent. ;  antimony,  075  per  cent. ;  copper,  0*60  per  cent. ;  cadmium,  0*10 
per  cent. ;  alumina,  3*09  per  cent. ;  caustic  soda,  3*79  per  cent. ;  sulphuric 
acid,  18'16  per  cent.;  chlorine,  0*88  per  cent.;  soluble  silica,  8*00  per 
cent. ;  and  insoluble  gangue,  18*61  per  cent. 

Mr.  Hofmann  mentions  an  easy  method  of  removing  crusts  from  con- 
tinuous discharging-furnaces,  which  can  be  done  while  the  furnace  is  in 
operation.  In  the  masonry  at  the  back  an  opening  is  made,  so  located 
that  with  a  long  iron  spade  the  interior  of  the  cylinder  can  be  reached 
just  below  the  feed-pipe.  Through  this  opening,  1^  dozen  firebricks  are 
introduced  while  the  cylinder  is  revolving,  and  in  moving  slowly  forward 
shove  off  the  crust  clean  down  to  the  lining.  The  crust  when  hot  is  soft 
and  yields  to  the  weight  of  the  moving  bricks.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
interrupt  the  feeding.  If  bricks  should  be  found  too  light,  heavier,  but 
not  too  large,  pieces  of  castings  may  answer. 

Owing  to  the  large  quantity  of  sulphides  in  the  ore  and  the  very 
low  temperature  at  which  the  del  Oro  has  to  be  roasted,  the  consump- 
tion of  wood  is  very  small.  After  the  furnace  is  heated  and  the  cylinder 
encrusted,  it  takes  hardly  any  fire  in  front  of  the  cylinder  to  maintain 
the  proper  temperature.  In  the  reverberatory  a  little  more  fire  is  needed, 
but  much  less  than  with  ordinary  ores.  Mr.  Hofmann  states  that  he 
weighed  the  wood  during  a  couple  of  weeks,  and  found  the  total  consump- 
tion during  this  period  to  be  220  cargas  (at  300  lbs.).  With  this 
quantity  of  wood  he  roasted  115'8  tons,  and  therefore  used  1*8  cargas  per 
ton.  12  cargas  of  Parral  wood  being  equal  to  1  cord;  if  we  express  the 
consumption  in  cords,  we  find  that  with  1  cord  of  wood  the  furnace 
roasted  6*3  tons  of  ore.  The  cost  of  roasting  in  the  modified  Howell 
furnace  (roasting  8^  tons  per  24  hours)  is  as  follows  : — 

DoUan. 

2  beacl  roasters  at  $1*50       3*00 

4  helpers  at  90  cents           3*60 

4  per  cent,  salt,  680  lbs.  at  1*27  cents      ...  8'63 

16*7  cargas  wood  at  75  cents            11*77 

Steam-power,  10  cargas  of  wood  at  75  cents  7*50 

Oil,  light,  tools,  etc 2*00 

Management,  oiEce,  mechanic,  assay  office  1*78 

Total         38*28 

And  the  cost  per  ton,  $4*50,  Mexican  currency. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


816  PROCESSES  OF  ORE  TKEATMENT. 

To  ascertain  the  cost  of  steam-power  a  separate  boiler  was  used  for  the 
furnace.  It  is  evident  that  by  using  a  boiler  for  only  one  small  furnace, 
the  expense  per  ton  of  ore  will  be  much  greater  than  if  with  the  same 
boiler  and  engine  several  large  furnaces  are  operated,  but  this  was  the 
only  way  of  getting  an  estimate. 

The  steam  for  working  the  pump  and  preparing  the  calcium  sulphide 
were  supplied  by  the  same  boiler  and  had  to  be  charged  to  roasting.  It  is 
included  in  the  above  statement,  and  wiU  therefore  not  appear  in  the 
statement  of  cost  of  Uxiviation. 

As  the  statement  of  cost  is  made  for  only  8^  tons  per  day,  it  would  be 
misleading  if  the  whole  expense  for  management,  mechanics,  assay  office, 
etc.,  were  charged  to  the  8^  tons,  as  these  expenses  would  remain  the  same 
for  100  tons  a  day — ^the  intended  capacity  of  the  new  mill.  The  proportion 
chargeable  on  8^  tons,  treating  100  tons  per  day,  has  therefore  been  debited 
to  this  item,  but  as  there  are  three  departments  in  the  mill,  viz.,  stamping, 
roasting,  and  leaching,  each  department  has  to  be  charged  with  one-third 
of  this  expense ;  1'78  dollars  represent  therefore  one-third  of  the  cost. 

The  figures  contained  in  the  preceding  table  are  the  results  of  experi- 
ments obtained  with  different  treatment  as  regards  salt,  temperature, 
time,  etc.,  and  the  averages  do  not  therefore  represent  the  best  obtainable 
results.  This  is  e^)ecially  the  case  in  regard  to  loss  by  volatilization, 
which  should  be  reduced  as  the  men  gain  experience  in  handling  the 
furnaces.  They  were  good  enough,  however,  to  secure  a  profitable 
reduction  of  the  ore,  and  may  be  accepted  as  a  basis  for  calculations  and 
estimates. 

In  order  to  increase  the  roasting  capacity  to  the  stamping  power  of  the 
mill  and  for  the  sake  of  further  experiments,  Mr.  Hofmann  erected  four 
double-hearth  reverberatory  furnaces  (the  lower  hearth  of  220  square  feet 
surface,  and  the  upper  of  210  square  feet  surface)  to  supplement  the 
modified  Howell  furnace. 

Bach  double  furnace  took  four  charges  of  1  ton  each ;  when  one  charge 
was  finished,  aU  the  others  were  moved  forward,  and  on  the  first  hearth 
a  new  charge  dropped  through  the  opening  in  the  arch.  From  the  second 
hearth  the  charge  was  dropped  on  the  lower  hearth,  through  an  opening  in 
the  bottom  near  the  working-door.  The  upper  hearth  was  exclusively 
used  for  oxidizing-roasting,  and  4  per  cent,  of  salt  was  added  while 
the  charge  was  dropped  on  to  the  lower  hearth.  Every  2^  to  8  hours  a 
charge  was  done,  and  therefore  each  double  furnace  roasted  from  8  to  10 
tons  per  day,  according  to  the  quantity  of  lead  the  ore  contained.  The 
chlorination  results  were  so  near  those  obtained  in  the  modified  Howell 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


PROCESSES  OF  ORE  TREATMENT.  817 

furnace  that  it  is  not  neceaaaty  to  give  details,  but  Mr.  Hofmann  records  the 
obeervations  he  made  on  a  charge  snbiaitted  to  a  prolonged  oxidizing- 
roasting.  They  are  too  long  to  be  given  here,  but  will  be  found  fully 
described  in  Th$  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal^  New  York,  of  February 
23rd,  1889.^ 

He  found  that  the  ore  during  oxidizing-roasting  sustained  a  loss  of 
silver  by  volatilization  of  not  less  than  13  per  cent,  (not  taking  into 
calculation  the  loss  in  weight),  and  that  this  loss  principally  occurred 
during  the  seventh  hour,  at  the  time  the  ore  assumed  a  dark  red-brown 
colour. 

Only  a  part  of  the  soluble  silver,  he  concludes,  was  present  as  sulphate, 
viz.,  25'2  per  cent.  Of  the  68"8  per  cent,  which  was  soluble,  33'6  per 
cent,  was  some  other  silver  salt,  not  soluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  sodium 
hyposulphite,  probably  silver  antimoniate. 

The  reverberatory  furnaces  were  built  in  pairs,  two  being  connected 
with  one  main  flue. 

During  four  weeks  the  wood  consumed  by  one  pair  of  these  furnaces 
was  weighed.  In  this  time  507  tons  of  ore  were  roasted  at  a  consumption 
of  672  cargas  of  wood,  or  1*8  cargas  per  ton.  If  expressed  in  cords, 
we  find  that  one  cord  of  wood  roasted  9  tons  of  ore,  an  extremely  small 
consumption. 

The  cost  of  roasting  in  the  reverberatory  furnace,  for  two  double- 
hearth  furnaces  roasting  18  tons  per  day,  was  as  follows  : — 

DoiUn. 

2  head  roasters  at  $1*50       300 

16  roasters  at  $100 16-00 

2  wood  carriers  and  ore  wheelers  at  90  cents  1*80 

2  carmen  for  raw  ore  chargers  at  90  cents  1*80 

23'4  cargas  of  wood  at  76  cents       17"55 

4  per  cent,  salt,  1,440  lbs.  at  |l-27            ...  1828 

Tools,  etc 4-00 

Management,  office,  mechanics,  assays     ...  3-77 


Total         G620 

And  the  cost  per  ton,  67  cent«,  Mexican  currency. 

To  form  an  opinion  as  to  which  roasting-furnace  is  the  most  suitable 
for  an  ore  like  the  San  Francisco  del  Oro,  we  have  to  take  into  considera- 
tion only  the  modified  Howell  and  the  reverberatory  furnaces.  The 
Stetefeldt  furnace  did  not  answer,  and  the  Bruckner  furnace  was  not 
tried,  as  experience  has  shown  that  a  large  Bruckner  furnace  could  not 
roast  more  than  5  or  6  tons  of  such  a  heavy  ore.    Both  the  modified 

•  Page  190. 


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818  PRO0B88BS  OP  ORB  TREATMENT. 

Howell  and  the  reverberatoiy  f nrnace  gave  abont  the  same  results,  and 
the  loss  by  volatilization  was  also  nearly  the  same.  The  cost,  however, 
was  different,  viz.,  4*50  dollars  per  ton  in  the  former,  and  3'67  dollars 
in  the  latter,  being  a  difference  in  favour  of  the  reverberatory  furnace  of 
83  cents  per  ton. 

This  ought  to  decide ;  still  there  are,  besides  the  merits  of  the  furnace, 
other  circumstances  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  The  reverberatory  fur- 
nace requires  quite  a  number  of  skilled  hands,  and  the  result  depends  much 
more  on  the  skill  and  goodwill  of  the  men,  than  with  the  modified  Howell. 
Mexicans  are,  as  a  rule,  if  properly  handled,  very  good  workmen,  notwith- 
standing that  they  receive  such  moderate  wages,  but  they  like  to  lay  off 
on  Sundays  and  feast  days.  On  such  days  quite  a  number  of  inexperienced 
substitutes  will  be  found  working  at  the  furnaces,  and  the  roastings 
consequently  suffer.  The  main  trouble,  however,  occurs  every  year  in 
spring  and  autumn,  the  time  of  planting  and  harvesting  com,  when  many 
leave  the  camp,  and  the  mill  is  left  short  of  hands.  For  this  reason  it 
may  be  more  advisable  in  a  large  mill  to  use  the  modified  Howell  furnace, 
notwithstanding  that  the  reverberatory  furnace  works  cheaper  and  creates 
much  less  flue-dust.  The  Howell  inmaoe  forms  a  great  deal  of  flue-dust, 
which  is  far  from  being  roasted  even  if  the  furnace  be  provided  with  an 
auxiliary  fireplace,  as  in  the  Howell- White  furnace. 

LiXIVIATION. 

Base-metal  Leaching, — The  roasted  ore  is  moistened  with  water  and 
charged  into  wooden  vats,  in  charges  of  10  to  15  tons,  though  much  larger 
charges  are  sometimes  worked.  The  vats  are  best  furnished  with  a  central 
discharge,  around  which  a  filter-bottom  is  arranged  in  the  shape  of  a  very 
flat  ftinnel.  The  filter-cloth  is  kept  in  place  by  ropes  driven  into  grooves 
around  the  discharge-hole  and  inner  periphery  of  the  tub,  near  the  filter- 
bottom.  The  vat  is  provided  with  an  outlet  under  the  filter,  and  has  a 
slight  inclination  towards  this  point. 

The  charge  of  roasted  ore  is  leached  with  water  to  remove  the  soluble 
base-metal  salts.  Water  does  not  dissolve  silver  chloride,  but  a  concen- 
trated solution  of  base-metal  chlorides  does,  and  it  is  therefore  advisable 
not  to  make  the  leaching- vats  too  deep,  as  otherwise  a  too  concentrated 
base-metal  solution  is  produced  by  the  water  in  descending  through  a 
thick  layer  of  ore.  The  base- metal  leaching  is  completed  when  a  few  drops 
of  calcium  polysulphide  poured  into  some  of  the  outflowing  solution  does 
not  produce  a  precipitate.  This  part  of  the  process,  according  to  the 
character  of  the  ore,  takes  4,  8,  or  10  hours. 


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PROOBSSBS  OF  ORE  TREATMENT.  819 

With  the  San  Francisco  del  Oro  ore,  which  filters  well,  the  rate  of 
filtration  dnring  base-metal  leaching  was  1  inch  in  6  minutes  or  10  inches 
per  hour.  With  a  vat  10  feet  2  inches  in  diameter,  representing  a 
filtering  surface  of  Sl'Ol  square  feet,  and  a  thickness  of  charge  of  2*41 
feet,  the  above  rate  was  equivalent  to  67*24  cubic  feet,  or  504*8  gallons 
per  hour ;  leaching  time,  8  hours  =  4,084*4  gallons ;  2  feet  of  water  in  the 
vat  into  which  the  ore  is  dumped  =  1,215-2  gallons  extra.  Second  wash- 
ing, rate  of  filtration,  8f  inches  per  hour ;  time,  ij  hours  =  647'1  gallons. 
Total  for  one  chaise  of  8*89  tons,  5,896*7  gallons,  or  708  gallons  for  each 
ton  of  ore.  It  has  been  mentioned  that,  on  account  of  the  roasted  ore  con- 
taining considerable  caustic  lime,  it  was  not  moistened  as  usual  on  the 
cooling-floor  but  dumped  dry  and  hot  into  about  2  feet  of  water  in  the  vat. 
Besides  other  advantages,  this  way  of  charging  shoi^tens  the  base-metal 
leaching  time  by  nearly  an  hour,  without  reducing  the  rate  of  filtration. 
When  the  charge  is  in,  the  water  ought  to  cover  the  ore  about  1  inch. 
Leaching  is  then  commenced  from  below,*  and  the  solution  diluted  above. 
As  soon  as  the  solution  lb  allowed  to  flow  out  below,  a  stream  of  clear 
water  has  to  be  turned  on  above  and  continued  for  about  an  hour,  in  order 
to  produce  a  greater  dilution.  Then  the  influx  is  interrupted  until  the 
water  sinks  to  the  level  of  the  ore,  when  water  is  again  allowed  to  flow  in. 
The  base-metal  solution  of  the  del  Oro  ore  shows  an  acid  reaction.  The 
leaching  with  water  is  continued  until  a  few  drops  of  calcium  sulphide 
added  to  the  solution  produces  only  faint  white  clouds.  These  white 
clouds  continue  to  show  for  hours,  and  are  caused  by  the  reaction  of 
calcium  sulphide  and  sodium  sulphate  precipitating  gypsum.  It  takes  a 
long  time  to  leach  alkaline  salts  contained  in  porous  substances,  thus  it 
happens  that  while  all  the  soluble  metal  salts  have  been  dissolved  and 
removed,  the  outflowing  solution  still  contains  and  continues  to  contain 
sodium  sulphate. 

Prom  a  chemical  standpoint,  it  would  be  advisable  to  continue  leaching 
with  water  till  all  the  sodium  sulphate  is  removed,  but  in  practice  this  would 
delay  the  process  too  much,  and  the  silver  leaching  is  therefore  commenced 
as  soon  as  all  the  heavy  metal  salts  ai-e  removed.  The  sodium  sulphate 
which  still  remains  in  the  ore  after  leaching  with  water,  enters  the  stock 
solution  during  the  subsequent  silver  leaching.  This  has  not  a  very 
injurious  effect  if  calcium  sulphide  is  used  as  a  precipitant,  because  sodium 
sulphate  is  decomposed  and  gypsum  precipitated. 

The  stock  solution  is  therefore  freed  from  sodium  sulphate  after  every 

•  This  is  done  to  precipitate  on  to,  and  through  the  ore  any  chloride  of  silver 
that  might  be  dissolved  by  a  too  concentrated  solution  of  the  base-metal  chlorides. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


Silver   ... 

0M)036 

Cwlminm 

0-806 

Zinc     ... 

2-105 

Iron 

0-008 

Copper... 

Trace 

820  PROCESSES  OF  ORB  TREATMENT. 

precipitation,  and  the  only  resulting  disadvantage  wiU  be  that  the 
precipitate  will  contain  more  gjpsnm.  But  if  sodium  sulphide  is  used  as 
a  precipitant,  the  effect  of  the  sodium  sulphate  is  very  injurious,  as  it 
remains  and  accumulates  in  the  stock  solution  and  soon  reduces  its 
dissolving  energy  for  silver  chloride,  rendering  a  iwt)longed  leaching  with 
water  necessary.  By  inserting,  in  the  outlet  of  the  vat,  a  small  rubber 
tube  (provided  at  the  end  with  a  glass  tube  drawn  to  a  fine  point),  and  by 
leaving  this  tube  in  the  outlet  during  the  whole  time  of  biise-metal 
leaching,  Mr.  Hofmann  obtained  from  the  outflowing  solution  a  very  fine 
stream  which,  collected  in  a  proper  vessel,  gave  a  true  sample  of  the 
solution  of  about  3  or  4  gallons.  This  sample  contained  in  1,000  cubic 
centimetres : — 

Grammes. 

Lea<l  — 

Sulphuric  acid       ...         18-708 

Chlorine      7-173 

Lime  0754 

Silvf^r  Learhifig. — The  base-metal  salts  being  removed,  a  stream  of 
diluted  solution  of  sodium  hyposulphite  is  allowed  to  enter  on  top  of  the 
ore,  which  readily  dissolves  the  silver  cliloride.  When  the  outflowing 
solution  shows  indications  of  silver,  the  strcam  is  conveyed  to  special 
precipitating-tanks,  in  which  the  silver  is  precipitated  as  silver  sulphide 
by  an  addition  of  calcium  polysulphide  or  some  other  reagent. 

To  ascertain  the  exact  time  when  the  hyposulphite  solution,  which 
follows  the  water,  commences  to  appear  at  che  outlet,  a  matter  of  import- 
ance, it  is  ordinarily  tested  with  calcium  polysulphide,  and  some  operators 
indulge  in  the  bad  habit  of  testing  it  with  the  tongue,  and  are  guided  by 
the  sweetish  taste  which  the  solution  has  if  it  contains  silver.  The  follow- 
ing test  is  much  superior,  and  is  very  sensitive  and  convenient : — A  small 
strip  of  starch  paper  is  dip]xjd  into  a  solution  of  iodine  and  then  held  in 
the  outflowing  stream.  If  the  blue  colour  disappeai-s  it  is  a  sign  that  the 
liquid  contains  a  hy|)osulphite  salt,  and  the  stream  must  be  turned  into 
the  precipitation- vats.  The  test  is  only  applicable,  however,  when  the 
base-metals  are  leached  with  cold  water,  as  hot  water  discolours  the  blue 
paper.  To  facilitate  and  hasten  the  settling  of  the  silver  precipitates,  the 
precipitation-tanks  are  provided  with  machine  stingers,  by  which  the 
solution  can  be  vigorously  agitated. 

After  precipitiitiou,  the  sodium  hyposulphite  solution  is  decanted 
after  the  precipitate  has  settled  in  tanks  pLaced  at  a  lower  level. 
From  these  tanks  the  clear  solution  is  pumped  up  to  storage-tanks  and 


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PROCESSBS  OF  ORB  TRBATMBNT.  821 

is  ready  to  be  used  again.  When  all  the  soluble  silver  is  extracted,  the 
solution  of  the  hyposulphite  is  allowed  to  run  out  till  it  disappears  under 
the  surface  of  the  ore,  when  clear  water  is  introduced  again  to  displace  all 
the  hyposulphite  solution ;  after  this  second  leaching  with  water,  the  tail- 
ings are  sluiced  out  through  the  central  discharge,  and  the  tank  is  ready 
for  another  charge  of  ore.  The  time  for  silver  leaching  varies  according 
to  the  character  of  the  ore  from  8  hours  to  2  or  8  days. 

In  the  ordinary  lixiviation  process,  calcium  sulphide  is  the  ordinary 
and  best  precipitant.  This  salt,  however,  cannot  be  used  for  that  purpose 
in  the  Russel  process,  and  sodium  sulphide  therefore  takes  its  place.  In 
the  Eass  process  the  ore  is  leached  with  calcium  hyposulphite,  and  the 
silver  is  precipitated  with  calcium  sulphide.  Leaching  with  sodium 
hyposulphite  and  precipitating  with  calcium  sulphide  (the  ordinary 
method)  is  really  a  combination  of  the  Patera  and  Eass  processes.  When 
enough  silver  precipitate  has  accumulated  on  the  bottom  of  the  precipi- 
tating-tanks,  it  is  drawn  off  and  generally  strained  through  a  filter-press. 
The  black  sQver  cakes  are  then  taken  out,  dried  in  a  warm  room  or  drying- 
oven,  and  introduced  into  a  muffle  or  calcining-fomace  to  burn  off  the 
sulphur.  After  the  blue  flame  has  disappeared,  heating  must  continue  for 
several  hours  at  a  dark  red  heat. 

The  roasted  cakes  may  be  melted  with  lead  in  a  cupelling-f  urnace,  and 
refined  or  melted  in  graphite  crucibles,  in  lots  up  to  300  lbs.  in  weight. 
What  sulphur  remains  must  be  removed  by  melting  it  off  with  metallic 
iron  introduced  into  the  pot,  an  iron  matte  being  formed,  which  rises  to 
the  surface  and  is  skimmed  off.  The  surface  of  the  silver  is  then  cleaned 
by  adding  some  bone  ash  and  borax,  or  borax  alone,  which  is  also  skimmed 
off,  and  the  silver  dipped  out  or  poured  into  moulds. 

The  quantity  of  hyposulphite  solution  required  for  treating  the  San 
Francisco  del  Oro  ore  is  as  follows  : — The  diameter  of  the  vat  is  the  same 
as  for  base-metal  leaching  (previously  described),  viz.,  10  feet  2  inches. 
Rate  of  filtration,  8§  inches  per  hour  or  57"52  cubic  feet  or  431-4  gallons 
per  hour.  Time  of  silver  leaching,  4  days  or  96  hours  or  41*414  gallons 
per  charge  of  8'39  tons,  or  4,935  gallons  for  each  ton  of  ore,  658  cubic 
feet. 

At  the  Cusi  mill,  Mr.  Hofmann  states  the  vats  are  12  feet  in  diameter, 
taking  a  charge  of  about  8  tons  of  ore.  At  a  filtering  rate  of  8  inches 
per  hour  the  volume  of  outflowing  solution  amounts  to  74*6  cubic  feet  per 
hour,  or  8,058*6  cubic  feet  in  41  hours  for  a  charge  of  8  tons,  or  382*3 
cubic  feet  or  2,867  gallons  per  ton  of  ore,  employing  the  Russel  process, 
taking  the  figures  given  by  Mr.  Stetefeldt.    Mr.  Hofmann,  however,  states 

VOL.  V.-18W.98.  21 


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322  PROCBSSBS   OF  ORE  TREATMENT. 

that  he  found  the  average  leachiDg  time  at  the  Cusi  miU  to  be  53  hours, 
which  at  the  filtering  rate  of  8  inches  per  hour  gives  494*2  cubic  feet  or 
8,706  gallons  per  ton  of  ore. 

The  Stock  Solution. 

Mr.  Hofmann  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  introduce  the  practice 
of  using  sodium  hyposulphite  as  a  solvent  and  calcium  sulphide  as 
a  precipitant.  Calcium  sulphide  contains  a  considerable  amount  of 
(about  6  per  cent.)  calcium  hyposulphite,  even  if  freshly  prepared,  which 
in  precipitating  is  introduced  into  the  stock  solution.  It  was  therefore 
supposed  that  by  using  calcium  sulphide  as  a  precipitant  the  stock 
solution  would  be  gradually  converted  into  a  solution  of  calcium  hypo- 
sulphite, but  Mr.  Hofmann  denies  that  this  is  the  case,  and  states  that 
the  stock  solution  remains  as  sodium  hyposulphite.  He  explains  it  in 
this  way  :  At  the  time  when  base-metal  leaching  is  usually  interrupted, 
the  ore  stQl  contains  sodium  sulphate.  Calcium  hyposulphite  and 
sodium  sulphate  form  sodium  hyposulphite  and  calcium  sulphate,  which 
precipitates 

CaSjOs  +  Na,S04  =  CaS04  +  Na,8A. 

If  therefore  the  stock  solution  after  precipitation,  containing  calcium 
hyposulphite,  is  rinsed,  and  comes  in  contact  with  the  sodium  sulphate 
contained  in  the  roasted  ore,  the  outflowing  solution  will  have  its  calcium 
hyposulphite  substituted  by  sodium  hyposulphite,  leaving  the  precipitated 
gypsum  in  the  ore. 

Thus  the  stock  solution,  even  after  continued  use,  still  consists  of 
sodium  hyposulphite.  It  takes  longer  boiling  to  manufacture  calcium 
sulphide  than  to  prepare  sodium  sulphide,  but  8^  to  4  hours'  boiling  is 
sufficient,  and  the  consumption  of  steam  is  small  to  maintain  the  solution, 
once  it  is  boiling,  at  that  temperature.  The  calcium  sulphide  appears  to 
have  the  great  advantage  that  it  frees  the  stock  solution  from  the  very 
injurious  presence  of  sodium  sulphate,  for  if  calcium  sulphide  is  brought 
in  contact  with  sodium  sulphate,  sodium  sulphide  is  formed,  which  goes 
into  solution,  and  the  calcium  sulphate  is  precipitated ;  thus  all  the  sodium 
sulphate  which  the  stock  solution  receives  from  the  ore  during  lixiviation 
is  decomposed,  while  sodium  sulphide  if  used  as  a  precipitant  not  only 
leaves  the  sodium  sulphate  undecomposed,  but  even  furnishes  an  addi- 
tional supply  of  this  salt,  and  assists  in  charging  the  stock  solution  with 
it,  diminishing  its  dissolving  energy  for  silver  chloride,  and  causing  quite 
a  large  consumption  of  sodium  hyposulphite. 

If  in  preparing  calcium  sulphide,  boiling  is  not  continued  beyond 
8  or  4  hours  and  precipitation  is  properly  executed,  the  original  stock 


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PROCESSES  OF  OBS  TREATMENT.  823 

solution  can  be  maintained  effective  for  several  years  without  adding  any 
fresh  sodium  hyposulphite  to  it.  It  will  be  even  found  that  the  solution 
increases  in  strength,  and  in  order  to  keep  it  at  standard  strength  it 
requires  to  be  diluted  from  time  to  time  with  water.  This  cannot  be 
accomplished  if  sodium  sulphide  be  used.  The  loss  of  hyposulphite  by 
decomposition  and  other  causes  is  in  fact  more  than  replaced  by  the 
supply  derived  from  the  precipitant. 

Mr.  Hofmann  gives  a  table*  showing  the  tendency  of  the  sodium  hypo- 
sulphite solution  to  increase  in  strength,  as  above  explained,  and  remarks 
that  it  is  quite  an  important  financial  item  whether  its  standard  strength 
(0*50  per  cent.)  is  kept  up  by  adding  water  or  sodium  hyposulphite.  At 
the  Cusi  mill,  he  used  765  lbs.  of  sodium  hyposulphite  for  the  preparation 
of  the  stock  solution,  working  with  it  2,011  tons  of  ore,  and  left  the 
solution  in  perfectly  good  condition,  only  a  little  stronger  than  when 
originally  prepared,  without  adding  any  extra  sodium  hyposulphite,  while 
Mr.  Daggett,  who  used  sodium  sulphide,  reports  a  consumption  in  the 
Cusi  mill  of  3  to  7  lbs.  of  sodium  hyposulphite  per  ton  of  ore. 

Mr.  Hofmann  states  that  in  working  2,011  tons  of  Cusi  ore  containing 
45*2  ounces  of  silver  per  ton,  the  cost  of  calcium  sulphide  per  ton  of  ore 
was  as  follows  : — 

Sulphur,  3-92  lbs.  at  7  cents 27-4 

Lime,  8*25  lbs.  at  1  cent  8*2 

Total        86-6 

or  28*7  cents  less  than  the  cost  of  sodium  sulphide  (reckoned  at  64*3 
cents)  treating  an  ore  containing  35*1  ounces  of  silver.  Reducing  the 
above  figures  to  what  they  would  be  in  working  an  ore  containing  35*1 
ounces  of  silver  per  ton,  they  would  stand  : — 

Cento. 

Sulphur,  8*02  lbs.  at  7  cents 2M 

Lime,  6*40  lbs.  at  1  cent  6'4 

Total        276 

or  86'8  cents  less  than  the  cost  of  sodium  sulphide,  which  is  equal  to 
a  saving  of  57*2  per  cent.  Taking  into  consideration  the  fact  that  the  use 
of  sodium  sulphide  causes  also  a  consumption  of  8  to  7  lbs.  of  sodium 
hyposulphite  per  ton  of  ore,  it  is  apparent  that  sodium  sulphide  is  more 
expensive,  and  that  calcium  sulphide  is  preferable  as  a  precipitant,  regard- 
less of  other  advantages,  for  the  important  reason  that  it  keeps  the  stock 
solution  free  from  sodium  sulphate. 

♦  The  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  New  York,  vol.  xlvii.,  page  236. 


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824 


PROCESSES  OF  ORE  TREATKBKT. 


The  calcinm  polysulphide  is  manufactured  at  the  works,  by  boiling  2 
parts  of  the  fresh  lime  with  1  part  of  pulverized  sulj^ur  in  water  for  3  to 
4  hours,  in  deep  tanks  made  of  boiler  iron,  into  which  steam  is  directly 
introduced.  The  consumption  of  sulphur  ia  from  2  to  7  lbs.  per  ton 
according  to  the  ore. 

The  Precipitate. 

Mr.  Hoftnann  gives  the  analysis  of  two  different  lots  of  roasted 
precipitate  of  del  Oro  ore : — 


PerOenl 

PerOent. 

PerCcDt. 

Percent. 

Gold    ... 

004 

0-014 

Zinc     ... 

4-30 

13-86 

Silver  ... 

1900 

21-60 

Lime    ... 

8-88 

3-62 

Lead    ... 

30-64 

2110 

Salpfa.  acid 

6-10 

618 

Copper 

11-65 

4-44 

Sulphur 

14-90 

19-87 

Cadmium 

8-45 

1-20 

Insoluble 

5-46 

4-96 

Iron     ... 

0-72 

2-68 

The  two  lots  of  precipitate  differ,  as  will  be  seen,  considerably  with  regard 
to  lead,  copper,  cadmium,  zinc,  and  sulphur,  due  partly  to  variations  in  the 
character  of  the  ore,  of  which  the  precipitate  is  the  resulting  product,  and 
to  a  great  extent  to  variations  in  roasting. 

The  quantity  of  sulphur  depends  on  the  length  of  time  the  precipitate 
is  subjected  to  roasting  in  the  reverberatoiy  fnmace.  To  avoid  loss  by 
volatilization,  the  precipitate  was  left  in  the  furnace  only  until  the  blue 
sulphur  flame  ceased.  The  percentage  of  lime  (8*88  to  8'62)  is  in  both 
lots  nearly  the  same,  and  shows  that  the  value  of  the  precipitate  is  not 
depreciated,  by  using  calcium  sulphide  as  a  precipitant,  enough  to  make 
its  use  objectionable.  The  dried  precipitate  contains  47'96  per  cent,  of 
sulphur.  Experiments  to  regain  the  surplus  sulphur  by  boiling  the  fresh 
precipitate  with  caustic  soda  gave  very  satisfectoty  results.  They  showed 
that  60  per  cent,  of  the  sulphur  originally  contained  in  the  precipitate 
can  be  thus  regained  and  bi-ought  into  a  state  in  which  it  can  be  directly 
used  again  as  a  precipitant. 

Using  Cupric  Chloride  for  Badly-roasted  Charges, 

If  an  insufficiently  chloridized  ore  be  treated  during  base-metal  leaching 
with  a  dilute  solution  of  cupric  chloride  it  has  a  very  beneficial  effect,  as 
stated  elsewhere,  and  Mr.  Hof mann,  in  some  instances,  obtained  a  further 
extraction  from  the  del  Oro  ore  of  34  to  40  per  cent,  of  the  silver  by  its 
use.    35  lbs.  of  bluestone  and  about  70  lbs.  of  salt,  boiled  by  steam  for 


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PROCESSES  OF  ORE  TREATMENT.  825 

about  15  or  20  minutes,  gave  a  sufficient  quantity  of  cupric  chloride  for 
a  charge  of  8^  tons,  at  a  cost  of  60  cents  per  ton  of  ore : — 

DoUan. 
Bluestone,  35  lbs.  at  12  cents          ...        4*20 
Salt,  70  Ibe.  at  1-7  cents        0-88 

Total      6-08,  or  0-60  cents  per  ton. 

The  cupric  chloride  is  either  added  to  the  water  contained  in  the  tank, 
into  which  the  dry  and  hot  ore  is  dumped,  or  it  is  added  during  base- 
metal  leaching.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  better  to  apply  the  copper  solution 
after  the  main  portion  of  the  base-metal  salts  have  been  leached  out,  say 
about  1  hour  after  commencing  base-metal  leaching,  and  to  add  it  gradually 
in  order  to  penetrate  the  whole  charge.  To  about  6  or  8  inches  of  water 
standing  above  the  ore,  one  quarter  of  the  prepared  copper  solution  is 
added,  stirred,  and  allowed  to  sink  through  the  ore.  As  soon  as  the 
liquid  is  level  with  the  top  of  the  ore,  the  outlet  under  the  filter  is  closed, 
and  again  6  or  8  inches  of  water  is  allowed  to  flow  into  the  vat,  to  which 
the  second  quarter  of  the  copper  solution  is  added;  this  is  repeated  a  third 
and  fourth  time,  and  the  charge  is  washed  in  the  usual  way. 

The  first  method  is  quicker  and  less  troublesome,  but  in  this  case 
leaching  from  below  is  advisable.  The  solution  from  the  del  Oro  ore 
treated  in  this  way  left  the  tank  colourless  with  only  a  slight  reaction  for 
copper,  showing  that  the  cupric  chloride  was  decomposed  in  passing 
through  the  ore.  Mr.  Hofmann  believes  that  if  the  roasted  ore  of  the 
Yedras  mine  were  treated  in  this  way,  very  good  results  would  be  obtained, 
without  reducing  the  fineness  of  the  precipitate  as  much  as  is  done  at 
present  by  the  use  of  extra  solution. 

Cost  of  Lixiviation. 

The  works  at  Parral  have  two  leaching-plants,  one  in  connexion  with 
the  modified  Howell  furnace  and  the  other  with  the  reverberatory  furnaces. 
Separate  accounts  were  kept  of  each.  The  following  figures  refer  to  the 
Howell  plant.  For  the  consumption  of  sulphur  no  separate  account  could 
be  kept,  and  the  quantity  used  per  ton  is  therefore  calculated  on  the  total 
amount  consumed  and  the  total  number  of  tons  of  ore  leached  in  both 
mills.  It  gives  a  consumption  of  7  lbs.  per  ton  of  ore.  One  man  was 
employed  roasting  the  precipitate  obtained  from  both  plants,  and  one-half 
of  his  wages  is  charged  in  the  statement.  A  reduction  of  cost,  it  is  stated, 
could  be  effected  if  the  precipitate  were  boiled  with  caustic  soda,  instead  of 
roasting  it.    The  item  of  management,  office,  etc.,  represents  one-third 


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326  PROCESSES  OF  ORE  TREATMENT. 

of  the  cost  for  100  tons  per  day,  calculated  proportionately  on  8^  tons,  as 
explained  in  the  cost  of  roasting : — 

Dollars. 

Labour  for  charging  and  discharging        I'OO 

Two  leachers  at  1-00  doUar 2*00 

One  man  preparing  calcium  sulphide        0*75 

Sulphur,  594  lbs.  at  6  cents ^'^'^ 

Lime,  180  lbs.  at  0-6  cent     0*90 

One  man  roasting  precipitate  at  $1*00  (one-half)  O'oO 

Wood  for  roasting  precipitate         0-50 

Management,  office,  mechanics,  assay  office         l'7S 

Oil,  light,  filter  cloth,  shovels  1*50 

Steam  for  pump,  and  sulphide  solution  were  charged  to  roasting  — 

Total  cost     12-50 

or  cost  of  leaching  per  ton  of  ore,  1*47  dollars,  Mexican  currency.* 

Total  cost  of  reduction,  not  including  stamping  : — 

DoiUm. 
Roasting  in  the  reverberatory  furnace  ...  3*67 
Liziviation         1*47 

Mexican  dollars    5*14  per  ton  of  ore. 

Mr.  Hof mann  noticed  that  heavy  brown  fumes  were  emitted  from  the 
ore  in  roasting  it  in  the  muffle  furnace  under  certain  conditions,  and  was 
led  to  suspect  the  presence  of  cadmium  in  the  del  Oro  ore  in  considerable 
quantities.  Further  investigations  proved  this  to  be  the  case.  The  cad- 
mium leaches  out  along  with  the  zinc,  and  as  long  as  there  is  zinc  in  the 
solution,  cadmium  will  be  found.  The  fact  that  the  cadmium  is  brought 
into  solution  by  the  regular  operation  of  the  process  for  extracting  the 
silver,  permits  of  its  extraction  (as  a  bye-product)  at  very  small  cost. 

The  analysis  showed  that  the  base-metal  solution  of  the  del  Oro  ore 
is  remarkably  free  from  metals  which  are  precipitable  by  zinc ;  if,  therefore, 
the  more  concentrated  part  of  the  base-solution  be  conveyed  into  tanks 
(like  those  devised  and  recommended  by  Mr.  Stetefeldt),  for  precipitating 
the  copper  and  silver  of  the  base-metal  water  with  scrap-iron,  and  metallic 
zinc  is  introduced,  it  will  precipitate  the  cadmium,  copper,  and  silver.  The 
base-metal  solution  is  acid  enough,  but  the  addition  of  some  sulphuric 
acid  hastens  the  process. 

It  is  more  profitable  to  manufacture  cadmium  sulphide  than  to  produce 
the  metal.  The  metallic  precipitate,  after  being  washed,  is  boiled  with 
dilute  sulphuric  acid.    Cadmium  dissolves,  while  the  copper  will  remain 

*  The  Mexican  dollar  was  at  the  time  in  question,  the  writer  belieTes,  worth,  3s.; 
at  present  it  is  worth  28. 9d. 


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PROCBSSBS  OF  OHB  TBEATMBNT.  827 

as  a  sediment ;  and  so  will  lead  if  it  be  present.  The  solution  is  decanted, 
filtered,  and  the  cadmium  precipitates  as  cadmium  sulphide  by  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen.  Cadmium  sulphide  is  a  brilliant  and  valuable  paint. 
Experiments  on  a  large  scale  showed  that  from  2  to  3  lbs.  of  cadmium 
sulphide  could  be  precipitated  from  the  base-metal  solution  derived  from  a 
ton  of  ore. 

The  best  orange-yellow  of  cadmium  is  obtained  by  precipitating  with 
sodium  sulphide,  but  the  solution  must  first  be  made  alkaline  with  caustic 
soda. 

Mr.  P.  M.  Watson  in  a  letter  to  The  Engineeriug  and  Mining 
Journal,  New  York,  of  April  8th,  1893,*  speaking  of  the  Kussel  process 
at  Sombrerete,  Zacatecas,  says : — The  ore  runs  roughly  10  per  cent,  of 
blende,  10  per  cent,  of  galena,  80  per  cent,  of  iron  pyrites,  and  the  rest 
mostly  quartz  containing  on  an  average  about  20  per  cent,  of  sulphur. 
The  old  reverberatory  furnaces  used  for  roasting  (taking  six  months* 
average)  showed  a  roasting  chlorination  of  88*5  per  cent.,  but  the  loss  from 
volatilization  was  very  heavy  (the  last  six  months'  average  being  16*6 
per  cent.,  and  before  it  had  risen  to  as  high  as  24  per  cent).  By  consider- 
ing the  two  lospes  Mr.  Watson  therefore  places  their  efficiency  at  78*8  per 
cent.  The  extraction  of  sulphides  during  this  period  was  about  73  per  cent., 
and  the  total  cost,  including  grinding,  was  about  8  dollars^  Mexican 
currency,  per  ton,  crushing  with  rolls.  He  advocates  using  stamps  in 
place  of  them.  The  ordinary  Stetefeldt  furnace  also  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  more  successful  in  this  case  than  with  the  San  Francisco  del 
Oro  ore,  but  Mr.  Watson  considers  that  it  might  be  modified  to  give  good 
results,  and  he  considers  that  with  a  remodelled  mill  85  per  cent  of  the 
raw  ore  value  could  be  extracted  at  a  cost  of  not  more  than  6  dollars, 
Mexican  currency,  per  ton. 

Trough-lixiviation. 

This  system  is  a  continuous  one — a  modification  of  tank-lixiviation — 
the  chemical  reactions  are  the  same,  but  the  time  of  leaching  is  enormously 
shortened,  and  the  manipulations  are  simpler  and  more  labour-saving.  It 
is  particularly  adapted  for  large  works,  and  for  ore  which  on  account  of 
lead  requires  a  long  leaching  time. 

While  the  silver  from  all  the  other  silver-bearing  minerals  can  be  easily 
and  quickly  extracted  as  chloride,  that  portion  contained  in  the  galena 
dissolves  very  slowly.  The  larger  portion  of  the  silver  may  be  in  fact 
extracted  in  a  few  hours,  while  the  remainder  will  take  days.     The 

•  Page  316. 


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828  PROCESSES  OF  OBE  TREATHENT. 

roasted  del  Ore  ore,  for  example,  filters  quickly,  but  if  the  ore  contain  10 
to  11  per  cent,  of  lead,  the  silver-leaching  time  is  4  days,  and  if  it  contain 
15  to  17  per  cent,  of  lead  the  time  is  increased  to  5  or  6  days. 

A  description  of  trough-lixiviation  is  given  by  Mr.  Hofmann  in  The 
Engineering  and  Mining  Journaly  New  York,  of  September  10th,  1887, 
November  26th,  1887,  and  March  16th,  1 889,*  from  which  these  particulars 
are  taken.  Silver  chloride  contained  in  roasted  ore  almost  instantly 
dissolves  if  rapidly  brought  in  contact  with  a  proper  volume  of  moving 
sodium  hyposulphite  solution.  No  more  than  |  to  1^  minutes  are  required, 
and  it  is  rather  the  quantity  or  volume  than  the  concentrated  state  of  the 
liquid  solvent,  that  produces  this  effect ;  it  is  in  foot  the  principle  upon 
which  the  process  depends. 

In  the  tanks  the  amount  of  solution  which  comes  in  contact  with 
the  ore  is  regulated  by  the  latter's  filtering  capacity.  The  operator  can 
slightly  increase  the  speed  of  filtering  and  so  increase  the  quantity  of  solu- 
tion used,  by  producing  a  vacuum  under  the  filter  bottom,  but  he  cannot 
produce  and  maintain  at  will  a  certain  favourable  proportion  of  ore  and 
solvent,  which  is  of  such  importance  for  a  quick  and  thorough  extraction. 
If,  however,  the  ore  be  introduced  into  a  running  stream  of  the  solvent, 
the  operator  has  it  in  his  power  to  produce  and  maintain  any  desired 
proportion. 

Instead  of  charging  the  ore  in  tanks,  and  permitting  the  solvent  to 
filter  through,  it  is  dissolved  outside  the  tanks  in  troughs,  while  the  ore 
is  moving  in  and  with  the  stream  of  solvent,  and  the  tanks  are  only  used 
for  the  separation  of  the  solid  from  the  liquid.  The  ore  from  the  furnaces 
is  dumped  into  bins,  from  which  it  is  mechanically  and  evenly  charged 
into  a  perpendicular  square  tube  12  by  12  and  about  2  feet  in  height, 
which  is  crossed  by  several  sprays  or  sheets  of  water,  closing  it  near  the 
top  and  bottom.  The  dust  caused  by  the  contact  of  hot  ore  and  water 
is  absorbed  by  the  top  and  bottom  sheet  of  water,  and  cannot  escape,  while 
the  steam  generated  is  condensed. 

The  pulp,  when  leaving  the  perpendicular  tube,  enters  a  grinding 
machine  of  similar  construction  to  the  German  kegelmtihle,  an  arrange- 
ment which  answers  better  than  an  agitator,  which  was  first  proposed  for 
the  purpose  of  mixing  the  ore  with  water  (to  prevent  it  being  carried 
down  the  trough  in  bulk),  and  to  mash  and  grind  up  any  lumps  it  con- 
tains. The  mill  discharges  the  pulp  into  the  base-metal  leaching-trough 
of  triangular  section,  which  leads  to  the  settling-tanks. 

•Pages  185,  393,  and  255  respectively. 


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PBOGBSSES  OF  ORE  TBBATMENT.  829 

By  this  system,  the  whole  cooling-floor  manipulations  are  avoided, 
likewise  the  filling  of  cars  on  the  cooling-floor  and  the  transportation  of 
the  moistened  ore  to  the  tanks,  also  the  shovelling  out  of  the  tailings  from 
the  tanks,  which  is  a  great  saving  of  manual  labour,  without  involving 
much  extra  machinery.  It  requires  two  men  per  shift  to  bring  the  ore 
from  the  furnaces  to  the  bins,  one  man  in  the  base-metal  department,  and 
one  man  and  a  helper  in  the  silver-leaching  department.  The  stirring  of 
the  silver  solution  in  precipitating  is  done  by  mechanical  stirrers,  which 
do  excellent  work. 

The  rapidity  of  the  extraction  requires  quicker  circulation  of  the  solu- 
tion entailing  the  use  of  a  larger  pump  ;  but  Mr.  Hofmann  considers  the 
extra  expense  of  this  a  very  small  drawback.  The  hot  ore  warms  the 
water  for  base-metal  leaching,  without  incurring  extra  expense  or  labour. 

The  proportion  of  water  depends  on  the  amount  of  base-metal  chloridei« 
contained  in  the  ore,  and  has  to  be  so  regulated  that  the  resulting  base- 
metal  solution  is  too  dilute  to  dissolve  silver  chloride.  This  is  easily 
arranged,  by  gradually  increasing  the  stream  of  water  while  maintaining 
the  same  supply  of  ore,  and  testing  the  resulting  solution  for  silver. 

The  length  of  the  trough  depends  on  the  character  of  the  ore,  but 
150  feet  from  the  mill  to  the  first  tank  will,  in  most  cases,  be  sufficient. 
The  inclination  should  not  be  less  than  f  inch  to  the  foot.  The  trough  can 
be  arranged  in  zigzag,  but  has  to  lead  over  all  the  tanks. 

In  the  line  of  the  trough  above  each  tank  there  is  a  square  box,  14  by 
14  by  10  inches,  the  bottom  of  which  is  provided  with  a  plug-hole  in 
order  to  permit  of  any  desired  tank  being  charged. 

The  tanks  have  in  the  centre  of  the  bottom  a  sluice-hole  6  inches  in 
diameter,  to  which  is  attached  to  the  outside  by  means  of  a  flange  a  short 
piece  of  cast-iron  pipe  of  about  the  same  diameter.  This  pipe  is  like  a 
gas-pipe  elbow,  and  can  be  tightly  closed  by  pressing  a  rubber  gasket 
against  the  outside  flange.  This  valve  is  worked  from  a  platform  along- 
side the  tanks.  This  pipe  must  be  well  coated  with  asphaltum  varnish. 
Around  the  sluice  or  discharge-hole  the  filter  is  arranged  in  funnel-shape, 
having  an  inclination  of  |  inch  to  the  foot.  The  filter-cloth  must  be 
well  fastened  round  the  outer  and  inner  circle.  The  central  position  of 
the  discharge-opening  and  funnel-shape  of  the  filter-bottom  permit  of 
quick  and  perfect  sluicing.  A  tank  with  a  level  filter-bottom,  if  large, 
can  be  sluiced  clean  through  a  side  gate.  The  space  below  the  filter 
is  provided  with  the  usual  outlet-pipe.  Close  under  the  filter  is  inserted 
from  outside  a  |  inch  pipe  which,  connected  with  1  inch  hose,  reaches 
the  rim  of  the  tank  for  the  escape  of  the  air.    Before  the  tank  is 


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830  PROCESSES  OF  ORE  TREATMENT. 

used  for  operation,  a  wiied  rnbber-hose  is  connected  with  both  the  water 
and  the  solution-pipes,  and  so  placed  irom  above  that  the  lower  or  outlet 
end  enters  the  discharge-pipe  through  the  central  hole  in  the  bottom. 
The  object  of  this  hose  is  to  inject  a  stream  of  solution  at  the  bottom  of 
the  ore  (in  the  outlet-pipe),  when  the  tank  is  to  be  sluiced  out  for  silver 
leaching. 

The  stream  undermines  the  tightly-packed  ore  which  gradually  caves 
in,  until  a  funnel-shaped  opening  is  made  through  its  depths.  Then  one 
or  more  streams  are  allowed  to  play  on  top  of  the  ore  until  it  is  all  sluiced 
out.  The  hose  in  the  discharge-pipe — ^which  must  be  stiff  in  order  not  to 
be  flattened — is  allowed  to  remain,  in  order  to  prevent  the  discharge-hole 
from  being  clogged  by  a  too  sudden  rush  of  ore.  Before  starting  the 
operation  the  discharge-pipe  is  filled  with  water  through  the  central  hose, 
the  lower  end  being  covered,  in  order  to  keep  it  filled  with  water  to  pre- 
vent obstruction  from  the  ore. 

The  tanks  are  placed  on  the  same  level  in  two  rows  close  together,  and 
are  connected  by  pipes  in  such  a  way  as  to  permit  of  any  desired  tank 
being  disconnected  without  disturbing  the  communications  of  the  others. 
The  connecting-pipes  are  also  on  a  level,  placed  a  few  inches  below  the 
rim  of  the  tanks,  and  well  coated  with  asphaltum  varnish.  Their  diameter 
depends  on  the  capacity  of  the  works.  Each  tank  is  provided  with  an 
outlet  (on  the  level  of  the  connecting-pipes),  which  discharges  below  the 
bottom  into  the  base-metal  trough,  the  latter  being  connected  with  the 
outlet-hose  from  under  the  filter-bottom.  The  connecting-pipes  and 
upper  outlets  can  be  closed  with  wooden  plugs  from  the  inside  of  the 
tanks. 

Base-metal  Leaching. — At  starting,  the  stream  of  roasted  ore  and  water, 
after  having  passed  through  the  whole  length  of  the  base-metal  leach 
trough,  is  allowed  to  enter  the  tank  by  opening  the  hole  in  the  bottom 
of  the  small  square  box  which  intersects  the  trough  above  the  tank. 
The  ore  will  gradually  fill  the  first  tank,  while  the  base-metal  solution 
after  reaching  the  level  of  the  connecting-pipe  will  flow  into  the 
next  tank,  and  when  this  is  filled,  into  the  next  tank,  and  so  on  through 
all  the  tanks  until  it  finds  the  outlet  of  the  last  tank,  through  which 
it  will  discharge  into  the  base-metal  trough.  The  motion  of  the 
solution  in  each  tank  is  so  slow  that,  by  the  time  it  reaches  the  last 
outlet,  it  is  clear.  A  board,  placed  edgeways  a  few  inches  below  the 
surface  and  across  the  tank,  will  prevent  the  formation  of  a  diametrical 
stream  from  one  pipe  to  another,  and  greatly  assist  in  clearing  the  solution. 
If  the  proper  proportions  of  water  and  ore  have  been  used,  the  base-metal 


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PROCESSES  OF  ORE  TREATMENT.  831 

solufcion  will  not  contain  any  silver,  and  can  be  allowed  to  ran  to  waste. 
When  the  first  tank  is  filled  with  ore,  the  connecting-pipe  is  closed,  and 
stream  of  pulp  transferred  into  the  second  tank,  all  other  connexions 
remaining  unchanged.  The  outlet-hose  below  the  filter-bottom  of  the 
first  tank  is  now  opened,  and  the  solution  still  contained  in  it  is  allowed 
to  drain  off.  As  soon  as  it  disappears  below  the  surface  of  the  ore  some 
clear  water  is  added  to  force  out  the  remainder  of  the  base-metal  solution. 
The  first  tank  is  now  ready  for  silver  leaching. 

Silver  Leachmg. — In  their  passage  through  the  trough  from  the  mill  to 
the  tanks,  all  the  soluble  base-metal  chlorides  have  dissolved,  and  the 
charge  of  the  first  tank  having  been  treated,  as  above  described,  is  now 
ready  for  silver  leaching.  The  rabber  gasket  of  the  dischaige-pipe  is 
pulled  back,  and  sodium-hyposulphite  solution  is  turned  on  through  the 
central  hole,  and  the  whole  chaise  sluiced  out.  Ore  and  hyposulphite 
solution  discharge  into  a  trough  under  the  first  and  last  tanks,  which  are 
connected  with  the  silver-leach  trough.  At  first,  before  other  streams 
of  hyposulphite  solution  can  be  played  on  the  surface  of  the  ore,  the 
pulp  is  diluted  by  an  extra  stream  in  the  silver-leach  trough.  Ore  and 
solution  now  pass  through  a  trough,  not  less  than  150  feet  long,  to  a 
similarly  arranged  set  of  tanks. 

When  the  pulp  reaches  the  first  tank,  the  solution  has  dissolved  all 
the  silver  chloride,  and  the  sand  drops  as  tailings  into  the  tank.  The  silver 
solution  has  also  to  pass  through  all  the  tanks  and  leaves  the  last  one 
clear.  It  is  conveyed  to  the  precipitation-tanks.  When  one  tank  is  filled 
with  tailings,  it  is  disconnected  from  the  others,  and  the  pulp  allowed  to 
fiow  into  the  next  one.  The  outlet-pipe  under  the  filter-bottom  is  opened, 
the  remaining  silver  solution  allowed  to  drain  off,  and  the  part  retained  by 
absorption  displaced  by  water.  Where  water  is  scarce,  the  base-metal 
solution  can  be  accumulated  in  the  outside  storage-tank  and  used  for 
sluicing  the  tailings.  The  proportion  of  solution  and  ore  to  be  used 
depends  on  the  nature  of  the  ore,  and  has  to  be  ascertained  for  each  kind. 
Ore  containing  lead  requires  most  solution.  It  is  best  to  determine 
the  proportion  in  weights,  as  it  makes  it  easy  to  calculate  the  required 
capacity  of  the  different  tanks,  pipes,  and  pumps,  for  a  given  capacity 
of  milL 

Mr.  Hofmann's  tests,  he  states,  show  that  the  minimum  quantity  of 
solution  required  is  3  to  5  times  the  weight  of  the  ore,  and  the  maximum 
18  to  20  times.  The  weight  of  the  solution  is,  for  convenience,  taken  as 
equal  to  water,  1  cubic  foot  =  62*5  lbs.  In  most  cases  10  parts  of 
solution  to  1  of  ore  will  be  sufficient.    Assuming  this  proportion,  and 


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882  PROCESSES  OF  ORE  TREATMENT. 

taking  1  cubic  foot  solution  as  7*5  gallons,  and  1  gallon  as  8*88  lbs., 
we  find  that  in  order  to  lixiviate  40  tons  per  day,  it  will  require  8,200 
cubic  feet  or  24,000  gallons  of  solution  to  be  daily  pumped  to  the  upper 
reservoir  and  circulated.  This,  theoretically,  would  require  a  pumping 
capacity  of  16*66  gallons  per  minute,  and  precipitating  facilities  for  1,000 
gallons  per  hour.  By  erecting  a  temporary  trough  of  not  less  than  150 
feet  in  length,  and  a  mixing-box  at  the  upper  end,  the  required  propor- 
tions of  solution  and  ore  can  readily  be  determined  by  a  series  of 
experiments.  The  samples  have  to  be  taken  at  the  lowest  end  of  the 
trough,  while  the  pulp  is  dropping  into  the  receiving-tank.  The  vessel 
with  which  the  sample  is  caught  mast  be  large  enough  to  receive  the 
whole  stream  during  the  time  the  sample  is  caught.  Sufficient  time  must 
be  allowed  for  the  ore  to  settle.  The  clear  solution  is  carefully  decanted, 
and  the  sediment  placed  on  a  filter,  washed  well  with  water,  dried,  and 
assayed.  Before  subjecting  it  to  the  solution-test,  the  ore  has,  as  a  matter 
of  course,  to  be  treated  with  water  to  remove  the  base-metal  chlorides. 

Mr.  Hof mann  states  the  advantages  of  trough-lixiviation  as  follows : — 

At  first  sight  it  would  appear  that  very  dilute  silver  solutions  are 
obtained,  and  have  to  'be  treated  in  the  precipitation-tanks.  This^ 
however,  is  not  the  case.  The  resulting  silver  solution  maintains  a  uniform 
strength  in  silver  and  other  soluble  metal  salts,  and  is  of  about  the  same 
strength  as  the  whole  filtrate  of  one  charge  in  tank-leaching  would  be,  if 
accumulated  in  one  precipitation-tank.  In  tank-lixiviation  very  strong 
solutions  are  formed  at  the  beginning,  and  very  dilute  ones  towards  the 
end,  and  as  it  frequently  happens  that  a  tank-full  of  such  very  dilute 
solutions  has  to  be  precipitated  by  itself;  a  uniform  strength  is  in  fact 
by  fiir  preferable. 

This  method  of  lixiviation  allows  the  operator  to  bring  the  ore 
in  sudden  contact  with  any  desired  quantity  of  the  solvent,  and  offers 
the  means  in  this  way,  of  overcoming  some  very  annoying  chemical  and 
mechanical  difficulties  encountered  in  other  lixiviation  processes.  Lead 
sulphate  reduces  the  dissolving  energy  of  sodium  hyposulphite  for  silver, 
and  this  is  why  the  lixiviation  of  lead-bearing  ores  is  so  exceedingly  slow 
and  requires  such  an  extensive  plant. 

In  the  ordinary  lixiviation,  the  solution  becomes  more  saturated  with 
lead  sulphate  as  it  descends  through  the  ore  and  loses  proportionately  its 
dissolving  energy.  As  the  solubility  of  the  lead  sulphate  increases  with 
the  concentration  of  the  solution,  a  stronger  solution  does  not  hasten  the 
process  ;  but  if  the  ore  be  brought  rapidly  into  contact  with  a  large 
volume  of  hyposulphite  solution,  the  latter  retains  enough  of  its  dissolving 


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PB0CE8SES  OF  OBE  TREATMElSrT.  883 

energy  to  produce  a  quick  extraction.  The  presence  of  lead  sulphate 
therefore  does  not  retard  trough-lixiviation,  it  merely  entails  the  use  of 
larger  quantities  of  solvent.  The  rapidity  with  which  the  silver  dissolves, 
also  materially  lessens  the  unfavourable  influence  of  caustic  lime.  The 
possibility  of  bringing  the  ore  into  contact  with  any  desired  quantity  of  the 
solvent  has  the  further  advantage  of  preventing  the  base-metal  solution 
from  dissolving  silver.  The  resulting  solution  need  only  be  sufficiently 
dilute.  It  does  not  take  much  more  water  than  in  the  ordinary  leaching, 
when  the  bulk  of  the  silver  is  dissolved  by  the  base-metal  chlorides,  while 
the  solution  is  very  concentrated.  Shortly  after  the  beginning,  no  more 
sQver  is  dissolved;  if,  therefore,  the  charge  of  ore  could  have  been 
brought  at  once  into  contact  with  the  whole  quantity  of  water  used  in 
washing,  Mr.  Hofmann  thinks  much  less  silver  would  go  into  solution. 
Olayey  ores  and  flue-dust  may  be  successfully  treated  by  trough-lixiviation 
regardless  of  their  filtering  property. 

In  ordinary  leaching,  each  tank-charge  is  in  a  different  stage  of  the 
process,  and  this  necessitates  great  care  and  attention  and  keeping  a 
separate  record  of  each  tank.  In  trough-lixiviation,  the  operation  being 
continuous,  attention  need  only  be  concentrated  on  one  tank  in  each 
department  to  prevent  it  from  being  overcharged.  Although  the  process 
is  divided  into  two  departments  (the  base-metal  and  silver  leaching)  the 
manipalation  is  materially  simplified,  the  tanks  being  charged  automatically 
by  the  stream  of  the  respective  solutions,  and  the  costly  handling  in  cars 
is  obviated.  Leaching  works  built  on  this  plan  will  require  more  grade, 
and  it  will  be  preferable  to  have  the  roasting  and  base-metal  leaching 
done  in  the  main  building  ;  and  the  silver  settling  and  precipitation- 
tanks,  with  all  the  other  apparatus  required  for  the  final  treatment  of  the 
precipitate,  in  a  separate  department  lower  down;  the  two  being  con- 
nected by  the  silver-leach  trough. 

The  principle  of  this  method  can  be  tested  in  the  laboratory  by  intro- 
ducing 20  grammes  of  roasted  ore,  which  has  previously  been  washed  into 
a  graduated  cylinder  of  1,000  cubic  centimetres,  in  which  is  contained 
200  cubic  centimetres  of  sodium  hyposulphite  solution.  The  top  of  the 
cylinder  has  to  be  tightly  closed  with  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  the 
glass  brought  into  a  horizontal  position  and  oscillated,  in  order  to  make 
the  ore  and  solution  pass  quickly  from  one  end  to  the  other  to  imitate 
the  current  in  a  trough.  After  the  oscillating  motion  has  been  continued 
for  about  2  minutes  the  contents  of  the  cylinder  are  emptied  into  a  filter, 
and  washed  with  water  to  displace  the  silver  solution  from  the  sand  and 
filter-paper. 


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834 


PROCESSES  OF  OBE  TBEATUENT. 


It  will  be  found  that  all  the  extractable  silver  has  been  dissolved,  and 
the  residues  will  correspond  with  those  obtained  in  the  regular  chlorina- 
tion  assay.  If  the  result  of  a  iirst  trial  be  not  satisfactory,  it  is  due  to 
a  fault  in  the  quantity  of  solution,  more  of  which  must  be  used  in  the 
next  test,  and  so  on,  till  the  results  are  accurate  and  the  required  propor- 
tions of  solution  and  ore  are  ascertained. 

Trough-lixiviation  was  first  used  in  the  mill  of  the  North  Mexican 
Mining  Co.,  Cusihuriachic,  Chihuahua,  Mexico.  This  mill  was  originally 
arranged  for  tank-lixiviation,  but  the  ore  hardened  like  cement,  and 
did  not  permit  any  solution  to  pass  through.  Trough-lixiviation,  how- 
ever, enabled  the  ore  to  be  worked  rapidly,  and  the  resulting  tailings 
agreed  with  the  chlorination  test. 

Mr.  Hofmann  gives  a  number  of  experiments  and  details  with  regard 
to  trough-lixiviation  in  The  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal^  New  York, 
of  March  16th,  1889,*  and  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Americnn  InsHtu- 
Hon  of  Mining  Engineers^  February,  1888.t  These  cannot,  however,  be 
reproduced  here  in  detail.  As  the  saving  in  time  is,  however,  one  of  the 
chief  claims  of  the  process,  the  writer  may  instance  some  comparative 
figures  Mr.  Hofmann  gives,  comparing  it  with  tank-lixiviation  treating 
del  Oro  ore  : — 

Time  taken  in  tank-lixiviation  : — 

Charging 

Base-metal  leaching       

Expelling  the  water  by  solution         

Silver  leaching 

Expelling  the  solution  by  water         

Total         

Time  taken  in  trough-lixiviation  : — 

Base-metal  leaching  and  iilling  the  tank  ... 
To  drain  the  wash-water  from  the  top  of  ore 
To  expel  the  base-metal  solution  by  water 
To  expel  the  water  by  hyposulphite  solution 
Silver  leaching  (sluicing  with  solution)     ... 

Draining  solution  from  top  of  ore 

Expelling  the  solution  by  water      

Total        16    5 

Treating  the  del  Oro  ore  by  trough-lixiviation,  Mr.  Hofmann  found 
in  silver  leaching  that,  using  a  solution  with  a  strength  of  0*50  ounce  per 
ton,  the  best  results  were  obtained  with  the  proportion  of  1  of  ore  to  8*4 
of  solution  or  108*8  cubic  feet  or  816  gallons  of  solution  in  circulation 


Honra. 

3 

8 

1 

96 

1* 

...     1091 

Hn.  Mln. 

3 

6 

.        0 

34 

S 

25 

1 

20 

3 

36 

0 

34 

2 

30 

Page  255. 


t  Page  662. 


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PB00AS8BS  OF  OBB  TBBATMENT.  835 

per  ton  of  ore  treated.  Bat  in  trongh-lixiviation,  658  cubic  feet,  or  4,985 
gallons  of  solution  were  required  per  ton.  The  proportion  of  1  to  3'4 
gave  tailings  carrying  only  8*59  ounces  per  ton.  In  evidence  of  the 
statement  that  by  producing  a  sufficiently  dilute  base-metal  solution  it 
will  not  contain  any  silver  and  may  be  allowed  to  run  to  waste, 
Mr.  Hofmann  cites  the  following  test : — One  litre  of  the  702  gallons  of 
base-metal  solution  was  precipitated  with  calcium  sulphide.  The  precipi- 
tate, after  fluxing  and  treating  like  an  ordinary  ore  assay,  returned  no 
more  than  0*0002  gramme  of  fine  silver,  702  grammes  will  therefore 
contain  0*582  gramme,  which  represented  the  total  amount  of  silver 
dissolved  from  8*89  tons  of  ore,  or  0*06  gramme  or  0*002  ounce  of  silver 
per  ton,'  which  is  practically  nothing. 

Other  points  mentioned  are,  while  in  tank-Uxiviation  the  rate  of  filtra- 
tion was  8^  inches  per  hour,  in  trough-lixiviation  it  was  12  inches  per  hour. 
The  number  of  tanks  required  in  trough-lixiviation  is  much  less  than  in 
tank-lixiviation,  and  while  the  roasted  sulphides  obtained  from  the  trough- 
process  contained  20*9  per  cent,  of  fine  silver,  those  obtained  from  the 
tank-process  during  the  same  week  and  from  the  same  lot  of  ore  only 
contained  17  per  cent,  fine  silver. 

Some  of  the  most  interesting  figures  may  be  summed  up  as  follows  : — 

In  Tank-  In  Trough- 

UxlTiation.  UziTiatlon. 

Quantity  of  water  required  for  baae-metal  leaching, 

including  sluicing,  per  ton 943  gals.        1,129  gals. 

Quantity   of    hyposulphite    solution  which   has  to 

circulate  for  each  ton  of  ore         4,935    „  816    „ 

Time  required  to  treat  one  tank-charge  of  ore  ...     109  h.  30  m.         15  h.  5  m. 

Total  quantity  of  water  required  for  100  tons  of  ore 

per  day  94,300  gals.    112,900  gals. 

Total  quantity  of  hyposulphite  solution  per  day  to 

work  100  tons  493,500    „  81,600    „ 

Loss  of  silver  in  base-metal  leaching  per  ton  of  ore...         0*26  oz.  trace. 

Extraction  of  silver  in  both  methods  the  same. 

In  connexion  with  the  Hofmann  gold-and-silver  chlorination  process, 
which  has  been  mentioned  in  the  earlier  part  of  this  paper,  it  is  to  be 
noted  that  after  the  silver  has  been  extracted,  the  solution  of  hyposulphite 
used  for  leaching  is  allowed  to  run  out  till  it  disappears  under  the  surface 
of  the  ore,  when  clear  water  is  introduced,  in  order  to  displace  the  solution. 
The  desilverized  ore  must  then  be  removed  from  the  tank  to  a  diy-kiln, 
where  it  is  left  till  the  surplus  water  has  evaporated.  After  this  it  is 
charged  back  into  the  tank  still  moist. 

This  second  handling  and  drying  cannot  be  dispensed  with,  as  the  ore 
after  leaching  is  too  wet  to  permit  of  the  free  passage  of  chlorine.    If  the 


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836  PROCESSES  OF  ORE  TREATME19T. 

ore  be  cupriferous,  much  copper  will  be  carried  out  with  the  gold  solution 
(after  it  has  been  chlorinated),  colouring  it  green. 

An  application  of  the  leaching  process  to  the  pan-amalgamation  of 
very  base  ores,  which  has  been  invented  by  Mr.  Kustel,  deserves  notice. 
He  states  that  it  is  applicable  to  silver  ores,  like  those  of  Flint,  Idaho, 
containing  base-metals,  and  also  to  auriferoas  copper  ores,  which  by 
their  nature  require  roasting,  as  the  amalgamation  of  gold  is  very  much 
obstructed  by  the  presence  of  copper  salts.  If  there  be  soluble  chloride  of 
silver  in  the  roasted  ore,  and  besides  this,  soluble  chlorides  of  copper,  lead, 
antimony,  and  zinc,  they  will  all,  as  a  matter  of  course,  be  decomposed 
and  amalgamated. 

All  take  part  in  consuming  and  flouring  the  quicksilver  and  in  destroy- 
ing the  pan,  such  a  combination  as  the  above  hindering  the  amalgamation 
of  the  silver  and  gold.  The  base-metal  chlorides  being  soluble  in  water, 
while  the  chloride  of  silver  is  not,  it  is  a  simple  expedient  to  dissolve  out 
these  salts  by  leaching  with  hot  water,  and  thus  remove  them  from  the 
ore,  prior  to  amalgamation.  The  ore  being  thus  divested  of  its  rebellious 
features,  gives  excellent  results  in  the  pans. 

LixrviATiON  verstis  Amalgamation. 

In  comparing  the  Kussel  process  with  amalgamation,  Mr.  Stetefeldt* 
enumerates  the  principal  points  in  favour  of  lixiviation  as  follows : — 

1.  In  amalgamation,  the  coarseness  of  crushing,  without  considering 

the  question  of  roasting,  is  limited  by  the  capacity  of  the 
settler  to  work  off  coarse  sands  without  loss  of  quicksilver. 
In  lixiviation  pulverizing  as  coarse  as  possible  is  desirable. 

The  limit  of  coarseness  depends  on  the  character  of  the 
ore,  and  principally  upon  the  manner  in  which  the  silver- 
bearing  minerals  are  distributed  in  the  gangue. 

2.  The  original  cost  of  the  lixiviation-plant  is  much  lower  than 

that  of  pans  and  settlers,  and  a  further  saving  is  effected  by 
a  reduction  in  the  size  of  engines  and  boilers. 

8.  In  amalgamation  the  pans  and  settlers  consume  not  less  than 
1^  horse-power  per  ton  of  ore.  The  power  for  pumping 
solutions,  etc.,  in  the  lixiviation  process,  is  merely  nominal. 

4.  In  large  mills  the  quantity  of  quicksDver  in  solution  repre- 
sents a  capital  of  80,000  to  40,000  dollars  (£6,250  to 
£8,388  6s.  8d.),  while  the  stock  of  chemicals  required  for 
lixiviation  costs  less  than  one-tenth  of  this  amount. 

♦  27ie  Liaivwtion  of  Silver  Ores^  page  4. 


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PB0CRS8E8  OF  ORE  TREATMENT.  387 

5.  With    the    finaael   improvements    the    percentage    of    silver 

extracted  by  Ikiviation  is  in  most  cases  higher  than  by 
amalgamation. 

6.  Lixiviation  by  the  Rossel  process  requires  a  less  careful  chlor- 

idizing-roasting,  and  in  consequence  a  lower  percentage  of 
salt  may  be  used  in  roasting. 

7.  Ores  that  can  be  successfully  treated  by  raw  amalgamation  give 

often  better  results  by  lixiviation  with  extra  solution. 

8.  The  value  of  the  quicksilver  lost,  and  cost  in  wear  and  tear  of 

the  pans  and  settlers  amounts  to  more  than  that  of  the 
chemicals  consumed  in  the  lixiviation  process. 

9.  The  lixiviation  process  permits  of  the  extraction  of  copper  and 

lead  as  valuable  bye-products. 

10.  Amalgamation  is  invariably  injurious  to  the  labourers'  health. 

11.  Where  gold-bearing  silver-ores  have  been  roasted  with   salt, 

lixiviation  extracts  in  many  cases  more  gold  than  amalga- 
mation. 
The  disadvantages  of  lixiviation  as  compared  with  amalgamation 
are: — 

1.  Lixiviation  requires  more  chemical    knowledge  and  a  more 

careful  supervision  of  the  operations. 

2.  The  handling  of  large  volumes  of  solutions  is  a  disadvantage 

common  to  all  humid  processes. 

3.  There  is  more  danger  of  losing  silver  by  careless  manipulation, 

and  by  leakage  of  badly  constructed  plant. 

4.  In  the  lixiviation  process  the  precious  metals  are  obtained  in  the 

form  of  sulphides.    The  conversion  of  the  latter  into  bullion, 

requires  more  skill  and  is  more  expensive  than  the  handling 

of  amalgam. 

The  chemistry  of  the  process  has  been  most  ably  discussed  and  dealt 

with  by  Mr.  Stetefeldt  and  Mr.  Ellsworth  Daggett,*  and  treated  of  in  the 

Report  of  the  Galifomian  State  Mineralogist^  1888,  which  contains  an 

independent  article  upon  the  hydro-metallurgy  of  silver,  as  well  as  a 

critical  review  of  the  Russel  process  by  Mr.  C.  H.  Aaron.f 

The  writer  gathers  from  these  various  sources  that  it  is  with  roasted 
ores  which  have  an  alkaline  reaction  caused  by  the  presence  of  caustic 
lime  (as,  for  example,  the  alkaline  arsenical  ores  of  Las  Yedras,  Sinaloa, 
Mexico,)  that  the  Russel  process,  as  compared  with  the  ordinary  Yan 
Patera  process  (leaving  the  Eiss  process  out  of  the  question),  has 
*  Trans,  Am.  InH.  Min.  Eng,y  toI.  xtI.,  page  362.  t  P<^  S^^* 

VOL,  T^WBa^.  22 


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838  PBOGESSES  OF  ORE  TREATMENT. 

acliieyed  its  greatest  sacoess,  bat  it  is  possible  that  it  may  meet  with 
a  fonnidable  rival  in  this  provinoe  in  the  new  departure  of  pyritic 
smelting.* 

Looking  at  a  number  of  examples  that  are  given  it  would  appear  that 
the  extraction  in  the  mill  by  the  Patera  process  shows  a  difference  in 
certain  instances,  in  favour  of  the  Bussel  process,  of  22  to  30  per  cent,  of 
the  silver  extracted. 

A  table  given  by  Mr.  C.  H.  Aaron  also  shows  the  resulls  of  a  series  of 
competitive  mill-runs,  extending  over  eight  months  at  the  Ontario  Mill 
(on  Ontario  ore),  in  which  the  percentage  extracted  by  the  Russel  process 
varied  from  84-7  to  93*9  per  cent,  (or  on  the  average  about  91'17  per 
cent.)  as  against  65'3  to  84*9  per  cent,  (or  on  the  average  77"4  per  cent.) 
extracted  by  amalgamation,  treating  ore  which  ran  about  47  ozs.  per  ton 
roasted.  The  tailings  from  the  amalgamation  still  carried  10*76  ozs.  per 
ton  on  the  average,  whilst  the  lixiviation-taUings  only  ran  4*3  ozs. 

Experiments  at  the  same  works  from  November,  1887,  to  January, 
1888,  on  an  ore  which  ran  43*76  ozs.  in  silver,  showed  that  82*1  per  cent, 
was  extracted  by  amalgamation,  as  against  91*5  per  cent,  by  the  Bussel 
process. 

On  the  whole,  however,  taking  the  results  of  five  different  mills  it 
would  seem  that  whilst  amalgamation  gave  an  average  of  80*7  per  cent., 
the  fiussel  process  averaged  89*4  per  cent.,  or  8*7  per  cent,  above  the 
results  of  amalgamation,  and  4*8  per  cent,  better  than  could  be  extracted 
with  ordinary  solution  making  the  latter  tests  in  the  laboratory. 

It  is  therefore  to  be  inferred  that,  in  the  case  of  certain  ores  which 
have  been  specified,  the  Russel  process  extracts  more  silver  than  amalga- 
mation, but  it  is  to  be  also  noted  that  in  the  case  of  four  of  the  mills 
taken  as  examples,  the  percentage  extracted  by  amalgamation  is  certainly 
10  per  cent,  less  than  in  many  mills  where  roasting-milling  is  practised, 
and  therefore  cannot  be  altogether  regarded  as  typical  of  the  capabilities 
of  the  latter  process  in  certain  cases. 

The  ore,  for  example,  of  the  Ontario  mine  is  very  base,  containing, 
as  before  pointed  out,  zinc,  lead,  and  silver  sulphides,  as  well  as  chlorides, 
in  a  quartz  gangue,  and  therefore  the  comparative  success  of  the  process 
in  this  instance,  even  from  a  purely  chemical  standpoint,  scarcely  fore- 
shadows it  as  a  universal  fact. 

Next,  as  regards  capital  outlay,  Mr.  Stetefeldt  gives  the  cost  of  a  plant 
for  dry-crushing  and  roasting  80  tons  a  day  as  follows  : — 

•  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  more  details  of  the  cost  and  working  of  this  prooess 
are  not  at  present  available. 


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PROCESSES  OF  OBE  TREATMENT. 


839 


Buck-eye  engine,  72  to  121 'horse-power 

Knowles,  feed-pump.  No.  S      

Heater       ( 

Air-pump  and  condenser  ) 

Two  Krom  rock-breakers  

Three  double-shelf  dry  kilns     

Two  sets  Krom  26  inches  rolls 

Two  Krom  screens  

Stetefeldt  furnace  

Hoist,  with  cage  and  safety-catches  ... 
Shaftings,  bearings,  pulleys,  wire-rope 

transmission 

Electric    light    plant,    with    separate 

engine  for  dynamos 

Belting      

Elevators,  conveyors,  feeders,  hoppers, 

cone-puUey     


JchkinLbf 

DoUan. 

15,000     ... 

1,776-00 

640     ... 

275-00 

2,000    ... 

(     175-00 
45000 

12,000     ... 

1,500-00 

70,000     ... 

2,700-00 

29,000    ... 

4,500-00 

1,200     ... 

800-00 

49,000     ... 

8,000-00 

2,000     ... 

600-00 

18,000     ... 

1,300-00 



1,700-00 



1,000-00 



1,000-00 

s.    d. 


20,776-00      -     4,828     2    6 


6,772-70      ...     1.310  .19    7 


Add  the  cost  of  four  40  horse-power  high- 
pressure  boilers  

Add  the  cost  of  the  lixiviation-plant 
proper,*  with  a  capacity  of  80  to  170 
tons  of  roasted  and  raw  ore,  if  the 
tailings  are  removed  by  sluicing ;  70 
to  140  tons,  if  the  tails  are  to  be 
shovelled         

Add  the  cost  of  painting  vats  and  tanks 
with  three  coats  of  white  paint,  say, 
746  lbs.  of  white  lead  and  41-7  gals, 
oil,  occupying  one  man  34  days  to 
lay  on 

Add  the  cost  of  plant  for  refining  sul- 
phides by  the  humid  process  esti- 
mated (erected)  at 

Add  the  cost  of  grading  and  founda- 
tion to  the  mill  structure  and  plant 
it  contains  (which  it  is  only  pos- 
sible to  figure  in  accurately  by 
knowing  the  exact  quantities  of 
material  and  the  time  of  skilled  and 
ordinary  workmen  employed  on  the 
job)      

•  This  includes  finished  lumber  and  hoops  for  6  lixiviation-tanks,  3  storage- 
tanks,  and  6  precipitating-tanks,  1  sulphide  storage-tank,  2  solution-sumps,  cast  and 
wrought-iron  fixtures  for  vats  and  tanks,  pipes,  valves,  steam-hose,  1  sodium 
sulphide  mixing  and  2  storage-tanks,  8  Korting  ejectors.  No.  4  Knowles  fire-pump, 
(siBe  A),  for  sluicing  tails;  Knowle  plunger-pump  for  pumping  solutions,  1  John- 
son 18  inches  filter-press,  1  Johnson  pressure- tank,  and  a  Knowles  feed-pump, 
No.  2,  for  boiler. 


5,000-00      ...     1,041  13     4 


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340 


PBOOESSES  OF  ORE  TREATMENT. 


Add  finally  freight  and  transport 
charges^  depending  on  the  locality, 
and  it  will  be  foand  that  the  total 
cost  is  not  so  far  short  of  a  pan- 
amalgamation  plant  of  the  same 
capacity  as  might  be  supposed       ...         ...  „, 

Now,  let  UB  glance  at  the  working  expenses  of  running  a  lixiviation- 
plant  which  are  given  by  Mr.  Stetefeldt  for  a  mill  of  80  tons  capacity 
per  day : — 

Fuel,  engine  and  boilers*  

Boiler  lixiviating-building 

Dry  kiln  ore  and  salt  

Stetefeldt  farnace,  depending  on  quality 

of  wood  and  character  of  ore 

Sulphide  refinery  for  roasting,  refining,  and 
melting  bars  in  a  reverberatory  furnace 

Total    ... 


Oorda  of  Wood. 

TonaofOoaL 

6  to  6 

2ito3 

3 

n 

H 

If 

6}  to  8} 


19  to  22 


The  cost  of  labour  per  day  would  be  as  follows : 

Ko.  of  Workmen. 


Engine  and  boilers  . 


Ore-house 


Hoan  of  Work. 
...     12 


Dry  kilns 


Rolls 

Stetefeldt  furnace 
Cooling-floor... 
Lixiviations  ... 


2  engineers 

2  firemen      12 

2  rock-breakers       10 

2  wheeling  ore        10 

4  bringing  ore  from  ore-hoQgc  and  charging  kilns  12 

2  discharging  kilns 12 

2  firemen  also  attending  salt-kilns  and  assisting 

rolls        12 

2  machinists 12 

3  firemen       8 

12  discharging,  cooling,  and  charging  vats         ...  8 

2  lixiviators 12 

3  helpers        12 

2  precipitators         12 

2  firemen  on  boilers,  pumps,  and  pipes 12 

2  handling  sulphides           12 

roasters  and  refiners         10 

night  foreman       12 

machinist 10 

carpenter 10 

blacksmith            10 

general  helps        12 

assayers'  help        12 

„      1  blacksmith's  Help 10 

„      1  electrician — 

„       1  bookkeeper            — 

„       1  assayer       — 

„       1  chief  metallurgist           — 

„      i  chief  mining  engineer — 

„      2  men  and  team  hauling  wood     — 

Total  ..."62J 

^  It  is  assumed  that  1  cord  of  wood  is  equal  in  effect  to  1,000  lbs.  of  coal. 


Refinery 

...     2 

MiU 

„ 

1, 

»»      

„      ...        ... 

„ 

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PROCESSES  OF  ORE  TREATMENT.  341 


The  daily  consamption  of  chemicalB  is  as  follows : — 


Copper  stilphate 
iSodium  hyposulphite 
Caustic  soda     ... 

Sulphur 

Sulphuric  acid  ... 


Per  Ton  of  Ore. 
Lbe. 

,     1-8     to  9-6 

.     1-5     to  7 

.     1-4    to  7-76 

0-9    to  5 

0-25  to  1-80 


The  water  required  is  fix)m  9  to  55  cubic  feet  per  ton  of  ore,  exclusive 
of  that  used  for  sluicing  tailings. 

The  cost  of  wear  and  tear  to  cover  all  ordinary  breakages,  and  wear 
and  tear  of  machinery,  boilers,  screens,  dry  kilns,  furnaces,  lixiviation- 
plant,  and  refinery,  including  lubricants,  electric  light,  and  sundries,  is 
about  £7  58.  lOd.  per  day.  For  plants  of  small  capacity  the  expenses 
per  ton  of  ore,  for  labour,  are,  of  course,  materially  increased.  To  the 
above  must  be  added  insurance,  taxes,  interest,  legal  expenses,  etc.,  and 
amortization  on  the  capital  invested  in  the  mill. 

The  total  expenses  at  Cusi,  Mexico,  including  refining,  are  said  to 
have  been  £2  lOs.  4d.  i)er  ton,  using  the  Russel  process. 

For  roasted  ore  at  the  Sierra  Grande  mill.  Lake  Valley,  the  total  mill 
expenses  for  60  tons  per  day  were  estimated  by  the  general  manager, 
Mr.  Hadley,  at  19s.  4d.  per  ton. 

At  Parral,  Mexico,  the  total  expenses  for  the  treatment  of  tailings 
(from  ore  which  had  originally  been  rojisted  and  lixiviated  by  the  ordinary 
process)  were  8s.  9d.  per  ton  for  40  tons  per  day.  Treating  roasted  ores 
at  the  rate  of  10  tons  per  day  the  total  expenses  were  £1  18s.  l^d.  per  ton. 
The  cost  of  raw-leaching  tailings  at  Silver  Reef,  Utah,  treating  25 
tons  per  day  (the  tailings  assaying  6^  to  9  J  ozs.  of  silver  but  no  gold),  is 
given  by  Mr.  Egleston*  as  6s.  lOj^d.  j^er  ton,  the  percentage  extracted 
averaging  55  to  60  per  cent.  The  presence  of  copper  carbonate  in  these 
ores  caused  the  sulphides  to  have  a  low  percentage  of  silver  (3,560  ozs. 
per  ton)  and  a  high  tenour  of  copper. 

Treating  tailings  from  amalgamation-works  at  Silver  City,  concen- 
trated up  to  80  ozs.  per  ton  silver,  it  is  asserted  that  the  Van  Patera 
process  only  extracted  38  per  cent,  against  72*4  obtained  by  the  Russel 
process. 

Mr.  Stetefeldt  states  that  in  a  well-constructed  lixiviation-mill  the 
total  expenses  for  treating  75  tons  of  raw  ore  per  day  should  not  exceed 
128.  6d.  per  ton,  and  under  favourable  circumstances  should  fell  as  low 
as  10s.  5d.  per  ton,  particularly  if  the  crushing  were  done  by  rolls  instead 
of  stamps. 

*  Metallurgy  of  Silver,  page  632. 


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842  PBOGB88E8  OF  ORE  TREATMENT. 

The  chemicals  reqaired  to  be  carried  in  stock  for  a  lixiviation-plant 
of  80  tons  daily  capacity  are  estimated  in  an  assnmed  case  as  amounting 
to  about  £878  Os.  2d.,  to  last  for  60  days,  including  sodium  hyposulphite 
in  stock  solution. 

Mr.  Stetefeldt,  page  213,  says :  "  The  Ontario  mill  expenses  arc  about 
£2  14s.  2d.*  per  ton,  those  for  lixiviation  would  be  about  £1  Os.  lOd.  to 
£1  5s.  less,  or  a  difference  in  favour  of  the  Russel  process  of  £1  Os.  lOd. 
to  £1  5s.  in  expenses,  which,  together  with  the  additional  extraction 
of  17s.  IJd.,  would  make  a  total  net  difference  of  £1  17s.  6d.  to  £2  Is. 
8d.  per  ton  in  favour  of  lixiviation." 

As  already  remarked,  however,  in  this  the  favourite  instance  taken 
for  comparison  of  the  two  processes,  the  mill  extraction  by  amalgamation 
is  not  nearly  so  high  as  it  might  be.  and  in  the  same  way  the  cost,  is 
nearly  1 28. 6d.  above  the  average  of  many  amalgamation- works.  Compare, 
for  example,  the  expenses  of  mill  B  of  the  Granite  Mountain  Co.  (43 
stamps)  for  the  year  ending  July  3rd,  1891,  and  it  will  be  found  that  the 
milling  charges  did  not  exceed  £2  4s.  8d.  per  dry  ton,  treating  19,463 
tons  dry,  whilst  in  the  case  of  the  Elkhom  mill,  which  treated  11,645  tons, 
the  cost  was  only  £1  18s.  S^d. 

If  one  compares  the  amount  of  labour  required  in  a  lixiviation  and  an 
ordinary  amalgamation-mill  in  places  where  labour  is  dear,  save  in 
some  exceptioi]al  cases,  lixiviation  must  be  the  more  costly  process  of  the 
two,  and  it  is  in  fact  in  countries  like  Mexico,  where  the  conditions  in 
this  and  other  respects  are  favourable  that  it  will  find  its  widest  adoption, 
until  the  labour  costs  common  to  all  processes  of  the  kind  can  be  reduced 
considerably. 

In  confirmation  of  this  statement  the  writer  may  cite  the  Geddes  and 
Bertrand  mill,  Nevadaf  (an  ordinary  lixiviation-plant  dealing  with  50  to 
60  tons  per  day),  the  staff  of  which,  when  running,  consisted  of  60  men, 
whose  wages  amounted  to  £30  63.  3d.  per  day.f  The  cost  of  lixiviation 
milling  (using  rolls)  came  to  £1  7s.  Id.  per  ton,  and  138.  S^A  to  £1  Os.  2d. 
in  silver  was  still  left  in  the  tub-tailings. 

Whilst  leaching  is  doubtless  applicable  to  certain  ores  in  certain 

*  Mr.  Egleston  gives  the  actual  running  expenses,  treating  Ontario  ore  by  amal- 
gamation on  a  production  of  50  tons  per  day  as  £3  2b.  7d.,  agreeing  with  Mr. 
Rothwell's  figures.  These  works  seem  in  fact  to  have  employed  an  exceptionally 
large  staff  for  a  4()  stamp  mill,  viz.,  66  to  72  men. 

f  The  failure  of  amalgamation  appears  to  have  been  due  to  the  presence  of 
antimoniate  of  lead  in  the  ore. 

I  Egleston,  "  Leaching  Gold  and  Silver  Ores  in  the  West."  Tram.  Am.  Ifut, 
Mm,  Eng.,  vol.  xii.,  page  40. 


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PROCESSES  OP  ORE  TREATMENT.  843 

localities,  it  is  always  a  process  which  involves  highly  skilled  superin- 
tendence and  chemical  supervision,  otherwise  \eiy  serious  losses  may  be 
incurred  in  roasting,  leaching,  and  precipitating  the  metals,  and  in  this 
way  alone  the  possible  profit  to  be  gained  by  employing  it  may  easily  be 
converted  into  a  positive  loss. 

Treatment  op  the  Sulphides  obtained  from  the  Eussel  Process. 

One  of  the  great  drawbacks  of  the  Russel  process  which  has  been 
referred  to,  and  which  is  common  to  other  lixiviation  processes  yielding  a 
base  precipitate,  viz.,  the  treatment  of  the  suli)hides  of  lead,  copper,  iron, 
silver,  and  gold,  produced  by  precipitation  with  alkaline  sulphides,  is 
now  believed  to  have  been  overcome  by  a  process  invented  by  Mr.  Cabell 
Whitehead.  This  new  mode  of  treatment,  it  is  stated,  can  be  eflfected  at 
a  cost  of  1^  cents  per  ounce  of  contained  silver,  at  the  same  time  avoiding 
the  frequent  loss  of  silver  that  other  methods  entailed. 

Refining  on  a  cupellation  hearth  (the  old  method  which  is  still  in  use 
in  several  mills)  has  the  disadvantage  of  causing  large  losses  of  silver  by 
volatilization  in  the  previous  roasting,  and  the  locking  up  and  eventual 
loss  of  a  portion  of  the  silver  in  slags,  cupel-bottoms,  and  matte. 

From  80  per  cent,  to  90  per  cent,  only  of  the  silver  charged  was 
obtained  in  the  shape  of  bars.  The  rest  would  be  in  greyish-black 
copper-lead  silver  matte,  which  would  be  formed  early  in  the  operation  in 
the  pasty  slags  which  it  was  impcssible  to  get  rid  of,  and  again  the 
precious  metals  had  a  most  pernicious  faculty  of  sinking,  not  only  into 
the  cupel- bottoms,  but  below  even  into  the  iix)n-pan  and  into  the 
surrounding  brickwork.  All  these  products  had  to  be  treated  again,  or 
shipped  direct  to  a  smelter.  If  they  wei-e  shipped  difiFerences  in  assays, 
and  possible  losses  were  bound  to  occur,  as  the  products  contained  shot 
silver.  If  the  sulphides  were  charged  upon  the  bath  without  undergoing 
a  previous  roasting  under  the  mistaken  idea  of  preventing  the  loss  of 
silver  by  volatilization,  the  same  troubles  occurred  in  even  a  more  pro- 
nounced degree.  If  the  company  shipped  its  sulphides  direct  to  smelt- 
ing or  refining  works,  it  avoided  the  great  losses  of  this  crude  process, 
but  incurred  heavy  expenses  and  discounts,  amounting  to  as  much  as  10 
per  cent,  on  an  average,  in  the  case  of  a  Mexican  mine. 

At  present  interest  centres  on  two  new  processes,  the  one  above 
alluded  to,  invented  by  Mr.  Cabell  Whitehead.  This  process  is  confined  to 
the  treatment  of  the  sulphides  as  they  are  found  in  the  precipitation  tubs 
of  a  lixiviation  plant.    Its  details  have  not  yet  been  made  public,  but  it  is 


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344  t*B0CESSE8  OF  OHE  TREATMENT. 

stated  that  its  snccess  has  been  experimentally  demonstrated,  and  the 
refining  department  of  the  Marsac  mill  of  the  Daly  Mining  Co.,  has  been 
remodelled  with  a  view  to  its  adoption. 

The  other  process  aims  to  get  at  the  root  of  the  difficnlty  by 
precipitating  electrolytically  on  zinc  plates.  Its  success,  whilst  donbtfnl, 
must  yet  be  proven  before  it  is  entitled  to  serious  consideration.* 

Examples  of  the  Kussel  Process. 

The  careful  preparation  of  the  ore  by  a  thorough  chloridizing-roasting 
appears  to  be  one  of  the  chief  points  on  which  the  success  of  the  Russel 
process,  in  such  cases  as  it  may  be  applicable,  turns.  It  does  not  appear 
to  be  adapted  for  the  treatment  of  ores  containing  metallic  silver,  which 
is  comparatively  insoluble  in  cuprous  hyposulphite.  An  account  of  the 
results  of  the  process  at  two  of  the  works  where  it  has  achieved  its  most 
successful  results  may  be  of  interest. 

For  a  description  of  its  working  at  Las  Yedras,  Sinaloa,  Mexico,  the 
writer  is  indebted  to  an  article  in  The  Engineei-ing  and  Mining  Journal^ 
New  York,  dated  January  14th,  1898,t  contributed  by  Mr.  R.  F.  Letts. 
The  Yedras  mine  of  the  Anglo-Mexican  Mining  Company  is  situated  in 
the  north-eastern  comer  of  Sinaloa. 

A  40  stamp  mill  and  a  lixiviation-plant  to  use  the  Patera  or  Kiss 
processes  was  erected  in  1882.  Poor  results  were  obtained,  and  the 
Bruckner  fiimaces  which  had  been  introduced  were  abandoned  for  the 
cruder  but  more  satisfactory  reverberatory,  as  the  latter  did  not  ball  or 
agglomerate  the  roasted  ore.  It  is  estimated  that  the  Patera  process  did 
not  save  over  65  per  cent,  of  the  silver  in  the  roasted  ore. 

The  following  are  two  analyses  of  Yedras  ore,  representing  the  averages 
of  the  ore  treated  at  different  periods : — 

No.  1.  No.  1 

Carbonate  of  lime 33*78  ...  46-50 

Silica           15-13  ...  2600 

Iron 17-33  ...  9'80 

Sulphur       13-31  ...  12-50 

Arsenic        9*82  ...  2*50 

Zinc 4-92  ...  — 

Lead 1-78  ...  — 

Magnesia     ... 2*58  ...  — 

Alumina      l'.S5  ...  — 

No.  1  is  an  analysis  of  the  average  battery  sample  for  one  month.  The 
composition  of  the  ore  varies  greatly.    A  couple  of  months  later,  analysis 

•  The   Engineering   and  Mining  Journal,  New  York,  February   26th,   1898, 
page  169.  f  Page  34. 


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PROCESSES  OF  ORE  TREATMENT.  345 

No.  2  was  made ;  the  battery  samples  for  several  weeks  showed  4  per 
cent,  of  zinc,  and  two  months  later  contained  a  large  percentage  of 
antimony. 

The  results  by  using  the  Patera  process  were  as  follows : — Assay  of 
ore,  60*67  ounces  per  ton ;  extraction  in  assay  oflBce,  7209  per  cent. ; 
extraction  in  mill,  67*12  per  cent. ;  total  leaching  time,  92  hours. 

By  the  Russel  process  the  results  were  as  follows : — Assay  of  ore,  65*3 
ounces  per  ton ;  extracted  by  old  process  in  assay  office,  69*94  per  cent. ; 
extracted  by  Russel  process  in  assay  office,  88*62  per  cent. ;  extracted  by 
Russel  process  in  mill,  82*44  per  cent. ;  leaching  time,  76  hours. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  extraction  by  the  Russel  process  was 
15*32  per  cent,  higher  than  by  the  old  process,  and  that  the  leaching  time 
was  16  hours  shorter.  The  chemicals  consum'ed  per  ton  of  ore  were  as 
follows : — 


OldProoeas. 

BuBsel  Prooesa. 

Lbs. 

Lla. 

Lime           

9-7 

— 

Sulphur       

4-7 

3-6 

Hyposulphite  of  soda 

— 

1-4 

Bluestone 

— 

9-6 

Caustic  soda 

— 

6-6 

Total 

...       14-4 

20-1 

Cost  per 

ton 

...       SO-62  - 

2s.  2d.  $2-20  =  98.  2d. 

Since  these  runs  were  made,  the  consumption  of  chemicals  has  been 
reduced  to  9*14  lbs.  jer  ton  of  ore  and  the  cost  to  0*82  dollars. 

Owing  to  the  gretit  distance  from  the  railroad,  the  price  of  chemicals 
in  Yedras  is  of  course  considerably  greater  than  at  most  places  in 
the  United  Stat^is  or  at  many  localities  in  Mexico.  The  average  cost  of 
chemicals  per  lb.  at  Yedras  for  the  last  three  years  is  as  follows : — Hypo- 
sulphite of  soda,  8  cents;  bluestone,  10  cents;  caustic  soda,  9*1  cents; 
and  sulphur,  7*1  cents.  No  soda  ash  (sodium  carbonate)  is  used  at  Yedras 
as  there  is  usually  no  lead  in  the  ore.  The  total  cost  of  all  chemicals  at 
Yedras  in  1890  was  3*6  cents  per  ounce  of  silver  produced.  Of  the  copper 
used  in  the  form  of  bluestone  about  50  per  cent,  remains  in  the  ore. 

During  the  past  five  years  the  comparative  efficiency  of  the  two  pro- 
cesses at  the  Yedras  mill  has  been  tested  four  times.  The  duration  of 
each  of  these  tests  was  from  one  to  three  months.  Two  methods  were 
pursued  in  making  these  comparative  runs.  One  was  to  divide  the 
roasted  ore  equally  between  the  two  processes,  running  one-half  the  ore 
vats  and  precipitating-tanks  on  the  old  process  and  the  other  half  by  the 
Russel  process,  the  products  being  kept  entirely  separate,  and  the  tailings 
from  each  process  thrown  out. 


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S46  PROCESSES  OF  ORE  TREATMENT. 

By  this  method,  however,  there  is  a  loss  of  8  or  J  0  ounces  per  ton  on 
all  ore  treated  by  the  old  leaching  process,  as  that  amount,  which  might 
be  extracted  by  the  Eussel  process  if  it  were  used  on  the  same  charges 
after  the  old  process,  remains  in  the  tailings. 

In  the  other  method  all  the  charges  are  treated  first  by  the  old  process, 
that  is,  by  the  simple  hyposulphite  solution,  until  no  more  silver  can  be 
extracted,  the  sulphides  being  precipitated  by  themselves  and  kept 
separate.  Then  these  same  charges  of  ore  are  treated  by  the  Bussel 
process,  that  is,  by  cuprous  hyposulphite  or  extra  solution.  The  pre- 
cipitates from  this  solution  are  likewise  kept  separate.  In  this  way 
a  comparison  between  the  two  processes  is  made  without  any  loss,  each 
charge  of  oi-e  having  the  benefit  of  being  treated  by  both  processes  before 
it  is  thrown  out.  In  fact;  this  is  the  way  all  the  ore  is  treated  at  Yedras, 
all  charges  being  first  treated  by  the  old  method,  and  then  by  the  Russel 
process. 

The  first  of  the  two  comparative  runs  was  made  by  Mr.  Letts  between 
the  two  processes  in  September,  1890  ;  the  test  lasting  a  month. 

An  extract  from  his  report  to  the  Anglo-Mexican  Company  runs  as 
follows  : — "  Our  intention  was  to  give  the  old  process  every  possible  show. 
Great  care  was  taken  to  keep  the  precipitates  separate,  both  at  the  begin- 
ning and  end  of  the  month.  During  the  month  no  experiments  or  extra 
clean-up  was  carried  out.  In  making  the  test  we  allowed  the  old  process 
to  take  out  all  it  could  take,  i.e.,  we  ran  the  vats  (by  the  old  process)  so  long 
as  sodium  sulphide  would  show  the  least  trace  of  silver  in  the  solution. 

When  the  old  process  would  not  take  any  more  silver  out,  the  extra 
solution  of  the  Russel  process  was  applied,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  the  old 
process,  was  run  as  long  as  sodium  sulphide  showed  any  ti-ace  of  silver." 

The  actual  clean-ups  from  the  two  processes  were  as  follows  : — 

Onnoes. 

Extracted  by  the  old  leaching  process 26,361*42 

Additional  extracted  by  the  Russel  process      5,088*76 


Total  produce        31,450*18 

Per  cent,  of  total  produce  extracted  by  old  process     ...  83*8 

Per  cent,  of  total  produce  extracted  by  Russel  process  16*2 

The  total  additional  cost  of  the  Russel  process,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
extra  expense  of  producing  6,088*76  ounces  over  the  cost  of  the  old 
process  was  as  follows  :— Chemicals,  632-50  dollars  ;  fuel,  21-21  dollars ; 
extra  help,  etc.,  155-60  dollars;  total,  809-31  dollars  (£166  14s.  7id.). 
At  the  then  price  of  sOver,  the  5,088*76  ounces  equalled  5,85207  dollars. 
Deducting  the  above  exi)en8es  5,042*76  dollars  (£1,050  lis.  6d.)  is  left 
as  the  net  profit  per  month  due  to  the  extra  treatment. 


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PKOCBS8B8  OF  ORB  TRBATMBNT.  347 

Another  test  was  carried  out  during  the  month  of  November,  1890. 
In  this  ran  the  total  cost  of  chemicals  per  ton  was  95  cents  (3s.  ll^d.). 
Of  the  total  number  of  ounces  extracted,  the  old  process  took  out  80*29 
per  cent.,  and  the  Russel  process  the  remaining  19'71  per  cent.  The 
additional  ounces  of  silver  extracted  by  the  Russel  process  over  the  old 
process  were  7,65»-7,  or  (with  silver  at  1-025  dollars  (4s.  S^d.)  per  ounce) 
7,845*04  dollars,  making  a  net  profit  due  to  the  use  of  the  Russel  system 
of  about  7,000  dollars  per  month. 

All  the  tailings  which  have  been  produced  at  the  Yedras  mill,  by  the 
old  process  before  the  introduction  of  the  Russ6l  process  in  1887,  have 
now  been  treated  by  the  latter.  The  tailings  are  brought  from  the  old 
dumps  where  they  were  thrown  out  in  former  years,  and  are  charged  direct 
to  the  leaching  vats  without  any  drying,  roasting,  or  other  treatment. 
Like  the  charges  of  ore,  they  are  leached  with  water  in  order  to  remove 
the  small  percentage  of  soluble  salts  present ;  this  washing  requiring 
about  four  hours.  A  small  percentage  of  ordinary  hyposulphite  solution 
is  then  applied,  since  the  volume  of  the  extra  solution  is  only  enough 
to  saturate  the  charge,  and  as  it  would  become  diluted  to  some  extent 
with  the  wash- water  if  it  followed  it,  the  small  volume  of  ordinary  solution 
is  interposed. 

As  in  treating  ore,  this  extra  solution  amounts  to  13  cubic  feet  per 
ton.  It  is  followed  by  more  of  the  hyposulphite  solution  to  extract  any 
silver  which  has  been  made  soluble  by  the  extra  solution,  but  which  has 
not  passed  out  of  the  charge  with  it,  remaining  mechanically  held  in 
the  pulp. 

The  total  quantity  of  tailings  from  the  old  leaching  process  at  Yedras, 
which  have  been  re-treated  by  the  Russel  process,  is  between  80,000  to 
40,000  tons.     The  following  table  shows  the  results : — 

Eztracfcion  in  Anay  Offioe.  Apparent        Actual  Eztno- 

V—  o„»..^  Old  RuaaeL  Extraction        tlonbyRuBsel 

Year.  UunoM.  ProoeBa.  Procesa.  in  MUL  Proceaa. 

Percent.  Percent.  Per  Cent.  Per  Cent. 

1888  ..,       19-49       ...       37-40  ...       62-70  ...       60-14  ...       6274 

1889  ...       17-23       ...       32-17  ...       67-20  ...       55-96  ...       60-14 
181^0      ...       18-46       ...      38-48  ...      49*26  ...       48-37  ...      46-84 

In  the  above  table,  apparent  extraction  in  mill  is  obtained  by  com- 
paring the  value  of  the  final  tailings  from  the  Russel  process  with  the 
old  tailings,  as  charged  to  the  leaching- vats  (taking  also  into  account  any 
soluble  salts). 

Actual  extraction  in  mill  is  obtained  by  comparing  the  clean-up  in 
silver  with  the  silver  actually  charged  to  the  vats.  The  chemicals  used 
per  ton  of  ore  during  these  three  years  were  as  follows  : — 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


348 


PROCESSES  OF  OUE  TREATMENT. 


Year. 

1888    . 

Lbs. 
..    2-08    .. 

Bine. 
Btone. 

Lbt. 
.    6-32    . 

Caustic 
Soda. 

Lbo. 
..    5-64    . 

Sulphur. 

Lbs. 
.    3-30    .. 

Total 

Chemicals 
per  Ton. 

.     16-24     . 

Ckjstof 
Chemicals 

.   l-4o    6  OJ  .. 

Oonoes 

of  SUtct 

Extracted 

per  Ton. 

.     12-23 

1889    . 

..    1-62    .. 

.    511     . 

..    313    .. 

.    2-69    .. 

.     12-66     .. 

.  1-12    4  8.. 

9-76 

1890    . 

..    1-07    .. 

406    . 

.    2-48    .. 

.    1-71    .. 

.      9-32    .. 

.  0-82    8  6    ... 

6-30 

For  a  description  of  the  Russel  process  at  the  Maraac  mill,  Park  City, 
Utah,  the  writer  is  indebted  to  an  article  by  Mr.  ^Y.  G.  Lamb  in  The 
Enr/ineering  and  Mining  Journal^  New  York,  of  December  17th,  1892.* 
It  was  started  at  these  works  on  January  Ist,  1889,  superseding  amal- 
gamation at  the  end  of  that  year.  The  statistics  of  amalgamation  to 
w^hich  reference  is  made  are  from  the  Ontario  mill  in  the  same  camp. 

In  that  mill,  amalgamation  has  been  in  continuous  use  since  its  start 
in  January,  1887.  As  the  wages  and  prices  of  fuel  and  supplies  are  the 
same  for  the  two  mills,  a  comparison  of  statistics  is  of  value  in  deter- 
mining the  general  efficiency  and  economy  of  the  two  processes,  dealing,  it 
should  be  added,  with  the  same  classes  of  ore,  as  the  accompanying  analyses 
indicate.  The  properties  of  the  two  companies,  the  Ontario  and  Daly, 
adjoin,  and  are  in  fact  on  the  same  vein.  The  equipment  of  the  two 
mills  and  the  staff  employed  are  as  follows : — Ontario,  2  rock-breakers, 
2  rotatory  driers,  40  ore-stamps,  10  salt-stamps,  2  Stetefeldt  furnaces,  24 
pans,  12  settlers,  71  mill  men.  Mai*sac,  1  rock-breaker,  2  rotatory  driers, 
30  ore-stamps,  5  salt-stamps,  1  Stetefeldt  furnace,  6  (16^  feet)  ore- vats, 
8  (9  feet)  precipitating-tanks,  51  mill  men. 

In  the  above  connexion  it  is  to  be  noted  as  before  remarked  that  the 
labour  item  compared  with  figures  given  elsewhere  appears  unusually  high 
at  the  Ontario  for  a  40  stamp  amalgamating-battery,  and  correspond- 
ingly low  for  a  lixiviation-plant  of  the  same  size,  if  the  whole  of  the  staff 
be  included  in  both. 

The  analyses  and  values  of  the  ore  treated  at  the  Ontario  and  Marsac 

mills  for  1891  are  as  follows  (the  samples  on  which  these  analyses  were 

made  being  composed  of  all  the  battery  samples  taken  each  day  during  the 

entire  year) : — 

Silica     

Zinc       

Lead      

Iron        

Sulphur  

Lime      

Magnesia  

Copper   

Silver  (ounces) 

Gold  (ounces) 

*  Page  580. 


Ontario. 
76-0 

Marsao 
76-60 

5-73 

...         ••• 

6-30 

1-80 

3-50 

2-80 

..• 

1-65 

2-23 

...         ... 

0-70 

1-76 

...         ... 

1-32 

0-23 

... 

trace. 

0-29 



0-89 

89-50 

89-10 

0-044 

($0-91)  ... 

0-044  (10-91 « 38.  Sid.) 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


urn. 

Ora. 

Time 
Battery  mn. 

MeBhof 
Screen. 

Rate  of 

OniBhingper 

Day. 

Tom. 

DajB. 

Tons. 

Ontario  (40  stamps)... 

25,660 

341-8       . 

..       26     . 

..       75-0 

Marsac  (30  stamps)... 

24,214 

3470      . 

20     . 

..       700 

PROCESSES  OF  ORE  TREATMENT.  349 

The  following  table  gives  the  crashing  statistics  for  1891 : — 

Rate  of 

Crushing 

per  Stamp, 

per  Day. 

Tom. 

1-87 

2-33 

The  above  difference  in  rate  of  crashing  per  stamp  is  probably  not 
dne  entirely  to  difference  in  mesh  of  screen,  for  Ontario  ore  may  not 
crash  so  fast  as  Daly,  even  in  the  same  battery  and  with  the  same  mesh 
of  screen.  Here  again  we  have  a  matter  which  may  affect  the  relative 
resalts  (supposing  one  process  replacing  the  other)  in  regard  to  cost. 

The  Ontario  prodact  in  bars  of  bullion  averaged  425  fine  in  silver  and 
0*250  fine  in  gold ;  it  contained  also  57*5  per  cent,  copper.  The  Daly 
precipitates,  including  those  from  the  wash- water,  but  not  the  lead  car- 
bonate prodact,  averaged  818  fine  in  silver  and  0*260  fine  in  gold ;  they 
contained  15*8  per  cent,  copper. 

The  cost  of  marketing  the  product  was  3*47  cents  per  ounce  for 
Ontario  bullion  and  3*45  cents  per  ounce  for  Marsac  sulphides.  The 
price  obtained  was  97*55  cents  per  ounce  for  silver  in  Ontario  bullion  and 
97  cents  for  that  in  Marsac  sulphides.  In  the  Marsac  sulphides  shi])ped, 
20*67  cents  per  ounce  was  received  for  the  contained  gold,  against  nothing 
for  that  contained  in  Ontario  bullion. 

The  following  is  the  consumption  of  water,  chemicals,  iron,  and  power 
per  ton  of  ore  at  the  Ontario  and  Marsac  mills  : — 

Mftchint-ry 

ExpeiiHvs. 

DoUara. 

o:u 

0-07 

The  consumption  of  chemicals  has  increased  since  1890  owing  to  the 
adoption  of  hot-solutions.  The  production  increased  2*8  per  cent,  how- 
ever, and  while  the  total  cost  was  increased  7,339*98  dollars  the  net  gain  in 
extraction  after  deducting  the  extra  cost  amounted  to  18,478*92  dollars. 

The  following  are  some  additional  details  of  work  at  the  Marsjic  and 
Ontario  mills  in  1891,  when  the  30  stamp  Marsac  mill  crushed  24,215 
tons  of  ore  through  a  20  mesh  screen  against  25,650  tons  through  a  26 
mesh  screen  at  the  40  stamp  Ontario  mill : — 

Fuel.  Salt  used  »  .k»...  *  Extraction 

Mia  Per  Ton.  in  Roaatiug.  lAOOur.f  of  Silver. 

Dollars.  Per  Cent.  Dollars.  Per  Cent. 

Ontario  (cords  of  wood)  ...      0-153  ...       13-9      ...       0-4«)  ...       90-8 

Marsac  (tons  of  coal)       ...      0*087  ...        8-26     ...       0*31  ...       91-8 

♦  This  is  for  power  for  driving  pans  and  settlers  at  the  Ontario,  and  for  stirring 
and  handling  solution  and  grinding  sulphides  at  Marsac. 

f  Inclades  that  on  the  pans,  amalgam,  and  bullion  at  Ontario ;  and  on  vats  and 
shipment  of  sulphides  at  Marsac. 


Mill 

Wft*^*      Chemicals  and  Mercury. 

"•*"•                                CCfBt. 

Iron. 

Power.* 

Cubic  Feet.               DoUax* 

Lbs. 

Horse-power. 

Ontario 

400         ...          1-315 

5-5 

1U8 

Marsac 

66         ...        0-924 

0-05 

8 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


850 


PROCESSES  OF  ORB  TREATMENT. 


Daring  1892,  up  to  December  Ist,  the  percentage  of  salt  used  at 
Ontario  had  been  increased  to  14*2  per  cent.,  and  that  at  Marsac  9*5  per  . 
cent.  The  extraction  at  the  Ontario  mill  remained  at  90'8  per  cent.,  and 
that  at  the  Marsac  91*9  per  cent.  It  is  probable  that  the  extraction  at 
the  latter  works  wonld  be  increased  if  the  cooling  floor-space  were  enlarged, 
80  as  to  allow  the  ore  to  cool  without  wetting  down.  This  would  increase 
the  expense,  it  is  estimated,  by  only  13  cents  per  ton. 

The  following  is  the  detailed  annual  cost  of  the  lixiviation  department 
at  the  Marsac  mill : — 


Dollm. 


I>olUn.    8.     d. 


Labour — 

1    foreman,    |5-00;    3     leachers,     $4*00;    S 

shovellers,      $3*00 ;     1    pressman,     $3-50  ; 

1    labourer,  $1-50            

16,790-00    ... 

0-6934  «  2 

lOJ 

Chemicals —                                       DoUmb.       Dolbun. 

Hyposulphite  ...     152,808  lbs.  at  -0362  -  5,531-64 

Bluestone        ...       78,669  lbs.  at  -0641  -  5,036-27 

Caustic            ...     119,741  lbs.  at  -0555  -  6,645-62 

Bulphur          ...      80,486  lbs.  at  -0257  «  2,068-49 

Soda  ash         ...      22,309  lbs.  at -0317  -     707-19 

19,989-00    ... 

0'8265-3 

H 

Repairs — 

1    machinist,  $4-00 ;  materials  and  supplies. 

$2-60  per  day 

2,372-60    ... 

0-0979-0 

41 

Power                

3,139-89    ... 

0-1297-0 

H 

Assay  office       

2,008-82    ... 

0-0830-0 

H 

Totafcost      $44,350-21  ...  $1-8296-7    7i 

Figures  for  the  following  comparison  of  the  Ontario  and  Marsac 
results  for  1891  are  taken  from  the  respective  reports  of  the  Ontario  and 
Daly  mining  companies  : — 


Ontario- 
Cost  of  milling  per  ton     

Product  expense     

Marsac — 

Cost  of  millinf;  per  ton    

Product  expense     

Difference  in  favour  of  Marsac    ... 

Ontario — Mill  extraction  

Marsac  „  

Difference  in  favour  of  Marsac    ... 

Ontario— Realized  from  gold 

Mai-sac  „  „  

Difference  in  favour  of  Marsac    ... 

Total  difference  claimed  In  favour 
of  Buasel  piocess       


DollMi. 

8-93 
1-23 


6-27 
1-234 


91-0096 
91-57  „ 


DoUms. 


jB   s.     d. 


10-16     -     2     2     4 


7-604   •- 
2-66     - 


0-57  „    -  0-2IJ   - 

0-00 

0-63} 


1  11     3 
0  II     1 


0    0  lOf 


0-63J  -     0    0    7| 


3-61 


0  14    7^ 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


PROCESSES  OF  ORE  TREATMENT.  851 

This  total  difference  of  d'51  dollars  woald,  it  is  asserted,  have  made 
a  saving  of  91,057  dollars,  had  the  Ontario  ore,  amounting  to  25,650  tons 
in  1891,  been  treated  by  the  Russcl  process.  Mr.  Lamb  sums  up  by 
saying  that  to  treat  about  the  same  number  of  tons  of  ore  per  day,  of 
approximately  the  same  composition  at  the  Marsac  mill,  the  Ontario  mill 
requires  89  per  cent,  more  labour,  30  per  cent,  more  stamps,  more  power, 
twice  the  number  of  furnaces,  48  per  cent,  more  salt,  and  40  per  cent, 
greater  cost  of  chemicals,  and  yields  a  smaller  percentage  of  both  gold 
and  silver  than  the  Marsac  mill  using  the  Russel  process. 

Whilst  this  may  be  true,  a  slight  difference  in  the  composition  of 
the  ore  may  affect  the  extraction,  and  looking  at  the  respective  analyses 
given,  it  seems  hardly  fair  to  assume  that,  even  in  the  case  of  Ontario  and 
Marsac  ores,  the  commercial  results  of  the  lixiviation  treatment  will  be 
exactly  the  same  in  both  cases. 

A  comparison  of  extraction  by  lixiviation  (using  the  Russel  process) 
with  that  by  amalgamation  made  in  1891  at  the  new  works  of  the  Blue 
Bird  mine,  Montana,*  showed  that  the  extraction  by  amalgamation  varied 
from  58*5  per  cent,  to  80  per  cent.,  while  with  lixiviation  it  averaged  84*1 
per  cent.  It  is  claimed  that  the  extraction  might  have  been  8  per  cent, 
higher  (judging  from  experience  elsewhere)  if  the  lixiviation  charges  had 
not  been  wetted  down  hot. 

The  analysis  of  the  battery  samples  for  six  months  showed  the  ore  to 
contain : — 

Percent. 

Silica       64-4 

Sulphur 50 

Iron 3-74 

Lead       4-22 

Zinc        12-8 

Manganese         5*21 

Copper 0-20 

The  cost  of  chemicals  and  quicksilver  averaged  0*80  dollars  for 
amalgamation  and  0*99  for  lixiviation,  using  3'3  to  8*7  lbs.  of  hypo- 
sulphite of  soda,  5-6  to  9  lbs.  of  bluestone,  3*7  to  6*7  lbs.  of  soda  ash, 
4*4  to  5  lbs.  of  caustic  soda,  and  2*5  to  3*4  lbs.  of  sulphur,  making  a  total 
of  18*8  to  27*5  lbs.  of  chemicals  per  ton  of  ore  treated. 

The  leaching  vats  were  filled  with  20  to  70  tons  charges  about  7^ 
feet  deep.  The  first  part  of  the  wash-water  was  run  in  from  below 
the  filter,  while  the  ore  was  being  charged  into  the  vat,  the  leaching  with 
water  being  afterwards  introduced  from  below  downwards  as  soon  as  the  ore 

♦  C.  A.  Hoyt,  The  Engineering  and  Mining  Jmmal^  New  York,  Jan.  7th,  1893, 
pages. 


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352  PROCESSES  OF  ORE  TREATMENT. 

was  charged.  The  base-metal  leaching  was  followed  by  about  100  inches 
in  depth  of  ordinary  solution.  This  was  succeeded  by  about  30  inches 
of  extra  solution,  containing  1  per  cent,  of  bluestone,  which  was  allowed 
to  stand  seven  to  ten  hours.  This  was  again  followed  by  40  to  60 
inches  of  ordinary  solution,  and  then  by  10  inches  of  extra  solution  of 
the  same  strength  as  before,  which  was  allowed  to  stand  seven  to  ten 
hours,  and  finally  50  to  60  inches  of  ordinary  solution  was  run  in  and 
was  expelled  by  the  second  wash-water. 

The  strength  of  the  stock  solution  was  1*6  per  cent,  to  1*9  per  cent,  of 
hyposulphite  of  soda,  whilst  the  extra  solution  contained  in  addition  1  per 
cent,  of  bluestone. 

A.11  solutions  were  kept  at  a  temperature  of  90  to  120  degs.  Pahr., 
11  to  15  per  cent,  of  salt  was  used  in  roasting,  and  the  ore  was  crushed 
on  the  average  to  pass  a  24  mesh  screen,  the  salt  to  20  mesh. 

The  silver  and  gold  were  precipitated  from  both  solutions  and  wash- 
water  with  sodium  sulphide  ;  and  the  lead  by  itself  from  the  solutions  by 
soda-ash. 

Mr.  H.  Lang,  in  a  letter  to  TJie  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal^* 
New  York,  of  March  18th,  1893,  remarks: — "The  Russel  Company 
summarizing  their  claims  declare  that  the  Eussel  process,  both  metallur- 
gically  and  economically,  occupies  the  place  formerly  held  by  :— 1st,  the 
Kiss-patera,  or  old  leaching  process ;  2nd,  amalgamation  of  silver  and 
silver-gold  ores ;  Hrd,  smelting  of  dry  ores,  and  ores  averaging  not  over 
15  per  cent,  lead,  or  such  as  do  not  contain  sufficient  lime  or  iron  to 
make  them  desirable  as  fluxes  in  smelting." 

Without  expressing  an  opinion  on  the  merits  of  the  first  two  claims, 
Mr.  Lang  takes  emphatic  exception  to  the  third  and  says  : — "  In  no  case 
and  under  no  conditions  can  the  Russel  process  treat  basic  ores  as  cheaply 
or  as  efficiently  as  can  the  smelting  processe.?.  With  acid  ores  I  recognize 
in  full  its  advantages,  but  even  with  the  most  siliceous  material  it  is 
(juestionable  if  the  process  can  always  compete  with  matting,  even  when 
silver  alone  is  treated ;  and  when  gold,  copper,  and  other  metals  are 
worked  for,  it  has  no  chance  whatever." 

In  1889,  a  company  of  Oregon  capitalists  erected  a  rather  complete 
Russel  process  mill  at  Mineral,  Idaho  (a  (juarter  of  a  mile  below  the  spot 
where  a  matting  plant  now  stands)  at  a  cost  of  £6,250,  which  was  under 
the  charge  of  a  skilful  leaching-expert,  Mr.  W.  H.  Lamb. 

Mr.  Lamb  laboured  arduously  and  intelligently  through  several  months ; 
but,  in  vain,  the  project  was  a  failure,  and  the  mill  was  shut  down  Jind 
sold  for  a  tenth  of  its  cost  for  other  purposes. 

♦  Page  244. 


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PB0CE8SES  OF  ORE  TREATMENT.  858 

According  to  Mr.  Lang's  information,  the  best  results  reached  76  per 
cent.,  though  it  does  not  appear  whether  this  was  the  extraction,  apparent 
extraction,  or  simply  an  extra  extraction.  He  goes  on  to  add  that  the  ores 
in  question  (of  which  only  the  more  tractable  part  were  sought  to  be  worked 
in  the  Russel  mill)  have  been  bought  by  his  firm  during  the  last  three  years, 
and  successfully  treated  in  matting  furnaces.  That  they  have  made  it  pay 
where  the  Russel  process  failed,  is  a  sufficient  answer  to  the  assertion  that 
the  process  occupies  the  place  of  smelting. 

Treating  the  same  ores,  he  claims  to  be  able  to  do  the  work  at  one-fifth 
the  cost,  and  save  20  per  cent,  more  silver  than  the  Russel  process  claimed 
to  extract. 

The  high  cost  of  treatment  at  these  works  is  stated,  however,  to  have 
arisen  largely  from  faults  of  construction  and  design. 

The  claims  of  the  process  for  the  treatment  of  basic  ores  are  only 
relatively  true.  The  Russel  Company  quote  an  analysis  of  the  Las 
Yedras  ore  (Sinaloa,  Mexico)  and  say  "smelting  being  economically  and 
metallurgicully*  out  of  the  question."  (This  was  said  of  an  ore  containing 
silica,  26  per  cent. ;  calcite,  46  per  cent. ;  iron,  9*8  per  cent. ;  sulphur,  12*5 
per  cent. ;  and  arsenic,  2*5  per  cent.)  Instead  of  being  an  unsmeltable 
combination,  this  ore  is  in  reality  the  finest  smelting  product  in  the  world, 
susceptible  of  l^eing  run  down  at  one  operation  into  a  high-grade  matte, 
and  at  less  than  the  cost  of  the  salt  which  is  now  used  in  roasting.  And 
the  matte  can  then  be  refined,  and  its  total  silver  extracted  at  an  additional 
cost  per  ton  of  original  ore,  not  exceeding  the  cost  of  the  chemicals  now 
used  in  the  Russel  leaching.  Mr.  Lang  bases  this  opinion  on  the  data  given 
in  the  valuable  series  of  papers  by  Mr.  Rockwell,  published  in  The  En- 
gineering ami  Mining  Journal ^^  New  York,  "  On  Roasting,  Chloridizing, 
and  Lixiviation  at  Yedras  mine,  Mexico."  The  Yedras  ore  is  chemically 
nearly  the  same  as  that  of  an  important  mine  near  Mineral  Hill,  of 
which  considerable  quantities  have  been  treated  by  Mr.  Lang's  firm,  the 
difference  being  an  excess  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  Mexican  ore.  This 
is  run  down  without  the  use  of  fluxes  and  without  admixture  of  other  ore. 
using  7  per  cent,  of  coke. 

Employing  a  furniu;e  of  si)ecial  construction  and  by  peculiar  treatment 
of  the  blast,  etc,  the  larger  jmrt  of  the  sulphur  and  arsenic  is  burnt  off, 
and  the  corresponding  proportion  of  iron  and  zinc  is  slagged  off,  effecting 
a  desirable  concentration  of  the  matte  and  at  the  s.ime  time  utilizing  the 
heat  of  combustion  of  the  elements  named.  This  is  pyritic  smelting, 
properly  so-called,  a  branch  of  the  larger  art  of  matte  smelting 

*  The  italics  are  mine.        t  ^^o^-  ^l''**  P^'^S^s  86,  106,  159,  178,  197,  213,  and  283. 

VOL.  T.- 1*2  03.  23 


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854  PROCESSES  OP  ORE  TREATMENT. 

The  waste  of  silver  at  Las  Tedras  must  have  been  prodigious.  Mr. 
Rockwell  mentions  months  of  work  in  which  the  losses  by  volatilization 
varied  from  17  to  25  per  cent.,  the  best  work  attainable  in  his  time 
resulting  in  an  average  loss  of  10  per  cent,  from  that  cause.  The  Russel 
company  have  recorded  it  at  6  or  7  per  cent.  The  total  loss^  now  amount 
to  about  19  per  cent. 

The  Russel  process  has  undoubtedly  been  a  great  improvement  over  the 
old  leaching  with  certain  classes  of  ore,  but  it  is  a  great  wonder  that  the 
management  tolerated  any  lixiviation  methods  whatever. 

Mr.  Lang  states  that  he  holds  the  same  opinion  concerning  the  Aspen* 
and  Marsac  works.  The  composition  of  the  Aspen  ore  (30,000  tons  of 
which  have  been  treated  by  the  Russel  process)  is  lead,  2"27  per  cent. ; 
silica,  21*66  per  cent. ;  sulphate  of  barium,  20*92  per  cent. ;  lime,  10*99 
per  cent. ;  magnesia,  4*24  per  cent. ;  iron,  10*02  jxjr  cent. ;  zinc,  2*85  per 
cent. ;  copper,  16  per  cent. ;  sulphur,  8*10  per  cent. ;  and  arsenic,  traces. 

*  The  probable  cost  of  pyritic  smelting  in  this  district  would  be  under  128.  6d. 
per  ton,  treating  not  less  than  100  tons  per  day. 


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TRANSAGTI0K8.  855 


CHESTERF[ELD  AND  MIDLAND  COUNTIES  INSTITUTION 
OF  ENGINEERS. 


GENERAL    MEETING, 
Held  in  the  Botal  Victoria  Station  Hotel,  Sheffield,  Apbil  8th,  1898. 


Mb.  henry  LEWIS,  President,  in  the  Chaib. 


The  Secretary  announced  the  election  of  the  following  gentle- 
men : — 

M  EMBERS — 

Mr.  Feed  Chambebs,  Assistant  Manager,  Birlej  Collieries,  Sheffield. 

Mr.  Abthub  Stanley  Douglas,  Mining  Engineer,  Hucknall  Torkard,  Not- 
tingham. 

Mr.  William  Elliott,  Mana.s:er,  Blackwell  Collieries,  Alfreton. 

Mr.  John  Gbinhaff,  Under  Manager,  Swadlincote  Old  Colliery,  6urton-on- 
Trent. 

Mr.  Walpobd  Hunt,  Colliery  Manager,  H  aunchwood  Brick  and  Tile  Co., 
Limited,  Nuneaton. 

Mr.  John  Foesteb  Lee,  Colliery  Manager,  Sheepbridge  Ironworks,  Chester- 
field. 

Mr.  George  Watson  Mac  alpine.  Colliery  Proprietor,  Alt  ham  and  Great 
Harwootl  Collieries,  Accrincrton. 

Mr.  James  Mein,  Colliery  Manager,  South  Normanton  Colliery,  Alfreton. 

Mr.  Jacob  Pbabce,  Colliery  Manager,  Boythorpe  Collieries,  Chesterfield. 

Mr.  Henby  Stokbb,  Mining  Engineer,  and  Lecturer  to  the  County  Council 
of  Nottingham,  5,  Argyll  Mount,  Mansfield. 

Mr.  Samuel  Wheatley,  Colliery  Manager,  Nailatonc  Colliery,  Leicestershire. 

Associate  Members^ 

Mr.  ToAC  Wilson  Austin,  Colliery  Deputy,  Grassmoor,  Chesterfield. 
Mr.  George  Ball,  Deputy,  B  Winning,  Blackwell  Collieries,  Alfreton. 
Mr.  Henry  Blair,  Under  Manager,  Alma  Terrace,  Brampton,  Chesterfield. 
Mr.  Aaron  Booth,  Under  Muiager,  B  Winning,  Blackwell  Collieries,  Alfreton. 
Mr.  John  Henshaw,  Under  Manager,  Butterley  Park,  Alfreton. 
Mr.  Walter  Holland,  Under  Manager,  Brampton  Colliery,  Chesterfield. 
Mr.  Herbert    Knighton,  Under  Manager,  High  Park  Colliery,   Greasley, 
Nottingham. 


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856  TBANSACTI0N8. 

Mr.  Thomas  Machin,  Under  Manager,  Blackwell,  Alfreton. 

Mr.  Benjamin  Morris,  Deputy,  Blackwell  Collieries,  Alfreton. 

Mr.  John  Osborne,  Deputy,  Blackwell  Ck)llierie8,  Alfreton. 

Mr.  Charles  Percival,  Deputy,  Linton,  Burton-on-Trent. 

Mr.  Joseph  Percival,  Under  Manager,  Nethereeal  Colliery,  Burton-on-Trent. 

Mr.  William  Arthur  Pughb,  Surveyor,  Butterley  Park,  Alfreton. 

Mr.  Thomas  Severn,  Under  Manager,  Clifton  Colliery,  Nottingham. 

Mr.  Charles  Wildbrs,  Deputy,  Blackwell  Collieries,  Alfreton. 

Mr.  Richard  Woods,  Surveyor,  Jessop  Street,  Codnor,  Derby. 

Students — 

Mr.  Robert  Owen  Db  Kingslby  Hall,  Mining  Surveyor,  Treeton,  Rother- 

ham. 
Mr.  John  William  Lyon,  Mining  Student,  The  Firs,  Annesley,  Nottingham. 
Mr.  Frederick   William    Page,    Mining   Student,  Blackwell    Collieries, 

Alfreton. 
Mr.  Isaac  Saxton,  Mining  Student,  Hasland,  Chesterfield. 
Mr.  Horace  Wilkinson,  Mining  Student,  Blackwell  Collieries.  Alfreton. 


ALTERATION  OF  RULES. 

The  President,  on  behalf  of  the  Council  and  agreeably  with  the 
tenns  of  the  agenda-paper  for  the  meeting,  gave  notice  as  follows ; — "The 
Council  of  the  Federated  Institution  of  Mining  Engineers  having,  in 
accordance  with  their  Bje-law  8a,  desired  all  the  Federated  Institutes  to 
revise  their  rules,  in  order  that  the  members  shall  consist  of  Ordinary 
Members,  Associate  Members,  and  Honorary  Members,  with  Associates 
and  Students,  and  to  adopt  the  model  Bye-law  8b  (see  the  second  page  of 
Federated  Institution  Bye-laws),  a  resolution  to  modify  the  existing  rules 
accordingly,  to  take  effect  from  the  commencement  of  the  current  year, 
will  be  brought  forward  for  discussion  and  determination  at  the  Annual 
Meeting  on  July  1st  next,  in  Chesterfield." 


NOMINATIONS  FOR  ELECTION  OF  OFFICERS. 

The  Chairman  said  the  Council  were  of  opinion  that  there  should  be 
only  one  nomination  for  the  office  of  President,  and  he  had  very  great 
pleasure  in  announcing  the  nomination  of  Mr.  Alfred  Barnes,  who  had 
kindly  consented  to  stand  for  appointment  for  the  ensuing  ywir.  He  was 
sure  he  was  only  expressing  the  opinion  of  the  whole  of  the  members  of 


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TRANSACTIONS.  857 

the  Institution  when  he  thanked  Mr.  Barnes  for  accepting  the  presidency. 
Undoubtedly  his  great  knowledge  of  the  coal  and  iron  trades  would  be  of 
very  great  value  to  that  Institution. 

The  Secretary  announced  the  following  names  of  members  who  had 
been  selected  by  the  Council  for  formal  nomination  at  this  meeting,  viz. : — 
Vice-Presidents :  Messrs.  S.  Alsop,  M.  Deacon,  C.  H.  Oakes,  and  J.  B. 
Smith,  eligible  for  re-election ;  and  in  addition,  Messrs.  W.  D.  Holford, 
M.  H.  Mills,  C.  S.  Smith,  W.  Spencer,  H.  Walters,  and  W.  Wilde; 
Councillors:  Messrs.  A.  G.  Barnes,  6.  J.  Binns,  C.  P.  Markham,  W. 
Salmond,  T.  A.  Southern,  and  W.  E.  Wells,  eligible  for  re-election; 
and  in  addition,  Messrs.  6.  S.  Bragge,  P.  M.  Chester,  J.  Dutson,  H.  R. 
Hewitt,  J.  Humble,  C.  R.  Morgan,  R.  H.  Robinson,  W.  H.  Sankey,  R.  J. 
Strick,  R.  Thornewill,  and  M.  Wolstenholme. 

The  Chairman  asked  if  there  were  any  further  nominations,  and  none 
being  made,  the  above  were  approved  for  ballot. 

Mr.  Alfred  Barnes  said  he  was  much  obliged  to  them  for  having 
nominated  him  to  the  post  of  President  of  that  Institution,  although 
personally  he  would  have  preferred  to  be  untrammelled  by  the  burdens 
of  office.  At  the  same  time,  he  was  desirous  of  doing  as  much  as  he 
could  to  further  the  interests  of  the  trade  in  which  such  a  large  number 
of  them  were  interested.  A  very  unsettled  time  was  coming  upon 
them,  and  considerable  difficulties  would  have  to  be  faced.  They 
were  aware  that  his  knowledge,  so  far  as  the  management  of  a  colliery 
was  concerned,  was  not  now  connected  with  the  details  of  manage- 
ment. That  had  been  out  of  his  hands  for  some  time,  and  members 
therefore  must  not  expect  any  knowledge  of  that  sort ;  but,  so  far  as  the 
parliamentary  part  and  the  commercial  part  of  it  were  concerned,  his  forty- 
five  years'  experience  might  be  of  some  advantage  to  them.  It  might 
interest  some  of  them  to  have  some  information  on  the  official  report  of 
the  Mining  Royalties  Commission.  He  had  got  a  great  deal  of  informa- 
tion on  the  subject.  The  report  and  five  volumes  of  very  valuable  evi- 
dence would  probably  be  out  in  ten  days,  and  then  could  be  purchased  by 
the  public.  As  it  gave  infonnation  of  the  royalties,  etc.,  in  all  the 
countries  in  the  world,  he  thought  every  person  connected  with  a  colliery 
ought  to  read  it. 


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958  TRANSACTIONS. 

REPRESENTATIVES  ON  THE  COUNCIL  OF  THE  FEDERATED 
INSTITUTION  OF  MINING  ENGINEERS. 

The  re-nomination  of  the  present  representatives  was  agreed  to, 
viz.,  Messrs.  G.  Lewis,  J.  Jackson,  J.  A.  Longden,  H.  Lewis,  G.  E.  Coke, 
M.  H.  Mills,  and  W.  Spencer,  with  the  further  nomination  of  Mr.  A. 
Barnes,  in  the  event  of  a  vacancy,  or  in  case  the  increased  number  of 
members  in  the  Institution  should  warrant  an  additional  representative. 


The  meeting  then  closed. 


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TRANSACTIONS.  85d 


CHESTERFIELD  AND  MIDLAND  COUNTIES  INSTITUTION 
OF  ENGINEERS,  AND  MIDLAND  INSTITUTE  OF  MIN- 
ING, CIVIL,  AND  MECHANICAL  ENGINEERS. 


JOINT    MEETING, 
Hkld  at  the  Royal  Victoria  Hotel,  Sheffield,  April  8th,  1898. 


Mb.  W.  E.  GARFORTH  in  the  Chair. 


The  Chairman  said  the  priiicifial  object  of  the  joint  meeting  was 
to  visit  collieries  in  the  district,  but  it  was  also  satisfiictory  to  meet 
together  and  discuss  certain  matters  which  were  brought  before  them. 
The  members  of  the  Institutes  must  be  pleased  to  see  year  after  year  these 
meetings  increase  in  number  and  importance.  They  were  told  at  Derby 
a  few  weeks  ago  that  the  Federated  Institution  of  Mining  Engineers  was 
growing,  and  they  might  look  forward  to  the  time  when  they  should  be 
worthy  of  a  Royal  Charter.  He  thought  it  was  most  essential  that  the 
Transactions  should  be  good,  and  that  all  matters  connected  with  mining 
should  be  brought  before  them  from  the  various  mining  districts  through 
the  Federated  Institution  of  Mining  Engineers.  They  encountered  the 
difficulties  connected  with  increased  depths,  and  when  they  remembered 
that  coal  had  been  already  worked  at  a  depth  of  1,000  yards,  and  that  in 
the  future  it  would  be  worked  at  much  greater  depths,  he  thought  they 
ought  to  take  advantage  of  every  oi)portunity  of  obtaining  scientific 
information.  This  could  be  advantageously  effected  by  each  district 
recording  its  facts  which,  though  perhaps  little  in  themselves,  would,  when 
added  together,  greatly  assist  in  the  education  of  mining  engineers.  This 
was  the  third  occasion  of  a  meeting  at  Sheffield,  and  he  trusted  that 
similar  reunions  would  continue  to  be  held  annually  of  the  members  of 
the  neighbouring  institutes. 


Mr.  W.  HooLE  Chambers  read  the  following  paper  on  the  "Arrange- 
ments for  Sinking  to  the  Whinmoor  Seam  from  the  Silkstone  Seam  at  the 
Tankersley  Collieries" : — 


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860  BIKKIN6   AT  THE  TAMEEBtiLEY  COIXIERIES. 


ARRANGEMENTS  FOR  SINKING  TO  THE  WHINMOOR  SEAM 
FROM  THE  SILKSTONE  SEAM  AT  THE  TANKERSLEY 
COLLIERIES. 


By  W.  HOOLE  chambers. 


On  the  approaching  exhaustion  and  diminution  of  the  output  from 
the  seams  which  have  been  worked  at  the  Taukereley  collieries  for  about 
thirty  years,  it  was  decided  to  utilize  the  existing  plant  for  working 
the  Whinmoor  seam.  It  was  accordingly  determined  to  sink  the  No.  1 
shaft,  which  had  already  won  the  Silkstone  seam  at  a  depth  of  519  feet, 
down  to  the  seam  below,  a  further  depth  of  about  180  feet.  In  order  to 
do  this  successfully,  it  was  necessary  to  provide  that  during  the  drawing 
of  coal  from  the  Silkstone  seam  in  the  day-shift,  the  shaft  at  the 
Silkstone  bottom  was  properly  and  effectually  covered  over.  Further,  it 
was  desirable  that  whatever  was  used  for  this  object,  was  not  only 
substantial  and  strong,  for  the  cage  ligliting  upon  it,  but  also  that  it  could 
be  rapidly  and  expeditiously  removed  and  allow  of  the  sinking  operations 
being  commenced  immediately  after  coal-drawing  was  done  and  the  men 
of  the  first  shift  in  the  SUkstone  seam  were  out  of  the  pit. 

The  No.  1  shaft  is  12  feet  in  diameter.     The  conductors  are  of  wood, 

4  inches  wide  by  4^  inches  deep,  fitted  at  each  end  of  the  cage  :  these 
cease  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  shaft,  and  in  their  place  four  offtakes 
or  guides  are  placed,  one  at  each  corner  of  the  cage,  to  enable  the  full  and 
empty  tubs  to  enter  and  leave  the  cage  at  the  end.  The  full  corves  are 
put  on  at  the  basset  side  of  the  shaft  A  (Fig  1,  Plate  XL).  In  order  to 
provide  a  lorry  for  covering  the  shaft  during  sinking  operations,  two 
beams,  12  inches  square,  were  placed  at  the  top  and  low  side  of  the  pit  and 
let  into  the  brickwork  at  either  side.  Above  these  were  inserted  the  beams 
for  the  lorry  to  run  on,  18  feet  long  and  8  inches  square,  projecting  on 
the  low  or  dip  side  of  the  pit,  the  ground  being  taken  out  for  the  purpose. 
This  excavation  was  made  opposite  the  north-side  cage,  and  measui^ 
8  feet  7  inches  by  6  feet  by  2  feet  6  inches.  These  beams  are  4|  feet 
apart;  the  rails  for  the  lorry  are  fixed  upon  them.     The  rail-gauge  is 

5  feet  2^  inches.  The  lorry  is  of  ordinary  construction,  and  its  top  is 
covered  with  metal  flags,  and  is  of  such  a  height  that  when  run  back  from 
the  shaft  it  is  exactly  level  with  the  regular  pit-bottom  flags,  consequently 
it  answers  for  and  occupies  the  position  of  the  ordinary  flags  for  the  empty 
corves  from  the  north-side  cage  to  pass  over  when  drawing  coal.     When 


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SINKING  AT  THE  TANKBRSLEY  COLLIERIES.  861 

the  lorry  k  drawn  back  from  the  shaft  it  is  kept  in  position  by  the  beam 
E,  and  also  by  a  catch,  so  that  it  is  impossible  for  it  to  move  forward. 

Fig.  2,  Plate  XI.,  shows  a  section  taken  across  the  centre  of  the 
shaft  looking  east  towards  the  dip  side,  when  the  lorry  is  run  back  from 
the  shaft  and  the  shaft  ready  for  drawing  coal.  E  is  the  timber  at  the 
eastern  or  low  side  of  the  pit  upon  which  the  other  removable  timbers  rest. 
Tt  is  notched  to  receive  the  rails,  and  also  slightly  notched  to  go  a  little 
below  the  main  timbers  in  the  centre.  It  is  carried  when  in  position  by 
the  timbers  F  F.  B  B  are  the  timbers  on  which  the  cage  rests  when  at 
the  bottom  of  the  pit;  they  are  fitted  with  spikes,  firmly  fastened  to 
them  with  a  collar  underneath  and  a  nut  at  the  top,  at  each  end  to  fit 
into  the  timbers  below  them,  and  serve  to  keep  the  timber  E  from 
moving  out  of  its  place.  Those  at  the  basset  side  are  firm  and  immovable. 
When  the  cage  is  at  rest  on  these  timbers,  its  bottom  is  level  with  the  top 
of  the  lorry.  The  timbers  to  be  removed  in  order  to  commence  sinking 
are  A,  B,  C,  D,  and  E,  the  others  remaining  fixed. 

In  order  to  allow  for  the  passage  of  the  lorry  it  was  necessary  to 
provide  for  the  removal  of  three  of  the  offtakes,  or  substituted  guides  at 
the  eastern  or  dip  side  of  the  pit.  For  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  top-ring 
of  the  cage  in  the  offtakes,  joints  G  were  inserted  (Fig.  2),  the  bolts  of 
these  joints  being  taken  out  when  needful.  The  bottom  of  these  loose 
removable  pieces  were  in  each  case  let  into  iron  sockets,  so  as  to  render 
them  perfectly  firm  when  drawing  the  coal.  Fig.  8,  Plate  XL,  is  a  plan 
of  the  shaft-bottom  at  the  Silkstone  seam  when  covered  over. 

In  order  to  avoid  any  strain  whatever  on  the  cage  by  the  weight  of 
any  material  drawn  from  the  sinking-shaft  a  large  shackle  (Figs.  4  and  5, 
Plate  XT.)  was  inserted  in  the  large  ring  which  carries  the  two  centre 
chains  of  the  cage  and  l)etween  them.  Two  large  links  of  1^  inches  iron 
(4  inches  inside)  made  the  connexion  with  two  chains  of  |  inch  iron, 
which  pass  down  through  the  bonnet  of  the  cage  on  each  side  of  the 
central  hoop  of  the  bonnet,  and  remain  permanently  fixed  on  the  cage. 
A  hole  large  enough  to  admit  the  end  of  the  sinking-rope  is  made  in  the 
bottom  of  the  cage.  When  the  sinking-rope  is  required,  it  is  brought  up 
and  passed  through  the  bottom  of  the  cage,  a  large  shackle  of  Ij  inches 
to  1^  inches  iron  is  inserted  through  the  two  chains,  the  pin  (of  1^  inches 
iron)  is  passed  through  the  oappled-end  of  the  rope,  the  cotter  inserted, 
and  the  attachment  is  complete.  The  travelling  road  to  the  dip  portion 
of  the  workings  goes  down  immediately  opposite  the  shaft,  and  during  the 
day-shift  the  rope  is  left  hung  on  supports  fixed  in  it  for  the  purpose. 

The  ordinary  bell-signal  was  used  when  drawing  coal,  and  an  electric 
signal  was  alone  adopted  when  sinking. 


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362  SINKING  AT  THE  TANKBR8LEY  COLLIERIES. 

When  commenciDg  to  prepare  for  sinking,  after  the  electric  signal 
was  tested,  the  north-side  cage  was  raised  about  3  feet  from  the  bottom. 
The  rope  was  tlien  brought  by  hand  and  attached  through  the  bottom  of 
the  cage  to  the  chains.  The  rope  was  then  drawn  up  by  the  engine  until 
the  wliole  70  yards  wiis  hung  in  the  shaft.  The  timbers  and  boards  were 
then  lifted  by  the  engine  and  swung  into  the  top-side  porch  in  the 
following  order : — C,  B,  B,  A,  D,  and  E. 

While  this  was  being  done,  other  men  had  taken  out  the  offtakes 
from  the  sockets  into  which  they  fit.  The  trunk,  which  was  standing  in 
one  of  the  side-porches,  was  brought  on  to  the  lorry  and  run  over  the  pit 
and  attached  to  the  rope. 

The  usual  time  occupied  by  these  operations  was  six  and  a  half 
minutes.  As  the  rope  under  the  cage  had  not  been  in  use  during  the  day- 
shift,  it  was  necessarily  tested  in  the  usual  way.  This  and  the  needful 
change  to  an  empty  trunk  occupied  a  further  time  of  four  minutes. 
Everything  was  ready  in  ten  and  a  half  minutes  for  the  examination  of  the 
shaft  being  made,  prior  to  the  descent  of  the  sinkers  to  their  work. 

The  trunks  were  constnicted  to  hold  one  corf  of  the  material  from  the 
sinking — ^they  were  swivel-trunks,  tipping  over  on  their  centre,  and  when 
in  use  an  empty  corf  was  placed  on  the  lorry  which  was  run  over  the 
shaft,  and  the  trunk  tipped  into  it.  These  corves  were  stored  along  the 
shaft-levels  and  either  drawn  out  amongst  the  coals  in  the  day-shift,  or 
taken  down  into  the  workings  and  the  stone  used  for  packing. 

The  lorry  was  constructed  so  as  to  cover  the  whole  portion  of  the 
shaft  occupied  by  the  timbers  removed,  and  there  was  no  possibility  of 
any  dirt,  which  might  accidentally  run  over  the  sides  of  the  corf  placed 
for  its  reception,  falling  down  upon  the  sinkers.  As  the  lorry  completely 
covered  the  space  occupied  by  the  timbers,  it  was  unnecessary  to  replace 
the  timbers  when  changing  the  men  of  the  second  and  third  shifts 
between  9*30  and  10  p.m.  The  only  operation  necessary,  after  the 
sinkers  had  ascended  to  the  Silkstone  seam,  was  to  remove  the  rope,  and 
the  lorry,  being  pushed  over  the  pit,  acted  as  a  floor  for  the  north-side 
chair  to  rest  upon ;  although  somewhat  higher  than  the  other  cage  it  was 
perfectly  safe. 

Figs.  6,  7,  and  8  show  the  hopper,  which  was  arranged  below  the 
Silkstone  seam  to  prevent  the  trunk  from  catching  the  beams  F  F  when 
drawing  material.  Fig.  6  is  a  plan  of  the  shaft  at  the  bottom  of  the 
hopper,  which  was  6  feet  4  inches  by  7  feet  10  inches  at  the  bottom  and 
4  feet  9  inches  by  5  feet  8  inches  at  the  top.  The  timbers  across  the 
shaft  at  this  point  are  7  inches  by  3  inches,  and  f  inch  boards  are  used 
for  the  sides  of  the  hopper. 


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jy^  fp  Whmmoor  Seairt.  &c^. 


Vol.V^PlateXI. 


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XTION^  THROUGH_C    D_Fl  Q    I.      y^j^JQUP^rEJO/' 


DinitiyaH  hu  ^ 


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DISCUSSION— SINKING  AT  THE  TANKERBLBT  COLLIERIES.  368 

By  the  means  detailed,  the  change  from  drawing  coal  to  descending 
the  sinking-pit  was  made  in  about  ten  and  a  half  minutes,  and  the 
sinkers  were  at  work  in  the  bottom  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour.  When  it 
was  necessary  to  send  anyone  out  from  the  Silkstone  seam  on  account  of 
an  accident,  or  when  the  time  for  changing  shifts  arrived,  it  only  involved 
the  removal  of  the  rope  for  about  five  minutes.  The  importance  of  these 
speedy  arrangements  will  be  recognized,  as  the  sinking  operations  could 
only  be  pursued  from  4  p.m.  until  6  a.m.,  and  a  portion  of  this  time  was 
wasted  in  changing  shifts  (of  from  60  to  70  men)  at  about  10  p.m. 


Mr.  George  Lewis  asked  how  long  it  took  to  sink  to  the  depth  of 
100  yards,  and  whether  any  water  had  been  met  during  the  sinking  ? 

Mr.  W.  HooLB  Chambers  said  a  little  water  came  in  from  the  low- 
level  close  to  the  sinking,  but  means  were  taken  to  prevent  it  going  down 
the  pit.  From  the  first  crib  to  the  Silkstone  bottom,  the  walling  was 
cemented,  and  it  was  sufficient  to  prevent  any  water  following  down  the 
pit.  The  depth  was  60  yards,  which  was  sunk  at  the  rate  of  about  5 
yards  per  week ;  during  several  weeks  they  sank  5  yards,  and  sometimes 
4  yards.  In  making  alterations,  such  as  he  bad  described  in  his  paper, 
they  had  the  difficulty  of  changing  the  men  in  the  various  shifts  and  to 
get  ready  for  the  examination  of  the  ropes  in  the  morning,  so  the  time  left 
for  sinking  was  short. 

Mr.  Henry  Lewis  said  none  of  the  plans  showed  how  the  sinking  pit 
was  ventilated. 

Mr.  W.  HooLE  Chambers — No. 

Mr.  A.  H.  Stokes  proposed  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Chambers  for  his 
paper. 

Mr.  IIenry  Lewis  seconded  the  vote  of  thanks,  which  was  carried 
unanimously. 


Mr.  T.  W.  H.  Mitchell  read  the  following  paper,  contributed  by  Mr. 
Wm.  Foulstone,  of  Bamsley,  on  "A  Combined  Centre-line  Apparatus" : — 


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864  A  COMBINED  CENTBE-LINE  APPARATUS. 


A  COMBINED  CENTRE-LINE  APPARATUS. 


By  WILLIAM  FOULSTONE. 


During  many  years'  experience  in  the  sinking  of  pits,  the  writer  found 
that  difficulties  and  delays  occurred  in  fixing  the  centre-lines  of  shafts  in 
the  ordinary  manner,  and  with  the  object  of  obviating  such  occurrences  he 
has  constructed  an  apparatus  which  can  be  used  for  accurately  putting  on 
and  preserving  the  centre-line  in  sinking  deep  shafts.  His  object  is 
to  use  an  accurate  and  permanent  apparatus,  whereby  the  accuracy  of  the 
centre-line  can  be  tested  as  often  as  required  without  much  labour  and 
with  little  waste  of  time,  and  at  the  same  time  causing  very  little  delay 
and  inconvenience  to  the  workmen  employed  in  the  shaft. 

The  apparatus  (Figs.  1,  2,  3,  and  4,  Plate  XII.)  consists  of  a  wrought- 
iron  beam  a,  fitted  at  the  end  hanging  over  the  sinking-shaft,  with  a 
pulley  J,  over  which  the  centre-line  c  is  passed.  There  is  a  rack  d  on 
the  top  of  this  beam  by  which  it  can  be  moved  backwards  and  forwards 
between  the  two  fixed  girders  «,  c,  which  are  supported  over  the  pit-top 
by  wooden  beams  /  and  g.  The  drum  and  gearing  are  fixed  on  the 
girders  e,  e.  By  this  arrangement  of  the  beam  a,  and  of  the  drum  and 
gearing,  the  centre-line  can  be  moved  up  and  down  the  shaft,  either  at 
the  centre  ^,  or  at  the  sides  of  the  shaft  h,  ^Tien  the  use  of  the  centre- 
line is  finished,  the  line  with  the  weight  is  hoisted  a  few  yards  up  the  pit, 
the  beam  a  is  drawn  back,  and  the  centre-line  is  left  hanging  near  one 
side  of  the  pit  h. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  this  apparatus  over  the  old  methods  are : — 
(1)  there  iB  a  considerable  saving  of  time  in  putting  on  and  taking  off  the 
centre-line ;  (2)  it  is  a  permanent  fixture,  and  more  reliable  and  safer 
thau  loose  tackle,  which,  under  the  old  method,  had  to  be  fixed  daily  or 
nightly  by  the  banksman  over  the  pit-top  when  the  men  were  working  in 
the  bottom. 

When  the  winding-rope  runs  out  of  the  centre  of  the  shaft  (this  is 
freijuently  done,  so  as  to  provide  for  fixing  pumps  down  one  side)  the 
centre-line  can  be  lowered  from  its  position  (about  80  yards  from  the  pit- 


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A  COMBINED  CENTKB-LINB  APPAKATUB.  865 

bottom)  to  the  bottom,  and  then  pushed  forward  from  the  side  to  the 
centre  of  the  shaft,  while  the  workmen  are  filling  the  hoppet  or  trunk. 
Under  the  old  system,  the  centre-line  spins  for  some  time  after  the  heavy 
weight  is  put  on  to  straighten  and  steady  it  l)efore  use,  and  it  has  to  be 
wound  to  the  surface  after  use  and  the  wooden  bar  and  pulley  removed. 
Witli  the  new  apparatus,  the  centre-line  is  always  hanging  in  the  shaft 
with  the  weight  on  it,  about  80  yards  from  tlie  bottom,  and  spinning  is 
entirely  avoided. 

When  the  winding-rope  runs  in  the  centre  of  the  shaft,  the  centre-line 
can  be  lowered  to  the  bottom,  ready  to  be  pushed  forward  to  the  centre  of 
the  pit  as  soon  as  the  hoppet  or  trunk  is  raised  above  the  surface  to  empty 
the  (ielm.^,  and,  while  this  is  being  done,  one  man  can  push  the  line  to  the 
centre  of  the  shaft  and  place  it  in  the  required  position  in  a  few  seconds. 

If  this  apparatus  be  placed  in  line  with  the  centre  of  the  winding- 
engine  drum  and  the  centre  of  the  shaft,  it  will  be  found  of  great  service 
in  setting-out  porches  or  arches  in  line  with  the  surface-line  with  one 
centre-line.  The  centre  of  the  pit  is  marked  with  the  line,  and  another 
mark  made  when  the  line  is  drawn  back  to  the  side  of  the  shaft ;  a  line 
drawn  through  these  points,  projected  will  be  the  centre-line  of  the 
porches  or  arches.  The  sump-frames  can  also  be  set  out  in  the  same 
manner. 

When  sinking  and  when  large  quantities  of  water  have  to  be  laded  for 
a  short  time  to  save  putting  in  pumps,  the  use  of  the  centre-line  is  very 
often  neglected  on  account  of  the  time  wasted  by  the  old  method.  Where 
the  water  accumulates  quickly  in  the  shaft- bottom,  it  often  takes  two  or 
three  hours  to  lade  the  water  out  again,  and  if  the  use  of  the  line  be 
neglected,  it  is  usual  in  such  cases  to  sink  the  shaft  of  larger  diameter, 
so  as  to  ensure  its  being  of  the  required  size.  All  this  extra  space  must 
be  filled  with  brickwork  or  deMs  (when  the  pit  is  walled)  from  the 
surface  at  extra  expense.  In  such  cases  with  the  combined  centre-line 
apparatus,  the  line  can  be  placed  in  so  short  a  time  that  it  will  be 
frequently  used ;  the  chargeman  of  each  shift  can  ascertain  for  himself 
the  state  of  the  shaft  in  a  few  minutes  before  commencing  work,  and  save 
all  unnecessjiry  labour ;  and  the  cost  of  the  apparatus  will  probably  be 
saved  in  a  few  months.  The  centrc-line  can  be  put  on  with  this  apparatus 
as  quickly  at  a  depth  of  700  yards  as  at  50  yards ;  and  the  apparatus 
will  be  found  most  advantageous  in  the  case  of  the  deci-er  shafts. 


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366  DISCUSSION — ^A  COMBINED  CENTRE-LINE  APPABATUB. 

Mr.  Henrt  Lewis  asked  the  cosfc  of  tiie  apparatus  ?  En  his  experi- 
ence of  sinkings,  which  had  been  considerable,  the  centre-line  was  only 
used  when  putting  in  curbs  at  intervals  of  three  or  four  weeks.  The 
centre-line  was  used  for  every  curb,  but  the  side-line  was  considered  to 
be  a  sufficient  guide  for  the  excavation  of  the  shaff.  Unless  the  arrange- 
ment was  very  cheap,  he  did  not  think  there  would  be  much  saved  by 
having  that  centre-line  constantly  hanging  in  the  shaft. 

Mr.  FouLSTONB  said  the  apparatus  cost  about  £36,  and  after  twenty-five 
years'  practical  experience  he  found  its  use  to  be  most  advantageous.  Pits 
were  sunk  by  side-lines  from  curbs,  but  the  curbs  were  not  always  placed 
true.  It  was  the  rule  to  put  in  curbs  from  the  centre-line,  and  to  sink 
between  them  by  side-lines,  but  he  had  known  curbs  |  inch  out  of  a  circle. 
If  they  trusted  to  curbs  they  might  not  always  get  an  accurately  circular 
shaft.    There  was  no  better  system  than  working  to  one  true  centre-line. 

Mr.  Henry  Lewis  remarked  that  no  curb  should  be  set  with  a  side- 
line. 

Mr.  FouLSTONE  said  that  every  time  a  shot  was  fired  some  of  the  side- 
lines could  be  cut.  The  centre-line  was  the  best  method  for  use  in  sinking. 
With  side-lines  too  much  might  be  taken  off  the  side.  There  were  many 
pits  which  were  not  plumb  from  top  to  bottom. 

Mr.  Henry  Lewis  said  there  was  always  a  tendency  to  take  more 
ground  out  than  was  necessary. 

Prof.  Arnold  Lupton  asked  how  long  it  took  to  steady  the  centre-line 
when  700  yards  long  ? 

Mr.  FouLSTONE  said  it  would  take  ten  minutes  to  steady  the  line  to  a 
depth  of  700  yards  with  his  apparatus ;  whereas  he  had  known  pits  sunk 
with  the  old  system  where  it  had  taken  more  than  an  hour  to  steady  the 
line.  With  his  apparatus  the  weight  was  always  on  the  line  some  20 
yards  above  where  the  men  were  working,  and  when  it  was  lowered  to 
the  bottom  there  was  no  heavy  swag  upon  it,  and  it  became  steady 
directly. 

Mr.  Henry  Lewis  asked  what  the  centre-line  was  made  of  ? 

Mr.  FouLSTONE  said  it  was  made  of  fine  steel  wire,  and  was  drawn  up 
about  30  yards  from  the  pit-bottom  out  of  the  way  of  shots. 

Mr.  T.  A.  Southern  asked  Mr.  Foulstone  whether  he  had  found  cases 
wlierc,  owing  to  the  current  of  air  ventilating  the  shaft  or  owing  to  water 
dropping,  it  had  taken  more  than  an  lionr  to  get  the  ordinary  centime-line 
steady  in  a  deep  shaft  ? 

Mr.  Foulstone  said  the  best  way  to  centre  the  line  was  to  stop  the 
ventilation,  either  by  stopping  the  fan  or  by  putting  in  a  shuttle  without 


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DISCUSSION — HYDROGBN-OIL  SAFETY-LAMP.  867 

stopping  the  fan.  The  latter  method  was  the  best,  because  there  was  no 
fear  of  the  fan-engine  becoming  choked  with  water. 

Mr.  I.  W.  H.  White  said  the  apparatus  was  in  use  at  Lord  Masham's 
sinking,  which  will  be  sunk  to  a  depth  of  about  600  yards,  and  it 
enabled  the  shaft  to  be  centred  accurately  and  quickly  without  the  risk 
to  human  life  which  must  occur  when  timbers,  etc.,  had  to  be  fixed 
temporarily  every  time  the  line  was  used.  He  felt  sure  that  the  cost  of 
the  apparatus  was  covered  before  the  sinking  reached  a  depth  of  100 
yards,  and  he  would  certainly  adopt  it  in  similar  sinkings.  The  Foulstone 
apparatus  was  a  cheap,  ingenious,  and  neat  arrangement,  and  when  seen 
in  use  would  be  appreciated. 

Mr.  Henry  Lewis  proposed  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Foulstone  for  his 
paper. 

Mr.  W.  Wilde  seconded  the  proposition. 

The  Chairman  agreed  as  to  the  utility  of  using  a  centre-line, 
especially  in  sinking  through  quicksands  when  side-lines  could  not  be 
used.  What  objection  could  there  be  to  the  use  of  a  piece  of  wood  shaped 
in  the  middle  and  shod  at  the  bottom  with  a  piece  of  u*on,  so  that  when 
the  wire  was  passed  under  the  centre-pin  they  found  the  centre  at  once  ? 
There  was  danger  in  placing  timber  across  the  pit.  Was  there  no  danger 
of  injuring  the  sinkers  with  this  apparatus  ?  There  should  be  an  arrange- 
ment by  which  the  trolly  could  not  get  out  of  the  groove. 

The  resolution  was  agreed  to  unanimously. 


DISCUSSION  ON  PROF.  F.  CLOWES'  PAPER  ON  "A  PORTABLE 
SAFETY-LAMP  WITH  ORDINARY  OIL  ILLUMINATING 
FLAME,  AND  STANDARD  HYDROGEN-FLAME  FOR 
ACCURATE  AND  DELICATE  GAS-TESTING  "•. 

The  Chairman  said  that  at  the  Derby  meeting,  Prof.  Clowes  described 
a  method  of  detecting  small  percentages  of  fire-damp.  The  lamp  had  been 
tried  at  a  colliery  with  which  he  was  connected,  and  he  found  in  a  return 
passing  145,000  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute  a  cap  ^  inch  in  length 
indicating  rather  less  than  ^  per  cent,  of  gas.  In  another  test  he  got  a 
cap  of  1|^  inches.  He  understood  the  pressure  of  hydrogen  in  the  cylinders 
attached  to  the  lamp  was  about  1,600  or  1,700  pounds  per  square  inch. 
Each  cylinder  contained  hydrogen  sufficient  for  80  to  90  tests,  and  in  the 
two,  they  had  provision  for  160  to  180  tests.  The  cylinders  could  be  sent 
by  parcel  post  to  be  recharged  in  London,  and  while  one  was  travelling 
the  other  could  be  used. 

*  Trans,  Fed.  InH-t  vol.  iv.,  page  441. 


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868  DISCUSSION — HYDROGEN-OIL  SAFETY-LAMP. 

Mr.  OvEBEND  asked  if  this  lamp  was  a  test  to  compare  with  the 
ordinary  lamp  ? 

The  Chairman  said  the  lamp  was  proposed  to  be  used  with  less  than 
8  per  cent,  of  gas  with  the  oil  lamp,  or  less  with  the  Pieler  lamp,  so  as  to 
fonn  a  reliable  estimate  of  the  volume  of  gas  in  the  returns. 

Mr.  Georoe  Lewis  said  their  thanks  were  due  to  Prof.  Clowes  who 
had  for  some  time  past  been  perfecting  the  details  of  his  lamp,  but  there 
was  a  certain  amount  of  complexity  about  the  lamp  which  made  it  very 
difficult  to  use  for  examination  in  the  mine.  He  was  told  that  a  lamp, 
which  would  answer  every  purpose  of  this  lamp,  had  been  made  which 
simply  burnt  alcohol  instead  of  hydrogen.  He  was  not  sufficiently 
acquainted  with  the  details  to  explain  it,  but  he  was  informed  that  it 
would  be  described  to  the  members  at  an  early  date. 

Prof.  A.  LuPTON  said  alcohol  had  been  tried  many  times.  When 
Prof.  Clowes  first  gave  careful  attention  to  the  subject  he  commenced  with 
alcohol,  but  after  full  and  fair  trial  came  to  the  conclusion  that  hydrogen 
gas  was  the  best.  He  (Prof.  Lupton)  had  had  the  advantage  of  seeing 
this  lamp  tried  in  the  laboratory  and  in  the  mine.  With  an  ordinary 
safety-lamp  used  in  the  ordinary  way,  they  could  see  8  to  6  per  cent,  of 
gas,  but  shai-p  eyes  were  needed  to  detect  1  to  1^  per  cent,  even  with  the 
best  forms  of  ordinary  spirit  lamp.  With  the  alcohol  lamp,  1  per  cent, 
showed  a  distinct  cap,  but  ^  per  cent,  did  not.  With  the  hydrogen  lamp, 
they  had,  with  i  per  cent,  of  gas,  a  cap  about  which  there  could  be  no 
doubt — a  cap  |  inch  in  length— which  anyone  could  see.  A  cap  had 
been  seen  with  less  than  |  per  cent,  of  gas.  With  that  lamp,  they  had 
a  simple  and  easy  mode  of  examining  the  returns,  and  a  colliery  manager 
might  learn  to  what  extent  his  ventilation  was  clearing  away  gas.  He 
could  find  what  percentage  of  gas  was  produced  in  the  mine ;  he  could 
follow  up  the  main  return  to  the  branches,  and  see  which  return  was  bring- 
ing most  gas ;  he  might  find  one  district  free  from  gas  and  another  heavily 
laden.  It  was  not  necessary  to  put  this  lamp  into  the  hands  of  all  the 
deputies,  but  it  might  be  used  to  make  scientific  tests  of  the  air  of  a 
mine. 

Mr.  Henry  Lewis  said  he  disagreed  with  the  assertion  that  the  state 
of  the  returns  was  a  true  indicjition  of  the  safety  of  the  mine,  so  far  as  the 
existence  of  gas  was  concerned. 

Prof.  A.  LuPTON  said  he  had  not  referred  to  the  safety  of  the  mine ; 
he  wtis  speaking  of  the  volume  of  gas. 

Mr.  Henry  Lewis  said  Prof.  Lupton  spoke  of  the  quantity  of  gas 
that  might  be  found  in  a  district  of  the  mine.    There  might  not  be  the 


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DISCUSSION — HTDB0GB9r-0IL  SAPBTy-LAltP.  869 

slightest  indication  of  gas  in  the  retnms,  but  there  might  be  concealed  in 
some  part  of  the  mine  snfScient  gas  to  blow  np  the  colliery. 

Mr.  Stokes  said  Prof.  Lupton  stated  that  alcohol  had  been  tried  and 
fonnd  a  failure ;  but  Prof.  Clowes  told  them  the  Pieler  lamp,  which  burnt 
alcohol,  was  the  best  test  they  could  get — ^there  was  no  better  test  known. 
The  only  difficulty  was  that  the  Pieler  lamp  was  not  safe. 

Prof.  Lupton  remarked  that  was  a  serious  objection. 

Mr.  Stokes  said  the  Pieler  lamp  burnt  alcohol,  and  Mr.  Pieler 
especially  recommended  that  methylated  spirits  should  not  be  used. 
With  Prof.  Clowes'  lamp,  1  per  cent,  of  gas  in  the  returns  gave  a 
cap  of  22  millimetres  (0*87  inch),  while  alcohol  gave  90  millimetres 
(3'54  inches).  A  cap  of  90  millimetres  was  better  to  read  than  one 
of  22  millimetres.  Prof.  Clowes'  lamp  gave  a  cap  of  18  millimetres 
(0*71  inch)  with  ^  per  cent,  gas,  and  the  Pieler  lamp  65  millimetres 
(2*56  inches) ;  with  ^  per  cent,  of  gas,  the  Clowes  lamp  had  a  cap 
of  17  millimetres  (0-67  inch),  so  that  between  J  and  ^  per  cent, 
of  gas  the  cap  only  increased  1  millimetre  (0*04  inch) ;  but  with 
the  Pieler  lamp,  ^  per  cent,  of  gas  gave  30  millimetres  (1*18  inches)  or 
35  millimetres  (1*38  inches)  as  the  difference  in  the  length  of  cap  between 
J  and  ^  per  cent,  of  gas.  Between  |  per  cent,  and  1  per  cent.,  with  the 
Clowes  lamp  they  had  a  difference  of  5  millimetres  (0*20  inch),  but  with 
the  Pieler  lamp  the  difference  was  60  millimetres  (2*86  inches).  The 
Pieler  lamp  was  such  a  good  indicator  that  with  2^  per  cent,  of  gas  it 
became  unsafe,  the  flame  filling  the  entire  gauze — it  was  too  good  a  test. 
The  most  serious  objection  to  the  Pieler  lamp  was  that  another  lamp  must 
be  carried  to  give  light.  The  lamp  Mr.  Lewis  had  named  burnt  alcohol, 
but  in  a  separate  vessel  entirely.  This  vessel  was  carried  by  the  official 
in  his  waistcoat  pocket  and  was  filled  with  alcohol.  The  official  had 
simply  to  introduce  two  threads  of  wick  through  a  hole  in  the  bottom  of 
the  lamp  into  the  already  lighted  lamp,  turn  the  light  down,  and  the 
alcohol  was  left  burning  with  a  i  inch  flame.  The  new  lamp  had  been 
tested,  and  would  indicate  up  to  2^  per  cent,  but  for  3  per  cent,  an  oil 
flame  would  prove  best. 

Prof.  A.  Lupton  said  that  Prof.  Clowes  had  no  idea  a  rival  lamp  was 
going  to  be  brought  forward  when  he  lent  his  lamp  to  be  shown  that  day. 
He  (Prof.  Lupton)  had  tested  the  Pieler  lamp  many  years  ago,  and  while 
it  gave  large  caps  they  were  hardly  visible.  He  had  been  in  a  mine 
with  a  Pieler  lamp  in  a  considerable  amount  of  fire-damp,  and  while 
there  undoubtedly  was  a  large  cap  when  they  knew  how  to  see  it,  yet  it 
was  not  easily  seen  except  by  an  expert  in  the  use  of  that  lamp.  With 
VOL.  v.-wwa^.  24 


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870  TBANSACniONS. 

the  hydrogen  lamp  anybody  could  see  the  cap  clearly  with  ^  per  cent,  of 
gas ;  the  Pieler  had  not  come  into  popular  use  owing  to  the  difficulty  of 
reading  the  indications  and  for  other  reasons. 

The  Chairman  said  he  had  no  idea  that  another  lamp  would  be 
mentioned  when  he  stated  that  Prof.  Clowes*  lamp  was  now  in  practical 
shape.  The  time  would  come  when  most  of  them  would  desire  to  have  a 
very  sensitive  test  for  showing  gas  in  the  returns.  He  agreed  with  Mr. 
Lewis  that  it  would  not  be  a  final  test  in  finding  gas,  or  of  the  safety  of 
the  mine,  but  it  was  one  of  the  tests  which,  in  conjunction  with  others, 
would  help  them  to  make  their  mines  safer. 

Mr.  J.  B.  Smith  asked  if  coal-dust  affected  the  caps? 

The  Chairman  said  that  he  had  been  told  that  no  test  for  gas  was 
reliable  in  the  presence  of  coal-dust. 


THE  ROYAL  COMMISSION  ON  ROYALTY  RENTS  AND 
WAYLEAVES. 

Mr.  A.  Barnes  (one  of  the  Commissioners),  read  a  number  of 
extracts  from  the  report  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Royalty  Rents  and 
Wayleaves,  and  promised  to  give  further  particulars  at  a  future  date. 


Mr.  Jos.  Mitchell  moved  that  the  best  thanks  of  the  meeting  be 
given  to  Mr.  C.  E.  Rhodes  and  Mr.  W.  Henry  Chambers  for  allowing 
members  to  visit  their  collieries  that  day. 

Mr.  J.  B.  Smith,  as  a  member  of  the  Chesterfield  Institute,  had 
pleasure  in  seconding  the  proposition. 

The  Chairman  put  the  vote  of  thanks  to  the  meeting,  and  it  was 
carried  unanimously. 


Mr.  Geo.  Lewis  moved  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Garforth  for  presiding. 
Mr.  A.  M.  Chambers  seconded  the  motion,  which  was  carried  by 
acclamation. 


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ROTHEBHAM  MAIN  COLLIERY.  871 

Mr.  Thomas  Settle,  manager  of  New  Mills  gasworks,  exhibited  and 
explained  to  the  members  a  working  model  of  a  safety-dip  or  catch  which 
he  had  invented. 


The  members  afterwards  dined  together. 


The  following  notes  record  some  of  the  features  of  interest  seen  by  the 
visitors  to  the  Rotherham  Main  colliery : — 

ROTHBRHAM  MAIN  COLLIERY. 

The  sinking  of  two  shafts,  each  18  feet  in  diameter,  at  this  colliery  com- 
menced in  1890.  The  water  is  tubbed  back  with  cast-iron  tubbing  at  a 
depth  of  84  yards  in  each  shaft.  Pulsometer  pumps  were  employed  to 
drain  the  water,  the  maximum  quantity  pumped  being  120,000  gallons 
per  hour  from  a  maximum  depth  of  84  yards ;  nine  No.  9  pulsometer 
pumps  were  in  use  at  one  time  in  one  shaft. 

At  No.  1  pit,  the  main  winding-engine  has  two  cylinders  40  inches 
in  diameter  and  6^  feet  stroke,  with  round  rope-drum  24  feet  in  diameter, 
and  is  fitted  with  steam  reversing-gear.  The  cages  will  carry  eight  tubs 
of  10  cwts.  each.  During  the  sinking  a  flat  rope-drum  12  feet  in  diameter 
was  used. 

The  wrought-iron  headgear  for  No.  1  pit  will  stand  60  feet  above  the 
pit-hiU,  which  will  be  26  feet  above  ground-level. 

Screens  and  picking-bands  are  being  erected. 

The  No.  2  pit  was  sunk  by  an  engine  with  two  cylinders,  each  18 
inches  in  diameter,  which  will  be  used  for  haulage  purposes. 

A  winding-engine  with  two  cylinders,  each  20  inches  in  diameter, 
will  draw  coal  from  the  high  hazel  seam,  and  an  engine  with  two 
cylinders,  each  80  inches  in  diameter,  will  wind  from  the  Barnsley  seam. 

Some  of  the  boilers  are  intended  to  be  worked  by  the  waste  heat  from 
coke-ovens.    The  remainder  of  the  boilers  will  be  hand-fired. 

An  air-compressor,  put  down  for  sinking  purposes,  is  working  drills 
and  a  Stanley  heading-machine. 

A  Capell  single-inlet  fan,  12^  feet  in  diameter,  was  used  during  the 
sinking,  and  will  be  kept  as  a  reserve  fan  in  case  of  accidents.  The  per- 
manent fen  will  shortly  be  erected. 


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872  ROTHBRHAM  MAIN  OOLLIBBT. 

The  electric  light  was  used  during  the  sinking  operations  and  on  the 
surface-works,  furnished  by  a  small  oblique  engine  and  a  No.  4  Man- 
chester dynamo. 

The  brick-making  plant  consists  of  one  Fawcett  semi-dry  machine 
capable  of  making  12,000  bricks  per  day ;  it  is  driven  by  a  horizontal 
engine  with  two  cylinders,  each  18  inches  in  diameter.  There  are  two 
Newcastle  kUns,  each  holding  25,000  bricks,  and  two  ordinary  open-top 
kilns  each  holding  75,000  bricks. 


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TKANSAOTIONS.  373 


MIDLAND    INSTITUTE   OF   MINING,   CIVIL,    AND 
MECHANICAL  ENGINEERS. 


GENERAL   MEETING, 

Hbld  at  thb  Rotal  Victoria  Hotel,  Sheffield, 

Apsil  8th,  1898. 


The  minutes  of  the  last  General  Meeting  were  read  and  confirmed. 


The  following  gentlemen  were  elected  Members,  having  been  pre- 
viously nominated : — 

Mr.  Samuel  BAB&AOLOuaH,  Mechanical  Engineer,  Union  Foundry,  Bamsley. 
Mr.  Ed.  Bbooee,  Colliery  Proprietor,  Edgerton,  Huddersfield. 
Mr.  Geo.  Riohd.  Mates,  Mechanical   and   Mining  Engineer,  Dnkinfield 
Collieries,  near  Manchester. 


This  being  the  date  of  the  Joint  Meeting  with  the  Chesterfield  and 
Midland  Counties  Institution  of  Engineers,  the  separate  meeting  of  the 
Midland  Institute  was  held  pro  forma  for  the  election  of  members  only. 


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874  DISCUSSION — UTDBOGEN-OIL  SAPKTT-LAMP. 


MIDLAND   INSTITUTE  OF  MINING,  CIVIL,  AND 
MECHANICAL  ENGINEERS. 


GENERAL    MEETING, 
Held  at  the  Queen's  Hotel,  Leeds,  June  24th,  1898. 


Mb.  W.  B.  GABFOBTH,  Persidrkt,  in  the  Chaib. 


The  minutes  of  the  last  General  Meeting  were  read  and  confirmed. 


The  following  gentlemen  were  elected  Members,  having  been  previously 
nominated : — 

Mr.  Alfbed  Ashley  Atkinson,  Mining  Engineer,  Barrow  Collieriefl,  Barnsley. 

Mr.  Wm.  Foulstone,  Colliery  Engineer  and  Contractor,  Barnsley. 

Mr.  Fbedk.  Gabside,  Engineer,  Wath  Main  Colliery,  Botherham. 

Mr.  Walteb  Maohbn,  Colliery  Manager,  Car  House,  Botherham. 

Mr.  Moses  Scab,  Engineer,  Warren,  Chapeltown,  Sheffield. 

Mr.  Habbt  Wobmald,  Engineer,  Featherstone,  Pontefract. 


DISCUSSION  UPON  PROF.  CLOWES'  PAPER  ON  "A  PORTABLE 
SAFETY-LAMP,  WITH  ORDINARY  OIL  ILLUMINATING 
FLAME,  AND  STANDARD  HYDROGEN-FLAME  FOR 
ACCURATE  AND  DELICATE  GAS-TESTING."* 

The  Pbbsidbnt  said  that  Prof.  Clowes'  safety-lamp  for  detecting 
small  quantities  of  fire-damp  would  prove  a  most  useful  instrument.  It 
had  been  used  at  Messrs.  Pope  &  Pearson's  collieries,  and  the  deputies 
had  been  astonished,  where  they  thought  places  free  from  ^afi,  to  be 
shown  that  ^  per  cent,  was  present.  There  was  another  lamp  in  prepara- 
tion which  would  be  cheaper  than  Prof.  Clowes'  lamp,  but  he  did  not 
think  it  would  yield  similarly  accurate  results. 

Mr.  J.  Nevik  asked  the  President  if  he  had  tried  the  Pieler  lamp  ? 

♦  TraM.  Fed.  Tmt,,  vol.  iv.,  page  441. 


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DISCUSSION—HYDEOGElir-OIL  SAFETY-LAMP.  875 

The  President  said  he  had  not  tried  the  Pieler  lamp  for  the  purpose 
of  detecting  small  percentages  of  fire-damp.  Prof.  Clowes'  lamp  readily 
showed  a  cap  indicating  ^  per  cent.,  even  with  such  a  very  large  volume 
of  air  passing  as  140,000  cubic  feet  per  minute.  The  idea  of  its  use  was 
to  trace  back  from  the  returns  to  the  districts,  so  that  they  might  find 
whence  any  marked  percentage  of  gas  was  derived. 

Mr.  J.  Nbvin  asked  what  was  the  lowest  percentage  of  fire-damp 
which  could  be  indicated  on  Prof.  Clowes'  lamp  ? 

The  President  said  Prof.  Clowes  thought  that  ^  per  cent,  of  fire- 
damp could  be  detected,  but  when  the  percentage  was  so  small  he  began 
to  doubt  the  quantity,  and  should  not  like  to  go  into  a  witness-box  and 
say  it  was  J  per  cent. 

Mr.  E.  W.  Thirkbll  said  the  halo  on  the  top  of  the  flame  was  as 
long  in  J  per  cent,  as  in  ^  per  cent,  of  fire-damp,  but  it  was  not  so  clearly 
and  well  defined.  He  had  tested  the  lamp,  and  could  confirm  all  the 
President  had  said. 

Mr.  Nbvin  asked  what  percentage  of  fire-damp  the  Pieler  lamp 
would  indicate  ? 

The  President  replied  from  ^  per  cent. 

Mr.  Nevin — And  from  that  up  to  an  explosive  mixture  ? 

The  President — Yes.  Some  people,  he  added,  objected  to  finding 
small  quantities  of  gas,  especially  when  they  had  to  record  the  same  in 
the  report  books,  but  he  considered  that  they  ought  to  be  reported,  and 
that,  if  possible,  the  standard  of  inspection  should  be  improved.  When  he 
brought  out  a  little  instrument  some  years  ago  which  they  could  put  into 
any  crevice  to  get  a  small  volume  of  gas,  one  man  said  to  him  ^^  I  am 
astonished  an  instrument  should  be  invented  for  finding  gas ;  if  you  could 
find  out  something  the  gas  would  not  show  on,  it  would  be  much  better," 
then  they  should  not  be  subject  to  the  Inspector  of  Mines  going  down 
and  getting  a  bag  fiill  of  gas  and  squirting  it  over  some  flame  or  other, 
saying  "  There  ! " 

Mr.  Nevin  said  the  man  could  get  his  wish  with  the  electric  lamp. 

Mr.  Thireell  said  he  had  compared  Prof.  Clowes'  lamp  with  an 
ordinary  bonneted  Mueseler  safety-lamp  burning  colzaline,  and  found  that 
2  per  cent,  could  be  detected  with  the  ordinary  safety-lamp. 

The  President  said  Prof.  Clowes  had  now  got  a  scale  attached  to  the 
lamp,  and  when  it  was  perfected  he  would  attend  at  their  meeting  and 
explain  its  use. 


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376  DISOUBSION— BXPBRIMBNTS  UPON  TWO  GUIBAL  FANS. 

DISCUSSION  UPON  MR.  E.  BROWN'S  PAPER  ON  "EXPERI- 
MENTS UPON  TWO  GUIBAL  PANS  AT  ST.  JOHN'S 
COLLIERY,  NORMANTON."^ 

Mr.  E.  Bbown  Baid  he  had  nothing  to  add  to  the  paper,  beyond 
remarking  that  in  Table  III.,  column  18t»  they  would  see  that  oolumn  11 
ought  to  be  divided  by  column  10,  and  not  oolumn  10  by  colunm  11  as 
stated. 

Mr.  T.  W.  H.  Mitchell  said  that  instead  of  saying  the  air  should  be 
divided  by  the  engine-power  to  get  the  useful  effect,  it  had  been  put  the 
other  way  about. 

Mr.  Brown  said,  with  reference  to  the  water-gauge  experiments  made 
at  the  inlet  of  the  fans,  that  the  chimney  was  situated  at  the  left-hand  side 
of  Pig.  6,  Plate  XXII. 

The  Pbesidekt  asked  if  the  fans  were  being  run  in  the  same  way  now  ? 

Mr.  E.  Brown  said  they  were. 

The  President  asked  if  Mr.  Brown  had  seen  any  reason  to  alter  his 
opinion  ? 

Mr.  Bbown  said  he  had  not.  The  fans  had  been  running  in  this  way 
for  three  years  and  the  results  proved  that  they  got  the  same  volume  of  air 
with  a  less  indicated  horse-power  with  the  two  fans  running  together. 

Mr.  J.  Nevin  said  he  supposed  one  fan  was  not  large  enough  to  do  the 
work,  and  if  it  was  run  at  such  a  speed  that  it  would  do  the  work  they  lost 
useful  effect  ? 

Mr.  Beown  said  that  was  so — ^from  1 2  to  17  per  cent,  of  useful  effect 
was  lost. 

The  President  asked  Mr.  Brown  if  he  would  recommend  the  use  of 
two  fiEins  ? 

Mr.  Brown  said  he  did  not  know.  If  they  had  two  fans,  they  could 
run  one  while  they  repaired  the  other.  He  thought  it  would  be  as 
economical  to  put  down  two  small  fans  as  one  large  fan.  He  did  not 
intend  to  propound  any  theory,  but  with  two  fans  they  obtained  better 
results  at  a  low  speed  than  with  a  single  fan  at  a  high  speed  ;  both  &ns 
running  together  produced  131,985  cubic  feet  of  air  at  65  revolutions  per 
minute,  and  it  required  the  single  fan  to  run  at  80  revolutions  to  produce 
a  similar  volume  of  air. 

The  President  thought  it  would  be  desirable  if  they  could  deduce 
certain  leading  fitcts  from  the  experiments  as  to  whether,  in  the  case  of 
new  sinkings,  or  in  old  sinkings  (where  they  intended  putting  down  a 
*  Trans,  Fed,  InH,,  vol.  iv.,  page  532.  f  lbid»j  toI.  iv.,  page  688. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


DISCUSSION — ^EXPERIMENTS  UPON  TWO  OUIBAL  FANS.  877 

fan  to  take  the  place  of  another  fim  or  a  furnace),  this  conld  be  carried 
ont  with  advantage.  If  thej  had  got  leading  facts  in  their  minds,  it 
sometimes  saved  a  large  expenditure  of  money.  That  was  what  he  meant 
by  asking  Mr.  Brown  if,  supposing  that  he  had  to  erect  a  new  fan,  the 
extra  expense  of  having  two  fans  would  be  repaid  by  the  assurance 
that  in  case  of  a  breakdown,  he  had  a  duplicate  fan  ? 

Mr.  Nevin  said  it  was  an  interesting  paper,  because  it  was  rare  that 
they  had  the  opportunity  of  testing  two  fans  on  the  same  mine,  of  seeing 
what  one  fan  would  do  and  what  was  the  result  of  adding  a  second  fan. 
He  thought  much  might  be  said  in  favour  of  Mr.  Brown's  view  that 
in  some  cases  it  might  be  better  instead  of  getting  one  large  fan  and  a 
duplicate  engine,  as  they  usually  did,  to  duplicate  both  &n  and  engine. 

Mr.  T.  W.  H.  Mitchell  suggested  that  the  question  might  arise 
whether  they  would  put  down  two  excessively  large  fans,  so  that  when  one 
broke  down  they  would  not  have  to  run  the  other  at  such  a  high  rate  of 
speed  as  Mr.  Brown  had  had  to  run  his,  viz.,  to  run  at  91  revolutions  to 
get  the  volume  of  air  that  he  obtained  with  only  75  revolutions,  when  the 
two  were  running  together. 

Mr.  Nbvin  said  the  high  speed  would  only  be  required  in  cases  of 
emergency.  They  had  a  Guibal  fan,  and  when  putting  in  a  new  set  of 
arms,  they  had  to  put  on  a  temporary  furnace,  but  even  then  could  not 
work  the  whole  pit.  If  they  had  had  two  fans,  they  would  have  run  one 
at  a  high  speed  till  the  other  fan  was  repaired. 

Mr.  Brown  said  that  was  just  what  they  were  going  to  do.  They 
were  going  to  replace  one  fan,  and  should  continue  to  work  the  pit  with 
one  &n  until  the  other  was  replaced. 

The  President  said  the  crystallization  which  would  take  place  in  the 
fan-shaft  by  constant  running  would  lead  to  breakdowns.  Any  stranger, 
not  an  engineer,  going  to  a  colliery  wondered  that  they  should  spend  so 
much  money  in  duplicating  the  engine  and  yet  did  not  go  beyond  that.  He 
thought  in  putting  down  a  fan  they  should  look  at  the  time  when  they 
might  have  a  high  water-gauge.  They  could  not  sink  pits  in  the  future 
as  they  had  in  the  past,  but  must  prepare  for  a  higher  water-gauge,  and 
therefore  a  small  &n  running  at  a  high  periphery-speed  would  be  better 
than  a  large  one. 

Mr.  TuRNBULL  said  he  was  of  opinion  that  a  small  diameter  of  fan 
would  be  more  popular  in  the  future. 

Mr.  W.  Harorbaves  said  that  at  Rothwell  Haigh  colliery,  they  had 
large  fans  40  feet  in  diameter  by  10  feet  and  12  feet  wide.  During  the  last 
two  years  they  had  erected  small  Capell  fans,  and  obtained  much  better 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


878  DlSCUSSIOlir— PEICTIOlir-CLUTCHES. 

reflultfi.  If  they  had  an  aocident  with  a  single  fan,  it  was  a  very  seriouB 
matter ;  with  the  Leeds  fan  it  would  require  at  least  three  or  four  weeks  to 
replace  the  shaft.  He  believed  the  time  would  oome  when  smaller  fans 
would  be  more  generally  used,  for  in  case  of  accident,  if  they  could  not 
work  the  whole  pit  with  one  fan  they  could  at  all  events  keep  a  part  of  it 
at  work. 

The  President  said  he  had  examined  a  fan-shaft  that  had  been 
working  for  twenty-three  years,  and  looking  at  it  through  a  magnifying- 
glass  it  appeared  like  the  wrinkled  forehead  of  an  old  man.  The  strokes 
had  gone  across  it,  showing  its  life  had  been  run.  He  put  in  a  best 
Yorkshire  iron  shaft,  as  he  could  not  get  the  same  uniformity  in  steel. 


PRICTION-OLUTCHES. 

The  President  said  he  had  expected  that  a  paper  would  be  read  by 
Mr.  Hedley  on  Mction-clutches,  but  up  to  the  present  it  had  not  been 
received. 

Mr.  L.  DoBiNSON  said  he  thought  they  had  one  of  the  best  for  pulling 
heavy  weights  up  steep  gradients  up  to  9  inches  to  the  yard. 

The  President  asked  what  was  the  greatest  weight  they  had  lifted  ? 

Mr.  DoBiNSON  said  that  had  not  been  ascertained ;  their  engine- 
plane  would  be  extended  for  a  further  distance  of  260  yards,  when  they 
would  get  the  maximum  weight,  but  they  found  the  friction-clutch  in  use 
was  able  to  do  the  work. 

The  President  asked  how  many  tubs  were  drawn  in  one  set  ? 

Mr.  DoBiNSON  said  they  ran  trains  of  three  tubs,  and  there  might  be 
on  this  inclined-plane  24  full  tubs. 

The  President  :  On  a  gradient  of  1  in  4  ? 

Mr.  DoBiNSON — Yes.  He  added  that  in  another  branch  of  the  same 
colliery,  on  a  gradient  of  1  in  13  worked  by  the  same  friction-clutch, 
they  ran  about  20  tubs  at  one  time. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


TRANSACTIONS.  879 


SOUTH  STAFFORDSHIRE  AND  EAST  WORCESTERSHIRE 
INSTITUTE  OF  MINING  ENGINEERS. 


GENEBAL  MEETING, 
Hjeld  in  the  Mabon  College,  BiUMiNaHAM,  Afsil  13th,  1893. 


Mx.  W.  F.  CLARK,  Psesidbnt,  in  the  Chaib. 


The  minates  of  the  last  General  Meeting  and  of  the  Council  Meeting 
were  read  and  confinned.  

It  was  resolved  that  a  letter  of  oondolence  be  sent  to  the  family  of  the 
late  Mr.  Benjamin  Callear,  of  Coseley. 


The  following  gentlemen  were  elected  : — 

Membebs— 
Mr.  Peboy  Cazalet,  Mining  Engineer,  Perranporth,  Cornwall. 
Mr.  W.  H.  FiTTON,  6,  Bersham  Road,  Wrerham. 
Mr.  W.  FoQOO,  Brereton  Collieries,  Bugeley. 
Mr.  Fbancis  Edoab  Jackson,  Mining  Engineer,  Stourbridge. 
Mr.  Hbnbt  Hebbik  Jackson,  Mining  Engineer,  Colley  Gate,  Cradley. 
Mr.  Isaac  Meachem,  Jun.,  Mining  Engineer,  Bradley,  Bilston. 
Mr.  Joseph  Pope,  Mining  Engineer,  Camborne. 
Mr.  G.  Saint,  Jun.,  Yauzhall  Colliery,  Ruabon. 

Student — 
Mr.  William  Ivan  Smith,  Mining  Student,  Blackheath. 


REVISION  OF  RULES. 

The  Sbcrbtaby  explained  the  desire  of  the  Council  of  the  Federated 
Institution  of  Mining  Engineers  as  to  the  Rules,  and  pointed  out  that 
they  would  have  to  be  revised  in  order  that  the  subscribers  should  consist 
of  Ordinary  Members,  Associate  Members,  and  Honorary  Members,  with 
Associates  and  Students,  on  the  lines  of  section  b  of  Bye-law  8  of  the 
Federated  Institution  of  Mining  Engineers,  and  that,  in  pursuance  of 
notice  given  at  the  last  general  meeting  in  accordance  with  the  rules,  this 
meeting  was  made  special  for  the  consideration  of  the  subject. 

Mr.  H.  W.  Hughes  proposed  that,  as  suggested,  the  rules  be  made  to 
conform  with  those  of  the  Federated  Institution  of  Mining  Engineers.  He 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


380  TBiiNBAGTIONS. 

moved  the  resolntion  with  pleasure,  mingled  with  r^ret.  Some  three  years 
ago  he  was  one  of  a  small  committee  who  made  the  roles  of  the  Federated 
Institution  of  Mining  Engineers,  and  he  should  certainly  wish  to  ascertain 
whether  it  was  intended  that  the  Associate  Members  should  ultimately 
become  Ordinary  Members,  or  whether  the  Associates  should  ultimately 
become  Ordinary  Members,  becanse,  so  far  as  his  memory  went,  they 
endeavoured  to  base  their  action  in  the  matter  upon  the  roles  of  the 
Institution  of  Oivil  Engineers,  where  the  Associate  Member  is  one  who 
becomes  an  Ordinary  Member.  If  that  were  not  intended  in  this  case,  he 
did  not  think  the  Associate  Members  ought  to  have  the  power  of  voting. 
As  far  as  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  were  concerned,  he  believed 
the  Associate  Members  ultimately  became  Ordinary  Members,  and  had 
the  right  of  voting,  but  Associates  were  men  who  never  could  become 
members  and  consequently  did  not  vote. 

The  Secrbtaby  said  that  the  extra  amount  paid  by  the  Assodate 
Members  was,  he  presumed,  considered  sufficient  to  qualify  them  for  voting. 
The  order  of  the  Institution  of  Oivil  Engineers  was  reversed,  and  in  the 
Federated  Institution  of  Mining  Engineers,  the  Associates  were  certainly 
the  class  intended  to  ultimately  become  Members. 

Mr.  Hughes  said  he  might  further  observe  that  the  Associate  Members 
did  not  practise  the  profession  of  mining  engineers,  and  were  not  quite 
entitled  to  give  opinions  on  subjects  of  interest  to  mining  institutions. 
Associate  Members  were  manufacturers,  or  might  be  owners,  but  were 
at  all  events  people  who  had  no  scientific  standing,  while  Associates  in 
days  to  come  would  take  their  position  as  Ordinary  Members.  The  rules 
of  the  Federated  Institution  said  nothing  about  voting,  and  if  they  agreed 
to  them,  should  they  allow  Associates  to  have  a  vote  and  not  Associate 
Members  ? 

Mr,  E.  B.  Mabten  thought  that  at  present  they  should  confine  them- 
selves to  the  alteration  of  the  rules,  so  as  to  carry  out  the  desire  of  the 
Council  of  the  Federated  Institution  of  Mining  Engineers.  The  question 
of  voting  might  be  passed  over  for  the  present. 

Mr.  Hughes  then  said  he  would  simply  move  that  the  rules  be  altered 
as  required. 

Mr.  W.  B.  CoLLis  seconded  the  motion,  and  it  was  unanimously 


The  Secbbtaey  then  read  a  paper  by  Mr.  P.  G.  Meachem,  entitled 
"  Notes  on  an  Earth  Explosion  or  *  Bump'  at  Hamstead  Colliery": — 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


AN  BABTH  BXPLOSIOIT  AT  HAM8TKAD   OOLLIBRT.  881 


NOTES   ON   AN    EARTH   EXPLOSION   OR    "BUMP"   AT 
HAMSTEAD   COLLIERY, 


By  F.  G.  MEACHEM. 


A  bxiinp  (or  earth  explosion)  occurred  on  November  5th,  1892,  at 
11  o'clock  a.m.,  by  which  three  workmen  were  injured : — Ez.  Tudor 
and  Wm.  Tudor  (pikemen),  and  Joe.  Biddle  (loader).  These  men  were 
driving  a  road  from  A  to  B  (Fig.  1,  Plate  XIII.)  in  the  usual  manner 
(Fig.  2,  Plate  XIII.)  in  the  thick  coal,  23  feet  in  thickness,  and  laying 
at  a  depth  of  1,890  feet. 

The  road  had  crossed  the  main  No.  2  north  return  and  proceeded  to 
40  yards  beyond,  and  there  had  been  very  little  creep  or  grind,  and 
practically  no  bumping.  The  road  was  heavily  timbered  with  larch  6  to 
8  inches  in  girth  and  well  slabbed.  Very  little  powder  was  used  in 
driving  the  roads,  and  tliis  circumstance  helped  to  keep  the  sides  strong. 

When  the  road  reached  the  point  B,  a  tremendous  burst-up  took  place, 
and  in  an  instant  the  whole  road  back  to  the  No.  2  north  was  nearly 
closed,  only  about  15  to  20  inches  being  left  open  on  an  average  along 
the  top  (Fig.  3,  Plate  XIIL).  The  whole  force  of  the  blow  seems  to 
have  been  exerted  on  the  right-hand  side  (going  in)  and  to  have  knocked 
out  the  timber  from  the  foot ;  and  the  bottom  rose  in  some  places, 
completely  filling  the  road.  The  tub,  which  was  loaded  at  the  back,  and 
the  air-pipes  were  jammed  up  against  the  roof  to  the  left  side.  All  lights 
were  blown  out  by  the  force  of  the  explosion,  and  the  place  was  instantly 
filled  with  inflammable  gas  from  the  face  to  within  4  yards  of  the  main 
return  airway,  along  which  about  50,000  cubic  teet  of  air  per  minute  was 
passing.  The  explosion  forced  a  door  open  at  D,  and  the  suction  or  the 
force  of  the  main  air  closed  it  again,  completely  smashing  it  to  pieces, 
none  exceeding  2  feet  long  or  3  inches  wide. 

Two  doors  at  E,  300  yards  away,  were  forced  open  and  closed  again 
violently.  Deputy  Joe.  Gill  who  was  more  than  300  yards  down  No.  5 
east  road  stated  that  "  it  turned  the  air  and  rolled  overhead  like  thunder." 
The  stallmen  working  in  the  No.  8  east  road  stated  that  "  it  turned  the 
air,  they  felt  the  shock  of  the  bump,  and  thought  a  serious  explosion  had 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


382  AN  EARTH  EXPLOSION  AT  HAM8TEAD  OOLTJERT. 

taken  place."  Fig.  4  (Plate  XIII.)  showB  the  average  height  of  the 
road,  and  a  rough  section  as  shown  in  the  bating  when  the  road  was  after- 
wards being  repaired. 

The  men  who  went  to  the  assistance  of  the  workmen  who  were  in  the 
road  had  to  scramble  over  the  top  of  the  bars.  They  found  that  Ez. 
Tudor,  who  was  in  the  back,  close  by  the  loaded  tub,  was  the  least  hurt, 
SB  the  tub  had  received  the  fiill  force  of  the  upheaval.  His  brother  Wm. 
Tudor,  who  was  at  the  back  of  the  tub  (next  the  return  road)  was  found 
seriously  injured  by  being  jumped  against  the  roof ;  he  stated  that  "  he 
was  bending  down  and  wad  suddenly  banged  up  against  the  top,  and 
crushed  about  the  back  and  l^s.''  He  also  said  that  'Hhe  right-hand 
side  of  the  road  burst  up  and  tossed  him  against  the  left  side  and  top." 
The  loader,  Joe.  Biddle,  was  working  8  or  4  yards  from  Tudor  and  he  was 
banged  against  the  top  and  slightly  injured.  The  door-boy  said  that  the 
explosion  opened  his  door  and  closed  it  again,  smashing  upon  the  return. 
He  was  much  frightened  and  enquired  "  was  that  a  bump  ?  "  from  the  men 
who  came  to  help,  and  being  told  that  it  was,  '^  he  hoped  that  they  would 
not  have  another  in  that  road." 

There  are  no  "  slip  things  "  about  that  can  be  seen. 

The  main  roads  (Nos.  1  and  2  north)  were  driven  in  the  year  1882,  and 
both  roads  have  been  bated  through  the  coal  that  was  left  underfoot,  down 
to  the  rock  at  the  bottom  of  the  seam.  The  roads  were  being  driven  at 
the  rate  of  20  yards  per  week. 

A  very  strange  feature  in  this  case  was  that  the  roof  was  uninjured ; 
and  now  that  the  road  is  repaired,  not  the  slightest  trace  of  damage  can  be 
found  above  the  bars,  nor,  so  far  as  the  writer  saw,  was  a  single  bar 
broken  at  the  time.  The  tub  was  badly  crushed  and  had  to  be  taken  to 
pieces  before  it  could  be  removed. 

As  a  rule,  most  of  the  bumps  occur  in  the  bottom,  and  this  undoubtedly 
points  to  the  fact  that  pressure  and  not  pent-up  gases  is  the  sole  cause. 
A  careful  watching  of  the  innumerable  cases  at  this  colliery  has  led  the 
writer  to  the  opinion  that  bumps  are  entirely  due  to  weight,  and  that 
the  driving  of  the  road  throws  the  pressure  upon  the  sides  of  the  place. 
This  opinion  is  supported  by  the  fact  that,  as  a  rule,  the  sides  of  the  roads 
are  broken  for  about  12  bo  15  feet  from  the  centre.  The  coal  or  rock  left 
underfoot  offera  great  resistance  to  the  pressure  of  the  side,  and  as  soon  as 
the  resistance  of  the  floor  is  less  than  the  pressure  of  the  down- weight,  the 
explosion  takes  place,  the  point  of  breakage  being  the  centre  of  the  road. 

The  writer  does  not  think  that  gas  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
occurrence  of  bumps,  as  there  are  as  many  cases  without  as  with  gas,  and 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


AN  EARTH  BXPL08I0N  AT  HAM8TBAD  COLLIERY. 


888 


the  coal  and  adjacent  rocks  are  too  porons  to  resist  the  natnral  and  constant 
oozing  of  any  gas  that  may  be  present.  The  natural  pressure  of  the  gas 
has  been  tested  by  means  of  a  borehole  made  10  feet  into  the  solid  coal  in 
a  gateroad  700  yards  away  from  any  workings,  and  the  pressure  was  not 
sufficient  to  heave  out  a  clay  stopping.  If  any  gas  is  in  the  coal  or 
adjacent  rocks  the  bump  brings  it  out :  gas  may  help  a  little,  but  it  is  not 
the  prime  mover.  Bumps  rarely  take  place  in  the  openings ;  it  would 
appear  that  the  larger  space  being  opened  gives  the  floor  room  enough  to 
heave  up,  and  the  pressure  of  the  sides  and  pillars  is  thus  gradually  eased 
off.  As  a  rule  the  floor  will  rise  5  to  6  feet  before  an  opening  is  cleared 
out. 

The  pressure  and  temperature  of  the  air  is  shown  in  the  following 
table : — 


Date. 

In  Pit.                       1 

On  Surface. 

Barometer,      j  Thermometer.    I 

Baro- 
meter. 

Thermo- 
meter. 

A.K. 

P.M.     1     A.M.     i      P.M.     ' 

Ifl93. 

Iiu. 

Ina.     Degs  F.  DegB.F. 

Ids. 

DegB.F. 

November  3rd... 

31-65 

31-60  j     59         63     1 

29-34 

44 

4th... 

81-60 

31-50      61          60     1 

29-30 

51 

5th... 

31-65 

31-60 1     63         65     , 

29-40 

51 

The  records  show  that  there  was  no  change  of  atmospheric  pressure  in 
this  case. 

Prof.  T.  McK.  Hughes  speaks*  of  Mr.  Strahan's  paper  on  "Explosive 
Slickensides,"  and  then  proceeds  to  give  his  own  experience  at  Dent-head  and 
Ribble-head,  in  Yorkshire,  as  follows  : — "  In  the  limestone  quarry  from 
which  the  black  marble  of  Dent  is  procured  the  workmen  found  that  when 
they  were  quarrying  the  lower  beds  and  stnick  the  rock  with  a  pick  or  bar, 
fragments  flew  up  into  the  air  with  greater  force  than  could  be  due  to  their 
blow,  and  in  an  unexi)ected  direction.  Also  when  the  tunnel  was  being 
made  above  Ribble-head,  and  the  workmen  were  engaged  upon  the  bed  of 
rock  which  formed  the  floor  of  the  tunnel,  pieces  used  to  burst  off  with  a 
loud  noise,  so  that  some  thought  they  had  discovered  a  detonating  shale." 
The  explanation  in  both  cases  seemed  to  be  that  the  bed,  which  was  apt  to 
shell  off  in  that  unexpected  manner,  rested  on  a  shale  which  yielded  to  the 
superincumbent  weight  on  either  side,  and  produced  in  the  tunnel  or  in 
the  quarry  where  the  overlying  rock  had  been  removed  an  effect  similar  to 
"creep."    Pig,  5  (Plate  XIII.)  shows  the  manner  of  occurrence  of  bursting 

*  Geological  Magazine^  November,  1887. 


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884  AN  BABTH  BXPLOSION  AT  HAMBTEAD  COLUERY. 

rook  at  Dent-head  and  Ribble-head,  in  Yorkshire,  the  direction  of  the 
pressureB  being  shown  by  the  arrows.  The  shale  would  transmit  the  pres- 
sure ;  the  thin  bed  of  solid  rock  left  above  the  shale  was  not  compressible, 
and  where,  as  in  the  tunnel  or  in  the  centre  of  the  quarry,  the  weight  of 
the  overlying  rocks  had  been  removed,  it  rose  in  a  slight  arch  over  the 
upthrust  shale,  and  was  thrown  into  such  a  state  of  tension,  that  when 
struck,  chips  and  flakes  and  sometimes  larger  pieces  would  fly  off. 

It  should  be  remembered  in  connexion  with  like  enquiries  that  time  ib 
an  element  in  the  bending  of  rocks,  and  that  it  is  the  rapidity  of  the  action 
due  to  the  artificial  removal  of  the  overlying  mass  that  causes  the  rocks  to 
break  most  violently. 

Mr.  J.  Dickinson,  H.M.  Inspector  of  Mines,  describes  the  occurrence 
of  outbursts  of  soft  coal  and  gas  at  the  Broad  Oak  colliery,  Ashton-under- 
Lyme,  in  his  annual  reports  for  the  year  1890  and  1892,  and  more  recently 
before  the  Manchester  (Geological  Society.* 

Mr.  Fairley  statesf  that  bumps  are  miniature  earthquakes  caused  by 
local  pressure. 

It  seems  utterly  impossible  to  fight  against  these  bumps,  but  considerable 
relief  has  been  obtained  by  means  of  boreholes  and  jackey  pits.  In 
1881-2,  a  series  of  bumps  took  place,  and  it  seemed  at  one  time  ahnost 
impossible  to  drive  any  new  roads  without  the  certainty  of  men  being 
injured.  The  most  effectual  preventive  means  were  boreholes  made 
through  the  coal  and  holes  cut  down  through  the  underlying  strata. 
Where  the  roads  are  not  urgently  wanted,  it  is  better  and  safer  to  drive 
them  as  slowly  as  possible,  which  gives  the  pressure  time  to  become 
gradually  balanced.  When  a  road  is  being  driven  night  and  day  it 
opens  the  coal  so  fast  that  there  is  a  constant  weight  on  the  face,  and 
when  the  side  weight  asserts  itself,  it  has  a  longer  length  over  which  to 
relieve  itself  than  if  it  had  been  gradually  following  up  the  fece.  In  the 
final  report  of  H.M.  Commissioners  appointed  to  enquire  into  accidents  in 
minesj  among  other  recommendations  they  suggest  "6.  Driving  the 
working  places  as  rapidly  as  possible,  by  shifts  of  an  ample  number  of 
workmen  in  each  place,  and  so  reducing  the  risk  of  falls  and  exposing  the 
least  number  of  men  to  danger  at  any  one  time." 

This  recommendation  evidently  does  not  apply  to  thick  coal-mining  at 
great  depths,  for  such  places  have  often  to  stand  to  settle  themselves,  and 
in  actual  experience  the  more  slowly  a  road  is  driven  the  less  danger  occurs 
from  bumps. 

*  Trans,  vol.  xxii.,  page  239. 

t  CoUiery  Manager's  Pocket  Book,  1888.  page  196.  J  Page  15. 


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\/lajrustendthlileJHi_ 


vos^vflate  xm. 


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AN  EABTH  EXPLOSION  AT  HAM8TEAD  COLLIBKT.  885 

Another  point  which  can  be  taken  as  a  rule  is  that  when  the  roads  are 
being  driven  with  the  grain  of  the  coal,  the  bumps  come  principally  from 
the  top  and  are  not  so  heavy  as  in  roads  being  driven  across  the  grain,  in 
which  the  bumps  come  from  the  bottom. 

"When  roads  have  cut  and  rashed  over  the  settings  often  to  the  rock 
above,  a  bump  in  the  top  simply  shakes  the  fine  loose  slack  down,  and  does 
not  often  break  the  timber ;  but  a  bump  from  the  bottom  under  these 
conditions  usually  knocks  the  timber  out  at  the  foot,  and  then  up  goes 
the  bottom  and  down  comes  the  coal  and  slack  from  over  the  bars,  with 
the  certainty  of  seriously  injuring  whoever  may  be  about. 

It  will  be  seen  that  to  a  certain  extent  bump  may  be  looked  for  and  in 
a  measure  guarded  against,  (a)  When  roads  are  being  driven  witli  the 
grain  of  the  coal  bump  occurs  from  the  top,  and  the  timbering  should  be 
attended  to ;  {b)  when  roads  are  being  driven  across  the  grain,  bump 
occurs  from  the  bottom;  (r)  the  roads  should  at  all  times  be  driven 
slowly,  jackey  pits  should  be  cut  down  into  the  bottom  measures ;  and 
((l)  boreholes  should  be  driven  into  the  top  coal. 


Prof.  W.  E.  Benton  read  the  following  "  Engineering  Scraps  in  Aus- 
tralian Coal-mining  "  : — 


VOL.  V.-lftM-M.  25 


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886  ENGINEBRTNa  SCRAPS  IN  AUSTRALIAN  COAL-MINING 


ENGINEERING  SCRAPS  IN  AUSTRALIAN  COAL-MINING. 


By  W.  B.  BENTON. 


Daring  the  writer's  absence  from  England  he  has,  for  a  time,  lost  the 
benefits  of  fellowship  with  this  Institute,  but  much  of  the  good  of  our 
mining  institutions  is  felt  even  unto  the  ends  of  the  earth.  A  colonial 
member  is,  by  custom,  expected  in  reading  a  paper,  to  describe  some  far- 
distant  mineral  deposits ;  however,  with  the  hope  of  being  more  interesting, 
allow  me  to  refer  to  a  few  engineering  scraps  in  Australian  coal-mining. 

TJnder-rbaming  in  Deep  Borings. 

In  boring  for  coal  with  the  diamond  drill  under  Sydney  Harbour,  it 
became  necessary  to  increase  the  diameter  of  the  bore  for  the  purpose  of 
driving  the  casing-tubing  lower.  That  necessity  led  to  the  invention  of 
what  the  writer  believes  is  a  new  form  of  under-reaming  tool.  This  tool 
(Figs.  1  to  10,  Plate  XIV.)  consists  of  a  pair  of  mild  steel  levers, 
hung  scissor  fashion  in  a  steel  tube.  On  their  upper  ends,  a  loose  cast- 
steel  disc  rests,  which  may  be  depressed  about  an  inch  by  means  of  water- 
pressure  from  the  steam-driven  pump.  By  this  depression  of  the  disc,  the 
lower  ends  of  the  levers  are  swung  outwards  through  two  slots  in  the  steel 
tube.  The  cutting  diamonds  are  set  on  the  extreme  edges  of  these  levers. 
While  the  reamer  is  being  lowered  down  the  bore,  the  levers  hang  entirely 
within  the  tube ;  when  the  reamer  has  reached  the  required  position,  the 
steam-driven  pump  is  started,  the  steel  disc  is  depressed,  the  levers  swing 
outwards  and  the  reamer  revolves  by  the  starting  of  the  drill. 

The  entering-cut  of  the  reamer  is  made  by  lateral  abrasion  of  the 
diamonds,  forced  outward  by  water-pressure  on  the  disc ;  and  afterwards 
the  cutting  is  downward,  the  reamer  being  kept  to  its  work  by  the  weight 
of  the  boring-rods.  During  the  downward-cutting,  the  water  passes 
through  the  portholes  in  the  steel  tube,  and  impinging  on  the  diamonds, 
removes  the  detritus.  On  raising  the  bore-rods,  the  levers  on  striking 
the  first  obstruction,  are  forced  into  the  tube. 

This  tool  can  ream  a  4  inches  hole  to  a  4^  inches  hole  in  coal-bearing 
strata  at  the  rate  of  about  6  feet  per  hour.  It  weighs  about  20  lbs.  and 
costs  £8  without  diamonds. 


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bnginbering  scraps  in  australian  coal-mining.  887 

Colliery  Records  of  Labour  Costs. 

All  items  of  labour  costs  and  output  may  be  shown  graphically,  if  the 
pages  of  a  book  are  equally  spaced  by  26  vertical  dark  lines,  each  of  which 
may  represent  the  26  fortnights  of  a  year.  The  upper  part  of  the  page 
being  equally  spaced  by  horizontal  dark  lines  drawn  from  margin  to 
margin,  each  space  may  represent  1,000  tons,  and  if  each  space  contain 
10  horizontal  faint  lines  they  may  each  represent  100  tons.  On  this  upper 
part  of  the  page  the  gross  output,  the  various  qualities,  and  the  balances  of 
pit  and  sales  weights,  may  be  shown  each  fortnight  by  various  distinctive 
lines. 

The  lower  part  of  the  page  being  equally  spaced  by  horizontal  dark 
lines,  each  space  will  represent  one  shilling,  and  each  may  be  subdivided 
by  12  faint  horizontal  lines  representing  one  penny.  On  this  lower  part 
of  the  page,  the  gross  costs  and  detail  costs  may  also  be  shown  each 
fortnight  by  various  distinctive  lines.  Each  page  of  this  book  will 
represent  one  year,  and  if  the  paper  is  translucent,  in  recording  the 
outputs  and  costs  of  any  succeeding  year,  the  outputs  and  costs  of  the 
preceding  year  are  manifest.  The  fortnightly  records  can  be  made  in  five 
minutes,  and  the  writer  has  found  this  graphic  register  an  impressive  and 
interesting  record  of  colliery  ouputs  and  costs. 

Skip  or  Corvb  Underframes. 
A  specially  simple  form  of  underframe  consists  of  two  sole-bars,  each  6 
inches  square,  placed  18  inches  asunder,  for  2  feet  gauge.  Between  these 
sole-bars,  at  each  end,  is  bolted  a  piece  of  channel-steel  bent  at  each  end, 
which  serves  the  double  purpose  of  transome  and  draw-hook.  The  weight 
of  each  transome  is  14  lbs.  It  is  successful  in  flat  mines  for  25  cubic  feet 
skips,  slow  speeds  and  single-skip  attachments,  but  it  has  not  been  tried 
under  other  conditions.  It  is  lighter,  cheaper  in  first  cost  and  in  repairs, 
than  wooden  transomes  and  wrought  iron  drawbars. 

Heating  in  the  Bearings  op  Heavy  Pan-engine  Shafts. 

The  writer  is  of  opinion  that  the  heating  of  the  bearings  might  be 
avoided  in  new  erections  by  using  hollow  steel  shafts.  Prof.  Unwin,  in 
his  Elements  of  Machine  Design^  gives  an  example  of  a  shaft  having  a 
diameter  of  10*09  inches  and  a  hollow  cylinder  of  4  inches  in  diameter,  as 
being  equal  in  strength  to  a  solid  shaft  10  inches  in  diameter.  The 
weight  of  such  a  hollow  shaft  is  about  14  per  cent,  less  than  the  weight  of 
a  solid  shaft.  Disregarding  the  slight  difference  in  their  diameters,  there 
would  be  about  14  per  cent,  less  friction  and  about  14  per  cent,  less  heat- 


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888     DISCUSSION — ^ENGINEERING  SCRAPS  IN  AUSTRALIAN  COAL-MINING. 

ing  arising  from  the  weight  of  the  shaft.  The  heating  from  friction  of 
hollow  shafts  of  ventilating  fans  would  be  further  reduced  by  the  current 
of  air,  which  would  be  drawn  by  the  fan  through  the  hollow  of  the 
fen-shaft.  If  hollow  fan-shafts  have  already  been  tried,  it  would  be 
interesting  to  know  whether  the  bearings  have  become  heated,  and  whether 
the  reduced  friction  has  added  to  the  useful  effect  of  the  fan. 

Coal  Tippers. 

In  recent  years  coal  skip-tippers  have  been  greatly  changed  in  fonn, 
the  best  form  being  that  in  which  the  skips  pass  out  at  the  opposite  end 
and  lay  down  the  coal  with  least  breakage.  Fig.  11  (Plate  XIV.)  exhibits 
a  form  of  tipper,  which  has  in  practice  been  found  to  fully  possess  every 
requirement.  It  resembles  an  overshot  waterwheel,  three  compartments 
being  built  round  a  horizontal  shaft.  Each  compartment  holds  either  one 
skip,  or  two  skips,  buffer-to-buffer. 

In  starting  to  tip,  the  floor  of  one  of  these  compartments  is  standing 
at  the  ground-floor  level.  Revolved  through  a  third  of  a  revolution,  it 
brings  round  another  compartment  to  ground-floor  level ;  and  each  compart- 
ment may  in  turn  be  brought  to  platform  level.  In  one  compartment  the 
skip  is  full,  in  another  the  skip  is  emptied  into  a  pocket  in  the  tipper,  and 
the  third  compartment  has  laid  its  coal  on  the  screen. 

During  each  whole  revolution  three  skips  are  emptied,  that  is  one  from 
each  compartment,  or  two  if  placed  buffer-to-buffer  in  each  compartment. 
The  weight  of  each  preceding  skip  assists  in  tipping  its  successor,  and  by 
this  triple  arrangement  the  best  balancing  is  obtained.  By  a  hand-power 
brake,  the  loaded  speed  of  the  tipper  is  perfectly  governed  at  any  point 
of  a  revolution. 

This  form  of  tipper  does  not  break  the  coal,  and  one  boy  can  easily 
tip  as  much  coal  as  the  mine  can  raise.  Its  entire  weight  is  60  cwts.,  and 
the  cost,  complete  in  New  South  Wales,  does  not  exceed  £80. 


Mr.  Trbglown,  in  reply  to  the  President,  said,  with  reference  to  the 
heating  of  fan-shafts,  a  very  great  deal  depended  on  the  design,  whether 
the  shafts  were  made  of  suitable  material,  were  of  proper  size  for  the  work, 
had  ample  bearing-surfaces,  and  sufficient  lubrication.  He  thought  that 
the  passing  of  a  rapid  current  of  air  through  a  hollow-shaft  would  tend 
to  keep  it  cool. 


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voiy: Plate  jav: 


Scale -4?  Feet  to  1  Inch 


PLAN  OF  TOOL. 


FLAW  OF  PITOM. 


HOM  BELOW. 


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DISCUSSION— ENGINEERING  SCRAPS  IN  AUSTiULLIAN  COAL-MINING.       889 

Mr.  N.  Chandler  obeerved  that  he  had  had  occafiion  to  make  an 
enquiry  for  a  hollow  fan-shaft;  a  prohibitive  price  was  quoted  of  £120, 
80  he  bought  a  solid  shaft  for  £60,  which  was  now  running  with  complete 
success,  and  had  run  for  nearly  two  years  without  any  trouble.  He  was, 
however,  entirely  in  favour  of  the  use  of  hollow  shafts,  when  price  did  not 
prohibit  their  use.  He  also  stated  that  exhaustive  tests  had  proved  that 
a  hole  bored  through  a  steel  shaft,  half  the  diameter  of  a  shaft,  only 
diminished  the  strength  of  the  shaft  by  4  per  cent,  for  torsion  or  twisting, 
while  its  weight  was  reduced  25  per.  cent. 

Mr.  F.  6.  Mbachbm  believed  if  the  bearings  were  in  line,  and  good 
grease  was  applied,  the  shafts  would  not  become  very  much  heated. 

Mr.  Glennie,  alluding  to  the  suggested  graphic  records  of  wages  and 
outputs,  said  he  had  used  them  many  years  ago,  at  a  colliery,  but  he 
ibund  great  diflSculties  at  a  larger  colliery,  where  the  records  had  to  be 
kept  on  a  much  more  detailed  plan :  it  then  became  almost  impossible  to 
record  them  graphically.  The  coal-tipper  resembled  Riggs,  but  the  latter 
had  not  the  advantage  of  running  the  tub  right  through,  and  only  took 
one  tub  instead  of  three,  so  that  described  by  Mr.  Benton  was  a  great 
improvement. 

Mr.  H.  W.  Hughes  said  that  when  making  enquiries  some  time  ago  as 
to  coal-tipi)ers,  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  machine-tipper  was  far  in 
advance  of  anytliing  worked  by  a  brake.  The  motion  was  more  regular 
in  a  machine-driven  tipper.  He  had  seen  one  in  use,  which  tipped  four 
tubs  at  a  time. 

Mr.  Broughall  said  he  had  used  two  tippers,  driven  by  machinery, 
for  about  five  months,  and  the  cost  was  from  6^d.  to  7d.  per  100  tons. 

The  President  said  that  two  years  ago  he  went  into  the  question  of 
machine-driven  tippers,  and  he  came  to  the  very  same  conclusion  as 
Mr.  Hughes. 

On  the  motion  of  the  President,  seconded  by  Mr.  H.  W.  Hughes, 
the  thanks  of  the  members  were  accorded  to  Mr.  Meachem  and  Mr.  Benton 
for  their  papers. 


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890  TRANSACTIONS. 


SOUTH  STAFFORDSHIRE  AND  EAST  WORCESTERSHIRE 
INSTITUTE  OF  MINING  ENGINEERS. 


GENERAL    MEETING, 
Held  in  the  Mason  Colleoe,  Bibmingham,  June  8th.  1893. 


Mb.  W.  B.  SCOTT  in  the  Chaib. 


Upon  the  motion  of  the  Chairman,  it  was  nnanimously  resolved,  that 
a  letter  of  condolence  and  sympathy  be  sent  to  the  President  (Mr.  W.  F. 
Clark),  who  was  absent  through  illness,  and  had  recently  suffered  from 
severe  domestic  troubles. 


The  minutes  of  the  last  General  Meeting  and  of  the  Council  Meeting 
were  read  and  confirmed. 


The  following  gentlemen  were  elected : — 

Membebs — 

Mr.  Edwabd  W.  Janson,  Mining  Engineer,  Camborne. 
Mr.  Gebald  Longlet  Pabkeb,  Mining  Engineer,  Chester. 


The  Chairman  read  the  following  "Description  of  Mining  Relics 
found  at  the  Heath  End  colliery,"  belonging  to  Messrs.  John  Hough  & 
Son,  and  on  their  behalf  he  presented  them  to  the  Institute,  and  a  vote  of 
thanks  was  unanimously  passed  to  them : — 


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KININa  RELICS.  891 

DESCRIPTION  OP  MINING  RELICS  POUND  AT  THE  HEATH 
END  COLLIERY, 

The  relics  consiBt  of  a  coal-waggon,  which  was  discovered  in  the  old 
shallow  seam  workings,  made  probably  200  or  300  years  ago,  at  a  depth 
from  the  surface  of  from  15  to  16  yards.  When  found,  it  was  loaded 
with  small  coals,  with  the  twigs  interlaced  between  the  short  upright 
pieces  which  were  firmly  fixed  in  the  holes  on  the  bottom  of  the  waggon. 
The  bow  was  threaded  between  two  holes  at  either  end  of  the  waggon  and 
fastened  with  a  peg  through  a  small  hole  in  each  end  of  the  bow.  It  is 
presumed  that  this  was  the  way  the  coals  were  raised  to  the  surface.  The 
probable  weight  of  coal  on  the  waggon  when  discovered  would  be  from  60 
to  60  lbs.  The  dog-hook  lay  close  beside  the  waggon,  which  would  be  the 
means  of,  at  that  time,  pulling  the  coals  to  the  shaft.  Shafts  are  very 
numerous  at  the  outcrop  of  the  coal-seam,  and,  as  far  as  can  be  traced, 
the  old  miners  never  ventured  more  than  70  to  80  yards  from  the  pit- 
bottom.  It  is  easy  to  note  the  advance  of  mining  engineering,  since  our 
forefathers  relied  upon  such  primitive  means  to  win  the  valuable  treasures 
of  the  earth. 


Mr.  Hebbbet  W.  Hughes  read  the  following  paper  on  '*The 
Spontaneous  Combustion  of  Coal" : — 


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392  THE  SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  OP  COAL. 


THE  SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  OF  COAL. 


By  HERBERT  W.  HUGHES. 


The  question  of  the  spontaneous  combustion  of  coal  is  of  such  import- 
ance to  the  South  Staffordshire  district  that  an  apology  is  not  needed  for 
bringing  the  subject  before  the  members  of  this  Institute;  but  inas- 
much as  the  writer  has  already  contributed  a  rather  extensive  paper* 
on  this  question,  and  has,  in  conjunction  with  Mr.  W.  F.  Clark,t  also 
given  a  brief  sunmiary  of  the  conditions  under  which  the  spontaneous 
combustion  of  coal  is  likely  to  occur,  some  explanation  may  not  be  out 
of  place  as  to  why  he  again  brings  the  matter  before  you. 

In  the  first  place  the  paper  referred  to  above  is  not  generally  accessible 
to  members  of  the  Federated  Institution ;  and  secondly,  the  subject  was 
revived  by  Mr.  Arnold  LuptonJ  at  the  Derby  meeting  of  that  Institution. 
The  latter  contribution  brought  out  a  veiy  interesting  discussion,  but  the 
time  devoted  to  it  was  necessarily  short.  Many  contradictory  opinions 
were  also  expressed.  Unfortunately,  this  district  provides  excellent  oppor- 
tunities for  studying  the  question,  and  most  of  our  members  are  in  the 
unpleasant  condition  of  having  considerable  practical  experience  of 
underground  fires.  It  was  therefore  suggested  that  if  the  various  theories 
were  brought  together  and  summarized,  a  valuable  discussion  might  be 
raised,  which  would  assist  engineers  in  determining  the  conditions  under 
which  coal  ignites  spontaneously,  and  indirectly  prevent  such  fires,  as  the 
conditions  likely  to  cause  them  may  be  avoided.  In  considering  the 
question  the  writer  will  be  traversing  old  ground,  but  this  must  be  done 
in  order  to  bring  into  prominence  the  various  agencies  by  which  spon- 
taneous ignitions  are  caused. 

At  the  beginning  of  Mr.  Lupton's  paper  some  remarks  are  made  about 
fires  produced  by  ranges  of  steam  pipes  and  furnaces  underground ;  how- 
ever, as  the  causes  of  such  ignitions  are  obvious,  the  writer  does  not  propose 
to  consider  them,  but  to  confine  himself  to  dealing  with  those  fires  which 
commence  truly  spontaneously,  viz.,  without  the  application  of  any 
external  heat.    This  paper,  and  the  discussion,  wiU  be  referred  to  many 

*  Train.  Smtth  Staff 9.  IfUft.  Min,  Eiig.,  vol.  xi.,  page  33. 

f  Trans,  Fed,  Irut.,  vol  iii.,  page  45.  J  Ibld.^  vol.  iv.,  page  481. 


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THE  SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  OF  COAL.  893 

times;  but  perhaps  at  this  point  it  will  be  as  well  to  correct  a  small 
misstatement  made  when  speaking  of  the  size  of  sides  of  work  in  the 
ten-yard  seam.  Rarely  (if  ever  at  the  present  time)  does  one  of  those 
panels  measure  80  or  100  yards  square,  or  contain  sixteen  or  twenty 
pillars.  The  most  common  size  is  one  having  six  pillars,  which,  if  these 
were  of  the  largest  dimensions,  would  measure  70  by  60  yards,  but  more 
generally  the  pillars  would  only  be  8  yards  square.  A  side  of  work  con- 
taining nine  pillars  is  considered  a  lai^e  one,  and  is  perhaps  not  so 
frequently  met  with  as  one  having  only  four  pillars. 

It  has  been  often  remarked  that  the  first  sign  of  spontaneous  com- 
bustion is  the  emission  of  the  peculiar  odour  known  to  the  miner  as 
fire-stink,  and  when  this  is  recognized,  there  is  little  doubt  that  if  fire 
is  not  already  existent  it  soon  will  be,  as  the  smell  is  due  to  the  volatile 
hydrocarbons  given  off  by  destructive  distillation  of  coal.  At  the  Derby 
meeting,  Mr.  Clark  pointed  out  that  there  is,  however,  an  earlier  sign  than 
this,  and  one  well-known  and  detected  by  an  old  thick-coal  miner,  viz., 
a  peculiar  musty  and  old  smell,  which  is  not  easily  described ;  perhaps 
the  nearest  resemblance  to  it  is  the  odour  given  off  by  a  collection  of  old 
parchment  deeds.  Another  sign  preceding  the  emission  of  fire-stink  is 
the  sweating  of  the  coal  which  so  often  takes  place  before  ignition.  This 
sign  is,  however,  in  many  cases  misleading,  as  sweating  is  often  produced 
by  a  leakage  of  fresh  cool  air  through  doors,  etc.,  meeting  the  hot  vitiated 
return  air,  and  causing  moisture  to  be  deposited  on  the  roof  and  timbers. 
Indeed  neither  of  the  two  last  mentioned  signs  are  so  reliable  a  warning 
as  the  first-mentioned  one,  as  both  of  them  may  be  noticed  without  any 
fire  following,  while  the  detection  of  fire-stink  generally  means  trouble. 
In  many  cases  no  sign  is  given,  and  an  outbreak  occurs  without  warning. 
Mr.  Clark  and  the  writer  gave  an  illustration  of  this  in  the  paper  pre- 
viously referred  to,  and  if  there  were  any  necessity  to  do  so  numbers  of 
similar  instances  could  be  quoted. 

The  spontaneous  ignition  of  coal  is  ascribed  to : — (1)  decomposition 
of  iron  pyrites  ;  (2)  pressure  ;  (8)  oxidation  of  the  organic  constituents. 

It  seems  advisable  to  consider  each  of  these  actions  separately  before 
dealing  with  them  in  conjunction,  although  the  writer  hopes  to  prove 
that  neither  of  the  two  first-mentioned  actions  are  especially  dangerous, 
unless  acting  in  conjunction  with  the  third  one. 

(1)  Iron  Pyrites, — Probably  all  coals  contain  sulphur  in  some  com- 
bined form,  the  usual  compound  being  the  bisulphide  of  iron  (FeSa). 
This  generally  occurs  in  nodules,  flakes,  and  veins,  which,  from  their 
brassy  appearance,  readily  attract  the  eye.     On  many  occasions,  iron 


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394  THE  SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  OF  COAL. 

pyrites  is  found  in  the  form  of  a  dark  powder  distributed  through  the 
mass  of  coal,  and  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  it.  This  is  a  point  of 
considerable  importance,  and  will  be  alluded  to  farther  on. 

In  the  presence  of  moisture  and  air,  pyrites  sometimes  oxidizes  very 
readily,  while  at  other  times  no  action  takes  place.  One  of  the  South 
Staffordshire  seams  supplies  a  good  illustration  of  the  stable  properties  of 
iron  pyrites,  viz.,  the  stinking  coal,  which  contains  such  large  quantities 
of  that  mineral  that  heaps  of  it  are  picked  out  at  bank  and  thrown  aside. 
These  heaps  accumulate  often  for  years,  and  are  subsequently  sold  to 
chemical  manufacturers.  No  instance  of  their  having  ignited  is  on 
record,  although  they  contain  a  good  proportion  of  coal  and  carbonaceous 
shale,  and,  moreover,  the  weathering  of  the  pyrites  amounts  to  practically 
nothing. 

Pyrites  first  [oxidizes  into  ferrous  sulphate  and  then  passes  into  the 
ferric  salt.  The  increase  in  temperature  is  small,  but  as  the  pieces 
of  pyrites  become  coated  with  crystals  of  sulphate,  the  volume  of  the 
decomposed  mineral  greatly  exceeds  the  bulk  of  the  original  substance  and 
disintegration  of  the  coal  takes  place.  It  is  also  asserted  that  ferric 
sulphate  is  reduced  to  ferrous  sulphate  by  contact  with  coal  and  that 
consequently  the  oxidation  of  the  coal  itself  is  increased. 

The  amount  of  heat  given  off  by  the  complete  combustion  of  a  known 
quantity  of  sulphur  may  be  easily  estimated  with  a  calorimeter.  Now, 
many  coals  extremely  liable  to  spontaneous  combustion  not  only  contain 
a  small  quantity  of  pyrites  but  the  pyrites  is  scattered.  Supposing,  how- 
ever, that  the  whole  of  the  pyrites  was  concentrated  in  one  spot  and  was 
oxidized  in  a  comparatively  short  space  of  time,  it  is  possible  to  prove  by 
the  above-mentioned  experiment  that  the  heat  produced  would  be  too 
insignificant  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  coal  more  than  a  few  degrees. 

Prof.  Lewes*  states  that  as  free  sulphur  is  produced  by  the  oxidation 
of  masses  of  pyrites  under  certain  conditions,  and  as  sulphur  has  an 
igniting-point  of  250  degs.  C,  his  earlier  experiments  led  to  the  belief  that 
this  free  sulphur  might  play  an  important  part  by  lowering  the  point  of 
ignition ;  his  later  experiments,  however,  show  that  this  could  only  take 
place  with  large  masses  of  pyrites  and  that  with  the  amounts  present  in 
coal,  if  the  air  were  present  in  sufficient  quantity  to  oxidize  the  pyrites, 
the  small  trace  of  sulphur  liberated  would  be  oxidized  to  sulphur  dioxide 
at  temperatures  as  low  as  60  degs.  C.  He  further  determined  the  igniting- 
point  of  various  kinds  of  coal  and  found  that : — 

*  "The  Spontaneous  Ignition  of  Coal  and  its  Prevention,"  Journal  of  the  Society 
of  Artgj  vol.  xl.,  page  354. 


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THE  SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  OF  COAL.  895 

Dttgs.  Fahr.    Degs.  C. 

Cannel  coal  ignites  at 698     »  370 

Hartlepool  coal  ignites  at       766     =  408 

Lignite  coal  ignites  at 842     >»  450 

Welsh  steam  coal  ignites  at 870-5  «=  477 

and  significantly  adds  that  no  stretch  of  imagination  could  endow  the 
small  traces  of  pyrites  scattered  through  a  large  mass  of  coal,  and  under- 
going slow  oxidation,  with  the  power  of  reaching  the  needful  temperature. 

The  late  Dr.  Percy*  also  emphatically  expressed  a  similar  opinion,  and 
every  eminent  scientist  who  has  studied  the  question  agrees  with  such 
conclusions.  It  is  therefore  difficult  to  understand  why  so  many  people 
stDl  believe  that  pyrites  plays  the  principal  rdU  in  spontaneous  ignitions ; 
it  can  only  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  bright  sparkling  pieces 
of  pyrites  are  very  prominent  when  mixed  with  coal,  and  that  the  disin- 
tegrating action  produced  by  their  decomposition  is  often  equally  self- 
evident,  while  the  oxidation  of  the  organic  constituents  of  coal  cannot  be 
seen  and  is  only  heard  about  through  experiments  conducted  by  scientific 
persons.    Tennyson's  line — 

"  Things  seen  are  mightier  than  things  heard," 
applies  very  well  here. 

(2)  Pressure. — So  far  as  underground  fires  are  concerned  there  can  be 
little  doubt  that  the  pressure  from  the  roof  plays,  in  some  cases,  a  very 
important  part.  In  addition  to  the  heat  produced  mechanically  by  the 
crushing  and  fracturing  of  the  coal  and  the  grinding  of  the  irregular 
sides  of  these  fissures  together,  a  large  amount  of  coal  is  produced  in  a 
very  fine  state  of  division  and  passages  are  made  into  the  sides  of  ribs  and 
pillars,  which  readily  admit  a  small  amount  of  air  to  supply  oxygen  to 
intensify  the  action. 

The  arguments  in  favour  of  this  agent  are  strengthened  by  the  fact 
that  underground  fires  occur  more  frequently  in  thick  seams  where  the 
roof  pressure  is  great  than  they  do  in  thin  seams.  Everyone  who  has 
mined  coal  whei'e  the  seams  are  thick  will  willingly  admit  that  such  is  the 
case.  The  ten-yard  seam  of  South  Staffordshire  is  unfortunately  a 
prominent  instance,  but  it  does  not  stand  alone  in  enjoying  such  an 
unenviable  notoriety.  The  thick  seams  of  the  central  district  of  France, 
of  Silesia,  and  many  lignite-mines  on  the  Continent  are  equally  subject 
to  such  outbreaks. 

The  writer's  own  experience  leads  him  to  strongly  assert  the  import- 
ance of  such  action.  Where  the  ten-yard  seam  is  subject  to  much  weight 
(either  by  a  side  of  work  standing  for  a  length  of  time,  or  when  a  district 

*  Metallurgy^  Fuely  eto.^  1875,  page  299. 


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896  THE  SPONTABfBOUS  COMBUSTION  OF  COAL. 

is  being  finished,  and  the  coal  on  three  sides  of  the  chamber  which  is  being 
worked  has  been  taken  out),  the  pillars  become  much  fissured,  and  fires 
readily  break  out  unless  the  greatest  care  and  supervision  are  exercised. 
The  action  which  takes  place  appears  to  be  that  as  the  irregular  sides  of  the 
fissures  are  ground  together,  the  mechanical  heat  produced  is  concentrated 
on  the  surfaces  in  contact,  while  the  small  coal  formed  by  the  grinding 
action  is  acted  on  by  this  heat  and  subjected  to  a  process  of  destructive 
distOlation  and  also  oxidized  by  the  air  passing  into  the  cracks;  in 
addition,  the  heat  produced  is  confined  and  cannot  readily  escape. 

Similar  opinions  are  expressed  by  Mr.  Durand*  in  a  paper  dealing  with 
underground  fires  at  Doyet  collieries  in  the  department  of  Allier,  France, 
where  the  seams  are  not  only  of  great  thickness  (sometimes  more  than 
20  yards)  but  are  inclined  at  steep  angles.  This  paper,  however,  contains 
several  statements  to  which  exception  may  be  taken,  and  these  will  be 
noticed  later  on.  It  is  the  only  paper  of  recent  years  (that  the  writer  is 
acquainted  with)  which  attempts  to  prove  that  pyrites  plays  the  most 
important  part  in  promoting  spontaneous  ignitions. 

(5)  Oxidcttion  of  the  Organic  Constituents, — Although  many  years  ago 
the  general  opinion  was  that  the  decomposition  of  pyrites  played  the 
chief  part  in  producing  spontaneous  fires,  yet  even  in  1864  an  opinion 
was  expressed  by  Dr.  Percyf  that  it  was  not  the  chief  agent,  and  that 
there  was  another  cause  similar  to  that  which  determined  the  spontaneous 
combustion  of  cotton-waste,  viz.,  the  absorption  of  oxygen  by  coal  reduced 
to  a  fine  state  of  division. 

It  was,  however,  left  for  Prof.  E.  HichtersJ  to  substitute  fact  for 
opinion.  His  experiments  were  summarized  by  Dr.  Percy  who  expressed 
an  unqualified  belief  in  their  correctness,  and  similar  opinions  have  been 
given  by  numerous  other  observers  who  have  conducted  similar  investiga- 
tions. 

Prof.  Richters'  experiments  have  been  quoted  so  often  that  it  is  not 
necessai'y  to  quote  them  again  here.  The  chief  points  he  established 
were  that  all  coals,  especially  when  freshly  won,  absorb  oxygen  even  in 
extreme  cases  to  three  times  their  bulk ;  that  an  increase  of  temperature 
takes  place  through  such  action ;  that  such  increase  of  temperature 
increases  the  amount  of  absorption  ;  and  that  the  power  of  coal  to  absorb 

•  •*  Note  Bur  les  incendies  dans  les  houilUres,'*  Bulletin  de  la  SocUti  de  V Industrie 
MMralCy  vol.  xii.  (2nd  scries),  page  43. 

t  Metallurgy,  Fuel,  etc.,  p«ige  298. 

J  Dingler's  Poly teckn inches  Jimrnal,  1870,  vol.  cxcv.,  pages  315  and  449,  and 
vol.  excvi.,  page  317. 


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THB  SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  OF  COAL.  897 

oxygen  is  never  entirely  lost.  He  also  demonstrated  that  the  quantity  of 
oxygen  absorbed  by  different  coals  under  the  same  conditions  is  propor- 
tionate to  the  quantity  of  water  which  they  absorb. 

Mr.  J.  W.  Thomas*  and  Prof.  Lewesf  both  support  such  views  and 
point  out  as  a  similar  instance,  the  rapid  absorption  of  oxygen  by  freshly- 
prepared  charcoal,  which  produces  such  an  amount  of  heat,  that  in  the 
manufacture  of  this  substance  it  always  has  to  be  kept  three  or  four  days 
after  burning  in  air-tight  cylinders  before  picking  over  and  then  must 
remain  ten  or  fourteen  days  before  being  ground  or  ignition  would  take 
place.  Indeed,  after  grinding,  it  has  to  be  kept  in  small  heaps,  as  a 
quantity  of  100  bushels  or  more,  if  collected  in  one  mass,  would  always 
ignite.  In  the  case  of  charcoal,  the  heat  produced  by  the  absorption  of 
oxygen  results  from  purely  mechanical  causes  due  to  the  rapid  rush  of 
the  gases  through  the  capillary  tubes  forming  the  pores  of  the  material. 
Charcoal  indeed  is  a  most  stable  body,  and  after  being  properly  manu- 
factured remains  unaltered  in  the  air  for  a  long  period  of  time.  It  is 
the  only  highly  carbonized  compound  liable  to  spontaneous  ignition,  and 
this  is  accounted  for  by  its  great  porosity  and  minuteness  of  division  and 
its  combustible  properties. 

All  coals  contain  a  certain  percentage  of  volatile  matter,  and  when 
oxygen  is  absorbed  it  enters  into  combination  with  the  carbon  and 
hydrogen  of  the  bituminous  matter  and  forms  carbonic  acid  gas  and 
water  vapour.  Oxidation  of  any  kind  is  always  accompanied  by  an 
increase  in  temperature,  which  again  reacts  and  increases  the  rapidity  of 
chemical  combination.  Both  the  action  and  reaction  therefore  conduce  to 
a  steady  rise  in  temperature,  and  if  it  takes  place  in  heaps  of  coal,  which 
are  naturally  good  non-conductors  of  heat  and  are  suflSciently  porous  to 
allow  sufficient  air  to  enter  to  supply  the  necessary  oxygen  for  continuing 
the  action,  the  temperature  may  easily  rise  to  the  igniting-point. 

The  above  is  the  theory  of  the  subject  and  is  supported  in  a  most 
marked  manner  by  practical  results  obtained  underground.  When  any 
working-place  is  about  to  fire,  large  quantities  of  carbonic  acid  gas  are 
invariably  given  off,  and,  in  addition,  the  coal  commences  to  sweat. 

If  further  arguments  were  necessary,  the  elaborate  experiments  con- 
ducted by  Mr.  H.  FayolJ  might  be  quoted.  He  concludes  that  the  rise 
of  temperature  accompanying  the  absorption  of  oxygen  from  the  atmos- 

•  Coalf  Mine-ganeity  and  Ventilation,  London,  1878,  page  246. 
t  Jimrnal  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  vol.  xl.,  page  353. 

J  "  Etudes  sur  I'alteration  et  la  combustion  spontan^e  de  la  houille  expos^e  4 
Tair,"  Bulletin  de  la  SocietS  de  V Industrie  Minerale,  vol.  viii.  (2nd  series),  page  487. 


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398  THE  SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  OF  COAL. 

phere  by  finely  powdered  coal  is  the  chief  cause  of  its  spontaneous 
ignition.  He  further  states  that  only  a  low  temperature  is  needed  to 
ignite  powdered  coal,  lignite  igniting  at  150  degs.  C.  (302  degs.  Fahr.), 
and  anthracite  at  800  degs.  C.  (572  degs.  Fahr.). 

Oeneral  Considerations, — Having  considered  each  agent  separately,  we 
may  now  consider  the  subject  as  a  whole.  Mr.  Durand  appears  to  be  the 
only  writer  who  elevates  the  oxidation  of  pyrites  into  being  the  chief 
cause  of  ignition.  He  states  that  at  the  Doyet  colheries  the  roof  over 
the  thick  seam  is  composed  in  some  places  of  a  fine  shaly  sandstone 
containing  pyrites,  and  that  near  the  outcrop,  where  cracks  have  occurred 
in  the  roof,  it  has  got  red  hot  and  has  sometimes  set  fire  to  the  timber 
props.  He  admits  that  it  is  difficalt  to  account  for  fires  in  seams  free 
from  pyrites,  and  subsequently  adds  that  near  the  outcrop  with  partial 
open  working  the  coal  has  been  set  on  fire  by  the  frictional  heat  produced 
by  a  sudden  slip  of  the  roof  above. 

To  a  certain  extent  pyrites  may  materially  assist  the  action  of  oxida- 
tion, and  more  especially  so  if  it  is  in  a  fine  state  of  division.  Indeed, 
when  in  the  form  of  a  dull  amorphous  powder  it  becomes  dangerous,  but 
even  then  indirectly.  When  finely  disseminated  through  coal  or  shale 
pyrites  seems  to  possess  a  more  porous  character  than  appertains  to  it  of 
itself,  and  often  readily  decomposes.  Not  only  does  this  produce  heat 
and  thus  render  the  coal  more  susceptible  to  oxidation,  but  it  also  rapidly 
disintegrates  the  coal  and  exposes  a  larger  surface  to  the  action  of  the 
atmosphere.  Under  such  conditions  if  pressure  be  acting  as  well,  a  fire 
may  arise  in  an  incredibly  short  space  of  time. 

When  pyrites  exists  in  lumps,  Uttle  or  no  danger  is  to  be  apprehended 
from  this  cause.  Mr.  Fayol  exposed  pieces  of  coal  of  the  size  of  the  fist 
containing  laminae  of  pyrites  for  a  period  of  one  year  in  very  humid  air  to 
a  temperature  varying  from  35  degs.  to  45  degs.  C.  At  the  beginning,  the 
surface  of  the  pyrites  was  as  brilliant  as  silver,  but  at  the  end  of  ten  to 
twelve  months  the  pieces  on  the  outside  of  the  lumps  commenced  to 
disintegrate  and  fall  to  powder.  The  pieces  inside  the  lumps  were,  how- 
ever, as  brilliant  as  at  first. 

Mr.  Fayol  also  states  that,  under  the  same  experimental  conditions,  the 
action  of  the  atmosphere  on  pyrites  is  not  so  energetic  as  it  is  on  coal. 
When  gradually  heated  up  to  200  degs.  pyrites  and  coal  behaved  exactly 
alike  until  a  temperature  of  135  degs.  was  reached.  From  this  point  the 
temperature  of  the  pyrites  remained  the  same,  while  the  coal  powder 
became  hotter  until  the  igniting  point  was  reached. 

It  is  also  well-known  that  in  many  cases  fires  frequently  occur  in 


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THE  SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  OF  COAL. 


899 


seams  which  are  particularly  free  from  pyrites.  The  ten-yard  coal  of 
Sonih  Staffordshire  does  not  contain  on  an  average  more  than  0*6  to  1 
per  cent,  of  pyrites,  and  yet  in  spite  of  all  precautions  fires  break  out  with 
unfortunate  frequency.  Indeed  it  is  questionable  whether  any  district  is 
more  subject  to  such  outbreaks  than  South  Staffordshire,  and  yet  the 
ignitions  are  confined  to  one  seam  containing  a  small  percentage  of 
pyrites,  while  some  of  the  other  seams  have  large  quantities  of  this 
impurity.  The  researches  of  Prof.  Richters  afford  the  most  conclusive 
proof  of  this  point.  In  the  following  table  he  arranged  eleven  varieties 
of  coal  from  the  Carboniferous  system  in  three  classes,  according  to  the 
degree  of  their  self -inflammability  : — 


Liabllltj  to  SponteneouB 
IcnitioD. 


ClasB  I.— -Very  slight 


Class  II. — Medium 


Class  III.— Great 


V  3 

I' 

(  6 
7 
8 
9 

lie 

(ll 


Pyrltoi. 
PerCeui. 

Water. 
Percent. 

M3 

2-54 

/From  1-On 
\    to304    / 

2-76 

1-51 

3-90 

1-20 

4-60 

1-08 

4-56 

116 

4-76 

112 

4-85 

1-00 

901 

0-83 

5-30 

1-35 

4-85 

0-84 

6-52 

Character  of  tbe  Coal. 


Easily  friable. 
Very  compact. 

Do. 

Firm,  schistose,  bright. , 

Hard,  but  very  brittle. 

Moderately  tender. 

Outwardly  very  like  No.  1. 

Moderately  tender,  schistose. 

Moderately  soft,  schistose. 
Do. 

Not  stated,  yielded  only  2*5 
per  cent,  of  ash.  From  the 
same  pit  as  No.  10,  but  from 
a  different  seam,  noted  for 
its  great  self-inflamma- 
bility. 


Especial  attention  is  directed  to  the  fact,  also  established  by  the  above 
table,  that  coals  containing  a  large  proportion  of  water  are  more  subject 
to  self-inflammability  than  those  containing  little  moisture.  The  moisture 
given  in  the  second  column  is  not  due  to  external  wetting,  but  is  absorbed 
from  the  air  and  held  by  the  coal.  The  amount  present  indicates  the 
power  of  a])sorption  possessed  by  the  coal  both  for  aqueous  vapour  and 
oxygen.  This  contention  is  supported  by  evidence  obtained  from  the  thick 
coal  of  South  Staffordshire,  which  contains  from  8  to  1 1  per  cent,  of  mois- 
ture. Prof.  Lewes*  states  that  the  researches  of  Messrs.  Cowper,  Baker, 
Dixon,  and  others  have  so  fully  shown  the  important  part  which  moisture 
plays  in  chemical  combination,  that  it  is  now  generally  recognized  as  a 
factor  of  importance  in  actions  of  this  kind.    At  first,  external  wetting 

*  Journal  oftlie  Society  of  Art9^  vol.  xl.,  page  356. 


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400  THE  SPONTAIfBOUS  COMBUSTION  OP  COAL. 

retards  the  absorption  of  oxygen  by  coal,  but  the  presence  of  moistui-e 
afterwards  increases  the  action  of  the  already  absorbed  oxygen  upon  the 
hydrocarbons  of  the  coal  and  so  causes  a  serious  increase  in  the  heating. 
In  support  of  such  a  view  he  instances  the  following  case : — A  ship  took  in 
a  cargo  of  coal  at  a  Welsh  port,  the  weather  being  fine  and  dry  while  she 
was  loading  at  the  main  hatch,  and  wet  whilst  taking  in  the  coal  at  the 
after  hatch,  with  the  result  that  the  temperature  after  the  first  few  days 
was  uniformly  about  10  degs.  higher  in  the  coal  that  had  been  loaded  wet 
than  in  the  dry  portion  of  the  cargo,  spontaneous  ignition  being  the 
ultimate  result. 

With  reference  to  the  part  played  by  pressure  little  can  be  added  to 
what  has  already  been  said.  If  fire  be  found  anywhere  it  will  generally 
be  in  cracks  and  fissures.  The  writer  cannot  accept  as  correct  the  state- 
ment made  at  the  Derby  meeting*  that  solid  coal  has  been  known  to  fire  ; 
as,  although  fire  has  been  got  out  of  large  blocks  of  coal,  yet  if  such 
pillars  are  carefully  examined  they  will  be  found  to  be  fractured.  As  an 
instance  of  this,  an  experience  at  Lye  Cross  pit  may  be  quoted  where  a 
fire  was  detected  on  the  side  of  a  road  passing  along  one  edge  of  a  large 
block  of  coal.  The  outbreak  took  place  at  a  distance  of  8  yards  from 
the  side  of  the  cross  road,  and  on  the  fire  being  dug  out,  a  small  fissure, 
not  more  than  ^  inch  wide,  was  detected  and  followed  into  the  apparently 
solid  block  for  a  distance  of  7  yards.  The  temperature  decreased  as 
the  crack  was  traced  and  became  normal  as  soon  as  the  really  solid  coal 
was  reached. 

The  difference  of  opinion  is  solely  due  to  the  meaning  implied  by  the 
expression  "  solid  coal."  Mining  engineers,  in  broadly  generalizing,  usually 
speak  of  coal  being  "  in  the  solid  "  when  it  stands  in  the  form  of  large 
pillars  40  or  50  yards  square,  formed  by  the  intersection  of  narrow  roads 
crossing  each  other  at  or  about  right  angles.  It  is  quite  possible,  and 
indeed  often  happens,  that  these  pillars  are  cracked,  and  if  they  are,  they 
cannot  be  called  solid,  using  that  word  in  its  strictly  literal  meaning. 
Indeed  it  would  be  impossible  to  account  for  any  fire  taking  place  in  solid 
coal ;  neither  the  hydrocarbons  or  pyrites  in  the  coal  could  Idc  supplied 
with  oxygen,  and  as  fine  coal  is  absent  there  is  nothing  to  commence 
ignition.  In  the  case  of  unworked  pillars,  fire  may  take  place  for  the 
following  reasons : — The  load  bears  unevenly  around  them  and  they  crack 
under  the  heavy  crush  to  which  they  are  subjected ;  the  fine  crushed  coal 
is  heated  by  the  friction  produced  and  also  absorbs  oxygen  until  eventually 
ignition  takes  place.  The  heavier  the  pressure,  the  sooner  do  the  pillars 
heat  and  fire. 

♦  Trans.  Fed,  In^.,  vol.  iv.,  page  490. 


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THB  SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  OF  COAL.  401 

Althongh  the  grinding  action  reanlting  from  pressure  introdaces  a 
grave  element  of  danger,  yet  such  action  entirely  fails  to  account  for  the 
fires  which  take  place  with  frequency  in  small  heaps  of  coal  lying  loose  on 
timbering  or  in  those  stacked  on  the  surface.  The  writer  knows  cases 
where  less  than  one  ton  of  small  coal  lying  loose  on  timber  settings 
beneath  and  over  which  a  fairly  strong  current  of  air  has  been  passing 
has  heated  to  such  an  extent  in  three  weeks  that  pieces  of  it  could  not  be 
held  in  the  hand.  Indeed  the  heating  takes  place  so  rapidly,  especially 
in  return  airways,  that  fire  frequently  breaks  out  before  the  heating  is 
detected.  Mr.  W.  F.  Clark  and  the  writer,  gave  a  typical,  and  not  un- 
common, experience  of  this  in  the  paper  already  referred  to.* 

In  seams  free  from  pyrites  and  in  heaps  of  loose  coal  no  other  explana- 
tion can  be  given  when  fire  breaks  out,  except  that  it  is  due  to  oxidation 
of  the  organic  constitutents  of  the  coal.  Both  from  the  scientific  evidence 
quoted  and  from  the  experience  gained  in  his  mining  practice,  the  writer 
is  strongly  of  opinion  that  oxidation  plays  the  principal  role  in  promoting 
spontaneous  ignitions,  and  that  most  danger  is  to  be  feared  from  its 
action,  as  everything  met  with  underground  seems  to  combine  to  render 
this  agent  successful.  The  absorption  of  oxygen  is  favoured  by  moistm'e, 
fine  division,  absence  of  light,  and  especially  by  increase  of  temperatuite, 
while  in  proportion  to  the  rapidity  of  oxidation  is  the  elevation  of  tem- 
perature and  consequent  risk  of  ignition. 

Conditions  favourable  to  Development. — All  coals  can  be  divided  into 
several  classes  which  vary  by  imperceptible  degrees,  forming  first  the  class 
called  lignite,  second  the  free-burning  bituminous  varieties,  third  the 
caking  coals,  and  finally  anthracite.  The  changes  producing  these 
various  types  have  taken  place  by  the  elimination  of  their  gaseous  ele- 
ments, the  free-burning  varieties  containing  a  much  larger  proportion  of 
oxygen  and  volatile  matters  than  the  anthracitic  ones.  Neglecting  a  few 
exceptions,  it  may  be  given  as  a  general  rule  that  the  coals  most  liable  to 
spontaneous  combustion  are  those  which  have  first  departed  from  the 
lignitic  type.  Lignites  themselves  need  not  be  specially  alluded  to  here, 
except  to  say  that  everyone  who  has  been  connected  with  their  working 
describes  them  as  being  more  subject  to  spontaneous  ignition  than  any 
other  known  coal.  With  the  exception  of  a  few  small  deposits,  lignites  do 
not  exist  in  Great  Britain,  but  we  are  rather  freely  supplied  with  the 
succeeding  class.  The  free-burning  semi-bituminous  coals  of  South  Staf- 
fordshire, Warwickshire,  and  Leicestershire  are  instances  in  point.    They 

•  Trans.  Fed,  Inst.,  vol.  iii.,  page  48. 

VOL.  T.-18BI-M.  26 


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402  THE  SPONTANBOUS  COMBUSTION  OF  COAL. 

all  contain  a  lai^e  percentage  of  oxygen  and  volatile  hydrocarbons,  and 
without  doubt  are  more  subject  to  fires  than  any  other  seams  in  this 
country. 

The  pure  free-burning  coals  of  Silesia  are  also  very  liable  to  spontane- 
ous combustion,  but  Mr.  Durand  states  that  in  the  central  basin  of  France 
the  coals  most  subject  to  such  action  are  the  caking  ones.  This  may  be 
true  for  the  district  he  alludes  to,  but  it  is  an  exception  (and  even  in  this 
case  the  coals  contain  a  large  proportion  of  volatile  matters  amounting  in 
extreme  instances  to  40  per  cent.).  On  the  other  hand,  Mr.  Fayol  deter- 
mined the  order  of  inflammability  as  (1)  lignites,  (2)  bituminous  coals, 
(3)  caking  coals,  and  (4)  anthracite. 

So  far  as  anthracite  is  concerned,  no  instances  of  spontaneous  com- 
bustion are  on  record. 

The  state  of  division  is  of  chief  importance,  the  smaller  the  coal  the 
greater  is  its  power  of  self-inflanmiability.  Fine  coal  does  not  absorb 
more  oxygen  than  large  coal,  but  as  it  offers  a  greater  surface  to  the 
atmosphere  the  action  takes  place  with  greater  rapidity,  and  consequently 
the  temperature  increases  quickly.  Mr.  Fayol  proved  by  experiments  that 
when  the  size  of  the  particles  was  1  centimetre,  the  powder  of  lignite, 
bituminous  coal,  caking  coal,  and  anthracite  ignited  at  400  degs.  0.,  but 
that  when  the  size  of  the  dust-particles  was  reduced  to  ^  millimetre 
combustion  took  place  in  the  three  former  classes  at  200  degs.  C,  but  not 
with  anthracite.  With  particles  of  the  last-mentioned  size,  bituminous 
coal  ignited  as  low  as  150  degs.  C,  and  lignites  at  100  degs.  0.  When 
in  the  state  of  impalpable  powder,  he  was  able  not  only  to  ignite  lignites 
but  also  several  varieties  of  the  free-burning  bituminous  coals  at  a  tem- 
perature of  100  degs.  0.  These  facts  are  very  significant,  as  some  coal- 
dusts  require  such  a  low  temperature  to  ignite  them,  and  at  the  same 
time  are  so  ready  to  absorb  oxygen  that  spontaneous  ignition  may  take 
place  in  a  short  space  of  time. 

The  quality  of  the  coal  also  exercises  its  influence.  Soft,  black,  sooty 
coal  is  far  more  liable  to  fire  than  that  of  a  harder  nature.  In  several 
'  collieries  under  the  writer's  charge,  the  coal  is  much  interfered  with  by 
intrusions  of  basalt,  and  bands  of  sooty  coal  are  met  with.  It  almost 
seems  like  romancing  to  say  that  fires  break  out  in  such  coal  in  less  than 
twenty- four  hours,  but  instances  are  on  record  where  a  gateroad  has  been 
left  apparently  safe  at  4*30  p.m.,  and  been  found  on  fire  at  7  o'clock  the 
following  morning.  Such  cases  are  surprising,  when  it  is  remembered  that 
the  overmen  are  only  too  well  acquainted  with  the  preliminary  symptoms 
of  ignition,  and  know  also  how  liable  such  coal  is  to  take  fire,  and  con- 


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THE  SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  OF  COAL.  408 

seqnently  examine  sach  places  with  greater  care.  To  prevent  any  mis- 
nnderstanding,  it  should  also  be  stated  that  when  an  outbreak  occars  as 
mentioned  above,  the  existing  conditions  are  nsnallj  such  as  would  lead 
anyone  to  be  on  their  guard ;  for,  in  addition  to  the  inferior  quality  of  the 
coal,  the  air-current  is  usually  warm  and  moist,  and  the  coal  is  often  under 
considerable  pressure. 

In  order  that  combustion  may  take  place,  a  certain  quantity  of  air 
must  be  supplied ;  if  therefore  the  supply  of  air  be  completely  cut  off 
ignition  could  not  occur.  The  practical  difficulty  is  of  course  how  to  com- 
pletely cut  off  all  air.  On  the  other  hand,  if  air  in  large  quantities  can  be 
introduced  ignitions  could  not  occur,  because  as  soon  as  any  heating  took 
place  the  coal  would  be  cooled  by  the  rapid  current  passing  over  it. 

Prevention. — In  the  paper  Mr.  Settle  read  at  the  London  meeting 
of  the  Federated  Institution  of  Mining  Engineers,*  several  fundamental 
principles  are  given,  which  he  thinks,  should  be  observed  when  working 
coal  liable  to  spontaneous  combustion.  The  writer  is  prepared  to  agree 
with  all  these,  except  the  last  one,  but  thinks  that  some  qualification  is 
necessary  to  more  than  one  of  the  others.  The  statement  to  which  most 
exception  is  taken,  is  "  Do  not  pass  more  ventilation  through  a  district 
than  is  sufficient  to  keep  the  working-places  and  gob-edges  free  from  gas." 
This  practically  means  that  the  quantity  of  air  circulated  should  be 
reduced  to  the  lowest  limit,  and  while  such  should  be  the  case  under 
certain  circumstances,  yet  the  writer  believes  that  the  direct  opposite  is 
often  very  successful  in  preventing  fire.  It  seems  established  that 
when  coal  containing  a  certain  proportion  of  water  or  moisture  and 
organic  matter  is  stacked  in  bulk,  in  a  slightly  moist  condition,  it  under- 
goes a  sweating  action  with  the  formation  of  heat,  during  which  the 
oxy-compounds  in  the  coal  become  partially  decomposed.  If  the  coal 
be  a  porous  one  oxidation  proceeds,  and,  according  to  the  amount  of 
air  which  permeates  the  bulk  and  the  length  of  time  which  elapses,  the 
temperature  of  the  mass  may  even  contiu\ie  to  rise  or  gradually  cool  down. 
Mr.  Thomas  is  of  the  opinion  that  if  the  temperature  of  the  mass  could  be 
kept  down  during  the  sweat  and  untU  the  small  quantity  of  volatile 
matter  had  undergone  oxidation,  there  would  be  little  fear  of  spontaneous 
combustion  occurring  afterwards.  The  only  way  to  cool  down  the  coal  is  to 
circulate  a  vigorous  current  of  ah'  through  it.  If  the  quantity  of  air  be 
reduced,  there  is  always  enough  oxygen  left  to  oxidize  the  organic  con- 
stituents. To  more  forcibly  illustrate  this  point,  the  writer  may  quote  an 
instance  of  a  fire  at  one  of  his  pits,  which  is  now  being  dealt  with,  and 

*  Trant,  Fed,  Inst.y  vol.  v.,  page  10. 


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404  THE  SPOKTAKEOUS  COMBUSTION  OF  GOAL. 

which  has  either  been  on  fire  or  on  the  verge  of  fire  for  more  than  six 
months.  The  method  of  dealing  with  it  is  to  drive  roads  into  the  heated 
portion  and  to  ventilate  it  as  thoroughly  as  possible.  The  area  so  being 
treated  lies  between  two  roads,  which  are  about  35  yards  apart,  and  a 
specimen  of  the  coal  is  exhibited  showing  that  it  has  been  subjected  to  so 
much  heat  that  the  volatile  matters  have  been  distilled  out  of  it ;  the 
sample  resembles  a  piece  of  coal  which  has  had  one  side  dipped  into  a 
bucket  of  tar. 

The  writer  thinks  that  no  diversity  of  opinion  should  exist  on  the 
point  whether  air  should  be  circulated  through  the  working-places  or  not, 
but  one  should  rather  differ  as  to  whether  it  is  possible  to  ventilate  a  gob 
thoroughly.  The  writer  here  agrees  with  Mr.  Settle,  viz.,  that  a  gob  should 
not  have  air  passed  into  it.  He  would  not  say :  do  not  ventilate  a  gob, 
because  it  is  his  opinion  that  if  it  were  possible  to  do  so,  success  in  prevent- 
ing outbursts  would  follow,  but  the  difficulty  here  is  to  perfectly  ventilate 
the  gob.  It  is  impossible  to  get  suflScient  air  into  any  gob,  even  sup- 
posing the  roadways  are  very  near  together.  Prof.  Lewes,  in  discussing  the 
same  point  applied  to  coal  cargoes,  remarks  that  perfect  ventilation  is 
impossible  on  account  of  the  mass  of  coal  present,  and  therefore  the  hold 
should  be  battened  down,  and  everything  done  to  prevent  imperfect  venti- 
lation, but  with  coal  bunkers,  on  the  other  hand,  on  account  of  free  access 
being  obtained  both  to  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  coal,  and  also  the  small 
mass  present,  perfect  ventilation  is  possible  and  should  be  attempted.  In 
several  parts  of  this  country  it  is  by  no  means  an  uncommon  practice  to 
preserve  heaps  of  coal  stacked  during  the  slack  season  by  placing,  in  the 
mass,  wooden  perforated  pipes,  through  which  air  can  readily  pass  into  the 
middle  of  the  mass  of  coal.  The  first  procedure  is  to  lay  them  in  the 
bottom,  and  then  as  the  coal  is  tipped  over  them  others  are  added,  until 
the  mass  is  riddled  with  these  conduits.  On  the  Continent  such  procedure 
is  still  more  common,  and  a  patent  was  taken  out  in  1882  for  passing 
exhaust  steam  through  similar  pipes  into  the  centre  of  the  slack-heaps, 
and  it  is  stated  that  this  method  has  been  very  successful. 

With  respect  to  removing  all  fine  slack  from  the  gob,  everyone  is 
agreed  on  this  point.  If  tliere  were  no  fine  coal  to  oxidize,  spontaneous 
combustion  is  not  likely  to  occur.  The  entire  removal  of  the  coal  does  not 
mean  that  fires  would  entirely  cease,  because  the  shale  often  met  with  in 
the  roof  is  just  as  liable  to  ip:nite  as  coal.  At  the  Derby  meeting,  a  state- 
ment was  made  that  fires  could  not  occur  under  a  white  rock  roof.*  This 
may  be  true  in  one  district,  but  it  is  decidedly  not  the  case  in  South 
•  Tram.  Fed,  Inst.,  vol.  iv.,  page  491. 


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TfiK  8PONTA27EOUS  COMBlTSTION  Of  COAL.  405 

Staffordshire.  The  roof  of  the  thick  coal  consists  of,  first  of  all,  10  to  12 
feet  of  a  white  metal,  followed  by  from  20  to  40  yards  of  sandstone  rock, 
yet  fires  are  common. 

Mr.  Settle's  suggestion  for  working  seams  liable  to  spontaneous  com- 
bustion in  panels,  is  supported  by  all  the  evidence  obtained  in  working  the 
ten  yards  coal  in  South  Staffordshire.  The  oldest  method,  and  one  most 
largely  employed,  is  identical  with  the  one  he  sketched.  The  side  of  work 
of  South  Staffordshire  is  reaUy  a  small  panel,  which  is  kept  separate  from 
adjoining  ones,  and  is  always  sealed  off  when  finished,  whether  it  has 
taken  fire  or  not.  Temporary  stoppings  are  always  erected  before  the  side 
of  work  is  fully  opened.  The  general  practice  is,  however,  against  erect- 
ing these  stoppings  of  brick  and  mortar.  Under  the  influence  of  pressure 
both  from  the  roof  and  sides,  walls  of  masonry  are  very  liable  to  crack, 
and  of  course  as  soon  afi  they  do  so  they  are  completely  worthless.  The 
most  successftil  way  in  this  district,  is  first  of  all  to  cut  a  groove  about 
2  feet  wide  into  the  floor,  sides,  and  roof,  until  perfectly  solid  coal  is 
reached.  While  the  panel  is  being  worked  a  road  has  to  be  kept  into  it, 
and  four  chocks  or  cogs  are  built,  two  on  each  side  of  the  groove,  and  two 
on  each  side  of  the  road.  The  groove  itself  is  filled  with  sand,  which  is 
well  rammed.  Under  the  influence  of  the  pressure  these  cogs  get  solid 
before  the  side  of  work  is  finished,  and  when  all  the  coal  has  been  got  out 
the  centre  part  through  which  tubs  pass  is  filled  in  with  packing,  and  the 
sand-dam  completed. 

It  has  not  been  found  necessary  to  leave  larger  ribs  in  ordinary  working 
than  about  10  yards  broad.  The  fifty  yards  of  coal  that  Mr.  Settle  states 
were  left  in  the  Bullhurst  seam  cannot  be  considered  an  excessive  amount 
under  the  exceptional  conditions  which  he  illustrated,  but  in  this  district 
nothing  like  such  a  width  has  ever  been  left  except  under  most  abnormal 
circumstances. 

It  is  very  necessary  in  longwall  workings  that  the  gob  should  be  well 
and  comj)letely  stowed,  which  not  only  helps  to  prevent  fires  but  often  keeps 
them  isolated  if  they  should  break  out.  It  also  allows  the  coal  to  be  com- 
pletely won,  and  diminishes  the  sinking  of  the  ground.  In  working  the 
thick  seams  of  France,  which  are  so  liable  to  spontaneous  combustion,  com- 
plete stowing  is  carried  out.  The  packing-material  is  in  many  cases  obtained 
from  quarries  on  the  surface  and  is  then  sent  underground.  The  seams 
are  highly  inclined,  in  some  cases  nearly  vertical,  and  the  method  of 
working  is  taking  away  thin  slices,  which  are  removed,  preferably  frotn 
top  to  bottom.     All  empty  spaces  are  filled  immediately  the  coal  is 


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406  THE  SPONTANEOUS  COMBtJSTION  OP  COAL. 

removed,  and  the  winning  is  very  complete,  everything  being  brought 
away,  even  to  the  shales,  capable  of  undergoing  spontaneous  combustion. 

Rapid  working  often  prevents  heating,  as  the  winning  of  a  given 
district  goes  on  faster  than  the  coal  can  spontaneously  ignite.  A  slow 
working  favours  fire  in  allowing  broken  coal  in  communication  with  air- 
ways to  obtain  sufficient  air  to  support  slow  combustion.  The  blocks  of 
coal  formed  by  the  intersection  of  the  roadways  should  be  as  large  as 
possible,  as  the  subdivision  into  small  pillars  favours  breakage  and 
ignition.  If  the  gob  packing  is  of  a  rich  earthy  character,  it  becomes 
compressed  and  prevents  fires  spreading.  Good  and  complete  packing 
allows  one  to  avoid  and  limit  fires  already  in  existence. 

It  is  important  to  watch  carefully  for  the  commencement  of  fires,  and 
attack  them  at  once.  Asa  temporary  method,  any  fissures  in  the  sides  of 
the  roads  should  be  carefully  filled  in  with  clay,  but  this  does  not  last 
long,  as  it  rapidly  dries  and  cracks.  If  the  coal  begins  to  heat,  a  very 
active  ventilation  should  be  first  tried.  This  has  been  successful  in 
many  cases.  It  should  be  distinctly  understood  that  the  writer's  opinion 
is  not  to  use  a  rapid  current  of  air  when  fire  has  broken  out  because,  in 
such  a  case,  it  would  only  increase  the  danger  ;  but  until  fire  really  breaks 
out,  cool  air  does  good.  A  small  fire  is  best  extinguished  at  once  by 
water,  the  place  got  at,  and  the  burnt  and  broken  coal  removed.  As  for 
as  possible,  fires  are  best  attacked  from  above.  In  many  cases,  the  writer 
has  driven  roads  in  the  rock  above  the  coal,  and  then  put  do\vn  boreholes 
into  the  burning  mass  and  applied  water  on  it,  thus  drowning  the  fire. 
This  has  been  very  effective,  especially  in  the  tliick  coal.  If  the  fire  has 
got  a  considerable  hold,  the  only  method  is  to  barricade  and  dam  it  off, 
and  to  completely  intercept  the  access  of  air.  In  those  rare  cases  where 
the  fire  is  too  great  for  dams,  the  only  resource  is  to  hermetically  close 
the  mouths  of  the  shafts  and  isolate  the  whole  mine.  After  the  lapse  of  a 
certain  time,  which  may  vary  from  six  to  eight  weeks,  or  even  three 
months,  the  pits  may  be  again  opened. 

When  a  district  is  dammed  off  the  combustion  of  the  coal  forms 
several  gases,  the  principal  one  of  which  is  carbonic  acid.  This  gas  will 
not  support  combustion,  and  consequently  puts  the  fire  out.  Carbonic 
acid  gas  is  naturally  formed  by  a  fire,  and  it  has  therefore  occurred  to 
engineers  that  if  that  gas  were  artificially  formed  and  passed  into  the 
burning  area,  the  fire  would  be  more  rapidly  put  out.  This  procedure 
has  been  locally  tried  in  South  Staffordshire  by  several  engineers,  and 
always  with  success.  When  it  is  necessary  that  the  pit-shafts  should  be 
sealed  up,  carbonic  acid  gas  should  always  be  passed  into  the  mine.    The 


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TH£  SPONTAKEOUB  G03UBUBT10N  OF  GOAL.  407 

most  notable  instance  of  this  procedure  was  the  extinguishing  of  the  fire 
at  Winnstay  colliery.  Even  with  sealing  up  the  shafts  and  passing  in 
carbonic  iicid  gas,  some  fires  cannot  be  extinguished,  and  there  only  then 
remains  the  hei-oic  measure  of  flooding  the  mine,  which  should  only  be 
done  when  every  other  plan  has  failed — for  the  remedy  is  nearly  as  bad  as 
the  disease. 

Concl unions, — The  chief  points  which  the  writer  has  attempted  to 
make  clear  are  : — 

1.  That  iron  pyrites  plays  a  very  unimportant  part  Ln  the  spontane- 
ous combustion  of  coal,  so  far  as  direct  action  is  concerned,  but  that  it 
may  materially  assist  by  disintegrating  the  coal  and  by  producing  a  slight 
rise  in  temperature.  When  it  exists  in  the  form  of  bright  brassy  lumps 
and  veins  little  danger  is  to  be  apprehended,  but  the  maximum  effect 
is  exerted  when  it  occurs  in  the  form  of  a  dark  amorphous  powder  finely 
disseminated  through  the  coal. 

2.  That  coal  never  fires  in  the  solid.  If  combustion  commences  in  a 
large  pillar  this  pillar  will  be  found  to  be  fissured. 

8.  That  although  pressure  on  pillars  greatly  increases  the  danger  of 
spontaneous  combustion,  yet  it  is  doubtful  whether  this  action  alone 
would  start  a  fire. 

4.  That  oxidation  of  the  organic  constituents  of  the  coal  is  the  main 
cause  of  underground  fires. 

5.  That  the  coals  most  liable  to  spontaneous  combustion  are  the 
highly  oxygenized  semi-bituminous  varieties  containing  a  large  proportion 
of  moisture. 

g!  That  the  only  method  of  prevention  is  to  circulate  as  large  a  current 
of  air  as  possible  through  the  workings,  to  carefully  remove  all  the  fine 
coal  from  the  mine,  to  exclude  as  completely  as  possible  all  air  from  the 
gob,  aud  from  heaps  of  shale,  etc.,  in  pillar-workings,  and  in  longwall 
workings  to  stow  the  gob  carefully  and  completely,  keeping  the  pack-walls 
continuous. 

Bibliography. — Fuller  information  may  be  obtained  from  the  follow- 
ing memoirs : — 

"The  Weathering  and  Spontaneous  Combustion  of  Coal,"  Dr.  Percy,  Metallurgy, 
Fuel,  etc.,  pages  289-300 ;  '•  Fires  in  Mines,  their  Causes  and  Means  of  Preventing 
them,"  R.  P.  Rothwell,  Trans.  Am,  Ijut.  Min,  Eng.,  vol.  iv..  page  64 ;  "  Prevention 
of  Spontaneous  Combustion  of  Coal  at  Sea,"  T.  W.  Running,  Tram.  N.  E.  Inst.  Min, 
Eng.,  vol.  xxv.,  page  107 ;  "  Coal-mine  Gases  and  Ventilation,"  J.  W.  Thomas,  pages 
241-253 ;  "Incendies  dans  les  Houill^res,  Proc6d68  employes  pour  les  Pr^venir  et  les 
Eteindre,"  M.  Nesterowsky,  Bull.  Soc,  Ind,  Min,  de  St.  Etienne,  vol.  vii.  (2nd  series), 
page  839 ;  **  Etudes  sur  I'Alt^ration  et  la  Combustion  Spontan^e  de  la  Houille 


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408  THE  SPONTAKEO06  COHBUSTtON   OF  COAL. 

expoB^e  &  r Air,"  H.  Fayol,  Bull.  See,  Jnd.  Min,,  vol.  viii.  (2nd  series),  page  487 ; 
**  Cause  and  Prevention  of  Underground  Fires,"  T.  Bertram,  Jour.  Brit.  Soc.  Mi%, 
Students^  vol.  vi.,  page  184 ;  "  Note  sur  les  Incendies  dans  les  Houill^res,"  M.  Dnrand, 
Bull.  Soc.  Ind.  Min.,  vol.  xii.  (2nd  series),  page  43;  "The  Spontaneous  Combustion 
of  Coal,"  H.  W.  Hughes,  Trafu.  8.  Staffs.  In^.  Min.  Eng.,  vol.  xi.,  page  33 ;  "Pit 
Fires:  a  Consideration  of  Careful  Special  Packing  as  a  Preventive,"  S.  Spruce, 
Trans.  N.  Staffs.  Inst.  Min.  Eng.,  vol.  viii.,  page  38 ;  "The  Spontaneous  Ignition  of 
Coal  and  its  Prevention,"  V.  B.  Lewes,  Jovr.  Soc.  Arts,  vol.  xl.,  page  361. 


The  Chairman  moved  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Hughes  for  his  valnable 
and  interesting  paper,  which  was  cordially  adopted,  and  the  discussion 
was  adjourned,  to  a  Special  General  Meeting  to  be  held  on  July  8rd,  1898. 


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DIS0US8I0N— THE  SPONTANEOUS  OOliBUSTlOK  Of  COAL.  409 


SOUTH  STAFFORDSHIRE  AND  EAST  WORCESTERSHIRE 
INSTITUTE  OF  MINING  ENGINEERS. 


SPECIAL   GENERAL   MEETING, 
Held  in  the  Mason  Golleob,  Bibminoham,  July  3bd,  1893. 


Mb.  W.  F.  CLABE,  Pbebident,  in  the  Ghaib. 


The  minutes  of  the  last  General  Meeting  were  read  and  confirmed. 


The  President  returned  his  thanks  to  the  members  for  the  letter  of 
condolence  forwarded  by  the  Institute  on  the  occasion  of  recent  domestic 
troubles. 


DISCUSSION  UPON  MR.  H.  W.  HUGHES'  PAPER  ON  "THE 
SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  OF  COAL."* 
Mr.  Bennett  H.  Brough  stated  that  on  visiting  the  Kimberley 
diamond  mines  last  summer  he  was  struck  with  the  obvious  evidences  of 
the  influence  of  iron  pyrites  in  bringing  about  the  spontaneous  combustion 
of  black  shale.  Among  the  rocks  passed  through  by  the  pipes  of  diamond- 
bearing  rock  are  from  200  to  300  feet  of  the  characteristic  shales  of  the 
country.  The  black  shales  contain  much  iron  pyrites,  and  in  the  open 
excavations  of  the  Kimberley,  Bultfontein,  and  Dutoitspan  mines  have 
ignited  spontaneously  and  continued  burning  for  years,  giving  off  a  strong 
sulphurous  odour  that  can  be  smelt  for  many  miles.  The  burning  shale  is, 
however,  not  a  menace  to  the  system  of  underground  mining  now  adopted, 
as  the  downcast  shaft  is  situated  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
burning  shale  and  at  a  much  higher  elevation.  Consequently,  no  trace  of 
the  fumes  from  the  shale  burning  in  the  open  quany  is  noticeable 
underground.  Though  this  fact  in  some  measure  supports  the  pyrites 
theory  of  spontaneous  combustion,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
spontaneous  ignition  of  the  shale  is  met  with  only  in  the  open  quarry  and 
in  the  waste-heaps.  Mr.  Hughes  does  not  appear  to  have  sufficiently 
♦  Tram,  Fed,  Inst,,  vol.  v.,  page  892. 


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410  DISCUSSION — THE  SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  OP  COAL. 

dwelt  upon  the  liability  of  brown  coal  or  lignite  to  spontaneons  ignition. 
In  the  working  places  in  brown  coal-mines,  spontaneous  ignition  occurs 
with  very  great  facility,  and  there  are  but  few  such  mines  in  Central 
Europe  without  fires  raging  underground.  Fortunately,  by  hermeticaUy 
sealing-up  such  places  the  fire  is  soon  extinguished,  and  the  place  may  be 
reopened  in  three  months'  time.  Even  in  factories  in  which  brown  coal 
briquettes  are  made,  explosions  due  to  the  spontaneous  ignition  of  the  coal 
are  of  frequent  occurrence.  The  dust  is  in  a  fine  state  of  division,  and  an 
explosion  occurs  when  this  dust  spontaneously  ignited  extends  over  a  large 
area  with  access  of  air.  A  study  of  the  spontaneous  ignition  of  brown 
coal  appears  to  support  the  view  that  the  absorption  of  oxygen  is  the 
primary  cause  of  this  phenomenon.  The  coal  is  oxidized  or  weathered 
with  great  rapidity,  and  carbonic  anhydride  and  water  are  formed.  The 
decomposition  of  iron  pyrites  is  of  subordinate  importance,  inasmuch  as 
it  is  effected  only  in  the  presence  of  moisture,  and  is  accompanied  by  a 
development  of  heat  which,  as  is  well  known,  increases  the  absorption  of 
oxygen.  The  state  of  division  of  the  coal,  as  Mr.  Hughes  points  out,  is 
an  important  factor.  Small  coal  absorbs  oxygen  with  greater  avidity 
than  does  lump  coal,  and  consequently  becomes  more  heated  and  weathers 
more  rapidly.  Experience  shows  that  fires  occur  most  frequently  where 
large  quantities  of  coal-dust  are  left  in  the  workings,  or  where  the  pillars 
are  greatly  fissured  by  pressure.  In  these  fissures,  a  quantity  of  coal-dust 
is  produced,  which  ignites  by  absorbing  oxygen.  It  seems  incredible  that 
the  pillars  should  be  heated  sufficiently  by  pressure  to  ignite  the  dust. 

Mr.  H.  G.  Graves  wrote  that  at  the  last  meeting  of  the  Federated  In- 
stitution of  Mining  Engineers  in  London,  considerable  confusion  appeared 
to  have  arisen  over  the  term  "solid  coal"  and  over  the  proper  use  of 
ventilation,  but  the  clear  account  then  given  by  Mr.  Hughes  ought  to  set 
both  these  matters  at  rest.  In  solid  coal  (using  the  word  solid  in  its  general 
acceptation  as  meaning  unfractured  and  not  in  the  more  limited  mining 
sense  as  unworked  or  unbroken  coal),  there  can  be  no  combustion,  since  the 
air  has  practically  no  surface  on  which  to  act.  When  the  pillars  yield 
under  the  weight  of  the  overburden,  they  crack  and  are  no  longer  solid. 
Air  can  then  enter  the  cracks  and  the  oxidation  together  with  the  Mction 
due  to  the  movement  may  cause  fire.  That  pressure  by  itself  may  be 
sufficient  to  give  rise  to  spontaneous  combustion  can  easily  be  seen 
from  the  following  rough  calculation.  Say  an  8  yards  pillar  of  coal  at  a 
depth  of  100  yards  settles  6  inches  under  a  load  of  10,000  tons,  then  5,000 
foot-tons  of  work  will  be  done.  This  is  equivalent  to  15,000  heat  units, 
which  would  be  capable  of  heating  150  lbs.  of  coal  400  degs.  Fahr.  if  the 


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DIFCUSFIOK— THE  SPOKTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  OP  COAL.  411 

heat  were  localized,  as  some  of  it  might  be.  This  approximate  calculation 
is  only  put  forward  as  a  slight  addition  to  the  pressure  theory,  for  the  writer 
thinks  that  oxidation  is  the  most  potent  factor  in  the  phenomenon  of 
spontaneous  combustion.  No  one,  of  course,  upholds  the  idea  that  the 
ventilation  should  be  good  after  the  fire  breaks  out,  but  before  that  crisis,  it 
seems  best  from  all  points  of  view  to  have  a  good  air-current  on  account  of 
its  cooling  effects.  It  is  not  possible  to  exclude  all  the  air  from  a  colliery, 
though  it  may  be  excluded  from  a  ship's  hold.  In  the  latter  case  no  air  or 
plenty  of  air  seem  equally  good.  A  farmer,  too,  when  a  stack  of  hay  heats, 
will  cut  through  it  to  cool  it,  and,  in  this  connexion,  it  may  be  noticed  that 
the  first  patent  specification  for  the  Ca})ell  fan  described  its  use  for  cooling 
stacks.  The  main  point  is  to  cool  the  coal,  and  especially  the  small  coal, 
concurrently  with  the  oxidation.  To  avoid  combustion  therefore,  crushing 
must  be  avoided,  and  small  coal  (especially  when  freshly  broken),  should 
not  be  allowed  to  accumulate  and  become  hot. 

Mr.  W.  B.  Scott  said  it  occurred  to  him  that  their  Institute  could 
with  advantage  discuss  certain  points  in  the  subject  before  them,  viz., 
what  was  the  cause  of  spontaneous  combustion  ;  how  to  prevent  it,  and 
how  to  extinguish  it  when  it  had  gained  ground  ?  It  appeared  to  him 
they  should  first  enquire  what  class  of  coal  was  most  liable  to  spontaneous 
combustion.  Mr.  Hughes  had  given  them  the  result  of  Prof.  Eichter's 
researches,  and  he  thought  they  might  consider  that  anthracite  was  not 
liable  to  spontaneous  combustion  ;  that  certain  classes  of  coal  were  more 
liable  than  others ;  and  that  fires  had  occurred  in  every  coal  except  the 
brooch  seam.  Then  arose  the  question,  what  was  the  cause  ?  In  his  sum- 
mary of  points  dealt  with,  Mr.  Hughes  stated  that  iron  pyrites  played  a 
very  unimportant  part  in  the  spontaneous  combustion  of  coal,  and  with 
this  he  was  very  much  inclined  to  agree.  As  to  No.  2  point,  the  writer  of 
the  paper  contended  that  coal  never  fired  in  the  solid ;  and  he  (Mr.  Scott) 
thought  they  might  concur  that  a  solid  lump  of  coal  would  not  fire,  and 
that  if  combustion  did  commence  in  a  large  pillar,  that  pillar  would  be 
found  to  be  fissured.  The  third  statement  in  Mr.  Hughes'  summary  was 
that  although  pressure  on  pillars  greatly  increased  the  danger  of  spon- 
taneous combustion,  yet  it  was  doubtful  whether  that  action  alone  would 
start  a  fire.  This  he  could  not  quite  follow,  because,  under  certain 
conditions,  if  the  pressure  produced  the  necessary  amount  of  heat,  a  fire 
would  be  set  up.  He  might,  however,  observe  that  he  thoroughly  con- 
curred in  the  following  point,  and  was  of  opinion  that  the  outcome  of 
that  discussion  would  be  that  oxidation  of  the  organic  constituents  was 
the  main  cause  of  underground  fires.     Such  a  rapid  organic  change  was 


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412  DISCtTSSION — ^TttE  SPONTAKEOtJB  COMBUSTtON  OF  OQAL. 

set  np  that  the  heat  increased  and  the  fire  broke  oat.  This  had  been  laid 
down  by  authorities  for  some  time.  Given  a  handful  of  pure  carbon,  and 
a  stream  of  oxygen  j)oured  upon  it,  the  heap  would  burst  at  once  into 
combustion.  With  respect  to  the  allusion  in  No.  6,  he  should  like  to  ask 
Mr.  Hughes  whether  the  "moisture"  is  the  cause  or  the  effect?  He 
was  inclined  to  think  the  latter.  The  concluding  point  was  as  to  the 
method  of  prevention ;  and  whilst  agreeing  as  to  some  of  the  suggestions 
made,  he  knew  of  an  instance  of  a  colliery  in  Cannock  Chase  where  com- 
plete stowing  in  the  gob  did  not  prevent  a  fire  breaking  out.  They 
might  be  sure  that  fires  would  break  out  in  the  gob,  even  when  they 
were  carefully  stowed. 

Mr.  W.  B.  CoLLiB  believed,  from  the  result  of  his  observations, 
extending  over  more  than  thirty  years,  that  the  cause  of  spontaneous  com- 
bustion was  the  rapid  absorption  of  oxygen  by  the  finely  divided  particles 
of  coal.  They  might  find  it  in  the  finely  divided  particles  existing  in  the 
coal  itself,  which  was  otherwise  solid,  or  they  might  find  it  in  the  small 
particles  lying  in  heaps  of  slack  cast  aside— sometimes  in  the  gob  itself, 
and  also  in  proximity  of  faults  and  disturbances — but  he  thought  in  every 
case  the  real  cause  was  the  same.  It  was  rapid  absorption  of  oxygen 
by  the  finely  divided  particles  of  carbon  in  the  coal.  They  found  some- 
times, when  the  coal  had  been  affected  by  water,  that  that  absorption  took 
place  still  more  rapidly.  Gob-fires  presented  themselves  with  great  sudden- 
ness and  rapidity,  and  it  had  occurred  to  him  whether,  in  such  cases,  the 
moisture  was  communicated  from  particle  to  particle,  and  thus  assisted  in 
the  rapid  development  of  heat  and  fire.  They  had  gone  nearly  as  far  as 
they  could,  by  experiment  and  by  knowledge  of  chemistry,  in  the  discovery 
of  the  real  cause  of  spontaneous  combustion.  He  did  not  think  anything 
had,  so  far,  been  said  in  regard  to  the  method  to  be  employed  in  dealing  with 
it,  except  Mr.  Hughes'  suggestion  of  ventilation.  No  doubt  it  was  very 
desirable  to  bring  a  stream  of  air  into  a  place  where  fire  was  breeding,  and 
if  possible  to  cool  it  down,  and  so  minimize  the  danger,  and  possibly 
destroy  it.  They  were  not,  of  com-se,  always  able  to  do  that.  They 
came  then  to  the  consideration  of  what  was  the  next  best  thing  to  be 
done.  This  was  to  seal  it  up— to  exclude  the  air  and  destroy  the  fire  by 
the  absence  of  oxygen.  They  brought  about,  in  this  manner,  an  atmos- 
phere largely  composed  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  which  would  not  support, 
but  destroyed,  combustion.  Other  methods  were  employed  which  were 
worthy  of  consideration.  He  had  used  a  plan  of  manuiacturing  carbonic 
acid  gas.  At  his  colliery  they  set  up  at  one  time  a  small  manufactory 
very  close  to  the  place.    They  got  some  large  casks,  capable  of  holding 


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DIBOOSSION — THE  SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  OP  COAL.  418 

10  cwto.  of  flnid  each,  and  took  them  to  within  a  short  distance  of  the 
place.  They  put  finely  broken  up  limestone  into  these  casks ;  then  poured 
hydrochloric  acid  upon  the  broken  limestone,  and  carbonic  acid  was 
given  oflF.  By  having  two  large  casks  they  had  a  suiBcient  supply,  and 
by  that  means  kept  the  enemy  at  bay.  He  did  not  know  that  that  had 
been  done  before  on  the  small  scale  to  which  he  referred.  They  sometimes 
made  large  quantities  of  carbonic  gas  and  poured  it  down  the  shaft.  He 
knew,  however,  of  no  royal  road  to  get  rid  of  underground  fires.  They 
were  always  a  source  of  great  trouble,  labour,  and  anxiety.  Spontaneous 
combustion  was  an  insidious  enemy,  which  had  carefully  to  be  watched, 
and  mines  should  be  so  worked  as  to  be  exposed  as  little  as  possible  to 
that  enemy. 

Mr.  Isaac  Mbachbm,  Jun.,  said  one  of  the  earliest  experiments  he 
made  in  connexion  with  fire  was  about  fifteen  years  ago.  At  the 
Granville  colliery,  Old  Hill,  they  were  troubled  a  great  deal  with  fire  in 
the  face  of  work.  They  determined  to  increase  their  quantity  of  air. 
They  increased  the  quantity  of  air  travelling  round  the  face  of  work,  with 
the  i-esult  that  from  that  time  they  never  had  any  more  fii^  in  the  face  of 
work  in  that  pit. 

Mr.  W.  J.  Hayward  observed  it  was  well  known  that  the  new  mine 
coal  at  West  Bromwich  contained  a  large  quantity  of  pyrites,  yet  he  had 
never  known  a  single  case  of  gob-fire  in  that  seam.  Mr.  Hughes  laid 
great  stress  upon  the  oxidation  of  coal,  but  he  (Mr.  Hayward)  attached 
as  much  importance  to  pressure  as  to  the  absorption  of  oxygen.  The 
former  was,  in  his  opinion,  a  prolific  source  of  fire,  and  he  had  then  in 
his  mind  at  least  two  cases  where  it  was  evident  that  pressure  had  been 
the  cause  of  ignition.  With  regard  to  prevention,  the  best  method  was 
the  circulation  of  a  large  quantity  of  air  until  combustion  actually 
occurred  when,  of  course,  such  ventilation  must  cease.  Referring  to  the 
sixth  point  in  the  paper  under  notice,  he  might  remark  that  if  they  could 
bring  to  bank  the  great  quantity  of  fine  dust  which  at  present  was  cast 
into  the  gob  they  would  have  fewer  gob-fires.  More  attention  might, 
perhaps,  be  paid  to  the  system  of  cogging,  and  if  this  were  made  con- 
tinuous, where  practicable,  it  would  tend  to  decrease  the  number  of  fires. 

Mr.  F.  6.  Meachem  said  he  was  sure  every  one  present  must  feel 
greatly  indebted  to  Mr.  Hughes  for  bringing  the  subject  forward  in  so 
able  a  manner.  As  for  the  causes  of  combustion,  they  must,  in  the  first 
place,  agree  with  Dud  Dudley,  who  in  his  Metalhm  Martis  (which  was 
published  in  1665)  said  it  was  the  small  coals  which  were  left  behind 
because  they  were  of  no  value  that  fixed— but  Dud  Dudley  did  not  tell 


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414  DISCUSSION—THE  SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  OF  COAL. 

them  how  these  smaU  coals  first  commenced  to  heat.  He  was  very  much 
inclined  to  believe  the  fourth  clause  in  Mr.  Hughes'  summing  up.  At 
the  same  time,  the  study  of  prevention  was  what  had,  up  to  the  present, 
occupied  most  of  his  attention.  Taking  as  a  starting-point,  the  acknow- 
ledged fact  that  it  was  the  small  coals  that  fired,  at  Hamstead  colliery 
they  had  always  made  a  point  of  clearing  them  out,  and  to  make  sure  of 
this,  when  they  were  opening  a  panel,  say  100  yards  in  length,  they  only 
drove  96  yards.  They  left  the  4  yards  to  be  side-barred  off.  The  effect 
of  this  was  to  take  out  all  the  breaks  in  the  rib  and  leave  it  solid,  and  the 
foot  of  the  rib  was  easier  cleared  of  fine  slack  to  the  rock  below.  They 
had  invariably  found  that  the  coal  was  broken  alongside  roads  for  6  to  8 
feet  even  when  driven  in  the  solid,  and  it  was  mostly  in  these  breaks  that 
the  fires  occurred.  With  respect  to  fires  in  the  solid,  they  had  had  many 
cases,  and  they  had  found  that  they  mostly  occurred  in  old  geological  time 
breaks.  These  breaks  and  slip  things  appeared  to  have  been  opened  and 
then  filled  with  white  calcite  intermixed  with  pyrites.  In  a  case  they 
had  only  a  few  weeks  ago,  the  road  was  driven  in  the  solid  coal,  the 
neai'est  workings  being  400  yards  away.  Fire-stink  was  detected  and 
search  was  made.  A  small  head  was  driven  off  the  side  of  the  main  road, 
and  in  9  feet,  three  open  recent  breaks  were  passed,  full  of  fine  dust  but 
no  fire.  At  12  feet  from  the  side  of  the  road,  an  old  break  was  met  with 
containing  calcite  and  pyrites,  from  which  smoke  was  issuing.  This 
was  followed  in  an  oblique  direction  to  the  left,  and  a  few  feet  farther  red- 
hot  coal  was  cut  out.  The  break  was  about  3  or  4  inches  wide,  and  the 
coal  was  on  fire  about  8  inches  into  the  solid  on  either  side.  This  was 
cleared  out,  and  the  place  was  now  cool  and  safe.  He  would  specially 
point  this  out  as  only  one  of  many  instances,  and  in  cases  of  suspected 
fires  and  many  breaks  being  visible,  the  deputies  regularly  said  to  the  men 
**  start  in  that  white  thing."  As  to  the  particular  action  of  that  calcite 
and  pyrites  he  did  not,  at  present,  know  enough  about  it  to  speak  with 
certainty,  but  he  hoped  at  some  future  time  to  be  able  to  give  more  inform- 
ation. Replying  to  the  chairman,  Mr.  Meachem  added  that  most  of  the 
fires  which  occurred  in  the  solid  were  started  in  these  old  geological 
breaks,  although  there  were  newer  breaks  close  about,  and  this,  he  thought, 
showed  that  the  older  breaks  filled  with  calcite  were  more  susceptible  and 
ready  to  fire  upon  the  least  movement  that  took  place  in  the  coal 
surrounding  the  road. 

Mr.  Grazebbook  gave  an  instance  of  a  sudden  outbreak  of  fire  in  a 
mine  under  the  Rowley  Hills.  At  2  p.m.  he  carefully  examined  the  road, 
which  was  subsequently  examined  by  the  overman  and  others,  and  at 


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DIflCUSfllON— THE  SPONTANEOUS  COMBUSTION  OF  OOAL.  416 

6  p.m.  they  found  a  fire  had  broken  out  in  a  cog  above  the  road.  They 
saw  no  sign  whatever  of  fire  at  2  p.ni.,  and  at  5  p.m.  they  had  to  put  in 
a  dam  as  the  fire  had  got  such  complete  hold  of  the  road. 

Mr.  H,  "VV.  HuaHES,  in  reply,  alluded,  in  the  first  place,  to  what  had 
been  said  on  the  subject  of  pressure,  and  held  to  his  opinion  that  alone  it 
would  not  start  a  fire.  As  to  prevention,  he  repeated  that  the  proper 
thing  to  do,  as  seemed  to  be  admitted,  was  to  put  in  as  much  air  as 
possible  until  fire  broke  out  and  then  to  stop  it.  He  questioned  very 
much  whether  there  was  any  satisfactory  method  of  dealing  with  an 
outbreak  of  fire  except  that  of  damming-up  the  district  and  keeping  the 
air  from  getting  to  it. 

On  the  motion  of  the  Pebsidbnt,  seconded  by  Mr.  Scott,  cordial 
thanks  were  accorded  to  Mr.  Hughes  for  his  paper. 


Mr.  E.  J.  Bailey  then  read  the  following  "Description  of  the  South 
Dyfifiyn  and  Abercanaid  Collieries" : — 


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416  SOUTH  DYFFRYN  AND  ABBBCANAID  COLLIERIES. 


DESCRIPTION  OP  THE  SOUTH  DYFFRYN  AND 
ABERCANAID  COLLIERIES. 


By  B.  J.  BAILEY. 


South  Dyffryn  Colliery. 

There  are  three  shafts — two  winding  and  one  pumping,  called  the 
Chertsey,  Velocity,  and  Monte  shafts  respectively.  The  Chertsey  shaft  is 
630  feet  deep  and  is  down  to  the  9  feet  seam,  where  the  pit-bottom  and 
a  considerable  distance  of  road  has  been  secured  by  brickwork.  The 
arching  at  the  pit-bottom  is  18  feet  in  diameter ;  other  arching  is  18  feet 
in  diameter.  The  pit-bottom,  engine-house,  screens,  pit-top,  shops, 
offices,  and  sidings  are  lighted  by  electric  incandescent  lamps  from  a 
dynamo  and  engine  on  the  surface.  The  Velocity  shaft  has  lately  been 
sunk  to  a  depth  of  180  feet  below  the  9  feet  seam  to  the  6  feet  6  inches 
and  lower  4  feet  seams,  which  are  now  being  opened  out. 

Both  the  Chertsey  and  Velocity  shafts  have  winding-engines  and  head- 
gear. The  engines  have  cylinders  80  inches  in  diameter  and  6  feet  stroke, 
and  are  fitted  with  slide-valves  of  an  improved  type.  The  Velocity  wind- 
ing-engine is  also  fitted  with  automatic  reversing  gear,  constructed  by  a 
French  engineering  firm.  The  Chertsey  winding-engine  is  supplied  with 
steam  from  four  Cornish  single-flued  boilers  80  feet  long  by  6  feet  in 
diameter  at  a  working  pressure  of  60  lbs.  per  square  inch.  The  Velocity 
winding-engine  is  supplied  with  steam  from  four  boilers  at  a  pressure  of 
80  lbs.  per  scjuare  inch,  of  the  double-flued  Lancashire  type,  and  fitted 
with  Procter  self-acting  stokers. 

The  Monte  pumping-shaft  is  fitted  with  three  22  inches  diameter 
plunger-lifts,  worked  by  a  vertical  Cornish  engine  having  a  cylinder 
85  inches  in  diameter  and  9  feet  stroke.  This  engine  is  fitted  with  the 
Hathorne  Davey  differential  gear  in  place  of  the  old  handles  and 
tappits,  and  also  with  a  St.  John  piston-ring.  These  improvements  have 
greatly  reduced  the  cost  of  working,  and  have  been  the  means  of  reducing 
the  speed  and  consequent  wear  and  tear  of  pumps  and  machinery. 

There  are  seven  underground  hauling-engines  and  twelve  pumping- 
engines,  all  worked  by  compressed  air.  The  air-compressors  were  designed 
by  the  late  Mr.  Brunei,  the  great  engineer,  and  were  used  by  him  for 


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SOUTH  DTFFRTN  AND  ABBBOANAID  C0LLIBRIB8,  417 

working  the  pnemnatic  railway  in  Cornwall.  They  were  afterwards  pur- 
chased by  the  Plymouth  Co.  for  blowing  air  at  the  Dyffryn  and  Plymouth 
blast-fnmaoes,  and  were  then  fitted  with  blowing  cylinders  100  inches  in 
diameter.  The  engines  have  cylinders  45  inches  in  diameter  and  7  feet 
stroke,  and  are  condensing.  Two  air-compressing  cylinders  42  inches  in 
diameter  have  replaced  the  old  blowing  ones,  and  the  engines  have  been 
coupled  together  on  one  shaft  with  fly-wheel.  For  some  years  they  have 
supplied  the  hauling  and  pumping-engines,  at  a  steam  pressure  of  45  lbs. 
per  square  inch,  and  have  given  an  averse  air-pressure  underground  of 
80  lbs.  per  square  inch.  Last  year,  owing  to  the  condition  of  the  steam 
cylinders,  new  ones  were  ordered  in  case  of  future  mishap  ;  and  in  order 
that  the  underground  pumps  may  be  kept  going  in  case  these  cylinders 
should  have  to  be  changed,  a  new  pair  of  compound  condensing-eugines 
with  cylinders  30  inches  in  diameter  have  been  erected.  The  North 
Dyffryn  pumping  and  ventilating-plant  comprises  a  Waddle  fan  40  feet 
in  diameter,  fitted  with  two  engines  for  alternate  working.  The  pumping 
plant  is  held  in  rcadiness  to  assist  the  Monte  pumping-engines  during 
very  wet  and  stormy  weather,  the  North  Dyffryn  shaft  being  situated  on 
the  crop  of  the  Monte  shaft. 

.  Abbecanaid  Colliery. 

The  underground  electric  motor  is  placed  about  1,200  yards  from  the 
generating  station.  The  electric  plant  consists  of  a  40  horse-power  com- 
pound engine  with  cylinders  of  18  inches  and  21  inches  diameter  and  24 
inches  stroke,  working  at  96  revolutions  per  minute.  This  engine  drives 
direct  by  belt  a  dynamo  which  is  built  on  a  wrought-iron  girder  bed- 
plate. It  is  compound-wound,  and  is  capable  of  giving  180  ampferes  at 
500  volts  pressure  when  running  at  550  revolutions  per  minute.  The 
conducting  cable  is  carried  down  the  downcast  shaft;  and  under  the  road 
to  the  hauling-engines,  it  is  2,800  yards  long,  and  is  specially  constructed 
to  resist  falls  of  roof,  etc.  The  coal  is  brought  to  the  winding-shaft 
bottom  along  a  main  level  from  the  electric  haulage-engine  by  an  endless- 
rope  worked  by  an  engine  fixed  upon  the  surface.  The  electric  engine 
draws  the  coal  from  three  roads — one  to  the  rise,  one  level,  and  one  to  the 
dip.  It  is  fitted  with  two  drums  3^  feet  in  diameter  and  12  inches  wide, 
and  works  the  haulage  on  the  main-and-tail-rope  system.  This  plant  is 
now  drawing  650  tons  of  coal  per  day  from  the  workings  to  the  endless 
rope  parting.  The  dip  road  has  a  gradient  of  1  in  9,  and  ten  trams  are 
pulled  up  this  road  with  a  length  of  400  yards,  the  weight  of  trams  and 
coal  averaging  about  18  tons.    A  small  fan,  ventilating  a  heading  which  is 

VOL.  V.-18Q9-9S.  27 


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418  SOUTH  DYFFBYN  AND  ABEBCANAID  GOLLIEBIES. 

being  driven  from  the  5  feet  6  inches  to  the  9  feet  seam,  is  also  worked  by 
electricity  (capable  of  giving  15,000  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute). 

The  lighting  dynamo  supplies  b'ghts  for  the  roads  and  streets  in 
Abercanaid  village,  and  also  lights  the  engine-houses,  pit-tops,  shops,  and 
sidings ;  the  main  road  underground  and  the  pit-bottom  are  also  lighted 
by  it.  The  dynamo  is  driven  by  a  12  horse-power  Marshall  condensing 
engine,  and  is  capable  of  lighting  800  incandescent  16  candle-power 
lights. 

The  output  of  coal  from  the  South  Dyffryn  ooDiery  last  year  was 
288,289  tons,  and  from  Abercanaid  colliery  224,425  tons,  making  a  total 
of  468,164  tons. 


A  vote  of  thanks  was  unanimously  accorded  to  Mr.  Bailey  for  his 
paper. 


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TBAKSACTIONS.  419 


NORTH  STAFFORDSHIRE  INSTITUTE  OF  MINING  AND 
MECHANICAL  ENGINEERS, 


GENERAL  MEETINQ, 

Held  at  the  North  Stapfobd  Hotel,  Stokb-upon-Tbbnt, 

Mabch  20th,  1893. 


Mr.  ROBERT  H.  COLE,  President,  in  the  Chair. 


The  minutes  of  the  last  General  Meeting  were  read  and  confirmed. 


The  following  gentlemen,  having  been  previously  nominated,  were 
elected : — 

Ordinary  Memrers— 

Mr.  Arthur  Dean,  Colliery  Proprietor,  Bnrslem. 

Mr,  Samuel  Webster  Dean,  Colliery  Proprietor,  Burslem. 

Student — 
Mr.  Oliver  Bromley,  Florence  Colliery,  Longton. 


Mr.  W.  M.  MoRDBY  read  the  following  notes  on  "Electric  Lighting 
and  Transmiflsion  of  Power": — 


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420  ELECTRIC  LIGHTING  AND  TRANSMIB8I0N  OF  POWER. 


BLEOTRIO  LIGHTING  AND  TRANSMISSION  OF  POWER. 


bt  w.  m.  mordey. 


Electricity  is  a  means  employed  for  the  transmission  of  energy  and 
for  enabling  the  energy  transmitted  to  be  dissipated  in  the  form  of  heat 
or  in  any  other  required  form  at  any  required  places. 

Volt  is  the  name  given  to  the  practical  unit  of  electromotive  force, 
which  would  cause  a  current  of  one  ampere  to  flow  against  the  resistance 
of  one  ohm.  An  ohm  is  the  unit  of  electric  resistance,  and  an  ampere  the 
unit  of  electric  current  or  quantity. 

The  watt  is  the  unit  of  power,  represented  by  44*2  foot-pounds  per 
minute,  and  746  watts  are  ecjuivaleut  to  1  horse-power.  A  kilo-watt,  or 
1,000  watts,  is  the  equivalent  of  about  Ij^  horse-power  or  44,000  foot- 
IKHinds  per  miimte;  and  a  kilo- watt  for  an  hour  is  the  Board  of  Trade 
unit  of  electric  energy.  He  thought  that  sooner  or  later  it  would  be 
recognized  as  convenient  to  abolish  the  British  units  of  measurement  and 
to  use  the  metric  system  based  upon  absolute  quantities. 

Energy  was  convertible  and  might  apj)ear  in  many  forms.  There  was 
a  loss  in  the  fire-grate  of  a  boiler  where  the  coal  was  burnt.  A  portion 
of  the  heat  was  transferred  to  the  water,  and  the  energy  took  another 
form.  It  was  transmitted  along  the  steam-pipes  to  the  engine,  where 
it  assumed  the  form  of  mechanical  energy,  and  by  means  of  a  dynamo 
mechanical  energy  was  coiiverted  into  electrical  energy.  The  electrical 
energy  was  transmitted  along  a  wire  to  the  lamp  (if  it  was  required  to  be 
used  for  lighting  purposes),  where  the  energy  appeared  in  the  form  of 
heat  and  rendered  the  carbon-filament  incandescent  nnd  luminous.  A 
good  light  and  little  heat  was  produced  in  the  electric  lamp.  The 
problem  of  producing  light  without  heat  had  most  nearly  been  solved  by 
the  glow-worm.  It  only  remained  that  we  should  do  likewise,  and  thus 
i-educe  the  demand  for  coal. 

One  heiinl  a  great  deal  about  systems  of  electric  light  and  distribution, 
but  they  were  all  very  much  alike.  There  was  no  best  system  any  more 
than  there  was  a  best  steam-engine.  An  engine  suited  for  one  purpose 
might  be  unsuited  for  another,  so  that  in  electrical  systems  of  generation 
or  distribution  of  power  one  had  to  consider  first  the  conditions,  and 
then  apply  the  method  that  was  more  particularly  suitable  to  those 
conditions. 


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BLBOTEIO  LI0HTINO  AND  T&ANBMISSION  OF  POWER.  421 

It  was  a  very  easy  thing  to  measure  electrical  quantities.  One  of  the 
causes  of  the  advance  made  in  electrical  distribution  arose  from  the  fact 
that  engineers  were  able  to  measure  and  locate  the  losses,  and  arrive  at 
economical  conditions. 

Referring  to  the  various  systems,  it  was  stated  that  the  simple-parallel 
constant-pressure  system  was  commonly  used  for  house-lighting,  where 
the  distance  to  be  traversed  by  the  conductors  was  small.  The  three- 
wire  parallel  system  was  of  the  same  character  as  the  last-named,  but 
was  adapted  for  larger  areas  ;  and,  in  fact,  was  effective  for  a  distance  of 
about  I  mile,  though  with  diificulty. 

The  Electric  Lighting  Act  of  1882  was,  no  doubt,  framed  to 
prevent  people  getting  and  abusing  monopolies.  This  Act  imposed 
such  onerous  conditions  that  (for  a  time)  it  effectually  checked  commer- 
cial development ;  but  in  1886  some  of  the  limitations  were  removed, 
and  at  the  same  time  it  became  possible  by  the  development  of  the 
alternate  current  system  to  distribute  electricity  over  thinly-populated 
areas,  where  it  would  not  have  been  commercially  profitable  to  apply  it 
under  the  old  system.  In  electric  lighting  they  had  by  this  system 
succeeded  in  getting  over  a  long  distance  by  a  small  conductor,  and  it 
was  the  overcoming  of  difiiculties  in  this  respect  that  had  caused  the 
great  development  which  had  taken  place  in  electrical  applications. 

For  domestic  work  there  must  be  low-pressure,  and  for  long  distances 
there  must  be  high-pressure.  The  difficulty  of  combining  these  two 
discordances  had  been  solved  by  the  alternating-current  system.  With 
an  alternator  a  current  of  liigh-pressure  could  be  generated  and  trans- 
mitted a  great  distance  by  small  conductors,  and  at  the  other  end  it 
could  be  trimsformed  or  converted  to  a  lower  pressure  suited  to  its  direct 
application  for  lighting. 

The  cost  of  electricity  varied  from  4^d.  per  Board  of  Trade  unit  at 
Newcastle,  where  it  was  the  lowest,  to  9d.  or  lOd.  at  other  places ;  the 
average  cost  being  6d.  per  unit,  which  was  equal  to  gas  at  3s.  per 
thousand  cubic  feet. 

He  was  not  an  opponent  of  gas,  and  it  was  wrong  to  suppose  it  would 
ever  be  done  away  with.  Coal  could  be  more  economically  used  by  being 
converted  into  gas  at  a  central  works  than  by  being  burnt  in  innumer- 
able little  coal-fires.  The  tendency  of  the  future  would  be  to  displace 
coal-fires  and  use  more  gas  for  heating  and  cooking,  making  a  special 
hejiting-gas  rather  than  a  lighting-gas.  Dr.  Tidy,  in  his  Modem 
Chemistry,  said  that  for  the  same  amount  of  light,  gas  gave  oft*  twenty 
times  as  much  heat  as  an  electric  lamp,  and  wax  candles  gave  off  twenty- 


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422      DISCUSSION— BLECTBIC  LIGHTING  AND  TRANSMISSION  OF  POWBE. 

seven  times  as  much.  The  electric  lamp  was  quite  free  from  the 
objections  that  applied  to  gas,  which  produced  large  quantities  of  carbonic 
acid  and  other  poisonous  waste-products.  Gas  engines  also  would  be 
improved,  especially  in  size,  and  would  be  largely  used  for  electric  lighting 
and  other  work. 

It  had  been  asserted  that  one  of  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the 
application  of  high-tension  working  by  alternating  currents  was  that 
alternating  currents  were  not  applicable  for  transmission  of  power.  He 
was  not  an  advocate  particularly  of  alternate-current  working,  though  his 
position  imposed  upon  him  the  responsibility  of  designing  all  kinds  of 
apparatus.  He  was  indifiFerent  as  to  what  system  was  used,  so  long  as  it 
was  suitable  to  the  special  circumstances.  He  was  glad  to  say  that, 
although  hitherto  power-transmission  by  direct  currents  had  been  easier 
than  by  alternating  currents,  the  difficulties  in  this  respect  had  been  to 
a  great  extent  overcome,  and  all  the  large  power-transmission  work  with 
which  he  was  acquainted  was  now  being  done  by  alternating  currents. 
Ju  Switzerland  and  the  United  States,  alternating  currents  were  being 
used  in  preference  to  direct  currents. 


Mr.  Faram  said  some  people  considered  10  units  of  electricity  were 
equal  to  825  feet  of  gas,  and  others  put  it  as  high  as  1,200  feet.  What 
Wcis  the  real  proportion  ? 

Mr.  MoRDBY  said  that  the  best  way  to  answer  this  question  was  to 
calculate  from  known  data,  and  find  what  light  could  be  obtained  from  a 
gas  unit  of  1,000  cubic  feet,  and  from  an  electric  unit  of  1  kilowatt-hour. 
An  ordinary  5  feet  gas-burner  may  be  taken  as  giving  10  candle-power 
(under  good  conditions  it  gives  more,  and  under  ordinary  domestic 
conditions  it  gives  less).  An  ordinary  electric  lamp  working  at  30  watts 
gives  10  candle-power.  In  a  few  months,  on  the  expiry  of  certain  patents 
better  lamps  will  be  in  use,  and  10  candle  lamps  will  then  require  only 
25  watts,  but  the  higher  figure  may  be  taken  at  present.  From  these 
data,  it  will  be  seen  that  a  gas  unit  and  an  electric  unit  give  the  follow- 
ing amounts  of  light.  With  gas,  1,000  cubic  feet  will  supply  a  10 
candle-power  light  for  200  hours,  or  2,000  candle-hours.  With 
electricity,  1,000  watt-hours  (or  1  unit)  will  supply  a  10  candle-power 
lamp  for  3;3-3  hours  or  833  candle-hours.  Therefore,  1,000  cubic  feet 
of  gas,  so  far  as  light-giving  is  concerned,  is  equal  to  6  electric  units. 
This  direct  comparison  between  the  cost  of  light  by  gas  and  by  electricityy 


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DISCUSSION— BLBOTRIO  LlGHTlKG  AlTD  TRANSMlBdION  OF  POWER.     428 

showB  that  they  are  equal  in  this  respect,  when  gas  is  8b.  per  1,000  cnbic 
feet,  and  electricity  is  6d.  per  unit.  At  these  prices,  either  agent  will 
produce  55^  candle-hours  for  one  penny. 

Mr.  Joel  Settle  said  that  if  electricity  represented  gas  at  2s.  9d. 
per  1,000  cubic  feet,  there  could  be  no  comparison  which  would  be  the 
best ;  as  the  gas  company  would  have,  over  and  above  the  sale  of  gas,  all 
the  bye-products  as  a  clear  profit. 

Mr.  MoRDET  supposed  if  the  gas  company  charged  2s.  9d.,  that  was 
the  price  at  which  they  could  make  a  profit.  But  electricity,  even  at  a 
higher  price  than  gas,  was  freely  sold,  and  the  electric  stations  were  being 
pressed  to  extend.  He  believed  if  they  charged  even  more  than  they  did 
at  present,  the  increased  use  of  electricity  would  still  go  on.  People  who 
valued  health  would  have  the  electric  light,  unless  it  was  charged  at  an 
outrageous  price.  But  he  was  satisfied  that,  on  a  large  scale,  electric 
light  could  be  supplied  as  cheaply  as  gas. 

Mr.  E.  B.  Wain  enquired  whether  there  was  any  loss  of  power  in 
transforming  from  a  high-tension  to  a  low-tension  current,  and  also 
whether  it  was  a  fact  that  one  of  the  public  vestries  suppUed  electricity 
which  was  competing  as  regarded  cost  with  gas  ? 

Mr.  MoRDBY  observed  that  there  were  losses,  in  connexion  with  the 
transforming  from  high-tension  to  low-tension,  from  2  to  4  per  cent,  at 
full  load,  but  it  was  nothing  like  so  great  as  the  loss  of  money  and  energy 
would  be  in  having  large  copper  mains  for  the  low-tension  system.  It 
was  true  that  the  St.  Pancras  Vestry  charged  6d.  per  unit  for  light  at 
night  and  8d.  per  unit  by  day ;  their  machinery  stood  idle  during  a  great 
part  of  the  day,  and  the  desire  was  to  encourage  the  use  of  it. 

Mr.  B.  B.  Wain  asked  if  that  vestry  could  work  at  a  profit  ? 

Mr.  MoRDEY  said  the  result  of  the  first  year's  working  showed  a 
profit.  The  early  installations  were  costly,  but  the  results  obtained 
with  modem  apparatus  were  satisfactory.  At  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  there 
were  two  stations:  at  one  station  the  electricity  was  distributed  over 
a  thinly-lighted  area  ;  the  charge  was  4^.  per  unit — the  lowest  price  in 
England — and  the  result  even  of  the  first  year's  working  was  profitable. 
The  unit  cost  3d.,  and  they  sold  it  for  4jd.  There  was  no  reason  why, 
in  a  manufacturing  town  where  coal  was  cheap,  electricity  should  not  be 
pi'oduced  at  8d.  per  unit. 

On  the  motion  of  Mr.  J.  Strick,  se(;onded  by  Mr.  E.  H.  Wain,  a 
vote  of  thanks  was  accorded  to  Mr.  Mordey  for  his  paper. 


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424  DISCUSSION— LONaWALL  WO&KING. 


NORTH  STAFFORDSHIRE  INSTITUTE  OF  MINING  AND 
MECHANICAL  ENGINEERS. 


GENERAL  MEETING, 

Held  at  the  Nobth  Stappoed  Hotel,  Stoke-upon-Tbent, 
Apbil  10th,  1893. 


Mb.  ROBERT  H.  COLE,  Pbesident,  in  the  Chaib. 


The  minutes  of  the  last  General  Meeting  were  read  and  confirmed. 


The  following  gentleman,  having  been  previously  nominated,  was 
elected : — 

Student— 
Mr.  John  T.  Booth,  Mining  Student,  Longstile,  Taike,  near  Stoke-upon-Trent. 


DISCUSSION  UPON  MR.  E.  B.  WAIN'S  PAPER  ON  "THE 
LONGWALL  METHOD  OF  WORKING  AS  APPLIED  TO 
SEAMS  OP  MODERATE  INCLINATION  IN  NORTH 
STAFFORDSHIRE."* 

Mr.  Joel  Settle  said  that  so  long  as  the  coal  was  worked  in  a 
straight  face  and  proper  manner  it  worked  well,  and  if  they  were  work- 
ing longwall  it  must  not  be  done  in  an  half-and-half  manner.  If  they 
did  not  insert  sufficient  packs  at  proper  distances,  and  put  in  chocks, 
there  was  no  doubt  they  would  suffer  very  much,  as  the  roof  would  tend 
to  break  down  when  not  supported.  There  was  one  thing  in  the  paper 
which  he  would  like  to  have  heard  more  about,  and  that  was  as  to  the  strata 
breaking  at  right  angles  to  the  dip  of  the  mine.  Assuming  that  this 
might  be  taken  at  right  angles,  tlie  support  of  either  a  railway  or  a  canal 
would  reijuire  a  larger  pillar  to  be  left  on  the  upper  than  on  the  dip  side. 
Mr.  Wain  had  given  i)articulars  of  various  mines.     In  a  seam  working  at 

•  TYans.  Fed.  Injtt.,  vol.  iv.,  page  24. 


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DISCUSSION ^liONG WALL   WOBKING.  425 

a  depth  of  200  yards,  the  angle  was  5  degs.  less  than  a  line  drawn  at 
right  angles  to  the  dip  of  the  mine.  At  a  depth  of  280  yards  the  break 
was  exactly  at  right  angles  to  the  dip,  but  at  470  yards  it  was  6  degs. 
more  than  a  line  drawn  at  right  angles  to  the  dip.  He  had  observed  in 
the  ten-feet,  which  had  a  strong  rock  roof,  and  ran  through  the  North 
Staffordshire  district,  that  in  all  cases  where  it  had  been  worked  on  proper 
pillar-and-stall  principle  and  a  regular  dip,  this  seam  always  broke  at  right 
angles  to  the  dip  of  the  mine.  If  there  was  any  variation  from  this,  it 
was  due  to  different  conditions  of  the  mine. 

Mr.  W.  H.  Wain  asked  whether  there  was  any  necessity  to  "  rob " 
the  pack  to  get  the  roof  to  break  properly  ? 

Mr.  E.  B.  Wain  replied  that  there  was  not. 

Mr.  W.  H.  Wain  said  the  difficulty  found  in  the  Butlhurst  seam  was 
in  getting  the  roof  to  weight  properly,  but  there  was  no  difficulty  here. 
Mr.  E,  B.  Wain  called  particular  attention  to  the  line  of  the  face.  The 
line  of  the  face  dipped  at  an  angle  of  about  1  in  25,  and  they  put  the 
packs  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  the  face.  It  struck  him  in  reading 
the  paper  as  being  contrary  to  his  own  experience,  they  got  the  packs  to 
stand  better  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  dip ;  when  the  weight  came  on, 
the  tendency  was  not  to  slip  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  face,  but  to 
the  dip.  There  was  a  certain  amount  of  gravitation  brought  into  play, 
causing  breaks  in  the  line  of  full  dip,  that  caused  the  packs  to  throw  over 
into  the  gateways  or  waste,  nipping  in  the  top  or  bulging  in  the  middle, 
especially  if  there  had  been  bud  picking. 

Mr.  J.  R.  Haines  asked  the  cost  of  timbering  on  this  system,  and 
whether  the  line  of  face  was  worked  practically  with  the  line  of  cleavage  ? 

Mr.  E.  B.  Wain  said  it  Wiis  worked  irrespective  of  the  line  of  cleavage. 

Mr.  Haines  oliserved  tliat  that  being  so  they  must  have  the  right 
end  face  cousidembly  up.  Was  there  any  difficulty  in  getting  loaded 
wagons  out  of  the  other  side  of  the  stall  ?  Then  there  was  the  question 
of  timbering.  One  would  have  thought  the  transverse  method  would 
have  been  better  than  Mr.  Wain's  system.  They  had  three  rows  of 
props  to  the  working-face,  and  bars  in  the  waste  as  well,  which  was  a 
little  contrary  to  the  method  of  timbering  in  practice  in  North  Stafford- 
shire. 

Mr.  E.  B.  Wain  said,  resiKJcting  the  angle  of  the  dip  mentione<l  by 
Mr.  Settle,  he  found  in  practice  that  the  (leejxir  the  mum  was  working, 
irrespective  of  the  angle  of  the  dip  (so  long  us  it  was  a  dip  of  mcxlerate 
inclination)  the  angle  of  the  break  varied,  and  got  nearer  to  a  right  angle 
as  the  sCiiiu  got  deeper.     It  seemed  to  l)e  progressive,  and  the  more  strata 


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426  DISCUSSION— LONGWALL  WORKING. 

there  were  above,  the  nearer  woald  be  the  tendency  of  the  roof  to  break  in 
a  vertical  direction.  As  to  the  size  of  packs,  that  was  a  question  to  which 
he  had  given  careful  attention  ;  the  packs  shown  in  Fig.  1,  Plate  I., 
were  5  yards  on  the  top  side  of  the  level,  and  4  yards  in  Fig.  4,  Plate  II. 

Mr.  John  Heath  said  they  were  shown  as  three-yard  packs  on  the 
plans. 

Mr.  E.  B.  Wain  said  there  were  no  three-yard  packs,  except  in  the  stall 
face.  In  practice  he  had  found  where  the  packs  were  well-built  with  cross 
walls  at  right  angles,  at  the  regular  distances  of  4^  feet,  that  they  were 
quite  sufficient  for  all  practical  purposes.  In  the  case  of  the  four-yard  packs 
it  was  perhaps  a  case  of  expediency,  as  it  was  difficult  to  get  dirt  enough 
to  make  that  pack.  The  dirt  taken  down  to  make  height  in  the  roads 
made  the  packs  in  thinner  seams.  In  the  thicker  seam  the  repairing  dirt 
was  sent  in  for  packing.  Probably  if  packs  were  made  too  wide  they 
would  not  get  the  same  results  as  those  shown  in  Fig.  8  (Plate  I.),  where 
the  angle  of  the  dip  was  not  only  flattened  over  the  pack,  but  it  had  altered 
the  angle  of  the  dip  on  the  road  as  much  as  10  degs.  As  regarded 
Mr.  W.  H.  Wain's  question  as  to  robbing  the  packs  or  taking  the  back 
packings  out,  the  distance  of  the  pack  had  to  be  regulated  by  the  nature 
of  the  roof.  In  the  table  given  at  the  end  of  the  paper  it  would  be  seen 
that  the  wastes  varied  from  8  to  11  yards,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
roof.  If  it  was  found  that  the  roof  would  not  break  at  regular  distances 
they  were  eased  off— perhaps  three  wastes  were  eased  into  two.  As 
regards  the  breaks  these  were  exactly  parallel  to  the  line  of  the  working- 
face  and  not  square  with  the  dip. 

Mr.  W.  H.  Wain  observed  that  that  was  the  break-line,  but  the  force 
would  not  be  at  right  angles  to  it. 

Mr.  E.  B.  Wajn  said  that  where  the  break  was  it  showed  the  line  of 
greatest  force. 

Mr.  Hainbs— The  cleavage-lines  ? 

Mr.  E.  B.  Wain  said  no  ;  if  they  reversed  the  plan,  they  would  find 
that  exactly  the  same  operation  was  performed  on  the  other  side  of  the 
pit.  In  this  case,  the  fece  was  crossing  the  cleat-line  slightly,  and  on  the 
other  side  it  was  almost  at  the  end  of  the  coal.  The  plan  showed  the 
north  side  workings,  but  the  general  lines  on  the  other  (south)  side  were 
the  same,  «>.,  there  was  a  fall  in  the  line  of  face  from  the  out-bye  to  the 
in-bye  end. 

Mr.  W.  H.  Wain  asked  whether  it  was  not  found  when  there  were 
breaks  that  the  tendency  was  to  force  the  packs  out  I 

Mr.  E.  B.  Wain— No. 


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DISCUSSION — ^LONGWALL   WORKING.  427 

Mr.  W.  H.  Wain — If  it  was  a  slippery  bottom  ? 

Mr.  E.  B.  Wain  said  he  oould  show  hundreds  of  yards  in  the  gate- 
road  in  the  Hardmine  seam  where  the  roads  were  packed  12  feet  wide, 
and  that  width  had  not  varied  a  foot  since,  and  they  had  not  cost  a  penny 
in  datalling.  With  respect  to  the  line  of  timbering,  that  was  a  point 
which  had  had  a  good  deal  of  attention ;  and  the  system  of  timbering 
was  this — there  must  be  three  rows  of  posts  at  the  working-face  not  more 
than  4^  feet  apart.  Immediately  the  fall  of  coal  was  got  out,  the  lowest 
row  of  posts  was  taken  out  and  put  in  the  middle.  There  they  got  three 
rows  under  4  feet  6  inches,  and  with  regular  working  it  was  almost 
unnecessary  to  have  packs,  as  these  three  rows  would  be  sufficient  to  keep 
the  workings  safe  and  good.  There  were,  however,  irregularities  in  work- 
ing which  would  not  allow  that  to  be  risked.  The  cost  of  timbering  was 
less  than  it  would  be  by  working  a  half-hearted  system. 

Mr.  Haines  enquired  as  to  the  cost  ? 

Mr.  E.  B.  Wain  replied  that  it  varied.  It  had  been  as  low  as  |d.  in 
the  thin  seams  and  occasionally  as  high  as  4|d.  in  the  thick  seams.  That 
was  for  prop  wood  and  main-road  timber.  The  cost  increased  when  the 
faces  were  not  being  pushed  as  they  should  be  in  slack  time  or  holidays. 

Mr.  HiGOiNS  enquired  how  the  ventilation  was  dealt  with,  the  packs 
being  small  ? 

Mr.  E.  B.  Wain  said  the  ventilation  was  carried  along  the  main  road. 
The  dips  were  stopped  with  two  or  three  brattice-cloths,  and  in  an 
extensive  district  there  was  a  door  at  the  bottom  of  several  of  the  jigs  on 
the  out-bye  end  of  a  district.  The  air  was  carried  right  along  the  main 
road  and  down  the  slant  at  the  end,  and  swept  the  working-faces.  There 
was  no  probability  of  an  accumulation  of  gas  in  the  workings. 

Mr.  HiGGiNS  said  there  must  be  a  large  quantity  of  air  lost,  unless  the 
roof  was  blown  down  and  the  packs  buried. 

Mr.  E.  B.  Wain — Certainly,  we  do  this  as  far  as  practicable.  It 
tended  to  interfere  with  the  road,  but  as  far  as  possible  he  tried  to  bury 
the  dip-side  pack,  and  as  much  of  the  head-side  pack  as  circumstances 
would  allow. 

Mr.  Wjl.  Bailbs  asked  what  was  the  difference  between  working  on 
the  end  and  working  on  the  face?  Did  they  require  more  timber  in 
working  on  the  end  than  on  the  face  ? 

Mr.  E.  B.  Wain  said  he  had  not  noticed,  and  did  not  think,  there  was 
any  difference,  because  the  breaks  in  the  roof  seemed  to  be  independent 
of  any  cleat-line. 


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428  DISCUSSION — LONGWALL  WORKING. 

Mr.  Bailbs  thought  that,  if  they  were  working  to  the  dip,  they  would 
have  to  use  another  row  of  timber. 

Mr.  Wain  said  that  it  had  not  been  the  custom  to  work  these  seams 
to  the  dip,  but  to  the  rise. 

Mr.  R.  H.  Wynne  said  on  the  last  occasion  when  this  paper  was  dis- 
cussed, mention  was  made  about  working  different  seams  one  above  the 
other.  Since  the  last  meeting  he  (Mr.  Wynne)  had  been  reading  a  paper 
by  Mr.  Henry  Wright  in  1885,  and  he  gave  the  plans  of  four  seams  close 
together,  one  slightly  overlapping  the  other.  Mr.  Wright,  speaking  of 
the  method  of  working  coal  at  Whitfield  colliery  in  1886,  said  "with 
the  seams  of  coal  lying  at  short  intervals  from  each  other,  when  the 
workings  in  an  upper  seam  are  passing  over  the  workings  of  a  lower  seam, 
a  disturbance  of  the  roof  is  brought  on ;  this  could  not  be  otherwise,  as 
only  about  25  yards  of  strata  lie  between  each  seam,  and  the  roadways 
have  to  be  watched  very  carefully,  as  falls  of  roof  will  sometimes  be 
brought  on  very  suddenly.  But  where  workings  have  been  carried  on 
underneath  an  upper  seam,  the  roads  in  the  upper  seam  have  been  so 
seriously  disturbed  as  to  require  a  very  serious  amount  of  kbour  and 
timber  to  reconstruct,  and  it  does  not  appear  at  all  advisable  to  work  an 
upper  seam  first  where  it  can  be  avoided."* 

Mr.  E.  B.  Wain  observed  that,  of  course,  expediency  had  a  great 
deal  to  do  with  these  matters.  If  they  had  a  good  coal  and  wanted  to  sell 
a  great  quantity  it  was  natural  to  work  it ;  but  in  practice,  as  far  as 
possible,  it  was  desirable  to  get  the  lower  seam  in  advance.  It  reduced 
the  labour  of  getting  the  seam  above,  and  it  was  not  so  much  affected  by 
a  seam  working  over  it,  as  an  upper  seam  would  be  by  one  working 
under  it. 

Mr.  Wynne  said  he  had  in  his  mind  a  case  where  the  Hartimine  and 
Holly  Lane  seams  were  being  worked,  and  it  was  almost  impossible  to 
keep  a  road  in  the  Hardmine  seam.  Very  much  timber  was  put  in,  and 
it  was  broken  within  twenty-four  hours:  and  that  was  the  strongest 
timber  that  could  be  put  in.  As  to  the  thickness  of  packs,  either  above 
or  below  the  main  level,  that  was  a  matter  of  exjxidiency  to  be  applied  to 
each  particular  case ;  but  with  other  stratification  the  circumstances  would 
be  altered.     The  line  of  the  breaks  might  be  different. 

Mr.  E.  B.  Wain  explained,  by  reference  to  the  plans  (Figs.  2  and  5, 
Plates  I.  and  II.),  that  the  first  breaks  in  two  seams  at  different  depths 

•  Trans.  North  Staffs,  Inst.,  vol.  viii.,  page  66. 


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DISCUSSION— LONGWALL  WORKIHO.  429 

and  with  difPerent  nature  of  roof  were  almoBt  in  the  same  line.  It  was 
neoessary  to  consider  these  breaks,  as  had  been  explained  in  the  paper, 
because  they  showed  the  first  line  of  pressure  exerted  on  the  packs  after 
they  were  built. 

Mr.  Bailes,  referring  to  the  Spencroft  and  the  Great  Row  seams, 
said  it  was  better  to  take  out  the  Great  Row  seam  before  the  Spencroft. 

Mr.  Wynne — Especially  in  such  a  system  of  longwall  as  that  described 
by  Mr.  Wain. 

Mr.  J.  Blaikie  said  he  had  always  been  at  a  loss  to  estimate  Mr. 
Wain's  "moderate  inclination."  He  fancied  it  was  a  term  which  required 
defining. 

Mr.  E.  B.  Wain  said  he  should  regard  above  20  or  2.5  degs.  as  an 
extreme  case. 

Mr.  Blatkie  said  he  could  not  get  exactly  the  angle  of  breakage  from 
Figs.  (},  7,  and  H,  Plates  T.  and  IT.  In  Fig.  8  he  understood  it  was 
Hi  degs. 

Mr.  Wain  said  it  was  80  dega.  from  the  horizontal,  but  from  the  dip 
of  the  mine  it  was  96  degs. 

Mr.  Blatkie  asked  if,  in  Figs.  6,  7,  and  8,  the  inclination  of  the 
seams  was  the  same  ? 

Mr.  Wain  replied  that  the  inclination  was  not  exactly  the  same :  it 
varied  2  degs.  in  Figs.  7  and  8. 

Mr.  Blaikie — Then  the  angle  is  not  taken  under  the  same  conditions  ? 

Mr.  Wain — No ;  but  the  angle  of  main  break  is  shown  on  the  sections 
from  the  horizontal  line  in  each  case,  and  by  adding  the  angle  of  the  dip 
to  it  the  angle  made  with  the  dip  of  the  mine  is  easily  found. 

Mr.  J.  Newton  projiosed  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Wain  for  his  able 
pajxjr  and  the  masterly  way  in  which  he  had  answered  the  (juestions  which 
had  been  put  to  him. 

Mr.  H.  R.  Makepeace,  in  seconding  the  resolution,  said  the  paper 
was  one  which  was  calculated  to  give  rise  to  a  good  deal  of  discussion,  and 
it  had  done  so.  That  day  the  discussion  had  been  on  the  geneml  method, 
whereas  previously  the  discussion  had  branched  off  to  a  side  stream. 
Mechanical  engineers  followed  fixed  rules ;  but  mining  engineers  had  to 
ascertain  what  course  should  be  adopted  under  different  circumstances, 
which  varied  greatly.  It  was  seldom  they  found  two  mines  working  in 
exactly  the  same  way.  There  were  questions  as  to  packing  and  timbering. 
A  great  deal  depended  as  to  how  the  packing  was  built.  He  had  seen 
in  many  pits — he  would  not  say  whether  in  North  Staffordshire  or  else- 


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480  DISCUSSION— liOHOWALL  WOBKIWO. 

where — where  packs  had  been  pot  in  that  had  the  appearance  of  having 
had  the  dirt  tipped  down  without  method.  If  the  packing  was  thoroughly 
well  put  in,  under  conditions  likely  to  stand  pressure,  very  much  less 
packing  would  do. 

The  resolution  was  carried  unanimously. 


Mr.  LoCKBTT  read  the  following  paper  on  "  The  Lockett  and  Gough 
Direct-acting  Pump  " : — 


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THE  LOCKBTT  AND  GOUGH  DIBBCT- ACTING-PUMP.  481 


THE  LOCKBTT  AND  GOUGH  DIRECT-ACTING  PUMP. 


By  jambs  LOCKBTT  and  —  GOUGH. 


A  great  many  of  the  direct-acting  steam  pumping-engines  now  in  Jiae 
do  their  work  with  a  great  amount  of  knocking  at  the  end  of  the  stroke. 
This  knocking  is  caused  by  the  piston-valve  failing  to  reverse  the  slide 
valve  at  the  proper  instant,  owing  to  a  certain  amount  of  steam  blowing 
through  the  cylinder,  caused  by  wear.  This  waste  of  steam  reduces  the 
pressure  on  the  piston- valve  and  therefore  causes  delay  in  its  action. 
The  chief  aim  of  the  writers  in  their  improvements  in  pumps  and  direct- 
acting  steam  cylinders  has  been  to  avoid  this  knocking  and  dead  set, 
a  purpose  which  they  have  accomplished  by  placing  an  independent  small 
cylinder  to  work  the  main  slide-valve.  This  small  cylinder  has  a 
separate  steam  supply  so  as  to  allow  of  regulation,  and  to  avoid  any 
uncertainty  in  the  action  of  the  piston-valve. 

The  piston  of  the  small  cylinder  (Fig.  8,  Plate  XV.)  which  operates 
the  main  slide-valve  is  a  three-block  piston.  The  centre  block  g  is  solid, 
the  two  end  blocks/^  and/®  (Figs.  8  and  4,  Plate  XIV.)  are  perforated, 
so  as  to  offer  little  resistance  to  pressure  on  the  centre  or  main  block,  and 
are  used  to  determine  the  length  of  its  stroke  by  covering  the  ports  and 
cutting  off  the  steam  supply  at  each  end  of  its  stroke,  thereby  determining 
the  stroke  of  the  main  slide-valve  also.  The  slide  of  the  small  cylinder 
is  worked  by  the  action  of  tappet-rods,  which  pierce  through  each  end 
of  the  main  cylinder  a  suitable  distance  inside,  and  are  operated  by  the 
piston  as  it  nears  each  end  of  the  cylinder.  These  tappet-rods  being 
adjustable,  the  stroke  of  the  main  piston  can  be  regulated,  so  as  to  avoid 
knock  and  waste  of  steam  room  at  each  end  of  the  cylinder. 

The  pump  in  connexion  with  the  steam  cylinder  differs  from  pumps 
in  present  use,  by  having  its  inlet  or  suction-valves  coupled  together. 
The  suction-valves  thus  arranged  are  opened  and  closed  by  the  discharge 
water,  and  there  is  no  resistance  to  atmospheric  weight,  as  the  valves  act 
instantaneously  with  the  return  stroke  of  the  ram  or  bucket.  This  action 
makes  the  pump  more  certain  in  its  action,  and  prevents  expansion  of  air 
in  the  pump,  as  is  the  case  with  ram-pumps  with  a  great  amount  of  air^ 


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482        DISCfUSSION — THE  LOOKETT  AND  GOUGH  DIRECT-ACTING  PUMP. 

space.  A  great  advantage  in  connexion  with  valves  thus  arranged  is, 
that  should  anything  get  on  their  face  when  they  are  closing,  it  would 
only  aflFect  the  pump  for  one  stroke,  because  by  the  return  stroke  of  the 
ram  or  bucket  the  valve  would  lift  again  and  free  the  obstacle.  When 
anything  gets  on  the  face  of  the  suction-valves  of  pumps  in  present  use, 
nineteen  times  out  of  twenty  the  pump  fails  or  becomes  gagged  and  would 
lose  its  water. 

The  pump  thus  described  offers  no  resistance  to  atmospheric  weight, 
and  it  must  fetch  its  water  a  greater  distance  than  pumps  in  present  use 
and  possesses  the  advantage  of  discharging  a  constant  flow. 


Mr.  G.  H.  Treglown  asked  what  advantage  was  claimed  for  this  over 
the  ordinary  pump  ? 

Mr.  LocKETT  sjiid  it  was  easily  adjustable — it  could  be  jwljusted  while 
working. 

Mr.  Treglown  said  it  would  be  too  expensive  to  make. 

Mr.  E.  B.  Wain  asked  what  was  the  difference  between  this  and  the 
Hathorne-Davey  pump  ? 

Mr.  Makepeace  said  it  was  similar. 

Mr.  Treglown  asked  whether  Mr.  Lockett  claimed  to  make  improve- 
ments as  regarded  pause  at  the  end  of  the  stroke,  when  compared  with  the 
common  direct-acting  pump  ? 

Mr.  Lockett  said  there  was  no  pause,  no  matter  how  slowly  it 
travelled. 

Mr.  W.  H.  Wain  moved  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Messrs.  Lockett  and 
Gough  for  reading  the  piper  before  the  Institute. 

Mr.  JoKL  Settle  seconded  the  proposition,  and  expressed  a  hope  that 
Mr.  Wood  worth  would  examine  the  pump  and  bring  his  views  upon  it 
before  a  future  meeting. 

The  resolution  was  then  agreed  to. 


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TRAHSACTIONS.  483 


NORTH  STAFFOEDSHIRE  INSTITUTE  OF  MINING  AND 
MECHANICAL  ENGINEERS. 


GENERAL  MEETING, 

Held  at  thb  Nobth  Stafford  Hotbl,  Stoke-upon-Tbent, 

Mat  8th«  1893. 


Mb.  ROBERT  H.  COLE,  Pbesident,  in  the  Chaie. 


The  minutes  of  the  last  General  Meeting  were  read  and  confirmed. 


Mr.  W.  N.  Atkinson  read  the  following  paper  on  "Tlie  Use  of  Petro- 
leum, ParaflBn,  and  other  Mineral  Oils  Underground" : — 


VOL.  v.^isM-es.  28 


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434  THE  USB  OF  MINERili  OILS  UNDBBOROUND. 


THE  USE  OF  PETROLEUM,  PARAFFIN,  AND  OTHER 
MINERAL  OILS  UNDERGROUND. 


By  W.  N.  ATKINSON. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  a  discussion  by  this  Institute  upon  the 
risks  attending  the  use  of  petroleum,  paraffin,  and  other  mineral  oils 
nnderground,  would  be  useful  and  interesting.  The  writer  has  therefore 
had  pleasure  in  making  the  following  remarks  to  open  the  discussion, 
which  he  thought  might  be  widened  with  advantage  so  as  to  include  fires 
arising  from  other  causes  than  mineral  oils : — 

Many  members  of  the  Institute  will  have  received  a  circular,  over  the 
writer^s  signature,  dated  March  31st,  1893,  on  this  subject.  A  similar 
circular  was  issued  in  all  the  inspection  districts  about  the  same  time. 
The  text  of  the  circular  was  as  follows  : — 

I  am  directed  by  the  Secretary  of  State  to  caU  your  serious  attention  to  the  risks 
attending  the  use  of  petroleum,  paraffin,  and  other  mineral  oils  underground  without 
sufficient  precautions  being  taken. 

I  am  further  to  state  that  it  seems  very  desirable  that  all  the  persons  employed 
underground  should  be  acquainted  with  the  way  of  exit  from  the  working-places  by 
the  "return  airways,"  because  circumstances  arise — as,  for  instance,  in  some  cases  of 
fire — when  it  becomes  dangerous  to  leave  by  the  intakes,  which,  as  a  rule,  are  the 
only  roads  known  to  the  majority  of  the  workpeople. 

The  members  will  observe  that  the  circular  deals  with  two  subjects : 
the  risks  attending  the  use  of  mineral  oils  underground,  and  the  acquaint- 
ance of  the  workmen  with  a  route  of  escape  in  case  the  roads  ordinarily 
used  become  impassable,  as  they  frequently  do  in  case  of  fire. 

The  circular  was  issued  in  consequence  of  the  fire  at  Bamfurlong 
colliery  on  December  14th,  1892,  when  sixteen  lives  were  lost.  That 
accident  was  caused  by  an  ignition  of  mineral  oil  at  an  underground 
compressed-air  hauling-engine.  It  appeared  that,  in  order  to  prevent  the 
formation  of  ice  in  the  exhaust  ports  of  the  engine,  paraffin  oil  was 
poured  over  the  cylinder  and  ignited.  That  was  obviously  a  dangerous 
practice,  but  the  writer  is  uncertain  whether  the  fire  was  caused  in  that 
way,  or  by  the  ignition  of  mineral  oil  while  a  torch  lamp  was  being  refilled, 
or  by  an  explosion  in  a  torch  lamp  containing  mineral  oil. 

Other  recent  accidents,  arising  from  fires  underground,  may  be  quoted : — 


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THE  USE  OF  MINERAL  OILS  UNDEBGROUND.  435 

On  September  6th,  1889,  sixty-three  lives  were  lost  at  Penicuik  colliery, 
in  the  Midlothian  coal-field.  It  could  not  be  ascertained  how  this  fire 
originated,  but  it  was  supposed  that  it  might  have  been  caused  by  one  of 
the  small  torch  lamps  which  the  miners  carry  on  their  heads,  setting  fire 
to  a  brattice-cloth  door. 

On  December  8th,  1881,  a  fire  occurred  on  the  engine-plane  at  Whel- 
dale  colliery  in  Yorkshire,  and  five  lives  were  lost.  It  is  probable  that 
this  fire  was  caused  by  a  torch  or  comet  lamp. 

The  last  and  most  serious  underground  fire  was  that  at  the  Great 
Western  colliery  in  South  Wales  on  April  11th,  1898,  where  sixty- 
three  lives  were  lost.  This  fire  appeared  to  have  been  caused  by  the 
heating  of  the  brake  of  an  undei^ronnd  compressed-air  hauling-engine. 

Of  the  four  accidents  cited,  it  appeared  probable  that  three  of  them 
were  caused  by  fiaming-lamps.  These  lamps  are  both  wasteful  and 
dangerous,  and  especially  dangerous  when  mineral  oil  is  used  in  them, 
which  renders  them  liable  to  explode. 

Underground  engine-houses  are  particularly  liable  to  fires.  They  are 
usually  dry  and  warm  and  often  contain  much  timber,  and  the  oil  required 
by  the  machinery  is  a  source  of  danger.  Bricks  and  iron  might  be  used 
in  many  cases  to  replace  much  of  the  timber.  Oily  cotton-waste  should 
be  sent  out  of  the  pit.  A  few  hand-grenades  for  extinguishing  fires  might 
be  kept  within  reach  of  the  engineman.  Lamp-rooms  should  not  be 
located  underground.  Mineral  oil  should  not  be  stored  in  mines,  even  in 
small  quantities,  but  all  lamps  should  be  sent  to  the  surface  to  be  refilled. 
The  use  of  petroleum  engines  should  not  be  resorted  to  in  dry  coal-mines. 
Furnaces  and  boiler-fires  underground  should  be  avoided  as  much  as 
possible. 

With  regard  to  the  means  of  escape  in  case  the  roads  ordinarily  used 
are  not  available,  notice-boards  might  be  put  up  to  show  the  way,  and 
some  of  the  workmen  from  each  district  might  be  taken  out  by  the  return 
airway  at  intervals.  It  was  also  important  that  the  escape  route  should  be 
kept  free  from  impediments  and  made  as  easy  to  travel  as  practicable, 
dangerous  places  being  fenced  off  and  staples  or  blind  pits  fenced  and 
provided  with  good  ladders,  and  no  serious  accumulations  of  water  allowed 
on  the  road.  At  the  escape-shaft,  proper  landing-places  and  means  of 
signalling  should  be  provided,  and  it  would  be  advantageous  in  cases 
where  the  apparatus  for  raising  and  lowering  persons  was  not  in  actual  use, 
that  it  should  be  used  at  regular  intervals  to  see  that  all  was  ready  in  case 
of  emergency. 


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486  DISCUSSION--THE  USE  OF  MINERAL  OILS  UNDSBGEOUND. 

Ifr.  B.  B.  Wain  said  tiiat  tiie  Impector's  eiroolar  called  attention  to 
^he  risks  attending  the  nse  of  mineral  oils  without  sufficient  precautions 
being  taken,"  but  in  his  opinion  there  was  danger  in  the  use  of  mineral  oils 
even  when  every  possible  precaution  was  taken,  particularly  in  dry-timbered 
roads,  or  where  there  was  any  quantity  ot  timber  about.  He  had  recently 
been  obl^ed  to  face  this  difficulty  in  one  of  the  pits  of  which  he  had  charge^ 
where,  although  the  pit  bottom  was  arched  with  brickwork,  there  was  about 
8,000  square  feet  of  timber-staging.  In  this  case,  paraffin  lamps  of  good 
make  had  been  used,  and  every  care  taken  in  trimming  and  deaning  the 
lamps,  one  of  the  lamp-men  going  down  twice  a  day  to  attend  to  them, 
and  taking  only  what  oil  was  required  with  him.  Even  with  these  pre- 
cautions, lamps  had  been  thrown  down,  and  there  had  been  several  narrow 
escapes  from  fire.  In  order  to  entirely  overcome  this  risk,  a  small  electric- 
lighting  plant  had  been  fixed,  and  had  been  working  since  the  conmience- 
ment  of  the  year.  To  light  the  top  and  bottom  decks,  twenty-five  16-candle- 
power  lamps  were  used,  which  were  supplied  with  current  fix>m  a  small 
dynamo  giving  an  output  of  15  amp6re8  at  100  volts.  This  was  driven  by  an 
engine  with  one  cylinder  5  inches  in  diameter  and  7  inches  stroke,  running 
at  200  revolutions  per  minute.  The  speed  of  the  dynamo  was  640  revolu- 
tions and  the  whole  space  occupied  by  the  engine  and  dynamo  was  8  feet  by 
8  feet  by  5  feet  high.  The  same  care  had  been  used  in  fixing  the  wires,  etc., 
as  would  be  taken  in  house  and  ship  lighting,  where  the  work  would  have 
to  pass  insurance  companies  and  Board  of  Trade  inspectors.  The  leads 
used  were  highly  insulated,  lead-covered,  and  enclosed  in  strong  wooden 
casing.  The  joints  were  all  made  in  cast-iron  airtight  junction-boxes, 
and  the  lamps  were  enclosed  in  globe  fittings,  also  airtight,  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  strong  wire  guard  to  save  breakage  by  accidental  blows. 
The  whole  cost  of  the  work  was  under  £200,  including  a  spare  armature 
for  the  dynamo.  It  would  be  quite  possible  to  put  in  a  plant  to  do  the 
same  work  at  about  half  the  cost,  if  bare  wires  were  carried  on  insulators 
and  the  joints  spliced,  but  there  would  be  some  danger  of  intense  heat  in 
such  a  case  if  the  wires  should  accidentally  come  together  and  short-circuit 
the  current ;  but  by  using  the  high  insulation  and  junction-boxes,  which 
also  contained  safety-fuses,  this  danger  was  entirely  overcome.  The  engine 
was  supplied  with  steam  from  the  main-pipe  taken  down  the  pit  to  supply 
the  underground  hauling-engines,  and  the  working  cost  was  practically 
nothing,  as  the  engineman  was  able  to  attend  to  the  lubrication,  etc.,  at 
intervals  of  three  or  four  hours.  The  lamps  formerly  used  burned  some 
nine  or  ten  gallons  of  paraffin  per  week,  and  did  not  light  the  pit  bottom 
nearly  so  well  as  the  electric  lamps.    The  cost  in  renewals  of  lamp  glasses 


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DISCUSSION — THE  USE  OF  HINERAL  OILS  UNDERGROUND.  437 

would  be  rather  more  than  the  renewals  of  electric  lamps.  It  would  be 
seen  that  with  the  electric  plant  there  was  greater  safety,  more  efficient 
lighting  and  economy  in  working,  although  it  was  admitted  that  small 
dynamos  were  not  so  eponomical  in  their  working  as  larger  machines. 
By  far  the  most  dangerous  form  in  which  mineral  oils  were  used  under- 
ground was  when  burned  in  flaming  or  torch  lamps,  and  it  seemed 
desirable  that  these  should  be  forbidden  altogether,  except,  perhaps,  for 
the  purpose  of  shaft  examinations.  He  had  in  several  cases  substituted 
colza-oil  lanterns  with  a  1 J  inches  wick  for  torch  lamps,  and  the  men  who 
had  to  use  them  found  them  better  to  work  with  and  quite  as  convenient. 
Where  tbe  use  of  paraffin  could  not  be  avoided  without  incoAvenience 
it  was  highly  important  that  a  stand-pipe,  with  good  pressure  of  water  and 
hose-pipe  attached,  should  be  fixed  and  available  for  immediate  use.  As 
regarded  the  travelling  of  return  airways  by  the  workmen,  there  should 
be  Very  little  difficulty  in  making  them  familiar  with  the  roads  if  proper 
guide-boards  were  fixed  at  the  various  junctions  leading  into  the  return, 
and  all  roads. not  used  for  haulage  purposes  should  be  carefully  fenced  off 
from  the  travelling  road.  It  seemed  also  desirable  (where  possible)  that 
there  should  be  a  road  to  the  downcast  pit  on  a  higher  level  than  the  pit- 
bottom,  so  that  in  case  of  fire  in  the  pit-bottom  it  would  be  possible  for  men 
to  get  to  the  fresh  air  of  the  downcast.  Where  the  only  outlet  was  by  the 
upcast,  in  pits  of  small  area,  with  a  high  velocity  of  the  air-current,  it  was 
quite  possible  that  the  air  at  the  bottom  of  the  upcast  pit  would  soon  be 
rendered  unsafe  to  breathe.  And  last  of  all,  it  seemed  to  be  absolutely 
necessary  that  all  special  outlets  into  the  shaft  should  be  fitted  up  with 
proper  signalling  appliances.  In  the  case  of  the  recent  fire  at  the  Great 
Western  colliery,  there  seemed  to  have  been  a  great  number  of  lives  lost 
through  one  of  the  insets  not  being  fitted  with  signals,  and  some  delay 
in  drawing  out  the  men  taking  place.  In  conduaion,  he  felt  that  they 
ought  to  strengthen  the  hands  of  the  inspectors  by  doing  all  in  their 
power  to  carry  out  the  suggestions  in  the  circular. 

Mr.  W.  H.  Wiiiv  explained  that,  in  the  case  in  which  he  had  put  a 
Priestman  oil-engine  underground,  the  greatest  care  was  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  engine-house,  no  timber  being  used  in  the  same*  He 
believed  the  special  instructions  supplied  for  working  the  engine  were 
approved  by  the  inspector  at  the  time. 

The  President  said  Mr.  E.  B.  Wain  advocated  prohibition  of  the  use 
of  oil  except  in  the  lamp. 

Mr.  E.  B.  Wain  said  he  did  not  wish  to  convey  the  impression  that  he 
would  prohibit  the  use  of  paraffin  for  lighting  purposes  altogether,  but  he 
certainly  would  forbid  the  use  of  torch  lamps  underground. 


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488  DISCUSSION — ^THB  USB  OF  M  ENSEAL  OILS  UNDBROROUND. 

Mr.  J.  BiOHARD  Hainbs  said  he  thought  the  time  had  nearly  oome 
when  no  naked  light  should  be  allowed  in  a  coal-mine.  He  made  it  a  rule 
that  every  lamp  was  sent  to  the  surface  to  be  relighted.  It  was  not 
perhaps  the  most  convenient  system  to  adopt,  but  he  was  inclined  to 
consider  it  the  safest  plan  and  to  believe  that  benefit  would  arise 
from  its  enforcement.  As  to  the  precautions  which  had  been  suggested 
to  deal  with  underground  fires,  prevention  was  better  than  cure,  and 
hot  firebricks  or  bricks  made  of  cast-iron  and  heated  would  prevent 
fi^eezing  if  simply  laid  on  the  cylinders  and  valve-chests  of  com- 
pressed-air engines ;  he  had  used  them  successfully  for  a  considerable 
time.  Means  should  also  be  at  hand  to  deal  with  fires  on  the  surface : 
a  very  good  fire-engine  was  always  at  hand  in  the  donkey-pump, 
all  that  was  needed  being  a  connexion  and  a  few  lengths  of  hose,  which 
should  be  occasionally  attached  and  used.  These  simple  precautions  would 
in  many  cases  prove  useful  and  prevent  the  extension  of  the  fire,  even  if 
not  sufficient  to  suppress  it,  provided  the  enginemen,  firemen,  and  others 
were  instructed  in  the  use  of  the  apparatus. 

Mr.  J.  Strick  said  he  had  always  held  that  he  would  never,  if  possible, 
allow  any  fire  down  a  pit  except  that  in  the  miner's  safety-lamp,  or  the 
lights  at  the  pit  bottom.  He  recollected  two  accidents  which  occurred  from 
the  use  of  paraffin  or  light  oils.  The  first  was  during  the  night  shift. 
The  butties  had  taken  a  cask  of  torch-oil  down  the  pit.  A  man  was  filling 
a  lamp  which  exploded  and  set  fire  to  the  pit-bottom.  The  bottom  was 
dry  and  the  fire  had  to  be  drowned  out.  A  close  scaffold  was  tried ;  but 
those  who  thought  they  could  extinguish  such  a  fire  by  a  close  scafifbld 
were  mistaken.  This  colliery  was  re-opened  at  great  expense,  and  while 
the  engineman  was  refilling  a  paraffin  lamp,  he  set  fire  to  the  engine-house 
and  burnt  out  the  pit-bottom  again.  After  that  experience  he  never  used 
paraffin  in  a  colliery  again. 

Mr.  John  Lbb  observed  that  they  should  try  to  instil  into  the  minds 
of  the  engineman  to  keep  the  engine  clean,  both  from  swarf,  oil,  and 
waste.  They  ought  to  send  out  dirty  waste  every  week,  or  every  day,  and 
not  allow  it  to  accumulate. 

Mr.  MiTCHESON  asked  if  any  one  knew  of  a  case  similar  to  that  at  the 
Great  Western  colliery,  where  a  brake  had  caused  a  fire,  or  whether  any 
one  knew  of  a  fire  having  been  caused  by  the  overheating  of  haulage 
pulleys  underground  ? 

Mr.  E.  B.  Wain  said  he  had  in  his  mind  a  case  of  overheating  of  the 
brakes  on  the  surface,  but  he  did  not  know  why  it  should  not  occur. 

Mr.  MiTOHESON  suggested  that  was  an  argument  in  favour  of  having 


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DISCUSSION — ^THB  LOCKBTT  AND  GOUGH  DIRECT-ACTING  PUMP.         489 

all  engines  on  the  surface.  He  had  known  one  fire  on  the  snr&ce  caused 
by  overheating  of  the  brake. 

The  President  asked  if  any  gentleman  would  address  himself  to  the 
question  of  the  travelling-roads  ? 

Mr.  MiTCHESON  said  if  they  put  up  notice-boards  and  fenced  off  roads 
as  had  been  suggested  it  was  comparatively  simple  ;  and  it  would  not  be  a 
difficult  matter  to  select  a  couple  of  workmen  out  of  each  district  weekly 
and  send  them  through  the  return  with  the  fireman. 

Mr.  W.  N.  Atkinson  thought  that  would  be  a  reasonable  solution  of 
the  question.  There  was  no  doubt  that  the  actual  travelling  on  the  road 
by  one  or  two  men  would  be  of  far  greater  benefit  than  any  notice-boards, 
because  even  with  notice-boards  there  would  be  difficulty,  especially  where 
there  were  three  roads  leading  in  different  directions.  But  there  should 
not  be  any  difficulty  in  taking  one  or  two  men  from  each  district  at  inter- 
vals by  the  alternate  road  to  which  they  were  not  accustomed.  That  prac- 
tice would  also  be  beneficial  in  other  ways.  It  would  lead  to  these  routes 
not  regularly  used  being  kept  in  a  better  state  than  they  were  sometimes. 
They  were  sometimes  not  so  easy  to  travel  as  they  might  be,  both  as 
r^arded  the  size  and  the  difficulties  in  getting  up  steep  places.  If  these 
things  were  brought  under  the  notice  of  the  men  in  a  colliery,  no  doubt 
more  attention  would  be  paid  to  them  than  was  sometimes  paid  under 
existing  circumstances. 

Mr.  Strick  proposed  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Atkinson  for  having 
brought  these  questions  under  their  notice,  the  discussion  of  which  could 
not  be  otherwise  than  useiul. 

Mr.  W.  Heath  seconded  the  proposition,  observing  that  he  quite 
agreed  with  all  that  had  been  said.  There  was  only  one  difficulty,  that 
they  would  not  get  the  workmen  to  go  round  without  payment. 

The  resolution  was  agreed  to,  and  briefly  acknowledged  by  Mr.  Atkinson. 


DISCUSSION  ON  MESSRS.  LOCKBTT  AND  GOUGH'S  PAPER 

ON    "THE    LOCKBTT    AND    GOUGH    DIRECT-ACTING 

PUMP."' 

Mr.  Benjamin  Woodwobth  said  that  the  most  important  requirement 

in  a  direct-acting  pump  in  his  opinion,  was  a  controlling-apparatus  or 

governor  that  would  safely  deal  with  fidse  strokes  in  working ;  but  this 

*  Tratu,  Ihd,  InH.y  vol.  v.,  page  481. 


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440        DISCUSSION — ^THS  LOGEETT  ASB  GOUGH  DIBBCT-ACTING  PUMB. 

pump)  like  the  geneialiby  of  snsh  pumps,  did  not  atteisipt  anythiiig  of  that 
kind.  The  tappet  arrangement  was  not  abeolntely  novel,,  althongk  the 
connexion  between  it  and  the  main  valves  might  be  a  new  combination ; 
and,  if  applied  to  a  large  pump,  the  question  was  whether  a  &lse  stroke 
might  not  lead  to  serioos  damage,  as  there  must  be  a  measureablt  element 
of  time  consumed  in  the  movement  of  the  main  valve-gear  throagh 
the  auxiliary  cylinder,  and  injury  might  arise  in  that  interval  in  the  case 
of  &lse-stroke  working.  As  regards  the  claim  to  avoid  the  Bet  at  the  end  of 
the  stroke,  he  thought  it  was  a  mistake  to  do  so,  as  the  pause  or  set  in 
such  pumps  was  very  desirable  for  good  working  and  the  durability  of  the 
valves,  etc.  He  thought  an  attempt  should  be  made  to  secure  (instead  of 
to  avoid)  such  action  in  any  important  pumping-plant  of  the  direct-acting 
class,  and  perfect  action  of  this  kind  for  heavy  liils  made  the  use  of  such 
pumps  preferable  to  the  ordinary  rotatory  pumping  engine.  In  all  large 
or  moderate-sized  pumps  he  should  object  to  the  piston-rod  proper  entering 
the  pump,  although  the  pump  was  thereby  rendered  shorter  and  more 
compact  by  so  doing.  The  triple-block  piston  in  the  auxiliary  cylinder 
was  a  very  ingenious  and  decidedly  novel  arrangement,  and  the  steam-port 
when  open  (he  presumed)  was  between  the  central  solid  piston  and  the  outer 
perforated  piston,  and  if  so,  piston/*  and  not/*  (Fig.  3,  Plate  XV.)  should 
be  described  as  the  one  that  covered  the  port,  but  this  no  doubt  was 
a  clerical  error  that  had  crept  into  the  specification.  The  suction-valve 
arrangement  with  two  valves  fast  on  one  central  ^indle  was  probably  new, 
but  it  did  not  necessarily  follow  that  it  was  an  improvement,  as  the  trouble 
with  such  valves  was  generally  not  from  any  difficulty  of  their  opening 
but  from  heavy  blows  on  closing,  if  they  were  not  properly  designed  or 
proportioned.  This  arrangement  would  in  his  opinion  slightly  increase 
that  risk,  especially  if  the  quick  return  was  used  (that  was  claimed  as  an 
advantage  in  this  pump),  and  of  course  this  trouble  should  be  avoided  as 
far  as  practicable  in  both  suction  and  delivery-valves.  The  proportion  for 
suction-valves  and  casing  would  be  found  very  unsatisfactory  in  working, 
as  the  casing  area  internally  was  only  one-ninth  of  the  pump,  and  the 
passages  through  the  valve-seating  and  round  the  annular  space  between 
valve  and  casing  could  not  possibly  reach  5  per  cent,  of  the  area  of  the 
pump,  a  proportion  much  too  small  for  ordinary  working— but  that  was 
simply  a  detail  which  anyone  making  or  using  the  pump  would  easily  avoid. 
Mr.  J.  Newton  said  it  was  rather  unfortunate  that  neither  the  model 
nor  the  inventors  were  present.  He  thought  when  the  paper  was  read  that 
the  writer  ought  to  have  given  them  comparative  results,  showing  what 
other  pumps  could  do  and  what  it  was  claimed  that  this  pump  would  do. 


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DISOUSSLON — THE  LOCKBTT  AND  60UGH  DIEECT-ACTING  PUMP.        441 

But  it  appeared  f2x>in  the  turn  the  difictiflgioii  took  at  the  laat  meeting  that 
they  were  not  likely  to  have  anv  very  extensive  comparifions  made.  The 
only  point  upon  which  argument  might  be  raised,  so  far  as  he  could  see, 
was  the  set  of  the  valve.  With  regard  to  Mr.  Woodworth's  remarks,  he 
would  venture  to  say  that  although  it  was  accepted  that  the  set  of  the 
valve  at  the  end  of  the  stroke  was  an  advantage,  it  was  at  the  same  time 
a  great  disadvantage.  And  he  would  tell  them  why  :  the  return  of  the 
piston  against  a  solid  body  was  a  disadvantage  to  the  mechanism*  They 
also  knew  that  if  they  had  800  yards  of  head  of  water  they  had  a  great 
amount  of  friction  in  the  pipe  through  which  they  were  forcing  the  water. 
To  overcome  the  friction  after  the  water  had  settled  into  a  dormant  position 
would  entail  greater  energy  than  it  would  to  keep  the  water  in  motion 
when  once  it  had  been  started,  and  would  be  more  injurious  to'  tha 
machinery  than  the  absolute  knock  against  the  solid  fluid  on  the  return 
of  the  piston.  As  the  piston  returned  against  the  fluid,  if  there  was  no  set 
there  would  be  very  little  knock  on  the  valve,  or  concussion  of  machinery, 
and  it  would  be  a  less  disadvantage  than  the  lifting  of  the  water  after  it 
had  ceased  to  flow. 

Mr.  0.  H.  TREaLOWN  said  he  had  much  pleasure  in  endorsing  the 
acknowledgment  of  the  last  meeting  that  the  members  were  indebted  to 
the  author  for  having  brought  before  them  an  improved  pump.  When 
looking  at  the  model  exhibited  at  the  last  meeting  he  had  an  impression 
that  the  author  claimed  the  production  of  a  pause  at  the  end  of  the  stroke, 
but  to  his  surprise  he  distinctly  understood  the  author  to  say  he  did  not. 
Since  then  he  had  observed  in  the  specification  one  of  the  principal  claims 
was  worded  thus  : — '^  and  avoiding  the  dead  set  or  stopping  at  each  end 
of  the  stroke."  Whatever  that  might  mean  was  not  dear  to  him.  The 
specification  seemed  to  embrace  some  points  of  other  well-known  dired> 
acting  pumps,  but  until  the  pump  was  made  and  worked  under  fairly 
average  conditions,  it  would  be  premature  to  pass  any  concIuflive^opinio&  on 
it.  He  (Mr.  Treglown)  quite  agreed  with  the  words  of  a  previous  speaker 
as  to  the  loss  of  time  between  the  piston  striking  the  tappet-rods  and  the 
reversal  of  the  main  slide-valve,  and  this  perhaps  would  be  more  apparent 
when  it  was  remembered  in  cases  of  losing  water,  or  load,  or  in  instances 
to  meet  sudden  demands,  the  piston  travelled  at  great  speed,  and  the  motion 
had  to  be  transmitted  through  rods,  levers,  rocking-shaft,  pins,  and  joints, 
with  the  necessary  freedom  which  many  parts  must  have,  and  the  question 
was,  even  were  there  provision  for  cushioning  (and  there  seemed  none), 
whether  this  lapse  of  time  would  not  cause  the  piston  to  strike  the  cylinder 
end,  necessitating  the  lateral  rod  adjustment  the  author  spoke  of.    But  it 


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442       DISCUSSION — ^THB  IX)CKBTT  AND  GOUQH  DIRBCT-AOTING  PUMP. 

must  not  be  forgotten  that  any  adjustment  which  shortened  the  travel  of 
the  piston  was  detrimental  rather  than  otherwise  to  the  eflSciency  of  the 
machine  ;  and  was  it  possible  to  maintain  constantly  the  full  length  of  the 
stroke,  because,  to  provide  for  high  speeds  above  referred  to  (and  with 
which  the  best  direct-acting  pumps  of  the  day  had  no  difficulty)  the  tappet- 
rods  must  project  proportionately  far  into  the  cylinder,  and  when  working 
slow  or  under  normal  conditions  it  would  appear  the  piston  would  not 
travel  the  full  length  of  the  stroke.  It  would  appear  also  that  wear 
and  tear  would  be  considerable ;  even  at  a  slow  speed,  the  tappet-rods 
would  receive  many  hundreds  of  blows  per  hour,  and  these  tappet-rods 
had  to  work  against  the  friction  of  three  stuffing  boxes  and  of  the  slide- 
valve  of  the  auxiliary  cylinder,  and  further  there  was  the  constant  working 
of  the  pins,  joints,  and  lever-ends  on  the  lateral-rod  and  rocking-shaft, 
and  the  wear  that  would  undoubtedly  take  place  must  be  compensated  by 
adjustment  of  the  lateral-rod.  Most  direct-acting  pumps  combined  the 
advantages  of  the  vertical  arrangement.  Was  it  intended  to  work  the 
pump  vertically  ?  If  so  the  provision  for  balancing  did  not  seem  very 
clear.  With  regard  to  the  suction  valve  arrangement,  practical  work 
could  only  demonstrate  the  value,  but  he  (Mr.  Treglown)  could  see  no 
advantages  over  the  most  approved  arrangements  of  modem  direct-acting 
pumps.  All  inventors  were  deserving  of  much  credit  and  encouragement, 
but  when  he  looked  at  the  increased  cost  of  production  and  other  features 
he  did  not  approve  of,  he  was  inclined  to  think  it  was  possible  their 
expectations  might  not  lead  up  to  all  they  might  have  anticipated.  He 
(Mr.  Treglown)  considered  a  pause  at  the  end  of  the  stroke  was  a  decided 
advantage,  as  it  gave  time  for  the  closing  of  the  pump-valves. 

Mr.  B.  WoODWOBTH  said  he  thought  Mr.  Newton  was  under  a  mistake 
in  stating  that  they  could  start  the  water  from  the  reverse  end  of  the  pump 
without  causing  reaction,  he  thought  the  quicker  it  started  the  greater 
would  be  the  reaction. 


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TRANSACTIONS.  448 


CHESTERFIELD  AND  MIDLAND  COUNTIES  INSTITUTION 
OP  ENGINEERS. 


ANNUAL  GENERAL  MEETING, 

Held  in  the  Stephenson  Memorial  Hall,  Chesterfield. 

July  Ist,  1893. 


Mr,  henry  lewis,  Retirinq  President,  in  the  Chair. 


Mr.  Ford  and  Mr.  Hirst  kindly  consented  to  act  as  scrutineers  of 
the  votinpf  papers  for  the  election  of  Council  for  the  ensuing  year. 


The  Secretary  announced  the  election  of  the  following  gentlemen : — 

Member— 
Mr.  William  Hay,  Stanton  Colliery,  Burton-on-Trent. 

Associates- 
Mi-.  Joseph  Bradford,  Deputy,  Ncthcrseal  Colliery,  Burton-on-Trent. 
Mr.  William  Frkderick  Coluns,  Borer,  Ncthcrseal  Colliery,  Burton-on- 
Trent. 
Mr.  John  Downing,  Enginewright,  Charity  Colliery,  Betlworth. 
Mr.  William  John  Gray,  Under  Manager,  Birley  Collieries,  Sheffield. 
Mr.  Rkginald  Hioqinbottom,  Mining  Surveyor,  Glapwell  Colliery,  Chester- 
field. 
Mr.    Richard   William   Lambert,   Under    Manager,    Birley   Collieries, 
Sheffield. 

Student— 
Mr.  William  Deakin  Wadsworth,  Jun.,  Mining  Surveyor,  Newbold  Road, 
Chesterfield. 


VOL.  V.-18M-98.  *^ 


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444 


REPORT  OP  THE  COUNCIL. 


REPORT  OF  THE  COUNCIL. 


The  following  is  the  usual  coinpai-ative  summary  of  the  number  of 
members  and  the  state  of  the  finances  in  the  past  three  years,  viz. : — 


1890-91. 

1891-92. 

1892-93 

Honorary  Members 

16 

16 

14 

Life  Members      

8 

6 

7 

Members 

191 

193 

204 

Subscribing  Members     .. 

7 

9 

7 

Associate  Members 

19 

22 

31 

Students    

11 

16 

19 

251 


261 


282 


Cash  Receipts  ... 
Cash  Payments 

£       8. 

879    4 
396  11 

d. 
6 
1 

£ 
372 

396 

8. 

6 
3 

d. 

4 
6 

£  8.  d 
444  13  11 
601   13     9 

Bank  Balance  ... 
Invested  Fund... 

29    2 
633    6 

3 

8 

6 
633 

4 
6 

2 

8 

-51  15  8 
638    6    8 

£662     8  11 


£638  10  10       £481  11     0 


Arrears  considered  recover- 
able at  end  of      1890-91.  1891-92.  1892-93. 

£52     8    0  £45  10    6         £39  16    0 

One  Life  Member,  19  Members,  11  Associate  Members,  and  5 
Students  have  been  elected  during  the  year — a  total  of  36  (as  against  25 
last  year). 

The  total  retirements  from  all  causes  are  15  (as  against  15  last  year), 
viz. : — 1  Honorary  Member,  12  Members,  and  2  Subscribing  Members. 

There  has  been  a  net  increase  of  1  Life  Member,  11  Members  (includ- 
ing 2  Associate  Members  and  2  Students  who  have  become  Members), 
9  Associate  Members,  and  3  Students  ;  and  a  net  decrease  of  1  Honorary 
Member  and  2  Subscribing  Members. 


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REPORT  OF  THE  COUNCIL.  445 

One  Honorary  Member  and  8  Members  have  died  daring  the  past 
year,  and  are  further  referred  to  in  Memoirs  (see  page  480). 

The  total  number  on  the  roll  of  the  Institution  as  for  the  year 
commenced  26th  March,  1898,  was  283. 

The  income  of  the  past  year  was  £72  8s.  7d.  more,  and  the  expendi- 
ture £105  10s.  4d.  more  than  the  same  in  the  previous  year. 

The  expenditure  has  been  £56  19s.  lOd.  in  excess  of  the  year's 
income. 

The  only  extraordinary  receipt  during  the  year  was  £21  for  a  new 
Life  Member.  Two  present  Members  offered  and  still  offer  to  commute 
their  annual  subscription  in  like  manner,  but  the  Council  have  hitherto 
declined  to  accept,  doubting  that  advantage  beyond  temporary  financial 
aid  would  be  the  result  of  life  memberships,  particularly  should  the  rates 
of  Members'  Subscriptions  be  raised  to  cover  experimental  or  any  pur- 
poses beyond  the  present  undertaking  of  the  Institution  and  involving 
increased  outlay  from  the  funds.  Such  an  undertaking — reprinting  the 
French  Commission  Report  on  Explosives  and  Fire-damp — has,  in  fact, 
swelled  the  year's  expenditure  by  £40  12s.  Id.  As  the  last  year's  Report 
stated,  the  Council  had  then  directed  this  item  to  be  paid  for  out  of  the 
reserve  fund.  A  farther  outlay  of  £38  8s.  resulted  from  a  special  call 
beyond  the  agreed  15s.  per  member  to  cover  the  first  three  years' 
deficiency  of  the  Federated  Institution.  The  two  items,  amounting  to 
£79  Os.  Id.,  more  than  account  for  the  excess  of  expenditure  over 
income,  after  deducting  the  exceptional  £21. 

The  Council  are  unwilling  to  touch  the  Debenture  Stock  reserve,  and 
still  more  so  to  propose  increased  rates  of  subscription.  There  seems 
reasonable  ground  for  expecting  that,  with  the  greater  membership  of  the 
Federated  Institution  of  Mining  Engineers,  the  cost  per  head  for  publishing 
the  TransacHona  will  be  kept  down,  whilst  the  lyge  addition  to  our  own 
local  membership  shown  in  the  preceding  numerical  statement  for  the 
past  year,  and  since  very  materially  augmented,  encourages  the  probability 
of  the  next  year's  results  being  somewhat  more  favourable. 

The  arrear  list  is  lower  than  it  has  been  for  many  years,  whilst  the 
amount  struck  out  as  irrecoverable  is  less  than  in  the  previous  year  ;  the 
Transactions  are  withheld  from  all  whose  last  year's  subscription  is  unpaid. 

A  General  Meeting  of  the  Federated  Institution  of  Mining  Engineers, 
for  the  second  time  held  in  the  district  of  this  Institution,  on  February 
22nd  and  28rd,  1893,  at  Derby,  and  the  neighbourhood,  was  numerously 
attended  and  throughout  satisfactory.  At  the  Annual  General  Meeting 
held  previously  in  September,  1892,  at  Stoke-upon-Trent,  Mr.  George 


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446  REPORT  OF  THE  COUNCIL. 

Lewis,  senior  Past-President  of  this  Institution,  was  unanimously  elected 
President  for  the  year.  The  other  General  Meeting  was  in  London  on 
June  1st,  2nd,  and  3rd,  ult. 

Local  meetings  have  been  held  in  Nottingham  on  June  25th  and 
December  3rd,  1892,  and  in  SheflSeld  on  April  8th  last.  A  Joint  Meeting 
with  the  Midland  Institute  was  also  held  at  Sheffield  on  April  8th. 

The  complete  list  of  papers  communicated  since  the  Council's  last 
Report  is  as  follows : — 

"  Underground  Haulage  by  Endless-rope  at  Ansley  Hall  Colliery."      By  W. 

G.  Phillips. 
*»  Witwatersrand  Gold-field,  Transvaal,  South  Africa."    By  J.  P.  Hamilton. 
"  Notes  on  the  Natal  Coal-flelds."    By  J.  P.  Hamilton. 
"  Presidential  Address."    By  Henry  Lewis. 
"  One  Use  for  the  Telephone."    By  F.  S.  Marsh. 
"  Memoir  of  Lord  Edward  Cavendish." 
"  Memoir  of  the  Seventh  Duke  of  Devonshire." 
*'  Memoir  of  George  Howe." 
"  Memoir  of  Edward  Soar." 

"  An  Improved  Head-gear  for  Pit  Horses."    By  G.  J.  Binns. 
"Geological  History  of  the  Bawdon  and  the  Boothorpe  Faults    in    the 

Leicestershire  Coal-field."    By  W.  S.  Gresley. 

Tliis  Institution  by  its  increased  membership  has  become  entitled  to 
have  an  additional  representative  on  the  Council  of  the  Federated  Institu- 
tion, and  by  the  terms  of  notice  given  last  meeting  in  this  reBi)ect,  Mr. 
Alfred  Barnes  will  join  the  present  representatives.  The  Council  heartily 
congratulate  the  Institution  on  the  admission  of  so  many  new  members 
of  various  classes.  Their  hope  that  the  Institution  would  be  thus  speedily 
and  materially  strengthened  has  been  realized,  but  there  are  still  many 
more  who  ought  to  be  enrolled,  and  among  these  are  the  whole  of  the 
lessors  of  mines  throughout  the  Midland  Inspection  District. 

The  resolution,  of  which  due  notice  has  been  given,  and  which  is 
precisely  expressed  in  the  agenda  for  this  Annual  Meeting,  to  amend  the 
classification  of  members  in  conformity  with  a  model  bye-law  of  the 
Federated  Institution  will,  it  is  believed,  have  the  effect  of  giving 
increased  value  to  full  membership  whilst  preserving  the  privileges  of 
all  classes.  The  new  class  of  Associate  Members  obtains  special  privilege 
in  the  power  to  vote  with  members  upon  all  questions.  The  Council 
trust  that  this  resolution,  which  has  been  well  considered,  will  be  adopted 
and  incorporated  in  the  rules. 

The  thanks  of  the  Institution  are  due  to  the  President  (Mr.  Henry 
Lewis),  who  not  only  during  his  term  of  office  but  on  previous  occasions 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


IIBPOUT  OP  THE  COUNCIL.  447 

has  done  substantial  service  to  the  Institution.  His  successor,  Mr.  Alfred 
Barnes,  the  President-elect,  will  deliver  an  address,  and  has  moreover  as 
head  of  the  Grassmoor  Colliery  Comi)any  provided  for  the  reception  and 
instruction  of  the  meeting  by  throwing  open  the  group  of  collieries  at 
Grassmoor  to  be  visited. 

The  next  meeting  of  the  Federated  Institution  of  Mining  Engineers 
is  fixed  to  take  place  in  Glasgow  and  the  district  of  the  Mining  Institute 
of  Scotland  which  has  recently  joined  the  Federation. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


448 


ACCOUNTS. 


Abstract  op  Accounts, 


Income. 

168  Membei's     

One  classed  Student  paid  increase  as  Member 

8  Subscribing  Members       

31  Associates  and  Students  

1  Paid  and  became  Member  as  aboye 

1  New  Life  Member 

10  New  Membera  and  Entrances 

1        Do.  re-entered,  subscription  only   .. 

9  New  Associates  and  Students 


£     s.    d.       £      8.    d. 


229 


Four  Members  paid  in  advance  ...  

One  paid  old  arrear  not  in  list 

One  late  Student  paid  in  advance  and  Entrance 

Seven  New  Members      Do.  

Do.        Associates    Do.  


Arrear  Subscriptions  received  for  1890-91 
Do.  do.  1891-92 


Transact  ions  and  Excei-pts  sold 

Midland  Railway  Company's  Debenture  Interest 

Bank  Interest        

Letting  of  Council  Room  

Midland  Institute  Shareof  Joint  Meeting,  May  3ixl,  1892 
Chesterfield  Corporation  Classes — Gas  repaid 

Total  Receipts    ... 

Unpaid  Arrears,  per  Subscription  a/c 

Do.     1890-91  Account 17     6     6 

Do.     Previous  years     11     0    6 


264  12 

0 

1  2 

0 

8  8 

0 

31  0 

0 

1  0 

0 

21  0 

0 

26  5 

0 

1  11 

6 

9  0 

0 

363  18  6 

6  6 

0 

3  3 

0 

2  2 

0 

18  7 

6 

7  0 

0 

36  18  6 

Irrecoverable 

Net  arrears  to  collect 
Balance  from  last  year 
Do.     as  per  contra 


4    3    0 
13    0    6 


34  11     0 


28     7    0 


400  17    0 


17    3    6 


418  0 

6 

3  15 

0 

15  12 

0 

2  2 

9 

1  0 

0 

3  7 

9 

0  16 

11 

444  13 

11 

62  18 
23  2 

0 
0 

5  4 
51  15 

2 

8 

39  16  0 
56  19  10 

£541  9  9 

Certificate  of  £533  6s.  8d.  Midland  Railway  Company's  3  per  Cent.  Debenture 
Stock,  and  Policy  of  Insurance  Alliance  Co.,  deposited  in  Bank. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


ACCOUNTS.  449 

Ybab  ending  Mabch  26th,  1893. 


EXPENDITUBE.  £     8.     d. 

Federated  Institution  of  Mining  Bngineers  for  copies  of 
Transactions,  supplied  at  ISs.  per  Member : — 

Balance  on  Call,  1891-92  (Vol.  III.) 106  10    0 

Proportion  of  Special  Call  to  meet  first  three  years' 

deficiency 

Instalments  on  Call,  1892-93  (Vols.  IV.  and  V.)    ... 

Excerpts,  Back  Volumes,  and  Reprints        

French  Commission  Report — Explosives  and  Fire-damp  ... 

Reid,  A.,  Sons  &  Co.,  Printing  and  Stationery  

Bemrose  &  Sons,  Ltd.   do.  do.  

Sundry  Printing  and  Stationery        

Auditoi-s 

Reporting  Proceedings 

Stephenson  Memorial  Hall  (Occupation) 

Fire  Insurance 

Postages,  Parcels,  and  Telegrams 
Travelling  and  Incidental  Expenses 

Requisites  and  Services  

Joint  Meeting  with  Midland  Institute,  May  3rd,  1892,  part 

cost 

Federated  Institution  Meeting,  Derby,  February,  1893    ... 

Secretary's  Salary,  Assistance,  and  Use  of  Office 

Bankers'  Charges  

Total  Expenditure    ...  601  18    9 

Net  in  Bank  in  respect  of  Forward  Year     227  18    6 

Balance  in  Messrs.  Crompton  &  Evans*  Uniop 

Bank,  Ltd.,  Chesterfield,  June  17th,  1893      186    7    9 

Less,  Outstanding  Cheques      10    4  11 

176    2  10 


38  K 

0 

105  7 

6 

250  5  6 
19  0  3 

iO   12  1 

12  13 

7 

13  10 

2 

2  17 

8 

29  1  5 

3  3  0 

11  14  8 

15  12  7 

0  12  6 

16  18  9 

15  1  6 

2  13  11 

6  3  9 

6  18  3 

86  0  0 

0  15  7 

61  15    8 


Arrear  Subscriptions 39  16    0 


£541     9    9 


June  19th,  1893, 

Examined  and  found  correct, 


JOHN  HALL.  I  AtT«r^«i.fl 

JOHNSON  PEARSON,     J  AUDITORS. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


450 
Db. 


ACCOUNTS. 


THB  TrEASUBEB  IK  AOCOUNT 


193  Members,  as  per  List,  1892-3        

Less  five  paid  in  advance  last  year 

One  classed  Student  paid  increase  as  Member 
Four  Members  paid  in  advance,  1893-4 


Seven  New  Members        do. 
One  late  Student  do. 

One  paid  arrear  not  in  list 


and  Entrances 
dp. 


9  Subscribing  Membere         

38  Associate  Members  and  Students  

Four  paid  last  year  in  advance  

1  New  Life  Member 

'  10  Now  Members  and  Entrances       

1  New  Member  re-entered,  subscription  only 

11  ; 

9  New  Associates  and  Students       

Seven  New  A  ssociates  paid  in  advance 

261 

Arrears  per  last  Balance  Sheet     

Deduct  Irrecoverable  Arrears  not  Included  in  1693-94 
List  


£    8.    d. 
303  19    6 

7    17    6 


G  6  0 

18  7  6 

2  2  0 

3  8  0 


d. 


38    0 
4     0 


»6     2 
I     2 


29  18 
9     9 


34 
21 


26    5 
1  11 


0    0 
0    0 


435    8    0 


45  10    6 
23    2     0 


22    8    6 


£457  16    6 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


ACCOUNTS. 


WITH   BUBSCBIPTIONS,  1892-3. 


451 

Cr. 


168  Members     

6  Paidlast  year  in  advance  

20  Unpaid        

193 

One  classed  Student  paid  increase  as  Member 

Four  Members  paid  in  advance,  1893-4  

Seven  New  Members  do.  and  Entrances 

One  late  Student  do.  do. 

One  paid  old  arrear  not  in  list 

8  Subscribing  Members       

1  Retired        


9 

31 
4 
1 
2 


Associate  Members  and  Students 
Paid  last  year  in  advance 
Paid  and  became  Member  as  above 
Unpaid        


38 
1  New  life  Member  . , . 


10 

1 

11 
9 

261 


New  Members  and  Entrances 

New  Member  re-entered,  subscription  only 

New  Associates  and  Students     

Seven  New  Associates  paid  in  advance 

Arrears  as  per  last  Balance  Sheet 

Irrecoverable  

Arrears  to  collect 


Unpaid.  Paid. 

£     s.    d.       £    8.    d. 
264  12     0 

31  10    0 


1     1     0 


2    0    0 


1 

2 

0 

6 

6 

0 

18 

7 

6 

2 

2 

0 

3 

3 

0 

8 

8 

0 

31     0    0 
1     0    0 

21     0    0 


>. 

26  5 

0 

'• 

1  11 

6 

9  0 

0 

•• 

7  0 

0 

34  11 

0 

400  17 

0 

..   28  7 

0 

17  3 

6 

62  18 

0 

418  0 

6 

23  2 

0 

39  16 

•• 

0 

£467  16 

6 

June  19th,  1893. — Examined  and  found  correct, 

JOHN  HALL, 
JOHNSON  PEARSON 


.  I 


Auditors. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


452  DISCUSSION — REPORT  OF  THE   (X)UNCIL. 

Mr.  G.  J.  BiNNS  (Netherseal)  thought  that  the  status  of  the  Institution 
would  be  maintained  and  its  prosperity  extended  if  they  had  a  greater 
number  of  Associates.  This  had  not  been  a  class  which  had  been  much 
cultivated  in  the  past,  but  it  was  one  to  which  he  thought  they  might  pay 
attention  with  very  great  advantage.  There  was  at  every  colliery  only  one 
manager,  but  at  ihe  large  collieries  there  were  numbers  of  men,  under 
managers,  enginewrights,  deputies,  etc.,  who  were  competent  to  join  them, 
and  would  be  glad  to  do  so  if  they  knew  that  they  were  eligible  to  be- 
come Associates,  and  to  obtain  such  advantages  as  were  contained  in  the 
valuable  volumes  of  Transactions,  He  hoi)ed  the  members  of  the 
Institution  would  endeavour  to  get  all  such  men  they  could  to  join  as 
Associates. 

Mr.  George  Lewis  (Derby)  had  no  wish  to  criticize  the  report  of  the 
Council,  as  to  which  he  thought  they  all  could  congratulate  themselves  on 
having  such  a  good  report  for  the  past  year.  He  thought  it  was  very 
satisfactory  to  know  that  in  two  years  their  members  had  increased  from 
251  to  282.  He  had  been  connected  with  the  active  management  of  the 
Institution  for  some  years,  and  only  those  who  were  on  the  Council  knew 
the  difficulties  that  attended  them  in  dealing  with  an  institute  of  that 
character.  Some  few  years  ago  they  were  very  much  afraid  that  the  Insti- 
tution would  csase  to  exist  as  an  institute,  for  the  members  were  gradually 
decreasing,  and  the  Council  were  much  exercised  as  to  what  was  the  best 
course  to  take.  It  would  be  within  the  recollection  of  some  members  that 
overtui'es  were  made  to  the  Midland  Institute  with  the  view  of  federating 
so  far  as  the  two  institutes  were  concerned,  and  by  that  means  increase 
the  members  and  so  reduce  the  working  cost  per  head.  Negotiations 
proceeded  for  some  little  time,  and  then  for  a  variety  of  reasons  fell  through ; 
but  eventually  they  became  federated  with  the  general  body  of  mining 
institutes  throughout  the  country.  He  thought  federation  had  been  very 
satisfactory  up  to  the  present  moment,  and  to  point  more  particularly  to 
what  he  meant,  that  morning  he  had  received  a  letter  from  the  Secretary 
of  the  Federated  Institution  of  Mining  Engineers  (Mr.  M.  Walton  Brown) 
stating  that  the  Transactions  for  this  year  were  so  bulky  that  in  all  pro- 
bability it  would  be  necessary  to  issue  two  volumes  instead  of  one.  That 
proved  what  great  interest  was  being  taken  in  the  Institution  generally, 
and  that  valuable  papers  were  being  written,  and  that  they  not  only  were 
published  for  the  benefit  of  a  few  members  of  one  local  institute  but  were 
sent  all  over  the  world.  The  expenses  had  been  very  little  more  as  regards 
their  own  Institution,  but  they  certainly  required  more  members  to  make 
it  work  efficiently.     The  expenses  of  publication,  maps,  and  printing 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


DISCUSSION— REPORT  OP  THE   COUNCIL.  453 

generally  were  very  heavy,  and  then  (what  might  seem  a  small  matter)  the 
cost  of  postage  amounted  to  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  working  cost. 
It  seemed  to  him  (Mr.  G.  Lewis)  that  in  a  district  like  theirs,  embracing 
the  counties  of  Derbyshire,  Nottinghamshire,  Warwickshire,  and  Leicester- 
shire, considerably  more  than  282  persons  were  practically  engaged  in 
the  supervision  of  mines.  There  must  be  considerably  more,  and  he 
thought  it  eminently  desirable  that,  as  Mr.  Binns  intimated,  each  one 
who  had  practical  supervision  should  become  a  member  of  that  Institution, 
and  he  hoped  that  the  result  would  be  that  by  this  time  next  year  their 
numbers  would  be  considerably  increased.  They  were  not  well  off  as 
regards  funds,  but  they  hoped  their  financial  position  in  the  near  future 
would  be  somewhat  improved. 

Mr.  M.  Deacon  (Blackwell)  said  Mr.  Lewis  had  referred  to  the  large 
number  of  papers  they  were  receiving  ftom  the  Federated  Institution  of 
Mining  Engineers,  and  now  that  they  had  reduced  the  number  of  their 
meetings  to  three  a  year  in  consequence  of  the  formation  of  the  Federated 
Institution  of  Mining  Engineers,  this  seemed  to  him  to  operate  very 
much  against  a  proper  discussion  of  the  papers.  He  did  not  know 
whether  he  was  in  order  in  raising  that  question  then,  but  he  felt,  if  the 
papers  were  to  have  full  value,  they  ought  to  have  better  opportunities  of 
discussion  than  they  now  had  by  only  meeting  three  times  per  annum. 

The  Chairman  said  there  was  not  the  slightest  doubt  that  the 
accounts  showed  a  small  loss  during  the  year,  and  the  only  way  of  altering 
that  was  by  increasing  the  subscriptions  or  the  number  of  members.  The 
former  method  would  not  find  favour,  but  he  thought  and  hoped  after  what 
had  been  said  and  considering  the  very  useful  Transactions  they  were  now 
getting  from  the  Federated  Institution  of  Mining  Engineers,  that  large 
numbers  of  new  members  would  be  attracted.  The  papers  themselves 
were  worth  far  more  money  than  the  amount  of  the  subscription,  and  he 
hoped  at  the  end  of  twelve  months  that  their  present  numbers  would 
have  increased  from  288  to  388,  and  that  their  financial  difficulties  would 
be  at  an  end.     He  then  moved  the  adoption  of  the  report,  etc. 

Mr.  A.  6.  Barnes  (Grassmoor)  said  the  exceptional  expenditure  in 
printing  the  Rejx)rt  of  the  French  Fire-damp  Commission  ought  not  to 
be  charged  to  the  present  year,  but  should  come  out  of  the  accumulated 
funds. 

Mr.  J.  A.  LoNGDEN  (Stanton)  said  he  knew  that  the  Council  had 
passed  a  resolution  to  charge  the  cost  of  the  publication  of  the  French 
Commissioners'  Report  to  the  reserve  fund.  He  was  surprised  when 
reading  the  Report  of  the  Council  to  see  that  the  original  proposition  had 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


454  DISCUSSION — REPORT  OF  THE  COUNCIL. 

been  altered.  He  certainly  thought  this  was  the  better  way  of  dealing 
with  the  matter,  namely,  that  the  item  of  £40  128.  Id.  should  be  taken 
out  of  the  current  year's  expenditure,  as  suggested ;  and  if  Mr.  Barnes 
would  make  a  proposition  to  that  effect,  he  would  second  it. 

Mr.  A.  G.  Barnes  said  he  had  pleasure  in  doing  so. 

Mr.  Longden  then  seconded  the  proposition. 

Mr.  J.  Bagnold  Smith  (Newstead)  said  that,  as  he  felt  bound  to  oppose 
the  re^lution,  he  would  give  his  reasons  for  taking  that  course.  The  cost 
of  the  French  report  was  not  a  regular  item  of  expenditure  which  would 
recur  year  by  year,  it  was  an  exceptional  item.  He  therefore  was  of 
opinion  that  the  expense  should  be  spread  over  a  term  of  say  three  years, 
and  not  wholly  debited  to  the  past  year.  He  thought  it  would  not  be 
desirable  to  sell  out  any  of  the  invested  funds  of  the  Institution. 

Mr.  A.  G.  Barnes,  upon  a  Suggestion  of  the  Chairman  to  withdraw 
his  proposition,  called  for  a  division  on  the  matter. 

Mr.  Longden  did  not  wish  to  be  pei*sonal,  but  Mr.  Elmsley  Coke  and 
he  had  agreed  to  become  Life  Members  so  as  to  avoid  the  necessity  for 
selling  a  part  of  the  invested  stock. 

The  Chairman  having  put  the  resolution^  upon  which  5  voted  for  it 
and  4  against,  most  of  the  members  present  not  voting,  said  it  showed 
how  much  interest  the  members  had  taken  in  the  discussion. 

The  Report  was  then  adopted  unanimously. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


EI.EOTIOK  OF  OFFICEB&  455 

ELECTION  OP  OFFICERS,  1898-94. 


Ex-flffieio, 


Pbbsidevt. 
Alfred  Babnbb,  Esq.,  Ashgate  Lodge,  Chesterfield. 

Vic  e-Pbesidents. 

M.  Deacon,  Esq.,  Blackwell  Collieries,  Alfreton. 
W.  D.  HOLFOBD,  Esq.,  Whittington,  Chesterfield. 
M.  H.  Mills,  Esq.,  Mansfield  Woodhouse,  Mansfield. 
J.  B.  Smith,  Esq.,  Newstead  Colliery,  Nottingham. 
W.  Spenceb,  Esq.,  Southfields,  Leicester. 
W.  Wilde,  Esq.,  Sheepbridge  Works,  Chesterfield. 

COUNCILLOBS. 

A.  G.  Babnes,  Esq.,  Grassmoor  Collieries,  Chesterfield. 

G.  J.  BiNNS,  Esq.,  Netherseal  Colliery,  Bnrton-on-Trent. 

G.  S.  Bbagoe,  Esq.,  Granville  Colliery,  Bnrton-on-Trent. 

P.  M.  Chesteb,  Esq.,  Oakwell  Colliery,  Ilkeston. 

H.  R.  Hewitt,  Es<i.,  47,  Hartington  Street,  Derby. 

J.  Humble,  Esq.,  Markham  Collieries,  Chesterfield. 

C.  R.  MOBOAX,  Esq.,  Hurst  Lodn^e,  Alfreton. 

R.  H.  Robinson,  Esq.,  Marlpool  House,  Derby. 

W.  H.  Sankey,  Esq.,  Morley  Hall,  Derby. 

T.  A.  Southebn,  Esq.,  Rose  Hill  Street,  Derby. 

R.  J.  Stbick,  Esq.,  Cossall  Colliery,  Nottingham. 

R.  Thobnewill,  Esq.,  Engineering  Works,  Burton -on -Trent. 

John  Jackson,  Esq.,  Stubben  Edge,  Chesterfield,      \ 

Geobge  Lewis,  Esq.,  Albert  Street,  Derby,  '  Past-Pretidentit, 

J.  A.  LoNGDEN,  Esq.,  Tcversal,  Mansfield,  . 

Henby  Lewis,  Esq.,  An nesley  Colliery,  Nottingham,  ) 

S.  Alsop,  Esq.,  Pinxton,  Alfreton,  \ 

G.  E.  Coke,  Esq.,  Corporation  Street,  Chesterfield,      [Vi^'e-Prexidtntit  of 

G.  Hewitt,  Esq..  Castle  Gresley.  Burton-on-Trent,     [    prevhnix  year. 

C.  H.  Cakes,  Esq.,  Holly  Hurst,  Alfreton,  J 

Tbeasubeb. 
E.  Eastwood,  Esq.  Railway  Wagon  Works,  Chesterfield. 

Secbetaby. 
W.  F.  HowABD,  Esq.,  16,  Cavendish  Street,  Chesterfield. 


REPRESENTATIVES  ON  THE  COUNCIL  OF  THE  FEDERATED 
INSTITUTION  OF  MINING  ENGINEERS. 


A.  Babnes,  Esq.    I  W.  F.  HowABD,  Esq.'  H.  Lewis,  Esq. 

G.  E.  Coke,  Esq.  |  J.  Jackson,  Esq.      |  J.  A,  Lonoden,  Esq' 


M.  H.  Mills,  Esq. 
W.  Spenceb,  Esq. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


456  TRANSACTIONB. 

The  Chairman  said  that  was  the  last  time  he  would  take  the  chair  at 
any  of  their  meetings  in  the  position  he  had  occupied  during  the  past 
twelve  months.  It  had  been  a  source  of  very  great  pleasure  for  him  to 
do  so,  as  he  had  the  kindly  support  of  every  member  of  the  Council  and 
of  the  Institution.  He  felt  sure  that  there  was  a  prosperous  career  before 
that  Institution,  and  he  hoped  it  would  continue  to  grow  in  numbers  and 
in  usefulness.  In  his  successor  they  had  a  very  able  man,  a  man  whose  vast 
experience  would  be  of  great  benefit  to  the  Institution.  He  felt  very  great 
pleasure  in  asking  Mr.  Barnes  to  take  the  chair. 

Mr.  Alfred  Barnes  said  he  was  afraid  he  could  not  fill  the  position 
of  President  so  well  as  Mr.  Lewis  had  during  his  term  of  office.  Mr. 
Lewis  was  a  man  of  great  capacity  in  the  particular  line  of  business  he 
had  taken  up,  the  production  of  coal,  which  was  of  such  especial  value  to 
the  coal  trade  as  a  whole.  It  was  in  the  highest  degree  necessary  that  the 
men  who  produced  the  coal  should  thoroughly  understand  their  business. 
Mr.  Lewis  had  had  great  experience,  and  that  Institution  had  had  the 
benefit  of  it,  and  he  was  sure  if  he  were  again  asked  to  fill  the  chair  he 
would  do  so  as  ably  as  he  had  done  during  the  past  twelve  months.  He 
thought  he  would  himself  perhaps  have  been  spared  occupying  that 
position,  as  his  years  were  increasing  considerably,  but,  if  they  were 
satisfied,  he  would  do  the  best  he  could  during  the  time  of  his  president- 
ship. He  now  proposed  to  give  them  a  short  review  of  the  coal  trade  from 
its  earliest  days : 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


PBESIDBNTIAL  ADDBES8.  457 


PRESIDENTIAL  ADDRESS. 


By  Mb.  ALFRED  BARNES. 


In  the  days  of  Charles  I.,  the  whole  of  the  south  of  England  was 
supplied  with  coal  from  Durham  and  Northumberland,  the  only  means  of 
transporting  it  being  by  means  of  sailing  vessels  up  into  the  Thames.  The 
coal  was  obtained  from  day-levels  and  small  pits,  worked  here  and  there  on 
what  they  termed  the  "old  man."  They  in  their  day  sometimes  found 
the  "old  man"  very  inconvenient.  He  had  deluged  their  workings  with 
a  lot  of  water  which  they  did  not  want.  The  output  in  1700»  as  it  was 
computed,  was  very  small  indeed. 

They  must  remember  that  canals  did  not  come  into  existence  to  any 
extent  until  1780,  that  there  were  no  turnpike  roads,  except  the  north 
road  from  London  into  Scotland  ;  that  all  the  roads  were  not  roads,  and 
that  nobody  mended  them  except  "God  and  the  sun,"  for  such  was  the 
remark  that  an  old  man  made  to  his  father  when  asked  who  mended  the 
Wingfield  road.  In  those  days  they  could  not  go  on  the  roads  to  any  extent 
except  in  the  summer  time,  or  when  the  weather  was  favourable,  on  account 
of  the  sludge  and  their  bad  condition.  Consequently  small  local  wants  only 
were  supplied,  and  these  chiefly  from  day-levels,  as  there  was  no  engine- 
power. 

The  quantity  raised  was,  consequently,  very  small,  being  computed 
at  2,612,000  tons  in  1700,  but  in  1743  it  had  risen  to  4,773,828  tons. 

By  that  period  his  ancestors  were  at  work  in  that  neighbourhood ; 
certainly  only  in  a  very  small  way,  a  good  deal  of  the  coal  being  conveyed 
in  sacks  on  pack-horses.  He  had  heard  his  father  say  that  his  great  grand- 
ftither,  bom  in  1680,  stated  to  his  son,  "John,  we  have  had  a  very  good 
year  ;  we  have  made  £10."  They  must  of  course,  remember  how  the  coal 
had  to  be  raised  and  conveyed,  and  that  the  purchasing  power  of  £10  in 
those  days  would  be  equal  to  £100  now.  That  being  so,  he  did  not  think 
£100  out  of  a  gin  shaft  was  a  bad  profit.  This  pit  was  at  Ashgate,  and  the 
coal  worked  would  be  the  black  shale  or  the  Brampton  Low  coal.  Since  that 
time — with  the  exception  of  the  period  from  1830  until  1846,  when  he 
commenced  coal-getting — his  family  had  got  coal  from  that  day  to  the 
present.  Indeed,  he  believed  that  his  family  were  the  oldest  firm  of 
coal-getters  in  Derbyshire,  and  in  Nottinghamshire  Messrs.  Barber, 
Walker,  &  Company  were  the  oldest.    They  had  fortunately  not  now 


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458  PRESIDENTIAL  ADDRESS. 

to  rely  on  pack-horses ;  they  had  something  better.  In  1780,  the  out- 
put of  coal  had  risen  to  6,424,976  tons  ;  in  1784,  to  6,888,712  tons  ;  in 
1795,  to  10,681,728  tons ;  in  1800,  to  10,080,300  tons,  so  that  in  a 
century  it  had  risen  to  five  times  the  amount.  In  1815,  the  Waterloo 
year,  it  had  risen  to  27,020,115  tons.  At  the  period  when  he  com- 
menced business,  the  end  of  1846  or  the  beginning  of  1847,  the  quantity 
raised  was  about  60,000,000  tons,  according  to  a  computation  made  by 
Mr.  Stokes,  who  had  more  knowledge  of  this  subject  than  himself.  He 
always  thought  that  at  that  time  it  was  about  50,000,000  tons.  In 
1858,  it  had  increased  to  64,400,000  tons. 

Supposing  they  took  the  eutput  at  60,000,000  tons,  what  would  be  their 
position  if  the  plan  and  the  idea  of  some  of  the  colliers'  delegates  at  the 
present  time  were  carried  out,  that  no  person  should  do  any  work  in  a  coal- 
mine unless  he  had  served  an  apprenticeship  ?  There  would  have  been  no 
increase  in  the  output,  and  it  certainly  would  not  have  reached  100,000,000 
tons  by  this  time.  Unless  they  had  allowed  unskilled  workmen  to  go  into 
the  collieries  to  do  the  work  which  he  would  describe  as  the  hewing  of  wood 
and  drawing  of  water,  without  taking  the  management  of  the  stall,  the 
coal  trade  could  not  have  risen  to  what  it  is  now.  These  men  in  time 
became  competent ;  they  got  from  one  position  to  another,  from  loaders 
to  assistant  stallmen,  and  ultimately  to  take  charge  of  a  stall.  He  did  not 
suppose  that  any  manager  would  knowingly  allow  a  man  who  had  only 
been  in  a  pit  a  couple  of  years,  to  go  into  a  stall  and  to  take  the  responsi- 
bility of  having  others  under  him.  No  doubt  the  object  was  to  restrict 
the  output,  but  the  output  could  not  be  restricted  in  that  way.  The 
miners'  delegates  wanted  restrictive  action  so  that  no  one  could  go  into  a 
pit  except  those  who  had  knowledge.  But  they  must  go  in  to  get  some 
knowledge  to  begin  with. 

As  they  passed  on  to  more  recent  times,  they  came  to  the  period  when 
the  first  Mines  Act  was  passed  in  1850,  and  it  was  from  1851,  when  that 
Act  came  into  operation,  that  their  statistics  were  correct.  In  1853,  the 
output  was  64,400,000  tons,  and  the  number  of  tons  raised  per  life 
lost  by  explosions  was  302,347. 

Passing  on  to  more  recent  times,  they  came  to  1870,  which  saw  the 
beginning  of  the  great  impetus  of  trade  that  took  place  through  the 
Franco-German  war,  for  that  especially  was  the  great  factor  of  the  good 
trade  from  1870  upwards.  During  the  twenty  years  from  1850  to  1870, 
there  had  been  no  development  of  the  mines  of  the  country  of  any  con- 
sequence. That  was  because  it  did  not  pay  to  put  any  more  into  coal- 
mining ;  and  he  had  it  from  the  very  best  authorities  connected  with  the 


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PBB8IDBNTIAL  ADDRESS.  469 

North  of  England  that  the  mmes  of  England  did  not  make  4  per  cent. 
Now,  if  they  took  the  risk  of  mining,  they  would  see  that  4  per  cent,  was 
a  very  inadequate  return. 

When  the  great  struggle  took  place  between  France  and  Germany, 
the  price  of  coal  rose  to  an  extraordinary  height.  That  period  of  very 
great  inflation  brought  a  large  amount  of  capital  into  coal-mining.  The 
moment  it  was  known  that  there  were  such  large  profits  to  be  made  out 
of  coal-mining  everyone  rushed  in,  and  the  majority  burnt  their  fingers. 

As  they  passed  on  from  that  period  they  came  to  1880,  when  the 
output  was  146,885,707  tons,  an  advance  in  ten  years  of,  roughly  speak- 
ing, 84,000,000  tons.  In  1886,  the  production  was  169,242,888  tons. 
In  1890,  it  was  181,512,021  tons,  and  in  1891,  186,873,445  tons,  but 
in  1892  it  went  back  again  to  181,674,990  tons. 

Now,  they  were  aware  that  during  the  impetus  from  1870-76  a  great 
outcry  was  raised  that  the  coal  in  the  kingdom  would  not  last  above  a 
certain  time,  and  a  commission  was  appointed,  presided  over  by  the  Duke 
of  Argyle,  and  upon  which  Mr.  "Woodhouse  was  the  commissioner  for  the 
Midland  coal-field.  This  conMnission  reported  that  the  coal  in  the  country 
would  last  for  about  250  years.  But  they  did  not  know  then  that  they 
would  be  able  to  get  into  the  east,  nor  how  far,  and  they  did  not  know 
what  science  would  do  and  will  do  in  the  future,  to  enable  them  to  get 
coal  at  a  greater  depth  than  1,000  yards.  He  thought  it  was  very  great 
folly  for  any  man  to  predict  what  would  be  done  in  the  future.  Science 
was  advancing  at  a  great  pace.  It  was  now  cut  up  into  small  divisions, 
and  whereas  a  man  in  the  past  embraced  many  subjects,  he  now  only 
took  a  part  of  one.  So  they  might  depend  upon  this  that,  if  coal  were 
wanted  and  it  only  existed  at  a  much  greater  depth  than  at  present,  they 
would  be  able  to  get  it  in  future  ages.  England  was  not  a  nation  to 
stand  still.  They  h£id  very  able  men  in  the  coal  trade,  and  especially  in 
the  scientific  world,  and  whilst  they  had  lived  to  see  things  which  their 
fathers  had  never  dreamed  of,  he  believed  they  were  on  the  verge  of 
greater  discoveries  in  the  scientific  world,  and  coming  generations  would 
find  out  ways  and  means  of  doing  things  they  at  present  could  not 
understand. 

He  remembered  when  railways  were  first  opened,  it  was  said  it  was 
impossible  that  the  amount  of  money  expended  on  them  could  produce  an 
income.  They  knew  now  how  foolish  was  that  remark.  It  was  also 
said  that  they  would  do  away  with  horses.  The  very  introduction  of 
railways  had  called  into  use  a  far  greater  number  of  horses  than  before. 

Any  prediction  as  to  the  future  was  foolish  and  unwise.    All  they 

VOL.  y.-ian-98.  30 


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460  PRESIDENTIAL  ADDRESS. 

oonld  do  was  to  prepare  for  the  near  fntnre  and  deal  with  the  present, 
and  they  had  got  a  very  awkward  present  before  them  just  then.  These 
'were  times  such  as  none  had  seen  before,  and  before  they  were  over  they 
would  not  like  the  realization.  In  1854,  they  had  a  period  of  considerable 
depression  after  a  similar  inflation,  especially  in  the  London  market,  in 
consequence  of  the  want  of  steamers  and  an  east  wind  prevailing  for  six 
weeks,  and  leaving  London  almost  without  coal.  He  remembered  an 
article  which  appeared  in  the  Times^  and  which  b^an  with  the  very 
significant  words,  they  would  like  to  see  now,  "coal,  £3  per  ton."  In 
that  year,  the  Clay  Cross  Company  were  the  pioneers  of  the  railway  trade 
to  London,  in  fact  he  thought  that  was  the  first  year  that  they  went 
there — ^in  1854.  They  realized  a  very  large  profit  per  ton  upon  the  stock 
they  had,  which  was  a  goodish  stock  for  those  days.  Then  the  wind 
changed,  the  ships  came  in,  and  there  was  a  glut  upon  the  market,  with 
between  six  and  seven  miles  of  coal-trucks  standing  upon  the  main  lines 
outside  of  London. 

He  happened  to  be  on  the  Continent  that  year,  (on  the  occasion  of  his 
marriage),  and  when  he  came  back  he  found  Grassmoor  colliery  standing 
still,  and  it  stood  for  two  months,  for  they  could  not  get  their  full  wagons 
emptied,  and  they  could  not  get  private  ones ;  they  were  used  as  ware- 
houses. They  had  to  stand  until  the  time  came  that  they  could  move 
again.  He  supposed  they  would  move  again  now  sooner  or  later,  but  he 
did  not  venture  to  prognosticate  what  the  future  would  be,  because  as  he 
said  prognostications  were  foolish. 

He  had  seen  a  chart  showing  the  price  of  coal  at  the  ship  side  at  the 
port  of  London  from  1805  to  1877.  The  prices  varied  from  45s.  per  ton 
in  1814,  as  the  highest  price,  down  to  15s.  in  1851,  and  it  jumped  up  and 
down  like  any  other  chart.  In  1873,  it  got  to  30s.,  and  the  prices  charged 
to  the  consumer  would  be  about  5s.  more  than  he  had  named.  For  two 
days  in  September,  1878,  coals  were  quoted  at  45s.  per  ton  on  the  London 
market.  Coal  was  sent  to  London  by  rail  as  early  as  1845,  but  in  very 
small  quantities.  The  Clay  Cross  Company  had  a  contract  for  70,000 
tons,  and  it  was  thought  they  could  not  carry  it  out  at  a  certain  rate, 
but  they  made  a  considerable  sum  of  money  out  of  it. 

The  total  coal  raised  in  the  Midland  inspection  district  last  year  was 
21,587,967  tons.  Of  this  Leicestershire  raised  1,500,235  tons;  Notting- 
hamshii*e,  7,159,750  tons;  Derbyshire,  11,141,152  tons;  and  Warwick- 
shire, 1,786,830  tons. 

He  did  not  know  that  he  had  anything  more  to  say  to  them,  but  if  he 
could  do  anything  to  assist  or  promote  the  welfare  of  the  Institution  he 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


DISCUSSION — PRESIDENTIAL  ADDRESS.  461 

should  be  glad,  though  he  must  say  it  rested  more  with  the  younger  men 
to  put  their  shoulders  to  the  wheel.  Success  could  only  be  achieved  by 
hard  work,  and  not  by  wishing  alone,  and  if  they  were  to  have  100  more 
members  by  this  time  next  year  they  would  have  to  work  to  accomplish 
this  result. 

The  President  then  moved  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Lewis  for  his 
conduct  in  the  chair  during  his  period  of  oflBice.  He  would  not  say  any 
more  about  Mr.  Lewis  than  he  had  already  done,  because  he  might  make 
him  blush. 

The  vote  being  passed  by  acclamation. 

Mr.  Henry  Lewis  thanked  the  members  for  the  vote  of  thanks,  and 
wished  them  all  a  happy  new  year.  He  felt  confident  that  with  their  new 
President,  the  new  year  would  be  most  successful. 

Mr.  George  Lewis  said  the  members'  thanks  were  due  to  Mr. 
Barnes  for  his  interesting  address,  to  which  he  must  have  devoted  much 
time  and  care.  His  address  had  referred  them  to  the  coal  trade  as  it 
existed  in  1660.  In  reference  to  this,  he  might  mention  a  circumstance 
connected  with  a  colliery  with  which  he  was  acquainted,  and  worked  by 
Messrs.  Nadin  &  Co.,  which  was  working  in  1550,  a  hundred  years 
earlier.  They  proved  this  from  the  fact  that  at  that  date  royalty  was 
staying  at  Tutbury  castle,  that  these  gentlemen  supplied  coal  for  their 
use,  and  that  the  account  was  said  still  to  remain  unpaid,  as  shown  by 
the  colliery  ledgers.  He  had  very  great  pleasure  in  proposing  a  hearty 
vote  of  thanks  to  the  President  for  his  address. 

Mr.  LoNGDEN  seconded  the  resolution,  and  was  sure  that  the  reminis- 
cences they  had  listened  to  were  extremely  interesting.  He  could  not 
help  thinking  during  the  address  what  a  good  thing  it  was  for  them  to 
have  a  change  of  President  each  year,  as  each  presented  different  views 
and  ideas.  The  address  of  Mr.  Barnes  would  be  a  very  valuable  addition 
to  the  records  of  the  Institution. 

The  Chairman  briefly  replied,  and  made  a  jocular  allusion  to  the  ease 
with  which  **the  gentlemen  of  the  Leen  valley"  were  able  to  produce  coal. 


The  President  expressed  to  Messrs.  0.  F.  V.  Ford  and  G.  F.  Hirst, 
the  thanks  of  the  meeting  for  their  services  as  scrutineers. 

Mr.  A.  H.  Stokes  communicated  the  following  paper  on  *^  A  Safety- 
lamp  with  Standard  Alcohol-flame  Adjustment,  for  the  Detection  and 
Estimation  of  Small  Percentages  of  Inflammable  Gas  ":— 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


462  SAFETY-LAMP  WITH  ALOOHOL-FLAMK. 


A  SAFETY-LAMP  WITH  STANDARD  ALOOHOL-FLAME 
ADJUSTMENT,  FOR  THE  DETECTION  AND  ESTIMATION 
OF  SMALL  PERCENTAGES  OF  INFLAMMABLE  GAS. 


By  a.  H.  stokes. 


Introduction. 

The  bringing  forward  of  a  new  description  of  safety-lamp  might 
command  little  interest  or  criticism,  seeing  that  alterations,  modifications, 
and  new  designs  of  safety-lamps  are  legion ;  but,  with  few  exceptions,  the 
writer  believes  that  all  arrangements  or  new  designs  of  safety-lamps  have 
been  devised  with  a  view  to  increased  safety  or  better  illumination. 

"Within  the  last  few  years  more  attention  has  been  given  to  the  causes 
which  appear  to  have  materially  influenced  and  extended  the  effects  of  an 
explosion  of  gas  in  a  mine.  Experiments  have  demonstrated  that  a 
mixture  of  air  and  gas,  which  would  not  show  the  presence  of  gas  when 
tested  by  the  ordinary  safety-lamp,  may  become  an  inflammable  mixture 
if  it  be  more  or  less  charged  with  coal-dust.  Thus,  where  formerly 
mining  engineers  were  satisfied  with  the  air-currents  of  a  mine,  provided 
no  gas  cap  could  be  detected  with  a  small  oil-flame,  they  now  desired  to 
ascertain  not  only  small  percentages  of  gas  in  the  return  currents,  but  to 
measure  the  percentages  by  photometric  or  flame-cap  tests,  with  almost 
the  accuracy  of  ultimate  chemical  analysis. 

It  must  be  quite  clear  to  all  that  no  practical  tests  which  can  be 
made  by  the  ordinary  colliery  official  during  his  round  of  inspection,  will 
be  equal  in  accuracy  to  those  made  by  the  analytical  chemist.  Colliery 
officials*  tests  must  be,  at  the  best,  only  approximate,  and  will  but 
approach  accuracy  in  proportion  to  the  precision  of  the  apparatus  used, 
and  the  correctness  of  the  observation.  The  testing  of  air-currents  in 
the  mine  by  either  photometric  or  flame-cap  tests  must  depend  largely 
upon  good  eyesight  and  memory  for  comparisons. 

Several  fire-damp  indicators  have  been  proposed,  some  of  them  of 
highly  scientific  constniction,  and  influenced  more  or  less  by  the  density 
of  the  gas  and  temj)erature  of  the  atmosphere.  Others  are  so  complicated 
in  their  manipulation  that  none  but  persons  possessing  considerable 
scientific  skill  can  use  them.  It  is  only  those  indicators  which  depend 
upon  the  combustibility  of  fire-damp  that  up  to  the  present  can  be 


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I 


SAFETY-LAMP  WITH  ALCOHOL-FLAME.  468 

practically  used  by  ordinary  colliery  oflScials.  Such  officials  are  trained 
observers  of  the  blue  flame  due  to  the  combustion  of  fire-damp  ;  they  are 
daily  searching  for  such  indications,  and  approximately  judge  the  quan- 
tity of  gas,  when  found,  by  the  greater  or  less  extent  of  blue  cone 
appearing  above  the  oil-flame  of  the  safety-lamp. 

The  volume  of  fire-damp  which  may  be  disengaged  from  the  working- 
&OQ  of  a  mine  and  passing  into  the  return  air-current  is,  no  doubt,  very 
variable,  and  may  be  influenced  by  the  rate  at  which  the  coal  is  freshly 
cut.  The  exudation  may  not  only  take  place  over  the  whole  face  of  the 
coal-seam,  but  may  be  influenced  by  the  permeability  of  the  roof  and 
floor  of  the  seam. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  would  be  desirable  to  test  daily  and 
record  the  state  of  the  return  airways  of  a  mine  with  respect  to  inflam- 
mable gas.  If  such  tests  could  be  carried  out  with  the  officials*  ordinary 
safety-lamps,  or  without  carrying  cumbersome  apparatus,  there  would  be 
little  difficulty  in  educating  the  official  to  his  work,  and  obtaining  the 
daily  record  by  ascertaining  the  proportion  of  fire-damp  in  the  various 
divisional  return  airways,  or  determining  the  nature  of  the  atmosphere 
issuing  from,  or  contained  in,  old  workings  ;  thus  following,  day  by  day, 
the  extent  of  exudation  from  the  working-faces,  or  variations  in  the  com- 
position of  the  air  returning  from  the  workings  or  old  goaves,  or  at  any 
point  that  it  may  be  desirable  to  watch  with  special  attention.  By  this 
means  a  knowledge  would  be  obtained  of  the  quantities  of  fire-damp  dis- 
engaged, either  in  the  whole  of  the  mine  or  from  its  different  points. 

Description  op  Lamp. 

This  safety-lamp  (Fig.  1,  Plate  XVI.)  is  a  modification  of  the  Gray  type, 
one  of  the  four  lamps  recommended  by  the  Royal  Commission  on  Accidents 
in  Mines.  The  lamp  is  specially  designed  and  arranged  as  a  gas-tester  or 
officials'  lamp ;  the  poles  or  standards  being  hollow  tubes,  so  that  the  inlet- 
feed  can  be  taken  from  the  top  of  the  lamp,  thus  enabling  the  test  to  be 
made  as  high  as  the  top  of  the  lamp  can  be  placed.  The  glafis  is  made 
considerably  longer  than  the  ordinary  glass,  so  that  the  length  of  the  gas- 
caps  can  be  measured,  but  it  is  less  in  diameter  than  that  attached  to  the 
ordinary  Clanny  type  of  lamp,  so  that  in  high  percentages  of  gas  the 
amount  of  explosive  mixture  contained  in  the  lamp,  and  which  may  be 
fired  inside  the  lamp,  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.  The  full  length  of  the 
glass,  for  a  breadth  of  1  inch,  is  ^enamelled  jet-black  to  foim  a  black 
back-ground  or  screen  for  more  clearly  detecting  the  cap  due  to  small 
percentages  of  gas.    In  making  test  observations  this  black  back-ground 


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464  &A.FETY-LAMP  WITH  ALCOHOL-FLAME. 

ghonld  always  be  held  behind  the  light,  be  it  the  ordinary  oil  flame 
or  the  alcohol  tester,  and  the  writer  has  found  it  advantageous,  before 
making  delicate  tests,  to  smoke  the  inside  of  the  lamp-glass  with  a  lighted 
taper  for  the  full  width  of  the  black  band  previous  to  taking  it  into  the 
mine,  thus  making  the  band  more  of  a  dead  black  than  the  enamelled 
black  of  the  glass. 

The  lamp  bottom  (Fig.  2)  is  provided  with  a  small  tube  h  passing  through 
the  oil  vessel  similar  to  a  pricker  tube,  but  of  larger  diameter.  This  tube  is 
fixed  immediately  behind  the  wick-holder  of  the  oil  flame,  and  terminates 
on  a  level  with  the  top  of  the  wick-tube  a.  The  bottom  end  of  this  tube 
terminates  in  a  sunken  circular  cavity  in  the  bottom  of  the  oil- vessel,  such 
cavity  being  closed  by  a  screw-plug  c  when  the  tester  is  not  in  use.  The 
upper  portion  of  the  tube  or  that  inside  the  lamp-glass,  and  behind  the 
wick-tube,  is  protected  by  a  spring-cap  or  extinguisher  ^,  which  opens  to 
receive  the  tube  of  the  alcohol  tester,  and  closes  upon  its  withdrawal.  This 
is  so  arranged  that  the  mouth  g  of  the  tube  h  cannot  be  opened  unless  by 
the  insertion  of  the  alcohol  tester,  and  the  tester  cannot  be  withdrawn 
without  the  tube  h  being  closed,  the  opening  being  firmly  closed  before 
the  alcohol  testing- vessel  is  unscrewed  from  the  thread  of  the  plug  cavity. 
From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  no  flame  can  possibly  pass  down  the  tube 
J,  even  if  the  oflScial  using  the  lamp  omitted  to  replace  the  screw-plug 
Cy  after  making  a  test  for  a  low  percentage ;  but  a  further  precaution 
is  taken  by  attaching  the  screw-plug  to  the  lamp  by  means  of  a  short 
chain.  If  the  plug  be  loose,  and  the  oflicial  had  to  put  it  in  his  pocket 
when  about  to  use  the  alcohol  tester,  he  might  forget  to  replace  it,  but  as 
it  is  permanently  attached  by  a  chain  the  plug  hanging  loose  below  the 
lamp  bottom  would  remind  him  of  his  omission. 

The  alcohol  tester  (Figs.  8  and  4,  Plate  XVI.,)  consists  of  a  small 
cylindrical  brass  vessel  for  containing  the  alcohol,  with  a  long  wick-tube  i 
screwed  into  the  top  of  the  vessel,  the  connexion  being  made  by  means  of 
a  circular  brass  plate,  on  the  under  side  of  which  is  a  leather  washer  to 
ensure  a  perfect  fit.  The  wick-tube  is  only  4  millimetres  (0-16  inch)  in 
diameter,  and  55  millimetres  (2"20  inches)  long,  burning  with  two  strands 
drawn  from  the  ordinary  round  wick  used  for  an  oil-lamp.  The  wick-tube 
f  when  not  in  use  is  protected  from  injury  by  a  cap  or  covering/ (Fig.  8) 
which,  when  placed  over  the  wick-tube,  is  screwed  to  the  alcohol  vessel. 
The  bottom  of  this  cap  is  provided  with  a  leather  washer,  securely  cover- 
ing the  air-hole  of  the  alcohol  vessel ;,  the  screw  of  the  covering  does  not 
screw  home  or  touch  the  vessel,  and  in  this  way  brings  the  screw  pressure 
to  bear  upon  the  leather  washer.     The  two  leather  washers  securely  close 


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SAFETY-LAMP  WITH  ALCOHOL-FLAME.  466 

the  alcohol  vessel,  so  that  it  may  be  carried  in  the  waistcoat  pocket  with- 
out fear  of  any  of  the  alcohol  escaping. 

The  tester  is  charged  with  pure  alcohol  before  being  taken  into  the 
mine,  and  when  fully  charged  will  burn  for  about  four  hours.  This  time 
permits  of  120  tests  of  two  minutes  each  being  made  before  the  alcohol 
tester  requires  to  be  refilled. 

MODB  OF  TeSTINO. 

The  alcohol-flame  is  not  intended  to  be  used  for  the  ordinary  mode  of 
examination  of  the  working-places,  but  should  only  be  used  after  the  oil 
flame  of  the  safety-lamp  has  failed  to  detect  gas;  or  in  other  words, 
examination  with  the  alcohol-flame  commences  where  the  oil-flame  breaks 
off. 

The  official  using  the  lamp  should  first  test  with  a  reduced  oil-fiame, 
and  if  this  fails  to  indicate  the  presence  of  gas,  he  then  raises  his  oil-flame 
to  its  normal  height.  The  screw-plug  c  is  then  withdrawn  from  the 
bottom  of  the  lamp  and  the  alcohol  tester  made  ready  by  unscrewing  the 
cap /and  seeing  that  the  wick  has  been  cut  level  with  the  top  of  the  brass 
tube  e',  it  is  then  inserted  through  the  bottom  of  the  oil  vessel  and 
screwed  tightly  up.  The  top  of  the  alcohol  wick-tube  i  will  have  opened 
the  spring  cap  ^,  and  appeared  above  the  same.  In  a  few  seconds  the 
heat  of  the  oil-flame  will  have  caused  the  alcohol  to  ascend  the  wick-tube 
and  become  ignited,  or  the  lamp  may  be  held  a  little  on  one  side,  so  that 
the  light  from  the  oil-wick  ignites  the  alcohol- wick.  The  alcohol-wick 
being  lighted,  the  oil-wick  is  drawn  down  into  its  wick-tube  and  so 
extinguished.  We  have  then  only  the  small  pale  blue  flame  of  the  alcohol 
tester  burning  inside  the  lamp,  and  by  which  the  test  is  then  made. 
Should  no  gas  cap  appear  above  this  flame,  the  atmosphere  may  be  con- 
sidered as  virtually  free  from  inflammable  gas,  or  containing  below  0*60 
per  cent,  of  gas.  Should  a  gas  cap  appear,  its  intensity  of  colour  and 
length  gives  the  percentage  of  gas  contained  in  the  atmosphere. 

The  testing  is  materially  Militated  by  placing  a  small  slip  of  black 
cardboard  round  the  front  of  the  glass^  of  sufficient  depth  to  cut  off  from 
view  the  whole  of  the  alcohol-flame,  and  long  enough  to  be  held  by  the 
two  standards  of  the  lamp  when  placed  between  such  standards  and  the 


The  test  being  made  and  noted,  the  oil-wick  is  raised  by  the  pricker 
and  bent  over  until  it  touches  the  alcohol-flame,  And  is  re-lighted  by 
the  same,  the  flame  is  then  adjusted  to  its  proper  light-giving  height  and 
the  alcohol  vessel  and  wick-tube  unscrewed.    The  withdrawal  of  the 


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466  SAFETY-LAMP  WITH  ALCOHOL-FLAMB. 

alcohol  wick-tube  i  enables  the  automatic  spring-extinguisher  g  to  close 
the  opening  of  the  insertion  tube  b  inside  tlie  lamp,  and  on  the  screw-plug  c 
being  inserted  the  lamp  assumes  its  normal  form,  and  is  again  an  ordinary 
safety-lamp  with  oil-flame.  The  cap  or  cover  of  the  alcohol  wick-tube  / 
is  screwed  on,  and  the  apparatus  placed  in  the  pocket  until  further  required 
for  use,  its  weight  being  about  4^  ounces. 

In  the  case  of  air-currents  containing  3  per  cent,  or  more  of  inflam- 
mable gas,  the  alcohol-flame  is  superseded  by  the  ordinary  oil-flame, 
inasmuch  as  that  proportion  is  clearly  visible  in  ordinary  oil  lamps,  and 
therefore  the  alcohol-flame  is  not  used  for  these  high  proportions,  which 
could  only  be  obtained  by  sacrificing  the  efl&ciency  of  the  test  for  the 
proportions  lower  than  8  per  cent. 

Any  person  accustomed  to  testing  for  gas  in  a  mine  will  have  little 

difiiculty  in  using  the  alcohol  tester  and  ascertaining  with  approximate 

accuracy  the  percentage  of  gas  contained  in  the  atmosphere  of  various 

parts  of  a  mine. 

Tbsts. 

The  writer  has  made  many  and  varied  tests  and  alterations  in  construc- 
tion to  produce  a  lamp  that  would  answer  the  double  purpose  of  an 
ordinary  safety-lamp  and  a  gas  tester ;  and  such  tests  could  only  be  satisfac- 
torily conducted  under  conditions  which  would  ensure  accurately  measured 
percentages  of  inflammable  gas  and  air.  The  writer  knows  of  no  better 
apparatus  for  making  such  tests  than  the  one  designed  by  Dr.  Clowes, 
which  has  been  already  described  in  the  Transactions.*  By  the  courtesy 
of  one  of  the  writer's  colleagues,  he  obtained  the  loan  of  such  an  apparatus, 
and  the  whole  of  the  tests  have  been  made  in  it.  The  writer  would  wish 
to  bear  testimony  to  the  valuable  and  simple  apparatus  designed  by  Dr. 
Clowes  for  trying  safety-lamps  in  measured  percentages  of  gas  and  air, 
and  to  acknowledge  his  indebtedness  to  such  an  apparatus  for  testing  and 
perfecting  his  alcohol  flame-tester. 

The  gas  used  was  ordinary  coal  gas,  and  the  quantity  was  carefully 
measured  and  mixed  before  the  tests  were  made.  In  testing  very  low 
percentages  a  little  difficulty  was  experienced  by  having  to  view  the  very 
pale  blue  cap  through  two  thicknesses  of  glass,  viz.,  the  glass  of  the  safety- 
lamp,  and  the  glass  of  the  mixing  apparatus,  but  many  tests  were  made 
with  the  naked  alcohol-flame  in  the  apparatus,  and  viewed  through  only 
one  thickness  of  glass. 

The  testing  for  low  percentages  of  fire-damp  required  a  little  training 
in  observation,  for  the  cap  is  so  very  pale  in  colour,  and  the  thick  circular 

♦  TraTU,  Fed.  Intft.y  vol.  iv.,  page  441. 


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SAFFTY-LAMP  WITH  ALCOHOL-FLAME. 


467 


lamp-glass  so  detrimental  to  the  observation  of  such  caps,  that  it  required 
very  careful  sight-searching,  assisted  by  all  the  artificial  adjuncts  available 
(sach  as  shading  the  light,  and  using  the  black  back-ground)  to  clearly 
detect  the  very  pale  blue  cap  due  to  very  low  percentages  of  fire-damp. 
But  this  cannot  create  surprise  when  we  consider  the  very  small  quantity 
of  gas  necessary  to  form  such  mixtures  ;  in  fact,  in  testing  on  the  surface, 
a  naked  light  may  be  introduced  without  fear  of  explosion  in  the  whole  of 
the  mixtures  for  which  the  alcoholic  flame  is  intended  to  be  used. 

The  indications,  though  less  precise  than  the  ultimate  analysis  of  the 
air-current,  have  the  great  advantage  of  being  obtainable  in  the  mine,  and 
by  any  person  of  ordinary  intelligence. 

The  following  are  the  results  of  the  tests  made  by  the  ¥rriter : — 

ALCOHOL-FLAMB,  WITH  A  STANDABD  HEIGHT  OF  IS  MlLLIHBTBES  (0*62  IKOH). 


of  Gm. 

Height  of 

Standard 

Akwhol  Flaow. 

Heii^t  of  Gm  Cap. 

Remarks. 

MUUmetrM. 

Bfillimeins. 

InoheL 

0-5 

13 

15 

0-60 

Very  pale,  not  clearly  seen. 

1-0 

» 

25 

I'OO 

Pale  blue  colour,  can  be  clearly 
seen. 

1-6 

» 

86 

I'U 

Pale  blue  colouriClearly  defined. 

2-0 

>» 

42 

1-68 

Clear  blue-coloured  spiral. 

2-5 

so- 

>♦ 

50 

2-00 

Distinctly  defined  gas  cap. 

Oil  flame. 

— 

— 

The  top  of  the  cap  is,  in  all  cases,  so  thin  and  attenuated  that  its 
termination  for  measurement  requires  careful  observation. 

In  conducting  tests  on  the  surface  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  they 
should  be  made  in  a  perfectly  dark  room,  darkness  equal  to  that  which 
would  be  found  in  a  mine. 

With  0*5  per  cent,  of  gas,  the  gas  cap  is  very  pale  blue  in  colour, 
oonical  in  form,  and  can  only  be  observed  by  carefcQly  shading  the  light 
of  the  alcohol  flame.  It  is  with  difficulty  measured,  owing  to  the  top 
part  of  the  spiral  cap  being  so  attenuated  and  of  so  pale  a  colour. 

With  1*0  per  cent,  of  gas,  the  gas  cap  is  pale  blue  in  colour,  it  can  be 
clearly  seen,  and  shows  a  defined  spiral  shape,  which  can  be  measured  by 
shading  the  light  of  the  testing  flame. 

With  1*5  per  cent,  of  gas,  the  gas  cap  is  of  a  pale  blue  colour,  but  of 
a  little  deeper  colour  than  with  lower  percentages,  and  is  distinctly  defined. 


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468  DISCUSSION— SAFETY-LAMP  WITH  ALCOHOL-FLAME. 

With  2*0  per  cent,  of  gas,  the  gas  cap  is  a  clear  blue-coloured  spiral  of 
the  well-known  description  of  cap  due  to  inflammable  gas. 

With  2*5  per  cent,  of  gas,  the  gas  cap  is  in  colour  similar  to  the 
cap  obtained  in  the  previous  test,  but  very  distinct  and  well  defined. 

Conclusions. 

1. — The  lamp  is  an  officiars  ordinary  safety-lamp,  and  therefore  can 
be  used  for  light,  and  for  the  daily  work  of  examining  and  testing  the 
mine. 

2. — The  alcohol  tester  is  simple,  easily  applied,  and  can  be  carried  in 
the  waistcoat  pocket. 

3. — The  alcohol  tester  should  not  be  used  as  a  primary  light  for  finding 
gas  in  goaf,  or  in  holes,  but  for  detecting  low  percentages  of  gas  after  the 
the  ordinary  oil-flame  has  failed  to  indicate  its  presence. 

4. — ^When  making  a  test  the  flame  of  the  alcohol-burner  should  be 
shaded  from  sight  by  a  piece  of  cardboard  or  the  palm  of  the  hand. 

6. — The  colour  and  length  of  the  cap  should  be  noted,  and  unless  the 
observer  is  an  expert  in  testing,  the  notes  made  in  the  mine  should  be 
compared  with  the  copy  of  standard  flame  tests  for  determining  the  per- 
centage of  gas  in  the  atmosphere. 

6. — The  standard  size  of  alcohol-flame  is  not  immediately  obtainable 
by  introducing  the  tester  when  the  lamp  is  cold ;  but  after  the  lamp  has 
been  burning  some  little  time  the  oil  vessel  becomes  warm,  due  to  the 
heat  from  the  oil-flame.  If  the  alcohol  tester  be  then  introduced  it  gives 
in  a  few  seconds  the  standard  height  of  13  millimetres  or  0*52  inch. 


The  President  enquired  if  the  lamp  could  be  used  to  test  for  testing 
in  the  presence  of  more  than  3  per  cent,  of  gas. 

Mr.  Stokes  said  that  it  was  unnecessary  to  use  the  alcohol-flame  for 
testing  8  per  cent,  and  upwards  of  gas,  the  oil-flame  was  intended  to  be 
used  for  all  ordinary  examinations  and  tests.  Pure  alcohol  was  used, 
costing  5d.  per  ounce,  and  the  amount  of  alcohol  contained  in  the 
receiver  would  make  about  120  tests,  and  should  bum  continuously  for 
about  4  hours.  The  cost  of  the  alcohol  for  that  number  of  tests  or  time 
would  be  about  2^d.  Methylated  spirit  could  be  used,  but  its  results 
were  much  inferior  to  those  given  by  pure  alcohol,  and  it  burnt  with  a 
slightly  yellow  flame. 


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DISCUSSION — SAFETY-LAMP  WITH  ALCOHOL-FLAME.  469 

Mr.  Alfred  Chambers  said  il'  the  test  by  the  alcohol-flame  be 
accepted  as  a  distinct  advance  on  the  system  hitherto  adopted  of  testing 
by  the  oil-flame  which  does  not  give  a  definite  result,  neither  in  the  stalls 
or  main  roads  (intakes  or  returns).  The  percentage  test  is  the  only 
satisfactory  and  scientific  one,  together  with  a  daily  report  of  the  per- 
centages of  gas  in  each  current ;  the  finding  of  gas  in  isolated  lodgments 
in  moderate  quantities  is  of  secondary  importance  to  a  knowledge  of  the 
difiusion  of  explosive  gas  at  different  points  in  the  mine  as  well  as  at  the 
points  of  the  confluence  of  currents  in  the  return  airways.  Taking  a 
prospective  view  of  the  alcohol  test,  the  ultimatum  must  be  a  primary 
one ;  the  alcohol  and  oil-lamp  must  be  duplicated  for  ordinary  convenience. 

Mr.  Stokes  said  that  the  tests  should  first  be  made  with  the  oil-flame, 
and  if  no  gas  indication  were  found  then  with  the  more  delicate  alcohol- 
flame.  The  lamp  would  principally  be  of  service  to  test  return  air- 
currents.  Such  fine  tests  had  arisen  lately  in  consequence  of  the  theory 
that  small  percentages  of  gas  mixed  with  coal-dust  were  inflammable. 
He  was  not  a  great  advocate  of  the  extreme  dangers  of  coal-dust,  but 
he  always  admitted  that  coal-dust  influenced  explosions  and  extended  them. 
He,  however,  had  not  yet  heard  of  an  explosion  of  coal-dust  taking  place 
in  a  mine  where  gas  had  never  been  found.  If  they  had  a  coal-dust-laden 
atmosphere  with  a  small  percentage  of  gas  it  might  become  an  explosive 
mixture.  The  alcohol-lamp  was  intended  to  assist  in  detecting  small 
percentages  of  gas  in  the  return  air-currents  of  a  mine.  When  the  deputy 
had  finished  his  examination  of  the  working-places,  he  should  test  the 
return  air-current  f  I'om  his  district.  He  should  first  test  the  air  with  the 
ordinary  oil-flame,  and  if  he  found  no  traces  of  gas  he  would  then  use  the 
alcohol-flame  and  nole  the  result.  The  alcohol-flame  was  not  intended 
for  primary  tests,  and  was  only  to  be  used  where  the  oil-flame  had  failed 
to  detect  gas. 

Mr.  Johnson  Pearson  asked  if  the  primary  test  with  the  oil-flame 
were  neglected,  and  the  alcohol-flame  used  for  testing  where  there  was  a 
higher  percentage  of  gas  than  8  per  cent.,  would  that  be  a  source  of 
danger  ? 

Mr.  Stokes  explained  that  the  Pieler  lamp  had  been  taken  as  a  basis 
for  his  lamp,  but  the  flame  caps  were  very  large  in  the  Pieler,  and  were  a 
great  source  of  danger  in  high  percentages  of  gas.  The  alcohol-flame  in 
his  lamp  was  very  small  and  he  knew  of  no  danger  in  testing  a  mixture 
containing  above  8  per  cent,  of  gas,  if  anyone  desired  to  use  it  for  such 
mixtures. 

Dr.  Clowes  was  gi'atified  to  know  that  his  test-chamber  had  once 


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470  DISCUSSION — SAFETT-LAMP  WITH   ALCOHOL-FLAME. 

more  proved  itself  of  value  in  carrying  out  a  series  of  tests  as  to  the 
delicacy  of  a  gas-testing  apparatus.  He  could  state,  after  a  careful 
examination  of  the  different  forms  of  apparatus  designed  for  the  same 
purpose,  that  his  test-chamber  was  the  most  simple,  efficient,  and  eco- 
nomical apparatus  available,  and  had  proved  itself  to  be  such  in  the  hands 
of  many  different  operators.  Reference  had  been  made  to  the  necessity 
of  testing  for  very  low  percentages  of  gas,  since  these  low  percentages, 
though  non-explosive  in  themselves,  became  explosive  in  the  presence  of 
coal-dust.  The  necessity  was  also  rightly  insisted  upon  of  detecting  and 
measuring  minute  proportions  of  gas,  in  order  to  gain  an  idea  of  the  rate 
at  which  gas  was  issuing  from  time  to  time ;  and  to  form  an  opinion  as 
to  sufficiency  of  the  ventilation  current,  and  of  its  distribution  to  meet 
the  variable  gas-issues.  The  tendency  at  present  was  to  insist  upon  the 
necessity  of  very  accurate  and  delicate  testing.  Mr.  Galloway  had  proved 
this  test  to  be  requisite  by  showing  that  less  than  1  per  cent,  of  gas  was 
explosive  in  the  presence  of  coal-dust.  Those  who  are  most  competent  to 
express  an  opinion  insist,  therefore,  that  a  testing  instrument  must  detect 
and  measure  accurately  a  percentage  of  gas  as  low  as  ^,  and  even  as  low 
as  ^.  An  apparatus  which  cannot  accomplish  this  result  cannot  be 
in  the  first  rank ;  and  it  cannot  afford  a  guarantee  of  safety,  or  properly 
gauge  the  condition  of  the  airways.  According  to  his  (Dr.  Clowes') 
experience  the  alcohol-flame,  as  applied  by  Mr.  Stokes,  was  by  no  means 
so  well  adapted  as  the  hydrogen-flame,  to  secure  delicate  and  accurate 
testing.  In  the  course  of  many  experiments  made  with  such  an  alcohol- 
flame,  it  was  found  to  be  variable,  and  could  not  rank  as  a  standard,  or 
give  standard  caps.  Further,  under  the  most  favourable  circumstances, 
1  per  cent,  of  fire-damp  was  the  lowest  percentage  indicated  by  this  flame, 
and  the  cap  produced  by  this  percentage  was  very  pale.  The  alcohol- 
flame,  although  it  was  much  paler  than  a  reduced  oil-flame,  diffused 
sufficient  light  throughout  the  lamp  to  interfere  with  the  observation  of 
pale  caps.  It  was  also  found  that  the  small  alcohol-flame  was  easily 
extinguished,  when  the  lamp  was  exposed  to  air-currents  such  as  it  was 
frequently  subjected  to  in  the  pit;  and  that  it  was  very  liable  to  be 
extinguished  by  impurity  in  the  air.  To  these  objections  may  peria^robe 
added  that  raised  by  many  practical  men,  that  volatile  spirit  shouldnot 
be  burnt  underground,-  an  objection  to  which,  however,  the  speakdj: 
attached  Uttle  weight,  if  proper  precautions  were  taken.  The  lamp-glass  \ 
itself  formed  a  serious  impediment  to  the  observation  of  pale  caps.  This  ' 
was  partly  owing  to  its  curved  surfaces,  but  was  largely  due  to  a  film 
which  settled  on  the  inside  of  the  glass,  after  the  flame  had  been  burning 


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i 


DISCUSSION — SA*FBTY  LAMP  WITH  ALCOHOL-PL AMB.  471 

for  a  short  time.  Any  observations  made  in  the  test-chamber  with  the 
naked  flame  were  therefore  illusory ;  since  the  flat  window  of  the  chamber 
exerted  no  such  hindrance,  as  the  lamp-glass  did,  to  the  passage  of  the 
Ught,  and  could  not  be  looked  upon  as  in  any  way  representing  the  lamp- 
glass.  And  of  course  the  use  of  a  naked  flame  for  testing  in  most  positions 
underground  was  quite  impossible  and  inadmissible.  He  (Dr.  Clowes) 
was  at  a  loss  to  explain  how  Mr.  Stokes  had  seen  and  measured  a  cap  given 
by  i  per  cent,  of  gas,  since  he  had  absolutely  failed  to  effect  this  with  such 
an  alcohol-flame,  when.the  lamp-glass  was  used.  The  employment  of  coal- 
gas  instead  of  methane  (flre-damp)  would  tend  to  make  the  cap  more 
visible ;  but  even  this  gas  had  failed  in  his  tests  to  show  a  cap.  A  series  of 
tests  in  the  test-chamber,  carried  out  in  the  presence  of  members  of  the 
Institution,  would  decide  this  difference  of  experience  of  himself  and 
of  iir.  Stokes.  The  introduction  of  the  broad  tube  connecting  the 
interior  of  the  lamp  with  the  air,  and  through  which  flame  could  pass  if  it 
were  open,  might  be  a  serious  source  of  danger  if  any  accident  occurred 
to  the  automatic  cap  while  the  lower  plug  was  out.  Mr.  James  Ashworth^s 
benzoline  lamp  afforded  a  good  light,  and  was  at  least  as  delicate  and 
accurate  in  its  indications  of  gas  as  the  lamp  proposed  by  Mr.  Stokes.  It 
had,  further,  the  advantage  of  greater  simplicity  of  construction  and  of 
greater  safety ;  and  burnt  one  flame  and  one  liquid  instead  of  two.  He 
was  at  a  loss  to  see  in  what  respect  Mr.  Stokes  could  claim  that  it  should 
be  replaced  by  the  alcohol-lamp.  According  to  his  (Dr.  Clowes')  experi- 
ence, neither  lamp  stood  in  the  first  rank  as  a  detector  and  measurer  of 
gas,  either  for  accuracy  or  delicacy.  Surely,  in  the  light  of  the  present 
knowledge  as  to  the  requisites  for  securing  the  safety  of  the  mine,  the 
most  delicate  and  accurate  practical  gas-testing  apparatus  was  the  one  to 
be  preferred. 

Mr.  Stokes  said  he  gave  Dr.  Clowes  every  credit  for  his  test-chamber. 
Had  it  not  been  for  that  apparatus  for  mixing  small  percentages  of  gas 
and  air  they  would  not  have  heard  him  (Mr.  Stokes)  or  seen  the  lamp  there 
that  day.  He  did  not  know — and  this  he  had  said  in  his  paper — any 
mixing  apparatus  so  scientifically  useful,  so  neat,  so  cheap,  or  so  easy  of 
manipulation  as  that  designed,  by  Dr.  Clowes,  who  v^ry  kindly  offered  to 
lend  him  the  useof  one  at  the  Nottingham  University  College,  but  he 
could  not  accept  this  kindness  because  he  had  a  lamp  of  his  own.  His 
tests  had,  however,  been  made  in  a  similar  apparatus  with  the  alcohol- 
flame  inside  the  safety-lamp  and  therefore  inside  the  glass. 

Mr.  H.  Lewis  hoped  that  discussion  would  be  adjourned  until  they 
had  read  the  paper  in  the  Transactions.    The  lamp  struck  him  as  being  a 


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472  DISCUSSION  — SAFETY-LAMP  WITH  ALCOHOL-FLAME. 

safe  one,  but  he  thought  the  extmguifiher  might  be  unsafe,  though  Mr. 
Stokes  had  assured  them  it  was  not  a  weak  point. 

The  President  said  it  was  very  desirable  to  know  the  exact  percent- 
ages of  gas  in  the  various  returns  of  a  pit.  He  agreed  with  Mr.  Lewis 
that  the  discussion  of  the  paper  should  be  adjourned. 

Dr.  Clowes  said  that,  in  his  experiments  with  hydrogen  and  with 
alcohol,  he  found  that  the  gas  caps  over  the  flame  of  the  former  were  more 
clearly  visible  than  those  over  an  alcohol-flame. 

The  President  moved  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Stokes  for  his  paper, 
and  the  discussion  was  adjourned. 


Mr.  H.  R.  Hewitt  (Derby)  wrote  that  he  had  been  present  on  several 
occasions  during  the  experiments  with  this  lamp,  and  could  fully  endorse 
the  statements  made  by  Mr.  Stokes  with  regard  to  it.  With  1  and  2 
per  cent,  of  fire-damp,  the  caps  were  plainly  visible,  and  the  test  was  highly 
successful  for  these  percentages.  With  ^  per  cent.,  the  cap  was  visible 
when  the  lamp  was  placed  in  the  gas  in  a  naked  condition,  but  it  was 
highly  probable  that  it  would  be  distinguished  with  difficulty  when  seen 
through  the  lamp  in  its  working  condition.  The  lamp-glass  was,  he 
thought,  of  the  best  possible  shape  to  ensure  good  results,  but  its  great 
thickness  (which  was  however  unavoidable)  was  a  drawback  to  the 
approximation  of  small  percentages.  The  Chesneau  fire-damp  indicator 
appeared  to  be  highly  complicated,  and  required  some  considerable  amount 
of  practical  acquaintance  before  it  could  be  used  with  any  degree  of  accu- 
racy.*  Mr.  Stokes'  lamp  and  the  Chesneau  indicator  were  fed  with 
alcohol,  and  it  must  be  remembered  that  lamps  fed  in  tliat  way  had  a 
greater  tendency  to  rust  and  injui'e  the  gauze  than  lamps  fed  with  either 
hydrogen  or  colza  oil.  The  indications  of  gas  in  the  Chesneau  detector  are 
seen  through  a  thin  plate  of  mica,  which  must  be  disadvantageous  to  an 
accurate  indication.  During  the  experiments  ordinary  lighting  gas  as 
supplied  by  the  Derby  Gas  Light  and  Coke  Company  was  used  of  the 
following  composition : — 


Per  Cent, 

Olefiant  gas  and  gases 

of  the  olefiant  series  ... 

6-0 

Marsh  gas 

.*•        ••• 

...       34-6 

Hydrogen 

...        ... 

...      46-0 

Carbonic  oxide    ... 

1     .•• 

7-0 

Carbonic  acid 

...        ...        ...        ... 

3-6 

Nitrogen 



2-6 

Oxygen     

...        ... 

0-6 
100-0 

♦  Traru,  Fed.  Imt^y  vol.  !▼.,  page  617. 

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DISCUSSION — SAFETY-LAMP  WITH  ALCOHOL-FLAME.  473 

Acoording  to  Sir  L.  Playfair  ordinary  inflammable  gas  as  found  in  the 
Jarrow  colliery  was  composed  as  follows : — 

Percent 

Marsh  gas  83-1 

Nitrogen 14-2 

Oxygen 0*6 

Carbonic  acid      2*1 


100-0 

It  will  be  observed  that  there  was  a  considerable  diBPerence  in  the  com- 
position of  the  gas  used  and  natural  gas,  and  the  question  appeared  to  be, 
were  the  experiments  made  under  these  conditions  as  reliable  as  they 
would  have  been  had  fire-damp  been  used  ?  Respecting  this  Mr.  Ches- 
neau  says  with  regard  to  his  own  experiments : — 

To  exactly  fulfil  the  conditions  which  occur  in  practice  it  would  have  been 
better  to  have  experimented  with  natural  fire-damp,  but  when  this  cannot  be 
obtained  I  see  no  reason  why  methane  should  be  employed,  as  fire-damp  is  not  pure 
methane.  Sometimes  the  hydrogen  which  it  contains  makes  it  more  inflam- 
mable than  methane,  while  rendered  impure  by  carbonic  acid  and  nitrogen  it  loses 
much  of  its  sensitiveness;  besides  it  is  proved  that  with  lighting  gas  of  medium 
composition  mixtures  are  obtained,  the  explosibility  of  which  is  not  less  than  that 
of  most  samples  of  fire-damp.  Moreover,  it  has  been  proved  that  air  containing  10*5 
per  cent,  of  this  gas  is  practically  as  dangerous  as  the  most  explosive  mixture  of  fire- 
damp and  air. 

So  that  it  naight  be  concluded  that  experiments  made  with  ordinary 
illuminating  gas  were  as  nearly  accurate  as  possible,  and  were  sufficiently 
reUable  to  guide  us  in  making  examinations  of  underground  working- 
places  and  return  airways  for  minute  percentages  of  inflammable  gas. 
He  would  like  to  know  if  Mr.  Stokes  had  tried  this  lamp  in  a  dust-laden 
atmosphere  containing  fire-damp,  as  he  understood  that  Prof.  Clowes' 
lamp  was  of  little  use  under  these  circumstances  ?  If  this  lamp  overcame 
the  difficulty  of  testing  the  atmosphere  of  roads  impregnated  with  coal- 
dust  it  would  be  of  very  great  importance.  The  French  Commission  on 
Explosives  stated  that  "laboratory  experiments  have  not  permitted  of 
noticing  any  appreciable  difference  in  the  inflammability  of  mixtures  con- 
taining more  or  less  humidity,"  but  he  would  like  to  know  if  the  tempera- 
ture of  fire-damp  exposed  to  this  lamp  affected  the  flame  cap  in  any  way, 
and  if  so  to  what  extent  ? 


Mr.  Stokbs  read  the  following  paper  on  "An  Improved  Water- 
gauge":— 


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474  AN  IMPROVED  WATEB-GAUGE. 


AN  IMPROVED  WATER-GAUGE. 


By  a.  H.  stokes. 

Many  members  of  this  Institution  have,  no  doubt,  frequently  met  with' 
difficulty  in  reading  the  amount  of  water-gauge  due  to  fan  or  furnace 
ventilation,  and  especially  where  the  upcast  shaft  is  used  for  winding 
coal.  The  opening  and  shutting  of  the  pit-top,  and  the  running  of  the 
cages  cause  a  vibratory  motion  of  the  water  in  the  glass  tube  which 
renders  it  difficult  to  strike  the  mean  height,  and  this  difficulty  is  further 
increased  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  difference  in  the  water-level,  the 
eye  having  occasionally  to  travel  8  to  4  inches,  and  to  watch  the 
oscillations  in  both  legs  of  the  water-gauge  simultaneously,  and  strain 
itself  to  judge  the  mean  of  the  oscillations.  The  difficulty  is  not  in  any 
way  diminished  by  the  frequent  necessity  of  using  a  safety-lamp,  and  of 
reading  the  water-gauge  in  semi-darkness. 

It  was  thought  that  by  contracting  the  bend  of  the  glass  tube,  which 
forms  the  legs  of  the  water-gauge,  and  reducing  the  connexion  or  passage 
for  water  between  the  tubes,  the  water-column  would  be  steadied,  and 
thus  the  oscillations  due  to  varying  pressures  be  avoided,  or  at  least  so 
reduced  that  the  eye  would  easily  strike  the  mean.  The  writer  believes 
that  this  idea  was  due  to  Mr.  John  Daglish,  who  considerably  improved 
the  water-gauge,  as  first  designed  by  Dr.  Lind.  There  still  appeared  an 
opening  for  further  improvements,  and  the  small  difficulties  met  with  in 
the  use  and  correct  reading  of  the  instrument  having  been  placed  by  the 
writer  before  Mr.  Henry  Davis,  of  Derby,  he  has  made  a  water-gauge 
which  appears  to  meet  inany  of  the  objections  to  the  old  description  of 
instrument,  and  which  forms  the  subject  of  this  paper. 

DescripHan. — The  water-gauge  (Figs.  1  and  2)  consists  of  two  parallel 
glass  tubes  inserted  into  a  hollow  brass  pedestal  at  the  bottom  with  a  con-^ 
nexion  or  water  passage  between  the  tubes.  In  the  centre  of  the  brass, 
pedestal  is  a  tap  B  with  a  small  hole  or  passage  through  it ;  this  tap  takes 
the  place  of  the  reduced  bend  in  the  Daglish  form  of  water-gauge.  It  is 
difficult  to  obtain  a  continuous  glass  tube  having  a  U -shape  with  a  small 
hole  or  contraction  of  uniform  size  in  the  bend,  but  there  is  no  difficulty  in 
making  or  retaining  the  hole  in  the  brass  tap  of  a  standard  uniform  size. 


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AN  IMPROVED   WATBR-GAUGB. 


476 


The  bole  through  the  tap  forming  the  water  connexion  between  the 
glass  tubes  is  so  small  that  the  oscillations  due  to  varying  pressure  are 
considerably  less  than  in  the  DagUsh  form  of  water-gauge.  The 
throttling  of  the  passage  whilst  offering  a  resistance  to  quick  vibratory 
motions,  still  affords  a  suflSciently  free  connexion  between  the  two 
columns  of  water. 

Registering  the  Water-gauge, — It  is  no  unusual  occurrence  for  two 
persons  reading  the  height  of  water-gauge  to  differ  in  their  reading, 
especially  if  the  water-gauge  be 
fixed  in  a  dark  fan-drift,  and 
read  by  the  light  of  a  safety- 
lamp.  With  the  improved 
water-gauge,  the  height  can  be 
registered  by  simply  turning  the 
brass  tap  B  when  the  connexion 
between  the  tubes  is  cut;  and 
the  height  of  water  due  to  the 
ventilating  power  is  fixed  until 
the  tap  is  re-opened,  and  the 
connexion  again  made.  Thus 
when  the  water-gauge  measure- 
ment is  required  in  a  fan-drift 
or  other  dark  or  inconvenient 
place,  the  tap  closes  the  passage 
between  the  tubes  and  registers 
the  difference  between  the  two 
columns  of  water ;  afterwards 
the  water-gauge  is  brought  out 
to  daylight,  where  an  opportunity  is  afforded  to  any  number  of  persons  of 
reading  the  height  with  the  best  of  light,  and  of  agreeing  upon  the 
measurement  to  be  recorded.  The  closing  of  the  connexion  and  re- 
gistering of  the  water-column  may  also  be  used  for  ascertaining  the 
maximum  and  minimum  oscillations  of  the  water-gauge  due  to  the  doors 
at  the  top  of  the  upcast  pit  being  opened  when  winding ;  the  closing  of 
the  tap  enabling  the  observer  to  make  numerous  records  that  can  be  read 
without  haste  and  in  a  good  light;  while  such  observations  with  the 
Daglish  form  of  water-gauge  would  have  to  depend  upon  the  quickness 
of  the  eye,  and  be  made  frequently  in  very  poor  light. 

Scale. — In  the  Daglish  description  of  water-gauge,  the  scale  was 
placed  in  front  of  the  glass  tubes  and  partly  covering  the  tubes  on  either 


Fio.  I. 


vol*.  V.- 


31 


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476  AN   IMPROVBD   WATBR-aAUGE. 

side.  This  rendered  it  difficult  to  correctly  ascertain  the  height  of  water 
owing  to  the  concave  form  of  the  surface  of  the  liquid  in  the  tube  due  to 
capillarity.  In  the  improved  water-gauge  the  scale  is  placed  at  the  back 
and  for  the  full  width  of  both  tubes,  and  thus  each  black-division  line  of 
the  scale  cuts  directly  across  each  tube,  and  in  this  way  allows  the  sight 
to  observe  the  mean  height  across  the  whole  width  of  the  water-surface  in 
the  tubes.  In  ascertaining  the  line  of  water-surface  in  either  tube,  the 
gauge  should  always  be  held  level  with  the  line  of  sight  of  the  observer. 
In  making  fan  experiments,  or  where  great  accuracy  of  reading  is 
required,  the  observer  may  use  a  magnifying  glass  to  ascertain  the  water- 
level  in  relation  to  the  divisions  upon  the  scale. 

Filling  the  Water-gaugs. — The  general  mode  of  charging  the  Daglish 
water-gauge  with  water  is  to  turn  it  on  one  side,  and  pour  the  water 
through  the  small  hole  of  the  brass  connexion.  Those  who  have  made 
this  operation  will  know  that  it  is  somewhat  inconvenient  to  pour  water 
down  a  small  hole  from  which  air  is  issuing.  In  the  improved  water- 
gauge  the  top  of  one  tube  is  closed  with  a  brass  cap,  having  a  small  hole 
in  the  top.  When  required  to  be  charged  with  water,  the  cap  A  is 
unscrewed  and  the  water  is  poured  down  the  glass  tube  to  the  required 
height,  whilst  the  gauge  is  held  in  a  vertical  position.  This  operation 
is  done  with  ease,  and  then  the  brass  cap  is  screwed  on  and  the  gauge  is 
ready  for  use, 

QlasB  Tubes. — In  the  old  water-gauge  the  tubes  were  all  in  one  piece, 
and  therefore  the  breakage  of  one  necessitated  the  destruction  of  the 
other.  In  the  improved  water-gauge  the  tubes  are  quite  distinct,  and 
being  made  of  parallel  glass  tubing  one  or  both  may  easily  be  renewed. 

Advantages, — The  writer  considers  that  the  improved  water-gauge  has 
the  following  advantages  : — 

1.  Simplicity  of  construction  and  ease  of  repairs. 

2.  Registration  of  the  water-gauge  by  means  of  a  tap  between  the 

tubes. 
8.  Easy  mode  of  charging  with  water. 
4.  Scale  at  the  back  and  extending  the  full  width  of  the  tubes. 


The  President  moved  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Stokes  for  his  paper, 
which  was  approved,  and  the  meeting  terminated. 


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GRASSMOOB  OOLLIEBIES.  477 

The  following  notes  reoord  some  of  the  features  of  interest  seen  by 
members  at  the  Grassmoor  collieries,  which  were,  by  kind  permission  of 
the  owners,  visited  before  the  Annual  (Jeneral  Meeting,  held  on  July  Ist, 
1893  :— 

GRASSMOOR  COLLIERIES. 

The  Grassmoor  collieries  are  situated  on  the  Chesterfield  and  Mans- 
field turnpike  road,  and  are  three  miles  distant  from  Chesterfield  station, 
proceeding  in  a  south-easterly  direction. 

They  are  connected  to  the  Midland  main  line  by  the  Pilsley  branch, 
and  to  the  Manchester,  Sheffield,  and  Lincolnshire  Railway  by  the  new 
Chesterfield-to-Heath  branch. 

There  are  four  drawing  shafts,  three  of  which  are  downcast  and  one 
upcast. 

No.  1  Pit. 

The  No.  1  pit,  16  feet  in  diameter,  is  1 ,350  feet  deep  to  the  black  shale 
seam.  The  winding  engine  has  two  cylinders,  30  inches  in  diameter  and 
6  feet  stroke,  fitted  with  the  Owen  &  Oliver  steam  reversing-gear,  and 
a  parallel  drum,  18  feet  in  diameter,  fitted  with  a  steam  brake  as  well  as 
a  foot  brake.  Double-decked  cages  are  used  with  two  tubs  on  each  deck. 
The  head-gear  is  made  of  wood,  and  the  pit-bank  is  enclosed,  as  it  is 
connected  with  the  fan-drift  and  forms  the  upcast  shaft. 

The  whole  of  the  coal  is  at  present  banked  on  the  bottom  deck,  from 
whence  it  is  tipped  on  to  the  picking-band,  which  is  160  feet  long  and 
4  feet  wide  where  the  dirt  is  picked  out ;  and  all  the  coal  is  delivered  at  the 
far  end  into  trucks.  Upon  this  belt,  travelling  at  70  feet  per  minute, 
600  tons  of  coal  and  slack  can  be  dealt  with  in  8^  hours. 

An  engine,  with  two  cylinders,  each  16  inches  in  diameter,  worked  by 
compressed  air,  hauls  the  coal  from  the  dips  by  means  of  a  single  rope, 
the  empty  tubs  drawing  the  rope  in-bye  on  the  return  journey. 

There  are  eight  boilers,  working  at  100  lbs.  pressure,  supplying  steam 
to  the  winding  engine,  fan  engine.  No.  8  engine,  two  donkey  pumps,  and 
the  motive  power  for  driving  Nos.  1  and  2  picking  bands. 

No.  2  Pit. 

The  No.  2  pit  is  10  feet  in  diameter,  and  810  feet  deep  to  the 
main  soft  seam.  The  winding  engine  has  two  horizontal  cylinders, 
each  22  inches  in  diameter,  4  feet  stroke,  fitted  with  hand  gear,  and  a 
parallel  drum,  12  feet  in  diameter,  fitted  with  foot  brake.    Double-decked 


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478  aBASSMOOB  CX)LIiIEBIBS. 

d^es  are  used,  with  one  tnb  on  each  deck.  Steam  is  sapplied  from  two 
boilers  working  np  to  70  lbs.  pressure.  The  head-gear  is  of  wood,  the 
pit  bank  is  covered,  and  the  pit  acts  as  a  downcast. 

The  coal  is  banked  on  both  decks,  and  is  taken  by  chain  conveyors  to 
the  bank  of  the  picking-band  (which  consists  of  two  belts) ;  where  it  is 
weighed  and  tipped  on  to  the  picking-band,  the  dirt  being  here  picked 
out,  the  coal  going  forward  to  the  end  of  the  belts,  where  it  is  delivered 
into  tracks.    The  belts  travel  at  a  speed  of  45  feet  per  minnte. 

No.  8  Pit. 

No.  8  pit  is  10  feet  in  diameter,  and  810  feet  deep  to  the  main  soft 
seam.  The  horizontal  winding  engine  has  two  cylinders,  each  28  inches  in 
diameter  and  4  feet  6  inches  stroke,  is  fitted  with  hand  gear,  and  a  parallel 
drum,  12  feet  in  diameter,  fitted  with  foot-brake,  works  a  double-decked 
cage  with  one  tub  on  each  deck  ;  a  second  drum  is  also  used,  to  which  is 
attached  a  balance  rope,  which  runs  in  the  shaft  and  is  boxed  off.  The 
head-gear  is  of  wood,  the  pit  bank  is  open,  and  the  pit  acts  both  as  a 
downcast  and  a  pumping  shaft. 

The  coal  is  banked  on  the  ground  level,  and  is  taken  by  a  chain 
conveyor  up  an  incline  to  the  old  No.  2  pit  bank,  where  it  is  weighed 
and  tipped  on  to  fixed  screens,  and  thence  filled  into  trucks. 

Steam  is  supplied  from  the  boilers  at  No.  1  pit. 

No.  4  Pit. 

The  No.  4  pit  or  Blackshale  pit  is  15  feet  in  diameter,  and  1,850  feet 
deep  to  the  black  shale  seam.  The  horizontal  winding-engine  has  two 
cylinders,  each  86  inches  in  diameter  and  6  feet  stroke,  fitted  with  the 
Owen  &  Oliver  steam  reversing-gear,  and  a  parallel  drum  21  feet  6  inches 
in  diameter  fitted  with  a  steam  brake,  works  double-decked  cages  with  two 
tubs  on  each  deck.  The  head-gear  is  of  iron,  the  pit  bank  is  covered,  the 
pit  being  used  as  a  downcast.  The  whole  of  the  coal  is  at  present  banked 
at  the  bottom  deck  level  and  passes  over  fixed  screens  into  trucks.  The 
whole  of  the  slack  produced  is  carried  by  Ley  pan  conveyors  to  the 
coal-washing  machinery 

Steam  is  supplied  from  ten  boilers  working  up  to  80  lbs.  pressure.  An 
engine  with  two  cylinders  14  inches  in  diameter  fitted  with  Fisher  & 
Walker  rope-wheels  and  clutches  works  three  endless-ropes,  one  reaching 
2,000  yards  in-bye.  Fisher  clips  are  in  use,  the  ropes  passing  under  the 
boxes. 


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OBASSHOOB  GOLLISBlfiS.  479 

Fan  Engine. 

A  Gnibal  £ui,  86  feet  in  diameter  and  12  feet  wide,  ventilates  the 
whole  of  the  seams,  exhausting  about  260,000  cubic  feet  of  air  per  minute 
under  a  water-gauge  of  27  inches,  and  is  now  running  at  54  revolutions  per 
minute.  The  fan  is  driven  by  a  horizontal  tandem  compound  condensing 
engine  of  200  indicated  horse-power,  coupled  direct  to  the  fan  shaft.  The 
fan  is  connected  to  the  upcast  or  No.  1  pit  by  a  drift.  Steam  is  supplied 
from  the  boilers  at  No.  1  pit. 

AlB-OOHPBESSOBS. 

The  air-compressing  engine  has  two  horizontal  air-cylinders,  each  30 
inches  in  diameter,  placed  behind  the  steam  cylinders  which  are  26  inches 
in  diameter.  The  air  is  compressed  to  50  lbs.  per  square  inch  and 
supplied  to  the  underground  engines  by  means  of  a  pipe  12  inches  in 
diameter  taken  down  No.  4  pit,  branch  pipes  being  connected  at  the 
various  seams  as  required.  It  is  worked  by  steam  from  the  boilers  at  No. 
4  pit. 

OOKB-OVBNB. 

The  coal  is  elevated,  washed,  and  crushed,  after  which  it  passes  to  the 
180  ovens,  all  of  beehive  form.  The  whole  of  the  machinery  is  driven  by 
an  engine  with  two  cylinders  on  one  shaft,  one  of  which  is  20  inches  in 
diameter  and  8  feet  stroke,  and  the  other  18  inches  diameter  and  8  feet 
stroke.    The  steam  is  supplied  from  the  boilers  at  No.  4  pit. 

Bbick-wobks. 

There  are  two  Schofield  machines  and  two  Fawcett  presses,  producing 
semi-plastic  bricks,  which  are  burnt  in  ordinary  open-topped  kilns.  The 
two  machines  make  from  12,000  to  15,000  bricks  per  day  of  8^  hours. 

Qas-wobks. 

The  gas-works  produce  gas  for  consumption  on  the  works,  all  the  pits 
and  the  surface  works  being  supplied.  There  are  three  benches  of  retorts, 
the  gas-holder,  40  feet  in  diameter,  having  two  12  feet  lifts.  The  works 
are  fitted  with  scrubbers,  washers,  condensers,  exhauster,  and  purifiers,  etc. 

Lamp-oabin. 
The  lamp-cabin  provides  accommodation  for  2,000  Marsaut  lamps, 
which  belong  to  the  company,  and  are  cleaned,  lighted,  locked  with  lead- 
locks,  and  tested  by  gas  before  delivery  to  the  workmen.    The  cleaning  is 
almost  entirely  done  by  machinery.    The  number  of  hands  required  to 


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480  MEMOIRS  OF  DECEASED  MEMBERS. 

take  in,  clean,  and  serve  out  the  2,000  lamps  is  eighteen  men  and  boys, 
and  one  man  and  two  boys  for  repairs.  The  motive  power  is  supplied  by 
a  2  horse-power  gas  engine. 

Pumping  Engine. 

A  Cornish  engine  with  a  cylinder  5  feet  in  diameter  and  7  feet  stroke, 
works  seven  pumps  varying  from  6  to  16  inches  in  diameter. 

Fitting  Shops,  Etc. 
The  fitting  shops  are  supplied  with  the  necessary  lathes  and  tools 
requisite  for  colliery  work.     In  the  smith's  shop  are  two  steam  hammers, 
one  for  light,  and  the  other  for  heavy  work ;  the  former  is  novel  in  structure 
and  most  useful. 

MEMOIRS  OF  DECEASED  MEMBERS. 

Edmund  Bromley  was  bom  on  March  22nd,  1808,  at  Pentrich, 
Derbyshire.  He  served  an  apprenticeship  with  the  Butterley  Company, 
and  was  successively  employed  by  the  following  firms  of  machine 
makers : — Messrs.  Busk,  Keen  &  Co.,  London  ;  Messrs.  Clarke  &  Sons, 
Manchester ;  and  Messrs.  Cochrane  &  Higgins,  Salford.  In  1847  he  was 
engaged  by  Messrs.  Alfred  &  Edmund  Barnes  at  the  Grassmoor 
collieries,  and  remained  there  as  chief  engineer  for  the  succeeding  41 
years,  during  which  the  collieries  developed  into  a  concern  of  the  first 
magnitude. 

He  was  an  original  promoter  of  the  Chesterfield  and  Derbyshire 
Institute  of  Engineers,  and  became  its  treasurer  in  1871,  and  so  continued 
for  eighteen  years,  until  increasing  infirmities  caused  his  i*etirement  from 
that  office,  when  he  was  made  an  honorary  member. 

He  contributed  the  first  paper  published  by  the  Institute  "  On  Carrett, 
Marshall  &  Co.'s  Hydraulic  Pumping  Engine,  Draining  Dip  Workings  at 
Grassmoor  Colliery ;  with  introductory  Notices  of  other  Hydraulic 
Engines.^'  He  subsequently  contributed  a  paper  **0n  Rainfall,"  contain- 
ing the  result  of  his  own  daily  observations  together  with  more  general 
matter.  He  was  a  most  regular  attendant  at  the  Council  afi  well  as  the 
General  Meetings,  and  for  several  years  a  Vice-President. 

On  May  dOth,  1888,  he  was  seized  with  paralysis,  and  although  he 
partly  regained  the  use  of  his  limbs,  his  brain  never  recovered  from  the 
shock.  He,  however,  survived  for  four  years,  and  died  at  Norton,  near 
Sheffield,  on  May  13th,  1892,  his  remains  being  brought,  for  interment,  to 
Haaland  churchyard. 


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MEMOIItS  OF  DECfiASED   MEMBEHB.  481 

Francis  Holt  was  bom  at  Todmorden,  in  Yorkshire,  on  December 
5th,  1826.  He  served  his  apprenticeship  with  Messrs.  Sharp,  Stewart  & 
Co.,  of  Manchester,  and  remained  with  them  for  some  time  as  foreman. 
He  was  afterwards  employed  at  Woolwich  dockyard  ;  and  in  Italy  in  con- 
nexion with  the  construction  of  a  railway  at  Pisa.  In  consequence  of  the 
stoppage  of  the  latter  undertaking  through  financial  difficulties,  he 
returned  to  England  and  assumed,  for  a  year  and  a  half,  the  charge  of 
the  locomotive  department  of  the  South  Staffordshire  railway  at  Walsall. 
Relinquishing  this  appointment  he  went  out  to  India  to  erect  a  cotton- 
mill  for  the  Oriental  Spinning  and  Weaving  Company,  at  Bombay,  where 
he  remained  for  three  years.  He  next  accepted  the  position  of  manager 
at  Messrs.  Beyer,  Peacock  &  Co^s.  locomotive  works,  at  Gorton,  near 
Manchester,  which  he  held  for  some  years,  and  was  afterwards  engaged 
as  manager  by  Messrs.  Hawthorn  &  Co.,  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

In  1874,  he  undertook  the  management  of  the  Midland  Railway 
Co.'s  locomotive  works,  at  Derby,  where  he  remained  up  to  the  time  of 
his  death.  During  his  connexion  with  these  works,  important  extensions 
took  place,  in  which  Mr.  Holt  bore  a  conspicuous  part.  He  was  well 
known  in  the  railway  and  engineering  world  as  a  man  of  large  and  varied 
experience,  and  for  indomitable  perseverance  in  whatever  he  undertook. 
He  was  the  inventor  of  an  arrangement  for  water,  steam,  and  air-pipe 
connexions  between  locomotive  engines  and  tenders,  also  for  securing  and 
finishing  the  eccentrics  on  crank-shafts,  and  he,  along  with  Mr.  Gresham 
of  Manchester,  invented  an  arrangement  for  applying  sand  or  other  sub- 
stances to  prevent  the  slipping  of  the  driving  wheels  of  locomotives. 

He  became  a  member  of  the  Chesterfield  and  Derbyshire  Institute  of 
Engineers  on  July  14th,  1879,  the  date  of  the  opening  of  the  Stephenson 
Memorial  Hall,  and  was  for  several  years  a  member  of  the  Council,  serv- 
ing on  committees  and  taking  an  active  interest  in  its  proceedings.  He 
died  at  Spondon,  near  Derby,  on  January  7th,  1893,  and  was  interred  at 
Spondon  cemetery. 

Frederick  Samuel  Marsh  was  bom  in  1857  at  Nottingham,  and 
was  the  second  son  of  Mr.  Samuel  Marsh,  manager  of  the  Clifton  col- 
lieries of  that  town.  He  was  a  pupil  with  Mr.  George  Fowler,  and, 
after  the  usual  course  of  training,  became  resident  manager  for  Messrs. 
Morris  and  Shaw,  at  the  Birch  Coppice  collieries,  near  Tamworth, 
which  post  he  held  until  his  death.  He  encountered  the  usual  difficulties 
which  trouble  a  colliery  manager  with  a  very  fair  share  of  success.  He 
became  a  member  of  the  Chesterfield  and  Derbyshire  Institute  of  Engin- 


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482  MEMOms  OF  DECEASED  MEMBERS. 

eers  on  October  8tb,  1881.  He  contributed  a  paper  on  ^^  Germans,*'  and 
another,  entitled  "  One  Use  for  the  Telephone."  In  February,  1888,  he 
was  presented  with  the  Albert  bronze  medal  for  his  assistance  in  the 
work  of  rescuing  life  at  the  Baddesley  colliery  after  an  explosion,  which 
occurred  May  2nd,  1882.  His  discharge  of  difficult  duties  and  great 
conscientiousness  endeared  him  to  all  those  people  amongst  whom  his  life 
was  spent,  and  there  was  a  striking  manifestation  at  the  time  of  his 
death  of  the  strong  affection  and  respect  with  which  he  was  regarded 
by  those  connected  with  the  Birch  Coppice  collieries.  An  attack  of 
pneumonia  cut  short  a  career  which  the  quiet  observance  of  duty  made 
honourable  and  useful,  on  July  25th,  1892,  at  the  comparatively  early 
age  of  85. 

Alfred  Woodiwiss,  the  second  son  of  Sir  Abraham  Woodiwiss,  was 
bom  in  1855,  and  received  his  education  at  Ockbrook,  near  Derby.  He 
was  exceedingly  popular  on  account  of  his  numerous  good  qualities, 
which  endeared  him  to  a  large  number  of  friends,  but,  being  of  a  retiring 
disposition,  he  repeatedly  declined  invitations  to  take  part  in  local  public 
offices.  He  was,  however,  an  able  and  clever  man  of  business,  and  many 
years  ago  was  employed  by  his  father  in  a  responsible  position  in  con- 
nexion with  some  of  the  great  railway  enterprises  with  which  the  late  Sir 
Abraham  Woodiwiss  was  identified.  He  was  a  considerable  traveller  and 
had  made  a  voyage  round  the  world.  He  and  his  father,  the  latter  being 
then  mayor  of  Derby,  joined  the  Chesterfield  and  Derbyshire  Institute 
of  Engineers  on  August  18th,  1881. 

He  fell  a  victim  to  typhus  fever  and  pneumonia,  his  death,  at  the  age 
of  87  years,  taking  place  at  his  residence,  Belair,  Birkdale,  on  November 
18th,  1892. 


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TRAKSA0TI0N8.  488 


MIDLAND  INSTITUTE  OF  MINING,  CIVIL,  AND 
MECHANICAL  ENGINEERS. 


ANNUAL  GENERAL  MEETING, 
Held  at  Babkblet,  July  26tH)  1893. 


Mb.  W.  B.  GARPORTH,  Pbbsidsnt,  in  the  Chaib. 


The  minates  of  the  last  meeting  were  read  and  confirmed. 


The  following  gentlemen  were  elected  Members,  having  been  previously 
nominated : — 

Mr.  Fbancis  Ebnest  Chambebs,  Mining  Student,  Tinsley  Colliery,  Sheffield. 
Mr.  John  James  Pattison,  Colliery  Manager,  Morley  West  End  Colliery, 

Batley. 
Mr.  Wm.  Settle,  Mining  Engineer,  Darcy  Lever,  Bolton. 
Mr.  John  Smith,  Mining  Engineer,  Bickersbaw  Collieries,  Leigh. 
Mr.  W.  Wilde,  Colliery  Manager,  Darfield  Main  Colliery,  Bamsley. 
Mr.  Gut  Wood,  Commercial  Manager,  Darfield  Main  Colliery,  Bamsley. 


Mr.  W.  A.  Eitson  and  Mr.  B.  TurnbuU  were  appointed  scrutineers  of 
the  voting  papers  for  the  election  of  officers  for  the  year  1898-94,  and 
of  the  balloting  lists  for  representatives  on  the  Council  of  the  Federated 
Institution  of  Engineers  for  the  year  1898-94. 


The  Secretary  (Mr.  T.  W.  H.  Mitchell)  read  the  Annual  Report  of 
the  Council  as  follows  : — 


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484  AimUAL  REPOBT  OP  THE  COUNCIL. 


THE  COUNCIL'S  ANNUAL  REPORT. 

The  Council  have  pleasure  in  handing  the  members  of  the  Institute 
their  report  on  the  work  of  the  past  year. 

The  number  of  members  on  the  books  of  the  Institute  at  the  end  of 
the  year  was  8  Life  Members,  18  Honorary  Members,  and  190  Ordinary 
Members.    This  is  an  increase  of  18  in  the  number  of  Ordinary  Members. 

The  arrears  of  subscriptions  during  the  past  year  are  £21  18s.,  all  of 
which  the  Council  consider  good  and  hope  that  the  amount  will  be  paid 
during  the  current  year. 

From  the  statement  of  accounts  which  have  been  duly  audited,  it 
will  be  seen  that  there  is  a  balance  in  hand  of  £26  2s.  7d.,  after  paying 
all  liabilities  against  the  Institute.  This  must  be  considered  very  satis- 
factory when  it  is  remembered  that  the  Institute  has  been  unexpectedly 
called  upon  by  the  Federated  Institution  of  Mining  Engineers  to  con- 
tribute the  sum  of  £25  Is.  to  meet  the  deficiency  on  the  first  three  years' 
working  of  that  Institution. 

A  very  successful  joint  meeting  with  the  Chesterfield  Institution  was 
held  at  SheflBeld  in  April,  when  papers  were  read  on  a  "Combined 
Centre-line  Apparatus,"  by  Mr.  W.  Foulstone,  and  a  description  of  the 
"  Arrangements  for  Sinking  to  the  Whinmoor  Seam  from  the  Silkstone 
Seam  at  the  Tankersley  Collieries,"  by  Mr.  W.  Hoole  Chambers. 

Through  the  kindness  of  the  proprietors  and  managers  of  the  Cadeby 
and  Rotherham  Main  Collieries  the  members  of  the  two  institutes  had 
an  opportunity  of  visiting  those  important  collieries. 

The  Council  take  the  opportunity  of  thanking  the  owners  and 
managers  of  collieries  for  their  kindness  in  allowing  inspections  of  their 
mines  and  works,  and  consider  that  the  benefits  which  are  derived  there- 
from are  of  great  value  not  only  to  the  older  members  of  the  Institute, 
but  of  exceptional  value  to  the  junior  members,  as  they  have  the  advan- 
tage of  seeing  more  modem  appliances  put  down  for  the  working  of 
collieries,  and  as  the  mines  get  deeper  (as  they  are  doing  in  this  district), 
each  new  winning  affords  experience  for  any  future  sinkings.  This 
experience  will  enable  the  mining  profession  to  cope  with  the  difficulties 
which  will,  no  doubt,  be  entailed  in  reaching  and  working  seams  of  coal 
at  great  depths. 

The  Council  hope  that  members  who  have  special  appliances,  for 
dealing  with  special  difficulties  met  with  in  working  their  collieries,  will 
afford  the  members  of  the  Institute  an  opportunity  of  viewing  the  same. 


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ANNUAL  REPORT  OP  THE  COUNCIL.  485 

The  Council  desire  to  call  the  attention  of  the  members  to  the 
increase  in  the  number  of  institutes  joining  the  Federated  Institution  of 
Mining  Engineers.  On  August  1st,  the  Mining  Institute  of  Scotland 
wiU  become  federated,  and  as  the  next  meeting  of  the  Federated  Institution 
will  be  held  in  Glasgow  in  September,  the  Council  think  it  would  be  a 
fitting  opportunity  for  the  members  of  this  Institute  to  welcome  the 
Mining  Institute  of  Scotland. 

The  following  papers  have  been  read  during  the  past  year: — 

*  Undei-ground  Haulage  at  the  West  Riding  Collieries,  Normanton,"  by  Mr, 

W.  E.  Garforth. 
"  Endless  Rope  Haulage  at  the  Thomcliffe,  Rockingham,  and  Tankereley 

Collieries,"  by  Mr.  W.  Hoole  Chambers. 
Inaugural  Address  by  the  President,  Mr.  W.  E.  Garforth. 
•*  The  Wear  and  Tear  of  Steam  Boilers  due  to  Expansion  and  Contraction 

Strains,"  by  Mr.  J.  Clarke  Jefferson. 
"Some    Systems   of    Underground    Haulage   at    Messrs,    Charlesworth's 

Collieries,"  by  Mr.  Walter  Hargreaves. 
"  Experiments  upon  two  Fans,  at  St.  John's  Colliery,  Normanton,"  by  Mr. 

E.  Brown. 

The  Council  would  call  the  attention  of  the  members  to  the  paragraph 
in  the  President's  address  giving  subjects  for  various  papers,  viz., 
diflPerent  methods  for  working  coal,  including  the  more  extended  use  of 
coal- cutting  machines  ;  the  systems  of  ventilation,  dealing  with  increased 
temperature  ;  the  more  economical  use  of  compressed-air  ;  the  applica- 
tions of  electricity  ;  the  best  means  of  conveying  coal  underground  ;  the 
different  systems  of  washing  small  coal ;  the  use  of  explosives  in  those 
mines  where  longwall  cannot  properly  be  worked  ;  coal-dust ;  safety- 
lamps  ;  and  means  for  detecting  fire-damp ;  and  trust  that  the  members 
will  make  an  effort  to  bring  any  of  the  above-named  subjects  before  the 
Institute  in  the  shape  of  papers  so  that  this  Institute  may,  as  regards 
the  contribution  of  papers,  maintain  its  position  in  the  Transactions  of 
the  Federated  Institution  of  Mining  Engineers. 

Mr.  LuPTON  said  the  increase  of  members  was  very  satisfactory  and 
the  list  of  papers  showed  that  the  Institute  was  more  vigorous  than  ever. 

The  report  was  then  adopted  unanimously. 


ACCOUNTS. 

Mr.  H.  B.  Nash  (one  of  the  auditors)  read  the  statement  of  accounts 
for  the  year  ending  June  80th,  1893,  as  foUows  : — 


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486 


ACCOUNTS. 


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Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


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Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


488  DISCUSSION— CLASSIFICATION  OF  MBMBBRa 

Mr.  Nash  said  the  general  statement  showed  they  had  no  liabilities 
whatever,  which  was  most  satisfactory.  He  moved  that  the  accounts 
and  balance-sheet  be  passed. 

Mr.  J.  Nbvin  seconded  the  motion,  saying  the  accounts  were  most 
satisfactory,  and  that  it  was  a  treat  to  have  no  liabilities. 

The  President  said  the  Transactions  were  only  valued  at  Is.  per 
copy.     He  thought  they  might  reahze  more  than  that  in  the  future. 

The  motion  was  carried  unanimously. 

The  Secretary  said  there  was  nothing  in  the  capital  account  for  the 
value  of  the  library. 

Mr.  Nash  said  there  was  nothing  credited  in  the  accounts,  except  the 
loose  transactions  in  stock. 

The  President  said  he  thought  it  would  be  better  if  everything  was 
included.     It  was  advisable  to  have  a  complete  inventory. 

Mr.  Nevin  said  they  should  state  in  the  assets — library,  so  many 
volumes,  and  charge  nothing  for  it. 

Mr.  LuPTON  asked  why  not  value  the  library  at  a  fair  price,  keep  it 
as  an  ordinary  stock  account,  and  depreciate  it  in  the  usual  way  ? 

Mr.  Nevin  said  the  exchanges  received  every  year  would  make  up 
for  any  depreciation. 

The  President  suggested  that  an  inventory  should  be  made. 

Mr.  Nash  suggested  that  the  books  might  be  bound. 

The  Secretary  promised  to  prepare  a  catalogue  of  the  books  to  be 
presented  to  the  next  General  Meeting. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  MEMBERS. 

Mr.  Nevin  said  the  Council  had  received  a  requisition  from  the 
Council  of  the  Federated  Institution  of  Mining  Engineers,  in  accordance 
with  their  Bye-law  8  for  the  classification  of  members,  and  to  meet  this  he 
moved  "  That  the  members  of  this  Institute  on  the  register  on  the  80th 
June,  1893,  shall  be  classified  as  members  under  part  B,  sec.  (a),  and  that 
all  nominations  in  future  must  state  the  class  to  which  members  wish 
to  belong,  the  Council  reserving  to  themselves  the  right  to  recommend  to 
a  General  Meeting  the  alteration  of  such  classification  should  they  think 
necessary." 

The  Secretary  said  it  had  been  arranged  that  all  present  members 
should  be  placed  in  class  (a). 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


DIS0U8SI0N — CLASSIFICATION  OF  MEMBERS.  489 

The  President  said  the  members  knew  that  when  the  Institute  was 
in  an  impoverished  state  they  welcomed  conmiercial  members  to  help 
them  to  pay  the  cost  of  printing  the  Transactions,  The  Council  had  had 
the  matter  under  consideration  for  some  time,  and  found  a  diflSculty  in 
classifying  certain  members.  Some  members  connected  with  trade  had  no 
objection  to  be  put  down  as  commercial  men,  but  there  were  others, 
especially  gentlemen,  who  took  part  in  the  commercial  management 
of  a  colliery,  but  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  underground  department 
who  objected  to  be  placed  in  class  (Jb.)  The  Council  thought  it  would  be 
better  in  future  elections  to  classify  them,  but  to  let  the  old  members 
remain  as  at  present. 

Mr.  A.  LuPTON — ^AU  existing  members  remain  in  perpetuity  in  class 
(a),  and  the  division  will  apply  only  to  new  members  ? 

The  President  said  that  was  so.  It  was  expected  in  the  next  year  or 
two  probably  some  further  rule  would  be  made,  and  that  would  be  the 
time  to  further  divide  the  members.  For  the  present  they  thought  it 
would  be  better  to  make  no  distinction  as  regards  old  members. 

Mr  Thirkell  seconded  the  resolution,  saying  the  matter  had  been 
carefully  thought  out,  and  he  was  quite  in  favour  of  it. 

Mr.  LuPTON  said  it  seemed  to  him  a  most  important  resolution. 

Mr.  Nevin  said  alterations  of  rules  could  only  be  made  at  the  Annual 
General  Meeting. 

The  President  agreed  that  it  was  an  important  question.  The  matter 
was  under  discussion  at  the  Council  Meeting  of  the  Federated  Institution 
of  Mining  Engineers,  in  June,  and  the  representatives  of  every  institute 
expressed  their  difficulty  in  conforming  to  this  rule.  The  representatives  of 
the  North  of  England  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers  advised  that  the 
present  members  be  left  under  one  head,  and  from  a  certain  date,  which 
might  be  from  that  day,  to  classify  the  new  members  as  proposed.  The 
idea  was  to  place  the  mining  and  mechanical  engineer  and  colliery 
manager  respectively  in  their  proper  positions. 

Mr.  Nash  said  he  supposed  it  was  intended  to  work  themselves 
gradually  on  the  same  lines  as  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers,  so  that 
when  they  got  a  charter  of  Incorporation  they  should  be  in  a  position  to 
put  themselves  in  line  with  as  little  detail  work  as  possible. 

Mr.  liUPTON  said  he  did  not  oppose  the  resolution  which  did  not 
prejudice  any  existing  member.  At  the  same  time  it  would  be  a  good 
thing  if  it  were  understood  that  in  future  notice  should  be  given  to 
members  of  important  resolutions. 

The  Secretary  pointed  out  that  this  did  not  in  any  way  interfere 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


490  ELECTION  OF  OFFICERS. 

with  or  alter  the  roles  of  the  Institute,  that  in  the  present  nomination 
forms  there  was  a  blank  left  for  the  proposers  to  state  to  what  class  the 
member  wished  to  belong  and  that  this  was  a  matter  that  could  be  left 
to  the  Council. 

Mr.  Thireell  said  that  members  knew  that  business  was  done  at 
the  Annual  General  Meetings  which  could  not  be  done  at  other  meetings. 

The  resolution  was  then  adopted  unanimously. 


ELECTION  OF  OFFICERS. 

The  Scrutineers  reported  the  result  of  the  election  of  ofScers  for 
the  year  1893-94  as  follows  :— 

Pbesidbkt. 
W.  B.  Gabfobth,  Esq. 

Vice-Presidents. 
W.  ilABGBBAVBS,  Esq.,  J.  LoNGBOTHAM,  Esq.,  H.  B.  Nash,  Esq. 

Council. 


J.  E.  Chambebb,  Esq. 
W.  HooLE  Chamdbbs,  Esq. 
H.  S.  Childe,  Esq. 
S.  H.  Hedley,  Esq. 


T.  R.  Maddison,  Esq. 
J.  Nbvin,  Esq. 
E.  W.  Thibkell,  Esq. 
G.  B.  Walkbb,  Esq. 


Sbobetabt  and  Tbeabubeb. 
T.  W.  H.  Mitchell,  Esq. 


Mr.  W.  HooLB  Chambers  moved  a  hearty  vote  of  thanks  to  the 
President  for  his  conduct  in  the  chair  during  the  past  year.  Mr. 
Oarforth  had  thrown  into  the  business  of  the  Institute  an  amount  of 
work  which  had  been  greatly  appreciated  by  the  members,  and  had 
reflected  great  credit  upon  himself.  It  was  not  desirable  for  him  to  make 
invidious  distinctions,  but  he  was  sure  the  conduct  of  the  President  in 
the  past  year  had  been  such  as  would  raise  the  character  of  the  Institute 
and  do  them  credit  amongst  the  other  institutes.  He  trusted  that  next 
year  the  President  would  receive  greater  help  in  the  way  of  papers  and 
discussions,  which  would  enhance  the  interests  of  the  Institute  and  the 
honour  of  this  important  district. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


miners'  papety-lamps.  491 

Mr.  LuPTON  had  great  pleasure  in  secondin^f  the  motion.  He  had 
the  privilege  of  knowing  Mr.  Garforth  more  than  twenty  years  ago,  and 
whatever  the  situation  he  was  in  his  mind  was  working  upon  the  business 
in  hand,  and  making  suggestions  for  the  benefit  of  the  business  he  was 
doing. 

The  resolution  was  carried  unanimously. 

The  President  said  he  was  extremely  obliged  for  the  kind  manner  in 
which  they  had  spoken  of  the  work  he  had  tried  to  do  during  the  past 
year.  He  could  not  have  dispensed  with  the  assistance  and  hearty  support 
of  the  Vice-Presidents,  Council,  and  members.  He  thanked  them  for 
appreciating  what  he  had  done,  and  hoped  to  go  on  satisfactorily  during 
the  present  year. 


REPRESENTATIVES  ON  THE  COUNCIL  OF  THE  FEDERATED 
INSTITUTION  OP  MINING  ENGINEERS  FOR  THE  YEAR 
1893-94. 

The  Secretary  reported  the  result  of  the  ballot  as  follows  : — 
W.  K.  Gabforth,  Esq.  |  Jos.  Mitchell,  Esq. 

J.  LONGBOTHAM,  Esq.  |  C.  E.  IlHODES,  Esq. 

J.  Nevin,  Esq. 


MINERS'  SAFETY-LAMPS. 

Mr.  Best  exhibited  and  explained  an  arrangement  for  lighting  and 
re-lighting  safety-lamps  by  electricity. 

The  President  asked  how  many  lamps  one  man  could  light  in  one 
morning  ? 

Mr.  Best  said  the  apparatus  he  had  shown  was  only  intended  for 
lighting  lamps  at  a  lamp-station  in  the  workings.  For  lighting  lamps  in 
the  lamp-room  the  wire  was  taken  to  the  window,  and  when  a  man  asked 
for  his  lamp  it  was  lighted  as  it  was  handed  out  to  him.  About  600  lamps 
could  be  lighted  in  a  morning  between  5'30  and  6  a.m.  One  lamp  could 
be  put  out  and  re-lighted  six  times  in  10  seconds.  The  system,  however, 
was  not  yet  in  use  at  any  colliery. 

Mr.  Nash  said  they  lit  the  lamps  by  electricity  at  the  Hemsworth 
Fitzwilliam  colliery  as  the  men  applied  for  them. 

Mr.  Thibkell  asked  if  a  current  was  not  supplied  to  the  lamp-cabin 
to  light  several  lamps  at  once  ? 

VOL.  V.-18W.98.  32 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


492  miners'  safetY'Lamps. 

Mr.  Best  said  the  idea  was  that  no  more  lamps  should  be  lighted  than 
were  wanted.  If  there  were  four  windows  at  the  light-cabin,  the  dynamo 
should  be  sufficiently  strong  to  light  four  lamps  at  once. 

The  President  said  lamps  had  been  lighted  by  an  incandescent 
platinum  wire,  which  he  had  seen  in  use  at  the  West  Riding  colliery  and 
at  Bolsover  colliery. 

Mr.  LuPTON  said  he  showed  an  electric  lighting  apparatus  some  years 
ago  at  one  of  his  lectures  at  the  Yorkshire  college.  The  light  was  obtained 
by  means  of  platinum  wires  and  a  continuous  current.  Some  years  were 
spent  in  improving  the  apparatus,  and  he  understood  it  was  now  being 
introduced  largely  at  collieries.  That  apparatus  would  light  any  kind  of 
oil  in  a  lamp.  There  were  many  advantages  in  the  use  of  electricity, 
beyond  the  economy  of  time  and  oil.  He  liked  Mr.  Best's  apparatus  as 
it  used  a  dynamo  instead  of  a  battery.  When  a  secondary  battery  was 
used  for  the  purpose,  there  was  electric  force  always  present  in  the  battery, 
and  many  ingenious  devices  had  to  be  used  to  prevent  sparking  when  the 
lamp  was  connected  to  the  battery.  In  the  Best  apparatus  there  was  no 
electric  force  until  the  lamp  had  been  attached  and  the  handle  turned, 
which  was  an  element  in  favour  of  the  dynamo  as  against  the  primary  or 
secondary  battery  when  used  for  relighting  lamps  in  the  mine. 

The  President  asked  Mr.  Thirkell  if  he  could  give  information  as  to 
the  life  of  the  different  parts  of  a  lamp  ? 

Mr.  Thirkell  said  he  should  be  pleased  to  do  so  at  the  next  meeting. 

Mr.  Nevin  proposed  a  vote  of  thanks  to  Mr.  Best.  If  safety-lamps 
could  be  lighted  one  at  a  time  at  the  window  as  they  were  given  out, 
instead  of  being  lighted  an  hour  and  a  half  before  they  were  given  out,  it 
would  be  a  great  gain.  Whether  the  Chapman  and  Graham  apparatus 
was  better  than  the  platinum- wire  process  was  a  question  which  would 
have  to  be  decided  by  results. 

Mr.  Nash  seconded  the  motion.  There  was  no  doubt  that  lighting 
lamps  by  electricity  on  some  safe  method  would  be  most  useful.  The 
saving  of  time  and  labour  would  be  considerable  by  the  use  of  an  apparatus 
for  lighting  lamps  one  or  two  miles  in-bye,  and  with  safety.  Many  men 
would  be  kept  at  work  who  otherwise  would  have  lost  many  hours  of 
valuable  time. 

The  resolution  was  carried,  and  was  briefly  acknowleged  by  Mr.  Best. 


The  annual  dinner  was  afterwards  held  at  the  Kinor's  Head  Hotel. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


BABOMETER,  THBEMOMBTEB,  ETC.,  READINGS,    1892.  493 


APPENDICES. 


I.—BAROMETER,  THERMOMETER,  Etc.,  READINGS  FOR 
THE  YEAR  1892. 


By  M.  WALTON  BROWN. 


The  barometer,  thermometer,  etc.,  readings  have  been  supplied  by 
permission  of  the  authorities  of  the  Glasgow  and  Kew  Observatories,  and 
give  some  idea  of  the  variations  of  temperature  and  of  atmospheric  pressure 
in  the  intervening  districts  in  which  the  mining  operations  of  this  country 
are  chiefly  carried  on. 

The  barometer  at  Kew  is  84  feet,  and  at  Glasgow  is  180  feet,  above 
sea-level.  The  barometer  readings  at  Glasgow  have  been  reduced  to  82 
feet  above  sea-level,  by  the  addition  of  0*150  inch  to  each  reading,  and  the 
barometer  readings  at  both  observatories  are  reduced  to  32  degs.  Fahr. 

The  fatal  explosions  in  collieries  are  obtained  from  the  annual  reports 
of  H.M.  Inspectors  of  Mines,  and  are  printed  upon  the  diagrams  (Plates 
XVIL,  XVIIL,  XIX.,  and  XX.)  recording  the  meteorological  obser- 
vations. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


494 


BAROMETER,  THERMOMETER,   ETC.,   READINGS,   1892. 
JANUARY,  1892. 


KEW. 

GLASGOW. 

Babometxb. 

Tempera- 

TUBS. 

Direction  of 
windatnoou 

Barometeb. 

Tempera- 
ture. 

DirectioD  of 
wind  at  noon 

1 

1             1             1 

4  A.M.  10  A.M.I  4  P.M.  ,10  P.M. 

Max 

Miu 

i 
5 

4  a.m. 

10a.m..  4  p.m.  10  p.m. 

Max 

Min. 

1 

29-736129-844 

29-940 

30-083 

43-2 

35-7 

W 

1 

29-593 

29-783  29-948!  30-032 

41-2  i  35-9 

WKW 

2 

80-184 1 30-236 

30157 

30-104 

41-8 

31-8 

W8W 

2 

29-958 

29  910  29-799.29-736 

44-0  38-4 

W 

8 

30-027  80-080 

80-015 

30-019 

43-5 

31-9 

NW 

3 

29-822 

29-867  29-872 

29-953 

38-1 

31-6 

WNW 

4 

30-016 :  30-054 

30-057 

30112 

35-1 

27-0 

NW 

4 

30-L02 

30-074  30-050 

29-946 

36-1 

29-0 

NW 

5 

30-063  29-954 

29-690 

29-541 

42-6 

24-9 

8W 

5 

29-617 

29-430  29-379 

29-311 

43-6 

35-0 

WNW 

6 

29-490  29857 

29-399 

29-450 

44-2 

32-8 

NW 

6 

29-206 

29-170  29  220 '29-300 

37-3 

28-7 

NW 

7 

29-432   29-401 '  29-323 

29-273 

37-0 

30-6 

SW 

7 

29-280 

29-202   29-167   29251 

34-1 

24-0 

ssw 

8 

29-306  29-447  29-437 

29-401 

34-7 

28-4 

W 

8 

29-251 

29-2.S3 '  29-823  '  29459 

34-3 

29-7 

w 

9   29364  29-435 i  29-428 

29-423 

32-7 

24-9 

NNW 

9 

29-496 

29-537   29-602   29-532 

33-9 

25-9       N      1 

10,29-436  29-533   29-581 

29-673 

32-1 

24-1 

N 

10 

29-658 

29-746   29-889  1  30000 

360 

29-4 

NE 

11  !  29761   29-817  i  29-851 

29-912 

35-8 

29-8 

N 

U 

30-034 

30013   29-917  1  29-845 

36-0 

27-2 

SW 

12   29-895,29-916129-823 

29-814 

35-4 

24-3 

N 

12 

29-770 

29-825 ,  29-867  i  29-871 

37-8 

29-6 

E 

18  ,  29-781 1  29  763 

29-630 

29-573 

36-8 

80-7 

NE 

13 

29-789 

29-643   29-446   29-370 

863 

27-9 

NE 

14  1  29-491 ;  29-480 

29-439 

29-460 

34-5 

28-9 

N 

14 

29-300 

29-298:29-2931  29-325 

36-3 

332 

S 

15  !  29-464 1  29-491 

29-475 

29-490 

34-3 

25-2 

NW 

15 

29-386 

29-411   29-396   29-3S7 

33-9 

26-8 

E 

16  ;  29-457 ,  29-488 

29-473 

29-494 

36-3 

23-8 

BE 

16 

29  350 

29-368  29-379   29-471 

32-1 124-8 

E 

17   29-493   29-566   29-573 

29-608 

37-5 

32-7 

£ 

17 

29-650 

29-693' 29-608   29636 

37-8  30-8'  ESE 

18,29-640  29-734  29-770 

29-833 

44-0 

36-8 

E 

18 

29-651 

29-687   29-702   29-727 

37-8;  35-5    ENE 

19  i  29-831   29-847  29827 

29-843 

41-2 

32-8 

E 

19 

29-745 

29-825   29-842    29  817 

38-0  33-9 

NE 

20  1  29-833  29-850 1  29-863 

29-931 

37-7 

32-4 

£ 

20 

29-780 

29-810   29-861    29*894 

35-2  33-9 

E 

21   29-933  29-9471 29-892 

29-877 

36-4 

30-4 

E 

21 

29-839 

29-720  29-512    29-478 

40-0  I  34-1 

SSW 

22  129-866  29&45 '  29-827 

29-915 

45-7 

34-9 

S 

22 

29-575 

29-610  29-616    29-679 

39-9  1  34-6 

ssw 

23 '29-909   29-963   29932 

29-972 

49-3 

41-4 

SW 

23 

29-760 

29-761 ;  29-615    29-623 

45-3 1  38  9 

S 

24,29-977  30-092  30-160 

30-256 

49-3 

33-9 

NW 

24 

29-726 

29-883   29-985    30-061 

43-5  37-2 

w 

25    30-317  30-418  30-448 

30-477 

42-3 

31-8 

NW 

25 

30-155 

30-280;  30-316    30-322 

43-2  1  35-8 

wsw 

26   30-493  30-474  30-358 

30-274 

43-5 

29-8 

SW 

26 

30  205 

30-119!  30-(6 4    29-951 

46-8  ,  40-2 

SW 

27    30180   30-092,29-847 

29-878 

47-2 

41-6 

SW 

27 

29-770 

29-547  29-537    29-746 

47-8 '35-9 

SW 

28   30-111 '  30-277  30-2U 

30-171 

47-8 

36-7 

wsw 

28 

29-883 

29-820  29-741    29-659 

48-5 '36-8 

SW 

29  130057  30-085  30-149 

30-197 

51-9 

47-8 

W 

29 

29-630 

29-672  29-799   29-765   512 ,484 

BW 

30  '  30-175  1 30179  30-106 

30-096 

50-8 

46-8 

w 

30 

29-768 

29-800  29-778   29-820   48-4!  40-3 

SW 

31 

30-050 '  30-134 

30-103 

29-987 

49-8 

45-6 

N 

31 

29-847 

29-919   29-816 

2P-470I 

46-6 

39-4 

SW 

FEBRUAIiy,  1892 


1 

29-766    29-537 

29-416  29-382 

480 '  37-5 

SW 

1 

'29-107 

28-882 

^•801 

28-846 

46-6 

34-9 

SW 

2 

29-226  29-828 

29-2-23  29-153 

42-4  33-7 

W 

2    28-858 

28-789 1  28-617  j  28-914 

40-7 

29-9 

WSW 

3 

29143  29-264 

29-402  29-614 

43-5 ,  85-8 

WNW 

8    29082 

29-272   29-426  29-556 

40-0 

32-7 

WNW 

4 

29-722   29-733 

29-587  29-525  1  45-3  '  31-9 

SSW 

4    29-537 

29-356   29-155 

29-246 

41-6 

31-6 

SSW 

6 

29-548  29-608 

29  708  29-814   48-3  |  38-5 

w 

6    29-199 

29-323   29-418 

29-477 

41-1 

34-7 

w 

6 

29-829   29-860 

29-828  29-869   45-5:38-7 

w 

6    29-521    29-603  1  29635 

29-719 

43-4 

37-7   WSW 

7 

29-901   29-924 

29-828   29-774   52-9 

43-8 

SW 

7 

29-712  ,  29-568  '  29393 

29-528 

48-4 

40-0 :     W 

8 

29-797  29-683 

29-778 1  30037  , 50-5 

44-5 

NW 

8 

29-522 

29-691   29  896 

30-013 

48-2 

40-3;  WNW 

9 

30-214  30-312 

30-300 1  30-300   47-7 

41-4 

SSW 

9 

30-116 

30-138   30-139   30-175 

48-3  ;  -40-2 

SW 

10 

30-278  IJO-3-21 

30-325  1  30-383   49-2 

44-0 

NW 

10 

30-185 

30-221 

30-222   30-281 

47-9  ,  43-6 

wsw 

11 

30-401   30-439 

30-433130-4^0   500 

38-1 

NW 

11 

30-295 

30-3t2 

30-368   30-39U 

49-3 '44-3 

w 

12 

30-457  30-471 

30-434  1  30-4.52  ,  43  4 ,  32-9 

NNW 

12 

30-374 

30-420 

30-409   30-469 

48-7 

41-8 

wsw 

13 

30-453  30-503 

30-472  1  30-462 

42  3   34-2 

N 

13 

30-524 

30-564 

30-491   30-400 

44-1 

38-8 

NE 

14 

30-366   30-214 

29-918  29-717 

410  32-3 

SW 

14  "  30193 

29-945   29-682   29581 

44-4 

37-4 

SW 

15 

29-490   29-431 

29-41.5   29-579 

41-9   29-7 

WNW 

15    29-616 

29-694 

29-761    29-822 

38-3 

31-4    ENE 

16 

29-595   29-634 

29-6021   29-576   308  !  23-7 

NE 

16    29-857 '  29-898 

29-803   29-678 

34-9 

2S-2     NE 

17 

29-528   29-490 

29-336   29-106   335  1 19-2 

W 

17    29-405   29  243 

29-183   29-167.36-1 

30-3 

£ 

18 

29-089   29-176,29-267   29350   33-7   23-0 

NW 

18    29-243 

29-275 

29-280   29-36S 

33-1 

22-4 

NW 

19 

29-337   29-319 '  29-206   29-182  34-0   235 

E 

19    29-394 

29-412  29-409129-460 

3..)-4 :  14-8 

ESE 

20 

29-191   29-351 

29--I23   29-423  370   2S-8 

NE 

20  ;  29-473 

29-474  29-497129-554 

33-5 

24-0 

NE 

21 

29-341   29-411 

29-4.38  29-461   468   361 

S 

21    29-491   29-419  ,  29-365   •29-4;J2 

36-2 

31-1 

ENE 

22 

29-452   29-6*3 

29-578,29-642,50-5   382 

s 

22 

2J-431  j  29-446   29-445   29520 

39-8 

33-8 

NB 

23 

29-651   29-646 

29-056   29-735  1  48-8  ;  361 

SE 

23 

29-562 : -29-620   29-64^,29-678   45-0 

35-2 

E 

24 

29-756  ,  29-778 

29-780  ,  29-&48  '  43-0   34-7 

NE 

24 

29-631 ;  29-7:«)  29-718  j  29-7o7 

42-7 

35-2 

ENE 

25 

29-854  ;29-8a3 

29-880  29-941-52-2   871 

E 

25 

29-774 ,  29-820  ,  29-827   29-882 

40-2 

36-0       B      1 

26 

29-9.S3  30-049 

30-067  1  30106  421   36-2 

ENE 

26  ]  29-927 

30-009   30-025  I  30-094 

42-9 

35-5 

EN£ 

27 

30-086  30-108 

30-038  29-994  40-9   34-8 

NE 

27    30-117 

30-130  1  30-101   30-090 

89-2 

35-9 

ENE 

28 

29-939  29-890 

29-830  29-833  41-9   41-4 

NE 

28  ,  80-038 

30-019 ;  29-949  !  2996^ 

44-1 

84-8 

E 

29 

29-804  29-831 

29-831   29-863  849  85-8 

N 

29  '  29-966 

! 

30-000 

30-019  1  30071 

1 

40-3 

84-5 

NB 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


BAROMETEK,  THEBMOMETER,  ETC.,  READINGS,   1892. 
MARCH,  1892. 


495 


KEW. 


GLASGOW. 


Bakomstik. 


4A.ir.  IOa.ic, 


4  p.m. 


29-826  I 
29-954 
30-177 
30-241 
30-314 
30-199 
29-964 
29-888 
29-754 
29-423 
29-502 
29-572 
29-350 
29-377 
29-674 
29-619 
30-063 
30-290 
30-218 
30-122 
30-273 
30-328 
30-182 
30-310 
30-099, 
29-685' 
•29-643 
29-820 ! 

29  I  30-256  I 

30  I  30-528 

31  I  30-518 ; 


29-883 
30-050 
30-23  i 
30-284 
30-303 
30-201 
29-958 
29-906 
29-557 
29-313 
29-565 
29-533 
29-348 
29-464 
29-599 
29-898 
30-141 
30-316 
30-208 
30-123 
30-343 
30-387 
30-478 
30-295 
30-036 
29-669 
29-710 
29-908 
30-416 
30-551 
30-550 


129-888 
i  30-091 
1 30-219 
30-298 
30-238 
30-085 
29-896 
29-855 
29-462 
29-278 
29-580 
29-434 
29-327 
29-540 
29-273 
29-968 
30-186 
30-241 
30-144 
30-141 
30-284 
30-407 
30-370 
30-218 
29-864 
29-613 
29-720 
29-996 
30-457 
30-488 
30-495 


10  P.M 


30-148 
30-243 
30-332 
30-230 
30-036 
29-901 
29-865 
29-476 
29-395 
29-607 
29-396 
29-368 
29-666 
29-269 
30-032 
30-265 
30-244 
30-150 
30-233 
30-332 
30-483 
30-364 
30-172 
29-792 
29-63.-) 
29-781 
30-140 
30-539 
30-543 
SO-482 


APRIL,  1892. 


1 

30-466 

30-455 

30-362 

30-391 

'650 

30-0 

1      N 

1 

30-394 

30-415 

30-377 

30-8«6 

60-8 

39*1 

W 

2 

30-3b6  1  30-370 

30\m   30-310   62-3 

35-91      E 

2 

30-360 

30-355 

30-293 

30-291 

63-7 

33-7 

NE 

1     3 

30  258   30-237 

30-102   30084 '64-1 

34-5    ENE 

3 

30-249 

30-209 

30-074 

30023 

61-1 

37-6 

SSE 

1     ^ 

29-966   29-987 

29-933   29-983 

68-5 

37-0       W 

4 

29-904 

29-840 

29-796 

29-839 

59-5 

39-8 

S 

\     5  '  29-965 

29-974 

29-896   29-9-26 

687 

38-0'  8SW 

6    29-835 

29-879 

29-889129-932 

50-7 

44-1 

BSE 

6    29-921 

29-926   29-873,29-911 

050 

13-2 

E 

6 

29-935 

29-977 

29-967   30-002 

52*7 

44-5 

NE 

7    29-893 

29-907  i  29-869  '  29*927 

64-3 

42-6 

NE 

7 

29-992 

30-017 

30-000 

30-053 

49-0 

41-0 

ENE 

8  ,  29-916 

29-946 

29-891    29-939 

63-9 

39-8 

]NE 

8 

30-060 

30-088 

30  026 

30-095 

53-8 

40-0 

E 

9  ,  29-923 

29-9^ 

29-895  1  29-925 

59-8 

41-9 

NE 

9 

30-098 

30-108 

30-032 

80-062 

61-7 

39-0 

ENE 

10  '  29-918 

29-934 

29-907  :  29-942 

63-5 

39-9 

ENE 

10 

30-048 

30-048   29-965 

29-996 

67-2 

370 

ENE 

11  1  29-921 

29-914 

29-845   29-901 

63-2 

34-9 

NNE 

11   29-971 

29-966 

29-935 

30-022 

59-0 

29*4 

NE 

12    29-894   29-895 

29-822   -29-771 

43-2 

33-9 

NNE 

12   29-99-4 

29-983 

29-883 

29-844 

43-0 

35-4 

E 

13  1  29-656  '  29-642   29606   29-643 

39-7 

34-0 

NE 

13   29-807 

29-764 

29-685 

29-708 

42-2 

29-4 

N 

14  j  29-644   29-682   29671   29-714 

45-3 

30-0 

N 

14  ,  29-680 

29-679 

29-647 

29-694 

42-3 

27-2 

S£ 

15    29-704  1  29-743  \  29667   29610 

48-0 

27-9 

W 

16  1  29-688 

29-703 

29-674 

29-679 

39*6 

25-9 

sw 

16    29-471 ;  29-490 1  29542  '  29625 

45-6 

33-2 

NNW 

16 

29-629 

29-629 

29-631 

29-700 

40-5 

26*3 

NE 

17 

29-648;  29-700  ;29-?28.29-8W 

46-8 

29-8 

S 

17 

29-717 

29-745 

29-747 

29-853 

46-7 

26-4 

W 

18 

29-926  1  30-023 

30048 '  30-179 

48-1 

31-3 

NW 

18 

29-893 

29-966 

30-024 

30-173 

47-9 

29-8 

NW 

19 

30-271 !  30-360 

30-366 

30-402 

50-8 

31-3 

WNW 

19 

30-221 

30-240 

30-174 

30-098 

49-8 

28-7 

SW 

20 

30-386 

30-350 

30-246 

30-143 

48-8 

38-3 

8W 

20 

30-065 

30-078 

29-926 

29-822 

561 

42-5 

SW 

21 

30-069 

30-117 

30-146 

30-213 

62-1 

47-9 

NW 

21 

29-863 

29-922 

29-874 

29-846 

61-9 

43-9 

SW 

22 

30-219 

30-253 

30-256 

30-347 

658 

48-2 

W 

22 

29-886 

30-008 

30-094 

30-158 

63-9 

427 

WSW 

23  130-380 

30-414 

30-335 1  30-327 

63-5 

40-8 

w 

23 

30-173 

30-198 

30-175 

30-169 

53-1 

42*9 

wsw 

24 

30-277 

30-328 

30-238 ,  30-133 

60-0 

48-7 

NNW 

24 

30-174 

30-177 

30-077 

29-931 

62-1 

40-4 

w 

25 

29-969 

29-842 

29-819 ,  29-884 

55-0 

41-5 

NW 

25 

29-808 

29-788 

29-761 

29-784 

61-0 

37-4 

NNW 

26 

29-663 

29-848 

29-814 ,  29-863 

54-3 

36-8 

NW 

26 

29-795 

29-821 

29-789 

29-772 

62-1 

34-4 

NNW 

27 

29-835 

29-785 

29-613 

29-578 

55-0 

331 

sw 

27 

29-600 

29-388 

29-357 

29-580 

48-3 

36-3 

NW 

28 

29-534  i  29-601 

29-778 

29-913 

41-7 

35-7 

N 

28 

29-806 

29-881 

29-858 

29-870 

48-3 

37*3 

N 

29 

29-889  29-905 

29-953 

30090 

48-0 

35-2 

NNE 

29 

29-901 

29-976 

29-977 

30-013 

50*9 

35-4 

NNE 

90 

30-184  30179 

30146 

30172 

56-0 

31-9 

N 

30 

30*002 

30*024 

30-034 

80*011 

52*8 

38*8 

wsw 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


496  BABOMETEE,  THEKMOMETEB,   £TC.^  READINGS,   1892. 

MAY,  1892. 


KEW. 

GLASGOW. 

Bakombtsb. 

Tempbba- 

TURB. 

"I 

Baboxbteb. 

Tbmpbba- 

TUEB. 

"1 
1^ 

•  1              1 

1 

4a.x. 

10  A.*. 

4P.X. 

10  p.m. 

MaxMin. 

1 

15*5 

1  '4a.xJi0a.x.  4  p.m. 

^1      1 

10  p.m. 

Max 

Min. 

II 

1 

30-122 

30040 

29-897 

29-856 

67-4  33-9 

s 

1 

29-933 

29-879 

29-798 

29-824 

54-8 

38-8 

SW 

2 

29-805 

29-800 

29-772 

29-779 

48-1   39-9 

NB 

2 

29-872 

29-924 

29-931 

30-088 

59-9 

34-8 

ENS 

3 

29-717 

29-672 

29-605 

29-631 

45-7   42-3 

N 

3 

30-022 

29-968 

29-909 

29-978 

54-2 

39-9 

NE 

4 

29-669 

29-735 

29-801 

29-916 

48-5   41-5 

NE 

4 

29-976 

29-994 

29-989 

30-034 

54-9 

36-8 

ESE 

5 

29-920 

29-943 

29-938 

30-021 

47  7  .  38-5 

N 

5 

29-999 

29-998 

29-993 

30-125 

57-7 

38-0 

E 

6 

30064 

30126 

30-160 

30-if43 

50-1  1 35-3 

N 

6 

30161 

30-191 

30-149 

30-121 

55-9 

32-1 

W 

7 

30-240 

30-202 

30-117 

30-133 

60-7  1 31-2 

SW 

7 

30-030 

'J9-972 

29-956 

29-978 

53-6 

39-7 

WSW 

8 

30-139 

30-150 

30-106 

30-135 

63-4  1 39-9 

w 

8 

29-993 

30-018 

30-018 

30-047 

561 

41-8 

W 

9 

30-152 

30-160 

30-121 

30-170 

65-8  .  37-2 

SE 

9 

30063 

30-092 

30-094 

30-121 

62-9 

43-7 

8W 

10 

30-169 

30-161 

30-124 

30-181 

64-0  ,  41-0 

ENE 

10 

30-156 

30174 

30162 

30-278 

67-3 

39-2 

NE 

11 

30-193 

30-225 

30-221 

30-332 

67-4  41-7 

NE 

11 

30-343 

30-363 

30-335 

30-391 

60-3 

40-4 

ENE 

12 

30-359 

30-365 

30-285 

30-304 

68-0  42-1 

NNE 

12 

30-407 

30-366 

30-2*7 

30-218 

6-4-2 

39-6 

NE 

13 

30-257 

30-232 

30134 

30107 

69-2  41-7 

NNW 

13 

30-110 

30-050 

29-973 

29-897 

56-2 

50-9 

WSW 

14 

30041 

30-023 

29-977 

30036 

64-3  1 46-0  '     W 

14 

29-752 

29-831 

29-831 

29-805 

57-9 

46-8 

w 

15 

30010 

29-973 

29-862 

29-829 

57-5 

43-2     8W 

15 

29-G36 ;  29-552 

29-548 

29-522 

57-4 

46-4 

w 

16 

29-792 

29-756 

29-691 

29-674 

61-9 

45-0 

W 

16 

29-382 

29-283 

29-298 

29  546 

531 

44-7 

WSW 

17 

29-749 

29-883 

29-966 

30071 

61-5 

48-4 

NW 

17 

29-679 

29-837 

29  877 

29  935 

58-4 

42-7 

N 

18 

30-090 

30087 

30018 

29-998 

61-5 

45-8 

SW 

18 

•-J9-899 

29-748 

29-701 

29-717 

55-2 

41-2 

WNW 

19 

30-000 

30-009 

30-067 

30-070 

62-4 

46-9 

w 

19 

29-702 

29-791 

29-810 

29-650 

56-9 

42-5 

w 

20 

29-938 

29-845 

29-843 

29-927 

61-8 

48-9 

w 

20 

29-544 

29  561 

29-724 

29-914 

57-0 

39-3 

WNW 

21 

30-023 

30-063 

29-970 

29-979 

64-3 

44-0 

w 

21 

29-901 

29-828 

29-783 

29-814 

53-7 

38-2 

WSW 

22 

29-961 

29-983 

29-937 

29-936 

66-2 

43-4,   S3W 

22 

29-870 

29-901 

29-837 

29-767 

51-2 

39-5 

SK 

23 

29-910 

29-893 

29-886 

29-916 

69-7 

46-7 

SW 

23 

29-643 

29-655 

29-637 

29-602 

57-2 

430 

w 

24 

29-905 

29-896 

29-862 

29-860 

71-4 

51-9 

s 

24 

29-534 

29-577 

29-641 

29-699 

62-1 

60-7 

ssw 

25 

29-740 

29-716 

29-752 

29-805 

75-2 

53-2 

s 

25 

29-680 

29-580 

29-550 

29-666 

60-9 

48-5 

B>E 

26 

29-781 

29-795 

29-766 

29-776 

75-3 

55-1 

ENE 

26 

29'71o 

29-782 

26-739 

29-705 

64-8 

48-4 

W 

27 

29-766 

29-836 

29-856 

29-846 

71-7 

59-0 

8 

27 

29-651 

29-705 

29-752 

29-837 

660 

53-3 

WSW 

28 

29-729 

29-690 

29-696 

29-884 

77-9 

52-6 

s 

28 

29-837 

29-809 

29-677 

29  543 

61-0 

49-3 

ENE 

29 

29-928 

29-984 

29-988 

30068  66-9 

51-1 

S8W 

29 

29-443 

29-616 

29-617 

29-673 

62-8 

48-9 

SSW 

SO 

30071 

30-108 

30-071 

30-030  73-5 

65-2 

BW 

30 

29-714 

29-763 

29-778 

29-832 

65-7 

49-2 

S8W 

81 



29-848 

29-714 

29-759  80-7 

&6-4 

S 

31 

29-774 

29-711 

29-649  29-563 

68-5 

66-0 

SW 

JUNE,  1892. 


1  1 29-792 

2  '  29-744 
8  29-826 
4!  30056 

5  29-728 

6  30-077 

7  30-316 

8  130-366 

9  30-273 

10  30020 

11  ,  29-773 

12  29-843 

13  29-978 

14  ,  30-125 
16  30-032 

16  29-926 

17  29-931 

18  29-946 

19  29-870 

20  29-818 

21  29-863 

22  29-890 ! 

23  1 29-583, 

24  29-911  I 

25  1 29-961 , 
26 '29-958 
27  ,  30-080 ; 
28,30-1301 

29  1 29-796  I 

30  90-297 


29-841  29 
29-688!  29 
29-915 1  29 
30-000  29 
29-727 !  29 
30-160 ,  30 
30-366  30 
30-379 1  30 
30-231 ;  30 
29-923 '  29 
29-778 .  29 
29-867  •  29 


-847 !  29-864 
-698  29-759 
•949 ,  30-021 
•987  I  29-907 
•789  29-969 
•194  30-286 
-324  i  30-357 
•321 1 30  314 
■167 1  30-106 
•816 1  29792 
•747 1  29^779 


30-058 
30-092 
30-010 
29-902 
29-960 
29-964 
29-838  __ 
,29-810  29 
29-886;  29 
!  29-881 1  29 
1 29-500 !  29 
1 29-965  29 
,29-964  29 
30-020  30 
30-110  30 
30-121130 
29-894 '  30 
30-307 1  SO 


1-032 
■086 
-026 
1-102 
-247 


30-073 
30-113 
29912 
30-256 
30-253 


^*5 

30-146 

30062 

29-958 

29-905 

29-944 

29-900 

29-827 

29-834 

,.  29-933 

■789  29-759 

■641  i  29815 

-948 '  29-976 

•897  29^880 


67-3 

52-5 

SW 

65-9 

540 

8W 

65-9 

50-3 

SW 

63-9 

46-3 

SW 

65-2 

61-9 

W 

71-2 

49-1 

N 

67-8 

49-3 

E 

69-3 

48-0 

£ 

74-8 

53-2 

E 

80-7  1  51-1 

S 

683  55^0 

SW 

56-2   46-7 

ENE 

57-9   41-8 

NNE 

54-2 

40-9 

NE 

61-6 

38-2 

N 

611 

46-2 

W 

600  451 

NW 

69-7  42-8 

WNW 

633   462 

8W 

616  45-0 

SW 

63-9  460 

SW 

71-5  46-0 

WSW 

62-9  51-0 

NW 

70-5 1  46-5 

s 

66-3  51-6 

s 

75-0 '54-6 

WSW 

76-9169-8 

s 

77  3 '  56-8 

N 

63-2   490 

WNW 

69-0 1  44-0 

8 

1  29-470 

2  29-568 

3  29463 

4  29752 

5  29462 

6  30015 

7  30-273 

8  30-308 

9  30-243 

10  30016 

11  29-820 

12  29-863 

13  i  30-079 

14  30-191 

15  30-020 

16  ,  29-783 

17  29-847 

18  29-902 

19  29-806 

20  29-641 

21  29-796 

22  29-780 

23  '  29-636 

24  I  29-769 

25  29-820 

26  29-684 

27  '  29-684 

28  30037 
29 '30-025 
30  30138 


29-508 

29-260 

29-659 

29-778 

29-598 

30111 

30303 

30-311 

30214 

29-995 

29-816 

29-826 

30-127 

30-185 

29-965 

29836, 

29-824 

29-884 

29-782 

29  703 

29-831 

29-775 

29-628 

29-824 

29-747 

29-716 

29-771 

30-114 

30-049 

30-112 


29-512 


29-636 
29-713 
29-741 


-L 


29-623  162-2 
29-437  54-2 
29-723  5S-3 
29-583 ;  68-9 

29-887  60-5 

30-167  30-253,650 
30-299 '  30-315  681 
30-274  30-276  1 761 
30-116  ' 30058  1 77-3 
29-918  29-857 '60-2 
29-862 1  29-890  61-0 
29-880  30-015 ,  55-0 
.^-115  I  30-162   56-2 


30-076  62-2 

29-841  61-1 

29-852  58-2 

29-949  57-4 

29-838  58-3 

29-720  29-682  591 

29-726129-795  690 

29-792 1  29-811  65*9 

29-724129-706  61-2 

29-624129-732  641 


30-086 
29-906 
29-803 
29-881 
29-828 


29-834 
29-628 
29-671 
29-848 
30-107 
30-070 
30-071 


29-861  65-0 
29-610  58-0 
29  684  67-0 
29-932 ;  64-0 
30069 , 63-3 
30189  63-3 
30-058  62-2 


47-5 

SW 

45-9 

8 

46-4 

WSW 

45-9 

SW 

48-^ 

W 

47-8 

W 

55-2 

NW 

63-0 

WSW 

5S-8 

W 

45-8 

E 

43-3 

ESB 

42-7 

WNW 

39-0 

N 

39-0 

SB 

41-9 

W 

42-9 

NNE 

394 

NW 

45-9 

NE 

430 

W 

47-3 

E 

42-0 

NNE 

60-0 

NW 

50-0 

NW 

46-9 

W 

48-4 

WSW 

540 

SW 

50-9 

WSW 

47-9 

w 

47-7 

E 

46-3 

SW 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


BAROMETER,   THERMOMETER,   ETC.,  READINGS,   1892. 
JULY,  18W. 


497 


KEW. 

GLASGOW. 

Baroxstse. 

TlMPSKA- 
TVBB. 

5'^ 

Bakoxktsb. 

Tempera- 

TURE. 

ll 

i 

4A.X. 

10  a.m. 

4p.1I. 

10  p.m. 

Max 
71-1 

Min. 
48-2 

& 

4  a.m. 

10  A.M. 

4  p.m.  10  p.m. 
1 

Max 

Min. 

1 

30-243 

30-237 

30-181 

30-188 

sw 

1 

30-044 

30055 

80-057' 30061 

61-1 

48-4 

W 

2 

30145 

30-110 

30-009 

29-939 

74-9 

52-4 

s 

2 

30-001 

29-902 

29-806  29-729 

60-2 

50-4 

s 

3 

29-821 

29-709 

29-680 

29-780 

77-0 

55-7 

8 

3 

29-664 

29-629 

29-590  29-587 

59-8 

54-0 

NW 

4 

29-825 

29-891 

29-918 

29-990 

74-0 

59-2 

SW 

4 

29-596 

29-709 

29-784  29-741 

60-9 

50-0 

w 

5 

30-001 

29-989 

29-908 

29-858 

66-9 

52-3 

sw 

5 

29-546 

29-542 

29-563 ,  29-617 

60-1 

50-1 

wsw 

6 

29-864 

29-926 

29-859 

29-703 

66-5 

53-2 

wsw 

6 

29-616 

29-584 

29-280   29-180 

62-1 

48-5 

ssw 

7 

29-619 

29-616 

29-687 

29-791 

69-1 

55-2 

wsw 

7 

29-106 

29-220 

29-378   29-381 

59-0 

48-9 

w 

8 

29-870 

29-963 

29-995 

30-074 

68-4 

51-2 

w 

8 

29-427 

29-543 

29-657   29-744 

60-0 

49-0 

wsw 

9 

30091 

30-079 

30-032 

29-960 

68-9 

48-9 

8SW 

9 

29-796 

29-850 

29-821   29-837 

59-1 

500 

8W 

10 

29-938 

30-002 

30-008 

30-020 

660 

52-3 

w 

10 

29-904 

29-978 

29-982   29-994 

68-1 

46-0 

SE 

11 

30-000 

29-966  1 29-874 

29-780 

66-2 

53-5 

E 

11 

29-962 

29-928 

29-854 

29-852 

66-0 

49-8 

E 

12 

29-695 

29-590 ;  29-558 

29-561 

65-3 

54-6 

ENE 

12 

29-808 

29-766 

29-731 

29-710 

56-0 

50-8 

E 

13 

29-552 

29-556 

29-593 

29-665 

60-3 

52-9 

N 

13 

29-697 

29-699 

29-?25 

29-8-27 

61-7 

49-1 

B 

14 

29-693 

29-803 

29-897 

29-973 

580 

53-0 

N 

14 

29-850 

29-894 

29-881 

29-9U9 

590 

49-9 

ENE 

15 

30-004 

30-023 

29-974 

29-948 

66-8 

51-2 

S 

15 

29-933 

29-953 

29-937  1  29-945 

58-0 

50-0 

NE 

16 

29-862 

29-602 

29-724 

29-707 

69-2 

51-8 

SB 

16 

29-911 

29-909 

29-868  1  29-910 

61-1 

48-0 

£ 

17 

29-686 

29-747 

29-799 

29-884 

59-8 

51-3 

NE 

17 

29-880 

29-892 

29-873   29-883 

61-2 

49-0 

NNW 

18 

29-912 

29-973 

29-982 

29-993 

60-4 

50-3 

N 

18 

29-853 

29-862 

29-869  i  29-909 

62-0 

47-8 

WSW 

19 

29-963 

29-896  ;  29-647 

29-535 

58-8 

49-0 

WSW 

19 

29-755 

29-429 

29-553   29-861 

59-2 

50-0 

WNW 

20 

29-591 

29-843  30039 

30-167 

62-4 

52-2 

N 

20 

-29-991 

30103 

30-113   30148 

65-5 

491 

NW 

21 

30189 

30215 

30-172 

30-194 

65-4 

46-7 

N 

21 

30-153 

30-151 

30-122   30-144 

64-8 

44-9 

W 

22 

30-202 

30-211 

30180 

30-217 

72-8 

48-9 

NW 

22 

30-150 

30-186 

30-194  30-210 

61-1 

51-2 

W 

23 

30-223 

30-232 

30-210 

30-250 

73-1 

53-4 

NW 

23 

30-222 

30-242 

30-240   30-284 

70-0 

510 

W 

24 

30-273 

30-306 

30-279 

30-287 

65-6 

63-8 

NE 

24 

30-296 

30-305 !  30-273  30-282 

71-0 

49-8 

8W 

25 

30-263 

30-261 

30182 

30-l«0 

62-1 

53-6 

NB 

25 

30-263 

30-252 

30-201   30-233 

71-2 

49-0 

W 

26 

30153 

30-149 

30-106 

30-169 

68-9 

54-7 

NE 

26 

30-243 

30-256 

30-236   30-288 

67-7 

51-7 

NB 

27 

30-169 

30183 

30-176 

30-212 

66-4 

541 

NE 

27 

30-296 

30-296 

30-286  30-311 

60-8 

60-9 

£ 

28 

30-2C6 

30-205 

30-152 

30-187 

69-9 

521 

NNE 

28 

30-294 

30-290 

30-233  j  30-262 

68-1 

51-3 

NB 

29 

30-190 

30-192 

30-120 

30153 

71-3 

50-0 

N 

.29 

30-253 

30-264 

30-210  130-221 

70-0 

49-9 

E 

30 

30128 

30129 

30-088 

30-099 

70-1 

52-6 

NNB 

30 

30-202 

30-173 

30-102 

30-039 

68-5 

51-0 

W 

31 

30-076 

30-042 

29-971 

29-984 

73-9 

fi3-6 

W 

31 

29*962 

29-939 

29-928 

29-894 

66-7  57-0 

WNW 

AUGUST,  1892. 


29-934 
30-100 
30-101 
30-011 
30-099 
29-941 
29-948 
29-902 
29-753 
30-158 
30-212 
30-123 
29-844 
29-798 
29-771 
30-075 
29-877 
29-864 
29-675 
29-900 
30-164 
30-076 
29-805 
29-730 
29-642 
29-926 
29-910 
29-565 
29-737 
29-577 
29-562 


29-894 
30-118 
30-080 
30-040 
30-094 
29-948 
30000 
29-858 
29-fe96 
30-222 
30-209 
30-100 
29-744 
29-832 

!  29-911 
30-101 

1  29-898 
29-754 
29-691 
30-024 
30-203 
30-009 
29-786 
29-753 

!  29-702 

130-003 
29-825 

I  29-519 
29-686 
29-596 

129-592 


29-982 

30-106 
30-017 
30-032 
30-000 
29-920 
29-990 
,  29-759 
30-044 
'  30-194 
I  30-116 
29-977 
29-725 
29-816 
29-939 
29-972 
29-9C5 
29-779 
29-724 
30068 
30-145 
29-902 
29-736 
29-699 
29-762 
29-982 
29-653 
29-6-26 
29-613 
29-527 
29-651 


30-038  i  68-6 

30-124  61-7 

30-017  68-3 

30-098  66-2 

29-991  70-9 

29-989  !  70-2 

29-970  1  68-7 

29-757  74-3 

30-127 '  60-9 

30-225 

30-183 

29-962 

29-738 

29-706 

30054 

29-905 

29-907 

29-646 

29-809 

30-139 

30-147 

29-869 

29-750 

29-691 

29-887 

29-999 

29-604 

29-740 

29-600 

29-552 

29-783 


60-9 
69-3 ! 
71-2  i 
69-9 
70-8 
72-6 
69-6 
79-3 
72-1 
65-2 
71-0 
72-6 
75-3 
78-6 
72-2 
68-3 
67-8 
64-3 
67-6 
70-1 
693 
64-3 


56-2 

NW 

51-9 

N 

54-1 

NW 

51-2 

NW 

45-1 

SW 

520 

SW 

58-3 

w 

57-5 

s 

52-9 

N 

48-9 

N 

43-8 

SW 

49-0 

SW 

48-0 

SW 

57-4 

ssw 

57-7 

SW 

49-8 

ESE 

56-0 

ssw 

60-4 

SE 

60-0 

N 

52-2 

WNW 

491 

8 

46-8 

SE 

51-7 

ESE 

61-1 

W 

56-0 

SW 

550 

SW 

53-4 

SSW 

52-3 

NW 

52-2 

SSW 

59-3 

SSW 

561 

SSW 

I 

1  I  29-855 

2  30-044 

3  \  29-964 

4  !  29-975 

5  129-879 
29-5971 
29-827  \ 
29-738 
29-946 

10  30-150 

11  I  29-980 


29-892 
29-458 
29-375 
29-358 
__  29-826 

17  I  29-811 

18  '  29-863 

19  '  29-610 

20  29-841 

21  !  29-840 
•22  I  29909 
23  j  29-743 
•24  I  29-707 

25  29-621 

26  I  29-736 

27  i  29-499 
28,29-388 

29  29*640 

30  129-282 

31  I  29154 


29-925 

30068 

29-962 

29-997 

29-809 

29-641 

29-875 

29-731 

30-036 

30-148 

29-963  I 

29-832 

29-422 

29-436 

29-550 

29-887 

29-866 

29-786 

29-669 

29-883 

29-907 

29-895 

29-737 

29-674 

29-630 

29-754 

29-440 

29-443 

29-521 

29-244 

29-261 


30-028  30-091  i 
30  044 !  30-036 
29-934 ;  29968 
29-988  I  29-983 
29-715  I  29-647 
29-712  I  29-804 
29-864  29-8-29 


29-780 
30-074 
30-120 
29-946 
29-711 
29*384 
29*436 
29*654 
29-857 
29-899 
29-674 
29-699 
29-879 
29-919 
29-840 
29-716 
29-6-29 
29-639 
29-638 
29-401 
29-517 
29-501 
29*171 
29*377 


29885 
30-137 
30-088 
29-950 
29*607 
29*372 
29*337 
29*782 
29*850 
29-928 
29-629 
29-797 
29-871 
29-947 
29-809 
29-735 
29-640 
29-692 
29-616 
29-401 
29-610 
29*414 
29*141 
28-524 


67*1 

55-9 

67-7 

52*9 

62-1 

47*7 

62-5 

46*0 

61-9 

521 

59-9 

48*5 

61-9 

48-0 

53-0 

46*7 

62-8 

43*8 

62-7 

42*9 

62*1 

51-4 

64*7 

55*0 

65*8 

64-1 

63*2 

54-0 

62*0 

52*8 

63*0 

51*2 

65*7 

50*1 

54*8 

52*1 

64*2 

48*1 

66-2 

45*4 

69-8 

59*8 

67*1 

59-7 

71*4 

57*0 

70-0 

55*7 

62-7 

510 

59*9 

50*8 

60-0 

48*0 

58-9 

44*7 

55*4 

380 

59*9 

40*9 

59-9 

48-9 

NNB 

W 
WNW 
WNW 
WSW 
WNW 

W 

NB 

N 
WSW 

wsw 

SW 
SW 
SW 
SW 
SW 

w 

NE 

w 

SSW 

SW 

SW 

w 

£ 
W 
SW 
SW 
WNW 
E 
B 
N 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


498  BAROMETER,   THERMOMETER,   ETC.,  READINGS,   1892. 

SEFTEMBEB,  1802. 


KEW. 

GLASGOW. 

Babometer. 

Teupera 

TUllE. 

Bahometer. 

Tempera- 
ture. 

o  o 

Jl..... 

1            1 

(  «^  1 

10  A. M 

Up.v.  10  p.m.  Max 

.       ! 

Mill 

i"    '1 

4a.x. 

10  A.M. 

4p.v.  IOf.u. 

Max 

MiB. 

1 

29-852 

29-931 

29-913 

29-911 

62-9 

61-1 

sw 

1 

29-539 

29-453 1 29-469  29-441 

56-2 

47-0 

W 

2 

29-767 

29-650 

29-604 

29-623 

63-0 

52-3 

ssw 

2    29-338 

29-324129-308  29344 

54-7 

45-2 

wsw 

3 

29-639 

29-670 

29-704 

29-824 

60-7 

47-8 

w 

3    29-382 

29-4S0   29-658   29-834 

67-6 

45-3 

WNW 

4 

29-909 

30-044   30-143 

30-259 

68  5 

48-0 

NNW 

4    29-976 

30-102130-133  30-190 

56-5 

41-9 

SSW 

6  :  30-204 

30-339  i  30-310  '  30-325 

61-7 

39-7 

SW 

5    30-172 

30-148130-082   30-063 

60-9 

40-9 

sw 

C    30-291 

30-289  '  30  220 !  30-208   63-3 

42-9 

sw 

6    30044 

30-086,30052   29-998 

62-0 

49-8 

W 

7    30-145 

30-080 

30-001 

30-038  1  59-2 

46-9 

{•sw 

7    29-834 

29-814 

29-870   29-956 

66-0 

44-8 

wsw 

8    30-043 

30048 

30-004 

30-008   61-9 

431 

NNW 

8    30-000 

30-009 

29-967  29-939 

68-9 

41-6 

8W 

9    29-971 

29-969 

29-938 

29-969  1  62-0 

42-4 

NW 

9    29-872 

29-841 

29-835  1  29-799 

68-0 

49-8 

w 

10    29-960 

30-021 1  30-025 

30-058   64-3 

55-2 

SW       10    20-829 

29-889 

29-926  •  29-916 

59-9 

48-9 

w 

11 

3O-06S 

30-092 !  30-028 

30-077   65-4 

52-9 

SW    ,  11  ,29-849 

29-803 

29-755   29-806 

58-1 

47-2 

8W 

12 

30-087 

30-103 

29-969 

29-841 1  68-9 

58-4 

8        12 

29-811 

29-792 

29-662 .  29-660 

69-0 

62-3 

SW 

13 

29-757 

29-770 

29-770 

29-965   68-4 

54-8 

SW 

13 

29-4-^2 

29-446   29-696  ■  29-848 

68-1 

46-0 

w 

14 

30-067 

30-133 

30109 

30-128   65-5 

46-0 

W 

14 

29-870 

29-876   29-837   29-782 

65-2 

461 

sw 

16    30091 

30-047 

29-922 

29-830   65-9 

46-9 

S 

15 

29-765 

29-724 

29-614 1  29-604 

59-0 

62-6 

ss^ 

16 

29-716 

29-727 

29-829 

29-969   66-6 

49-8 

SW      16 

29-322 

29-333 

29-423  1  29-637 

66-7 

48-0 

bw 

17 

30-049 

30-192 

30-222   30-264   59-2 

41-1 

NW    1  17 

29-872 

29-986 

29-972 '  29-918 

56-0 

41-5 

sw 

18 

30-237 

30-205 

30-088 '  30-055    63-1 

33-9 

S      •  18 

'2QS-26 

•J9-7&0 

29-710 ,  29-612 

56-1 

50-3 

sw 

19 

29-981 

29-997 

29-963   29-982    70-9 

46-9 

SW      19 

29-598 

29-6b8 

29-778 

29-893 

67-2 

48-0 

wsw 

20  ,  29-946 

29-914 

29-813 

29-901 1  67-9 

520 

E      1  20    29-959 

30063 

30096 

30-161 

62-0 

46-1 

NB 

21  !  29-918 

29-944 

29-944 

30-049 '  66-6 

65-0 

N      !  21    30-170 

30-236 

30-237 

30-283 

62-0 

40-0 

£N£ 

22  '  29-105 

30-166 

3(J-167 

30-173   58-9 

551 

NNE  ,  22  1  30-291 

30-295 

30-235 

30-206 

65-0 

39-2 

KNB 

23  ;  30113 

30-097 ,  30-036  1 

29  984   63-5 

53-8 

WNWI  23    30-103 

30-008 

29-843 

29-694 

56-5 

41-4 

WNW 

24    29-877 

29-889   29-922  29-9&3   W2 

48-0 

W     ■  24  1  29-552 

29-624 

29-661 

29-568 

64-0 

46-0 

W 

25  !  29-947 

29-943  29-901   -29974  ,  63-0 

46-6 

SW 

25 

29-473 

29-468 

29-548 

29-666 

66-7 

48-1 

WSW 

26  1  29-997 

30022   29-911,29-839  164-6 

60-0 

SW 

26 

29-688 

29-702 

29-566 

29-394 

57-1 

48-8 

ssw 

27  '  29-752 

29-708   29-632  29-591    66-3 

61-9 

sw 

27 

29-292 

29-193 

29-217 

29-224 

56-3 

42-8 

sw 

28    29-679 

29-760 

29-734   29-773   58-1 1 

46-2 

w 

28 

29-404 

29-528 

29-500 

29-416 

51-2 

40-9 

w 

29    29-796 

29  7W 

29-649 

29-691   58-3 

42-6 

sw  . 

29 

29-269 

29-242 

29-228 

29-264 

50-0 

43-0 

sw 

SO    29-473 

29-457 

1 
1 

29-600 

1 

29-480  67-1 

47-8 

sw 

30 

j 

29-230 

29-240 

29-244 

29-270 

49-4 

42-0 

B 

OCTOBER,  1892. 


1     29-404  29-364 '  29-366 

129-399 

66-2  1  42-6 

bSW 

1 

29-271 

29-284 

29-271 

|29-;c96 

48*8 

142-4 

NK 

2    29-446  29-440  '  29-487  1  29-594 1  49-3  !  39-3 

ESE 

2  '  29-360  ;  29-414 

29-479129-669  478.41-9 

NE 

3    29-658  '  29-687  29680  1  29-704  '  65-7   41-9 

wsw 

3  ■  29-641 

29-676 

29-662  29-6-26  60-1  '  41-4 

NNW 

4    29-671   29-670129-608129-510  663   43  0 

bW 

;    4    29-581 

29-698 

29-667   -29-638  618  460 

W 

5  1  29-420  1  29-382  !  29370  !  29437  661 1  403 

SW 

5 

29-388 

29-249 

•29-120   29-060,49-3 

143-9 

w 

6  1  29-373   29-331   29249  ,  29204   629  1  39-5 

sw 

6 

29-113 

29-158 

29-lfO  29-169,51-7 

46-0'  SSW 

7  1 29-276  -  29-341  i  29-365 

29-404  56-2   42-81     SW 

7 

29-166 ;  29-196 

29-2-26 1  29-309  50-0 

43-7 1    NW 

8  129-427.  29-534 '29-672 

29-6081  61-6   4211  WSW 

8 

29-338 

29-403 

29-373 

29-226  48-2 

40-2   WNW 

9  1  29-497  .  29-370   29-410 

29-494  63-6  42-8       W 

9 

28-937 

28-851 

29-043 

29  290 

49-2 

42-1 

WNW 

10  '  29-605  1  29-754   29828 

29-934 

65-8   39-2,     W 

10 

29  479 

29-622 

29-724 

29-848 

61-7 

38*0 

NW 

n    29-980  '  30-033  30-025 

30-047 

62-5   35-6'    NW 

11 

29-915 

30-016 

30-062 

30-109 

52-9 

36-3 

NW 

12    30-044  30-044  29984 

29-965 

60-6   34-6 .      N 

12 

30-118 :  30-159 

30-146 

30-176 

61-0 

33-0 

N 

13    29-913  29-887   29806 

29-744  '  53-3  465  i  NNE 

13 

30-137  1  30145 

30-090 

30-091 

60-0 

45-0 

NNE 

14    29-682   29-626   29-661 

29-7W 152-3  46-7 

ESE 

14 

30-069 '  30-073 

30-015 

30-017 

61-2 

45-8 

NB 

16    29-783 1  29-804  29*748  ■  29744  '  62-0   40-1 

E 

15    29-991    30-023 

29-994 

30-007 

48-0 

42-7 

NB 

16  ,  29-686  29-676  1  29696  2i-780  |  50-7  ,  41-8 

N 

16    29-956 

29-939 

29-970 

30  030 

47-3 

38-0 

NB 

17    29-826   29-944130-0-23   30-108   48-9   37-6 

N 

17    30  067 

30120 

30-161 

30-2:j4  45-6 

360 

NNE 

18  1  30-144 1  30-2Ct9   30-224   30274   48-0   36-5 

N 

18 

30-272 

30-310 

30-285 

30-274 ,  46-9 

30-1 

W 

19    30-271 '  30-288   30211 ;  30198   479  ,  32-9 

NNW 

19 

30-209 

30-135   30-068 

30-092   49-1 

34-8 

w 

20  ,  30132  30-081   29-995  ,  29932  |  480  '  36-6 

W 

20 

30027 

29-969   29873 

29-767 

45-0 

37-8 

ENE 

21    29-795  1  29-665   29640  1  29-612   49-7 1  38-6 

W 

21 

29-653 

29-632   29-611 

2I»-6T9 

44-4 

36-3 

N 

22    29-4S4 1 29-686   29-611   29-698   46-0   34-7 

NW 

22 

29-668 

29-622  ■  29-5d2 

29-496 

43-2 

34-0 

WNW 

23    29-558   29-591 '  29-611    29693   47-7   33-6 

WNW 

23 

29-485 

29-530  i  29-536 

29-588 

46-1 

34-7 

NW 

24  '  29-711   29-752   29-782  i  29-83 1 ,  46-3  ;  31-0       W 

24 

29-679  1 29-755 

29-783  •29  8-J6 

42-1 

29-3 

NW 

25  1  29-737  29-691 1  29707  '  29-826   42-5   36-::    NNE 

26 

29821 1  -29-842 

-29-843 

29-912 

38-0 

23-8 

bSE 

26  '  29-971   30-081 1  30-030   29-930  ,  48-2   283  '      N 

26 

29-936 

29-942   29-868 

29-668 

40-8 

24-0 

S 

27    29-741 '  29-692   29-463  29372 

66-9  41-6 

S 

27 

29-399 

29-269  '  29186 

29066 

60-0 

37-9 

S 

28  ,  29-316  28-315 1  29268  1  29332 

58-6  64-7 

S 

28 

28-882 

28-991 

29-007 

29-032 

65-2 

48-0 

SW 

29    29-326 ,  29-349   29-442  ,  29-543 

68-9   46-3 

SW 

29 

28-973 

28-926 

29-035 

29-303 

53-2 

42-7 

SSW 

30    29-608 '  29-695  29664   29678 

63-0   38-3 

N 

30 

29-429 

29-624 

29-565 

29-699 

48-2 

40-0 

8W 

31  ,  29-480  29-607  29679  29*744 

47-0  46-1 

N 

31 

29-591 

29  643  29-690 

29-762 

46-3 

35-7 

WNW 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


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a 

k 


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408 


BAROMETER,   THERMOMETER,   ETC.,   READINGS,   1892. 
SEFTEMBEB,  1882. 


KEW. 

GLASGOW. 

"  "b;.o«t.,..      tx--- 

si 

Barometer. 

Tempsba- 

TVRS. 

^     4a.1i 

10  A.M.' 4  P.M.    10  P.M.  MOLX 

■     1 

Min 

4a.m. 

10  a.m. 

4  p.m.  10  P.M. 

Max 

Min. 

Dirocti 
wind  at 

1  129-852 

29-931 129-9131  29-911 1  62-9 

51-1 

8W    '    1 

29-539 

29-453 

29-469  29-441 

56-2 

47-0 

W 

2  1  29-767 

29-650   29-604  29-623163-0 

52-3 

SSW  1    2    29-338 

29-324 

29-308  29-344 

54-7 

45'2 

WSW 

3  129-639 

29-670  1  29-701   29-8-J4,60-7 

47-8 

W 

3    29-382 

29-4S0   29-558   29-834 

57-5 

45-3 

WNW 

4  1  29-909 

30-044  1  30-143  1  30-269  1  58  5 

48-0 

NKW 

4    29-976 

30-102   30-133  30-190 

!>6S 

41-9 

SSW 

6  ,  30-294 

30-339  1  30-310  1  30-325    61-7 

39-7 

sw 

5    30-ir2 

30-148   30-(82   30-063 

60-9 

40-9 

SW 

G  ,  30-291 

30-289  ,  30-220  ,  30-208   63-3 

42-9 

sw 

6    30044 

30-086,30-052   29-998 

62-0 

49-8 

W 

7  130-145 

30-080   30-001   300;i.S   59*2 

•w-o 

tSW        7    29-8:J4 

29-814 

29-870   29-956 

560 

44-8 

WSW 

8  1  30-043 

30-048  ■  30-004  '  30-008    61-9 

43-1 

NNWI     8    30-000 

30-009 

29-967  29-939 

58-9 

41-6 

sw 

9  ,  29-971 

29-959  1  29-938  |  29-969  ,  62-0 

42-4 

N\V        9    29-872 

29-841 

29-835   29-799 

.58-0 

49-8 

w 

10  129-960 

iJO-021    3()-(''J5  1  30-058  '  64-3 

55-2 

SW    '  10    29-829 

29-88l> 

29-925   29-915 

59-9 

48-9 

w 

11  1  30-068 

30-092  i  30-0-J8  i  30077  1  65-4 

52-9 

tJW       11  ,29-849 

29-803 

29-755 ,  29-805 

58-1 

47-2 

sw 

12  1  30-087 

30-103  1  29-969  ,  29-841 1  689 

58-4 

S      1  12  129-811 

29-792 

29-662   29-660 

59-0 

62-3 

sw 

13  '  -^9-767 

29-770  '  29-770  1  29965  '  68-4 

54-8 

SW       13  '29-4T2 

29-44*5   29-696:29-848 

58-1 

46-0 

w 

14    30-067 

30-13:3   30109  130-128   65-5 

46-0 

W        14  ,29-870 

29-876129-837   29-782 

66-2 

46-1 

sw 

15  1  30091 

30-0i7  1  29-922  ,  29-830  i  65-9 

46-9 

8        15  '29-755 

29-724 ,  29-614   29-50* 

69-0 

62-6 

S3« 

16  ,  21>716 

29727  •  29-829  1  29969   G6G 

49-8 

SW    ,  16  •  29-322   29333  '  29-423  '  29-637 

66-7 

48-0 

bw 

17  1  30049 

30-192  '  30-2-22   30-264   59-2 

41-1 

KW    !  17  1  29-872  ;  29986  ;  29-972   29*918 

56-0 

41-5 

sw 

18  ;  30-237 

30-205    30U88   30-055    63-1 

33-9 

S         18  ,  29-v826  1  29-7fcO  i  29-710 ;  29*612 

56-1 

50-3 

sw 

19    29-981 

29-997  1  29-963   29982    70-9 

4^-9 

SW       19  '29-598   29-688,29-778   29-893 

57-2 

18-0 

WSW 

20    29-946 

29-914  1  29-8 13  i  29-901    679  ■  520 1 

E        20  '29-959   30  063  130  096   30-151 

62-0 

461 

NE 

21  1  29-918 

29-944  ,  29-944  1  30-049    0(;-6 

55-0 

N      1  21  130-170   30-236  i  30-237  !  30-283 

520 

40-0 

ENE 

22  '  29-105 

30-166  '  30-167   30-173   589 

55-1 

NNE  ,  22    30-291   30  295   30  235  ■  30  206 

650 

39-2 

KNB 

23  1  30-113 

30-(t97  1  30-036  '  29  984   635 

53-8 

WNW    23    30-103   30008 '  29-843   29-694 

65-6 

41-4 

WNW 

24  1  29-877 

2y-889    29-922  i  29-983    «-2 

480 

W     1  24  '  29-552 

29-624 ,  29-651    29-568 

640 

46-0 

W 

26  1  29-947 

29-943   29-901,29074   63-0 

46-6 

SW    1  25  129-473 

29-458  1  29-548   '29-656 

66'7 

48-1 

WSW 

26  1  29-997 

30-022   29-911 ,  29839    64-6 

50-0 

SW   i  26  1 

29-688 

29-702   29-566  i  29394 

671 

48-8 

SSW 

27  1  29-752 

29-708   29-632  '  29-591    66-3 

51-9 

SW      27  1 

29-292 

29-193   29-217,29-224 

66-3 

42-8 

SW 

28    29-679 

29-760  1  29-734   29-773   58-1 

46-2 

W 

28 

29-404 

•29-528 

29-500   29-416 

61-2 

40-9 

w 

29  i  29-796 

29-784  29-649   29-591 ,  583 

42-6 

SW  . 

29 

29-259 

29-242 

29-228  29-264 

500 

430 

8W 

80    29-473 

29-467 1  29-600 1  29-180 1  67-1 

1             ' 

47-8 

1 

SW 

1 

90    29-230 

29-240 

1 

29-241 129-270 

i 

49-4 

42-0 

8 

OCTOBER.  1892. 


1  ,  29-404 1  29-364 ,  29-355  1  29399   652   42-6    SSW 

1    2y-271  1  29-284   29271 

1  29-296 

,48-8142-41    NE 

2  '  29-446  29-440  29-487  |  29594   493   39-3  ,  ESE 

2  1  29-350  '  29-414   29479  '  29569  |  478  41-9 1    NE 

3  1  29-658  1  29-687   29-680  '  29704   65-7   41-9  '  AVSW 

3  1  29-641 ,  29-675  29662  ,  29-6-25  601 1  414   NNW 

4     29-671 1 29-670   29-008129-510   56-3   43  01     fc>W 

4    29-581  1  ?9-598  129-567   29-538, 51 -S  46-0,     W 

6  1  29-420   29-382   29370  ,  29-437   551   40-3  i    SW 

6  129-388   29-249 129-120  29-069   49-3:43-9 

W 

6    29-373129-331    29-219   2926*  52-9   39-5,    SW 

6    29-113  1  29-158  1  29-l.'0  29-169   51-7   460 

SSW 

7    29-276   29-341    29- J5o    29-404   55-2   42*8      BW 

7    29-155   29-196  ,  29226 1  29309   50-0  i  437 

KW 

8  1  29-427  1  29-531  29572  '  29608   51-6   421    W8W 

8    29-338   29-403  1  29-373 1  29-226  48-2   40-2 

WNW 

9  1  29-497  1  29-370   29410  i  29-494   53-5   42-8       W 

9    28-937   28-851 ,  29-043  29  290  '  49-2   42-1 

WNW 

10  '29-005|  29-751,  29-828    29934   55-8   39*2       W 

10  1  29  479   29-622 1  29-724 1  29848  1  51-7   38-0 

KW 

11    29-980  '  30033  30-025  |  30047   525   356  ,    NW 

11  '  29-915  1  30-015 

30052 1  30-109   62*9   36-3 

NW 

12  130-044  30-044   29981 '  29-965   50-5   31-61      N 

12  1  30118  '  30-159 

30145 130  176  1 61-0 '33-0 

N 

13  129-913  29-887  29-806  1  29-744   53-3  '  46-6  |  KNE 

13  1  30-137  ,  30145 

30-090 ,  30091  ,  50-0 !  46-0 

NNE 

14  '  29-582   29020   29-661  ■  29-754   52-3   467  1  ESE 

14  .  80-069   30073 

30-015 

30017   61-2  1  45-8 

KB 

16    29-78:3   29-804  29-748 1  29-741   520   40-1 1      E 

15  1  29-991    30-023 

29-994 

30-0C»7  i  48-0  ■  42-7 

Nil 

16  '  29-686  1  29-676  '  29-696  2^-780   50-7,41-81      N 

16  1  29-956  i  29-939 

29-970 

30  030  1 47-3  1  38-0 

NR 

17    29-8-26   29-944   3002:3   30108   489   37-5,     N 

17  ,  30  057  ,  30-120  30-151 "  30-2;34  !  45*6 

36-0 

NNE 

18    30-144  30-209  1  30-221   30-274  1  48-0   :35-5  1      N 

18  1  30-272  '  30-310  ,  30285  i  :Ju-274  ,  46-9 

30-1 

W 

19    30-271 ,  30-21S8  1  30-211   30198   479   32-9  ,  KNW 

19    30-209   :30l35i  30-068   30092 '49-1 

34-8 

W 

20  ,  30-132  30-081    29995  ,  29932  ,  480 ,  355  |     W 

20    30027129-969   29-873]  29767  i  45*0 

37-8 

ENE 

21  1  29-795  29-665  ,  29-540   29512   49-7  '  38-6  i     W 

21     29-663  , -29-632   29  611,29-679   444 

36-3 

N 

22  '  29-494  29-580  !  29-611   29-598  1  46-0   3-17  1    N  W 

22    29-668  '  29-622   29532   29-496  i  432 

340 

WNW 

23    29-55S   29-591129-611    29093  147-7   33*5   WNW 

23    29-4xS5  '  29-530   29-536  ,  29588  '  45-1 

34-7 

HW 

24    29-711   29-752   29-7b2  ,  298:31  463   Sl'O  I      W 

24    29  679.  29-755  29-78:3129  826,42-1 

29-3 

NW 

25    29-737  29691 ,  29-707   29-b25  ,  425   :35--  ,  NNE 

25 

29-i>21  1  29-8-12  , -29-813   29-912   38-0 

23-8 

t-SE 

26  '  29-971   30-081 '  30-030   29-y:iO  '  48-2   283  1      N 

26 

29-935  :  29-942    29*858 

29-66S  1  40-8 

240 

8 

27    29-741 ,  29-592  '  29-453  '  29-372  1 56-9  41-6        S 

27 

29-399,29-259!  29185 

29-065   50-0 

37-9 

8 

28    29-316  29-315  1  29-258  29332  |  bbb  547        S 

28 

28-882  '  28-991   29007 

29-032 

66-2 

48-0 

SW 

29    29-328  29319   29442  .  29543  ,  589   463      SW 

29 

2S-973  128-926  129-035 

29-303 

63-2 

42-7 

SSW 

30  '  29-608   29-695  '  29661   29-578  i  53-0   38-3       N 

80 

29-429  29-624,29-656 

29-699 

48-2 

400 

SW 

31  1  29-480  29-607  29679  29-744  47-0  461       N 

31 

29-691   29  643  1 29-690 

29-762 

46-3 

367 

WNW 

Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


s 

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^     X 

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Ui     UJ 

15 


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Digitized  by  CjOOQ  l^ 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


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11 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


BAROMETER,  THERMOMETER,   ETC.,   READINGS,    1892. 
NOVEMBER.  1892. 


499 


KEW. 

GLASGOW. 

Baeoxstsb. 

Texpbra- 

TUKB. 

11 

Baroxxtbb. 

Tempbra- 

TURfe. 

II 

i 

&_ 

4A.X. 

10  A.M. 

4P.H. 

1          1 
lOp.M.MaxMiu. 

6  '                       ' 

"5     4a.m   10  a.m.  4  p.m.  10  p.m. 

Max'Min. 

1^ 

a  % 

S 

'         q5   1 

1 

29765 

29-816 

29-822 

29-852  ;  48-9  1 349 

N 

1    29-792  ]  29-833  29-810 1  29-798 

44-3 '  30-4 

NE 

2 

29-SiS 

29-8;J2  1  29-694 

29-6tt5  150-7   30-0 

N 

2    29-711 '29-614  29427  29392 

44-3   35-9 

ESB 

3 

2i»  W7 

29-674  1  29-787 

29-896   54-7   41-9 

W 

3    29  294:29-347   29403   29596 

50-4   44-9:     SW     1 

4 

20-878 

29-862 

29-817 

29-792  I5S-0   422 

S 

4    29-4^2  !  29-415  29-446  j  29-484  1 55-0  ;  47-6  ,  SSW   1 

5 

29-stl 

29-873 

29-8.J9 

29-839   57-2    5(»  5 

S8W 

5    29-456  29-187   29  580  1  29-668 

52  1   45-8      SW 

6 

29-813    29-855  '  29890 

29-196,53-3  1403 

W 

6  ,  29-t95   29-788   29851   29948 

48-0  ■  38-9  1     W 

7 

-JO-OW   a)-13;i'30-lGl 

;W-2i2|49-8ul2-9 

WNW 

7    30-014  30-082  30-068  30052 

17-8  1  33-8 .  ENE 

8 

30-277   3«)-321 

3t)-282 

3(J-277    43-9 

33-9 

N 

8    29-982  ,  29-961   29  890,29-884 

601 1  447 

SSW 

9 

30-221  1  :»-179 

;J0129 

30122   49-4 

t3-3 

SK 

9    29-859 

29-857  29-?8r  29-951 

510   41-9 

SW 

10 

iiO-114 ,  30-148 

;W-l3i 

30-116    48-9 

37-0 

8E 

10    29-964 

29-996    29-959    29976 

48-3   38-9 

SW 

11 

;k)-13l    30  120 

:]<»(i72 

3')0l,s    47-9 '36-3 

W 

11  ,  29-930  '  29-936   29931 ;  29-951 

52-8   44-7 

BW 

12 

30-00l»   29-981  I  29-910 

•29-9l»,5   50- A  1  42-2 

ssw 

12    29-903 

29-849   29-r38  i  29-657 

48-5   43-3 

8 

13 

29-8  U,  29-825, '29-771^ 

'29-7^9;5^-9    44-1 

s 

13  '  29-617 

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29-785  ;  29-795 

29-728 

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14    29-590 

29-531   29-349,29-200 

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15 

29-GG4  1  29-727 

29-756 

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15    29-201 

29-398  29-576 !  29-689 

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16 

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NE 

17 

299M   30-«H'() 

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29-<'81   47-2|3S-8 

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17    29-930 

29-939   29-897   29  880 

45-3   35-8 

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18 

29-951    20  032 

29-840 

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19 

29 '092    29r)89 

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29-749    19-7   360 

SE 

19    29-612 

29-6-24   29-664  '  29742   40-7   34-0 

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30-3iO   30-.^49 

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22    30-334 

30-367  30-335   30-^31    43-3   380 

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30-168    43-5    38-4 

SE 

24    30-122 

30131   30-140   30-168,39-3   378 

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25 

30-168   30-19S 

30-165 

30179141-7 

35-3 

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25  i  30-146 

30159   30-094 :  30*031  '  43-0   38-1 

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30-100  46-0   39-8 

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30-219   .3(va72 

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30-154  30-161 

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28 

30-4,32   30  136 

30-318 

30-260   48-0 

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28 

30095 

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30-160   30-086 

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30-C09   52-4 

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29-671 

29-744 

29-632 

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30-029   30-140 

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30 

29-760 

29*980 

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30-111 
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29-784 
29-5-2.3 
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29-757 
29-878 
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29-918 
29-503 
29-511 
29-749 
30-150 
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30-000 
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29-6-28 
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29-827 
29-983 
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29-434 
29-523 
29-921 
30-059 
30-C-22 

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30-300 
30-277 
30-199 
30-084 
30-098 
30-045 
30073 
29-997 
29-902 
30-106 
30-242 
30-325 
30-0-20 
29-849 
29-805 


29-674  i  -29-795 , 
30-129  30  036, 
29-522  1  •29-511  I 
29-664 '29-710 
29-683  29-738 
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29-589 

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29-524 

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29-W3 

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30-061 

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29-765 

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29-923 

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29-271 

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29-782 

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29-962 

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29-861 

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29-928 

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29-991 

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29-273 

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30-025 

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30-018 

39-1 

30-9 

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29-886 

31-6 

267 

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30-011 

26-7 

200 

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30-145 

30-0 

17-2 

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30-215 

31-0 

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29-987 

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28-5 

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29-7-26 

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37-0 

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29'75:J 

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30-5 

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29-916 

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500  BEPOBT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN 


II.— REPORT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN  FIRE-DAMP  COMMISSION.' 


SECOND  FXRT,-^Continu€d.f 
•      SCIENTIFIC  AND  TECHNICAL  ENQUIRIES. 
B.— The  Means  and  Methods  of  Combating  Fibe-damp. 
I.— Recognition  of  Fire-damp. 

08. — Fire'dawp  Indicators, — A  whole  series  of  so-called  gas  or  fire-damp  indi- 
cators have  been  devised,  whose  main  object  is  to  make  manifest  the  presence  of 
carburetted  hydrogens  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  w^orkings,  automatically  and  there- 
fore independently  of  the  greater  or  less  attentiveness  of  the  miners.  J  They  are  all 
of  them  based  on  the  utilization  of  certain  physical  or  chemical  properties  of  pit- 
gas  ;  as,  for  instance,  the  indicators  of  Mr.  Ansell  and  Mr.  Van  der  Weide,  based 
on  the  diffusion  of  gas  brought  about  by  endosmosis  ;  the  acoustic  indicator  of  Mr. 
Forbes  and  Mr.  Blaikley,  the  instruments  devised  by  Messrs.  Wilson,  Carleton,  and 
others,  based  on  the  difference  of  specific  gravity  of  the  gaseous  mixtures;  the 
thermoscopic  instruments  of  Messrs.  Angus  Smith,  Aitken,  Somzee,  Siemens,  and 
Halske,  based  on  the  condensation  [occlusion]  of  the  gas  by  platinum  sponge,  and 
the  consequent  rise  of  temperature  or  difference  of  pressure  ;  the  electro-photometric 
indicator  of  Mr.  Liveing,  based  on  the  increased  intensity  of  glow  in  the  gas  of  a 
platinum  spiral  through  which  an  electric  current  is  conducted  ;  the  methanometer 
of  Mr.  Mounier,  as  well  as  the  grisoumeter  of  Mr.  Coquillion  and  Mr.  Maurice, 
based  on  the  combustion  of  the  gas  by  means  of  electrically  incandescent  platinum 
or  palladium  wire,  and  the  consequent  diminution  of  volume  or  tension.  Finally, 
other  instruments  are  baaed  on  the  differential  conductivity  of  the  gases  for  heat 
(Somz<^e),  on  the  transmission  of  the  pressure  arising  from  the  explosion  of  the 
gas  by  an  electric  spark  (Kitsee),  on  the  application  of  the  lengthening  of  the  lamp- 
flame,  which  is  a  consequence  of  the  presence  of  fire-damp,  to  the  combustion  of  a 
thread  connected  with  an  alarm  bell  (Turquan),  on  the  production  of  so-called 
singing  flames  (Irvine),  on  the  heiiting  and  expansion  of  a  metal  rod  (Clermont), 
and  so  on. 

Almost  all  the  indicator  above  enumerated  are  fixtures,  and  are  so  arranged 
that,  when  they  come  into  action,  they  close  an  electric  circuit,  which  starts  alarm 
bells  ringing,  or  gives  other  signals,  or  provides  a  continuous  graphic  record  of  the 
state  of  the  atmosphere  in  the  mine  ;  this,  either  at  definite  observation  points 

*  Translated  by  Mr.  L.  L.  Belinfaute.       f  Tran*.  Fed.  Intl.,  toI.  iii.,  page  11C5;  and  toI.  it.,  page  631. 

t  Mr.  Hatondela  Goupillldre.  Report  o/theFrtnch  Firt-tfamp  Commission,  orig  papes  173-174 ;  Metna. 
Mallard  and  Le  Chatelier,  "  On  the  DetectioD  of  Fire-damp  in  the  Air  of  Minee."  AnnaU*  dn  Mines, 
March-April,  1881 ;  Mr.  L.  Bomzee,  Meant  o/  Prermting  ErjAonoM  in  Mines,  Schaerbeck,  1881 ;  Prof. 
Krelscher,  ''Preliminary  Repoit  of  the  British  Royal  Comminlon  on  Accidents  in  Mines,"  loc.  /ain.  ciL 
pages  3346;  Mr.  Hoemecke,  "On  Precautionary  Measures  against  Firedamp,"  etc,  ZeiUckr.  /.  d. 
Berg,  HUtten-u.  Salinen-Weten  tm  Pretuu,  StaaU,  toI.  xxxi.,  B.,  pages S91-793 ;  Dr.  Berlo,  TrtattBe  m 
Minimg,  4th  edition.  1884,  foL  U..  pages  814-319:  Sir  Fired.  Abel,  Addrtst,  loc  Jam,  eti.,  pages  16-17 
Final  Report  of  thi  BriUtK  Boifal  Commitnon,  pages  97-107. 


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FIRE-DAMP  COMMISSION.  501 

above  bank  (manager's  oflSce,  etc.),  or  even  below  ground  (generally  at  the  onset). 
But  the  essential  point  is  that  they  only  offer  the  means  of  watching  the  ventilation 
at  particular  localities  or  narrowly  restricted  portions  of  the  pit  (the  points  where 
they  are  placed),  and  that  the  use  of  such  indicators  can  at  no  time  enable  one  to 
dispense  with  the  usual  exhaustive  examination  of  the  workings  for  fire-damp 
by  officials  and  miners.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  value  in  mining  practice  of 
nearly  everyone  of  the  above-mentioned  indicators  is.  to  say  the  least,  exceedingly 
doubtful ;  and,  in  fact,  none  of  them  has  been  so  far  brought  into  general  use. 

09. — Sofety-lawps, — After  all,  for  the  recognition  of  the  presence  of  fire-damp, 
the  handiest  and  best  means  available  is  the  safety-lamp.  Not  only  is  it  everywhere 
at  hand  in  fiery  mines,  on  account  of  its  use  for  lighting,  but  its  characteristics  and 
the  method  of  handling  it  are  familiar  to  every  miner.  Moreover,  it  is  so  easily 
carried  from  one  place  to  another,  that  the  miner  may  use  it  to  examine  at  once 
any  particular  spot,  whether  in  riding  [up  and  down  the  pit]  or  at  the  working- 
face.  Finally,  the  lamp  is  sufficiently  sensitive  to  draw  the  attention  of  the 
pitman  (if  he  be  not  extraordinarily  careless)  in  good  time  to  the  fact  that  fire- 
damp is  present,  and  so  acts  as  a  warning  signal  against  pressing  danger. 

The  warning  given  by  the  safety-lamp  consists,  as  everyone  knows,  in  the 
striking  changes  undergone  by  the  lamp-flame  in  consequence  of  the  presence  of 
pit-gas.  These  changes  are  two-fold  :  (//)  formation  of  a  bluish  cone  of  light  or 
halo  (aureole) ;  and  (h)  lengthening  of  the  flame.  To  observe  them  accurately,  it  is 
needful  that  the  height  of  the  flame  be  diminished  in  as  great  a  measure  as  possible. 
As  a  covering  for  the  illuminating  flame,  a  small  movable  shield  or  hood  is  found 
very  serviceable.*  The  preliminary  test  with  large  flame  proposed  by  Mr.  Mai-saut 
(he  based  his  proposal  on  grounds  of  safety)  cannot  be  regarded  as  sufficient.! 

In  ordinary  safety-lamps  the  peculiar  flame  phenomena^  are  noticeable,  for  a 
practised  eye,  in  mixtures  containing  as  little  as  2  per  cent,  methane,  but  it  takes 
2^  to  3  per  cent,  of  fire-damp  to  make  these  phenomena  generally  unmistakable. 
Of  all  the  forms  of  lamps  most  used  thus  far  in  Prussian  coal-mines,  the  Davy 
lamp  betrays  the  flame-phenomena  most  clearly  because  it  has  no  glass  cylinder : 
and  so  it  was  long  used  in  preference  to  any  other  lamp  in  examining  the  workings 
for  fire-damp.  The  researches  of  the  Commission  tend  to  prove,  however,  that  the 
Boty  lamp  (Saarbiiick)  and  the  Wolf  benzine-lamp  compete  very  closely  with  the 
Davy  in  this  i'espect.§  The  benzine-lamp  has  this  advantage  over  lamps  burning 
rape-oil,  that  it  yields  taller  cones  of  flame :  further,  the  accurate  arrangement  of 
the  wick  offers  by  no  means  such  great  difficulties  in  the  former  as  in  the  latter. 
The  least  suitable  of  any  is  the  Mueseler  lamp — particularly  that  variety  which  has 
a  chimney  reaching  far  up  into  the  glass-cylinder,  for  its  indications  are  tardy,  and 
the  most  striking  flame-phenomena  are  partly  concealed  by  the  chimney.  And 
so  too  do  the  lamps  which  are  provided  with  a  protective  hood  thereby  lose  some  of 
their  indicating  capabilities. 

The  idea  which  was  at  one  time  put  forward||  that  the  presence  of  carbon 
dioxide  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  pit  would  affect  detrimentally  the  lamps  con- 

*  Mr.  Haton  de  la  Ctouplllidre,  Bitport  of  tht  Frtnt^  Fire-damp  Commiuion^  orig.  page  17S ;  Final 
Report  of  the  French  Fire-damp  CoTRmiwton,  Oennan  tnnslatloD,  op.  Jam.  eit.,  page  296. 

t  Compare  Apprndiees,  toL  iiL  page  74. 

X  Mr.  Pftthler,  "Ventilation  in  the  Roj'al  Colliery  of  Snlzbach-Altenwald,  near  SaarbrUok,"  ZeUaehr. 
f.d.  Berv-t  Hutten-u.  Saltfun-Weeen  im  Prews.  Staate,  toI.  xx.,  B.,  pages  53^54;  Meenv.  Mallard  and 
Le  Chatelier,  "  On  the  Detection  of  Fire-damp,  etc,"  op.  jam.  cU.;  Mr.  Hoemecke,  "On  Precautionary 
Measures  against  Fire  damp,"  etc.,  op.  jam.cit.  page  29S;  Messrs.  Kreischer  and  Winkler,  "Besearches 
on  Safety-lamps,"  Jahrh.  f.  d.  Berg-,  u.  HikUenu:eien,  im  KSnigr.  Saehnen,  1884,  pages  SS-77. 

9  Appendieee,  toL  iii.,  pages  171-173. 

II  Mr.  Baton  de  la  OoupilUdre,  Report  qf  the  French  Fire-damp  Commimon,  orig.  page  171. 


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502  REPOBT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN 

sidered  as  indicators,  was  afterwards  showu  to  be  erroneous  by  Messrs.  Mallaixl  and 
Le  Chatelier  ;*  thoie  observers  found  that  the  presence  of  3  or  4  per  cent,  carbon 
dioxide  in  no  way  affects  the  flame-phenomena  of  the  lamp.  Similarly,  in  the 
course  of  the  researches  conducted  by  the  Commission  at  Bochum,  the  highest 
percentages  of  carbon  dioxide  (1*75  per  cent.)  hitherto  obseived  in  working  the 
mines  were  proved  to  have  no  effect  .f 

An  obvious  defect  of  the  safety-lamp,  from  the  point  of  view  of  its  use  in  the 
recognition  of  fire-damp,  is  that  it  only  begins  to  show  unmistakably  the  presence  of 
the  dangerous  gas,  and  to  allow  of  its  volume  being  e:>timated,  when  the  proportion 
of  methane  exceeds  2^  to  3  per  cent.,  that  is  when  the  peril  has  already  assumed 
an  alarming  as^^ect.  On  the  other  hand,  with  smaller  proportions  of  dangeious  gas, 
the  safety-lamp  leaves  the  ordinary  observer  completely  in  the  lurch.  And  yet 
more  stress  than  ever  must  be  laid  on  the  importance  of  recognizing  immediately 
even  very  small  quantities  of  fii-e-damp  in  pit-workings,  now  that  the  experiments 
conducted  by  the  Commisi^ion  at  Neunkircheu  (compare  pars.  Ncs.  76  and  77  of  this 
KeiK)rt)  have  taught  us  that  in  presence  of  coal-dust  the  existence  of  a  merely 
insignificant  amount  of  gas  in  the  surrounding  atmosphere  graatly  enhances  the 
risk  of  explosion. 

By  supplying  the  safety-lamp  with  pure  hydrogen  gas^  Messra.  Mallard  and  Le 
Chatelier  were  able  to  trace  the  presence  in  the  pit  of  even  so  small  a  proportion 
as  i  per  cent,  of  methane.  3Ir.  Pieler,  working  on  the  same  lines,§  that  is,  obtain- 
ing a  flame  as  colourless  as  possible,  and  eliminating  the  combustion-products  of 
oil  (which  play  the  part  of  disturbing  factors  in  the  recognition  of  small  volumes 
of  gas)  produced  in  his  spirit  lamp  an  extremely  serviceable  appliance  for  the 
practical  examination  of  mines;  with  it,  the  presence  of  dangerous  gases  in  a 
proportion  of  less  than  3  per  cent.— that  is,  a  proportion  too  small  to  be  detected 
by  an  ordinary  safety-  lamp — can  be  determined  with  approximate  accuracy.  The 
Pieler  lamp  is  a  simple  Davy  lamp  of  large  size,  with  the  following  modifications : 
instead  of  the  customary  rape-oil,  alcohol  is  useil  to  feed  the  flame  ;  and  further,  to 
facilitate  the  exact  estimation  of  the  flame-height,  a  small  tapering  cone  is  placed 
over  the  burner.  The  large  size  of  the  lamp  is  purposely  selected  with  a  view  to  full 
development  of  the  cone  of  flame.  The  numerous  experiments  conducted  at  the 
instance  of  the  Commission  ||  have  shown  that  the  flame-phenomena  of  the  Pieler 
lamp  are  so  distinct  that  they  permit  of  the  estimation  of  the  gas-content,  even 
when  the  percentage  is  as  low  as  i  per  cent.,  and,  moreover  the  expeiimental  error 
does  not  exceed  0*25  per  cent.  It  is  shown  too  that  the  lamp  is  a  most  useful 
indicator  jui^t  at  the  point  where  the  ordinary  safety-lamp  ceases  to  be  of  any 
value  for  such  purposes.  On  the  other  hand,  one  is  compelled  to  admit  the  force 
of  Mr.  Joh.  Mayer's  observation**  to  the  effect  that  the  Pieler  lamp  is  not,  properly 
speaking,  a  safety-lamp  at  all :  so  long  as  the  large  size  is  maintained  it  cannot  be 
used  in  presence  of  considerable  quantities  of  fire-damp — for  in  such  cases  it  is  liable 
to  passing  through  or  blowing  through. 

The  so-called  detector,  devised  by  Mr.  W.  E.  Garforth  and  perfected  by  Mr. 
Lechien,tt  bas  received  much  praise  as  being  a  further  practical  development  of 

*  "  On  the  Detection  of  Fire-dam|»,"  etc,  op.  jam,  eit. 
f  Apftndiceg,  toI.  iii.,  page  173. 

I  Op.  tt  loo.  supra  eU. 

§  Mr.  Fr.  Pieler,  Simple  Methods  of  Testing  the  Air  qf  Mines,  Aix-la-Chapelle,  1CS3. 

II  Appendices,  vol.  L,  paves  139-133;  toI.  iii.,  pages  167-173;  vol.  It.,  pages  81-64. 

^**  Utilization  of  the  Pieler  Lamp  for  the  detection  of  Fire-damp,"  Oe«(«fT.  ZeiUehr.  f.  Berg'  u 
Buttenvesen,  1887,  No.  9. 

ft  CampUs-rendus  de  la  SociiU  de  VIndustrie  Minerale,  March,  1886;  Qlidca^^t  1S86,  Na  27;  Appendiea 
ToL  iii.,  page  96;  BvUetin  de  la  Society  de  VMncouraaement,  etc,  1886,  page  SS9:  DiitgUr't  PoL  Jmi  mtl, 
ToL  cclzl.  page  476;  JBttv,  u.  HuiUnmdnnische  Zeilung,  1887,  Na  1. 


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FIRE-DAMP  COMMISSION.  608 

the  safety-lamp  in  the  direction  of  its  utilization  for  the  detection  of  fire-damp.  It 
consists  essentially  of  a  small  rubber  ball,  by  means  of  which  samples  of  the 
atmosphere  are  obtained  from  cavities  and  other  localities  whose  direct  examina- 
tion with  a  safety-lamp  may  be  difficult,  not  to  say  dangerous.  By  screwing 
this  ball  on  to  a  pipe  in  the  base  of  the  lamp,  and  then  squeezing  the  ball,  any 
and  every  sample  may  be,  either  at  the  spot  where  obtained  or  at  any  other 
convenient  place,  led  up  to  the  lamp-flame  and  there  tested.  The  ordinary  process 
of  testing  is  thus  subdivided  into  two  distinct  processes : — (1)  The  taking  of  the 
sample  at  the  dangerous  point,  and  (2)  the  actual  testing  at  any  locality  that  may 
be  selected  as  being  free  from  danger.  In  view  of  the  simplicity  of  the  method 
involved,  this  apparatus  is  likely  to  render,  at  all  events,  some  service  in  many  cases  ; 
more  e?»pecially  since  the  improvements  effected  by  Mr.  Lechien  (they  consist  in 
making  the  ball  close  hermetically,  and  in  introducing  the  gas  sample  into  the 
interior  of  the  lamp  by  means  of  an  annular  pipe  which  is  slipped  from  above  around 
the  lower  portion  of  the  wire-gauze)  have  disposed  of  the  objections  which  would 
certainly  be  advanced  against  the  perforation  of  a  new  opening,  needing  protection 
by  wire-gauze,  in  the  base  of  the  lamp. 

lOO. — Regular  Examinations  of  the  Workings  for  Fire-dawp. — The  need  for 
timely  precautionary  measures  in  the  presence  of  fire-damp  entails  persistent  and  un- 
wearied watchfulness,  as  to  the  atmospheric  condition  of  the  underground  working- 
places.  Thus  it  is,  that  in  the  mining  regulations  of  almost  every  country,  we  find  in 
the  forefront  the  clause  providing  that  all  portions  of  a  pit  where  fire-damp  is  known 
to  occur  or  where  its  occurrence  may  be  expected,  are  to  be  examined  daily  with  the 
safety-lamp  before  the  hewers,  etc.,  go  down  the  pit,  by  reliable  persons  to  whom 
this  task  is  especially  entrusted  (under-viewers.  deputy-overmen).  Indeed,  the 
British  Royal  Commission  on  Accidents  in  Mines  go  a  step  faither  in  their  Final 
Rejmrt^*  recommending  that  the  examination  or  search  be  conducted  with  the  help 
of  indicators  permitting  of  the  detection  of  so  small  a  proportion  as  1  per  cent,  of 
inflammable  gas  in  the  atmosphere.  We  must  applaud  this  recommendation  when 
we  bear  in  mind  the  latest  experimental  results  showing  how  dangerous  are  even 
small  quantities  of  fire-damp  in  the  presence  of  coal-dust,  and  we  think  that  in 
testing  the  air  of  workings  for  such  gase^,  the  obligatory  use  of  the  Pieler  lamp,  in 
addition  to  that  of  onlinary  safety-lamps,  might  well  be  proposed.f 

Besides  the  general  examination  of  the  state  of  the  atmosphere  in  the  pit,  it  is 
almost  everywhere  the  rule — and  very  properly,  as  we  think — to  prescribe  that  a 
regular  special  examination  of  each  working-place  be  conducted  by  one  of  the  men 
who  are  to  work  there  (underviewer,  deputy-overman,  fireman)  on  each  occasion 
before  the  resumption  of  work.  On  the  person  who  undertakes  this  task  lies  more 
especially  the  obligation  to  repeat  the  test  from  time  to  time  in  the  coui-se  of  the 
shift.  To  him  also  is  allotted  the  duty,  as  a  rule,  of  testing  the  atmosphere  previous 
to  the  firing  of  blasting-shots. 

The  Commission  are  of  opinion  that,  as  to  the  detailed  regulations  regarding  the 
proper  examination  of  pit-workings  for  fire-damp,  the  purpose  in  view  will  be  best 
fulfilled  by  including  them  in  the  special  working  regulations  (regulations  for  the 
safety  of  mines)  which  are  drawn  up  for  every  fiery  mine  by  the  mining  authorities, 
and  this  has  been  hitherto  the  practice  in  most  colliery  districts  of  the  kingdom  of 
Prussia. 

•  P*ge  117. 

t  The  obUgatory  u>e  of  the  Pieler  lamp  has  been  enforced  in  the  coal-fleldB  of  Aaatrian  Silesia  and 
Moraria  by  a  decree  issued  from  the  Imperiai  and  Rojal  Ministry  of  Mines  at  Vienna  on  June  ?8th, 
1886.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  in  many  Prussian  coal-mines  the  lamp  has  long  been  used  for  the  purpose 
above  refetred  to— even  where  there  are  no  official  regulations  to  that  effect. 


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504  REPORT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN 

101. — Chemical  AnalysU  of  the  Atm<ntphere  of  Mine*. — The  determination  by 
exact  chemical  analysis  of  the  proportion  of  fire-damp  present*  is,  on  account  of  its 
necessarily  elaborate  character,  hardly  applicable  to  ordinary  mining  practice.  Bnt 
the  numerous  analyses  carried  out  by  Dr.  Schondorff  at  the  instance  of  the  CSommis- 
sion  have  demonstrated  (comp.  par.  No.  68  of  this  Report)  that  it  is  at  any  rat« 
important,  for  the  purpose  of  exercising  proper  control  over  the  ventilation  of  the 
mine,  to  test  the  main  return  air-currents  and  even  some  of  the  chief  tributary 
currents  for  the  quantities  of  inflammable  gas  and  carbon  dioxide  carried  along  with 
them.  For  such  tests  an  abridged  form  of  analysis  is  amply  sufficient,  as  for  example 
that  made  by  means  of  Dr.  Schondor£rs  much  improved  form  of  Mr.  Coquillion^s 
grisoumeterf  (the  principle  of  which  is  based  on  the  combustion  of  the  gas  by  an 
incandescent  palladium  or  platinum  spiral) ;  or  that  made  with  Mr.  CI.  Winkler's 
apparatus :  %  in  this  case  the  gas  is  burnt  by  means  of  incandescent  copper  ozide, 
and  the  carbon  dioxide  which  is  formed  is  titrated  with  baryta  water ;  or,  finally, 
Mr.  Pieler's  8ystem§  of  simply  leading  the  gaseous  mixture  under  analysis  through  a 
hydrogen  flame. 

For  the  collection  of  samples  of  air  with  a  view  to  chemical  analysis,  Dr. 
Schondorffll  has  devised  special  test  tubes  with  the  handling  of  which  any  mining 
official  can  easily  familiarize  himself.  The  tubes  not  only  allow  of  the  collection  of 
samples  at  any  point  that  may  be  selected  within  the  mine,  but  may  be  carried  about 
or  kept  for  an  indefinite  period  of  time  without  injury. 

II.— Mechanical  ob  Chemical  Elimination  of  the  Gases  which 

FORM   FiBE-DAMP. 

102, — Comprejfswn  [or  forcing  back']  of  the  Gases. — More  than  once  in  earlier 
days  it  was  proposed,  by  means  of  so-called  "positive  ventilation,"  that  is,  by  forcing 
air  into  the  mine,  to  prevent  altogether  the  exudation  of  gases  from  the  face  of  the 
coal.**  Recently  this  proposal  has  been  revived  by  Dr.  Werner  Siemens, tt  and  in 
doing  so,  he  has  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  excess  of  pressure  necessary  for  the 
purpose  need  be  but  a  small  one,  taking  into  account  the  effect  of  the  fluctuations 
of  the  barometer.  But  we  think  that  Dr.  Siemens'  opinion  must  be  characterized 
as  absolutely  erroneous,  for,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  pressure  with  which  fire-damp 
issues  from  freshly  hewn  surfaces  of  coal  or  from  blowers  amounts  as  a  rule  to  a  good 
many  atmospheres  (comp.  pars.  Nos.  48  and  66  of  this  Report).  An  effective  forcing 
back  of  the  gases  could,  therefore,  be  accomplished  only  at  such  an  atmospheric 
pressure  as  would  be  impracticable  for  any  length  of  time  in  coal- workings  in  full 
development,  without  reckoning  even  that  systematic  working  would  be  probably 
thereby  rendered  impossible.  Moreover,  it  would  inevitably  happen  that  at  every 
temporary  slackening  of  the  [artificially  applied]  pressure,  outbursts  of  gas  of  more 

*  Dr.  Bchondorff,  "  Examiuation  of  the  Return  Air-currents  of  the  Bur  OoUieriea,"  ZeiUekr.  /.  d. 
BerQ-%  HAiUnr  ti.  SalinenWeaen,  im  Preus*.  Staate,  toI.  xxIt.,  B.,  page  73,  et  •eq.;  id,  auetor,  Appendicett 
Tol.  i..  iiagesSi-SO:  id.  auctor,  "The  Apparatxig  in  the  Laboratory  of  the  Pnusian  Fire-damp  Com- 
miaaion,"  ZeiUchr.  /.  d.  Berg-t  Hatttn^  u.  Salinen-Wutv  im  Preuss.  Staate,  toI.  xxxt.,  B.,  page  69,  et  uq. 

t  Mr.  Haton  de  la  (}oupillldre,  Report  of  the  French  Fire-damp  CommisHon,  orig.  pages  177-179 ; 
we  also  ZeitMchr.  /.  d.  Berg-^  Huttenr  u.  Salinen-Weten  im  Preuss.  Staate,  toI.  xxx.,  B.,  page  f6I,  and 
Tol.  xxxi.,  B..  pages  fi9-60. 

I  "Chemioal  Examination  of  the  Return  Air-currents  in  rarious  Collieries  in  Saxony,  and  the 
results  thereby  obtained,"  Jahrb.  /.  d.  Berg-,  u,  Huttentcenen  im  Kbnigr.  Sachsen,  188S,  pages  65-81. 

f  Simple  Methods  oj  Testing  the  Air  qf  Mines,  Aix-la-Ohapelle,  1883. 

i;  Appendices,  vol.  L,  pages  38-40. 

**  Compare  Mr.  Habets,  "Means  of  Preventing  Fire-damp  Explosions  and  Averting  their  Hurtful 
EiTeota,"  Bemu  Univers,  des  Mines,  Tl.,  I,  page  79,  et  seq.  {Glik!ka^f,  1876,  No.  6,  et  seq.) ;  also  Mr.  Haton 
de  la  Goaplllidre,  Beport  t^fthe  French  Fire-damp  Commission,  orlg.  page  US. 

ft  Lecture  at  the  May  meeting  (1880)  of  the  Electroteohnioal  Association  at  Berlin,  Zeitsehr.  du 
EUktrotechn.  Vereins,  1880^  Pi«e  191.  et  ssg. 


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FIBE-DAMP  COMMISSION.  505 

or  less  magnitude  would  ensue,  bringing  in  their  train  a  whole  crop  of  perils.  Tet 
further  objections  to  the  application  of  so  great  an  atmospheric  pressure  ariae  from 
the  necessity  which  it  would  entail  of  some  elaborate  system  for  leading  off  the  air 
fouled  by  the  abstraction  of  oxygen  and  the  formation  of  carbon  dioxide,*  and  from 
the  enhanced  risk  of  fires  in  the  pit  by  the  spontaneous  combustion  of  coal. 

1 03. — Exhauhtion  of  the  Oases. — Just  as  difficult  in  practice  as  the  compression 
of  the  gases  is  the  reverse  method  so  often  proposed  by  outsiders,  namely,  by  utiliza- 
tion of  decreased  pressure  to  exhaust  the  fire-damp,  and  more  especially  each  time 
before  the  miners  go  down  the  pit,  to  have  it  regularly  pumped  free  of  gas.  Mr. 
Joh.  Schnableggerf  believes  that  coal-seams  can  be  cleared  of  gas  in  the  following 
manner : — Two  or  three  times  in  the  week  while  the  miners  are  above  bank,  steam 
is  led  into  the  workings  by  means  of  a  special  system  of  pipes,  and  in  the  act  of 
condensation  it  is  supposed  to  suck  the  gases  out  of  the  surfaces  and  joints  of  the 
coal ;  the  complete  elimination  of  the  gases  is  then  effected  by  working  the  ordinary 
ventilator  at  a  still  higher  speed  than  usual.  Even  if  one  admitted  the  practicability 
of  such  methods,  they  can  never  be  substituted  for  a  regular  system  of  ventilation ; 
and  if  the  ventilation  of  a  pit  is  good,  they  are,  to  say  the  least,  superfluous. 

Better  results  may  be  expected  from  the  more  far-reaching  device  of  utilizing 
the  low  specific  gravity  of  the  inflammable  gases  to  capture  them  (if  possible  yet 
unmixed)  immediately  on  their  exudation  and  to  lead  them  off,  all  by  special 
apparatus  totally  independent  of  the  ventilation  system.  Mr.  Minary  ^  holds  that  for 
this  purpose  a  system  of  porous  earthenware  pipes  is  well  suited,  which  would  take 
up  the  pit-gas  by  endosmosis,  and  in  connexion  with  two  ventilatore  (one  acting 
by  suction,  the  other  by  compression),  situated  above  bank,  would  lead  the  gas  away. 
Another  proposal  of  Mr.  Minary's  is  to  lead  the  gases  through  conduits  running  along 
the  roof  of  the  galleries  into  certain  spaces  set  apart  as  catchment  or  collecting- 
drifts  (rise-drifts),  and  thence  to  bring  them  to  bank  by  means  of  pipes.  Conceived 
much  on  the  same  plan  is  Mr.  Wodiczka*s  8afety-ventilation,§  wherein,  besides  the 
ordinary  ventilation  ways,  an  extensive  network  of  pipes  for  capturing  the  gases, 
with  numerous  suction -valves,  is  spread  throughout  the  pit  up  to  the  working-face  : 
it  is  supposed  to  suck  in  the  gas  with  the  greatest  rapidity  attainable.  Finally,  Mr. 
Fauck,||  with  the  same  purpose  in  view,  proposes,  besides  suction-pipes,  the  boring 
(from  bank  down  to  the  highest- placeil  levels)  of  special  airways  or  air-shafts. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  a  portion  of  the  pit-gas,  particularly  when  it  is  evolved 
in  large  quantities,  can  be  got  rid  of  in  the  manner  above  suggested  Indeed  it 
has  been  the  practice  for  many  years  past  (compare  par.  No.  66  of  this  Report) 
to  take  off  the  gas  from  blowers  by  a  similar,  though,  it  is  true,  far  simpler 
method.  Meanwhile,  the  assumption  which  lies  at  the  root  of  all  these  proposals, 
namely,  that  the  exuding  gas  remains  for  a  considerable  time  unmixed,  floating  or 
shimming,  so  to  say  [in  the  atmosphere],  will  hardly  hold  good — least  of  all 
when  the  exudation  occurs  during  the  working  shift.  Therefore,  in  applying  the 
method  of  suction,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  gas  which  is  more  or  less 
extensively  diluted  which  has  to  be  dealt  with.    And  then  the  mere  installation  of 

«  Oompare  BCr.  Pieler,  Wodtenaehiifl  dea  Vereina  Devtach.  Ing.  for  1880,  No.  35 ;  also  Dr.  Serlo, 
Treatise  on  Mining,  4th  edition  (18S4),  vol.  U.,  page  Sll;  and  Mr.  Qurlt.  "  On  Ventilation,"  Ztitachr.  dta 
Vereina  Deutach  Ing.  for  1884,  No.  40. 

t  "  Oontribations  to  the  Mioimlzing  of  the  Riakc  which  arise  from  the  Occurrence  of  Fire-damp," 
Berg-,  u.  Sattenmanniaehe  ZHtung,  1886,  Noe.  SU  and  31. 

I  BCr.  Haton  de  la  Goupillidrd.  Report  o/  tke  French  Fire-damp  Commiaaion,  orlg.  pages  117-118. 

9  Mr,  Ft.  Wodiczka,  8<^fety  Ventilation,  a  Syatem  a/  Double  Ventttalum  /or  FUry  Minea,  for  Avertino 
Fire-damp  Exploaiona,  Leipzig,  1885 ;  see  also  Kompaaa,  1887.  No.  4,  for  Mr.  Baue's  proposals,  which 
are  based  on  similar  principles. 

II  Mr.  Alb.  Fauck,  "Ventihition  of  Mines,"  Berg-,  «.  HatUnmanniacJu  ZeUvng,  1886,  No.  40. 


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506  REPORT  OF  THE  PRUBSIAN 

the  elaborate  suction-apparatus  is  a  matter  of  no  small  difficulty,  and  the  necessity 
of  keeping  it  thoroughly  air-tight  entails  constant,  scrupulous  vigilance.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  apparatus  there  must  be,  as  a  matter  of  course  in  all  cases,  a  well- 
ordered  system  of  ventilation  in  the  mine ;  and  it  comes  to  this,  that  the  suction- 
apparatus  forms  in  reality  merely  a  kind  of  duplicate  ventilation  system.  True, 
that  if  the  latter  be  well  planned  and  carried  out  the  mine  will  be  worked,  as  a 
consequence,  under  conditions  of  enhanced  security.* 

104. — Comhnstivn  of  the  Ga*es. — In  certain  colliery  districts,  particularly  in  the 
kingdom  of  Saxony,  it  has  until  recently  been  a  frequent  practice  to  make  use  of  the 
so-called  "perpetual  lamps"  or  "conj*uming  lamps"  for  the  purpose  of  getting  rid  of 
the  pit-gas  by  mean?  of  combustion.  Placed  in  the  roof  in  "  bells"  at  a  great  many 
points  in  the  mine  and  kept  continuously  burning,  these  lamps  are  supposed  to 
consume  the  gas  almost  concurrently  with  its  evolution.  However  harmless  such 
arrangements  may  be  when  gas  is  evolved  only  in  small  quantities,  they  are  never- 
theless attended  with  this  very  serious  risk,  that  if  by  chance  there  take  place  at 
any  time  a  superabundant  evolution  of  gas  an  explosion  is  certain  to  ensue — even  if 
the  lamp-flame  be  isolated  by  means  of  wire-gauze  (as  Mr.  GUnther  proposed).  On 
that  ground,  if  on  no  other,  the  method  must  therefore  be  rejected  as  a  bad  one.f 
Moreover,  certain  experiments  conducted  by  the  French  Fire-damp  Commission 
have  shown  that  an  ordinary  pit-lamp,  in  an  atmosphere  containing  5  per  cent,  of 
methane,  in  no  case  consumes  more  than  18  litres  (0630  cubic  feet)  of  gas  per  hour, 
and  that  consequently  the  practical  efficiency  of  the  perpetual  lamp  may  be 
regarded  as  sensibly  equivalent  to  zero. J 

Of  equally  insignificant  value  from  the  practical  point  of  view  is  the  Komer 
fire-damp  consumer.§  This  apparatus  depends  on  the  combustion  of  hydrocarbon 
gases  by  films  of  platinum  and  palladium,  which  are  wrapped  round  asbestos  capsules 
and  maintained  in  a  state  of  incandescence  by  means  of  a  ligroine  lamp.  Several 
experiments  were  made  with  this  apparatus,  in  rise-dnfts  knovNii  to  contain  fire- 
damp, in  collieries  in  the  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  Saarbrilck  coal  district8,||  and, 
apart  from  the  fact  that  the  apparatus  does  not  work  at  all  in  mixtures  rich  in  gas, 
i.e.^  containing  12  per  cent,  and  more  of  methane,  it  is  shown  even  after  long  burning 
to  scarcely  bring  about  any  marked  diminution  of  the  proportion  of  dangerous  gases 
present  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  mine,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  its  combustion- 
products  very  markedly  deteriorate  that  atmosphere. 

Nor  is  it  an  advisable  practice  to  ignite  blowers  and  allow  them  to  go  on  burning, 
inasmuch  as  it  entails  indirectly  the  risk  of  an  explosion  from  the  intervention  of 
such  external  circumstances  as  vibration  of  the  air  (caused  by  a  blasting-shot  or  by 
a  sudden   fall  of  the  roof).    The  flame  being  easily  extinguished  by  vibration, 

*  One  member  of  the  Commission,  Mr.  Hilt,  has  very  recently  conducted  experiments  on  gas-Bcctlon 
on  a  large  scale  in  a  colliery  mar  aged  by  him  near  Aix-la-Chapelle.  One  point  kept  In  Tit-win  these 
experim*  nts  was  the  suitable  utilization  of  the  gases  thus  drawn  off  from  the  pit.  The  restilts  are 
extremely  satisfactory,  placing  beyond  doubt  the  practicaliility  of  the  procers.  which  promises  to  be  as 
flttocessful  from  the  economic  as  it  is  from  the  engii  eering standpoint.  Etcu  with  the  present  incomplete, 
purely  temix>rnry,  arrangements  it  has  l)een  found  possible  to  keep  such  working-places  as  are  cloocd 
off  for  experim-  nt  continuously  and  perfectly  free  from  gas ;  and  an  overwhelmingly  large  proportion  of 
the  gas  that  usually  isfiies  from  the  mine  by  the  main  return  air-current,  is  drawn  off  thriuiph  the  special 
conduits  (as  mixtures  containing  from  6  to  10  per  cent,  of  methane)  and  is  made  use  of  above  bank. 

t  Compare  Mr.  Haton  de  la  Goupillidre,  Report  of  the  French  Fire-damp  Commission,  orig.  pages 
118-120 :  Mr.  Menzel,  "  Review  of  the  Labours  of  the  Commission  appointed  to  Revise  the  Miidng  Regula- 
tions in  Force  in  Saxony,"  Jahrb.  /.  d  Berg-,  v.  Huttenifeiten  im  Koniar.  Saehsen,  1886,  page  8. 

I  Messrs.  Mallard  and  Le  Chatelier,  Final  Report  of  the  French  Fire-damp  Commistioti,  German 
translation,  page  296. 

9  "  Apparatus  for  the  Combustion  of  Fire-daiDp,"  by  Mr.  Quido  Komer  of  Freiberg,  German  Im- 
perial Pateata.  Nos.  6179.  7469, 11212 ;  see  Dr,  8«-rlo.  Treatise  on  Mining,  4th  edition,  1884,  vol.  U..  pme  309. 

r  Zeittchr.f.  d.  Berg-,  Batten-  u.  Salinen-WeHn  im  Prtuu.  StaaU,  vol.  Jix.,  B.  pages  S52-95S. 


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FTRB-DAMP  COMMISSION.  507 

large  accnmnlations  of  gas  form  at  those  very  points  which  one  imagines  are  abso- 
lutely secure  from  fire-damp.  A  far  more  appropriate  method  of  rendering  such 
blower-gases  harmless  is  to  draw  them  off  in  special  tubes  directly  into  the  return 
air-current,  beneath  the  Tentllating -furnace,  etc^- (compare  par.  No.  66  of  this 
Report). 

A  much  more  dangerous  system  than  that  of  combustion  by  perpetual  lamps  is 
embodied  in  the  proposals  made  by  several  persons  (among  others,  by  Dr.  Werner 
Siemens),  proposals  in  substance  the  same  but  in  form  multifarious,  to  get  rid  of  the 
fire-damp  in  the  pit  by  explosion  with  the  electric  s]>ark*  — this  to  be  done,  either 
as  a  regular  practice  every  day  before  the  miners  go  down  the  pit,  or  continuously 
according  as  the  dangerous  gases  form  and  accumulate.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to 
point  out  that  such  methods,  which  positively  remind  one  of  the  barbarous  old-time 
*'  penitent"-)-  system,  must  be  rejected  in  the  most  determined  manner.  Their  effect 
would  be  to  make  that  very  catastrophe  against  which  our  most  strenuous  efforts 
should  be  directed — an  explosion  with  all  its  untold  consequences — an  ever-recurring 
incident  in  the  working  of  mines. 

105. — Other  Meant  of  Chemically  Decomposing  the  Oasei. — On  account  of  the 
small  chemical  affinity  of  fire-damp  for  other  substances,  the  attempt  to  discover 
some  other  method,  practically  applicable  in  mining,  than  oxidation  (or  combustion) 
for  the  removal  of  the  gas  has  not  been  so  far  attended  with  success.  The  solubility 
of  the  gas  in  water  is  so  insignificant  that  it  need  hardly  be  taken  into  account. 
And  as  to  the  proposed  decomposition  by  means  of  calcium  chloride,  it  has  been 
shown  by  experiment  to  be  impracticable;  besides,  the  use  of  that  compound,  like 
the  use  of  chlorine  gas,  is  manifestly  inadvisable  in  mines  on  account  of  the  injurious 
effects  on  health  of  hydrochloric  acid  and  of  chlorine.  J 

III.— FiBK-DAMP  RENDERED  INNOCUOUS  BY  MECHANICAL   DILUTION. 

106. — In  professional  circles  in  every  country,  the  conviction  has  been  steadily 
gaining  ground  that  the  most  efficacious  method  of  making  fire-damp  harmless 
consists  simply  in  diluting  the  gas  by  means  of  atmospheric  air  and  leading  off 
continuously  the  dilute  gaseous  mixture.  This  purpose  will  evidently  be  best  ful- 
filled, and  most  easily  fulfilled,  by  sending  through  the  entire  workings  an  uninter- 
rupted current  of  fresh  air.  Wherefore  the  efforts  which  are  directed  to  the 
minimizing  of  the  danger  attending  the  occun-encc  of  fire-damp  are  seen  to  be 
intimately  bound  up  with  the  aims  which  have  inspired  every  system  of  mining 
ventilation  from  the  early  days  onwards.  The  utmost  possible  perfection  of  ventila- 
tion is  then  one  of  the  chief  tasks  which  we  must  set  ourselves  in  the  battle  with 
fire-damp — indeed,  it  may  perhaps  be  said  that  it  is  on  this  point  that  the  whole 
battle  should  be  mainly  fought. 

The  preliminary  condition  of  good  ventilation  of  fiery  mines  is  a  well-considered 
arrangement  (plan)  of  the  workings,  devised  so  as  to  give  every  possible  facility  to 
the  circulation  of  air-currents  and  to  the  dra wing-off  of  the  gases.  Before,  therefore, 
considering  in  the  subsequent  pages  the  ventilation  of  mines,  we  now  propose  to 

*  Dr.  Serlo.  TreatUt  on  Mininif,  4th  edition,  1884,  vol.  ii..  pages  309-310;  Dr.  W.  Biemenfl,  "Electro- 
technical  PreTeutiTes  against  Fire-damp,"  Zrtt«<rAr.  d.  EUktroUchn.  Ver.,  1880,  page  191;  Mr.  Pleler, 
WochefMchri/t  dta  Vereitu  Deutsch.  Inq.,  1890,  No.  36. 

t  The  deliberate  ignition  of  flre-damp  by  a  workman  sent  down  the  pit  as  pioneer  (fireman,  oomoimifr, 
scapegoat)  was  customary  in  the  olden  days  in  English.  French,  and  Belgian  oollleriefl.  See  BIr.  Habets, 
"Means  of  Prerenting  Fire^mp  Explosions,"  etc.,  {oc.iam.  cU.;  also  Mr.  Haton  de  la  Goupillldre, 
Report  af  the  Frenth  Fire-damp  CommiMion,  orig.  page  116. 

t  Mr  Haton  de  la  Ooupillidre.  Report  cfthe  French  Fire-damp  Commission,  orig.  pages  lft-17, 121422 ; 
Dr.  Serlo,  TreatUe  on  Mining,  4th  edition,  1884,  toL  iL,  pages  S(i6-309. 

VOL.  V.-i«r2-yJ.  33 


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508  REPORT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN 

discuss  sach  particular  points  in  connexion  therewith  as  should  be  taken  into  account 
in  the  installation  of  a  colliery,  and  especially  in  the  opening-up,  fore-winning  and 
working  of  the  seams  in  fiery  mines. 

1. — Oeneral  Arrangement  of  the  Worhings. — Opening -up  of  the  SeawSy 
Fore-tomniyig,  and  Working. 

107. — Douhle-shaft  Sygtem. — The  air-current  which  performs  the  oflSce  of 
ventilation  has  to  be  drawn  through  the  workings  in  a  particular  direction;  it 
follows,  of  course,  that  these  must  communicate  freely  with  the  surface  by  means  of 
two  openings.  This  requirement  is  easily  complied  with  in  tunnel-workings,  and  in 
the  upper  levels  of  those  deep-mine  workings  whose  seams  come  directly  to  the  day ; 
but  it  is  not  so  easy  a  matter  in  very  deep  workings,  and  particularly  in  those  which 
underlie  enormous  thicknesses  of  (perhaps)  water-bearing  strata  of  more  recent  age — 
this  is  the  case,  for  instance,  in  the  northernmost  districts  of  the  Lower  Rhenish 
Westphalian  coal-field.  In  order  to  avoid  what  is  in  such  districts  the  prohibitive 
expense  of  putting  down  a  second  shaft,  engineers  have  deemed  it  possible  to  fulfil 
the  requirement  of  two  openings  at  the  surface  by  dividing  the  single  shaft  by  an 
air-tight  partition.  In  this  way,  a  separate  air-compartment  (upcast)  is  set  up,  by 
means  of  which  the  air-current  which  has  gone  down  the  main  poition  of  the  shaft 
(forming  the  downcast),  after  it  has  traversed  the  workings  is  drawn  up  to  the  day 
again.* 

One  may  admit  that  a  colliery,  of  moderate  extent  and  working  under  favourable 
conditions,  can  in  this  manner  be  provided  with  a  supply  of  fresh  air  sufficient  for 
ordinary  purposes  of  safety.  On  the  other  hand,  experience  has  proved  that,  for 
such  a  wide  extent  of  workings  as  is  customary  in  a  deep  mine,  the  single-shaft 
system,  partly  because  of  the  difficulty  of  keeping  the  partition  air-tight,  partly 
because  of  the  small  sectional  area  of  the  upcast  compartment,  cannot  be  trusted  to 
provide  a  sufficient  amount  of  ventilation  for  all  the  working-places.  The  dangers 
arising  from  this  insufficiency  would  of  themselves  warrant  us  in  deprecating  the 
application  of  the  single-shaft  system  to  large  collieries,  at  least  as  a  permanent 
arrangement.  But  there  are  further  reasons — based  on  the  broader  ground  of 
general  safety-^which  make  the  provision  of  at  least  two  outlets  for  deep  mine 
workings  a  matter  of  commanding  necessity. 

Proceeding  from  these  considerations,  the  Commission,  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  French  Commission  before  them,t  have  felt  impelled  to  express  themselves,  as  a 
matter  of  principle,  in  favour  of  the  strict  enforcement  of  a  method  of  ventilation 
based  on  the  double-shaft  system,  and  in  the  following  terms  (Art.   2  of  the 

"  Principles '»):— 

"  In  all  fiery  mines,  there  must  be,  at  the  very  least,  two  outlets  at  the  surface, 

separated  from  one  another  by  a  sufficiently  solid  wall  of  rock  or  stone. 

Of  these  two  openings,  one  should  serve  as  a  downcast,  and  the  other  as 

an  upcast  airway." 

"  Temporary  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  nevertheless  permissible." 

The  shortest  way,  the  way  attended  with  the  fewest  obstacles,  and  therefore  the 

most  efficacious,  in  which  the  air-current  can  be  drawn  through  the  workings  is  to 

have  the  two  shafts  so  arranged  in  regard  to  their  distance  one  from  the  other,  that 

they  approximately  coincide  with  the  respective  boundaries  (along  the  dip)  of  the 

area  worked.    The  air-current  is  then  enabled  to  traverse  the  workings  in  a  uniform 

generally  straight  direction,  with  very  little  "doubling  back"  (so  called  "diagonal" 

*  Oonipare  Appendieea,  toL  il.,  page  134,  et  aeq. 

t  PrinHplen  to  ht  Conmltfd  in  Working  Fiery  Mine»,  Puis,  1881.  leo.  L 


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PIRE-DAMP  COMMISSION.  509 

ventilation-system  of  Mr.  Murgue).*  This  arrangement  of  the  shafts  is  the  rule,  for 
instance,  in  most  of  the  Saarbruck  collieries.  There,  either  the  downcast  shaft  Is 
situated  at  one  extremity,  and  the  upcast  at  the  other  extremity  of  the  area  of  the 
particular  district  (winning) ;  or,  supposing  that  the  main  downcast  shaft  is  in  the 
centre  of  the  area  worked,  there  is  an  npcast  ventilating-shaft  at  each  of  the  two 
[extreme]  boundaries.  In  the  latter  case,  the  downcast  main  current  is  subdivided 
into  two  currents  of  opposite  direction.! 

Less  praiseworthy,  from  the  point  of  view  of  good  ventilation,  is  the  system  of 
twin-shafts,  much  favoured  in  many  coal-fields  in  the  more  recent  deep  winnings. 
It  is  true  that  in  other  respects  the  system  offers  many  advantages;  but,  as  it 
involves  the  immediate  proximity  of  the  upcast  to  the  downcast  shaft,  the  air- 
currents  are  after  all  brought  back  to  their  point  of  departure  in  almost  exactly 
the  same  manner  as  in  the  single-shaft  system.  Thus,  not  only  is  the  distance  to 
be  traversed  by  the  air-currents  doubled,  whereby  a  proportionate  increase  in  the 
loss  [or  waste]  of  air  is  brought  about,  but  also,  in  the  event  of  an  explosion, 
the  difficulty  and  the  delay  which  attend  the  re-establishment  of  a  properly 
regulated  air-draught  may  be  enormously  enhanced.  On  the  other  hand,  one 
must  admit  that  the  twin-shaft  arrangement  is  far  superior  to  diagonal  ventila- 
tion, because  by  the  former  system  it  is  easy  to  secure  almost  immediately 
air-communication  (intersection)  between  the  two  shafts,  and  consequently  a 
perfectly  tight  air-current  at  each  new  level  as  it  is  opened  up,  and  to  maintain 
the  same  during  the  fore-winning  of  the  entire  area  [of  the  workings].  By  the 
latter  system,  the  two  shafts  being  situated  at  some  considerable  distance  from 
each  other,  the  desired  condition  of  affairs  is  only  attained  after  a  great  deal  of 
labour  (directed  to  the  provision  of  proper  intersections),  and  labour  which  is  often 
conducted  under  most  unfavourable  circumstances  as  regards  ventilation.J  Nor 
with  a  centrally  situated  downcast  and  upcast  shaft,  does  the  duplication  of  the 
split  currents  in  the  main  cross-crut  and  the  diminution  of  the  "maintenance 
duration"  of  the  main  airways  appear  altogether  unprofitable. 

\0&,—Tlie  Formation  of  I>r eh. §— The  more  or  less  contorted  stratification  of 
the  rocks  in  nearly  all  the  coal-basins  of  Prussia,  together  with  the  generally 
concomitant  occurrence  of  a  large  number  of  workable  scams,  has  almost  universally 
led  mining  engineers  in  that  country  to  divide  the  coal-field  which  is  to  be 
worked  into  separate  sections  by  horizontal  levels,  driven  at  fixed  intervals  one 
below  the  other,  whence  the  working  of  the  coal  from  the  various  seams  ensues  in 
a  given  order.  From  the  standpoint  of  ventilation,  and  chiefiy  therefore  in  fiery 
mines,  this  method  of  opening  up  the  levels  with  cross-cruts  tapping  the  seams, 
offers  the  very  essential  advantage  (compared  with  the  system  which  prevails  in 
England  of  working  away  direct  each  single  seam)  that  the  air-current  can  be  more 
strictly  regulated.  And,  in  particular,  each  level  may  be  said  to  possess  in  the 
level  worked  immediately  above  it,  a  sort  of  air-drift  which  takes  the  foul  air  from 
the  lower  level  and  leads  it  to  the  surface  without  further  inconvenience  or  danger 
to  the  men  at  woik  in  the  pit. 

•  Mr.  Haton  de  la  GtoupiUidre.  Report  of  the  French  Fire-damp  CommUtion,  orig  page  81 

t  Mr.  Naase.  "  Technical  Methods  of  Working  the  Royal  Collierie*  at  SaarbrUck,"  ZeiUchr.  f.  d.  Berg-, 
HtUtniu.  Salinen-We»en  im  Preuan.  Staate,  rol  xzxili.,  B.,  page*  281-285. 

♦Mr.  Hoernecke,  "On  Praoautionary  Measures  against  Pire-damp,  etc.,"  ZeUaehr.  /.  d.  Berg-, 
Uatten-M,  SaliHen-Wrsen  im  PreuM.  Staate,  yo\.  xxxl.,  B.,  page  321;  Final  Report  qf  the  BrUish  Royal 
Comminion  on  Accidents  in  Mines,  page  12. 

§Dr.  Lottner,  "  On  the  Prlaolplos  to  be  Observed  In  Working  Ooal-seamB  in  Westphalia,  with  a 
Critical  Examination  of  the  Methods  of  Working  adopted  in  Belgium.  France,  and  England,"  ZeiUchr, 
/.  d.  Berg-,  Hatten-u.  Salinen-Wetten  im  Preum.  Staate,  rol  vU.,  B..  pages  281,  et  uq.;  tSx.  Hoernecke,  op. 
nipra  eU.,  ibid.,  rol.  xzxL,  B.,  pages  907-710. 


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610  EBPOET  OP  THE  PEUSSIAN 

Bnt  if  the  system  of  levels  is  to  afford  the  necessary  security  in  fiery  mines,  it 
and  the  coal-workings  connected  therewith  must  absolutely  proceed  from  above 
downwards.  For  instance,  if  a  lower  level  was  driven  as  a  preliminary,  not  only 
woald  mining  operations  there  be  attended  (as  a  consequence)  by  a  more  abundant 
evolution  of  inflammable  gas,  but  the  driving  of  the  next  higher  level  would  be 
rendered  more  dangerous  because  a  large  portion  of  the  fire-damp  continuously 
evolved  from  the  old  lower  level  .would  naturally  stream  up  into  this  new  one — 
whereas  in  the  reverse  case,  the  gases  can  be  always  drawn  off  from  the  older 
workings  without  in  any  way  interfering  with  ordinary  mining  operations.  As 
further  essentials,  may  be  mentioned,  the  advisability  of  avoiding  too  great 
Intervals  between  levels,  or,  in  other  words,  too  great  a  height  of  workings ;  also  the 
need  for  the  greatest  possible  regularity  [of  plan]  and  concentration  of  the 
workings,  for  it  is  only  by  this  means,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  that  a 
sufficiently  cool,  rapid,  and  powerful  air-current  can  be  made  available  for  every 
traversable  part  of  the  mine. 

109. — Opening  mit  of  the  Seamn. — At  each  new  level,  the  necessary  opening  out 
of  the  individual  seams  is  accomplished  by  means  of  cross-cruts  and  level  drifts. 
As  in  these  cases  it  is  almost  always  virgin  ground  that  is  being  cut  through,  the 
pioneering  workmen  have  generally  to  contend  with  a  fierce  evolution  of  fire-damp. 
But  it  is  just  this  partial  escape  of  the  dangerous  gases  which  makes  matters 
comparatively  easy  for  the  workmen  sub'sequently  engaged  in  fore- winning  and 
regular  working  (compare  pars.  No.  67  and  68  of  this  Report). 

It  is,  therefore,  important  that  the  preliminary  opening  up  should  be  accomplished 
early  and  according  to  a  well-considered  plan,  s?o  that  the  area  of  the  winning  may 
be,  so  far  as  possible,  cleared  of  gases  before  the  operations  of  fore-winning  and 
regular  working  are  started.  For  this  reason  it  will  Ix;  generally  found  necessary 
to  deviate  from  the  accepted  principle  of  concentration  of  the  workings,  inasmuch 
as  two  or  even  three  levels  will  have  to  be  driven  simultaneously.  Of  these  the 
lowest  would  be  in  the  new  ground  or  fore-winning,  the  next  above  in  course  of 
working  or  fore-winning-and-working,  and  the  uppermost  on  the  point  of  being 
abandoned.  Naturally,  in  the  course  of  these  operations,  care  will  have  to  be  taken 
(by  means  of  an  adequate  ventilation-system)  that  the  gas-fouled  air-currents  from 
the  lower  levels  do  not  traverse  the  working  portions  of  the  npper  levels. 

If  the  evolution  of  gas  in  the  newly  opened-up  drifts  were  extremely  rapid,  it 
would  be  a  wise  plan  to  suspend  operations  for  a  time,  and  to  provisionally  allow 
these  drifts  to  empty  themselves,  as  it  were,  of  gas.  In  certain  cases  it  would  even 
be  advisable  to  completely  suspend  operations  in  particular  places,  and  attempt  to 
get  rid  of  the  gas  by  other  means.  Thus,  for  instance,  in  the  pits  of  the  Wurm 
district,  the  course  has  been  lately  adopted  of  driving  special  headways  up  to  the 
"closed  saddles"  for  getting  rid  of  the  gas,  and  leaving  these  open  for  a  considerable 
time  before  the  fore-winning  of  the  area  is  begun.*  In  England,  in  cases  where  the 
country-rock  is  larj^ely  permeate<l  with  gas,  good  results  are  obtained  by  piercing 
boreholes  at  regular  intervals  in  the  hanging-wall  or  footwall  of  the  seams  within 
the  opening-up  drifts — whereby  the  gases  are  led  oflP,  and  the  thrust  of  the  roof  or 
creeping  of  the  floor,  as  well  as  a  sudden  outburst  of  gas,  is  avoided. f  Actual 
blowers  with  continuous  evolution  of  gas  are  best  dealt  with  as  near  as  possible  to 
their  point  of  issue,  and  the  gas  should  be  led  off  by  means  of  a  special  range  of 
pipes. 

•  "VonMlstion  of  the  Gemelnachaft  colliery,"  Zeittehr.  /.  d.  Berg-,  HMttn^.  Salinen-Weten  im 
Preusi.  Staate,  vol.  rxxL,  B.,  i>age  78. 

t  Bfr.  Kieiseher,  "  Preliminary  Report  of  the  British  Boy»l  OommiBBion  on  Aoddonts  in  Minei,*  op. 
^m.  eU.,  pages  13-14.  29-30. 


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PIBE-DAMP  COMMISSION.  611 

In  consideration  of  the  fact  that  the  cross-cnits  and  level-drifts  communicating 
with  the  shafts  shoald  convey  the  fresh  air-cnrrent  to  all  the  working-places  on  their 
own  level,  and  later  on  also  help  to  lead  oflf  the  gas-fouled  air  from  the  next  lower 
level,  one  preliminary  condition  above  all  must  bo  observed,  that  is,  their  amply 
sufficient  sectional  area.  The  neglect  of  this  principle  makes  itself  of  necessity  the 
more  severely  felt  the  deeper  the  workings  are  pushed ;  and  it  is  to  this  neglect 
that  we  must  largely  attribute  the  generally  unsatisfactory  condition  of  ventilation 
noted  by  the  Local  Mining  Section  of  Dortmund  on  their  tour  of  inspection  through 
certain  Westphalian  collieries.  We  have  therefore  no  hesitation  in  expressing  our 
absolute  concurrence  with  the  following  conclusions,  laid  down  in  the  Final  Report  of 
that  section  *  : — 

"The  endeavour  to  provide  Westphalian  collieries  with  an  adequately  powerful 
system  of  ventilation  is  in  many  cases  barred  by  this  difficulty — that  the 
cross-cruts  of  such  upper  level-drifts  as  were  constructed  many  yeara  ago, 
and  these  must  now  be  used  as  airways,  are  of  too  small  sectional  area. 
Similar  difficulties  arise  in  several  collieries  from  the  often  insufficient 
sectional  area  (certainly  inadequate  considering  the  present  development 
of  the  workings)  of  the  air-compartments  in  shafts." 
"  If  it  is  only  by  degrees  that  we  may  hope  to  overcome  these  obstacles,  that  is, 
by  gradually  doing  away  with  the  old  level-drifts  and  cutting  new  ones, 
or  reconstructing  the  shafts,  one  rule  at  least  may  be  urgently  set  forth  as 
indispensable  in  the  case  of  newly  opened  level-drifts  and  new  shafts — 
namely,  that  the  main  airways  and  air-compartment«  should   have   a 
minimum  sectional  area  of  3  square  metres  (82*29  square  feet)." 
We  should  add  to  the  above  the  suggestion,  that  in  all  the  larger  deep-working 
collieries  it  would  be  advisable  from  the  very  start  to  line  the  main  exploration  (or 
fore-winning)  galleries  with  masonry  or  iron  girders,  with  a  view  to  their  subsequent 
utilization  for  a  long  period  of  time  as  airways ;  and  to  give  them  at  the  same  time 
the  rounded-off  sectional  shape  which  is  most  favourable  to  the  unimpaired  trans- 
mission of  the  air-current. 

1 1 0. — Fore-winning  and  Working.-f — If  by  the  term  fore- winning  we  understand 
(and  this  appears  to  be  the  most  reasonable  definition)  merely  such  operations  as 
are  necessary  to  prepare  the  section  of  coal-seam  newly  laid  open  by  the  level-drift 
for  the  subsequent  actual  winning  of  the  coal,  then  the  mode  of  fore-winning  is 
always  more  or  less  dei)endent  on  the  selected  method  of  working.  A  complete 
investigation  of  the  many  points  which  have  an  important  bearing  on  the  question 
lies  beyond  the  scope  of  this  report,  and  we  propose,  in  the  following  considerations, 
to  deal  only  with  fore-winning  and  working  in  so  far  as  they  touch  the  problem  of 
ventilation. 

The  methods  of  working  applicable  to  coal-seams  are  divisible  into  two  principal 
groups.     In  the  one,  the  pillar-and-stall  system,  fore-winning  and  actual  working 

*  Appendices,  vol.  IL,  pages  2S8-S29  (Conclusions,  Nos.  5  and  6). 

tDr.  Lottnw.  "On  the  Principles  to  be  Observed  in  Working  Coal-seams  in  Westphalia,"  etc., 
ZeiUchr.f,  d.  Berg-,  HtUten-u.  Salintn-Wesen  im  PreuM.  Staate,  vol.  vii.,  B.,  page  281,  et  teg.;  Mr.  Gorlt, 
Tfu  Prevention  of  Fire-damp  ExploaityM  in  Collieries,  Bonn.  1880 :  Mr.  Haton  do  la  Ooupillidre,  Iiet>orl 
of  ihe  Frr^nch  Fire-damp  Commisftion,  orlg.,  pages  133-144;  Dr.  Kreischer,  "Preliminary  Report  of  the 
British  Royal  Commission  on  Accidents  in  Mines,"  op.  jam.  cit.,  pages  9-10;  Mr.  Hoemecke,  "On  Pre- 
cautionary Measures  against  Fire-damp,"  etc.,  ZeUtehr.  /.  d.  Berg-,  HHUn-u.  SaliHen^Weaen  im  Preun, 
Staate,  vol.  xxxL.  B.,  pages  310,  325-331;  Mr.  Simmersbach,  "  Description  and  Criticism  of  the  Methods 
of  Exploration,  Fore-winning,  and  Ventilation  in  Use  in  Oerirau  Mining,"  etc.,  ibid.,  page  938,  et  9eq.; 
Mr.  Gorlt,  "On  the  Working  of  Fiery  Coal-seams,"  Ztceittr  A lUjemeiner  Drutxker  Bergmanmtag  (German 
Mining  Congress),  Dresden,  1883 ;  Apf>endicea  to  this  Report,  vol.  ii,  pages  108-110 ;  Mr.  Menzel,  "Review 
of  the  Labours  of  the  Commission  appointed  to  Revise  the  Mining  Regulations  in  Force  In  Saxony/' 
Jakrb.  /.  d.  Berg-,  u.  Hattenweaen  im  KOnigr.  Sachaen,  1886,  pages  16-17. 


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512  REPORT  OF  THE   PRUSSIAN 

are  two  separate,  independent  operations :  first  the  boardways  or  stalls  are  cat, 
and  then  follows  the  removal  of  the  thereby  separated  strips  of  the  seam  or  pillars. 
In  the  other,  the  chief  representatives  of  which  are  the  longwall  system  and  over- 
hand stoping,  there  is  no  need  for  any  preliminary  division  of  the  seam  into  strips ; 
in  fact  there  is  scarcely  any  fore-winning  needed  ;  and  the  winning  of  the  coal  can 
go  on  in  one  and  the  same  operation  as^  and  almost  simultaneously  with,  the 
opening-up  or  working  of  the  seam.  An  indispensable  corollary  of  the  utilization 
of  this  method  is  a  thorough,  complete  stowing  of  the  goaves  to  which  it  gives 
rise. 

In  Prussian  coal-mining,  the  character  of  the  seams,  and  in  particular  the  very 
general  want  of  sufficient  waste-rock  for  stowing  purposes,  has  had  for  a  consequence 
the  almost  universal  predominance  hitherto  of  the  pillar-and-stall  system.  Long- 
wall  prevails  only  in  a  few  districts  with  thin  seams,  and  overhand  stoping  has 
been  exclusively  confined  to  the  steeply-inclined  seams  of  the  Wurm  baain.  How- 
ever, in  view  of  the  increasing  risk  of  fire-damp  the  deeper  the  workings  go, 
engineers  have  lately  begun,  and  very  properly,  to  allow  the  question  of  ventilation 
to  influence  more  largely  the  choice  of  the  method  of  working. 

Compared  with  longwall  and  overhand  stoping,  pillar-and-stall  working  has  this 
great  disadvantage,  that  it  does  not  (like  the  former)  allow  of  that  concentration  of 
the  workings  which  is  a  prime  necessity  for  the  maintenance  of  a  powerful  air- 
current.  Add  to  this  the  more  serious  drawback  that,  in  ordinary  circumstances 
in  pillar-and-stall  working  (at  least  when  complete  stowing  is  not  carried  on  up  to 
the  working-face),  the  working-places  have  to  depend  for  their  ventilation  simply 
on  the  difihision  of  the  air-current  which  passes  through  the  next  preceding  holing  ; 
whereas  in  longwall  working  and  overhand  stoping  the  air-current  traverses  every 
working-place  in  unimpaired  strength.  Both  disadvantages  are  the  more  keenly 
felt,  according  as  the  length  of  the  airways  of  each  separate  district  adds  up  to  a 
more  considerable  total,  and  according  as  they  must  be  kept  open  for  a  longer  period 
of  time ;  what  with  the  many  sharp  bends  to  which  the  air-current  is  thus  sub- 
jected, the  bends  and  turns  (variability)  of  the  direction  of  the  galleries,  and  the 
difficulty  of  keeping  the  worked-out-galleries  air-tight,  etc.,  the  never-failing  con- 
sequence is  an  enormous  waste  or  loss  of  air. 

On  the  other  hand,  pillar-and-stall  work,  with  its  subdivision  of  the  operations 
into  fore- winning  and  actual  working,  has  in  very  fiery  seams  at  least  this  advantage 
that  in  the  process  of  fore-winning  a  comparatively  large  surface  of  coal-seam  is 
laid  bare,  and  thereby  an  even,  continuous  evolution  of  gas  is  promoted,  so  that 
the  subsequent  operations  of  actual  mining  are,  as  a  rule,  but  little  impeded  by 
the  presence  of  fire-damp.  Having,  on  the  contrary,  in  longwall  and  overhand 
stoping  constantly  to  deal  with  freshly  broken  surfaces,  one  there  meets  continually 
with  a  full  evolution  of  gas  (compare  par.  No.  67  of  this  Report).  But  here  again, 
such  advantages  as  pillar-and-stall  work  afford  are  (in  part  at  least)  counterbalanced 
by  the  possible  danger  to  the  workings  still  in  progress  arising  from  gases  which 
either  have  accumulated  in  the  worked-out  spaces  [goaf]  or  have  been  newly 
evolved  through  sudden  falls  of  roof. 

We  therefore  conclude  that,  as  a  general  rule  in  fiery  mines,  longwall  and  over- 
hand  stoping  are  to  be  recommended  in  preference  to  pillar-and-stall  work. 
Where,  however,  the  last-named  method  is  necessarily  adhered  to,  having  regard 
to  the  particular  thickness  of  the  seams,  the  lie  of  the  strata,  and  other  local 
conditions,  every  effort  should  be  exerted  in  the  direction  of  minimizing  the  defects 
above  enumerated  by  means  of  appropriate  modifications  of  the  ordinary  mode  of 
working.    The  most  potent  factor  in  this  sense  is  a  perfect  (or  as  nearly  perfect  as 


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FIRE-DAMP  COMMISSION.  51 B 

may  be)  system  of  stowing :  a  system  which  shall,  on  the  one  hand,  avoid  all  useless 
splitting  of  the  air-current,  while  on  the  other,  it  allows  of  the  transmission  of  the 
fresh  air  to  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  working-face.  The  latter  result  will  be 
much  facilitated  by  the  diminution  of  the  intervals  between  each  individual  holing, 
by  the  keeping  open  of  a  so-called  air-course  (airway)  in  the  stowing,  and  by  the 
provision  of  brattice-cloth,  etc. ;  the  former  result,  by  careful,  close  packing  of  the 
stowing,  and  by  hermetically  sealing  up  such  holings  as  need  not  be  kept  open 
for  purposes  of  ventilation  (compare  Art.  10  of  the  "  Principles ").  Other  means 
of  favourably  modifying  the  ventilation  in  pillar-and-stall  work  will  in  many  cases 
be  found  in  the  working  of  larger  sizes  of  pillars,  in  the  longwall  working  of  the 
pillars  themselves,  and  in  the  reduction  of  the  length  of  the  working  district. 

In  what  direction  the  workings  should  be  pushed  forward,  whether  from  the 
downcast  shaft  towards  the  boundary  of  the  royalties  or  in  the  reverse  direction, 
appears  to  be  of  little  consequence  so  far  as  ventilation  is  concerned.  Provided  that 
in  a  particular  direction  only  one  district  (self-acting  plane  area)  limited  by  safety- 
pillars,  be  worked  at  a  time;  or  provided  that,  two  such  districts  being  worked 
at  one  and  the  same  time,  each  be  ventilated  by  an  absolutely  separate  air-current. 
Where  these  provisions  are  not  enforced,  then  the  particular  direction  in  which  the 
workings  are  pushed  forward  will  be  more  or  less  advantageous  than  any  other 
direction,  according  to  the  distance  between  the  downcast  and  the  upcast  shafts.  If 
the  two  shafts  be  remote  from  one  another,  it  will  be  best  to  carry  the  workings 
from  the  downcast  shaft  outwards  to  the  royalty-boundary,  because  then  the  return 
airways  will  gradually  become  shorter,  and  therefore  more  easily  kept  open.  In  the 
case  of  twin-shafts,  on  the  other  hand,  but  for  the  very  same  reasons,  the  workings 
should  be  carried  from  the  royalty-boundary  inwards. 

True,  that  in  certain  circumstances,  the  last-mentioned  method  of  working  should 
cease ;  for,  since  the  fore- winning  of  the  seam  along  the  whole  length  of  the  level- 
drift  n\nst  then  precede  the  actual  winning,  an  enormous  total  length  of  galleries 
will  lie  open ;  and  these,  if  the  mine  be  dry  and  the  coal  dusty,  form  a  dangerous 
area  of  propagation  for  such  local  fire-damp  or  dust-explosions  as  may  arise :  a 
danger  exemplified  by  the  gas  explosion  which  took  place  on  March  17th,  1885,  in 
the  Camphausen  pit,  near  Saarbriick.  The  simultaneous  working  of  several  seams 
on  the  same  level  and  with  the  same  air-current  is  advisable  only  when  the  seams 
lie  so  close  to  one  another  that,  by  means  of  short  cross-cruts,  they  may  be  fore-won 
together  and  worked  together.  On  the  whole,  we  should  prefer  to  see  the  seams 
worked  in  a  definite  order,  depending  on  the  lie  of  the  strata  (as  a  rule  from  hanging- 
wall  to  footwall)  one  after  another,  each  particular  seam  to  be  worked  on  the  most 
concentrated  method  available. 

111. — The  Operationa  of  Exploratitm^  Fore-vnnning ^  and  Working  considered, — 
We  now  supplement  the  general  considerations  which  precede,  by  a  few  particular 
rules,  the  enforcement  of  which  we  regard  as  important  in  carrying  out  such  opera- 
tions as  are  connected  with  exploration,  fore- winning,  and  working  in  fiery  mines: — 
1. — As  a  general  principle,  fore- winning  and  working  should  not  be  started  in 

any  district  before  the  air-communication  has  been  secured  with  an  upper 

level  (compare  Art.  17  of  the  "Principles"). 
2. — In  very  fiery  seams  it  will  be  in  most  cases  advisable  to  allow  a  certain 

interval  of  time  to  elapse  between  the  operations  of  fore-winning  and 

actual  working. 
3.— In  exploration  work,  as  well  as  in  fore-winning  and  in  actual  working, 

driving  to  the  rise  should  be  as  far  as  possible  avoided.     Where  it  cannot 

by  any  means  be  avoided,  the  driving  should  be  done  only  with  the  help 

of  special  ventilation  (see  Art.  10  of  the  "Principles"). 


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614  REPORT  OP  THE  PKtTSSTAN 

Air  boreholes  may  [in  such  cases]  be  considered  an  adequate  substitute 
for  the  ordinary  rise-drifts  or  pillar  holings.  With  rise-shafts  the  pre- 
liminary driying  of  an  air  borehole  is  in  all  cases  advisable. 

Where  fire-damp  is  known  to  occur,  working  to  the  rise  is  to  be  altogether 
deprecated. 
4. — The  rise  of  bords  or  stalls  should  in  no  case  exceed  1  in  100  (see  Art.  10  of 

the  "Principles"). 
5. — In  pillar-and-stall  work  the  hewing  of  the  individual  pillars  should  take 
place  in  an  order  such  that  the  upper  pillar  (according  to  the  dip  of  the 
seam)  should  be  always  a  little  in  advance  of  the  next  lowest,  so  that  the 
foul  air  from  the  worked-out  spaces  [goaf]  may  be  drawn  away  upwards 
without  impeding  the  working  of  the  lower  pillar. 
6. — The  bases  of  "caldron-bottoms**  In  the  roof  of  a  seam  are  to  be  stowed  as  close 

as  possible. 
7. — Preliminary  boring  should  be  carried  on   at  those  working-places  which 
approach  goaf,  old  workings,  or  such  like,  where  accumulations  of  fire- 
damp may  be  looked  for  (see  Art.  14  of  the  "  Principles"). 
112. — Old  Workings, — There  are  two  ways  in  which  the  old  workings  [goaf] 
of  a  pit  may  have  an    injurious  influence  on   the   ventilation   of   the   actual 
workings.    On  the  one  hand,  the  fresh  air  is  [inevitably]  diverted  in  part  into  the 
old  workings,  and  so  that  part  is  lost  for  all  useful  purposes ;  on  the  other,  the 
foul  air  or  foul  gases  which  accumulate  in  the  old  working  do  at  times  invade  the 
working-places  which  are  in  active  use.     The  first-mentioned  evil  must  be  com- 
bated  by  means  of  an  appropriate  system  of  conducting  the  air  and  of  keeping 
the  airways  constantly  air-tight.      Then,  as  to  the  prevention  of  the  invasion  of 
the  workings  by  foul  air,  either  the  old  workings  should  be  carefully  dammed  off 
by  means  of  barriers  erected  within  the  safety-pillars  which  mark  their  limits 
(but,  in  order  to  avoid  undue  tension  of  the  imprisoned  gases,  an  outlet  opening 
upwards  is  left);   or  the  old  workings  should  be  continuously  traversed  by  a 
moderate  air-current  (compare  par.  No.  69  of  this  Report,  and  Art.  14  of  the 
"Principles"). 

2. —  Ventilation  of  Mine*. 

1 1 3, —  Ventilation  considered  Generally  J* — The  aim  of  every  system  of  ventilation 
of  mines  is  to  establish  and  maintain  within  all  practicable  portions  of  the  under- 
ground workings  such  a  state  of  the  atmosphere  as  shall  most  nearly  approach  the 
conditions  of  the  fresh  air  above  bank,  and  at  the  very  least  to  prevent  the  air  in 
the  pit  from  being  injurious  to  the  health  or  perilous  to  the  life  of  man.  This 
aim  is  only  attainable  by  the  well-planned  and  continuous  transmission  of  a  current 
of  fresh  air  which  shall  be  strong  enough:  (1)  to  replace  the  air  fouled  by  the 
breathing  of  men  and  horses,  by  the  products  of  combustion  of  safety-lamps,  by 
various  chemical  changes,  etc. ;  (2)  to  keep  the  temperature  at  the  working-place 
within  reasonable  limits ;  and  (3)  to  sufficiently  dilute  and  readily  lead  off  the 
injurious  gases  which  may  be  evolved. 

In  fiery  mines,  the  task  which  the  ventilator  is  called  upon  to  fulfil  is  further 
extended,  so  as  to  include  the  neutralization  of  the  danger  of  fire-damp  (compare 

•Mr.  Pnhler,  " TenilUtioii  In  fche  Royal  CoUierr  of  Bulzbach-Altenwald,  near  Saarbrttok." 
ZHUckr,  f.  d.  Bero-^  Hntten-u.  Salinenr-Wftm  im  Prtuu.  Staatf,  toL  xx.,  B.,  page  50,  ft  ttq.;  Dr. 
Sehoudorfl,  **  Bxamination  of  the  Return  Alr-currenta  of  the  Saar  oollieriea,"  ihid.,  toI.  xxIt.,  B., 
page  7%  eitq.;  "Reacript  of  the  French  Ministry  of  Public  Works,  of  December  6th,  187S,  on  the 
Precautionary  Measures  to  be  adopted  in  Fiery  Mines,  and  notably  on  the  System  of  Ventilation,' 
Annala  dea  JTines,  series  7,  toI.  iL  (Fartie  Administrative),  page  138 ;  there  is  a  German  translation 
by  Mr.  Koch  in  the  Zeitsehr.  /  Bergrtekt,  toI.  xIt..  page  273 ;  Mr.  Haton  de  la  GonplUldro,  Beport  qf  the 
Fremeh  Fire-damp  CommUtiont  orig.,  page  69,  et  teq. 


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FIBE-DAIfP  C0MHIS8I0K.  515 

par.  No.  106  of  this  Report).  But  in  these  cases  this  extension  is  of  such  capital 
importance  as  to  constitute  more  or  less  the  crucial  point  of  the  whole  problem  of 
ventilation.  As  a  consequence,  the  Commission  have  in  Art.  3  of  their  **  Principles" 
laid  down  the  following  prescription  as  a  kind  of  fundamental  law  to  be  observed 
in  the  ventilation  of  fiery  mines : — 

"  In  every  fiery  mine,  a  regular  system  of  ventilation  must  be  arranged  in  such 

a  manner,  that  accumulations  of  fire-damp  may  be  rendered  pi-actically 

impossible  (under  ordinary  conditions)  in  the  working-places  ;  and  every 

portion  of  the  mine,  at  the  working-places  or  in  the  galleries,  shall  be  at 

all  times  in  a  fit  condition  for  the  conduct  of  mining  operations  and  the 

traffic  of  the  mine." 

In  large  collieries,  it  would  probably  be  difficult  to  comply  fully  with   this 

regulation  by  means  of  a  single  continuous  air-current ;  and  in  them  it  is  advisable 

to  divide  the  workings  into  several  independent  ventilation-distncts,  each  of  which 

is  supplied  by  its  own  separate  air-current.    Such  a  division  of  the  mine  tends  not 

only  to  facilitate  in  a  remarkable  degree  the  proper  ventilation  of  the  workings, 

but  further  affords  a  most  effective  safeguard  against  the  undue  extension  of  such 

fire-damp  or  coal-dust  explosions  as  may  occur. 

114*. — yatural  and  Artificial  Ventilation.* — The  circulation  of  air  in  mines 
depends  on  the  necessary  assumption  that  the  equilibrium  of  the  mass  of  air  is  dis- 
turbed in  one  direction,  or  in  other  words,  that  the  air-column  in  one  of  the  two 
shafts  (which  have  to  be  considered  in  connexion  with  the  air-current)  is  lighter 
than  the  air-column  in  the  other  shaft.  If  these  two  outlets  are  at  different 
[surface-]  levels,  or  if  the  disturbance  of  equilibrium  be  simply  a  result  of  the 
difference  of  temperature  between  the  underground  workings  and  the  surface,  we 
then  have  to  deal  with  a  natural  air-draught. 

Now,  however  efficient  an  agent  of  ventilation  this,  in  certain  circumstances, 
may  be  its  very  dependence  on  the  ever-varying  surface-temperature  deprives  it  of 
the  essential  quality  of  permanence  or  stability.  Ventilation,  exclusively  conducted 
by  means  of  natural  air-draught,  is  therefore  at  once  "put  out  of  court,"  so  far  as 
fiery  mines  are  concerned  (see  Art.  4  of  the  "  Principles  "),t  and  in  connexion  with 
them  we  have,  in  fact,  chiefly  to  consider  the  means  of  producing  an  artificial  circu- 
lation of  air. 

The  artificial  production  of  an  air-current  traversing  the  mine  is  set  up,  either 
by  suction,  which  implies  rarefaction  of  the  air,  through  the  upcast-outlet  while 
at  the  downcast-inlet  the  external  atmospheric  pressure  continually  forces  fresh 
air  into  the  mine ;  or  by  pressure,  which  implies  compression  of  the  air,  at  one 
end,  the  air  which  is  in  the  mine  being  consequently  driven  out  at  the  other  end. 
"We  may  leave  the  question  open,  as  to  which  of  these  two  methods  offers  the  greatest 
advantages  in  fiery  mines.  J    As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  method  of  compression  of  fresh 

*  Mr  HaUm  de  la  Goupillidre,  Etport  of  the  French  Fire-damp  Commisaim,  orig.,  pages  90-98;  Hr. 
Hoernecka,  "On  Preoautionaxy  Heaflfaras  against  Vire-damp,"  ate.,  ZeiUehr.  /.  d.  Btr^f-,  Hutttn^ 
Salinen^Wesm  im  Preuu.  StaaU,  toI.  xxxL,  B.»  pages  901-906;  Mr.  Ourlft,  "  On  Ventilation,"  Zeittehr. 
de$  Vereint  DeuUeh.  Ing.,  1884.  No.  42. 

t  In  this  category  may  be  oompriaed  the  ezolusive  use  of  mere  air-chlmn^s  or  air-tubes  (without 
fomaoes),  as  these  only  produce  after  all  a  magnified  natural  air-draught,  by  increasing  the  difference  of 
level  between  the  two  surfMe-ontlets. 

t  Mr.  Menxel,  "  Method  of  Working  of  Suetion-conduits  and  Compression-conduits  in  Fiery  Mines," 
dvUringenitwr,  18?8,  page  71 ;  Mr.  Haton  d«  la  Oouplllidre,  Report  <4  (Ae  Frmch  Fire-damp  C<mmi»nont 
orlg.,  pages  lOClOS;  Mr.  B.  Otto^  "The  Underground  Gulbal  Ventilator  in  the  Alexander  Shaft  of  the 
Von  Amim  Collieries  at  Planltx,  near  Zwickau,  together  with  some  Remarks  on  the  Compression 
Method  in  the  Ventilation  of  Mines,"  EeiUokr.  /.  d.  Berg-,  J7«tte»«.  SalinenrWeaen  im  Preut».  StaaU, 
▼oL  xxxii.,  R,  page  169,  et  aeg. ;  Mr.  F.  Boohelt^  "  On  the  Ventilation  of  CoUieries  where  Explosions  are 
oonsidared  probable,"  Oe$Urr.  Zeiitehr./.  Berg^  Hmenweaen,  1885,  Noa.  15, 1«,  and  21 ;  Mr.  Hippmann, 
Wd.,  No.  19 ;  B£r.  B.  Otto,  JVre-domp  and  no  Aim  (tf  Providenee,  Laipdg.  1886,  pages  21-47 ;  Mr.  Von 
Badha,  Fire-damp,  Vienna^  1886,  pages  48-50. 


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516  REPOBT  OP  THB  PRU8SUK 

air  (pofiitiye  syBtem)  has  been  adopted  to  the  yentilation  of  entire  collieries  in  only 
a  very  few  cases  up  to  the  present  time.  In  the  coal-mining  industry  of  Prussia, 
the  ezhauBtion-method  of  ventilation  is  almost  universally  employed.* 

The  process  of  exhaustion  lesults  either  from  the  heating  of  the  upcast  air-column 
(ventilation-furnaces,  etc.),  or  from  the  direct  mechanical  rarefaction  of  the  same. 
The  amount  of  deficiency. of  air-pressure  (depression  or  water-gauge)  which  is  sought 
to  be  attained  at  the  upcast  outlet  depends  partly  on  the  resistance  offered  by  friction 
to  the  free  course  of  the  air-current  through  the  mine,  and  this,  varying  according  to 
the  length,  sectional  area,  and  general  disposition  of  the  airways,  is  termed  the 
mechanical  temperament  of  the  mine ;  partly  on  the  quantity  of  air  required  [for 
ventilation  purposcHJ.  According  to  the  conditions  obtaining  in  each  particular 
locality,  the  exhausting  power  may,  or  may  not,  need  additional  reinforcement  in 
order  to  overcome  the  natural  draught  which  may  possibly  make  itself  felt  in  a  con- 
trary direction.  As  a  rule,  however,  the  natural  draught  acts  in  the  same  sense  as 
the  artificial  means  of  ventilation,  and  thus  really  forms  an  auxiliary  to  the  suction 
power.f 

115. — The  Quantity  of  Air  requUitefor  Vent  Hat  ion.X — If  the  ventilation  of  a 
mine  be  planned  so  as  to  fulfil  in  every  respect  the  aims  which  it  should  fulfil,  the 
quantity  of  fresh  air  introduced  into  the  pit  must  be  at  the  very  least  suflicient  to 
neutralize  the  worst  imaginable  fouling  of  the  actual  pit-air  which  can  happen  in 
the  several  working-places  in  the  course  of  one  working  shift.  In  so  far  as  this 
fouling  of  the  air  re.4u]ts  from  the  breathing  of  men  and  horses,  from  the  burning 
of  pit  lights,  and  from  such  shot-firing  as  may  take  place,  the  calculation  of  the 
needful  quantity  of  fresh  air  may  be  based  simply  on  the  greatest  number  of  men 
and  horses  present  in  the  pit  at  one  time.  But  the  calculation  is  far  otherwise 
complicated  when  other  considerations  intervene — such  as,  lowering  of  the  tempera- 
ture in  the  pit,  dealing  with  chemical  processes  like  the  rotting  of  timber  or  the 
decomposition  of  pyrites,  and  more  especially  the  prevention  of  accumulations  of 
fire-damp.  In  such  cases  it  would  hardly  be  correct  to  reckon  only  the  number  of 
workpeople  and  horoes  employed  as  the  standaixl  of  measurement,  and  plan  the  total 
air-supply  in  accordance  therewith ;  this  method  would  be  erroneous,  because  the 
various  causes  of  air-fouling  enumerated  in  the  previous  sentence  depend  almost 
entirely  on  the  very  variable  local  conditions,  such  as  the  different  charact-er  of  the 
seams,  the  "chemical  temperament"  of  the  individual  colliery — and  yet  this  is  the 
method  of  calculation  which  has  been  hitherto  very  largely  prescribed  in  mining 
regulations. 

Starting  from  the  proposition  that  in  fiery  mines,  as  proved  by  experience,  the 
evolution  of  dangerous  gases  far  exceeds  all  other  contributory  causes  of  the  fouling 
of  the  air,  the  Commission  hold  that  the  ventilation  of  such  mines  should  be  made 
to  a  certain  extent  directly  dependent  on  the  more  or  less  considerable  evolution  of 
gas  known  to  take  place  there.  The  experiments  conducted  by  the  Commission 
(compare  pars.  Nos.  67  and  68  of  this  Report)  have  shown  that  the  newly-bared 

*  The  UM  of  compreiaion  in  iepante  (or  dlTided)  ventlUtlon  will  be  dealt  with  in  another  portion  of 
thla  Report. 

t  Oompare  Appendiee$,  toI.  t.,  pages  86,  87  89. 

t  Mr.  Pmhler.  "  Ventilation  in  the  Royal  Colliery  of  Sulzbaeh-Altenwald,  near  SaarbrOok," 
Zeitschr.  /.  d.  BerQ-,  HatUn-n  Saliwn-Weten,  im  Preusa.  Staate,  toL  zz.,  B.,  pages  57-ft9;  Mr.  Nonne, 
"  Ventilation  in  Weetphalian  Collieries,  with  especial  reference  to  the  Labours  of  the  Oonimlflsion 
appointed  to  enquiro  into  Ventilation,"  ibid.,  toI.  zzi.,  B.,  page  71;  Dr.  Schondorff,  "Examination  of 
the  Return  Air-currents  of  the  8sar  collieries,"  ibid.t  toI.  ziiv.,  B.,  pages  80-8S.  107-117 :  Mr.  Hoenieoke, 
"On  Precautionary  Measures  against  Fire-damp,'  etc,  ibid.,  vol.  zxxi.,  B.,  psges  301-302;  Mr.  Haton 
dela  Qoupillidre,  Rtport  qf  the  French  Fire-damp  Commitaion,  orig..  pages  70-76;  Mr.  B.  Otto,  Firt' 
damp  and  no  Aim  qf  Prooidmct,"  Leipzig,  1866,  pages  63-69;  Mr.  Von  Rdha,  Sindamp,  Vienna, 
1886,  pages  4M7. 


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FIBE-DAMP  OOMUISSION.  517 

sarfaces  of  coal  fworking-face]  give  the  best  means  of  measuring  this  evolution — 
although,  taken  as  a  whole,  the  amount  of  coal  won  within  a  given  intei-val  of  time 
would  furnish  a  sufficiently  trustworthy  basis  of  calculation,  if  at  the  same  time 
the  gaseous  [methane]  and  carbonic-acid  content  of  the  return  air-current  be  taken 
into  consideration. 

According  to  the  views  of  the  Commission,  adequate  subdivision  and  conduction 
of  the  fresh  air-currents  being  assumed,  the  highest  admissible  degree  of  fouling  of 
the  air  in  the  pit  would  be  represented  by  a  gaseous  content  in  the  main  return  air- 
current  of  1*5  per  cent,  of  fire-damp  and  carbonic  acid  gas.  The  quantity  of  air- 
supply  should  therefore  be  so  calculated  as  to  exclude  any  possibility  of  this 
percentage  being  exceeded.  Judging  from  the  ordinary  conditions  of  gas  evolution 
in  Prussian  collieries,  the  aim  in  view  would  be  attained  if  the  fresh  air-supply  were 
calculated  at  between  1  and  1 J  cubic  metres  (35*31  and  52*95  cubic  feet)  per  ton  of 
the  average  daily  coal-output  and  per  minute.  A  more  abundant  air-supply  would 
be  needed  only  in  specially  dangerous  fiery  mines,  or  in  the  event  of  exceptionally 
extensive  fore-winning  operations. 

The  Commission  have  further  taken  into  consideration  the  hitherto  customary 
method  of  reckoning  the  air-supply  according  to  the  number  of  workpeople 
employed,  to  this  extent  that  they  have  given  their  sanction  to  the  rule  now  pretty 
universally  recognized  by  the  mining  profession  in  Germany — ^namely,  that  in  all 
fiery  mines  the  amount  of  air-supply  per  minute  should  be  at  least  2  cubic  metres 
(70*62  cubic  feet  per  minute)  for  each  person  at  that  time  employed  in  the  pit. 

And  so  it  is  that  Art.  6  of  the  "  Principles  "  drafted  by  the  Commission  runs  as 
follows : — 

"  The  volume  of  fresh  air  per  minute,  which  should  be  supplied  in  a  fiery  mine, 
must  in  each  independent  ventilation-district  amount  to  1*5  cubic  metres 
(52*95  cubic  feet)  per  ton  of  the  average  daily  coal  output.    If  this  volume 
be  inadequate  to  reduce  the  gaseous  content  of  the  return  air-current 
to  1*5  per  cent.,  it  must  be  correspondingly  increased.    Where,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  total  percentage  of  methane  and  carbon  dioxide  in  that 
current  does  not  unitedly  amount  to  1*5,  a  reduction  of  the  fresh  air- 
supply  to  1  cubic  metre  (35*31  cubic  feet)  per  ton  of  daily  coal  output 
may  be  regarded  as  admissible." 
"  In  all  cases,  however,  the  volume  of  fresh  air  must  amount  to  at  least  2  cubic 
metres  (70*62  cubic  feet)  per  head  of  the  maximum  number  of  workmen 
employed  below  ground  in  the  course  of  one  shift.    In  these  calculations 
a  horse  is  reckoned  as  equivalent  to  four  men." 
The  investigations  regarding  the  quantities  of  air  entering  or  issuing  from  the 
mine,  undertaken  by  the   Commission  in  the  course  of  their  various  tours  of 
inspection  from   1881  to  1883,  both  years   inclusive,*  in  conjunction  with  Dr. 
SchondorfFs  chemical  examination  of  return  air-currentSjf  do  indeed  show  that 
already  at  that  time  the  above  requirements  were  practically  complied  with  to  the 
fullest  extent  in  the  overwhelming  majority  of  the  fiery  mines  that  were  visited. 
But  it  was  also  demonstrated  that  not  a  few  collieries  needed  some  considerable 
improvements  in  their  ventilating  appliances. 

1 1 6. — Means  of  Producing  the  Requisite  Quantity  of  Air, — Among  the  appliances 
for  artificially  ventilating  the  entire  workings  of  a  fiery  mine  must  naturally 
be  ranked  first  of  all  (subject  to  the  reservations  set  forth  by  the  Commission,  so 

*  Apptndictt,  yoL  L.  pa^es  157-181.  179-181 ;  iMd..  yol  ii.,  pages  73  74. 77-78. 9S-101. 1Q6-1C7. 

t  Dr.  Sohondorfl,  "Ohemical  Inveatisation  of  the  Flie-dAmp  in  PruBBian  Mines."  ZHUekr.  /.  d. 
Berg-,  HflMm-«.  Salinen^Wesm  im  Prwm,  Staate,  yoL  xxxi.,  B.,  pages 435446,  and  yoL  xzzJl.,  B.,  pages 
0OM19. 


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518  REPORT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN 

far  as  regai-ds  Prussian  mining  industry  at  any  rate*)  ventilation-furaaces  and 
mechanical  yentilatoi-s.  Ventilation-chimneys,  steam-piping,  and  steam-jet  appar* 
atus  respectively  are  still  used  here  and  there ;  while  the  introduction  of  compressed 
air  and  the  use  of  air-je^  apparatus  should  be  confined  to  the  separate  (divided) 
ventilation  of  individual  working-places  or  parts  of  workiugs  (compare  pars.  Nos.  37, 
38,  and  39  of  this  Report). 

The  chimneys  of  steam-boiler  furnaces,  if  brought  into  communication  with  the 
upcast  outlet  of  the  pit,  may  undoubtedly  perform  useful  service  in  the  way  of 
rendering  still  more  efficient  such  means  of  ventilation  as  are  otherwise  provided. 
But  it  appears  to  us  inadmissible  that  one  should  seek  to  create  an  air-draught  in 
a  fiery  mine  by  the  help  of  such  chimneys  alone  (see  Art.  4  of  the  '*  Principles  "). 
Their  action  is  too  limited,  and  is  too  dependent  on  the  changeable  firing  of  the 
boilers,  that  is,  on  the  varying  steam-consnmption  of  the  machinery  connected 
therewith.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  in  the  Lower  Renish  Westphalian  coal-baain,  to 
which  the  use  of  this  arrangement  has  been  mainly  confined,  the  boiler-chimneys  are 
now  generally  regarded  as  merely  an  additional  resource  in  case  of  need. 

Of  more  value  for  ventilation  purposes  is  the  heating  of  the  upcast  air-shafts 
by  means  of  the  steam-pipes  connected  with  engines  in  the  pit.  The  experiments 
of  the  Ventilation  8ub-committee  at  the  Konigs  pit  near  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  at 
the  Westfalia  pit  near  Dortmuud,t  have  shown  that  such  steam-pipes  (owing 
to  their  continuity  or  constancy  of  action)  can  very  well  be  substituted  for  a  small 
ventilator.  It  should,  however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  exhaustion  (depression 
or  water-gauge)  which  may  be  obtained  by  their  means  is  somewhat  limited,  and 
that  there  are  objections  to  their  use  from  the  standpoint  of  economy  and  of  the 
practical  working  of  the  mine. 

The  Koerting  steam-injector  must  of  course  be  admitted  to  be  thoroughly 
efficient,  and  it  has  in  some  few  cases  been  successfully  applied  in  fiery  mines.  But 
the  wasteful  expenditure  of  steam  which  it  involves  appears  likely  to  prevent  any 
great  extension  of  its  use  for  the  ventilation  of  fairly  large  collieries. 

117.  —The  Ventilation  Furnaven^X  ^^^^  largely  used  in  Prussian  coal  mines,  are 
open  to  the  weighty  objection  which  on  principle  applies  to  the  presence  of  naked 
light  or  open  fire  in  fiery  mines  (compare  par.  No.  93  of  this  Report).  If  in  practice 
this  objection  is  not  of  such  transcendent  importance  as  to  justify  the  universal 
prohibition  of  ventilating-fnrnaces  in  fiery  mines,  the  following  requirements  must 
at  least  be  complied  with.  Not  only,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  should  all 
contact  between  the  return  air-current  and  the  open  flame  or  the  burning  gaseous 
products  of  combustion  rising  from  the  furnace-hearth  be  avoided,  but  adequate 
preventive  measures  should  be  taken  in  view  of  the  possible  influence  of  an  explo- 
sion taking  place  in  the  pit,  of  the  conflagration  of  a  shaft,  or  any  other  unusual 
occurrence  which  may  cause  reversal  of  the  air-draught.     The  Ck)mmi88ion  are  of 

«  Mr.  HMilaoher,  "  Tbo  OolUeries  of  Pnuaia  from  th«  point  of  yiew  of  thelMvendty  of  their  VenttU- 
tion,"  Zeitickr.  /.  d.  Berg-,,  HhtUnru,  SaliMn-Weaen.  im  Preut.  StaaU^  vol.  xxx.,  B.,  page  181,  et»eq.; 
Mr.  Althana,  "Statistics  of  Ventilation  Applianoes  in  the  Mines  of  the  Kingdom  of  Pnusla,'' 
AppfiuHeeg  to  this  Beport,  toI.  t..  pages  1-77. 

t  Appendieta,  vol.  v.,  pages  8^  90. 105. 

t  Mr.  PflUiler,  **  Ventilation  in  the  Royal  CoUienr  of  SulzbaohAltenwald,  near  SaarbrUek,  ZeUtekr. 
J.d.  Berg-,  Hattenru.  Salinen-IVMen  im  Prtust.  Suiate^  voL  zx.,  B.,  page  71;  Mr.  Nonne,  "Ventilation 
in  Westphalian  Gollieriee,"  etc.,  ibid.,  rot  kzi.,  B.,  pages  69-70;  Mr  Hoemecke,  "On  Precautionary 
Measures  against  Fire-damp,"  etc  ,  ibid.,  vol.  xzxi.,  B.,  pages  303404;  Mr.  Bimmersbaeh,  "Description  and 
Oritioism  of  the  Methods  of  Exploration,  Fore-winniuK,  and  Ventilation  in  Use  in  Oennan  Mining,"  etc, 
ibid,,  pages  390  340;  Mr.  OurU,  "On  VentilaUon."  Ztitaekr.  d.  Vereiiu  Deutteh.  Ing.,  1884,  No  43; 
Dr.  Kreisoher,  "Preliminaiy  Beport  of  the  BrlUah  Royal  Commission,"  op.  jam  eiL,  page  10;  Fimal 
SepoH  qf  the  British  Bo^  CommiMum  <m  AccidenU  in  MiM»,  pages  9,  111 ;  lir.  Haton  de  la  QoupiUidNb 
Beport  qfikt  French  Fire-damp  Commi»»ioH,  orig.,  pages  91*97. 


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PIRK-DA1MP  00MMI88I0N.  619 

opinion  (see  Art.  4  of  the  "Principles")  that  the  use  of  ventilating-farnacea  is  only 
admissible  in  those  cases  where  there  is  a  perfect  supply  of  fresh  air  to  the  furnace, 
where  a  safe  means  of  retreat  for  the  furnaceman  is  proyided,  and  where  the 
possibility  of  igrnition  of  the  pit  gases  by  the  furnace  f^ases  is  absolutely  excluded. 

With  regard  to  their  motive  efficiency,  ventilating-furnaces  are,  on  the  whole, 
suitable  only  for  such  collieries  as  those  where  the  f rictional-resistances  do  not  make 
a  too  high  depression  [water-gauge]  necessary.  Where  the  conditions  laid  down 
admit  of  their  use,  almost  any  amount  of  air  can  be  got  through  the  pit  by  means  of 
them,  as  experiments  in  English  collieries  have  shown.  From  the  economic  stand- 
point, however,  furnaces  appear  to  be  advantageous  only  when  placed  underground, 
and  the  pit-shafts  are  deep  and  dry.  If  the  entire  grate-surface  be  made  full  use  of, 
and  a  disproportionately  large  amount  of  coal  be  expended,  there  results  within 
narrow  limits  a  temporary  increase  of  efficiency :  this  augmented  efficiency  is,  how- 
ever, more  easily  secured  by  holding  in  readiness  a  second  fire-grate. 

118. — Mechanical  Ventilators*  must  be  regarded  as  in  every  respect  the  safest 
means  of  providing  ventilation  in  fiery  mines,  and  as  being  the  appliances  which 
most  easily  fit  in  with  all  the  conditions  of  working  of  mines.  Although  their  first 
use  in  Prussian  coal-mining  dat-es  only  from  the  yerir  1856,  they  scom  now  to  have 
become  in  all  the  coal-fields  of  the  kingdom,  at  any  rate  in  the  larger  mines,  the 
principal  appliances  for  ventilation.  Of  the  numerous  inventions  in  this  line  that 
have  been  brought  forward,  the  rotary-pumps  and  screw-fans  have  come  into 
practical  use  only  in  the  form  of  the  Fabry  ventilator  (and  therewith  the  Ksv^clowtski 
system)  ;  while  the  piston-machines  and  the  Lemielle  ventilator  have  obtained  no 
footing  at  all.-f  Among  the  centrifugal  fans  which  alone  have  been  introduced 
within  the  last  twenty  years,  the  slow-running  Guibal  ventilators  (lately  much  used 
with  the  Kley  spiral  inlet)  occupy  pre-eminently  the  firet  place.  Up  to  near  the 
end  of  the  'seventies  their  only  rivals  worthy  of  consideration  were  the  quick- 
running  fans  of  Zimmermann  and  Rittinger,  and  the  conical  fan  of  Schwarzkopf. 
Since  then,  general  preference  appears  to  have  been  accordeci  to  the  Pelzcr  conical 
fan,  also  to  the  quick-running  fans  of  Schiele,  Winter,  and  Wagner ;  and  more 
recently  these  have  been  supplemented  by  the  Moritz  and  Geisler  systems.^ 

The  ventilators  being  built  on  the  exhausting-principle,  they  are  as  a  rule  placed 
above  bank.§  But  of  late  years,  installations  underground  has  also  been  much 
reported  to,  as  for  example  with  Schiele  ventilators  in  the  Rheinpreusscn  colliery  at 
Homberg-on-the-Rhine  (188B)  and  in  the  Graf  Moltke  colliery  at  Gladbcck  (1884),|| 
and  with  the  Geisler  modification  of  the  Rittinger  ventilator  at  the  Shamrock  pit,  near 

*  See,  for  literature,  footnote  to  par.  117  (ventilation-furaacefl),  also  tbe  following :— Mr.  DeriUeK, 
Veniilationn  of  Minet,  Mons,  1873;  Mr.  D.  Murgue,  "On  Mechanical  Ventilatora,"  Bull.  Soc.  Industrie 
Miufrnlt.  series  2,  vol.  ii.,  page  445,  et  tteq,,  toI.  iv.,  page  747,  et  geq.,  vol.  ix.,  page  5.  et  »eq.  (German 
adaptation  by  Mr.  J.  Von  Hauer,  On  Mint  VentUatort.  Leipr.ig.  1884) ;  "  Report  of  the  Uommiaslon  for 
Comparison  of  the  various  Ventilation  Appliances  in  the  Oard  Goal-field."  Bull.  Soc.  Induitri"  Min^raU, 
series  ?,  toI.  vii.,  page  477,  et  atq.;  "Report  of  the  Oominittee  on  Mechanical  Ventilators,"  Tram.  N.  if. 
In^.  Min.  and  Mech.  Eny.,  vol.  xxx.  (1881),  page  27."',  ft  »eq. ;  Mr.  Joh.  Mayer,  "Air-measurcmonts  and 
Comparatltre  ObserTations  on  Quibal  and  Rittinger  Ventilators,"  etc.,  Oestrr.  ZeitHchr.  f.  Berg-,  u.  Hatten- 
ft>e»en,  1880  and  188  ' :  Mr.  Pelzer.  "Ventilation  of  Mines,"  Gbickau/,  1882,  No.  49;  Dr.  Serlo,  Treatint  on 
Mininu,  4th  ed.  (1881)   voL  ii.,  pages  368-421 ;  Appendiceg.  vol.  v. 

tit  should,  however,  be  mentioned  that  in  the  'fifties  an  underground  ventilatlng-pump  was  driven 
by  a  water  wheel  in  the  Oewalt  pit,  near  Steele,  Weatphalia.  It  was  at  worlc  for  a  short  time  only,  and 
its  efficiency  was  small. 

I  Bfr.  Althans,  "  Statistics  of  Ventilation  Appliances  in  the  Mines  of  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia," 
Appendices,  vol.  v.,  pages  1-6. 

§  It  Is  of  course  understood  that  we  are  dealing  here  only  with  ventilators  which  serve  to  provide 
air  for  the  entire  worlcings  of  a  mine. 

II  Zeittchr./.  d.  Berg-,  Hatten-u.  SaHnen-Wesen  im  Preim.  StaaU,  vol.  xzxU.,  B.,  pages  300402;  Md., 
vol.  xzxiii.,  B..  page  242. 


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520  REPORT  OF  THB  PRUSSTAK 

Heme  (1886).*  In  such  a  case  the  ventilator  standing  in  the  return  air-drift  blows 
the  [foul]  air  sucked  from  the  workings  up  into  the  shaft.  This  arrangement  would 
seem  to  be  advantageous  only  where  the  same  shaft  is  both  upcast  and  downcast : 
for  whilst  the  air  is  being  blown  out  both  shaft-compartments  are  practically  under 
the  same  atmospheric  pressure^  and  thereby  is  completely  avoided  the  otherwise 
considerable  waste  of  air  which  results  from  any  leakage  through  the  shaft-partition 
(when  there  is  a  depression  in  the  upcast  compartment). 

Although  the  actual  construction  of  ventilators,  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of 
security  in  the  working  of  mines,  comes  into  question  only  so  far  as  the  provision  of 
a  definite  quantity  of  air  in  the  pit  by  means  of  the  ventilator  is  assured,  the  Com- 
mission have  considered  it  their  duty  (taking  into  account  the  growing  importance 
of  mechanical  ventilators)  to  carry  out  comparative  investigations  of  the  best  known 
inventions — ^in  the  course  of  which  investigations  full  regard  has  been  paid  to  such 
points  as  general  mechanical  efficiency  and  economy.  With  this  object  a  Bub- 
Committee  on  ventilators  was  appointed,  and  they  undertook  a  searching  examina- 
tion into  the  various  methods  of  ventilation  at  that  time  (April,  1 888)  in  use  in 
Prussian  mines,  besides  many  practical  investigations  and  experiments  on  particular 
ventilators.  For  the  detailed  results  of  these  labours  we  must,  of  course,  refer  the 
reader  to  the  reportsf  of  that  Sub-Committee,  but  a  few  of  the  more  important 
conclusions  may  be  here  enumerated  as  follows  : — 

1. — With  the  centrifugal  ventilator  the  entry  of  the  air  into  the  compartments 
formed  by  the  blades  of  the  fan  should  take  place  free  from  jerk  or  con- 
cussion, that  is,  without  any  sudden  alteration  of  velocity.  The  com- 
partments between  the  blades  of  the  fan  must  be  sufficiently  wide  for 
the  velocity  of  the  air,  even  at  the  highest  speed  of  the  ventilator,  not  to 
be  maintained  at  a  greater  average  than  10  metres  (82'8  feet)  per  second. 
The  requisite  depression  (water-gauge)  must  be  attained  with  the  smallest 
possible  diameter  of  fan. 
2. — High  manometric  efficiency  in  centrifugal  ventilators  is  only  attainable  by 
means  of  diffusers,  together  with  suitable  encasing  [or  hooding]  of  the 
fan.  Moreover,  the  frictional-surfaces  must  be  of  the  smallest  possible 
area,  and  for  this  purpose,  with  the  big  Guibal  fans,  instead  of  using  the 
present  arrangement  of  casing  and  one  chimney  or  difTuser  which  gives 
rise  to  large  friction  surfaces,  it  would  be  advisable  to  distribute  a  number 
of  small  diffiisers  over  the  periphery  of  the  fan  (Kley  or  Harze  system). 
Such  a  system  also  possesses  the  advantage  of  doing  away  with  the 
extremely  serious  disturbances  of  the  air-draught  which  so  often  take 
place  in  the  d  iff  user- chimneys  of  the  Guibal  type,  as  a  consequence  of 
the  action  of  gusts  of  wind  on  the  ivnxh  chimney. 
3. — From  the  point  of  view  both  of  mechanical  efficiency  and  of  economy,  the 
ventilator  should  be  exactly  suited  to  the  conditions  of  the  particular 
pit  in  which  it  is  placed.  Here,  the  first  thing  to  consider  is  the  size  of 
the  ventilator ;  if  this  be  selected  in  due  proportion  to  the  orificej  of  the 
mine  and  the  requisite  air- supply,  the  various  systems  of  Guibal,  Pelzer, 
Schiele,  and  Winter  will  be  found  to  work  equally  well. 

«  Mr.  L.  Orttff,  "  Installation  of  an  Underground  Tentilator  at  the  Shamrock  Pit,  near  Heme, 
Westphalia."  ihid  ,  rol.  xxxIt.,  B.  page  S3t,  et  geq. 

t  Mr.  Althans  "  Application  of  the  Known  Laws  of  Air-motion  to  Besearohes  on  Ventilators,  in  par- 
ticaltf  the  earlier  Researches  carried  out  on  behalf  of  the  Prussian  Fire  damp  Oowniission  In  conjunction 
with  Mr.  Daniel  Murgue/'  ZeUaehr.f.  d.  Berg-,  Htitten-v.  Salinfn-  Waen  im  PreitM.  Staate,  toI.  zzzii..  B., 
pages  174-336;  ibid.,  "Statistics  of  Ventilation  Appliances  in  the  Mines  of  the  Kingdom  of  Prasiia 
(April,  1B8S)."  Apptndieet,  toL  t.,  pages  1-77;  "Final  Report  of  the  Bab-Oommittee  on  VentUaton,'* 
iMd.,p«gee  78-106. 

t  In  the  sense  of  Mr.  Daniel  Murgue's  equiralent  orifice  of  the  mine,  corresponding  to  the  total 
Motional  resistances  of  the  pit  (comptfe  par.  Na  ISO  of  this  Report). 


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FTRE-DAMP  COMMISSION.  521 

On  the  whole,  the  slow-running  big  Goibal  fans  are  suitable  only  for 
mines  with  large  orifices,  while  the  other  smaller,  quick-running  ven- 
tilators are  particularly  suitable  for  mines  with  medium  and  small 
orifices. 

For  dealing  with  large  masses  of  air  from  mines  with  large  orifices 
instead  of  one  big  ventilator,  two  or  more  small  ones,  not  connected 
with  one  another  but  sucking  the  air  from  one  common  airway,  may  be 
used  with  advantage. 
119. — If  artificial  means  of  ventilation  are  to  afford  in  any  way  the  desirable 
degree  of  security,  their  performance  must  be  continuously  watched,  and  pre- 
cautionary measures  must  be  adopted  for  the  event  of  any  possible  disturbances  in 
working.    As  to  the  first  condition,  besides  the  application  of  the  general  rules  for 
the  supervision  of  ventilation  which  will  be  discussed  subsequently,  we  should 
recommend  the  use  of  a  self -registering  check-apparatus  (Art.  6  of  the  "  Principles")* 
As  to  the  second  condition,  it  would  seem  advisable  to  hold  substitutes  in  readiness, 
which  in  case  of  need  could  be  immediately  set  at  work  either  in  the  place  of  the 
ordinary  apparatus  or  in  support  of  it.      In  pits,  where  fans  have  been  recently 
introduced  such  substitutes  are  mostly  represented   by  the  ventilation-furnaces, 
ventilation-stacks,  etc.,  formerly  used  there  and  still  kept  in  working  order.    For 
mechanical  ventilators  the  presence  of  a  second  driving-engine,  joined  on  to  the  fan 
by  means  of  coupling,  is  in  itself  an  invaluable  adjunct. 

The  ventilation  apparatus  should  only  come  to  a  standstill  when  there  is 
complete  cessation  of  work  throughout  the  mine.  If  the  apparatus  stops  working 
because  of  some  accidental  breakdown,  every  man  in  the  pit  should  be  brought  to 
bank  with  the  utmost  practicable  rapidity.  This  appears  the  more  necessary, 
because  repeated  experiments  conducted  by  the  Sub-Committee  on  Ventilators*  have 
unmistakably  proved  that  (at  any  rate  in  the  case  of  mechanical  ventilators), 
contrary  to  the  view  held  by  many  experts,!  the  persistence  of  movement  of 
artificial  air-currents  in  the  pit  is  vanishingly  small.  The  amount  of  depression 
caused  by  the  ventilator  always  dropped  with  tremendous  rapidity  on  the  stoppage 
of  the  fan,  and  after  a  few  minutes  only  the  natural  air-circulation  of  the  mine 
(attended  according  to  circumstances  with  a  reversal  of  the  air-current)  was  to  be 
observed. 

In  order  that  an  adequate  air-supply  may  be  assured,  even  in  the  event  of  such 
accidents  as  the  infiux  of  large  quantities  of  fire-damp  from  the  goaf  or  from 
freshly-hewn  clef ts  or  fissures,  sudden  outbursts  of  gas,  fire-damp  explosions,  etc., 
there  must  be  some  means  provided  for  increasing  the  volume  of  air  to  any  extent 
that  may  be  required.  We  should  therefore  recommend  that  in  fiery  mines  the 
motors  which  are  destined  to  produce  the  air-draught  should  be  planned  and 
maintained  in  such  wise  that  the  regulation  minimum  air-supply  may  at  any 
moment  be  immediately  increased  by  25  per  cent.    (Art.  6  of  the  "  Principles.") 

Whether  in  any  given  case,  this  increase  should  be  brought  about  merely  by 
augmenting  the  velocity  of  the  ventilator,  or  by  harder  stoking  of  the  ventilating- 
fumace,  or  whether  the  installation  of  a  second  ventilator  or  a  second  furnace  be 
necessary,  depends  entirely  on  the  particular  conditions  of  the  mine. 

Just  as  in  putting  down  ventilation-furnaces  the  action  of  possible  fire-damp 
explosions  in  the  pit  must  be  taken  into  account  (compare  par.  No.  117  of  this 
Report),  so  must  mechanical  ventilators  be  set  up  in  such  a  manner  as  to  suffer  no 

*•  Appendices,  toI.  ▼.,  page  85. 

t  Oompam  Mr.  Haton  de  la  GouiiUIidre,  Report  oj  the  French  Fire-damp  CommisripUt  orlg.,  pages 
99-100. 


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622  REPORT  OF  TRE  PRUSSIAN 

damage  through  an  explosion.  It  is  therefore  advisable  that  the  spot  selected  for 
the  ventilator  should  be  invariably  some  little  distance  sideways  from  the  top  of 
the  upcast  shaft,  and  that  communication  should  be  assured  by  means  of  an  airway 
branching  off  from  the  shaft.  Meanwhile  the  actual  shaft-opening  may  be  suitably 
closed  only  by  a  very  light  cover,  and  the  main  shock  would  strike  straight  through 
this  in  the  event  of  an  explosion.  This  is  a  precaution  which  should  be  the  more 
hecdfuUy  observed  that  it  is  of  enormous  importance,  immediately  after  an  explo- 
sion, to  be  able  to  work  the  ventilator  at  its  highest  pressure  for  the  purpose  of 
restoring  the  momentarily  disturbed  circulation  of  air. 

\20.—Airwai/Jt  and  Air-velocity* — The  amount  of  air  which  is  led  through 
the  pit  is,  on  the  one  hand,  in  direct  relation  to  the  sectional  area  of  the  airways 
and  the  velocity  of  its  passage  through  the  mine,  and  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  in 
inverse  relation  to  the  f rictional  resistances  of  the  pit.  These  latter  are  the  greater 
according  as  the  frictional-surfaces  are  greater,  that  is,  according  as  the  airways 
increase  in  perimeter  and  length,  and  that  the  air- velocity  is  greater;  these  f ric- 
tional resistances  also  are  the  greater,  the  smaller  the  sectional  area  of  the  airways. 
Wherefore  the  shape  of  the  sectional  area,  the  character  of  the  sur&ces,  the  possible 
change  in  direction  (twists  and  turns)  of  the  levels  or  drifts,  etc.,  are  points. which 
must  be  taken  into  account.f 

In  order  to  obtain  a  given  air-supply  with  the  smallest  possible  ex]>enditure  of 
power  (or,  what  so  far  as  its  action  is  concerned  is  the  same  tiling,  with  a  given 
expenditure  of  power,  to  obtain  the  great<3st  possible  air-supply)  we  see  from  what 
preceiles  that  there  are  three  principal  means,  viz.,  (1)  great  air- velocity ;  (2)  short 
airways ;  (3)  large  sectional  area  an<l  otherwise  suitable  disposition  of  the  airways. 

Apart  from  the  fact  that,  concurrently  with  the  increase  of  air-velocity,  the 
frictional  resistances  are  augmented  proportionately  to  the  square  of  that  increase, 
and  the  expenditure  of  power  proportionately  to  the  cube,  the  practical  limit  to 
such  heightened  velocity  is  very  soon  reached.  And  this,  not  only  because  too 
rapid  an  air-draught  is  found  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  workpeople  in  the 
mine,  but  more  particularly  bccauses  it  introduces  the  risk  of  "  blowing  through  " 
of  the  safety-lamp  (compare  par.  No.  82  of  this  Report).  Taking  into  account  the 
ortlinary  conditions  of  Prussian  coal-mining,  the  utmost  possible  air-velocity  which 
the  Commission  regard  as  permissible  is  240  metres  (800  feet)  per  minute  in  the 
downcast,  and  360  metres  (1,200  feet)  per  minute  in  the  upcast ;  as  a  general  rule 
they  consider  it  advisable  to  recommend  very  much  lower  velocities  (see  Art.  7  of 
the  "  Principles  "). 

The  length  of  airways  is  mainly  influenced  by  the  character  or  arrangement  of 

*  Ifr.  Nonne,  "  VentUation  in  Westphalian  Oollleries."  eto..  ZeiUchr.  /.  d.  Btrff-,  Hnu«n-u.  SdlituH- 
Wtaen  im  Prnut.  Staate,  vol.  xxl,  B.,  pa«es 74-77 :  Mr.  Hoomecke,  "On  Precautionary  Measures againsfc 
Fire-damp."  etc..  iMd,  ToL  zxxi.,B..  pages  301.  310320.  323  3S3.  325^27;  Mr.  Ourit,  'On  Ventilation." 
ZeUiiehr.  det  VerHnt  Deutteh.  Ing.  1884,  No.  41;  Mr.  Haton  de  la  Oonpillidre.  Report  of  Ou  French  Fire- 
damp  Commission,  orig..  pages  76-85;  Appendices,  toI.  L,  pages  162,  163,  and  182;  vol.  IL,  pages  13S-138k 
146-164;  Yol.  y.,  pages  13-18.  36-3B.  U7-155. 

t  With  regard  to  the  total  friction«l  resistances  which  certain  particular  mines  oppose  to  the  free 
passage  of  air,  Mr.  Daniel  Morgue  has  introduced  as  standard  of  measurement  the  equlralent  orifice 
of  the  mine  {oriAce  6quiv(Uent) ;  wiiereby,  for  the  depression  necessary  to  overcome  such  resistances, 
he  calculates  the  sectional  area  of  au  opening  in  a  thin  plate  sufficient  at  that  depression  to  allow  of  the 
exit  of  the  same  volume  of  air.  According  as  this  aperture  Is  very  much  more  or  very  much  less  than 
1  square  metre  (10*76  wiuare  feet),  according  as  it  approaches  or  recedes  fron  that  figure,  he  classifies  the 
mine  as  small,  large,  or  medium.  While  practically  all  Bnglish  collieries  are  very  large,  and  all 
Belgian  (nearly  without  an  exception)  are  small,  the  equivalent  orifice  in  those  Prussian  collieries 
which  are  provided  with  ventilators  varies  (according  to  the  information  obtained  by  the  8ub-Oommitt«e) 
Me  Appendices,  vol.  v.,  pasroa  16-36,  and  plates  i.-ilL)  between  0'28  and  SDl  square  metres  (301  and  3315 
iQuare  feet),  and  therefore  the  Prussian  collieries  as  a  whole  may  be  said  to  belong  to  the  tmall  and 
medium  category. 


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FfKB-DAMP  OOMMIFSIoy.  528 

the  shaft  (depending  on  whether  there  be  one  or  two  shafts,  and  on  what  is  their 
situation  and  respective  distance  from  one  another),  and  largely  also  by  the  method 
of  working  the  coal  (compare  pars.  Nos.  107  and  110  of  this  Report).  But  in  any 
case  the  airways  may  be  notably  shortened  by  the  provision  of  a  sni table  system  of 
air-coudaits,  and  most  particularly  by  splitting  the  air-current.  On  the  last  named 
point  we  shall  have  something  more  to  say  in  a  subsequent  paragraph. 

The  sectional  area  of  the  airways  is  a  factor  of  very  great  importance  in  the 
provision  of  the  requisite  air-supply.  Unfortunately,  it  so  happens  that  until  quite 
recently  far  too  little  attention  was  paid  to  this  very  point  by  those  interested  in 
Prussian  coal-mining.  In  the  course  of  their  journeys  of  inspection,  the  Commission 
had  the  opportunity  of  ascertaining*  that,  while  in  nearly  all  collieries  the  sectional 
area  available  for  the  downcast  current  in  shafts  and  main  airways  may  be  con- 
sidered adequate  for  the  purpose,  the  return  airways  as  well  as  the  upcast  shaft  or 
shaft-compartment  leave  much  to  be  desired  in  this  respect.  Veiy  often  one  finds 
in  air-drifts  and  upcast  shaft-compartments  sectional  areas  which  are  hardly  equiva- 
lent to  the  half  of  the  sectional  area  in  the  main  haulage-ways — and  in  almost  all 
cases  the  first-named  [sectional  areas]  are  considerably  smaller  than  the  last-named. 
The  consequence  is  that  the  requisite  air-supply  is  secured  only  by  means  of  such 
high  velocities  of  air-draught  as  are  not  properly  permissible,  and  there  is  a  great 
waste  of  power  in  the  working  of  the  ventilators.  The  practically  universal 
explanation  of  this  unsatisfactory  state  of  things  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  present 
air-drifts  are  neither  more  nor  less  than  old  haulage-ways,  and  that  at  one  time  too 
little  stress  was  laid  on  the  value  of  wide  sectional  areas  in  the  gateways  [or 
galleries]  (compare  par.  No.  109  of  this  Report).  And  then  the  original  sectional  area, 
such  as  it  was,  has  been  more  or  less  narrowed  down  by  such  causes  as  pressure  of 
the  strata  [roof],  bulging  of  the  floor  er  footwall,  etc. 

As  a  remedy  for  the  future,  the  Commission  consider  it  is  of  urgent  necessity  to 
rule  that  in  the  case  of  newly  opened-up  drifts  and  new  shafts,  the  sectional  area  of 
main  airways  shall  not  average  less  than  3  square  metres  (32*29  square  feet).  (See 
Art.  7  of  the  "  Principles.")  For  the  purposes  of  this  regulation,  the  following  are 
to  be  reckoned  as  main  airways  (in  addition  to  the  upcast  and  downcast  shafts  or 
shaft-compartments)  : — The  airways  belonging  to  these  shafts  or  compartments,  all 
main  cross-cruts  and  divisional  cross-cruts,  and  all  main  level-drifts.  As  to  the 
other  deep  level-drifts,  midway  level-drifts,  air-drifts,  and  the  longer  air  rise- 
drifts  which  are  mostly  traversed  by  split-currents,  in  certain  seams  a  sectional  area 
of  2  square  metres  (21  "62  square  feet)  should  be  generally  insisted  on.  Finally,  for 
the  ordinary  holings  betwixt  every  two  galleries,  for  the  galleries  themselves,  and 
for  such  airways  as  may  be  subsequently  made  in  the  stowing,  a  sectional  area  of 
1  square  metre  (10*76  square  feet)  will  probably  be  found  sufficient,  taking  into  con- 
sideration the  multiplicity  of  air-splits  which  will  by  that  time  have  been  reached 
in  the  pit. 

But  admitting  that  the  sectional  areas  above  enumerated  are  really  sufficient, 
they  must  be  kept  permanently  free  and  open,  a  condition  which  needs  more  par- 
ticularly to  be  observed  in  return  air-drifts  and  upcast  shafts.  As  to  the  return 
air-drifts,  it  should  be  a  peremptory  rule  that  for  their  protection  sufficiently  strong 
safety-pillars  or  barriers  are  left  standing  (or  they  should  not  be  cut  through  seams 
that  are  being  worked),  that  any  breaking-in  or  narrowing  which  takes  place  should 
be  set  right  as  soon  as  possible,  that  tubs  should  not  be  parked  in  such  drifts,  that 
accumulations  of  waste-rock,  timber,  etc.,  be  strictly  avoided,  that  the  tram-rails 
be  always  kept  in  a  fit  condition  for  traffic,  and  that  the  levels  be  more  frequently 


*  Appendioa,  yol.  i.,  pages  163-163, 182 ;  toL  ii.,  pages  134-138. 146-188,  and  S 
VOL.  v.— llOT-98.  84 


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524  REPORT  OP  THE  PRUSSIAN 

examined  to  ascertain  whether  they  are  in  the  condition  prescribed  by  the  regula- 
tions. As  far  as  possible,  upcast  shafts  or  shaft-compartments  should  be  exclaavely 
applied  to  purposes  of  ventilation ;  for  other  purposes,  such  as  haulage  of  coal,  or 
bringing  of  men  to  or  from  bank,  they  should  only  be  used  when  their  sectional 
area  is  very  ample  and  when  appropriate  air-doors  are  so  placed  that  the  regular 
exhaustion  of  the  foul  air  from  the  mine  is  completely  assured.* 

Next  to  the  amplitude  of  sectional  area,  its  shape  and  the  general  features  [or 
disposition]  of  the  airways,  are  points  the  importance  of  which  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated. In  theory  and  in  practice  the  most  suitable  shape  of  sectional  area 
appears  to  be  the  circle,  for  not  only  does  it  offer  the  smallest  possible  frictional 
surface,  but  is  in  every  part  used  by  the  &ir-current  with  the  greatest  evenness  and 
efficiency.  It  follows  that  where  shafts  are  being  newly  put  down,  shafts  which 
are  intended  to  serve  either  for  the  admission  or  for  the  exhaustion  of  air,  the  circular 
section  should  be  chosen  in  preference  to  all  others :  it  has  besides  very  great 
advantages  in  sinking  and  tubbing  operations.  Moreover,  it  would  be  in  most 
cases  preferable  to  allow  an  upcast  shaft  (even  when  this  has  to  be  used  concurrently 
for  haulage  of  coal  or  conveyance  of  men,  see  above)  to  act  as  an  upcast  throughout 
its  whole  sectional  area,  rather  than  to  divide  off  from  it  (for  ventilation  purposes) 
a  compartment  of  unsuitable  sectional  area,  such  as  a  segment  of  a  circle  with 
acute  angles.  In  air-drifts  it  is  advisable  to  avoid,  so  far  as  may  be,  any  useless 
angles  in  sectional  area ;  thus  the  roof,  and  the  upper  portion  of  the  wall-face 
should  be,  to  a  certain  extent,  rounded  off. 

With  regard  to  the  other  features  of  the  airways,  we  may  particularly  call 
attention,  firstly,  to  the  advisability  of  smoothing  carefully  the  rock-face  [or  wall], 
and  this  is  best  accomplished  in  conjunction  with  iron  lining  or  masonry  work ; 
further,  to  the  necessity  of  avoiding  frequent  and  abrupt  changes  in  the  direction 
of  the  drifts. 

How  considerable  a  factor  are  the  airways  in  the  sum  of  practical  progress 
towards  a  perfected  ventilation  of  fiery  mines,  is  strikingly  set  forth  (by  the 
Sub-Committee  on  Ventilators  at  the  conclusion  of  the  statistics  of  ventilation 
systems  compiled  by  them)  in  the  following  wordsf  : — 

"  Admitting  that  the  ventilation  of  our  mines,  viewed  by  the  light  of  statistics, 
forms  on  the  whole  an  unsatisfactory  picture,  we  must  remember  that  the  hope  of 
future  improvement  lies  less  in  the  engineer,  less  in  the  perfection  of  machinery, 
than  in  the  awakening  of  the  colliery  manager  to  the  fact  that  here  is  one  of  his 
most  important  duties.  His  task  it  is  to  enlarge  and  to  round -off,  to  ease  by  splitting 
or  to  shorten  airways  which  are  too  narrow  and  too  sharply  bent.  Only  through 
spacious  workings  can  large  masses  of  air  be  drawn  with  economic  advantage." 

"  The  ordinary  security  of  working  conditions,  nay,  the  very  life  of  the  work- 
men, make  an  abundant  provision  of  air  at  a  moderate  current-velocity  a  matter 
of  prime  necessity.  If  the  colliery  manager  will  simply  look  to  this,  that  wherever 
the  under-manager  (having  consulted  his  anemometer)  reports  an  air-velocity  of 
rather  more  than  200  metres  (650  feet)  per  minute,  the  velocity  of  the  air-current 
shall  be,  as  far  as  possible,  lessened  by  a  corresponding  widening  of  the  airways ; 
and  if  he  will  take  care  to  diminish  the  friction  in  air-drifts  by  having  them  made 
with  smooth  walls,  then  the  ventilating  apparatus  will  (with  rare  exceptions)  amply 
respond  to  the  duty  cast  upon  it  of  providing  an  adequate  air-supply,  and  it  will 
do  so  at  a  proportionately  smaller  expenditure  of  fuel." 

121 « — General  ConHderatione  on  the  TransiniMion  of  the  Air'ourrent  and 

•  Oompare  App^dicea,  toL  I.,  pages  178-179. 
t  Appendices,  toL  t.,  page  39. 


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FIRE-DAMP  COMMISSION.  525 

Splitting  of  the  tame,* — In  order  to  fulfil  its  aim  with  as  near  an  approach  to 
perfection  as  possible,  the  air-current  should  be  led  through  the  workings  in  such 
wise,  that  not  only  do  all  portions  of  these  continuously  receive  the  needful 
Yolume  of  fresh  air,  but  the  gases  and  foul  air  taken  up  by  the  current  are 
removed  out  of  harm*s  way.  Whence  we  proceed  to  enunciate  the  following  two 
fundamental  principles : — (I)  The  air  is  to  be  led  only  in  an  ascending  direction, 
and  (2)  the  air-current  must  be  split,  more  or  less,  according  to  circumstances. 

The  necessity  of  leading  the  air  in  an  ascending  direction  arises  partly  from 
the  progressive  increase  of  temperature  which  the  air-current  undergoes  on  its 
passage  through  the  pit-workings,  partly  from  the  low  specific  gravity  of  the 
deleterious  gases  which  have  to  be  taken  up.  Both  these  circumstances,  in  them- 
selves, occasion  a  certain  upward  push  of  the  air — ^a  tendency  which  may  be  taken 
advantage  of  all  to  the  profit  of  the  ventilation.  If  this  tendency  be  treated  as  a 
matter  of  no  moment,  it  becomes  one  of  the  sum  of  resistances  which  have  to  be 
dealt  with  in  the  pit,  and  at  certain  points  it  may  on  slight  provocation  give  rise 
to  (dangerous)  accumulations  of  gas.  And  it  is,  to  say  the  very  least,  a  risky  mode 
of  proceeding  to  allow  the  air-current  to  pursue  a  downward  course  after  it  has 
passed  over  a  spot  where  fire-damp  is  known  to  occur.  The  Commission  would 
therefore  lay  down  the  following  regulation  (Art.  8  of  their  "  Principles  ") : — 

**  The  ventilation  must  be  so  arranged,  both  as  a  whole  and  in  detail,  that  the 
fresh  air  is  led  from  the  surface  by  the  shortest  possible  route  downward 
to  the  working-levels;  but  that  thereafter  the  separate  air-currents  in 
the  various  working-districts  shall  follow  an  invariably  ascending  course." 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  in  the  course  of  their  journeys  of  investigation,  the  Com- 
mission met  with  numerous  cases  wherein  this  rule  (for  very  different  reasons  in 
each  case)  had  been  more  or  less  widely  departed  from,t  and  yet  in  by  far  the 
greater  number  of  these  cases  it  was  impossible  to  assert  that  any  evil  whatsoever 
had  resulted  from  such  departure.    In  several  of  them,  indeed,  one  was  compelled 
to  admit  that  the  downward  ventilation  method  was  the  only  adequate,  the  only 
practicable  method.    But  this  system  (unless  we  have  simply  to  deal  with  the 
leading  off  of  a  current  which  will  not  again  be  used)  undoubtedly  demands  the 
greatest  caution,  and  its  application  is  therefore,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Commission, 
in  at  any  rate  the  larger  collieries,  only  exceptionally  permissible,  and  then  under 
special^conditions  (Art.  8  of  the  "  Principles  ") : — 

"  Downward  ventilation  of  workings  in  active  use — with  the  exception  of 
headings  driven  to  .the  rise,  where  such  ventilation  cannot,  of  course,  be 
dispensed  with — ^is  only  allowable  as  an  exception  in  consideration  of  the 
circumstances  of  the  particular  case,  and  subject  to  an  abundant  supply 
of  fresh  air  and  the  provision  of  trustworthy  bratticing." 
"  There  appears  to  be  no  objection,  on  the  score  of  danger,  to  leading  downwards 

air-currents  which  are  not  intended  to  be  made  further  use  of." 

Of  equal  importance,  with  the  upward  conduction  of  the  air,  is  a  suitable  system 

of  splitting  the  air-current.    In  pit-workings  of  any  considerable  extent,  it  is  not 

only  in  view  of  shortening  the  airways  and  lessening  the  velocity,  but  in  view  of 

maintaining  a  good  condition  of  the  air,  that  there  appears  to  be  considerable 

*  Mr.  Baton  d6  la  CtoapiUidre,  Riport  qf  the  French  Fire-damp  C<mmUHon,  otig.,  paffM  78-81 ;  Dr. 
KreiBoher,  "  Prelimlnaxy  Report  of  the  British  Royal  Commiasion  on  Aocldenta  in  Mines,"  op.  jam  oU., 
page  11;  Mr.  Hoemecke,  "On  Precautionary  Measures  against  Fire-damp,"  eta,  ZeiUchr.  /.  d,  Bero-, 
Hmen^  Saliiun-Waen  im  Pretue.  Staate,  toI.  zxxL,  B..  pages  907.  310-311;  BIr.  Gurlt,  "On  Ventila- 
tion." Zeittehr.  dee  Verefna  devtteh.  Ing.,  1884,  No.  i2;  Appendieee,  toL  L.  pages  16-17, 158-166;  toL  iL. 
pages  138-146. 166-801 ;  Final  Bsport  qfthe  BrUUh  B^tyal  Commiuion  an  Aoeidente  in  Mines,  pages  10-13L 

t  Appendicee,  toL  1..  pages  164-166 ;  toL  iL,  pages  138-146. 


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626  REPORT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAX 

advantage  in  splitting  the  air-cnrrent  into  a  number  of  smaller  currents,  instead  of 
leading  it  in  one  compact  mass  past  all  the  working-places.  Bach  of  the  split- 
currents  provides  a  given  district  with  fresh  air,  and  then  either  re-combines  with 
the  other  currents  to  form  one  main  return  current,  or  goes  to  day  of  itself.  Where 
several  levels  are  being  worked  at  one  and  the  same  time,  the  splitting  is  best 
begun  from  the  downcast  shaft  in  such  a  way  that  each  level  receives  the  requisite 
supply  of  fresh  air  direct  from  the  shaft,  and  therefore  is  not  dependent  for  its 
air-supply  on  air  which  has  already  been  used  at  a  lower  level.  This  method  is 
attended  with  the  additional  advantage  that  the  effects  of  a  possible  explosion 
will  be,  as  a  rule,  restricted  to  one  level  only. 

At  each  working-level,  the  split-currents  for  the  respective  districts  generally 
branch  off  from  the  main  crosscrut,  and  in  each  district  the  air-currents  for  the 
various  engine-planes  or  self-acting  planes  again  branch  off  from  the  corresponding 
main  gangway.  To  what  extent  the  splitting  is  to  be  carried  in  each  particular 
case  depends  on  the  method  and  conditions  of  working  the  mine  and  on  the  amount 
of  fire-damp  known  to  be  commonly  present.  At  all  events  the  number  of  working- 
places  to  be  supplied  with  air  from  one  and  the  same  current  must  be  strictly 
limited,  so  that  the  air  at  the  last  of  the  points  so  supplied  shall  still  possess  the 
necessary  freshness  and  purity.  An  air-current  that  is  much  fouled  must  be  taken 
by  the  shortest  way  to  the  upcast,  without  being  allowed  to  pass  through  any 
workings  in  active  use  (see  Art.  9  of  the  "  Principles  *'). 

As  a  matter  of  course,  the  general  rule  that  the  air  is  to  be  drawn  [through  the 
pit]  only  in  an  ascending  direction  must  be  implicitly  observed  in  the  case  of  split- 
currents  [as  well  as  in  that  of  a  single  current].  Moreover,  the  various  currents 
must  be  strictly  separated  [or  partitioned  off]  from  one  another,  and  they  should 
not  be  allowed  to  coalesce  or  pass  through  each  other.  Thesplitting-off  of  a  current, 
and,  as  the  case  may  be,  its  re-union  with  the  main  current  or  with  the  other  split- 
currents  should  be  so  managed  that  sharp  bends  are  as  far  as  possible  avoided,  and 
that  the  cross-section  [of  the  airway]  is  of  amply  sufficient  area.  Finally,  it  appears 
to  us  advisable  that  arrangements  should  be  made  enabling  one  at  pleasure  to 
temporarily  reinforce  and  then  weaken  again  any  given  split-current. 

Among  the  principal  auxiliary  means  which  help  one  to  arrange  the  transmission 
and  splitting  of  the  air  should  be  mentioned  air-doors  [or  airgates],  airtight  stop- 
pings, air-crossings,  and  movable  sliding-doors  or  regulators  in  the  two  first-named. 

The  air-doors  should  wholly  or  partially  interrupt  the  air-current,  that  is,  divert 
it  in  another  direction  or  merely  split  it  as  the  case  may  require,  without  at  the 
same  time  interrupting  the  passage  of  men  or  the  haulage  of  coal.  They  should 
close  automatically,  and  at  those  points  where  an  airtight  partition  is  needful  or 
where  (in  consequence  of  mining  operations)  there  is  a  considerable  amount  of 
traffic  going  through,  such  doors  should  be  at  least  double  and  placed  at  such  a 
distance  apart  that  one  of  the  two  doors  will  always  remain  closed.  Air-doors  which 
have  become  superfluous  should  be  removed  from  their  hinges.  (See  Art.  11  of  the 
"  Principles.") 

Permanent  stoppings  of  masonry  appear  to  be  suitable  wherever  the  levels  or 
other  spaces  so  dammed  off  are  no  further  needed  for  ventilation  purposes  or  for 
other  operations  connected  with  mining.  Among  such  places  are  the  entrances  to 
worked-out  portions  of  the  pit,  and  the  lower  openings  of  rise-drifts,  holings,  air- 
drifts,  etc.,  which  have  ceased  to  be  of  any  use.  With  such  stoppings,  just  as  with 
the  air-doors,  every  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  they  are  in  a  continuously 
airtight  condition.  Where  the  stoppings  are  merely  intended,  by  narrowing  the 
sectional  area  of  the  airway,  to  split  the  air-current,  they  may  be  made  of  wooden 
planks  with  a  suitable  opening  fitted  with  sliding  regulator. 


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flRE-DXMP  COMMISSION.  52? 

.  Air-CTOSsinga  are  intended  to  keep  strictly  apart  from  one  another,  two  air- 
carrents  different  in  direction  which  happen  to  meet.  This  aim  is  best  accomplished 
by  leading  one  of  the  currents  off  in  an  airtight  channel  on  the  top  (or  the  roof  as 
it  were)  of  the  other. 

In  many  cases  no  special  distributing  arrangements  are  necessary  for  splitting 
off  a  current  from  the  main  air-current  or  for  further  subdividing  a  split-current, 
provided  the  frictional  resistances  do  not  differ  much  in  either  direction  and  that 
the  masses  of  air  so  split  can  be  made  approximately  equal.  It  is,  however,  safer 
to  provide  an  air-door,  or,  according  to  circumstances,  a  timber  stopping,  in  which 
there  is  an  opening  with  a  sliding-regulator.  In  order  to  avoid  undue  pressure 
[from  the  pent-up  air]  it  is  advisable  to  make  these  openings  so  far  as  possible  in 
the  upper  portion  of  the  door  or  timber  stopping,  and  of  the  greatest  possible  width, 
(that  is  to  say  they  should  be  made  in  the  form  of  an  oblong  slit  rather  than  of  a 
squarish  aperture),  or  they  should  be  arranged  as  '^air-trapdoors." 

The  great  stress  which  must  necessarily  be  laid  on  the  importance,  wherever 
fire-damp  is  present,  of  a  ventilation  system  consistently  carried  out  on  approved 
principles,  leads  one  to  this  further  conclusion,  that  for  all  fiery  mines  an  accurate 
plan  of  air-distribution  should  be  plotted  out.  In  addition  to  the  general  plan, 
there  should  be  separate  tracings  showing  the  course  of  the  air  [in  each  particular 
section  of  the  workings]  so  that  all  the  mining  officials,  besides  possessing  a  com- 
plete apergu  of  the  general  conditions  of  ventilation  in  the  pit,  may  have  at  hand 
such  local  information  as  will  enable  them  to  take  action  at  any  particular  spot 
where  necessary.  It  may  indeed  be  true  that,  with  the  rapid  progress  of  the 
workings,  such  plans  or  tracings  will  need  much  alteration  and  addition ;  but  they 
will  greatly  help  all  those  concerned  to  understand  what  they  are  about,  and  it 
may  happen  that  the  pit  will  be  thereby  preserved  (in  certain  cases)  from  the 
disastrous  consequences  of  errors  of  omission  or  commission. 

122. — Conduction  of  the  Air  to  the  Worhing-face^-^lt  the  ventilation  of  the 
mine  is  to  be  a  practical  success,  it  is  not  sufficient  merely  to  provide  that  the 
fresh  air  shall  be  led  through  in  abundant  quantity — the  important  point  is  that 
the  air  should  reach  in  the  most  direct  way  possible  the  working-face  where  it  is 
required.  The  difficulties  of  this  task  are  much  enhanced  by  the  fact  that  accord- 
ing to  the  conditions  of  each  particular  mine,  it  needs  different  means  to  overcome 
them ;  and  still  further  by  its  dependence,  for  its  successful  accomplishment,  on 
the  attention,  the  goodwill,  and  the  insight  of  the  ordinary  workman,  quite  as  much 
as  on  the  display  of  the  same  qualities  in  the  officials.  And  thus  it  becomes  easy 
to  understand  how  it  is,  that  precisely  those  comparatively  short  divergences  from 
the  direct,  straight  course  of  the  air  up  to  the  working-face,  are  according  to  all 
experience  so  pregnant  a  factor  in  the  genesis  of  fire-damp  explosions. 

Fresh  air  can  only  be  led  up  to  the  working-face  without  further  trouble  where 
the  method  is  longwall  or  overhand  stoping,  provided  strict  care  be  taken  to  make 
the  [process  of]  stowing  follow  straight  on  the  continual  [inward]  advance  of  the 
working.  In  pillar-and-stall  work,  on  the  other  hand,  and  in  all  operations  of 
opening  and  fore-winning  this  aim  is  attained  by  means  of  special  arrangements 
the  result  of  which  is  to  rigidly  demarcate  the  course  that  shall  be  followed  by  the 
air-current.  These  arrangements  include,  besides  the  air-doors  and  distributive 
sliding-regulators  which  have  already  been  discussed  (compare  par.  No.  121  of  this 

*  Mr.  Hftton  de  la  Goapillidre.  Report  of  the  Fnneh  Fire-damp  Coim»<Miofs  oiig.,  pa^M  128-136; 
Mr.  Hoemeoke,  "On  Precautionary  Meaiures  against  Fire-damp,"  etc.,  ZeitMhr.  /.  d.  Btrg-,  H«tteiMi. 
SdUnenrWetm  im  Frews,  StaaU,  toL  xizi.  B..  pages  310-316.  8S5-331 ;  Appendices,  vol.  L.  pages  163-16i 
U3;  ToL  IL.  pages  lU-15i.  196-800. 


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62  B  REPORT  OP  TUB  PRIlSSUK 

Report)  air-pipes  or  conduits,  air-brattices,  air  drift-leyels,  air-headings,  air* 
stentings,  and  air-boreholes. 

The  preliminary  condition  of  the  use  of  air-pipes  (of  wood,  zinc-plate  or  sheeet- 
iron)  is  an  air-door  wherein  debouch  the  conduits  which  lead  up  to  the  working- 
face,  and  this  door  is  either  so  placed  as  to  be  in  the  drift  bj  which  the  air  enters 
the  mine  (intake  air-pipes),  or  so  placed  as  to  draw  oflf  the  return  air  (suction  or 
exhaust  air-pipes).  On  account,  however,  of  the  considerable  frictional  resistance 
to  which  they  give  rise,  such  air-pipes— except  in  cases  where  they  may  be  utilized 
in  conjunction  with  hand  ventilators  (a  point  which  remains  to  be  discussed  under 
the  heading  of  "  separate  [or  divisional]  ventilation  ") — are  really  efficient  only  with 
large  cross-sections  and  short  lengths  [of  airway].  Therefore^  as  a  general  rule,  we 
are  not  inclined  to  advise  their  use. 

Incomparably  greater  is  the  security  afforded  by  air- brattices,  as,  thanks  to 
them,  one  obtains  two  completely  independent  air-channels  of  approximately  equal 
cross-section  going  right  up  to  the  working-face.  They  are  built  of  brickwork, 
of  airtight  timbering,  of  canvas  (sailcloth)  stretched  on  a  frame  or  hanging  freely 
(air-curtains).  The  brickwork  partitions  are  especially  suitable  for  long  cross-cmts, 
upbrows,  self-acting  inclined  planes,  etc.,  while  the  simple  air-curtains  are  more 
suitable  for  the  ordinary  working  places.  It  is  of  course  unnecessary  to  add  that 
the  brattice  must  always  be  kept  airtight,  and  continued  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
working-face. 

In  bottom  and  winning-levels  of  great  width  with  extensive  stowing,  the  stow- 
ing itself  may  with  advantage  serve  as  an  air-brattice,  an  air-channel  (for  the  fresh 
air  which  is  to  be  led  into  the  mine),  being  kept  open  in  the  stowing  in  the  lower 
wall  of  the  drift,  while  the  actual  headway  is  closed  off  by  an  air-door,  and  in  its 
upper  portion  leads  away  the  foul  air  returning  from  the  working-face  to  the  nearest 
rise-drift.  An  indispensable  proviso  in  this  arrangement  is  that  the  stowing 
should  be  very  carefully  built,  and  particularly  that  a  rock  wall  as  smooth  and  as 
airtight  as  may  be  should  form  the  lining  of  the  air-channel  and  of  the  gallery. 
We  must  admit,  however,  that  this  arrangement  (just  as  much  as  the  air- 
brattice  method)  has  the  great  disadvantage  in  the  case  of  a  fairly  widespread 
explosion  of  being  easily  destroyed,  and  thus,  under  given  circumstances,  the  whole 
system  of  ventilation  in  an  extensive  area  of  workings  may  be  brought  completely 
to  a  standstill. 

In  opening  out  fiery  coal-seams,  it  is  preferable  to  push  forward  the  deep  levels, 
self-acting  planes  and  other  main  galleries,  simultaneously  with  a  parallel  air-road 
driven  in  the  seam  or  the  country  rock:  this  air-road  communicates  at  certain 
intervals  (not  too  frequent)  with  the  main  gallery  by  means  of  holings.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  in  this  method  of  working  the  upper  parallel  gallery  is  driven  somewhat 
in  advance  of  the  lower  or  main  gallery,  but  then  it  should  be  the  last  to  be 
traversed  by  the  air-current,  so  that  the  gases  which  are  here  most  abundantly 
evolved  may  be  led  off  as  directly  as  possible.  In  some  cases  it  would  even  appear 
advisable  not  to  drive  both  headings  simultaneously,  but  in  sections  and  alternately 
one  after  the  other.  Moreover,  where  there  is  much  gas  evolved  it  would  appear 
absolutely  necessary  to  lead  an  air-brattice  over  the  distance  (be  it  small  or  great), 
which  intervenes  between  the  last  holing  and  the  working-face  in  both  drifts.* 

Just  as  the  parallel  gallery  system  is  applied  in  opening  and  fore-winning,  so 
in  pillar-and-stall  work  is  the  air  communication  betwixt  the  separate  working- 
faces  assured  by  means  of  air-holings  (rise-drifts  in  longitudinal  pillar  work).    To 

*  For  such  preliminary  headloga  in  fiery  seams,  we  should  recommend  in  preference  to  others,  the 
Hilt  BQCtiott-prooess  (compare  par.  No.  103  of  this  Report). 


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nUE'DAMP  COMMISSIOlSr.  52d 

allow  of  the  fresh  air  coming  up  as  near  as  possible  to  the  working-face,  the 
indiyidnal  holings  should  not  follow  each  other  at  too  great  distances.  The  Com- 
mission hold  the  view  that  in  no  case  should  the  face  where  the  coal  is  being 
worked  be  more  than  20  metres  (65  feet)  distant  from  the  direct  air-current,  that  is 
from  the  nearest  holing,  and  therefore  the  interval  between  each  of  these  holings 
should  never  exceed  20  metres  (66  feet).  And  even  with  so  small  an  interval  as 
that,  it  will  be  as  a  rule  advisable  (in  order  to  avoid  accumulations  of  gas  at  the 
working-face)  to  place  from  the  last  holing  to  the  face  a  movable  air-brattice  (sail- 
cloth) for  the  fresh  air. 

Of  late  years,  particularly  in  Westphalian  collieries,  holings  have  been  largely 
discarded  in  favour  of  air-boreholes.*  From  the  point  of  view  of  safety  the  latter 
have  over  the  first-named  this  considerable  advantage  that  they  entirely  do  away 
with  the  always  risky  process  of  driving  an  upbrow  to  the  rise.  It  is  true,  however, 
that  on  account  of  their  generally  small  cross-section  these  boreholes  do  not  allow 
of  a  man  making  his  way  through  them:  given  certain  circumstances — say,  the 
necessity  for  instant  flight  in  the  case  of  an  explosion — the  defect  may  prove  very 
serious  indeed.  Assuming  that  such  objections  are  met  by  making  the  diameter  of 
the  boreholes  larger  or  by  partly  widening  the  borehole  (after  holing),  then  air- 
boreholes  will  be  found  adequate  to  all  the  expectations  that  can  be  formed  of 
them. 

As  far  as  the  convenient  utilization  of  the  various  means  of  air-conduction  at 
different  points  of  the  workings  is  concerned,  preference  should  be  given  in  shafts, 
cross-cruts,  and  other  galleries  to  the  parallel  air-way  system  of  driving.  But 
even  for  these,  air-brattices,  air-pipes,  or  conduits  will  be  found  sufficient  if  they 
have  a  large  enough  cross-section.  One  or  other  of  such  means  is  an  indispensable 
accompaniment  to  any  operations  of  that  kind  In  a  fiery  mine.  In  all  upbrows 
driven  to  the  rise,  special  ventilation  is  requisite,  but  this  need  only  be  done  in 
galleries  driven  to  the  dip  when  these  are  longer  than  15  metres  (49*3  feet). 

The  air-stentings  or  air-boreholes  which  have  to  be  arranged  in  parallel  gallery 
working  and  in  pillar-and-stall  work  should  follow  one  another  at  intervals  of  at 
most  20  metres  (65  feet).  The  corresponding  drift  must  not  be  lengthened  beyond 
that  distance  before  the  new  holing  has  come  to  the  junction.  Simultaneously 
with  these  operations  all  air-drifts  and  holings  which  have  become  needless  for  ven- 
tilation purposes  should  be  hermetically  and  permanently  sealed  up  (see  Art.  10  of 
the  "Principles") 

123. — Separate  Ventilation.^ — Even  with  the  most  carefully  managed  conduc- 
tion of  the  air,  it  is  not  always  found  practicable  to  have  every  working-place 

*  Appendicet,  toL  il.,  paRe  IM. 

t  Meflsn.  B.  B.  Voemter  and  R.  Hauase,  "  ObsenratioDs  on  the  Character  and  Motion  of  the  Pit-air 
in  the  Royal  Collieries  in  the  Plauen'scher  Orund,  together  with  General  Bemarks  on  Pit  Ventilation," 
Jahrb.  /.  d.  Berg-u.  HutUntmtuH  im  KSniffr.  Saoh$en,  1879,  page  1,  et  »eq.;  Mr.  Baton  de  la  Gtonplllidre, 
Report  of  the  Frtm^  Fire-damp  Commution,  orig.,  pages  105-116;  Mr.  Qiirlt,  The  PreventioH  qf  Fire- 
damp Ej^oBion*  in  CoIlierie$,  Bonn,  18S0,  pages  21-22;  Mr.  Pelzer,  "Ventilation  of  Mines,"  Glaeka%f, 
1882,  No.  49 ;  Mr.  Schroeder,  "Separate  Ventilation  of  Pit- workings  by  means  of  Compressed  Air,"  ibid., 
1684,  No.  25 ;  Mr.  B.  R.  Foerster,  "  On  Separate  Ventilation  and  its  Cost,"  Jahrb.  /.  d.  Berg-n.  HnUettweten 
Un  KSnigr.  Saduen,  1S8S,  page  4,  et  wg. ;  Mr.  von  Steindel,  "  On  Separate  Ventilation  in  the  Pit-workings 
of  the  Zwickau-Oberhohndorf  Colliery  Association,"  ibid.,  188i  pages  79-91 ;  Mr.  Menzel.  "Review  of  the 
Labours  of  the  Saxon  Commission,"  <Md.,  1886,  page  11 ;  Mr.  Simmersbach,  "On  Ventilation  in  Fiery 
Mines,"  Berg-u.  HiUten-Zeitwig,  1885.  Ho.  20;  Mr.  O.  Th.  Meyer,  "Theory  of  the  Bflect  of  Suction- 
pipes  utilized  in  separate  Ventilation,"  iMet ,  1887,  Nos.  9-14 ;  Mr.  Hoemecke, "  On  Precautionary  Measures 
against  Fire-damp,"  etc.,  ZeiUehr.  /.  d.  Berg-,  Hatten-u.  Salintn-Wesen  im  Prevu.  StaaUy  toL  zzxi.  B., 
pages  315^16,  330-331;  Mr.  von  Steindel,  "  On  the  Ventilation  of  Fiery  BCines,"  Zeitsehr.  det  Vereina 
deuttOi.  Ing.,  1884,  No.  3;  Mr.  Ourlt,  "On  Ventilation,"  ibid.,  1884,  No.  42;  Mr.  B.  Otto,  Firt-damp 
and  no  Aim  c/  ProvidetUe,  Berlin,  1888,  pages  47-62;  Appendieett  toL  L,  pages  183-186;  vol.  iL,  pages 
903-208. 


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530  REPORT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN 

efficiently  trayereed  by  the  main  air-current  or  by  a  split-cnrient,  without  the  air 
being  seriously  weakened  or  being  repeatedly  led  downward.  It  is  therefore  advis- 
able, above  all  in  mines  with  small  ohfioes,  to  provide  with  air,  by  means  of  separate 
ventilation,  such  portions  of  the  workings  as  are  particularly  remote  or  specially  in 
need  of  air,  independently  of  the  traversing  air-current.  The  simplest  ventilation 
system  of  this  kind  is  that  of  hand- ventilators  (or  air-mills)  in  conjunction  with 
air-pipes,  such  as  liave  been  in  use  for  a  great  many  years  in  all  coal-mining  dis- 
tricts of  the  kingdom  of  Prussia  (in  connexion  with  the  working  of  rise-drifts 
known  to  contain  fire-damp).  The  Rittinger  or  Schiele  centrifugal  ventilators  are 
mostly  used  for  this  purpose,  but  of  late  years  the  much  more  efficient  Pelzer  spiral 
ventilators  have  begun  to  supersede  them,  and  in  some  few  districts  Boots  blowers 
have  come  into  use. 

Whether  the  hand-ventilators  will  best  fulfil  their  purpose  by  exhaustion  or  by 
compression  is  a  matter  which  should  be  decided  according  to  the  circumstances  of 
each  particular  case.  On  the  whole,  the  compression  method  will  no  doubt  be  found 
preferable ;  for  it  is  evident  that  the  powerful  mechanical  action  of  the  compressed 
air-current  will  largely  help  to  keep  the  actual  working-place  free  from  the  invasion 
of  fire-damp,  and  the  air  will  be  constantly  reaching  the  hewer  at  the  working-face 
in  the  freshest  possible  condition.  By  the  exhaustion  method,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  air,  before  it  comes  to  the  working-place,  will  have  taken  up  the  gases  evolved  in 
the  lower  portion  of  the  drift.  It  is  true,  however,  that  the  drift  itself  is  supplied 
with  better  air  by  the  exhaustion  process.  In  every  case  the  rule  must  be  strictly 
adhered  to  of  setting  up  hand-ventilators  only  in  the  fresh  air-current  (Art.  10  of 
the  *' Principles")'  If  ^^^7  work  by  exhaustion,  there  must  besides  be  a  return 
air-pipe  available,  by  means  of  which  the  foul  air  is  led  away  directly  into  the 
return  air-current,  that  is,  into  the  nearest  return  air-way,  and  thence  onwards  to 
the  upcast. 

Where  such  a  ventilator  has  to  be  worked  continuously  for  a  long  stretch  of 
time,  or  where  it  has  to  provide  several  points  simultaneously  with  fresh  air,  it  will 
be  best  to  substitute  machine  for  hand  power.  Supposing  steam  is  not  locally 
available,  one  may  select  some  such  appliance  as  a  small  water-turbine,  or  engines 
driven  by  compressed  air,  or  transmitted  electric  power. 

The  many  dangers  which  may  arise  as  a  consequence  of  bad  installation  or  neg* 
ligent  management  of  the  hand- ventilators,  as  well  as  the  inadequate  efficiency  of 
the  latter  over  great  lengths  [of  workings]  led  to  the  following  arrangement  being 
adopted  in  many  fiery  mines  somewhere  about  the  middle  of  the  'seventies.  In 
opening  and  fore-winning  operations,  and  particularly  in  driving  to  the  rise  self- 
acting  inclined  planes  and  other  fairly  long  upbrows,  apart  from  the  main  air-current, 
compressed  air  is  used  for  the  local  ventilation.  This  method  possesses  the,  by  no 
means  despicable,  advantage  of  leading  up  to  the  respective  working-places,  quite 
independently  of  the  actual  air-supply  [of  the  mine],  fresh  air  direct  from  day :  and 
at  the  same  time  the  compressed  air  on  its  return  journey  at  ordinary  density 
produces  cold,  and  so  has  a  cooling  effect  on  the  pit  air.  One  thing  which  militates 
against  a  more  extended  use  of  compressed  air  is  its  very  high  cost  of  production. 

The  method,  at  one  time  exclusively  in  use,  of  simply  allowing  the  compressed 
air  (brought  up  to  the  working-face  in  pipes)  to  stream  out  in  front  of  the  working- 
face  may  certainly  have  the  effect  of  dispersing  the  deleterious  gases  which  are 
evolved  there,  but  from  the  economic  point  of  view  it  involves  evidently  a  great 
waste  of  power.  It  should  therefore  be  restricted  to  such  localities  as  need  compara- 
tively little  air,  with  considerable  length  of  drifts  or  high  rock-pressure  (pressure  of 
the  strata.) 


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FIRE-DAMP  COMMISSION.  531 

A  xnach  improved  method  of  utiliziDg  compressed  air  is  to  let  it  stream  out  after 
the  fashion  of  the  GifEard  injector,  from  a  narrow  aperture  into  an  open  gipe. 
Then,  thanks  to  the  dynamic  power  of  the  compressed  air,  a  not  inconsiderable 
volume  (12  times  its  own  and  more)  of  f  i-ee  air  is  swept  along  with  it  into  the  air- 
pipe.  Peculiarly  suitable  for  this  purpose  is  the  Korting  jet  apparatus,  whereby 
the  air  streams  into  the  channel  through  a  number  of  concentric  nozzles.  Mean- 
while the  usual  simple  exhaust  aperture  is  sufficient  [for  ordinary  purposes.] 

Such  apparatuses  may  be  applied  either  on  the  compression  or  on  the  exhaustion 
system.  In  the  first  case  the  pipe  must  of  course  start  with  its  orifice  somewhere 
within  the  area  traversed  by  the  fresh  air-current.  Their  permanent  use,  particularly 
in  haulage  roads,  has  been  of  .late  years  much  extended,  as,  for  instance,  in  the 
Maria  pit  at  Hongen,  near  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  several  pits  of  the  Lower  Rhenish- 
Westphalian  coal-basin,  and  in  the  collieries  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony.  The  very 
convenient  arrangement  has  been  adopted  of  making  the  exhaust  aperture  of  the 
compressed  air  variable  (differential  blower),  so  that  the  ventilation  (air-supply)  of 
each  working-place  can  be  increased  at  any  time  as  may  be  required. 

The  Commission  believed  it  was  their  duty  to  recommend  warmly  separate 
ventilation  by  compressed  air  and  pipe-jets,  and  also  by  means  of  the  Korting  and 
other  appliances  which  appear  suitable  for  the  air-supply  of  localities  that  par- 
ticularly need  air.    (See  Art.  10  of  the  "  Principles.") 

In  the  same  manner  as  compressed  air,  water-pressure,  in  combination  with  the 
Korting  spray  injectors,  may  be  used  with  advantage  for  local  ventilation  of  the 
more  remote  working-places. 

In  the  Friedenshoffnung  and  Karl  Georg  Victor  pits  near  Waldenburg  (Lower 
Silesia),  where  the  seams  contain  much  gas,  a  system  of  separate  ventilation  of  the 
fore-winning  headings  and  even  of  the  galleries  in  the  respective  self-acting  plane 
districts  has  been  carried  out  by  means  of  large  compression  pipes,  coupled  with 
artificial  damming  back  of  the  fresh  air-current  and  considerable  depression  of  the 
return  air-current.*  The  fresh  air  dammed  back  by  the  air-doors  is  led  up  to  each 
particular  working-face  through  lengths  of  large  wooden  boxes  (air-headings,  deep 
levels)  or  through  ordinary  zinc-plate  pipes  (haulage-roads).  Thence,  laden  with 
the  gases  taken  up  at  the  working-face,  the  air  escapes  freely  (without  coming 
into  contact  with  any  other  working-place)  through  the  successively  super- 
posed air  rise-drifts  into  the  uppermost  airway.  The  air-doors  are  situated 
immediately  in  front  of  the  last  driven  upbrows  of  the  respective  levels,  and  thus 
the  conduits  which  go  from  them  are  always  short.  On  the  other  hand,  the  upbrows 
which  lie  farther  behind  and  the  self-acting  inclined  plane  are  carefully  shut  off 
from  the  air-drift  in  order  to  obviate  waste  of  air.  The  excess  depression  needful 
for  damming  back  the  air  in  the  self-acting  inclined  planes,  which  has  to  be  attained 
by  the  ventilator,  amounts  in  the  Friedenshoffnung  pit  to  about  ^  inch  (about 
12  millimetres)  of  water-gauge,  or  1|  inches  against  1  inch  (37  millimetres  against 
25  miUimetres.) 

Although  this  method  of  separate  ventilation,  when  compared  with  the  more 
DBual  systems,  unquestionably  necessitates  a  greater  expenditure  of  motive  power, 
its  very  high  efficiency  impels  the  Commission  to  declare  the  use  of  the  method 
extremely  suitable  in  those  cases  where— the  special  local  conditions  of  the  mine, 
offering  great  difficulties — ^an  adequate  supply  of  fresh  air  is  available  with  a  suffi- 
cient depression. 

\24'.—Su^rintende7ice  of  the  VeiUUation.—EveJi  where  the  ventilation  arrange- 
ments are  of  the  most  perfect  description,  absolute  security  against  accumulations  of 

*  Appendieu,  toI.  L,  pagM  183-18S. 


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582  RfiPOBt  OF  THE  PEUSSIAK 

fire-damp  can  only  be  assured  by  the  most  rigid  adherence  to  regulations.  In  the 
first  place,  care  must  be  taken  in  every  fiery  mine  that  there  is  a  continuous  and 
reliable  surveillance  of  the  system  of  air-conduction  in  its  broad  lines  and  in  its 
details,  this  surveillance  to  be  carried  out  (if  need  be)  by  officials  employed  for  that 
pnrpose  alone  (see  Art.  18  of  the  **  Principles ").  And  yet  hitherto  this  work  has 
been  mostly  performed  by  the  ordinary  mining  officials  (viewer,  underviewer, 
overman)  in  the  course  of  their  regular  tour  of  inspection  through  the  pit.  But 
this  divided  attention,  this  piecemeal  supervision  has  now  become  entirely  inade- 
quate in  the  larger  pits  in  view  of  the  increasing  importance  and  difficulty  of 
ventilation.  And  thus  of  late  the  very  proper  course  has  been  largely  adopted  of 
appointing  for  the  special  purpose  "  air-overmen,"  assistants  to  the  overmen,  who 
either  take  over  the  entire  supervision  of  all  matters  in  the  pit  which  appertain  to 
the  conduction  of  the  air,  or  at  the  very  least  that  of  the  main  air-currents ;  in  the 
latter  case,  the  district  overmen  are  responsible  for  the  condition  and  distribution 
of  the  air  in  their  respective  districts. 

What  above  all  things  constitutes  an  essential  aid  to  a  proper  supervision  of  the 
ventilation  is,  in  addition  to  daily  sampling  of  the  air  of  the  pit-workings  and 
occasional  chemical  analyses  of  the  return  air-currents  (compare  pars.  Kos.  100  and 
101  of  this  Report),  regular  measurements  of  the  air.*  As  a  result  of  the  journeys  of 
inspection  of  this  Commission  there  has  come  more  and  more  into  use  the  highly 
appropriate  arrangement  of  permanent  measuring-stations  (with  an  exactly  deter- 
minable cross-section  lined  with  planking).  The  measurements  taken  at  the  most 
important  points  by  the  air-overman,  once  a  week  or  of  t€ner,  are  found  (in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  already  discussed  check-apparatus  at  the  ventilators,  etc.,  see  par. 
119  of  this  Report)  not  only  to  allow  of  the  efficiency  of  the  ventilation  arrange- 
ments in  all  their  details  being  accurately  gauged,  but  to  furnish  the  data  for  such 
improvements  in  the  system  of  air-conduction  as  may  be  necessary.  The  results 
of  these  measurements  and  of  the  air  supervision  as  a  whole  are  registered  in  the 
*•  Ventilation  Journal,"  together  with  the  daily  barometer,  theimometer,  and  weather 
records.  Those  mining  officials  whom  it  may  concern  and  the  manager  of  the  mine 
make  themselves,  of  course,  acquainted  with  the  contents  of  this  journal.  Such  a 
mode  of  procedure  is  undoubtedly  of  the  very  greatest  value  in  matters  of  ventil- 
ation, and  its  universal  application  in  all  fiery  mines  is  highly  desirable. 

In  addition  to  exercising  proper  supervision  over  the  ventilation,  the  rule  must 
be  strictly  observed  of  allowing  no  alterations  in  the  arrangements  for  regulating 
the  air-currents  to  be  undertaken  without  the  special  authorization  of  the  supervising 
official  [whom  it  may  concern].  Further,  all  the  men  at  work  in  the  mine  are  in 
duty  bound  to  report  at  once  to  that  official  any  cases  of  damage  to  the  air-brattices, 
air-doors,  air-pipes,  and  in  short  every  irregularity  in  the  ventilation  (see  Art.  12 
of  the  "Principles"). 

126. — Measuring  and  Check  Apparatus,] — As  a  means  for  measuring  air- 
velocities  and  air- volumes,  the  Casella  fan  anemometer  with  aluminium  blades  is 
practically  the  only  instrument  adopted  in  Prussian  coal-mines.  The  Commission 
in  the  course  of  their  investigations  also  made  use  of  such  an  anemometer,  supplied 

*  Compare  ApptndictSt  toL  i.,  pages  17S,  182,  and  190 ;  toL  11.,  pages  S15  and  217 ;  toL  ▼.,  pages  11*13. 

t  BIr.  Haton  de  la  Goupillidre,  Report  of  the  FtcmH  Firedamp  CommUtUm^  orig,.  pages  85-80; 
Mr.  AgoUlon.  '*  Mechanical  Control  and  Inspection  of  Mine  VenillaMon,'*  AtutdUt  de$  Minett  Mrlea  7, 
vol.  zz.  U88U«  Pikge  ^^  ^<  '^•i  Findl  Report  of  the  French  Fire-damp  Commisrion  (German  tranalatton), 
qp. /aroctt.,  pages  993-294;  Mr.  Hoemecke,  "On  Precautionary  Measures  against  Fire-damp,"  etCi 
ZeiUchr.  f.  d.  Berg-,  HntUn-u.  SaliHen-We»eH  im  Preuss.  Staate,  toI.  xzzi.  B.,  page  306;  Mr.  Althans, 
"Application  of  the  Known  Laws  of  Air-motion,"  etc,  ibid.,  toI.  zzzil.  B.,  pages  17S-180,  182-U6) 
S0M15;  Dr.  Serlo,  Treatim  <m  Mining,  4th  ed.  (1884),  toL  U.,  pages  338^16,  306.906;  Appendieet,  toL  t.. 
pages  U-U  83^  107. «  seg. 


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PIRE-DAMP  COMMISSION.  538 

by  Mr.  H.  Faess  of  Berlin.  Although  in  some  few  cases  its  rather  high  velocity- 
constants  (32^  feet  and  more  per  minute)  gave  rise  to  some  little  difficulty, 
inasmuch  as  they  did  not  allow  of  the  measurement  of  slowly  moving  split-currents, 
yet,  on  the  whole,  this  instrument  has  been  found  extremely  handy,  convenient, 
and  quite  sufficiently  durable  for  purposes  of  air- measurement.  For  measuring 
feeble  air-currents  the  larger  anemometer  with  mica  blades  (velocity-constant 
9}  feet)  recently  brought  out  by  Mr.  Fuess  appear  more  suitable.  It  is,  however, 
to  be  observed  that  with  high  air- velocities  there  is  a  risk  of  some  of  these  fragile 
blades  being  broken,  and  the  instruments  show  now  and  then  divergences  from  the 
constant  formula.  The  larger  anemometers  with  mica  blades  constructed  by  Mr.  G. 
Rosenmiiller,  of  Dresden,  are  also  said  to  be  very  sensitive  and  to  give  tinistworthy 
indications  with  velocities  as  low  as  7  metres  (23  feet)  per  minute. 

In  order  to  shorten,  as  far  as  possible,  the  time  devoted  to  a  single  measurement, 
the  Sub-Committee  on  ventilators,  instead  of  allowing  the  anemometer  to  register 
during  three  to  five  minutes  and  sliding  it  in  and  out  of  gear  by  hand,  made  use  ten- 
tatively of  a  Casella  anemometer  which  was  automatically  released  by  clockwork 
after  I'egistering  for  one  minute.  But  this  was  found  to  give  rise  to  considerable 
inaccuracies.  The  use  even  of  electric  appliances  was  attended  with  many  difficul- 
ties»  and,  on  account  of  the  elaborate  preparations  necessary  and  the  numerous 
derangements  of  all  kinds  which  so  often  took  place,  offered  no  advantages  so  far 
as  gaining  time  was  concerned.  We  must,  therefore,  conclude  that  for  air-measure- 
ments made  in  the  ordinary  course  of  mining  operations,  the  old  method  of  sliding 
in  and  out  of  gear  by  hand  will  have  still  to  be  adhered  to. 

The  observation  already  recorded  by  the  Committee  on  Ventilators  of  the  Gard 
coal-field^  that  all  anemometers  whose  formula  is  calculated  by  testing  in  still  air 
with  the  rotating  wand  machine  (anemometer  in  motion),  register  far  too  high  values 
in  the  actual  air-current  (anemometer  at  rest)* — has  been  proved  strikingly  correct, 
after  careful  comparison  of  several  anemometers  in  an  air-current  of  accurately 
known  velocity.  It  has  further  been  shown  by  the  detailed  researches  of  a  member 
of  this  Commission,  Mr.  Althans,t  conducted  with  a  large  gasometer  filled  with  air, 
that  the  exaggeration  of  values  increases  directly  as  the  air-velocity.  Thus,  accord- 
ing to  these  investigations,  the  plus- value  registered  by  the  Casella  anemometer  at 
velocities  of  50,  250,  and  500  metres  (164,  820,  and  1,640  feet)  amounted  to  3*72, 
7*35,  and  11*90  per  cent,  (respectively)  of  the  actual  current-velocity,  and  the 
Robinson  anemometer  showed  far  greater  exaggerations.  It  will  be  therefore  indis- 
pensable in  future  to  subject  the  anemometers  to  a  more  careful  testing,  and  to 
repeat  the  tests  more  often. 

In  addition  to  the  Casella  anemometer,  the  Sub-Committee  on  ventilators  made 
an  extensive  use  (with  very  favourable  results)  for  the  measurement  of  air- velocities 
of  the  Pitot  tube  or  pipe,  particularly  in  the  air-drifts  of  the  fanj  :  this  apparatus  is 
usually  applied  to  the  measurement  of  water-currents.  In  conjunction  with  it,  they 
at  first  used  as  a  manometer,  single-limbed,  inclined  glass  tubes  connected  on  to  a 
water-recipient,  with  a  twenty  or  thirtyfold  enlargement  of  the  liquid  column.  Sub- 
sequently they  made  use  of  handier  two-limbed  tubes,  both  limbs  of  which  could  be 
set  in  an  inclined  plane  at  any  angle  of  inclination  that  might  be  selected ;  and,  in 
order  to  obviate  the  drawback  of  adhesion  to  the  sides  of  the  tube,  the  water-filling 
was  replaced  by  an  aqueous  solution  of  alcohol  (67  vols,  per  cent,  alcohol,  sp.  gr.  0*9). 

*  Ck>mpare  Mr.  Althaos,  "Application  of  the  Known  laws  of  Air-motion,  "etc ,  ZeUtchr.  /  d.  Berg-^ 
HnUen^u.  Salinei^Wesen  im  Preuu.  Staate,  toL  zzziL  B.,  pages  188-186. 

t  "  Pbyvlcal  Beiearohes  with  a  Oaaometer  of  the  Monidpal  Gasworks  at  Breslau,**  Appeitdiie*  (to  this 
B«port),  Tol.  ▼.(  paces  107-187,  and  pabUshed  separately,  Berlin,  1887. 

t  Appendieet  (to  this  Report),  toI.  ▼.,  pages  83-84. 


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534  nEPORt  OF  THE  PRUSSUK 

Measurements  with  the  Pitot  tabe,  compared  with  those  recorded  by  ordinary 
anemometers  in  currents  of  considerable  velocity  (more  than  9|  feet  per  second) 
show  far  greater  accuracy,  and  should  on  that  account  alone— quite  apart  from  the 
fact  that  they  are  also  yery  much  more  conveniently  obtained — be  preferred  in 
many  cases  to  the  unreliable  anemometer  measurements.  Our  colleague,  Mr. 
Althans,  in  the  course  of  the  above-mentioned  gasometer  experiments,  determined 
accurately  the  formula  [for  the  Pitot  tube] .• 

In  the  course  of  those  experiments  also  it  was  found  possible  to  test  exhaustively 
the  system  introduced  by  Mr.  Dan.  Murgue,  which  consists  in  a  purely  mancme- 
trical  measurement,  that  is,  in  measuring  air-velocity  by  the  outflow  through 
apertures  in  a  thin  plate ;  and  Murgue's  formula  was,  on  the  whole,  confinned.f 
This  system  appears  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  determination  of  the  air-volumes  of 
very  feeble  split-currents,  which,  on  account  of  their  low  velocity,  cannot  be 
measured  by  means  of  the  anemometer. 

Very  considerable  difficulty  is  met  with  in  all  air-measurements  in  determining  in 
the  drift  cross-section,  the  point  where  the  measuring  instrument  ought  to  be  set 
up,  so  as  to  register  as  nearly  as  may  be  the  average  (mean  velocity)  of  the  air-current. 
Numerous  experiments  have  demonstrated  that  in  regular  straight  drifts  the  velocity 
attains  its  maximum  somewhere  about  the  middle  of  the  cross-section,  and 
diminishes  thence  evenly  towaids  the  sides.  But  this  rule  is  subject  to  so  many  ex- 
ceptions, conditioned  by  local  circumstances,  that  it  appears  impossible  to  fix  on  a 
particular  point  of  the  cross-section  as  being  universally  that  where  the  velocity 
attains  its  mean  value. 

As  a  means  of  overcoming  this  difficulty  to  some  extent  Dr.  Schondorff  has 
sought,  by  exhaustive  experiments^  to  obtain  certain  coefficients  of  approximation 
corresponding  to  the  relation  between  the  actual  air- volume  in  the  whole  cross- 
section,  and  that  inferred  from  the  measurements  made  in  the  middle  of  the  cross- 
section.  The  coefficients  calculated  by  him  are :  for  drifts  with  ordinary  wooden 
timbering,  0*76 :  for  unlined  drifts  in  massive  rock,  0*80 ;  and  for  drifts  with  com- 
plete brick  lining,  0*85.  But,  according  to  Mr.  Murgue's§  experiments  these  co- 
efficients do  not  seem  to  hold  good  universally,  and  there  were,  for  example,  in  the 
relation  between  the  true  mean  velocity  and  that  found  in  the  centre  of  the  drift 
(cross-section)  divergences,  varying  from  0*68  to  1*12.||  It  would  therefore  seem 
preferable  to  always  undertake  measurements  at  various  points  of  the  cross-section 
and  strike  the  average  of  those. 

In  the  course  of  the  investigations  carried  on  by  the  Commission,  the  air-volumes 
were  partly  determined  according  to  the  SchondorfE  system  (district  section  of 
Bonn),  and  partly  by  measurements  taken  at  two  or  three  points  of  the  drift  cross- 
section  (districts  of  Dortmund  and  Breslau).  The  Sub-Committee  on  ventilators 
always  made  observations  at  as  many  points  as  practicable,  distributed  evenly 
over  the  cross-section  under  measurement,  and  as  many  anemometers  or  Pitot  tubes 
as  there  were  measurement-points  were  used  simultaneously. 

For  current  measurements  in  the  ordinary  practical  working  of  mines,  at 
measuring-stations  specially  arranged  for  that  purpose  (compare  par.  No.  124  of  this 
Report)  there  is  this  important  simplification — that  at  each  particular  station,  the 

•  Appftuliea,  vol.  L.  pages  131-136,  199-140. 

t  /Md..  pacw  183-131. 

t  "Elimination  of  the  Return  Air-currents  of  the  Saar  oolllerles/'  ZeiUchr.f.  d.  Berg-,  H^tten^tt, 
SaUnen-Wuen  im  Prmat.  StaaU,  toL  zzIt.  B..  pages  79. 130-125. 

(  Compare  Mr.  Afuillon,  "  Meehanioal  Oontrol.''  ete.,  op.  jam  oU. 

11  Many  reoent  obaenratlont  in  the  oolUeries  of  the  mining  district  of  Alz-la-Ohapelte  have  led  to 
similar  nsults,  and  especially  did  the  air-Tolumes,  reckoned  by  means  of  the  Schondorff  ooefHdents, 
almost  InTariably  torn  out  to  be  too  low. 


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FIRE-DAMP  COMMI88IOK.  fiSS 

relation  of  the  air-velocitj  (at  a  particular  selected  point)  to  the  true  mean  velocity 
may  be  accurately  determined  once  for  all,  and  then  the  process  of  measuring  may 
be  subsequently  limited  to  that  fixed  point.  The  previously  mentioned  experi- 
ments of  Mr.  Murgue  have,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  demonstrated  that  in  one 
and  the  same  cross-section,  the  velocity  at  each  single  point  varies  in  exactly  the 
same  proportion  as  the  mean  velocity. 

For  such  air-measurements  in  the  pit,  we  should  moreover  recommend  the  use  of 
light  portable  stands,  which  the  official  whose  duty  it  is  to  take  the  measurements 
would  carry  with  him  for  setting  up  the  anemometer.  Or,  if  more  convenient,  some 
equivalent  arrangement  could  be  made  at  each  measuring-station  ;  in  any  case,  the 
operation  is  likely  to  be  better  performed  and  the  results  to  be  more  trustworthy, 
when  the  anemometer  stands  on  a  firm  basis  than  when  it  is  held  in  the  hand  by  the 
person  who  is  engaged  in  making  the  measurements. 

As  a  check  apparatus  for  ventilators  in  Prussian  collieries,  in  addition  to  the 
ordinary  water-gauges*  (which  show  the  depression  in  the  air-drift  to  the  fan), 
together  with  the  stroke-counters  at  the  engine  itself,  the  only  instrument  in  use  is 
the  Ochwadt  self -registering  water-gaugcf  This  gives  a  faithful  picture  of  the  rise 
and  fall  from  minute  to  minute  of  the  readings  of  the  water-gauge,  varying  accord- 
ing to  the  speed  of  the  ventilator,  according  to  the  influence  of  changing  resistances 
in  the  pit  or  of  the  wind  at  the  surface.  On  the  one  hand  it  enables  the  cngineman 
(before  whose  eyes  the  line  is  traced),  to  strictly  regulate  the  speed  of  the  ventilator 
according  to  the  requirements  of  the  mine,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  being  secured 
by  means  of  a  lock  from  any  possible  tampering  on  the  part  of  the  engiueman,  it 
furnishes  the  managing  officials  with  an  all-embracing  means  of  control.  The  Com- 
mission have  therefore  no  alternative  but  that  of  warmly  recommending  the  use  of 
this  apparatus. 

IV.— Pbecautionaby  Mbabubes  against  Explosions. 
1. — General  Observation*. 

126- — Regular  Examination  of  the  Workings. — Not  even  the  very  best  system 
of  ventilation  affords  an  infallible  protection  against  accumulations  of  fire-damp. 
So  far  from  that  being  the  case,  one  must  always  keep  in  view  the  possibility 
of  such  accumulations— whether  as  a  consequence  of  accidental  disturbances  of  the 
ventilation  or  of  a  sudden  (or  extraordinarily  abundant)  evolution  of  gas.  In  addi- 
tion, therefore,  to  scrupulous  care  in  the  management  of  the  ventilation,  it  would 
appear  necessary  to  take  such  measures  as  may  most  effectually  minimize  the 
danger  of  explosion  of  the  gases  which  may  have  accumulated. 

In  the  forefront  of  such  measures  is  the  regular  examination  of  the  pit  workings 
with  a  view  of  ascertaining  the  presence  of  fire-damp.  This  should  extend  to  every 
working-place,  and  should  be  carried  out  before  the  workmen  are  allowed  to  enter 
it  (Art.  15  of  the  *'  Principles  ").  Under  ordinary  circumstances,  the  examination 
should  be  carried  out  in  two  ways :  once  by  special  overseers  (master  wastemen) 
for  the  whole  pit  or  ventilation-district,  and  then,  quite  independently,  by  the  fire- 
man or  deputy  overman  for  each  single  working-place  (compare  par.  No.  100  of 
this  Report).  The  utmost  care  is  needed  in  conducting  this  examination,  especially 
on  the  morrow  of  holidays  or  Sundays  or  after  any  cessation  of  active  work,  and 
the  same  caution  is  necessary  when  there  are  sudden  changes  in  the  weather  or  a 
sharp  faU  or  rise  of  barometer. 

*  And  alio  ihoM  with  an  inoUned  outer  limb  for  (mlargenient  of  the  eoole. 

f  Mr.  H.  Ochvadt.  "On  the  SeU-registeria^  Water-gaaje  (Qerman  Imperial  patent,  4510)  audlte 
AppLeatloQ  in  Prunian  Oollieries,"  Btrg-, «.  Huu$$maiuiiaeKe  ZeUung,  1886^  No.  21. 


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686  REPORT  OF  THE  PRUSfilAN 

127. — Measures  to  he  taJt^n  when  Fire-damp  is  present, — Tf  the  examination 
reveals  the  presence  of  fire-damp  at  any  point  whatsoever,  the  passages  leading  to 
that  spot  should  be  at  once  fenced  off,  and  the  men  should  not  be  allowed  to  enter  it 
until  the  superintending  official  (who  will  meanwhile  have  been  informed  of  the 
state  of  affairs)  has  made  the  arrangements  which  the  circumstances  demand. 

Supposing  that  dangerous  accumulations  of  fire-damp  are  noticed  in  certain 
parts  of  the  workings  in  the  course  of  a  shift,  the  workmen  should  quit  those  places, 
fence  them  off,  inform  such  of  their  fellow  workmen  as  are  likely  to  incur  any  risk 
by  approaching  the  dangerous  localities,  and  report  the  circumstances  to  the  first 
mining  official  whom  they  may  reach  (Art.  16  of  the  "  Principles").  A  similar  pro- 
cedure should  be  observed  when  in  fore-winning,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  old 
workings,  etc.,  fire-damp  is  met  with. 

In  all  such  cases  of  local  accumulations  of  fire-damp,  there  is  one  point  upon 
which  it  is  advisable  to  insist,  viz.,  that  the  removal  of  the  obnoxious  gas  should 
only  be  attempted  under  the  direction  of  the  mining  official  whom  it  may  concern, 
or  of  an  overseer  appointed  by  him  ;  and  that  in  no  case  should  it  be  proceeded  with 
even  then,  until  there  is  absolute  certainty  that  the  foul  air  can  be  led  off  in  such 
a  way  as  to  avoid  endangering  the  security  of  other  working-places  or  other  work- 
men  in  the  mine. 

1 28. — Fencing-off  (or  other  means  of  distinguishing  J  Dangerous  Localities, — In 
just  the  same  way  as  the  working-places,  where  fire-damp  accumulations  are  found 
to  occur,  are  fenced  off,  so  should  portions  of  the  pit  which  are  not  worked  for  the 
time  being,  be  fenced  and  the  men  forbidden  to  go  into  them  (Art.  13  of  the 
"Principles").  Sufficient  for  such  purposes  are  simple  signs  of  warning,  well 
understood  by  the  pitmen.  As,  for  instance,  crosses  chalked  on  the  coal-face, 
boards  hung  up,  or  chains,  or  crossed  poles,  etc.,  or  best  of  all  a  real  timber  fence. 
If  a  certain  portion  of  the  workings  is  to  be  abandoned  temporarily  or  permanently, 
it  will  be  best  to  completely  stop  that  portion  up  with  stone-packing. 

In  districts  wherein  the  use  of  naked  lights  is  generally  considered  permissible, 
the  passages  communicating  with  such  localities  as  show  the  presence  of  fire-damp 
should  be  marked  in  a  clear,  unmistakable  manner,  and  miners  should  be  strictly 
forbidden  to  approach  them  with  naked  lights.  Similarly,  in  all  working-places 
that  are  examined  for  gas  by  the  overman  before  the  miners  go  down  the  pit,  it  will 
be  the  duty  of  that  person  to  define  exactly  the  stations  where  the  men  must  remain 
for  a  time,  until  the  atmosphere  of  the  working-place  is  properly  purified. 

129, — Measures  to  he  adojHcd  in  cases  of  Disturbed  Ventilation, — If  there  be 
considerable  disturbance  of  the  ventilation,  no  time  should  be  lost  in  removing  the 
men  from  the  now  dangerous  workings,  and  the  workmen  must  not  go  back  to  those 
places  until  they  have  been  declared  perfectly  safe,  as  a  result  of  a  properly  con- 
ducted examination  for  gas  (see  Art.  16  of  the  '*  Principles  ").  It  is  particularly 
advisable  in  those  pits  which  are  artificially  provided  with  air  by  means  of  a  ven- 
tilator, that  any  chance  stoppage  of  the  ventilator  (resulting  from  damage  to  the 
engine,  etc.)  should  be  as  soon  as  possible  made  known  to  the  underviewer  and 
other  mining  officials.  These  responsible  persons  will  thus  be  enabled  without 
delay  to  make  such  arrangements  as  they  may  deem  necessary.  The  announcement 
of  the  stoppage  should,  moreover,  be  immediately  transmitted  to  those  in  charge  of 
the  winding-shaft. 

If,  for  purposes  of  repair  or  other  reasons,  it  is  found  needful  to  stop  the  ventilator 
for  a  time,  the  officials  will  do  well  to  begin  by  assuring  themselves  that  all  the 
miners  have  been  brought  to  bank.  Before  anyone  is  allowed  to  go  down  the  pit 
again,  the  ventilator  must  have  resumed  regular  working  for  a  few  hours  at  the  very 
least. 


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PIHE-DAMP  COMMISSION.  687 

With  regard  to  increased  activitj  of  the  yentilation  nece^ssitated  in  conseqaence 
of  barometric  changes,  and  the  regular  barometer,  thermometer,  and  weather 
oheervations  which  are  to  be  carried  on  for  this  purpose,  we  would  refer  the  reader 
to  other  portions  of  this  report  (compare  pars.  Nos.  70  to  73). 

130. — Other  General  [Preeautum/iry]  Measures. — The  rule  must  be  stringently 
observed  that  any  ignition  or  explosion  of  fire-damp,  even  when  no  injury  to 
persons  arises  therefrom,  must  be  immediately  reported  to  the  manager.  The  latter 
will  then  conduct  on  the  spot  an  enquiry  into  the  details  of  the  event,  and  will  hear 
the  evidence  of  thoxe  who  were  present  when  it  occurred. 

Even  in  pits  or  portions  of  workings  where  so  far  no  fire-damp  has  been  detected, 
it  would  appear  necessary  in  opening  up  new  drifts  or  new  districts  to  make  frequent 
examinations  for  any  traces  of  gas ;  and  for  that  purpose  a  certain  number  of  safety- 
lamps  should  be  kept  in  readiness.  The  inspectors  of  mines  should  be  immediately 
informed  of  any  occurrence  of  fire-damp. 

It  would  further  appear  desirable  to  arrange  matters  so,  that  at  every  point  of 
the  workings  where  fire-damp  is  either  known  to  occur  or  expected  to  occur,  there 
should  always  be  at  least  two  men  working  together — and  if  this  be  impracticable 
(as  in  narrow  places),  one  should  see  to  it  that  other  men  are  at  work  in  the 
immediate  vicinity. 

Smoking,  and  the  carrying  about  one's  person  of  tobacco,  pipes,  and  lighting 
materials  (excepting  steel,  flint,  and  tinder)  must  of  course  be  strictly  forbidden  in 
all  fiery  mines. 

2. — Lighting  of  the  Pit, 

131. — Prohibition  of  Naked  Lights. — On  account  of  the  generally  feeble  light 
emitted  by  safety-lamps,  their  exclusive  use  has  hitherto  only  been  insistetl  on 
(except  of  course  for  previous  examination  of  the  workings)  in  such  portions  of  the 
pit  as  really  betray  the  occurrence  of  fire-damp.  Otherwise  the  use  of  naked  lights 
has  been  freely  allowed.  But  this  mixed  system  gives  rise  to  at  least  one  very 
serious  risk  (quite  apart  from  the  possibility  frequently  demonstrated  by  experience, 
that  workings  at  one  time  apparently  free  from  gas  may  sooner  or  later  be  invaded 
by  fire-damp),  and  that  is,  the  impracticability,  especially  in  very  extensive  work- 
ings, of  dividing  off  the  fiery  districts  from  the  non-fiery  districts  so  exactly  that 
there  will  be  no  likelihood  of  workmen  passing  cai-elessly  with  naked  lights  from 
one  district  to  the  other.  As  a  matter  of  fact  statistics  are  at  hand  to  show  that 
very  many  fire-damp  explosions  are  really  attributable  to  this  mixed  system. 

The  Commission  are  of  opinion  that  a  change  can  be  wrought  in  this  direction 
only  by  means  of  a  general  prohibition  of  naked  lights  throughout  all  fiery  mines  ; 
and  it  is  for  that  reason  that  in  Art.  20  of  the  "Principles"  the  Commission  have 
expressed  themselves  as  follows  : — 

'*  In  no  fiery  mine  is  the  use  of  naked  lights  below  ground  permissible.  Only 
safety-lamps  and  electric  incandescent  lamps  may  be  used." 

Exceptions  to  this  rule  are  regarded  by  the  Commission  as  allowable,  only  within 
the  downcast  fresh  air-current  in  the  [downcast]  shafts  and  at  the  corresponding 
ingates,  and  in  some  very  special  instances  in  the  upcast  (return  air)  shafts. 

As  it  has  so  far  been  found  impossible  to  manufacture  a  sufficiently  cheap  and 
simple  portable  electric  lamp  for  the  miner  (compare  par.  No.  87  of  this  Report), 
ordinary  safety-lamps  will,  for  the  present  at  any  rate,  constitute  the  sole  means  of 
lighting  fiery  mines. 

132,— Comtruotion  of  the  8afety4amjf,'-The  experience  of  all  countries  has 
shown  us  that  no  single  one  of  the  innumerable  varieties  of  safety-lamps  which 
have  been  invented  gives  absolute  immunity  from  ignition  of  fire-damp.    Indeed, 


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588  REPORT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN 

considering  the  nature  of  the  safety-lamp  and  the  uses  to  which  it  has  to  be  applied, 
it  seems  hardly  probable  that  any  lamp  offering  the  guarantee  of  absolute  immunity 
will  ever  be  invented.  But  it  is  none  the  less  certain  that  the  lamps  hitherto  in  use 
are  capable  of  much  improvement,  which  should  take  the  direction  of  making  them 
as  perfect  a  means  of  warning  and  of  protection  as  is  practicable  in  the  hands  of  the 
miner.  With  reference  to  this  point  the  Commission,  taking  advantage  of  the 
exhaustive  researches  of  their  Sub-Committee  on  lamps,  have  set  forth  a  series  of 
requirements  and  recommendations  Ccompare  par.  No.  86  of  this  Report,  and  Arts. 
21  and  22  of  the  "  Principles")  as  to  the  construction  of  the  safety-lamp,  and  if  these 
be  duly  complied  with,  there  is  every  reason  to  hope  for  a  greatly  increased  measure 
of  security  [in  the  use  of  the  lamp]. 

Although  it  must  be  fully  understood  that  the  Commission  are  by  no  means  of 
opinion  that  any  and  every  sort  of  safety -lamp  is  suitable  for  use  in  fiery  mines,  they 
hold  that  it  is  equally  undesirable  to  prescribe  for  universal  use  a  particular  safety- 
lamp  of  unalterable  type  (as,  for  instance,  is  the  case  in  Belgium  with  the  Mueseler 
lamp)— because  there  is  no  room  for  doubt  that  a  regulation  of  that  kind  constitutes 
a  vexatious  obstacle  to  further  improvements.*  Similarly  the  majority  of  the  Com- 
mission declined  to  entertain  the  proposal  that  official  testing-places  should  be  set 
up  for  the  investigation  of  all  newly  invented  lamps,  and  that  only  the  use  should 
be  allowed  in  mines  of  such  lamps  as  have  been  found  sufficiently  safe  by  the 
testing  officials.  The  Commission  held  that  the  necessary  observations  and  watching 
of  results  would  be  beat  accomplished  by  the  mining  officials  themselves.t 

133. — Supply  and  Mai-ntenance  of  Safety-lampt.X — Considering  the  great 
importance  which,  in  fiery  mines,  attaches  to  the  keeping  of  safety-lamps  in 
permanently  good  condition,  it  appears  entirely  out  of  the  question  to  entrast  the 
supply,  repair,  and  cleaning  of  the  lamps  to  the  workmen.  So  far  from  that  being 
permissible,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  managing  officials  to  get  the  necessary  lamps,  to 
supply  them,  and  to  keep  them  in  proper  order  (Art.  23  of  the  **  Principles  *'). 

In  the  course  of  their  journeys  of  inspection,  the  Commission  had  the  opportunity 
of  observing  that  in  Prussian  mines  the  present  state  of  matters  as  regards  safety- 
lamps  leaves  very  much  to  be  desired,  at  least,  from  the  point  of  view  of  safety. 
The  first  step  towards  thorough  reform  would  be  for  mine  managers  to  insist  in 
future,  when  inviting  tenders  for  lamps,  not  only  on  more  stringent  conditions  as 
regards  lamp  construction,  on  good  sound  materials  and  unexceptionable  workman- 
ship, but  on  making  arrangements  to  submit  every  lamp  delivered  to  them,  as  a 
whole,  and  in  each  of  its  parts,  to  a  most  searching  test.  In  this  connexion  it 
would  be  advisable  to  have  in  readiness  apparatus  by  means  of  which  the  lamps 
are  examined  as  to  their  airtight  condition.  An  apparatus  of  this  kind  which  has 
in  several  cases  given  satisfactory  results  is  the  Wolf  tester ;  within  its  spiral 
tubes,  the  ignited  lamp  is  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  benzine  gases.§ 

Similarly,  more  care  in  the  future  will  be  needful  in  keeping  the  lamps  in  a  proper 
place  and  in  good  order.  For  this  purpose  lamp -rooms  should  be  erected  near  the 
point  where  the  miners  enter  the  pit ;  and  men  (lamp -men  or  lamp-cleaners)  should 
be  specially  employed,  whose  sole  duty  would  consist  in  cleaning  the  lamps  after 
use,  in  examining  them  carefully  and  making  any  needful  repairs.  They  would 
also  look  after  filling  the  lamps  with  fresh  oil,  etc.,  and  would  themselves  light  and 

*  The  British  Royal  Oommission  on  Accidents  in  Mines  also  express  themselves  in  their  Final  JUport, 
page  118,  as  opposed  to  the  exclusive  official  prescripMon  of  any  particular  pattern  of  lamp. 

f  The  British  Royal  Commission  on  Accidents  in  llCines,  Final  Report,  page  118,  consider  it  desirable 
that  some  control  should  be  exercised  over  the  use  of  lamps  in  mines*  and  that  only  such  lamps  ahoold 
be  allowed  as  meet  with  the  approval  of  the  Saoretary  of  Btate. 

t  Appendieti,  vol.  liL.  pages  38-S3. 187. 

f  Appendket,  voL  UL.  pages  30-31. 


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FIBE-DAMP  COMMISSION.  539 

lock  the  lamps  when  these  are  about  to  be  used.  Naturally,  these  men  would 
require  careful  and  constant  supervision ;  and,  among  other  precautionary  measures, 
it  would  be  necessary  to  have  periodical  and  searching  inspections  of  all  the  safety- 
lamps  used  in  the  mine. 

The  lamps  should  be  dealt  out  by  the  lamp-man  to  each  miner,  lighted  and 
locked,  before  he  goes  down  the  pit ;  and  when  his  shift  is  over,  the  miner  must 
return  the  lamp  (still  locked)  to  the  lamp-room.  The  workmen  should  be  strictly 
forbidden  to  take  the  lamps  away  with  them  to  their  dwellings.  In  cases  where 
the  miners  themselves  light  and  lock  the  lamps  (a  practice  still  followed  in  some 
localities),  an  inspector  should  be  specially  detailed  to  stand  at  the  entrance  of  the 
pit  and  examine  the  lamp  of  each  miner  as  he  goes  in,  in  order  to  assure  himself 
that  the  lamp  has  been  locked  in  compliance  with  the  regulations.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  will  be  the  miner's  duty  to  make  sure,  immediately  the  lamp  is  handed  to 
him,  that  it  is  in  perfect  condition.  For  this  purpose,  arrangements  should  be  made 
(similar  to  those  already  mentioned  in  connexion  with  the  testing  of  newly-delivered 
lamps)  for  the  trial  of  the  burning  lamp  in  an  inflammable  mixture  of  gas  and  air.* 

For  the  better  carrying  out  of  the  lamp  supervision  generally,  it  would  be  well 
to  have  all  the  lamps  in  use  in  any  particular  pit  numbered  consecutively,  and  to 
let  the  same  man  always  have  the  same  lamp  (see  Art.  23  of  the  "  Principles  *')• 
There  is  an  additional  advantage  attendant  upon  this  arrangement  (from  the  point 
of  view  of  safety  as  a  whole),  namely,  that  at  any  moment  persons  stationed  in  the 
lamp-room  can  determine  exactly  how  many  men  have  gone  down  the  pit  and  how 
many  have  come  to  bank  again. 

134. —  Use  of  the  Safety -lamp  in  the  Mine,^ — ^The  moment  the  miner  has  got 
the  lamp  in  his  hands,  he  becomes  responsible  for  it  and  answerable  for  the  due 
observance  of  the  rules  which  govern  its  use  in  the  pit.  Opening  of  the  lamps 
must  be  severely  prohibited  in  the  case  of  all  miners,  and  permitted  even  for 
inspectors  and  officials  only  in  very  special  circumstances.  Such  lamps  as  may 
chance  to  go  out,  if  unprovided  with  a  special  mechanism  for  relighting  them,  must 
(according  to  the  methods  which  prevail  in  the  mine)  either  be  taken  to  be  relighted 
to  lamp  stations,  specially  placed  for  that  purpose  in  the  fresh  air-current;  or 
exchanged  for  lighted  lamps  placed  ready  for  substitution  at  particular  points 
(compare  par.  No.  84  of  this  Report). 

As  to  the  various  details  of  manipulation  of  the  lamps,  including  the  relighting 
of  extinguished  lamps  and  the  examination  of  the  workings  for  fire-damp,  it  would 
appear  necessary  to  include  special  clauses  covering  the  whole  subject  in  the  general 
r^ulations  issued  by  the  management  in  the  case  of  every  fiery  mine.  Here,  too,  the 
rules  as  to  the  maintainance  and  repair  of  the  lamps  in  so  far  as  they  concern  the 
miners,  most  conveniently  find  their  place. 

3. —  Use  of  Explosives, 
135- — Suggested  Suppression  of  Shot-firing, ^Theie  is  no  doubt  whatever, 
that,  in  the  presence  of  fire-damp — and  particularly  when  it  is  supplemented 
by  coal-dust — shot-firing  is  always  a  risky  undertaking.  A  regulation  (which  would 
be  strictly  enforced  and  would  extend  to  all  fiery  mines)  prohibiting  this  practice 
altogether  would  certainly  eliminate  the  chances  of  occurrence  of  a  vast  number  of 
explosions ;  but  technical  and  economic  reasons  can  be  brought  into  the  field  against 
a  general  prohibition  of  that  kind.| 

*  Oompwe  Br.  Ereiaoher,  "  Prelliniiuay  Report  of  the  firltiah  Boyi^  Ckmuniagton  on  Aoddente  in 
Mines,"  op.  Jam  eft.,  pocres  14-19.  and  Final  Report,  page  118.  f  Appe»diee$,  rol.  iii.,  pagee  185-187. 

t  Dr.  Kreischer,  "Preliminary  Beport  of  the  British  Boyal  Oommisulon  on  Aoddente  in  Mines,' 
op.  Jam,  eft.,  pages  19-21;  Mr.  Traozl,  Teehnioal  Points  of  BUuting,  Part  I.— The  Firedamp  QueetUm, 
Vienna,  1885 ;  Final  Report  of  the  BrUieh  Royal  Commiseion  on  Aceidente  in  MineSf  page  51. 

VOL.  V.-189MB.  35 


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540  REPORT  OF  THB  PRUSSIAN 

As  to  the  technical  aspect  of  the  qnestion,  we  are  fain  to  admit  that  in  most 
coal-mining  districts  certain  abases  have,  in  the  couise  of  time,  crept  into  the 
practice  of  shot-firing ;  it  has  been  misused  in  this  way  that,  in  actual  coal- working, 
even  where  the  coal  is  won  with  comparative  ease,  shot-firing  has  more  and  more 
tended  to  kill  out  the  old  system  of  getting,  nicking,  and  holing  or  kirving.  It 
is  quite  plain  that  in  many  such  cases,  from  the  mere  point  of  view  of  [economic] 
working  of  the  mine,  a  tolerably  drastic  restriction  of  shot-firing  would  be  extremely 
desirable,  and  could  indeed  be  put  in  force  without  much  difficulty.  But  a  complete 
prohibition  of  shot-firing  is  quite  another  matter ;  besides  the  actual  coal-working, 
it  would  affect  the  work  of  opening  and  foi'e-winning  in  coal  and  stone.  The  total 
abandonment  of  the  enormous  mechanical  power,  which  the  use  of  explosives  places 
at  our  command,  would  naturally  imply  a  considerable  increase  in  the  number  of 
hands  that  would  have  to  be  employed ;  and,  as  a  consequence,  there  would  most 
probably  result  a  greater  loss  of  human  life  from  accidents  of  the  ordinary  kind. 
Given  certain  circumstances,  the  loss  of  life  thus  occasioned  would  overtop  even  the 
losses  to  be  feared  from  shot-firing  and  fire-damp  explosions.  And  besides,  the 
operations  of  opening  and  fore-winning  in  very  hartl  coal  or  very  tough  stone,  if 
conducted  without  blasting  necessitate  an  immensely  greater  expenditure  of  time, 
and  the  length  of  time  constitutes  as  a  rule  an  additional  risk.  Yet  another  danger 
is  that  the  miner  at  the  working-face  is  directly  exposed  to  the  sudden  breaking  in 
of  masses  of  coal  and  stone,  which  otherwise,  by  means  of  a  blasting  shot,  could  be 
broken  down  in  his  absence  at  a  safe  distance. 

Supposing,  however,  that  the  prohibition  of  shot-firing  were  to  be  restricted  to 
the  work  in  the  coal — and  such  was  the  gist  of  another  proposal  laid  before  the 
technical  scientific  section  of  the  Commission* — the  measure  would  be  deprived  of 
all  practical  value,  because  the  operations  in  coal  and  stone  so  dovetail  one  into  the 
other  that  it  is  hard  to  know  where  to  draw  the  line  of  separation.  Moreover,  it  ia 
precisely  the  work  in  the  stone  which  very  often  gives  rise  to  gas  or  coal-dust 
explosions,  and  thus  absolute  immunity  could  in  no  case  be  assured. 

The  technical  objections  are  reinforced  by  those  based  on  economic  grounds — 
first  of  all,  the  increase  in  the  cost  of  production  resulting  from  the  diminished 
productive  capacity  of  each  individual  workmen  .f  A  series  of  comparative  investi- 
gations have  been  made  as  to  this  point ;  and  we  greatly  fear  that  so  far  as  the 
Prussian  coal-mining  industry  is  concerned,  the  complete  prohibition  of  shot-firing 
in  fiery  mines  would  not  only  render  unworkable  numerous  seams  which  have 
hitherto  been  worked,  but  would  really  be  equivalent  (in  the  case  of  a  good  many 
collieries  which  nowadays  pay)  to  entire  shutting  down.  At  the  very  least,  a  r^u- 
lation  of  that  kind,  which  would  affect  very  unequally  the  different  coal-fields  and 
even  the  different  collieries  according  to  the  character  of  their  seams — would  have 
most  serious  consequences  (such  as  unfair  handicapping)  in  the  matter  of  commercial 
'  competition. 

Taking  these  difficulties  into  consideration,  the  complete  prohibition  of  shot-firing 
should  be  regarded  only  as  an  extreme  measure  to  be  applied  to  extraordinarily 
dangerous  fiery  mines.  The  majority  of  the  Commission  have  therefore  felt  unable 
to  recommend  anything  like  the  establishment  of  a  universally  prohibitive  regulation 
as  to  blasting.  They  were  largely  swayed  by  the  thought  that,  apart  from  the 
greatest  possible  restriction  of  shot -firing,  the  dangers  of  that  operation  may  be  to 
a  considerable  extent,  if  not  entirely,  obviated  (as  was  shown  by  the  Commission's 
Neunkirchen  experiments)  by  discarding  the  black  gunpowder  hitherto  used  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  and  substituting  for  it,  duly  observing  the  necessary  precautions, 
the  rapid-burning,  so-called  high  explosives. 

♦  Appemdieet,  voL  L,  poffe  138.       f  CJompftre  OetUrr.  Zeitsehr.  /.  Berg-  u.  Htittmwuen,  1886,  Ko.  17. 


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FIBE-DAMF  COMMISSION.  541 

\3Q»^Suhtttiute9far  Shot-firing  generally* — ^Among  the  innumerable  attempts 
which  have  been  made  within  the  last  few  decades  to  discover  some  practical  sub- 
stitute for  ordinary  shot-firing,  none  has  met  with  any  striking  success.  But  it  has 
all  the  same  been  found  possible,  without  completely  doing  away  with  blasting,  to 
dispense  with  that  method  of  operation  in  some  cases. 

Foremost  of  the  proposed  substitutes  are  such  methods  of  working  as  utilize 
some  other  mechanical  power  instead  of  blasting-power.  Among  these  should  be 
mentioned  getting  by  means  of  the  ordinary  wedge,  combined  with  nicking,  and 
holing  or  kirving.  But  this  would  appear  suitable  only  in  actual  working,  and 
where  the  coal  (and  the  accompanying  rock)  is  comparatively  soft,  or  where  there 
are  fissures,  partings,  etc. 

It  would  seem  more  advantageous  to  start  the  operation  of  wedging  by  means 
of  boreholes  (which  should  be  bored  in  just  the  same  way  as  for  blasting);  and 
between  every  two  wedges  a  third  wedge  is  [subsequently]  forced  in.  In  this  con- 
nexion one  may  especially  draw  attention  to  the  Godin-Demanet  aiguilU'Coin  (needle 
or  spring- wedge)  and  the  Dubois  &  Francois  machine- wedge,  wherein  the  third 
wedge  is  driven  in  from  the  beginning  (either  by  hand,  or  by  means  of  the  com- 
pres.sed  air-engine,which  is  used  to  make  the  boreholes).f  We  would  further  men- 
tion the  Levet  quarrying-wedgej  and  the  machine  wedge,§  wherein  the  middle 
wedge  is  thrust  forward  by  hydraulic  pressure  (Levet),  or  the  wedge  plates  are 
driven  apart  by  means  of  cast-steel  bolts  (Walcher). 

Although  the  yarious  wedging  contrivances  enumerated  above  are  said  to  have 
been  utilized  already  for  many  years  with  good  effect  in  certain  collieries,  it  is  only 
in  a  very  few  cases  indeed  that  they  have  come  into  use  as  a  permanent  aid  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  working.  But  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  in  course  of  time,  ■ 
and  when  they  have  been  further  perfected,  these  contrivances  will  be  more  exten- 
sively taken  advantage  of. 

Repeated  experiments  in  the  direction  of  breaking  down  coal  and  stone  by 
compression  of  water  or  air — either  directly  into  the  borehole,  or  into  closed  iron 
cartridges  which  are  intended  to  burst — have  invariably  produced  negative  results 
owing  to  the  fissures  and  partings  which  are  always  to  be  found  in  the  strata.  For 
the  same  reason,  the  proposed  utilization  of  liquid  carbon  dioxide  appears  to  us  to 
offer  no  prospect  of  success — quite  apart  from  the  fact  that  the  introduction  of 
carbon  dioxide  into  the  mine  is  open  to  the  grave  objection  that  it  would  foul  the  air 
to  a  considerable  extent. 

The  attempt  to  find  in  other  chemical  means  an  efficient  substitute  for  explosives, 
has  been  so  far,  even  less,  successful  than  the  attempt  to  provide  a  mechanical  sub- 
stitute. The  method  proposed  in  England  so  long  ago  as  1853  by  Sir  George 
Elliot,  and  revived  there  recently  by  Messrs.  Smith,  Moore,  &  Co.,  of  using  blasting 
cartridges  of  freshly  burnt  lime  into  connexion  with  which  water  is  brought,||  is 

*Mr.  Nasse,  "Obseiratlons  on  Apparatus  deei^nied  in  Bubstitutiou  of  Shot-flring  in  Coal-mininff," 
Zeitach.  f.  d.  Berg-,  Hatten  u.  Salinen-Wesen  im  Prnut.  StatUe,  rol.  xvii.,  B.,  page  416,  et  uq. ;  Mr.  A. 
Habeta.  "Means  of  Preventing  Fire-damp  Explosions  and  ayerting  their  Hurtfnl  Effecta,"  Revue 
UniveraeUe  dee  Mines,  series  2,  vol.  L,  pages  149-152  {Olackav/,  1877,  No.  9) ;  Mr.  Haton  de  la  Qoupillidre, 
Report  of  the  French  Fire-damp  Commiesion,  orig.,  pages  127-128 ;  Mr.  Q.  Kohler,  "Blasting  in  presence 
of  Fire-damp,  and  its  Substitutes,  Zeiteeh,  d.  Vereinee  deutech.  Ing.,  18S6,  No.  8 ;  Final  Report  of  the 
British  Royal  Commiseion  on  Aecidente  in  Minee,  pages  62-63. 

t  Mr.  Gh.  Demanet,  The  Working  of  Coal-mines,  German  translation  by  Mr.  G.  Leybold  (Brunswick), 
1885,  pages  217  220 ;  Mr.  A.  Habeti*,  Amsterdam  Exhibition,  1883,  Documents  and  Reports  of  the  Memibers 
of  the  Jury.  Brussels,  1883,  pages  55-58. 

I  Zeitsehr.  f.  d.  Berg-,  Hatten-u.  Salinen-Wesen  im  Preuss.  Staate,  vol.  xxx.,  B.,  pages  230-211. 

§Mr.  Von  Wurzian,  "Goal-breaking  Apparatus  (Walcher  Patent),"  Oesterr.  ZeUsehr.  f.  Berg^. 
HiUtenwesen,  1E86,  No.  18,  and  1887,  No.  14. 

II  Mr.  Paget  Mosley,  Lecture  to  the  Spring  Meeting  (1882)  of  the  Iron  and  Bteel  InsUtate.  oompare 
GlUckat^f,  1832,  No.  64. 


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642  REPORT  OF  THE   PRUSSIAN 

shown,  by  numerous  experiments  oonducted  in  almost  every  coal  district,  to  act  too 
slowly  and  too  feebly  to  be  available  for  general  use.  More  especially  is  it  imprac- 
ticable at  the  actual  working-face,  that  is  at  the  very  point  where  it  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  have  some  substitute  for  blasting-powder.  The  same  defect 
is  observable  in  Mr.  B.  Kosmann's  blasting  cartridges*  (which  evolve  hydrogen  gas 
from  sulphuric  acid  and  zinc  dust),  and  in  Messrs.  R.  and  Oh.  Steinau's  cartridgesf 
(filled  with  lime  which,  in  contact  with  water,  causes  a  flask  filled  with  sulphuric 
acid  and  a  flask  filled  with  water  to  burst,  and  is  then  supposed  to  produce  the 
required  effect  by  the  resulting  evolution  of  steam)  ;  and  the  objection  attaches  to 
Mr  Edison's  electric  blast ing-process,|  wherein  water  contained  in  a  sealed  glass 
tube  is  decomposed  by  the  electric  current.  For  the  rest,  these  processes  app«ir 
somewhat  dangerous,  on  account  of  the  extreme  inflammability  of  hydrogen  gas. 

137. — Substitution  of  High  Explosives  far  Black  Gunpowder,— As  we  have 
already  set  forth  in  another  portion  of  this  Report  (compare  par.  No.  90),  the 
Commission,  bearing  in  mind  their  exhaustive  experiments,  have  arrived  at  the 
conclusion  that  the  dangers  attendant  on  blasting  in  fiery  mines  may  be  notably 
diminished,  nay,  perhaps  completely  obviated,  if,  instead  of  using  the  slowly  burn- 
ing black  gunpowder  which  has  been  hitherto  made  use  of  in  most  cases,  only 
quickly  igniting,  so-called  high  explosives  were  employed.  The  Commission  there- 
fore propose  (see  Art.  19  of  the  "  Principles  ")  to  restrict  the  prohibition  of  blasting 
simply  to  black  gunpowder.  On  the  other  hand,  they  propose  to  allow  the  use  of 
high  explosives  in  coal  and  stone  indifferently,  so  long  as  there  is  at  any  point  of 
the  district  concerned  no  permanent  accumulation  of  fire-damp  present,  that  is  no 
accumulation  easily  discernible  by  means  of  the  safety-lamp. 

At  the  present  moment,  the  Commission  do  not  deem  it  advisable  to  recommend 
any  particular  high  explosive  in  preference  to  any  other.  It  is  perfectly  evident 
that  more  extended  practical  experience  is  necessary,  and  that  time  must  be  left 
to  the  inventor  and  the  manufecturer  of  explosives,  so  that  by  means  of  new  inven- 
tions or  improved  methods  of  manufacture  they  may  be  enabled  to  comply  more 
fully  with  the  requirements  of  the  coal-mining  industry. 

138- — Precautionary  Measures  in  Blasting  Operation$,^lt  on  the  one  hand 
there  is  no  room  for  doubt  that  in  course  of  time  blasting  operations  in  fiery  mines 
will  have  to  be  considerably  restricted  in  one  way  or  another ;  it  is  on  the  other 
hand  equally  beyond  dispute  that  the  precautionary  regulations  in  the  matter  of 
blasting  (so  far  as  it  is  allowed)  directed  against  the  possibility  of  ignition  of  fire- 
damp and  coal-dust  should  be  made  very  much  more  severe. 

The  first  principle  which  must  be  observed  unflinchingly  is  that  no  blasting 
operations  shall  be  allowed  under  any  circumstances  to  take  place  if  and  so  long  as 
fiire-damp  is  found  to  occur  at  the  particular  point  in  quantity  recognizable  by  the 
safety-lamp.  Therefore,  before  any  shot  is  fired,  it  should  be  ascertained  by  means 
of  a  careful  search  that  neither  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  borehole  nor 
within  a  radius  of  10  metres  (32^  feet)  is  any  accumulation  of  fire-damp  present 
(Art.  19  of  the  "  Principles"). 

In  dry,  dusty  mines,  where  the  coal  is  particularly  prone  to  make  dust,  care 
should  be  taken  (at  least  in  opening  and  fore-winning)  to  remove  any  coal-dust 
lying  about  within  at  least  the  same  radius  as  above  mentioned,  or  to  render  it  harm- 
less by  plentiful  watering,  before  firing  a  shot. 

The  decision  whether  both  these  requirements  have  been  fully  complied  with  and 

*  Qermaa  Imperial  Patent,  S4665 ;  alAeka^f,  1886,  No.  18. 

t  German  Imperial  Patent,  88000 ;  £«ry-i  «•  HlUtenmOnnUehi  ZeUvmg^  1887,  No.  2L 
lOomptire  BerfhtU.  H«Uenmd»Mi$ehe  ZeUung,  1888,  No.  fi,  uid  Oompte$  rendu$  de  la  SocUU  dt 
VIndwtrie  Mingle,  1886,  pages  98-99. 


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FIBE-DAMP  COMMISSION.  548 

whether  therefore  the  shot  may  be  fired,  should  in  no  case  rest  with  the  workman  but 
either  with  the  responsible  overman,  or  better  still  with  the  superintending  official 
whom  it  may  concern  or  with  a  person  who  is  especially  entrusted  with  that  task 
(fireman).  In  fact  it  would  be  advisable  that  the  entire  operation  of  blasting, 
including  the  stemming  of  the  shots,  should  be  carried  out  by  specially  appointed, 
trustworthy  persons  who  would  take  no  part  in  other  labour  at  the  working-face ; 
and  in  such  wise  that  the  other  persons  employed  in  the  mine  could  be  strictly  for- 
bidden to  carry  about  with  them  or  use  explosives,  firing  or  lighting-material  of  any 
kind,  etc. 

As  to  the  actual  conduct  of  the  operations  of  blasting,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary 
precautionary  measures,  the  following  rules  should  be  observed : — 
1, — Shots  in  the  roof  are  to  be  avoided  wherever  possible. 

2. — In  order  to  avoid  blown  out  shots,  the  bore-holes  should  not  be  made  too  long, 
(especially  in  fast  working-places),  and  its  effect  should  be  as  much  as 
possible  enhanced  by  holing  or  kirving  before  firing  it.  Care  must  be 
taken  not  to  overload  the  shot. 
3. — The  stemming  of  shots  with  coal  should  be  forbidden  (Art.  19  of  the 
"Principles"). 

With  shattering  explosives  the  use  of  water-cartridges  is  advisable 
(compare  par.  No.  91  of  this  Report). 
4. — In  shot-firing  only  such  igniting-materials  should  be  used  as  bum  without 

flame  (compare  par.  No.  89  of  this  Report). 
6.— If  several  shots  are  to  be  fired  at  the  same  place,  they  are  (always  except- 
ing cases  of  ignition  by  electricity)  not  to  be  fired  simultaneously,  but 
singly,  one  after  another ;  and  that  only  after  the  rei^ponsible  persons  have 
every  time  satisfied  themselves  that  no  fire-damp  is  present, 
6. — Shot-firing  should,  as  far  as  possible,  take  place  at  a  time  when  very  few 
persons  are  at  work  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  firing-point 
or  indeed  present  in  the  pit  at  all.    Where  it  is  a  question  of  bringing- 
down  the  stone  or  neighbouring  rock,  shot- firing  should  never  be  allowed 
during  the  haulage-shift. 
All  such  special  regulations,  as  well  as  the  general  provisions  with  regard  to 
permissibility  or   restriction  of  shot-firing,  are  properly  included  in  the  ordinary 
working  regulations  (precautionary  rules),  which  must  be  issued  by  the  management 
of  every  individual  fiery  mine. 

4. —  With  regard  to  CoaUdvst, 

139. — Daviping  and  liewoval  of  tlie  Coal-dust. — We  have  already  (compare 
par.  No.  78  of  this  Report)  laid  stress  on  the  fact  that  the  precautionary  measures 
against  the  dangers  which  arise  from  coal-dust  consist  partly  in  scrupulous  avoidance 
of  the  deposition  and  accumulation  of  dry  dust  in  the  pit-workings,  and  partly  in 
guarding  against  its  being  swept  up  in  a  scries  of  whirlwinds  as  a  result  of  shot- 
firing,  etc. 

As  to  the  first  point,  in  dry  mines  where  the  coal  produces  much  fine  dust,  there 
only  remains  the  resource  of  regular  and  abundant  watering.  At  the  very  least,  the 
main  haulage-ways  (as  already  recommended  by  the  French  Fire-damp  Commission 
in  accordance  with  Mr.  Galloway's  method)*  should  be  kept  continually  damp.  The 
British  Inspectors  of  Mines,  Messrs.  W.  N.  and  J.  B.  Atkinson,-)*  consider  that  the 

*  PrineipU*  to  be  ConaulUd  in  Working  Fiery  Mine*,  section  39. 

t  Messrs.  W.  N.  and  J.  B.  Atkinson,  Soeplonon$  in  Coal-mines,  1886;  Mr.  Nasse,  "Remarks  on 
Coal-dust  Explosions,"  Zeitsekr.  /.  d.  Berg-t  HnUen-  v.  Salinen-Wtsen  im  Prevu.  Staate^  toI.  xxxt., 
pages  191-900. 


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644  REPORT  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN 

application  of  the  method  should  be  still  farther  extended,  so  that,  besides  wetting 
the  dust  lying  about  on  the  floor  of  the  drift  as  thoroughly  as  possible,  and  then  causing 
it  to  be  removed  from  the  galleries,  the  extremely  dangerous  fine  dust  which  clings  to 
wall  and  roof  and  timbering,  should  be  completely  washed  off  by  means  of  a  water- 
hose.  Worthy  of  recognition,  too,  is  their  additional  proposal,  that  those  drifts 
which  form  the  arteries  of  communication  between  different  districts  should  be 
walled  with  masonry  for  considerable  lengths  where  suitable,  and  then  always  kept 
wet  and  free  from  dust,  preventing  thereby  the  further  spread  of  any  dust- 
explosion  which  may  arise. 

Concurrently  with  the  process  of  keeping  the  galleries  damp,  in  places  where 
shot-firing  is  allowed,  the  utmost  care  should  be  taken  (immediately  before  firing  a 
shot)  to  similarly  render  innocuous  the  dust  which  is  lying  about  in  the  near 
neighbourhood  of  the  firing-place  (compare  par.  No.  138  of  this  Report).  It  is 
hardly  necessary  to  point  out  the  extreme  importance  of  fal filling  conscientiously 
the  last-mentioned  duty  (also  first  recommended  by  Mr.  Galloway) ;  and  in  those 
cases  where  it  is  found  impossible  to  carry  out  that  procedure  in  its  entirety, 
it  w^ill  be  best  to  forbid  any  shot-firing  whatever. 

Though  one  may  admit  as  a  general  proposition  that  there  are  considerable 
difficulties  in  properly  damping  and  thoroughly  getting  rid  of  coal-dust  even  in  the 
haulage-ways,  and  still  more  in  the  actual  working-places  of  a  dry  mine,  still  these 
difficulties  have  been  shown  by  experience  to  be  of  such  a  nature  that  a  little 
perseverance  will  overcome  them.  At  any  rate,  watering  carried  on  as  a  regular 
practice  must  have  this  result,  that  the  coal-dust  which  is  present  will  be  thoroughly 
saturated,  and  thereby  the  inflammability  of  the  dust  will  be  very  considerably 
diminished. 

5. — Other  Measures, 

140. — Introduction  of  finely  divided  Water  or  Steam  into  the  Pit.—M.T.  J. 
d'Andrimont*  and  after  him  Mr.  R.  Wabnerf  proposed  to  iotroduce  finely  divided 
water  or  steam  into  the  pit,  concurrently  with  the  ventilating  current,  for  the 
purpose  (on  the  one  hand)  of  making  the  fire-damp  present  less  easily  infiammable, 
and  for  a  similar  purpose,  as  regards  coal-dust,  by  saturating  the  dust  with  wat^r. 
But  these  proposals  are  met  with  the  practical  objection  that  it  is  difficult  to  bring 
water  in  sufficient  quantity,  for  the  aim  in  view,  to  the  galleries  and  working-places 
where  it  is  needed,  and  that  it  is  particularly  difficult  to  bring  it  to  the  working- 
face.  Experiments  which  have  been  carried  out  in  connexion  with  this  matter, 
e.ff.j  at  the  Heinrich  shaft,  Planitz,  Kinj^dom  of  Raxony,§  and  at  the  Neu-Iserlohn 
pit,  Langendreer,  Westphalia,||  have  demonstrated  the  absolute  uselessness  of  the 
introduction  of  water-vapour  (steam).  There  is  moreover  another  serious  objection 
to  the  last-named  method,  namely,  that  the  hciting  of  the  downcast  ventilating 
current  might  not  only  have  hurtful  consequences  as  regards  the  actual  ventilation 
of  the  mine,  but  also  on  the  health  of  the  people  employed  therein,  and  the 
security  of  the  galleries  (loosening  of  blocks  of  strata).  If  the  attempt  were  made 
to  lead  the  steam  by  special  conduits  to  each  separate  level  (as  is  done  with  fresh 
air  in  the  special  [separate]  ventilation  system),  the  evils  to  which  we  have  just 
referred  would  evidently  be  greatly  enhanced. 

*  BelgtMi  Flrd-damp  Oommiflslon,  Report,  Proeeedinai  at  Meetings,  and  Doewnents,  1S80,  page  66. 

t  Mr.  B.  Wabaer,  "  The  PreTention  of  Ignition  of  Fire-damp  in  Coal-minee  by  means  of  Water- 
rapoar  or  finely  diyided  Water,"  Berg-,  u.  HuttenmJnnU^  ZeUvng,  1882,  No.  34,  also  1885.  Noe.  40 
and  41. 

9  Mr.  B.  Otto,  Fire-damp,  etc.,  Berlin,  ISSd,  page  94. 

D  Zeitsehr.  /.  d.  Berg-,  Hutten-  u.  fhlintn-Weten  im  Prtua:  Staait,  toL  xzzt.,  page  S61. 


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FIRE-DAMP  G0MMIS8I0N.  545 

141. — The  Poetsch  Freezing  Process, — Mr.  P.  H.  Poetsch  believes  that  the 
ignition  of  fire-damp  may  be  rendered  impossible  by  means  of  the  production  of 
extreme  cold.  The  patent  which  he  has  taken  out*  for  an  " apparatus  to  prevent 
the  ignition  of  fire-damp  by  cooling  down  the  gas,**  includes  the  production  of  cold 
air  above  bank  in  a  spii-al  channel  with  masonry  walls  (communicating  by  means  of 
conduits  with  the  pit) ;  this  is  done  by  squirting  a  solution  of  common  salt  through 
the  perforations  of  a  tube,  along  which  the  air  is  made  to  travel.  According  to  a 
supplementary  patent,  a  liquid  or  lye,  artificially  cooled  much  below  freezing-point, 
is  to  be  rained  into  the  shaft ;  and  besides,  in  the  pit  itself,  by  means  of  a  portable 
spraying-apparatus  the  freezing-cold  solution  is  to  be  kept  in  continual  circulation, 
and  thus  the  process  of  cooling-down  may  be  applied  to  the  remotest  points  of  the 
workings. 

There  is,  of  course,  no  doubt  at  all  that  the  inflammability  of  combustible  gases 
decreases  with  diminishing  temperature.  But  if  Mr.  Poetsch,  in  the  justificatory 
preamble  of  his  patent  (application)  proceeds  on  the  assumption  that  pit-gas  ceases 
to  be  inflammable  at  a  temperature  of  about  +  4  degs.  C,  he  is  assuming  what  is 
not  the  fact.  If  we  admit  that  mixtures  containing  6  per  cent,  of  marsh  gas  are 
still  inflammable  at  the  average  temperature  of  14  degs.  C,  then,  calculating  the 
decrease  of  inflammability  in  relation  to  lowering  of  temperature,  mixtures  con- 
taining 7  per  cent.  CH^  will  still  be  inflammable  at  —  100  C,  and  10  per  cent, 
mixtures  even  below  —  400  degs.  C.  And  in  any  case,  at  the  temperature  of 
+  4  degs.  C,  gaseous  mixtures  containing  more  than  6*1  per  cent,  of  methane  can 
undoubtedly  be  ignited. 

The  conclusion  is  that  the  Poet^sch  freezing  process  will  in  no  way  prevent  the 
ignition  of  fire-dimp,  although  it  may  S3rve  to  lower  the  temperature  of  the  pit, 
and  that  with  a  good  deal  of  difficulty  in  very  extensive  workings. 

142. — ExploHon  Doors. — In  order  to  restrict  such  gas  or  dust -explosions  as 
may  take  place  within  the  narrowest  possible  limits,  various  kinds  of  safety-doors 
have  been  experimented  with  in  Franccf  Mr.  Verpilleux  puts  two  very  strong 
doors,  which  open  in  opposite  directions,  at  a  very  short  distance  from  one  another ; 
they  are  usually  kept  open  by  very  light  springs,  etc.,  but  as  soon  as  an  explosion 
occurs  one  of  the  doors  closes.  Messrs.  Clermont  and  Mathet  made  use  of  doors 
woven  of  several  superposed  layers  of  wire-netting ;  these  also  closed  immediately 
on  the  occurrence  of  an  explosion,  and  were  presumed  to  at  least  hold  back  the 
exploflion-flame.  Mr.  Mallard  proposed  movable  doors,  which  immediately  after  the 
ignition  of  a  blasting-shot  would  bar  the  entry  to  the  working- places  beyond  the 
ordinary  ran  ze  of  action  of  the  shot.  This  last  proposal  has  recently  been  taken  up 
again  in  Germany.J  But  whether  with  arrangements  of  that  kind  any  sufficiently 
satisfactory  result  is  likely  to  be  attained  appears  to  us  extremely  doubtful. 

v.— LlPE-SAVINQ  APTKB  AN  EXPLOSION. 

14.3. — Life-saving  Apjjaratus, — Among  the  innumerable  appliances  intended 
to  enable  a  rescuing  party  to  press  forward  and  accomplish  their  task  amid  the  after- 
damp which  follows  on  an  explosion,§  the  various  respirators  (Brasse,  Loeb,  etc.)  arc 

«Oennan  Imperial  Patent,  S7S1S,  May  Sth,  1883;  BeTiew  of  the  Patent  Records  by  Mr.  F.  H. 
Poetsch.  Magdebnrg.  1886,  Nos.  YU.,  TIIL 

t  Mr.  HatoD  de  la  GonpiUidre,  Report  of  tlu  French  Fire-damp  C<mmi$aUm,  pages  126, 196-197. 

J  Glaekavf,  1888,  No.  14;  Oesterr.  Zeittekr.  /.  Berg-,  u.  HaUmweten,  1886,  Nos.  25  and  28. 

§  Mr.  A.  Habets,  "  Means  of  PreTentlng  Fire<lamp  Explosions  and  Ayerting  their  Hurtful  Effects,** 
Bevue  UniveraeUe  de»  Mines,  series  2,  roL  L,  pages  143152;  OlUckavf,  1877,  No.  12;  Mr.  Haton  de  la 
Goupillidre,  Report  qf  the  French  Fire-damp  Commission,  pages  200-206;  Dr.  Serlo.  Treatise  on  Mining, 
4th  ed..  1881,  vol.  ii.,  pages  473-494;  Dr.  Kreischer,  "  On  Ufe^aving  Ai paratus  in  Mining,  and  especially 
the  Fleuss  Apparatus,"  Jahrb.  /.  d.  Berg-,  u.  Huttenwesen  im  K&nigr-  Sachsen,  1886,  pages  146-162 


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fA6  REPORT  OF  THE  PRUS8US 

€mlj  inmiwoTihj  trtr  ftbort  d^UDcesft.  while  the  Galibert  air-bag  oalj  laaU  for  a  shoit 
time;  ar^i,  ilnallj,  the  B«>aqaajro)-I>eiiaTTOiue  air-ho«e.  which  is  npplied  boa  a 
fijuyl  air'(/aiiip  (pri«amatic  machine),  ii  a  hindianoe  to  the  adranoe  of  the  rtKOcn, 
U^eaatie  tb«j  have  *o  drag  the  hcne  alfm;^  with  them«  So  far.  for  rescuing  purposeiv 
the  V//n  Brem'm  CK/^uqaarroI-Denayroaxe)  knapsack-apparatos  with  compressed 
air  (and  «(^re  cvj.u  Icri  coa'ainfo^  an  extra  proT>ioQ  of  air)  appears  to  have 
work';fl  ttif/TH  nati <factoni J  in  pract ice  t t.jui  any  other.*  Then.  too.  t he  recently  intro- 
(la*M  breathiUj^'apjiarataH  of  He^r*.  Flenw,  Daif,ltCo-,f  which  continnally  renews 
aii/J  rnaken  the  foul  air  breathable  hj  ehmination  of  carbon  dioxide  and  absorption 
of  frtMh  oxygen,  i»hould  render  Taloable  senrice  when  certain  considerable  improTe- 
rnentif  Hliall  hare  been  made  in  it.{  The  last-mentioned  appantus,  which  is 
remo'lelleri  on  a  combination  of  two  oLler  appliances,  thooe  of  Measn.  Schnlz  and 
Kchwann,  appears  moreorer  to  correspond  pretty  closely  to  the  apparatus  bzoogfat 
out  by  Mr.  Regnard  at  the  instance  of  the  French  Fire-damp  Commission.§ 

If  it  be  true  that,  on  the  whole,  appliances  of  that  kind  will  need  to  be  used 
only  in  very  rare  caseff,  we  should,  nerertbeless,  urgently  recommend  the  holding  in 
readiness  in  all  fiery  mines  of  one  or  other  of  such  appliances.  Moreover,  as  many 
as  pf>Miiblc  of  the  officials  and  pitmen  should  be  frequently  instmcted  and  exercised 
in  the  use  of  them,  as  they  might  well  be  of  considerable  assistance  in  the  event  of 
a  oonflagratiou  in  the  pit. 

lAA^^Ntlp  for  tks  Injured,— The  measures  which  have  to  be  taken  immedi- 
ately on  the  occurrence  of  a  fire-damp  explosion,  and  chief  of  all  the  operations 
directed  to  the  rencue  of  the  victims,  depend  largely  on  the  circumstances  of  each 
imrticular  case.  With  regard  to  the  preliminary  assistance  to  be  rendered  to  the 
vicifrns  of  a  diMastcr,  very  great  stress  has  been  for  many  years,  and  rightly,  laid  in 
all  mining  districts  in  Prunsia,  on  the  necessity  for  every  mining  official  whom  it 
may  concern  to  be  thoroughly  instructed  in  the  treatment  of  those  persons  who 
may  Ijc  found  wounded  or  inHcnsible  (stupefied  by  gases).  They  are  to  learn  this 
at  the  mining  schools,  and  it  is  a  knowledge  which  must  be  moreover  extended  to  as 
largo  a  number  as  jxiBHible  of  the  workpeople  employed  in  the  mine.  Thus  also  it 
is  the  practice  nearly  everywhere  to  have  medical,  surgical,  and  other  appliances 
ready  to  hand  at  the  pit  shaft  or  in  the  immediate;  neighbourhood.  As  an  example 
d(»*crvlng  univcrHal  attention  we  may  point,  in  this  connexion,  to  the  extraordinarily 
sii(!(!(;HHful  rcHults  obtainc<l  after  the  fire-damp  explosion  at  the  Camphausen  pit 
(Hiuirbrllck),  on  March  18th,  1885,  with  the  treatment  of  a  great  number  of  men 
in  a  comatose  condition  by  immediate  application  of  the  cold-water  spray  in  a 
wann  bath.|| 


.  L.  Ton  Bremen  k  Oo.,  Rt$pUratory  and  lAghUng  Apparatus  for  Mine$,KUUWi;  idd.,  PortabU 
HighpreMure  BrtaJlhing  and  LioKting  Ajtjmrrtim,  Kiel,  1876;  Mr.  Hasslaoher.  "The  Bouquajrol- 
DensyrouM  Diring,  BrealhlDg,  and  Lighting  App«ratu8,  and  it«  um  In  Mining  Industry,"  Zeitsehr./.  d. 
Berg-,  UuUtH-  u.  SaHnen-Wetenim  Prewm.  Staatf,  toL  xxU.,  B.,  pages  1-17;  Mr.  Joh.  Mayer,  "Bemarki  on 
the  Flro.<Ump  Explosion  in  the  Wilhelm  Shaft  of  the  Emperor  Ferdinand-Northern  Railway  in 
PolnisohOstrau,  the  Pit  Fire  arising  from  it,  and  the  Operations  of  Extinction,  espedaUy  with  Mr.  L. 
Ton  Bremen's  Breathing  Apparatus,"  OtHerr.  ZeiUckr.  /.  Berg-,  u.  Hattentceaen,  1885,  Noe.  3^&i. 

t  "The  Fleuis  Life-saving  Apparatus,"  Iron,  188i  page  87;  German  Imperial  Patent,  16345,  and 
GtHcka^f,  1883,  No.  36 ;  Dr.  Kreisoher,  "On  Life-saTlng  Apparatus,  op.  jam  eit.,  paxes  154-163. 

t  XeitMhr./.  (/.  Berg-,  Hattfn-  u.  SaHnm-lVesen  im  Pretua.  Staate,  toI.  xzxIt.,  B.,  pages  S78-375. 

I  ytntU  lUjtort  of  the  Fren'.h  Fire-damp  Commt*$ion,  German  translation,  op.  jam  eU,,  page  298. 

U  Annual  Btport  4/  th«  SaarbrAck  Miners'  Union  for  1886.  pages  81-33;  Cflackanf.  1886,  No.  W. 


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FIBE-DAMP  COMMISSION.  547 


THIRD  PART. 


PRACTICALLY  APPLIOABLB  CONCLUSIONS  AND  SUGGBSTIONS. 

1. — From  the  Technical  Point  of  View, 

145. — The  Commission  haye  thoaght  fit  to  draw  up  a  concise  summary  of  their 
opinions,  embodying  the  technically  important  results  of  their  labours,  and  reciting 
all  the  preventive  measures  to  be  taken  against  fire-damp,  which  have  been  hitherto 
a  matter  of  dispute  or  at  least  insufficiently  adopted ;  and  this  in  the  following 
terms: — 

PBIKOIPLBS  to  BB  OBSEBVBD  IK  FIBBT  MINES. 

I.— Genbbal  Regulations. 

Art.  1.— Those  mines  are  to  be  regarded  as  fiery  wherein  during  the  last  two 
years  fire-damp  has  been  known  to  occur. 

Where  in  respect  of  haulage  and  ventilation  the  mine  is  divided  into  several 
independent  working  districts,  each  of  these  districts  is  considered  as  a  distinct  mine. 

Art.  2. — In  all  fiery  mines,  there  must  be,  at  the  very  least  two  outlets  at  the 
surface  separated  from  one  another  by  a  sufficiently  solid  wall  of  rock  or  stone. 
Of  these  two  openings,  one  should  serve  as  a  downcast,  the  other  as  an  upcast 
air-way. 

Temporary  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  nevertheless  permissible. 

II.— Ventilation. 

Art.  3. — In  every  fiery  mine,  a  regular  system  of  ventilation  must  be  arranged  in 
such  a  manner,  that  accumulations  of  fire-damp  may  be  rendered  practically 
impossible  (under  ordinary  conditions)  in  the  working-places ;  and  every  portion  of 
the  mine  at  the  working-places  or  in  the  galleries  shall  be  at  all  times  in  a  fit 
condition  for  the  conduct  of  mining  operations  and  the  traffic  of  the  mine. 

Extensive  workings  should  be  subdivided  for  ventilation  purposes  into  several 
independent  sections. 

The  driving  of  separate  airways  appears  desirable. 

Art.  4.— Ventilation  conducted  exclusively  by  natural  means  is  not  permissible. 
Nor  can  the  exclusive  provision  of  ventilation  by  means  of  the  chimneys  connected 
with  the  boilers  be  allowed. 

The  use  of  ventilation-furnaces  is  allowable  only  in  those  collieries  where  the 
conditions  are  such  as  to  assure  continuous  supply  of  the  furnace  with  fresh  air,  and 
the  provision  of  an  easy  and  secure  means  of  retreat  for  the  fumaceman  (in  case  of 
need) ;  and  where,  moreover,  tliere  is  no  possibility  of  ignition  of  the  pit  gas  by  the 
furnace  gases. 

Open  fire-lamps  (fire-kibbles)  are  forbidden. 

Art.  6. — The  volume  of  fresh  air  per  minute,  which  should  be  supplied  in  a  fiery 
mine  must  in  each  independent  ventilation-district  amount  to  1*5  cubic  metres 
(52*95  cubic  feet)  per  ton  of  the  average  daily  coal  output.  If  this  volume  be 
inadequate  to  reduce  the  gaseous  content  of  the  return  air-current  to  1*5  per  cent., 
it  must  be  correspondingly  increased.  YHiere,  on  the  other  hand,  the  total  per- 
centage of  methane  and  carbon  dioxide  in  that  current  does  not  unitedly  amount 
to  1*5,  a  reduction  of  the  fresh  air-supply  to  1  cubic  metre  (.?5'31  cubic  feet)  per  ton 
of  daily  coal  output  may  be  regarded  as  admissible. 


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548  REPORT  OF  THB  PRUSSIAN 

fn  all  cases,  howeyer,  the  Tolume  of  fresh  air  must  amount  to  at  least  2  cubic 
metres  (70*62  cubic  feet)  per  hea<l  of  the  maximum  number  of  workmen  employed 
belowground  in  the  course  of  one  shift.  In  these  calculations,  a  horse  is  reckoned 
as  equivalent  to  four  men. 

Art.  6. — The  motors  which  are  intended  to  produce  the  ventilation  are  to  be 
made  and  kept  of  such  power  that  the  prescribed  minimum  air-supply  may  at  any 
moment,  and  without  delay  be  increased  by  25  per  cent. 

The  use  of  a  self- registering  check  apparatus  in  connexion  with  ventilators  is 
urgently  recommended. 

Art.  7. — It  appears  absolutely  indispensable  (at  least  in  the  case  of  newly 
driven  levels  and  shafts)  to  make  the  sectional  area  of  the  main  airways  not  less 
than  3  square  metres  (32*3  square  feet). 

But  the  dimensions  of  the  main  and  other  airways  are  to  be  so  contrived  that 
with  sufficient  ventilation  of  the  workings  the  air-velocity  per  minute  shall  not 
exceed  240  metres  (787  feet)  in  the  downcast,  and  360  metres  (1,181  feet)  in  the 
return  air-current.  As  a  general  rule,  it  is  recommended  that  much  lower  velocities 
be  used  by  means  of  enlarged  sectional  areas  and  splitting  of  the  current. 

The  accessory  use  of  ventilation-boreholes  may  be  sometimes  resorted  to. 

Art.  8. — The  ventilation  must  be  so  arranged,  both  as  a  whole  and  in  detail,  that 
the  fresh  air  is  led  from  the  surface  by  the  shortest  possible  route  downward  to 
the  working-levels;  but  that  thereafter  the  separate  air-currents  in  the  various 
working-districts  shall  follow  an  invariably  ascending  course. 

Downward  ventilation  of  workings  in  active  use — with  the  exception  of  headings 
driven  to  the  rise,  where  such  ventilation  cannot  of  course  be  dispensed  with — is 
only  allowable  as  an  exception  in  consideration  of  the  circumstances  of  the 
particular  case,  and  subject  to  an  abundant  supply  of  fresh  air  and  the  provision  of 
trustworthy  bratticing. 

There  appears  to  be  no  objection  on  the  score  of  danger  to  leading  downwards 
of  air-currents  which  are  not  intended  to  be  made  further  use  of. 

Art.  9.— The  number  of  working-places  to  be  supplied  from  one  and  the  same  air- 
current  must  not  exceed  that  which  will  allow  of  the  air  reaching  the  remotest  of 
those  places  in  a  state  of  sufficient  coolness  and  purity, 

A  much -fouled  air- current  should  be  brought  to  the  upcast  by  the  shortest  possi- 
ble course  without  traversing  any  more  of  the  workings  which  are  in  active  use. 

Art.  10. — Particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  transmission  of  the  fresh  air 
up  to  the  very  working-face.  In  no  case  should  the  ventilation  of  level-places 
be  simply  dependent  on  diffusion  for  a  distance  of  more  than  20  metres  (65  feet). 

Places  to  the  rise  must  not  be  driven  without  special  ventilation ;  in  galleries 
driven  to  the  dip  this  need  only  be  arranged  when  they  are  more  than  15  metres 
(49-2  feet)  in  length. 

Shafts,  crosscuts,  and  headways  (in  so  far  as  they  are  not  driven  by  parallel 
working)  may  only  be  driven  with  the  help  of  air-brattices,  air-tubes  or  air-conduits 
of  adequate  sectional  area. 

The  inclination  of  bordways  should  not  exceed  1  in  100. 

It  is  advisable  to  ventilate  independently  such  places  as  particularly  need  air  by 
the  system  of  compressed  air  and  insufflation-conduits,  or  by  the  Korting  injector  or 
such  other  suitable  apparatus. 

The  regulation  that  hand-power  ventilators  should  always  be  placed  in  the  fresh 
air-current  must  be  strictly  enforced. 

All  such  air-drifts  and  air-stentings  as  may  no  longer  be  used  for  purposes  of 
ventilation  must  be  barred  off  by  a  permanently  airtight  partition. 

Art.  11.— Ventilation-doors  must  close  automatically,  and  at  those  points  where 


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FIBE-DAMP   COMMISSION.  549 

hermetical  closure  is  desirable,  or  where  in  consequence  of  the  conditions  of  working 
in  the  mine  considerable  traffic  takes  place,  the  doors  must  be  at  least  double,  and 
placed  at  such  a  distance  from  one  another  that  one  of  them  is  always  closed. 

Ventilation-doors  which  have  become  superfluous  are  to  be  removed  from  their 
hinges. 

Art.  12. — No  alterations  with  respect  to  the  regulation  of  the  ventilation  may  be 
undertaken  without  special  instructions  from  the  superintending  official  whose  con- 
cern it  is. 

Any  accident  or  damage  which  may  happen  to  air-brattices  and  air-doors,  and 
any  irregularity  in  the  ventilation  must  be  in  all  cases  immediately  reported  to  the 
superintending  official. 

Art.  13. — Disused  workings  must  be  barred  off  in  a  clearly  recognizable  manner, 
and  entry  into  them  must  be  forbidden. 

Art.  14. — The  outflow  of  fire-damp  from  the  goaf  must  be  prevented  by  closing  up 
or  ventilating  the  latter. 

When  the  workings  approach  old  workings,  or  such  spots  where  accumulations  of 
fire-damp  may  be  expected,  preliminary  borings  should  be  made. 

Art.  15. — Every  'place — ^if  the  miners  are  not  loosed  at  the  working-face  it«elf — 
must  be  carefully  examined  for  the  occurrence  of  fire-damp  before  the  new  shift 
enter  therein  to  start  work. 

Art.  16. — ^When  ventilation  is  stopped  or  is  greatly  disturbed,  the  workmen  must 
be  withdrawn  as  quickly  as  possible  from  the  dangerous  portions  of  the  mine,  and 
men  must  not  be  allowed  to  return  therein  until  a  preliminary  examination  has 
shown  that  mining  operations  may  be  conducted  with  due  security. 

So  soon  as  signs  of  danger  (such  as  threatening  accumulations  of  fire-damp)  are 
discerned  at  any  particular  point  in  the  workings,  the  workmen  must  fence  off  the 
dangerous  district,  evacuate  it,  inform  their  comrades  of  the  state  of  affairs,  and 
report  thereon  to  the  first  mining  official  whom  they  can  meet. 

Art.  17. — Fore- winning  and  actual  winning,  with  the  exception  of  cases  where 
downward  ventilation  is  specially  allowed,  must  not  take  place  in  any  district  of  the 
workings,  until  an  airway  has  been  cut  through  to  the  [next]  upper  level. 

Art.  18. — In  all  fiery  mines  care  must  be  taken  to  ensure  constant  and  trust- 
worthy supervision  of  the  ventilation  as  a  whole  and  in  all  its  details  ;  if  necessary, 
officials  must  be  specially  appointed  for  that  duty  alone. 

III.— Shot-fibing. 

Art.  19. — In  all  fiery  mines,  it  is  hereby  forbidden  to  conduct  blasting  operations 
which  involve  the  use  of  black  gunpowder  or  such  other  slowly  detonating  explo- 
sives. The  use  of  dynamite,  and  other  quickly-detonating  explosives  which  behave 
similarly  with  regard  to  coal-dust,  is  alone  permissible. 

Even  with  dynamite,  etc.,  blasting  operations  are  not  allowable  in  those  districts 
(of  the  mine)  where  at  any  working-place  under  ordinary  circumstances  such 
accumulations  of  fire-damp  as  are  easily  recognizable  by  means  of  the  safety-lamp 
(3  per  cent,  of  fire-damp)  cannot  be  prevented. 

In  every  case,  before  each  shot  is  fired  the  responsible  official  must  ascertain  that 
no  accumulations  of  fire-damp  are  present  within  a  radius  of  10  metres  (32|  feet). 

Stemming  of  shots  with  coal  should  be  forbidden. 

IV.— Lighting. 

Art.  20. — In  no  fiery  mine  is  the  use  of  naked  lights  below  ground  permissible. 
Only  safety-lamps  and  electric  incandescent  lamps  may  be  used 


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550  RBPOET  OF  THE  PRUSSIAN 

But  within  the  downcagt  fresh  air-current  in  the  shafts  and  at  the  pit-eye  naked 
lights  may  be  made  use  of.  The  use  of  them  in  upcast  shafts  is  allowable  in  certain 
special  cases. 

Art.  21.— Safety-lamps  should  fulfil  the  following  requirements  :— 

(a)  The  enclosure  of  the  combustion-chamber  should  be  so  arranged  and  main- 
tained that  at  no  point  may  the  combustion-chamber  be  in  communication 
with  the  outside  air  by  an  opening  of  larger  area  than  0-0004  square  inch 
(0*25  square  millimetre). 

(J)  The  wire-gauze  must  be  evenly  woven  of  wire  of,  say,  0*37  to  0*42  millimetre 
fineness  ('0146  to  *0165  inch),  and  the  sectional  area  of  each  portion  of  the 
mesh  should  never  be  greater  than  0'25  square  millimetre  (0*0004  square 
inch). 

(p)  Every  safety-lamp  must  have  an  illuminating  power  of  at  least  60  per  cent, 
of  one  normal  candle-power.  It  is,  however,  permissible  in  searching  the 
workings  for  fire-damp  to  make  use  of  lamps  of  lower  illuminating  power. 

(^)  Every  safety-lamp  must  be  so  made  that  its  component  parts  fit  tightly 
and  intimately  together. 

{$)  The  lamp  must  be  provided  with  a  lock,  of  such  character  as  to  enable  the 
point,  whether  it  has  been  tampered  with  or  not,  to  be  easily  ascertained 
and  checked,  and  such  as  to  secure  the  perfect  interlocking  of  the  com- 
ponent parts. 

Art.  22. — The  following  further  recommendations  are  made  with  regard  to  the 
fitting  of  safety-lamps : — 

(a)  The  air  necessary  for  combustion  should,  in  lamps  provided  with  glass 
cylinders,  be  led  in  from  above,  downward. 

(h)  The  glass-cylinder  should  possess  a  perfectly  even  wall-thickness  throughout, 
and  should  consist  of  glass  of  the  best  quality  and  most  carefully  annealed. 
Its  edges  must  be  ground  exactly  horizontal  and  at  right  angles  to  the  axis 
of  the  lamp.  It  should  measure  in  height  54  to  60  millimetres  (2*12  to  2*36 
inches),  in  average  diameter  40  to  50  millimetres  (1*57  to  2  inches),  and  in 
wall-thickness  6  to 8  millimetres  (about  024  to  0*32  inch). 

(0)  The  wire-gauze  should  measure  in  height  between  95  and  105  millimetres 

(3*74  to  4*13  inches).    It  should  not  be  narrower  in  its  lower  portion  than 

the  glass-cylinder,  and  its  upward  tapering  should  not  be  greater  than  10 

millimetres  (0-39  inch). 

Art.  23. — The  safety-lamps  are  to  be  delivered  to  the  workmen  by  the  colliery 

management ;  and  it  will  be  moreover  the  duty  of  the  latter  to  provide  for  the 

storage  and  repair  of  the  lamps. 

It  is  advisable  to  number  the  lamps  consecutively,  and  to  always  give  the  same 
lamp  to  the  same  man. 

v.— Special  Regulations. 

Art.  24. — In  all  fiery  mines,  the  management  shall  issue  special  regulations, 
which  shall  have  been  previously  submitted  to'  the  Government  authorities  for  their 
approval.    These  regulations  would  apply  to  : — 

(1)  The  superintendence  of  the  ventilation,  the  regular  examination  of  the 

workings  for  fire-damp,  and  the  measures  to  be  taken  in  the  event  of  the 
latter  being  found  to  occur. 

(2)  Superintendence  of,  and  precautionary  measures  connected  with  shot-firing, 

in  so  far  as  that  is 'allowed. 

(3)  Manipulation  of  the  safety-lamps. 


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FIBE-DAHP  COMMISSION.  551 

(4)  Regular  measarements  of — 

(a)  The  quantity  of  air. 

(If)  Gaseous  content  (deleterious  gases)  of  the  air. 

(p)  Atmospheric  pressure. 

(^)  Temperature. 

146. — The  "  Principles"  set  forth  above  are  by  no  means  intended  to  represent 
an  exhaustive  summary  of  the  fire-damp  question  from  the  point  of  view  of  mines 
regulations ;  but,  in  pursuance  of  the  task  with  which  the  Commission  had  been 
entrusted,  they  at  least  form  a  corpus  of  technical  opinion  on  the  main  points  which 
claim  one's  attention  in  connexion  with  that  problem.  At  all  events,  the  clauses 
have  been  so  drawn  up  that  they  may  be  used  as  the  basis  of  such  mines  regulations 
as  may  be  issued. 

The  different  subjects  dealt  with  in  the  **  Principles"  have  received  fairly  adequate 
treatment  in  the  corresponding  technical  sections  of  the  present  Report,  and  it  now 
only  remains  to  advert  briefly  to  some  more  general  matters. 

In  order  to  define  more  exactly  the  proper  use  of  the  "  Principles,"  the  Commission 
considered  it  necessary  to  start  (Art.  1)  with  an  accurate  explanation  of  the  term 
fiery  mine.  The  actual  occurrence  of  fire-damp  was  held  to  be  the  first  condition  of 
the  term — so  far  as  the  gas  is  discernible  with  the  ordinary  safety-lamp  hitherto  in 
use,  and  without  any  regard  to  the  fact  whether  the  occurrence  is  isolated  or  general 
and  constant.  The  Commission  premised  that  so  soon  as  gases  in  a  pit  are  recog- 
nizable with  the  safety-lamp,  a  certain  amount  of  danger  must  be  necessarily 
inferred,  and  therefore  special  precautionary  measures  will  have  to  be  taken. 
Nevertheless,  in  order  to  avoid  unnecessary  interference  with  mining  operations  in 
such  districts  as  are  free  from  gas,  in  extensive  workings  where  there  are  only 
local  outbursts  of  fire-damp,  each  working-district  should,  for  purposes  of  haulage 
and  ventilation,  be  regarded  as  practically  a  pit  by  itself.  On  the  other  hand,  we 
find  it  impossible  to  subscribe  to  a  more  far-reaching  suggestion,  namely  in  every 
fiery  mine  to  release  from  observance  of  the  strict  letter  of  the  regulations  all  such 
portions  of  the  workings  (in  particular  seams  or  particular  districts)  as  have  for  a 
long  period  of  time  been  free  from  fire-damp.  And  that  because,  in  such  a  mine, 
a  mixed  system  would  come  into  play  which  might  give  rise  to  the  most  serious 
dangers. 

As  regards  the  further  question  whether  a  mine  wherein  fire-damp  has  once 
occurred  is  to  be  always  thereafter  regarded  as  a  fiery  mine ;  or  whether,  if  the 
occurrence  be  not  renewed  within  a  certain  period,  that  mine  is  once  more  to  be 
reckoned  among  the  mines  free  from  fire-damp,  the  Commission  have  thought  fit  to 
declare  themselves  in  favour  of  the  latter  view,  inasmuch  as  the  prescribed  period 
of  observation  is  to  extend  over  an  amply  sufficient  interval  of  time,  namely  two 
years.  Proposals  to  reduce  the  probationary  period  to  one  year  or  even  six  months 
were  declined,  because  it  appeared  to  the  Commission  that  the  interval  was  too 
short  to  make  it  certain  in  all  cases  that  the  pit  had  been  so  completely  freed  from 
gas  as  to  render  the  observance  of  strict  regulations  no  longer  indispensable. 

If  the  Commission  hold  that  the  actual  occurrence  of  fire-damp  sufficiently 
warrants  the  designation  of  the  mine  as  a  fiery  mine,  this  naturally  implies  that  in 
all  collieries  without  exception  a  regular  examination  for  fire-damp  should  be 
strictly  enforced  by  bye-laws,  and  the  very  first  occurrence  should  be  at  once 
reported  to  the  Government  mining  authorities. 

In  connexion  with  the  definition  of  the  term  fiery  mines  it  had  been  proposed 
to  subdivide  these  into  different  categories  (somewhat  after  the  fashion  of  the 
Belgian  General  Mines  Regulations  of  April  28th,  1884)  according  to  the  extent  of 


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552  REPORT  OF  THE  PRUSSIJUT 

their  presnined  periloasness ;  and  then  to  graduate  the  regnlations  as  to  amount  of 
ventilation,  permissibiHty  of  shot-firing,  etc.,  according  to  each  one  of  such  cate- 
gories. This  proposal  has  not  been  accepted  bj  the  Oommission,  because  they  think 
that  a  really  useful  classification  of  that  kind  is  impracticable  in  the  Prussian  coal- 
mining industry — ^it  matters  little  whether  that  classification  be  based  on  the 
gaseous  content  of  the  return  air-currents,  on  the  frequency,  the  special  character 
or  extent  of  the  explosions  which  have  occurred.  It  seemed  to  them  advisable 
rather  so  to  draft  the  general  principles  as  to  make  these  correspond  to  the  average 
conditions  of  fiery  mines,  and  then  according  to  the  special  circumstances  of  each 
case  the  regulations  based  on  these  principles  may  be  relaxed  or  the  reverse. 

With  rcf?ard  to  the  extent  of  ground  covered  by  the  "  Principles,"  the  Commission 
have  thought  proper  to  limit  themselves  to  a  summary  of  merely  the  main  points. 
They  are,  moreover,  of  opinion  that  in  a  similar  way  the  mines  regulations  to  be 
issued  by  the  Government  authorit  ies  whom  it  may  concern  should  comprise  only 
general  rules — and  that  details  should  be  reserved  for  the  special  regulations  which 
the  management  of  every  fiery  mine  has  to  draw  up  and  submit  to  the  approval  of 
the  authorities.  This  course  of  procedure  was  inaugurated  with  conspicuous  success 
by  the  General  Mines  Regulations  issued  on  November  8th,  1867,  by  the  Royal 
Mining  Bureau  at  Bonn,  for  the  district  falling  within  the  area  of  administration  of 
that  bureau.  Naturally,  the  same  influence,  from  the  legal  and  penal  point  of  view, 
must  be  attributed  to  the  special  colliery  regulations  as  to  a  decree  issued  direct  by 
the  Government  authorities. 

As  to  subject-matter  and  form  of  such  special  regulations,  the  first-named  is 
defined  in  Art.  24.  With  regard  to  the  form,  it  would  be  advisable  to  draft  the 
instructions  concisely  as  such,  without  attempting  comments  or  explanations,  and 
those  rules  which  affect  the  colliery  management  or  particular  colliery  ofiicials 
should  be  separated  as  distinctly  as  possible  from  rules  affecting  the  workmen. 
A  point  of  no  small  practical  importance,  when  one  considers  the  frequent  migra- 
tion of  workmen  from  one  colliery  to  another,  is  the  drafting  of  (as  far  as  may  be) 
identical  reg^ulations  for  all  the  several  collieries  of  the  same  district  or  of  neigh- 
bouring districts,  BO  as  to  avoid  on  the  part  of  the  miner  any  confusion  between 
particular  regulations — ^a  confusion  which,  under  certain  circumstances,  might 
constitute  a  source  of  positive  danger. 

2. — From  the  Legal  and  Cognate  Points  of  View. 

147. — Increased  Severity  of  the  Exist  iTig  Judicial  and  Penal  Regulations. — 
Much  as  we  are  pleased  to  note  hero  that  the  journeys  of  inspection  and  the  labours 
of  the  Commission  have  already  borne  good  fruit,  in  that  they  have  led  to  vast 
improvements  being  made  of  late  years  (in  all  the  Prussian  coal-mining  districts)  in 
the  matter  of  preventive  measures  against  fire-damp  explosions — and  probably  these 
Improvements  will  be  extended  yet  further  by  colliery  managers  in  an  enlightened 
spirit  of  self-interest — yet  we  think  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  mines  regulations  as 
by  law  enacted,  need  in  many  respects  modification  in  the  sense  of  greater  severity 
and  completeness.  In  this  connexion  the  "  Principles  "  drafted  by  the  Commission 
might  well  serve  as  a  basis  conveniently  applicable  to  most  cases.  Moreover,  good 
effects  might  be  looked  for  from  special  (precautionary)  regulations,  picked  out  from 
among  those  proposed,  to  be  drafted  for  every  fiery  mine  by  the  colliery  management. 

But  at  the  same  time  as  a  new  system  of  mines  regulations,  a  corollary  is  indis- 
pensable in  the  shape  of  stricter  penal  enactments ;  these  will,  most  especially  so 
far  as  the  workpeople  are  concerned,  give  to  the  regulations  that  sanction  which  is 
necessary  to  ensure  their  being  properly  carried  out.    The  statistics  prove  (compare 


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FIBE-DAMP  COMMISSION.  553 

par.  No.  31  of  this  Report)  that  the  overwhelmingly  greater  number  of  fire-damp 
explosions  in  Prussian  collieries  are  due  to  carelessness  or  imprudence,  carelessness 
or  imprudence  which  are  in  the  first  place  translated  into  defiance  of  some  prohibi- 
tion enacted  by  the  mining  authorities  or  the  colliery  management,  or  into  negligence 
to  observe  some  provision  prescribed  by  the  same  authorities.  Although  the  culprit 
may  in  some  cases,  where  men  have  been  injured  or  killed—expiate  his  sin  in 
gaol ;  in  the  many  cases  where  no  really  disastrous  consequences  have  ensued,  he 
is,  in  accordance  with  the  present  system  of  jurisprudence,  let  oS.  with  a  paltry  fine. 
This  latter  punishment,  of  course,  counts  for  nothing  with  the  workmen,  when 
weighed  against  the  advantages  in  time  and  money  which  they  may  sometimes 
secure  by  disobeying  the  regulations. 

The  Commission  therefore  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  only  drastic,  the 
only  effectual,  remedy  for  this  state  of  things  would  be  found  in  fresh  legislation. 
But  they  were  of  opinion  that  a  special  Act  (such  as  had  been  often  proposed) 
would  hardly  be  of  so  much  service  as  a  modification  or  expansion  of  that  portion 
of  the  German  Penal  Code  which  treats  of  "  Crimes  and  Misdemeanours  affecting 
the  General  Welfare"  (Part  II.,  Section  26  in  the  edition  of  February  26th,  1876). 

And  in  this  respect  also,  under  certain  circumstances,  Arts.  306-311,  on 
"Incendiarism  (arson)"  might  be  reconsidered.  For  instance,  in  Art.  311,*  after 
the  words,  "  or  by  other  explosive  substances,"  one  might  insert,  "  or  by  ignition  of 
fire-damp  in  mines."  In  this  way,  neglect  or  defiance  of  the  regulations  concerning 
the  lighting  of  the  pit  or  shot-firing  would  be  subject  to  the  same  punishment 
(involving  imprisonment  in  gaol  or  in  a  house  of  correction)  as  deliberate  arson  or 
arson  by  negligence. 

And  then  most  especially  should  Art.  32 If  be  supplemented  by  the  following 
clause,  in  addition  to  those  which  already  deal  with  the  misdemeanours  connected 
with  mining,  after  the  words  "ascent  or  descent  of  the  workpeople" : — *^  or  whosoever 
disturbs  or  hinders  the  ventilation  or  in  fiery  mines  (legal  enactments  notwithstand- 
ing) makes  use  of  naked  lights,  or  sets  fire  to  a  shot,  or  ignites  a  fiame,  or  opens  a 
safety-lamp." 

If  it  were  possible  at  the  next  opportunity  for  revision  of  the  Penal  Code  to  have 
these  supplementary  clauses  incorporated  therein,  we  have  no  doubt  that  they 
would  constitute  an  extremely  effectual  check  to  the  recklessness  and  levity  which 
often  result  in  bringing  about  a  fire-damp  explosion. 

148. — ExtenHon  of  a  Better  Ufidergtanding  of  the  Precautionary  Heffulations 
among  the  Workmen  in  the  Pit, — We  know  by  experience  that  the  cause  of  a  lai^e 
proportion  of  the  cases  of  defiance  or  negligence  of  the  precautionary  regulations  in  a 
colliery  lies  in  an  insufficient  comprehension  of  those  regulations  and  in  the  inability 
to  grasp  the  full  extent  of  the  consequences  which  such  defiance  or  negligence  surely 
entails.  The  ordinary  method  of  publication  of  the  regulations  by  reading  them  out 
to  the  workmen  and  hanging  copies  up  at  the  colliery  (as  enacted  by  Art.  200  of 
the  General  Mining  Act  of  June  24th,  1865)  would  of  itself  seem  hardly  sufiicient. 
The  Commission  are  of  opinion  that,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  publication,  a  con- 
cise abstract  of  the  points  which  have  to  be  observed  by  the  workmen  themselves 

*  Art  311  reads :  "  The  tolal  or  partial  destruction  of  propert7  b7  the  use  of  ganpowder  or  other 
"explosiTe  lubBtanoee  is  to  be  oonsldered  equiTalent  to  the  setting  on  fire  of  the  said  property." 

t  Art.  321.— Whosoever  purposely  destroys  or  damages  water-conduits,  sluices,  weirs,  dams,  or  other 
hydraulic  appliances,  or  bridges,  ferries,  roads,  or  parapets,  or  the  mining  appliances  for  retention  of 
water,  for  Tentllatlon,  or  for  ascent  or  descent  of  the  workpeople ;  or  whosoerer  disturbs  the  navigable 
channel  in  rirers,  streams,  or  canals,  and  through  any  one  of  these  miBdemeanours  endangers  the  life  or 
health  of  other  persons,  shall  be  punished  with  not  less  than  three  months'  imprisonment.  If  through 
any  one  of  the  above  enumerated  misdemeanours  serious  bodily  harm  has  been  caused  to  any  person,  the 
sentence  may  be  increased  up  to  five  yean*  penal  aervitude ;  and  if  the  death  of  a  person  has  been  caused 
thereby,  the  sentence  shall  be  not  less  than  fire  years'  penal  servitude. 


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554  PRUSSIAN  FIBB-DAMP  COMMISSION. 

should  be  (as  widely  as  possible)  distributed  among  the  miners — much  in  the  same 
way,  perhaps,  as  is  done  with  the  "  working  orders"  and  "  benefit-society  circulars  " 
— by  handing  a  printed  copy  to  every  man.  It  would  be  well  to  refresh  the 
memories  of  the  miners  as  regards  this  abstract  by  reading  it  out  to  them  from  time 
to  time,  and  wherever  and  whenever  necessary  by  explaining  more  fully  particular 
points  in  it. 

A  matter  of  no  less  importance  is  to  always  strive  by  means  of  appropriately 
instructive  writings  or  lectures,  to  spread  among  the  officials  and  among  the  miners 
correct  views  and  ideas  as  to  the  conditions  which  mainly  influence  mining.  In 
particular  would  it  be  advisable  in  this  way  to  make  the  miners  arrive  at  a  clear 
understanding  of  the  character  and  dangers  of  fire-damp,  and  of  the  precautionary 
and  protective  measures  which  they  may  use  as  weapons  to  fight  it  with.  As  a  kind 
of  sketch-model  on  which  local  educational  broadsheets  might  well  be  based. 
Commissioner  Harz  has  prepared,  at  the  request  of  his  colleagues,  a  '^  Fire-damp 
Catechism  for  Miners,'*  drafted  in  the  form  of  a  series  of  questions  and  appropriate 
answers.* 

Finally,  it  needs  no  words  from  us  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  all  progress  in  the 
matter  of  general  education  and  technical  instruction  of  the  miners  will  assuredly 
be  of  enormous  service  in  the  matters  to  which  we  have  just  referred,  and  therefore 
every  step  in  the  direction  of  such  progress  (whether  the  initiative  comes  from  the 
colliery  managers  or  from  the  Government  authorities  matters  little)  should  be 
hailed  with  acclamation. 

Berlin,  July,  1887. 

*  Appendiees.  toL  L,  pases  150-163. 


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NOTES  OF  FOREIGN  PAPERS.  556 


III.— NOTES  OF  PAPERS  ON  THE  WORKING  OF  MINES,  METALLURGY, 
ETC.,  FROM  THE  TRANSACTIONS  OF  FOREIGN  SOCIETIES  AND 
FOREIGN  PUBLICATIONS. 


THE  ASSAYING  OF  ANTIMONY  ORES. 

Note  9UT  VEssai  des  Minerais  d'Antimoine,    By  Ad.  Cabkot.    Annates  det  Mines, 
1892,  series  9,  voL  %.,  pages  303-308. 

The  author  states  that  on  comparing  the  results  of  exact  analysis  with  those  of 
the  ordinary  method  of  assaying  («.«.,  by  fusion  with  sodium  carbonate,  charcoal, 
and  strips  of  iron),  he  found  that  the  error  in  the  assay  was  rarely  as  little  as 
8  or  10  per  cent.,  and  was  sometimes  more  than  20  and  even  30  per  cent,  of  the 
actual  proportion  of  metal  present  in  the  ore.  Considering  the  dry  method 
objectionable  on  the  score  of  the  exceeding  volatility  of  antimony,  he  bethought 
him  of  an  entirely  different  process ;  this  consists  essentially  in  dissolving  out  the 
antimony  from  the  finely-powdered  ore  by  means  of  warm,  concentrated,  hydro- 
chloric acid,  precipitating  the  solution  on  a  strip  of  tin,  then  washing,  drying,  and 
weighing  the  metallic  precipitate.  The  foregoing  process  is  immediately  applicable 
to  sulphides,  as  to  oxides  ;  the  author  converts  the  latter  into  the  more  easily  treated 
sulphides,  by  heating  the  powdered  ore  in  an  atmosphere  of  dry,  sulphuretted 
hydrogen.  The  presence  of  iron  and  zinc  (the  latter  very  rare  in  practice)  in 
antimony  ores  does  not  affect  the  assay  ;  almost  the  same  may  be  said  of  arsenic. 
But  as  to  lead,  a  metal  which  occurs  in  some  varieties  of  antimony  ore,  the 
difficulty  of  its  precipitation  in  the  metallic  state,  together  with  the  antimony, 
from  the  hydrochloric-acid  solution,  is  met  by  the  author  in  the  following  man- 
ner:— He  heats  the  metallic  precipitate  to  between  122  and  140  degs.  Fahr.  in 
a  solution  of  yellow  sodium  sulphide  (obtained  by  boiling  ordinary  sodium  sulphide 
with  flowers  of  sulphur).  The  antimony  dissolves  rapidly,  and  there  remains  a 
residue  of  lead  sulphide,  which  is  thereafter  washed,  dried,  and  weighed.  In 
practice,  the  weight  of  the  metallic  lead  is  about  ^ths  that  of  the  sulphide. 

0.  S.  E. 


FUVEAU  LIGNITE   COAL-FIELD,   FRANCE. 

MSmoire  sur  le  Bassin  de  Fiiveau.  By  —  Oppebmann.  Bulletin  de  la  SociSU  de 
V  Industrie  UinSrale,  1892,  series  3,  tol.  vi,,  pages  833-876,  and  plates  XVIIL- 
XX  VII.,  inclusive. 

The  beds  in  this  basin— situated  in  the  Department  of  Bouches-du-Rh6ne — ^are 
contained  in  grey,  marly  limestone  of  Upper  Cretaceous  age.  There  are  three  beds 
worked,  all  included  in  strata  to  which  the  name  of  "  Fuv61ian  *'  has  been  given — 
the  grande  mine,  at  the  base  of  these  strata ;  the  quatre  pans,  some  164  feet 
higher ;  and  the  gros  rocher,  33  feet  above  this.  There  are  several  other  beds  in 
the  Fuv61ian  strata  which  are  not  worked,  and  also  some  unworkable  beds  in  other 
series  above  and  below. 

The  distances  between  the  beds  vary  greatly  in  different  places.  Their  thickness 
also  varies  considerably,  that  of  the  grande  mine  ranging  from  8 J  to  llj  feet, 

VOL.  V.-IWJ-M  36 


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556  NOTES  OF  PAPBB8  IN  FOBSION 

of  which  24  to  10  feet  is  coal ;  the  quatre  pans  bed  varies  in  thickness  from  i  to 
4}  feet,  of  which  1^  to  3^  feet  is  coal;  and  that  of  gros  rocher  from  1|  to  3|  feet, 
8  inches  to  2^  feet  being  coal. 

The  total  production  of  the  basin  in  1891  was  434,276  tons,  practically  all  of 
which  came  from  four  mines  in  the  hands  of  three  companies. 

Valdonne  Colliery. — This  is  divided  into  three  distinct  portions  by  two  great 
faults.  Up  to  1891,  only  the  northern  of  these  divisions  was  worked,  and  this  is 
now  nearly  exhausted,  having  almost  reached  the  western  limit  of  the  lignite  basin, 
where  it  is  cut  off  by  the  underlying  Jurassic  rocks.  In  this  division  the  strike  of 
the  beds  is  north  to  south,  and  they  dip  west  1  in  8  in  the  upper,  and  somewhat 
less  in  the  lower  levels. 

In  view  of  the  approaching  exhaustion  of  this  portion,  a  shaft  has  been  sunk  to 
a  depth  of  1,140  feet  in  the  southern,  or  middle  division,  and  this  will  in  future  be 
the  main  drainage-and-winding  shaft  for  the  whole  mine.  The  remaining  portion 
is  almost  entirely  unworked. 

Griasque-Fuveau  Colliery, — This  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  former.  The 
continuity  of  the  beds  is  interrupted  only  by  two  main  faults,  with  a  throw  of  60 
and  66  feet  respectively,  both  being  near  the  southern  boundary.  The  portion  of 
the  concession  south  of  the  most  northerly  of  these  faults  is  alone  now  worked. 
Here  the  beds  strike  north,  with  an  inclination  of  1  in  6  to  the  west.  The  ground  is 
full  of  minor  faults,  which  are  fewer  in  the  district  now  abandoned  to  the  north, 
where,  however,  they  often  become  "  mouli^res." 

TVets  CoUiery.^This  working  is  situated  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  basin. 
Here  the  beds  thin  off,  and  the  grande  mine  alone  is  workable.  Its  strike  is  north- 
west, with  an  inclination  of  1  in  6  to  the  north-east.  There  are  few  faults,  but 
the  "  mouli6res  "  are  frequent. 

Oardanne  Colliery. — The  same  three  beds  are  worked  here  as  at  Gr^asque  and 
Valdonne,  with  one  other,  known  as  the  mauvaise  mine.  A  great  fault  cuts  off  the 
beds  to  the  north-east  and  west,  but  elsewhere,  they  are  very  regular,  running  north- 
west, and  dipping  30  degs.  to  the  south. 

Throughout  the  basin  exceptional  difficulties  have  been  encountered  in  the  great 
quantity  of  water,  which  has  necessitated  heavy  expenditure  for  adit-levels,  dams, 
and  pumping  machinery.  Figures  are  given  of  the  quantities  of  water  raised,  cost 
of  extraction,  etc.,  of  the  Bouches-du-Rh6ne  Company,  from  which  it  appears  that 
9,900,000,000  cubic  metres  of  water  were  raised  in  1886,  at  a  cost  amounting  to 
3s.  2d.  on  each  ton  of  coal  raised.  From  this  cause  considerable  areas  of  coal  have 
had  to  be  abandoned,  pending  the  construction  of  a  long  adit  at  sea-level. 

Such  faults  as  are  not  accompanied  by  throws,  but  which  let  out  great  quan- 
tities of  water,  are  called  by  the  miners  **  partens."  These  generally  impoverish  the 
coal  on  either  side  of  the  fissure,  the  sterile  areas  being  termed  "  mouli^res."  With 
reference  to  these,  the  region  may  be  sub-divided  as  follows : — 

1.  The  portions  south  of  the  Jean-Louis  fault,  with  numerous  fissures,  rarely 

open,  and  often  accompanied  by  throws. 

2.  The  portion  north  of  the  fault,  where  throws  are  comparatively  few,  but  with 

numerous  "  partens,"  with  or  without  "  mouli^res." 
The  "partens"  tend  to  lessen  in  depth,  and  finish  as  mere  cracks— the 
»'  mouli^res  "  also  lessening  proportionally.  In  the  latter,  at  the  point  where  the 
bed  is  cut  by  the  fissure,  the  lignite  is  entirely  replaced  by  a  yellowish  or  blackish 
mud,  diminishing  with  the  distance  from  the  fissure.  The  bed  itself  thins  towards 
the  "parten,"  the  roof  first  becoming  fissured,  and  finally  is  found  completely 
fallen  in. 


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TRANSACTIONS  AND  PERIODICALS.  557 

The  quantity  of  water  underground  is  found  to  yary  immediately  with  the 
amount  of  rainfall,  and  in  times  of  drought  the  flow  almost  ceases.  This  does  not 
apply  to  the  Gr^asqne  workings,  which  seem  to  be  in  communication  with  an 
extensive  water-bearing  stratum. 

The  author  then  discusses  the  geological  character  of  the  strata  in  respect  of 
its  bearing  on  the  formation  of  the  "mouli^res;"  and  finally  describes  the 
elaborate  system  of  masonry-dams  adopted  in  order  to  protect  the  workings  from 
sudden  flooding,  etc.  G.  B.  C. 

THE  DEEP  ADIT-LEVEL  IN  THE  FUVEAU  LIGNITE  COAL-FIELD, 

FRANCE. 

Note  9ur  le  Tunnel  a  la  Met  de  quinze  kilomHres.  By  —  Domagb.  Bulletin  de 
la  Sooiiti  de  V Industrie  MinSrale,  1892,  seHes  8,  vol,  vi.,  pages  899-919,  and 
plates  XVIIL,  XXV.-XXVIL 

This  is  a  description  of  the  great  adit,  9|  miles  long,  now  being  driyen  at  sea- 
level  to  cope  with  the  water  difficulties  in  the  Fuveau  district.  Particulars  are 
given  of  the  five  principal  adits  hitherto  driven,  ranging  in  length  from  820  to 
3,665  yards.  The  history  is  related  of  the  proposals  for  a  sea-level  adit  made  from 
time  to  time  from  1859  downwards,  culminating  in  1879  in  the  present  scheme, 
which  was  officially  approved  in  1889. 

The  rate  of  progress  was,  in  1891,  14*16  feet,  and  in  1892,  20*27  feet  per  24 
hours.  The  high  speed  is  attributed  partly  to  the  use  of  the  Berthet  hand- 
perforator,  and  partly  to  the  system  on  which  the  miners  are  paid,  a  premium  being 
given  for  any  progress  beyond  a  certain  rate  per  day.  At  first  all  shots  in  the  face 
were  fired  simultaneonsly ;  subsequently,  however,  it  was  found  advantageous  to 
fire  the  middle  holes  first. 

The  dibris  is  removed  by  means  of  an  endless  steel  rope,  10  millimetres  (0*39 
inch)  in  diameter,  carrying  150  tons  per  day.  The  ventilation  is  performed  by  a  Ser 
ventilator,  23*6  inches  in  diameter,  the  waste  air  passing  into  the  water-channel.  This 
apparatus  is  calculated  to  serve  for  two-fifths  of  the  distance,  but  the  leakage  which 
takes  place  makes  it  doubtful  if  it  will  serve  for  the  whole.  For  this  reason  a 
ventilating  shaft  is  to  be  sunk  at  a  point  about  four  miles  from  the  entrance,  and 
possibly  another  will  be  required  farther  in. 

An  Appendix  is  added  giving  details  of  method  of  firing,  cost,  etc.,  the  latter 
being  as  follows  for  the  advance  heading  (6  by  8*2  feet)  : — 

Labour  

Explosives        

Coal,  steel,  and  smith 

Total  :62    3    8  G.  B.  0. 


£ 

8. 

d. 

1 

1 

3 

1 

1 

2* 

0 

1 

H 

&2 

3 

8 

THE  VALDONNE  COLLBRIBS  (FUVEAU  BASIN). 

Note  sur  les  Mines  de  Valdonne  (^Bouehes-du-Rhd-M),    By  L.  Valla.    Bulletin  de 

la  SociitS  de  V Industrie  Minirale^  1892,  series  8,  vol.  ri.,  pages  877-897,  and 

plates  XXIIL'XXVIL 

These  mines  comprise  two  concessions,  known  as  Peypin  and  St.  Savoumin 

(north  and  south)  with  an  area  of  650  and  750  hectares  (1,600  and  1,850  acres) 

respectively.    They  are  situated  at  the  south-western  extremity  of  the  Fuveau 

basin. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


Total  Thioknen. 
Ft.    In. 

Useful  Thickness. 
Ft.    In. 

9     10 

8       6 

6      8 

8     11 

3      9 

2       6 

558  NOTES  OF  PAPERS  IN  FOREION 

For  details  of  the  general  conatitution  of  the  district  the  author  refers  to  the 
paper  by  M.  Oppermann  in  the  same  journal.*  As  there  stated,  the  workings  are 
divided  into  three  separate  zones  by  three  main  faults.  The  beds  run  north  to 
south,  dipping  10  to  20  degs.  in  the  northern  and  20  to  60  degs.  in  the  southern  part. 
There  are  seven  beds,  only  the  three  following  of  which  are  worked  : — 

Grande  mine 
Quatre  pans 
Gros  rocher 

Immediately  beneath  the  grande  mine  there  is  a  bed  of  inferior  coal  6  feet  thick  ; 
which,  however,  is  rarely  worked. 

The  lignite  is  brilliant  black,  with  a  conchoidal  fracture ;  it  bums  with  a  long 
flame  and  considerable  smoke.    Analysis  shows  : — 

Moisture        6*00 

Ash      4-40 

Total  carbon 60*66 

Oxygen  and  nitrogen  26*87 

Hydrogen      3*68 

The  calorific  power  is  from  5,000  to  6,600  calories ;  and  the  evaporating  power 

6  lbs.  of  water  per  lib.  fuel. 

The  greater  part  of  the  extraction  has  hitherto  been  from  the  northern  portion 
of  the  property,  where  all  the  hauling-machinery,  etc.,  was  situated.  Recently, 
however,  it  has  been  transferred  to  the  Armand  shaft  in  the  southern  portion,  where 
600  to  700  tons  are  now  raised  from  a  depth  of  1,140  feet  per  day  of  9  hours. 
Owing  to  this  change  the  production  per  man  has  risen  from  10  to  16  cwt. 

The  beds  are  worked  by  galleries  at  an  interval  of  about  660  feet  on  the  dip. 
Of  the  grande  mine  about  one-eighth  has  hitherto  been  lost  in  the  pillars  which 
were  left  behind.  It  is  now  thought  possible  to  remove  all  the  coal,  stone  pillars 
being  built  up  in  suitable  spots,  and  walls  built  along  the  main  roads.  In  working 
the  quatre  pans  and  gros  rocher  beds  the  deads  are  practically  sufficient  to  fill  up 
the  goaves. 

Powder  is  used  for  blasting  both  in  coal  and  rock,  the  holes  being  bored  by  a 

hand- borer.      The  following  comparative  figures  as  to  cost  of  boring  galleries 

2*50  by  2  metres  (8  by  6}  feet)  in  the  country-rock  (limestone)  are  given  : — 

Distanoe  driven  per  8  Hours.       Cost  per  Metre. 
Feet.  £     s.     d. 

Powder     1-31        ...  2    2    0 

Blasting-gelatine  4*26        ...        about  the  same. 

The  Armand  shaft  is  divided  into  two  compartments,  for  winding  and  pumping 
respectively.    The  winding  is  performed  by  two-decked  steel  cages,  weighing  2  tons 

7  cwts.,  guided  on  steel  rails  of  40  lbs.  per  yard.  For  winding,  flat  aloes-ropes  are 
used,  weighing  about  26  lbs.  per  yard,  woiking  at  one-tenth  of  the  breaking  strain. 
For  raising  the  men,  round  steel-ropes  are  employed,  weighing  3^  lbs.  per  yard, 
working  up  to  one- twentieth  of  the  breaking  strain. 

The  mines  have  always  been  subject,  from  time  to  time,  to  interruption  from 
partial  floodings.  This,  so  far  as  it  was  due  to  water  penetrating  from  the  surface, 
has  been  minimized  by  establishing  sheet-iron  conduits-in  the  stream-beds.  The 
water  underground  now  varies  little  from  summer  to  winter.  By  this  means,  and 
also  by  the  provision  of  masonry-dams  undergi-ound,  a  great  improvement  has  been 
effected  in  guarding  against  floods. 

*  Traru.  JM.  Inat.,  toL  t.,  page  566. 


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tRANSACTlOKS  AND  PEftlODIOALS.  559 

The  drainage  is  effected  partly  by  means  of  underground  Tangye  and  rotary 
pumps,  supplied  with  steam  from  the  surface,  and  partly  by  Cornish  and  other 
engines  at  the  surface.  In  future  all  the  water  will  be  raised  by  the  underground 
engines  from  the  Armand  shaft,  the  present  pumping-plant  being  reserved  for 
emergencies  only.  This  will  give  a  total  power  of  2,861  gallons  per  minute,  which 
should  remove  any  danger  from  flooding  in  future. 

The  total  cost  of  the  works  in  connexion  with  the  new  Armand  shaft  was  about 
£dO,000,  and  it  is  expected  to  raise  160,000  tons  of  coal  per  annum.  G.  E.  0. 

PEAT  IN  TRANSYLVANIA. 
Die  Torflager  der  Siehenbwrgischen  Zandettfieile.    By  Geobo  Pbimigs.    MUtheil- 
UTigen  aus  dem  Jahrhuche  der  KUn,  Ungariechen  Qeologischen  AnHalt^  1892, 
vol,  (B.,  pages  3-24. 
The  following  peat  districts  are  described : — 

(1)  Magyar- Valko,  province  of  Kolozs.— This  district  is  estimated  to  yield  171,990 
cubic  yards  of  peat.  The  quality  is  very  good;  its  lightness  when  dried  would 
render  it  suitable  for  use  in  many  industries.  The  hindrances  to  its  profitable  working 
are  the  great  distance  from  railways,  etc. 

(2)  Ponor,  province  of  Als6-Feh^r.— This  district  is  estimated  to  yield  390,000 
cubic  yards  of  peat.  The  working  of  this  peat  at  present  is  not  practicable,  as  it 
cannot  be  reached  with  waggons.  It  might,  however,  without  very  great  difficulty, 
be  sent  to  the  neighbouring  towns  of  Offenbanya  and  Felso-Szolcsva.  The  above 
two  peats  belong  to  the  class  of  high  moor-peats. 

(3)  Mar6tlaka,  province  of  Kolozs,  is  estimated  to  contain  234,000  cubic  yards 
of  peat  of  good  quality,  and  tolerably  heavy  when  dried.  It  is  a  matured  peat,  water 
appears  only  in  the  deep  parts  of  the  cuttings,  and  would  be  no  hindrance  under  a 
proper  system  of  working.  There  are  no  reasonable  hindrances  to  the  working  of  this 
peat,  and  carriage  will  be  easily  effected,  as  a  railway  runs  within  1^  miles,  and  a 
high  road  within  f  mile. 

(4)  Szent-Agotha  and  ApAtfalva,  province  of  Nagy-Kilrilllo. — This  deposit  is 
estimated  to  contain  1,300,000  cubic  yards  of  a  completely  formed  and  dry  peat. 
The  quality  is  very  good.  It  is  situated  near  good  roads  of  transport  for  local  con- 
sumption. There  is  at  present  no  railway  near,  but  the  projected  local  railway  will 
run  near  the  deposit. 

(5)  Szombatfalva,  province  of  Udvarhely. — There  are  numerous  mineral  springs 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  this  moss.  The  estimated  yield  is  37,440  cubic  yards  of  good 
turf-peat  {Ragentorf).  The  quality  improves  with  depth.  There  are  no  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  working  of  this  peat,  as  the  water  can  be  easily  run  off  into  the  neigh- 
bouring burn,  and  a  high  road  runs  from  the  place  to  the  Sz^kelyudvarhely  railway- 
station. 

(6)  Peat  region  of  Middle  Csik,  along  the  Alt  river : — 

(a)  The  deposit  between  the  town  of  Csik-Szereda  and  the  parish  of  ZsSgod, 
is  estimated  to  yield  1,690,000  cubic  yards  of  pure  peat,  of  good  quality,  and 
well  matured.  In  many  places  there  is  much  ground-water,  but  not  sufficient  to 
prevent  the  establishment  of  a  large  peat  factory.  The  country  road  runs  near,  and 
the  projected  Sz^kelyfold  railway  will  touch  the  spot. 

(&)  The  most  important  peat  district  in  Transylvania  is  found  in  the  parishes  of 
Csik-Szereda,  Taplocza,  Csicso,  and  M^d^falva.  The  estimated  yield  is  15,600,000 
cubic  yards  of  peat.  The  quality  is  very  good,  and  peat  production  could  be  carried 
on  on  a  large  scale.  The  projected  Sz^kelyfbld  railway  will  run  near  this  peat  area 
along  nearly  its  whole  extent* 


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560  NOTBS  OP  PAPBEB  IN  FOREIGN 

(7)  Szerdahely,  proYinoe  of  Ssseban. — Three  unimportant  peat  mosses,  of  which 
the  total  estimated  yield  is  1,909  cubic  yards.  Of  the  first,  the  peat  is  described  as 
unfit  for  burning,  and  of  the  others  as  of  middling  quality.  G.  W.  B. 


ITALIAN  FOSSIL  FUELS. 
NotwU  9ui  combustibili  fossili  italiani.     By  P.  Toso.     Appendix  to  the  RivUta 
ifdn&raria,  1890,  Romef  1891. 
Peat  is  extensively  distributed  as  follows : — 

(1)  Mofmtain  Feat, — Occurs  in  the  Alps  and  Appenines,  but  hitherto  has  not 
been  found  of  value. 

(2)  Moraine  Peat. — Is  found  at  Varese,  Solferino,  etc.  These  are  the  most 
important  deposits,  affording  the  greater  part  of  the  Italian  peat  produced.  The 
author  considers  that  they  would  keep  up  the  supply  for  one  hundred  years. 

(8)  Peat. — ^Formed  by  damming  back  of  water-courses  (Torbiere  di  shar- 
ramenio).  The  beds  are  found  over  large  areas  in  Vicentino,  Velino,  near  Rieti, 
etc.  The  peat  is  sometimes  homogeneous  and  sometimes  earthy.  It  is  only  worked 
at  Arcugnano  and  Santa  Croce. 

(4)  Egtuarine  Peat. — Occurs  at  the  mouths  of  many  of  the  rivers  falling  into  the 
Adriatic  and  Mediterranean  seas.  It  is  the  most  abundant  in  Italy,  but  also  the 
most  impure  and  least  remunerative  to  work.  It  is,  however,  worked  at  Codigoras 
for  domestic  use,  for  locomotives,  etc. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  amount  of  peat  produced  in  Italy  is  about  43,070  tons 
per  annum.  The  necessity  of  drying  it,  and  its  light  weight,  are  in  the  way  of  Its 
Increased  production. 

Woody  Lignites. — Beds,  over  6t  feet  thick,  are  found  at  San  Giovanni  Valdamo, 
Morgnano,  Santa  Croce,  Sant*  Angelo,  Branca,  Aspra  and  Roccantica  in  Sabina, 
Casina  and  Castellina  in  Chianti,  and  Leffe,  near  Bergamo.  Various  deposits  of  less 
thickness  are  also  described.    The  produce  is  about  331,000  tons  per  annum. 

Pitchy  Lignite  Qigniti  picee). — This  fuel  occurs  in  Tertiary  rocks,  older  than  the 
Pliocene.  The  following  localities  are  mentioned : — Vicentino,  Cadibona,  Monteru- 
foLi,  and  Murlo.  The  mine  of  Montemassi  is  described  in  detail,  it  is  estimated  to 
contain  10,275,000  cubic  feet  of  lignite  still  available.  The  principal  stratum  is 
about  25^  feet  thick.  It  is  hoped  to  raise  the  annual  production  of  this  mine  up  to 
50,000  tons.  The  quality  of  the  lignite  is  good,  and  its  calorific  power  is  equal  to 
0*7  of  that  of  Cardiff  anthracite. 

The  total  quantity  of  pitchy  lignite  is  estimated  at  8,570,000  tons,  with  an 
annual  production  of  33,160  tons. 

Coal. — Coal  itself  is  scarce  in  It-aly,  yet  it  does  occur  in  the  Carboniferous  strata 
of  that  country.  Its  rarity  is  due  to  the  earth-movements  and  consequent  meta- 
morphism  which  have  taken  place.  Carboniferous  strata  with  coal  occur  at  the 
following  places: — In  the  Val  d'Aosta  in  the  district  of  Cuneo,  on  the  southern 
slope  of  the  Maritime  Alps,  in  the  valleys  of  Tanoro,  and  of  Bormida.  Other 
Carboniferous  strata  containing  no  coal  are  also  mentioned. 

La  Thuila  in  the  Val  d'Aosta  has  five  or  six  seams  under  1  foot  8  inches  each. 
They  are  Inclined  at  angles  of  40  degs.,  and  therefore  difficult  to  work.  The  coal 
contains  25  per  cent,  of  ash,  and  its  heating  power  is  only  5,000  calories. 

There  are  mines  at  Monfieis,  Acceglio,  Calizzano,  and  Corongiu  Cludinico 
(Triassic). 

Various  applications  of  the  Italian  lignites  for  gas-making,  for  engines,  domestic 
use,  and  for  ooke-maklng,  are  described.  G.  W.  B. 


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TBAKSACTIONS  AKD  PEBlODiCALS.  561 

THE  BOLBO  COPPER-MINBS,  MEXICO. 

Note  9wr  Us  mine*  de  cuwre  du  BolSo  (BMse-Califomiey  By  Ebouabb  Saladik. 
Bulletin  de  la  SociHS  de  Vljhdustrie  MinSraXe,  1892,  series  3,  vol,  vi.,  petges 
6-46  and  283-9,  and  plates. 

The  Boleo  mines  are  situated  on  the  western  side  of  the  gall  of  California,  about 
opposite  to  the  port  of  Guaymas,  which  is  the  tenninus  of  the  Sonora  railroad. 
They  were  discovered  accidentally  in  1868,  by  a  farmer,  who  found  rounded  grains 
of  green  carbonate  of  copper  in  the  sands  of  the  Santa  Rosalia  rivulet.  The  first 
shipment  of  ore  to  Europe  took  place  in  1872.  The  various  local  companies  formed 
to  work  the  deposits  were,  in  1886,  united  under  the  French  Boleo  Company,  which 
erected  water-jacket  furnaces ;  the  production  in  1891  reaching  4,176  tons  of  copper 
from  76,000  of  ore  extracted. 

The  climate  is  stated  to  be  healthy.  The  labour  employed  consists  of  Mexicans 
and  Yaqui  Indians,  the  latter  work  well,  and  are  paid  at  from  1  to  1*76  dollars 
(Mexican)  per  day.    The  whites  employed  receive  15  to  20  francs  per  day. 

The  district  is  composed  of  stratified  trachytic  tuffs,  slightly  inclined  north-east 
towards  the  sea,  and  resting  to  the  south-west  on  a  trachytic  upheaval  parallel  to 
the  coast.  The  central  crest  of  the  peninsula  consists  of  old  gneisses  and  mica-schists, 
raised  probably  by  granite ;  but  the  interior,  owing  to  the  entire  absence  of  drinking 
water,  is  little  known. 

The  geological  formation  is  divided  into  four  series : — 

(1)  The  upper  beds,  consisting  of  clays,  gypsum,  tuflb,  and  fossiliferous 

sandstone  of  Upper  Miocene  or  Lower  Pliocene  age. 

(2)  The  mineralized  beds,  consisting  of  four  cupreous  beds  of  varying  thick- 

ness, interstratified  between  beds  of  conglomerate  and  tuff.  Both 
these  conglomerates  and  the  cupreous  beds  appear  to  vary  as  to  their 
contents  with  the  distance  from  the  source  whence  the  detritlc 
materials,  of  which  they  are  composed,  were  derived. 

(3)  Lower  beds.    These  mineralized  beds  rest  unconf ormably  upon  a  bed  of 

brown  fossiliferous  dolomite  of  indeterminate  age.    Beneath  this  is — 

(4)  Trachyte,  already  referred  to. 

The  cupreous  beds  are  similar  in  general  character,  and  can  often  only  be  dis- 
tinguished stratigraphically.  The  contents  are  more  or  less  brecciated,  especially 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  trachytic  outliers,  which  sometimes  interrupt  the  upper  strata. 
They  contain  irr^ular  zones  of  enrichment ;  and  the  contents,  from  a  mineralogical 
point  of  view,  are  very  varied.  The  fundamental  gangue  is  a  hydro-silicate  of 
alumina,  often  very  siliceous,  and  the  predominant  copper  minerals  are  green  and 
blue  carbonates,  black  oxide,  ferruginous  crednerite»  and  various  sulphides. 

Near  the  outcrops  the  ores  are  entirely  converted  into  carbonates,  or  into 
atacamite;  while  the  iron  pyrites  is  completely  oxidized.  Farther  down,  the 
carbonates  are  rare;  the  proportions  of  black  oxide,  and  still  more  of  sulphide, 
increase.  The  author  questions  whether  the  original  deposit  was  in  the  form  of 
sulphide,  preferring  to  consider  it  to  have  been  a  mixture  of  this  and  oxide. 

The  first  bed  has  been  much  eroded,  and  is  of  little  industrial  importance.  The 
second  is  characterized  by  the  comparative  rarity  of  ferruginous  matter  and  the 
abundance  of  silica  in  the  gangue.  The  mineral  is  often  of  a  granular  nature,  and 
is  generally  concentrated  towards  the  floor.    The  thickness  varies  up  to  3  feet. 

The  third  bed  varies  in  thickness  from  0*20  to  2  or  8  metres  (8  inches  to  6  or 
10  feet),  and  has  been  most  extensively  worked.  It  is  not  only  richer,  but  the 
nature  of  the  gangue  enables  a  better  smelting  mixture  to  be  made.  Most  of  the 
ore  is  so  finely  disseminated  in  the  gangue  as  to  render  dressing  impossible. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


562  NOTES  OF  PAPERS  IK  FOREIGN 

The  following  analyses  gire  an  idea  of  the  chemical  composition : — 


MoiB- 

tare  at 
110". 

BiOfl. 

FeO. 

Al,Os. 

MnO. 

OftO. 

M«0. 

OaO. 

Salphor 
TotiO. 

Lorn 

On. 

2611 
18-35 
2500 
20-00 

39-18 
31-77 
22-85 
22-80 

7-34 
U-26 
12-50 
10-08 

10-16 
2-16 
2-04 
4-88 

3-30 
15-44 
11-08 

7-20 

3-21 
3-88 
3-21 
6-16 

3-74 
2-31 
3-21 
4-43 

12-39 

12-06 

9-86 

7-60 

2-16 
0-44 
0-62 
3-03 

16-80 
16-38 
11-06 
14-56 

9-80 
9-63 
7-89 
6-82 

The  moisture  on  extraction  reaches  25  to  80  per  cent.,  which  on  exposure  to  the 
san  is  reduced  to  16  per  cent.  The  ore  contains  a  little  salt,  which  explains  the 
corrosiye  action  in  the  furnaces  as  arising  from  the  giving  oft  of  a  little  hydrochloric 
acid. 

The  author  considers  the  beds  to  be  the  product  of  re-arrangement  of  pre-existing 
beds  of  more  equal  richness,  and  thinks  that  the  future  of  the  poorer  parts,  now 
unworked,  rests  with  the  adoption  of  a  wet  chemical  process  of  treatment. 

There  is  nothing  special  to  notice  in  the  methods  of  working.  Most  of  the 
selection  is  done  in  the  mine,  all  the  workings  of  which  are  above  the  water-leveL 
In  order  to  ensure  regular  supply,  the  ore  as  extracted  la  stored  in  ore-bins  of  large 
capacity,  before  being  carried  to  the  works  ;  which  are  connected  with  the  mines 
by  a  3-feet  tramway  of  30  kilometres  (I8|  miles)  in  length. 

The  ore  is  smelted  entirely  in  water-jacket  furnaces  of  ordinary  type.  It  is 
stored  in  different  bins,  according  to  composition,  so  facilitating  the  attainment  of  a 
suitable  smelting  mixture.  The  smelter  consists  of  4  large  rectangular  and  2 
smaller  circular  furnaces.  Sea-water  is  used  to  circulate  in  the  jacket,  with  fairly 
good  results.  The  rectangular  furnaces  are  of  80  to  100  tons,  and  the  circular  furnaces 
of  40  to  50  tons  per  day  capacity.  About  150  kilogrammes  (330  lbs.)  of  good  coke  are 
used  per  ton  of  smelting  mixture,  the  large  furnaces  being  slightly  more  economical 
in  this  respect.  The  chief  economy  they  afford  is  in  labour,  supervision,  and  cost  of 
repairs. 

The  fines  are  compressed  by  the  aid  of  a  little  water  into  balls  by  a  machine  on 
the  Beer  system ;  they  do  not  need  drying  bef oie  smelting.  The  blast  is  furnished 
by  Baker  and  Root  blowers.  Notwithstanding  the  corrosive  action  of  the  sea-water 
.used  for  the  jacket,  the  furnaces  usually  give  campaigns  of  over  three  months^ 
duration.  , 

No  fluxes  are  required.  The  sulphur  present  is  all  taken  up  by  the  copper, 
forming  matte,  the  rest  being  given  as  black  copper.  The  slags  contain  on  an 
average  1  per  cent,  copper. 

The  following  analyses  are  given  : — 

Mattes. 


Copper          

96-250      .. 

73-08 

Iron    ... 

0-830      .. 

4-24 

Sulphur        

0-767       .. 

19-61 

Manganese 

traces 

1-06 

Arsenic  and  antimony 

nil. 

nU. 

Loss,  etc 

2-163      .. 

2-02 

100000 

100-00 

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THAKSA0TI0N8  AND  PERIODICALS.  563 

8lag. 


Silica    

Alumina 
Oxide  of  iron  . . . 
Oxide  of  manganese 

Lime     

Magnesia 
Oxide  of  copper 


At  present  English  coke  only  is  used,  but  it  is  not  improbable  that  it  may  be 
replaced  by  anthracite,  at  a  considerable  saving. 

The  total  number  of  workers  employed  is  about  1,200.  G.  E.  C. 


THE   COPPER  REGION   OF    MICHIGAN. 

By  F.  B.  Phelps.    Engineering  Magazine  (^New  York\  vol.  «r.,  pages  47-63. 

The  native  copper  deposits  of  the  Keweenaw  promontory  occur  as  amygdaloid 
and  conglomerate-beds  interbedded  with  trap,  resting  on  sandstone.  The  con- 
glomerate-beds, ranging  in  widih  from  4  to  30  feet  but  fairly  uniform,  dip  west,  at 
an  angle  of  from  32  to  62  degs.  towards  Lake  Superior.  The  similar  beds  in  the 
Isle  Royale,  an  island  in  the  lake  40  miles  from  the  American  shore,  dip  east ;  and 
it  is  surmised  that  they  are  the  opposite  outcrops  of  a  continuous  basin. 

Ancient  pits  and  implements  prove  mining  here  to  be  of  great  antiquity.  The 
first  modern  workings  on  a  large  scale  were  in  the  northern  region,  from  1840  to 
1850 ;  but  the  exhaustion  of  the  deposits,  and  the  fall  in  prices,  led  to  its  almost 
complete  abandonment.  The  great  mining  region  is  now  in  Houghton  county,  to 
the  south,  where  the  well-known  Atlantic  and  Osceola  (amygdaloid),  Calumet  and 
Hecla,  and  Tamarack  (conglomerate)  mines  are  situated.  The  mode  of  working  is 
by  inclined  shafts  on  the  foot- wall,  with  levels  at  regular  intervals  of  100  feet,  the 
conditions  for  symmetrical  mining  being  almost  perfect. 

At  the  Calumet  and  Hecla  mines,  the  lode  varies  in  width  from  8  to  30  feet,  with 
an  average  of  12  feet.  The  whole  of  the  deposit  is  mined  out,  and  the  roof  supported 
by  very  heavy  timbering.  The  greatest  depth  reached  at  present  is  3,860  feet  on 
the  Incline,  or  about  2,350  feet  vertical.  The  ore  is  stamped  and  dressed  by 
hydraulic  separators,  the  slimes  being  treated  by  round  tables.  The  Tamarack 
Company  works  the  ground  to  the  west  beyond  the  Calumet  boundary,  by  means  of 
deep  vertical  shafts.  The  first  of  these  sunk  cut  the  lode  at  a  depth  of  2,270  feet 
vertical. 

The  working  of  the  amygdaloid  beds  is  similar ;  the  ore,  however,  is  much  softer. 

G.  B.  C. 

THE  UNDERGROUND  FIRE  AT  THE  LAKE  SUPERIOR  MINE, 

ISHPBMING,  MICHIGAN. 

Bt  J.  Pabke  Channino.    The  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal  (^New  York),  1892, 

vol,  liii,f  page  106. 

The  author  has  witnessed  nine  mine  fires  in  the  Lake  Superior  region,  during 
the  last  eight  years  ;  five  of  which  fires  he  had  the  opportunity  of  closely  Inspecting. 

The  conclusions  arrived  at  by  his  experience  are :  that  the  best  way  to  extinguish 
a  mine  fire  is  to  cut  off  the  supply  of  oxygen  as  quickly  as  possible,  and  to  be  very 


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664  NOTES  OF  PAPERS  IN  FOREIGN 

carefal  not  to  open  up  too  soon  after  the  fire  is  supposed  to  be  out.  Steam  is 
excellent,  when  it  can  be  applied  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  combnstion.  He 
has  not  much  faith  in  the  use  of  artificial  carbonic  acid.  While  it  is  supposed  to  be 
heavier  than  air  and  to  settle  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  mine,  it  is,  as  generated 
from  the  tanks,  very  hot  from  the  heat  engendered  by  the  chemical  reaction  produc- 
ing it,  and,  consequently,  it  hangs  around  the  collar  of  the  shaft.  A  fierce  fire  will 
soon  use  up  all  the  oxygen  in  a  sealed-mine  and  then  carbonic  acid  will  be  present 
in  far  larger  quantities  than  can  be  generated  by  chemicals  on  the  sur&ce. 

J.  W. 

OUTBURSTS  OF  CARBONIC  ACID  GAS  AT  THE  ROCHBBBLLB 
COLLIERIES,  FRANCE. 
Les  digagements  d^acide  carhonique  aux  mines  de  Bochehelle,     By  C.  Langb. 
Bulletin  de  la  SociStS  de  V Industrie  Minirale,  1892,  series  Z,  vol,  vi.,  pages 
1,141-1,180,  and  plates  XXXIII-XXXV. 

The  mines  comprise  two  distinct  regions,  in  which  carbonic  acid  and  fire-damp 
are  respectively  given  off.  The  presence  of  the  carbonic  acid  was  observed  from  the 
first,  but  it  did  not  give  rise  to  any  serious  danger  up  to  1880,  and  mechanical 
ventilation  was  not  thought  necessary. 

Besides  the  smell  and  sour  taste,  a  sensation  of  warmth  is  felt  in  the  portion  of 
the  body  immersed  in  the  gas ;  so  that  its  presence  is  easily  detected.  Like  fire- 
damp, it  is  enclosed  in  the  pores  of  the  coal,  but  with  great  irregularity ;  and  almost 
certainly  it  did  not  originate  in  situ. 

The  mines  occupy  the  southern  portion  of  the  Garden  basin,  the  beds  being  included 
in  the  lower  system  of  the  Gard  coal-field.  The  concession  is  included  between  the 
great  fault  of  the  C^vennes  to  the  east  and  the  ancient  schists  of  Mont  Cabane  to 
the  west.  Near  the  former  the  beds  are  much  bent  and  fissured.  To  the  north,  in 
the  valley  of  the  Garden,  they  are  covered  by  Secondary  measures  (Trias  and 
Lias)  ;  at  the  base  of  the  Lias  important  deposits  of  iron  pyrites  and  oxide  of  iron 
are  worked. 

The  workings  are  classed  into  three  groups,  those  of  Rochebelle,  Cendras,  and 
Fontanes,  at  all  of  which  more  or  less  carbonic  acid  is  present.  At  Fontanes  a 
schistose  formation  predominates,  which  is  less  fissured  than  the  compact  sandstones 
at  Rochebelle.  Probably  for  this  reason,  the  carbonic  acid  at  the  latter  is  contained 
in  the  fissures,  while  at  Fontanes  it  seems  to  be  enclosed  in  the  coal.  It  appears  to 
be  diminishing  in  quantity  at  Rochebelle,  and  to  be  replaced  by  fire-damp — ^which, 
however,  was  not  observed  until  1886.  The  author  considers  the  carbonic  acid  to 
be  of  volcanic  origin,  and  to  have  been  brought  in  by  the  Soulier  fissures,  which  also 
conveyed  the  mineralized  solutions  which  gave  rise  to  the  pyrites  deposits. 

He  next  describes  in  detail  the  various  outbursts  of  carbonic  acid.  These  at 
Fontanes  were  so  sudden  as  to  be  practically  explosions.  They  gave  out  enormous 
quantities  of  gas,  and  threw  down  a  great  deal  of  coal — amounting  at  times  to 
hundreds  of  tons.     In  several  cases  the  loss  of  life  was  serious. 

At  Rochebelle  the  outbursts  were  produced  with  less  force ;  and  instead  of  coming 
from  the  solid  coal,  they  proceeded  from  open  fissures,  full  of  water  and  carbonic 
acid.  The  walls  of  these  fissures  are  found  to  be  covered  with  quartz-crystals  with 
liquid  enclosures,  blende,  galena,  and  pyrites. 

In  every  case  the  outbursts  have  been  preceded  by  one  or  more  of  the  following 
symptoms: — Heaviness  of  the  atmosphere;  frequent  dull  explosions;  pressure  in 
the  boreholes ;  detachment  of  plates  of  coal,  with  decrepitation,  and  changes  in  the 
physical  state  of  the  coal. 


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TRANSACTIONS   AND  PERIODICALS.  565 

The  force  of  the  outbursts  appears  to  increase  with  the  depth. 

Experience  has  demonstrated  that  the  most  useful  precautions  to  be  observed 
when  the  presence  of  the  gas  is  suspected  are :— (1)  Arrangements  for  supplementing 
ventilation ;  and  (2)  entire  suppression  of  the  use  of  the  pick,  and  working  solely 
by  means  of  shot-firing :  the  workmen  to  retire  behind  solid  barriers  at  the  moment 
of  firing. 

It  was  found  that  boreholes  were  quite  useless  to  drain  the  gas  from  the  coal. 

G.  B.  0. 


ORIGIN  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  GOLD  AND  PLATINUM,  NORTH  COAST 

BEACHES,  NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 
By  J.  W.  Abchibald.     Australian  Mining  Standard,  vol,  ix,^  pages  193  and  220. 

The  gold  in  these  deposits  occurs  in  seams  of  black  sand ;  it  is  always  fine,  and 
associated  with  the  rare  metals  of  the  platinum  group.  The  black  sand  is  found 
only  at  the  high-water  line,  or  in  the  sand  terrace  forming  the  foreshore ;  the  former 
being  in  many  cases  naturally  concentrated  from  the  latter.  It  usually  presents  no 
difficulty  in  amalgamation ;  south  of  the  Evans  river,  however,  part  of  the  free  gold, 
though  bright,  can  only  be  saved  in  the  blanketings. 

In  the  vicinity  rock-formations  are  met  with,  carrying  the  various  metals  found 
in  the  sands.  A  sample  of  the  blanketings  from  the  latter  contained:— Gold  27 
ounces,  platinum  17  ounces,  and  osmiridium  140  ounces  per  ton.  No  free  gold  was 
visible,  this  having  been  extracted  by  amalgamation.  Rock-samples  from  near  by 
gave : — Gold  10  dwts.,  platinum  9  dwts.,  and  osmiridium  21  dwts.  per  ton.  When 
concentrated,  the  residue  was  heavy  brown  sand,  neither  gold  nor  platinum  being 
visible.  As  an  example  of  these  formations  the  ^* Iron  Gates"  of  the  Evans  river  is 
cited.  This  is  a  gossan  deposit,  about  1  chain  wide,  lying  parallel  with  the  coast, 
and  imbedded  in  the  coal-formation,  the  sedimentary  rocks  appearing  unaltered  at 
the  contact.    This  deposit  carries  1  to  2  ounces  per  ton  of  the  combined  rare  metals. 

Many  other  such  outcrops  occur  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  the  natural  inference 
is  that  the  beach-sands  are  derived  from  them,  their  subsequent  distribution  being 
effected  by  sea-action.  G.  E.  C. 


THE  MOUNT  MORGAN  MINE,  QUEENSLAND. 

By  T.  A.  RiCKABD.    Transactions  of  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers, 
1891,  vol.  XX.,  pages  133-154. 

Mount  Morgan  mine  is  situated  26  miles  south  west  from  Rockhampton,  in 
central  Queensland.  Up  to  November  30th,  1890,  £2,358,333  had  been  paid  in 
dividends,  the  total  gold  obtained  being  756,042  ounces,  worth  £3,121,741.  The 
property  consists  of  the  original  selection  of  640  acres  taken  up  for  grazing  purposes 
in  1873  by  Mr.  Donald  Gordon.  Becoming  acquainted  with  Messrs.  Morgan  Brothers, 
who  also  held  land  in  the  district,  he  showed  them  one  day  a  piece  of  gold-bearing 
quartz  which  he  had  picked  up  in  Mundic  creek.  For  a  consideration,  Mr.  Gordon 
agreed  to  indicate  to  them  the  locality  of  the  find.  On  the  hill,  overlooking  the 
creek,  he  showed  them  the  siliceous  ironstone,  some  of  which  can  still  be  seen 
cropping  out  on  the  north-eastern  slope.  The  stone  carried  visible  gold.  They 
found,  by  sending  samples  to  Sydney,  that  it  was  even  richer  than  they  had  imagined. 
So  they  purchased  Mr.  Gordon's  holding  at  £1  per  acre.  The  Messrs.  Morgans,  later 
on,  sold  first  a  part,  then  the  whole  of  their  interest  in  the  mine.    In  1886  a  company 


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56(i  NOTES  OF  t>AP£BS  IN  FOttEIGK 

was  formed  with  a  capital  of  1,000,000  shares  of  £1  each.  These  shares  rose  toward 
the  end  of  1888  to  £17  5b.,  glying  the  mine  a  market  value  of  £17,250,000. 

The  author  giyes  a  description  of  the  workings. 

Examination  of  the  many  varieties  of  ore  shows  that  while  there  may  be  a  great 
difference  in  outward  appearance  due  to  coatings  of  multi-coloured  oxides,  the  ore 
is  always  substantially  quartzose. 

The  origin  of  the  Mount  Morgan  ore-deposit  has  been  the  theme  of  much  contro- 
versy. The  three  chief  theories  (each  of  which  the  author  discusses  at  length)  are : — 
Ist,  That  the  deposit  is  that  of  a  geyser ;  2nd,  that  it  is  an  auriferous  zone  tra verged 
by  a  series  of  quartz-veins  of  auriferous  mundic ;  and  3rd,  that  it  is  the  decomposed 
cap  of  a  laige  pyrites  lode. 

Mr.  Kickard  considers  that  a  period  of  dynamic  disturbances  is  indicated  by  the 
intrusions  of  dolerite,  which,  by  extreme  metamorphism,  might  have  changed  a 
dolomite  into  the  serpentine  we  now  see,  would  have  indurated  the  shales  so  that 
they  are  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  the  crystalline  rocks ;  and  would  also, 
accompanied  by  chemical  alteration,  change  a  ferruginous  red  sandstone  into  a 
bluish-grey,  highly  pyritiferous  quartzite.  Approaching  the  surface,  the  same 
energy  would  be  expended  in  the  fracturing  of  the  quartzite  and  the  graywacke ; 
the  intrusive  dolerite  would  rise  through  the  fissures  in  the  shattered  rocks,  forming 
dykes,  which,  meeting  a  silico-felspathic  granular  rock  (the  graywacke),  would  give 
it  a  semi-crystalline  character.  The  sandstone  would  similarly  be  vitrified.  Later 
movements  would  result  in  the  further  intersection  of  this  part  of  the  district  by 
the  numerous  dykes,  the  decomposed  remains  of  which  are  now  to  be  seen  ramifying 
through  the  deposit.  Those  gradual  chemical  interchanges  would  take  place  which 
resulted  in  the  alteration  of  the  shattered  country-rock,  and  its  becoming  a  portion 
of  the  gangue  enclosing  the  auriferous  material,  which  was  then,  or  at  a  later  time, 
deposited.  In  process  of  time,  subaerial  denudation  i*emoved  the  sandstone,  which 
now  is  only  to  be  seen  on  the  further  summits  of  the  neighbouring  hills.  Atmo- 
spheric agency  continued  to  carve  away  the  less  siliceous  and  less  porous  portions  of 
the  country  surrounding  the  deposit,  until  Mount  Morgan,  owing  to  the  pervious, 
quartzose  nature  of  its  crest,  remained  as  a  low  hill  in  an  undulating  country. 

8ince  writing  his  paper,  the  author  has  visited  and  examined  the  equally  famous 
Broken  Hill  silver  deposit,  and  the  latter  confirms  a  statement  he  makes  that  the 
material  of  the  Mount  Morgan  ore  could  be  duplicated  elsewhere.  At  Mount 
Morgan  all  the  conditions  generally  considered  favourable  to  ore  deposition  were 
pi-esent  in  a  marked  degree.  A  mass  of  country-rock,  whether  graywacke  or  sand- 
stone, consisting  of  granules  of  quartz,  held  together  by  a  felspathic  cement, 
becomes  fi-actured  by  the  intrusion  of  a  series  of  dykes,  which  form  a  ready  passage 
for  the  flow  of  mineral  solutions.  Such  a  rock  would  readily  lend  itself  to  altera- 
tion, and  would  be  well  fitted  to  receive  a  mineral  deposit.  Later  dynamic  action 
produced  a  further  metamorphism  of  the  surrounding  rocks,  followed  or  accompanied 
by  the  intersection  of  the  already  shattered  rocks  by  another  series  of  dykes,  which 
reopened  a  passage  for  the  underground  waters.  In  this  case  it  is  not  necessary  to 
go  far  for  the  source  of  the  gold.  The  large  mass  of  decomposed  pyritic  quartzite, 
though  the  pyrites  contains  but  a  trace  of  the  precious  metal,  is  more  than  sufficient 
to  account  for  the  wealth  that  has  been  uncovered. 

Finally,  says  Mr.  Kickard,  there  is  no  need  to  offer  any  particular  reason  for  the 
unusual  richness  of  the  deposit,  beyond  the  eminently  favourable  condition  of  the 
original  lock,  the  numerous  channels  offered  to  percolating  waters,  and  the  close 
proximity  both  of  the  sources  of  the  gold  and  the  usual  precipitants.  J.  W. 


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TRANRACmONS   A\D  PERTODICAriS  567 

INFUSORIAL  EARTH. 
La  Gloria  TnfiuorU.    By  Q.  Pbtit.     OSnUf  Civil,  1892,  vol,  axi%,,page  77. 

The  deposits  of  infusorial  earth,  to  which  the  name  of  Gloria  in/usorU  has  been 
applied,  at  Oelle  in  Hanover,  and  Klicken  in  Anhalt,  are  of  great  extent.  They 
occur  in  basins,  often  attaining  a  thickness  of  66  feet  (20  metres),  from  3  to  15  feet 
(1  to  5  metres)  below  the  sandy  surface.  They  present  three  distinct  qualities,  white 
at  the  bottom,  then  grey,  and  green  at  the  top  ;  this  latter  resulting  from  the 
yegetable  products  which  have  worked  in  from  the  surface,  and  which  often  form 
40  per  cent,  of  the  whole. 

The  main  use  at  present  is  in  the  manufacture  of  dynamite  ;  but  it  is  also  suited 
for  all  purposes  where  a  good  non-conductor  of  heat  is  required.  G.  E.  C. 


JADE  IN  UPPER  BURMA. 

^ote  on  the  occurrence  of  Jadeite  in  Upper  Burma.  By  Db.  Fbitz  Noetlino 
{with  a  rnapy  Records  of  tlie  Geological  Survey  of  India ,  1893,  vol.  xxvi., 
passes  26-31. 

The  chief  interest  of  this  paper  is  the  description  of  the  manner  of  occurrence  of 
jade.  It  is  found  forming  the  central  portion  of  a  dark  eruptive  rock  closely 
resembling  serpentine,  and  separated  from  the  outer  rock  by  a  band  of  soft  clayey 
serpentine.  The  rocks  through  which  the  serpentine  has  been  erupted  are  probably 
of  Miocene  age.  G.  W.  B. 


IMPROVEMENTS  IN  COPPER  SMELTING. 

By  E.  D.  Petbbs,  Jun.     Australian  Mining  Standard,  vol.  ix.,  pages 
276  and  288. 

Pyritic  smelting,  i.e.,  smelting  pyrites  by  the  heat  generated  by  the  combustion 
of  the  contained  sulphur,  is  stated  to  be  successfully  performed  in  the  United  States, 
at  Leadville,  Kokono,  and  Boulder,  by  heating  the  air-blast.  This  concentrates  the 
temperature  in  the  lower  part  of  the  furnace,  so  preventing  the  ore  in  the  upper 
part  from  becoming  soft  and  clogging.  An  ordinary  water-jacket  blast-furnace  is 
used,  and  the  smelting  commenced  as  usual.  After  it  is  working  well  the  proportion 
of  coke  is  lessened,  until  with  pure  pyritic  ores  it  may  even  be  dispensed  with 
entirely.  At  Boulder,  where  the  sulphur  in  the  charge  averages  20  per  cent.,  about 
2J  per  cent,  of  coke  is  added,  as  against  15  per  cent,  formerly  required.  A  large 
proportion  of  fines  is  of  course  a  hindrance,  and  over  40  per  cent,  would  render  the 
method  inapplicable ;  as  also  would  over  5  per  cent,  of  lead  or  zinc  sulphides. 

The  rest  of  the  paper  contains  a  description  of  the  Manh^s  process  of 
Bessemerizing  copper  mattes.  G.  E.  C. 


MANGANESE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
Manganese.  By  R.  A.  P.  Penbosb,  Jun.  The  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal 
{New  York)  1892,  vol.  liii.,  pages  38-39. 
Production. — In  1891,  the  production  of  manganese  ore  proper,  independently  of 
manganiferous  iron  ores,  manganiferous  silver  ores,  and  manganif erous  zinc  ores,  has 
been  probably  less  than  20,000  tons.  The  production  for  1889,  was  23,927  tons, 
whilst  the  largest  annual  output  in  the  UniUxl  States  was  in  1887,  when  34,524  tons 
were  mined. 


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568  NOTES  OF  PAPERS  IS   FOBEIOK 

Most  of  the  manganese  ore  of  the  United  States  is  produced  in  the  States  of 
Virginia,  Georgia,  and  Arkansas,  mentioned  in  the  order  of  the  quantity  of  ore 
produced;  while  smaller  amounts  are  derived  from  Leadville,  Colorado;  San 
Joaquin  County,  California,  and  the  Lake  Superior  region  of  Michigan.  The  old 
manganese  workings  at  Brandon,  Chittenden  and  South  Wallingford,  Vermont,  were 
idle  in  1891. 

Methods  of  Mining,  etc. — The  largest  manganese  deposits  in  the  United  States — 
those  of  Virginia,  Georgia,  and  Arkansas — occur  as  irregular  nodules,  layers,  and 
pockets  in  clay.  They  are  usually  worked  by  shafts  and  drifts,  and  the  loose 
character  of  the  ground  frequently  necessitates  expensiye  timbering.  In  some  cases 
large  open-cuts  have  been  worked  successfully.  In  Colorado  and  California  the 
deposits  occur  in  solid  rock,  and  the  ore  is  obtained  by  the  ordinary  process 
of  mining. 

The  ore  in  the  clay  is  usually  washed  before  shipment  in  an  ordinary  iron-ore 
washer,  as  in  Virginia  and  Arkansas,  or  in  revolving  perforated  cylinders  as  in 
Georgia.    The  smaller  ore  is  also  sometimes  cleansed  by  jigging. 

Uses  of  Manganese. — Over  nine-tenths  of  the  manganese  production  of  the  United 
States  is  consumed  in  the  manufacture  of  ferro-manganese  and  spiegeleisen  for  use 
in  steel-making.  The  rest,  asually  the  higher  grades  from  Virginia  and  some  from 
Georgia,  is  consumed  in  the  manufacture  of  bromine,  in  clarifying  glass,  in  making 
manganese  bronze,  silver  bronze,  and  other  alloys,  besides  in  small  quantities  for 
numerous  other  manufacturing  and  chemical  purposes.  J.  W. 


THE    RUSSELL    PROCESS    AT    THE    SOMBRERBTE    MILL. 
By  E.  H.  Russell.     The  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal  (New  York),  1891, 

vol,  li.,  page  140. 

The  Russell  process  (English  patents,  5431,  March,  1884,  and  6102,  April,  1888),  has 
for  its  object  the  recovery  of  silver  and  gold  existing  in  ores  as  metallic  silver,  as 
sulphides  of  silver  or  gold,  or  as  compounds  of  silver  with  antimony  or  arsenic,  and 
which  cannot  be  extracted  by  leaching  with  sodium  hyposulphite  alone.  The 
leaching  solution  employed  in  the  Russell  process  consists  of  an  ordinary  hyposulphite 
solution  to  which  has  been  added  a  soluble  compound,  preferably  the  sulphate  of 
copper.  A  double  salt  of  cuprous  sodium  hyposulphite  is  thus  formed  in  which 
the  copper  can  be  replaced  by  silver,  the  eliminated  copper  taking  the  place  of  the 
silver  in  the  compound  decomposed  by  the  solution.  The  solution  is  made  by  adding 
1  to  3  per  cent,  of  the  copper  salt  to  a  1  to  5  per  cent,  solution  of  hyposulphite  of 
soda.  The  gold  and  silver  are  recovered  by  precipitation  as  sulphides.  According 
to  the  newer  method,  protected  in  1888,  the  copper  sulphate  is  first  mixed  with  the 
crushed  ore,  so  as  to  replace  by  cupric  hydrate  any  of  the  injurious  metallic  hydrates 
which  may  be  present  in  the  charge.  When  this  neutralizing  action  is  complete,  the 
usual  sodium  hyposulphite  solution  is  added,  this  reacts  with  the  copper,  already 
present  in  excess,  to  form  the  cuprous  sodium  hyposulphite. 

The  series  of  experiments  reported  on  were  instituted  with  a  view  to  determine 
the  best  mill  methods  for  the  treatment  of  Sombrerete  ore,  and  to  decide  what  changes 
might  be  necessary  in  the  new  plant. 

The  experiments  were  confined  to  ore  from  the  San  Francisco  mine,  an  approxi- 
mate analysis  of  which  was  as  follows : — 

FeS„  40  per  cent;  ZnS,  12  per  cent;  PbS,  13  per  cent,  and  insoluble  residue, 
84  per  cent. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


Cent 
Bait. 

17 

Per  Cent.  Extraction 

by  Extra  Solution 

in  Auay  Office. 

92-3 

0 

71-4 

12 

74-6 

14 

711 

12 

64-5 

TRANSAOTIONS  AND  PERIODICALS.  669 

The  blende  assayed  80  ounces  of  silver  per  ton ;  the  galena  70  ounces,  and  the 
pyrites  85  ounces. 

The  leaching  work  done  in  the  mill  was  so  thorough  that  the  average  apparent 
mill  extraction,  in  the  whole  127  charges  (40  tons  each)  treated,  exactly  equalled 
the  result  of  the  assay-office  leaching  test  on  the  samples  of  these  charges,  and  for 
the  last  10  of  the  13  mill  runs,  exceeded  the  assay-office  results  by  1*4  per  cent. 
These  experiments  at  the  Sombrerete  mill  ran  over  93  days,  4,935  tons  of  ore  being 
crushed. 

The  whole  series  of  experiments  was  divided  into  three  sections,  according  to  the 
general  method  pursued  in  the  roasting,  as  follows : — 

(1)  Furnace  Boastifig  without  an  Air  JBlast  and  without  a  Prelimina'ry  Field- 

ToaMing. — The  following  results  were  obtained  by  this  method  of  working : — 

Per  Cent,  of 

San  Frandaoo    Mesh  of  Screen    Mesh  of  Screen 
Ore  uaed.  for  Ore.  for  Salt. 

100         ...         60         ...         30 

100         ...         60         ...  0 

76         ...         80         ...         12 

90  ...  24  ...  12 
100         ...         24         ...         12 

(2)  Furnace  Boasting  with  Air  Blatt  in  the  Furnace,  hut  without  a  Preliminary 
ireap-ro€Utting. — With  this  method  of  roasting,  and  with  an  ore  containing  only 
17  per  cent,  of  sulphur,  crushed  through  a  24-mesh  screen  and  roasted  with  11*5  per 
cent,  of  salt  added  to  the  raw  ore,  the  actual  mill  extraction  based  on  raw-ore  weights 
and  values  was  79*8,  or  if  based  on  roasted-ore  weights  and  values  95  per  cent.  All 
the  ore  treated  under  this  section  was  crushed  by  rolls.  The  result  showed  that  for 
roasting,  except  after  fine  crushing,  the  sulphur  contents  of  the  ore  should  be  reduced. 

(3)  Furnace  Roasting  after  a  Preliminary  JSeap-roagting, — With  the  object  of 
reducing  the  sulphur  contents  of  the  ore,  heap-roasting  was  adopted.  The  piles 
were  built  as  follows : — Trenches  about  1  foot  in  depth  and  width  were  dug  about 
2  feet  apart.  Similar  trenches  were  made  at  right  angles  across  these.  All  were 
covered  with  old  grate-bars  or  flat  stones,  laid  an  inch  or  two  apart.  The  trenches, 
under  the  grate-bars,  were  then  filled  with  kindlings  and  the  ore  was  piled  on  top  to 
a  height  of  from  6  to  12  feet.  The  following  features  about  the  heap-roasting  were 
worthy  of  note : — No  silver  was  lost ;  the  amount  of  fuel  required  was  about  one- 
half  cord  of  wood  per  500  tons  of  ore ;  and  the  piles  burned  rapidly,  a  300  tons  heap 
only  requiring  four  to  five  days.  With  such  rapid  burning,  however,  the  interior  of 
the  pile  sintered.  This  was  remedied  by  covering  the  pile  with*  fine  material,  to 
cause  slower  combustion.  All  the  field-roasting  was  done  at  the  mine,  scarcely  any 
extra  handling  of  the  ore  being  required.  The  apparent  extra  expense  of  heap- 
roasting  was  about  15  cents  per  ton.  Really,  there  was  no  extra  expense  as,  by  heap- 
roasting,  the  drying  of  the  ore  at  the  mill,  which  was  otherwise  necessary,  and  which 
cost  25  to  30  cents  per  ton,  was  avoided.  During  this  section  of  experiments  the 
salt  used  in  roasting  averaged  8*7  per  cent,  of  which  1  per  cent,  was  added  to  the 
raw  ore  and  the  remainder  thrown  into  the  shaft  and  return  flue  of  the  furnace  on 
top  of  the  roasted  ore. 

The  average  number  of  pounds  of  chemicals  used  per  ton  in  leaching  was : — 
Hyposulphite,  1*8 ;  bluestone  (copper  sulphate),  6-3  j  sodium  carbonate,  6*3  ;  caustic 
soda,  4*0 ;  and  sulphur,  2*6.  The  strength  of  the  stock  solution  was  1*5  per  cent,  of 
hyposulphite,  and  of  the  extra  solution,  0*70  per  cent,  of  bluestone. 

The  average  time  of  charging  vats  (60  tons)  was  8  hours :  of  first  washing, 
12  hours ;  leaching  and  second  washing,  46  hours ;  sluicing-out  tailings,  1}  hours ; 
or  a  total  of  67^  hours. 


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570  NOTEa  OF  PAPEHS  TS   FORRTON 

The  average  losa  of  silver  by  dust  from  machinery  and  furnace,  and  by  volatili- 
zation in  roasting,  during  the  experiments  of  this  section  was  3*6  per  oent.  of  the 
raw  ore  weights  and  values,  that  of  the  last  run  being  1*3  per  cent.  The  actual 
mill  clean-up,  based  on  raw  ore  weights  and  values  for  all  the  experiments  of  this 
section  was  86-3  per  cent.,  that  of  the  last  run  being  90*9  per  cent.,  or,  if  based  on 
roasted  ore  weights  and  values,  93*0  per  cent. 

Summitry. — The  changes  in  mill  methods  and  the  results  obtained  in  the  treat- 
ment of  Sombrerete  ore,  containing  about  66  per  cent,  sulphides,  are  summarized 
as  follows : — 

All  drying  of  the  ore  at  the  mill  was  discarded ;  the  ore  crashing  was  changed  from 
GO-mesh  to  6-mesh ;  the  fineness  of  salt  used  was  changed  from  SO-mesh  to  using  it 
uncrushed  and  undried  ;  the  method  of  using  it  was  changed  from  adding  it  to  the 
raw  ore  to  adding  it  to  the  roasted  ore  ;  the  amount  of  salt  used  was  reduced  to  6*6 
percent.;  the  loss  of  silver,  as  dust  and  by  volatilization,  was  reduced  to  1*8  per 
cent. ;  the  results  of  leaching  in  the  mill  equalled  and  exceeded  the  results  which 
could  be  obtained  by  assay-office  leaching  tests  on  the  same  roasted  ore.  The  results 
attained  on  all  heap-roasted  ore  averaged  86*3  per  cent,  actual  extraction,  based  on 
raw-ore  weights  and  values,  or  90*9  on  the  last  run,  or  93  per  cent.,  based  on  roasted- 
ore  weights  and  values ;  all  of  which  were  about  such  as  would  be  obtained  in  the 
same  running  time  and  with  the  same  amount  of  ore  in  any  new  mill.  The  results 
at  the  Sombrerete  mill  compared  with  those  of  the  Marsac  mill  (Daly  Mining 
Company)  we"*e  as  follows: — 


SOTer. 
Ounoes 
per  Ton. 

Gold. 

Value 

per  Ton. 

Percent. 

SflTer 
extracted. 

Per  Cent. 

Gold 
extracted. 

Cost  of 
Mining 
per  Ton. 

Cortot 
Milling 
per  Ton. 

Sombrerete 

40-00     . 

..    $2-26 

...     83-0     . 

..     50*0     .. 

.     16*79     . 

..     $6-48 

Daly 

43-40     . 

..       1*35 

...     89-2     ., 

• 

..     41-6     .. 

6-60     . 

6*40 
J.W. 

THE  PRACTICAL  CHLORINATION  OF  GOLD-ORES  AND  THE 

PRECIPITATION  OF  GOLD  FROM  SOLUTION. 

Jfy  John  E.  Rothwell.     The  Engineering  and   Mining  Journal  (^New    York\ 

1891,  vol.  li.,  pages  165-166. 

The  author  gives  records  from  successful  working  experience  on  a  large  scale. 
The  chief  objection  to  a  plant  of  a  capacity  of  50  tons,  or  more,  per  24  hours,  for  the 
Plattner  (chlorination)  process  is  its  large  size  and  the  length  of  time  required  for 
a  single  operation.  The  problem  to  be  solved  by  the  engineer,  therefore,  in  handling 
low-grade  ores  that  will  not  concentrate,  is  to  find  a  process  that  will  treat  large 
quantities  of  ores  quickly,  cheaply,  and  with  as  little  interruption  as  possible.  In 
the  reduction  works  of  which  this  article  treats,  the  ore  was  crushed  dry,  in  Blake 
and  Gates  crushers  and  in  two  sets  of  Krom  rolls,  roasted  in  Brilckner  furnaces  of 
three  tons*  capacity,  and  chlorinated  in  barrels  of  three  and  four  tons*  capacity. 

Crushing. — Preliminary  experiments  must  be  made  to  ascertain  how  coarse  the  ore 
may  be  crushed,  so  as  to  yield  the  best  results.  The  pulp  for  the  best  leaching  must 
be  in  granular  condition  and  carry  as  small  a  percentage  of  dust  or  slimes  as  possible. 
Rolls,  properly  managed,  are  especially  well  adapted  for  this  purpose. 

Chlorination.— The  barrel  is  made  to'  serve  also  as  the  washing  and  leaching 
vessel  by  placing  a  supporting  diaphragm,  for  a  filtering  medium,  to  form  the  chord 
of  an  arc  of  the  circle  of  the  barrel.  This  filter  (or  diaphragm)  is  made  of  plates, 
corrugated  as  for  an  ordinary  filter-press,  and  perforated  with  holes  every  four,  or  six 
inches  square.  The  plates  are  supported  on  segment*  which  are  bolted  to  the  shell ; 
on  the  top  of  the  corrugated  plates  is  placed  the  filtering  medium,  an  open-woven 


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TRANSAOTIONB  AND  PEBIODICALS.  571 

asbestos  cloth.  Two  methods  are  described  for  charging  the  palp  and  chemicals- 
bleaching  powder  and  sulphuric  acid.  When  the  chlorination  is  completed,  the 
barrel  is  stopped  so  that  the  filter  is  left  in  a  horizontal  position,  a  hose  is  attached 
to  ODe  of  the  outlet  pipes  and  conducts  the  solution  to  a  reservoir-tank. 

The  method  of  leaching  is  described,  the  washing  being  conducted  so  as  to  pre- 
vent escape  of  chlorine  gas.  The  solution  runs  into  a  covered  tank,  from  which  a 
fan  exhausts  into  the  atmosphere,  outside  of  the  building.  The  water  used  was 
100  gallons  per  ton  of  ore  for  chlorination,  and  120  gallons  more  for  leaching.  By 
using  the  washings  over  again,  the  volume  of  solution  to  be  precipitated  is  kept 
down  to  120  gallons  per  ton  of  ore. 

The  advantages  of  this  method  are  said  to  be  : — Considerable  saving  of  skilled 
labour,  freedom  of  the  building  from  chlorine  gas,  control  over  leaching  of  charge,  and 
the  small  amount  and  simplicity  of  machinery  for  amount  of  work  done.  One  intelli- 
gent man  and  a  helper  can  look  after  the  charging,  leaching,  and  discharging  of 
three  barrels. 

Precipitation. — The  writer  has  found  hydrogen  sulphide  gas,  generated  from 
paraffin  and  sulphur,  or  from  iron  sulphide  and  sulphuric  acid,  to  be  the  cheapest 
and  most  satisfactory  precipitant.  The  hydrogen  sulphide  gas  is  forced  through  the 
Bolution  by  a  small  air-pump,  which  at  the  same  time  forces  air  through,  this 
agitates  the  solution  and  expels  the  free  chlorine  gas.  Precipitation  is  thus  rapidly 
effected  and  the  precipitate  settles  well  in  a  flocculent  form.  The  asbestos  filter 
cloth  can  be  changed  in  about  1 J  hours,  and  will  last  for  over  100  charges. 

The  wear  and  tear  of  the  plates,  grating  and  lining  of  barrel  is  said  to  be  very 
slight  indeed.  J.  W. 


THE  CHLORINATION  OF  GOLD-ORES. 

By  J.  H.  BUBPBIND.     The  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal  {New  YorJt)^  1891, 

vol.  li.f  page  446. 

An  outline  of  the  Plattner  process  is  given,  as  worked  at  Douglas  Island,  Alaska, 
by  the  Alaska  Treadwell  Gold  Mining  Company,  which  works  turn  out  more  gold 
than  any  other  works  in  the  United  States. 

Firstly,  with  regard  to  precipitants,  the  author  finds  none  equal  to  ferrous  sul- 
phate for  general  use.  Its  preparation  is  simple,  requiring  no  machinery ;  the 
material  is  cheap  and  always  at  hand ;  its  cost  is  less  than  any  of  the  others  offered 
to  replace  it ;  its  application  is  simple  and  its  action  entirely  satisfactory. 

The  main  objection  to  the  use  of  hydrogen  sulphide  is  that  it  precipitates  copper, 
as  this  metal  is  rarely  absent,  and  the  separation  of  the  sulphides  is  always  difficult. 
The  works  at  Douglas  Island  have  been  in  operation  about  seven  years.  The 
material  treated  is  the  sulphides  collected  by  the  Frue  vanners  in  the  stamp  mill. 
They  contain  on  an  average  over  40  per  cent,  of  sulphur,  mostly  in  iron  pyrites, 
although  of  late  a  good  deal  of  copper  pyrites  has  made  its  appearance.  The  gangne 
is  quartzose,  with  from  2  per  cent,  to  6  per  cent,  of  calcite. 

The  first  improvement  made  was  to  replace  the  Briickner  with  the  automatic 
Spence  furnace.  The  latter  did  not  answer  at  all  until  changed  from  a  muffle  to  a 
reverberatory.  Six  of  them  were  built  at  a  large  expense.  The  cost  of  roasting  in 
them  was  less  than  half  that  in  the  Briickner;  but  their  capacity  was  small  and 
fuel  consumption  large.  An  old-style  reverberatory  furnace  was  also  added  and 
such  satisfactory  results  were  obtained  by  it  that  the  company  decided  to  use  them 
entirely.  The  six  double  Spence  furnaces  were  thrown  out,  and  now  the  works 
treat  nearly  twice  the  amount  of  material  with  only  four  reverberatory  furnaces 

VOL.  v.— 18W  98.  37 


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672  N0TB8  OP  PAPERS  IN  POBBIGN 

These  four  furnaces,  built  after  the  plan  of  Mr.  H.  Stansfield,  are  IS  feet  by  66  feet^ 
inside  measurement,  and  handle  about  20  tons  of  material  daily  at  a  cost  much  less 
than  could  be  done  with  the  8pence  furnace. 

The  roasted  ore  is  removed  from  the  pit  under  the  furnace,  spread  on  the  floor  to 
cool  somewhat,  then  wetted  sufficiently,  sifted  into  vats,  each  holding  about  4^  tons, 
and  the  chlorine  gas  is  put  on^  Four  hours,  on  an  average,  are  sufficient  for  the 
gassing  operation ;  after  which  the  vat  is  allowed  to  stand  20  to  30  hours. 

The  leaching  usually  takes  12  hours.  For  convenience,  and  to  avoid  breakage 
of  filters,  etc.,  the  solution  is  run  into  intermediate  tanks  and  thence  to  the  precipi- 
tating vats  in  which  is  already  placed  the  necessary  amount  of  the  precipitant,  Fe 
80^.  The  precipitation  is  complete  by  the  time  the  vat  is  run  full.  The  solution, 
is  then  stirred  briskly  for  a  few  moments  and  left  to  settle  for  18  to  24  hours.  The 
supernatant  liquor  is  then  drawn  off  and  allowed  to  go  to  a  large  filter.  Tests  show- 
that  this  waste  liquor,  when  down,  contains  gold  still  in  suspension,  equal  to  23  to 
25  cents  per  ton  of  material  treated,  and  this  is  entirely  saved  by  the  filter.  A 
clean-up  is  made  twice  a  month ;  as,  if  only  once  a  month,  the  amount  of  gold  is  too 
much  for  one  man  to  handle.  The  drying  and  melting  of,  say,  12,000  dollars 
(£2,400)  can  easily  be  done  by  one  man  in  one  day.  The  dried  gold,  from  the 
clean  up,  is  melted  into  bars  with  a  little  borax. 

A  chlorination-vat  holding  about  4^  tons  of  roasted  material  costs  60  dollars 
(£10),  and  lasts  fully  three  years  without  any  repairs.  The  filter  in  it  costs  only 
the  price  of  a  few  gunny  sacks,  will  last  six  months,  and  needs  no  attention  during 
that  time.  The  other  vats  will  last  a  lifetime  and  not  need  more  than  an  occasional 
hoop.  There  is  not  a  piece  of  machinery  in  the  works,  an  advantage  that  is  fully 
understood  by  a  practical  chlorinating  man.  The  real  difficulty  which  is  universally 
met  is  in  the  roasting  of  the  material.  Most  of  the  ores  now  treated  by  chlorination 
are  roasted  with  salt.  Whilst  intelligent  operators  have  succeeded  in  reducing  the 
loss  of  gold,  which  occurs  by  volatilization  very  largely  when  salt  is  used  in  roasting, 
it  is  still  very  large  and  occasionally  will  increase  to  an  alarming  extent  without 
any  apparent  cause.  The  loss  from  this  source  amounts  to  an  enormous  annual 
aggregate,  and  is  often  the  reason  why  well-arranged  and  well-conducted  works 
prove  financial  failures.  J.  W. 

LEAD-ORES  OF  MAZARR6n,  SPAIN. 

Criaderos  Jietaliferos  de  Mazarrdn,    By  F.  B.  ViLLASANTB.    HevUta 

Minera,  vol,  xlii'L,  pages  145, 156, 163,  and  169. 

The  mineral  deposits  of  Mazarr6n  are  of  two  classes — veins  and  masses.  To  the 
first  class  belong  the  lead  veins,  which  form  the  wealth  of  the  district,  the  occasional 
veins  containing  copper  ores  being  of  no  importance. 

The  lead  veins  contain  more  or  less  argentiferous  galena,  often  intimately 
mixed  with  blende,  and  this  latter  is  sometimes  very  largely  in  excess.  The 
containing  rock  is  always  trachyte,  and  when  this  disappears  in  depth  the  fissure 
which  has  formed  the  lode  continues,  but  is  always  barren. 

The  galena  is  either  laminar,  radiated  or  granular;  in  the  first  case  being 
usually  richer  in  lead  and  in  the  second  in  silver.  The  richness  is  very  variable,  in 
some  cases  being  65  to  80  per  cent,  of  metallic  lead— in  others  not  more  than  10  to 
12  per  cent.  The  average  may  be  taken  at  30  per  cent.,  which  by  mechanical 
concentration  may  be  raised  to  50  per  cent.  The  ley  in  silver  varies  from  1  ounce 
and  2  ounces  per  quintal  to  3 J  ounces,  2  ounces  being  very  common ;  but  in  one 
district  there  are  veins  of  carbonate  very  poor  in  lead,  but  with  6  ounces  of  silver 
as  the  average 


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TRANaAorioifrs  akd  pbbiodioalb.  578 

The  direction  of  the  more  profitable  lodes  is'.prettyJconBtantly  north  and  Boatb, 
within  a  few  degrees.  There  are  lodes  mnning  east  and  west,  bnt  these,  with  few 
exceptions,  are  barren.  The  inclination  yaries  from  46  degs.  to  yertical,  dipping 
more  generally  to  the  east.  Changes  of  inclination  are,  in  many  important  lodes, 
Tcry  frequent.  The  width  also  varies  greatly,  from  8  inches  to  16  feet  (0'20  of  a 
metre  to  5  metres).  Geodes  (vnghs)  are  infrequent,  and  are  generally  smalls  fissures 
or  irregular  cavities  full  of  earthy  dolomite. 

The  mineral  constituents  of  the  lodes  vary  greatly,  not  only  at  different  depths, 
but  even  at  the  same  Level.  Near  the  surface  the  galena  almost  completely 
disappears,  being  replaced  by  carbonates,  phosphates,  and  araeniates  of  lead,  and 
there  is  also  a  great  deal  of  brown  hsematite.  The  superficial  decomposition  of  the 
trachytes  by  the  metalliferous  solutions  permeating  the  fissures  has  given  rise  to  the 
formation  of  alunite,  which  forms  the  best  evidence  of  the  existence  of  a  lode. 

The  richness  of  the  veins  has  been  observed  to  be  greatest  in  their  most  vertical 
portions,  in  accordance  with  the  theory  of  Moissenet.  It  has  hitherto  been  con- 
sidered that  the  richness  in  silver  diminishes  with  depth,  but  two  important 
discoveries  which  have  been  recently  made  do  not  favour  that  assumption. 

Not  all  the  lodes  reach  the  surface,  although  the  more  important  do ;  the 
remainder  may  be  considered  disconnected  branches  from  these.  The  course  is,  as  a 
rule,  exceedingly  irregular,  and  even  when  the  fissure  continues  for  a  long  distance, 
the  width  and  contents  are  extremely  variable. 

In  the  succeeding  numbers  the  author  describes  the  various  mines  in  detail 

In  the  Fortuna  district  the  two  dominant  directions  of  the  lodes  are  north  1 5 
degs.  east  and  north-west.  The  inclination  is  always  nearly  vertical,  with  a  slight 
tendency  to  dip  north-west.  The  thickness  can  hardly  be  determined,  owing  to  the 
small  depth  hitherto  attained,  but  may  perhaps  be  put  at  about  3  feet.  The 
minerals  present  and  the  ley  in  silver  vary  greatly,  but  in  the  former  group  the 
general  rule  is  for  the  proportion  to  be  9  to  10  ozs.  silver  per  quintal  of  lead,  in  the 
latter  group  not  more  than  4  ozs.  The  outcrops  are  very  numerous,  and  generally 
traces  of  old  workings. 

With  reference  to  the  iron  deposits,  in  the  Santa  Justina  mine  they  consist  of 
superficial  pockets  intercalated  in  Tertiary  limestones.  The  average  percentage  is 
50  per  cent.,  with  a  little  manganese. 

The  Vulcano  mine  is  an  east-and-west  lode  dipping  north,  and  for  a  time  yielded 
1,000  tons  of  ore  monthly.  At  a  depth  of  328  feet  (100  metres),  however,  it  dis- 
appeared, and  its  continuation  could  not  be  found.  G.  £.  C. 


MICA  MINES  OF  CAROLINA,  U.SA. 

Mica  and  the  Mica  Mines,    By  C.  Hanfobd  HEin>BB80K.    Popular  Science 
Monthly  (^New  Tork')^  vol,  xli,,  pages  652-665. 

The  mica  mines  of  the  western  part  of  North  Carolina  are  described.  The 
country  rock  is  Huronian  or  Laurentian  granite  and  gneiss,  dipping  at  an  angle  of 
45  degs.  or  more.  Commonly  the  veins  occur  in  a  fine-grained  black  gneiss  known 
locally  as  "  slate."  They  usually  dip  with  the  bedding,  but  sometimes  cut  across  it ; 
and  vary  from  under  an  inch  to  10  or  12  feet  thick.  The  contrast  between  vein- 
stuff  and  country  is  very  striking,  the  felspar  in  the  former  giving  it  a  glistening 
white  appearance.  The  vein-filling  consists  essentially  of  mica,  quartz  and  felspar, 
very  coarsely  crystalline,  the  mica  having  crystallized  out  first. 


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574  K0TS8  OF  PAPERS  IN  FOBBION 

The  mines  were  first  found  by  ancient  trenches  on  the  Tdns,  where  the  '*old 
men  "  had  worked  with  stone  implements.  They  were  first  tried  for  silver  in  the 
idea  that  this  was  what  the  ancient  workings  had  been  for,  but  were  naturally 
found  barren.  Subsequently  the  mica  on  the  waste  heaps  attracted  attention,  and 
led  to  Hystematic  mining. 

The  mica  as  extracted  is  in  the  form  of  rough  hexagonal  prisms,  varying  in 
colour  from  silver  grey  and  g^een  to  a  rich  brown — the  latter,  known  as  "  rum  " 
mica,  often  fetching  a  higher  price.  The  arrangements  for  working  and  transport 
are  of  the  most  primitive  description. 

The  prisms  are  split  ap  into  thin  plates  and  cut  to  various  patterns. 

Occasionally  the  blocks  are  very  large,  when  they  become  valuable.  One  is 
reported  to  have  been  6  feet  long  by  3  feet  wide. 

The  cut  mica,  after  careful  trimming,  is  put  up  in  pound  packages  and  marketed. 
The  waste  is  very  great,  100  lbs.  of  block  yielding  only  about  15  lbs.  of  cut  mica. 
The  scrap  is  screened  to  free  it  from  sand,  etc. ;  it  is  then  ground  and  used  in 
various  industries.  G.  B.  C. 


THE  MAGNETIC  ORB-CONCENTRATION  WORKS  AT  MAIERN,  TIROL. 

DU  ErxoMfbereitnng  in  Maism  mit  hesonderer  BerUcktichtigung  der  ElektrO' 
viagnetiichcn  Esotrcbction.  By  JosBF  Billbk.  OegterrtiohUdhe  Zfiitschrift 
fUr  Berg-und  Hibttenwegen^  1893,  vol,  xli.,  pages  39-44. 

This  mill  was  erected  to  concentrate  galena,  blende,  and  iron  ores.  The  separation 
of  these  minerals  is  effected  partly  by  the  ordinary  wet  process  and  partly  by 
magnetia  means.  The  zinc  blende  is  found  intimately  associated  with  siderite 
(carbonate  of  iron)  which  minerals  having  very  similar  specific  gravities,  cannot  be 
separated  by  the  wet  method,  the  specific  gravities  being  cine  blende,  4*0;  i^nd 
siderite,  3*6.  A  system  of  magnetic  separation  is  therefore  adopted,  and  the  ore  is 
roasted  so  as  to  change  the  siderite  into  magnetic  oxide  of  iron. 

The  ore  from  the  mine  is  separated  into  three  classes  as  follows : — 1.  Galena  and 
blende  ore,  rough  ore  (erzwdnde).  2.  Smalls  (grubenklein).  3.  Blende  ores 
(blende  mittelerze).  The  blende,  which  constitutes  the  main  portion  of  the 
production,  is  found  in  two  varieties ;  soft  coarsely  crystallieed  blende,  containing 
on  an  average  67  per  cent,  of  zinc,  and  hard  blende,  with  which  siderite,  magnetite, 
and  galena  are  associated,  containing  40  per  cent,  of  zinc. 

The  ore  as  it  comes  from  the  mine  is  first  passed  through  a  stone-crusher,  which 
crushes  in  10  hours  from  46  to  70  tons  to  an  average  size  of  1*77  inches  (45 
millimetres).  The  larger  size,  above  0-63  inch  (16  millimetres)  is  hand-sorted, 
and  the  product  may  be  quantitively  classified  as  follows : — 

Per  Cent. 

Best  blende      1'6  to    2 

Lead  ore  3'5  „    4 

Blende  ore        70   „  80 

Waste 20   „  26 

The  cost  of  hand-picking  is  35  to  50  kreuzer  (7d.  to  lOd.)  per  ton  of  crude  ore. 
After  the  lump  ore  has  been  hand-picked,  the  ores  are  farther  reduced  by  rolls,  and 
are  sorted  accortling  to  size  by  means  uf  revolving  sizing-drums  preparatory  to 
jigging.    The  ores  are  sized  into  particles  from  004  to  1  inch  (1  to  25  millimetres). 

The  jigs  treat  per  10  hours  on  an  average  as  follows : — Fine  jigs,  2 J  tons  of  ore  • 
coarse  jigs.  7  tons  of  ore, 


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In  order  to  render  the  siderite  magnetic,  the  mixed  blende  and  iron  ore  is 
roasted  in  kilns,  which  haye  an  inside  width  of  3*28  feet  (1  metre),  length  of  6*56 
feet  (2  metres),  and  height  of  7-64  feet  (8*2  metres).  The  carbonate  of  iron 
(Fe  CO,)  is  changed  into  oxide  of  iron  (Fe,  OJ.  Each  kiln  roasts  7 J  tons  in  24 
hours.  After  the  first  heating  of  the  famace  no  fuel  is  required,  as  the  combustion 
is  kept  up  by  the  sulphur  in  the  ore. 

The  roasted  ore  is  crushed  by  rolls,  of  which  there  are  five  pairs,  each  having  a 
diameter  of  18-9  inches  (48  centimetres),  and  a  width  of  12-6  inches  (32  centimetres) 
and  making  30  revolutions  per  minute.  The  ore  is  crushed  to  four  sizes,  0  to  0*02, 
0-04,  0-08,  and  0*12  inch  (0  to  0*5  millimetre,  1,  2,  and  3  millimetres).  The  dust 
made  in  crushing  is  carried  off  by  two  Challenger  ventilators,  diameter  8*94  feet  (1-2 
metres),  width  0*92  feet  (0*28  metre)  which  is  capable  of  carrying  off  1,400  cubic 
feet  (400  cubic  metres)  of  dusty  air  when  making  300  revolutions  per  minute. 

The  dust  is  collected  in  a  suitable  chamber.  The  separation  of  the  blende  from 
the  iron  is  carried  out  by  four  magnetic  machines,  which  are  supplied  with  electricity 
by  two  dynamos,  giving  50  amp6res  and  31  volts.  The  magnetic  separating- 
machine  consists  of  a  revolving  brass  drum,  inside  which,  and  at  one  sidfi  of  the 
drum,  are  fixed  magnets.  The  ore  is  fed  continuously  at  the  outside  of  the  revolving 
drum  where  the  magnets  are,  and  the  iron  is  attracted  by  the  magnets  and  falls  into 
a  compartment  situated  farther  from  the  feed  than  that  into  which  the  blende  falls. 
Twenty  amperes  is  the  maximum  current  allowed  to  each  separating-machine. 
Each  machine  treats  1^  tons  of  coarse  ore  and  1  ton  of  the  fine  ore  per  hour. 

The  blende  is  sometimes  passed  a  second  time  through  a  magnetic  separating 
machine,  and  is  finally  re-jigged  to  get  rid  of  any  gangue  (slate,  quartz  amphibole, 
etc.)    The  cost  of  working  is  as  follows : — 

Per  Ton  Treated.      Per  Ton  of  Product 


8. 

d. 

d. 

Roasting 

0 

7-6 

1 

9-8 

Crushing  and  sorting    ... 

0 

6-0 

1 

5-0 

Separation  (magnetic)  ... 

0 

6-7 

1 

7-2 

Jigging 

0 

7-2 

1 

8-0 

Total        2    3-6         ...         6    6*0 

The  following  tables  show  the  amount  of  ore  treated,  and  the  product  in 

Orb  Treated. 


J 

1.  Smalls  {gruhenhlein')      

2.  Rough  ore  {er^sumnde)    

?.  Blende  ore  (blende  mittelerze)  ... 

Ton*. 
2968-2 
4576-1 
3223-8 

Peroentft 
Zinc 

2r 
? 

Product. 

OlusofOre. 

Picked  Ore. 

Blende 
Conoentratee. 

Lead 
Conoentrates. 

Blende 

Tons. 

Zn. 

|i 

Tons. 

Zn. 

U 

Tons. 

Pb. 

1^ 

Tons. 

1.  SmallB 

Ml 

•/o 

48-5 

1-9 

9661 

;(% 

38-2 

as 

'k 

0-06 

8? 

8.  Hough  ore 

74-2 

46-5 

1-7 

- 

~ 

- 

- 

- 

- 

1 
1 

- 

1246-0 

43( 

SB-e 

2-4 

68 

0-OT 

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576  ROTBS  OF  PAPSB8  IN  FOBBI0ir 

THE  CONKLING  MAGNBTIG  ORB-CGNCBNTEATOR. 
Ore-Dressing  hy  Eleotrieity  at  the  TUly  Foster  Mine,     By  F.  H.  MoDowsLL 
Transactions  qf  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  1890,  vol,  wim. 
pages  71-78. 

The  resalts  of  a  six  months*  trial  of  the  Conkling  electric>magnetic  separator  are 
given.  The  local  difflcnlties  were  great.  Only  about  two-thirds  of  the  waste-heap 
is  ore,  and  this  varies  in  content  of  iron  from  20  to  28  per  cent.  In  addition,  the 
heap  was  originally  located  without  reference  to  further  treatment,  and  now  can 
only  be  handled  by  means  of  a  locomotive  operating  over  heavy  grades.  The 
mineral  is  so  widely  and  finely  disseminated  through  the  ore  that  it  has  been 
necessary  to  resort  to  fine-crushing. 

The  process  includes  crushing  the  ore  by  a  Blake  rock-breaker  on  the  heap, 
removing  it  in  train-loads  to  the  bins  in  the  mill,  passing  it  under  two  ball-stamps 
provided  with  screens  of  ^  inch  mesh,  elevating  it  to  the  Gonkling  electric 
separating  belt«,  and  delivering  the  concentrates  to  the  wagons  and  the  tailings  to 
the  settling-reservoirs. 

In  six  months  there  were  treated  18,058  tons  of  lean  ore,  giving  an  average  of 
3,009  tons  per  month  ;  this  produced  concentrates  amounting  to  6,236  tons,  so  that 
2*89  tons  of  crude  ore  were  required  to  produce  1  ton  of  concentrates.  The  average 
cost  of  treatment,  including  preparing  the  ore  and  getting  it  to  the  mill  and 
disposing  of  the  tailings  (which  items  make  up  one-half  the  labour  charge)  was 
9*375  shillings  per  ton  of  concentrates.  The  actual  expenses  in  the  mill  averaged 
6*76  shillings  per  ton  of  concentrates. 

Several  conclusions  are  drawn  from  the  results  obtained,  the  chief  one  being : 
Unless  the  location  and  other  conditions  are  exceptionally  favourable,  it  will  not 
pay  to  erect  works  to  treat  the  material  of  waste-heaps  carrying  less  than  26  per 
cent,  of  iron.  H.  W.  H. 

MAGNETIC  CONCENTRATION  OF  IRON  ORB. 
By  Habvet  S.  Chase.    Technology  Quarterly  (^Boston),  vol.  v.,  pages  64-69. 

The  paper  deals  with  the  separation  of  low-grade  magnetic  oxide,  as  found  in 
great  veins  throughout  the  Appalachian  range.  The  ore  is  reduced  by  repeated 
crushing,  usually  by  roUs,  to  a  fineness  which  generally  varies  between  4  and  16 
mesh.  Finer  crushing,  even  up  to  50  mesh,  is  sometimes  necessary  ;  but  although 
an  excellent  product  is  often  obtained  in  such  cases,  it  is  doubtful  to  what  extent 
ores  which  require  such  fine  crushing  can  be  made  to  pay.  The  author  adopts  the 
plan  of  a  preliminary  coarse  crushing  and  separation  into  heads  for  shipment, 
tailings,  which  are  thrown  away,  and  one  or  more  grades  of  middlings  for  subsequent 
le-crushing  and  re-concentration. 

The  Chase  magnetic  ore-concentrator,  consists  essentially  of  a  spirally-wound 
magnetic  wheel,  around  which  the  crushed  ore  is  carried  by  a  canvas  belt ;  worth- 
less tailings  are  thrown  off  by  centrifugal  force,  and  the  remainder  is  carried  round 
to  the  under  side  of  the  wheel.  Thence  the  belt  passes  under  another  magnet,  with 
poles  of  varying  strength  and  distance,  by  which  the  particles  are  made  to  rotate 
and  tumble  around  each  other.  In  this  stage  the  middlings  are  separated  into  the 
number  of  classes  desired,  and  the  heads  are  carried  along  the  belt  to  another 
smaller  magnetic  wheel,  where  the  dust  is  removed  by  a  current  of  air  or  water, 
and  the  ore  passes  thence  on  to  the  bin.  The  machine  works  either  dry,  or  wet  in  a 
water-tight  tank,  the  former  giving  quicker,  the  latter  better,  results.  Some  ores 
ato  best  adapted  for  working  dry,  and  others  wet.  G.  E.  0. 


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TRANSACTIONS  AND    PBElODlOALS.  577 

THE  TRBATMBNT  OF  TAILINGS  BY  THE  LftHRIG  SYSTEM. 

Description  of  the  New  Concentrating  Plant  of  the  Hiinmelfahrt  Mine,  near  Frei- 
herg  in  Sawony,  By  0.  Bilharz.  Special  Report  of  the  Department  of 
Mines,  Victoria^  1892,  19  pages,  B  plates. 

The  LtLhrig  concentrating  plant  at  Himmelfahrt,  near  Freiberg,  Saxony,  which 
has  been  in  operation  since  1889,  is  arranged  in  two  eqnal  and  distinct  portions,  so 
as  to  admit  of  the  separate  treatment  of  ores  from  different  parts  of  the  mine,  or  of 
dressing  ores  from  other  mines.  Its  fall  capacity  is  aboat  140  tons  per  day,  the 
average  ontpnt  from  the  Himmelfahrt  mine  being  rather  above  this  figure;  but  about 
one-fifth  of  the  ore  is  separately  treated  by  dry  stamping  and  hand-picking,  so  that 
the  average  quantity  of  ore  passing  through  the  concentrating  plant  is  about  118 
tons  per  day. 

The  ore,  which  is  first  roughly  separated  by  hand,  consists  chiefiy  of  galena,  iron 
and  arsenical  pyrites  and  blende,  in  a  gangue  of  gneiss. 

The  galena  contains  generally  from  49  to  55^  ounces  of  silver  per  ton,  and  as  a 
rule  is  richest  when  fine-grained.  The  iron  pyrites  and  arsenical  pyrites  contain  no 
silver ;  the  latter  is  separated  as  an  ore  of  arsenic.  The  blende  contains  a  high  per- 
centage of  iron ;  and  its  specific  g^^vity  is  very  nearly  that  of  the  iron  pyrites. 
Separation,  therefore,  even  with  the  best  classification  and  jigging,  is  very  difficult ; 
and  the  blende  ores  are,  as  far  as  possible,  separated  by  hand  and  treated  by  them- 
selves. 

The  main  principles,  to  carry  out  which  the  plant  was  designed,  are  : — 

(1)  Disintegration  of  the  ore  step  by  step,  with  concentration  at  each  stage. 

(2)  Effecting  crushing  and  concentration  as  far  as  possible  with  roUs  and 

jigs,  rather  than  stamps  and  slime  apparatus,  so  as  to  avoid  the  greater 
loss  in  the  latter. 

(3)  Automatic  working  throughout. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  point  out  that  these  principles  are  in  no  way  novel. 

The  situation  chosen  not  giving  slope  enough  for  the  latter  purpose,  it  was 
necessary  to  erect  the  main  building  in  several  storeys,  the  ore  being  raised  by  a 
lift  from  the  tramway  leading  from  the  mine. 

The  main  building,  constructed  for  the  roll  and  jigging  work,  consists  of  four 
working-fioors.  The  ore,  in  trucks  containing  about  2^  tons  each,  is  raised  by  the 
lift  to  the  top  floor,  and  there  tipped  into  hoppers  according  to  its  quality.  Thence 
it  passes  over  a  sort  of  shaking  sieve  which  lets  the  smalls  through  and  feeds  the 
larger  pieces  into  stone-breakers,  whence,  together  with  the  above  smalls  they  go 
on  to  sieve-drums  and,  after  sizing,  to  jigs.  The  outfall  from  these  sieves  faUs  upon 
moving  inclined  picking-bands,  where  the  pure  ore  is  picked  out.  and  the  dradge 
passes  on.  This  then  goes  through  three  sets  of  rolls,  each  with  its  arrangement  of 
sieves,  jigs,  etc.,  the  whole  process  being  nearly  automatic.  The  waste  from  the  jigs 
is  run  by  means  of  a  launder  to  a  building  outside,  and  is  sold  as  building-sand, 
gravel,  etc.. 

The  mixed  dradge  resulting  from  the  above  processes  is  elevated  into  hoppers 
feeding  2  sets  of  American  stamps,  of  16  heads  each,  also  situated  on  the  lowest 
fioor  of  the  main  building.  Each  stamp  weighs  313  lbs.,  and  makes  53  falls  of  a 
trifle  over  1  foot  per  minute.  The  duty  is  176  lbs.  per  head  per  hour,  a  total  of 
23^  tons  per  day,  or  about  20  per  cent,  of ^the  whole  quantity  of  ore  treated  by  the 
plant. 

The  stamped  ore  is  passed  through  sieve  drums,  then  through  spitdvttcn,  after 
classification  being  jigged  so  as  to  obtain  the  separate  ores  in  a  concentrated  form. 

In  the  final  working  the  stuff  is  again  passed  through  two  more  sets  of  spUZ" 


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18 

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19 

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578  KOTBS  OF  PAPERS  IN  FOBEiaN 

lutten.  The  first  set  diyides  it  into  coarse,  middle,  and  fine  sand.  The  coarse  is 
treated  with  jigs  of  the  usnal  kind  ;  the  middle  and; fine  are  first  concentrated  in  a 
circular  pulsating-jlg  divided  radially  into  compartments,  and  which  can  treat  the 
whole  of  the  fine  sands  from  the  plant.  Finally  they  are  passed  oyer  percussion 
tables  or  vanners  with  rubber  band  moving  13  to  14  feet  and  receiving  about  140 
percussions  per  minute.  The  second  set  gives  very  fine  sand  and  slime ;  the  former 
is  concentrated  by  a  single-sieve  percussion-jig,  the  latter  by  double  spitzlutten,  and 
both  are  then  passed  over  similar  percussion-tables. 

The  total  number  of  men  employed  in  and  about  the  whole  plant  is  51,  besides 
overseers.  The  steam-engine  working  the  plant  is  of  about  94  horse-power  eflBective  ; 
and  gives  power  for  the  lift,  lighting  by  electricity,  etc. 

The 'quantity  of  water  required  is  86^  cubic  feet  per  minute. 

The  tailings  contain  silver  and  lead  per  ton  as  follows  : — 

BiLvnu  Lkad. 

OS.  dwL   gr.  oi. 

From  the  coarsely-crushed  grains 1    12    16        ...         nil. 

„        elementary  jigs      0 

„        round  jigger  0 

„        percussion-tables 0    19    14        ...        826| 

Deposits  in  settling  tanks     3      6      8        ...        658^ 

No  particulars  are  given  of  the  cost  of  erection. 

In  another  appendix  to  the  departmental  report  are  given  the  results  of  various 

trials  made  with  Ltihrig  vanners  on  various  small  parcels  of  tailings  from  Victorian 

mines.    In  the  report  Mr.  Newbery  emphasizes  the  fact  that  with  the  LUhrig 

system  success  cannot  be  obtained  if  the  supply  of  water  is  insufficient ;  and  states 

that  Mr.  Ltihrig  prefers  the  old  spUzJuuten  to  any  other  form  of  classifier. 

G.  B.  C. 

MABO0  WASHING-TABLE. 
Table  a  laf>er  du  Marot,  Trattement  det  roehes  poMvreg  pour  pyrites  riehes.  By 
—  EffAbb.  OSnie  OivU,  1892,  vol,  xasii,^  pages  92  and  98. 
The  table  here  described  is  merely  a  modification  of  the  ordinary  hand-dressing 
box  often  used  in  Hungary  for  concentrating  auriferous  pyrites,  and  which  is  similar 
to  the  grave  huddle  once  used  in  Cornwall  for  dressing  tin.  It  consists  simply  of  a 
sloping  box,  at  the  upper  end  of  which  the  heavy  sand,  resulting  from  a  rough 
gravity -separation  of  the  pulp  from  the  stamps,  is  placed,  while  a  gentle  fiow  of 
water  washes  it  down,  the  denser  particles  being  deposited,  an  attendant  keeping  it 
in  motion.  The  Maros  table  consists  of  two  such  boxes  placed  side  by  side,  suc- 
cessive streams  of  pulp  and  clean  water  being  made  to  flow  over  them  alternately, 
so  that  one  attendant  serves  for  both,  and  the  dressed  product  can  be  washed  off  as 
soon  as  a  thin  coating  is  deposited.  G.  E.  C. 

RIGAUD  CRADLE  FOR  WASHING  ALLUVIALS. 
Appareil  de  lavage  des  sables  rrUtalllferes, — Berceau  Rigaud.  By  —  Eff&bb. 
Q6nie  CivU,  1892,  vol,  xxii,^  pages  120-122. 
This  is  a  form  of  cradle,  without  rockers,  suspended  from  a  raised  longitudinal 
axis.  The  principal  novelty  appears  to  be  the  use  of  a  kind  of  comb,  fixed  to  the 
axis,  which  when  the  cradle  is  oscillated  agitates]  the  surface  of  the  sand  collected 
between  each  pair  of  riffles.  Small  holes  are  made  in  front  of  each  riffle,  through 
which  the  concentrated  product  can  be  withdrawn  at  intervals  into  a  receptacle 
beneath.  G.  B.  C. 


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TBAKSACmONS  AND  PBBI0DICAL8.  579 

CASTBLNAU  SYSTEM  OF  ORB-DRESSING. 

Laverie  des  vUnes  deplomb  argentiftre  de  BouUlac  (^Aveyron),    By  P.  Dbsquibnb. 

OSnie  Cwily  1892,  vol,  xxiL,  pages  202-203,  plates  XIIL  and  XIV, 

The  principal  features  of  this  installation  are  the  circular  jigs  and  belt  slime 
tables  on  the  Castelnau  system ;  which  are,  however,  not  described  in  much  detail, 
and  of  which  no  drawings  are  given. 

The  ore,  after  passing  twice  through  stone-breakers  and  over  hand-picking  belts, 
is  crushed  by  two  pairs  of  rolls,  of  27^  inches  diameter,  and  with  a  tangential 
velocity  of  2*6  feet  per  second.  It  is  then  sized  by  a  series  of  6  trommels  with  holes 
of  from  J  to  7  millimetres.  The  particles  rejected  by  the  first  are  re-crushed,  and 
these  passing  through  the  last  go  to  the  slime-tables.  The  intermediate  sizes  go  to 
the  jigs,  as  to  which  the  following  figures  are  given : — 

Blows  per  Minute  Length  of  Stroke 

Diameter  of  Particles.  of  Piston.  of  Piston., 

Inches.  MilUmetres.  Inches. 

0-20  to  0-28  ...  6  to  7  ...  240  ...  1-18 

012  „  0-20  ...  3   „   6  ...  260  ...  079 

006  „  0-12  ...  1J„   3  ...  280  ...  0-40 

002  ,,0-06  ...  i„   IJ  ...  300  ...  0-20 


30 

20 

10 

6 


The  product  averages  60  per  cent.,  and  the  waste  0*6  per  cent,  of  lead.  The 
middle  product,  of  10  to  20  per  cent.,  is  sent  back  to  the  rolls. 

The  slimes,  after  settling  and  re-mixing  to  the  proper  consistency,  are  con- 
centrated on  rubber  endless  belts  with  a  surface  of  46  by  4  feet,  moving 
longitudinally  9*8  inches  per  second,  and  inclined  in  the  direction  of  the  width. 
Each  machine  is  stated  to  concentrate  20  to  30  cwts.  of  ore  per  hour. 

All  the  water  is  used  over  and  over  again,  in  order  to  avoid  loss  in  floating  slimes. 

No  particulars  are  given  as  to  capacity,  eta,  of  the  plant.  G.  B.  0. 


RECENT  GOLD-MILLING  PRACTICE  IN  NOVA  SCOTIA. 
By  John  B.  Habdmak.     Journal  of  the  Mining  Society  of  Nova  Scotia,  1892, 
vol.  i.,part  2,  page  34,  arid  Canadian  Mining  and  Mechanical  RevietOf  1892, 
vol.  ad.,  pages  134-187,  and  three  plates. 

The  Oldham  mill  has  10  stamps,  especially  designed  for  hard  quartz  containing 
coarse  gold,  and  for  the  conditions  of  custom-milling.  The  battery  is  worked  by 
power  from  a  Pelton  wheel. 

The  main  features  of  the  system  of  working  adopted  are  a  very  short  rapid  drop 
and  saving  of  most  of  the  gold  inside  the  mortar.  The  stamps  are  of  the  Homestake 
pattern,  full  stamp  with  new  shoe  weighing  858  lbs.  The  modifications  adopted  in 
the  arrangement  are  fully  described  in  the  paper. 

The  stamps  work  85  drops  of  6^  inches  per  minute,  the  screen  being  the  equiva- 
lent of  a  SO-mesh.    The  capacity  is  from  28  to  30  tons  per  24  hours. 

The  gold  is  obtained  in  the  following  proportions:— On  outside  plates,  8*56  per 
cent.;  on  inside  plates,  23*40  per  cent.;  and  in  mortar  sands,  68*05  per  cent.;  so  that 
91*45  per  cent,  is  retained  behind  the  screen. 

The  tailings  assayed  8s.  4d.  per  ton,  almost  entirely  in  the  sulphides ;  tailings 
from  concentrators  gave  Is.  8d.  to  2s.  Id.  per  ton. 

The  milling  cost  in  the  Black  Hills  is,  according  to  Prof.  Hofman,  allowing 
deductions  for  fuel,  2b.  4d.  per  ton. 


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0 

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1-02 

580  NOTES  OF  PAPERS  IK  FOBSI0K 

The  costs  per  ton  at  the  Oldham  mill  are  as  follows : — 

Labour     

Supplies 

Iron  

Qulcksilyer  

Total         ...        1    6-46 

When  running  on  large  lots  the  cost  has  been  reduced  to  Is.  2«81d.  per  ton.  On 
the  other  hand,  during  the  winter  months  an  extra  charge  of  I'76d.  is  neoessazy  for 
fuel  to  warm  the  mill.  G.  E.  0. 

MININQ  IK  SARDINIA. 

Bistoire  de  VIndfutrie  Miniire  sn  Sardaigne.     By  —  BB  Laukat.      Annalet  dei 
MineSy  1892,  series  9,  vol.  i.,  pages  611-688. 

Mining  was  probably  introduced  into  Sardinia  by  the  Carthaginians.  In  Roman 
times,  and  up  to  about  1860  only  argentiferous  galena  was  worked  to  any  great 
extent,  the  silver  being  extracted  by  cupellation.  The  galena  worked  by  the 
Romans  seems  to  have  been  only  in  soft  rocks,  such  as  limestone,  and  was  mined  by 
means  of  very  numerous  narrow  vertical  pits.  Analyses  of  slags  and  pigs  of  lead 
found  prove  that  the  silver-extraction  was  well  performed ;  the  slags  resulting  from 
the  initial  production  of  raw  lead,  however,  assay  as  high  as  25  to  80  per  cent,  of 
lead,  with  70  to  100  grammes  of  silver  to  the  100  kilogrammes  of  lead  (28  to  82^ 
ounces  per  ton). 

After  the  retirement  of  the  Romans,  the  mines  remained  unworked  until  the 
Pisan  domination  (1004-1828),  when  they  were  worked  by  free  companies  of  miners. 
The  author  mentions  a  curious  mining  code  relating  to  this  period,  the  technical 
terms  showing  traces  of  German  influence.  In  some  cases  the  workings  were  carried 
to  a  depth  of  800  feet  (250  metres),  the  drainage  being  performed  by  primitive 
pumps.  The  slags  show  an  improved  metallurgical  treatment  compared  with  that 
of  the  Romans. 

Early  in  the  fourteenth  century  Sardinia  was  conqnered  by  the  Aragonese,  by 
whom  the  mines  were  worked  as  State  property — at  a  loss :  subsequently  they  were 
leased  to  a  Genoese  company.  From  the  sixteenth  to  the  nineteenth  century  mining 
was  almost  extinct.  Its  revival  resulted  from  the  application  in  1848  of  a  new 
mining  law  similar  to  the  French  law  of  1810,  and  a  subsequent  improvement  of  the 
same  in  1869.  The  following  figures  are  given  of  the  extraction  of  argentiferous 
galena: — 

TODB. 

1846  17 

1858  6,687 

1860  15,228 

1865-6  26,229 

Calamine  was  first  worked  in  Sardinia  in  1866  at  the  now  famous  Malfidano 
mines,  where  its  value  was  discovered  accidentally  after  a  great  deal  of  time  and 
money  had  been  spent  fruitlessly  in  the  search  for  galena.  The  mines  now  employ 
1,700  men,  and  produce  50,000  tons  of  calamine  annually.  Up  to  1888  the  total 
production  was  over  a  million  tons. 

The  first  lead  mine  re-worked  in  modem  times  was  that  of  Monteponl.  Work 
was  commenced  in  1791  and  carried  on  by  the  State  on  a  small  scale.    In  1860.  it 


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TR 

was  leased  privately  for  S 
of  two  million  francs,  of ' 
ceaaion  in  1880,  much  m 
drainage-tnnnel  6,600  yai 
a  cost  of  £80,000  (2,000,0 

The  SarrabuB  silver  m 
of  £96,000  (2,400,000  fran 
mainly  in  the  form  of  snl 

Of  late  years  the  acti^ 
both  of  calamine  and  bl 
increased  costs  of  workii 
are  always  limited  massec 
seems  that  below  a  oertai 


BeagnoHuoheund  hergma 
aufder  Intel  Sardii 
ScUinen'Weien  im  I 

This  paper  contains  a 
the  district  of  Iglesias  in 
district  is  mainly  Palseoz* 
the  surface  in  only  a  fe 
the  slate  formation,  bnt  t 

In  the  granite  the  oi 
silver-lead,  sine  blende,  fi 

The  limestone  ore-dep 
or  as  contact-deposits  b€ 
most  important  mine  is 
which  is  a  contact-deposi 
are  galena,  zinc  blende,  i 
chief  is  the  Monteponi  m 
tons  of  lead  ore  were  ra 
Government  who  sold  it 
of  sale  was  that  an  adit 
adit,  which  commences  I 
metres)  long.  The  ores 
kilometres)  in  length. 

At  the  Monteponi  mi 
of  zinc,  are  roasted  in  a  ] 
coal  is  used.  The  rever 
16'11  per  cent,  of  coal. 
Qzland  furnace  roasts  12 
ore  loses  21  per  cent,  in  i 
and  the  working  expense 
calcining  kiln  is  worked  1 

The  paper  also  contai 


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582  N0TS8  OF  PAPEBS  IN  FOBBIQN 

ORB-MINING  IN  8BRVIA. 

D&r  Erzbetghau  in  Serhien,    By  F.  B.  Pfbiffbb.    Berg-und  HuettenmannUehe 

Zeitung^  1892,  vol,  U,^  pages  2-5. 

The  mineral  resources  of  Servia,  though  as  yet  only  partially  developed,  are  very 
great,  metallic  ores  of  considerable  variety  occurring  in  various  geological  formations 
and  in  nearly  all  the  high  lands  of  the  country.  According  to  position  they  belong 
chiefly  to  the  five  principal  districts  of  Kopaonik,  Schumadija,  Drina,  Kucevo,  and 
Zaplanina.  So  far  as  is  known  the  Romans  were  the  first  to  open  mines  in  the 
country,  and  they  were  followed  during  the  period  of  national  independence  by  the 
Servians  themselves.  At  present  operations  are  conducted  on  a  reduced  scale  in 
some  only  of  the  above-mentioned  districts. 

Gold  is  found  in  combination  with  various  ores  and  in  the  sands  of  several  risers, 
and  the  ores  of  arsenic,  antimony,  bismuth,  copper,  iron,  lead,  manganese,  silver,  and 
of  nickel  and  cobalt  in  small  quantities  are  known  to  occur.  Quicksilver  is  found 
in  the  district  of  Rudnik  and  in  the  Avala  mountains.  Silver  occurs  in  the  greatest 
quantities  and  in  combination  with  lead  forms  the  backbone  of  the  mineral 
wealth  in  all  the  districts,  the  other  metals  occurring  here  and  there  in  larger  or 
smaller  detached  ore-deposits.  After  lead  and  silver,  as  regards  quantity,  come 
oopper,  antimony,  and  iron. 

The  Kopaonik  mountains  run  from  north  to  south  for  about  30  miles  in  the 
south  of  Servia  near  the  Bosno-Turkish  boundary.  Now  covered  with  woods  and 
thinly  inhabited,  they  are  rich  in  ruins  of  towns,  villages,  and  foundries.  Heaps 
of  slag  and  ore  abound,  and  it  is  known  that  during  the  middle  ages  miners  from 
Saxony  and  from  Ragusa  frequented  the  district  in  considerable  numbers.  The 
Turkish  conquest  put  an  end  to  the  mining  industry,  and  although  probably  far 
from  exhausted,  the  district  is  now  the  one  least  worked  and  least  known.  It  is 
known  to  contain  iron,  lead,  silver,  and  gold. 

The  Schumadija  district  comprises  the  Rudnik  mountains  and  their  spurs.  Its 
history  corresponded  with  that  of  the  Kopaonik  district  up  to  the  date  of  the 
Turkish  conquest,  after  which  the  Turks  and  subsequently  the  Austrians  carried  on 
mining  work,  chiefly  in  lead  and  sUver.  In  the  Avala  mountains  belonging  to  the 
Rudnik  range  slag  from  old  workings  is  found,  computed  at  about  half  a  million  tons. 
The  chief  veins  run  from  Rudnik  northwards,  silver-lead  ore  being  the  most 
plentiful.  Copper  and  gold  occur  in  small  quantities,  though  not  very  pure,  while 
in  the  Yencac  mountains  pure  iron  ore  occurs  in  large  quantities  along  with  the 
silver-lead  ore.  In  the  Avala  range  quicksilver  is  found,  and  there  is  a  vein  of 
iron  ore  reaching  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Belgrade.  Silver  occurs  in  all  the  ores  of 
this  district,  hitherto  proved,  in  large  quantities.  As  yet  no  lead  ore  has  been  found 
to  contain  less  than  0*2  per  cent.  (66  ounces  per  ton)  of  silver,  and  some  ores  have 
yielded  as  much  as  0*5  per  cent.  (163  ounces  per  ton).  It  has  been  estimated  that 
the  slag-heaps  from  old  workings  lying  between  Paryan  and  Guberevac  contain  65 
per  cent,  of  lead  and  0*0037  per  cent,  of  silver  weighing  28,000  tons  and  37  tons 
respectively  and  worth  over  £1,000,000. 

The  Drina  district  is  also  rich  in  ores.  From  Loznica  on  the  Drina  to  the  Tara 
mountains  and  from  Lesnica  to  Suvobor  run  veins  of  silver,  lead,  and  gold,  accom- 
panied in  places  by  iron,  arsenic,  zinc,  and  oopper  ores.  From  Borina  to  the 
neighbourhood  of  Valjevo  runs  a  thick  and  rich  vein  of  antimony  which  in  several 
places  crops  out  at  the  surface.  This  is  accompanied  on  the  left  by  zinc,  lead,  and 
silver,  and  on  the  right  by  copper,  the  latter  vein  reaching  its  greatest  thickness 
near  Valjevo  where  it  comes  to  the  surface.  The  silver-lead  ores  of  this  district 
contain  from  0-26  per  cent.  (82  ounces  per  ton)  to  0'66  per  cent.  (180  ounces  per 


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TRAKSAOTIOKS  AND   PERIODI0AL8.  588 

ton)  of  silver.  The  antimony  was  not  worked  in  earlier  times.  Zinc  occurs  in  large 
irregular  blocks  containing  from  8  to  50  per  cent,  of  pure  metal  near  the  Tillage  of 
Vasic.  The  whole  Drina  district  is  traversed  by  paths,  now  overgrown,  and  the 
numerous  old  cemeteries  bear  testimony  to  the  large  population  that  once  inhabited 
it.  The  two  best  known  ancient  mining  centres  of  the  district  were  Zajeca  and 
Erupanj,  the  latter  place  being  at  one  time  the  centre  of  the  iron  industry  of  all 
Servia. 

The  ore  district  of  Kucevo  comprises  the  mountains  in  Eastern  Servia  which 
form  a  continuation  of  the  Siebenburg  and  South  Hungarian  Carpathian  mountains, 
through  which  the  Danube  has  broken  the  passage  of  the  Iron  Gate.  The  same 
formations  occur  on  both  sides  of  the  river.  The  principal  mines  now  at  work  are  the 
Kucajna  and  Majdanpek.  The  Kucajna  numbers  lead,  silver,  and  gold  among  its 
ores,  the  Majdanpek  lead,  iron,  copper,  silver,  and  gold.  The  Kucajna  ores  are 
the  richest  in  gold  and  silver  in  all  Servia,  containing,  as  they  do,  007  per  cent.  (22 
ounces  per  ton)  of  gold  and  0-75  per  cent.  (245  ounces  per  ton)  of  silver.  This 
district  was  also  worked  by  the  Romans,  as  by  later  masters  of  the  country  in 
succession. 

The  Zaplanina  district  contains  the  mountains  between  the  Nisava  and  the 
Binacka-Moruva.  Its  mineralogical  features  are  now  little  known,  but  there  are 
many  traces  of  the  existence  in  earlier  times  of  a  busy  mining  industry.  Veins 
containing  iron,  copper,  and  silver  crop  out  in  various  places,  and  gold  occurs  in 
the  rivers.  The  river-beds  were  searched  for  gold  in  olden  times ;  and  even  now, 
gipsies  do  a  little  gold- washing,  although  it  is  forbidden  by  law. 

A.  R.  L.  and  W.  F.  W. 


MINING  AND  METALLURGY  IN  CHILL 

Le  Chili   Minier,  MitaUurgique^  InduHriel.    By  Oh.  Vattieb.     MSmoires  de 
la  SociitS  des  IngSni^ars  Civils^  1892,  vol.  iij  pages  37-140,  and  plate  LXVII, 

The  raw  nitrate  earth  as  extracted  in  the  Tarapacd  and  Taltal  districts,  varies  in 
contents  from  20  to  40  per  cent,  of  pure  nitrate.  The  average  cost  of  extraction  is 
about  25s.  per  ton  (70  centavos  per  quintal  of  100  lbs.)  With  raw  nitrate  of  50  per 
cent.  1  quintal  of  coal  is  required  to  produce  12  of  pure  nitrate.  The  cost  for  rail 
carriage  (66  miles)  is  13s.  per  ton  (37  centavos  per  quintal). 

Gold  is  found  both  in  alluvials  and  lodes.  Among  the  latter  are  cited  those  of 
Guanaco  in  Taltal,  where  the  veinstone  consists  of  quartz  and  barytes,  often  crystal- 
line and  transparent,  with  spangles  of  gold.  In  the  province  of  Coquimbo  many 
lodes  are  worked,  the  yield  rarely  exceeding  11-14  dwts.  per  ton. 

The  principal  silver-mines  worked  are  situated  in  the  north,  especially  in  the 
provinces  of  Antofagasta  and  Atacama.  Those  of  Copiapo,  which  produced  largely 
some  forty  years  since,  are  now  mostly  worked  out.  In  the  province  of  Santiago  are 
situated  the  well-known  mines  of  Las  Condes.  ^ 

The  copper-mines  of  northern  and  central  Chili  constituted  for  a  long  time  the 
principal  mineral  riches  of  the  country.  The  production  nearly  forty  years  ago  was 
one-third  of  that  of  the  whole  world,  whereas  it  is  now  less  than  one-fifteenth.  At 
first  only  the  oxidized  ores  were  worked,  the  sulphides  being  reject^;  during  the 
last  half  century,  however,  the  sulphide  ores  having  given  the  bulk  of  the  output. 
The  principal  centre  of  production  is  the  province  of  Coquimbo. 

Chili  is  exceptionally  rich  in  deposits  of  iron  ore  of  high  quality,  often  situated 
under  conditions  very  favourable  for  working  and  transport  ;  they  are  especially 
abundant  in  the  provinces  of  Atacama  and  Coquimbo.    As  yet  they  have  only  been 


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584  NOTES  07  PAPERS  IN  FOREION 

worked  to  a  comparatively  small  extent  for  flozea  for  smelting  other  ores.  The 
average  contents  in  metallic  iron  are  given  as  66*05  per  cent.  Very  little  attention 
has  been  given  to  iron  in  the  south,  but  deposits  are  known  to  exist  in  the  vicinity 
of  Goronel  and  Valdivia. 

The  most  important  manganese  deposits  are  situated  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Carrizal  Bajo  and  Coquimbo.  A  typical  sample  contains  peroxide  of  manganese 
66  per  cent.,  protoxide  24  per  cent.,  silica  5  per  cent.,  carbonate  of  lime  9  per  cent., 
peroxide  of  iron  0*60  per  cent.,  and  phosphorus  0'03  per  cent.  As  a  rule,  both  the 
quality  and  percentage  of  the  ore  deteriorate  at  a  small  depth,  and  in  some  cases  it 
disappears  altogether  at  a  depth  of  14  or  15  yards. 

The  great  bulk  of  the  copper  ore  is  treated  by  smelting,  either  in  reverberatory 
furnaces  oj  fours  a  manche.  Wood  is  used  for  smelting  only  in  Coquimbo  and  a  few 
of  the  departments  in  the  centre.  The  cost  in  Coquimbo,  delivered  to  the  furnace, 
is  about  58.  to  6s.  (3  to  4  pesos)  per  ton.  At  Mait«nes  in  Santiago,  the  dry  wood 
used  for  cupellation,  etc.,  costs  as  much  as  21s.  to  22s.  (13  to  14  pesos)  per  ton.  In 
the  south  excellent  wood  can  be  procured  at  less  than  3s.  (2  pesos)  per  ton.  Char- 
coal has  not  been  used  hitherto  for  smelting,  but  an  excellent  product  could  be  made 
in  the  south  and  delivered  at  16s.  (10  pesos)  per  ton. 

The  Chilian  lignites  are  produced  mainly  near  Concepcion :  other  deposits  exist 
farther  south,  but  have  not  yet  been  worked.  The  present  production  is  600,000 
tons  per  annum,  and  is  rapidly  increasing :  the  price  per  ton  is  now  about  16s.  to 
19s.  (10  to  12  pesos)  or  more,  delivered  at  the  northern  ports.  The  beds  are  near 
the  coast,  and  vary  in  thickness  from  2  to  6  feet.  They  are  often  worked  for  con- 
siderable distances  under  the  sea :  gas  is  sometimes  developed,  but  accidents  are  rare. 

The  following  are  analyses  of  lignite  from  Lota :  — 

Water 

Volatile  matter  

Fixed  carbon 

Clay  and^ferruginous  ash    

100-0  100-0 

Calorific  power  as  compared  with  pure  carbon,  75*6  and  71*8.  Foreign  coal, 
being  brought  as  return  freight  at  low  rates,  costs  only  3s.  to  5s.  (2  to  8  pesos)  more 
per  ton  than  this  lignite.  The  foreign  coke  used  for  smelting  costs  from  46s.  to  528. 
(29  to  88  pesos)  per  ton,  and  anthracite  from  27s.  to  33s.  (17  to  21  pesos)  per  ton 
delivered. 

Silver  ores  are  in  Chili  treated  either  by  amalgamation  or  by  smelting  in  low 
blast-fomaces.  The  former  is  now  performed  by  a  method  known  as  the  Kronke 
process,  the  old  patio  process  having  long  been  abandoned.  This  process  appears  to 
consist  of  the  addition  of  chemicals,  notably  salt  and  sub-chloride  of  copper,  doling 
amalgamation. 

The  small  amount  of  lead  in  the  ores,  and  their  siliceous  nature,  necessitate  many 
speci£#  features  in  the  smelting  process  adopted,  which  is  described  in  great  detail. 
In  the  smelting  mixture  a  great  deal  of  slag  and  fluxes  are  necessary,  generally 
nearly  half  the  total  charge  exclusive  of  coke;  the  coke  consumed  is  25  per  cent,  or 
more  of  the  actual  ore  smelted.  The  ore  must  be  in  lumps :  fines  or  dust  must  be 
made  into  briquettes,  and  even  then  used  sparingly.  The  average  quantity  smelted 
will  be,  with  ordinary  ores,  10  to  12  tons  per  day.  The  product  is  a  copper-lead 
matte,  containing  generally  about  80  to  85  per  cent,  of  copper,  16  to  18  per  cent,  of 
lead,  and  0*1  to  0-3  per  cent,  of  silver.  Some  argentiferous  lead  is  produced  at  the 
same  time ;  which,  after  re-smelting,  contains  90  to  92  per  cent,  of  lead,  with  0*8  to 
1  per  cent,  of  silver. 


5-0 

4-8 

40-2 

40-8 

53-2 

48-2 

1-6 

6-2 

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TaANSAOnONS  AND  PBaiODIOALS.  58b 

The  average  assay  of  copper  ores,  as  sold  to  the  smelting- works,  is  about  12  to  14 
per  cent.,  but  in  special  cases  it  is  much  higher  or  lower.  In  some  parts  of  Chili,  in 
the  centre  and  south  especially,  there  are  many  small  reverberatory  furnaces  worked 
by  the  landed  proprietors,  using  wood  as  fuel,  and  producing  a  50  per  cent,  matte  at 
one  operation.  This  is  broken  and  roasted  in  heaps,  and  when  sufficient  is  collected  it 
is  re-smelted  to  bar  copper  in  the  same  or  a  similar  furnace.  These  furnaces  smelt 
3  or  4  tons  per  24  hours,  using  10  tons  of  wood  costing  3s.  to  Ss.  (2  to  8  pesos)  per 
ton :  and,  in  consequence  of  the  growing  scarcity  of  wood,  they  tend  to  disappear. 

The  greater  part  of  the  Chilian  copper  is  however  smelted  in  reverberatory  fur- 
naces with  foreign  (English  or  Australian)  coal  or  native  lignite,  by  the  ordinary 
Welsh  process,  producing  60  per  cent,  matte.  This  is  broken,  crushed,  roasted,  and 
re-smelted  with  oxide  ores  and  slags,  yielding  some  copper  bars  and  some  white 
matte  of  70  to  72  per  cent.  The  latter  is  re-roasted,  made  into  rosette  copper  and 
refined.    The  50  per  cent,  matte  is,  at  Lota,  Bessemerized  direct. 

In  these  reverberatory  furnaces  about  1  ton  of  coal  is  necessary  to  smelt  2  or  S  of 
ore ;  and  the  slags  from  the  first  fusion  assay  0*75  per  cent,  on  the  average.  Many 
of  these  works  are  situated  in  the  province  of  Coquimbo,  where  the  Guayacan  works 
have  produced  as  much  as  1,000  tons  of  copper  per  month.  Still  more  are  found 
farther  south  in  the  coal  region,  where  the  ores  are  mainly  imported  from  the  north. 
The  Lota  works  have  produced  up  to  12,000  tons  per  annum  of  copper  bars. 

A  good  deal  of  ore,  especially  away  from  the  coast,  is  smelted  with  coke  or  anthra- 
cite, in  low  blast-furnaces  (^/ours  d  wunche)  much  resembling  those  used  for  silver 
ores.  The  method  of  smelting  at  the  Maitenes  works,  province  of  Santiago,  is 
described.  The  ore  averages  18  to  25  per  cent. ;  it  is  a  double  sulphide  of  copper 
and  iron,  and  the  gangue  is  quartzose.  It  is  screened,  and  the  coarse  portion  roasted 
in  heaps  of  200  to  800  tons.  The  fines  are  made  into  briquettes  and  roasted,  but 
this  operation  at  present  is  difficult.  The  coke  used  is  18  per  cent,  of  the  oie  weight. 
Each  furnace  smelts  from  20  to  25  tons  of  ore  (besides  fluxes,  etc.)  per  24  hours. 
The  slag  assays  under  \  per  cent.,  and  the  resulting  matte  about  50  per  cent. ;  it  is  led 
directly  into  a  converter,  where  it  is  transformed  into  copper  bars.  Bach  converter 
produces  4  to  5  tons  of  copper  per  24  hours. 

At  the  works  of  the  Panulcillo  Company  308  tons  per  month  are  produced  of 
50  per  cent,  matte,  from  a  very  poor  ore  with  a  garnet-rock  gangue. 

The  author  strongly  advocates  the  creation  in  Chili  of  a  steel-making  industry, 
for  which  he  says  every  facility  exists,  either  by  using  coke  made  from  the  lignite 
(if  the  latter  will  admit  of  it)  or  charcoal  from  the  southern  forests. 

G.B.  0. 

PROGRESS  OF  THE  METALLURGY  OP  NICKEL. 

Les  Progrhs  de  la  Mkallurgie  du  Nickel ^  etc.    By  D.  Leyat.     AnneUes  des  Mines, 
1892,  series  9,  vol,  i,,  pages  141-226. 

The  only  nickel-ore  deposits  of  known  first-rate  importance  are  those  of  New 
Caledonia  and  Sudbury  in  Canada.  In  New  Caledonia,  nickel  occurs  only  in  the 
form  of  hydrat^d  magnesian  silicate,  apple-green  in  colour  when  pure,  in  fissures  in 
serpentine ;  and  it  must  clearly  have  been  originally  deposited  in  this  state,  sul- 
phides or  arsenides  being  unknown,  even  in  the  deepest  workings.  The  serpen- 
tine forms  about  half  the  area  of  the  island,  especially  towards  the  south :  the  nickel 
being  always  found  at  or  near  its  junction  with  funnel-shaped  pipes  {vasgues)  of  red 
clay,  although  never  in  the  clay  itself. 

This  clay  is  formed  by  the  hydrothermal  alteration  of  the  serpentine ;  numerous 
fissures  in  which,  bearing  north-west  and  south-east,  or  roughly  at  right-angles  to 


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586  NOTBS  OF  PAPERS  IN  FOEEiaiT 

the  general  direction  of  the  island,  have  given  passage  to  metalliferons  springs 
carrying  iron  and  manganese,  which  have  eaten  away  the  serpentine,  and  deposited 
their  dissolved  matter  in  the  cavities  so  produced.  The  manganese,  always  contain- 
ing cobalt,  is  found  as  beds  in  the  clay;  and  the  iron  solutions  having  finally 
predominated,  great  masses  of  granular  hydrated  hsematite  have  been  deposited  on 
the  top  of  the  clay.  The  cobalt  is  in  the  form  of  hydrated  oxide,  without  any  trace 
of  sulphur  or  arsenic,  and  the  mineral  extracted  rarely  contains  more  than  2*5  to 
3  per  cent,  of  metallic  cobalt. 

In  the  south  of  the  island  the  serpentine  contains  many  grains  of  chrome  iron, 
which  have  been  re-arranged  in  an  enriched  form  in  the  clay. 

After  the  formation  of  the  clay-pockets,  fissures  and  cavities  have  been  produced 
between  the  clay  and  the  surrounding  serpentine ;  which,  together  with  the  fissures 
and  joints  in  the  serpentine  itself,  have  been  subsequently  filled  with  the  deposits 
from  nickeliferous  solutions,  forming  a  breccia,  which  constitutes  the  nickel  ore. 
The  deposits  are  therefore  either  stockworks,  contact  deposits  between  the  clay  and 
serpentine,  or  the  fillings  of  fissures  in  the  serpentine  near  the  clay :  these  last  being 
generally  more  concentrated  and  therefore  more  valuable. 

The  stockworks  are  worked  as  open-cuttings ;  and  it  is  very  important  in  commenc- 
ing to  entirely  remove  the  red  clay  without  allowing  it  to  mix  with  the  nickel  ore — 
first,  because  the  grains  of  iron-ore  which  it  contains  cannot  be  separated  easily  by 
washing  from  the  nickel,  and  much  impoverish  the  matte ;  and,  secondly,  because  the 
highly  aluminous  clay  renders  the  mineral,  already  very  siliceous,  still  more  refractory. 
This  mode  of  working  is  very  troublesome  during  the  rainy  season,  particularly  as 
the  labour  supply  is  small. 

The  ore  is  divided  into  two  classes — that  containing  over  8  per  cent,  of  nickel, 
and  poorer  ore.  It  is  then  brought  down  to  the  plains  for  washing,  which  consiste 
in  merely  separating  the  red  mud ;  owing  to  the  equal  density  of  the  ore  and  gangue, 
no  further  concentration  is  possible,  and  all  ore  of  3  to  4  per  cent,  and  under  has  to 
be  thrown  away. 

The  mineral  as  extracted  varies  greatly  in  composition,  but  the  following  may  be 
taken  as  extreme  analyses : — 


SUica         

Percent. 
46 

PerOent 
50 

Iron            

16 

14 

Nickel        

8 

7 

Magnesia 

12 

10 

Alumina    

3 

6 

Water  and  oxygen 

16 

14 

100        ...       100 
This  composition  necessitates  an  addition  of  25  to  30  per  cent,  of  bases,  and  more 
or  less  sulphides,  the  smelting  mixture  being  made  up  as  follows : — 

Owte. 
Ore  200 

Coal        6-0 

Sulphur 0-7 

Fine  coke  1*6 

The  high  cost  of  coke,  and  the  want  of  experienced  labour  for  smelting,  has 
caused  the  concentration  of  the  ore  to  a  matte  on  the  spot  to  be  temporarily 
suspended.  It  is  now  principally  treated  in  England  in  small  water-jacket  furnaces 
running  through  25  to  30  tons  of  ore-mixture  per  24  hours,  soda-ash  being  used  as  a 
flux.  The  coke  used  is  over  30  per  cent,  by  weight  of  the  ore,  and  the  resulting 
matte  averages  50  to  66  per  cent,  of  nickel,  25  to  30  per  cent,  of  iron,  and  16  to  18  per 
cent,  of  sulphur. 


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TRANBACTIONS  AND  PBBIODICALS.  587 

At  Sadbary/in  Ontario,  Canada,  nickel  is  found  in  association  with  magnetic 
iron  pyrites,  accompanied  by  chalcopyrite — ^the  mines  having  been  first  worked  for 
copper  only.  The  mineral  occurs  in  large  lenticular  masses,  interstratified  with 
gneiss  of  the  primitive  formation  of  North  America— here  over  8,000  feet  thick. 
The  beds  have  been  greatly  contorted,  lying  at  steep  angles  up  to  70  degs.,  with  a 
general  strike  of  north-east  and  south-west :  and  they  are  frequently  penetrated  by 
dykes  of  diorite,  the  deposits  of  magnetic  pyrites  occurring  at  or  near  the  contact, 
sometimes  even  in  the  diorite  itself — which  forms,  moreover,  the  gangue  of  the  ore. 

The  average  assay  of  the  ore  rarely  exceeds  3  to  4  per  cent,  of  nickel,  and  about 
the  same  of  copper,  but  it  appears  to  become  enriched  in  depth.  The  following  is 
an  average  analysis  of  the  ore  picked  out  for  copper : — 

Sulphur            26-72 

Copper 12-61 

Iron       29-22 

Nickel 8-12 

Protoxide  of  iron        6-22 

Lime      4*84 

Magrnesia          2*61 

Alumina           2*63 

Silica 13-06 


101-03 


According  to  Messrs.  Peters  and  Gamier,  the  deposits  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes: — (a)  Those  such  as  the  Stobie  and  Leigh  ton  mines,  composed  of  almost 
pure  massive  magnetic  pyrites  containing  little  copper  or  nickel,  but  which  after 
roasting  form  a  good  flux  for  the  richer  ores.  These  deposits  are  worked  by  open- 
cutting.  (J)  The  deposits  of  more  elongated  lenticular  form,  worked  by  means  of 
shafts  following  the  dip.  On  an  average  the  ores  from  these  deposits  (Copper  Cliff 
mine,  Evans  mine,  Blizzard  mine,  etc.)  contain  3  to  5  per  cent,  of  nickel  and  as  much 
copper.  All  these  ores  are  trammed  direct  to  the  roasting-floors,  the  cost  delivered 
being  about  8s.  (10  francs)  per  ton,  with  about  50  per  ocnt.  of  ore  of  the  first  class. 
The  roasting  is  done  in  heaps,  costing  about  28.  6d.  (3  francs)  per  ton ;  a  heap  of  500 
or  600  tons  taking  50  or  60  days  to  roast.  The  roasted  ore  is  smelted  in  large  water- 
jacket  furnaces,  with  a  coke  consumption  of  12 J  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  ore ;  the 
matte  produced  being  about  12  per  cent,  of  the  charge,  and  the  slags  assaying  0*46 
per  cent,  of  nickel  and  0*40  per  cent,  of  copper.  Originally  the  matte  was  considerably 
richer  in  copper  than  in  nickel,  which  greatly  lessened  its  value:  in  1889  the  matte 
of  the  Canadian  Copper  Company  ran  26-9  per  cent,  of  copper  and  14-1  per  cent,  of 
nickel ;  but  in  February  1891  this  had  been  reduced  to  16-9  per  cent  of  copper 
against  21-5  per  cent,  of  nickel.  The  matte  produced  by  the  Dominion  Mineral 
Company,  who  are  able  to  mix  their  ore  with  purely  nickeliferous  mineral  from 
other  mines,  averages  18  to  20  per  cent,  of  copper  to  24  to  26  per  cent,  of  nickel. 

Coke  costs  about  £1  8s.  (35  francs)  per  ton  delivered  at  the  furnaces ;  and  the 
average  cost  of  smelting  in  the  large  water-jackets  of  120  tons  per  24  hours*  capacity, 
may  be  taken  at  68.  to  7s.  (8  to  9  francs)  per  ton. 

The  paper  includes  a  very  complete  account  of  the  metallurgy  of  nickel ;  but  the 
author  merely  refers  to  the  considerable  nickel-deposits  of  Norway,  which  occur 
under  very  similar  conditions  to  those  of  Canada,  and  which  have  been  largely 
worked  during  the  last  twenty-five  years.  G.  S.  0. 


vol..  v.— 1898-98.  88 


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588  NOTES  OF  PAPEES  IN  FOREIGN 

THE  PBODUOTION  OF  NICKEL. 

Om  verdeng  nikkelproduktion  og  wn  konkurranee-hetin-gelteme  melle^n  de  nor$ke  og 
de  ud^rUaJuUke  nikJtelforek^nn^er.  By  J.  H.  L.  VooT.  OeologUTca  FffrmingeM, 
FOrhandlingary  Stockholm^  1892,  vol.  xiv.,  pages  433-475. 

The  Sudbury  (Canada)  deposits  of  nickeliferous  pyrites  are — as  is  also  the  case 
in  Norway— situated  in  gabbro,  and  are  often  concentrated  at  its  contact  with  other 
rocks ;  they  are  mineralogically  and  geologically  similar  to  the  Norwegian  deposits. 
As  in  other  cases,  the  nickel  carries  with  it  a  little  cobalt,  generally  about  one  part 
cobalt  to  five  to  ten  nickel.  The  accompanying  copper  is  also  considerably  more 
than  in  Norway  and  Sweden. 

Nickel  ores  are  of  three  kinds  : — 

Arsenides.— FovLud  chiefly  in  lodes,  and  which  up  to  the  middle  of  the  century 
formed  the  chief  source  of  supply,  from  Germany  and  Austria-Hungary. 
Sulphides,— As  found  in  Canada,  Norway,  etc. 

Silicates, — As  worked  in  New  Caledonia,  etc. ;  and  deposited  by  lateral  secretion 
from  serpentine  containing  a  little  nickel.  In  New  Caledonia  the  garnierite  occurs 
intimately  associated  with  asbolite,  and  seems  to  have  been  derived  from  the  same 
solutions ;  the  latter  being  deposited  first,  probably  because  its  component  elements 
were  easier  to  oxidize. 

The  author  gives  a  table  showing  the  world^s  production  for  the  last  half -century : 
rising  from  100  to  250  tons  yearly  in  1840  to  1860,  to  600  to  700  tons  in  1870  to  1880, 
and  1,250  to  1,500  tons  in  1883  and  1889.  He  estimates  the  production  of  1890  at 
about  2,000  tons,  and  that  of  1891  and  1892  still  higher  ;  but  considers  the  figures 
given  by  Mr.  Levat*  to  be  excessive. 

Details  and  tables  are  given  of  the  output  in  the  various  producing  countries, 
especially  as  to  Norway,  Germany,  and  New  Caledonia. 

He  states  the  average  contents  of  the  Norwegian  nickeliferous  pyrites  as  8  to  4  J 
per  cent,  of  clean  mineral.  Of  course  the  smelting-ore  is  much  poorer,  having 
averaged  up  to  1880  only  about  1  per  cent.,  and  has  since  varied  from  1*4  to  2*3  per 
cent.  The  garnierite  mixture  of  New  Caledonia  averages  of  late  years  from  6  to  8 
per  cent. 

There  are  also  tables  giving  the  fluctuations  in  price  from  1867,  when  it  was 
worth  8-10  kroner  (say  9s.)  per  kilogramme,  to  the  present  value  (at  the  date  of  the 
paper)  of  3*50  to  4  kroner  (say  4s.  6d.).  Between  1873  and  1875  the  price  rose  to 
20  and  24  kroner  (£1  Is.  to  £1  68.  8d.).  The  rise  which  then  reached  its  apex  was 
owing  to  the  demand  for  coinage  purposes ;  the  subsequent  rapid  fall  being  caused 
by  the  working  of  the  New  Caledonia  deposits. 

According  to  Mr.  du  Peloux  the  cost  of  production  per  kilogramme  in  New 
Caledonia  of  metallic  nickel  was  (1880)  6s.  to  6s.  (6  to  7  francs),  which  could  be 
reduced  to  Ss.  or  4s.  (4  to  5  francs).  The  author  asserts  that  the  cost  in  the  best 
Norwegian  works  is  1*50  to  2  kroner  (Is.  8d.  to  28.  3d.),  including  all  costs  for 
bringing  up  to  a  60  per  cent,  matte ;  and  gives  Mr.  Levat's  authority  for  an  estimate 
of  the  cost  at  Sudbury  (Canada)  as  2  francs  per  kilogramme  in  a  20  per  cent,  matte 
(not  charging  any  of  the  cost  to  the  copper  contained  in  it).  At  this  rate  the  costs 
of  production  would  be  nearly  equal,  the  higher  grade  of  the  Canadian  ore  being 
counterbalanced  by  the  higher  prices  for  labour  and  materials.  G.  E.  C. 

*  Aniudfi  du  MiM9, 1898.  toL  L.  pftge  141. 


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TRANSACTIONS  AND  PERIODICALS.  589 

NICKEL  MINES  OF  NEW  CALEDONIA. 

itude  tur  Us  Mines  de  Nickel  de  la  Nouvelle-CaUdcnie,  By  Yiux  Benoit. 
Bulletin  de  la  SociUi  de  V Industrie  MinSraley  1892,  series  S,  vol,  in.,  pages 
763-804. 

An  historical  account  is  given  of  the  discovery  of  nickel  in  New  Caledonia  by 
Mr.  Jales  Gamier,  and  of  the  subsequent  development  of  the  industry. 

The  deposits  are  found  in  the  serpentine  formation  which  constitutes  the  greater 
part  of  the  south  of  the  island.  The  mountain  crests  of  this  formation,  on  which 
they  occur,  run  about  north-west  and  south-east,  or  in  the  direction  of  the  length  of 
the  island ;  their  sides  are  covered  by  sheets  of  red  clay  surmounted  by  masses  of 
iron  ore. 

The  deposits  consist  entirely  of  hydrated  magnesian  silicate  (gamierite),  varying 
in  colour  from  green  to  chocolate,  soft  and  often  unctuous  to  the  touch.  The  com- 
position is  extremely  variable,  but  the  average  is  stated  as  follows : — 

Per  Gent 
Nickel  7 


Magnesia 
Iron    ... 
Silica... 
Water... 


26 
12 
45 
10 


The  serpentine  itself  nearly  always  contains  traces  of  nickel,  said  to  vary  from 
1  to  6  per  cent. 

The  nickel  ore  is  always  enclosed  in  serpentine,  at  or  near  its  contact  with  the 
red  clay.  It  occurs  generally  in  very  irregular  fissures,  often  forming  a  kind  of 
stockwork ;  but  sometimes  in  definite  almost  vertical  veins,  or  in  masses.  Many 
of  the  deposits  are  worked  in  the  open.    There  is  no  gangue,  as  a  rule. 

The  deposits  are  situ<ated  along  definite  lines  of  enrichment,  starting  from  the 
east  coast  and  running  in  a  south-west  direction ;  and  at  present  only  those  near 
the  coast  are  worked.  The  nickeliferous  veins  as  a  rule  diminish  in  size  in  depth, 
but  to  this  there  are  exceptions. 

There  is  nothing  worthy  of  note  in  the  methods  of  working,  either  by  levels  or 
open  cut.  The  mines  are  generally  situated  at  a  considerable  elevation,  averaging 
1,500  feet,  and  the  ore  is  transported  from  the  principal  mines,  by  inclined  planes 
or  aerial  tramways. 

The  labour  employed  consists  of  the  three  following  classes  : — 

(1)  English  miners,  paid  6  to  9  francs  (5s.  to  78.)  per  day. 

(2)  Kanakas,  receiving  20  francs  (16s.)  per  month,  with  keep. 

(3)  Convicts  and  other  prisoners  hired  from  the  State. 

The  author  strongly  advocates  the  importation  of  free  miners  from  Prance. 

The  cost  of  mining  varies  from  15  to  40  francs  (128.  to  328.),  and  that  of  carriage 
to  port  from  050  to  10  francs  (5d.  to  8s.)  per  ton.  The  value  at  port  of  shipment  for 
ore  of  7 J  to  8 J  per  cent,  nickel  is  105  francs  (£4  Ss.  4d.),  and  ore  of  9 J  to  lOJ  per 
cent.,  125  francs  (£4  198.)  per  ton ;  the  assays  being  calculated  on  the  ore  when 
desiccated.     The  freight  to  Europe  is  from  40  to  50  francs  (£1  128.  to  £1  198.  6d.). 

Thio  Dint rirt.— The  author  next  proceeds  to  describe  the  mines  at  work  in  great 
detail,  commencing  with  those  belonging  to  the  French  Company  Le  Nickel.  This 
Company  works  eleven  mines  situated  in  the  Thio  district,  which  he  divides  into 
three  groups ;  all  are  worked  as  open  cuts,  and  they  together  employ  1,600  hands. 

The  first  or  Plateau  group  comprises  five  mines,  together  producing  2,600  tons 
monthly  of  ore  averaging  7  per  cent.,  a  production  which  it  is  stated  might  at  once 


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590  NOTES  OF  PAPERS  IN  FOREIGN 

be  raised  to  4,000  tons  per  month  if  sufficient  labour  were  available.  One  mine  is 
worked  to  a  depth  of  300  feet.  The  whole  mountain  in  which  they  are  situated 
is  said  to  be  probably  a  stockwork. 

The  Pauline  group  comprises  two  mines,  both  of  stockwork  type,  producing 
together  600  tons  monthly  of  5  to  6^  per  cent.  The  Pauline  mine  is  situated  in 
greenish  serpentine  of  porphyritic  appearance,  the  alteration  of  which  shows  a 
definite  line  up  to  which  the  nickel-bearing  solutions  reached. 

In  the  third  or  Stilling  group  the  ore  is  friable,  varying  in  colour  from  yellow  to 
brick-red,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  it  from  the  clay  previously  mentioned. 
The  production  of  this  group  is  300  tons  per  month,  averaging  7  per  cent,  nickel. 

Nahity  District, — The  Bienvenue  mine  is  worked  on  a  well-defined  vein  running 
north-west  and  south-east,  and  dipping  regularly  80  degs.  to  the  west,  the  workable 
thickness  of  which  varies  from  10  inches  to  2J  feet.  Both  walls  (serpentine)  are 
well-defined,  with  slickensides.  The  nickellferous  filling  varies  in  colour  from  green 
to  chocolate-yellow,  and  black  at  the  lowest  level.  This  mine  produces  300  tons  per 
month  of  8  per  cent.  ore. 

The  Barbouill^e  and  Boulang^re  mines,  both  worked  as  open  cuts,  produce 
together  200  tons  of  6  per  cent,  ore  per  month. 

Canala  District, — ^The  workings  of  the  Boakaine  mine  are  on  a  mass  of  rich 
green  ore  apparently  formed  by  the  union  of  a  number  of  small  veins.  It  produces 
250  tons  per  month  of  8|  per  cent,  ore,  and  belongs  to  the  Le  Nickel  Company. 

Couaoua  District, — The  Dor^  mine  is  worked  by  four  levels;  the  ore  being 
quartzose  in  the  upper  level,  and  magnesian  in  the  lower  ones.  It  produces  350  tons 
of  6  per  cent,  ore  per  month,  which  with  additional  labour  could  be  easily  increased. 

The  Caulry  group  are  worked  by  quarries  and  mines  on  deposits,  which  in  depth 
concentrate  from  stockworks  into  definite  east-and-west  lodes,  coinciding  in  strike 
with  the  crest  of  the  mountain  in  which  they  are  situated.  Their  production  is  300 
tons  per  month,  averaging  9  per  cent. 

The  other  principal  districts  are  those  of  Bourail,  Paou^a,  and  Kouiambo.  Tt  is 
estimated  that  the  total  production  for  1892  will  reach  100,000  tons.        G.  E.  C. 


PRODUCTION  OF  NICKEL  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

NicJtel,    By  W.  B.  Ingalls.      The  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal  {New 

York),  1892,  vol.  liii.,pagejt  40-41. 

Occurrenee.—liL  the  United  States  there  is  but  one  deposit  of  nickel  which  has 
been  mined  regularly  for  that  metal  alone,  it  being  located  at  Lancaster  Gap,  Penna. 
The  lead  ores  of  South-eastern  Missouri  carry  a  small  amount  of  nickel,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  cobalt,  both  of  which  are  recovered  as  bye-products. 

Production,— T\iQ  following  figures  show  the  production  of  nickel  in  the  United 
States,  together  with  the  imports  into  the  country  and  the  exports  from  it,  for  the 
years  1890  and  1891  ;— 


Prodnotlon. 


■  VtJueof  Vftloeof 

Amount,  Ayer»g6  Price.  Value.  Imports.  Exports. 

Lbs.  s.    d.  £  JB  2^ 

1890      ...      200,332      ...       2    8       ...      26,694       ...       77,137      ...       97 

.      1891       ...       144,841      ...      2     6|     ...       17,816       ...         —  ...      — 

The  exports  of  nickel  from  New  Caledonia  in  1890,  according  to  a  recent 
consular  report,  amounted  to  3,300  lbs.,  and  of  nickel  ore  to  about  5,000  tons, 
which,  averaging  about  8  per  cent,  of  nickel,  was  equivalent  to  about  882,000  lb«. 
of  metallic  nickel,  representing  a  total  export  of  885,800  lbs. 


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TRANSACTIONS  AND  PERIODICALS.  59l 

The  production  of  nickel  (in  nickel-copper  matte)  in  Canada  in  1890  was 
1,336,627  lbs.,  that  being  the  first  year  for  which  Btatistics  of  the  Sudbury  district 
were  published. 

Methods  of  Nickel  Winning. — The  nickeliferous  chalcopyrite  and  pyrrhotite  of 
Sudbury,  Ontario,  are  first  roasted  and  then  smelted  in  cupola-furnaces  to  nickel- 
copper  matte,  containing  about  20  per  cent,  of  nickel. 

These  mattes  are  very  refractory,  and  had  not  been  successfully  handled  until 
the  year  1891.  Of  the  large  output  in  the  Sudbury  district  in  1890  but  a  small 
portion  was  shipped.  In  the  latter  part  of  that  year  the  Orford  Copper  Company 
devised  a  successful  method  of  refining  these  mattes,  and  since  then  the  bulk  of  the 
output  of  the  Canadian  mines  has  been  brought  to  the  Unital  States,  the  Orford 
Copper  Company  now  being  the  largest  nickel  refiner  in  the  world.  By  the  secret 
process  used  by  this  company,  the  copper  and  nickel  in  the  matte  are  separated  and 
the  nickel  converted  into  nickel  oxide,  which  is  said  to  be  more  suitable  for  the 
manufacture  of  nickel-steel  than  metallic  nickel.  A  small  part  of  the  Sudbury 
mattes  is  sent  to  Swansea  to  be  refined. 

There  are  three  nickel-smelting  and  refining  works  in  the  United  States,  viz., 
the  American  Nickel  Works,  at  Camden,  New  Jersey,  the  works  of  the  Orford 
Copper  Company,  at  Constable's  Hook,  New  Jersey,  and  the  works  of  the  Canadian 
Copper  Company,  near  Cleveland,  Ohio,  which  are  not  yet  completed.  The 
American  Nickel  works  use  ore  from  the  Lancaster  Gap  mine,  Canadian  mattes,  and 
ore  fix)m  South-eastern  Missouri.  The  Orford  works  run  exclusively  on  Canadian 
mattes,  whilst  the  Cleveland  works  are  to  use  mattes  from  the  Canadian  Copper 
Company's  mines  at  Sudbury,  Ontario. 

The  Nickel  Market, — The  consumption  of  nickel  has  greatly  increased,  the 
increase  being  due  principally  to  the  growing  demand  for  the  metal  for  use  in 
the  manufacture  of  nickel  steel,  the  Creusot  works  (in  France)  alone  having  con- 
tracted for  a  large  part  of  the  product  of  the  Societe  du  Nickel^  while  the  United 
States  Government  purchased  the  large  quantity  of  6,600  tons  of  Canadian  matte, 
containing  probably  about  20  per  cent,  of  nickel.  There  has  also  been  an  increased 
demand  from  the  nickel-platers,  the  German-silver  manufacturers,  etc. 

The  United  States  Government  (1891)  made  elaborate  tests  of  nickel-steel  and 
other  kinds  of  armour-plate  at  Indian  Head,  Maryland,  which  resulted  in  a  decisive 
approval  of  the  nickel-steel,  and  it  has  now  been  adopted  as  the  protective  material 
for  the  new  cruisers  and  battle-ships.  J.  W. 


THE  HUANCHACA  MINES,  BOLIVIA. 

Notes  im  the  Huanchaca  Mine,  Bolivia^  South  America,    By  Robert  Peble,  Jun, 
School  of  Mines  Quarterly  {New  York),  vol,  xiv.,j)ages  152-165. 

The  mines  are  situated  in  a  group  of  hills  on  the  Central  Bolivian  plateau, 
13,400  feet  above  sea-level,  and  are  connected  with  the  Chilian  port  of  Antofagasta 
by  a  30-iuches  gauge  railroad,  395  miles  long.  The  workings  are  on  two  parallel 
and  nearly  vertical  veins,  cutting  through  a  mountain  which  reaches  an  elevation 
of  14,500  feet. 

The  mines  were  extensively  worked  some  time  ago  to  a  depth  of  several  hundred 
feet,  with  small  success.  During  the  last  fifteen  years,  however,  they  have  produced 
a  value  of  over  £9,000,000,  of  which  about  £3,000,000  has  been  paid  in  dividends. 
Until  recently  they  were  worked  on  Spanish-American  lines,  but  during  the  last 
two  years  a  large  modern  hoisting-and-drilling  plant  has  been  erected. 


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692  NOTES  OF  PAPERS  IN  FOREIGN 

They  are  worked  through  a  tunnel,  which  onts  the  veins  at  1,600  feet  from  its 
mouth.  This  has  been  extended  through  the  mountain  towards  the  reduction 
works,  4i  miles  away,  the  remaining  distance  consisting  of  a  gravity-road. 

The  lowest  depth  attained  (1891)  was  1,190  feet  below  the  level  of  the  main 
tunnel.  During  1891  6,942,000  ounces  of  silver  were  produced,  yielding  a  net 
profit  of  over  £420,000.  17,193  tons  of  ore,  containing  4,041,000  ounces  silver  were 
exported  to  Europe,  and  13,890  tons,  containing  1,894,800  ounces,  treated  locally. 
The  cost  of  mining,  handling,  and  sorting  is  about  £5  16s.,  and  that  of  miUing 
£4  19s.  per  ton. 

The  gangue  is  quartzose,  carrying  iron  and  copper  pyrites,  galena,  blende,  and 
tetrahedrite.  The  latter  carries  most  of  the  silver ;  it  is  usually  massive,  but  some- 
times beautifully  crystallized. 

The  following  is  an  average  analysis  of  sorted  ores : — 


Silica 

•••        ...        ••• 

23-00 

Copper 

... 

1-89 

Lead 

... 

11-30 

Zinc 

..•        «■•        ... 

21-50 

Iron 

... 

11-60 

Sulphur 

... 

26-00 

Arsenic 

... 

0-36 

Antimony    ... 

1-80 

Silver 

from  120  to  800 

ounces 

per  ton. 

The  ore  is  pulverized  in  Gruson  (ball)  mills  of  German  make,  each  miU  g^nding 
10  to  12  tons  per  24  hours  to  50  mesh,  130  lbs.  being  crushed  per  horse-power  per 
hour. 

The  ore  is  roasted  in  reverberatory  furnaces  with  4  per  cent,  of  salt,  26  Ibe.  of 
brushwood  being  required  per  100  lbs.  of  ore.    After  withdrawal  from  the  furnace, 
the  ore  is  spread  out  on  the  cooling.floors  to  prevent  farther  chlorination. 
The  total  losses  average : — 

PerOenb 

In  transportation  and  grinding l^to   3 

In  roasting 3    „    5 

In  amalgamation 8    „  10 

In  stolen  amalgam  0-1 

In  melting  into  bars        0-6 

The  net  extraction  thus  varies  from  82  to  87  per  cent.,  the  silver  averaging  994 
fine. 

New  reduction-works  are  being  built  near  the  coast,  and  the  low-grade  ore — of 
which  there  is  60,000  to  70,000  tons,  of  76  to  90  ounces  per  ton,  in  the  dump  alone — 
win  in  future  be  treated  there,  395  miles  away  from  the  mine.  G.  S.  C. 


PHOSPHATES  IN  CANADA. 

The  Phosphate  Depoeite  of  the  Ottawa  Distn4!t,     By  R.  W.  Ells.     Canadian 
Mining  and  Mechanical  Review,  1893,  vol,  osii.,  pages  39-40. 

The  deposits  are  of  two  kinds,  the  apatite,  occurring  in  Laurentian  rocks,  and 
the  phosphatic  nodules,  found  in  fossiliferous  strata  of  Cambrian  and  CambiXK 
Silurian  age.    The  latter  have  not  been  worked. 


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Apatite  was  first  mined  in  Ontario  some  thirty  years  ago,  but  up  to  1875  the 
production  averaged  only  about  1,000  tons  per  annum.  From  1878  to  1889  it  was 
but  little  more— the  output  for  these  twelve  years  being  only  16,000  tons.  In 
Quebec,  on  the  other  hand,  where  mining  commenced  in  1871,  a  production  was 
reached  in  1885  of  28,535  tons. 

It  occurs  in  two  ways — either  in  association  with  intrusive  masses  or  dykes  of 
pyroxene,  cutting  through  the  altered  Laurentian  gneisses,  or  as  crystals,  often  of 
large  size,  disseminated  through  limestone.  The  more  economically  important 
deposits  belong  to  the  former  clas.«,  the  apatite  being  nearly  always  found  in  more 
or  less  connected  pockets  near  the  contact  with  the  gneiss. 

The  origin  of  the  deposits  is  briefly  discussed — the  conclusion  being  that  they 
were  formed  by  the  action,  on  the  calcite  of  the  pyroxene  masses,  of  vapours 
charged  with  phosphoric  acid  ascending  along  the  line  of  contact,  and  impregnating 
the  softened  or  heated  mass  in  patches  near  the  contact.  G.  E.  0. 


PHOSPHATES  IN  FLORIDA,  UNITED  STATES. 

(1)  The  Phosphate  InduHry  of  Florida.    By  Floyd  B.  Wilson.    Engineering 

Magazine  (New  York),  vol.  iv.,  pages  80-94. 

The  phosphates  of  Florida  may  be  divided  into  four  classes — Peace  river  pebble, 
land  pebble,  hard  rock,  and  mixed  land  pebble  and  plate  rock.  The  Peace  river 
pebble  is  pumped  up  from  the  river-bed,  and,  after  drying,  is  ready  for  shipment. 
It  is  of  about  60  per  cent.,  and  finds  a  ready  market.  The  first  discovery  of  these 
beds  was  made  in  1889,  and  it  is  said  by  some  that  they  are  nearly  worked  out. 

The  land  pebble  is  often  of  very  high  grade,  but  no  great  quantity  has  yet  been 
shipped,  difficulty  being  found  in  washing  out  the  clay  in  which  it  is  embedded. 

The  hard  rock  phosphate  occurs  in  pockets  of  very  varying  size,  there  being 
usually  an  overburden  of  10  or  15  feet  above  the  beds.  To  remove  impurities  it  has 
to  be  crushed,  washed,  and  dried  before  shipment. 

The  mixed  land  pebble  and  plate  rock  is  of  very  high  grade,  averaging  from  77 
to  79  per  cent.,  and  occurs  in  potholes  on  the  jagged  surface  of  waterworn  Eocene 
limestone.  These  potholes  are  filled  with  small  pebble  and  broken  plate,  and  are 
sometimes  as  deep  as  40  feet.  There  is  a  sand  overburden  varying  from  a  few  inches 
up  to  3  feet  in  depth.  The  deposits  extend  only  over  an  area  of  2 J  by  1 J  miles.  The 
phosphate  is  mixed  with  clay  and  sand,  which  are  washed  out,  and  it  is  then  dried 
— the  whole  process  being  automatic.  G.  E.  0. 

(2)  Suggestions  as  to  the  Origin  and  Deposition  of  Flarida  Phosphates,  By  WALTER 

B.  M.  Davidson.     The  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal  (New  York),  1891. 
vol.  IL,  pages  628-629. 

The  phosphate  field  in  Florida  includes  nearly  the  entire  western  half  of 
peninsula.      The   phosphates  are  divided  by  the  author  into— (a)  hard  rr 
boulder    phosphate;    {h)    soft    rock;    (c)    nodular    phosphate;    {d)    rive 
phosphate  ;  (c)  land  pebble  phosphate. 

Until  a  few  years  ago,  when  Mr.  Albertus  Vogt  and  Colonel  John  ^ 
that  there  was  phosphate  in  Florida,  the  whole  peninsula  was  look 
coral  reef  covered  with  a  blanket  of  sand. 

Now  the  interest  is  so  universal  and  so  much  capital  is  at  stakr 
States  Geological  Survey  have  ordered  a  reconnaissance ;  indeed 
in  the  field,  and  their  results  will  be  looked  forward  to  with  ir 


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594  NOTES  OF  PAPERS  IN  FOREIGl^ 

Geologists  here  have  a  hard  task,  for  there  are  practically  no  outcrops,  no 
sections  to  be  studied,  no  synclinals  or  anticlinals  to  be  measured,  and  nearly  the 
whole  peninsula  is  covered  with  a  mantle  of  sand.  Many  artesian  wells  have  been 
sunk,  the  most  valuable  to  geologists  being  that  sunk  at  Lake  Worth,  on  which  Mr. 
N.  H.  Darton,  U.S.  Geological  Survey,  has  published  a  monograph  recently. 

The  author  maintains  positively,  from  his  personal  observations,  that  an  Eocene 
or  Miocene  limestone  underlies  the  greater  part  of  Flonda  and,  broadly  speaking, 
the  entire  phosphate  field.  Referring  to  the  wave  or  beach  theory,  advanced  by 
Dr.  Wyatt,*  the  author  considers  it  very  ingenious  and  distinctly  scientific,  and 
says  that  while,  no  doubt,  wave  action  came  into  play,  it  does  not  explain  satisfac- 
torily the  rock  phosphate  deposit  in  all  its  vagaries. 

Apparently,  during  the  close  of  the  Cainozoic  period  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  were  elevated  by  gradual  upheaval  until  they  formed  shallow  lagoons, 
estuaries,  and  bays.  In  these  shallow,  warm  seas  lived  myriads  of  shell-fish,  many 
secreting  phosphate  as  well  as  carbonate  of  lime,  as  is  shown  by  the  analysis  of  a 
shell  of  Lingula  ovalU,  quoted  by  Dr.  Dana,  as  containing  86  per  cent,  of  phosphate  of 
lime.  Fishes  of  all  kinds  abounded  in  these  waters,  died,  and  their  bones,  while 
mostly  disappearing,  served  to  increase  the  amount  of  phosphate  of  lime  in  the 
limestone. 

Gradually  the  shores  emerged  from  the  seas,  and  while  they  rose  came  the 
glacial  epoch.  The  cold  of  this  epoch  drove  all  living  creatures  which  could  travel 
southward.  The  result  was  that  the  great  mammal  horde  flocked  to  the  swamps 
and  estuaries  of  Florida,  where  they  died. 

During  the  risings  and  sinkings  of  Florida,  the  author  maintains  that  leaching 
by  water  caused  denudation  and  solution  of  the  highly  phosphatic  limestone, 
bicarbonate  of  lime  being  carried  away  in  solution  and  phosphate  both  in  solution 
and  suspension.  In  the  stiller  waters  of  the  estuaries,  etc.,  the  phosphate  of  lime  in 
suspension  was  deposited  as  an  alluvial  secondary  deposit.  At  certain  places,  the 
water  in  the  streams  and  rivers,  apparently,  gave  up  the  phosphate  in  solution, 
phosphoric  being  replaced  by  carbonic  acid.  The  result  is  evidently  the  Irregular 
deposits  of  rock,  boulder,  or  high  grade  phosphate  of  lime. 

The  great  similarity  between  the  appearance  of  the  haematites  of  Virginia  and 
the  hard  rock  phosphates  of  Florida  was  first  pointed  out  by  Mr.  N.  H.  Darton,  and 
the  identity  is  very  striking. 

The  phosphate  carried  in  suspension,  etc.,  was  deposited  in  the  back  waters  of 
the  rivers  and  in  the  shallow  streams,  forming  the  soft  rock  or  phosphate.  With 
this  were  the  bones  of  the  beasts  mentioned  above.  *'  Then,  in  some  not  understood 
w^ay,  segregation  and  accretion  took  place,  the  richer  phosphatic  nodules  attracting 
to  themselves  the  phosphate  within  the  radius  of  their  attiaction,  and  thus  was 
formed  the  *  nodular '  phosphate  rock,  which  consists  of  rich  concretionary  nodules 
in  a  poorer  calcareous  matrix  mixed  with  bones  and  teeth.  There  is  no  dispute  as 
to  the  immeiliate  origin  of  the  pebble  phosphate,  river  and  land.  The  nodules  and 
the  bones,  mostly  rounded  by  attrition,  were  washed  down  by  the  rivers  and 
distributed  in  their  ever-changing  beds  with  sand  and  mud.  The  nodules  and  the 
bones  form  the  gravel  in  the  banks  in  the  river  beds,  the  *  river  pebble'  being 
merely  the  present  result  of  river  action,"  J.  W. 

*  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal  (New  York),  August  S3, 1880. 


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NAPHTHA  IN  AUSTRIAN  GALICIA. 
IHe  Naphtafelderin  Wietrzno,    By  Claudius  Angermann.    Jahrhtick  der  k,  k, 
Oeologitchen    Reich$amtalt,    1889,    vol,    xxxix.,  paga    281-288,    with    six 
sectiom  and  one  mav  in  th^  text. 

The  naphtha  occurs  in  crevices  in  Eocene  sandstones,  which  lie  in  an  anticlinal 
beneath  the  bituminous  "  men  i lite  shales.'*  The  sandstones  were  fractured  when  the 
folding  of  the  strata  took  place,  whilst  the  more  flexible  shales  were  bent  but  not  broken. 

The  Wietrzno  naphtha  works  are  situated  at  a  height  of  about  980  feet  above  sea- 
level,  and  the  gas  wells  go  down  to  822  feet,  so  that  the  actual  height  of  the  natural 
gas  reservoirs  above  sea-level  is  about  164  feet.  The  pressure  of  the  gas  at  bank  is 
2  to  3  atmospheres,  while  at  the  bottom  of  the  shaft  it  attains  1 5  atmospheres. 

The  author  shows  that  the  lie  of  the  beds  is  such  that  the  gas-bearing  deposits 
cannot  extend  very  far  to  east,  north,  or  south  of  the  present  workings ;  to  the 
west  are  the  older  well-known  works  of  Bobrka.  Some  shafts  were  put  down  by 
unscientific  searchers  at  points  where  the  beds  are  too  steeply  inclined  to  permit  of 
the  gas- bearing  sandstones  being  reached,  and  in  this  way  a  sum  of  £17,000  was 
lost.  0.  S.  B. 

PETROLEUM  IN  FRANCE. 

Dicouverte  de  Ibr rains  Pitrolifhres  dan^  la  Limagne  d^ Autergne»    By  P.  DUBBEUIL 

and  J.  DB  Cleecy.     Ginie  Civil,  1892,  voL  xxii.^page  102. 

Mr.  J.  de  Clercy  concluded  that  mineral  oil  would  probably  be  found  at  a  con- 
siderable depth  in  the  Limagne  d'Auvergne,  from  the  similarity  of  the  geological 
formations  to  those  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Vosges,  and  the  Tertiary  formations 
of  Galicia.  He  began  to  bore  on  the  Fauvel  system  in  September,  1891,  near  Pont 
du  Chateau  station.  This  hole  went  down  720  feet  and  cut  some  fissures  containing 
bitumen  without  reaching  the  oil-bearing  strata. 

A  second  boring  was  made  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  plain  at  Pont  Battu  near 
Riom.    This  hole  reached  a  depth  of  906  feet,  and  proved  the  existence  of  beds  of 
shale  impregnated  with  carburetted  gases,  light  petroleum  oils  and  various  oily 
minerals,  a  certain  sign  of  the  vicinity  of  free  petroleum.    This  hole  passed  first 
through  limestone  impregnatetl  with  viscous  bitumen.    At  29-1  feet  a  bituminous 
crevice  was  cut  which  yielded  abundance  of  bitumen  of  a  lighter  and  more  oily 
nature.    At  333  feet  the  strata  at  the  bottom  pushed  up,  and  filled  the  hole  for  80 
feet,  the  flow  of  bitumen  increased,  and  the  first  liberation  of  inflammable  gas  wr 
observed.    From  that  time  progress  was  impeded  by  continual  upheavals  acco 
panied  by  gas.    At  636  feet  the  hole  was  filled  with  calciferous  sand  for  more  * 
800  feet,  gas  could  be  constantly  lighted  at  the  top,  and  the  bitumen  Yy 
very  light  and  fluid.    Other  upheavals  of  180  and  240  feet  occurred,  and  t' 
was  then  tubed  to  a  depth  of  573  feet.    At  645  feet  a  new  outburst  filled 
for  426  feet,  and  the  supply  of  light  bitumen  and  gas  was  abundant ;  fr 
870  feet  hard  limestone  was  passed  through  without  bitumen  or  gas,  hv 
coming  out  of  the  hole  had  a  strong  smell  of  petroleum  different  fronr 
bitumen.    This  water  contained  little  oil,  and  was  very  salt.     A  seric 
argillaceous  beds  were  next  found,  with  thin  beds  of  siliceous  sand, 
there  were  fresh  outbursts  both  at  the  bottom  and  639  feet  down,  v 
boring. 

The  hole  was  cleaned  out  again,  during  which  operation  mr 
given  off  with  the  water.    The  bottom  again  burst  up  and  the  ' 
November  1st,  1892,  until  stronger  mechanical  appliances  co 

It  is  concluded  that  petroleum  exists  under  oonsidera^ 
produce  spouting  wells,  if  deeper  holes  encounter  permea^ 


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596 


NOTES  OF  PAPERS  IN  POBEIGN 


GEOLOGY    OF    THE    CAUCASIAN    (BAKU)    NAPHTHA    REGION. 

Prelimindra  meddelanden  fran  de  kaukashka  nnftafSiten.  By  Hj.  SJOGREN. 
OeologUha  FSreningenSj Fdrhandlingar,Stockholfn^\9l9\^Tol.wiiLypaget  89-110, 
228-255,  with  aketche*  in  the  text  and  a  coloured  map. 

The  author  classifies  the  strata  as  follows  : — 


Local  Name. 

GenenlNaiiM. 

Geological  A«e. 

6 

6 

4.  Baku  series           \ 
3.  Apscheron  series  j 
2.  Balachany  series 

1.  Sumgait  series 

Caspian 
Aralo-Caspian 

Pontino-Caspian 

Pliocene       v 

Miocene  or   >  Tertiary 
Oligocene      j 
Eocene         / 

1.  The  Sumgait  series  includes  shales,  sandstones,  and  reddish-brown  ferruginous 
marls.  The  occurrence  of  iron  ochre,  nodules  of  pyrites,  abundant  rock-salt,  and 
gypsum,  the  last  named  often  in  enormous  masses,  is  noticed.  In  the  Mahannii 
district,  in  conjunction  with  the  anticlinal  folding  of  the  rocks,  there  are  mud 
volcanoes  with  outflows  of  naphtha  and  natural  asphalt.  Limestone  also  appears 
in  this  district  and  is,  moreover,  the  characteristic  rock  of  the  Beschbarmak  massif. 

2.  The  Balachany  series  is  the  naphtha-bearing  series  jMr  excellence.  It  com- 
prises grey  to  greyish- brown  slaty  marls,  calcareous  sandstones,  and  loose  sand-beds, 
saturated  with  naphtha  or  water.  Fragments  of  lignite  occur,  and  carbonaceous 
plant-remains  are  found  abundantly  in  a  hanl  grey  horizontally-bedded  sandstone. 
In  the  loose  sands,  the  presence  of  rounded  masses  of  sandstone,  about  the  size  of  a 
man's  head  or  larger,  is  often  noticed.  It  is  presumed  that  these  represent  really  the 
debris  of  the  calcareous  sandstones,  whose  matrix  has  been  dissolved  away  by  the 
carbonic  acid  evolved  from  the  naphtha.  These  masses  are  found  to  be  a  great 
obstacle  in  boring  for  naphtha.    Nodules  of  pyrites  occur  throughout  the  series. 

3.  The  Apscheron  series,  which  in  some  places  is  conformable  with,  in  others  lies 
unconformably  upon,  the  Balachany  beds,  is  partly  argillaceous  and  partly 
calcareous  in  character.  It  contains  limestones  which  are  exclusively  built  up  of 
molluscan  shells. 

4.  Upon  the  Apscheron  beds  rests  unconformably  the  Baku  series,  made  up  of 
shelly  limestones,  alternating  with  marls  and  sands.  Above  these  come  the  lime- 
stones, sands,  and  gravels  of  the  Aralo-Caspian  series.  0.  S.  B. 


THE  PETROLEUM  INDUSTRY  OF  BAKU. 

IHat  actuel  de  Vlndvstrie  du  Xaphte  dam  la  Presqu'Ue  d*Ap»chiron,  By 
A.  Leproux.  Annates  des  Mines,  1892,  ieries  9,  vol,  ii,, pages  117-162,  and  7 
figures. 

The  subject  is  considered  under  four  heads — (1)  History  of  the  development  of 
Baku  to  the  present  time.  (2)  Conditions  and  methods  of  working.  (3)  Treatment 
of  the  petroleum,  employment  of  the  residuals  (mazout^  for  the  manufacture  of 
lubricating  oils,  and  for  heating  steam-boilers.  (4)  Cost  of  production,  transporii, 
taxes,  etc.    Commercial  position  of  Baku. 

1.  Bistorieal, — ^About  the  year  1800  the  production  of  petroleum  from  Baku 
varied  from  1,500  to  2,000  tons.    Baku  was  definitively  annexed  to  Russia  in  1801, 


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TRANSACTIONS  AND  PERIODICALS.  697 

and  a  monopoly  established  by  the  Government.  Under  this  rigiwe^  which  lasted 
until  1872,  the  production  of  petroleum  increasHd  slowly  but  continuously,  attaining 
25,000  tons  in  1872.  The  suppression  of  the  monopoly  ami  graciual  abolition  of  the 
taxes  caused  the  production  to  increase  to  333,000  tons  in  1878. 

Inconveniences  arising  from  over-production  and  want  of  means  of  transport 
began  to  be  felt  about  that  time.  In  1884,  the  railway  from  Baku  to  Tiflis  was 
opened,  and  the  pro<iuction  increased  rapidly,  exceeding  2,000,000  tons  in  1887,  and 
3,000,000  tons  in  1888,  in  spite  of  the  re-establishment  of  high  taxes. 

At  the  present  time,  the  production  is  not  increasing,  but  not  from  exhaustion  of 
the  supply.  In  twenty  years  the  production  has  become  equal  to  that  of  Pennsyl- 
vania,  but  the  value  of  the  petroleum  from  the  two  countries  is  not  the  same.  The 
Pennsylvanian  petroleum  furnishes  70  to  80  per  cent,  of  burning  oil,  that  of  Baku 
only  30  per  cent. 

The  oil-lands  may  be  classified  as  to  ownership  as  follows : — 

1.  Lands  bought  from  the  State,  or  granted  to  individuals,  who  either  retain 

them,  or  have  let  or  sold  them. 

2.  Lands  belonging  to  certain  villages,  communities,  etc.,  rented  by  agreement 

for  development. 
8.  Lands  belonging  to  the  Stat€,  of  which  a  very  small  portion  is  leased. 

Only  about  one-half  of  the  oil-lands  is  available  for  working,  but  the  production 
is  so  active  that  their  exhaustion  must  only  be  a  question  of  a  few  years.  There  will 
then  remain  for  development  the  lands  retained  by  the  State,  without  counting  the 
numerous  deposits  of  the  rest  of  the  Caucasus,  Turkestan,  and  Bokhara,  which,  how- 
ever, produce  less  remunemtive  petroleum. 

2.  Working, — The  geological  formation  consists  of  two  scries  of  Tertiary  beds, 
the  lower  of  which  yield  the  petroleum.  The  upper  series  is  composed  of  hard  lime- 
stones and  shales  and  reaches  a  thickness  exceeding  2,000  feet  in  some  places.  The 
lower,  or  petroliferous,  series  is  compose<l  of  sandstone,  argillaceous  sandstone,  sand 
and  shale,  the  total  thickness  of  which  is  unknown,  but  has  been  proved  to  be  2.300 
feet  near  Balakhany  and  Binagadine. 

The  difficulties  of  extraction  are  caused  more  by  the  looseness  of  the  strata  than 
their  hardness.  The  boreholes  are  continually  obstructed  by  running  sand,  of  which 
the  spouting  wells  throw  up  large  quantities,  and  the  employment  of  torpedoes  to 
renew  the  supply  is  impracticable. 

The  choice  of  position  for  a  well  is  not  guided  by  any  precise  or  logical  consider- 
ations. It  is  not  known  why  some  pits  yield  much  more  abundantly  than  others. 
Of  two  pits  only  some  yards  apart,  one  may  yield  thousands  of  tons  per  day,  and  the 
other  hardly  enough  to  pay  costs. 

The  spouting  of  the  oil  is  supposed  to  be  entirely  due  to  the  pressure  of  gas  dis- 
solved in  the  petroleum,  and  is  supposed  to  occur  when  a  sort  of  bell-shaped  cavity 
is  formed  above  the  base  of  the  pit  tubing,  an  occurrence  altogether  local  and  purely 
accidental,  and  impossible  to  foresee  before  a  site  of  a  well  is  chosen. 

It  is  only  known  that  the  abundance  of  oil  increases  with  the  depth,  that  it  is 
greatest  where  the  bed  is  pinched  or  compressed,  that  it  is  generally  small  where  the 
beds  are  fissured,  and  that  it  is  very  irregular. 

The  wells  are  bored,  generally  with  rods;  the  American  system  of  boring  with 
ropes  has  been  tried,  but  was  not  successful.  The  diameter  of  the  holes  varies  from 
17  to  24  inches,  generally  beginning  with  the  latter  diameter  which  is  gradually 
reduced  as  the  hole  descends ;  the  holes  are  tubed  throughout.  The  boring  is  carried 
as  deep  as  possible,  but  rarely  beyond  1,000  feet.  The  cost  of  a  complete  installation 
with  a  well  800  feet  deep  is  about  £3,160,  including  the  redemption  of  capital. 
The  rate  of  boring  is  about  6  feet  per  24  hours,  with  an  engine  of  10  horse-power. 


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598  NOTES  OF  PAPERS  IN  FOREIGN 

When  a  spouting  well  is  produced,  a  violent  outburst  of  gas  takes  place,  soon 
followed  by  petroleum  mixed  with  sand.  The  pressure  of  the  gas  sometimes  reaches  20 
atmospheres,  and  there  have  been  cases  where  not  only  were  the  boring-tools  blown 
out  of  the  holes,  but  even  the  column  of  tubes  has  been  raised,  and  bent  by  the  gases, 
in  some  cases  leading  to  the  complete  loss  of  the  boring.  On  account  of  these  con- 
siderable pressures,  the  contrivances  used  in  Pennsylvania  for  collecting  the  oil  are 
rarely  used,  and  much  of  the  petroleum  from  spouting  wells  is  lost,  if  large  reservoirs 
have  not  been  previously  prepared.  A  spouting  well,  instead  of  being  a  source  of 
riches,  is  sometimes  the  cause  of  ruin  because  of  the  enormous  havoc  produced  by 
such  a  violent  inundation.  When  the  boring  is  stopped  before  spouting  occurs  the 
oil  is  mised  in  cylindrical  vessels  with  a  valve  at  the  bottom  by  means  of  a  small 
steel-rope.    It  is  necessary  to  clean  the  hole  occasionally  from  obstruction  by  sand. 

The  cost  of  this  extraction  (labour  and  engine-power)  is  from  I2s.  6d.  to  16s. 
a  day.  Extraction  continues  so  long  as  the  output  is  sufficient  to  pay  costs,  which 
depends  on  the  productiveness  of  the  hole,  and  the  price  of  crude  petroleum.  At 
present  an  output  of  6  or  7  tons  per  24  hours  justifies  continuance  of  work. 

The  richness  of  the  holes  varies  from  absolute  sterility  to  the  spouting  out  of 
millions  of  gallons  per  day.  The  cost  of  production  therefore  varies  infinitely. 
The  average  production  of  all  the  wells  at  Balakhany  may  be  said  to  have  averaged 
for  some  years  50  tons  per  24  hours. 

3.  Treatment  of  Petroleum  and  use  of  ResiduaXn, — All  the  crude  petroleum 
is  treated  at  Baku,  in  the  vast  suburb  called  Ville-Noire,  where  there  ai'e  more  than 
150  factories,  some  of  which  (Messrs.  Nobel's  in  particular)  are  very  large. 

The  oil  is  conveyed  from  the  wells  either  in  pipe-lines  or  boats  for  distances 
varying  from  5  to  7^  miles.  A  pipe-line  installation  comprises  a  pumping-station 
and  reservoirs  at  each  end  of  the  line.  Worthington  or  analogous  pumps  are 
employed  to  pump  the  oil  through  the  pipe-lines.  The  reservoirs  are  of  thin  rivetted 
sheet-iron,  costing  about  from  lO^d.  to  12^1.  per  cwt.  of  oil  contained.  The  pipes 
are  of  wrought-iron  (cast-iron  offering  much  greater  resistance  to  the  oil-liow 
especially  in  winter).  An  installation  to  pump  800  tons  in  24  hours  6^  miles,  with 
a  difference  of  level  of  197  feet  in  favour  of  the  flow  cost  £12,666. 

The  selling  price  of  crude  petroleum  varies  enormously,  or  from  2s.  4^.  to 
12s.  8d.  per  ton. 

The  treatment  comprises  the  manufactui'e  of  lighting-oil  and  lubricating-oils,  by 
fractional  distillation  preceded  and  followed  by  purifying  operations.  Lubricating- 
oils  are  made  from  the  i-esiduals  after  the  lighting-oil  is  extracted,  but  the  majoi 
part  of  such  residuals  is  used  for  heating  purposes. 

The  processes  of  manufacture,  testing,  barreling,  etc.,  are  briefly  described. 

The  bulk  of  the  residuals  Qmazout)  from  the  manufacture  of  lighting-oils  as  well 
as  that  from  reservoii-s  where  the  crude  petroleum  has  stood  so  long  that  the  oil  haa 
evaporated  is  used  for  heating  purposes.  It  is  used  in  all  the  steamboats  on  the 
C&spian  Sea,  the  Volga  and  its  affluents,  on  all  the  railways  of  the  south-east  of  Russia, 
and  in  all  the  factories  where  it  can  be  obtained,  and  its  use  for  these  purposes 
constantly  increases.  It  produces  no  cindera,  is  easy  to  apply,  and  for  equal 
weight  more  advantageous  than  coal.  The  theoretical  evaporative  power  of  mazout 
is  16*2  (1  pound  evaporates  16*2  pounds),  while  that  of  anthracite  is  12*2,  and  con- 
sequently an  equal  weight  of  mazout  would  theoretically  evaporate  33  per  cent, 
more  water  than  anthracite,  but  while  coal  only  yields  60  per  cent,  of  its  theoretical 
caloriflc  power  inazout  may  yield  80  per  cent.,  making  an  advantage  in  its  favour 
of  75  per  cent.  Consequently,  whenever  inazout  can  be  had  at  a  price  below  7/4tb8 
that  of  coal,  it  is  advantageous  to  use  it.  It  is  so  easily  applied  that  one  man  caa 
attend  to  6,  8,  or  10  boilers  fixed  with  it. 


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TRANSACTIONfl  AND  PERIODICALS.  690 

The  rebalts  of  trials  in  gtationary  boilers  ia  Moscow  are  given,  and  a  r/nrw/ of 
three  articles  published  in  1884, 1889,  and  1890  in  the  Proceeding$  of  the  Institate 
of  Mechanical  Engineers  on  the  use  of  mazout  in  locomotive  engines. 

4.  CdH  of  Prodvction,  Transport ^  Imposts,  etc.  Cmnmercial  Situation  of 
Baku. — As  has  been  stated,  it  is  not  possible  to  fix  the  cost  of  production  of  crude 
petroleum,  but  its  selling  price  varies  from  2s.  7d.  to  12s.  lid.  per  ton. 

The  cost  of  production  of  kerosene  from  crude  petroleum  at  the  former  price  is 
approximately  9s.  per  ton.  The  cost  of  production  of  mazovt  is  very  variable  ;  in 
the  summer  of  1891  it  was  68.  4d.  per  ton. 

The  lighting  and  lubricating-oils  only  are  exported  in  quantity,  and  nearly  all 
the  mazout  is  consumed  in  Russia.  The  oils  are  carried  in  tank-ships  holding  700 
to  800  tons,  or  in  cistern- waggons  holding  10  or  12^  tons  each.  Kerosene  costing 
9s.  per  ton  at  Baku  is  worth  39s.  6d.  per  ton  at  Batoum,  and  mazout  costing  6s.  4d. 
per  ton  at  Baku  is  worth  82s.  per  ton  at  Batoum. 

The  commercial  sitiuition  at  Baku  in  1891  was  very  unfavourable,  and  more  than 
70  factories  were  closed  during  that  year.  In  Russia,  Russian  petroleum  can  hold 
its  own,  owing  to  protective  duties,  but  abroad  it  cannot  compete  favourably  with 
American  oils,  and  the  industrial  conditions  at  Baku  are  adverse  to  its  success  in 
the  struggle. 

The  methods  of  working  are  imi^erfect,  the  petroleum  s  badly  collected,  much 
being  lost  by  drainage  and  evaporation.  The  processes  of  distillation  and  refining 
compare  unfavourably  with  American  methods,  and  Russian  petroleum  only  yields 
30  to  40  per  cent,  of  kerosene,  of  which  some  American  petroleum  yields  80  per 
cent. 

The  geographical  situation  of  Baku  is  also  unfavourable  for  exportation  to 
Europe :  the  increasing  Russian  demands,  however,  may  suffice  for  its  future  profit- 
able working.  W.  N.  A, 


NAPHTHA  IN  THE  CAUCASUS. 

Ueher  Naphtha  im  Kavkasus.    Anon.    Berg-nnd  Huettenmannische  Zeitungt  1892, 
vol,  li.,  pages  287-289. 

The  probability  of  the  early  exhaustion  of  the  naphtha-wcUs  of  the  Caucasus, 
predicted  by  many  Russian  engineers,  is  denied  by  the  well-known  chemist,  Prof. 
Mendelejew.  Comparatively  few  wells  are  at  work  in  the  present  oil -district,  and 
these  of  shallow  depth,  and,  in  addition,  new  oil-finds  continue  to  be  made  farther 
away.  While  the  American  wells  are  about  25,000  in  number,  and  reach  depths  of 
1,600  feet,  not  more  than  a  few  hundreds  are  at  work  in  the  Caucasus,  and  their 
depths  do  not  exceed  700  feet.  In  general,  the  boreholes  yield  about  16  tons  per 
day  each,  and  those  that  yield  less  than  4  or  5  tons  are  abandoned. 

The  whole  naphtha  district  has  an  area  of  about  6^  square  miles.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  south  and  east  by  the  chalk  beds  of  the  Aral-Caspian  valley,  down  under 
which  the  naphtha-'oearing  strata  extend.  Chalk  beds  have  originally  formed  a 
sort  of  roof  over  the  strata  of  sandy  shale  containing  the  naphtha,  and  the  erosion 
of  a  part  of  this  roof  by  the  sea  has  rendered  the  underlying  strata  accessible.  To 
the  westward,  the  district  extends  as  far  as  the  mud- volcano  of  Bog-boga.  To  the 
north,  the  shale  beds  crop  out  in  a  line  extending  through  the  valley  of  Balachani 
and  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Sabratski. 

The  naphtha-bearing  strata  consist  of  coarse  and  fine  sands  alternating  with 
slaty,  variegated  shale,  and  lie  in  a  gentle  slope  from  south-east  to  north-west. 


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600  NOTES  OP  PAPERS   IN   FOREION 

About  4,000,000  tons  of  naphtha  a  year  are  produced  in  the  Caucasus,  500,000 
tons  of  this  being  sent  abroad,  and  a  considerable  quantity  being  used  on  the  spot. 
More  than  1,500,000  tons  of  waste  oil  remain  in  the  Caucasus,  and  this,  which  in 
other  countries  would  form  a  considerable  source  of  profit,  is  in  Russia  simply 
thrown  away.  It  is  given  away  gratis  for  use  as  fuel  on  the  steamers  of  the  river 
Volga  and  Caspian  Sea,  and  in  various  engineering  works  in  the  neighbourhood. 

The  petroleum  distilled  from  the  naphtha  is  sent  inland  by  the  Volga  river  and 
by  the  Trans-Caspian  railway. 

In  Baku,  naphtha  costs  0'015d.,  0'020d.,  or  at  the  most  0'025d.  per  lb.,  and  its 
price  in  various  parts  of  Russia  depends  chiefly  on  the  cost  of  its  carriage  from 
there. 

In  Moscow,  it  costs  0  25d.,  0'28d.,  and  as  much  as  0'30d.  per  lb.,  against  O'SOd.  per 
lb.  of  coal.  The  Russian  tarifte  for  the  carriage  of  coal  are  very  high,  and  naphtha 
will  continue  to  supplant  it  as  a  fuel  unless  the  Government  takes  the  matter  up. 

The  amount  of  naphtha  now  raised  in  the  world  is  about  ^th  of  the  whole  output 
of  coal,  and  although  new  sources  of  supply  have  been  discovered  in  the  Trans- 
Caspian  and  other  districts,  it  is  not  likely  that  the  yield  will  become  considerable 
enough  for  it  to  take  the  place  of  the  older  fuel.  A.  R.  L. 


PETROLEUM  IN  INDIA. 

(1)  Preliminary  Report  on  the  Oil  Locality  near  Moghal  Kat^  in  the  Skerdni 

Country,  Suleiman  ffills.     By  R.  D.  Oldham.     Records  of  the  Geological 

Survey  of  India ,  1891,  vol.  xxiv.,  pages  83-84. 
The  oil  issues  from  a  hard,  unfossiliferous  sandstone,  600  feet  thick,  and 
probably  of  Cretaceous  age.  The  oil  is  most  abundant  near  the  base,  where  the 
rock  is  porous.  The  springs  are  found  in  the  river-bed,  and  they  appear  to  liave 
been  flowing  for  many  years.  The  oil  is  of  a  pale  yellow  colour,  clear,  and  free 
from  water.  Analyses  prove  that  the  oil  is  of  high  quality.  The  actual  flow  of  oil 
at  present  is  10  gallons  per  day. 

(2)  Report  on  the  Oil  Springs  at  Moghal  Kot  in  the  Shirani  Bills,  By  TOM  D.  La 
ToucHE.  Records  of  the  Geologi^^al  Survey  of  India,  1892,  vol,  ««?.,  pages 
171-176,  and  ttoo  j^lates. 

These  oil  springs  occur  near  the  village  of  Moghal  Kot  in  the  Sherani  Hills. 
They  have  previously  been  reported  on,  and  samples  of  the  oil  have  been  analysed,  but 
the  present  exploration  was  made  to  ascertain  whether  the  oil  could  be  procured 
in  sufficient  quantities  to  render  it  commercially  valuable.  The  oil  springs  are 
found  in  a  deep,  narrow  gorge,  cut  by  the  river  Toi  through  a  ridge  of  hard,  fine- 
grained quart zose  sandstone,  overlain  by  massive  limestone.  The  oil  issues  close  to 
the  water's  edge,  and  most  copiously  near  the  base  of  the  quartzose  sandstone.  The 
points  of  outflow  seem  to  be  determined  by  the  existence  of  beds  of  shale  inter- 
calated in  the  sandstone.  On  issuing  from  the  rock  the  oil  is  limpid,  slightly  yellow, 
and  opalescent.  From  a  rough  calculation,  it  appears  that  one  hole  would  yield  a 
gallon  of  oil  in  4^  hours,  while  another  would  take  14  hours. 

Although  the  ridge  of  rock  yielding  the  oil  extends  for  30  miles  to  the  north  of 
the  river,  the  occurrence  of  the  oil  itself  seems  restricted  to  this  spot.  The  peculiar 
structure  of  the  rocks  in  the  gorge  above  Moghal  Kot  facilitates  the  escape  of  oil 
where  the  springs  occur. 

The  practical  conclusion  arrived  at  by  the  author  appeal's  to  be  that  the  present 
flow  of  oil  might,  by  suitable  borings,  be  sufficiently  increased  to  make  it  com« 
mercially  valuable. 


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TRANflAOTIOXS  AND  PRRIODICATiS.  601 

(3)  On  Mineral  Oil  from  tke  Suleiman  Hills,   Bg  Thomas  H.  Holland.    Reeorde 

of  the  Qeologieal  Survey  qf  India,  1891,  vol.  xxiv.j  pages  84>97. 

Tbig  paper  records  an  analysis  of  Mr.  01(lham*s  samples  (see  previoas  paper), 
which  are  inferior  to  those  previously  analysed.  The  paper  also  contains  a  yaluable 
bibliography  of  the  petroleum  resources  of  the  Punjab  and  Baluchistan  areas. 

(4)  Second  Note  on    Mineral   Oil  from    the   Suleiman  Hill*.    By    Thomas   H. 

Holland.     Becorde   of  the    Geological  Survey   of  India,  1892,  vol,  xxv,, 
pages  175-180. 

Analyses  of  two  samples  of  the  oil  from  Moghal  Kot  collected  by  the  previous 
writer  are  as  follows : — 

Specimen  A  was  a  deep  yellow,  mobile  liquid,  slightly  turbid.  The  specific 
gravity,  at  60  degs.  Fahr.,  was  0*819.  The  flashing-point  (Abel  test)  was  76  degs. 
Fahr.    The  crude  oil  contains  87^  per  cent,  of  illuminating  oil. 

Specimen  B  is  a  clear,  rich  straw-coloured  liquid.  The  specific  gravity,  at  60 
degs.  Fahr.,  is  0*811.  The  flashing-point  is  64  degs.  Fahr.  The  crude  oil  contains 
84  per  cent,  of  illuminating  oil.  There  would  be  a  slightly  greater  waste  in  preparing 
oil  B  for  the  market.  Both  samples  are  of  very  high  value,  so  that,  if  occurring  in 
sufficient  quantity,  no  foreign  oil  could  compete  with  it.  G.  W.  B. 


PETROLEUM  IN  PERSIA. 

Note  9ur  les  Oitee  de  Naphte  de  Kend-S-Chirin,    By  J.  DB  MOBQAN.     Annates 
des  Mines,  1892,  series  9,  vol,  i,,  pages  227-238,  with  sections  in  the  text. 

The  author  sketches  briefly  the  physiog^phy  of  the  hilly  country  between 
Hamadan  and  Zohab,  a  district  which  forms  part  of  the  system  of  parallel  ranges 
whose  height  drops  gradually  from  the  summit-level  of  7,000  feet  at  the  Zagha  Pass 
to  150  feet  at  Bagdad,  in  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia.  Hamadan  lies  within  a  zone 
of  igneous  rocks ;  west  of  this,  fossiliferous  Jurassic  strata  were  observed,  overlain 
(apparently  in  regular  succession)  by  Cretaceous  rocks,  Nummulitic  limestones,  and 
a  great  series  of  later  Tertiaries  with  naphtha-bearing  beds.  The  naphtha  zone 
forms  a  long  band,  running  north-weat  and  south-east  from  Eerkuk  (in  Turkish 
territory)  to  Kasrashirin,  near  Shahku.  The  existence  of  prolongations  of  the  band 
north  and  south  of  these  localities  is  not  improbable. 

However  that  may  be,  tlie  author's  attention  was  specially  devoted  to  the 
deposits  of  Eandashirin,  situated  at  a  height  of  about  1,560  feet  above  sea-level  in 
the  central  portion  of  the  naphtha  zone,  and  distant  about  95  miles  from  Bagdad. 
The  immediately  surrounding  country  is  rather  flat,  but  there  are  a  few  low  hills 
of  soft  Tertiary  rocks.  The  naphtha  occurs  here  in  an  anticlinal  of  unfossiliferous 
post-Eocene  sands  and  marls,  so  far  as  it  has  at  present  been  tapped ;  but  the 
author  shows  good  reason  for  the  hypothesis  that  the  main  reservoir  really  lies  in 
one  of  the  synclinals  north  and  south  of  the  anticlinal  fold. 

At  Kandashirin,  a  little  river  cuts  through  the  crest  of  one  of  the  anticlinal 
folds,  so  exposing  the  petroliferous  marls  beneath.  These  beds  incline  to  the  right 
and  the  left  of  the  crest,  which  runs  west  12  degs.  north,  and  their  dip  varies  from 
75  degs.  at  the  line  of  fracture  to  18  degs.  at  a  distance  of  5,000  feet  (1,500  metres) ; 
farther  on  the  beds  become  horizontal,  and  afterwards  rise  again.  Excepting 
where  exposed  by  the  stream,  the  marly  beds  containing  the  petroleum  are  entirely 
covered  by  superior  strata,  certainly  more  than  8,000  feet  (2,500  metres)  in  thick- 
ness, and  devoid  of  fossils.    The  uppermost  marly  bed  containa  strings  of  ozokerite, 


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602  NOTES  OP  PAPERS  IN  FOREIGN 

Tarying  in  width  from  O'lO  inch  (2  or  3  millimetres)  to  ^  or  |  inch  (16  or  20  milli- 
metres), which  have  been  produced  by  the  infiltration  of  the  mineral  oils  into  the 
fissures  of  the  marl ;  these  the  author  considers  to  be  of  no  practical  value. 

Numerous  remains  of  shallow  wells  are  visible,  and  the  Kurds  have  cut  a  deep 
trench  and  sunk  two  wells,  each  of  about  30  feet  (9  metres)  in  depth.  These  fill  up 
with  salt-water  and  naphtha,  and  are  emptied  every  four  or  five  days  by  means  of  a 
cord  and  bucket,  each  operation  yielding  about  50  gallons  (230  litres)  of  crude  oil 
and  a  large  amount  of  brine — the  latter  being  evaporated  down  to  impure  salt,  with 
a  strong  odour  of  petroleum,  which  sells  in  the  country  at  about  ^d.  per  pound. 

The  crude  oil  is  taken  on  mule-back  some  10  miles  to  the  village  of  Easra- 
shirin.  It  is  very  fiuid,  green,  has  a  strong  odour,  and  sells  crude  at  about 
Id.  per  pint  (l^d.  per  litre).    It  is  then  refined,  when  it  fetches  about  double. 

The  8a]t  produced  from  the  brine  in  the  evaporating-cabins  is  very  bad  and 
strongly  tainted  with  petroleum.  In  short,  the  methods  of  working  are  of  the  most 
primitive  description,  and  only  10  to  12  men  are  employed.  The  Kurdish  wells 
have  only  touched  the  surface  of  the  deposit ;  they  do  not,  therefore,  go  down  to 
the  impermeable  strata  which  form  the  bed  of  the  subterranean  naphtha-lake. 

The  author,  in  conclusion,  points  out  that  the  petroleum  from  Baku  and  from 
far  Pennsylvania,  which  now  monopolizes  the  markets  of  China,  India,  Persia,  and 
Turkey,  may  at  some  future  date  be  displaced  by  the  petroleum  from  the  above- 
described  deposits,  the  shipping  port  for  which  would  be  Bagdad. 

G.  B.  C.  &  0.  8.  E. 


SAFETY-CATCH  FOR  PUMP  SPEARS. 

Fatigvorrichtung  f%r  Pumpengentdiige,  By  J.  SPBENOER.  Berg^  und  Huetten' 
tnannUche  Zeituiuft  1888,  voL  xlHLy  pages  205-207,  223-226,  and  231-235,  and 
two  plates. 

In  order  to  reduce  the  damage  done  by  falling  pump-spears  in  case  of  their 
breaking,  it  has  been  the  practice  in  some  pits  to  fit  catches  at  intervals  in  their 
length  in  the  shaft.  The  fall  then  depends  on  the  vertical  distance  apart  of  the 
catches,  these  having  to  be  the  stronger  and  heavier  the  wider  the  intervals.  In  the 
Konig  mine,  near  Nennkircheu,  a  method  is  employed  by  which  the  broken  spears 
are  caught  before  they  have  gathered  momentum,  and  the  engine  brought  to  a 
stand  at  once,  and  for  this  system  the  fittings  are  lighter  and  less  clumsy  than 
those  usually  adopted. 

There  is  an  upper  length  of  220  feet  of  wooden  spears,  and  a  lower  length  of 
260  feet  of  iron  ones  ;  and  there  are  clutches  fitted  at  about  60  feet  from  the  upper 
end  and  50  feet  from  the  lower  end.  To  each  side  of  the  spear  at  each  of  these 
places  is  a  spindle  with  eccentric  wheels  at  its  ends,  in  the  perimeters  of  which  are 
deep  grooves  corresponding  in  sliape  to  the  edges  of  an  iron  standard  fixed  between 
them  opposite  the  centre  of  the  spear.  Between  the  two  systems  of  wheels  is  a 
strong  rope  ;  from  the  upper  system  to  the  top,  another  of  about  half  the  strength  ; 
and  from  the  lower  system  to  a  cleat  near  the  bottom  of  the  lower  spear  is  a  thiid 
rope  of  about  a  quarter  of  the  strength  of  that  first  mentioned. 

The  attachment  of  the  ropes  is  similar  in  the  two  systems.  Each  spindle  haa  a 
short  crank  which  is  turned  inwards  and  attached  to  the  obtuse  side-angles  of  a 
loose  parallelogram  made  of  four  iron  bars,  the  ropes  being  attached  above  and  below 
to  its  acute  angles. 

Close  to  the  top  of  the  shaft  the  rope  is  reeved  through  two  eyes  on  a  plate 
fixed  to  the  spear.    A  nut  between  the  two  keeps  the  rope  taut  below,  and  in  case 


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TRANaAOTIOXa  AND  PBRIODICALR.  603 

of  a  breakdown  will  flj  up  against  the  upper  one,  there  being  a  few  inches  of  plaj 
between.  The  ropes  are  made  taut  by  tightening  screws,  and  so  arranged  that  the 
cranks  on  the  spindles  point  inwards  and  keep  the  eccentric  wheels  with  their 
smaller  diameters  towards  the  fixed  standards  between  them.  The  upper  rope  is 
carried  first  over  the  end  of  the  pumping  beam  and  then  inwards  over  a  pulley,  and 
at  its  end  hangs  a  heavy  weight  which,  in  case  of  accident,  will  fall  on  a  lever  and 
shut  off  the  steam.  In  case  a  spear  breaks  the  weak  lower  rope  will  break  also, 
and  this  setting  free  the  parallelogram,  the  lower  eccentric  wheels  are  turned  by  their 
own  weight  till  they  grip  the  fixed  standard  and  thus  arrest  the  falling  spear.  Mean- 
while the  upstroke  continuing,  the  next  weakest  upper  rope  will  give  way  and  allow 
the  weight  to  iall  and  shut  off  the  steam.  The  strong  midtUe  rope  does  not  break, 
but  being  kept  in  considerable  tension  before  the  accitlent  will,  by  returning  to  its 
original  length,  help  to  bring  both  upper  and  lower  eccentric  wheels  into  position 
to  grip  the  standards.  The  standards,  about  10  feet  long,  are  fixed  at  their  upper 
and  lower  ends  on  to  beams  lying  across  the  shaft. 

For  deeper  pits  more  than  two  clutches  may  be  required,  and  these  can  be 
arranged  in  a  similar  manner.  In  the  Konig  mine  the  arrangement  was  practically 
tested,  by  cutting  first  Ihe  lower  rope  and  then  the  upper  one,  while  the  pump  was 
at  work.    The  spears  were  at  once  arrested,  and  the  engine  brought  to  a  standstill. 

A.R.L. 


BURMAH  RUBY  MINES. 

Note  on  the  reported  Nam^bka  Ruby-mine  in  the  MainffUn  State.  By  Fbitz 
NOETLING.  Records  of  the  Geological  Surrey  of  India^  1891,  vol,  wxiv.,  pages 
119-125. 

The  original  matrix  of  the  ruby  is  a  crystalline  limestone,  but  the  mine  is  worked 
in  river  alluvium.  Valuable  rabies  are  said  to  have  been  found  at  this  mine,  but  a 
trial  of  three  days  of  eight  hours  each,  with  twelve  coolies,  produced  no  result. 
Since  any  rubies  which  may  have  been  found  in  this  mine  have  probably  been 
washed  down  from  the  ruby-mine  district  by  the  river  Mogaung,  other  deposits 
might  be  expected  along  the  course  of  this  stream.  G.  W.  B. 


BXPBRIMBNTS  WITH  SAFETY-LAMPS. 

Expiriences  mr  les  Lampes  de  SdretS.  Rapport  present^  a  la  Commission  du  Grisou 
au  nom  de  la  Sous-commission  chargee  des  recherehes  expirimentales.  Annales 
des  Mines^  1892,  series  9,  vol.  i.y  pages  47-66,  and  plates  HI.  and  IV, 

The  experiments  were  made  by  Messrs.  Mallard,  Le  Chatelier,  and  Chesneau  at  the 
6cole  des  Mines,  in  a  laboratory  fitted  up  for  the  purpose.  No  attempt  is  made  to 
compare  the  inconveniences  or  advantages  of  the  lamps  tried  except  as  to  safety  and 
lighting  power. 

I.  Description  op  the  Apparatus. 

One  apparatus  was  used  for  examining  the  behaviour  of  safety-lamps  when  placed 
in  a  stationary  or  slowly-moving  explosive  mixture  of  air  and  marsh  gas.  The  for- 
mene  was  stored  in  a  gasometer  of  212  cubic  feet  capacity,  from  thence  it  passed  to  a 
meter.  A  fan  worked  by  a  gas  engine  at  the  same  time  passed  air  through  another 
meter.  The  mixed  gas  and  air  passed  by  a  pipe  into  the  base  of  a  square  box  in 
which  the  lamp  was  placed.    This  box  was  glazed  on  four  sides  for  observation,  and 

VOL.  V.-18B2-08.-  3^ 


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604  NOTES  OF  PAPERS  IN  FOREIGN 

fitted  with  a  small  chimney  at  the  top.  Regulating  cocks  allowed  the  flow  of  gns 
and  air  through  the  meters  to  be  adjusted.  By  another  pipe  and  cock,  lighting  gas 
could  be  substituted  for  formene.  In  this  apparatus  a  safety-lamp  could  be  k.ept 
for  several  houre  in  a  known  mixture  of  air  and  fonnene  or  air  and  lighting  gBA. 

The  second  apparatus  was  used  for  testing  lamps  in  mixtures  of  air  and  lighting 
gas  moving  at  great  velocities.    The  lighting  gas  passed  through  an  800-burner  met^r, 
into  the  base  of  an  upright  pipe  into  which  air  was  also  forced  by  a  fan.    The  mixed 
gas  and  air  ascended  the  vertical  pipe  and  passed  into  a  short  honzontal  box  in 
which  the  lamps  were  suspended  opposite  a  window  for  observation.    This  box  was 
movable  on  a  horizontal  pivot  fixed  at  its  junction  with  the  vertical  pipe,  so  that  it 
could  be  moved  or  jerked  by  a  cord  passing  over  a  pulley  to  the  observer.     The 
velocity  of  the  explosive  mixture  was  measured  by  an  anemometer.     The  pro- 
portion of  gas  was  measured  by  the  meter.     The  composition  of  the  mixture  was 
usually  the  most  explosive  possible.    The  velocity  could  be  raised  to  20  or  23  feet 
per  second,  corresponding  to  33  or  40  feet  in  the  area  occupied  and  restricteti  bj 
the  lamp. 

II.  Result  of  thb  Expebiments. 

Modified  JBoty  Lamp. — A  modification  of  the  Boty  lamp,  having  the  gauze 
cylinder  replaced  by  a  cylinder  composed  of  flat  iron  rings  placed  one  above  another 
and  maintained  0*039  inch  apart.    Its  weight,  without  oil,  was  2*96  lbs.    The  inven- 
tor hoped  that  the  large  surface  of  the  flat  rings  between  which  the  air  enters  and 
leaves  the  lamp  would  so  cool  enflamed  gas  as  to  prevent  the  passage  of  flame  even 
in  currents  of  high  velocity.     When  placed  in  a  mixture  of  maximum  explosiveness 
the  wick-flame  was  extinguished,  but  the  gas  continued  to  burn  in  the  interior  of  the 
ringed  cylinder  which  became  red-hot.      With  a  velocity  of  8*03  feet  per  second, 
(12*13  feet  at  the  lamp)  explosion  did  not  occur  at  the  end  of  10  minutes;  with 
higher  velocities  the  results  were  different,  as  follows :— With  a  velocity  of  10*66  feet 
per  second  (16*41  feet  at  lamp)  explosion  in  80  seconds;  with  a  velocity  of  19-18 
feet  per  second  (27*88  feet  at  lamp)  explosion  in  5  seconds ;  with  a  velocity  of  25*58 
feet  per  second  (34*27  feet  at  lamp)  explosion  instantly.    The  hope  of  the  inventor 
was  not  realized,  as  it  only  required  a  slight  increase  of  velocity  to  pass  the  flame. 

Pieler  Lawp, — This  lamp  has  a  double  gauze  and  a  shield  with  a  longitudinal 
window  for  observation,  closed  by  a  movable  shutter,  and  fed  with  alcohol.  The  weight 
when  empty  was  3*78  lbs.    AVith  a  velocity  of  8*03  feet  per  second  (15*35  feet  at 
lamp)  the  lamp  with  shield  and  2  gauzes,  the  window  open  and  directed  towards 
the  current,  the  interior  gauze  reddened  strongly ;  but  explosion  was  not  produced  at 
the  end  of  6  minutes  (the  lamp  was  violently  agitated  in  all  directions  by  sharp 
rotary  movements  of  the  box  by  the  cord).    With  the  same  velocity,  but  the  lamp 
with  shield  and  1  gauze  only,  the  same  result  was  obtained.     Without  the  shield, 
but  with  2  gauzes,  explosion  resulted  in  15  seconds.    With  a  higher  velocity  of  23*61 
feet  per  second  (45*10  feet  at  lamp),  the  lamp  with  shield  and  2  gauzes,  window 
turned  towards  current,  lamp  agitated  in  all   directions,  the  gauzes  redtiened 
strongly,  but  no  explosion  after  5  minutes.    Lamp  with  shield  and  1  gauze  same 
experiment  repeated;   no  explosion  occurred  at  the  end  of  6  minutes,  but  one 
happened  at  the  moment  when  the  gas  was  shut  off,*  flames  produced  by  the  com- 
bustion of  alcohol  vapour  escaped  with  violence  by  the  lower  range  of  holes  in  the 
shield.    These  experiments  show  that  the  Pieler  lamp,  which  is  still  regarded  with 

*  Bzplof Ions  produced  At  the  rery  moment  when  the  gae  waa  shut  off  were  obeerred  rather  frequeDtlj 
daring  the  oxperitoef^^,  ^t  may  perhaps  be  explained  thus:— The  proportion  of  air  beinir  iharply  In- 
cmued  the  rvd-hot  «»<  ^»  ot  the  gau2e  enter  into  oombuation  and  Ignite  the  ttill  inflammable  gMeou 
mixture,  ^^ 


iK 


ninitiTAH  hu 


Cioogle 


much  suspicion,  is  safer  than  is  generally  supposed,  and  that  the  shield  in  this 
lamp  is  a  great  element  of  safety,  even  when  it  is  pierced  by  a  long  but  narrow 
window. 

Camhesbdes  Lamp, — This  lamp  is  specially  designed  to  give  a  good  light ;  it  is 
constructed  on  the  principle  of  an  argand  lamp,  with  an  oil  reservoir  surrounding 
about  \  of  the  glass,  and  its  lighting  power  is  about  1*25  candle-power. 

The  oil  is  kept  at  a  constant  level,  and  the  lamp  was  devised  to  give  more  light 
than  the  ordinary  type  of  lamp ;  that  aim  appears  to  be  successfully  fulfilled,  as 
proved  by  the  photometric  experiments.  The  weight,  when  empty,  is  3-33  lbs.,  and, 
with  oil,  3'63  lbs.  When  placed  in  a  mixture  of  air  and  marsh  gas  the  wick-flame 
is  extinguished  and  the  gas  does  not  burn  in  the  interior.  In  a  mixture  of  air  and 
lighting-gas  of  maximum  explosiveness  moving  at  9*67  feet  per  second  (18*20  feet  at 
lamp),  in  one  experiment  the  lamp  went  out  in  a  few  seconds  without  lighting  the 
gas  inside ;  in  two  other  experiments,  after  the  extinction  of  the  wick-flame  the  gas 
continued  to  bum  inside,  resulting  in  a  heating  of  the  lamp,  which  caused  an 
abundant  escape  of  oil  from  the  reservoir;  the  experiments  were  stopped  after 
2  minutes.  With  a  velocity  of  18"36  feet  per  second  (35*09  feet  at  lamp),  exactly 
the  same  results  wese  obtained. 

The  tests  in  presence  of  explosive  gaseous  mixtures  showed  that  in  a  rapid 
current  the  flame  is  not  passed  outwards,  but  sometimes  persists  within  the  lamp, 
and  thus  causes  oil  to  escape  from  the  reservoir. 

Thornehurry  Lamp* — This  is  a  petroleum  lamp,   the   weight,  empty,   being 
3*92  lbs.    The  petroleum  used  is  relatively  heavy,  its  specific  gravity  being  0*831  at 
60  degs.  Fahr.,  flashing  (Abel  test)  at  256  degs.  Fahr.    The  lamp  is  of  excellent 
lighting-power,  the  maximum  light  after  burning  16  minutes  being  1*44  candle- 
power,  and,  after  40  minutes,   1*20  candle-power.      The  regulation  of  flame  is 
delicate,  depending  on  temperature.    When  the  lamp  is  placed  in  a  mixture  of  air 
and  fire-damp,  no  cap  is  visible,  on  account  of  the  light.    The  lengthening  of  the 
wick-flame  gives  very  good  indications,  with  1*5  to  3*5  per  cent,  of  fire-damp. 
With  a  greater  proportion,  the  lamp  smokes  and  the  fiame  lengthens  considerably. 
For  these  indications  the  fiame  must  be  first  regulated  in  fresh  air.    In  a  current  of 
air  and  lighting-gas  at  a  velocity  of  18*20  feet  per  second  (86*40  feet  at  lamp),  the 
lamp  being  in  its  normal  state,  the  wick-flame  extinguished  at  once,  and  the  gas  we 
not  ignited  inside.     With  the  lamp  without  interior  gauze,  the  wick-flame  w 
extinguished,  the  gas  burnt  inside  for  3  or  4  seconds,  and  then  went  out  (' 
experiments).    With  the  lamp  without  gauze,  and  the  proportion  of  gas  grad 
increased  to  maximum,  the  flame  lengthened  progressively,  smoked,  but  w 
extinguished  till  6  per  cent,  of  gas  was  attained  ;  with  more  than  6  per  ce^ 
wick-flame  was  extinguished,  and  the  gas  burned  inside  the  lamp  for  2  or  ? 
only ;  and  the  interior  glass  was  broken,  but  not  separated,  when  the 
kept  1  minute  in  the  mixture  of  6  per  cent.    This  glass  being  thin,  it  f 
and  fall  in  pieces.    The  lamp  was  therefore  tried  without  the  interio 
a  velocity   of  21*97  feet   per  second   (44*28  feet  at  lamp),  the  wi 
extinguished  at  once ;   the   explosive  mixture  burnt  in  the  gauze 
considerably ;  but  there  was  no  explosion  at  the    end  of  5  minr 
tried  without  gauze  or  interior  glass  gave  immediate  explosion. 

The  Thomeburry  lamp  possesses  a  high  degree  of  security 
superior  light.     Till  now,  petroleum  has  not  been  considered  • 
lamps.    There  is  reason  to  (jonsider  whether  there  is  serious  r* 
and  not  very  volatile  oil  is  used.    Only  an  explosion  in  the  ot 
which  appears  very  unlikely  with  heavy  oil. 

*  Traiu.  Fed.  Inst.,  vol.  Ui,  page  226. 


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606  NOTES  OF  PAPERS  IK  PORETGN 

Fumat  Lamp.-— The  latest,  modification  of  this  lamp  was  used,  in  which  the  air 
enters  through  a  series  of  holes  in  one  side  only  of  the  lower  part  of  a  shield  above 
the  glass-cylinder,  and  the  smoke  escapes  through  the  upper  holes.  The  air  passes 
into  a  sort  of  box,  which  hides  half  the  glass,  and  after  traversing  the  gauzes, 
reaches  the  flame.  The  lamp  burns  well  in  horizontal  or  descending  currents,  but 
not  in  ascending  currents  in  the  absence  of  gas.  It  gives  a  good  light,  equal  to 
0*87  candle-power.  In  a  mixture  of  air  and  marsh-gas  of  ipaximum  explosiveness, 
it  is  at  once  extinguished.  With  6-5  per  cent,  of  marsh-gas,  it  was  only  extinguished 
after  2  minutes.  In  a  mixture  of  air  and  lighting-gas,  at  a  velocity  of  10-99  feet 
per  second  (37*39  feet  at  lamp),  three  experiments  gave  identical  results ;  the  wick- 
flame  was  extinguished  at  once,  and  the  mixture  burnt  in  the  gauze  from  10  to  20 
seconds  only,  even  with  the  holes  in  the  shield  &cing  the  current.  The  Fnmat 
lamp  therefore  possesses  all  the  desirable  guarantees  of  safety. 

Manaut  Lamp, — After  an  accident  in  St.  Etienne,  in  1889,  suspicion  was  cast 
on  the  Marsaut  lamp,  and  it  was  proved  that  when  placed  in  a  mixture  of  air  and 
lighting-gas,  the  gas  continued  to  burn  in  the  lamp  aft«r  the  extinction  of  the 
wick-flame,  and  fear  was  expressed  that  if  the  lamp  so  remained  for  long,  the  gauze 
might  become  so  hot  as  to  allow  passage  of  flame,  but  Mr.  Marsaut  made  experi- 
ments proving  that  the  fear  was  groundless.  In  order  to  study  this  phenomenon,  a 
large  sheet  of  mica  was  inserted  in  the  shield,  so  that  the  gauze  coulrl  be  seen.  In 
a  mixture  of  air  and  10  per  cent,  of  marsh-gas,  introduced  at  the  rate  of  61  cubic 
inches  per  second,  the  wick-flame  went  out  and  the  gas  burnt  within  the  gauze. 
The  lamp  was  left  in  this  condition  several  times  for  periods  varying  from  1  to  8 
hours,  and  the  gauze  never  sensibly  reddened  or  altered ;  it  was  therefore  proved 
that  the  imagined  danger  does  not  exist.  In  a  current  of  air  and  lighting-gas  of 
maximum  explosiveness,  at  a  velocity  of  23-61  feet  per  second  (38*24  feet  at  lamp), 
with  the  lamp  in  its  normal  state  (1  shield  and  2  gauzes),  the  wick-flame  was 
extinguished ;  the  gas  continued  to  burn  within  the  gauze,  which  became  red,  but  only 
for  a  fraction  of  an  inch  at  the  base,  and  the  lamp  being  vigorously  agitAted,  no 
explosion  occurred  at  the  end  of  6  minutes.  With  the  lamp  with  shield  and  1  gauze 
the  same  conditions  gave  the  same  results,  proving  that  with  only  one  gauze  the 
Marsaut  lamp  was  perfectly  safe. 

Modified  Marsaut  Lamps, — Experiments  were  made  with  the  Mai-saut  lamp, 
modified  by  having  a  large  opening  cut  in  the  shield  3*03  by  1*77  inches,  and  with 
another  lamp  with  holes  in  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  shield  opposite  the  gauze,  and 
with  other  modifications.  These  alterations  were  proved  by  experiments  to  interfere 
materially  with  the  safety  of  the  lamp.  W.  N.  A. 


THE  CUVELIER  LOCK  FOR  SAFETY-LAMPS. 

Considerations  surla  Question  de  la  Fermetvre  des  Lampes  de  SHretS,  By  Joseph 
GOPPIN.  Publications  de  la  SocietS  des  IngSnieurs  sortis  de  VEeole  ProHndale 
d'indvjstrie  et  des  Mines  du  Bainaut,  1892,  series  3,  vol,  ?.,  pages  208-215,  and 
oj^e  figure. 

In  the  new  form  of  the  Cuvelier  lock,  as  in  the  old  form,*  the  lamp  is  fastened 
by  connecting  its  upper  and  lower  portions  by  a  bolt.  This  bolt  is  vertical  and  is 
connected  with  a  spiral  spring  tending  to  draw  it  down.  At  its  upper  end  is  a 
groove,  into  which  fits  the  extremity  of  a  horizontal  lever,  so  as  to  keep  it  raised, 
the  lever  being  kept  in  position  by  a  strong  spring.  Against  the  lever  impinges  a 
socket,  into  which  fits  a  rod  with  a  hole  down  through  it,  which  can  be  connected 

*  Trana.  N.B.  Inat.  Min.  Eng.,  vol.  zzzri.,  page^l. 


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rRANSACflONS  AND  PEAIODICALS.  607 

with  a  hydraalic  accumulator.  The  pressure  so  exercised  forces  tl'.e  socket  forward, 
which  reacts  on  the  lever  so  as  to  free  the  head  of  the  bolt ;  and  this  is  forced  down  by 
a  spring  and  the  lamp  unfastened.  It  can  be  rcfastened  by  simply  raising  the  bolt, 
so  that  the  end  of  the  lever  catches  into  the  groove  around  its  head.         G.  E.  C. 


RELIGHTING  SAFETY-LAMPS  IN  COLLIERIES. 

Note  8ur  le  Ralluinage  da  Lainpet  de  Surete  datu  les  Mines,  By  JOSBPH  GOPPIN. 
Jfectte  Unlterselle  des  Minest  etc\,  1892,  senei  3,  vol.  xviii.^  page*  39-49,  and 
plate  II.  (eight  figureg),  aiid  Publications  de  la  Soci4t4  des  Inginieurs  sortis 
de  VEcole  Provinciale  d'IndvMrie  et  des  Mines  du  Hainaut^  1892,  series  3,  vol,  i, 
pages  173-187,  and  plate  Xlll. 

One  of  the  great  faults  of  the  Mueseler  lamp  is  the  ease  with  which  it  is 
extinguished.  Exact  statistics  from  several  collieries  show  that  20  per  cent,  of  the 
lamps  in  use  are  accidentally  extinguished  daily.  Tliis  extinction  causes  great  loss 
of  time,  as  the  lamps  have  to  be  taken  to  distant  places  to  be  re-lighted,  and  it  tempts 
the  workmen  to  open  their  lamps  surreptitiously. 

In  order  to  overcome  this  inconvenience  several  methods  have  been  devised  for 
the  interior  re-lighting  of  lamps.  The  electric  re-lighter  of  Messrs.  Burant  and 
Herbert  (1881)  was  the  first,  or  one  of  the  first  of  these  inventions.  Two  enamelled 
metal  rods  pass  through  the  oil- vessel  of  the  safety-lamp,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
wick-tube,  and  a  thin  platinum  wire  passing  above  the  wick  unites  the  two  rods. 
The  bases  of  the  rods 'terminate  in  two  buttons,  intended  to  be  applied  to  the  poles 
of  an  electric  battery  so  as  to  heat  the  platinum  wire.  To  re-light  the  lamp  the 
wick  is  raised  till  it  touches  the  wire,  and  the  bases  of  the  rods  applied  to  the  poles 
of  the  battery;  this  renders  the  wire  incandescent,  and  so  relights  the  lamp. 
This  system  was  adopted  in  one  colliery,  but  its  use  has  been  discontinued. 

The  re-lighting  lamp  of  Messi-s.  Mori  and  Rhodes  is  based  on  the  same  principle  as 
the  last  lamp,  but  the  details  of  construction  are  improved.  In  this  lamp  the  platinum 
wire  is  of  a  horse-shoe  shape,  and  is  placed  so  as  to  touch  the  wick.  The  metal  con- 
ductors are  each  made  in  two  portions,  which  are  kept  apart  by  a  spring ;  when 
connected  with  the  electric  battery  the  circuit  is  completed,  the  wire  rendered 
inc.indescent,  and  the  wick  re-lighted. 

The  system  of  re-lighting  lamps  by  electricity  does  not  completely  meet  the 
difficulty,  because  the  lamps  require  to  be  taken  to  the  place  where  the  battery  is 
kept,  and  a  number  of  batteries  or  accumulators  have  to  be  placed  in  each  of  the 
various  districts  of  a  mine. 

These  inconveniences  are  entirely  overcome  by  the  use  of  internal  re-lighters,  by 
which  the  wick  is  lighted  either  by  f ulminating-caps  attached  to  a  band  of  strong 
paper  or  by  matches. 

The  Wolf  benzine  lamp  is  re-lighted  by  fulminating-caps ;  a  narrow  roll  of  paper 
to  which  discs  of  the  fulminate  are  attached  is  carried  in  the  base  of  the  lamp^  and 
by  mechanical  contrivances  the  paper  is  drawn  past  the  wick,  and  a  disc  of 
fulminate  ignited  in  proximity  to  it.  This  system  is  only  applicable  to  lamps  fed 
with  volatile  mineral  oils  such  as  benzine.* 

The  writer,  however,  strongly  objects  to  the  use  of  such  volatile  oils  in  safety- 
lamps. 

The  Catrice  re-lighterf  may  be  used  in  lamps  burning  ordinary  oil.    The  lamp  is 

*  Tran».  N.E.  Intt.  Min.  Bng.,  vol.  zzxIt.,  page  291,  and  plate  XLI. 
t  JMd,  ToL  xzxTiL,  alM.,  page  64. 


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608  NOTES  OF  PAPERS  IN  FOBBIGN 

re-lighted  by  means  of  a  match,  which,  by  a  mechanical  arrangement  descrit*^ 
shoved  up  a  tube  alongside  the  wick,  and  ignited  in  its  passage  by    friction- 
small  barrel,  somewhat  like  the  barrel  of  a  revolver,  placed  in  the  oil-vea»c*l ,   o 
tains  13  matches,  tipped  with  an  easily-inflammable  chemical  composition,  and    tii  i 
are  used  one  after  another.  W.  N.  A.  and  G.  B-    C?- 


TOMMASI  ELECTRIC  SAFETY-LAMP. 

Nouvelle  Lamjfe  Electrique  de  Sureti,     By  D.  TOMMASI.     Revue  Vniversell^  ^€r^ 
Intention*  Nmvelles.       Edition  A,  1S92,  pages  238-289,  and  Jiff  ure. 

In  the  Tommasi  electric  safety-lamp,  the  glow-lamp  is  enclosed    in  an     air- 
tight glass  cylinder,  closed  below  by  the*  lower  part  of  the  lamp,  and  above    by    a 
cover  fitted  with  a  stop-cock.    In  the  lower  pait  of  the  lamp  is  a  pair  of  bellows 
full  of  air,  so  arranged  that  when  full  it  cuts  off  the  electric  current.     To  lig'ht   tlie 
lamp  a  quantity  of  air  is  forced  through  the  stop-cock  in  the  upper  cover.      Tb^ 
tension  thus  produced  depresses  the  bellows  and  establishes  the  current.     The  lamp 
is  extinguished  by  opening  the  stop-cock,  which  relieves  the  pressure,  the  belJoiw-s 
then  rise,  and  cut  off  the  electric  current.    The  current  is  similarly  cut  off  wlien 
the  glass-cylinder  is  broken.    If  the  glass  globe  of  the  glow-lamp  be  broken,  the 
air  inside  the  glass-cylinder  expands,  the  bellows  open  and  cut  off  the  current  as 
before.  G.  W.  B. 

THE  WOLF  BENZINE  SAFETY-LAMP.* 

Ueber  einige  praktische  Erfahmngen  beim  Gebrauche  der  Wolfschen  Benzin- 
Si^herh£iUlamj)e.  By  P.,  mining  engineer,  Berg-und  HuettenmiBnniJfche 
Zeitung,  1891,  vol,  l.^  pages  193-195. 

The  facility  with  which  the  closed  Wolf  lamp  (in  its  present  perfected  state)  can 
be  immediately  re-lighted,  and  thus  made  use  of  in  rescuing  miners  in  case  oi 
serious  accidents,  has  been  proved  at  the  explosion  which  took  place  in  the  Dreifal- 
tigkeit  pit,  Polnisch-Ostrau,  on  January  3rd,  1891.  The  workmen  were  able  to  find 
their  way  to  a  place  of  safety,  thanks  to  the  light  afforded  by  their  lamps  (which 
had  been  extinguished  by  the  rush  of  gases,  but  which  they  had  been  able  to 
re-kindle  at  once). 

In  addition  to  furnishing  a  stronger  and  steadier  light  than  is  the  case  with 
ordinary  oil  safety-lamps,  the  Wolf  lamp  gives  more  timely  and  more  decisive 
indications  of  the  presence  of  fii*e-damp  ;  the  flame  can  be  so  adjusted  that  a 
practised  eye  may  detect  the  presence  of  1  per  cent,  of  the  gas  in  the  pit.  But 
these  advantages  can  only  be  reckoned  with  on  condition  of  using  perfectly  pure, 
double-distilled  benzine — a  circumstance  often  overlooked  in  practice.     0.  S,  E, 


SALT-MINING  IN  THE  AUSTBIAN  ALPS. 
Der  Sahbergbau  in  den  osterrcichischen  Alpen.  By  August  Aigner.  Berg-und 
Buttenmdntiisches  Jahrbuch,  1892,  vol,  xL^ pages  203-880,  tcitk  three ^lata. 
After  a  preliminary  paragraph,  implying  that  no  complete  description  of  salt- 
mining  in  that  part  of  Europe  has  been  published  since  the  appearance  of  Mr.  Bitter 
von  Hauenfels'  paper  in  the  Leoben  Mining  Journalf  in  1853,  the  author  proceeds 
to  consider : — 

*  Traiu.  N,B,  Intt,  Min.  Bng,,  toL  izzi?  ,  page  291,  and  plate  XLI. 


Digiti7'=^'^  hw 


Gooalp 


a*KANSACT?I0N8  AND  PElfelODICALS.  dOd 

I.  The  Saline  Formations  in  the  Alpine  Districts. — These  range  from  Maria 
Zell,  in  the  cast,  to  Hall  (Tyrol),  in  the  west,  the  rock-salt  occurring  mostly  in  the 
Werfen  Shales,  the  lowest  division  of  the  Bunter  Sandstone  series  of  the  Trias. 
The  measures  worked  for  salt  are  called  the  Haselgebirge,  and  are,  in  point  of  fact, 
a  chaotic  jumble  of  rock-salt,  saline  and  gypseous  clays,  polyhalite,  anhydrite, 
soluble  magnesium  and  sodium  sulphates,  hepatite,  werfen,  and  other  shales,  etc. 
The  rock-salt  is  extremely  variable  in  colour  and  in  structure ;  the  percentage  of 
pure  sodium  chloride  in  it  varies  from  96  to  100.  The  polyhalite  occurs  in  fibrous 
plates  of  an  inch  or  more  in  thickness,  the  undersides  of  which  have  generally  a 
covering  of  clay  ;  an  average  of  chemical  analyses  shows  that  it  contains  52*9  per 
cent,  of  calcium  sulphate,  9*6  per  cent,  of  magnesium  sulphate,  12*4  per  cent,  of 
potassium  sulphate,  5*4  per  cent,  of  sodium  chloride,  ^  per  cent,  of  sodium  sulphate, 
10  01  per  cent,  of  aluminium  silicate,  and  4*2  per  cent,  of  water. 

In  the  Kammergut  the  principal  mines  are  those  of  Aussee,  Hallstatt,  and 
Ischl.  That  of  Au.*see  is  the  richest,  the  yearly  brine-production  averaging 
690,000  hectolitres  (13,000,000  gallons).  In  it  13  adits  have  been  opened,  and  the 
greatest  depth  attained,  which  has  not  yet  touched  the  footwall,  is  644  metres 
(1,785  feet)  ;  the  hanging  wall  is  Zlambach  marl,  a  fossiliferous  stratum,  containing 
about  3  per  cent,  of  calcium  carbonate  and  7*5  per  cent,  of  the  sulphate.  In  the 
Hallstatt  mine  the  hanging  wall  appears  to  be  a  breccia,  in  which  are  commingled 
the  Zlambach  marl,  Hallstatt,  and  Dachstein  limestones,  and  other  strata  broken 
up  by  the  uprise  of  an  intrusive  igneous  mass — identified  as  melaphyre.  Here  15 
adits  have  been  opened  ;  the  greatest  depth  attained  is  450  meti'es  (1,476  feet),  and 
the  annual  brine-production  averages  1,900,000  hectolitres  (42,000,000  gallons).  In 
the  Ischl  mine,  where  a  depth  of  723  metres  (2,872  feet)  has  been  reached,  though 
the  footwall  is  as  yet  unknown,  the  strata  occur  in  undisturbed  succession.  The 
adits  are  14  in  number,  and  700,000  hectolitres  (15,000,000  gallons)  of  brine  are 
produced  yearly. 

Turning  now  to  another  district,  the  Hallein  mine  is  worked  in  an  overfold, 
the  extent  and  depth  of  which  are  unknown.  The  strata  here  are  reckoned  to  be 
about  as  rich  in  salt  as  those  of  Ischl ;  the  annual  brine-production  averages 
834,000  hectolitres  (18,500,000  gallons).  It  is  noticeable  that  a  large  proportion 
of  magnesium  chloride  is  present  in  the  salt  deposit.  The  saline  measures  of 
i^erclitesgaden  are  practically  a  continuation  of  those  of  Hallein,  and  the  brine 
produced  from  them  annually  amounts  to  1,200,000  hectolitres  (26,600,000  gallons). 
In  that  neighbourhood  salt-mining  is  of  very  ancient  date,  and  the  industry  was 
carried  on  under  the  rule  of  the  mediaeval  bishops  of  Salzburg  and  provosts  of 
Berchtesgaden.  The  Hall  (Tyrol)  mine  is  worked  in  the  Keuper— that  is,  at  a  far 
higher  geological  horizon  than  the  other  mines,  and  the  saline  deposit  is  very  poor, 
the  maximum  percentage  of  salt  being  36.  The  strata  appear  to  have  been  much 
affected  here  by  dynamic  influences,  one  proof  of  such  action  being  the  occurrence 
of  galena  in  contact  with  the  rock-salt.  The  greatest  depth  struck  is  300  metres 
(984  feet),  and  the  annual  brine-production  averages  623,000  hectolitres  (11,600,000 
gallons). 

The  author  discusses  at  considerable  length  the  question  of  the  origin  of  the 
salt-deposits,  and  enumerates  his  conclusions  in  the  following  summary  of  the 
phases  of  formation  : — 

1.  Evaporation  (disturbed  by  earth-movements)  of  concentrated  mother  liquors, 
accompanied  by  vast  accession  of  heat  from  the  underlying  strata,  or  even  by 
atmospheric  evaporation  ;  and  horizontal  deposition  of  the  clays. 

2.  Squeezing  and  folding  of  the  saline  beds  at  a  later  epoch,  under  enormous 
pressure. 


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610  NOTES  OF  PAPERS  IN  FOUEION 

3.  Dynamic  action  (eruptiye  rocks)  due  to  causes  partly  active  at  the  surface, 
partly  at  great  depths,  and  contemporaneous  destruction  of  the  entire  complex  of 
strata — forming  the  Haselgebirge  measures. 

4.  Partial  folding  of  the  mass  of  the  Haselgebirge,  by  means  of  lateral  pressure 
ensuing  on  mountain-formation,  and  dynamic  influences  continuing  active  down  to 
recent  times. 

II.  Method  of  Worltinff  the  Salt-tfejwgit^. — The  salt  layer,  being  presumably 
first  proved  by  a  borehole,  a  shaft  sloping  at  an  angle  of  40  degs.  is  driven  down  to 
the  required  spot  from  the  gallery  or  upper  level ;  it  is  provided  with  a  stairway 
and  hand-rail  and  pipes  for  taking  the  fresh  water  down  to  the  salt.  The 
chamber  cut  in  the  rock-salt  preliminary  to  conversion  of  the  rock  into  brine  is 
usually  elliptical.  Preference  is  given  to  this  form,  because  in  measures  which  are 
unequally  saline  the  short  axis  of  the  ellipse  can  be  made  parallel  to  the  strike  of 
the  rock-salt  debris,  with  a  view  to  a  future  cut  ting-off  of  the  chamber.  As  to 
the  methods  of  bringing  the  brine  from  the  pit  bottom,  the  author  describes  some 
which  have  a  purely  academic  interest,  for  they  appear  to  be  discarded  nowadays ; 
and  even  of  the  others  he  remarks,  on  page  246,  that  they  are  all  antiquated,  except 
the  Ebenwehre  or  horizontal  8ystem,  which  is  the  cheapest  and  simplest.  (It  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  4,  of  Plate  V.,  in  the  original  paper.)  The  mechanical  details  in 
this  section  of  the  paper  can  hardly  be  summarized  in  the  absence  of  the  descriptive 
illustrations,  but  they  do  not  seem,  on  the  whole,  likely  to  be  of  much  practical 
value  for  the  English  reader.  The  paper,  so  far  as  published,  winds  up  with  a  series 
of  theoretical  considerations,  largely  mathematical,  on  changes  of  volume  (in  salt 
and  water)  consequent  on  the  production  of  brine.  O.  S.  E. 


SALT  INDUSTRY  IN  ITALY. 

Bine  neve  Saline  in  Italien.    By  F.  B.    Berg-und  Hvettenmannische  Zeitnng^  1892, 

vol,  li.y  pages  347-348. 

The  rocky  island  of  Ischia  in  the  Gulf  of  Naples  is  of  volcanic  origin,  and  is  well- 
known  for  its  hot  mineral  springs,  the  town  of  Casamicciola  on  its  northern  slope 
being  a  favourite  watering-place.  The  highest  hill  on  the  island  is  the  steepsided 
Mount  Epomeo,  and  between  its  southern  base  and  the  sea  there  is  a  gently  inclined 
sandy  beach  called  "  dei  Maronti "  about  a  mile  and  a  quarter  long  by  130  feet 
broad,  which  is  constantly  warm  even  below  low  water-mark  ;  summer  and  winter 
it  has  a  temperature  of  122  degs.  Fahr.  at  a  foot  below  the  surface,  the  heat  increas- 
ing with  the  depth  to  221  degs.  Fahr.  at  39  inches  down.  Experiments  at  different 
points,  in  different  seasons,  and  in  different  jears,  have  given  nearly  the  same 
results.  The  waters  of  two  brooks,  flowing  down  from  the  mountain  over  this 
expanse,  have  temperatures  of  from  160  to  210  degs.  Fahr. 

On  the  strength  of  the  above  experiments,  a  company  approached  the  Govern- 
ment for  a  concession  to  win  salt  from  the  sea  by  the  aid  of  tanks  embedded  in  the 
"dei  Maronti"  sand.  It  was  shown  that  sea-water  contained  in  a  zinc  box  39 
inches  square  imbedded  in  the  hot  sand,  evaporated  within  three  days  without 
boiling  or  bubbling,  leaving  all  its  contents  of  salt  behind  dry,  and  the  experiment 
was  repeated  in  100  different  places  with  a  like  result.  The  Government  agreed  to 
grant  the  concession,  and  preparations  were  being  made  to  carry  on  the  work  with 
large  tanks  39  inches  deep,  having  their  upper  edges  level  with  the  sea,  when  the 
destruction  of  Casamicciolo  by  an  earthquake  stopped  the  enterprise,  and  the  oon- 
cesssion  lapsed. 


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TRANSACTIONS  AND  PERIODICALS.  611 

It  -^as  calculated  that  one  ton  of  common  salt,  which  in  Italy  costs  about  429., 
could  be  sold  at  a  profit  for  12s.  The  sea-water  round  Ischia  containing  26|  per 
cent,  of  common  salt,  and  14  per  cent,  of  secondary  salt,  a  basin  39  inches  deep 
with  an  area  of  247  acres  would  produce  122,000  tons  of  common,  and  64,845  tons  of 
secondary  salt.  In  other  Italian  salt-works  41  tons  of  coal  are  burnt  per  100  tons  of 
wvlt  pToduced,  but  at  Ischia  the  only  work  required  would  be  the  opening  and 
shutting  of  the  sluices,  the  collecting  of  the  salt  when  dried,  and  the  watching  of 
the  course  of  the  evaix)ration. 

The  temperature  being  constant  and  the  boiling  of  the  solution  impossible,  the 
common  salt  would  first  be  given  off  and  obtained  almost  pure.  The  making  of  the 
secondary  salt  would  be  easily  and  cheaply  effected  by  means  of  the  hot  streams 
already  mentioned. 

The  cost  of  making  the  salt  is  reckoned  at  about  28.  per  ton.  A.  R.  L. 


THE  SALT  LAKES  OF  SOUTH-WESTERN  SIBERIA. 

Die  Salzgcen  von  S-W.  Slbirlen,    By  R.  Helmh ACKER.     Berg-und  Huettcn.' 
Misnnijfche  Zeituiig^  1892,  vol,  IL^  pages  233-235. 

In  the  low-lying  steppes  of  South-Western  and  of  the  northern  part  of  Mid 
Silxiria  is  a  large  tract  of  slightly  depressed  country  studded  with  numberless  salt- 
lakes,  which  are  gi-adually  drying  up.  They  arc  the  remains  of  a  large  sheet 
of  brackish  water  which  once  included  the  Aral  and  Caspian  seas,  these  two  latter 
haying  within  a  few  decades  themselves  perceptibly  decreased  in  area.  The  surface 
formation  in  these  districts  is  a  clayey  sand  alternating  with  sandy  day  of  a  light 
brown  or  light  grey  colour,  covered  with  a  thin  stratum  of  soil  in  which  flourishes  a 
Tery  profuse  vegetation. 

The  original  sea  having  been  brackish,  the  lakes,  as  they  dry  up,  become  con- 
stantly more  salt,  and  deposit  in  greater  or  less  quantities  and  proportions  common 
salt  (chloride  of  soda),  bitter  salt  (sulphate  of  magnesia),  Glauber  salt  (sulphate  of 
soda),  and  other  salt:*.  Many  of  them  deposit  a  thick  crust  of  salt  on  their  beds, 
which  is  collected  round  their  margins  in  summer  when  evaporation  diminishes 
their  area.     Other  lakes  again  are  not  sufficiently  salt-bearing  to  form  such  deposits. 

The  lakes  belong,  some  to  the  Privy  Exchequer  of  the  Czar,  some  to  the  Russian 
State,  and  others  to  the  Kirghiz. 

Common  salt  is  the  kind  most  extensively  met  with,  and  this  is  dredged  up  or 
collected  round  the  edges  of  the  lakes  and  heaped  up  on  land,  to  be  dried  and 
separated  from  sand  and  other  impurities  by  the  summer  sun.  It  is  sent  to  market 
in  boats  on  the  rivers  Irtish  and  Isym,  or  in  winter  by  sledges. 

The  proportion  of  salt  in  the  water  varies  very  much  in  different  lakes,  and  a 
large  number  of  them  are  not  worth  working,  but  these  will  become  more  and 
more  salt  as  they  dry  up,  and  may  be  profitably  worked  at  some  future  period. 

A.  R.  L, 

THE  BROKEN  HILL_  MINES,  NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 

On  the  Geological  Occurrence  of  the  Broken  Hill  Ore-deposits.     By  E.  F.  PiTT- 

MAN.     Becords  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  New  South  Wales,  1892,  vol.  Hi,, 

pages  45-49. 

The  geological  occurrence  of  the  Broken  Hill  lode  presents  many  analogous 

features  to  the  well-known  saddle-formation  of  Bendigo,  Victoria.    In  the  latter 

case  the  strata  consist  of  Lower  Silurian  slates  and  sandstones,  contorted  into 


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612  NOTES  OF  PAPERS  IN  FOREIGN 

anticlines  and  synclines.  The  saddles  are  found  at  the  apices  of  the  anliclines,  the 
legs  thinning  out  and  disappearing  in  depth,  other  saddles  being  found  immediately 
underneath  at  greater  or  less  depth.  The  reefs  are  associated  with  narrow  intrusive 
dykes  of  dolerite,  which  have  doubtless  influenced  their  mineralization. 

The  Broken  Hill  district  is  composed  of  ciystalline  gneisses,  passing  into  banded 
quartzites,  micaceous  and  hornblendic  schists,  and  garnetiferous  ssaudstones,  similarly 
contorted.  Their  age  is  uncertain,  but,  according  to  the  late  Mr.  Wilkinson,  they 
are  as  old  as  Lower  (Silurian,  and  probably  older.  Intrusive  dykes  of  highly-basic 
diorite  extend  roughly  parallel  to  the  hill  on  both  sides,  the  hill  itself  corresponding 
to  one  of  these  anticlines.  The  ridge  consists  of  the  outcrop  of  the  lode — a  mass  of 
manganiferous  iron  ore.  Below,  in  the  mine,  the  lode  is  found  to  divide  into  two 
branches,  dipping  east  and  west  respectively.  The  dividing  rock,  which  has  been 
vdriously  spoken  of  as  hor^  and  intrusion,  has  not  the  character  of  either.  Its 
foliations  indicate  that  it  is  the  cap  of  an  anticline,  and  suggests  that  the  lode 
itself  is  similar  to  the  Bendigo  saddles. 

This  intrusion  is  found  at  differing  depths  in  the  various  mines  along  the  hill, 
which  is  another  point  of  similarity  with  the  Bendigo  saddles,  the  rocks  enclosing 
which  are  contorted  into  curves  along  their  line  of  strike  as  well  as  transversely. 

The  Broken  Hill  depo.sit,  however,  differs  from  the  Bendigo  reefs  in  dimensions 
and  character  of  gangue  and  mineralization,  the  latter  consisting  of  auriferous 
quartz  with  a  little  iron  pyrites,  while  the  former  consists  at  the  outcrop  of 
manganiferous  ironstone,  succeeded  by  kaolin  and  oxidized  lead  ores,  followed  in 
depth  by  lead  and  zinc  sulphides. 

If  the  author's  theory  prove  correct,  both  portions  of  the  Broken  Hill  deposit 
will  probably  thin  out  and  disappear  in  depth — fortunately  as  yet  a  remote  con- 
tingency. On  the  other  hand,  it  is  possible  that  by  boring  through  the  cap  of  the 
anticline  other  deposits  might  be  found  more  or  less  vertically  underneath. 

G.  B.  C. 


DRAINAGE  OF  SINKING  SHAFTS :     TOMSON  SYSTEM. 

Creunement  des  putts  avec  ejmisement  par  inachine  d^extractivn^  systeme  Evg, 
Tomson.  By  A.  DE  V.  Bevne  Univerwlh  des  Mines,  1893,  series  3,  tol.  arort,, 
pages  225-227,  and  one  plate. 

The  No.  1  shaft  of  the  Preussen  mine,  near  Galunen,  formerly  bearing  the  name 
of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  had  been  commenced  in  the  spring  of  1873,  but  was 
abandoned  in  1875,  owing  to  the  sudden  irruption  of  a  large  quantity  of  water  at 
the  depth  of  890  feet,  the  water  flowing  out  to  the  surface. 

The  level  of  the  water  having  fallen  after  a  certain  time,  the  pit  was  filled  in 
with  concrete  to  a  height  of  about  150  feet,  that  is,  to  a  depth  of  740  feet  from  the 
sui-face,  and  it  remained  in  this  state  until  1891. 

There  wei-e  two  winding-engines  with  two  cylinders,  31  inches  and  18  inches  in 
diameter  respectively,  with  61  inches  and  31  inches  strokes,  and  a  strong  steam- 
winch.  The  first  of  these  machines  was  employed  in  drawing  water,  the  second  for 
sending  down  the  workmen,  material,  and  winding  up  of  the  excavated  matter;  the 
winch  was  used  for  working  a  movable  platform  suspended  in  the  shaft. 

The  main  difficulty  was  to  fill  the  kibble  rapidly  and  completely,  and  to  keep  the 
bottom  of  the  sinking  free  from  a  quantity  of  water  not  exceeding  50  gallons  per 
minute.  This  difficulty  was  overcome  by  the  installation,  at  some  feet  from  the 
bottom,  of  sheet-iron  tanks,  into  which  the  water-tubs  dipped,  these  tanks  being 
kept  full  by  means  of  a  pulsometer  pump  suspended  at  the  bottom  of  the  shaft. 


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The  water-tubs  were  guided  by  two  small  steel-wire  ropes,  which  were  also  used 
to  support  the  sheet-iron  tanks.  At  the  surface  these  ropes  passed  over  pulleys  to 
the  steam-winch. 

The  water-tanks  were  connected  at  the  bottom,  and  were  a  few  inches  greater 
in  diameter  than  the  water-tubs,  and  about  3  feet  longer. 

The  pulsometer  pump  was  placed  on  the  same  cradle  as  that  supporting  the  tanks, 
or  it  might  be  suspended  by  a  special  rope  from  the  winch  at  the  surface.  Having  to 
raise  the  water  only  a  small  height  the  pulsometer  pump  acted  excellently  under  these 
conditions.  The  steam  was  carried  to  it  by  a  2|  inches  wrought-iron  pipe  well 
covered. 

The  whole  of  the  installation  could  be  lowered  proportionally  as  the  depth  of 
the  sinking  increased,  or  raised  to  the  surface  again,  when  it  was  desired  to  clear 
the  whole  of  the  pit  at  any  time. 

The  shaft  was  opened  from  a  depth  of  740  to  850  feet,  and  the  walling 
completed,  drawing  at  the  same  time  a  feeder  which  finally  increased  to  300  gallons 
per  minute.  R.  A.  S.  R. 

THE   POETSCH   METHOD   OF   SINKING.* 

Ein  neu€r  Erfolg  dcs  PoUcKschen  Gefrlerverfahrens  helm  Schachtahteufcn,    By 
W.  SCHULZ.     GlUckauf,  1892,  vol,  xxciii.,  pages  1053-1056. 

In  the  middle  of  October,  1892,  the  author  (then  visiting  the  Lens  collieries  in 
Northern  France)  went  down  No.  10  shaft,  which  had  been  successfully  sunk  to  the 
coal-measures  by  the  Poetsch  freezing-process ;  and  at  the  same  time  he  saw  the 
process  in  actual  operation  in  the  No.  10  bis  shaft,  which  is  just  100  feet  distant 
from  the  first-mentioned  shaft. 

The  strata  through  which  both  shafts  were  sunk,  down  to  about  138  feet  from  tl 
surface  contain  a  good  deal  of  water.    In  descending  order  we  have  32  feet 
alternating  sands  and  sandy  and  marly  clays ;  and  then  100  feet  of  Cretac 
rocks,  consisting  partly  of  soft,  clayey  chalk,  and  hard,  much-jointed,  loose  < 
with  flints,  and  partly  of  massive  beds  of  very  hard  chalk ;  below  this  con 
absolutely  impermeable  layer  of  clay,  overlying  a  water-bearing  blue  marl 
yields  from  3  to  34  cubic  feet  per  minute).    The  sequence  of  the  strata  b 
ascertained  by  means  of  a  boring  to  a  depth  of  264  feet. 

In  sinking  shaft  No.  10  the  ordinary  methods  were  at  first  used 
tubbing,  1  inch  thick,  and  lof  feet  in  inside  diameter  was  put  in  rest- 
wooden  wedging-cribs,  and  the  space  betwixt  the  iron  tubbing  and  t> 
of  masonry  was  filled  with  concrete.    The  iron  tubbing  was  built  i^ 
rings,  six  segments  to  each  ring,  and  was  continued  below  by  a  tu 
timber  (about  6  inches  thick).    The  sinking  was  then  carried  on  I 
a  depth  of  84  feet  from  bank,  the  shaft  was  flooded  and  filled  with 
breakage  of  a  piece  of  timber  on  the  north  side  of  the  shaft.    T^ 
increasing  to  875  cubic  feet  per  minute,  and  the  rate  of  pro 
during  the  preceding  fortnight  having  been  practically  nil,  the 
re:K>rt  to  tbo  PcKit^uh  pri^cesd.     Tliti  pump:?  wore  ace<?rdingly  v 
were  pierced  vvilhiii  the  area  of  the  j^hafL  aiid  20  vsiihout  i 
mentions  I  blue  marl,  tu  n  depth  of  5  imt  below  the  clay  ^ 
and  I3'j  feet  from  the  surface.     Tlds  was  done  by  a  metho'* 
by  Mr.  RcutQiiUX,  the  manager  of  the  Lcab  coUierioSj 
temporarily  with  tubing  which  waa  taken  out  after  t^ 

•  TrtfUA.  FtdL  Ttur,  Min.  Emu  »t»l*  It,  pog*  4*1 »  and  pidle 


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614  NOTES  OF  PAPEBS  IN  FOREIGN 

placed  in  position.  The  freezing  liquid  was  a  solution  of  chloride  of  calcium  cooled 
by  an  Osenbriick  ammonia-refrigerator  ;  the  liquid  was  led  into  the  freezing-pipes 
at  an  initial  temperature  of  20  degs.  Fahr.,  which  was  reduced  later  on  to  a 
minimum  of  2  degs.  Fahr.,  and  was  pumped  back  to  the  refrigerator  at  tempera- 
tures of  27  degs.  Fahr.  and  7  degs.  Fahr.  respectively.  The  process  of  freezing 
went  on  for  203  days,  but  the  sinking  operations  were  not  started  till  the  228th 
day.  Mr.  Reumauz  calculated  that  the  beds  which  were  frozen  contained  about 
40  per  cent,  of  water. 

The  sinking  in  the  frozen  mass  was  carried  on  partly  by  means  of  shot-firing, 
and  when  the  blue  marl  had  been  reached  the  innermost  freezing-pipes  were 
removed.  Cast-iron  tubbing.  16f  feet  in  inside  diameter,  was  low  put  down 
in  two  lengths  of  73  and  29  feet  respectively,  having  10  segments  and  HOscrewbolts 
to  each  5  feet  ring.  The  thickness  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  tubbing  was 
1*33  inches  of  the  lower  portion  1'66  inches. 

After  the  completion  of  this  tubbing,  instead  of  the  strata  being  allowed  to 
thaw  the  sinking  was  continued  through  grey  and  blue  chalk  marl  down  to  172 
feet  from  bank,  whilst  the  freezing  solution  was  made  to  circulate  as  before, 
through  the  outermost  pipes  which  had  not  been  removed.  From  this  chalk  marl 
water  flowed  into  the  shaft  at  the  rate  of  about  3  cubic  feet  per  minute,  but  the 
waters  from  the  overlying  strata  were  completely  shut  off.  The  cast-iron  tubbing 
being  completed  down  to  the  172  feet  level,  the  frozen  strata  were  thawed  by 
leading  steam  through  the  pipes,  and  these  were  then  taken  out.  The  sinking 
thereafter  progressed  without  any  noteworthy  occurrence,  and,  at  the  time  of  the 
author*s  visit,  No.  10  shaft  was  in  coal-measures  at  a  depth  of  570  feet ;  the  inflow 
of  water  at  this  depth  was  only  1  cubic  foot  per  minute. 

The  Poetsch  process  was  made  use  of  from  the  fii-st  in  sinking  No.  10  bis  shaft ; 
54  days  were  occupie<i  in  the  preliminary  borings,  etc.,  and  the  process  of  freezing 
was  continued  for  76  days.  The  sinking  was  carried  on  by  means  of  blasting  with 
compressed  black  powder  ;  the  gunpowder  fumes  were  taken  off  by  an  air-channel 
which  communicated  with  a  chimney  on  the  surface.  The  structural  arrangements 
were,  on  the  whole,  much  the  same  as  in  No.  10  shaft :  cast-iron  tubbing,  12  feet  in 
internal  diameter,  and  wcoden  wedging-cribs  were  used.  In  the  middle  of  October. 
1892,  the  shaft  was  yet  being  deepened  ;  it  was  lighted  by  electric  (incandescent) 
lamp?,  and  six-hour  shifts  of  eight  men  each  were  busied  in  building  up  the  tubbing. 
The  temperature  in  the  sliaft  varied  between  23  and  25  degs.  Fahr.,  and  it  was 
not  the  intention  of  the  engineers  to  thaw  the  frozen  strata  until  the  shaft  had  been 
carried  down  to  a  depth  of  at  least  170  feetfi-om  the  surface. 

No.  10  bis  shaft  was  completed  in  220  days,  or  an  average  advance  of  0*66  foot 
per  diem,  a  result  which,  under  the  circumstances  (water-feeder  of  850  cubic  feet 
per  minute)  was  marvellous. 

In  November,  1892,  another  shaft  was  being  sunk  by  the  Poetsch  process  in  the 
Pas  de  Calais,  at  the  Doui-ges  collieries. 

The  drowning  of  No.  10  shaft  up  to  sea-level  had  the  result  of  providing  the 
shaft  with  sufficient  resistance  to  withstand  the  crushing-in  pressure  of  the  rocks 
(whilst  arrangements  were  being  made  to  restart  the  sinking  by  the  Poetsch  process), 
and  the  author  suggests  that  in  similar  caees  which  may  arise  in  the  future,  it  would 
be  advantageous  to  flood  a  shaft  by  artificial  means.  Further,  he  draws  attention  to 
the  following  conclusions  : — 

1.  Hard,  dense  rocks  offer  no  obstacle  to  the  freezing  process.    The  much- join  ted 

loose  chalk  was  frozen  into  so  firm  a  mass   that   blasting  was  found 
necessary  to  break  it  down. 

2.  Neither  walls  nor  iron  tubbing  suffer  from  the  frost. 


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TRANSACTIONS  AND  PERIODICALS.  fil5 

3.  The  chance*  of  lU-sucoees  with  the  Poetsch  process  are  largely  obviate<l  if,  as 

in  the  case  of  No.  10  and  No.  10  bis  shafts,  the  freezing  process  is  only 
put  an  end  to  after  the  provision  of  a  sufficiently  high  foundation  beneath 
the  ice  wall  or  mass  of  frozen  strata. 

4.  Clayey  bands  alternating  with  sandy  or  stony  beds  constitute  a  distinct 

disadvantage,  for  the  clay  freezes  much  more  slowly  and  freezes  leas  hard 
than  the  other  strata.  Herein  practice  confirms  the  experiments  of  Mr. 
Alby.*  Indeed,  plastic  clay  on  freezing  assumes  a  shaly  structure,  and  in 
cases  where  it  alternates  with  sands,  the  dissimilar  behaviour  of  the  strata 
induces  breikage  of  the  freezing-pipes.  Breakages  could  perhaps  be 
avoided  if  the  lining-tubes  of  the  preliminary  boreholes  were  left  in  place 
instead  of  being  withdrawn,  so  that  the  freezing-pipes  within  them  would 
be  throughout  in  direct  contact  with  a  sheet  of  ice.  Another  disadvantage 
of  alternating  sands  and  clays  or  other  strata  is  the  production  of  fissures 
in  the  ice- wall,  but  it  is  fair  to  state  that  in  the  two  sinkings  above  describetl 
such  fissures  have  had  no  injurious  effect  worth  mentioning. 

5.  Mr.  Reumaux  stated  that  an  additional  advantage  of  the  Poetsch  proceas 

consisted  in  its  small  cost,  but  sufficiently  full  data  in  support  of  this 
assertion  are  not,  so  far,  forthcoming.  O.  S.  E. 


COAL-SCREENING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
The  Iron  Breaker  at  DriftoHj  with  a  Descriptwn  of  some  of  the  Machinery  v*ed 
for  Handling  and  Preparing  Coal  at  the  CroJts  Creek  Collieries.    Sy  ECKLEY 
B.  COXE.      Transactions  of  the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers, 
1890,  tol.  xix,,  pages  398-474,  and  AS  plates. 

Anthracite  coal  as  it  comes  from  the  mines  is  not  marketable,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  it  will  not  bum  freely  unless  the  lumps  are  practically  of  a  uniform  size.  In 
addition,  a  considerable  quantity  of  shale  occurs  with  the  pure  coal.  Slate  coal  is 
lumps  composed  partly  of  slate  (shale)  and  partly  of  coal,  the  latter  in  large  masses. 
On  breaking  these,  pieces  of  pure  coal  of  marketable  size  can  be  obtained  economi- 
cally. Bone  coal  consists  of  shale  and  coal  so  interst  ratified  that  they  cannot  be 
separated  economically  by  mechanical  preparation. 

The  coal  coming  from  the  mines  is  first  tipped  on  to  a  fixed  bar-screen,  and  the 
large  coal  passed  by  shoots  on  to  a  movable  bar-screen ;  the  small  coal  falling 
through  both  screens  is  collected  together  for  further  treatment.  Up  to  this  stage 
only  two  sizes  are  made,  each  of  which  is  treated  separately.  The  large  coal  is 
divided  into  three  sorts — (a)  shale  and  slate,  which  goes  to  the  dirt-heap  ;  (J)  pure 
coal,  sold  as  lumps  if  there  is  any  market  for  it ;  (r)  slate  coal,  too  impure  to  go  to 
market  in  its  existing  condition.  Sometimes  the  shale  can  be  chipped  off  with  a 
pick,  but  more  generally  the  mixture  has  to  be  crushed  by  rolls  and  the  product 
sized  by  screens,  the  dirt  being  removed  by  hand-picking  from  the  larger  qualities 
and  by  washing  from  the  smaller  ones.  The  pure  coal  is  also  passed  through  rolls 
and  afterwards  sized  by  screens. 

The  small  coal  that  passes  through  the  fixed  and  movable  bar-screens  if 
conveyed  to  two  screens,  each  of  which  makes  three  sizes,  called  "steamboat," 
"  broken,"  and  "  egg."  The  small  coal  passes  to  another  pair  of  screens,  known  as 
the  stove  or  wet  screens.  The  steamboat  coal  from  both  screens  passes  via  a 
picking*shoot  to  a  loading-shoot,  provided  all  this  quality  can  be  sold ;  if  it  cannot, 
a  portion  is  passed  through  a  set  of  rolls  and  separated  by  Bcreens  into  *'  broken," 
*  Annalet  det  Mine*t  mtIm  8,  toL  xf.,  page  66. 


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616  NOTES  OF  PAPERS  TS   FORBION 

i»egg"  "stove,"  **che8tnut,"  "pea,*'  buckwheat  No.  1,  No.  2,  and  No.  3,  and  dust. 
All  the  coal  which  passes  to  the  stove  or  wet  screens,  is  thei'e  divided  into  seven 
of  the  sizes  above-mentioned,  ranging  from  "stove"  to  dust,  or  rather  slime,  as 
these  screens  are  worked  wet,  ?.e.,  a  large  amount  of  water  is  put  on  them.  All  the 
wet  coal  from  these  screens  is  cleaned  in  jigging  coal-washers  of  the  LUhrig  type. 

The  rolls  employed  for  breaking  the  coal  differ  from  those  generally  adopted, 
inasmuch  as  the  teeth  are  continuous  from  one  end  to  the  other.  There  are  no 
pointed  teeth,  as  it  is  found  that  these  have  a  tendency  to  split  up  a  lump  of  coal 
into  small  pieces  in  the  same  way  that  the  blow  of  a  pick  does.  It  has  also  been 
found  advisable  to  use  a  separate  set  of  rolls  to  break  each  size,  as  if  a  piece  of  any 
size  is  simply  broken  as  nearly  as  possible  into  two  (for  the  next  size),  the  amount 
of  small  coal  made  is  much  less  than  if  the  same  size  were  struck  near  the  centre 
with  a  pick  and  broken  into  a  number  of  fragments.  The  production  of  "  dust "  is 
avoided  as  much  as  possible,  as  it  is  quite  unsaleable. 

The  movable  bar-screens  are  a  modification  of  the  Briart  screen.  Kach  screen 
consists  of  a  series  of  double  bars  placed  sufficiently  far  apart  to  allow  coal  of  the 
required  size  to  pass  through.  Each  set  of  bare  is  driven  by  an  eccentric,  and  one 
set  is  always  below  the  second  set  when  moving  forward,  but  above  when  moving 
backward.  In  the  Briart  screen  the  shafts  which  carry  the  bare  rise  and  fall  the 
same  distance  as  they  move  forwanl,  while  in  this  construction  they  only  move  up 
and  down  lialf  as  much  as  they  move  forward.  It  was  found  that  with  the  Briart 
construction  the  coal  was  thrown  up  and  down  too  much  when  it  was  fed  forward 
with  any  rapidity. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  feature  is  the  movable  screen  designed  by  Mr. 
Coxe,  where  the  screening  surface  is  approximately  horizontal,  but  the  motion  and 
action  is  similar  to  that  which  a  moulder  gives  to  a  sieve  when  screening  sand. 
Although  such  screens  have  been  used  in  small  sizes  in  metal-mining,  the  chief 
difficulty  in  constructing  a  larj^e  gyrating  screen  making  a  number  of  sizes  was  to 
support  it  so  that  it  would  gyrate  easily  and  safely,  and  at  the  same  time  be  self- 
contained,  80  that  the  centrifugal  force  will  be  counterbalanced  and  will  not  shake 
the  building.  This  has  been  done  by  a  method  which  essentially  consists  in 
supporting  one  horizontal  plate  upon  another  by  means  of  three  or  more  double 
cones,  while  the  motion  of  gyration  is  given  to  the  upper  plate  by  a  crank  upon  a 
shaft  passing  through  and  journalled  in  the  lower  plate.  Some  of  these  double 
gy rating-screens  have  4  to  8  shelves  put  in,  make  from  6  to  9  sizes,  and  weigh 
10  tons ;  the  screening-surfaces  have  always  circular  holes,  varying  from  Sj  inches 
to  -^th  inch  in  diameter.  The  inclination  of  the  shelves  is  slight,  varying  from 
|th  inch  to  the  foot  (for  the  largest  size)  to  IJ  inches  to  the  foot  (for  the  dust.) 

The  automatic  slate-pickere  which  are  used  depend  for  their  action  on  the  fact 
that  while  the  coal  generally  breaks  into  cubical  masses,  the  pieces  of  shale  of  the 
same  length  and  width  are  of  much  less  thickness.  Hence,  if  a  quantity  of  coal  and 
shale  has  been  passed  through  a  screen  and  properly  sized,  the  shale,  if  placed 
edgewise,  would  drop  through  a  slit  over  which  the  coal  would  pass.  The  shale- 
pickers  consist  of  a  series  of  V-troughs,  one  side  of  the  V  being  shorter  and  at  right 
angles  to  the  other.  The  lower  half  of  the  casting  has  a  taper  slit  in  the  short  side, 
and  these  slits  widen  as  they  approach  the  lower  end.  This  is  an  important  point, 
as  if  the  slits  were  made  parallel  they  would  soon  clog. 

The  height  of  the  breaker  from  the  railway  track  to  the  point  where  the  coal  is 
tipped  is  79  feet,  and  the  greatest  amount  of  coal  which  has  been  screened  and 
cleaned  is  a  little  over  260  tons  per  hour,  but  the  breaker  has  not  been  running  long 
enough  to  determine  its  maximum  capacity.    No  costs  are  given.  H.  W.  H. 


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TBANSACTIONS  AND  PEBIODICALP.  617 

MINERS'  CHANGING  AND  WASH-HOUSES. 
Buchrdhung  einiger  Wohlfahrtseinriehtungen  auf  der  KSniglichen  Steinkohlei^ 

grube  Jht4weiler  bei  SaarhrHchen,    J9y  — Fabian.    ZeiUchrift  f^r  das  Berg-, 

Hittten-,  und  Salinen-  WeJten  im  Preusulschen  Staate^  1892,  vol.  a?/.,  pagea  493-501. 

All  the  buildings  are  situated  close  to  the  shaft,  and  are  so  arranged  that  the 
miners  are  only  exposed  to  the  outside  air  for  a  short  time.  There  is  a  large  waiting- 
room,  which  communicates  on  one  side  with  the  lamp-room  and  on  the  other  with  a 
refreshment  bar,  where  coffee  and  bread  can  be  obtained  at  moilerate  prices. 
Connected  with  this  room  is  the  changing  and  bath-room,  108  by  64  feet,  and  16^ 
feet  high.  The  baths  are  cells  fitted  with  a  warm-water  douche,  and  the  room 
contains  in  all  55  cells,  each  capable  of  holding  two  men.  The  walls  of  the  cells 
are  made  of  corrugated  iron,  and  there  is  a  wooden  partition  in  front  of  the  baths, 
shutting  them  off  from  the  rest  of  the  room.  The  room  is  also  fitted  with  a  few 
cold-water  douche-baths.  Between  two  rows  of  bath  cells  a  railing  is  fixed  to  which 
ropes  passing  over  pulleys  near  the  ceiling  are  attached.  There  is  a  hook  at  one 
end  of  the  rope  on  which  the  miner  may  hang  his  clothes  and  then  pull  them  up  to 
the  top  of  the  building.  Each  man  has  his  own  particular  hook  which  is  numbered. 
It  is  found  that  the  clothes  dry  more  quickly  when  pulled  up  into  the  warm  air  near 
the  ceiling. 

The  water  is  warmed  by  steam  to  a  temperature  of  95  degs.  Fahr.,  and  if  the 
temperature  sinks  below  this,  the  fact  is  notified  by  the  ringing  of  an  automatic 
electric-bell.  Each  bath  requires  about  7  gallons  of  water.  The  time  allowed  for 
the  use  of  a  bath  for  two  men  is  five  minutes.  The  present  arrangements  allow  1,200 
workmen  to  bathe  themselves  in  one  hour.  Out  of  2,340  workmen  865  use  the  bath- 
house regularly. 

The  cost  of  the  bath-house  was  £2,144,  or  £39  per  bath  or  cell. 

Special  mine-waggons  are  used  for  men  meeting  with  an  accident.  These 
waggons  are  fitted  with  springs  and  cushions,  and  aie  made  so  as  to  go  iiito  the  cage. 

The  following  articles  are  kept  in  a  house  close  to  the  shaft  for  use  in  case  of  an 
explosion : — (1)  One  small  machine-ventilator  on  wheels,  and  fitted  with  carrying 
bands ;  (2)  100  yards  of  zinc  air-pipes,  with  a  few  bends,  hanging  wire,  and  cloth 
for  plugging  holes;  (3)  rolls  of  brattice-cloth;  (4)  saws,  picks,  hammers,  and 
nails ;  (5)  three  small  hand-ventilators  ;  (6)  100  yards  of  small  pipe  for  the  hand- 
ventilators  ;  (7)  water-bottles  and  straps ;  (8)  vinegar  for  filling  the  water-bottles ; 
(9)  notebooks  and  pencils ;  (10)  torch-lamps  for  surface  lighting  ;  (11)  small  pipes, 
screws,  tools,  etc.,  for  ventilating  and  pumping  requirements  ;  (12)  a  portable  fire- 
engine  with  hose.  W.  F.  W. 

SULPHUR  ON  PIT-HEAPS.  * 
Sur  des  ichantillims  de  nmifre  prorenant  de  la  houillere  du  Perron  QOugrSe.')    By  A. 
COCHETEUX.    Ann  files  de  la  Societe  Oiologique  de  Bdgique^  1885-86,  vol,  xn't.^ 
Bulletin,  pages  140-141. 

The  author,  noticing  a  strong  odour  of  sulphurous  acid  gas  proceeding  from  a 
pit-heap  at  Perron,  examined  the  heap,  and  found,  just  below  the  surface,  sulphur 
varying  from  lemon-yellow  to  orange  in  colour,  and  forming  long  neetlles  and  spheri- 
cal agglomerations.  The  materials  composing  the  heap  were  pyritous  shales  from  the 
Coal-measures,  and  ashes  and  clinker  from  the  boiler-grates.  The  sulphur  had  been 
liberated  probably  by  reaction  taking  place  between  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  the 
sulphides,  the  organic  matter,  the  water,  and  the  carbon  dioxide  present. 

0.  8.  E. 


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fil8  NOTES  OF  PAPEKR  IN   FORRmN 

THE  SULPHUR-MINES  OF  ALTAVILLA-IRPINA,  ITALY. 
Zftr   Geologie  von    Unteritalien^  Bat  SehioefelhergiDerk  von  AUavUla^Irpina  in 
Unteritalien,    By  W.  Debgkb.     Neue9  Jahrhuehfur  Mineralogies  etc.,  1891, 
vol.  ih,  pages  39-48. 

The  Altavilla-Irpina  mines  are  situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Sabato,  aboat 
equidistant  from  Avellino  and  Bencvento  (7  miles)  and  are  worked  by  a  oompany. 
A  new  junction -railway  between  Avellino  and  Benevento  will  shortly  be  opened, 
and  the  line  passes  close  bj  the  works.  Boys  and  girls  are  employed  for  the  lighter 
duties  in  the  refinery  ;  work  is  carried  on  for  nine  months  out  of  the  twelve.  ' 

The  strata  in  the  Sabato  valley  are  of  Pliocene  age ;  they  are  bounded  by  the 
Nummulitic  limestones  of  Petruro  and  those  of  Monte  Vergine.  The  sulphur  occurs 
in  a  greasy  bituminous  clay,  o?erlain  by  very  thick  conglomerates,  with  which  are 
intercalated  sandstones  and  more  or  less  sandy  marls. 

The  sulphur-deposits  are  of  great  thickness,  and  the  bods  beneath  them  have  not 
yet  been  struck ;  the  sulphur  occurs  in  ramifying  veins  in  the  clay,  or  in  lumps  or 
nodules  amidst  the  abundant  lenticular  masses  of  gypsum.  As  the  clay  beoomes 
more  bituminous  the  sulphur-contents  diminish  in  quantity.  Fragment-s  of  steins 
and  branches,  now  converted  into  lignite,  occur,  but  no  other  fossils  have  been 
found.  It  is  presumed  that  the  sulphur  has  been  separated  out  from  the  gypsum  by 
the  slow  decomposition  of  the  organic  matter  present  in  the  clay.  O.  8.  B. 


MACHINB  FOR  SHAPING  MINING  TIMBER. 
Note  enr  la  Machine  a  Fagonner  lee  Boie  dee  charhonnagee  de  Sare-Longchampe  et 

Bmtvy.    By  Alfbrd  Mathieu.     Revue  Uniteraelle  dee  Minee,  etc^  1892,  vol. 

seriii.,  jfagee  60-52,  and  B  Jig v res. 
The  machine  described  is  a  circular  saw  with  the  addition  of  a  special  tool  for 
shaping  the  ends  of  the  timbers.  This  tool  is  carried  on  the  same  shaft  as  the  saw. 
The  machine  is  worked  by  a  belt  from  a  steam-engine  and  makes  1,200  revolutions 
per  minute.  One  workman  can  shape  3,000  pieces  per  day,  as  much  as  eight  men 
could  do  if  the  shaping  was  done  in  the  mine,  besides  which  all  the  waste-material 
remains  on  the  surface  and  can  be  utilized.  W.  N.  A. 


TELETHBRMOMETBRS. 

£tcei  neve  Fernthermometer,    By  Hans  Hartl.    ZeiUchrift  dee  Vereinee 

Deutscher  Ingenieure,  1891,  vol.  wxxv.,  pages  1399-1401. 

Two  instruments  are  described,  intended  to  indicate  temperatures  at  a  distance. 
The  principle  of  their  construction  is  that  the  saturated  vapours  of  ether  and 
alcohol  respectively  or  of  cther-r?/7«-alcohol,  increase  much  more  rapidly  in  tension 
with  increasing  temperature  than  does  atmospheric  air. 

One  of  the  instruments,  consisting  of  a  V-sbaped  glass  tube,  contains  mercury  in 
its  two  branches  ;  on  to  the  surface  of  the  liquid  metal  in  one  branch  a  few  drops 
of  ether  are  brought,  and  there  is  an  alarum  connected  with  the  instrument, 
indicating  to  the  observers  placed  in  another  room  when  the  previously-fixed 
limiting  temperatures  have  been  reached,  between  which  the  temperature  of  a  given 
space  is  sought  to  be  maintained. 

The  second  instrument  is  provided  with  a  constant  indicator  in  the  shape  df 
a  Wheatstone  bridge-arrangement.  0.  S.  B. 


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THB  EDUCATION  OF  HIKING  £NGINS£&8.  828 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  MINING  ENGINEERS. 


By  J.  H.  MBRIVALE. 


The  need  of  a  thorough  training  for  mining  engineers  has  been 
recognized  upon  the  Continent  for  very  many  years.  The  first  mining 
school  established  was,  the  author  believes,  that  of  Schemnitz,  in  Hungary, 
founded  in  1760.  This  was  followed  by  the  establishment  of  similar 
schools  at  Freibei^,  Paris,  and  at  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  more  important 
mining  centres  of  the  Continent.  It  was  not,  however,  until  1851  that 
the  first  mining  school — the  Royal  School  of  Mines,  Jermyn  Street — was 
established  in  England ;  and  this  good  step  has  been  tardily  followed,  until 
at  last,  more  than  one  hundred  years  after  our  Continental  rivals,  we  have 
science  colleges,  each  with  its  mining  department,  fairly  well  distributed 
throughout  the  country.  Whether  these  colleges  are  liberally  supported 
or  not,  both  with  money  and  students,  it  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  paper 
to  discuss. 

The  author  has  been  struck  with  the  ignorance  of  many  persons, 
Ciipable  of  devoting  the  necessary  time  and  money  to  a  thorough  training 
in  mining  :  ignorance  both  of  the  kind  of  education  required,  and  of  the 
opportunities  now  offered  for  obtaining  it ;  and  he  has  been  fortified  in  this 
view  by  a  request  from  the  secretary  (Mr.  M.  Walton  Brown)  for  a 
paper  upon  the  education  of  mining  engineers.  He  has  thought  therefore 
that  a  schedule  of  the  courses  of  study  provided  for  mining  students  at 
some  of  the  most  important  of  the  mining  schools  of  the  world,  prefaced 
by  a  short  paper  embodying  his  own  views  upon  this  important  subject, 
might  be  acceptable  to  the  members  of  the  Institute. 

The  schedule  of  courses  has  involved  much  labour,  and  he  wishes  here 
to  thank  Mr.  Ritson,  himself  an  old  student  of  the  Clausthal  school,  for 
his  very  kind  assistance ;  and  the  secretary  of  the  Institute,  who,  if  he 
imposed  this  task  upon  him  (the  author)  has  ably  assisted  him  in  carrying 
it  out. 

The  mining  student  should  receive  the  usual  education  of  an  English 
gentleman,  and    should  pass    the  examinations   in  general  education 


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624  THE  EDUCATION  OP  MINING  ENCHNBEBS. 

required  by  all  the  professions,  excepting  that  of  the  engineer.  This  is 
not  only  expedient,  but  necessary,  as  the  universities  require  it  for  their 
science  degrees.  He  would  then  be  about  sixteen  years  of  age,  and  should 
leave  school  and  go  through  a  two  years'  course  of  pure  science  at  one  of 
the  science  colleges,  taking  a  diploma  at  the  termination  of  the  course. 
At  the  same  time  he  should  at  least  keep  up  his  French,  German,  and 
drawing,  though  he  will  not  have  the  time  to  make  much  advance  in  these 
important  subjects. 

At  eighteen  years  of  age  he  should  be  old  enough  to  definitely  decide 
upon  his  profession.  If  he  deteimines  afler  all  not  to  become  a  mining 
engineer,  the  education  he  has  received  will  be  equally  good  for  almost 
any  other  profession.  It  is  a  mistake  to  differentiate  too  early,  and  the 
author  has  observed  this  mistake  to  be  made  over  and  over  again. 

Having  decided  to  be  a  mining  engineer  the  student  must  then  select 
a  colliery  for  his  five  years'  apprenticeship.  This  is  an  important  matter ; 
the  colliery  should  be  one  where  varied  work  may  be  seen  and,  what  is 
still  more  important,  where  the  viewer  has  had  some  experience  in  training 
youths,  and  is  willing  to  take  some  trouble  with  them. 

Trailing  round  the  pit  behind  an  overman  is  not  putting  the  time  to 
the  best  advantage.  Each  department  should  be  taken  in  turn,  and  the 
youth  should  himself  do  the  work,  so  far  as  he  can.  Let  him  be  put  in 
charge  of  an  intelligent  deputy-overman,  take  the  r^ular  deputy-over- 
man's shift,  and  really  assist  in  the  work,  and  the  same  with  roUeywaymen, 
shifters^  cashier,  storekeeper,  etc.  If  he  is  strong  and  is  careful  not  to 
overdo  it,  he  will  be  the  better  for  a  few  weeks'  coal-hewing. 

He  should  try  to  get  a  little  reading,  and  if  he  has  a  taste  for  science 

should  devote  a  few  hours  regularly  each  week  to  this,  so  as  to  take  his 

B.Sc.     Great  facilities  are  offered  at  the  Durham  College  of  Science  in 

.  the  shape  of  evening  lectures,  etc.,  to  apprentices  desirous  of  combining  a 

little  science  with  their  practical  work. 

At  the  end  of  three  years  the  student  should  have  obtained  an  accurate 
practical  knowledge  of  mining  in  all  its  details,  as  practised  under  one  or 
two  sets  of  conditions.  He  should  now  try  to  get  wider  views ;  and 
this  he  can  best  do  by  going  abroad  for  twelve  months,  spending  six 
months,  say,  in  France  or  Belgium,  and  six  months  in  Germany.  He 
should  select  mines  where  the  conditions  are  dissimilar  from  those  to 
which  he  has  been  accustomed,  and  must  be  careful  not  to  visit  too  many 
pits — some  half-a-dozen — ue.,  two  months  at  each  will  be  quite  enough. 
He  should  take  copious  notes,  and  neither  speak,  read,  nor  write  a 
word  of  English  during  his  stay  abroad. 


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THE  EDUCATION  OP  MINING   EN0INEBB8.  625 

Od  his  return  to  England  he  must,  in  accordance  with  the  require- 
ments of  the  examining  board,  hold  some  oflBcial  position  for  twelve 
months,  that  of  back-overman  is  perhaps  the  best,  giving  as  it  does  great 
opportunities  of  gaining  practical  experience.  He  will  now  be  twenty- 
three  years  of  age  and  should  sit  for  his  certificate,  which  he  will  have 
no  dilBcnlty  in  obtaining. 

For  the  first  few  years  of  his  professional  life,  the  young  colliery 
manager  will  probably  not  have  a  very  large  practice,  and  he  may  wisely 
devote  some  time  to  further  study ;  take  his  M.Sc.,  or  even  the  D.Sc., 
and  write  papers  for  the  mining  institutes. 

In  conclusion,  the  author  would  wish  to  point  out  that  though  a  man 
must  live,  money  is  very  far  from  everything,  and  each  one  in  youth 
should  devote  some  portion  of  his  time  to  the  acquirement  of  those 
arts  without  which  life  for  most  of  us  would  not  be  worth  having. 
The  mining  engineer  who  neither  smokes,  photographs,  nor  fiddles,  nor  has 
cultivated  any  art  outside  his  profession,  is  only  half  a  man,  though  he 
be  a  D.Sc.  of  Durham  University,  and  have  the  biggest  practice  in  the 
kingdom.  And  the  author  is  happy  to  say  that  some  at  least  of  these 
extra  professional  pursuits  are  cultivated  in  the  Durham  College  of  Science. 


APPENDIX. 

EDUCATIONAL   INSTITUTIONS    WHERE    COURSES    OF   STUDY   ARE 
PROVIDED   FOR    MINING    AND    METALLURGICAL   ENGINEERS. 


THE  ROYAL  COLLEGE  OF  SCIENCE,  LONDON,  WITH  WHICH  IS 
INCORPORATED  THE  ROYAL  SCHOOL  OF  MINES. 

The  Royal  College  of  Science  at  South  Keneington  is  supported  by  the  State,  to 
supply  systematic  instruction  in  the  various  branches  of  physical  science  to  students 
of  all  classes. 

The  Royal  School  of  Mines  is  incorporated  with  the  Royal  College  of  Science. 
Students  entering  for  the  associateship  of  the  School  of  Mines  obtain  their  general 
scientific  training  in  the  Royal  College  of  Science. 

The  associateship  is  granted  in  certain  divisions  or  lines  of  study.  Students 
who  go  through  any  one  of  these  in  the  prescribed  order,  and  pass  the  necessary 
examinations,  receive  a  certificate  of  associateship  of  the  Royal  College  of  Science, 
or  of  the  Royal  School  of  Mines. 

The  associateship  of  the  Royal  School  of  Mines  is  given  in  one  of  the  following 
divisions : — (1)  metallurgy,  or  (2)  mining. 

The  course  of  instruction,  which  lasts  for  three  years,  is  the  same  for  all  the 
divisions  during  the  first  and  second  years  (after  which  it  is  specialized)  in  accord- 
ance with  the  following  scheme : — 


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626  fBE  £!DUCATI6N  of  MURING  £NGINE£Bd. 

First  Tear* — Chemistry,  mathematics,  physics,  astronomical  physics,  and  free- 
hand drawing. 

Second  Year. — Mechanics,  machine  drawing,  elementary  geology  and  miner- 
alogy. Instruction  is  given  in  mathematics  so  far  as  may  be  necessary,  and  in 
descriptive  geometry. 

Meiaflurgy. 

Third  Fear.— Metallurgy,  assaying,  and  determinative  mineralogy. 

Mining, 
Third   Year, — Mining,   metallurgy,  assaying,  determinative  mineralogy,  and 
mine  surveying. 

Examinations  are  held  at  the  end  of  each  course  of  instruction,  »nd  at  such  other 
periods  as  may  be  found  necessary.  On  the  results  of  these  examinations  the 
successful  candidates  who  have  attended  regularly  and  otherwise  conformed  to  the 
rules  of  the  school  are  arranged  in  two  classes,  first  and  second. 

There  are  also  honours  examinations  for  the  subjects  of  the  third  year,  the 
successful  candidates  being  placed  in  order  of  merit.  Honours  are  only  obtainable 
by  candidates  for  the  associateship.  Ko  one  will  be  allowed  to  attempt  the  honours 
examination  who  fails  to  obtain  a  first  class  in  the  ordinary  examination.  The 
candidate  for  honours  will  be  required  to  pass  an  examination  in  some  special 
branch  or  branches  of  one  of  the  subjects  in  which  the  associateship  can  be  taken. 
The  papers  set  will  be  of  a  more  advanced  character  than  those  in  the  ordinary 
associateship  examination.  The  candidate  will  also  be  required  to  present  a  thesis 
on  some  special  subject,  and  great  weight  will  be  given  to  the  adequate  description 
of  any  original  work  or  research  which  has  been  carried  out  by  the  student  in 
one  of  the  laboratories  of  the  school  with  the  sanction  of  the  professor.  For  the 
honours  examination  the  subjects  will  be  as  follows,  and  the  student  will  only  be 
required  to  take  up  one  of  these : — 

Division  L — Metallurgy, — Researches  connected  with  the  practical  examination 
of  a  metallurgical  process  or  details  of  a  process,  and  theoretical  metallurgy. 

Division  II,— Mining. — Description  of  some  mine  or  mining  district  from  per- 
sonal study,  with  full  details. 

A  student  obtains  the  associateship  who  passes  in  all  the  subjects  of  the  first  two 
years,  and  in  those  of  the  special  division  which  he  selects  for  his  associateship. 

The  obligation  to  go  through  the  elementary,  or  first  part  in  any  of  the  fore- 
going courses,  may  be  remitted  in  the  case  of  any  student  who  satisfies  the  council 
that  he  has  received  sufficient  theoretical  and  practical  instruction  in  those  subjects. 
The  fees  for  the  first  two  years  amount  to  about  £75,  and  for  the  remainder  of 
the  course  for  the  associateship  they  vary  from  £30  to  about  £40.  The  private  and 
State-aided  students  are  required  to  furnish  themselves  with  certain  instruments 
and  apparatus  before  the  commencement  of  the  courses. 

No  student  will,  except  under  very  special  circumstances,  be  entered  for  the 
associateship  course  unless  he  has  passed  in  the  tirst  class  of  the  elementary  stage 
of  mechanics,  mathematics,  chemistry,  and  physics,  or  in  some  higher  stage  of  those 
subjects,  at  the  May  examinations  of  the  department  of  Science  and  Art,  or  can 
show  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  council  of  the  college,  by  having  passed  the  examina- 
tions of  other  recognized  examining  bodies,  that  he  possesses  the  necessary 
elementary  knowledge  of  those  subjects. 


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THE  EDUCATION  OF  MINIKG  ENGINEERS.  627 

UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE,  BRISTOL. 
The  college  supplies  instmction  in  those  branches  of  applied  science  which  are 
more  nearly  connected  with  the  arts  and  manufactures. 

Civil  Engineers  or  Surveyors. 

The  course  of  civil  engineering  has  been  arranged  to  extend  over  two  years,  but 
special  arrangements  will  be  made  for  students  who  may  deem  it  advisable  to 
remain  for  a  third  year. 

First  Tear. — Physics,  engineering,  chemistry,  mechanics,  engineering  and  geo- 
metrical drawing,  mathematics,  and  surveying. 

Second  Year. — Mathematics,  engineering,  physics,  geology,  engineering  and 
geometrical  drawing,  bridge-construction,  and  surveying. 

The  compounded  fee  for  the  preceding  course  is,  for  each  year,  28  guineas,  and 
for  second  and  third  years  21  guineas,  with  a  registration  fee  of  £1  Is. 

Mining  Engineering, 

Students  who  intend  to  become  mining  engineers  follow  the  preceding  course 
and  special  provision  is  made  for  their  instruction  in  the  third  term  of  each 
year. 

Any  student  who  attends  a  course  of  instruction  in  any  subject  during  a  session, 
and  obtains  a  place  in  the  first  or  second  class  in  the  examination  at  the  end  of  the 
course,  is  entitled  to  receive  a  certificate  from  the  college. 

An  honours  certificate  is  granted,  after  examination  by  an  external  examiner,  in 
conjunction  with  the  professor  or  lecturer  on  the  subject,  to  any  student  of  the 
college  who  has  attended  a  course  of  instruction  in  any  one  of  the  subjects. 

Associateskips. 

The  title  of  associate  of  the  University  College,  Bristol,  is  conferred  on  any  can- 
didate who  (a)  has  attended  an  amount  of  instruction  in  the  college  equivalent  to 
three  courses  of  three  hours  per  week  each  in  each  of  three  terms  during  two  sessions ; 
and  (6)  has  obtained  some  one  of  the  four  following  distinctions,  namely:— (i.) 
College  honours  certificates  in  four  subjects;  (ii.)  a  certificate,  granted  by  the 
examiners  and  approved  by  the  council,  of  having  produced  an  essay  or  original 
investigation  of  exceptional  merit,  together  with  honours  certificates  in  three  sub- 
jects ;  (iii.)  a  degree  in  any  university  in  the  United  Kingdom  ;  or  (iv.)  such  dis- 
tinction in  the  Oxford  University  examination  for  women,  or  the  Cambridge 
University  higher  local  examination,  as  from  time  to  time  shall  be  considered 
sufficient. 

The  title  of  associate  in  engineering  is  granted,  on  application,  to  all  candidates 
who  have  complied  with  condition  (a),  and  who  obtain  an  honours  certificate  in 
engineering,  and  in  three  of  the  subjects,  mathematics,  physics,  geology,  or 
chemistry ;  provided  that  one  at  least  of  their  certificates  be  in  mathematics. 


CAMBORNE  SCHOOL  OF  MINES,  CORNWALL. 

The  school  is  worked  on  the  assumption  that  its  students  are  for  the  most  part 
engaged  in  the  mines  during  the  day.  Instruction  in  the  various  scientific  and 
technical  subjects  is  therefore  given  mainly  in  the  science  school  in  evening  classes ; 
and  only  those  subjects,  such  as  assaying,  surveying,  etc.,  which  demand  more  time 


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628  THE   EDUCATION  OF  MINING  ENGINEEBS. 

and  are  themselves  of  a  practical  character,  are  taught  during  the  day.  Facilities 
for  working  at  the  mines  are  afforded  to  students  by  the  managers  of  some  of  the 
principal  mines  in  the  neighbourhood. 

The  school  course  extends  over  a  period  of  three  years,  the  subjects  being 
arranged  as  set  out  below  (in  the  case  of  a  student  working  for  a  special  course 
certificate,  the  arrangement  of  the  subjects  can  be  modified) : — 

First  Year. — Freehand  drawing,  mathematics,  geometry,  chemistry,  and  physics. 
Machine-drawing,  building-construction,  or  carpentry  and  joinery  may  be  taken, 
if  geometry  is  one  of  the  subjects  chosen. 

Second  Tear. — Machine-drawing,  mineralogy,  building-construction,  geology, 
hydrostatics,  dynamics,  applied  mechanics,  and  mining. 

Third  Fear.— Advanced  stages  of  the  foregoing  subjects,  together  with  steam, 
ore-dressing,  and  metallurgy. 

Special  Cotirse  Certificates, 

The  special  course  certificates  are  of  three  kinds :  mining,  mechanical,  and 
chemical.  The  certificates  are  of  two  classes.  The  qualifications  specified  below 
give  the  minimum  required  for  a  pass.  To  obtain  the  higher  certificate  more 
advanced  stages  of  these  subjects  count ;  and  such  other  certificates  as  the  applicant 
may  send  in  will  be  considered  on  their  merits.  To  qualify  for  a  certificate  in  any 
course,  passes  in  at  least  four  of  the  following  subjects  must  be  obtained  : — Mathe- 
matics, geometry,  hydrostatics,  dynamics,  physics,  and  chemistry.  But  a  certifi- 
cate of  matriculation  at  any  of  the  universities  will  be  held  equivalent. 

Mining  Course  Cert^ficcUe. 

To  obtain  a  mining  course  certificate,  in  addition  to  the  preceding,  the  student 
must  produce  a  certificate  of  having  worked  underground  as  a  miner  for  at  least 
twelve  months  ;  and  pass  mining  (first  class  advanced  stage),  ore-dressing  (honours 
stage),  and  a  practical  examination  in  surveying,  blowpipe  analysis  and  assaying. 


THE  DURHAM  COLLEGE  OF  SCIENCE,  NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE. 

This  college  represents  the  faculties  of  science  and  engineering  in  the  University 
of  Durham,  and  thus  fulfils  the  fuuctions  of  a  University  College  in  the  North  of 
England. 

Complete  courses  of  instruction  are  provided  for  mining  engineers,  mechanical 
engineers,  marine  engineers,  naval  architects,  electrical  engineers,  metallurgists, 
and  chemical  manufacturers. 

Associateship  in  Physical  Science, 

Every  candidate  for  the  associateship  in  physical  science  will  be  required  to 
satisfy  the  examiners  in  mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  and  either  geology, 
natural  history,  or  biology  in  an  examination  to  be  held  at  the  end  of  the  candi- 
date's first  year.  At  the  end  of  the  second  year,  every  candidate  must  pass  an 
examination  in  the  higher  parts  of  two  of  the  subjects,  in  the  elementary  parts  of 
which  the  candidate  passed  an  examination  at  the  end  of  the  first  year. 

Associates  in  science  are  admissible  one  year  after  obtaining  the  title  of  associate, 
and  having  some  time  before  or  during  their  college  course  passed  the  examination 
in  general  knowledge,  to  examination  for  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  science  of  the 
University  of  Durham. 


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THE  EDUCATIOX  OF  MIKIKO  ENGINEERS.  629 

AfechaniecUf  Mining ,  or  Civil  Engineer, 

Astociates  in  physical  science,  who,  after  their  admission  to  this  rank,  have  been 
engaged  for  three  years  at  least  in  some  practical  work  of  mechanical,  mining,  or 
civil  engineering  approved  by  the  council,  and  have  subsequently  passed  a  further 
eicamination,  having,  principally,  reference  to  the  work  in  which  they  have  been 
engaged,  shall  be  admissible,  by  grace,  to  the  title  of  mechanical,  mining,  or  civil 
engineer  of  the  University  of  Durham. 

The  following  courses  of  study  are  recommended  : — 

AMOcicUeship  in  Science, 

First  Tear, — Mathematics,  physics,  practical  physics,  chemistry,  practical 
chemistry,  and  either  geology,  biology,  or  natural  history. 

Second  Fear.— Any  two  of  the  following  subjects :— Mathematics,  physics, 
chemistry,  geology,  biology,  or  agriculture. 

Metallurgy, 

First  Year, — Mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  mechanical  drawing,  Gemuin  or 
French,  and  physical  and  chemical  laboratories. 

Second  Fear.— Chemistry,  metallurgy,  geology,  mechanical  drawing,  German 
or  French,  and  chemical  and  metallurgical  laboratories. 

Third  Year. — Metallurgy,  chemistry,  geology,  engineering,  and  chemical  and 
metallurgical  laboratories. 

Mining, 

First  Year, — ^Mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  geology,  mechanical  drawing, 
and  chemical  and  physical  laboratories. 

Second  Year. — Mathematics,  mechanical  engineering,  mechanical  drawing,  sur- 
veying, coal  and  metalliferous  mining,  and  technical  electricity. 

Third  Tear.  —  Students  able  to  devote  a  third  year  to  their  studies  should 
attend  a  special  course  on  chemistry,  mechanical  and  electrical  engineering,  and 
the  engineering  laboratory. 

Degrees  in  Engineering, 
Students  who  intend  to  proceed  to  a  degree  in  engineering  are  recommended  to 
pursue  the  following  course  of  study.  The  degree  of  B.Sc.  in  engineering  may  be 
taken  in  any  one  of  the  foiir  following  branches  of  engineering : — (a)  Mechanical 
engineering  and  naval  architecture ;  (6)  electrical  engineering  (including  mechanical 
engineering) ;  (c)  mining ;  and  (d)  civil  engineering. 

Mining  findvding  Mechanical  Engineering), 

The  course  of  study  (extending  over  three  years)  recommended  for  those  who 
intend  to  proceed  to  the  degree  of  B.Sc.  in  mining  is : — 

First  Year. — Mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  geology,  biology,  natural  his- 
tory, and  physical  and  chemical  laboratories. 

Second  Year, — Mathematics,  physics  (including  technical  electricity),  engineer- 
itig,  mechanical  drawing,  and  physical  and  engineering  laboratories. 

Third  Year. — Mathematics,  physics  (including  technical  electricity),  mining, 
mechanical  drawing,  and  physical,  mining,  and  engineering  laboratories. 

This  course  may  be  extended  over  four  years  in  cases  where  the  student  is  unable 
to  undertake  it  in  three  years. 

The  titles  and  degrees  of  the  University  of  Durham  in  science  and  engineering 
are  open  to  evening  students  who  pass  the  matriculation  examination,  attend 


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680  THE  EDUCATION  OF  MIJNIKG   ENGINEEHS. 

regularly  for  Dot  less  than  ten  hours  per  week  (in  the  evenings  or  on  Saturdays), 
and  pass  the  same  examinations  as  the  day  students.  Evening  students  may  pre- 
sent themselves  for  the  first  examination  for  the  associateship  in  science  at  the  end 
of  their  second  session,  and  for  the  final  examination  for  associateship  at  the  end  of 
their  third  session,  if  they  obtain  a  first  class  in  the  first  examination,  otherwise 
they  may  present  themselves  at  the  end  of  their  fourth  session.  Evening  students 
continuing  to  attend  the  classes  for  ten  hours  weekly  may  present  themselves  for 
the  examination  for  B.Sc.  one  year  after  obtaining  the  associateship. 


SHEFFIELD  TECHNICAL  SCHOOL,  SHEFFIELD. 
The  work  of  the  institution  is  divided  into  three  departments :— (I)  The  junior 
day  department.     (2)  The  senior  day  department : — (a)  Engineering  section ;  and 
(b)  metallurgical  section.     (3)  The  evening  department  consisting,  amongst  others, 
of  special  sections  of  engineering,  metallurgy,  mining,  and  building. 

Mechanical  EngiTieering. 

The  course  of  study  is  designed  to  meet  the  requirements  of  mechanical, 
electrical,  or  mining  engineers,  architects,  or  others  engaged  in  industries  where  a 
knowledge  of  mechanical  principles  is  of  import€uice.  The  complete  course  extends 
over  three  years,  and  includes  attendance  at  lectures  and  classes,  experimental 
work  in  the  laboratories,  and  practical  work  in  the  workshops  and  drawing  office. 

The  prescribed  subjects  for  the  complete  course  are  given  below  : — 

First  Year. — Mathematics,  applied  mechanics,  engineering  laboratory,  physics, 
machine  drawing  and  geometry,  engineering,  and  workshops.  The  composition  fee 
is  £16  168. 

Second  Year, — Mathematics,  mechanics,  physics,  machine  drawing  and  design, 
engineering,  engineering  laboratories,  and  workshops.  The  composition  fee  is 
£17  178. 

Third  Year, — The  following  general  course  of  study  may  be  varied  according  to 
the  special  requirements  of  each  individual  student.  It  consists  of  mathematics, 
iron  and  steel,  fuel,  machine  drawing  and  design,  engineering  and  electrical 
laboratories,  and  workshops.     The  composition  fee  is  £18  ISs. 

Mining  Engineering, 
Students  of  mining  engineering  take  the  subjects  of  the  mechanical  engineering 
course,  together  with  special  courses  in  chemistry  and  geology,  for  the  first  year, 
and  mine  surveying,  the  theory  and  practice  of  coal-mining,  and  practical  fuel 
analysis,  for  the  second  year. 

Metallurgical  Engineering. 

The  prescribed  subjects  are  given  below  : — 

First  Year.  -  Mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  iron  and  steel,  machine-drawing, 
and  metallurgical  laboratory.     The  composition  fee  is  £18  18s. 

Second  Year. — Fuel  and  refractory  materials,  mathematics,  physics,  chemistry, 
machine-drawing,  and  metallurgical  laboratory.      The  composition  fee  is  £18  18a. 

Third  year.— Geology,  mineralogy,  mathematics,  applied  mechanics,  machine- 
drawing,  and  metallurgical  laboratory.     The  composition  fee  is  £18  186. 

Associateship  of  the  Sheffield  Technical  School. 
The  associateship  of  the  school  is  awarded  in  engineering  or  metallurgy  to  each 
student  who  attends  the  lectures  and  laboratory  work  prescribed  for  the  complete 
three  years'  day  coui*ses,  and  passes  the  annual  examinations  satisfactorily  in  each 
of  the  subjects. 


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THE  KDUCATION  OP  MINING  ENOINEBBg.  681 

THE  YORKSHIRE  COLLEGE,  LEEDS. 

The  Yorkshire  College  is  intended  to  promote  the  education  of  persons  of  both 
sexes,  and  in  particular  to  provide  instruction  in  such  sciences  and  arts  as  are 
applicable  to  the  manufacturing,  mining,  engineering,  and  agricultural  industries  of 
the  county  of  York,  and  in  ancient  and  modem  languages,  history  and  literature, 
medicine,  surgery,  law,  logic,  moral  philosophy,  and  any  other  subjects  of  university 
or  college  teaching. 

The  Yorkshire  College  is  one  of  the  colleges  of  the  Victoria  University,  and  has 
power  to  confer  degrees  on  persons  who  have  pursued  a  r^ular  course  of  study,  and 
who  submit  themselves  for  examination. 

Coal-mining  f  maintained  by  the  Drapers*  Company  of  the  City  of  London), 
The  coal-mining  com*se  occupies  two  years,  and  includes  courses  of  lectures  on 

mining  engineering,  surveying,  chemistry,  and  geology. 

First  Fear.— The  lectures  include  the  chemistry  and  geology  of  coal-mining, 

theory  and  practice  of  coal-mining,  mining  engineering,  and  colliery  management. 
Second  Tear, — The  lectures  comprise  the  theory  and  practice  of  coal-mining, 

mining  engineering,  colliery  management,  and  underground  surveying. 


SYDNEY  TECHNICAL  COLLEGE,  ULTIMO,  NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 

The  technical  education  branch  of  the  department  of  public  instruction,  New 
South  Wales,  comprises  about  forty  technical  schools  situated  at  various  centres, 
and  the  technical  college  at  Ultimo. 

The  following  are  the  departments  of  instruction  :— Agriculture,  architecture, 
art,  chemistry,  commerce,  domestic  economy,  industrial  and  decorative  arts,  geology, 
mineralogy,  mining,  mathematics,  mechanical  engineering,  sanitary  engineering, 
electrical  engineering,  pharmacy,  physics,  sheep  and  wool  training,  printiog,  and 
classes  in  tailors'  cutting,  scientific  dresscutting,  dressmaking,  and  ambulance 
surgery. 

Mining  aJid  Mining  Engineering. 

This  department  provides  separate  courses  of  lectures  and  laboratory  instruction 
in  each  of  the  following  branches  of  mining  engineering :— Coal-mining,  metallifer- 
ous mining,  mine-sur\'eying,  and  mining  machinery. 

For  a  diploma  in  either  branch  of  mining  engineering,  students  must  attend  all 
the  classes  and  pass  the  prescribed  examinations. 

The  course  for  the  diploma  is  as  follows  :— Coal-mining  or  metal-mining,  mine- 
surveying,  mining  engineering,  geology  and  mineralogy,  and  workshops. 

Certificates  are  awarded  to  students  who  attend  the  classes  and  pass  the  required 
examination  at  the  end  of  the  course. 

Diplomas  will  be  awarded  to  students  who  have  attended  a  complete  course  of 
instruction  in  any  department  of  science  or  art,  and  have  satisfactorily  passed  the 
prescribed  examinations.  Students  who  pass  their  final  examination  with  the 
highest  order  of  merit  receive  a  diploma  in  honours. 

A  diploma  in  honours  entitles  students  to  the  distinction  of  associate  of  the 
Sydney  Technical  College. 

The  fellowship  of  the  Sydney  Technical  College  will  be  conferred  upon  those 
who,  having  obtained  the  associateship,  shall  have  spent  not  less  than  six  years  in 
actual  practice,  and  shall  have  done  some  original  and  valuable  research  work,  or 
have  contributed  to  the  advancement  of  the  industry  in  which  they  are  engaged. 


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682  THE   BDTTCATION  OF  MINING   ENGINEERS. 

UNIVERSITY  OF  OTAGO,  DUNEDIN,  NEW  ZEALAND. 

The  uniyersity  contains  faculties  of  arts,  science,  medicine,  and  law ;  and  a 
school  of  mines. 

School  op  Mines. 

The  school  of  mines  was  established  in  1878.  It  comprises  classes  in  mining, 
mining  geology,  mineralogy,  and  petrography,  mathematics,  theoretical  and  applied 
mechanics,  physics,  palaeontology,  theoretical  and  technological  chemistry,  qualita- 
tive and  quantitative  analysis,  metallurgy,  assaying,  general  geology,  and  surveying. 

There  are  four  divisions — mining,  metallurgical,  geological,  and  mine -surveying. 
In  the  first  throe  divisions  the  coarse  of  study  can  be  completed  in  three  yean, 
and  in  the  fourth  division  in  two  years. 

Students  who  pass  the  examinations  in  any  of  the  first  three  divisions  obtain 
the  distinction,  with  diploma,  of  associate  of  the  University  School  of  Mines, 
Otago.  On  passing  successfully  the  examinations  in  the  fourth  division  they  are 
entitled  to  receive  the  certificate  of  mining  surveyor. 

The  following  are  the  courses  of  study  prescribed  for  the  respective  divisions : — 

Associateship,  —Mining  Division. 

First  Fear.— Mathematics,  general  geology,  mining  geology,  theoretical  chem- 
istry and  chemical  technology,  applied  mechanics,  m  ne  and  land-surveying,  and 
drawing. 

Second  Tear.— Theoretical  mechanics,  physics,  mineralogy,  use  of  the  blowpipe 
and  determinative  mineralogy,  mining,  applied  mechanics,  mine  and  land-surveying, 
drawing,  and  ore-dressing. 

Third  Year. — Physics,  petrography,  mining,  mechanical  gold-extraction,  chem- 
ical and  metallurgical  laboratories,  assaying  and  metallurgy,  and  drawing. 

AssodcUeship. — MetdUuTgical  Division. 

First  Year. — Mathematics,  general  ge  logy,  mining  geology,  theoretical  chem- 
istry and  chemical  technology,  applied  mechanics,  and  drawing. 

Second  Year. — Theoretical  mechanics,  physics,  mineralogy,  use  of  the  blow- 
pipe and  determinative  mineralogy,  metallurgy  (including  ore-dressing),  applied 
mechanics,  drawing,  and  chemical  laboratory. 

Third  Year. — Physics,  metallurgy,  mechanical  extraction  of  gold,  assaying  and 
metallurgy,  drawing,  and  physical  and  metallurgical  laboratories. 

Associateship.— Geological  Division. 

First  Fear. —Mathematics,  general  geology,  mining  geology,  theoretical  chem- 
istry and  chemical  technology,  mine  and  land-surveying,  and  drawing. 

Second  Fear.— Physics,  mineralogy,  use  of  the  blowpipe  and  determinative 
mineralogy,  mine  and  land-surveying,  surveying  practice,  biology,  drawing,  and 
biological  laboratory. 

Third  Fear.— Theoretical  mechanics,  physics,  petrography,  paleontology, 
drawing,  geological  field  practice,  and  physical  and  chemical  laboratories. 

Mining  Surveyor's  Course  and  Certijicate. 

First  Fear.— Mathematics,  general  geology,  mining  geology,  theoretical  chem- 
istry and  chemical  technology,  mine  and  land-surveying,  and  drawing. 

Second  Fear. —Theoretical  mechanics,  physics,  mineralogy,  use  of  the  blowpipe 
and  determinative  mineralogy,  mine  and  land-surveying,  surveying  practice, 
drawing,  and  physical  laboratory. 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  KING'S  COLLEGE,  WINDSOR,  NOVA  SCOTIA. 

The  Song's  College  University  confers  degrees  in  arts,  divinity,  law,  engineering 
and  science. 

The  aggregate  outlay  necessary,  for  the  three  years'  residence  and  study  qualify- 
ing for  a  degree,  may  be  estimated  at  about  £30  to  £40  per  year.  The  mere  money 
payment  demanded  need  never,  however,  exclude  a  candidate  really  prepared  to 
benefit  by  the  course  of  instruction  offered,  inasmuch  as  many  benefactors  of  the 
university  possess  the  right  of  nomination.  Each  nominee  is  exempt  from  the  pay- 
ment of  certain  yearly  fees  besides  the  fee  for  a  B.A.  degree.  There  being  some 
forty  certificates  conferring  this  privilege,  it  is  easy  for  students  to  obtain  it.  If  a 
scholarship  is  held  besides,  nearly  the  whole  cost  of  education  will  be  covered. 

There  are  at  present  in  the  university  five  schools  open  to  matriculated  students 
of  arts,  divinity,  engineering,  science,  and  civil  law. 

The  course  of  engineering  is  framed  with  the  view  of  giving  the  student  a  sound 
and  thorough  training  in  mathematics,  pure  and  appliel,  a  comprehensive  know- 
ledge of  engineering  and  applied  science,  together  with  such  practical  experience  In 
work  connected  with  the  profession  of  a  civil  engineer  as  it  is  within  the  scope  of 
the  university  to  afford. 

The  course  for  B.Sc.  has  been  established  for  carrying  on  advanced  study  i' 
mining  and  chemistry. 

Degree,  of  Bachelor  qf  Engineering, 

Undergraduates  presenting  themselves  for  examination  for  the  degree  of  bach 
of  engineering  shall  be  required  to  have  been  duly  matriculated  in  the  sch< 
engineering  ;  to  have  subsequently  studied  in  King's  College  the  course  herc^ 
scribed,  and  to  have  passed  the  first  university  examination  for  the  said  de][ 

The  course  for  the  degree  in  civil  or  mining  engineering  shall  usuall; 
over  four  years,  and  shall  comprise  attendance  on  the  following  curricului 

First  Year. — Mathematics,  chemistry,  French  or  German,  English 
surveying  and  levelling,  and  field  and  office  work. 

Second  Fear.— Mathematics,  analytical  chemistry,  chemical  physics 
zoology,  French  or  German,  English  literature,  mensuration,  survey? 
ling,  office  work,  and  engineering  excursions. 

Third  Year,  —Mathematics,  mathematical  physics,  geology,  min' 
ing  blowpipe  analysis),  civil  engineering,  applied  mechanics,  ge 
ing,  engineering  office  and  field-work,  and  geological  excursions. 

Fourth  Tear.— Natural  philosophy,  mathematical  physics, 
and  engineering  office  and  field  work. 

Degree  of  MaMer  of  Engineering, 

Every  candidate  for  the  degree  of  master  of  engineering 
degree  of  bachelor  of  engineering,  and  must  have  been  engage<' 
nected  with  the  profession  of  a  civil  engineer  for  at  least  th 
of  so  doing.     He  must  have  held  a  position  of  responsibili' 

He  will  be  examined  in  each  of  the  following  groups  o 
engineering:   the  preparation  of  designs,   specificatior 
engineering  work.     (2)  Applied  science  :  (a)  applied  ma' 
chemistry,  assaying  and  analysis  ;  (c)  geology  and  mini 
Candidates  must  select  one  of   the  four  subjects 
particular  department  of  engineering  work  in  which 
be  chosen  with  reference  to  the  character  of  the  wo' 
engaged,  and  in  this  portion  of  the  examination  ca" 


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634  THE  EDUCATION  OF  MINING  EyOINBERS. 

their  knowledge  of  the  subject  by  being  required  to  submit  a  complete  set  of  draw- 
ings, specifications,  and  estimates  for  some  proposed  work,  for  the  preparation  of 
which  a  month  or  five  weeks  will  be  allowed.  These  drawings,  with  the  detailed 
calculations  upon  which  they  are  based,  will  be  sent  in  to  the  examiners,  and  if 
they  are  approved  an  oral  examination  of  the  candidates  will  be  conducted  for  the 
purpose  of  verifying  the  authenticity  of  the  work  submitted,  and  of  testing  the 
candidate's  professional  ability. 

Degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science, 

The  course  of  study  comprises  : — 

First  Tear. — Mathematics,  chemistry,  English  literature,  French  or  German, 
surveying  and  levelling  (with  field  and  office- work). 

Second  Fear.— Mathematics,  chemistry,  qualitative  analysis,  chemical  physics, 
botany,  zoology,  English  literature,  French  or  Grerman,  mensuration,  surveying, 
and  levelling  (with  office-work). 

Third  Year, — Mathematical  physics  (mechanics  and  hydrostatics),  geology 
(including  petrography  and  field  geology),  mineralogy  (including  crystallography 
and  blowpipe  analysis),  mining,  economics,  geometrical  drawing,  French  or  Oer- 
man,  and  geological  excursions. 

Fourth  Tear, — Mathematical  physics  (optics  and  astronomy),  economic  geology 
and  mineralogy,  chemistry  (quantitative  analysis  of  minerals,  ores,  etc.),  metal- 
lurgy and  assaying,  geological  drawing,  economics,  and  French  or  Grerman. 

Degree  of  Master  of  Science, 

Candidates  for  this  degree  must  be  B.Sc's  of  three  years'  standing.  Every 
candidate  will  be  required  to  send  in  a  thesis  on  some  scientific  subject  embodying 
original  work,  and  also,  in  addition,  be  required  to  pass  an  examination  on  one  of 
three  or  more  subjects  to  be  named  in  the  calendar  :  —Coal,  iron,  and  copper  (in 
each  case  with  analysis  and  methods  of  mining). 

Degree  of  Doctor  of  Science, 

Candidates  for  D.Sc.  must  be  B.Sc.'s  of  eight  years'  standing  or  M.Sc's  of 
five  years'  standing.  A  thesis  on  some  approved  subject  to  be  sent  to  the  board  of 
examiners,  and  a  proof  of  continued  successful  work  in  science. 


BALLARAT  SCHOOL  OF  MINES,  INDUSTRIES  AND  SCIENCE, 
UNIVERSITY  OF  MELBOURNE,  BALLARAT,  GRENVILLE  COUNTY, 
VICTORIA. 

This  school  was  established  for  the  purpose  of  imparting  instruction  in  the 
various  branches  of  science  relating  to  mining,  the  theory  and  practice  thereof  in- 
cluded. 

There  are  six  courses  of  study,  viz. :— Mining,  metallurgy,  geology,  agriculture, 
electrical  engineering,  and  civil  engineering.  In  each  of  these  the  associateship  of 
the  School  of  Mines  can  be  obtained. 

Mining  Engineering  Course, 

First  Fear. —Mathematics,  natural  philosophy  (mechanics  and  heat),  land  sur- 
veying, mechanical  drawini<,  mineralogy,  geology,  and  theoretical  chemistry. 


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THE  BDUCATION  OF  MINING  BNGINBBRS.  685 

Second  Tear, — Mathematics,  nataral  philosophy  (sound,  light,  eleotricity  and 
magnetism),  land-surveying,  mechanics  (theoretical  and  applied),  mechanical  draw- 
ing, mineralogy,  petrography,  geology,  analytical  chemistry  (qualitative),  chemical 
laboratory  practice,  and  metallurgy. 

Thiird  Year. — Mathematics,  applied  electricity,  mechanics  (theoretical  and 
applied),  mine-surveying,  mechanics  as  applied  to  mining,  mechanical  drawing, 
scientific  mining,  geological  surveying,  analytical  chemistry  (quantitative),  and 
assaying. 

In  order  that  a  student  may  receive  his  certificate  of  assodateehip  in  the  mining 
engineering  course  he  must  produce  satisfactory  documentary  evidence  that  he  has 
served  for  at  least  one  year  under  a  duly  qualified  mining  engineer,  mining  sur- 
veyor, or  mine  manager. 

Metallurgy  Course. 

First  Tear.  —Natural  philosophy  (mechanigi  and  heat),  mathematics,  mechanical 
drawing,  mineralogy,  geology,  theoretical  chemistry,  analytical  chemistry  (qualita- 
tive), and  chemical  laboratory  practice. 

Second  Tear. — ^Natural  philosophy  (sound,  light,  electricity  and  magnetism), 
mathematics,  mechanics  (theoretical  and  applied),  mineralogy,  petrography, 
geology,  theoretical  chemistry,  analytical  chemistry  (quantitative),  chemical 
laboratory  practice,  metallurgy,  and  assaying. 

Third  Tear. — Applied  electricity,  mineralogy,  petrography,  chemical  geolog}% 
analytical  chemistry  (quantitative),  chemical  laboratory  practice,  metallurgy, 
assaying,  and  mining  laboratory -work  (ore-dressing,  etc. ) 

Manager's^  Course. 

The  curriculum  for  mine  managers  is  di%dded  into  three  parts,  comprising : — 
(1)  Practical  mining,  including  elementary  geology;  (2)  mine  surveying,  including 
plotting  and  computing ;  (3)  mechanics,  as  applied  to  mining,  including  strength  of 
materials,  drainage,  ventilation,  explosives. 

The  schoors  certificate  of  competency  as  a  mine  manager  is  awarded  to  each 
candidate  who  has  passed  in  all  the  subjects  prescribed.  He  must  also  produce 
satisfactory  evidence  of  having  worked  underground  at  least  two  years  in  a  mine 
in  which  not  less  than  fifty  men  were  employed,  and  in  which  the  operations  were 
carried  on  by  steam-power  and  machinery.  A  candidate  having  had  two  years' 
experience  as  a  quartz  miner  must  produce  satisfactory  evidence  of  having  been 
employed  at  least  twelve  months  in  an  alluvial  mine  to  entitle  him  to  a  certificate  as 
a  mining  manager  of  alluvial  mines. 

Intending  students  are  recommended  to  take  a  preliminary  course  of  instruction 
in  the  following  subjects  taught  in  the  miners'  class,  viz. : — Arithmetic,  logarithms, 
elementary  trigonometry,  mensuration,  and  Euclid  (optional). 


SCHOOL  OP  MINES  AND  INDUSTRIES,  BENDIGO,  VICTORIA. 

The  School  of  Mines  and  Industries,  Bendigo,  was  established  for  the  following 
purposes : — (a)  To  impart  sound  instruction,  chiefly  in  the  various  branches  of 
science  connected  with  mining  operations,  and  to  instruct  students  in  the  theory 
and  practice  of  mining,  in  geology,  mineralogy,  physical  geography,  meteorology, 
and  in  physical,  natural,  and  applied  science ;  (6)  to  thoroughly  teach  chemistry, 
metallurgy,   and  assaying;  (c)  arithmetic,  algebra,  mathematics,  surveying,  and 

41 


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686  THE  EDUCATION   OP  MINING  ENaiNBBEB. 

astronomy ;  (d)  drawing  and  painting  in  their  variona  branches,  lithography,  wood 
engraving,  and  the  theory  and  practice  of  the  mechanical  trades,  modelling  and 
carving ;  (e)  ancient  and  modem  languages ;  (/)  shorthand  writing,  telegraphy, 
and  allied  subjects  ;  and  {g)  such  other  subjects  as  may  from  time  to  time  be  deemed 
desirable  by  the  council. 

The  lectures  comprise  classes  in  geology  and  mineralogy,  chemistry  and  metal- 
lurgy, practical  mining,  engineering  and  surveying,  botany,  zoology,  architectural 
and  geometrical  drawing,  machine  and  building  construction,  drawing  and  paint- 
ing in  all  its  branches,  telegraphy,  shorthand,  the  French,  German,  Latin,  and 
Itolian  languages,  and  elocution. 

Examinations  are  held  and  certificates  granted  at  the  end  of  each  course  of 
lectures. 


ROYAL  SCHOOL  OP  MINES,  PRZBRAM,  BOHEMIA. 

The  Royal  School  of  Mines  embraces  a  school  of  mining  and  a  school  of 
metallurgy,  either  of  which  can  be  passed  through  in  one  year. 

The  school  of  mining  comprises  lectures  on  mining,  geology  of  ore-deposits,  ore- 
dressing,  mine-surveying,  surveying  and  plotting,  theory  of  miuing  machines, 
building-construction,  and  chemical  analysis. 

The  school  of  metallurgy  comprises  lectures  on  the  metallurgy  of  iron,  general 
metallurgy,  manufacture  of  salt,  assaying,  assays  and  analyses,  and  theory  of 
smelting. 

There  are  also  lectures  on  building- construction,  forestry,  mining  law,  book- 
keeping, metallurgy,  mining  (in  brief),  and  first  aid  to  injured. 

Any  ordinary  student  who  has  gone  through  either  or  both  of  the  two  schools 
can  obtain  certificates  of  the  results  of  the  examinations. 

At  the  end  of  each  term  examinations  are  held  in  those  subjects  the  lectures 
on  which  have  terminated  in  that  term. 


HAINAUT  SCHOOL  OF  MINES  AND  INDUSTRY,  MONS,  BELGIUM. 

The  Hainaut  School  of  Mines  course  extends  over  four  years,  at  the  end  of 
which  the  diploma  of  engineer  is  given  to  successful  students.  Candidates  of  all 
nationalities  are  admitted. 

The  tuition  fee  is  under  £5  per  annum,  but  books,  apparatus,  etc,  are  not 
provided  by  the  school. 

Diplomas  are  awarded  after  courses  of  instruction  in  mining,  metallurgy,  applied 
chemistry,  mechanical  engineering,  railway  engineering,  building  construction,  and 
electricity. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  year  students  must  decide  which  of  the  subjects 
they  intend  to  take  up  for  their  diploma,  but  it  is  possible  to  obtain  a  diploma  in 
two  subjects  in  the  four  years.  It  is  impossible  to  tell  from  the  college  programme 
what  is  exactly  the  mining  course.  It  appears,  however,  that  the  first  two  years 
are  devoted  to  general  science  and  engineering,  and  the  last  two  years  to  mining 
and  more  advanced  portions  of  the  first  year's  subjects. 


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THE  EDUCATION  OF  MINING  EKGINEEBF.  657 

SCHOOL  OF  ARTS,  MANUFACTURES,  AND  MINES,  ATTACHED  TO 
THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  LIEGE,  LIEGE,  BELGUIM. 

The  object  of  this  school  is  to  qualify  students  for  the  degree  of  engineer.  It 
has  two  divisions,  viz. ,  the  preparatory  and  the  special  school.  The  preparatory 
school  prepares  students  for  the  special  school. 

The  special  school  is  divided  into  four  sections  : — Mining,  mechanical  engineer- 
ing, electrical  engineering,  and  arts  and  manufactures.  In  each  of  these  the  degree 
of  engineer  can  be  obtained.  The  mining  division  requires  a  five  years'  course,  in- 
cluding the  two  years  in  the  preparatory  school ;  each  of  the  other  divisions  four 
years,  including  two  years  in  the  preparatory  school. 

According  to  Belgian  law  no  one  can  hold  a  government  appointment  as  engineer 
unless  he  has  obtained  the  degree  of  engineer.  Candidates  are  examined  in  the 
same  subjects  as  those  for  entrance  into  the  preparatory  school,  and  in  the  work 
done  during  the  two  years'  course  in  this  school.  Foreigners  may  be  examined  in 
Latin,  or  in  their  native  language  instead  (>f  in  French.  The  fees  appear  to  be 
about  £6  a  year. 

The  course  of  study  in  the  mining  division  is  as  follows  : — 

First  Tear.— Grammar,  analytical  geometry  of  three  dimensions,  descriptive 
geometry,  experimejital  physics,  French  composition,  drawing,  and  geometrical 
drawing. 

Second  Year, — Descriptive  geometry,  applied  and  analytical  mechanics,  elements 
of  astronomy  and  geodesy,  general  chemistry,  English  or  German,  drawing,  and 
applied  geometrical  drawing. 

Third  Tear. — Applied  mechanics,  industrial  physics,  machine  description, 
mineralogy,  assaying,  English  or  German,  etc. 

Fourth  Year, — Geology,  working  of  mines,  industrial  and  inorganic  chemistry, 
metallurgy,  industrial  architecture,  applications  of  electricity,  English  or  German, 
etc. 

Fifth  rear.— Mining,  topography,  railway  working,  industrial  architecture, 
metallurgy,  industrial  geography,  industrial  economy,  law  of  mines  and  industries, 
English  or  German,  etc. 

The  course  also  includes  visits  to  mines,  works,  etc.,  and  geological  excursions. 
There  are  similar  courses  leading  up  to  the  other  engineering  degrees.  The  candi- 
dates for  degrees  may  sit  for  their  final  examination  at  the  end  of  each  year. 


CATHOLIC  UNIVERSITY  OF  LOUVAIN,  LOUVAIN,  BELGIUM. 

The  schools,  annexed  to  the  Catholic  University  of  Louvain,  train  engineers  for 
every  branch  of  industry.  They  grant  the  following  diplomas,  viz.  : — (a)  Civil 
engineer  of  mines  ;  {b)  engineer  of  building-construction  ;  {e)  engineer  of  arts  and 
manufactures,  and  of  mines ;  {d)  engineer-constructor ;  {e)  engineer-architect ; 
and  (/)  conductor  of  building-construction,  {a)  and  {b)  are  obtained  after  a  five 
years'  course ;  (r),  (rf ),  and  (e)  after  a  four  years'  course ;  and  (/)  after  two  years. 
A  course  consists  of  at  least  200  hours  of  study  in  each  year. 

The  course  of  instruction  includes  excursions  and  reports,  the  students  visiting 
coal-mines  of  the  various  Belgian  basins,  metallurgical  establishments,  engine- 
works,  etc. 

The  fees  amount  to  about  £10  a  year,  and  in  addition  there  are  examination 
fees  varying  in  amount  from  £1  5s.  to  about  £3. 


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688  THE  BDUCATION  OF  MINING  KNQINBBBS. 

THE  NATIONAL  HIGHER  SCHOOL  OF  MINES,  PARIS,  FRANCE. 

The  National  School  of  Mines  was  founded  in  the  first  instance  to  train 
engineers  for  the  mining  corps.  Of  late  years  its  doors  have  been  opened  to  others, 
both  natives  and  foreigners,  anxious  to  obtain  an  industrial  training.  There  are  no 
fees  for  instruction. 

There  are  three  classes  of  students,  viz.  :~(I)  Engineer  students.  These  come 
from  the  Polytechnique,  and  are  intended  for  the  service  of  the  State.  (2) 
Day  students.  These  enter  the  school  by  competitive  examination.  (3)  Foreign 
students.  These  are  admitted,  after  passing  a  qualifying  examination,  on  the 
recommendation  of  the  ambassadors  or  charges  d'afiaires  of  foreign  powers.  They 
are  not  compelled  to  follow  the  complete  course,  but  can  select  at  the  beginning  of 
the  year  the  line  of  study  which  they  viish  to  pursue,  and  in  this  only  will  they  be 
examined,  and  will  receive  a  certificate.  There  is  also  a  fourth  class  of  students 
known  as  free  students.  These  are  either  natives  or  foreigners  authorized  by  the 
Minister  of  Public  Works  to  follow  the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  course.  They  do  not 
attend  the  practical  work,  or  the  examinations,  nor  do  they  receive  a  diploma. 

The  length  of  the  special  course  of  study  is  three  years  ;  and  in  addition  there 
is  the  preparatory  course  of  one  year. 

The  training  at  the  School  of  Mines  is  especially  directed  to  imparting  a  know- 
ledge of  all  matters  relating  to  minerals.  But,  besides  this,  instruction  is  given 
on  the  general  conditions  of  modem  industry,  machines,  railways,  building  con- 
struction, legislation,  and  economics. 

A  course  of  military  art  is  provided  for  those  students  holding  a  place  in  the 
army  ;  and,  lastly,  German  and  English  are  taught,  to  enable  the  students  to  study 
the  scientific  works  written  in  those  languages. 

The  courses  of  instruction  are  as  follows  : — 

Preparatory  Tear. — Mechanics,  analysis  and  descriptive  geometry,  physics, 
chemistry,  drawing,  and  preparations  for  the  examinations. 

Special  Course. 

First  Tear. — Working  of  mines,  metallurgy,  analytical  chemistry,  industrial 
chemistry,  mineralogy,  paUeontology,  topography,  German  and  English,  drawing, 
mining  and  metallurgical  designs,  mineral  analysis,  and  preparation  for  the  examina- 
tions. 

Second  Tear. — Metallurgy,  analytical  chemistry,  geology  and  petrography, 
machines  and  strength  of  materials,  railways,  economics,  German  or  English, 
metallurgical  and  machine  design,  mineral  analysis,  industrial  and  gelogical  excur- 
sions, and  preparation  for  the  examinations. 

Third  Tear. — Applied  geology,  building  and  machine-construction,  legislation, 
applications  of  electricity,  artillery,  German  or  English,  and  preparation  for  the 
examinations. 


DOUAI  MINE-OVERMEN'S  SCHOOL,  DOUAI,  FRANCE. 

The  object  of  this  school  is  to  train  workmen  for  the  position  of  overmen,  etc. 
The  students  are  boarded  at  the  school,  paying  about  £20  a  year.  The  length  of 
the  course  is  two  years,  half  of  which  is  spent  in  a  mine.  The  students  are  taught 
grammar,  arithmetic,  elementary  geometry,  so  much  trigonometry  and  geometry 
as  is  required  for  surveying,  physics  and  chemistry,  etc.  Diplomas  are  given 
at  the  end  of  the  course. 

Candidates  must  be  at  least  sixteen  years  old,  and  have  worked  in  a  mine 
They  must  also  pass  an  examination  in  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic. 


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SAINT  ETIENNE  SCHOOL  OF  MINES,  SAINT  ETIENNE,  LOIRE, 

FRANCE. 

The  object  of  the  school  is  to  train  engineers,  managers  of  mines,  and  managers 
of  metallurgical  works.  The  instraction  is  free,  and  extends  over  a  period  of 
three  years.  The  first  year  is  devoted  to  pare  mathematics,  mechanics,  physics, 
mineral  analysis,  mineralogy,  descriptive  geometry,  stereotomy,  and  planning.  The 
two  other  years  to  practical  work : — Working  of  mines,  washing  and  dressing 
of  minerals,  machines  and  buildings,  metallurgy,  mineral  analysis,  geology,  rail- 
ways, law  of  mines,  vegetable  palaeontology,  and  book-keeping.  The  students 
visit  the  neighbouring  mines. 

Diplomas  and  certificates  are  given  to  those  who  have  satisfactorily  gone 
through  the  course  of  study.  Foreigners  are  admitted,  after  having  passed  an 
examination  to  show  that  they  are  capable  of  following  the  course  of  instruction. 

Candidates  for  admission  must  be  Frenchmen  or  naturalized  Frenchmen  (though 
foreigners  are  also  admitted)  between  17  and  26  years  of  age,  and  must  pass  an 
entrance  examination.  The  students  are  not  boarded.  The  cost  of  board  and 
lodging  is  about  £1  a  week.     The  cost  of  the  uniform  is  about  £8. 


BERUN  ROYAL  GEOLOGICAL  AND  MINING  INSTITUTE,  BERLIN, 

GERMANY. 

The  geological  department  is  for  making  maps,  etc.,  of  the  geological  formations 
of  the  German  empire. 

The  mining  department  for  teaching  students  the  theoretical  and  practical 
parts  of  mining,  metallurgy,  surveying,  etc.  The  following  subjects  are  taught 
in  the  mining  department :— Mining,  metallurgy,  metallurgy  of  iron,  assaying, 
blowpipe  analysis,  technical  chemistry,  land  and  mine  surveying,  machine  construc- 
tion, designing  chemical  works,  building  construction,  mechanical  drawing,  tri- 
gonometry, analytical  geometry,  differential  and  integral  calculus,  mechanics, 
mineralogy,  petrology,  geognosy,  palaeontology,  analytical  chemistry,  mining 
law,  etc. 

The  whole  course  takes  three  years,  the  latter  part  of  which  is  spent  in  practical 
work.  German  students  are  admitted  on  producing  certificates  of  attendance  at 
any  German  technical  school  or  college.  Students  can  go  up  for  examination  in 
any  subject  they  choose,  and  will  be  given  certificates— provided  they  satisfy  the 
examiners. 

ROYAL  TECHNICAL  COLLEGE,  AIX-LA-CHAPELLE,  GERMANY. 

The  Technical  College  aims  at  affording  education  for  a  technical  calling  in  the 
Government  or  civil  service  and  in  commercial  life. 

The  Technical  College  is  under  the  supenision  of  the  Government  Minister  for 
Education,  and  consists  of  the  following  departments : — ( I )  Architecture ;  (2)  civil 
engineering;  (3)  mechanical  engineering;  (4)  mining,  metallurgy,  and  chemistry  ; 
(5)  general  sciences,  especially  for  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy. 

The  lectures  are  arranged  in  yearly  courses.  Only  in  exceptional  cases  does  a 
course  of  lectures  extend  over  part  of  a  year  only. 

The  admission  of  a  German  to  the  college  is  dependent  on  his  producing  a 
leaving  certificate  from  a  German  public  school  or  commercial  college.  A 
foreigner  can  be  admitted  into  the  college  if  the  warden  and  director  of  the  depart- 
ment, which  he  wishes  to  enter,  are  satisfied  that  he  is  qualified  for  the  same  by 
age,  education,  etc. 


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640  THE  EDUCATION  OF  MINING  ENGINEERS. 

On  joining  the  college  each  student  receives  a  certificate  of  admission  which  ia 
available  for  four  years,  but  which  can  be  prolonged  if  required. 

Examinations  are  held  in  the  case  of  one  year  lectures,  at  the  end  of  the  college 
year;  and  in  the  case  of  the  half-year  lectures,  at  the  end  of  each  half-year. 
Students  may  enter  for  6nal  examination  in  those  subjects,  the  lectures  on  which 
they  have  attended,  and  receive  certificates  for  the  same. 

Students  who  have  followed  the  four  years'  course  of  instruction  in  any  of  the 
departments  are  entitled  to  enter  for  a  diploma  examination,  and  receive  a  diploma 
testifying  to  their  acquirements  and  practical  knowledge,  and  entitling  them,  as 
the  case  may  be,  to  the  degree  of  (a)  architect ;  {h)  metallurgical  chemist;  (c)  civil 
engineer ;  {d)  metallurgical  engineer ;  (e)  mechanical  engineer ;  (/)  surveyor ;  {g) 
electrical  engineer;  (A)  mining  engineer.  These  examinations  take  place  in  two 
parts,  the  preliminary  at  the  end  of  the  second  year,  and  a  principal  examination 
on  the  completion  of  the  course. 

The  appointment  as  an  oiEcial  in  the  Government  Architectural  Service  is 
obtained  by  passing  a  preliminary  and  two  principal  examinations,  these,  accord- 
ing to  the  branch  which  they  concern,  being  divided  into : — (a)  Building  ;  (b)  civil 
engineermg;  (c)  mechanical  engineering. 

For  the  mining  department  of  the  Government  Service  there  are  special  rules 
and  regulations.     The  course  of  instruction  is  as  follows : — 

Minifig,   Metallurgy ^  and  Chemistry, 

The  course  includes  :— Mineralogy  and  crystallography,  with  practical  exercises 
in  determination  of  minerals ;  petrography,  practice  in  the  mineral  collection  ;  guid- 
ance to  independent  crystallographical,  inineralogical,  and  petrographical  work ; 
experimental  inorganic  chemistry,  chemistry  of  benzol  and  pyridin,  practical 
chemistry,  general  and  inorganic  experimental  chemistry ;  introduction  to  metal- 
lurgical experiments,  mining,  ore-dressing,  salt-mining,  chemistry  of  the  metals, 
volumetric  analysis,  historical  chemistry  ;  introduction  to  metallurgy,  metallurgy 
of  iron,  general  metallurgy,  iron  casting,  new  methods  of  extracting  metals,  electro- 
metallurgy, etc.,  designing  of  smelting-works,  metallurgical  assaying,  blowpipe 
analysis ;  designing  of  mining  and  ore-dressing  works,  mining  law,  mine  manage- 
ment; technical  chemistry,  designing  of  chemical  works,  practical  technical 
chemistry  ;  land  and  mine  surveying,  drawing,  practical  land  and  mine  surveying, 
physical  geography,  ore-deposits,  palaeontology,  structural  geology,  practical 
palaeontology,  elements  of  mineralogy  and  geology. 


ROYAL  SCHOOL  OF  MINES,  CLAUSTHAL,  HARZ,  GERMANY. 

The  college  is  devoted  to  teaching  mining  and  metallurgy.  Students  are  of  two 
grades  :  *  '■  bergakademiker  "  and  * '  hospitanten. " 

The  standard  of  the  qualification  for  admission  as  a  "bergakademiker,"  in  the 
case  of  Germans,  is  the  final  certificate  of  a  gymnasium,  high  school  of  the  first  class 
or  one  of  the  Royal  Prussian  Trade  Schools.  Foreigners  have  to  give  proof  by  means 
of  certificates  of  equivalent  education. 

Students  with  less  previous  education  can  be  admitted  as  "hospitanten,"  pro- 
vided that  their  certificates  prove  that  they  have  had  sufficient  education  to  enable 
them  to  fully  imderstand  the  lectures.  At  the  end  of  a  year  "hospitanten"  who 
are  qualified,  have  the  opportunity  of  becoming  "bergakademiker"  if  they  can 
pass  an  entrance  examination  in  a  full  course  of  elementary  mathematics. 


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THE  EDUCATION  OF  MINING  ENGINEERS.  641 

The  course  of  instraotioa  is  divided  into  the  practical  preparatory  course  and 
the  ordinary  course  of  lectures. 

The  practical  preparatory  course  begins  every  year  in  the  firat  week  after  Easter, 
and  is  devote<l  to  mining,  ore-dressing,  and  smeltiug.  The  fee  for  each  of  the 
branches  is  ISs. 

Students  are  examined  in  any  of  the  single  subjects,  or  in  all  the  mining  and 
smelting  subjects,  for  which  degrees  are  given.  Examinations  are  held  at  the  end 
of  each  term  and  a  certificate  will  be  given  by  the  director  of  the  academy  to 
students  passing  examinations  in  any  of  the  subjects  taught. 

Mining  or  MetaUurgical  Engineer's  Certificate. 

Students  who  wish  to  obtain  a  degree  of-  mining  or  metallurgical  engineering 
must,  at  the  end  of  the  first  year,  pass  an  intermediate  examination,  and  can  take 
either  or  both  parts. 

The  cost  of  board  and  lodging  is  from  £4  to  £6  per  month,  and  the  total  cost  of 
fees,  board,  and  lodging,  woidd  be  from  £50  to  £70  for  the  college  year. 

The  following  course  of  lectures  in  the  mining  department,  for  students  who 
have  attended  a  technical  college  before,  is  recommended  to  students,  but  they  arc 
free  to  take  any  lectures  they  choose.  The  director  will  always  advise  students  on 
the  above  point. 

First  Year,  —Trigonometry,  algebra,  analytical  plane-geometry,  differential  and 
integral  calculus,  descriptive  geometry,  physics,  mechanical  drawing,  chemistry, 
paliBontology,  ambulance  lectures,  general  jurisprudence  and  mining  law,  analytical 
solid  geometry,  and  lectures  on  the  commercial  part  of  mining. 

Second  Year, — Mineralogy,  practical  mineralogy,  mechanics,  mining,  surveying, 
geology,  qualitative  chemical  analysis,  blowpipe  analysis,  theory  of  combustibles, 
ore-dressing,  mining  geology,  practical  physics,  and  qualitative  chemical  analysis. 
Third  Year. — Machine-construction  and  designing,  assaying,  mining  law, 
mineral  deposits,  geotectonic  or  structural  geology,  electricity,  building  construc- 
tion, blowpipe  analysis,  and  qualitative  analysis. 


THE  ROYAL  SAXON  ACADEMY  OF  MINING,  FREIBERG,  SAXONY. 

This  school  is  intended  to  prepare  students  for  the  professions  of  mining  and 
metallurgical  engineers  and  surveyors.  Training  for  other  professions  is  not  given, 
neither  does  the  curriculum  include  general  education. 

Applicants  who  are  not  subjects  of  the  German  empire  may  be  exempted  from 
the  matriculation  examination,  if  they  are  provided  with  certificates  admitting 
them  to  institutions  of  the  same  standing  in  their  own  land. 

Partial  exemption  from  the  matriculation  examination  may  be  permitted  to 
applicants  of  mature  years  who  substitute  experience  in  practical  work  for  deficien- 
cies in  theoretical  knowledge,  and  to  those  who  can  furnish  evidence  of  efficiency  in 
arts  instead  of  science. 

The  object  of  the  practical  course  in  mining  is  the  acquirement  of  such  informa- 
tion as  is  desirable  for  a  course  of  study  in  mining  engineering. 

The  work  of  the  practical  course  at  the  Freiberg  mines  must  be  taken  as 
follows: — 1.  Surface  work  for  eight  or  nine  weeks  in  ore-dressing  and  concentra- 
tion. 2.  The  time  remaining  is  to  be  spent  in  work  underground,  and  also  in 
visiting  under  the  direction  of  the  profes^ior  of  mining  engineering  other  mines  in 
the  district. 


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642  THE  EDUCATION  OF  MININO  EKCHNEEKS. 

The  fees  for  tnition  appear  to  amount  to  about  £10  a  year  for  natives  and  £15  a 
year  for  foreigners ;  but  the  programme  is  not  very  distinct  upon  this  point. 

The  full  course  in  mining  extends  over  a  period  of  four  years  : — 

First  Year. — Mathematics,  descriptive  geometry,  spherical  trigonometry, 
physics,  inorganic  chemistry,  mineralogy,  crystallography,  drawing,  and  planning. 

Second  Fear.— The  higher  parts  of  some  of  the  above  subjects,  mechanics, 
mining,  geology,  palsBontology,  economic  geology,  blowpipe  analysis,  and  mechani- 
cal drawing. 

Third  Tear, — Surveying,  mining,  engineering,  metallurgy,  building  construc- 
tion, and  machine-drawing. 

Fourth  Tear. — Surveying,  general  and  mining  law,  mining  and  metallurgical 
buildings,  calculations  and  statistics,'  political  economy,  sanitation,  and  technical 
electricity. 

At  the  close  of  the  course  the  student  sits  for  a  final  examination,  and,  in  the 
event  of  passing,  obtains  a  diploma. 


HALLE  AND  ANHALT  MINING  SCHOOL,  EISLEBEN,  SAXONY. 

The  school  is  divided  into  two  departments,  the  former  being  preparatory  for 
the  latter.  There  are  four  preparatory  schools  situated  in  various  parts  of  Saxony, 
and  the  higher  school  is  situated  at  Eisleben. 

The  object  of  these  schools  is  to  train  officials  for  the  mines  and  works  of  the 
Halle  district.  As,  however,  foreigners  are  not  admitted  it  is  unnecessary  to  give 
here  an  abstract  of  the  educational  course. 


STOCKHOLM  POLYTECHNIC  SCHOOL,  STOCKHOLM,  SWEDEN. 

The  Mining  College  at  Stockholm  forms  a  part  of  the  Polytechnic  School,  and 
includes  courses  of  either  three  or  four  years,  of  which  the  last  only  is  entirely 
devoted  to  the  science  of  mining. 

During  the  first  year  instruction  is  given  in  mathematics,  mechanics  (theoretical 
and  practical),  the  construction  of  machines,  physics  (general  and  applied), 
chemistry,  architecture,  geology  and  mineralogy,  geodesy,  geometry,  constructive 
drawing  and  freehand. 

The  last  year  is  occupied  with  the  study  of  metallurgy,  working  of  mines  and 
testing  of  ore  and  docimacy,  and  mechanics.  The  pupils  pass  great  part  of  the 
summer  in  visiting  mines  and  ironworks. 

Hitherto  the  instruction  has  been  gratuitous,  but  hereafter  a  small  fee  will  be 
required.  The  pupils  who  have  passed  through  a  complete  course  obtain  certificates 
of  capacity. 

TOKIO  COLLEGE  OF  ENGINEERING,  TOKIO,  JAPAN. 

The  College  of  Engineering  forms  one  branch  of  the  University  of  Tokio.  The 
students  enter  after  a  six  years*  course  in  a  preparatory  school,  where  there  are 
from  1,200  to  1,600  boys.  There  they  improve  their  English,  French,  and  German  ; 
learn  all  mathematics  required  by  engineers,  including  the  calculus,  have  some  forty 
lectures  in  geology,  and  mineralogy,  and  considerable  laboratory  practice.  Formerly 
about  forty  of  these,  but  now  about  ninety,  go  every  year  into  the  engineering 


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THB  EDUCATION  OF  MfKIKO  ENaiNEBRS.  648 

oollege,  and  others  to  the  medical,  law,  literature,  and  pure  acience  branches  of  the 
university.    The  geology  taught  in  the  engineering  college  is  purely  technical 

The  mining  course  should  consist  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  lectures,  but 
sickness,  typhoons,  earthquakes,  etc.,  usually  reduce  it  to  about  one  hundred.  One 
year  a  typhoon  stopped  the  classes  for  a  week,  and  last  year  an  earthquake  stopped 
them  for  nearly  three  weeks. 

All  lectures  are  given  in  English.  Much  of  the  designing  work  goes  into 
practice,  the  rest  into  models  for  the  museums,  which  are  now  said  to  be  better 
than  anything  of  the  kind  in  Europe,  America,  and  Australia.  There  is  a  large 
workshop  always  running,  with  a  variety  of  motors  (steam,  electric,  gas,  and  water), 
a  metallurgical  laboratory,  and  a  fair  number  of  dressing-machines. 

The  summer  vacations  are  spent  at  mines,  and  all  the  students  who  have  passed 
through  the  oollege  find  employment  in  Japan,  China,  Corea,  etc. 

The  mining  course  extends  over  three  years,  and  is  as  follows : — 

Firsi  Year. — Mining,  mineralogy,  geology,  steam  engine,  mechanism,  building- 
coiistmction,  surveying,  determination  of  minerals,  qualitative  analysis,  designing, 
and  metallurgy. 

Second  Year. — Underground  surve3ring,  metallurgy,  ore-dressing,  water  motors, 
pumps,  cranes,  etc.,  determination  of  minerals,  assaying,  blowpipe  analysis,  and 
quantitative  analysis. 

Third  Year. — Mining,  metallurgy,  ore-deposits,  mechanical  and  metallurgical 
technology,  metallurgical  experiments,  mechanical  engineering,  mining  designing, 
metallurgical  designing,  and  mining  law. 

Adjoining  the  main  college  building  is  a  dormitory,  where  the  students  of  the 
college  reside. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ARIZONA,  TUCSON,  ARIZONA,  UNITED  STATES. 

The  departments  of  instruction  are  : — ( 1 )  Science,  literature,  and  the  arts ;  (2) 
teachers'  training,  and  elementary  instruction ;  (3)  agriculture ;  (4)  normal 
department;  and  (5)  mineralogy  and  the  school  of  mines.  The  third  and  fifth 
departments  were  established  as  the  beginning  of  the  university.  The  fourth 
department  is  provided  for  by  legislative  enactment  in  the  popular  and  well- 
managed  Territorial  Normal  School  at  Tempe.  The  first  and  second  departments 
will  be  established  when  the  income  of  the  university  will  permit. 

The  tuition  is  free.  Matriculation  fee,  to  be  paid  but  once,  £1.  Students  are 
charged  for  material  used  in  laboratories.  A  dormitory  for  the  accommodation 
of  a  limited  number  of  students  has  been  fitted  up  in  the  university  building,  to  be 
used  until  the  students'  dormitory  is  built,  where  students  will  be  boarded  at  cost 
price,  which  will  not  exceed  £4  per  month.     Books  cost  from  £1  to  £2  per  year. 

The  School  of  Mines. 

This  college  of  the  university  subserves  a  twofold  object,  firstly,  the  thorough 
training  of  young  men  in  the  sciences  of  mining  and  metallurgy  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  fit  them  to  undertake  the  development  of  the  mineral  resources  of  the 
country,  after  a  aupplementary  period  devoted  to  practical  work  ;  and,  secondly, 
to  make  use  of  the  laboratories  for  tests,  experiments,  and  investigations  of 
practical  utility  to  mining  industries. 


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644  THE  EDUCATION  OF  MINING  ENOINEEBS. 

Mining  Engineering, 

The  course  of  mining  engineering  is  as  follows : — 

Fir^  Tear. — Algebra,  English,  physics,  projection-drawing,  drill,  rhetoric, 
physical  laboratory  work,  geometry,  descriptive  geometry,  and  lettering. 

Second  Year. — Geometry,  calculus,  chemistry,  general  botany,  modem  language, 
drill,  trigonometry  and  land-surveying,  zoology,  and  topographical  surveying  and 
field  work. 

Third  year.— Analytical  mechanics,  mine-surveying,  chemical  laboratory 
work,  modem  language,  resistance  of  materials,  mineralogy,  geology,  dynamics, 
electrical  engineering,  and  assaying. 

Fourth  Year. — Mining  en^neering,  engineering  geology,  mining  law,  wind- 
wheels  and  hydraulics,  practical  work,  metallurgy,  mining  accounts,  mine  adminis- 
tration, mine  examination  and  report,  thesis  and  practice. 

Afetallurgical  Engineering. 

The  coarse  in  metallurgy  is  identical  with  the  mining  course  in  the  first  and 
second  years ;  in  the  later  years  the  course  is  as  below : — 

Third  Year. — Architectural  drawing  and  designing,  mechanics,  modem 
languafl^e,  resistance  of  materials,  mill  work,  mineralogy,  geology,  dynamics, 
analysis  of  ores,  geology,  assaying,  and  quantitative  chemical  laboratory. 

Fourth  Year. — Metallurgy,  analysis  of  fuels,  fluxes,  etc.,  wind-wheels  and 
hydranlic  engines,  mill  accounts,  practical  mill-work,  memoirs,  administration, 
thesis  and  practice. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  SAN  FRANCISCO,  UNITED  STATES. 

The  schools  of  the  University  of  California  are  situated  at  various  places  in  the 
State,  and  furnish  instruction  in  literature  and  in  science,  and  in  the  professions 
of  law,  medicine,  dentistry,  and  pharmacy.  In  the  colleges  of  letters,  agriculture, 
mining,  mechanics,  civil  engiueering  and  chemistry,  in  the  literary  course,  and  in 
the  course  in  letters  and  political  science,  these  privileges  are  offered  without 
charge  for  tuition,  to  all  persons  qualified  for  admission. 

In  the  professional  colleges  in  San  Francisco,  except  that  of  law,  moderate 
tuition  fees  are  charged. 

Eight  regular  courses  of  study  are  at  present  established,  leading  directly,  under 
conditions  hereinafter  stated,  to  corresponding  degrees,  namely  : — 

Faculty  of  the  college  of  letters,  comprising :— (a)  Classical  course,  leading  to  the 
degree  of  A. B.;  (6)  literary  course,  leading  to  the  degree  of  B.L.;  and  (c)  course 
in  letters  and  political  science,  leading  to  the  degree  of  Ph.B. 

Faculties  of  the  five  colleges  of  science,  comprising : — (a)  Agriculture ;  (6) 
mechanics ;  (c)  mining ;  {U)  civil  engineering  ;  and  (e)  chemistry,  each  of  which 
leads  regularly  to  the  degree  of  B.Sc. 

College  of  Mining. 

The  college  of  mining  is  designed  for  students  who  wish  to  become  mining  or 
metallurgical  engineers,  or  to  engage  in  one  of  the  many  pursuits  connected  with 
mining  industry,  such  as  the  surveying  and  mapping  of  mines,  the  assaying  and 
extraction  of  ores,  the  designing  and  use  of  mining  machinery,  or  the  working  of 
mines. 

The  undergraduate  course  may  be  completed  by  the  average, student  in  four 
years. 


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THE  EDUCATION  OF  MINING  BNGINBBBS.  645 

During  the  first  two  years  considerable  time  is  devoted  to  lin^istic  studies, 
embracing  English  prose  style,  to  the  preparation  of  summaries  and  precis  writing, 
and  to  the  acquisition  of  a  reading  knowledge  of  either  French  or  German.  Owing 
to  the  large  and  valuable  scientific  and  technical  literatures  of  these  languages,  it 
is  important  to  the  advanced  student  to  be  able  to  read  them  both.  Only  one 
is  required  of  undergraduates,  but  both  may  be  mastered  during  the  course  by  a 
little  extra  effort.  Those  who  have  already  a  reading  knowledge  of  either  of  these 
languages  are  advised  to  select  the  other  in  college.  A  knowledge  of  Spanish,  while 
not  required,  will  be  of  considerable  advantage  to  mining  students,  as  they  will  find 
many  professional  opportunities  in  Spanish -American  countries.  It  may  be  easily 
acquired  during  the  course.  Preliminary  to  the  strictly  techuical  studies  of  the 
course,  the  student  receives  a  sufficient  training  in  those  branches  of  modem 
physical  science  which  lie  at  the  basis  of  all  the  industries  connected  with  mining : 
on  the  one  hand,  mathematics  and  its  applications ;  and  on  the  other,  chemistry, 
mineralogy,  petrography,  and  geology. 

The  mathematical  studies  are  pursued  with  special  reference  to  subsequent 
practical  applications  in  surveying,  physics,  and  analytical  mechanics,  which  in  their 
turn  serve  as  a  means  for  discussing  such  subjects  as  strength  of  materials  and 
hydraulics.  A  similar  sequence  is  observed  with  other  studies ;  thus  descriptive 
geometry  is  comiected  with  work  in  the  drawing-room,  surveying  with  extensive 
field-practice  and  the  mapping  of  surveys  actually  made  by  the  student,  physics 
with  physical  problems  and  work  in  the  physical  laboratory,  strength  of  materials 
and  hydraulics  with  original  designs  in  the  drawing-room,  followed  by  working 
tests  in  the  mechanical  laboratory.  These  important  studies  extend  through  the 
whole  four  years'  coui-se ;  and  inasmuch  as  they  are  peculiarly  interdependent,  it 
is  necessary  that  they  should  be  completed  in  the  prescribed  order,  otherwise  the 
student  will  find  himself  seriously  embarrassed  in  his  work. 

The  studies  in  chemistry  and  allied  branches  begin  with  general  experimental 
chemistry,  inorganic  and  organic,  followed  by  analytical  chemistry  as  an  application^ 
viz.:  qualitative,  quantitative  and  blowpipe  analysis,  subjects  indispensable  to 
subsequent  work  in  metallurgy  and  assaying. 

Having  acquired  a  working  power  in  chemistry,  the  student  begins  the  &tudy  of 
mineralogy ;  this  is  followed  by  petrography,  and  by  courses  in  general  and  field 
geology.  These  studies  are  developed  with  special  reference  to  their  applications 
in  mining. 

The  technical  branches  of  mining,  metallurgy  and  assaying,  peculiar  to  this 
college,  are  begun  in  the  junior  year,  when  the  student  has  had  sufficient  training 
in  the  general  and  preparatory  branches  to  study  them  with  profit. 

In  the  course  in  metallurgy,  after  the  general  consideration  of  the  subjects 
which  concern  the  treatment  of  all  the  metals,  the  rest  of  the  undergraduate  work 
is  devoted  to  a  detailed  study  of  all  the  important  methods  in  use  for  the  reduction 
of  the  ores  of  lead,  silver,  gold,  copper,  and  mercury. 

The  course  concludes  with  a  written  thesis  on  some  subject  connected  with 
mining  or  metallurgy,  and  leads  to  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  science. 

Candidates  for  the  professional  degrees  in  this  college  must  satisfy  the  following 
conditions: — 

Degree  of  Mining  Engineer.— The  candidate  must  be  a  graduate  of  the  college 
of  mining  of  this  University,  or  give  satisfactory  evidence  of  having  successfully 
pursued  a  course  of  study  equivalent  to  its  regular  undergraduate  course.  He 
must  also  pass  a  satisfactory  examination  in  the  following  subjects: — Mining, 
ore-dressing,  petrography,  economic  geology,  thermodynamics  (elements),  drawing 


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646  THE  EDUCATION  OF  MINING  ENGINEERS. 

and  constmction  of  mining  machinery,  blowpipe  assaying,  and  political  economy. 
He  most  have  had  at  least  one  year  of  actual  practice  in  the  field  in  the  course 
chosen,  and  must  show,  by  an  original  memoir  upon  some  subject  bearing  upon 
this  profession,  power  to  apply  his  knowledge  to  practice.  This  degree  will  not 
be  given  earlier  than  three  years  after  graduation. 

Degree  of  Metallurgical  Engineer,  —The  candidate  must  pass  an  examination  in 
the  following  subjects : — Metallurgy,  ore-dressing,  assaying  and  analysis,  blowpipe 
assaying,  thermodynamics  (elements),  drawing  and  construction  of  furnaces  and 
metallurgical  machinery,  and  political  economy.  In  all  other  respects  the  condi- 
tions are  the  same  as  those  required  for  the  degree  of  mining  engineer. 


COLORADO  STATE  SCHOOL  OF  MINES,  GOLDEN,  COLORADO, 
UNITED  STATES. 

The  organization  of  the  School  of  Mines  of  Colorado  resembles  that  of  the  best 
technical  schools  of  the  United  States.  It  is  a  school  of  applied  science,  in  which, 
however,  more  than  usual  weight  is  given  to  those  branches  having  a  more  or  less 
direct  bearing  upon  miuing  and  metallurgy.     All  tuition  is  free. 

There  are  four  full  courses  of  study,  viz.: — Civil  engineering,  mining  engineer- 
ing, metallurgy,  and  electrical  engineering.  Each  covers  a  period  of  four  years 
The  studies,  however,  are  identical  during  the  first  two  years  of  all  courses, 
beginning  to  diverge  at  the  opening  of  the  third  year.  The  course  in  mathematics 
is  taken  in  full  by  all,  except  the  students  in  the  metallurgical  course. 

The  degrees  given  are:— (a)  Civil  engineer  (C.E.);  (6)  engineer  of  mines 
(E.M.);  (c)  metallurgical  engineer  (M.E.);  (c^)  electrical  engineer  (E.E.);  and  (e) 
bachelor  of  science  (B.Sc.)  The  B.Sc.  degree  is  given  to  any  student  of  four  years' 
residence,  who,  after  having  completed  the  course  of  the  first  two  years,  devotes 
himself  for  two  more  years  to  the  study  of  analytical  and  theoretical  chemistry. 
Such  students  are  allowed  to  attend  lectures  in  the  higher  classes  on  other  topics 
th(in  the  specialty  they  have  chosen,  and  must,  during  their  last  year,  conduct 
some  special  research  in  analytical  or  technical  chemistry. 

Students  will  not  be  admitted  to  the  fourth  year  as  applicants  for  the  degree  of 
C.E.  unless  they  have  shown  very  marked  ability  in  mathematics.  They  must 
also  have  been  connected  with  some  survey  or  other  active  field-operation  on 
engineering  lines  during  one  of  the  vacations  of  their  course. 

Each  student  is  required,  during  the  summer  vacation  preceding  his  senior 
year,  to  execute  a  memoir  on  some  assigned  subject.  At  the  end  of  the  third  year 
the  student  is  also  assigned  a  subject  for  a  graduating  thesis,  such  data  being 
given  as  would  be  met  with  in  practical  experience. 

The  course  of  studies  is  as  follows : — 

First  Year  {for  ail  courses). — Algebra,  geometry,  geology,  freehand  drawing, 
mechanical  drawing,  chemistry,  and  qualitative  analysis. 

Second  Tear  {for  all  cowr^fts).— Plane  and  spherical  trigmometry,  descriptive 
geometry,  qualitative  and  quantitative  analysis,  crystallography,  physics,  mechani- 
cal drawing,  surveying,  determinative  mineralogy,  algebra,  shadows  and  perspec- 
tive, stoichiometry,  physical  laboratory,  and  blowpipe  work. 

Mining  Engineering, 

The  special  courses  in  mining  engineering  for  third  and  fourth  years  are  as 
follow : — 


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THE   EDUCATION  OF   MINING   ENGINEERS.  647 

Third  Fear. —Analytical  geometry,  differential  and  integral  calculus,  civil 
engineering,  primary  and  secondary  batteries,  mining,  quantitative  analysis, 
mechanical  drawing,  metallurgy,  mechanics,  theory  of  strains,  mining  engineering, 
ore-dressing,  electrical  units,  and  vacation  memoir. 

Fourth  Fear.— Integral  calculus,  kinematics,  mechanical  drawing,  mechanics, 
dynamics,  theory  of  strains,  economic  geology,  metallurgy,  dynamo-electric 
machinery,  distribution  of  electricity  for  lighting,  thermodynamics,  plans,  construc- 
tions and  estimates,  mechanical  engineering,  electricity  in  mining,  thesis  work 
(including  plans,  estimates,  and  drawings),  and  long-distance  transmission  of 
power.  In  addition  to  the  above  schedule,  one  review  study  is  taken  in  each 
term. 

MelallwytccU  Engineering. 

The  special  courses  in  metallurgy  during  the  third  and  fourth  years  are  as 
follows : — 

Third  Year, — Mining,  quantitative  analysis,  metallurgical  chemistry,  civil 
engineering,  metallurgy,  mechanical  drawing,  mechanics,  civil  engineering,  ore- 
buying  and  smelting -charges,  ore-dressing,  and  a  vacation  memoir. 

Fourth  Tear,  —Kinematics,  metallurgy,  economic  geology,  plans,  constructions, 
and  estimates,  theory  of  strains,  applied  chemistry,  slag  calculations,  mechanical 
drawing,  economics  of  metallurgy,  dynamics,  thermodynamics,  mechanical  engin- 
eering, and  thesis  work  (including  plans,  estimates,  and  drawings).  A  review 
study  is  also  taken  in  each  term. 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS,  URBANA,  CHAMPAIGN  COUNTY, 
ILLINOIS,  UNITED  STATES. 

The  organization  of  the  university  comprises  colleges  of :— (a)  Agriculture  ; 
(6)  engineering,  with  courses  in  mechanical  engineering,  electrical  engineering, 
civil  engineering,  mimicipal  and  sanitary  engineering,  mining  engineering,  archi- 
tecture, and  architectural  engineering;  (c)  science;  (d)  literature;  (e)  additional 
schools  of  military  science  and  of  art  and  design ;  together  with  (/)  a  graduate 
schooL 

COLLEQE  OF  EnOINEERINQ. 

The  courses  of  instruction  comprise: — Mathematics — advanced  algebra,  trigo- 
nometry, conic  sections,  analytical  geometry,  differential  calculus ;  theoretical  and 
applied  mechanics — analytical  mechanics,  resistance  of  materials,  hydraulics; 
general  engineering  drawing — elements  of  draughting,  descriptive  geometry,  letter- 
ing; physics— elementary  mechanics  and  sound,  heat  and  light,  electricity  and 
magnetism ;  mining  engineering — ^mine  attack,  mine-surveying,  ore-dressing,  mine 
engineering;  civil  engineering — land-surveying,  topographical  drawing  and  sur- 
veying, transit  surveying  and  levelling,  railroad-engineering,  masonry-construction, 
geodesy,  practical  astronomy,  bridges. 

Labour  is  furnished  as  far  as  possible  to  all  who  desire  it.  It  is  classified  into 
educational  and  remunerative  labour.  Educational  labour  is  designed  as  a  practi- 
cal instruction,  and  constitutes  a  part  of  the  course  in  several  schools.  Students 
are  credited  with  their  proficiency  in  it  as  in  other  studies.  Nothing  is  paid  for  it. 
Remunerative  labour  is  prosecuted  for  its  products,  and  students  are  paid  what 
their  work  is  worth.  The  usual  rate  paid  for  ordinary  farm,  garden,  and  shop 
labour  is  6d.  per  hour.  Students  of  sufficient  experience  may  be  allowed  to  work 
by  the  piece  or  job,  and  thus  by  diligence  or  skill  secure  more  pay. 


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648  THE   EDUCATION  OF  MINING  BN0INBBR8. 

Some  students  who  have  the  requisite  skill,  industry,  and  economy,  pay  their 
entire  expenses  by  their  labour  5  but,  in  general,  young  men  cannot  count  upon 
doing  this  at  first,  without  a  capital  to  begin  with,  either  of  skill,  or  money  to 
serve  them  till  a  degree  of  skill  is  acquired. 

The  tuition  is  free  in  all  the  university  classes.  The  cost  of  residence  varies 
from  £30  to  £60. 

Mining  Engineering. 

The  course  comprises  the  greater  part  of  the  pure  and  applied  mathematics  of 
the  courses  in  mechanical  and  civil  engineering.  Much  time  is  devoted  to  chemis- 
try and  geology,  with  the  addition  of  metallurgy  and  other  technical  studies 
peculiar  to  mining  engineering.  Students  who  are  graduated  from  this  course  are 
not  supposed  to  be  familiar  with  all  the  details  of  mine  management  from  actual 
experience,  but  they  will  have  obtained  such  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  under- 
lying all  successful  practice,  and  such  a  familiarity  with  the  science  of  mining  in 
all  its  branches,  that  the  art  may  be  acquired  with  the  minimum  of  practice. 

Plans,  estimates,  drawings,  reports,  and  calculations,  based  upon  data  obtained 
in  the  student's  own  experience,  are  constantly  required,  and  no  pains  are  spared  to 
familiarize  each  member  of  the  class  with  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  every 
grade,  from  miner  to  manager. 

The  course  of  the  studies  is  : — 

First  yiear.— Algebra,  elements  of  draughting,  chemistry,  French,  German,  or 
English,  trigonometry,  descriptive  geometry  and  lettering,  analytical  geometry, 
freehand  drawing,  and  military. 

Second  Year. — Differential  and  integral  calculus,  land-surveying,  physics, 
analytical  geometry,  topographical  drawing  and  surveying,  transit-surveying  and 
levelling,  French,  German,  freehand  drawing  (optional),  and  military. 

Third  Year, — Analytical  mechanics,  mine  attack,  mineralogy,  resistance  of 
material?,  assaying,  geology,  hydraulics,  roofs,  chemistry,  mine  surveying,  themes 
and  elocution. 

Fourth  Year.— Mine  engineering,  ore-dressing,  heat  engines,  geology,  hydraulic 
engines  and  wind  wheels,  chemistry,  political  economy,  roofs,  and  metallurgy. 

Degrees, 

The  usual  bachelor's  and  master's  degrees  are  conferred  upon  those  who  satisfac- 
torily complete  the  courses  of  study  described  in  the  different  colleges.  A 
candidate  for  a  bachelor's  degree  must  pass  in  the  subjects  of  his  chosen  course,  and 
must  conform  to  the  directions  given  in  connexion  with  that  course  in  regard  to 
optional  subjects. 

In  all  cases  an  accepted  thesis  is  required  for  graduation,  based  upon  original 
research,  and  must  contain  at  least  2,000  words,  or  an  equivalent  in  tables,  draw- 
ings, and  illustrations. 

The  degree  of  bachelor  of  science  will  be  given  to  those  who  complete  a  course 
of  study  in  the  college  of  engineering,  of  agriculture,  or  of  science.  The  name 
of  the  course  will  be  inserted  after  the  degree. 

The  master's  degrees,  M.A.,  M.L.,  and  M.S.,  and  the  equivalent  degrees  of 
civil  engineer  and  mechanical  engineer,  etc.,  will  be  given,  after  1894,  to 
graduates  of  this  or  other  similar  institutions  who  have  pursued  at  this  university 
a  year  of  prescribed  graduate  studies  and  have  passed  examinations  thereon,  or 
who  have  pursued  as  non-residents  three  years  of  such  study  and  have  passed  the 
required  examinations.     Studies  for  a  master's  degree  must  be  in  the  general  line 


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THE   EDUCATION  OP  MINING  ENGINEERS.  649 

of  the  bachelor's  degree  already  received,  and  of  the  degree  sought.  In  all  cases 
an  accepted  thesis  is  required  and  this  should  be  presented  at  least  one  month 
before  the  close  of  the  collegiate  year.  It  must  be  ba^ed  upon  original  research 
and  must  show  scholarly  acquirements  of  a  high  order. 


MASSACHUSETTS  INSTITUTE  OF  TECHN'?LOGY,  BOSTON, 
UNITED  STATES. 

The  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  includes  a  Society  of  Arts,  a 
Museum  of  Arts,  and  a  School  of  Industrial  Science! 

The  School  of  Industrial  Science  is  devoted  to  the  teaching  of  science  as  applied 
to  the  various  engineering  professions —namely,  civil,  mechanical,  mining,  electri- 
cal, chemical,  and  sanitary  engineering,  as  well  as  to  architecture,  chemistry, 
metallurgy,  physics,  and  geology.  Courses  of  a  less  technical  nature,  designed  as 
a  preparation  for  business  callings,  and  a  course  in  biology  preparatory  to  the 
professional  study  of  medicine,  are  also  given. 

Tiie  subjects  of  study  have  been  arranged  in  twelve  distinct  formulated  courses, 
each  of  four  years'  duration.  For  the  satisfactory  completion  of  any  one  of  these, 
the  degree  of  bachelor  cf  science  is  conferred.  Of  twelve  courses,  seven  give 
their  students  scientific  and  practical  training  for  the  various  engineering  profes- 
sions ;  those  in  chemistry,  physics,  biology,  and  geology,  having  a  larger  proportion 
of  pure  science,  afford  preparation  either  for  professional  practice,  for  teaching,  or 
for  scientific  investiKation. 

In  the  first  year  all  the  courses  are  the  same,  and  contain  subjects  which  are 
considered  essential  for  the  more  strictly  professional  studies  of  the  later  years. 
At  the  end  of  the  year  the  regular  student  selects  the  course  which  he  will  pursue 
during  the  remaining  three  years,  and  his  work  becomes  more  specialized  thereafter 
as  it  progresses. 

Within  most  of  these  regular  courses  the  student  is  given  a  considerable  latitude 
in  the  selection  of  the  branch  of  his  intended  profession  to  which  he  will  specially 
devote  his  energies  in  the  Jater  years  of  his  study.  This  is  accomplished  by  means 
of  options.  Thus  in  civU  engineering  he  may  elect  sanitary  and  hydraulic  engineer- 
ing, geodesy,  or  an  advanced  course  in  railroad  engineering  and  management. 

Regvlar  Courses, 
First  Ytar, — The  studies  are  common  to  all  regular  courses  as  follow  : — Solid 
geometry,  algebra,  chemistry,  chemical  laboratory  work,  rhetoric  and  English  com- 
position, French  or  German,  mechanical  drawing,  freehand  drawing,  plane  and 
spherical  trigonometry,  political  history  since  1815,  and  military  drill. 

Mining  Engineering  and  Metallurgy, 

Second  Fear, — Analytical  geometry ,  physics,  German,  American  history,  descrip- 
tive geometry,  differential  calculus,  English  literature  and  composition,  mineralogy 
and  blowpipe  analysis  (silver  assay),  and  optional  subjects :— (a)  Principles  of 
mechanism,  use  of  surveying  instruments  ;  (6)  surveying,  topographical  drawing  ; 
(c)  mechanism  :  cotton  machinery,  machine  tools,  drawing,  physical  geography  ; 
{d)  surveying  and  drawing,  physical  geography.  This  may  be  accompanied  by 
a  summer  course  in  practical  mining  or  metallurgy  and  field-work  in  mineralogy. 

Third  Year, — Integral  calculus,  general  statics,  physics,  strength  of  materials, 
kinematics  and  dynamics,  physical  laboratory  work,  German,  assaying,  mining 
engineering,  geology,  and  optional  subjects: — (a)  Steam  engineering  valve-gears, 
thermodynamics,    drawing ;    (6)    railroad    and    highway-engineering ;  (c)   steam 


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660  THE   EDUCATION  OF  MINING  BNGINBEBfl. 

engineering,  boilers,  engineering  laboratory  work;  (d)  railroad  and  highway- 
engineering.  This  may  bo  followed  by  a  summer  course  in  practical  metallurgy 
or  mining. 

Fourth  Year. — Metallurgy,  metallurgy  of  iron,  mining  engineering,  dynamos, 
mining  laboratory  work,  memoirs,  and  optional  subjects: — (a)  Strength  of  materials, 
friction,  steam  engineering  and  hydraulics,  engineering  laboratory  work;  (6) 
strength  of  materials,  theory  of  elasticity,  theory  of  structures,  hydraulics, 
hydraulic  measurements ;  (c)  strength  and  stability  of  structures,  theory  of  elas- 
ticity, technical  machinery,  engineering  laboratory  work  ;  {d)  theory  of  structures, 
electric  railroads,  hydraulic  engineering. 

Another  course  of  instruction  is : — 

Second  Year. — Analytical  geometry,  physics,  German,  Americau  history,  theo 
retical  chemistry,  differential  calculus,  English  literature  and  composition 
mineralogy  and  blowpipe  analysis,  and  optional  subjects : — (a)  Descriptive  geome- 
try, principles  of  mechanism,  blowpipe  (silver  assay);  (b)  surveying,  topogra- 
phical drawing,  blowpipe  assay  ;  (e)  mechanism  :  cotton  machinery,  machine-tools, 
drawing ;  (d)  surveying  and  drawing,  physical  geography.  This  may  be  accom 
panied  by  a  summer  course  in  practical  mining  or  metallurgy  and  field-work  in 
mineralogy. 

Hiird  Year. — Integral  calculus,  general  statics,  physics :  heat,  strength  of 
materials,  kinematics  and  dynamics,  physical  laboratory  work,  German,  assaying, 
analytical  chemistry,  and  optional  subjects  :—  (a)  Steam  engineering,  thermody- 
namics, valve-gears,  drawing ;  (6)  mining  engineering,  geology ;  (c)  steam 
engineering,  boilers,  engineering  laboratory  work ;  (d)  mining  engineering, 
geology,  electricity.  This  may  be  followed  by  a  summer  course  in  practical 
mining  or  metallurgy. 

Fourth  Year, — Strength  of  materials,  friction,  mining  tngineering,  analytical 
chemistry,  metallurgy,  memoirs,  metallurgical  and  chemical  Jaboratories  work,  and 
optional  subjects :-  (a)  Hydraulics,  dynamos,  English  criticism  ;  (6)  electricity, 
political  economy  and  industrial  history,  commercial  law  ;  (c)  engineering  labora- 
tory work,  technical  machinery,  English  criticism ;  {d)  mining  engineering, 
political  economy  and  industrial  history,  commercial  law. 

Summer  Schools  of  Mining  and  Metallurgy  are  organized  for  the  study  of  mines, 
mills,  smelting- works,  and  geological  fields.  Since  the  year  1870  these  schools 
have  made  studies  in  Colorado,  Michigan,  Virginia,  Vermont,  Pennsylvania,  Lake 
Ghamplain,  New  Brunswick,  and  Nova  Scotia. 

Graduation. 

The  degree  of  bachelor  of  science,  in  the  course  pursued,  is  given  for  the  satisfac- 
tory completion  of  any  regular  course  of  study.  To  be  entitled  to  a  degree,  the 
student  must  have  passed  satisfactory  examinations  in  all  the  prescribed  studies 
and  exercises,  and,  if  required,  a  final  or  degree  examination,  embracing  all  the 
subjects  which  particularly  relate  to  his  course.  He  must,  moreover,  prepare  a 
dissertation  on  some  subject  included  in  his  coui*se  of  study ;  or  an  account  of 
some  research  made  by  himself  ;  or  an  original  report  upon  some  machine,  work 
of  engineering,  industrial  works,  mine,  or  mineral  survey ;  or  an  original  architec- 
tural design,  accompcinied  by  an  explanatory  memoir. 

The  tuition  fee  for  regular  students  is  £40  per  year. 

Students  may  conveniently  live  in  any  of  the  neighbouring  cities  or  towns  on 
the  lines  of  the  various  railroads,  if  they  prefer  to  do  so.  Th«i  cost  of  board  and 
rooms  in  Boston  and  the  neighbouring  cities  and  towns  need  not  exceed  from 
£1  lOs.  to  £2  per  week. 


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THE  EDUCATION  OF  MINI 

UNIVERSITY  OF  MICHIGAN,  ANN  A'. 

STATES. 

The  University  of  Michigan  is  a  part  of  t 
State,  and  aims  at  completing  the  work  that  is 
nishing  ample  facilities  for  a  liberal  education 
and  for  a  thorough  professional  study  of  medii 
The  doors  of  the  institution  are  open  to  all  stud 

The  matriculation  fee  for  citizens  of  Michi 
from  any  other  state  or  country,  £5,  is  paid  b 
the  privileges  of  permanent  membership  of  tl 
matriculation  fee,  every  student  has  to  pay  ai 
Resident  graduates  are  required  to  i>ay  the  sane 

Students  obtain  board  and  lodging  with  privs 
annual  expenses  of  students,  including  clothing 
about  £80.  The  university  does  not  under 
students ;  yet  a  few  find  opportunities  in  the  c 

The  university  offers  to  persons  who  wisl 
thorough  courses  of  study  extending  over  aboui 

In  civil  engineering  all  the  technical  branch 
who  have  had  professional  experience  as  well  a 
particulars  the  course  embodies  as  close  an  imi 
labour  as  the  instructors  who  have  the  several 

In  mechanical  engineering  the  course  of  sti 
studies.  Prominence  is  given  to  the  study  of  s 
a  large  amount  of  practical  work  is  done.  Th( 
date  those  who  wish  to  devote  their  time  pr 
proper,  to  steam  engineering,  or  to  marine  eng 

In  mining  engineering  and  metallurgy  th( 
tended  to  cover  about  four  years  of  study,  b 
students  in  civil  and  in  mechanical  engineering 
paid  in  the  latter  part  of  the  course  to  minen 
instruction  in  the  technical  branches  is  arran^ 
those  whose  purpose  it  is  to  confine  their  prof* 
lurgy,  and  of  those  who  intend  to  engage  in  th 
combined. 

In  electrical  engineering  the  first  three  yea 
as  in  mechanical  engineering.  Besides  the 
language,  drawing,  and  physics,  instruction  is  { 
forging,  and  foundry  work ;  and  enough  of  tl 
prime  movers  is  included  to  meet  the  needs  of 

The  courses  of  instruction  comprise  m 
analytical  geometry,  and  the  elements  of  differ 
and  German,  English  grammar  and  composi 
practice  in  geometrical  and  in  mechanical  dram 
geometry.. 

The  more  technical  subjects  are  taken  up  in 
of  these  subjects  are  of  equal  value  to  all  clai 
analytical  and  applied  mechanics,  the  strength 
metallurgy  of  the  useful  metals,  especially  iroi 
particularly  to  tho  wants  of  the  special  studen 

TOIi.  V.^1899.08. 


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652  THE  EDUCATION  OP  MINING  ENGINEERS. 

Upon  the  completion  of  a  prescribed  coarse  of  study,  amounting  to  twenty-five 
full  courses,  and  the  presentation  of  a  stitisfactory  thesis,  the  student  receives  the 
degree  of  bachelor  of  science.  The  diploma  given  indicates  the  line  of  study  pur- 
sued. 

Bachelors  of  arts,  of  philosophy,  of  science,  and  of  letters,  of  this  university,  and 
graduates  of  any  other  reputable  college,  are  recommended  for  the  same  degree 
with  the  regula.r  students,  after  attendance  on,  and  a  satisfactory  examination  in, 
the  technical  subjects  alone  of  the  several  courses.  Thf'se  studies  can  be  completed 
in  two  years. 

Mining  Engineering, 

To  obtain  the  recommendation  of  the  faculty  for  the  degree  of  bachelor  of 
science  for  a  course  in  mining  engineering,  the  student  must  satisfy  one  of 
the  two  following  sets  of  requirements: — Mining  (French  and  German,  English, 
mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  analytical  chemistry,  mineralogy,  geology,  draw- 
ing, surveying,  civil  engineering,  mechanical  engineerimg,  mining  engineering, 
metallurgy) ;  or  Metallurgy  (French  and  German,  English,  mathematics,  physics, 
general  chemistry,  analytical  chemistry,  mineralogy,  geology,  drawing,  mechanical 
engineering,  mining  engineering,  and  metallurgy). 

The  Degree  of  Civil  Engineer,  Mechaniccd  Engineer^  Mining  Engineer,  and 
Electric^  Engineer, 

The  degree  of  civil  engineer  may  be  conferred  upon  bachelors  of  science  of  this 
university  who  have  taken  the  degree  for  a  course  in  civil  engineering  if  they  fur- 
nish satisfactory  evidence  that  they  have  pursued  further  technical  studies  for  at 
least  one  year,  and,  in  addition,  have  been  engaged  in  professional  work,  in 
positions  of  responsibility,  for  another  year.  The  first  of  the  above  requirements 
may  be  satisfied  by  pursuing  at  the  university,  under  the  direction  of  the  faculty, 
a  prescribed  course  of  study  for  an  amount  of  time,  not  necessarily  consecutive, 
equivalent  to  a  college  year.  If  the  candidate  does  not  reside  at  the  university,  his 
course  of  study  must  be  approved  in  advance  by  the  professor  of  civil  engineering, 
and  he  must  prepare  a  satisfactory  thesis  on  some  engineering  topic,  to  be  presented, 
together  with  a  detailed  account  of  his  professional  work,  one  month,  at  least, 
before  the  date  of  the  annual  commencement  at  which  he  expects  to  receive  the 
degree.  The  conditions  on  which  the  degrees  of  mechanical  engineer,  mining 
engineer,  and  electrical  engineer,  as  second  degrees,  are  conferred  upon  bachelors  of 
science  of  this  university  who  have  taken  the  degree  for  a  course  in  mechanical 
engineering,  in  mining  engineering,  or  in  electrical  engineering,  are  analogous  in 
character  to  those  enumerated  for  the  degree  of  civil  engineer. 

Doctors^  Degrees, 

Doctors*  degrees  are  conferred  only  on  persons  who  have  previously  received  a 
bachelor's  degree,  either  here  or  at  some  other  reputable  imiversity  or  college,  and 
also  during  residence  here  have  made  special  proficiency  in  some  one  branch  of 
study,  and  good  attainments  in  two  other  branches,  and  have  presented  a  thesis  that 
shall  evince  the  power  of  research  and  of  independent  investigation.  It  is  not 
intended  that  the  doctors'  degrees  shall  be  won  merely  by  faithful  and  industrious 
work  for  a  prescribed  time  in  some  assigned  course  of  study,  and  no  definite  term  of 
required  residence  can  be  specified ;  but  it  is  the  practice  of  the  university  to  re- 
quire at  least  one  full  year  of  residence  of  candidates  that  have  already  earned  a 
master's  degree,  and  at  least  two  full  years  of  candidates  that  have  previously  taken 
only  a  bachelor's  degree. 


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The  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy  is  open  to  persons  that '  have  received  the 
degree  of  bachelor  of  arts,  or  of  bachelor  of  philosophy ;  the  degree  of  doctor  of 
science  to  persons  that  have  received  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  science ;  and  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  letters  to  persons  who  have  received  the  degree  of  bachelor  of 
letters. 


THE  MICmOAN  MINING  SCHOOL,  HOUGHTON,  MICHIGAN, 
UNITED  STATES. 

Mining  only  is  taught  at  this  school.  It  is  situate  in  Houghton  county,  in  the 
Portage  lake  copper-mine  district,  and  within  easy  reach  of  the  Keweenawan  and 
Ontonagan  copper  districts,  and  the  iron-mining  regions  of  Marquette,  Menominee, 
and  Gogebic. 

The  course  of  instruction  for  the  regular  students  extends  over  a  period  of  three 
years,  eflfecting  a  saving  of  time  in  years  by  continuing  the  work  through  most  of 
the  year,  and  by  making  the  course  strictly  professional  and  technical : — 

First  I'car.— Mathematics,  drawing,  physics,  chemistry,  surveying,  mineralogy 
and  lithology,  physical,  chemical  and  mineralogical  laboratories. 

Second  Fear.— Diflferential  and  integral  calculus,  drawing,  properties  of 
materials,  chemistry,  qualitative  and  quantitative  analysis,  metallurgy,  petro- 
graphy, mechanics,  applied  mechanics,  mechanism,  electricity,  mining,  minc- 
surveying,  stratigraphicaJ  geology  and  palaeontology,  machine  shop,  and  chemical 
laboratory. 

Third  Fear.— Graphical  statics,  quantitative  analysis,  metallurgy,  ore-dressing, 
mechanics  of  materials,  mechanical  engineering,  electrical  engineering,  physical 
geology,  metallurgical  analysis,  assaying,  practical  geology,  mining  engineering  and 
mine  accounts,  hydraulic  and  structural  engineering,  economic  geology,  and 
chemical  laboratory.  The  student  may  also  take  engineering  design  and  electric 
motors  and  their  applications,  or  chemical  analytical  methods.  Every  student 
who  is  pursuing  the  regular  course  is  required  to  select  either  engineering  design 
and  electrical  engineering,  or  technical  chemistry. 

In  order  to  be  able  to  give  more  time  to  the  technical  parts  of  the  education  of 
a  mining  engineer,  it  is  proposed  to  lengthen  the  course  of  study  to  four  years. 

Every  student  completing  the  three  years'  course  is  required  to  present  to  the 
faculty  a  satisfactory  thesis,  embodying  the  results  of  an  investigation  upon  some 
subject  related  to  the  studies  of  that  course,  before  he  can  bo  recommended  to 
receive  his  degree.  Students  intending  to  graduate  in  any  year  are  required  to 
select  their  subjeots  and  present  them  to  the  faculty  for  approval  by  the  1st  of 
March  of  that  year. 

Under  the  act  of  organization  the  board  of  control  have  made  the  school 
entirely  free,  no  charge  being  made  for  tuition  or  incidentals,  whether  the  student 
be  a  resident  of  the  State  of  Michigan  or  of  the  United  States  or  not ;  all  has  been 
made  free  to  the  students  from  every  land. 

Arrangements  are  made  whereby  those  who  desire  to  do  so  can  obtain  board 
and  rooms  in  private  families,  and  in  boarding-houses,  in  Houghton  and  Hancock,  ^ 
at  prices  varying  from  £3  to  £5  per  calendar  month.  The  necessary  expenses  of 
the  student  may  be  estimated  at  about  £50  to  £90  per  annum. 

Degrees. 

Students  who  complete  the  present  course  of  three  years,  and  present  a  satis- 
factory thesis,  will  receive  the  degree  of  mining  engineer  or  engineer  of  mines 


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654  THB   EDUCATION  OF  MINING   ENOINBBRS. 

(E.M.)-  The  thesis  must  conform  to  the  requirements  detailed  above,  and  must  be 
completed  and  approved  by  the  faculty  before  that  body  will  recommend  that  the 
degree  of  mining  engineer  or  engineer  of  mines,  be  conferred  upon  the  student. 

Those  who  wish  to  become  candidates  for  a  higher  degree  will  enter  under  the 
following  terms : — Students  who  are  graduates  of  this  institution,  or  of  others  of 
similar  grade,  whose  course  shall  be  approved  by  the  faculty,  will  be  admitted  as 
candidates  for  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy.  In  order  to  attain  this  degree 
they  must  pursue  for  at  least  two  years  an  advanced  course  of  study  in  subjects 
germane  to  the  undergraduate  course  in  this  institution,  which  course  of  study  is 
to  be  approved  by  the  faculty.  One  of  the  years  of  study  may,  in  special  cases, 
be  spent  elsewhere,  and  the  work  accepted,  on  sufficient  proof  of  its  thoroughness 
and  high  character,  as  the  equivalent  of  one  year's  work  spent  here.  But  under 
no  condition  will  the  degree  be  given  unless  one  year  at  least  is  spent  as  a  resident 
worker  at  this  institution. 

Students  who  are  both  graduates  of  this  or  of  an  equivalent  professional  school, 
and  also  of  some  college  or  university  whose  course  of  study  is  accepted  by  the 
faculty,  may  be  admitted  to  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy,  after  taking  for  at 
least  one  year  an  approved  course  of  study  at  this  institution.  The  degree  of 
doctor  of  philosophy  will  only  be  given  in  case  the  student  shall  have  shown 
marked  ability,  power  for  original  investigation,  has  passed  a  satisfactory  oral 
public  examination,  and  presented  a  thesis  embodying  the  result  of  original 
investigation,  which  has  been  approved  by  the  faculty. 

Students  who  are  graduates  of  this  or  of  other  institutions  having  a  satisfactory 
equivalent  course,  and  who  shall  have  pursued  here,  according  to  the  above  regula- 
tions, a  successful  course  of  study  for  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy,  may  at 
the  same  time  receive  the  degree  of  mining  engineer,  if  that  degree  has  not  been 
conferred  at  their  previous  graduation. 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MINNESOTA,  MINNEAPOLIS,  UNITED 

STATES. 

The  University  of  Minnesota  is  a  State  institution,  being  a  part  of  the  State 
educational  system.  It  is  situated  in  the  city  of  Minneapolis,  about  a  mile  below 
and  in  full  view  of  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony. 

The  university  is  composed  of  the  following  colleges: — (a)  Science,  literature 
and  arts  ;  (6)  engineering,  metallurgy  and  mechanical  arts  ;  (c)  agriculture,  etc 

The  university  has  no  dormitories,  except  for  the  school  of  agriculture,  but 
students  find  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  board  among  the  people  of  the  city.  Good 
board  can  be  obtained  in  private  families  at  prices  ranging  from  £1  upwards  per 
week. 

The  university  cannot  promise  employment  to  those  desiring  to  earn  their  own 
living.  The  public  bounty  stops  at  furnishing  free  instruction.  Many  of  the 
students  support  themselves  while  in  college,  and  a  young  man  who  really  wants 
work,  and  will  look  for  it,  can  generally  find  it. 

The  average  necessary  annual  expenses  of  students  boarding  in  families  appear 
to  be  about  £60,  those  of  students  boarding  in  clubs  about  £40. 

The  Collbgb  of  Enoine]|ring,  Metallurgy,  and  the  Mechanical  Arts. 

In  this  college  there  are  seven  regular  courses  of  study,  viz.,  civil  engineering, 
mechanical  engineering,  electrical  engineering,  architecture,  mining,  chemistry,  and 
metallurgy  leading  to  the  corresponding  bachelor's  degrees. 


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THE  BDU0A.TION  OF  MINING   ENGINEERS.  655 

Mining  Engineers. 

The  coarses  of  study  in  mining  are  as  follows : — 

First  Year. — Algebra,  German  or  French,  chemistry,  chemical  laboratory  work, 
drawing,  trigonometry,  qualitative  analysis,  carpentry,  surveying,  and  military 
drill. 

Second  Year, — ^Analytical  geometry,  French  or  German,  topography,  draught- 
ing, physics,  mineralogy,  differential  and  integral  calculus,  descriptive  geometry, 
quantitative  chemical  analysis,  and  quantitative  blowpipe  assaying. 

Third  Year, — Mechanics,  geology,  quantitative  chemistry,  assaying,  mining, 
metallurgy,  mechanical  laboratory  work,  machine  design,  lithology,  ore-testing  and 
dressing,  drilling  and  blasting,  applied  geology,  and  technical  essay. 

Fourth  Jear.— Methods  and  machinery  for  extracting  minerals  and  ores,  metal- 
iargy,  geology,  electrical  engineering,  law  (optional),  prospecting,  exploration  of 
mines,  etc.,  hydraulics,  steam  engines  and  motors,  designs  and  specifications,  mine 
engineering,  and  thesis  (optional). 

Metallurgical  Engineeriiuj. 

The  courses  of  study  in  metallurgy  are : — 

First  Year, — ^Algebra,  German  or  French,  chemistry,  chemical  laboratory  work, 
drawing,  trigonometry,  qualitative  analysis,  carpentry,  surveying,  and  military 
drill. 

Second  Year, — Analytical  geometry,  French  or  German,  topography,  draught- 
ing, physics,  mineralogy,  differential  and  integral  calculus,  descriptive  geometry, 
quantitative  chemical  analysis,  and  quantitative  blowpipe  analysis. 

Third  Year, — Mechanics,  geology,  quantitative  chemistry,  assaying,  mining, 
metallurgy,  mechanical  laboratory  work,  machine  design,  lithology,  ore-testing  and 
dressing,  applied  geology,  and  technical  essay. 

Fourth  Year, — Mining,  metallurgy,  geology,  electrical  engineering,  law  (optional), 
hydraulics,  steam  engines  and  motors^  designs  and  specifications,  and  thesis 
(optional). 


UNIVERSITY  OF  MISSOURI,  ROLLA,  MSSOURI,  UNITED  STATES. 

The  School  of  Mines  and  Metallurgy  is  an  institute  of  technology,  and  constitute? 
one  of  the  colleges  which,  taken  together,  form  the  University  of  the  State  of 
Missouri 

The  course  of  instruction  at  this  school  deals  in  detail  with  the  principles  and 
the  practice  of  engineering,  with  special  reference  to  mining  engineering,  civil 
engineering,  mechanical  engineering,  chemistry  and  metallurgy,  mathematics, 
physics  and  electricity. 

At  the  close  of  the  year  each  member  of  the  senior  class  presents  a  paper  in 
which  he  records  some  independent  investigation,  in  a  subject  congenial  to  his 
tastes,  and  included  in  the  scope  of  his  course. 

Provision  is  now  made  for  the  following  technical  courses:— (a)  Mining 
engineering;  (6)  civil  engineering;  (c)  mechanical  engineering;  {d)  chemistry  and 
metallurgy ;  and  (e)  mathematics  and  physics.  For  the  satisfactory  completion  of 
any  one  of  these  courses  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  science  will  be  given. 

The  requisites  for  admission  to  any  of  these  courses  are  passing  grades  in  the 
subjects  taught  in  the  preparatory  course.  The  first  year  is  the  same  for  the 
engineering  courses;  the  selection  being  made  at  the  beginning  of  the  second 
year. 


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656  THB  EDUCATION  OF  MININO  BNGWBEE8. 

In  addition  to  the  regular  courses  outlined  above,  provision  is  made  for  special 
courses  in  assaying,  surveying,  and  electricity.  For  the  satisfactory  completion 
of  these  subjects  a  certificate  of  proficiency  will  be  given.  The  requisite  for 
admission  to  one  of  these  courses  is  a  knowledge  of  the  preparatory  studies  of  that 
subject. 

Prejmrafory  Course. 

The  course  of  study  is  : — 

First  Year. — Higher  arithmetic,  English  grammar,  composition  and  rhetoric, 
algebra,  United  States  history,  physiology  and  hygiene. 

Second  Year, — English,  algebra,  physics,  solid  and  plane  geometry,  and 
chemistry. 

A  matriculation  fee  of  £2  is  payable  on  entrance,  and  a  library  fee  of  lOs.  a 
term,  payable  on  the  first  day  of  each  term,  is  required  of  every  student.  The 
cost  of  books  and  stationery  may  be  assumed  to  average  £2  during  the  session. 
Board,  including  fuel,  lights,  washing,  etc.,  can  be  obtained  for  £2  to  £3  a  month. 
1*he  necessary  expcnacB  for  the  school  year  are  from  £25  to  £40. 

Engiiviering  Courses. 

The  higher  courses  of  study  are  as  follows  : — 

First  Year. — General  chemistry,  elementary  mechanics,  descriptive  geometry, 
Bteceotomy,  trigonometry,  analytical  geometry,  chemical  laboratory  work,  field- 
work,  and  drawing. 

Mining  Engineering. 

Second  Fear.— Analytical  geometry  and  calculus,  assaying,  physics,  chemical 
technology,  mineralogy,  geology,  civil  engineering,  mining  engineering,  chemical 
laboratory  work,  and  physical  laboratory  work. 

Third  Year.  —Analytical  mechanics,  metallurgy,  electric  transmission  of  energy, 
dynamo-electric  machinery,  mining  engineering,  physical  laboratory  work,  chemical 
laboratory  work,  and  thesis. 

Degrees. 

A  diploma  of  graduation  is  conferred  on  one  who  has  passed  all  examinations  in 
any  of  the  following  departments :  —Mathematics,  physics,  analytical  chemistry, 
engineering,  and  the  academic  course. 

The  degree  of  bachelor  of  science  in  mathematics  and  physics  is  conferred  upon 
one  who  has  passed  examination  on  all  of  the  subjects  of  instruction  in  the  course 
of  mathcmetics  and  physics. 

The  degree  of  bachelor  of  science  in  civil  engineering  is  conferred  on  one  who 
has  passed  examination  on  all  of  the  subjects  of  instruction  in  the  civil  engineering 
course. 

The  degree  of  bachelor  of  science  in  mining  engineering  is  conferred  on  one  who 
has  passed  examination  on  all  of  the  subjects  of  instruction  in  the  mining  engineer- 
ing course. 

The  degree  of  bachelor  of  science  in  mechanical  engineering  is  conferred  on  one 
who  has  passed  examination  on  all  of  the  subjects  of  the  mechanical  engineering 
course. 

The  degree  of  civil  engineer,  mining  engineer,  or  mechanical  engineer  is  con- 
ferred on  one  who,  having  graduated  in  civil,  mining,  or  mechanical  engineering, 
and  having  received  the  bachelor's  degree  therein,  has  identified  himself  with  the 
profession  during  a  period  of  not  less  than  three  years,  and  during  that  time  has 
demonstrated  by  work  his  fitness  for  his  chosen  profession. 


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WASHINGTON  UNIVERSITY,  ST.  LOUIS,  MISSOURI,  UNITED  STATES. 
Washington  University,  founded  in  the  city  of  St.  Louis  under  an  Act  of  Incor- 
poration by  the  State  of  Missouri,  approved  February  22nd,  1853,  is  intended  to 
embrace  the  whole  range  of  university  studies,  except  theology,  and  to  afford 
opportunity  of  complete  preparation  for  every  sphere  of  practical  and  scientific  life. 

The  Polytechnic  School. 

The  courses  of  study  in  the  Polytechnic  School  are  seven  in  number,  viz.  : — (a) 
Civil  engineering ;  (6)  mechanical  engineering ;  (c)  electrical  engineering ;  {d) 
chemistry  ;  (e)  mining  and  metallurgy ;  (/)  science  and  literature  ;  and  {g)  special 
studies  and  investigations  in  pure  and  applied  science. 

The  tuition  fee  in  the  undergraduate  department  is  £30  a  year.  The  yearly 
expenses  may  range,  according  to  tastes  and  habits  of  economy,  from  £75  to  £100. 

The  studies  are  the  same  for  all  the  courses  during  the  first  and  second  years, 
but  during  the  later  years  they  diverge  widely. 

First  Year, — Higher  algebra,  pneumatics,  heat,  laboratory  work,  French  or 
German,  mechanical  drawing,  EInglish  composition,  orthographic  projections,  use 
of  joiner's  tools,  ethics,  plane  trigonometry,  optics,  freehand  drawing,  descriptive 
geometry,  chemistry,  history  of  England,  elocution  and  composition,  and  prac- 
tical wood  turning  and  pattern  making. 

Second  Year. — Analytical  geometry,  electricity,  maguetism,  and  laboratory 
work ;  use  of  surveying  instruments ;  land,  topographical,  and  mining  surveying ; 
field  practice,  descriptive  geometry,  sketching,  brush  shading,  topographical  and 
isometric  drawing,  practical  forging  iron  and  steel,  differential  calculus,  hydro- 
graphic  aud  railway  surveying,  curves  and  turnouts,  earth-work,  graphical  statics 
in  mechanics,  qualitative  chemical  analysis,  acoustics  and  laboratory  work, 
French  or  German  and  English. 

Every  student  is  required,  during  the  vacations  following  the  first  and  second 
years,  to  prepare  reports  upon  suitable  engineering  methods  or  constructions  from 
personal  examinations  and  studies. 

Mining  and  Metallurgy, 

Third  Year, — Integral  calculus  and  applications,  zoology,  analytical  statics, 
dynamics,  qualitative  chemical  analysis  (lectures  and  laboratory  practice),  qualita- 
tive blowpipe  analysis,  crystallography,  mineralogy,  botany,  assaying,  metallurgy, 
drawing  (sections,  crystals,  plans  and  sections  of  mines  aud  mining  machinery, 
furnaces,  apparatus  and  machinery  of  sm^lting- works,  etc.),  practical  hand  and 
machine-tool  work  on  metals,  sampling,  hand-panning,  fuel  tests,  mechanics,  steam 
engineering,  engineering  structures,  geology,  and  mining. 

Fourth  Year, — Mining,  metallurgy,  economic  geology,  quantitative  analysis  of 
ores,  blowpipe  analysis,  mechanics,  designs,  estimates  and  specifications  of  mining 
and  metallurgical  structures,  working  tests  in  gold  and  silver-milling  and  concentra- 
tion,  electricity,   strength  of  materials,  political  economy,  electricity  and  raa^' 
netism,  assaying,  engineering,  and  lithology. 

Fifth  Year, — Metallurgy,  electricity,  economic  geology,  field  geology,  quar 
tive  analysis,  micro-lithology,  mining,  ore-dressing,  mill-work,  therniodyr 
mining    law,    forms    and    accounts,   commercial    practice,    qualitative 
palaeontology,  and  thesis  on  the  establishment  and  working  of  mines  an' 
works  under  given  conditions  (with  drawings,  estimates,  and  written 

During  the  summer  vacation  a  school  for  practical  work  is  held 
months  in  some  mining  district.     All  the  students  of  the  mininr 
those  about  to  enter  the  course  of  mining  and  metallurgy  aftc 


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658  THE  EDUCATION  OF  MINING  ENGINEEBS. 

the  two  years  of  preparatory  work  are  required  to  take  part  in  the  work  of  the 
summer  school.  In  this  way  each  student  receives  the  benefit  of  three  seasons  of 
practical  work  in  connexion  with  the  course.  While  in  the  field  the  students  are 
under  the  constant  supervision  of  an  assistant,  and  are  required  to  make  complete 
surface  and  underground  surveys,  take  sketches  and  notes  of  all  machinery  and 
appliances  used,  and  as  far  as  possible  take  part  in  the  practical  operations  con- 
nected with  the  mining  and  treatment  of  ores,  etc.  During  the  following  term  full 
reports  are  prepared  and  handed  in,  illustrated  with  accompanying  drawings  and 
collections  of  specimens. 

Degrees, 

The  degrees  corresponding  to  the  two  courses  of  study  conferred  upon  the  satis- 
factory completion  of  the  four  years'  work  are  : — (1)  The  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts ; 
(2)  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  philosophy. 

The  degrees  granted  upon  the  completion  of  the  several  courses  of  study  fall  into 
two  classes :  professional  and  non-professional.  The  only  degree  conferred  upon 
students  in  the  professional  courses  (engineering  and  chemistry)  is  the  professional 
degree  at  the  completion  of  the  fifth  year's  work.  No  professional  or  master's 
degree  is  given  at  the  close  of  the  fourth  year. 

The  degrees  corresponding  to  the  courses  of  study  given  on  the  completion  of  the 
work  as  prescribed  are : — (a)  Civil  engineer  ;  (6)  dynamic  engineer  ;  (c)  chemist ;  {d) 
engineer  of  mines ;  (e)  bachelor  of  science ;  and  (/)  master  of  science. 

The  degree  of  master  of  arts  is  open  to  all  who  have  received  from  this  university 
the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts. 

The  degree  of  master  of  philosophy  is  open  to  all  who  have  received  from  this 
university  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  philosophy. 

The  degree  of  master  of  science  is  open  to  all  who  have  received  from  this 
university  the  degree  of  civil  engineer,  of  dynamic  engineer,  of  chemist,  or  of 
engineer  of  mines,  as  well  as  to  those  who  shall  have  pursued  the  spocial  five  years' 
course  prescribed  for  this  degree. 

The  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy  is  open  to  all  who  have  received  the  degree 
of  master  from  this  university. 

In  no  case  will  the  degree  of  master,  as  a  second  degree,  be  conferred  in  less 
than  two  years  after  the  date  of  the  lower  degree,  nor  that  of  doctor  in  less  than 
one  year  after  the  date  of  the  master's  degree ;  nor  will  such  degrees  be  recom- 
mended except  upon  satisfactory  evidence,  to  be  determined  by  examination,  of  a 
proper  amount  of  study  and  attainment  in  advance  of  undergraduate  work. 


COLLEGE  OF  MONTANA,  DEER  LODGE,  MONTANA,  UNITED  STATES. 

The  college  presents  four  distinct  courses  of  study,  the  classical,  the  scientific, 
the  school  of  mines,  and  the  English  and  normal  department. 

The  instruction  in  the  academy  is  given  by  the  members  of  the  faculties  of  the 
college  and  school  of  mines.  The  course  of  instruction  has  been  prepared  with  a 
view  to  a  thorough  preparation  for  the  several  advanced  courses,  and  at  the  same 
time  is  complete  in  itself,  and  well  adapted  to  those  who  seek  only  a  foundation 
for  the  ordinary  business  of  life. 

The  School  of  Mines. 

The  scheme  of  work  for  the  course  in  mining  engineering  is  appended;  the 
course  in  civil  engineering  is  somewhat  similar,  but  with  such  modifications  as  nwy 
seem  necessary. 

The  degree  of  E.M.  is  given  to  graduates  in  the  school  of  mines. 


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Minivg  EngineertTig, 

The  coarse  of  lecturefl  is : — 

First  yeor.— Trigonometry,  analytics,  general  chemistry,  German,  or  some 
selected  language,  qualitative  analysis,  botany,  and  English. 

Second  yisan— Analytics,  calculus,  chemical  physics,  chemical  philosophy, 
physics,  quantitative  analysis,  descriptive  geometry,  metallurgy,  crystallography, 
and  theoretical  mineralogy. 

Third  Tear, — Calculus,  mechanics,  metallurgy,  geology,  mechanical  engineer- 
ing, mining  engineering,  civil  engineering,  strains  in  structures,  lithology,  and 
mineralogy. 

Fourth  Year. — ^Assaying,  railroad  engineering,  strains  in  structures,  ore-dress- 
ing, hydraulic  engineering,  properties  of  materials,  economic  geology,  applied 
chemistry,  sanitary  engineering,  heating  and  ventilation,  graphical  statics,  and 
lithology. 

The  practical  work  during  the  same  period  is: — 

First  Year, — Qualitative  chemical  analysis  and  mechanical  drawing. 

Second  Year. — Quantitative  chemical  analysis,  crystallography,  and  blowpipe 
analysis. 

Third  Year. — Mechanical  drawing,  surveying,  blowpipe  analysis,  and  deter- 
minative mineralogy. 

Fourth  Year.  —Petrography,  railroad  surveying,  assaying,  graphical  statics,  and 
engineering  designing. 

During  the  vacation  at  the  end  of  the  third  year  the  students  in  mining  engin- 
eering are  expected  to  visit  a  number  of  mines,  and  to  make  a  thorough  study  of 
at  least  one  or  two  of  them. 

During  the  fourth  year  each  of  the  students  is  required  to  present  to  the  pro- 
fessor of  engineering  a  memoir  giving  a  detailed  description  of  the  mines  studied 
during  the  vacation,  and  illustrated  with  drawings  carefully  made  to  scale.  These 
memoirs  become  the  property  of  the  engineering  department,  and  are  kept  for 
reference  purposes. 

The  advantages  of  this  institution,  its  various  courses  of  study,  are  offered 
students  of  both  sexes  on  the  same  terms.     The  ladies  and  gentlemen  meet  in 
dining  hall,  in  the  chapel,  in  the  class-rooms,  and  on  such  social  occasions  w 
faculty  may  arrange  or  approve. 

Employment  is  given  to  a  limited  number  of  students  in  the  care  of  th' 
ings  and  in  services  in  the  dining-room,  by  which  part  or  all  of  the  r 
expenses  are  met.     Rooms  may  be  obtained  in  town  for  self -boarding  at  r 
rates. 

Board  at  the  college  includes  furnished  room,  with  heat  and  lights 
per  day,  laundry  (not  exceeding  fifteen  pieces  per  week),  mail  delivei 
a  day,  the  use  of  bath-room,  reading-room,  and  library,  per  month  of  ^ 
The  entire  expenses  for  board  and  tuition  for  the  college  year  are  f 


COLUMBIA  COLLEGE,  CITY  OF  NEW  YORK,  UN 

Columbia  College  consists  of  the  school  of  arts  (the  origi' 
1754) ;  of  sundry  professional  schools,  to  wit :  the  scho 
mines,  and  its  medical  department  by  joint  resolution, 
and  surgeons,  admission  to  all  of  u  hich,  as  candidates  * 
open  to  all  students  whether  or  not  they  are  coUege-brr 


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660  THE  EDUCATION  OF  MINING   BNGINBBRS. 

aity  faculties  of  law,  mines  (mathematics  and  pure  and  applied  science),  political 
science,  and  philosophy,  which  conduct  all  courses  leading  to  the  university 
degrees  of  master  of  arts  and  doctor  of  philosophy. 

The  point  of  contact  between  the  college  and  the  university  is  the  senior  year 
in  the  school  of  arts,  during  which  year  students  in  the  school  of  arts  pursue  their 
studies,  with  the  consent  of  the  faculty  of  arts,  under  one  or  more  of  the  university 
faculties.  The  various  schools  are  under  the  charge  of  their  own  faculties,  and  for 
the  better  conduct  of  the  strictly  university  work,  as  well  as  of  the  whole  institu- 
tion, a  university  council  has  been  established. 

The  School  op  Minks. 

In  the  School  of  Mines,  the  system  of  instruction  includes : — 1.  Regular  under- 
graduate courses  in  (a)  mining  engineering ;  (6)  civil  engineering ;  (c)  electrical 
engineering ;  {d)  metallurgy ;  (e)  geology  and  palaeontology ;  (/)  analytical  and 
applied  chemistry ;  and  {g)  architecture.  2.  Post-graduate  courses  in  (a)  electrical 
engineering ;  (6)  sanitary  engineering ;  and  (c)  special. 

Under  the  university  faculty  of  mines  there  is  instruction  in  elective  coursdiB  for 
the  degree  of  (a)  master  of  arts  ;  (b)  doctor  of  philosophy  ;  and  (c)  special  courses. 

The  annual  tuition  fee  for  undergraduate  students  is  £40.  It  is  the  desire  of  the 
trustees  to  extend,  as  widely  as  possible,  the  educational  advantages  of  the  college 
to  deserving  young  men.  Free  tuition  is  therefore  offered  to  undergraduate 
students  under  certain  conditions  which  need  not  be  speci6ed  here. 

Mining  Engineering, 

The  course  of  study  is  aa  follows  :— 

First  Year. — Trigonometry,  heat,  sound,  surveying,  botany,  chemistry,  qualita- 
tive analysis,  blowpipe  analysis,  algebra,  analytical  geometry,  descriptive  geometry, 
magnetism,  electricity,  light,  crystallography,  drawing,  and  surveying. 

Second  Year, — Analytical  geometry,  calculus,  graphics,  excavation,  biology, 
hygiene,  applied  chemistry,  mineralogy,  tunnelling,  drawing,  and  surveying. 

Third  Year. — Analytical  mechanics,  electricity,  engineering,  properties  of 
materials,  graphical  statics,  mining,  geology,  assaying,  metallurgy,  physical 
laboratory  practice,  drawing,  practical  mining,  and  railroad  surveying. 

Fourth  Year. — Mining,  machinery  and  mill- work,  mechanical  engineering,  heat 
and  its  applications,  economic  geology,  metallurgy,  ore-dressing,  quantitative 
analysis,  assaying,  and  project  or  thesis. 

MetaihvrgicaZ  Engineering. 

The  course  of  study  is  as  follows : — 

First  Year. — Trigonometry,  algebra,  heat,  sound,  magnetism,  electricity,  light, 
surveying,  chemistry,  qualitative  and  blowpipe  analysis,  analytical  and  descriptive 
geometry,  crystallography,  drawing,  and  surveying. 

Seco)ui  Year, — Analytical  geometry,  calculus,  graphics,  excavation,  tunnelling, 
hygiene,  applied  chemistry,  quantitative  analysis,  mineralogy,  drawing,  and 
surveying. 

Third  Year, — Analytical  mechanics,  electricity  and  laboratory  practice,  engin- 
eering, properties  of  materials,  graphical  statics,  mining,  geology,  quantitative 
analysis,  metallurgy,  assaying,  drawing,  and  practical  mining. 

Fourth  Year. — Machinery  and  mill- work,  heat  and  its  applications,  economic 
geology,  metallurgy,  ore-dressing,  quantitative  chemical  analysis,  mining,  mechani- 
cal engineering,  assaying,  and  project  or  thesis. 


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THE  EDUCATION  OF  JOINING   ENGINEERS.  661 

During  the  vacation  at  the  end  of  the  third  year  a  class  in  practical  mining, 
composed  of  students  in  the  course  of  mining  engineering,  and  in  the  course  of 
metallurgy,  who  have  completed  their  third  year,  is  required  to  visit  mines  for 
practical  mining  work. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  vacations  following  the  close  of  the  first  and  second 
years,  students  in  the  courses  of  mining  and  civil  engineering,  metallurgy,  and 
geology  are  required  to  join  the  summer  class  in  surveying  under  the  direction  of 
the  assistant  professor  of  civil  engineering. 

During  the  vacation  following  the  close  of  the  third  year  students  in  the  courses 
of  mining  engineering  and  metallurgy  are  required  to  visit  mines  and  engage  in 
actual  work  or  study  under  the  superintendence  of  the  assistant  professor  of 
mining. 

Every  student  who  has  passed  satisfactory  examinations  is  recommended  foif 
the  degree  of  engineer  of  mines,  civil  engineer,  metallurgical  engineer,  etc. 

Degrees. 

Any  student  who  has  taken  his  bachelor  degree  either  in  Columbia  College 
or  in  some  other  college  maintaining  an  equivalent  curriculum  (every  such  case  of 
equivalence  to  be  considered  on  its  own  merits)  shall  be  entitled,  with  the  approval 
of  the  president,  to  become  a  candidate  for  the  degrees  of  master  of  arts  and  doctor 
of  philosophy,  or  either  of  them. 

Each  student  who  declares  himself  a  candidate  for  the  degrees  of  mastet  of  arts 
and  doctor  of  philosophy,  or  either  of  them,  shall,  immediately  upon  registrat  ion, 
designate  one  principal  or  major  subject  and  two  subordinate  or  minor  subjects, 
which,  when  approved  by  the  proper  faculty,  shall  be  the  studies  of  his  university 
course. 

Candidates  for  the  degrees  of  master  of  arts  and  doctor  of  philosophy,  or  either 
of  them,  must  pursue  their  studies  under  the  direction  of  the  professors  and  other 
officers  of  instruction  in  charge  of  the  subjects  selected  by  the  candidates. 

Each  candidate  for  the  degree  of  master  of  arts,  in  addition  to  passing  satisfac- 
tory examinations  on  prescribed  portions  of  the  subjects  selected  by  him  as  major 
and  minor,  shall  present  an  essay  on  some  topic  previously  approved  by  the  pro- 
fessor in  charge  of  his  major  subject. 

Each  candidate  for  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy,  in  addition  to  passing 
satisfactory  examinations  on  the  subjects  selected  by  him  as  major  and  minor,  shall 
present  a  dissertation  embodying  the  result  of  original  investigation  and  research, 
on  some  topic  previously  approved  by  the  faculty. 

Every  candideite  for  tbe  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy,  in  addition  to  passing 
such  other  exatniuatiotiEi  ii£  may  be  required  by  the  faculty,  shall  be  subjected  to  an 
oral  examination  on  hi^  major  subject,  and  shall  defend  his  dissertation  in  the  pre- 
sence of  tJio  etitiri:  faeulty,  or  of  so  many  of  its  members  as  may  desire  to  attend. 
The  ability  to  read  at  aight  two  or  all  of  the  following  languages  :— Latin,  French, 
and  German— as  each  faculty  may  determine,  will  also  be  required. 

For  the  degreys  of  tiiasttir  of  arts  and  doctor  of  philosophy,  or  either  of  them, 
the  coiirae  of  study  shfill,  so  far  as  possible,  embrace  instruction  in  the  following 
groupsof  subjecta:— (a)  Mathematics;  (6)  mechanics,  physics,  and  chemistry;  (c) 
biology-,  l>otaMy,  paU'eontology,  mineralogy,  lithology,  geology,  astronomy, 
m&toorology,  physical  gLHj^^raphy,  geodesy,  and  surv^eying  ;  (rf)  Engineering  (civil, 
mechamcal,  eltittdcal  or  sanitary),  mining,  metallurgy,  and  architecture.  No 
candidate  for  a  degree  may  select  more  than  two  of  his  subjects  from  any  one 
group. 


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THE  EDUCATION  OF  HININa  ENGINEERS. 

Candidates  for  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy,  whose  preparatory  training  is 
purely  scientific,  will  be  required  to  select,  for  not  less  than  one  year,  a  minor 
course,  under  the  direction  of  either  the  faculty  of  philosophy  or  the  faculty  of 
political  science. 


THE  OHIO  STATE  UNIVERSITY,  COLUMBUS,  OHIO,  UNITED  STATES. 

The  university  comprises  the  collegiate  department,  the  law  school,  and  a 
preparatory  department. 

The  collegiate  department  embraces  schools  of  arts  and  philosophy,  science, 
agriculture,  engineering,  pharmacy,  and  veterinary  medicine. 

The  instruction  given  in  the  collegiate  department  of  the  university  embraces  a 
wide  range  of  subjects,  in  accordance  with  the  following  classification : — Agricul- 
ture, agricultural  chemistry,  astronomy,  botany,  civil  engineering,  drawing, 
electrical  engineering,  chemistry,  geology,  English  and  rhetoric,  French,  German, 
Romance  languages,  Spanish,  Greek,  Italian,  Latin,  history,  horticulture,  mathe- 
matics, mechanical  engineering,  metallurgy,  mine  engineering,  military  science  and 
tactics,  pharmacy,  philosophy,  physics,  physiology,  political  science,  veterinary 
medicine,  zoology  and  entomology. 

A  charge  of  £1  a  term,  or  £3  per  year,  is  levied  upon  all  students,  under  the 
head  of  incidental  expense.  There  are  dormitories  in  the  university  grounds  for 
the  use  of  students  at  a  rent  of  6s.  per  term,  and  the  expense  of  board,  etc. ,  varies 
from  68.  to  138.  per  week.  The  uniform  with  which  the  members  of  the  battalion 
are  required  to  provide  themselves  costs  about  £4  15s.  The  expenses  of  a  student, 
excluding  clothing  (except  uniform),  and  travelling  expenses  varies  from  £27  to 
£75.  There  is  a  large  amount  of  work  on  the  university  farm  which  can  be 
performed  to  advantage  by  the  students,  and  for  which  they  are  paid  at  current 
rates  for  such  labour.     Some  students  defray  all  their  expenses  in  this  way. 

Thb  School  of  Engineering. 

The  school  of  engineering  consists  of  those  departments  represented  in  the 
courses  leading  to  the  degrees  of  civil  engineer,  engineer  of  mines,  and  mechanical 
engineer,  and  in  the  short  course  in  mining. 

No  student  is  permitted  to  take  less  than  15  or  more  than  18  hours  a  week 
of  class-room  work,  except  by  special  permission  of  the  committee  of  the  school  in 
which  he  is  enrolled ;  and  no  student  will  be  permitted  to  take  more  than  the 
regular  work  of  the  class  to  which  he  belongs,  who  has  not  satisfactorily  completed 
all  of  his  work  for  the  preceding  term. 

The  degree  of  civil  engineer  is  conferred  on  those  who  have  completed  the 
course  of  study  in  civil  engineering ;  that  of  engineer  of  mines  on  those  who  have 
completed  a  course  in  mining  engineering ;  that  of  mechanical  engineer  on  those 
who  have  completed  the  course  in  mechanical  engineering  or  that  in  electrical 
engineering. 

Mining  Engineering. 

The  course  in  mining  engineering  is  arranged  for  students  intending  to  become 
mining  engineers  and  surveyors,  metallurgical  or  technical  chemists.  The  curricu- 
lum, therefore,  while  keeping  mathematics,  drawing,  and  engineering  prominent, 


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THE  EDUCATION  OF  MINING  ENGINEERS.  668 

also  provides  extended  work  in  applied  chemistry,  chemical  analysis,  assaying, 
mineralogy,  geology,  and  surveying,  with  especial  application  to  mines  and  under- 
ground work,  while  the  treatment  of  ores,  both  mechanical  in  ore-dressing  and 
chemical  in  metallurgy,  forms  an  important  feature : — 

First  Year, — Mathematics,  chemistry,  mineralogy,  drawing,  French  or  German, 
English,  and  military  drill. 

Second  Tear, — Mathematics,  mechanical  laboratory  work,  metallurgy,  French  or 
German,  English,  military  drill,  and  drawing. 

Third  Jeor.— Mechanics,  strength  of  materials,  physics,  metallurgy,  bridge* 
strains,  mine-surveying,  assaying,  determinative  mineralogy,  and  English. 

Fourth  Year, — Mining  engineering,  geology,  ore-dressing,  metallurgy,  electrical 
engineering,  photography,  and  plans  and  specifications. 

As  a  requisite  for  graduation  each  candidate  must  present  an  acceptable  thesis 
embodying  the  results  of  a  special  study.  The  subject  of  the  study  must  lie  within 
the  field  of  metallurgy  or  of  mining  engineering;. 

Short  Course  in  Mining, 

This  course  is  intended  for  students  lacking  time  and  preparation  for  the  full 
course,  and  is  principally  designed  for  those  who  have  had  some  practical  experi- 
ence as  miners.  The  work  is  more  elementary  in  character  than  in  the  long  course, 
and  is  made  to  apply  especially  to  coal-mining. 

First  Year, — Mathematics,  physical  geography,  physics,  and  military  drill. 

Second  year.— Mine-surveying,  ventilation  and  haulage,  mine  operating,  mineral 
chemistry,  drawing,  mechanical  laboratory  work,  geology,  and  military  drill. 


THE  CASE  SCHOOL  OF  APPLIED  SCIENCE,  CLEVELAND,  OHIO, 
UNITED  STATES. 

The  object  of  this  school  is  to  teach  mathematics,  physios,  engineering  (mechani- 
cal and  civil),  chemistry,  economic  geology,  mining  and  metallurgy,  natural  history, 
drawing,  modem  languages,  and  such  other  kindred  branches  of  learning  as  the 
trustees  may  deem  advisable. 

The  fee  for  tuition  is  £15  per  year,  and  the  fees  for  chemicals  and  use  of  instru- 
ments and  apparatus  is  £5  per  year.  Young  men  who  are  good  mechanics,  either 
carpenters  or  machinists,  and  who  are  dependent  upon  their  own  exertions  for  an 
education,  will  be  furnished  work  in  the  school-shops  to  pay  their  tuition  in  part, 
if  they  desire  it.  The  cost  of  text-books,  stationery,  etc.,  will  average  about  £5 
per  year.  Board  and  rooms  can  be  obtained  at  from  16s.  to  24s.  per  week.  The 
total  expense  for  tuition,  board,  room,  books,  etc.,  for  the  school  year,  may  vary 
from  £50  to  £70. 

Courses  of  instruction  are  provided  in  civil  engineering,  mechanical  engineering, 
electrical  engineering,  mining  engineering,  drawing,  physics,  chemistiy,  mineralogy, 
geology,  mathematics,  astronomy,  architecture,  and  the  English,  French,  and  Ger- 
man languages. 

The  following  regular  courses  of  study  have  been  established ;  each  course 
requires  four  years  for  completion,  and  for  proficiency  in  any  of  them  the  degree  of 
bachelor  of  science  in  the  course  pursued  is  conferred: — (1)  General  course;  (2) 
civil  engineering ;  (3)  mechanical  engineering ;  (4)  mining  engineering ;  (5)  electrical 
engineering ;  (6)  physics ;  (7)  chemistry ;  and  (8)  architecture. 

The  general  course  is  intended  for  students  who  do  not  desire  to  give  as  much 
time  to  a  single  topic  as  is  given  in  the  other  regular  courses.     During  the  last  two 


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664  THE  EDUCATION  OF  MINING  ENOINBERS. 

years  the  conrse  is  largely  optionaL  During  the  first  year  the  work  is  the  same  for 
all  regular  students  in  the  school.  At  the  end  of  this  year  the  student  is  expected 
to  select  one  of  the  regular  courses  of  study  to  be  pursued  during  the  remaining 
three  years  of  his  course. 

The  course  in  mining  engineering  comprises  the  studies  common  to  all  of  the 
engineering  courses,  and  in  addition  special  instruction  in  mining  surveying,  mining 
machinery,  chemistry,  mineralogy,  geology,  and  metallurgy  as  follows : — 

First  Tear.— Algebra,  chemistry,  chemical  laboratory  work,  descriptive 
geometry,  mechanical  drawing,  trigonometry,  analytical  geometry,  English  liter- 
ature, rhetoric,  and  French. 

SecoTid  Jear.— Surveying,  calculus,  physics,  physical  laboratory  work,  mechan- 
ism, French,  German,  chemical  analysis,  surveying  and  levelling. 

Third  Tear.— Chemical  philosophy,  chemical  analysis,  machine  design,  mining 
engineering,  mechanical  laboratory  work,  mechanics,  materials  of  engineering, 
physics,  physical  laboratory  work,  mineralogy,  German,  steam  engine,  topography, 
geology,  and  assaying. 

Fourth  Year. — Engineering  construction,  metallurgy,  practical  metallurgy,  and 
ore  treatment. 

The  course  is  completed  by  the  preparation  of  a  thesis,  for  which  the  greater 
part  of  the  second  semester  of  the  fourth  year  is  assigned. 

The  degree  of  bachelor  of  science  will  be  given  to  those  who  complete,  in  a 
satisfactory  manner,  either  of  the  regular  courses  of  study.  Previous  to  the 
conferring  of  the  degree  the  candidate  must  prepare  and  hand  in  a  satisfactory 
thesis  upon  some  technical  subject,  selected  by  him,  with  the  approval  of  the  professor 
in  charge  of  the  department  in  which  he  desires  to  graduate. 

The  engineering  degrees,  viz.,  civil  engineer,  mechanical  engineer,  electrical 
engiheer,  and  engineer  of  mines,  will  be  conferred  upon  graduates  in  those  depart- 
ments who  pursue  their  technical  studies  one  year  more,  or  have  been  engaged  in 
professional  work  in  positions  of  responsibility  for  three  years ;  in  either  case  a 
further  thesis  on  an  entirely  origiucil  technical  topic,  or  a  detailed  account  or  report 
of  the  professional  work  engaged  upon,  must  be  presented  for  acceptance  at  least 
twenty  days  prior  to  the  date  of  conferring  degrees. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA,  PHILADELPHIA,  PENNSYLVANIA, 

UNITED  STATES. 

The  university  comprises  the  following  departments :— The  college  including 
arts,  science,  architecture,  natural  history,  finance  and  economy,  and  music,  and 
departments  of  medicine,  law,  dentistry,  philosophy,  veterinary  medicine,  physical 
education,  and  hygiene. 

The  general  course  in  science  covers  five  years— two  years  of  general  literary 
and  scientific  study,  and  three  years  devoted  chiefly  to  technical  training  in  one  of 
the  following  courses : — Chemistry,  mining  and  metallurgy,  civil  engineering,  and 
mechanical  and  electrical  engineering. 

The  work  of  the  first  and  second  years  in  science  includes  English,  history, 
mathematics,  drawing,  chemistry,  physics,  hygiene,  and  one  modem  language 
(German  or  French). 

In  the  years  devoted  to  technical  instruction  are  included  courses  in  English, 
the  modern  languages,  history,  philosophy,  and  political  economy,  with  the  neces- 
sary instruction  in  pure  and  applied  mathematics  and  the  scientific  branches  allied 
to  the  principal  subject  of  the  course. 


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THE  EDUCATION  OF  MINIKG  EKaiNEEBS.  665 

Students  of  regular  standing  receive  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  year  the  general 
degree  of  bachelor  of  science,  and  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  year  the  degree  of  master 
of  science.  The  technical  degree  appropriate  to  the  course  pursued  may  be  con- 
ferred upon  masters  of  science  of  two  years'  standing  who  have  made  satisfactory 
progress  in  their  professions  and  have  presented  an  acceptable  thesis. 

TOWNK  SCIENTIFIO   SCHOOL. 

The  courses  in  this  school  are  divided  into  two  groups.  In  the  one  are  included 
the  courses  which  are  regarded  as  the  continuation  of  the  general  course  in  science ; 
in  the  other  the  courses  of  technical  instruction  of  four  years.  The  technical 
divisions  of  the  general  course  in  science  cover  three  years. 

Good  board  can  be  had  near  the  university  at  from  20s.  to  30b.  a  week.  The 
expenses,  including  board,  tuition,  and  text-books,  will  vary  from  £55  to  £95  per 
annum. 

The  courses  are :— (1)  Pure  and  applied  chemistry;  (2)  metalltirgy  and  mining ; 
(3)  civil  engineering ;  and  (4)  mechanical  engineering. 

Third  Fear.— English  literature,  rhetoric  and  declamation,  German  or  French, 
differential  and  integral  calculus,  heat  and  light,  electricity  and  magnetism,  min- 
ing engineering,  mines  and  mining  machinery,  prospecting  and  developing  mineral 
deposits,  crystallography,  lithology,  qualitative  chemical  analysis,  civil  engineering, 
applied  mechanics,  map  projection,  graphics,  and  surveying. 

Fourth  Year. — English,  rhetoiic  and  declamation,  economics  and  social  science, 
experimental  physics,  'physical  laboratory  work,  theory  of  metallurgical  processes, 
assaying,  construction  of  parts  of  mines  and  of  mining  machinery  from  notes  and 
sketches,  machinery  employed  in  haulage,  hoisting,  and  pimiping,  mineralogy, 
gravimetric  and  volumetric  analysis. 

Fifth  Year,  —Metallurgy,  mining  engineering,  geology,  and  analytical  chemistry. 

Degrees, 

Technical  courses  of  four  years  lead  to  the  degrees  of  bachelor  of  science  in 
mechanical  engineering,  in  electrical  engineering,  in  civil  engineering,  in  chemistry, 
and  in  architecture,  respectively. 

Bachelors  of  science  in  mechanical  and  electrical  engineering,  civil  engineering, 
architecture,  or  chemistry,  of  three  years'  standing,  who  have  shown  marked  pro- 
gress in  their  professions  and  have  submitted  a  satisfactory  thesis,  may  receive 
the  degree  of  master  of  science,  together  with  -the  technical  degrees  appropriate 
to  the  course  pursued. 

The  degree  of  master  of  arts  or  of  science  is  conferred  upon  bachelors  of  arts  or 
science  respectively,  on  examination  after  one  year  of  resident  study. 


THE  LEHiaH  UNIVERSITY,  SOUTH  BETHLEHEM,  PENNSYLVANIA 

UNITED  STATES. 

The  necessary  expenses  for  the  collegiate  year  (clothing  and  travelling  not  in- 
cluded) vary  from  £70  to  £100. 

The  School  of  Technology. 

This  school  includes  seven  distinct  courses:  civil  engineering,  mechanical 
engineering,  mining,  metallurgy,  electrical  engineering,  chemistry,  and  architecture. 

.  The  courses  in  mining  and  metallurgy  aim  at  fitting  the  student  for  practical  work 
in  either  of  the  branches  of  mining,  metallurgy,  metidlurgical  chemistry  or  geology. 


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666  THE  EDUCATION  OF  MINING   ENGINEERS. 

At  the  end  of  the  first  year  an  opportunity  is  given  the  student  to  select  one 
of  two  courses  leading  to  the  various  degrees.  These  allow  a  full  course  in  either 
mining  or  metallurgy  to  be  acquired  in  four  years,  and  afford  to  the  student  whose 
time  is  limited  and  who  desires  to  practice  one  of  the  above  branches  the  means 
for  rapid  work.  The  graduate  in  either  course  can  obtain  the  engineer's  degree 
(E.M.)  by  one  year  of  post-graduate  work.  For  graduates  of  this  university  in 
the  course  of  civil  engineering,  a  one  year  course  has  been  arranged,  leading  to 
the  degree  of  bachelor  of  science  in  metallurgy  (B.Sc). 

The  programme  of  subjects  and  studies  for  the  degree  of  engineer  of  mines 
comprise  one  modern  language  (French  or  German),  drawing  and  construction, 
chemistry,,  mineralogy,  geology,  astronomy,  applied  mechanics,  surveying,  metal- 
lurgy, and  mining. 

The  course  of  instruction  is  as  follows : — 

First  Year. — Mathematics,  surveying,  English,  rhetoric,  chemistry,  French  or 
German,  drawing,  physiology  and  health,  and  gymnasium. 

The  Course  in  Metallurgy, 

Second  Year, — Mathematics,  analytical  geometry,  differential  and  integral 
calculus,  mechanics,  heat,  magnetism,  electricity,  French  or  German,  drawings 
of  metallurgical  plant,  surveying,  chemistry,  chemical  laboratory  work,  stoichio- 
metry,  English,  essays  and  declamation,  and  gymnasium. 

Third  Year, — Mathematics,  calculus,  analytical  mechanics,  strength  of  material, 
crystallography,  assaying,  chemical  philosophy,  French  or  German,  metallurgy, 
mineralogy,  blowpipe  analysis,  chemistry,  quantitative  analysis,  steam  engine, 
essays  and  orations,  literature  and  history,  and  gymnasium. 

Fourth  Year, — Metallurgy,  blowpipe  analysis,  lithology,  mechanics  of  machinery, 
quantitative  analysis,  chemistry,  graphical  statics,  projects  in  metallurgy,  min- 
uig>  g^ogy,  hydraulics,  hydrostatics,  designing  of  furnaces  and  metallurgical 
plant,  American  and  English  literature,  Ghrif>tian  evidences,  preparation  of  thesis, 
and  gymnasium. 

Ftflh  Fear.— Mining,  geology,  drawing  of  mining  plant,  surveying,  astronomy, 
geological  surveying,  and  preparation  of  thesis. 

The  Course  in  Mining, 

Second  Fear. —Mathematics,  -analytical  geometry,  differential  and  integral 
calculus,  mechanics,  heat,  magnetism,  electricity,  French  or  Grerman,  crystal- 
lography, surveying,  levelling,  chemistry  and  laboratory  practice,  mineralogy, 
English,  essays,  and  gymnasium. 

Third  Fear.— Mathematics,  calculus,  analytical  mechanics,  strength  of 
materials,  geology,  lithology,  surveying,  levelling,  blowpipe  analysis,  steam  engine, 
geological  surveying,  French  or  German,  literature  and  history,  essays  and  orations, 
and  gymnasium. 

Fowrth  Year, — Mining,  mechanics  of  machinery,  astronomy,  surveying,  assaying, 
drawing  of  mining  plant,  projects  in  geology  and  mining,  hydraulics,  hydrostatics, 
American  and  English  literature,  Christian  evidences,  preparation  of  thesis,  and 
gymnasium. 

Fifth  Year, — Metallurgy,  blowpipe  analysis,  quantitative  analysis,  chemical 
laboratory  work,  chemical  philosophy,  drawing,  designing  furnaces  and  other 
metallurgical  plant,  graphical  statics,  stoichiometry,  projects  in  metallurgy, 
astronomy,  and  preparation  of  thesis. 


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THE  EDUCATION  OF  MINING  BNGINEERB.  667 

Every  student  will  be  required  to  present  a  thesis  upon  some  topic  connected 
with  his  special  course  as  a  necessary  portion  of  the  exercises  for  his  final  examina- 
tion for  a  diploma.  These  theses  shall  be  accompanied  by  drawings  aiid  diagrams, 
when  the  subjects  need  such  illustration. 

Degrees. 

On  account  of  the  great  number  and  scope  of  the  studies  necessary  to  the  attainment 
of  the  degree  of  engineer  of  mines  (E.M.),  which  includes  that  of  metallurgist,  five 
years  are  required.  At  the  end  of  the  fourth  year  the  student  will  have  completed 
a  course  similar  to  that  leading  to  the  scientific  degree  in  other  institutions,  and 
will  receive  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  science  (B.Sc.). 

The  faculty  will  recommend  for  the  degree  of  master  of  science  any-candidate, 
otherwise  properly  qualified,  who,  after  taking  at  this  university  the  degree  of 
bachelor  of  science,  or  any  degree  in  the  School  of  Technology,  shall  pursue,  for  at 
least  one  year  at  this  imiversity,  or  two  years  elsewhere,  a  course  of  study  pre- 
scribed by  the  faculty  in  at  least  two  departments,  pass  a  thorough  examination  in 
the  same,  and  present  a  satisfactory  thesis. 

The  faculty  will  recommend  for  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy  any  candi- 
date, otherwise  properly  qualified,  who,  after  taking  at  this  university  the  degree  of 
master  of  arts  or  master  of  science,  shall  pursue,  for  at  least  one  year  at  this 
university,  or  two  years  elsewhere,  a  course  of  advanced  study  prescribed  by  the 
f8M!ulty,  in  at  least  two  departments,  pass  a  thorough  examination  in  the  presence 
of  the  faculty  in  the  same,  imd  present  a  satisfactory  thesis  giving  evidence  of 
original  investigation.  The  candidate  must  have  a  good  knowledge  of  Latin,  and 
either  French  or  Geraian. 


LAFAYETl^E  COLLEGE,  EASTON,  PENNSYLVANIA,  UNITED  STATES. 

The  aim  of  Lafayette  College  is  distinctly  religious.  Under  the  general  direc- 
tion of  the  Synod  of  Pennsylvania  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  its  instruction  is  in 
full  sympathy  with  the  doctrines  of  that  body.  At  the  same  time  religious 
instruction  is  carried  on  with  a  view  to  a  broad  and  general  direction  along  the 
lines  of  general  acceptance  among  evangelical  Christians,  the  points  of  agreement, 
rather  than  those  of  disagreement,  being  dwelt  upon.  Students  are  expected  to 
attend  one  of  the  Presbyterian  churches,  or  a  church  of  the  denomination  to  which 
they  or  their  parents  belong. 

The  annual  college  charges  are,  for  those  who  pay  tuition  in  full,  about  £23  for 
technical  studies.  With  economy,  the  total  annual  expenses— exclusive  of  tuition, 
clothing,  and  travelling  expenses— need  not  exceed  £50. 

Biblical  instruction  is  given  in  every  class  of  all  departments  in  each  week.  In 
the  first  year  a  general  view  of  the  contents  of  the  Bible  and  of  each  book  is  given, 
with  special  attention  to  chronology,  history,  and  geography.  In  the  second  year 
the  Acts  of  tlie  Apostles  is  the  subject  of  instruction.  In  the  third  year  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans  is  studied  :  the  students  in  the  scientific  courses  read  it  in 
German.  In  the  fourth  year  a  course  in  Christian  ethics  is  given  and  instruction 
in  Christian  evidences.  Instruction  in  the  history  of  the  English  Bible,  its 
ti-anslations  and  its  translators,  its  merits  and  its  influence,  is  given  from  time  to 
time  It  is  intended  that  the  Bible  shall  be  a  central  object  of  study  throughout 
the  course. 

The  lectures  on  health  during  the  first  year  include  the  general  principles  of 
physiology  and  anatomy,  and  special  consideration  is  also  given  to  the  bearing  of 
the  facts  and  principles  upon  natural  theology. 

VOL.  v.-iew-w.  43 


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668  THE  EDUCATION  OF  MTNINO   BNGINEERR. 

Engineer  of  Mines. 

There  are  three  courses  in  engineering — those  of  civil,  mining,  and  electrical 
engineering.  The  instruction  in  all  the  engineering  courses  is  substantially  the 
same  during  the  first  two  years  of  the  course,  except  that  the  electrical  engineers 
substitute  the  study  of  physics  and  practical  work  in  the  physical  laboratory  for  a 
part  of  the  surveying,  field,  and  office- work  of  the  other  courses. 

The  course  leading  to  the  degree  of  engineer  of  mines  is  intended  to  provide  in 
a  thorough  manner  a  good  foundation  for  professional  work,  by  a  careful  study  of 
the  facts  and  principles  involved  in  the  numerous  problems  which  are  encountered 
by  the  mining  engineer  in  the  practice  of  bis  profession. 

First  Year, — Mathematics,  chemistry,  drawing,  physiology,  French  and  Ger- 
man, surveying,  plane  and  sphericcJ  trigonometry,  and  mensuration. 

Second  Year.  — Mathematics  (analytical  geometry,  differential  calculus,  integral 
calculus),  French  and  German,  English,  drawing,  surveying,  mineralogy,  practice 
with  blow-pipe,  and  botany. 

Third  Fear.— Mechanics,  surveying,  minmg,  qualitative  analysis,  heat,  light, 
electricity,  descriptive  geometry,  drawing,  quantitative  analysis,  assaying,  optics, 
acoustics,  resistance  of  materials,  elements  of  machinery,  building  construction, 
geology,  and  New  Testament  epistles  in  German. 

Fourth  Year. — Steam  engine,  mine-surveying,  map  of  mine-survey,  machine 
drawing  and  designing,  graphical  statics,  metallurgy,  mining,  quarrying,  political 
economy,  history,  quantitative  analysis,  and  graduation  thesis. 

Degrees. 

The  degree  of  civil  engineer  is  conferred  on  gra<^luate8  of  the  civil  engineering 
course  ;  engineer  of  mines  on  those  of  t)ie  mining  engineering  course  ;  and  electrical 
engineer  on  those  of  the  electrical  engineering  course. 

The  degree  of  master  of  science  may  be  conferred  three  years  after  graduation 
on  any  graduate  of  the  scientific  department  who  has  passed  his  graduate  period 
in  collegiate  or  professional  study  and  practice,  or  who  shall  submit  to  the  faculty 
a  satisfactory  literary,  philosophical,  or  scientific  paper.  The  same  degree  may  be 
conferred  two  years  after  graduation  on  any  graduate  of  the  scientific  department 
who  shall  have  devoted  at  least  one  year  exclusively  to  advanced  study  in  the 
college  under  the  direction  of  the  faculty  and  passed  examinations  in  the  studies 
pursued. 

The  degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy  may  be  confer,  ed  on  any  graduate  of  this 
college  who  shall  have  taken  a  prescribed  course  of  special  reading  for  three  years 
after  graduation,  passed  examinations  in  approved  courses  of  study,  and  presented 
a  thesis  showing  evidence  of  original  research.  The  same  degree  may  be  conferred 
two  years  after  graduation  on  any  college  graduate  who,  during  two  years  of 
continuous  residence  at  the  college,  shall  have  devoted  himself  exclusively  to 
advanced  studies  under  the  direction  of  the  faculty,  passed  examinations  in  them, 
and  presented  a  satisfactory  thesis  on  one  of  the  studies  pursued. 


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INDBX. 


INDEX    TO    VOL.    V. 


EXPLAKATIOSS. 

The  —  at  the  begiiming  of  a  line  denotes  the  repetition  of  a  word ;  and  in  the 

of  Names,  it  includes  both  the  Christian  Name  and  the  Surname. 
Discussions  are  printed  in  italics. 
The  following  contractions  are  used  :  — 

C— Chesterfield  and  Midland  Counties  Institution  of  Engineers. 

M. — Midland  Institute  of  Mining,  Civil,  and  Mechanical  Engineers. 

N.E. — North  of  England  Institute  of  Mining  and  Mechanical  Engineers. 

N.S. — North  Staffordshire  Institute  of  Mining  and  Mechanical  B^gineers. 

S.S. — South  Staffordshire  and  East    Worcestershire  Institute  of  Mining 
ESngineers. 


Aaron,  C.  H.,  quoted,  280,  304, 337,  3.m 

Abbotsroyd,  New  Zealand,  coal  analysis, 
54. 

Abercanaid  colliery,  description  of,  417. 

Academy  of  mining,  royal  Saxou,  Frei- 
berg, Saxony,  641. 

Accidents,  mining.  New  Zealand,  32,  65. 

Accounts,  C,  448. 

— ,  M,  486. 

"Admiral  Oushakoff,"  Russian  cruiser, 
engines,  230. 

Advertizement  ii. 

AoBic  LAK,  QEORnii,  quoted,  83,  187- 

AiONBR,  Aur.rsT,  salt-mining  in  the 
Austrian  alps,  6  )8. 

Aipe,  U.S.  Colombia,  233. 

Aircompressors,  Grassmoor  collierie8,479. 

,  Kotherham  Main  colliery,  371. 

,  South  Dyffryn  colliery,  416. 

— ,  conducting  to  working  face,  527. 

— ,  means  for  producing  the  requisite 
quantity,  517. 

— ,  requisite  for  ventilation,  516. 

Air-current,  transmission  and  splitting, 
524. 

Air-velocities  and  air-volumes,  measure- 
ments of,  532. 

and  air- ways,  522. 

Aire,  France,  120. 

Aix-la-Chapelle,(iermany,Royal  technical 
college,  639. 

Alcohol- flame  safety -lamp,  462. 

Alfori),  C.  J.,  quoted,  170,  17^,  174. 

Allendale  coal-mine,  New  Zealand,  53. 

Allier,  France,  underground  fires  at 
Doyet  collieries,  396 

Alloy  (native),  of  gold  and  silver,  279. 

AUuvials,  Rigaud  cradle  for  washing,  578. 

Alps,  Austrian,  salt-mining  in  the,  608. 


Alsop,   S.,   vice-president,   nomination, 

367  ;  election,  C,  455. 
Altavilla  Irpina,  Italy,  the  sulphur  mines 

of,  618. 
Altaite,  analysis,  230.      * 
Altenberg,  fire-setting  in  tin  stock werks, 

87. 
Amalgam,  native,  279. 
Amalgamation,  lixiviation  t«r«tM,  336. 
— ,  pan,  wet  and  dry,  271. 
America,  United  States, Colorado,  Holden 

mill,  282. 

— , ,  Carolina,  mica  mines,  573. 

— , ,  Missouri  river,  180,  181. 

— , ,  processes  of  ore  treatment,  283, 

2S4,  285,  286,  287,  288,  292,  293,  295, 

298,  303. 

— , ,  phosphates,  593. 

— , ,  silver  king  mine,  280. 

— , ,  Utah,  Marcac  mill,  282. 

— , ,  Western  States,   pan-amalga- 
mation, 271. 
Analysis,  altaite,  280. 
— ,  amalgam,  279. 
— ,  anthracite,  52. 
-  ,  argentite,  279. 
— ,  arquerite,  279. 
— ,  atmosphere  of  mines,  504. 
— ,  blende,  280. 
— ,  brogniardite,  279. 
— ,  bromyrite,  279. 
— ,  cerargyrite,  279. 
— ,  chalcopyrite,  280. 
— ,  chivialite  280. 
— ,  clausthalite,  280. 
— ,  coal,  Colorado,  282. 
_,_,-,  Newcastle,  282. 
— ,  — ,  — ,  sunshine,  282. 
— ,  — ,  France,  Hardingen,  126, 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


670 


INDEX. 


Analysis,  coal,  New  Zealand,  36,  37,  38, 

39,  40,  41,  43.  45,  48,  50,  52,  53,  54, 

57,  58. 

— ,  — , ,  Abbotsroyd,  54. 

— ,  — , ,  Canterbury,  52. 

— ,  — , ,  Coalbrookdale,  45. 

— ,  — , ,  Colling  wood,  40. 

— ,  — , ,  Dudley  mine,  48. 

— ,  — , ,  Greymouth,  5(). 

— ,  — , ,  Kaitangata,  57. 

— ,  — , ,  Lankey's  creek,  48. 

— ,  — , ,  Makau,  38. 

— ,  — ,  —  -  ,  Murray  creek,  48. 

— ,  — , ,  Mokihinui,  43. 

— ,  — , ,  New  Durham,  48. 

— ,  -, ,  Otago,  53. 

— ,  — , ,  Picton,  39. 

— ,  — , ,  Reef  ton,  48. 

— ,  -  -, ,  8eaford,  41. 

— ,  — , ,  iSouthland,  58. 

— ,  — , ,  Waikato,  38. 

— ,  dufrenoysite,  2S0. 

— ,  electrum,  279. 

— ,  embolite,  279. 

— ,  enargite,  280. 

— ,  erubescite,  280. 

— ,  eukairite,  279. 

— ,  fahlerz,  279. 

— ,  fire-blende,  279. 

— ,  fire-damp,  Durham,  Jarrow  collier\'^, 

473. 
— ,  freieslebenite,  279. 
— ,  galena,  280. 
— ,  hessite,  279. 
— ,  homailver,  279. 
— ,  iodyrite,  2.>9. 
— ,  kauri  gum,  New  Zealand,  77. 
— ,  lighting  gas,  Derby  gas  light  and  coke 

companies  472. 
— ,  miargyrite,  279. 
— ,  mispickel,  280. 
— ,  nagyagite.  280. 
— ,  native  silver,  279. 
— ,  naumannite,  279. 
~,  petzite.  279. 
— ,  polybasite,  279. 
— ,  proustite,  279. 
— ,  pyargyrite,  279. 


— ,  pyrite,  280. 
— ,  silver 


Iver  precipitate,  del  Oro  mill,  324. 
— ,  silver-glance,  279. 
— ,  silver-ore,  353,  354. 

— , ,  Yedras  mine,  344. 

— ,  stephanite,  279. 

— ,  sternbergite,  279. 

— ,  stromeyerite,  279. 

— -,  sylvanite,  279. 

— ,  tetrahedrite,  279. 

— ,  xanthoconite.  279. 

Andes,  U.S.  Colombia,  233. 

Anobrmanx,     Claudius,     naphtha     in 

Austrian  Galicia,  595. 
Anglo-Mexican  company,  report,  346 
Auhaltaud  Halle,  mining  school,  Kisleben, 

Saxony,  642. 


I   Aniche,  France,  115,  116,  117. 

1  Anmeuliu,    Pas-de-Calais,    France,  coal- 

I       basin,  117. 

Anthracite,  analysis,  52. 
I   —  coal-field,  Canterbury,  New  Zealand, 
51. 
Antimony  ore,  exports.  New  Zealand,  79. 
1   —  ores,  assaying  of,  555. 
'   Antwerp  buyers  of  zinc  minerals,  94. 
,   Anzin  collieries,  France,  1 15. 

,  — ,  "wash  out,"  113,  116. 

'   Ann  Arlwr,  United  States,  university  of 
Michigan,  651. 
Aptian  beds.  122. 
Arabia,  eold-minea,  82. 
Arbitration,  Ronomi  r.  Backhouse,  191. 
ARcninAL.D,  J.  W.,  origin  and  distribu- 
tion of  gold  and  platinum,  north  coast 
I       beaches.  New  S  uth  Wales,  565. 
Arendal,  fire- setting  in  iron  mines,  85. 
Argentiferous  ffalena,  Sardinia,  84. 
Argentite,  analysis,  279. 
Ar^llshire,  geological  survey,  151. 
Arizona,  loss  in  melting  bullion,  296. 
— ,  silver  king  mine,  280,  311. 
— ,  —  mining,  288. 

— ,  univei-sity  of,  Tucson,  Arizona,  U.S.A., 
I       643. 

I   Aron,  — .,  electricity  meters,  227. 
I  Anjuerite,  analysis,  279. 
I   Arrangements  tor  sinkins  to  the  whin- 
moor  seam  from  the  silkstone  seam  at 
'       Tankersley  collieries,  360.  —Discussion, 
I       363. 

Arroyo  del  inuerto,  U.S.  Colombia,  244. 
'  Artois,  Franco,  108,  120,  121,  125,  131, 
134. 
Ashgate  pit,  Derbyshire,  457. 
[  Ashton-under-Lyme,   outbursts    of    gas, 
I    .   etc.,  384. 

Ash  WORTH,  J  as.,  benzoline  lamp,  471. 
I   Aspen,  Colorado,  Holdeu  mill,  282. 
I   — ,  — ,  silver-ore,  analysis,  354. 
I   Assaying  of  antimony  ores,  555. 
I    Atherfield  clay -beds,  122. 
I  Atkinson,  Alfred  Ashley,  election,  M. , 
!       374. 

I  Atkinson,  W.  N.,  HponianeotLS  combiM- 
tion  in  coal-mineHf  18,  23. 
— ,  the  use  of  petroleum,   paraffin,  and 
other  mineral  oils  underground,  434. — 
Discussion,  436. 
Atmosphere  of  mines,  analyses,  504. 
Auchy-au-Bois,  France,  107,  120. 
Auckland,   New  Zealand,  coal-field,  31, 

.34,  .35,  37. 
Auriferous  bedded  veins  or  seams,  U.S. 
Colombia,  236. 

—  conglomerates  of  the  Witwaterarandt, 
South  Africa,  169. —Discussion,  177. 

—  flucany  joints,  U.S.  Colombia,  240. 

—  impregnations,  249. 

—  quartz,  US.  Colombia,  236,  239. 

fissure  veins,  U.S.  Colombia,  240. 

Austin,  Tom  Wilson,  election,  C,  355. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


IKDBX. 


671 


Austin,  W.  L.,  quot^fl,  288,  290. 
Australiui      coal -mining,       engineering 

scraps  in,  386. 
Austrian  Alps,  salt-mining  in  the,  808. 

—  fire-damp  commission,  216,  217,  2u7. 

—  Galicia,  naphtha  in,  505. 
Avkry's  tailings  mills,  294. 
Avondale.  fan  experiments,  621. 
Azincourt,  France,  115,  116. 

Backhouse,  Bonomi  r.,  arbitration,  191. 

Bailes,  VV.,  longtcatl  trorkiwj,  427,  428, 
429. 

Bailby,  K.  J.,  description  of  South 
Dyffryn  and  Al>ercanaid  collieries,  416. 

BAiNBRiixiE,  Jamais,  election,  N.B.,  232. 

Baker,  — .,  quoted,  399. 

Baku  naphtha  region,  geology  of  the,  596. 

— ,  the  petroleum  industry  of,  59ij. 

Ball,  CiEOKCiE,  election,  (J.,  355. 

Ballarat  school  of  mines,  industries  and 
science,  university  of  Melbounie,  Bal- 
larat, (irenville  county,  V^ictoria,  634. 

Ba  timore  tunnel,  fan  experiments,  619. 

Bamfurlong  colliery,  tire  at,  434. 

Banket  deposits,  Witwatersrandt,  169, 
177,  17». 

Barba,  Albaro  Ai^)nzo,  fondo  process 
of  ore  treatment,  301. 

Barber,  Walker,  &  Co.,  457. 

Barxes,  Alfrki),  improved  water-gauge, 
476. 

— ,  presidential  address,  C,  457.— Dis- 
cussion, 461. 

— ,  president,  nomination,  356  ;  election, 
C.,455. 

— ,  roycU  commUiioH  on  minim f  royal  tit. t^ 
357,  370. 

— ,  tiaf(ty4amp  with  cUrohol-flamty  468, 
472. 

Barnes,  A.  <».,  annual  report  of  council ^ 
C,  453,  454. 

— ,  member  of  council,  nomination,  357  ; 
election,  C,  455. 

Barometer,  themometer,  etc.,  readings 
for  the  year  1892,  493. 

Barometrical  fluctuations  and  tire-damp, 
205,  206,  216. 

B.vrraclouoii,  Sam  URL,  election,  M., 
373. 

Base-metal  leaching,  318,  319,  330. 

Basse- Falaisc,  Fnaice,  borings,  121. 

Battle,  boring,  129,  LSD,  132,  134. 

Bay  of  island.s,  New  Zealand,  35. 

Bear  rivige  colliery,  fan  experiments,  622. 

Beaumont,  Klie  de,  geological  map  of 
France,  143, 

— ,  quoted,  107,  124,  132. 

Beciis,  Sir  H.  T.  de  la,  geological  sur- 
vey, 143.  145,  153,  163. 

Becher,  H.  M.,  election,  N.E.,  231. 

Becker,  — .,  quoted,  251. 

Beck,  Simon  Adams,  Beckton  or  Beck 
town,  227. 

Beckton,  gas  light  and  coke  company,  227. 


I   Bedson,  Dr.  P.  P.,  hydrofjtn  oil  sa^tty- 
\       lamp,  266. 

Bee-hive  coke-ovens,  (irassmoor  collieries,' 
479. 

Belgium,  coal-fields,  107,  127,  129,  136. 
.   — ,  geological  survey,  143. 

— ,  Hainaut  school  of  mines  and  industry, 
Mons,  636. 
'  — ,  school  of  arts,  etc.,  attached  to  the 
university  of  Liege,  637. 

Helinfante,  L.  L.,  correlation  ©f  the 
coal-field  of  Northern  France  and 
Southern  England,  106. 

Bell,  Thomas,  quoted,  256. 

Bellevue,  fan  experiments,  6*21. 
'  Belubula,   New  South    Wales,  junction 
reefs,  179. 

Bendigo,  Victoria,  school  of  mines  and 
industries,  635. 

Benefit  clubs,  New  Zealand,  32,  74. 

Benoit,  Fbllx,  nickel  mines  of  New 
Caletlonia,  589. 

Benton,  W.  E.,  engineering  scraps  in 
Australian  coal  mining,  ;^6. — Discus- 
sion, 388. 

Benzine  safety -lamp,  Wolf,  608. 
I ,  James  Asliworth,  471. 

Berlin  royal  geological  and  mining  in- 
stitute, Berlin,  Germany,  639. 

Berryman  water-heaters,  22.3. 

Berteixi  a  Rossi,  tromometer,  207. 

Bertram,  T.,  quoted,  4u8. 

Bertrand,  Marc^el,  the  correlation  of 
the  coal-fields  of  Northern  France  and 
Southern  England,  106.-  Discussion, 
126. 

Best,  W.,  miners'  safety-lamps,  491, 
492. 

Bethune,  France,  coal- basin,  117,  120. 

Beynon,  J.  C.  S.,  election,  N.E.,  'i31. 

BiDDLK,  JoK,  injured  by  earth  explosion 
at  Hamstead  colliery,  381,  382 

BiLHARZ,  O.,  the  treatment  of  tailings  by 
the  Liihrig  syst^^m,  577. 

Billek,  Josef,  magnetic  ore  concentra- 
tion works  at  Maiem,  Tirol,  574. 

BiNNS,  Geor(JE  J.,  annual  reixyrt  of 
coimcUy  C,  452. 

— ,  anriferouA  conyfomt rates  of  Wtt waters- 
ramit,  180. 

— ,  member  of  council,  nomination,  357  ; 
election,  C. ,  455. 

— ,  mining  in  New  Zealand,  31. — Discus- 
sion, 80. 

— ,  prize  for  paper,  1. 

— ,  quoted,  46,  50. 

— ,  apontaneoius  combustion  in  coal-mine-Si 
23. 

Birch  coppice  collier^',  fan  experiments, 
261. 

Bishop  Auckland,  damage  to  house,  190. 

Black  forest,  109. 

Black  shale,  457. 

I ,  spontaneous  combustion  of,  409, 

I   Blackball  colliery,  New  Zealand,  60. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


e72 


nn>BX. 


Blaokbtt,  W.  C,  manometric  efficiency 

of/atu,  257,  258. 
Blair,  Hekry,  election,  C,  355. 
Blakie,  J.,  longvoaU  loorking,  429. 
Blende,  analysis,  280. 
Blue  bird  mine,  Montana,  ore  treatment, 

351. 
Bluff,  New  Zealand,  33. 
Bohemia,  mountains,  108.     ^ 
— ,  royal  school  of  mines,  Przbram,  636. 
Boleo,  Mexico,  copper-mines,  561. 
Bolivia,  processes  of  ore  treatment,  301. 
Bolsover  colliery,  lighting  safety-lamps, 

492. 
BoNOMi  V,  Backhouse,  arbitration,  191. 
Booth,  Aaron,  election,  C,  355. 
Booth,  J.  T.,  election,  N.S.,  424. 
Booth,  — .,   Diodorus  Siculus,  quoted, 

82,  83. 
Bore-holes,  reaming  of,  386. 
Boring-tools,  jewel  tipped,  82. 
Boss,  H.  P.,  continuous  process  of  ore 

treatment,  27 1|  275. 
BosTOCK  &  Riley,  Pliny  quoted,  83. 
Boston,    United    States,    Massachusetts 

institute  of  technology,  647. 
BouLAT,  Abb^,  quoted,  127. 
Boulogne,  France,  121. 
— ,  ■—.  boriuff,  121,  124. 
Boulonnais,  France,  120,  121. 
— ,  — ,  coal-basin,  119,  120,  122,  125. 
— ,  — ,  folds  in  strata,  112. 
— ,  — ,  rocks,  107. 

Boyd-Dawkins,  Prof.,  quoted,  137. 
— ,  the  ooal-Jields  of  Northern  France  and 

Southern  England,  130. 
Bradford,  Joseph,  election,  443. 
Brady,  — .,  boring  at  Dover,  131. 
Braooe,  6.  S.,  member  of  council,  nomi- 
nation, 357  ;  election,  C. ,  455. 
Brampton  low  coal,  457. 
Brazil,  fire-setting,  90. 
Breitenbrunn,  Saxony,  fire-setting,  87. 
Breton,  Ludovic,  quoted,  120. 
— ,  the  coal-fields  of  northern  Fraiice  and 

Bouthem  ilngland,  126. 
Brick-works,  Grassmoor  collieries,  479. 

,  Rotherham  main  collieries,  372. 

Briquette  plant,  Brunner  colliery.  New 

Zealand,  49. 
Bristol,  coal-field,  135. 
— ,  university  college,  627. 
British  Association  reports  on  earthquake 

and  volcanic  phenomena,  203. 
Brittany,  109. 
Broadoak  ooUiery,  outbursts  of  gas,  etc., 

384. 
Brockwell  seam,  190,  193. 
Brogniardite,  analysis,  279. 
Broken  hill  mines,  New  South  Wales, 

42,  611. 
proprietary  company,  New  South 

Wales,  42. 
Bbomley,  Edmund,  memoir,  480. 
Bromley,  Oliver,  election.  N.S.,  419. 


Bromyrite,  analysis,  279. 

Brooke,  Edward,  election,  M.,  373. 

Brookman,  Dr.,  quoted,  267. 

Brouom,  Bennett  H.,fire'Wit%ng,  89. 
— ,  spontaneous  combustion  of  coal,  409. 

Brouohall,  W.,  enffineering  scraps  in 
Australicm  coal-mining,  389. 

Brown,  Archibald  Thomas,  nomination, 
N.E.,  232. 

Brown,  E.,  experiments  upon  two  Guibal 
fans  at  St.  John's  colliery,  Norman- 
ton. — Discussion,  376. 

Brown,  M.  Walton,  barometer,  ther- 
mometer, etc.,  readings  for  the  year 
1892,  493. 

— ,  fire-setting,  90. 

— ,  hydrogen-oil  safety-lamp,  265. 

— ,  manometric  efficiency  of  fans,  260. 

— ,  Organos  district,  Tolima,  U.S. 
Colombia,  251. 

— ,  quoted,  205. 

Brown,  Wbstoarth  Forster,  nomina- 
tion, N.E.,  232. 

Brown-coals,  New  Zealand,  33,  35. 

, ,  analysis,  48. 

, ,  Canterbury,  51 ;    analysis, 

52. 

, ,  output,  73. 

,  used  in  fire-setting,  87. 

Bruay,  France,  114. 

BrCckner,  furnace,  282,  2S3,  314,  367. 

. — ,  roasting-cy Under,  291. 

Brunel,  ISAM  bard,  air-compressor  de- 
signed by,  416. 

Brunner  colliery,  New  Zealand,  42,  48, 
49. 

Buckeye  engine,  cost,  339. 

Buildings,  support  of,  188. 

Buller,  New  Zealand,  coal-field,  42,  74. 

Bultfontein,  spontaneeus  combustion  of 
black  shale  409. 

Bullhurst  seam,  11, 12,  13,  14,  15,  16,  25. 

,  gob-fires,  10. 

Bully-Grenay,  France,  coal-measures,  127. 

**  Bump,'' earth  explosion  or,  Hamstead 
colliery,  381. 

Bunker's  hill  collieries,  13,  25. 

BuNNiNO,  T.  W.,  quoted,  407. 

Burfeind,  J.  H.,  chlorination  of  gold- 
ores,  571. 

Burma,  jade,  567. 

— ,  ruby  mines,  603. 

Burns,  David,  Organos  district,  Tolima, 
(/,8,  Colombia,  250. 

Burt,  A.  &  T.,  compressed  air-engines, 
56. 

Bye-laws,  x. 

Calais,  boring,  132. 

Calamine  ore,  100,  101,  102,  103,  104. 

California,  U.S.A.,  Surprise  valley  mill, 

.304.  305. 
—  mine,  U.S.  Colombia,  245. 
— ,  university  of,  San  Franciso,  644. 
Callear,  Benjamin,  death  of,  379. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


Callendkr- Webber,  conduits,  221. 

"CaUiope,"H.M.S.,45. 

Gallon,  J.,  quoted,  85. 

Camborne  school  of  mines,  Cornwall,  627. 

Cameron  colliery,  fan  experiments,  619. 

Canada,  phosphates,  592. 

Cancrinds,  Franz  Ludwio,  quoted,  85. 

Cannel  coal,  igniting  point  of  spontaneous 

ignition,  395. 
Cannock  chase,  spontaneous  combustion, 

412. 
Canterbury,  New  Zeaknd,  32,  33. 
— , ,  coal-field.  31,  61. 

—  plains,  New  Zealand,  179. 

Cape  colony,  Dwyka  conglomerates,  186. 

Cape  Oris  Nez,  France,  120,  122. 

Capell,  Rev.  G.  M.,  manoroetric  effici- 
ency of  fans,  252.  —Discussion,  255. 

Capkll  &  GuiBAL  fans,  experiments  at 
Maries  colliery,  255,  256,  257, 262,  263, 
265, 

—  fan,  experiments  with,  620. 

for  cooling  stacks,  411. 

,  manometric  efficiency,  259. 

,  Prosper  colliery,  253. 

,  Rotherham  main  colliery,  371. 

,  Rothwell  haigh  colliery,  377. 

,  Teversal  colliery,  255,  262,  263. 

Caracoles,  Bolivia,  silver-ores,  302. 

Carbonic  acid  gas,  outbursts  of,  at  Roche- 
belle  collieries,  France,  564. 

Carew,  — . ,  quoted,  83. 

Camon  estate,  Cornwall,  survey  of,  201. 

Carnot,  Ad.,  assaying  of  antimony  ores, 
555. 

Carolina,  U.S.A.,  mica  mines,  573. 

Case  school  of  applied  science,  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  U.S.A.,  663. 

Castelnau  system  of  ore-dressing,  579. 

Castle  hill  coal  mining  company,  New 
Zealand,  57. 

station,  New  Zealand,  32. 

Caucasus,  naphtha,  599. 

— ,  —  reffion,  geology  of  the,  596. 

Cavendish  laboratory,  Cambridge,  208. 

Cafbux,  — .,  quoted,  112. 

Cazalet,  Percy,  election,  S.S.,  379. 

Central  marine  works,  Hartlepool,  surface 
condenser,  226. 

Centre  hill,  New  Zealand,  33. 

Centre-line  apparatus,  combined,  364. 

Centrifugal  ventilators,  619. 

Cerareyrite,  anlaysis,  279. 

Certificates,  mine  managers.  New  Zea- 
land, 78. 

Chalcopyrite,  analysis,  280. 

Challenges  mine,  France,  fire-setting, 
87. 

CHABfBERs,  Altred,  M,fety-lamp  with- 
alcohol'flame,  469. 

Chamrers,  a.  M.  ,  vote  of  thanks  to  pre- 
sidtnt,  370. 

Chambers,  Francis  Ernest,  election, 
M.,  483. 

Chambers,  Fred.,  election,  C,  355. 


Chambers,  J.   E.,   member  of  council, 

election,  M.,  490. 
Chambers,  W.  Hooi  e,  arrangements  for 
sinking   to  the  whinmoor  seam  from 
the  silkstone  seam  at  the  Tankersley 
collieries,  360.  — Discussion,  163. 
— ,  election  ofoffictrn^  M.,  490. 
— ,  member  of  council,  election,  M. ,  490. 
— ,  vote  of  thanks  to,  370. 
Champaign  county,  U.S.A.,  university  of 

Illinois,  Urbana,  647. 
Chandler,    N.,    engineering   scraps   in 

Australian  cocd-minivg,  389. 
Changing  houses  for  miners,  617. 
Channel  tunnel  company,  boring  at  Dover, 

1.^2. 
Channino,  J.  Parke,  the  underground 

fire  at  the  Lake  Superior  mine,  Ishpem- 

ing,  Michigan,  563. 
Chapman    &    Graham,    apparatus    for 

lighting  safety-lamps,  492. 
Charleton,  a.  G.,  the  choice  of  coarse 

and  fine-crushing  machinery  and  pro- 
cesses of  ore  treatment.     Part  111., 

silver,  271. 
Chase,  Harvey  S.,  magnetic  concentra- 
tion of  iron-ore,  576. 
Ch atelier,  H.  le,  quoted,  216. 
Chemical  elimination  of  the  gases  which 

form  fire-damp,  504. 
Chesnau,  G.,  quoted,  205,  206,  211,  216, 

473. 
— ,  fire-damp  indicator,  472. 
Chester,  P.  M.,  member  of  council,  nomi- 
nation, 357  ;  election,  C,  455. 
Chew  down,  Mendip  hills,  J  37. 
Chifldn  pass.  U.S.  (Jolombia,  233,  234. 
Chihuahua,  Mexico,  North  Mexican  min 

ing  CO.,  334. 
Childb,  H.  S  ,  member  of  council,  e^ 

tion,  M.,  490. 
Chili,   fondo  process  of  ore  treat* 

;0L 
— ,  minin^^  and  metallurgy  in,  58? 
ChiquiU  river,  U.S.  Colombia,  2- 
Chism,  R.  E.,  quoted,  i97. 
Chivialite,  analysis,  280. 
Chlorination  of  gold-ores,  670 
Choice     of     coarse     and     ' 

machinery  and  processes 

ment.  — Part  III. ,  silver, 

dry  pan-amalgamation 

27 1 . —The  Washoe  pro 

ing    milling— the  Kf 

275.— The  Boss  pre 

ing  amalgam,  278 

etc.,  279.— Exaff 

process,     285.— 

ing     milling 

inff  mills,  293. 

—The  fondo 

—The  leacJ 

302.— Lixi- 

viation,  3' 

— Lixivi' 


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674 


INDEX. 


336. — Treatment  of  the  sulphides 
obtained  from  the  Russell  process, 
343.  —  Examples  of  the  Russell  process, 
344. 

Chorro,  U.S.  Colombia,  -230,  240,  246. 

Christchurch,  New  Zealand,  49. 

Christy  mining  and  milling  co.,  cost  of 
working  mill,  288. 

Chrome-ore,  New  Zealand,  exports,  79. 

Clare,  Milltown  lead-mine,  84. 

Clarence,  New  Zealand,  coal-field,  74. 

Clark,  W.  F.,  ewjineering  scraps  in 
Australian  coal-mining ^  389. 

—  ,  letter  of  condolence  to,  390. 
— ,  prize  for  papers,  1. 

— ,  quoted,  392,  393,  401. 

— ,  spontaneotis  combustion  of  coal ^  415. 

Classification  of  members,  M.,  488. 

Clausthal,  Uarz,  Germany,  royal  school 
of  mines,  640. 

Clausthalite,  analysis,  280. 

Clay  cross  company,  460. 

Clkroy,  J.  DE,  petroleum  in  France,  595. 

Cleveland,  Ohio,  U.S.A.,  Case  school  of 
applied  science,  663. 

— ,  subsidences  of  surface,  190. 

Clowes,  F.,  a  portable  safety-lamp, 
with  ordinary  oil  illuminating  flame, 
and  standard  hydrogen- flame,  for  accu- 
rate and  delicate  gas- testing. — Dis- 
cussion, 265,  367 1  374. 

— ,  quoted,  466. 

— ,  safety-lamp  with  nlcohol-fiame^  469. 

Clutha,  New  Zealand,  coal-field,  54,  74. 

—  river,  New  Zealand,  54. 

—  valley.  New  Zealand,  32. 
Coal,  New  Zealand,  analysis,  48. 
— , ,  anhydrous,  34. 

— , ,  bituminous.  34. 

— , .  classification,  33. 

— , ,  consumption,  32,  67. 

— , ,  exported,  32,  67,  69,  70,  79. 

— ,  -  — .  imported,  32,  67,  68. 

— , ,  quantity  available,  32,  73. 

— ,  spontaneous  combustion,  392,  409. 

Coals  liable  to  spontaneous  combustion, 
399,  407. 

Coalbrookdale,  New  Zealand,  coal  analy- 
sis, 45. 

—  colliery,  New  Zealand,  43. 
Coal-dust  and  Poetsch  freezing  process, 

545. 

,  damping  and  removal  of,  543. 

,  laying  by  steam,  544. 

__  __^  \irjLter    544 

Coal-fields,  Belgium,  107,  127,  129,  136. 

,  Bristol,  135. 

,  Dover,  1U6,  119,  122,  12.3,  125,  126, 

127,  128,  131. 

,  France,  Annoeulin,  117,  120. 

,  — ,  Dour,  114. 

,  — ,  Fuveau,  655,  667. 

,  — ,  Marchiennes,  117. 

,  — ,  Nord,  113,  125,  137. 

,  — ,  Ostricourt,  117. 


Coal-fields,  France,  Pas-de-Calais,  107, 
117,  119,  1:^0,  122,  125,  127,  128. 

,  — , ,  Bethune,  117,  120. 

,  — ,  St.  Aniand,  117. 

,  lignite,  France,  Fuveau,  555,  557. 

,  New  Zealand,  areas,  etc.,  74. 

, ,  Auckland,  31,  35. 

, ,  Buller,  42,  74. 

, ,  Canterbury,  31,  51. 

, ,  Clarence,  74. 

^ ,  Clutha,  54,  74. 

, ,  Collingwood,  31,  39,  74. 

, ,  general  notes  on,  31,  35. 

, ,  (ireen  island,  64,  74. 

, ,  Greymouth,  48,  74. 

, ,  Uikurangi,  36. 

, ,  Kakahu,  74. 

, ,  Karamea,  74. 

^ ^  Kawakawa,  35,  74. 

, ,  Malvern,  74. 

, ,  Matiri,  74. 

, ,  Mokau.  31,  38,  74. 

, ,  Mokihinui,  43. 

, ,  Mongonui,  35. 

, ,  Nightcaps,  74. 

, ,  North  island,  31,  .35. 

, ,  Otago,  31,  52,  77. 

, ,  Fict<m,  31,  39. 

, ,  Point  Elizabeth,  51. 

, ,  Reefton,  48,  74. 

, ,  Shag  point,  74. 

, ,  Somers,  74. 

, ,  South  island,  31,  39,  74,  75. 

, ,  Southland,  31,  52,  58. 

, ,  Tokaka,  31,  39. 

, ,  Waikato,  37,  38,  74. 

, ,  Waugapeka,  74. 

, ,  Wangaroa,  Zb, 

, ,  west  coast,  31,  41,  74,  75. 

, ,  West  Wanganui,  40. 

, ,  VVinton,  74. 

,  Northern  France,  1C6. 

,  Radstock,  1.35. 

,  Somerset,  106,  107,  126,  129,  130, 

131,  134,  135. 

,  Southern  England,  106. 

,  Yorkshire,  153,  163. 

Coal-measures,  sections  of  shafts  through 
red  marls  and,  193,  194. 

Coal-miners  relief  fund.  New  Zealand,  65. 

Coal-mines  Act,  1891,  New  Zealand,  59. 

,  New  Zealand,  accidents,  66. 

,  spontaneous  combust  ionin,  10. 

Coal-mining,  Australian,  engineering 
scraps  in,  386. 

,  New  Zealand,  31. 

Coal-output,  Great  Britain,  458,  460. 

,  New  Zealand,  32,  67,  68,  73,  79. 

, ,  North  island,  71,  72. 

, ,  South  island,  71. 

Coalpit-heath  mine.  New  Zealand,  48, 
49. 

Coal-Bcreening  in  the  United  State?.  615. 

Coal-seams,  New  Soutii  Wales,  New- 
castle, 173. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


INDEX. 


675 


Coal-tippers,  388. 

Coarse  and  fine-cnishing  machinery  and 

processes  of  ore  treatment,  271. 
CocHETEUX,   A.,  sulphur   on  pit-heaps, 

617. 
Cochrane,  W.,  manometric  efficiency  of 

fans,  255,  256,  257,  258. 
— ,     Urganob     district ,      Tolima,     U.S. 

Colombia,  249. 
CocKBORN,    Evan,    nomination,    N.E., 

232. 
Coke,  G.  E.,  member  of  council,  nomina- 
tion, 358 ;  election,  455. 
— ,  past  vice-president,  C. ,  455. 
— ,  HpontanevoH  combustion  in  coal-minesy 

26,  27. 
Coke,  New  Zealand,  exports,  79. 
— ,  use  of  in  fire-setting,  87. 
Coke-ovens,  Grassmoor  collieries,  479. 
Cole,  R.  H.  ,  iwe  of  mineral  oils  under- 
ground, 437,  439. 
Collecting  work,  geological  sui'vey,  156. 
College  of   engineering,    Tokio,   Japan, 

642. 
Montana,    Deer    Lodge,    U.S.A., 

658. 
Collieries,  relighting  safety-lamps  in,  607. 
Colliery  records  of  labour  costs,  3»7. 
CoUiugwood,   New   Zealand,   coal-fields, 

31,  39,  l4, 

— , ,  coal  analysis,  40. 

— , ,  coal-output,  72. 

Collins,   Arthur  L.,   fire-setting;   the 

art  of  mining  by  fire,  82.— Discussion, 

88. 
Collins,  William  Fredekick,  election, 

C,  443. 
CoLUS,  W.  B.,  alteration  of  rides,  S.S., 

380. 
— ,  spontuneoiui  combustion  of  coed,  412. 
Colombia,  the  gold-bearing  veins  of  the 

Organos  district,  Tolima,  233. 
Colorado,  U.S.A.,  coal,  282. 
— ,  — ,  Holden  mill.  Aspen,  282. 
— ,  — ,   state  school  of    mines.   Golden, 

646. 
Columbia  college,    city    of   New   York, 

U.S.A.,  659. 
Columbus,  U.S.A.,  Ohio  state  university, 

662. 
Combined  centre-line  apparatus,  364. — 

Discussion,  366. 
Combustion  of    coal,   spontaneous,   392, 

409. 

gases,  306. 

Compressed   air  hauling- engine,    (irass- 

moor  collieries,  477. 
Compression  (or  forcing  back)  of  gas,  .504. 
Comstock,  U.S.A.,  silver  ores,  287,  296. 
— ,    — ,    tailings    treated    at    Drayton, 

Nevada,  295. 
Concentration  of  iron-ore,  magnetic,  576. 
—  works  at  Maiem,  Tirol,  574. 
Concentrator,  Konl-'-ng  magnetic,  576. 
Concepoion,  U.S.  C      ubia,  246. 


Condition  of  miners.  New  Zealand,  32, 
74. 

Conglomerates  (auriferous),  Witwaters- 
randt,  169. 

Constantia  mine,  U.S.  Colombia,  236, 
238,  239. 

Contents,  iii. 

CooDE,  Sir  John,  quoted,  45. 

Cooke,  — .,  quoted,  256. 

Co-operative  mine.  New  Zealand,  38. 

Copiapo.  tina  process  of  ore- treatment, 
301. 

Copper-mines,  Boleo,  Mexico,  561. 

Copper-ore,  New  Zealand,  exports,  79. 

Copper-region,  Michigan,  563. 

Copper-smelting,  improvements  in,  567. 

Cornish  pumping  engine,  Grassmoor 
colliery,  479. 

Cornwall,  geological  survey,  143,  163, 
163. 

— ,  killas,  149. 

— ,  school  of  mines,  Camborne,  627. 

— ,  survey  of  Carnon  estate,  201. 

Correlation  of  the  coal-fields  of  Northern 
France  and  Southern  England.— I. 
introductory  remarks,  106  — II.  God- 
win-Austen's principle — Recurrence  of 
folds  along  the  same  lines,  J  07.  — III. 
General  concordance  of  the  systems  of 
ancient  and  recent  folds,  109. —IV. 
The  bearing  of  marine  denudation  on 
the  question  of  the  folds,  1 1 1. — V.  The 
folds  in  Boulonnais,  112.  — VI.  The 
folds  in  the  ^ord  coal- basin,  113. — 
VII.  The  folds  in  the  Pas-de-Calais 
coul-basin,  117. — VIII.  Summary  of 
conclusions  drawn  from  the  evidence 
in  the  north  of  France,  ll8. — IX. 
Application  of  the  principle  to  the 
coal-basins  of  the  Pas-de- Calais,  the 
Boulonnais,  and  Dover,  119. — X.  The 
evidence  from  borings,  12 1. — XI. 
Application  of  the  preceding  considera- 
tions to  the  Dover  basin,  122.— XII. 
General  conclusions,  124. — Discussion, 
126. 

Corve  under-frames,  387. 

Council,  election,  M.,  490. 

— ,  nomination,  357  ;  election,  C,  455. 

—  of  federated  institution,  C,  455. 

,  M.,491. 

Council's  annual  report,  C,  444. 

,  M.,  484. 

CowpER,  — .,  quoted,  399. 

Cox,  S.  Herbert,  auriferous  conglomer- 
ate* of  the  Witwattrtn-andt ,  179. 

— ,  quoted,  43,  173. 

CoxE,  EcKLEY  B.,  coal-screening  in  the 
United  States,  015. 

CoxE  Bros.  &  Co.,  fan  experiments,  622. 

Cradle  for  washing  alhivials,  higaud,  578. 

Cran  de  retour  fault,  Anzin,  France,  115. 

Creech,  — .,  Diodorus,  quoted,  82. 

Crompton  &  Co.,  switch-board,  226. 

— ,  dynamos,  222,  225. 


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676 


INDEX. 


Crompton- Howard  batteries,  227. 

CroBsneas,  boring,  130. 

Crushing  and  roasting  plant,  costs,  339. 

Cumberland  miners'  rights,  84. 

Cupel  bottoms,  etc.,  silver  in,  280. 

Cupric  chloride  used  for  badly-roasted 

cfiarges,  324. 
Curtis,  A.  H.,  quoted,  251. 
Cusi  mill,  Afexico,  321,  322,  323. 
Cusihuriachic,   Mexico,   North  Mexican 

mining  company,  334. 
CuvBUBR,  — . ,  lock  for  safety-lamps,  606. 

D'Abbadie,  — .,  quoted,  207. 
Daggett,  Ellsworth,  quoted,  323,  337. 
Daglish,  John,  vote  of  thaiiks  to  presi- 

de3U,9. 
— ,  water-gauge,  474,  475,  476. 
Dakota,   U.S.A,,  cost    of    mill    labour, 

295. 
Daly  mining  co.,  Marsac  mill,  U.S.A., 

344,  348. 
Damage  to  house  at  Bishop  Auckland, 

190. 
Dana,  Prof.,  quoted,  107. 
Darwin,  Prof.  G.,  quoted,  2!  5. 
Darwin,  G.  &  H.  ,  experiments  on  lunar 

attraction,  208. 
Darwin,  Horace,  new  pendulum,  219 ; 

vote  of  thanks  to,  219. 
Davy,  Geo.,  election,  N.E.,  231. 
Davy,  Paxman,  &  Co.,  boilers,  222,  224. 
— ,  dynamo,  225. 

Davidson,   Walter  B.  M.,  suggestions 
as    to  the    origin    and    deposition  of 
Florida  phosphates,  593. 
Davis,  H.,  water-gauge,  474. 
Davison,  Charles,  earth  ptdscUuma  and 

mine-gas t  219. 
De  Kaap  valley.  South  Africa,  173. 
Db  Launay,  — . ,  mining  in  Sardinia,  580. 
Db  Morgan,  J.,  petroleum  in  Persia,  601. 
Deacon,  M.,  annual  report  of  council,  C, 

453. 
— ,  quoted,  264. 
— ,     vice-president,     nomination,     357 ; 

election,  C,  455. 
Dean,  Arthur,  election,  N.S.,  419. 
Dean,  Samuel  Webster,  election,  N.S., 

419. 
Deccan,  India,  fire-setting,  90. 
Decomposing  mine-gases,  507. 
Deeoke,  W.,  the  sulphur  mines  of  Alta- 

villa-Lrpina,  Italy,  618. 
Deer  lodge,  U.S.  A.,  college  of,  Montana, 

658. 
Delaware  and  Hudson  coal  co.,  fan  ex- 
periments, 619. 
Delaware,  I^kwanna,  and  western  rail- 
road company,   fan  experiments,   621, 
622, 
Delanoub,  — .,  quoted,  121. 
Delette,  France,  120. 
Deuus,  — .,  quoted,  85,  251. 
Denain,  Frsknce,  115,  116. 


Dent-head  limestone  quarry,  Yorkshire, 

383,384. 
Derby  gas  light  and  coke  co. ,  472. 
Derbyshire  mining  district,  output,  460. 
— ,  gob-fires,  19. 

Description  of  mining  relics  found  at  the 
Heath  end  colliery,  391. 

the  South  Dyffryn  and  Abercanaid 

collieries,  416. 
Desmarbst,  — .,  quoted,  143. 
Desvres,  Frauce,  borings,  121. 
De-squiens,  F.,  Castelnau  system  of  ore- 
dressing,  579. 
Devirs  kantoor.  South  Africa,  crystallino 

gold,  183. 
Devonshire,  108. 

— ,  geological  survey,  143,  153,  163. 
d'Halloy,  J.  d*Omalius,  geological  map 

of  France,  143. 
Dickinson,  Joseph,  outbursts  of  gas,  etc. , 

384. 
— ,  quoted,  136. 

DiODORUS,  SicuLUS,  quotcd,  82,  83. 
Direct-acting  pump,  Lockett  &  Gough, 

431,  439. 
Dixon,  Prof.  H.,  (quoted,  399. 
DoBiNSON,  luy  friction  dutchefiy  378. 
Dodge  fan,  experiments,  622. 
Dollfus,  Prof.,  quoted,  HO,  119. 
DoMAGE,  — .,  the  deep  adit-level  in  the 
Fuvean  lignite  coal-field.  Franco,  567. 
Dorrance  colliery,  fan  experiments,  621. 
Dorsetshire,  oolitic  strata,  149. 
Double  fan,  experiments,  619. 
Double  shaft  system,  .508. 
Douglas,  Arthur  Stanley,  election,  C, 

355. 
Douglas,  Thomas,  quoted,  189. 
Dover,  boring,  108,  131,  132,  136. 
—  coal-basin,  106,  107,  119, 122,  123, 125, 

126,  127,  128,  131. 
Douai,  France,  cran  de  retour  fault,  115. 
— ,  — ,  Dour  fold,  116. 
— ,  — ,  liberation  of  fire-damp,  205. 
— ,  — ,  mine-overmen's  school,  638. 
Dour,  France,  114,  116. 
Downing,  John,  election,  443. 
Doyet    collieries,    France,    underground 

fires,  396. 
Drainage    of    sinking   shafts;    Tomson 

system,  612 
Drayton,    Nevada,    U.S.A.,     Comstock 

tailings  treated,  295. 
Diift  survey,  147. 

Drifton  No  2  slope,  U.S. A.,  fan  experi- 
ments, 622. 
Drinker,  H.  S.  ,  quoted,  85,  88. 
Drakensberg,  South  Africa,  182. 
Drury,  New  Zealand,  35. 
Dry  and  wet  pan -amalgamation,  271. 
"  Dryad,"  H.M.S.,  engines,  230. 
Dry- crushing  and  roasting  plant,  costs, 

Dublin  museum,  155,  166. 

DuBRUEiL,  P.,  petroleum  in  France,  595. 


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INBBX. 


677 


DiTDLBy,  Dud,  quoted,  413. 

Dudley  mine,  New  Zealand,  coal 
analysis,  48. 

DuFRENOY,  — .,  geological  map  of  France, 
143. 

Dofrenoysite,  analysis,  280. 

DuMONT,  — .,  quoted,  143. 

Duncan,  George  Thomas,  nomination, 
N.E.,  232. 

Dunedin,  New  Zealand,  54. 

— , ,  university  of  Otago,  632. 

Dunkirk,  France,  123. 

DuRAND,  — .,  quoted,  396,  398,  402,  408. 

Durango  state,  Mexico,  ore  treatment, 
297. 

Durham,  support  of  buildings,  189,  190. 

Durham  college  of  science,  Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne,  628. 

Dutoitspan,  spontaneous  combustion  of 
black  shale,  409. 

DcTSON,  J.,  member  of  council,  nomina- 
tion, C,  357. 

Dwyka  conglomerates,  Cape  Colony,  186. 

Dyffryn  colliery,  416. 

I^rnamite,  blasting  with,  87. 

Earth-explosion  or  "bump*'  at  Ham- 
stead  colliery,  381. 

Earth-pulsations  and  mine  gas.— 1.  In- 
troduction, 203. — 2.  On  the  escape  of 
mine  gas  in  relation  to  earth-pulsations, 
204. — 3.  Observations  on  earth-pulsa- 
tions in  Japan,  207.— 4.  Distribution 
of  earth-pulsations  in  space  and  time, 
210.  — 5.  Tromometric  movements  in  re- 
lation to  barometric  conditions,  212. — 
6.  Theoretical  aspect  of  the  question, 
216. — 7.  The  escape  of  fire-damp  in 
relation  to  barometrical  pressure,  216. 
—Conclusion,  217. — Discussion,  219. 

East  Howie  colliery,  fan  experiments, 
620. 

Eastlake,  a.  W.,  prize  for  pper,  1. 

Easton,  Pennsylvania,  U.S.  A.,  Lafayette 
college,  667. 

Eastwood,  E.,  treasurer,  election,  C, 
455. 

Eberhardt  process  of  ore  treatment, 
284. 

EcK,  Richard,  nomination,  N.E.,  232. 

Edinburgh  museum,  155,  166. 

Edison-Swan  electric  lamps,  227. 

Education  of  mining  engineers,  623. — 
Appendix,  625. 

Effere,  — .,  Maros  washing- table,  578. 

— ,  Rigaud  cradle  for  washing  alluvials, 
578. 

EoLBSTON,  Dr.  T.,  quoted,  291, 296,  301, 
341,342. 

Egypt,  mining  by  fire,  82. 

Eisleben,  Saxony,  Halle  and  Anhalt 
mining  school,  642. 

Eissler,  — .,  quoted,  278,  286,  286,  287, 
294. 

El  Dorado,  U.a  Colombia,  246. 


Electric  construction  corporation,  222, 
226. 

—  light,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  costs, 
423. 

—  lighting,  Abercanaid  colliery,  418. 
act,  1882,  421. 

and  transmission  of  power,  420. — 

Discussion,  422. 
of  safety-lamps,  491. 

—  motors,  Abercanaid  colliery,  417. 

—  safety-lamp,  Tommasi,  608. 

—  supply  corporation,  Westminster,  220. 
Electrum,  analysis,  279. 

Elevator  and  conveyor,  283. 

Elkhom  company,  Montana,  U  S.A., 
cost  of  milling,  2dS. — Cost  of  ore  treat- 
ment, 342. 

Elliot,  Sir  George,  spontaiieotis  com- 
fyu8tion  in  cocd-minen^  26. 

Elliott,  William,  election,  C  ,  355. 

Ells,  R.  W.,  phosphates  in  Canada,  592. 

Embolite,  analysis,  279. 

Emerson,  Robert,  election.  N.E.,  232. 

Emmons,  — ,  quoted,  251. 

Empire,  fan  experiments,  620. 

Enargite,  analysis,  280. 

Engineering  scraps  in  Australian  coal- 
mining, 386. — under-reaming  in  deep 
borings,  386.— Colliery  records  of 
labour  costs,  387. — Skip  or  con-e  under- 
frames,  387. — Heating  in  the  bearings 
of  heavy  fan-engine  shafts,  387.  —Coal 
tippers,  388.— Discussion,  383. 

England,  southern  coal-fields,  106. 

Ergny,  France,  120. 

Erubescite,  analysis,  280. 

Escarpelle,  France,  116. 

Escouilles,  France,  121. 

Ethiopia,  gold-mines,  82. 

Eukarite,  analysis,  279. 

Examinations  for  mine  managers'  certi- 
ficates. New  Zealand,  78. 

Exhaustion  of  gases,  505. 

Experiments  upon  two  Guibal  fans  at 
St.  John's  colliery,  Nomianton.— Dis- 
cussion, 376. 

Explosion  doors,  545. 

Explosion,  or  **bump"  at  Hamstead 
colliery,  381. 

Explosions,  life-saving  after,  545. 

— ,  precautionary  measures  against,  535. 

Explosive  slickensides,  383. 

Explosives,  high,  substitution  of,  for 
gunpowder,  542. 

— ,  use  of,  539. 

Exports,  coal,  New  Zealand,  32,  67,  68, 
69,70,79. 

— ,  kauri  gum,  New  Zealand,  77. 

Fabian,  — . ,  miners'  changing  and  wash- 
houses,  617. 
Fair  lady  pit,  10. 
Fairley,  W.,  quoted,  .^184. 
Fahlerz,  analysis,  279. 
Fan,  Capell,411. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ IC 


678 


INDEX. 


Fan  engines,  heating  in  heavy  bearings, 

387. 
—  — ,  (irassinoor  collieries,  479. 
Fan,  experiments,  619. 
Fauqueinbergue,  France,  119. 
Fans,  Guibal,  Grassmoor  collieries,  479. 
— ,  — ,  experiments  upon,  376. 
— ,  —  and  Uapell,  Maries  collieries,  255. 
— ,  manometric  efficiency,  252. 
Fab  AM,  — .,  electric  lighting  and  irans- 

misnion  of  power y  4S2.. 
Fabky,  — .,  quoted,  84. 
Fawcktt,  — . ,  brick-making  machine,  372. 

— , ,  Grassmoor  colliery,  479. 

Fayol,  a.,  quoted,  397,  398,  402,  408. 
Felsobanya,  Hungary,  87. 
Fencing-ofif  dangerous  places,  536. 
Feock  parish,  (>)mwali,  201. 
Ferguson,  G.  A.,  election,  N.E.,  231. 
Ferques.  France,  107,  112,  119,  120,  122, 

125. 
Fkbrier,   H.,    manometric    efficiency    of 

fans,  259. 
FiLBY,   — .,  auriferoiut  conglomerates  of 

WittcaXerftrandty  181. 
Fine-crushing  machinery  and  processes  of 

ore  treatment,  271. 
Fiery -ni hies,  general  regulations,  547. 

,  lighting  of,  549. 

,  principles  to  be  observed,  547. 

,  shot-hring,  549. 

,  special  regulations,  550. 

,  ventilation,  547. 

Fire,  Bamfurlong  colliery,  434. 

— ,  great  western  colliery,  435. 

— ,  Peaicuik  colliery,  435. 

— ,  Lake  Superior  mine,  Michigan,  563. 

— ,  Wheldale  colliery,  435. 

Fire-blende,  analysis,  279. 

Fire-setting  :  the  art  of  mining  by  tire, 

82. — Discussion,  88. 
Fire-stink,  22. 
Fire-damp,  barometrical  fluctuation  and, 

205,  206,  216. 
commission,  report  of  the  Prussian, 

267,  500. 

y  elimination  of  the  gases,  504. 

,  examination  of  workings,  503. 

explosions  in  (Germany,  207. 

indicators,  500,  507. 

,  Chesnau,  472. 

,  means  and  methods  of  combating, 

500. 
,  measures  to  be  taken  when  present,   ■ 

536. 
,  microseismic  disturlmuces  and,  205, 

206. 

,  recognition  of,  500. 

rendered  innocuous  by  mechanical 

dilution,  507. 

,  sudden  outbursts,  205.  | 

FisHKR  &   Walker,    rope    wheels    and  i 

clutches,  Grassmoor  collieries,  478.  I 

FiTTON,  W.  H.,  election,  S.S.,  379.  i 

Flanders,  119.  I 


FlechineUe,  France,  107,  114,  120,  125. 
Flint,  Idaho,  U.S.A.,  silver-ores,  336. 
Florida,  U.S.A.,  phosphates,  593. 
Fo<}00,  W.,  election,  S.S.,  379. 
Folkstone,  122. 

Fondo  process  of  ore-treatment,  301. 
Forbes,     Edward,    geological    survey, 

loo. 
Ford,  C.  F.  V.,  scrutineer,  C,  443  ;  vote 

of  thanks  to,  461. 
Ford,  Stanley  H.,  election,  N.E.,  231. 
Forest  of  Boulogne,  France,  120. 
Fore- winning,  508,  511,  513. 
Forster,  T.  E.,  milling  in  New  Zealand^ 

80,81. 
— ,  sponfanemut  comhufttion  in  coal-mineny 

29. 
Fossil  resin.  New  Zealand,  76,  77,  79. 

—  fuels,  Italy,  560. 

—  turpentine.  New  Zealand,  76. 
Foster,  C.  lk  Neve,  fire-Hettiwfy  88. 
Foster,  LI,  224. 

Foulstone,  William,  a  combined  centre- 
line apparatus,  364. — Discussion,  366. 

— ,  election,  M.,  374. 

Fox  V,  Hale  &  Nobcross  Co.,  294. 

France,  Douai  mine  overmen's  school,  638. 
--,  Fuveau,  lignite  coal-field,  555,  557. 

— ,  geological  survey,  143. 

—,  (iuibal  and  Capell  fans  at  Maries 
collieries,  255. 

— ,  liberation  of  fire-damp  at  Douai,  205. 

— ,  national  higher  scliool  of  mines,  Paris, 
6m 

— ,  northern  coal-fields,  106. 

— ,  outbursts  of  carbonic  acid  gas  at 
Rochebelle  collieries,  564. 

— ,  petroleum,  595. 

— ,  Saint  Etienne  school  of  mines,  639. 

— ,  underground  fires  at  Doyet  collieries, 
396. 

— ,  Valdonue  collieries  (Fuveau  coal-field), 
557. 

Francke-tina  process  of  ore- treatment, 
301. 

Franco-Belgian,  coal-lmsin,  107. 

Fraser  &  Fraser,  boilers.  222,  224. 

Freezing  process  (Poetsch)  for  laying  coal- 
dust,  545. 

Freiberg,  Saxony,  royal  Saxon  academy 
of  mining,  64 1 . 

French  commission  on  explosives,  quoted, 
473. 

Fruges,  France,  119,  120. 

Friction-clutches,  378. 

Freieslebenite,  analysis,  279. 

Fuels,  Italy,  560. 

Furnaces,  ventilating,  518. 

Fuveau  coal-field,  France,  Valdonne 
collieries,  555,  557. 

Galena,  analysis,  280. 
— ,  Sardinia,  argentiferous,  84. 
Galicia,  Austria,  naphtha,  695. 
Galloway,  W.,  quoted,  216. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


INDEX. 


679 


Galloway,  W.,  and  C.  le  Nevk  Foster, 

quoted,  85. 
Garforth,  W.  K,  cbccounU,  M.,  488. 
— ,  clcumficcUum  o/memberHj  M.,  489. 
— ,  combined  ceiUre-Htie  apparvUus,  367. 
— ,  filectiati  ofoffieerHy  M.,  491. 
— ,  experimeiUn  upon  two    GhiUbcU  fantt, 

376,377,378. 
— ,  federcUed  iniftUtUioii,  of  mining  engin- 

eers,  359. 
— ,  JHction-cltUf'heSi  378. 
^,   hydrogen-oil  8ajety4amp,  367,  370, 

374. 
— ,  member  of  council,  election,  491. 
— ,  miners''  safety-lamps,  491,  492. 
— ,  president,  election,  M.,  4'^0. 
— ,  vote  of  thanks  to,  370,  490. 
Gakside,  Frederick,  election,  M.,  374. 
Gas,  a  safety 'lamp  with  standard  alcohol- 

iiame  for  the  detection  and  estimation, 

of,  462. 
— ,  analysis,  Derby  gas  light  and  coke 

company.  472. 
— ,  carbonic  acid,  outbursts  of,  at  Roche- 
belle  collieries,  France,  504. 
— ,  earth  pulsations  and  mine,  203. 
— ,  Jarrow  colliery,  analysis,  473. 

—  light  and  coke  company,  227. 
— ,  mode  of  testing  for.  405. 

—  tests  with  alcohol-flame,  466. 

—  making.    New  Zealand,   Greymouth 
coal,  51. 

—  testing,  hydrogen  flame  for,  265,  367, 
374. 

—  works,  Grassmoor  colliery,  479. 
Gases,  elimination  of,  504. 

Geddas  and  Bertrand,  mill,   Nevada, 

U.S. A.,  342. 
Geikie,  Sir  Archib.\ld,  quoted,  180, 185. 
— ,   the  work  of  the  geological  survey, 

142. — Discussion,  167. 
General  rules,  New  Zealand,  61. 
Geolofi||ical  and  mining  institute,    royal, 

Berun,  Germany,  639. 

—  map  by  Wni.  Smith,  142. 

—  maps,  143. 
,  prices,  159. 

—  survey.  New  Zealand,  32,  39. 
,  work  of,  142. 

Geology  of  the  Caucasian  naphtha  region, 

596. 
Germany,   Berlin    royal    geological  and 

mininff  institute,  Berlin.  639. 
— ,  fire-damp  explosions,  207,  211. 
— ,  fire-setting,  83,  85,  8«).  87,  89. 
— ,   royal    school  of    mines,    Clausthal, 

Harz,  640. 
— ,     —      technical      college,       Aix-la- 

Chapelle,  639. 
Glance  coal.  New  Zealand,  34. 
Glasgow,  barometer,  etc.,  readings,  1892, 

Glass  tubes,. water-gauge.  476. 
Glennie,    W.   H.,  enffiiieeriug  scraps  in 
Australian  coal- mining,  389. 


Gibson,  Walcot,  auriferous  conglomer- 
ates of  WittocUersrandt,  178. 

Gilchrist,  Thomas,  election,  N.E.,  231. 

Gill,  Joe,  earth-explosion  at  Hamstead 
colliery,  381. 

Ginsberg  mine,  Witwatersrandt,  178,  184, 
185. 

Girardot,  U.S.  Colombia,  233. 

Gob-fires,  Derbyshire,  19. 

,  Leicestershire,  19. 

—  — ,  North  Staffordshire,  Harecastle 
colliery,  26. 

, ,  Leycett  collieries,  10. 

,  Nova  Scotia,  26. 

,  Shropshire,  20. 

,  South  Staffordshire,  20. 

,  Warwickshire,  19,  20. 

,  Worcestershire,  20. 

Godwin- Austen,  Prof.,  quoted,  106, 107, 

108,  110,  119,  129,  131,  132,  133,  134, 

1.35,  136,  137,  138. 
GoFFiN,  Joseph,  relighting  safety-lamps 

in  collieries,  607. 
— ,  theCuvelier  lock  for  safety -lamps,  606. 
Gold  and  platinum.  New  South  Wales, 

origin  and  distribution,  565. 
silver,  natural  alloy,  279. 

—  Coast,  banket  deposits,  177,  178,  184. 
— ,  New  Zealand,  exports,  79. 

— ,  precipation  from  solutions,  670. 

Gold-bearin|^  veins  oP  the  Organos  dis- 
trict, Tolima,  U.S.  Colombia. — Intro- 
duction, 233. — 1.  Auriferous-bedded 
veins  or  seams,  236  — 2.  (o)  Veins  of 
auriferous  gossan,  238.— (6)  Veins  of 
auriferous  quartz,  239.-3.  Auriferous 
fluccany  joints,  240. — 4.  Auriferous 
quartz  fissure-joints,  240. — Auriferous 
impregnations,  249. — Discussion,  249. 

Gold-mining,  recent  practice  in  Nova 
Scotia,  579. 

Gold-mines,  Arabia,  82. 

,  Ethiopia,  82. 

,  Lebe  &  Meyer,  185. 

,  Spain,  83. 

Gold-ores,  chlorination  of,  570,  57 ! . 

Gulden  U.S,A.,  Colorado  state  school  of 
mines.  646. 

—  bay,  New  Zealand,  39. 

Gossan,  auriferous,  U.S.  Colombia,  236, 
238. 

Gosselet,  Prof.,  quoted,  103,  120,  121, 
132. 

— ,  the  coal-fields  of  northern  France 
and  southern  England,  128. 

GouGH,  —  .,&  J.  Lockett.  the  Lockett& 
Gough  direct-acting  pump,  431.— Dis- 
cussion, 432,  439. 

Gouldie,  -Iosrph,  nomination,  N.E.,  232. 

Grand  prize  silver  mill,  U.S.A.,  285. 

(Granite  mountain  company  Montana, 
U.S.A.,  292,293,  342. 

Granity  creek.  New  Zealand,  46,  47. 

Granville  colliery,  spontaneous  combus- 
tion, 413. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


680 


INDEX. 


Grassmoor  coUieries,  477. 

Gbaves,  U.  G.,  spontaneous  combtialion 
of  coal,  410. 

Gbat,  William  John,  election,  G.,  443. 

Gray,  — .,  modified  type  of  safetj-lamp, 
463. 

Gbazebbook,  a.  W.,  spontaneow  combus- 
tion of  coal,  414. 

Great  pyramid,  Egypt,  82. 

—  row  seam,  North  Staffordshire,  429. 

—  western  colliery,  435. 
Green,  Prof.  A.  H.,  quoted,  186. 
Green  island,  New  Zealimd,   coal-field, 

32,  54,  74. 
Greenville    county,    Victoria,    Ballarat 

school  of  mines,  industries,  etc. ,  634. 
Green wiELL,  G.  C.,  quoted,  136. 
— ,  the  coal-jie2(U  ojf  northern  France  and 

southern  England,  128. 
Grey  nver.  New  Zealand  coal-field,  41, 

42,  60.  61,  74.  I 

Grey  valley  coal  company,  New  Zealand,  i 

49, 51.  , 

GrevmoHth,  New  Zealand,  coal  analysis, 

— ,  -^  — ,  coal-field,  41,  48,  61,  69.  i 

— , ,  coal-output,  72, 

—  Wallsend  colliery.  New  Zealand,  49, 
50. 

Griffith,  — . ,  geological  map  of  Ireland, 

143. 
Grinhaff,  John,  election,  C,  355. 
Guanajuato,  Mexico,  288. 
GuiBAL,  Theo.,  quoted,  254,  260. 
(tUibal  fans,  Brunner  colliery,  49. 
,  experiments,  376    619,  620,  621, 

622. 
,  Grassmoor  collieries,  479. 

—  — ,  manometric  efficiency,  254,  256, 
259. 

,   Maries  collieries,   255,   256,  257, 

262,  263,  264. 

,  St.  Hilda  colliery,  252. 

,  Staveley  colliery,  253. 

Guines,  France,  124. 

Haast  river,  New  Zealand,  61. 

Hadlby,  — .,  quoted,  341. 

Htematite  ore,   New   Zealand,    exports, 

79. 
Hainaut  school  of  mines  and  industry. 


Mons,  Bel^um,  636. 
[aines,  J 
426,  427 


l^uu 


iongvoali  xoorhing,   425, 


— ,  the  use  of  mtJieral  oils  underground, 

438. 
Hakateramea  valley.  New  Zealand,  32. 
Hale  &  Norcross  Company,  Fox  v.,  294 
Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  gob-fires,  26. 
Hall,    Robert    Owen    de    Kingsley, 

election,  C,  355. 
Halle  and  Anhalt  mining  school,  Eisleben, 

Saxony,  642. 
Halloy,    J.    d'Omalius    d*,    geological 

map  of  France,  143. 


Halsb,  Edward,  auriferous  conglomer- 
ates of  Witwalersrandt,  177. 

— ,  the  gold-bearing  veins  of  the  Organos 
district,  Tolima,  U.S.,  Colombia,  233. 
— Discussion,  249. 

Hamstead  colliery,  earth  explosion  or 
bump,  381. 

Hand-boring  v.  fire-setting,  87. 

Hannibal,  quoted,  83. 

Harbour  boards.  New  Zealand,  59. 

Hardinghen,  France,  coal  analysis,  126. 

— ,  —,  coal-field,  107,  120,  121,  124,  125, 
128. 

— ,  — ,  Providence  pit,  126. 

Hardman,  John  E.,  recent  gold-milling 
practice  in  Nova  Scotia,  679. 

Hardmineseam,  North  Staffordshire,  428. 

Harecastle  colliery,  gob-fires,  26. 

Haroreaves,  Joseph,  nomination  N.E., 
232 

Haroreaves,  W.,  experiments  upon  ttoo 
Ouibal/ans,  377. 

— ,  vice-president,  election,  M.,  490. 

Harrisburg,  Utah,  U.S. A.,  silver-ores, 
287. 

Hartl,  Hans,  telethermometers,  618. 

Harz,  Germany,  royal  school  of  mines, 
Clausthal,  640. 

— ,  — ,  Ilamuielsberg  mine,  fire-setting, 
83,  87,  89. 

Hathorn-Davey,  differential-gear  for 
pumping-engines,  416. 

Hauling-engines,  South  Dyffryn  colliery, 
416. 

Hay,  William,  election,  C,  443. 

Hayward,  W.  J.,  spontaneous  combus- 
tion of  coal,  413. 

Heath,  John,  longwall  working,  426. 

Heath,  W.,  the  use  of  mineral  oils  under- 
ground, 439. 

Heath-end  colliery,  mining  relics  found 
at,  391. 

Hector,  Sir  James,  quoted  32,  33,  41. 

Hedley,  S.  H.,  member  of  council, 
election  M.,.490. 

Helland,  Prof.  A.,  quoted  86. 

Helmhacker,  R.,  the  salt  lakes  of  south- 
western Siberia,  611. 

Hemsworth  Fitzwilliam  colliery,  491. 

Henderson,  C.  Hanford,  mica  mines  of 
Carolina,  U.S. A.,  573. 

Henderson,  James,  rapid  traverser,  199. 

Henderson,  William,  nomination,  N.E., 
232. 

Hendy,  J.  C.  B.,  manometric  efficiency  of 
fans,  259. 

— ,  quoted,  255. 

Hendy,  — .,  challenge  ore-feeders,  289. 

Henry  Clay  colliery,  U.S.A.,  fan  experi- 
ments, 622. 

Henry  colliery,  U.S.A.,  fan  experiments, 
621. 

Henshaw,  John,  election,  C,  355. 

H^BBEBT,  Pbof.,  quoted  110, 

Hebbst,  G.,  quoted  252. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


INDEX. 


681 


Hessite,  analysis,  279. 

Hewitt,  G.,  past  vice-president,  C,  465. 

Hewtpt,  H.  R.,  member  of  council, 
nomination,  357  ;  election,  C,  455. 

— ,  fsa/etylamp  with  cdcoM-flamej  472. 

HiGOiNBOTroM,  Reginald,  election,  C, 
443. 

fliooiNS,  S.,  longxocdl  working,  427. 

High  explosives,  substitution  of,  for  gun- 
powder, 542. 

HiKurangi,  New  Zealand,  coal-field,  35, 
36,38. 

Hn/r,  — .,  quoted.  216. 

Hindu  Kusn,  fire-setting,  90. 

Hirst,  G.  F.,  scrutineer,  C,  443;  vote 
of  thanks  to,  461. 

HoBSON,  Moses,  nomination,  N.E.,  232. 

Hochstetteb,  Db.  von,  quoted,  77. 

HocKiNQ  &  OxLANDEB,  ore-calciner,  283. 

Hodges,  A.  D.,  pan-amalgamation,  295. 

Hoffman,  Oitakeb,  lixiviation  process 
of  ore  treatment,  303. 

— ,  quoted,  304  306,  307,  308,  310,  311, 
312,  314,  315,  316,  317,  320,  321,  322, 
323,  324,  326,  328,  329,  331,  332,  333, 
334,  335. 

Hokitika,  New  Zealand,  51. 

Hokonui  hills,  New  Zealand,  33. 

Holdkn  fan,  experiments,  622. 

—  mill.  Aspen,  Colorado,  U.S.  A.,  282. 

HoLFOBD,  W .  D. ,  vice-president,  nomina- 
tion, 357  ;  election,  G.,  455. 

Holland,  Thomas  H.,  on  mineral  oil 
from  the  Sulieman  hills,  601. 

Holland,  Walter,  election,  C.,  355. 

Hollenbcck  colliery,  U.S.A.,  fan  experi- 
.  ments,  620. 

Holly  lane  seam,  North  Staffordshire,  42S. 

Holmes,  T.  V.,  tfie  coal-fields  of  northern 
France  and  soxUhem  England,  129. 

Holt,  Francis,  memoir,  481. 

Holt,  John,  Jun.,  nomination,  N.E., 
232. 

Honda,  U.S.  Colombia,  233. 

Honorary  members,  xvii. 

HoosoN,  W.,  quoted,  90. 

Hopper,  Edward,  nomination,  N.  E. ,  232. 

Horizon talpendel,  219. 

Horn-silver,  analysis,  279. 

HosKOLD,  H.  D.,  notes  upon  a  practical 
method  of  ascertaining  the  value  or 
price  to  be  paid  for  zinc  mineral,  93. 

Hougham,  123. 

Houghton,  U.S. A.,  Michigan  mining 
school,  653. 

Howard,  W.  F.  ,  auriferona  conglomeralen 
of  Witwatersrandt,  187. 

— ,  member  of  council,  election,  455. 

— .  secretary,  election,  C,  455. 

Howe,  Robert,  quoted,  253. 

Howell  ore-furnace,  307,  308,  312,  313, 
315,  316,  318,  325. 

Howell- WHiTE,ore-fumace,283,291, 318. 

,  ore-roasting  cylinder,  291. 

Hoyt,.C.  a.,  quoted,  351. 


Hubbard,  Judge,  Fox  v.  Hale  and  Nor- 

cross  Co. ,  294. 
Hucqueliers,  France,  119. 
Hughes,  Herbert  W.,  engineering  scrape 

in  Australian  coal-mining,  389. 
— ,  prize  for  paper,  1. 
— ,  quoted,  408. 

— ,  revision  of  rules,  S.S.,  379,  380. 
— ,  sponlaneous  combustion  in  coal-mines, 

27. 
— ,  spontaneous  combustion  of  coal,  392. 

— Discussion,  409. 
Hughes,  Prof.  T.  MoK.,  quoted,  383. 
HuooN,  — .,  Quoted,  87. 
Hull,  Prof.  E.  ,  mining  in  New  Zealand, 

80. 
— ,  the  eoal-Jields  of  northern  France  and 

southern  England,  138. 
— ,  work  of  the  geological  survey,  167. 
Humble,  J.,  member  of  council,  nomina- 
tion, 357  ;  election,  C,  455. 
Hungary,  fire-setting.  87,  89. 
Hunt,  K.,  quoted,  83,  84,  85. 
Hunt,  Walford,  election,  C,  355. 
Hussle,  11. 

Hustlers  reef,  Victoria,  243. 
Hutton,  Dr.,  quoted,  253. 
Huxlet,  Prof.,  essays  on  fossils,  164. 
— ,  ecological  survey,  156. 
Hydrogen-flame  safety-lamp,   265,    367, 

374. 
Hydrous  coal.  New  Zealand,  33. 

Ibacu^,  U.S.  Colombia,  233. 

Idaho,  U.S.A.,  Flint,  silver-ores,  336. 

— ,  — ,  silver-ores,  287. 

— ,  — ,  Mineral,  Kussell  process,  352. 

Illinois,  U.S. A.,  imiversity  of,  Urbana, 
Chami>aign  county,  647. 

India,  mining  by  fire,  82. 

Inangahua  river.  New  Zealand,  48. 
>  India,  petroleum,  600. 
I  Infusorial  earth,  Hanover,  567. 
J  Institute  of  technology,  Massachusetts, 
1       Boston,  U.S.A.,  647. 

Institution   of  civil  engineers,   vote  of 
thanks  to,  219. 

Invercargill,  New  Zealand,  33. 

lodyrite,  analysis,  279. 

Ireland,  geological  map,  143. 

Iron  pyrites,  and  spontaneous  combustion 
of  coal,  393,  407,  409. 

Iron-mines,  fire-setting,  85. 

Iron-ores,  magnetic  concentration  of,  576. 

Ishpeming.    U.S.A.,  underground    fires, 
563. 

Isle  of  Thanet,  123. 

Wight,  163. 

Italy  fossil  fuel,  560. 

— ,  earth  pulsations,  203,  207,  211,  214. 

— ,  salt  industry,  610. 

— ,  sulphur-mines  of  Altavilla-Irpiha,  618. 

Jackson,  Francis  Edgar,  election,  S.S., 
379. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


682 


INDKX. 


Jack80n,  John,  member  of  council,  nomi-   t 

nation,  358  ;  election,  455. 

,  past-president,  C,  455. 

Jackson's  l)ay,  New  Zealand,  41. 

Jade,  Upper  Burma,  567. 

James,  Alexander  A.,  election,  N.E., 

232. 
James,  Henry  M.,  election,  N.E.,  231.      , 
Janson,    £dwabd    W.,    election,    S.S., 

39.>. 
Japan,  earth-pulsations,  203,  211,  212. 
— ,  fire-setting,  85. 

— ,  Tokio,  college  of  enjo^ineering,  642. 
Jarrow  colliery,  analysis  of  gas,  473. 
Jeffrey  manufacturing  co.,  283. 
Jeremiah,  quoted,  82. 
Jermvn  street  museum,  155,  16~). 
Jewel- tipped  borinff- tools,  82.  ' 

Joliannesburg,  auruerous  conglomerates, 

169. 
JouRDY.  — .,  quoted,  108. 
Junction  reefs,  New  South  Wales,  179.       , 

Kaitangata,  New  Zealand,  35,  54. 

— , ,  coal  analysis,  57. 

— , ,  mines,  58. 

— , ,  railway  and  coal  company,  65, 

57. 
Kakahu  coal-field.  New  Zealand,  74. 
Kamo  mine.  New  Zealand,  36.  I 

Karamea  coal-field.  New  Zealand,  74. 
Karsten,  — .,  quoted,  83. 
Kauri  gum.  New  Zealand,  32,  76,  77,  79.    i 

, ,  exports,  79. 

Kawakawa,  New  2^1and,  coal-field,  35, 

74. 

— , ,  coal-output,  72. 

— , ,  sandstones,  58.  \ 

Kawatiri,  New  Zealand,  46. 

Kennedy,  Prof.  A.  B.  W.,  Westminster   , 

electric  supply  corporition,  2i2.  , 

— ,  system  of  street  mains,  221. 
Kennedy,  M.,  quoted  42,  51. 
KENNEDY,  — .,  water-meter,  224. 
Kentish  town,  108,  130.  I 

Kew,  barometer,  etc. ,  readings,  1892, 493.    > 
Khammamet  stone,  India,  burnt,  91. 
Khondapilli  stone,   India,    wedged    and   I 

burnt,  91,  92. 
Killas,  Cornwall,  149. 
Kimberley  diamond  mines,  spontaneous 

combustion  of  black  shale,  409. 
Kimihia  lake.  New  Zealand,  '^7. 
King's  college,  university  of,  Windsor. 

Nova  vScotia,  633. 
Kistna,  Deccan,  fire-setting,  91. 
Kiss  process  of  ore-treatment,  321,  337, 

344. 
Kiss-patera  process  of  ore- treatment,  ^52. 
Knighton,  Hbrberp,  election,  C.,  355. 
Knott,  Dr.  C.  G.,  quoted,  211. 
Knowles,  — .,  feed  pump  cost,  339. 
KoHLER,  — .,  quoted,  217. 
Kongsberg  silver  mine,  Norway,  86,  87, 


KoNKLiNo,  — .,  magnetic  ore-concentra- 
tor, 676. 

Kroehnke  process  of  ore- treatment,  302. 

Krom,  — .,  rock -breakers,  rolls,  and 
screens,  339. 

KusTEL,  G.,  quot«d^  283,  336. 

La  Creche,  Fi-ance,  128. 

La  Reineo  gold -claims,  U.S.  Colombia, 
244. 

La  Touch e,  Tom  D.,  report  on  the  oil- 
springs  at  Moghal  Kot  in  the  Sheraui 
hills,  600. 

La  Union  gold-claims,  U.S.  Colombia, 
244. 

La  Virginia  gold-claim,  U.S.  Colombia, 
•245. 

Labour  costs,  colliery  records  of,  387. 

Lafayette  college,  Easton,  Pennsylvania, 
U  S.A.,  667. 

Lake    superior    mine     U.S.A.,    under- 

Sx>und  fire,  563. 
e  valley,  U.S.A.,  Sierra  Grand  mill, 

341. 
Lamb^  W.  G.,  quoted,  348,  351,  352. 
Lambert,  Richard   William,  election, 

C,  443. 
Lamp-cabin,  Grassmoor  colliery,  479. 
Lancaster  mill,  U.S.A.,  284,  285. 
Lang,  H.,  quoted,  352,  353  354. 
Lanoe,  C.  ,  outbursts  of  carbonic  acid  gaa 

at  the   Rochebelle  collieries,  France, 

564. 
Lankey's    creek.     New    Zealand,     coal 

analysis,  48. 
Lapparent,  — .,  de,  quoted,  122 
Las  Yedras  mill,  Mexico,  344,  345,  347, 

354. 
,  Mexico,  silver-ore,  314,  315,  325, 

337. 

,  — , ,  analysis,  .353. 

Latham   &   Watson,  gold-quartz  mine, 

Victoria,  243. 
Latimer,  Clark,  k  Muirhead,  engine 

and  dynamo,  222. 
Launay,  — ,  de,  mining  in  Sardinia,  580. 
Laurence,  H.,  vote  ofthanbi  to  president^ 

219. 
Laurent,  — .,  quoted,  124. 
Le  Wast,  France,  121. 
Leaching,  base-metals,  318,  319,  .3.30. 

—  or  lixiviation  process  of  ore  treat- 
ment, 302. 

—  silver-ore,  320.  331. 
Lead-mine,  Milltown,  Clare,  84. 
Lead-ores  of  Mazarron,  Spain,  572. 
Lebe  gold-mine,  Witwatersrand,  185. 
Lecornu,  — .,  quoted,  110. 

Lee,  John,  the  %uie  of  mineral  oils  under- 
(froundy  438 

Lee,  John  Forster,  election,  C,  355. 

Lee,  John  Wilson  Richmond,  nomina- 
tion, N.E.,  2;i2. 

Leeds,  Yorkshire  college,  631. 

Leeds  co.*s  mill,  UUh,  U.S.A.,  288. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


INDEX. 


Leffislation,  mining,  New  Zealand,  32,  59. 
Lehigh  and  Western  Baltimore  coal  com- 
pany, fan  experiments,  620. 
—  valley  coal  company,  fan  experiments. 


621. 

Leicestershire,  coals  liable  to  spontaneous 
combustion,  401. 

—  district,  coal-output,  460. 
— ,  ^ob-fires,  19. 

Lehigh  university.    South    Bethelehem, 

Pennsylvania,  U.S.A.,  665. 
Lens,  France,  107,  125. 
Leproux,  a.,  the  petroleum  industry  of 

Baku,  596. 
Letts,  R.  F.,  quoted,  344,  346. 
Lev  AT,  D.,  progress  of  the  metallurgy  of 

nickel,  585. 
Lewes,  Prop.  Vivian  B.,  quoted,  394, 

397,  399,  404,  408. 
Lewis,  Georoe,  annucU  report  of  council, 

C,  452. 
— ,  auri/eroua  cotiglomercUes  of  the  Wit- 

watertsrandtf  187. 
— ,  earih-puUicUions  and  mine-gns,  219. 
— ,  Jlre-settinff,  90. 
— ,  hydrogen-oU  safety-lamp,  368. 
— ,  member  of  councU,  nomination,  358  ; 

election,  C,  455. 
— ,  mining  in  New  Zealand,  81. 
— ,  past-president,  C,  455. 
— ,  presidential  address,  2.  — Discussion,  9. 
— ,  sinking  ai  the  Tankerdey  collieries,  363. 
— ,  spontaneous  combustion  in  coal-mines, 

27,28. 
— ,  the  coal-fields  of  northern  France  and 

southern  England,  139. 
— ,  the  support  of  buildings.  197. 
— ,  vote  of  thanks  to,  9,  219. 
— ,  vote  of  thanks  to  chairman,  370. 
— ,  vote  of  thanks  to  institution  of  civil 

engineers,  219. 
— ,  work  of  the  geological  survey,  167. 
Lewis,   Henby,   a   combined  centre-line 

apparatus,  366,  367. 
— ,  cUteration  of  rules,  C,  365. 
— ,  annucU  report  of  councU,  C,  463,  454. 
— ,  chairmanship,  C,  456. 
— ,  hydrogen-oil  safety-lamp,  368. 
— ,  member  of  council,  nomination,  368  ; 

election,  455. 
— ,  past-president,  C,  465. 
— ,  presidential  address,  C,  461. 
— ,  safety -lamp  with  alcohol-flame,  471. 
— ,  sinking  at  the  Tankersley  collieries, 

363. 
Ley  pan-conveyors,  Grassmoor  collieries, 

Leycett  collieries,  gob-fires,  10. 

Liane  valley,  France,  121 . 

Li^ge,    Belgium,    school    of    art,    etc., 

attached  to  the  university  of,  637. 
Life-saving  after  a  colliery  explosion,  546. 

apparatus,  545. 

Lighting,  electric,  420. 

—  of  fiery  mines,  537,  549. 

VOL,  v.^iMa-w. 


Lignite,  Fuveau,  France,  555,  557. 
— ,  New  Zealand,  32,  33. 

— , ,  output,  73 

— ,  point  of  ignition,  395. 

Lincoln  county,  Nevada,  U.S.A.,  Pioche, 

286. 

, ,  Mineral  hill,  285,  353. 

LiND,  Db.,  water-gauge,  474. 
Linda Y,  Gboboe,  election,  N.E.,  231. 
LiSHMAN,   WiLUAM    Ernest,    election, 

N.E.,231. 
LiVT,  quoted,  83. 
Lixiviation,  process  of  ore- treatment,  271 , 

302,  318,  325,  336,  340. 
Lockett,  James,  k  —  Gough,  the  Lockett 

&  Gough  direct-acting  pump,  431. — 

Discussion,  432,  439. 
Lock  for  safety-lamps,  Cuvelier,  606. 
LOhneyss,  — .,  quoted,  86. 
London,   royal  college    of   science    and 

Royal  school  of  mines,  625. 
—  basin,  106,  113,  130,  162. 
— ,  boring  at  Meux's  brewery,  130. 
LoNOBOTHAM,    J.,    member   of   council, 

election,  491. 
LoNODEN,  J.  A.,  annual  report  of  council, 

C,  453,  454. 
— ,  member  of  council,  nomination,  .368 ; 

election,  455. 
— ,  past-president,  C,  456. 
— ,  presidential  address,  C,  461. 
Longwall  method  of  working  as  applied 

to  seams  of  moderate   inclination  in 

North  Staffordshire. — Discussion,  424. 
Los  Cerillos,  Mexico  turquoises,  85. 
Lottinghen,  France,  121. 
Louis,  D.  A.,  auriferous  conglomerates  of 

Witvoatersrandt,  180. 
Louis,  Henry,  auriferous  conglomerates 

of  Witwalersrandt,  181. 
Loire,   France,  Saint   Etienne  school  of 

mines,  639. 
Lower  greensand,  32. 
Lower  Waikato,  New  Zealand,  coal-field, 

34. 
LOhrio  system,  treatment  of  tailings  by 

the.  577. 
LuKis,  £.  DU  B.,  quoted,  298. 
Lumbres,  France,  120. 
LupTON,    Prop.    Arnold,    a   combined 

centre-line  apparatus,  366. 
— ,  accounts,  M.,  488. 
— ,  classification  of  members,  M.,  489. 
— ,  electio7i  of  officers,  M.,  491. 
— ,  hydrogen-oil  safety-lamp,  368. 
— ,  miTiers*  safety-lamps,  492. 
— ,  quoted,  18,  19,  392. 
Lyell,  Sir  Charles,  quoted,  140,  185. 
Lyon,    John    William,    election,    C, 

355. 

Macalpine,  George  Watson,  election, 

C,  365. 
Macculloch,  geological  map  of  Scotland, 

143. 

44 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


684 


INDEX. 


McDowEix,  T.  H.,  the  Konkling  mag- 
netic ore-concentrator,  576. 

Maciiin,  Thomas,  election,  C,  355. 

Machin,  Walter,  election,  M.,  374. 

Machine  for  shaping  mining- timber,  618. 

Machinery,  coarse  and  fine-crushing,  271. 

— ,  New  Zealand,  32,  59. 

McMuRTRiE,  Jamks,  quoted,  131,  137, 
140. 

— ,  the  coal-fidda  of  northern  France  and 
southern  England,  136,  139. 

Maddison,  T.  R.,  member  of  council, 
election,  M.,  490. 

Madeley  coal  and  iron  co. ,  gob-fires,  10. 

Magdalena  river,  U.S.  Colombia,  233, 
234. 

Magnetic  concentration  of  iron-ores,  676. 

—  ore-concentration  works  at  Maiern, 
Tirol,  574. 

—  ore-concentrator,  Konkling,  576. 
Mahanoy  city  colliery,  fan  experiments, 

622. 
Main  coal  seam,  190,  192,  193 
Maitai  slates.  New  Zealand,  48. 
Makarewa,  New  Zealand,  33. 
Makau,  New  Zealand,  coal,  analysis,  38. 

— , ,  mine,  38. 

Makepeacr,  H.  R.,  Lockett  and  Oough 

direct-acting  pvmp,  432. 
— ,  longwall  working,  429. 
Makonga  range,  Transvaal,  173. 
Mallard,  — .,  quoted,  216. 
Malvern,  New  Zealand,  coal-field,  33,  51, 

74. 

— , ,  coal-output,  72. 

Maly,  Richard,  quoted,  77. 
Mander,  J.,  quoted,  84. 
Manganese-ores,  U.S.A.,  567. 

,  New  Zealand,  exports,  79. 

Manometric    efficiency    of    fans,    252. — 

Discussion,  255. 
Mansfeld,  Germany,  fire-setting,  83. 
Mapping,  geological  survey,  145. 
Maps,  preparations  of  geological,  157. 
Maramarua  creek,  New  Zealand,  37. 
Marchiennes,  France,  coal-basin,  117. 
Marine  denudation.  111. 
Markham,  C.    p.,    member  of  council, 

nomination,  C,  357. 
Marlborouffh  downs,  129. 
Maries  collieries,  France,  255,  256,  257, 

262,  263,  264. 
Maros,  — .,  washing- table  578. 
Marsac    mill,    Utah,    U.S.A.,    analysis 

and  value  of  ore,  348. 

,  — ,  — ,  cost  of  lixiviation,  350,  351. 

,  — ,  — ,  crushing  statistics,  349,  350. 

,  — ,  — ,  Daly  mining  co.,  28 i,  344, 

348. 

,  — ,      ,  Russell  process,  348,  354. 

Marsaut    safety-lamps,    (Irassmoor    col- 
liery, 479. 
Marscten,  seismometer,  204,  218. 
Marsh,    Frederick    SAMrEi.,    memoir, 

481. 


Marshall  condensing  engine.  Abercanaid 

colliery  418. 
Martek,  E.  B.,  alteration  of  rules,  S.S., 

3H0. 
Marx,  — .,  mining  in  Sardinia,  681. 
Massachusetts   institute    of   technology, 

Boston,  U.S. A.,  «i47. 
Mataura,  New  Zealand,  lignite,  32. 

—  valley.  New  Zealand,  32,  33. 
Mathiec,  Alfred,  machine  for  shaping 

mininff-timber,  618. 

Matiri,  New  Zealand,  coal-field,  74. 

Maudsley,  Sons,  &  Field,  230. 

Mayes,  Geo.  Richard,  election,  M., 
373. 

MazarrcSn,  Spain,  lead-ores,  572. 

Meachem,  F.  O.,  notes  on  an  earth 
explosion  or  bump  at  Hamstea^l  col- 
liery, .381. 

— ,  npontanemot  cotnhnstion  of  coal,  41.^. 

Meachem,  Isaac,  Jpn.,  election,  S.S., 
379. 

— ,  spontaneous  combnst'on  of  coal,  413. 

Means  and  methods  of  combating  fire- 
damp, 5  0. 

Measures  to  be  taken  when  fire-damp  is 
present,  .5.36. 

Measuring  air- velocities  and  alr-volumea, 
5,32. 

—  and  check  apparatus,  532. 
Mechanical  dilution  of  fire-damp,  507. 

—  elimination  of  the  gases  which  form 
fire-damp.  504. 

—  ventilators,  519. 

Mein,  James,  election,  C.  355. 
Melbourne,  university  of,  etc.,  Ballarat, 

634. 
Members,  classification  of,  M.,  488. 

—  of  federated  institution  of  mining 
engineers,  xvii. 

Memoir  of  the  Yorkshire  coal-field,  153. 
Memoirs  of  deceased  meml)ers,  C,  479. 
Mendip  hills,   106,  108,    119,    129,    130, 

131,  133,  137,  138. 

,  fire-setting,  84. 

Mercer,  New  Zealand,  37. 

Mirivale,  Prof.  .John  Herman,  Ayrfro- 

gen-oil  safety-lanipy  266. 
— ,  manometri-  efficiency  of  fans,  256. 
— ,  nomination,  N.E.,  232. 
— ,   the  education  of  mining  engineers, 

625. 
Merlerault,  France,  110,  118. 
Metallurgical   engineers,    the   education 

of,  625. 
Metallurgy,  etc. ,  notes  of  papers  on,  555. 
— ,  in  Chili,  583. 

— ,  of  nickel,  progress  of  the,  585. 
Methods  of  working  New  Zealand  mines, 

32,  58. 
Meux's  brewery,  London,  boring,  130. 
Mexico,  Boleo  copper-uiines,  661. 
— ,  Lus  Yedras,  analysis  of  silver-ore,  353. 
— ,  Los  Cerillos  turqoises,  85. 
— ,  North  Mexican  mining  co.,  334. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


INDEX. 


685 


Mexico,  processes  of  ore-treatment,  275, 
296,  297,  303,  304,  334,  337,  341,  344. 

— ,  silver-ores,  288. 

Meyer  gold-mine,  Transvaal,  185. 
Miargyrite,  analysis,  279. 

Mica  mines,  Carolina,  U.S.A.,  573. 

Michigan,  copper  region  563. 

— ,  mining  school,  Houghton,  Michigan, 
U.S.A.,  653. 

—  ,  Lake  Superior  mine,  563. 

— ,  university  of,  Ann  Arbor,  Michigan, 
U.S.A.,  651. 

Microseismic  disturbances  and  fire-damp, 
205,206. 

Midland  inspection  district,  coal  output, 
460. 

Miu^ER,  — .,  electric  reversing  arrange- 
ment, 227. 

Milling,  Washoe  process,  289. 

Mill  labour,  Dakota,  costs,  295. 

,  Nevada,  costs,  295. 

Mills,    M.    H.,    member    of    council, 
nomination,  C,  358. 

— ,  member  of  council,  election,  455. 

— ,  spontaneous  combustion  in  cocU-mimH^ 
29. 

— ,  vice-president,  nomination,  357  ;  elec- 
tion, C.,  455. 

— ,  vote  of  thanks  tojpresident,  9. 

Milltown  lead-mine,  Clare,  84. 

Milne,  John,  on  earth  pulsations  and 
mine  gas,  203. — Discussion,  219. 

Mine  managers'  certificates, New  Zealand, 
78. 

Mine-overmen 's8chool,Douai,France,638. 

Mineral  hill,  Nevada,  U.S.A.,  silver-ores, 
285,  353. 

— ,  Idaho,  Russell  process,  352. 

—  oils,  the  use  of,  underground,  434. 

—  railroad  and  mining  co.,  fan  experi- 
ments, 619. 

Minerals,  etc.,  containing  silver,  279. 

— ,  New  Zealand,  exports,  79. 

— ,  value  of  zinc,  93. 

Miners'  changing  and  wash-houses,  617. 

— ,  New  Zealand,  condition  of,  32,  74. 

— ,  safety-lamps,  491. 

Mines,  chemical  analyses  of  the  atmos- 

— phere,  504. 

,  lighting,  537. 
— ,  notes  of  papers  on  the  working  of,  555. 

—  of  argentiferous  galena,  Sardinia,  83. 
— ,  ventilation  of,  514. 

Mining  accidents.  New  Zealand,  32,  65. 

—  and  metallurgy  in  Chili,  583. 

—  by  fire,  the  art  of,  82. 

—  engineers,  tlie  education  of,  623. 

—  in  New  Zealand.— Part  III.,  coal-min- 
ing, 31. — Geology  and  distribution,  3?. 
— General  notes  on  the  coal-fields.  North 
island,, 35.— South  island,  .S9. — Methods 
of  working,  58. -Machinery,  TjO. — 
Legislation,  .")9. -- Accidents,  65.--']'otal 
consumption,  output,  imports  and  ex- 
ports, etc.,  67. — Quantity  of  existing 


coal,  73.— Wages,  strikes,  benefit  clubs, 
condition  of  the  miners,  etc.,  74.-  Con- 
clusion, 76. — Part  IV. ,  kauri  gum,  76. — 
Appendix  A.,  78. — Appendix  B.,  79. — 
Discussion,  80. 
Mining  legislation.  New  Zealand,  32,  59. 

—  machinery.  New  Zealand,  32,  59. 

—  record  ofiice,  144. 

—  relics.  Heath- end  colliery,  391. 

—  royalties,  royal  commission,  367. 
— ,  Sardinia,  580,  581. 

—  school,  Halle  and  Anhalt,  Eisleben, 
Saxony,  642. 

.  \lichigan,  Houghton,  U.S.A.,  663. 

— ,  Servia,  5§2. 

—  timber,  shaping,  618. 
Minneapolis,      U.S.A.,      university     of 

Minnesota,  654. 
Miranda  mine,  New  Zealand,  35,  37. 

—  redoubt.  New  Zealand,  37. 
Mispickel,  analysis,  280. 

Missouri,  U.  S.  A . ,  Washington  university, 
St.  Ix)uis,  657. 

—  river,  U.S.A.,  180,  181. 

—  university  of,  Rolla,  U.S.A.,  656. 
Mitchell,    Jos.,    member    of    council, 

election,  491. 
— ,  vote  of  thanks,  370. 
Mitchell,  T.  W.  H.,  accounts,  M.,  488. 
— ,  classifcatiofii  of  members,  M.,  488,  489. 
— ,   experiments  upon  ttvo   Guibai  fans, 

376, 377. 
— ,  secretary  and  treasurer,  M.,  490. 
MiTCHEsoN,  G.  A.,  the  use  of  mineral  oils 

underground,  438,  439. 
MoissENET,  — .,  quoted,  248. 
Mokau,  New  Zealand,  coal-field,  31,  38, 

74. 
— , ,  coal-output,  72. 

—  river,  New  Zealand,  38. 
Mokihinui,  New  Zealand,  coal-field,  43. 
— , ,  coal,  analysis,  43. 

—  coal  company.  New  Zealand,  43. 

—  river.  New  Zealand,  42. 

"  Monarch,"  H.M.S.,  engines,  230. 

Mongonui,  New  Zealand,  35. 

Mons,  Belgium,  Hainaut  school  of  mines 
and  industry,  636. 

Mont  des  Boucards,  France,  121. 

Montana,  college  of.  Deer  Lodge,  U.S.  A., 
658. 

— ,  U.S.A.,  granite  mountain  company's 
works,  292,  296. 

— ,  — ,  Bluebird  mini;,  351. 

Montataire  factory,  France,  121,  124. 

MoBDY,  W.  M.,  electric  lighting  and 
transmission  of  power,  420. — Discus- 
sion, 422. 

Morewood  mine,  fan  experiments,  620. 

Morgan,  C.  R.,  member  of  council, 
nomination,  357 ;  election,  C. ,  455. 

Morley  creek.  New  Zealand,  33. 

Morris,  Benjamin,  election,  C,  355. 

Moose,  — .,  quoted,  282. 

Moulin-des-Moines,  France,  121. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


686 


INDEX. 


Mount  Hamilton,  New  Zealand,  33. 

—  Misery,  New  Zealand,  54. 

—  Morgan  mine,  Queensland,  249,  565. 
MuESSLEB  safety-lamp,  375. 
MuNROK,  H.  .S.,  quoted,  85. 
MuRCHisoN,   Sir   Roderick,   geological 

survey,  144. 
— ,  quoted,  107,  134. 
MuROUE,  D.,  quoted,  252,  254,  261,  263. 
Murray,  John,  quoted,  175. 
Murray  creok,  New  Zealand,  coal  analysis, 

48. 
Museum  of  practical  geology,  144,  164. 

Nagasaki,    Japan,    Takashiuia   colliery, 

204. 
Nagyaffite,  analysis,  280. 
Naked  lights,  prohibition,  537. 
Naphtha,  Austrian  Galicia,  595. 
— ,  Caucasus,  699. 

—  region,  geology  of  the  Caucasian,  596. 
Nash,  H.  B.,  accounts,  M.,  488. 

— ,  classificcUion  of  members,  M.,  489. 

— ,  miners*  safety-lamps,  491. 

— ,  vice-president,  election,  M.,  490. 

Na8U,  — .,  quoted,  216. 

National  higher  school  of  mines,  Paris, 

France,  638, 
Natural  alloys  of  gold  and  silver,  279. 
Native  amalgam,  279. 

—  silver,  279. 

Naumannite,  analysis  of,  279. 
Naumann,  — .,  quoted,  143. 
Nelson,  New  Zealand,  33,  35. 
Nestrowsky,  — .,  quoted,  407. 
Netherfield,  131. 
Neufchatel,  France,  120. 

Nevada,  U.S.A.,  Comstock  mill -tailings 

treated  at  Drayton,  295. 
— ,  — ,  Geddes  and  Bertrand  mill,  34?. 
— ,  — ,  Lincoln  county,  Pioche  silver-ores, 

286. 
— ,  — ,  Mineral  hill  silver-ores,  286,  353. 
— ,  — ,  tailings  mills,  294. 
Nevin,  John,  accounts,  M.,  488. 
— ,  classification  of  members,    M.,    488, 

489. 
— ,  experiments  upon  two   Ouibal  fans, 

376,  377. 
— ,  hydrogen-oil  safety-lamp,  374,  375, 
— ,  member  of  council,  election,  491. 

-, , -,  M.,490. 

— ,  miners'  safety-lamps,  492. 
New  Caledonia,  nickel  mines,  589. 
New  Durham,  New  Zealand,  coal  analysis, 

48. 

—  Forest,  129. 

—  harbour.  New  Zealand,  33. 

—  Mexico,  fire-setting,  85. 

—  Morgan  gold-mine,  Wales,  243. 

—  South  Wales,  42. 

,  Broken  hill  mines,  611. 

,  gold  and  platinum,  566. 

,  junction  reefs,  179. 

,  Newcastle  coal-seams,  173. 


New  South  Wales,  Sydney  technical  col- 
lege. Ultimo,  631. 

Newcastle,  Colorado,  U.S. A.,  coal,  282. 

— ,  New  South  Wales,  coal-seams,  173. 

Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  cost  of  electric 
light,  423. 

,  Durham  college  of  science,  628. 

Newton,  J.,  Lockett  and  Oough's  direct- 
acting  pump,  440. 

— ,  longwail  working,  429. 

Newton,  — ,  164. 

New  York  City,  U.S.A.,  Columbia 
college,  659. 

New  Zealand,  adits  in,  58. 

,  Canterbury  plains,  179. 

—  — ,  Central  Otago,  32. 

,  coal  consumption,  37,  67. 

,  coal-fields,  general  notes,  31,  35. 

,  coal  imports  32,  67.  68. 

,  —  output,  32,  67,  68,  71,  79. 

,  geology,  31,  32. 

,  mineral  exports,  79. 

,  mining  in,  31,  58. 

,  university  of  Otago,  Dunedin,  632. 

I   Neyva,  U.S.  Colombia,  233. 
,   Ngakawau,  New  Zealand,  43. 

—  mine,  New  Zealand,  42. 

I  —  river.  New  Zealand,  42,  44. 

I   Nickel  mines,  New  Caledonia,  589. 

!   — ,  production,  588. 

I  — ,  progress  of  the  metallurgy  of,  685. 

I   Nightcaps  coal  company's  mines.   New 

I       Zealand.  58. 

— ,  New  Zealand,  coal-field,  33,  74. 

NoETLiNG,  Dr.  Fritz,  Burmah  ruby 
mines,  603. 

— ,  jade  in  Upper  Burma,  567. 

Nord,  France,  coal-basin,  113,  117,  118, 
124,  126,  127. 

NoRRis,  R.  VAN  A.,  centrifugal  ventila- 
tors, 619. 

North  Canterbury,  New  Zealand,  34. 

—  coast  beaches,  New  South  Wales,  gold 
and  platinum,  566. 

—  downs,  106, 108, 110, 131, 133, 134, 137. 

—  Dvflfryn  shaft,  417. 

—  island,  New  Zealand,  31,  35,  38. 

, ,  coal-fields,  32,  33,  35. 

, ,  coal -output,  71,  72. 

—  Mexican  mining  co. ,  334. 

—  Staffordshire,  gob-fires,  10. 

,  longwall  method  of  working,  etc., 

424. 

Northern  France,  coal-fields  of,  106. 

Norway,  fire-setting,  85,  86,  87,  89. 

Notes  of  papers  on  the  working  of  minee, 
metallurgy,  etc.,  from  the  transactions 
of  foreign  societies,  and  foreign  pub- 
lications, 656. 

—  on  an  earth  explosion  or  bump  at 
Hamstead  colliery,  381. 

the  coal-fields  of  New  Zealand,  36. 

—  upon  a  practical  method  of  ascertain- 
ing the  value  or  price  to  be  paid  for 
zinc  mineral,  93. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


INDJBX. 


687 


Nottinghainshirt*,  coal-output,  460. 
Nova  ScotU,  gob- H res,  26. 

,  recent  gold-milling  practice,  579. 

,  university  of  King's  college,  Wind- 
sor, 633. 

Oakbh,  C.  H.,  vice-president,  3o7 ;  C, 
455. 

Oakes,  H.  H.,  quicksilver  strainer,  278. 

Oamaru,  New  Zealand,  32. 

Obscr>'ation  of  earth-tremors,  203. 

Officers,  xvi. 

— ,  election,  M.,  490. 

— ,  nomination,  356  ;  election,  C,  455. 

0*Hakra,  — .,  ore-furnace,  283. 

Ohio,  U.S. A.,  C'oUnnbus,  Jeffrey  manu- 
facturing CO. ,  283. 

—  state  university,  Columbus,  U.S.A., 
662. 

— ,  the  Case  school  of  applied  science, 

Cleveland,  663. 
Oils,  mineral,  the  use  of  underground,  434. 
Old  down,  137. 

—  hill,  spontaneous  combustion  at 
(rranville  colliery,  413. 

—  workings,  514. 

Oldham,  K.  D.,  petroleum  in  India,  600. 

Olry,  — .,  quoted,  114. 

Ontario  mill,  Utah,  U.S.A.,  analysis  and 

values  of  sUver-orea,  291,  338,  348. 

,  — ,  — ,  costa,  342,  350,  351. 

,  — ,  — ,  crushing  Btatistics,  349,  350. 

,  — ,  — ,  treatment  of  ore,  342. 

Opening-out  of  seams,  508,  510. 
Opferman,  — .,  the  Fuveau  lignite  coal- 
field, France,  555. 
Ore-concentration  works,  Maiern,  Tirol, 

574. 
Ore-concentrator,     Konkling     magnetic, 

576. 
Ore-droasing,  Costelnau  system,  579. 
Orepuki,  New  Zealand,  3.3. 
Ores  containing  silver,  279. 
— ,  value  of  zinc,  93. 
Ore-treatment,  proccsace  of,  271. 
Organoa  district,  Toliina,  U.S.  Colombia, 

the  gold-bearing  veins  of,  233. 
Orisin    and    diHtribution    of    gold    and 

pTcitinuin,   north   coast  beaches,    New 

South  \Vah»a,  .')6.'>. 
OsBOKNK,  John,  election,  C,  355. 
Osu-ud,  Belgium,  124,  134. 
Ostricourt,  Frani'c,  117. 
Otago,  New  Zealand,  coal-fields,  31,  32, 

33,  35,  52,  77. 

— , ,  coal  analysis,  53. 

— , ,  ooal-output,  72. 

— ,    l)niu'<lin,    New   Zealand,   university 

of,  {):V2. 
Outbursts  of  carbonic  acid  gas  at  Roche- 

bt'lle  eolUerioM,  France,  564. 
OvKRKM),  Jas.,  hydvLnjt  ii-oil  saftty-lampy 

30S. 
Owen  k  Olivkr,   steam   rcversing-gear, 

477,  47S. 


Oxidation  of  organic  constituents  of  iron 

pyrites,  396. 
OxLANDEB  k  Hocking,  ore-calciner,  283. 

Packer,  No.  5  pit,  fan  experiments,  621. 

Pagk,    Frjcdesick    William,    election, 
C,  355. 

Palieontological  work,  geological  survey, 
loo. 

Palmer,    H.,    hydrogen-oil  aafeiy-lamp, 
265,266. 

Palmerston  flat,  New  Zealand,  53. 

Pan-amalgamation,  wet  and  dry,  271. 

Paraffin,  the  use  of,  434. 

Pabskt,  — .,  quoted,  119,  120.  121. 

Pareora,  Upper,  New  Zealand,  32. 

Paris,  France,  chalk-basin,  1 10,  1 12. 

— ,  — ,  national  higher  school  of  mines, 
638. 

Park  city,  Utah,  U.S.A.,  Marcac  mill, 
282,  348. 

Parker,    Gerald    Lonoley,    election, 
S.8.,  390. 

Parral,  Mexico,  leaching  plants,  325. 

— ,  — ,  treatment  of  mill  tailings,  341. 

Pas-de-Calais,    France,    coal-field,     107, 
117,  119,  120,  122,  125,  127,  128. 

Patera,  process  of  ore- treatment,   337, 
338,  344,  345. 

Patera  k  Kiss,  processes  of  ore-treat- 
ment, 321. 

Patio  process  of  ore- treatment,  296. 

Pattison,  John  James,  election,  M.,  483. 

Paxman,   — .,   patent  automatic  expan- 
sion-gear, 225. 

Peach,  C.  S.,  quoted,  222. 

Pkarce,  Jacob,  election,  C,  355. 

pEARy,    — .,    quadruple-acting    pumps, 
223,  224. 

Pear-sox,    Johnson,     safety -lamp     with 
alcoJiol -flame,  469. 

Peat,  Italy,  580. 

— ,  Transylvania,  559. 

Pelzbr  fan,  256 

Pelorus,  New  Zealand,  coal-output,  72. 

Penicuik  colliery,  fire,  435. 

Pennsylvania  colliery,  U.  S.  A. ,  fan  experi- 
ments, 619. 
I    — ,    U.S.A.,    Lafayette  college,   Easton 
!       667. 

— ,  — ,  Lehigh  university,  South  Bethle- 
t       hem,  665. 

— ,  — ,  university  of  Philiulelphia,  664. 

Penrose,    R.    a.    F.,    manganese    ore, 
U.S. A.,  567. 

Prrcival,  Charles,  election,  C,  355. 

Percival,  W.  B.,  quoted,  78. 

Percy,  Dr.,  quoted,  281,  301,  395,  396, 
407. 

P^ronne,  St.  Quentin,  France,  112. 

Persia,  petroleum,  601. 

Pkters,  E.   1).,  JuN.,   improvements  in 
copper  smelting,  567. 

Petit,  (J.,  infusorial  Ccirth,  567. 

PETRIE,  Flinders,  quoted,  82. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


688 


INDBX. 


Petrographical  work,  geographiiral  survey, 

154. 
Petroleum,  France,  595. 
— ,  India,  600 
— ,  Peraia,  601. 
— ,  use  of  uiulergrouiul,  434. 

—  industry,  Baku,  596. 
Petzite,  am^sis,  279. 

Pfeiffsr,  F.  B.,  ore-mining  in  Servia, 

582. 
Phelps,   F.    B.,   the  copper    region    of 

Michigan,  563. 
Philadelphia  and  Reading  coal  and  iron 

company,  fan  experiments,  622. 
— ,  U.S.A.,  university  of  Pennsylvania, 

664. 
Phillipsburg,  Montana,   U.S.A.,  granite 

mountain  co. ,  292. 
Phosphates,  Canada,  592. 
-,  Florida,  U.S.A.,  593. 
Picos  de  Kurope,  Spain,  zinc  mineral,  94, 

99. 
Picton,  Xew  Zealand,  coul  analysis,  39. 

— , ,  coalfield,  31,  39. 

— , ,  coal-output,  72. 

PlELER,  Fr.,  quoted,  369. 

— ,  lamp,  368,  369,  370,  375,  469. 

— ,   — ,   experiments    with,     267,     268, 

2C9. 
— ,  — ,  measurement  of  gas,  205,  469. 
PiciOFORD,  W.,  quoted,  264. 
Pilgrim's  rest  district,  Transvaal,  183. 
Piociie     silver-ores,      Lincoln      county, 

Nevada,  U.S.A.,  286. 
Pit-fires,  21. 

—  heaps,  sulphur  on,  617. 
Pitch  coal,  New  Zealand,  33,  35. 
, ,  output,  73. 

PiTTMAN,  E.  F.,  the  Broken  hill  mines, 

New  South  Wales,  611. 
Plates,  list  of,  ix 
Platinum,  origin  and  distribution.  New 

South  Wales,  565. 

—  wire,  lighting  safety-lamps,  492. 
Playfair,  Dr.  L.,  quoted,  473. 
Pleasley  colliery,  fan  experiment*,  621. 
Pliny,  quoted,  82. 

PoETSGii,  — .,  freezing  process  for  laying 

coal-dust,  545. 
— ,  method  of  sinking,  613. 
Point  Elizabeth,  New  Zealand,  coal-field, 

51. 
Polybasite,  analysis,  279. 
Polytechnic  school,  Stockholm,  Sweden, 

642. 
Pope,  Joseph,  election,  S.S.,  379. 
Portable  safety-lamp,  with  ordinary  oil 

illuminating     flame,     and      standard 

hydrogen-flame,     for     accurate      and 

delicate  gas-testing.— Discussion,  266, 

367,  374. 
PoTiER,  — .,  quoted,  114,  115,  117,  118, 

119,  122,  124. 
Powder,  blasting  with,  87. 
Power,  transmission  of,  420. 


Practical  chlorination  of  gold-ores  and  the 

precipitation  of  gold  from  solution,  570. 
Precautionary    measures  against   explo- 
sions, 535. 
President,  Domination,  356  ;  election,  C, 

455. 
— ,  election,  M.,  490. 
Presidential  address,  A.  Barnes,  C,  457. 

— Discussion,  461. 

,  George  Lewis,  2.— Discaasion,  9. 

President's  prize  for  papers,  1. 

Pressure  and  spontaneous  combustion  of 

coal,  395. 
pREHTwicK,  Prof.,  quoted,  132,  136. 
Prevention  of  spontaneous  combustion, 

403. 
Price,  Prof.  Bonamy,  quoted,  134,  135. 
Primics,  Geor(},  peat  in  Transylvania, 

559. 
Prizes  for  papers,  1. 
Processes  of  ore-treatment,  271. 
Progress  of  the  metallurgy  of  nickel,  585. 
Prosper  colliery,  Capell  tan,  253. 

,  Uuibal  fan,  261. 

Proust ite,  analysis,  279. 

Providence  pit,  Hardinghen,  France,  126. 

Prussian   fire-damp  commission,  report, 

267,  500. 
Pryce,  W.,  (|uoted,  83,  84. 
Przbram,  Bohemia,  royal  school  of  mines, 

636. 
PucniE,  William  Arthur,  election,  C, 

355. 
Puke  Ivitai,  New  Zealand,  53. 
Pump,  Lockett  &  Clough,  431,  439. 
—  spears,  safety-catch,  602. 
Pumping   engines,    Grassmoor    colliery, 

479. 

,  South  DyflFryn  colliery,  416. 

Pyramid,  jewel-tipped  boring  tools,  82. 
Pyrenees,  France,  silver-ores,  82. 
Pyrargyrite,  analysis,  279. 
Pyrite,  analysis,  280. 

Quarouble,  France,  114. 

Queensland,  Mount  Morgan  mine,  565. 

Quirk,  J.  S  ,  election,  N.E.,  231. 

Radstock  coal-field,  135. 

Raismes,  France,  115. 

Raglan,  New  Zealand,  34. 

Raujmelsberg,  Germany,  fire-setting,  83, 
87,  89. 

Ramsay,  Sir  A.,  geological  survey,  144, 
146. 

Randolph,  John  C.  F.,  quoted,  247. 

Rapid  traverser,  199. 

Rateau  fan,  253,  256. 

Rathbone,  E.  p.,  quoted,  301. 

Real  Ingenio  Potosi,  Bolivia,  cost  of  ore- 
treatment,  302. 

Reaming  of  laore-holes,  386. 

Rebergues,  France,  119,  120,  121. 

Rebeur-Paschwitz's,  Dr.  E.  von,  hori- 
zontal-pendulum, 219. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  iC 


mDBX» 


Reef  ton,  New  Zealand,  coal-field,  35,  41, 

48,  74. 

— , ,  coal  analysis,  48. 

— , ,  coal-output,  72. 

Reese  river  process  of  ore-treatment,  271, 

275,  284,  286. 
Regular  examination  of  workings,  535. 
Regulations  for  fiery-mines,  general,  547. 

—  Special,  550. 
Reid,  p.  S.,  quoted,  140. 
— ,  the  coal-^elds  of  northern  France  and 

southern  England,  134. 
Relics,  mininff.  Heath  end  colliery,  391. 
Relighting  safety-lamps  in  collieries,  607. 
Remilly,  France,  120. 
Report  of  council,  C. ,  444. 

,  M.,444. 

—    —    the    Prussian    fire-damp    com- 
mission.—Part  II.,  600.  —Part  III.,  547. 
Reports  of  committee  on  the  earthquake 

and  volcanic  phenomena  of  Japan,  203. 
Restbepo,  Vicente,  quoted,  235. 
Retorting  amalgam,  silver  bullion,  278. 
Refmafx,  E.,  the  coaX-Mdn  of  northern 

France  and  southern  England,  128. 
Rhodes,  C.  E.,  member  of  council,  elec- 
tion, 491. 
— ,  vote  of  thanks  to,  370. 
Ribble-head  tunnel,  Yorkshire,  383,  384. 
Richmond,  boring,  130,  134. 
Richters,  Prof.  E.,  quoted,  396,  399, 

411. 
RiCKARD,  T.  A.,  the  mount  Morgan  mine, 

565. 
Rien-du-coeur  colliery,  Belgium,  Rateau 

fan,  253. 
RiGAUD  cradle  for  washing  alluvials,  578. 
RiOAFX,  — .,  quoted,  121. 
RiOBY,  Frank,  quoted,  13,  25. 
RrrsoN,  W.  A.,  scrutineer,  M.,  443. 
Riverton,  New  Zealand,  33. 
Roaster  seam,  192. 

Roasting-milling  processes  of  ore-treat- 
ment, 275,  291,  304. 
Robinson,  J.  B.,  nomination,  N.E.,  232. 
Robinson,   R.    H.,   member  of  council, 

nomination,  357;  election,  C,  455.  j 

Rochebelle  collieries,  France,  outbursts 

of  carbonic  acid  gas,  564. 
Rockwell,  — .,  quoted,  .354. 
Rolla,    U.S.A.,   university  of  Missouri, 

655. 
Rossi,  Etienne,  quoted,  207. 
Rotherham  main  colliery,  37 1 . 
RoTHWELL,  J.  E.,  the  practical  chlorina- 

tion  of  gold-ores  and  the  precipitation 

of  gold  from  solution,  570. 
RoTHWELL,  R.  p.,  quoted,  288,  292,  342, 

407. 
Rothwell    haigh    colliery,    CapcU   fans, 

377. 
Rowley,    Walter,   nomination,    N.E., 

232. 
Rowley    hills,    spontaneous    combustion 

under,  414. 


Royal  meteorological  society,  earth- 
tremors,  203. 

—  college  of  science,  London,  625. 

—  commission  of  royalty  rents  and  way- 
leaves,  357,  370. 

—  geological  and  mining  institute, 
Berlin,  Germany,  639. 

—  Saxon  academy  of  mining,  Freiberg, 
Saxony,  641. 

—  school  of  mines,  Clausthal,  Harz, 
Germany,  640. 

,  London,  625. 

,  Przbram,  Bohemia,  636. 

—  technical  college,  Aix-laChapellc, 
Germany,  639. 

Royalty  rents  and  wayleaves,  370. 

Ruby  mines,  Burmah,  603. 

Rules,  alteration  of,  C. ,  355. 

_ ,S.S.,379. 

Russell,  E.  H.,  Russell  process,  302, 
321,  327,  336,  337,  338,  341,  342,  343, 
344,  345,  346,  347,  348,  351,  352,  353, 
354,  568. 

Safety-catch  for  pump  spears,  602. 

Safety-clip  or  catch,  371. 

Safety-lamps,  501. 

,  construction,  537. 

,  Cuvelier  lock,  606. 

,  experiments,  603. 

,  hydrogen-flame,  265,  367,  374. 

,  James  Ashworth  benzoline,  47 1 . 

,  lighting  and  re-lighting,  491. 

,  modified  Gray,  4b3. 

,  Pieler,  469. 

,  re-lighting,  607. 

,  supply  and  maintenance  of,  533. 

,  Tommasi  electric,  608. 

,  use  of,  539. 

with  standard  alcohol-flame  adjust- 
ment, for  the  detection  and  estimation 
of  small  percentages  of  inflammable 
gas.  — In  trod  uction ,  462.  ~  Description 
of  lamp,  463. — Mode  of  testing,  465. — 
Tests,  466.— Conclusions,  468.— Dis- 
cussion, 468. 

,  Wolf  benzine,  608. 

Saint,  G.,  Jun.,  election,  S.S.,  379. 

St  Amand,  France,  117. 

St.  Christoph  mine.  Saxony,  fire-setting, 
87. 

St.  Etienne  school  of  mines,  Loire, 
France,  639. 

St.  (rcorg,  (Jcrmany,  fire  setting,  86. 

St.  Hilda  colliery,  (iuibal  fan,  252. 

St.  John  piston-ring,  416. 

St.  John's  colliery,  Guibal  fans,  376. 

St.  Louis,  Missouri,  United  Statep, 
Washington  university,  657. 

St.  Omer,  France,  120,  124. 

St.  Pancras  vestry,  charge  for  electric 
light,  423. 

Saladin,  Edouard,  the  Boleo  copper- 
mines,  Mexico,  561. 

Salisbury  plain,  129. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


690 


INDEX. 


Salmond,     W.,     member    of    council, 

nomination,  C,  357. 
Salt  industry,  Italy,  610. 

—  lakes,  south-western  Siberia,  611. 

—  mining,  Austrian  Alps,  608. 
Salter,  — .,  geological  survey,  156. 
Sam,  Thomas  Birch  Freeman,  nomina- 
tion, N.E.,  232. 

San  Dimas,  Durango,  Mexico,  ore-treat- 
ment, 297. 
San  Francisco  del  Oro  ores,  304,  305,  306, 

312,  314,  317,  319,  321,  324,  326,  326, 

327. 
,  U.S. A.,  university  of  California, 

644. 
Sandberoer,  Fridolin,  quoted,  251. 
Sandhurst,  Victoria,  Hustler's  reef,  243. 
Sandstones,     Newcastle,     New     South 

Wales,  173. 
Sankey,    W.   H.,   member    of    council, 

nomination,  357  ;  election,  C. ,  455. 
Santa  Fd  de  Bagoti,  U.S.  Colombia,  233. 
Sardinia,  argentiferous  galena,  83. 
— ,  mining  in,  580,  581. 
Sarthe,  France,  1 10. 
Satnapilli  quarries,  fire-setting,  91,  92. 
Savanilla,  U.S.  Colombia,  233. 
Saxony,  fire-setting,  87. 
— ,   ^Ue    and    Auhalt    mining  school, 

Eisleben,  642. 
— ,     royal  Saxon  academy    of    mining, 

Freiberff,  641. 
Saxton,  Isaao,  election,  C. ,  355. 
Sohaffner,  — .,  process  of  determining 

the  assay  percentage  of  zinc,  93. 
Schiele  fan,  Coalpitheath  colliery,  New 

Zealand,  49. 

,  manometric  efficiency,  259. 

Schofikld  brick-making  machines,  479. 

SghOndorf,  Dr.,  quoted,  216. 

School  of  arts,  manufactures  and  mines, 

attached  to  the  university  of  Li6ge, 

Belgium,  637. 

mines,  London,  144. 

and  industries,  Bendigo,  Victoria, 

633. 
—  — industry,  Hainaut,  Mons, 

Belgium,  636. 
,  Colorado  state.  Golden,  United 

States,  646. 

,  Camborne,  Cornwall,  627. 

,  industries,  and  science,  Ballarat, 

634. 

,  St.  Etienne,  Loire,  France,  639. 

Schulz,  W.  ,  Poetsch  method  of  sinking, 

613. 
Scotland,  — .  MaccuUoch,  geological  map 

of,  143. 
Scott,  Joseph,  nomination,  N.E.,  232. 
Scott,  W.  B..   mining  relics  found  at 

Heath  end  colliery,  391. 
— ,  spoTUaneous  combustion  of  coal,  411, 

415. 
Screening  arrangements,  Grassmoor  col- 
lieries, 477. 


Screening  coal,  U.  S.  A. ,  615. 

Seaford,  New  Zealand,  41. 

Seams,  opening-out,  508,  510. 

Secretary,  election,  C,  455. 

— ,  — ,  M.,  490. 

Sections,  preparation  of,  157,  160. 

Servia,  ore-mining  in,  582. 

Seddon,  R.  J.,  quoted,  42. 

Settle,  Joel,  spontaneous  combustion 
in  coal-mines,  10. — Discussion,  18. 

Settle,  Thomas,  safety -clip,  371. 

Settle,  Wm.,  election,  M.,  483. 

Severn,  Thomas,  election,  C,  355. 

Shaft,  sinking,  Tomson  system  of  drain- 
age, 612. 

Shag  point,  New  Zealand,  coal-field,  32, 
33,  35,  74. 

colliery,  New  Zealand,  52. 

Shale,  spontaneous  combustion  of,  409. 

Shaping  mining  timber,  618. 

Shaw,  F.  George,  auriferous  conglomer- 
ates of  the  Witwatersrandt,  169. — Dis- 
cussion, 177. 

— ,  election,  N.E.,  231. 

— ,  vote  of  thanks  to  president,  219. 

Sheffield  technical  school,  Sheffield,  630. 

Shot-firing  in  fiery  mines,  549. 

,  substitutes  for,  541. 

.  Bugffested  suppression,  539. 

Shore,  wT  M.,  quoted,  56. 

Seismological  society  of  Japan,  203. 

Seismometer  used  at  Marsden  and  Takas- 
hima,  204. 

Separate  ventilation,  529. 

Serlo,  Dr.  Albert,  quoted,  83,  87. 

Servia,  ore-mining,  582. 

Settle,  Joel,  electric  lighting  and  trans- 
minaion  of  power ,  423. 

— ,  Lockett  k  Gough  direct-acting  pump, 
432. 

— ,  longwall  working,  424. 

— ,  quoted,  403,  404,  405. 

Shropshire,  gob-fires,  20. 

Siberia,  fire-setting,  89. 

-^,  salt  lakes,  611. 

Sick  and  accident  funds,  New  Zealand 
65. 

Siemens,  — .,  dynamos,  225. 

Sierra  grand  mill,  Lake  valley,  U.S.A. 
341. 

Silencio  mine,  U.S.  Colombia,  237,  238i 
242,  246,  249. 

Silesia,  coals  liable  to  spontaneous  com- 
bustion,  402. 

Silkstone  seam,  sinking  from,  to  the 
whinmoor  seam  at  Tankersley  col 
lieries,  360. 

Silver,  New  Zealand,  exports,  79. 

—  city,  U.S.A.,  treatment  of  mill-tail 
ings,  341. 

—  king  mine,  Arizona,  U.S.A.,  280,  311 

—  leacliing,  320,  331. 

—  mills,  cost  of  working,  286,  288. 

—  mill-tailings,  293. 

—  mine,  Norway,  fire-setting,  86,  87,  89 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


INDEX. 


691 


Silver  miaerals,  279. 

—  mining,  Arizona,  28S. 

— ,  processes  of  ore- treatment,  271. 

—  reef,  Utah,  U.S.A.,  ore,  287,  29 j. 

,  — ,  — ,  raw  leaching  tailings,  341. 

Simpson,  J.  B.,  hydrogen-oil  safety-lamp, 

285. 

— ,  manometric  effichnq/  offam,  255,  265. 

— ,  Organos  district ,  Tolima,  CS.  Co- 
lombia, 249,  251. 

Sinaloa,  Mexico,  337,  353. 

— ,  — ,  Russell  process.  344,  348. 

Sinking  shafts,  combined  centre-line 
apparatus,  364. 

,  Poetsch  method,  613. 

,  Tomson  system  of  drainage,  612. 

—  to  the  whinmoor  seam  from  the  silk- 
stone  seam  at  the  Tankersley  collieries, 
360. 

SjdoBEN,  Hj.,  ffeology  of  the  Caucasian 

(Baku)  naphtha  resion,  596. 
Skelton  mines,  Cleveland,  subsidences  in, 

190. 
Skip,  under-frames,  387. 
Slack -washing  plant,   Brunner  colliery, 

New  Zealand,  49. 
Smelting  copper,  improvements  in,  567. 
Smith,  A.,  alteration  of  rules,  S.S.,  379, 

380. 
Smith,  C.  S.  ,  vice-president,  nomination, 

C.,357. 
Smith,  John,  election,  M.,  483. 
Smith,   J.   Bionold,   annual   report   oj 

council,  C,  454. 
— ,  hydrofjen-oil  safety-lamp,  370. 
— ,     vice-president,     nomination,     357 ; 

election,  C,  455. 
— ,  vote  of  thanks,  370. 
Smith,  William,  geological  map  of  Eng- 
land, 142. 
Sm  iTH,  William  Ivan,  election,  S.  S. ,  379. 
Smyth,  K.  Brouoh,  aiioted  243. 
Socorro  mine,  U.S.  Uolombia,  237,  240, 

246. 
Solid  geology  survey,  151. 
Sombrerete  mill,  the  Russell  process  at 

the,  327,  56S. 
Somers,  New  Zealand,  coal-field,  74. 
Somerset  coal-field,   106,   107,  126,   129, 

130,  131,  134. 
SouiCH,  — .,  quoted,  121. 
SoNSTADT,  — .,  quoted,  175. 
SopwiTH,  A.,  the  support  of  buildings,  197. 
— ,  vote  of  thanks  to  institution  of  civil 

engineers,  219. 
Soar,  Moses,  election,  M.,  374. 
South  Africa,  auriferous  conglomerates, 

169. 
South  Bethlehem,  Pennsylvania,  U.S.A., 

Lehigh  university,  663. 

—  Canterbury,  New  Zealand,  32. 

—  Dyffryn  colliery,  416. 

—  island.  New  Zealand,  coal-fields,  31, 
32,  34,  39,  46,  74,  75. 

, ,  coal-output,  71. 


South  Staffordshire,  coals  liable  to  spon- 
taneous combustion,  401,  404,  405. 

,  gob-fires,  20. 

—  Wales,  geological  survey,  153. 

South-west  coal  and  coke  company,  fan 
experiments,  620. 

South-western  Siberia,  salt  lakes,  611. 

Southern,  T.  A.,  a  combing  centre-line 
apparatus,  366. 

— ,  fire-setting,  90. 

— ,  member  of  council,  nomination,  357  ; 
election,  C.,  455. 

— ,  quoted,  264. 

— ,  spontaneous  combustion  in  coal-mines, 
27. 

— ,  support  of  buildings,  197. 

Southland,  New  Zealand,  coal-fields,  31, 
33,  35,  62,  68. 

— , ,  coal-output,  72. 

Spain,  Mazarr6n,  lead-ores,  572. 

— ,  zinc  mineral,  94,  97,  99. 

Spargo,  Edmund,  election,  N.E.,  231. 

Spears,  safety-catch,  602. 

Special  rules,  New  Zealand,  62. 

Spelter,  prices,  etc.,  94,  95,  100,  101, 102, 
103,  104. 

Spencer,  W.,  earth  pulsations  and  mine 
gas,  219. 

— ,  member  of  council,  nomination,  358  ; 
election,  455. 

— ,  the  support  of  buildings,  188. — Dis- 
cussion, 197. 

— ,  vice-president,  nomination,  357  ;  elec- 
tion, C.,  455. 

Spencrof  t  seam,  429. 

Splitting  of  air-currents,  524. 

Spontaneous  combustion  in  coal-mines. — 
Introduction,  10. — Top-range  bang-up, 
north  side,  11. — Top-range  bullhurst, 
12.  — Bottom-range  bullhurst,  13.  — 
Bang-up  bullhurst,  south  side,  15. — 
General  conclusions,  16. — Discussion, 
18. 

of  coal,  392. — Discussion,  409. 

Sprenger,  J.,  safety-catch  for  pump 
spears,  602. 

Spruce,  Samuel,  quoted,  408. 

— ,  spontaneous  combustioii  in  coal  mities, 
20. 

Staffordshire,  north,  gob-fires,  10. 

— ,  — ,  longwall  method  of  working  seams 
of  moderate  inclination,  424. 

— ,  south,  gob-fires,  20. 

Standard  alcohol-flame  adjustment,  a 
safety -lamp  with,  462. 

Stanton,  fan  experiments,  620. 

Staveley  colliery,  guibal  fan,  253. 

Steam  for  laying  coal-dust,  use  of,  544. 

Steavbnson,  a.  L.,  hydrogen-oil  safety- 
lamp,  265. 

— ,  manometric  efficiency  of  fans,  255, 
257. 

— ,  quoted,  190. 

Stephanite,  analysis,  279. 

Stembergite,  analysis,  279. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


692 


INDEX, 


Stktefeldt,  C.  a.,  quoted,  282,  321,  326, 
336,  337,  338,  340,  341,  342. 

Stetefeldt  furnace,  282,  291,  304,  305, 
306,  307,  308,  317,  339,  348. 

Stockholm  polytechnic  school,  Stock- 
holm, Sweden,  642. 

Stockton,  New  South  Wales,  gas  coal, 
51. 

Stoddart,  Joiix,  earth  pulsations,  etc., 
204. 

Stoker  Henry,  election,  C,  355. 

Stokes,  A.  H.,  an  improved  water-gauge, 
474. 

— ,  a  safety-lamp  with  standard  alcohol- 
flame  adjustment,  for  the  detection 
and  estimation  of  small  percent  iges  of 
inflammable ^as,  462.  —Discussion,  468. 

— ,  hydrogen  oil  safety-lamp^  369. 

— ,  quoted,  458. 

— ,  sinkiiKf  at  the  Tankernlty  coUitritH. 
363. 

— ,  vote  of  thanks  to,  476. 

Stormont  co.  's  mill,  288. 

mine,  287. 

Strahan,  — .,  explosive  slickensides  383. 

Stratton,  T.  H.  M.  ,  nianonietric  efficiency 
of /am,  257,  258,  259. 

— ,  prize  for  paper,  1. 

Streatham,  130. 

Strick,  J.,  electric  lighting  and  trans- 
mission  of  power,  423. 

— ,  the  iwe  of  mineral  oils  underground, 
438,  439. 

Strick,  R.  H.,  member  of  council, 
nomination,  357  ;  election,  C,  455. 

Strikes,  New  Zealand,  32,  74. 

Stromcyerite,  analysis  of,  279. 

Subsidences,  Cleveland,  190. 

— ,  Durham,  190,  191. 

Sud<ien  outbursts  of  fire-damp,  205. 

SuEss,  Prof.,  qiioted,  109. 

Sulphur  on  pit  heaps,  617. 

Sulphur-mines,  Altavilla-Irpina,  Italy, 
618. 

Sunshine,  Coloratlo,  U.S.A.,  coal-field, 
282. 

Support  of  buildings,  188.  —Appendices, 
192.— Discussion,  197. 

Surprise  valley  mill,  California,  U.S.A., 
304,  305. 

Survey,  geological,  142. 

Susquehanna  coal  company,  fan  experi- 
ments, 619. 

Sweden,  fire-setting,  85. 

— ,  Stockholm  polytechnic  school,  fi42. 

Sydney  harbour,  boring  for  coal,  386. 

—  technical  college.  Ultimo,  New  South 
Wales,  631. 

Sylvanite,  analysis  of,  279. 

Syria,  fire-setting,  82. 

Tahaka,    New    Zealand,    coal-field,    31, 

39. 
Taieri  valley.  New  Zealand,  32. 
Tailings-miila,  silver,  293,  294 


Tailings,  Llihrig  system  of  treatment  of, 

577. 
Takashima  colliery,  Japan,  earth-tremors, 

203,  204. 
Tank-lixivia tion,  335. 
Tankersley    collieries,    sinking    to    the 

whinmoor    seam    from    the    silkstone 

seam,  300. 
Taranaki,  New  Zealand,  77. 

— , ,  coal-field,  38. 

Taupiri,  New  Zealand,  37. 
Taylor,  John,  quoted,  84. 
Taylor,  gas-producer,  282. 
Te  Encontre  workings,  Constantia  mine, 

U.S.  Colombia,  238,  241. 
Technical  school,  Sheffield,  6.30. 
Technology,  institute  of,  Massachusetts, 

Boston,  U.S. A.,  6+7. 
Telethermometers,  018. 
Tennyson,  Alfred,  quoted,  395. 
Tetrahedrite,  analysis,  279. 
Teversal   colliery    experiments   upon    a 

Waddle  and  a  Cax>ell  fan,  255,  262,  263. 
Thames  valley.  New  Zealand,  coal-fields, 

129. 
Thauet,  12.3. 
Thermometer,  etc.,  readings  for  the  year 

1892,  493. 
TiiiRKELL,  K.  W. ,  classiJicxUion  of  mem- 
bers, M.,489,  490. 
— ,  hydrogen-oil  safety-lamp,  375. 
— ,  member  of  council,  election,  M.,  490. 
— ,  miners'  safety-lamj^s,  491,  492. 
Thomas,  J.  W.,  quoted,  397,  403,  407. 
Thompson,  John  W.,  election,  N.E.,  232. 
Thorn  WILL,    R.,    member    of    council, 

nomination,  357;  election,  C.,  455. 
Timaru,  New  Zealand,  coal-output,  72. 
Tin  stockwerks,  Altenberg,  87. 
Tina  process  of  ore -treatment,  301. 
Tirol,  magnetic  ore- concentration  works, 

574. 
Tokio,  college  of  engineering,  Japan,  642. 
Tokomariro,  New  Zealand,  57. 
—  river.  New  Zealand,  54. 
Tolima,    U.S.   Colombia,  the   gold-bear- 
ing veins  of  Organos  district,  233. 
Tomt)stone,  U.S.A.,  silver-mill,  cost  of 

wet  crushing,  288. 
ToMMAsi,  D.,  electric  safety-lamp,  60S. 
ToMSON,  — ,  system  of  drainage  of  sinking 

shafts,  012. 
Tonkin,  T.,  quoted,  83. 
Toso,  P. ,  Italian  fossil  fuels,  560. 
Transmission  of  power,  420. 
Transvaal,  auriferous  conglomerates,  169. 
Transylvania,  Austria,  peat,  559. 
Treasurer,  election,  C,  455. 
— ,  — ,  M.,490. 
Trkolown,  C.  H.,  engineering  scraps  in 

AiLstralian  coat-mining,  388. 
— ,  Lockett  <Cr  Go)igh's  direct-acting  2nimp, 

432,  441. 
Trelissick  basin,  New  Zealand,  32. 
Tromometer,  Bertelli  &  Rossi,  207. 


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ITTOBX. 


Tromometric  movements  iu  relation  to   i 

barometric  conditions,  212. 
Trough-lixiviation,  327. 
Tucson,  U.S.A.,  university  of  Arizona, 

643. 
Turf,  used  in  fire-setting,  87. 
TuRNBULL,  K.,  scrutineer,  M.,  443. 
— ,    experiments  upon  two  Ovibcd  fans, 

Tumford,  boring,  130. 
Turquoises,  mining,  85. 
Tuscarora,  U.S.A.,  284. 
Tyneside  colliery,  New  Zealand,  50. 

Ultimo,  New  South  Wales,  Sydney  tech- 
nical college,  631. 

Under-reaming  bore-holes,  386. 

Union  coal  company,  fan  experiments, 
619. 

United  States,  coal-screening.  615. 

,  Carolina  mica-mines,  573. 

,   Case  school  of   applied  science, 

Cleveland,  Ohio,  663. 

,  college  of  Montana,  Deer  lodge, 

658. 

,  Colorado  state  school  of  mines,    i 

Golden,  646.  | 

—  — ,  C/olunibia  college,   city  of  New   ' 
York,  659. 

,  Lafayette  college,  Easton,  Penn- 
sylvania, 667. 

,  Lehigh  university,  South  Bethle- 

ham,  Pennsylvania  665. 

,  manganese,  567. 

,  Massachusetts  institute  of  tech- 
nology, Boston,  647. 

,  Michigan  mining  school,  Houghton, 

653. 

,  Ohio  state  university,  Columbus, 

662. 

,  pan-amalgamation,  27 1 ,  275. 

,  Florida,  phosphates,  593. 

,   university  of    Arizona,    Tucson,    i 

643.  > 

, California,  San  Francisco, 

644. 

, Illinois,  Urbana,  Champaign 

county,  647. 

—  — ,    —  —    Michigan,    Ann  Arbor, 
661. 

, Minnesota,  Minneapolis,  654. 

, Missouri,  Rolla,  655. 

, Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia, 

664. 
,  Washington  university,  St.  Louis, 

Missouri,  657. 
University  college,  Bristol,  627. 

—  of  Arizona,  Tucson,  Arizona,  U.S. A., 
643. 

California,  San  Francisco,  U.S. A., 

644. 

—  —     Illinois,     Urbana,    Champaign 
county,  Illinois,  U.S.A.,  647. 

—  —    King's  college,   Windsor,   Nova 
Scotia,  633. 


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Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


694 


INBKX. 


Von  Dbchen,  — . ,  quoted,  143. 

Waddahs,  fire-setting  by  the,  90,  91. 
Waddle    fan,     manometric    efficiency, 

259. 

,  south  DvffWn  colliery,  417. 

,  Teversal  colliery,  256,  262,  263. 

Wadsworth,  William  Deakin,  Jun., 

election,  443. 
Waikato,  New  Zealand,  coal  analysis,  38. 

— , ,  coal-field,  36,  37,  38,  74. 

— , ,  coal-output,  72. 

—  river.  New  Zealand,  35,  37. 
Waitaki  valley.  New  Zealand,  32. 
Waimangaroa  river.  Now  Zealand,  42. 

—  mine,  New  Zealand,  42. 

Wain,  £.  B.,  electric  lighting  and  trana- 
mismon  of  power ^  423. 

— ,  Lockett  ds  Oough  direct-acting  pump, 
432. 

— ,  spontaneous  aymhuation  in  coal-mines, 
18. 

— ,  the  longwall  method  of  working  as 
applied  to  seams  of  moderate  incfina- 
tion  in  north  Staffordshire. —Discus- 
sion, 424. 

— ,  the  use  of  mineral  oils  underground, 
436,  437,  438. 

Wain,  W.  H.,  longwaXl  working,  ^2J6, 426, 
427. 

— ,  the  use  of  mineral  oils  underground, 
437. 

Wales,  New  Morgan  gold-mine,  243. 

Walker,  G.  Blake,  member  of  council, 
election,  M.,  490. 

— ,  quoted,  43. 

Walters,  H.,  vice-president,  nomina- 
tion, C,  .S57. 

Wanganui,  New  Zealand,  35. 

—  , ,  coal-field,  40. 

Wangapeka,  New  Zealand,  coal-field,  74. 
Wangaroa,  New  Zealand,  35. 

Ware,  boring,  130,  133,  134. 

Warwickshire,  coal  liable  to  spontaneous 
combustion,  401. 

— ,  coal-output,  460. 

— ,  gob-fires,  19,  20. 

Wash-houses  for  miners,  617. 

Washing  alluvials,  Rigaud  cradle  for,  678. 

Washing-table,  Maros,  678. 

Washington  university,  St.  Louis,  Mis- 
souri, U.S.A.,  657. 

Washoe  process  of  ore-treatment,  271, 
272,  279,  284,  285,  286,  288,  289,  296. 

—  valley,  U.S.A.,  tailings-mills,  294. 
Wash-out,  Anzin,  113,  116. 

Water  for  laying  coal-dust,  544. 
Water-gauge,  improved,  474. 
Waters,  T.  J.,  quoted,  46. 
Watkin,  Sir  Edward,  boring  at  Dover, 

131. 
Watson,  F.  M.,  quoted,  327. 
Way  leaves,  royalty  rents  and,  370. 
Wellington  district,  New  Zealand,  32,  33, 

34. 


Wells,    W.    E.,    member    of    council, 

nomination,  C,  367. 
Wendt,  Arthur  F.,  quoted,  301,  302. 
Werner,  — .,  quoted,  187. 
West  Africa,  banket  deposits,  177,  178, 

184. 

—  coast.  New  Zealand,  coal-fields,  31, 41, 
51,  74,  76. 

—  riding  colliery,  lighting  safety-lamps, 
492. 

—  Somerset,  geological  survey,  143,  163. 

—  Wanganui,  New  Zealand,  coal-field,  35, 
40. 

, ,  coal-output,  72. 

Western,  Charles    Robert,    election, 

N.E.,  231. 
Western  highlands  of  Scotland,  180. 
Westminster  electric  supply  corporation, 

220. 
Weston,  — .,  quoted,  84. 
Westport,  New  Zealand,  coal-field,  41, 

48,  49,  69. 
— , ,  coal-output,  72. 

—  coal  company,  New  Zealand,  44,  45, 
49. 

—  harbour.  New  Zealand,  44. 

—  Nffakawau  coal  company.  New  Zea- 
land, 42. 

Whangarei,  New  Zealand,  36,^  38. 

— , ,  coal-output,  72. 

Whkatley,  Samuel,  election,  C,  355. 

Wheldale  colliery,  fire,  435. 

Whinmoor  seam,  sinking  to,  from  the 
silkstone  seam  at  Tankersley  collieries, 
360. 

White,  J.  H.  W.,  combined  centre-line 
apparatus,  367. 

White  pine,  U.S. A.,  silver-ores,  284,  287, 
296. 

Whitehead,  Cabell,  quoted,  343. 

Whitfield  colliery,  428. 

Wilde,  W.,  combined  centre-line  ap- 
paratus, 367. 

— ,  election,  M.,  483. 

Wilde,  W.,  vice  president,  nomination, 
357;  election,  Cf.,  455. 

WiLDERs,  Charles,  election,  C,  355. 

Wilkes-Barre,  fan  experiments,  620. 

Wilkes  pole-finding  papers,  227. 

Wilkinson,  Horace,  election,  C,  355. 

Willan's  &  Robinson,  crank  axle  cooling 
apparatus,  225. 

— ,  compound-engine,  222. 

— ,  triple-expansion  engines,  225. 

Willesden  water-proof  paper,  199. 

Wilson,  Floyd  B.,  phosphates  in 
Florida,  U.S.A.,  593. 

Wimille,  France,  120,  125. 

Wind  and  earth-tremors,  203. 

Winding-engines,  Grassmoor  collieries, 
477. 

,  Rotherham  main  colliery,  371. 

,  south  Dyflfryn  collieries,  416. 

Windsor,  — .,  high-speed  compound- 
engine,  225. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


INDEX. 


695 


Windsor,  Nova  Scotia,  university  of 
King's  coUeee,  633. 

Wingfield  road,  467. 

Win  ton,  New  Zealand,  coal-field,  74. 

Wissant,  France,  122. 

Witwatersrandt,  auriferous  conglomer- 
ates, 169. 

Wolf  benzine  safety-lamp,  608. 

WoiJSTENHOLME,  M.,  member  of  council, 
nomination,  C  ,  357. 

Wood,  Guy,  election,  M.,  483. 

WooDiwiss,  Alfred,  memoir,  482. 

Woods,  Richard,  election,  C,  355. 

Woodward,  Harry  Page,  election, 
N.E..  231. 

WooDwoRTH,  Benjamin,  Lockett  ds 
Gough  dirtct-acting  pump,  439,  442. 

WooLCOCK,  Joseph  Henry,  election, 
N.E.,  231. 

Worcestershire,  gob-fires  20. 

Work  of  the  geological  survey,  142. — I. 
Mapping.  145. — II.  Petrographical 
work,  154 — III.  PaliBontologicalwork, 
156.— IV.  Collecting  work,  156.— V. 
Preparation  of  maps,  sections  and 
memoirs  for  publication  155. — VI. 
Museum    work,     164. — VII.    General 


administration,  166. — ^VIII.  Relations 
to  other  government  departments  and 
the  public,  167. — Discussion,  167. 

Working  seams  of  moderate  inclination 
in  North  Stafibrdshire,  424. 

Workmen,  better  understanding  of  regu- 
lations, etc.,  553. 

WoRMALD,  Harry,  election,  M.,  374. 

Wright,  Henry,  quoted,  428. 

Wynne,  R  H.,  Icnigtoall  working,  428, 
429. 

Xanthoconite,  analysis,  279. 

Yedras,  Mexico,  mill,  344,  345,  347,  354. 

— ,  — ,  ore,  314,  315,  325,  337. 

— .  — ,  — ,  analysis,  353. 

Yorkshire,  coal-field,  153,  163. 

—  college,  Leeds,  631. 

— ,  earth  explosions,  383,  384. 

— ,  Wheldale  colliery,  fire,  435. 

Zacatecas,  Russell  process  of  ore-treat- 
ment, 327. 

Zeiller,  — .,  quoted,  115,  116,  118, 
126. 

Zinc  minerals,  value  of,  93. 


Digitized  by  VjOOQ  IC 


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